POS Fits Ciel High ny COU ad inte Lg’ hee an mes Bee an re8hes) a4 Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson ; We Letitia Armistead Hanson Fi RA titan Reon TH HE NA SITON AL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE VOLUME V, 1895 W J McGrr, Chairman A. W. GREELY C. Hart Merriam Publication Committee INCORPORATED / A.D.1888. 7 WASHINGTON PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEQGRAPHIC SOCIETY 1894 “SMITHSON ( nos 5 1981} OFFICERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 1895 GARDINER G. HUBBARD, President T. C. MENDENHALL ) EVERETT HAYDEN | fe MN ee AM e Vice- Presidents } AM | HENRY GANNETT | R. N. BATCHELDER J C. J. BELL, Treasurer F. H. NEWELL* ° Seeret ee ELIZA RB. SCIDMORE (20 er MARCUS BAKER ) H. F. BLOUNT | G. K. GILBERT JOHN HYDE + Managers W J McGEE W. B. POWELL EDWIN WILLITS J) *Resigned November 1, 1893, and elected a manager; vacaney filled by election of Cyrus C. Babb PRINTERS JUDD & DETWEILER WASHINGTON LitHocrAPHERS THE NORRIS PETERS COMPANY WASHINGTON CopprErR ENGRAVERS EVANS & BARTLE WASHINGION ‘ ENGRAVERS PHOTO ENGRAVING COMPANY New Yorn (it) CONTENTS Discoverers of America: Annual Address by the President, GAr- DiiMionss (Grea henensy Naps 6 SGM Eanes eee i en NR ease Sis oldie oe nA aceciclore The Movements of our Population; by Henry GANNETY.........- Rainfall Types of the United States: Annual Report by Vice-Presi- lei G,emenall a Ne Wien GuRIEN EY, secrete reins! v2 ocean io Shaan tela ane siete The Natural Bridge of Virginia; by Cuaries D. WALcoTY.......-- The geographical Position and Height of Mount Saint Elias; ee Tes (Oe IMTS IDISINIEUNBID Gg Solan daede dale eo mame eso cee o.c oe Snore The Improvement of Geographical Teaching; by SOMES Wie M WY Tapered neh] DSN yaiSa ae haa a ae er ona Si sea AE ie aCe ts cnt 2a An undiscovered Island off the northern Coast of Alaska: 1 By mn VIEMRG US) AIGIOR saree cle - ys ae ened Ii—By Captain .E. P. HERMNDEEN........2-.:2--9-.------ iite=By, GeneralwA..W.. GREELY...) ei) etn seitec = ei The Geologist at Blue Mountain, Maryland; by Cuarves D. Wat- The great populous Centers of the World ; by General A. W. GREELY. Our-youngest Volcano; by J. S. Dimer... ..........----.---+-+--:: Proceedings of the International Geographic Conference in Chicago, Tully 2S ISSR ae Gi aN aca ne Stead ot) seh aichw ol aaiate Ee ena Introduction; [by General A. W. Greeny of the Committee coum Charon rereintcrell | Senet SMe o Ua ciesie ite Amie alam ai doings Or Minutes of the Conference; by F. H. Neweit andj Exiza RuwamMan Scrpmore, Secretaries...........--.--------+--: Wieranonress AiaGl INGOIRSSSES G65 .s4en eee: Hesse eb bebencsoeoes The Relations of Air and Water to Temperature and Tien by Garprner G. HUBBARD......--.-.---++-+ reeset The Relations of Geography to History; by Francis W. ID aan a hes AOU OS SR meaner ates colon De bo Norway and the Vikings; by Captain Macnus ANDERSEN. Geographic Instruction in the public Schools ; by W. B. JDONRUADTTAD ciao eS ENS RS RRP Aunuerei lela inn lira Wid idles el niaeiqie.s is The Relations of Geology to Physiography in our educa- tional System; by T. C. CHAMBERLIN .....-.--.------ The Relations of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador Cur- rent; by Winiiam Lippey, JUNIOR........----------- - The arid Regions of the United States; by F. H. NEWELL. Recent Explorations in Alaska; by Eviza RuHwAMAH STUB TIOIRID. HS coals Wa Ged Sno Orga einai) GO u cey owen dics =~ The Caravels of Columbus; by Vicror Marta Concas... In the Wake of Columbus;. by Freperick A. OBER..... iv National Geographic Magazine. : age Proceedings of the International Geographic Conference (continued) i Memoirs and Addresses (continued) Recent Disclosures concerning pre-Columbian Voyages to America in the Archives of the Vatican; by W. E. CURRIES Shade Staaten cans ber eS act” RS LUET, eRe ye La aad ee Cea 197 Early Voyages along the northwestern Coast of America ; by ‘Protessor GELoORGEIDAVIDSONS: yh ene eee ee 235 UsincleriGOy Wo luima eV Vk ei UN NMDA ne ena witla, “eee atte ci Mea Conia ena 207 Ate ceVAS einel WbenjovananmiioNe, | fwe va okskoesgucsonc. cose eeu. 1 Contents and Illustrations............. ES NCA A AeA Nore ag ill Publications of the National Geographic Society .... ...... vl LNG aH ee hay ta a ie Sa etal VL a Bohs Hee Pa Ce SONAL Se) es PUA RED vill Proceedings of the National Geographic Society ........... ix Sixth Annual Report of the Secretaries.................... YOK Sixth Annualiveportion thelneasuirers see 1h seine aslo XX1l Report of the/Auditine Committee. .05. 22... a. ese eon: XXIV By-laws of the Society........... pa eocaeiecck oo eis Bitton Si Males XXV Oflicers ofthe Society same snes hoe cee eh ae cae XXVi Honorary Members ol mberSocietivacss succes. ne ae nae XXVill Memibernstoli the (Soci e hiygeares setae crc ics enter ee XX1X ILLUSTRATIONS Plate 1—Claudius Ptolemy Map, circa 150.............. ........ a 2 Chronicon Nuremibersense, Map) T4939. se 226 teenie. S——loscame lianas WA (Ay sects whe itera cae ia rie eraser A Jian delanCosea pe MaptoO0 ois Sts poets tc eden hee eee uae e neal Verge elie) See aca a os.02, civic eee eRe Re SS Or Cortese chau 6 —The total urban and rural Population at each Oonsce mee 7—Settled Area of the United States.............. Rea cena S—Position of the Center of Population at the close of each Decale thromn NGO wey USN) Seoicccccacdqososscesvessuacue OS DenciinnOteopulatiOnyas-e ss nek tence eae rer: 10—Distribution by Families and Sex......... Sele isan he necalte Distrib mmons by, COlOtt ecto. ican aca ReNscRe SP aaa se ene. 12—Constituents of the total Immigration and of the Immi- era nlonmbehwieens LSS Ohad WS OO) ae ei se erence ID— lO nse owtiornl on” INEKah ANNA eeiMera hear He yao os 4 eae elne Je 14 Disimibutionso£, the Horeion Born eee eae ae = fo—Distmibutionvot the Horeion. Borns stern anew yes wok L6Sbistribmtionroti her orevonyb onmeneesae sate on 17—Elements of the Population of great Cities.............. —Rates of Increase of all Whites, and of the native Hle- ments of the North, and of all Whites of the South... 19—Population at each Census classified by Race and Nativity. 20—Simple Types of Rainfall Distribution .................. 21—Natural Bridge, Virginia......... ais ale ang tales Seah ees ie Hupsparp: Figure 1—Magellan’s Circumnavigation................ 2—Drake’s Circumnavigation ................-- Wa corr: Figure 1—Attitude of Strata at Natural Bridge......... MerxpreNHALL: Figure 2—Triangulation in the Vicinity of Mount Seva Eades ae5 | Get eens pean eevee nein em rot Diuter: Figure 3—Relations of older and younger Forests to vol- (CHNOUKGH SH NIKG| Hee eeeM ConA oral kaneicls Gcimalalatibd ania ac} » IQ o “NIE Woe oo TSS SS ree or bo qo Co Wb bo CoE Oo) ST “I Ot (Se) Co oo CoO oi > Gy io! ) Washington, D. C. Don CuHRrisr6BAL CoLON DE TOLEDO DE LA CERDA Y “GANTE, Duke oF VERAGUA AND Marquis orf JAMAICA, Madrid, Spain. . Str ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, 28 Jermyn street, London, England. HonoraBiE CHares P. Daty, 84 Clinton place, New York, N. Y. Dr Grorce M. Dawson, Canadian Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada. EMMANUEL DE MARGERIB, 132 rue de Grenelle, Paris, France. JoHN Murray, Challenger office, Edinburg, Scotland. Baron Apour E. NorDENSKIOLD, Stockholm, Sweden. FERDINAND, FREIHERR VON RICHTHOFEN, Kurftirstenstrasse 117, Berlin W., Germany. His Ivesrran HiGHNEss THE ARCHDUKE LuDwiG SALVATOR or AUSTRIA, Wien, Austro-Hungary. Dr D. Esrantstio §. ZEBALLOS, Legation of the Argentine Republic, Washington, D. C. (xxvlll) MEMBERS OF THE SOCIETY 1894 a, original members. c, corresponding members. 1, life members. In cases where no city is given in the address, Washington, D. C., is to be understood. ABBE, PROFESSOR CLEVELAND, 4, J, Weather Bureau. Apert, 8. T., 722 Seventeenth street. ACKERMAN, Liznutenant A. A., U.S. Navy, Navy Department. ACKLEY, LizuTeENANT CoMMANDER 8. M., U.S. Navy, Navy Department. ADAms, Cyrus C., 512 Madison street, Brooklyn, N. Y. ApDAms, F. G., ¢, State Historical Society, Topeka, Kans. ApAms, Miss Junta M., Fourth Auditor’s office. Appison, A. D., 808 Seventeenth street. ADLER, Dr Cyrus, Smithsonian Institution. AHERN, LizuTeNANT Gro. P., U. S. Army, c, College of Montana, Deer Lodge, Mont. AHERN, JEREMIAH, ¢, 2 661 Market street, San Francisco, Cal. ALDEN, Cotonet C. H., U.S. Army, War Department. ALLEN, ANDREW H., State Department. Auten, Miss A. Auausta, ‘ 15 Coulter street, Germantown, Pa. ALLEN, Dr J. A., American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Auton, EpMuUND, . Wormley’s Hotel. Atyorp, Major Henry E., \ 932 New York avenue. ANDERSON, Mary L.., ¢, Sr Cet ee egiae Oz. 977, Sa ake, Utah. Y—Nar, Groc, Maa., vot. V, 1893, (XxXix) OO. National Geographic Magazne. AnpreEws, C. L., ¢, P. O. box 106, Fremont, Wash. AnprEws, Ensign Patup, U. 8. Navy, : Navy Department. AnprREws, WELIS F., Chief Clerk’s office, Treasury Department. Aprin, 8. A., JuNtoR, / : ‘ Ans U. S. Geological Survey. ASHLEY, OSBORN : ! ; 513 Fourth street. ASPINWALL, REVEREND J. A., 17 Dupont circle. AUHAGEN, WILHELM, ‘Naval Observatory. Austin, Professor E. P., ¢, 964 West Fourth South street, Salt Lake, Utah. Avery, Ropert §., i ieee 32 street S. E. AYDELOTTE, WM., Loan and Trust building. Ayres, H. B., Allamuchy, N. J. Ayres, Miss Susan C., a, 1813 Thirteenth street. Bass, Cyrus C. : ; U.S. Geological Survey. Bases, Cyrus K., ¢, 12 Somerset street, Boston, Mass. Bascock, Masor J. B., U. 8. Army, 2005 G street. BaBeEr, HONORABLE GEORGE, 937 K street. Basser, Miss Zonta, ¢, 6840 Perry avenue, Englewood, III. Bacon, Mrs E. O., 915 Sixteenth street. BapGER, CoMMANDER O. C., U. S. Navy, 1517 Twentieth street. Bae, R. M., Junior, ¢, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. BatLey, VERNON, Agricultural Department. Baker, Davi, ¢, Sparrow Point, Md. Baker, LUCIUS, ¢, P. O. drawer T, Fresno, Cal. Baker, Marcws, 4, U.S. Geological Survey. Members of the Society. XXX Baupwiy, A. I.., 722 Sixth street N. E. Baupwin, H. L., Junior, a, 3 U. 8. Geological Survey. Baupwin, Wm. D., 25 Grant place. Bay, Coaruss B., 942 T street. Batiocu, GENERAL G. W., PAO DOxXs bole Bancrort, Dr C. F. P., ¢, Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. Barser, A. L., 802 F street 2 F street. Barker, Captain A. S., U.S. Navy, Navy Department. BARNARD, EH. C., a ‘ ny U.S. Geological Survey. BARNARD, JOB, 1306 Rhode Island avenue. BARNES, CHARLES A., ©, i P. O. box 1198, Seattle, Wash. BaRRineton, Wo. L., 3514 N street. Barrineton, Wo. M., i Sun building. BaRrouu, LinuTenant H. H., U.S. Navy, ¢, Navy Department. Barry, CHARLEs E., 1421 G street. 947 Virginia avenue S. W. Barres, Ty 18 . Bartrertt, Miss E. M., 1012 Twelfth street. Bartiert, Caprarin J. R., U.S. Navy, a, Lonsdale, R. I. Barton, Grorce H., ¢, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. Barton, Miss Mary L., Treasury Department. Bassett, C. C., a, U.S. Geological Survey. BatcHELDER, Dr C. F., ¢, 7 Kirkland street, Cambridge, Mass. BaATCHELDER, GENERAL R. N., U. S. Army, War Department. Bates, Dr Henry H., The Portland. xxl National Geographic Magazine. Bates, Dk Newton L., U.S. Navy, The Shoreham. Bayury, Dr W. S&., ¢, Colby University, Waterville, Me. BaYLis, JEROME Z., ¢, : Case School Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio. Beaman, Wo. M. ; f U.S. Geological Survey. BEARDSLEE, CAPTAIN L. A., U.S. Navy, ¢, U.S. Naval station, Port Royal, §. C. BeckHaM, Miss BLANCHE, 2721 N street. Beut, Dr A. GRAHAM, a, 1331 Connecticut avenue. BELL, Prorrssor A. MELVILLE, : 1525 Thirty-fifth street. BELL, C. J., a, 1405 G street i) street. Bex, J. Lowrie, oe 2 street. Bett, Dr E. Oxiver, ae The any. Benton, FRANK : ‘ Agricultural Department. Beremann, H. H. ; : 511 Seventh street. BrERNADOU, Lirytenant J. B., U. 8. Navy, c, Navy Department. BrrtruHoup, Epwarp L., ¢, P. O. box 45, Golden, Colo. M. W. BrvEeripes, 1618 H street. Bippins, ARTHUR, ¢, Woman’s College of Baltimore, Baltimore, Md. Brien, JULIUS, a, 140 Sixth avenue, New York, N. Y. Bren, Morris, a, General Land Office. BicELow, Proressor Frank H., 1625 Massachusetts avenue. BicELow, Oris, 1501 Eighteenth street. Birew, CHARLES E. ; ; Hydrographic Office. Brxpy, Caprain W. H., U.S. Army, c, U.S. Engineer’s office, Newport, R. I. Bratr, H. B., a iG U.S. Geological Survey. Members of the Society. XXXII Buiount, Henry F., 3101 U street. Briount, Mrs L. E., 4 : 3101 U street. Buourt, H. L. ’ ’ 24 Grant place. BoprisH, Sumner H., a, 58 B street N. E. Bonp, Miss Mary E., 813 First street. Boursin, Henry y ; Slack block, Everett, Wash. Bower, R. A., ¢ 3 aie 166 Adams street, Chicago, III. Bowers, Dr STEPHEN, c, Ventura, Cal. Boyce, SILAs, 917 R street. BRADLEY, HONORABLE A. C., 2013 Q street. BraDiey, GrorceE L., ‘ 2035 P street. Bravery, Mrs J. M., 816 K street. Branner, DrJ.-C., Leland Stanford Junior University, Cal. BRECKINRIDGE, GENERAL J. C., U. S. Army, War Department. Brewer, Miss Ciara G., 1009 Thirteenth street. - Brewer, Miss Kate, : 1409 Thirtieth street. BREWER, PrRoressor Wm. H., 418 Orange street, New Haven, Conn. BricHamM, Proressor A. P., ¢, d Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. Brieut, RicHarp R., 130 B street N. E. Briron, A. T., cere 622 street. BROADHEAD, PROFESSOR G. C., ¢, ; Columbia, Mo. Brooxs, Newron M., ae eas 2 second streets. “s Brooks, ALFRED H., c, 404 Harvard street, Cambridge, Mass. Brooks, Masor T. B., ¢, Newburg, N. Y. XXX1V National Geographic Magazine. Brown, Epwarp J., 820 ‘Twentieth: street. Brown, Miss Jennie A., . Howard avenue, Mount Pleasant. Brown, WI Q., ¢, Riddles, Ore. & Browns, A. B., aot ee 22 street, Brownewu, Ernest H., ¢, Brown University, Providence, R. I. Bryan, SAMUEL M., 2025 Massachusetts avenue. Buck, Miss Apa P., 635 Maryland avenue N. E. Buckuey, Miss M. L., Bureau of Pensions. Buck ey, FRrep. G., ¢, Aspen, Colo. Burcuey, N. L ?) ) 9: 1102 Vermont avenue. Burr, J. H. Ten Evyox, c, Cazenovia, N. Y. Burron, Proressor A. E., a, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. Burrer, Miss Enya C., 1107 Eleventh street. CABELL, Proressor Wm. D., 1401 Massachusetts avenue. CAMPBELL, Miss J. S., d 136 C street S. E. CAMPBELL, M. R., U.S. Geological Survey. CANTWELL, Linutenant J. C., U. S. Revenue Marine, ec, 1818 Sacramento street, San Francisco, Cal. CaRLETON, P. J., ¢, Rockport, Me. Carman, Miss Ana, 1351 Q street. CARPENTER, FRANK G., 1318 Vermont avenue. Carr, GENERAL E. A., U. S/ Army, The Richmond. CARROLL, CAPTAIN JAMES, ¢, Juneau, Alaska. Catiin, CapTarin,Rosert, U. S. Army, 1428 Euclid place. CHAMBERLIN, Prorsssor T. C., c, University of Chicago, Chicago, III. Members of the Society. XXXV Cuapman, D. C., U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Cuapman, R. H., a, U.S. Geological Survey. CHATARD, Dr T. M., a, 1758 K street. CHENERY, LIEUTENANT ComMANDER L., U. S. Navy, ¢, University Club, New York, N. Y. CHERRY, CHARLES H., f 1115 S street. CHESTER, COMMANDER C. M., U.S. Navy, e¢, ; U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. CuestEr, Miss J. M., 1016 Eleventh street. CuiLps, Proressor T. &., 1308 Connecticut avenue. Cuitton, Wi11AM B., U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. CHISHOLM, C. F., 87 Patent Office. Curistiz, ALEX. S., 115 Fourth street N. E. Curistiz, P. H. : : : U.S. Geological Survey. Criapp, GrorGce H., ¢, 116 Water street, Pittsburg, Pa. CLARK, CHARLES S., Gales school. CriarKk, Dr Eqpert A.., 1756 M street. Cuiark, E. B., a ; sie U.S. Geological Survey. Criark, Proressor Isa ac, Howard University. CriarK, Miss May S., U.S. Geological Survey. Cruark, Miss 8S. H. d 931 French street. ’ CuarK, Dr W. B., ¢; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. CLAYPOLE, Proressor E. W., c, Buchtel College, Akron, Ohio. CiemeEnts, Miss L. H., 1610 Q street. Crover, Lizurenant ComManper R., U. S. Navy, 1535 New Hampshire avenue. CoaswetL, Mrs T. F., | Treasury Department, XXXVI : National Geographic Magazine. Copy, Honorasir Leonarp W., 1825 Tenth street. Commi, Coreoran building. Coteman, Masor F. W., The Richmond. Couiir, Proressor G. L.,-¢, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. Cotonna, B. A., ; 138 B street N. E. Cotton, FRANCIS, 1635 Connecticut avenue. Comstock, Mrs §S. C., 1464 Rhode Island avenue. Comsrock, Proressor T. B., ¢, : University of Arizona, Tueson, Ariz. Coney, Miss M. J., ¢, Cohocton, N. Y. Connouiy, Miss Louise, 1416 Sixth street. Coox, Freep. W., ¢, 515 Power building, Helena, Mont. Coo.ny, Miss Grace E., ¢, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. Coon, CHARLES E., 1708 H street. CopEnin, Miss EF. G., Kendall Green. Corson, Miss Ipa, 914 Farragut square. Cormman, Lirurenant V. L., U.S. Navy, ¢, Navy Department. Cours, Dr Enxiot, Smithsonian Institution. OoviLE, Freperick V., Agricultural Department. Cox, Miss Aticr C., 1454 Rhode Island avenue. Craatin,*Proressor F. W., c, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo. CraAIGHEaD, Dr J. G., The Concord. Crane, AuGustus, JUNIOR, 1344 I street. Cresson, Dr H. T., ¢, The Gladstone, Philadelphia, Pa. Crorrut, W. A., : U.S. Geological Survey. Members of the Society. Cross, Wirrm an, Crourmr, A. IW has Ch Crowrnn, Mrs A. §., ¢, Cunserrson, Dr Emma B., ¢, — Cunyer, Prorrssor G. E., Cumin, Roper D., a, CumMinas, PRorEssor GrorGce J Cumnrnas, Mtss M. B., Cummines, Miss 8. E., CUNNINGHAM, JouNn M., ¢, Cunninauam, Mrs W. O., Curry, J. L. M., Curry, W. W., Curtis, G. CARROLL, ¢, Curtis, Witntam I., @, Cusnina, Miss 8. C., Custis, Dr G. W.N., Currmr, W. P., Gy Dapnny, Dr C. W., Juntor, Dacerrr, Mrs M. S., Daur, Mrs Carourner H., Dat, Wm. H., Daty, Honorasib CHarrs P., Dany, Rra@inaup A.,, ¢, VI—Nat. Grog, Maa,, von. V, 1893, D}) XXXVI U.S. Geological Survey. “Mount Airy,” Philadelphia, Pa. 114 North Twenty-fourth street, Omaha, Neb. rn 38 Newbury street, Boston, Mass. $385 Harrison avenue, Beloit, Wis. U.S. Geological Survey, Howard University. 520 Sixth street, 520 Sixth street. Cosmos Club, San Franeiseo, Cal. 1723 IX street. 1786 M street. 1510 Ninth street, 68 ‘Thayer hall, Cambridge, Mass. IsOl Conneetient avenue, 310 Tndiana avenue, 112 Bast Capitol street. Agricultural Department, Agricultural Department. 1501 R street, 1526 Kighteenth street. Smithsonian Institution, 84 Clinton place, New York, N, Y, 10 Mellen street, Cambridge, Mass, XXXVI National Geographic Magazine. Darton, N. H., Daviner, Warrer D., Junior, DAVIDSON, PROFESSOR GEORGE, @, ¢, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, San Franciseo, Cal. Davies, CHARLES, Davis, Miss ADELAIDE, Davis, Artur P., a, Davis, Mrs J. T. Davis, WALTER W., Davis, PRoressor Wm. M., a, Davis, W. T., ¢, Dawson, Miss A. B., Dawson, THomas F., Day, ©. A., Day, Dr Davin T., Day, E. WarRREN, ‘Denney, Miss E. A., Denny, ArrHur A., ¢, Derweiter, F. M., Dickins, ComMMANDER F. W., U.S. Navy, Ditisrr, J. S., a, Dones, R. E., ¢, Dorr, Mrs E. G., Douiey, Dr Cyaruss §., ¢, Doourrrin, M.-H., U.S. Geological Survey. 1 Corcoran building. 1915 Sixth street. 115 B street S. E. U.S. Geological Survey. 1126 Thirteenth street. 714 A street N. E. 2 Bond street, Cambridge, Mass. American Bank building, Kansas City, ie U.S. Geological Sutvey. U.S. Senate annex. National Safe Deposit Company. U.S. Geological Survey. War Department. 707 Thirteenth street. 1328 Front street, Seattle, Wash. 420 Eleventh street. Navy Department. U. 8S. Geological Survey. 22 Stouenton Hall, Cambridge, Mass. 1014 Fourteenth street. 3707 Woodland avenue, Philadelphia, Pa, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. - Members of the Society. LORRI Doue.as, E. M., a, U.S. Geological Survey. Dounan, Mrs G. W., 1227 I street. ’ Drewey, W.S., ¢, Surveyor General’s Office, Victoria, British Columbia. Dryer, Dr CHAr.ezs R., ¢, Fort Wayne, Ind. Dou Bors, Cotonet J. G., * 2 1423 Chapin street. DUNCKLEE Joun B d CH) 940 Westminster street. DumsBx, Prorrssor E. T., ¢, j State Geological Survey, Austin, Tex. Durron, Masor C. E., U. S. Army, a, San Antonio, Tex. Dyer, Lizutenant G. L.; U.S. Navy, ¢, U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. Easter.ine, H. V., Reeord and Pension Office. EastM an, CHARLES R., ¢, 297 Laurel avenue, Saint Paul, Minn. Eaton, Proressor D. G., c, 55 Pineapple street, Brooklyn, N Y. Eppy, Mrs Mary H., The Shoreham. Epmanps, Prorsssor J. R., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Epson, Joun Joy, Te ea )0: street, Epson, Josery R., a, 927 F street. Epson, HonorABLE OBED, ¢, Sinelairville, N. Y. Eeurston, Dr N. H., 1530 Sixteenth street. Eimsrck, WILLIAM, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. ELDRIDGE, GEORGE H. : ; U.S. Geological Survey. Eior, CHARLES, Brookline, Mass. Evutorr, Miss ELizaseru, 1114 Fifteenth street. Emerson, Dr B. K., ¢, : Amherst, Mass. Emons, Lrzutenant Grorce T., U. 8. Navy, “Edgehill,” Princeton, N. J. xl National Geographic Magazine. ERBACH, JOHN, Hyans, H. C., Eyans, Mrs Joun O., EVANS, SAMUEL G., c¢, Evans, Dr W. W., EVrERMANN, Proressor B. W., Ewine, CHARLES, EyerMAn, JOHN, ¢, Ezporr, RICHARD Von, FAIRCHILD, Proressor H. L., c, FAIRCHILD, JOHN F., ¢, FAIRFIELD, GuorGe A., a, Fatrrietp, W. B., a, Faris, R. L., FarquHar, Henry, FENNEMAN, N. M., ¢, _Ferrnow, B. E., a, FFOULKE, CHARLES M., Fiscuer, E. G., a, Fiscuer, Louts A., FisHer, Mrs A. B., FisHer, Ropert J., Firen, CHArues H, » 4, Fiemnmr, J. A., U.S. Geological Sivas Central National Bank building. 1219 Sixteenth street. 211 Main street, Evansville; Ind. 1756 M street. 1859 Harewood tenes 1610 Riggs place._ “ Oakhurst,” Easton, Pa. 918 N street. University of Rochester, Rochester, N. Y. Bank building, Mount Vernon, N. Y. 1407 Stoughton street. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Greeley, Colo. Agricultural Department. 2013 Massachusetts avenue. U.S Coast and Geodetic Survey. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 902 Massachusetts avenue N. E. 614 F street. 3025 N street. 414 A street S. E. * . . Members of the Society. xli I LETC HER, L. C: ai ? b) U.S. Geological Sur vey. Furrcurr, Dr Roser, a, Army Medical Museum. Fun, CHARLES, 1519 O street. Fiurnt, Dr Weston, ‘1 1101 K street. Fiywn, Harry F., U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. ] LYNN, af . Ve, C,; 27, O. box 916, Los Angeles > Cal. Fores, W. H., ¢, 233 Chestnut avenue, Jamaica Plain, Mass. ForRNEY, STEHMAN, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Forrest, Juitus C., Hydrographic Office. Fosuay, Dr P. Max, ¢ By =") 282 Prospect street, Cleveland, Ohio. Fosrrr, Honorasie Joun W. 1405 I street. Fosrer, Proressor Rich arp, Howard University. Fow.err, FRANCIS, 1449 Q street. FrANK, GEORGE W., ¢, Kearney, Neb. FRASER, DANIEL, 458 Pennsylvania avenue. Frencu, Dr Grorce N., 1834 I street. Frencu, OwEn B., 2212 F street. Fuuuer, Miss A. H., 1321 Rhode Island avenue. Fouuier, THomas J. D., 1509 Ht. street. Gach, N. P!, a, Seaton school. GANNeET?Y, Henry, 4, U.S. Geological Survey. GANNETT, S. §., 4, . U.S. Geological Survey. GANE, El. S:,\¢, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. GANONG, Prorgssor W. F., ¢ 119 Oxford street, Cambridge, Mass. oS : e,. xi National Geographic Magazine. GANTT, Miss Carn, 1765 N street. GARDNER, C. L., 1733 Q street. GARDNER, JOHN L., 2d, 22 Congress street, Boston, Mass. GaRNETT, HENRY WIsE, 1319 New York avénue, GarnigER, Miss M. A., 6 Grant place. Garrett, H. G, c, Orlando, FI rlando, Fla. Garrison, Miss C. L., 1228 Thirteenth street. GEORGE, JNo. C., 38 South Gay street, Baltimore, Md. Grpps, Miss H. H., 2905 N street. GILBERT, G. K., a U.S. Geological Survey. Gruman; Dr D. C., a, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. GLAVIS, GEORGE O., JUNIOR, 1353 Q street. Goops, Dr G. Brown, a, : f U.S. National Museum. Goong, R. U., a, U.S. Geological Survey. GooDFELLOW, Epwarb, 4, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. GoopricH, Haroun B., U.S. Geological Survey. Gorman, M. W., ¢, 75 North Fourteenth street, Portland, Ore. GRAETHER, LEONARD F., 1135 Fifth street N. E. GraHamM, Miss Acnzs M., 1710 Fifteenth street. GRAHAM, ANDREW B., 1230 Pennsylvania avenue. GRANGER, F. D., U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. GRANT, Miss A. L. ‘ a 321 East Capitol street. GRANT, ULYsseEs §., ¢, : State Geological Survey Minneapolis, Minn, GRAVES, Louts B., 2504 Fourteenth street. Members of the Society. xi GRAVES, Water H., : Crow Indian reservation, Mont. GREELY, GENERAL A. W., U.S. Army, a, 1415 G street. GREEN, BERNARD R., : 1738 N street. GREENE, RoGer S., JUNIOR, ¢, Seattle, Wash. GreGory, E. J., ¢ ae feat Fort Collins, Colo. GrirFitH, G. BERKELEY, 1630 Rhode Island avenue. GRIMSLEY, G. P., ¢, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. GRINNELL, Dr Grorce B., ¢, 318 Broadway, New York, N. Y. Griswo.D, L. §., ¢, 238 Boston street, Dorchester, Mass. Griswoip, W.T., 4, ¢, U.S. Geological Survey, Portland, Ore. GROEGER, G. G., ¢, 310 Chamber Commerce building, Chicago, I11. Guuiver, F. P., ¢, 1686 Cambridge street, Cambridge, Mass. Guyer, Miss C. C., : 1754 M street. Hackert, Merritt, 4, U.S. Geological Survey. HaGaporn, Lirutenant C. B., U. S. Army, «¢, Springtield, Mass. Haaan, Mrs Corneria J., Treasury Department. TIALDERMAN, GENERAL JOHN A., Metropolitan Club. Hai, Reverend Epwarp H., c¢, 6 Ash street, Cambridge, Mass. Hamitton, WILLtAM, U.S. Bureau of Education. Hamuin, Dr Teunts S., 1306 Connecticut avenue. Hance, Dr T.F., Bureau of Pensions. HANForD, LEv1, é 1817 Ninth street, HANSEN, JOHN, 605 H street. Hanvey, Frank L., 234 New Jersey avenue, xliv National Geographic Magazine. Harpinc, Miss Gena R., The Shoreham. Harpy, Epwarp D., Howard University. Harrincton, Proressor Mark W., U.S. Weather Bureau. Harris, Dr T. W., ¢, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Harrison, Proressor THomas F., ¢, 221 West Forty-fifth street, New York, N. Y. Harrop, Masor B. M., ‘ City Engineevr’s office, New Orleans, La. Hart, Proressor A. B., 15 Appian way, Cambridge, Mass. Hart, Amos W., 712 Tenth street. Harvey, F. H., ¢, Galt, Sacramento county, Cal. Hassrouck, E. M., 154 A street N. E. HAsKELL, E. E., a, ¢, U.S. Engineer’s office, Saulte de Sainte Marie, Mich. Hastines, Joun B., ¢, Boise, Idaho. Hawkins, GrorceE T., U.S. Geological Survey. Hawtey, Lizutenant J. M., U.S. Navy, c, U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. HawortH, Proressor ERASMUS, ¢, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. Haypen, Lirutenant Everett, U. 8. Navy, a, f 1802 Sixteenth street. Hay, Prorrssor RoBerr, P. O. box 562, Junction City, Kans. Hayes, Dr C. Wirnzarp, U.S. Geological Survey. Hayes, Proressor ELirn, c, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. Haynes, F. J., ¢, 392 Jackson street, Saint Paul, Minn. Tabavas, WiGas\ Us df 1718 Corcoran street. Haywarp, H. A., : Mint Bureau, Treasury Department. Hazarp, Dante L., U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Heaton, A. G., 1618 Seventeenth street, Members of the Society. xlyv Hepricr, H. B., - HEILPRIN, G. F., Siawmaeson, J. B., JUNIOR, Henperson,*Mrs Jui, HenpeGers, Marruew, Henry, A. J., a, ELeNeaet HH. W., a, 6,” Herpert, Honorasie Hrvary A., HERRLE, GUSTAVE, a, Herron, WILLIAM H, a, Hewett, G. C., Hickey, Miss §. G., Hieut, SHERMAN, Hin, Harry C., c, Hui, Roserr T., Hinmsnann, DE Weak Hiirs, CHarues W., Hints, Vtcror G., ¢, HINnMAN, RUSSELL, Hrrencock, PRoressor C. H., 6. Hirz, Jonn, Hosss, Dr W. H., ¢, : Hopain, Prorrssor Cyrus W., ¢, Hopexins, Proressor H. L., a, Vil—Nar, Guoe, Mac., von. V, 1893, Nautical Almanac Office. 1227 Pennsylvania avenue. Sixteenth street and Florida avenue. 1826 G street. General Land Office. 948 S street. Chico, Cal. Navy Department. Hydrographic Office. U.S. Geological Survey. 1744 Corcoran street. 1322 Ninth street. 1426 F street. P. O. box 1040, Salt Lake, Utah. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S. Geological Survey. 1453 mami avenue. P. O. box D, Cripple Creek, Colo. 806 Broadway, New York, N. Y. Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H. Thirty-fifth and Q streets. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Earlham College, Richmond, Ind. Columbian University, xlvi National Geographic Magazine. Hopexins, W. C., U.S. Coast and Geodetie Survey. HIOLBertT, HezeKian, 1417 G street. Ho.pen, Cares F., ¢, Pasadena, Cal. Howpen, Mrs L. E., % The Hollenden, Cleveland, Ohio. Ho.wpen, Lutuer L., 9 Saint John street, Jamaica Plain, Mass. Ho.ierira, HERMAN, 1360 EH street. Homes, Proressor J. A., ¢, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. Horr, H. P. R. d ; Takoma Park, D. C. Hooprr, Caprarn C. L., U. 8S. Revenue Marine, c¢, 716 Tenth street, Oakland, Cal. Hore, Captain E. C., ¢, : Queensland chambers, Sydney, N.S. W. Hornapay, W. T., a, 325 Humboldt parkway, Buffalo, N. Y. Hornsiower, J. C., ia ee Street. Horsrorp, Miss CorNeria, 27 Cragie street, Cambridge, Mass. Hoskins, Proressor L. M., ¢, Leland Stanford Junior University, Cal. Hosmer, Epwarp &., J, 29 Nassau street, New York, N. Y. Horcuxiss,, Masor JED., Staunton, Va. Houcu, Miss Herren M., 202 Indiana avenue. Hoveu, WALTER, U.S. National Museum. Hovey, Dr H. C., 60 High street, Newburyport, Mass. Howarp, Ensien W. L., U. 8. Navy, e¢, Carnegie-Phipps Company, Pittsburg, Pa. Hower, Epwarp G., ¢, 304 Columbia avenue, Champaign, III. Howe, Frank D., ¢ é Rete P. O. box 184, Aspen, Colo. Howe tt, D. J., a, 918 F street. Howe tn, E. E., a, 612 Seventeenth street. 42. Members of the Society. xlvu Howison, Caprain H. L., U. S. Navy, ¢, , Navy Yard, Mare Island, Cal. Hoxig, Captain R. L., U. 8. Army, ¢, P. O. box 1240, Pittsburg, Pa. Hoyt, Honorasie JoHN W., ‘ 1234 Massachusetts avenue. Husparp, HonoraBLe GARDINER G., 4G, 1328 Connecticut avenue. Husgarp, W. H., ¢, 904 ‘“* The Rookery,” Chicago, Ill. Husericu, CHarues H., ¢, P. O. box 640, San Antonio, Tex. Hunt, C. B., District building. Hurp, Dr Artuur W.., ¢, Buffalo State Hospital, Buffalo, N. Y. Hurp, Dr Henry M., Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Md. HurcHinson, JOHN, 1524 P street. 1707 Massachusetts avenue. Hyam, Miss V. W., ; 1314 S street. Hype, Miss E. R., 1326 I street. Hyps, G. E. ‘ Q U.S. Geological Survey. Hype, Joun, 1502 Kenesaw avenue. Tarpe.ua, C. T., a she ae U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Ippines, Proressor J. P., ¢, ; University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. InGEN, GILBERT VAN, ¢, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. InGRAHAM, Proressor E. S., ¢, Seattle, Wash. TrisH, CHARLES W., Agricultural Department. JACKSON, REVEREND SHELDON, The Concord. Jackson, Mrs &. V., 933 Rhode Island avenue. JACOBS, JOSEPH, ¢, s0 East One hundred and sixteenth street, New York, N. Y. JaceaR, T. A., JUNIOR, ¢, : 8 Weld hall, Cambridge, Mass. xlvil National Geograp hic Magazine. , JAMES, JoHN N., 7 Cooke place, Georgetown. JAMES, Mrs J. F., 1475 Kenesaw avenue. Jarvis, Linutenant D. H., U. S. Revenue Marine, 23 California street, San Francisco, Cal. JenninGs, Miss H. R., 1714 Johnson place. JENNINGS, J. H., a ‘ ats U.S. Geological Survey. JEWELL, Ciauptius B., ‘ 1324 Vermont avenue. Juwert, W. P., ¢, 180 East Third street, Saint Paul, Minn. Jounson, Miss A. B., 501 Maple avenue. JoHNSON, A. B., a, Light House Board. Jounson, E. Kurrz, 1600 Massachusetts avenue. JouHnson, Dr H. L. E., 1400 L street. Jounson, Mrs Mary D., ¢, Sitka, Alaska. JOHNSON, J. B., Howard University. JOHNSON, JAMES L. ( A U.S. Geological Survey. JOHNSON, THEO. H., Penge, street. JoHNson, WILLARD D., a, U.S. Geological Survey. JounsTon, Dr W. W., 1603 K street. JonrEs, Dk Epwarp &., 1505 R street. Jupp, JOHN G. : 420 Eleventh street. Jupson, Eq@pert, ¢, 402 Front street, San Francisco, Cal. JULIAND, Miss Emma E., 18 Iowa circle. Kasson, HonoraBie Joun A., 1726 I street, KAvFFMANN, S. H., a, 1421 Massachusetts avenue. Kavanauau, Miss KarHerine, ° Sixth Auditor’s Office. Members of the Socrety. xlix Keira, ARTHUR ; : U.S. Geological Survey. Ketiy, Miss Mary G., & 715 East Capitol street. KeLiry, W.-D., _716 Havemeyer building, New York, N. Y. Kenaston, Proressor C. A., 4, ¢, ; Oberlin, Ohio. Kernpati, Miss Etizasern, ¢c, Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. Kemp, Proressor J. F., ¢, i Columbia College, New York, N. Y. KENNAN, GEORGE, a, Care J. B. Pond, Everett House, New York, N. Y. Kennan, K. K., ¢, 179 Prospect avenue, Milwaukee, Wis. Kennepy, Dr Grorce G., /, 284 Warren street, Roxbury, Mass. Kennon, Lirutenant L. W. V., U.S. Army, ; 1016 Vermont avenue. Kent, Miss Priscrna, 1311 Connecticut avenue. Kerrr ES.) ¢% Salt Lake, Utah. Kerr, Mark B., a, Tumaco, U. 8. Colombia, South America. Kerr, W. H., ¢, : Ilchester, Md. Keyser, Miss A. K., 2019 Massachusetts avenue. KIMBALL EK F ? + 5) 1316 Rhode Island avenue. KimpBatt, Dr E. &., 1107 G street. KimpBat, Honoraste §. I., a, Life Saving Service. Kine, Grorce A., 1420 New York avenue. Kine, Proressor Harry, a, General Land Office. Kine, WiiiraM B., aide i eae 2 welith street. Kine, Proressor F. H., 1500 University avenue, Madison, Wis. Kine, W. F., ¢, Department of Interior, Ottawa, Canada. Kinespury, E. A., } 248 Third street. ] National Geographic Magazine. KLAKRING, ALFRED, Hed hie Office. ydrographic Office. Kuorz, Orro J., ¢ ‘ : a 187 Albert street, Ottawa, Canada. Kiet, S. J. ; ; U.S. Geological Survey. KitmMeE.t, Henry B., ¢, ' University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Lapp, Grorce E., * SL Oxford street, Cambridge, Mass. Lame, Miss Lavinia, ¢, 579 Broadway, Saint Paul, Minn. Lambert, M. B., 326 Clinton street, Brooklyn, N. Y. Lamporn, Dr R.H., 32 Nassau street, New York, N. Y. LaAMBoRN, WILLIAM, 1510S street. Lanper, Mrs J. M. D., 45 B street S. E. LanGuey, Proressor &. P., Smithsonian Institution. Lawson, Miss JEANNE W., ; 1231 New Hampshire avenue. Le Breron, ALBERT J., 1914 Sixteenth street. Lerrer, L. Z., 1, Dupont circle. Lronarp, A. G., ¢, Iowa Geological Survey, Des Moines, Iowa. LEVERETT, FRANK, ¢, 4103 Grand boulevard, Chicago, Ill. Leverine, THomas H., 1450 Corcoran street. Lewis, JESSE, ¢, Warrensburg, Missouri. LEWIS, Jo V-, 6, 1014 Linden ayenue, Baltimore, Md, Lipsey, PRoFressor WILLIAM, JUNIOR, ¢, 20 Bayard avenue, Princeton, N. J. ea Cae 3219 P street Lippett, Dr Henry, ¢, 809 T street. Lrxcoitn, CoLOoNEL CHARLES P., 1728 Corcoran street. LINCOLN, JOHN J., Elkhorn, W. Va. Members of the Society. hi Linpaat, Dr Josva, ¢, State Museum, Springfield, Ill. LINDENKOHL, A., a ; Be? a U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. LINDENKOHL, H., a Z rg U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. LinpsLrey, WILi1AM L., c, 115 Republican street, Seattle, Wash. LitrLenaes, G. W., 928 Twenty-third street. Lockwoop, Mrs J. B. : 4 Charlton heights, Md. Lone, Caprain Oscar F., U. S. Army, War Department. Looxerr, Hrnry B, 918 F street. Looxer, THomas H., U.S. Navy, 1312 Thirtieth street. Loomis, Miss Annie E., 1437 Kenesaw avenue. Loomis, Henry B., c, ee eattle, Wash. Loomis, Dr LAFAYETTE C., Winthrop heights. Loveyoy, Miss M. N., 902 Twelfth street. Lovey, W. H. ‘ : U. 8. Geological Survey. Lowe, Cuter ENGINEER JOHN, U.S. Navy, 203 Hast Capitol street. Lupineron, Lizutexant Cotonet M. I.; U.S. Army, The Cochran. Lyncu, Joun A., 248 Delaware avenue. Lyons, JosEPH, 1003 F street. McArrnur, J. J., ¢, Topographical Survey, Ottawa, Canada. McCenry, Miss Mary E., The Shoreham. McCormicr, L. M., 612 Seventeenth street. McCracken, R. H., ¢, P. O. box 495, San Antonio, Tex. McCuttocu, Miss Mary, P. O. box 646. McCutioucu, Mrs L. V., 820 Twelfth street N. HE. hi National Geographic Magazine. McCurpy, ArrHur W., McCurpy, GrorGeE G., ¢, McDowe tt, WILLIAM O., ¢, McGerr, W J, es McGitt, Mrs J. H., McGui1, Miss M. C., McGrartsa, Joun E., McGurre, F. B., McIntire, Mrs L. P., McKes, Henry H., McKes, Reptcr H., a, McLananan, G. W., McLatvGuuin, Masor FRANK, ¢, McLaveuti, Dr T. N.> McLean, Miss N. E. L. McPuHerson, Mrs Mary MACFARLAND, JOSEPH, Mack, Mines NELLIE M., MacKayr, JAmes M., ¢, MaAckrnprr, Professor MaaGruper, Joun H., Mauer, JAmes A., a, ¢, Manon, Mrs M. H. B., Mauterr, Miss Anna S. ? E., lala 1331 Connecticut avenue. 3 College house, Cambridge, Mass. Lincoln Park, Newark, N. J. Bureau of Ethnology. 1915 Third street. 1447 Q street. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1333 Connecticut avenue. Register’s Office, Treasury Department. 127 Fourth street S. E. U.S. Geological Survey, Seattle, Wash. 1601 Twenty-first street. Oroville, Cal. 1226 N street. 946 New York avenue. 1227 I street. U.S. Geological Survey. 624 A street S. E. Shirley, Mass. 1 Bradmore road, Oxford, England. 1644 Twenty-first street. P. O. box 35, Johnson City, Tenn. 1529 Corcoran street. 1454 Rhode Island avenue. Members of the Society. hu Maton, Miss M. J., ¢, Hyattsville, Md. Maursy, Miss M. E., c, “In Europe.” Manperson, Honorasie CHarues F., U. 8. Senate, 1233 Seventeenth street. Mann, Dr H. L., 334 Indiana avenue. Mann, J. B., 1010 Massachusetts avenue. Mann, Miss Mary E., 473 Seventh street. Mannine, VAN EL, a, U.S. Geological Survey. Marpur, Curtis F., ¢, Jefferson City, Missouri. Marcy, Prorrssor OLIver, ¢, 703 Chicago avenue, Evanston, Ill. Marinpin, Henry L., , U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. MARIS, DR, Abed ..0 CF 419 Madison street, Toledo, Ohio. Marse, Linurenant C. C., U.S. Navy, : 1808 Riggs place. Marsianr, R. B., U.S. Geological Survey, San Francisco, Cal. Martin, ARTEMAS, 1534 Columbia street. Martin, Miss FRANCES, 1205 Q street. Martin, Miss Lovisr, 1205 Q street. Marvine, Mrs A. R., 1464 Rhode Island avenue. Mason, Prorerssor Oris T., 1777 Massachusetts avenue. Mason, Vicror L., 1324 Corcoran street. Martitews, PRorsssor SHAILER, ¢, Colby University, Waterville, Me. Marrnews, Dr Wasuineaton, U. 8. Army, a, Fort Wingate, N. M. Marrineity, WititaM F., 435 Seventh street. Maxcy, Dr F. E., 18 Iowa cirele. Maynarp, Commanper W., U.S. Navy, Navy Department. VIII—Nar. Grog. Maa., von. V, 1893. liv National Geographic Magazine. Mayo, Grorce U., 1451 Rhode Island avenue. Meraper, Commopore R. W., U. 8. Navy, * 1406 L street. Metz, Proressor P. H., ¢, Auburn, Ala. J MELVILLE, CHIEF ENGINEER G. W., U. 8. Navy, a, /, Navy Department. MENDENHALL, Dr T: C., U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. MENocaL, Crvin ENGINEER A. G., U. S. Navy, a, Norfolk Navy Yard, Va. Merriam, Dr C. Hart, a, Agricultural Department. Merriam, WALTER H., 209 West Fifty-sixth street, New York, N. Y. Merrit, CHARLES A., ¢, Holden, Mass. Merritt, F. J. H., ¢, State Museum, Albany, N. Y. MerrILu, Proressor J. A., ¢, Warrensburg, Mo. Meston, R. D., 1227 L street. Merzerr, F. P., U.S Geological Survey. MIDDLETON, JEFFERSON, U.S. Geological Survey. MircHELL, Proressor Henry, a, 60 Buckingham street, Cambridge, Mass. Monseat, CLEOPHAS, ¢, Middletown, Ohio. Monrtaaur, Proressor A. P., 1514 Corcoran street. Montgomery, Proressor J. H., ¢, Allegheny College, Meadville, Pa. Morean, Dr Francis P., 1328 Ninth street. Morris, Miss L. W., ¢, 617 Milan street, Shreveport, La. Morrison, W. C., 1415 Rhode Island avenue. Morvron, Honorasre J. SrerLine. Agricultural Department. Mosman, A. T., a, P. O. box 82, San Diego, Cal. Mtr, Proressor Jonny, Martinez, Cal. Members of the Society. lv Muncaster, Dr M., ue 1510 street. Muwror, Hersey, - U.S. Geological Survey. Mur.uin, A. E. . : U.S. Geological Survey. Murray, B. P., 10 Third street N. E. Myrrncer, Miss Caro.ine, 1214 O street. Newcomes, Proressor Simon, U. 8. Navy, 1620 P street. NeEweE Lt, F. H., U.S. Geological Survey. Nixes, Proressor WituiAM H., Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. Nirze, H. B. C., ¢, 11 South street, Baltimore, Md. Nrxon, Dr J. H., ¢, 314 Saint Louis street, Springfield, Mo. NorbDHOFF, CHARLES, (, ! Coronado, Cal. Norman-Nervupa, L., ¢, Devonshire Club, Saint James street, London, England. Nortuup, C. G., Senate post office. Noyes, Crossy 6., The Evening Star. Noyes, THEopore W., The Evening Star. O’ Brian, J. T., ¢, Kearney, Nebraska. OapEN, Herperr G., a, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. OLBERG, CHARLES R., 810 H street. OupRINI, Professor A. A., 1435 L street. OLNEY, CHARLES F., : 37 Jennings avenue, Cleveland, Ohio. OppENteIM, Mrs ANSEL, ¢, 277 Summit avenue, Saint Paul, Minn. Ossorn, LirzureNant A. P., U.S. Navy, ¢, ; Navy Department. OsBorNE, Dr GrorGE L., ©, State Normal School, Warrensburg, Mo. Oris, HAMILTON, ¢, Cazadero, Cal. lv1 National Geographic Magazine. Owen WeeO nc Painrer, Mrs U. H., PALMER, TS, = Pancoast, Miss M. E., PARKE, GENERAL JOHN G., U.S. Army, Parker, E. W., PARKER, COLONEL FRANcIS W., ¢, Parker, Miss L. M. Parker, Myron M. PARMELEE, H. P., ©, Parsons, F. H., «a, Parrerson, Miss M. E., Pau, Mrs D’ Arcy, PAYNE, JAMES Gs PreaBopy, W. F., imo IDRIS Cx, a, r) ’) Laramie, Wyo. 900 Fourteenth street. Agricultural Department. 1507 Corcoran street. 16 Lafayette square. U.S. Geological Survey. 6640 Honore street, eee Tl. 1100 M street. 1020 Vermont avenue. Hillsdale, Mich. 210 First street S. Hi. 1100 Vermont avenue. 1129 North Calvert street, Baltimore, Md. 2112 Massachusetts avenue. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 1451 Stoughton street. Peary, Crvin Enernerr R. E., U. 8. Navy, I PreckHam, Dr GRACE, ¢ PELLEW, Henry E., PENROSE, Dr R. A. F., Juntor, PERKINS, E. T., Junror, a, PERKINS, HONORABLE G. C., Perrers, EUGENE, 2014 Twelfth street. The Madison, New York, N. Y. 1637 Massachusetts avenue. 1331 Spruce street, Philadelphia, Pa. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S. Senate. 458 Pennsylvania avenue. Peters, Lizvtenant G. H., U.S. Navy, a, Navy Department. Members of the Society. lvil Perers, WILLIAM J., a, ; Dae U.S. Geological Survey. Perry, Proressor W. J., ¢, Bradford, Pa. Priuires, R. H., 1422 New York avenue. PIcKERING, Proressor E. C., : Harvard Observatory, Cambridge, Mass. PickineG, Caprain H. F., U.S. Navy, ; Navy Department. Piprce, Josiau, JUNIOR, 1325 Massachusetts avenue. IR GHING J WV, 1301 Massachusetts avenue. Pontok, ANTHONY, 620 F street. Ponp, Mrs E. J., 420 C street S. E. Poour, Masor D. C., U. S. Army, 1724 Corcoran street. Poorr, Howarp W., ¢, Worcester Academy, Worcester, Mass. Powsin, Masor J. W., «, 910 M street. Powe tt, Proressor W. B., «, Franklin school. Power, GEORGE C., ¢, P. O. box E, Ventura, Cal. Powers, FrepD Perry, ¢, 32 Broadway, New York, N. Y. PraAnG, Louis, 646 Washington street, Boston, Mass. Prentiss, Dr D. W., «, 1101 Fourteenth street. Preston, H. L., 612 Seventeenth street. Price, Josppn M., 1712 Coreoran street. Prisst, W. E., 901 French street. Prince, Dr Joun D., ¢, 9 East Tenth street, New York, N. Y. Prince, Honoras_e L. BRaprorp, ¢, Santa Fe, N. M. Prout, Miss N. S., 1765 N street. Raines, T. RALEIGH, c, P. O. box 6, Hickory, Miss. lviil National Geographic Magazine. Ranp, Dr CHARtss F., 1228 Fifteenth street. Rankin, Dr J. E., Howard Universi ty. Rankin, Joun M., : Atlantic building. Ravensure, Miss M. G., 1308 W street. Raymonp, Epwarp &., ‘ 527 Twelfth street. Raymonp, Mrs Epiry L., 1515 Seventeenth street. Reap, Morte A., ¢, 22 Stoughton hall, Cambridge, Mass. Recius, EvIsen,.¢, Bourg la Reine, Paris, France. ReEpDWAy, CAPTAIN GEORGE, : 1316 Twelfth street. Qi Reep, Lizurenantr B. L., U. 8S. Revenue Marine, Life Saving Service. Reep, Miss Temprrance P., 1616 Rhode Island avenue. Reese, Miss Evia, Brookland, D. C.. Rerp, Proressor Harry F., ¢, i Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Reirer, CoMMANDER G. C., U.S. Navy, c¢, Light-house inspector, Philadelphia, Pa. REYNOLDS, GENERAL J. J., U.S. Army, 1601 S street. Ricr, Proressor WILLIAM Norn, ¢, Wesleyan University, Middletown, Conn. Ricowarpson, T. J., ¢, 734 East Fifteenth street, Minneapolis, Minn. Ricuarpson, Dr C. W., 1102 L street. RiIcHMOND, CHARLES W., 1307 T street. Ricuter, Miss Ciara M. b) b) 330 A street S. EB. Rickseckper. EUGENE, (, ¢, P. O. box 289, Seattle, Wash. Rrorpan, D. M., ¢, Flagstaff, Arizona. Rrrrer, Homer P., a. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Rizer, Coroner H. C., i U.S. Geological Survey. Members of the Socvety. hx Rogsrns, ARTHUR G., ¢, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. S23 Roserts, A. C., a, Hydrographie Office. Rocuester, Generau W. B., U.S. Army, 320 Eighteenth street. Rock, MIuEs, 327 Spruce street, Philadelphia, Pa. Rockwoop, Proressor C. G., JUNIOR, ¢, 34 Bayard avenue, Princeton, N. J. Rorcu, A. LAWRENCE, ‘ 2 Readville, Mass. Rorwrock, Dr J. T., ¢, Westchester, Pa. Russpy, Dr Henry H., ¢, 222 West 132nd street, New York, N. Y. Rusk, James M., c, MecConnellsville, Ohio. RusseLL, Caprain A. H., U.S. Army, War Department. RussEL, Lreurenant Epear, U. 8. Army, ¢, West Point, N. Y. Russert, E. E., 9045 street. Russe.y, Proressor Israer C., a, ¢, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Sarrorp, Dr M. Victor, ¢, 218 East Thirty-fourth street, New York, N. Y. SALISBURY, PRoFrEssor R. D., ¢, University of Chicago, Chicago, III. Sampson, Mrs M. I[., 9145 street, Sanpers, Henry P., 1504 Twenty-first street. Sanps, Miss Martn, 1222 Connecticut avenue. SarGENt, Miss A. L., 945 Rhode Island avenue. SaRGENT, Proressor C. S., a, Brookline, Mass. Sawyer, Mrs C. B., Globe House. Sawyer, Mrs N. C., ; | 1218 Sixth street. OCAIE EK, WW ALTER B., 143 North avenue. Allegheny, Pa. SCHAAP, C. H., C, P. O. box B32; Sitka, A aska. Ix National Geographic Magazine. ScHitEy, Captain W.S., U.S. Navy, a, P. O. box 2128, New York, N. Y. Scumipt, FERDINAND, 1337 Wallach place. Scumipt, Frep A., 504 Ninth street. ScHOBINGER, JOHN J., ¢, Morgan park. Cook county, Il. Scnorpr, W. Kersey, Eekington, D. C. ScnouLER, ComMMANDER Jonn, U.S. Navy, Navy Department. ScHravDeEr, F. C., ¢, 68 Thayer hall, Cambridge, Mass. ScHULZE, Paun, Tacoma, Wash. Scipmore, Miss Euiza R., Wormley’s Hotel. Scorr, Miss Fannin T., The Shoreham. Scorr, Dr S. I., 1011 H street. Scomm Wie Oe Nn, 1711 Connecticut avenue. Scorr, Grorae M., ¢, 168 Main street, Salt Lake, Utah. SramMaAN, Dr Wrurtam H., 1424 Eleventh street. Sravey, Miss J. M., Internal Revenne Office. Srpauery, Miss IsaBen, 1779 Massachusetts avenue. SEWALL, REyEREND FRANK, 1618 Riggs place. SmaxLer, Proressor N. &., a, 25 Quiney street, Cambridge, Mass. SHAw, GEorGE CLyMER, 707 Massachusetts avenue N. B: Siaw, Dr Jonn W., 908 Fifteenth street. SHEPARD, Proressor E. M., ¢, Drury College, Springfield, Mo. SHmparD, J. L. N., ¢, 402 Front street, San Franciseo, Cal. SHEPARD, Caprarn L. G., U. S. Revenue Marine, } Treasury Department. Sutpy, LeAnn P., U.S. Coast and Geodetie Survey. Members of the Society. Ix Simcrriep, Dr C. A., U. §. Navy, ¢, : Peoria, Ill. Sinn, Lrevrenanr James L., U. 8. Revenue Marine, ¢c, U.S. Steamer Boutwell, Savannah, Ga, Srnciair, C. H. : ‘ f U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. SINCLAIR, 'J. C. ‘ : 718 Arch street, Philadelphia, Pa, Sires, C. M. Lacey, 1315 Clifton street. Sizer, FRANK L., Helena, Mont. Sievin, THomas L., ¢, 2413 Sacramento street, San Francisco, Cal. SLOANE, CHARLES S., 1605 Marion street. Sminigz, Epwarp &., ¢, : Eliot block, Newton, Mass. SmirH, CHARLES G., 1632 Riggs place. Smirn, Generar C. H., U.S. Army, 1728 Q street. Smirn, Mrs E. L., 1632 Riggs place. Samira, Reverend Ernest C., ¢, Framingham, Mass. Smrru, Proressor HuGEne A., ¢, University of Alabama, University, Ala. Smirn, JAcos, ¢, * Department of the Interior, Ottawa, Canada. Smiru, Lincoun A., 1631 Massaehusetts ayenue. Smirn, MippLeETon, a, ; P. O. box 572. Smirn, GenerRAL WixiiAM, U.S. Army, ; 1606 K street. Smock, Dr Joun C., ¢, State Geological Survey, Trenton, N. J. Snowpen, Liznurenanr Tuomas, U.S. Navy, c, i Navy Department. Snyper, W. H., c, Worcester Academy, Worcester, Mass. Somers, Mrs E. J., 1100 M street. Sommer, E. J., a, i U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Spencer, JAMES W., U.S. Geological Survey. IX—Nav. Grog. Maa., von. V, 1893. Ix National Geographic Magazine. Squire, HonorABLE WATSON C., U.S Senate. Srantyey-Brown, Josery, U.S. Geological Survey. Sranwoop, JAMES H., ¢, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. SraveLty, Dr ALsert L., Garfield Memorial Hospital. Srrarns, Dr Henry P., ¢, 190 Retreat avenue, Hartford, Conn. STEDMAN, JoHN M., «, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala. Sreever, Caprain E. Z., U.S. Army, 1016 Vermont avenue. STEIGER, GEORGE, U.S. Geological Survey. Srein, Rosrrt, ‘ ; U.S. Geological Survey. STELLWAGEN, EDWARD J., 1214 F street. STERNBERG, GENERAL GeorcGE M., U. 8. Army, War Department. Stevens, HonorABLE Moses T. U.S. House of Representatives. STEVENSON, Honorasie A. E., ee + U.S. Senate. Stevenson, Mrs M. C., 1510 H street. Srocxtron, CommanpeEr C. H., U.S. Navy, a, ¢, U.S. Naval War College, Newport, R. I. Sronr, JAmss &., ¢ , ike 131 Vernon street, Newton, Mass. Stone, Dri. S. ‘ : 9936 Fourteenth street. Stoner, Miss LIniian, 1918 I street. Striper, Mrs L. C., 1450 Rhode Island avenue. Sutton, FRANK, : U.S. Geological Survey. Swan, Honorasie JAMES G., ¢, Port Townsend, Wash. Swann, Mrs THomas, 415 I street Pe 1415 I street. Sweat, L. D. M., Hotel Normandie. TAINTER, CHARLES &., pane 1360 E street. Mem bers of the Society. Ixil Taugorr, Mrs L. O., 927 P street. Tatcorr, WILLIAM A., ¢, 408 North Main street, Rockford, Ill. TaRBELL, Horace S., ¢, City Hall, Providence, R. I. Tarr, RALPH S., ¢, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y._ Taytor, DANrEx F., 918 F street. Tayior, JoHN M., c : ME: Idaho Falls, Idaho. THALHEIMER, WM. C., ¢, “Avondale,” Cincinnati, Ohio. Tuayer, Rurvus H., 930 F street. Tuomas, Miss M. V. E., a, 1309 N street. Tompson, Proressor A. H., a, U.S. Geological Survey. Tompson, Mayor GILBERT, «, U.S. Geological Survey. THompson, J. B., 1756 Corcoran street. THOMPSON, JOHN W., National Metropolitan Bank. THOMPSON, LAURENCE, (, Care 1628 5 street. Tuomeson, Miss M. Ipa, 1419 I street. Titman, Cotoner S. E., U. S. Army, ¢, West Point, New York. TispEL, WILLARD P. ; 1323 Thirteenth street. TownseEnD, Mrs J. C., Pp j 3) lapin street. TRAUB, LizurTENANT,P. E., U.S. Army, ¢, West Point, New York. TRAUTWINE, JOHN C., JUNIOR, ¢, Franklin Institute, Philadelphia, Pa. Tucker, Proressor Wm. J., ¢, Andover, Mass. Tupper, J. B. T. : 4 1316 Nineteenth street. Turner, H. W., U.S. Geological Survey. TurtLe, Masor THomas, U. 8. Army, Room 120, War Department. xiv National Geograp hic Magazine. TWEEDALE, JOHN, Tweepy, FRANK, a, Tyrer, Mrs Tueo. W., Utricn, J. C., ¢, Upnam, WARREN, ¢, UrqQuHART, CHARLES F-., a, Urrer, REvEREND Davip, c, Van Dyxs, W. M., Van Hise, Proressor C. R., /, Vaspy, Mrs GrorGs, Veraegs, Louts F., ¢, VERMEULE, C. C., ¢, Vinas, Honoraste Wim F., ViInAL, W. Irvine, a, Wavpey, Jonn A., Wavbuams, Linutenant A. V., U.S Waaner, C. W., ¢, Warnwriaut, D. B., Waits, Miss Mary F., Watcort, CHARLES D., a, W ALKER, Apert M., Waker, H. D., c, Wat, CotoneL WILLIAM, Watwace, Mrs E. R., War Department. U. S. Geological Survey. 1806 New Hampshire avenue. P. O. box 1291, Denver, Colo. 124 State street, Minneapolis, Minn. U.S. Geological Survey. Salt Lake, Utah. 1111 N street. University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. 307 Riggs street. 37 Central street, Boston, pees 71 Broadway, New York, We We U.S. Senate. 1106 Hast Capitol street. Hydrographic Office. . Navy, ¢, Navy Department. Madison, Minn. 2510 Fourteenth street. 1616 Rhode Island avenue. U.S. Geological Survey. U.S. Geological Survey. _ 447 Rialto building, Chicago, Iil. 1918 N street. 1321 Massachusetts avenue. Members of the Society. Ixv WALLACE, GEORGE Y., ¢, wi Salt Lake, Utah. WALLACE, WILLIAM J., 1107 E street. Watters, Wiuit1aM T., J, 16 Chamber of Commerce, Baltimore, Md. WANAMAKER, HONORABLE JOHN, Philadelphia, Pa. Warp, H. P., The Hamilton. Warp, Proressor H. A., ¢, 16 College avenue, Rochester, N. Y. Warp, L. B., ¢ : ois Taylor’s Hotel, Jersey City, N. J. Warp, Roserr De C., Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. WARDER, Mrs R. B., Howard University. Warman, P.C., U.S. Geological Survey. ‘Warner, B. H., 2100 Massachusetts avenue. WARREN, WILLIAM M., ¢, 329 Broadway, Cambridgeport, Mass. Wasuzurn, Proressor F. L., ¢, Corvallis, Oregon. Watkins, J. ELFRETH, 1801 Thirteenth street. Wess, W. H. ipa : 415 Fifth avenue, New York, N. Y. Wesster, Mayor Wr11AM H., Civil Service Commission. Weeks, Josera D., ¢, P. O. box 1059, Pittsburg, Pa. Weir, Joun B., a, Fredonia Hotel. WELD, GEORGE F., Albemarle and Chesapeake Canal Company, Norfolk, Va. WELKER, P. A. : ; U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. WELLING, Dr JAMEs C., a, : 1302 Connecticut avenue. WELLMAN, WALTER, 1336 Massachusetts avenue. Wetts, E. Hazarp, Cincinnati Post, Cincinnati, Ohio. We Lts, WILLIAM H., JuNioR, ¢, 274 Ashland avenue, Chicago, III. Ixvi National Geographic Magazine. West, Preston C. F., ¢, f Caftmet, Mich. ' WestcatTr, Lewis G., ¢, 1308 Chicago avenue, Evanston, Ill. Wuirte, Dr C. H., U.S. Navy, Naval Laboratory, Brooklyn, N. Y. Waite, Davin, U.S. National Museum. Wuite, Grorce H. B., National Metropolitan Bank. Wuirr, Prorsssor I. C., /, Morgantown, West Va. Wurrine, Henry L., U.S. Coast and Geodetie Survey, West Tisbury, Mass. Wuirtney, Proressor MILron, ¢, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Wuitney, JosepH N., 1403 H street. Wuirremore, W. C., 1526 New Hampshire avenue. Wuirt.e, C. L., ¢ ; Pie West Medford, Mass. Wieut, E. B. 4 ‘ 333 F street, Wiaut, Joun B., 1410 G street: Wizevr, Miss F. Isaset, 1719 Fifteenth street. WILDER, GENERAL J. T., a, J, Johnson City, Tenn. Wiikes, Miss JANE, 814 Connecticut avenue. Witarp, D. E., ¢, 391 Fifty-fifth street, Chicago, Ill. WILLENBUCHER, WILLIAM C., 428 New Jersey avenue S. EH. Wixitams, Mrs A. B., 1335 Eleventh street. WILLIAMS, CHARLES A., 1301 Highteenth street. WILLIAMS, PROFESSOR GEORGE H., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Witutams, Proressor H. &., ¢, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. WituiaMs, WILLIAM, ¢, University Club, New York, N. Y. Wiiitamson, Miss Harper, > 1805 Nineteenth street. Members of the Society. Ixvil Wius, Barney, a, U.S. Geological Survey. Wiis, F. I. j : War Department. Wiurts, HonoraBte Epwin, Loan and Trust building. Witson, H. M., a . j Ae U.S. Geological Survey. Witson, Honorasie JAMEs F., The Oxford annex. Wuson, Josepu F. é é 1315 Clifton street. Witson, Dr THomAs, 1218 Connecticut avenue. WirncHeLi, Horace V., ¢, 1306 Southeast Seventh street, Minneapolis, Minn. WincaHett, Proressor N. H., ¢, 120 State street, Minneapolis, Minn. Wines, MarsHacu W., U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Winxstow, Proressor ARTHUR, State Geological Survey, Jefferson City, Mo. Winston, Isaac, 1325 Corcoran street. Winter, Dr Joun T., « 1528 Ninth street. Woop, F. F., ¢ ; raid Black Earth, Wis. Woopwarp, Proressor R. &., a, ¢ , ar) i — Z GQ \ +s \ 2 j=\ Sa. SOs een wy, ai IND. WA ti ‘all TER RK t S$,|! - ! SS i ne F URBAN TO TOTAL POPULATION UZ : | {IVR . \ OR NY SS phys JOD ae '?06£1,, 9 7g me Ly oa. VW ), l= Yj, Ty t= /f, Wy D OHIM )\ any A Zon L..SES {Fenn — ae The marvelous Growth of our Cities. 29 tions exist in places much smaller than this. Still, whatever limit is adopted, the conclusions to be drawn from historical comparisons hold equally good. The following table shows the urban population and the proportion which this bears to the total population at each census: : Inhabitants Population : of cities in Census years. of the Pop rues each 100 of United States. OES the total population. TL QI ER ERIS Beate een meester ea 3,929,214 131,472 Ban) TOO Rage ee eis are tae al a 5,308,483 210,878 3.97 OMOMSS Side ens Vey as 7,239,881 - 356,920 4.98 IO eee i aR 9,633,822 475,135 4.93 TSE) See es Seti ate 12,866,020 864,509 6.72 HSAL (ae eee acl cee cate ew eieha ieee 17,069,453 1,455,994 8.52 TSO Sass nee te aeons eee 23,191,876 2,897,586 12.49 HeGO me ee Ly, 31,443,321 5,072,256 16.13 ‘ISOS Gee ee ee 38,558,371 8,071,875 20.93 1280 ee ee 50,155,783 | 11,318,547 22.57 HS OE Seamer Mere ericae eit aes 62,622,250 18,235,670 29.12 A century ago this country contained but six cities having a population of more than 8,000 each, and the urban population constituted but 8.35 per cent, or about one-thirty-third of the entire population of the country. To-day the number of such cities is 443 and their population eighteen and a quarter millions, which is 29 per cent, or not very much less than one-third of the entire population. The total population is about sixteen times as great as it was a hundred years ago, while the urban popula- tion is 159 times as great. It has grown eight times as fast as the total population. This aggregation of the people in the cities is a natural and necessary result of the increasing density of population and of the consequent change in avocations, which was discussed above. It has gone on in this country at a constantly accelerating rate, and the acceleration will probably be in the future even more marked than in the past, asa greater part of our domain reaches and passes in density of population the limit of successful agriculture. Referring to the map (plate 9, figure 2), which shows the pro- portion of urban to total population, it is seen that the urban 5—Nat, Groc, Mag., vou, V, 1893, 30 Henry Gannett—Movements of owr Population. ry rere population of the country is confined almost entirely to the Northern states, especially those on the Atlantic border. Indeed, in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York and New Jersey the urban element is in the majority, and in Rhode Island more than three-fourths of the people live in its cities, while, on the other hand, the proportion in North Carolina, Mis- sissippi and Arkansas is but trifling, being less than 5 per cent in each case. Now, if the urban element be subtracted from the total popu- lation there is left what may be broadly characterized as the rural element. Plate 6 shows by the total length of the bars the population of the United States at each census, the shaded portion of each bar representing the urban population at each date, while the unshaded portion remaining represents the rural population. This element, which in the early decades in- creased nearly as rapidly as the total population, has in later years increased much more slowly. Indeed, during the past ten years its rate of Increase was not much more than half that of the total population; while in several states there has been an absolute loss of rural population during the past decade, and in many others the gain has been much less than the average gain of the country. The increase of urban population has been more rapid during the past decade than at any previous time in the country’s history, having in ten years increased from 222 per cent up to 29 per cent. This great increase has in the main taken the form of additions to our larger cities, most of which have grown enormously. | : The numerical increase in our urban population in the past decade is 6,900,000, of which fully 3,000,000 consists of addi- tions to the 28 cities of 100,000 or more inhabitants. Chicago's half million in 1880 has become more than a million in 1890. St. Paul, Minneapols, Omaha, Kansas City and Denver have doubled or tripled their population. Our greatest city, New York, has apparently enjoyed a comparatively slow growth ; but this is only apparent. New York’s charter limits include less than one-half of the people whose business and social interests . lie in that metropolis. The great majority of the people: who sleep within an hour’s ride of New York’s city hall are to all in- tents and purposes, except in name, citizens of New York; but, having their residence without its charter limits, they cannot be enumerated as its citizens. A close estimate of the people thus ic Ya pee . Tea : Qs S Oo a < DISTRIBUTION BY COLOR The Decadence of the weaker Race. 33 table shows the proportions of the two races, given in percent- ages of the total, at each census: White and colored Population by Decades. Census years. White. Colored. TO OF ores eects Va a teeiete, 3 3,172,006 797,208 WS OOgGs ature cat iscetaiece 4,306,446 1,002,037 STONED ihn 5,862,073 1,377,808 HID ORM rae a BE | 7,862,166 1,771,656 TCS ORS Sanne 10,537,378 2398 619 TSAO e eer rete x 14,195,805 2,873,648 USI), ee ae 19,553,068 3,638,808 TOCORMEI Se Awe he 26,922,537 4441.88 iS One es. 33,589,377 4,880,009 TSCORPR oe cat. 43,402,970 6,580,793 ICO eee een ee 54,983,968 7,638,282 Ratios of white and colored Population by Decades. Census years. White. | Colored. LNGAGIO atthe Aras ates rer es tern vee en ee 80.73 1927 1800.5 STS PERRT eRe LEI 81.18 18.87 AILS aL Ne peers cues vesie rccie| sy Nc Gh dM as 80.97 Palg03 WAV cc ceo oc By VA Cu IS 7 Ce 81.61 18.39 MSS Oe ee eae ctetcencteince cathe Un mnen 81.90 18.10 HRSA () Phresh tea nee eis atetate hoy ay cane ihre 83.17 16.83 NS OP eee ARO as onan avs es soe ia lees 84.31 15.69 ES OM eare ress aati terar ene oes Miana re Sen 85.62- 14.13 TUCO) eae aisiato ce rc eens ee ote: 87.11 12.65 Ticket) weera ream sich eel catamaran eae 86.54 sy, SO Ope erent mera ee ak tat, 87.80 12.20 In 1790 the first census showed that the colored race formed nearly one-fifth of the population. In 1840, after fifty years had elapsed, during which time the country had received practically no increase from immigration, the proportion of colored had fallen to about one-sixth of the whole. In the next half century, which closed in 1890, during which the white race has received ereat additions from immigration, that proportion had fallen to less than one-eighth of the whole population. Summing it up, the colored race forms today less than two- thirds the proportion of the population which it formed a cen- tury ago. o4 Henry Gannett—Movements of our Population. The following table and the diagram forming plate 11, figure 1, represent the rates of increase of the two races: Percentage of increase. Decades. White. Colored. QO MtOMSO0 eee 35.76 32.38 1800 to 1810 ........ 36.13 37.46 WSO) tO WIAD. > oos56- 34.12 28.57 1820) to 1830) 2.2...-. 34.03 3141 1830 to 1840......... 34.72 23.28 1840 to 1850 ........ 37.74 26.61 NSO) 1© UAE occ sace 37.69 22.06 1860 to 1870)........ 24.76 9.86 1870 to 1880..... ae 29.91 34.85 USA. 6 UWESO ss ccence 26.68 13.11 These rates of increase show that in only two decades of the century have the colored apparently increased more rapidly than the whites, the decades between 1800 and 1810 and between 1870 and 1880. The latter, however, is only an apparent excess, due to wholesale omissions in the enumeration of the colored people in 1870. The colored race has almost continuously lost ground in proportion to the white race throughout our history. Although the birth rate of the race is decidedly larger than that of the whites, its death rate, as is evidenced by the mortality records of large southern cities, is still greater, beg not much less, on an average, than double the death rate of the whites. Since the time of the first records the colored race has been practically confined to the southern states, as is shown by the map showing the distribution in 1890, where it has practically monopolized labor. There has never been any northward move- ment of this people of magnitude sufficient to be perceptible in census returns. Indeed, the only important movement among them is southward from the border states into those of the south- ern Atlantic and Gulf, from the tobacco states into the cotton states. a Plate 11, figure 2, shows the present distribution of the race. In the northern states the proportion is less than 5 per cent of the population, in the border states it is less than 25 per cent, while in the states along the Atlantic and Gulf from Virginia to Louisiana it exceeds 25 per cent, and in three states, South Carolina, Mississippi and Louisiana, more than half the popu- eos ra OG HSVM 31LYVE @SNVAZ Ad GBAVYONG oar © 2 | il ANVWH39 ILL BeBe GNV1a4uI iis NivlINa LvaHo WUVANIAG % N3G3SMS AVMYON AYVONNDH VIE LSNv AIV LI O68I GNV O8sl NS33S3ML39 NOILVYUOIWNNI SZHL 40 GNV NOILVYOINWI IVWLOL JHL IO SLINSANLILSNOO SONVYS GNV10d % VISSNY Id e698! A “110A ‘OVW 9039 LYN The Beneficence of Freedom. 35 lation are colored. The highest proportion is found in the first of these states, namely, South Carolina, where three-fifths of the people are colored and but two-fifths white. The question has been asked, “ Has the condition of slavery or of freedom proved the more favorable to the numerical in- crease of the colored people?” The figures of the census give us a ready answer. The increase has been more rapid under conditions of freedom. In the thirty years preceding 1860 the colored increased 48 per cent, while in the following thirty years, during only twenty-seven of which they were free, and which included the disturbed period of the civil war and of recon- struction, they increased not less than 68 per cent. NATIVITY AND IMMIGRATION. It has often been stated that the strongest and most virile nations are the composite ones, those made up from a mixture of blood. If this be true, we are ina fair way to distance in this regard all other nations which ever existed. .The blood of immi- erants from all the nations of Europe, from the Mediterranean to the Arctic, to say nothing of the negroes, Chinese and Indians within our borders, threatens to make of us the most thoroughly composite nation the world has ever known. During the first half of the century just passed we received practically no immigration; our numerical gain was produced almost entirely by natural increase. Indeed, immigration was not of importance until 1847 or 1848, when the famines in Ireland and the political troubles in Germany, occurring almost simul- taneously, started immigration in this direction; but since that time there has been a migration of peoples across the Atlantic to these shores the equal of which the world has never seen. Within a generation and a half, 15,427,657 people have crossed the Atlantic and found homes in this country. The table shows the number of immigrants in each ten-year period since 1820: Immigrants by Decades. SES OMe eter 4 a fe yo ea a omega Ce 143,439 TUE EU rae hee pore PAR Pie Bec YA Lt 599,125 TST IG (5 wc sora prea RE eet Bes 0) 0) 1,713,251 {STEN Est ae Pee ea el aU 2,598,214 ES DTD ial aap ee ere I tea kD 2,314,824 TSE Tals sc aa ere Me atl OO 2,812,191 SSO Open meostsccrcne ey clysisie cote atacs siate maleas 9 5,246,615 36 Henry Gannett—Movements of owr Population. In the first of these periods the number was trifling; between 1830 and 1840 it rose to nearly 600,000; in the next decade it nearly tripled, and between 1850 and 1860 reached 2,580,000. Between 1860 and 1870 the number diminished, owing to our internal troubles; but in the next decade it rose again higher than ever before. approaching three millions, and in 1880 to 1890 it reached the enormous number of 5,250,000, more than one-third of the whole immigration, almost double the number which came in the preceding decade, and more than double the number which arrived in any other decade. The following table shows the principal constituents of the immigration during each decade, from which it appears that the Irish, British and Germans have constituted the bulk of the immigration. Indeed, down to 1860 other elements were trifling in amount. Between 1860 and 1870 Scandinavians and Canadians commenced to appear and have increased with great rapidity. Other elements, and much less desirable ones, such as Hungarians, Bohemians, Italians and Poles, appear first in considerable number so recently as between 1870 and 1880, and, indeed, it is only within the last decade that any considerable numbers of them have come over. ‘The danger to be apprehended from them is not from the numbers which have already arrived, for they are inconsiderable, but from the fact that the immigration is increasing at a tremendous rate, so that if continued for a quarter of a century they will become of considerable numerical importance. Principal Constituents of the Immigration. 1821 1831 1841 1851 1861 1871 1881 Nationality. to to to to to to to 1830. 1840. 1850. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1890. Cama a wiis Svcsslusececsssencese 2,277 13,624 41,723 59,309 | 153,872 | 383,269 392,802* Imelarceeeees AGEN ONE 50,724 | 207,381 | 780,719 | 914,119 | 435,778 | 436,871 |° 655,482 England and Wales....... | 14,225 | 7,796 | 33,353 | 253,444 | 296.570 | 444,337 | 657,280 Scotlancdeas see ane 2,912 | 2,667 | 3,712 | 38,331 | 38,769 | 87,564] 149,869 Norway and Sweden....... 91 1,201 | 13,903 | 20,931 | 109,298 | 211,245 568,362 iD Ena ai eee eoe eee ences | Gg) 1,003 539 3,749 | 17,094] 31,771 88,132 Russia and Poland ......... 91 646 656 1,621 4,539 | 52,260 265,088 1s WOW aS) ear eeree Ge cetrenCa an cee nee ipdoee nececal stares ocee! | |lbasccneecees 7,800 | 72,969 353,719 icles 408 | 2,253] 1,870] 9,231 | 11,725 | 55,759 | 307,309 Germany 6,761 | 152,454 | 434.626 | 951,667 | 787,468 | 718,182 | 1,452,970 France 8,497 | 45,575 | 77,262 | 76,358 | 35,986 | 72,206 50,464 Nethertands 1,078 1,412 8,251 10,789 9,102 16,541 53,701 “ * Hive years only. * In recent years the character of the immigration has changed for the worse not only by this increase of these undesirable a Be \s rence Sonne NAT. GEOG. MAG. =e 1 PROPORTION OF FOREIGN BORN TO TOTAL POPULATION D Real ry it HN eee iia . = i i Sul \ ORE THAN 95 PER CENT * WY ae a‘ han : SS LRTI AE A oe LESS THAN 30 PER CENT DISTRIBUTION BY NATIVITY The Infusion of inferior Blood. Oo” nationalities, but in the fact that the character of the immigra- tion from other countries is lower than heretofore in respect to wealth, education and morality. Altogether the changes which the character of the immigration has taken on in the past ten or fifteen years have tended to lower the standard of American citizenship and press upon us the question whether it is not wise to take steps for limiting immigration. Of the entire body of immigrants who have joined us, 4,504,128 or 28 per cent are Germans; 5,911,454 have come from the United Kingdom, 3,481,074 of which are Irish. The United Kingdom and Germany together have supplied two-thirds of the entire immigration. Norway, Sweden and Denmark have furnished 1,067,548, while the contingent from other European countries has been comparatively small in amount. The constituents of the total immigration and of the immigration during the last decade are shown graphically in plate 12. THE FOREIGN BORN. What effect has the flood of immigration had upon the con- stitution of our population? In 1840 all our people were of native birth, with the exception of 600,000 newly arrived im- migrants. In 1850 those of foreign birth constituted between 9 and 10 per cent of our population. In 1860 this proportion had risen to 13 per cent, and in 1870 to nearly 142 percent. In 1880 it suffered a slight reduction, being about 132 per cent, but in 1890 it had risen to 14% per cent, while the foreign born found in the country in that year numbered no fewer than 9,250,000. These facts are set forth in the following table: Increase of the foreign born. a Census years. Native. | Native white.| Foreign. INSU Giese sarees 20,912,612 17,278,804 2,244,602 TC GOME ee ees 27,304,624 22,862,794 | 4,138,697 SOROS Oe kee. 32,991,142 | 28111133 | 5,567,229 HS SON Mateest ey oo 43,475,846 36,895,047 | 6,679,943 ARSE ()e ers sae seein 53,373,703 45,863,008 9,248,547 The following table shows the proportion which the native and foreign born bore to the total population at each census since 6—Nav. Gzog. MAG., von. V, 1893. 38 Henry Gannett—Movements of our Population. the distinction was first made, and the maps in plate 138 show where the foreign born are located. Ratio of Increase of the foreign born. Census years. Native. | Foreign. ICIS ae ReneS oP Bs 90.30 9.68 TUCK \Oe Gtevaleiad® eo o-biok 86.84 13.16 US(O nerd siescoasces 85.56 14.44 SSO cas pecp ceryseaes 86.68 14.52 USO meeieers ease see 85.23 14.77 The maps show their distribution over the country expressed in percentages of the total population, state by state. From this it is seen that the home of the foreign element is in the north and west. The foreign born have never invaded the south to compete in labor with the colored element. Indeed, in the northern and western states there are found no less than 96 per cent of the entire foreign-born element of the country. Now, a glance at the constituents of the foreign element. They repeat in a broad way the composition of the immigration. Plate 14, figure 1, presents the constituents of the foreign-born popula- tion of 1890, showing that the Germans are in excess of all others, qian 2,785,000, followed by the Irish, 1,871,000, the British, 1,251,000, the Canadians, 980,000, and the ccamdineenes 933,000. These five nationalities comprise nearly nine-tenths of the whole foreign element. The Italians and Russians each number less than 200,000; the Poles only 150,000, and the Hun- garians and Bohemians put a trifle over 100,000 sacl. How are these different nationalities cone over the country ? The series of maps forming plates 14 to 16 show this expressed in the form of a proportion between their numbers and the total population of the various states. From them it is seen that the Canadians are found mainly in northern New England, Michigan, Minnesota and North Dakota, closely hugging the northern border. The Irish are found mainly in New England and New York, comparatively few having wandered westward. | The Germans are found from New York westward, and in the ereatest body in Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin. The Scandi- navians have settled as on north as they could and yet remain within our jurisdiction, being found principally in Wisconsin, NAT. GEOG. MAG. ae HUNGARIANS SWISS FRENCH BOHEMIANS DANES POLES ITALIANS RUSSIANS CANADIANS BRITISH IRISH GERMANS re FIG. } PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS OF THE FOREIGN BORN 1890 AlGre2 PROPORTION OF IRISH TO TOTAL POPULATION 4 VOL iW Neos Trl PER CENT " DISTRIBUTION OF THE FOREIGN BORN NAT. GEOG. MAG. FIG. | VOL V 1893 PL.I5. PROPORTION OF BRITISH TO TOTAL POPULATION 5-10 PER CENT ABOVE 10 y FIG. 2 PROPORTION OF CANADIANS TO TOTAL POPULATION - 5-10 PER CENT ABOVE [0 y DISTRIBUTION OF THE FOREIGN BORN ENGRAVED BY EVANS & BARTLE WASH. D.C. _ Foreigners the industrial Substratum. 39 Minnesota and the Dakotas, while the British are found scattered widely over the northern states. These people are guided largely by temperature in the selec- tion of their homes. Those from northern Europe and Canada settle in the far north. The Germans, coming from a more tem- perate climate, have settled mainly south of them, as have also the Irish. What is the distribution of this foreign element as between urban and rural life? Asarule, the Irish prefer urban life; the great proportion of them settling in the cities. Thesame is also true in an almost equal degree with the British. The Germans are somewhat less disposed toward urban life, but still a large part of them, far beyond their due proportion, are found in our large cities. The same is the case with the French-Canadians, while the Norwegians and Swedes are much more disposed toward rural life, and the great body of them are found away from the centers of population. As a rule, however, the foreign population flocks to the cities in far greater proportion than the native element does. ‘In 1890 the twenty-eight largest cities of the country contained a population of 9,700,000, or about 15 per cent of the population of the country. Now the foreign-born element of these cities comprises a little over 5,090,000, or almost exactly one-third of the total foreign born of the country. Put- Aing it in another way, nearly one-third of the population of these cities is foreign born, while in the country at large only about ‘one-sixth of it is foreign born. These cities contain, therefore, double their quota of the foreign-born element (plate 17). As to occupations, it may be stated broadly that the foreign- born element is engaged in avocations lower in character than the native element, principally in those involving skilled and unskilled labor, while the proportion of them in the learned pro- fessions is much less, relative to their numbers, than among the native element. While in 1880 the foreign born constituted about one-seventh of the population, it was found that of law- yers, clergymen, physicians and teachers there were about 11 native born to one foreign born. On the other hand, among servants there was one foreign born to little more than three native born. Among unskilled laborers the foreign born were in the proportion of one to two native born, while in skilled labor, such as blacksmiths, shoemakers and carpenters, the proportion was also as one to two, and foreign-born miners exceeded in total number the native born. 40 Henry Gannett—Movements of our Population. This flood of immigration has produced other results in our population beyond the mere additions to our numbers and the admixture of blood. It has lowered the average intelligence and morality of the community. The illiterate of the northern states are mainly foreign born, the proportion of illiterates among them being four times as great as among the native born. Again, the criminals of foreign birth in the northern states are double their due proportion as compared with the native born Another result of importance has been produced. It is a well- known law of population that in a broad, general way as the population increases the rate of increase diminishes. It is an illustration of the Malthusian doctrine. Now, it matters not in the least how this density of population is brought about, whether it be by natural increase or by immigration, the,result is the same; the rate of natural increase is reduced thereby. T have made a comparison between the rates of increase of the native white elements of the northern and the southern states to ascertain approximately the effect of immigration upon our rate of increase, and the results are presented in plate 18. The southern states, including in that designation all of the states east of the vileos and south of Mason and Dixon’s line, the Ohio river and the southern boundary of Missouri and Kansas, have received practicaliy no immigration. The states north a this line and east of the plains contain 86 per cent of the foreign element, the remainder being mainly in the states and territories of the far west. The rates of increase found among the whites of the south- ern states, which are not complicated by immigration, are rep- resented by the dotted line of the diagram, and while they ex- hibit some oscillations they show a general but not a great dimi- nution from the beginning of our history to the end. Between 1790 and 1840 the white population of these states increased 289 per cent. In other words, the population of 1840 was 3.39 times that of 1790. In the succeeding fifty years the population of these states increased 204 per cent—that is, the population of these states in 1890 was 3.04 times as great as in 1840, the rate having thus diminished by only 35 per cent. On the other hand, how is it with the northern states? In the first fifty years, dur- ing which there was practically no immigration, the rate of in- crease in each decade was considerably greater than in the south- ern states, and altogether during this half century the white pop- yy Loree \ cm a ee oy pA. ala ol NC. : 2 Sc. aN NA NAT. GEOG. MAG. MILWAUKEE NEW YORK CHICAGO DETROIT SAN FRANCISCO BUFFALO ST. PAUL CLEVELAN D- JERSEY CITY ST. LOUIS CINCINNATI BROOKLYN PITTSBURG BOSTON ROCHESTER NEWARK NEW ORLEANS LL MINNEAPOLIS ALLEGHENY PROVIDENCE LOUISVILLE PHILADELPHIA BALTIMORE WASHINGTON OMAHA DENVER INDIANAPOLIS KANSAS CITY WHITE. WO, W NSS (PIL. 17 ELEMENTS OF THE POPULATION 0 10 20 OF THE GREAT CITIES 30-40 sO 60 70 80 90 100 PER CENT NRRL Hit TT - nM nA 1] NATIVE BORN OF NATIVE PARENTS NATIVE BORN OF FOREIGN PARENTS FOREIGN BORN COLORED - ENGRAVED 8¥ EVANS & BARTLE WASH. DG Our Blood starved by Immigration. Al ulation of these northern states increased 389 per cent—that is, in 1840 the population was 4.89 times as great as in 1790. Be- tween 1840 and 1890, after separating from the white population of these states the immigrants and their natural increase, and thus leaving only the native element, the rate of increase of the latter is seen to diminish remarkably. Instead of ranging froni 34 up to 41 per cent, as it did in the first half-century, the rates of increase by decades become 23, 20, 15, 16 and 10, while the rate of increase for this entire half-century was but 112 per cent, the native population in 1890 being but 2.12 times as great as that of 1840. This sudden and astonishingly rapid reduction of the rate in the north, following closely the appearance of the flood of immigration, can be attributed to no other cause. The rate of increase of the north is shown by the full line, the broken line, which commences at 1840 and runs up to 1890, being the rate of increase of the native element alone, while the full line, continuing on to 1890, represents the rate of increase of the entire population of the north, including the foreign element. It iS an interesting coincidence that this rate of increase during the last decade was almost exactly the same as that of the south. I firmly believe. therefore, that the rate of our natural increase has been greatly reduced by the flood of immigration. By allowing the poor and oppressed of Hurope homes in this country we have substituted them for our own flesh and blood. I believe that if there had been no immigration the rate of natural increase which prevailed before immigration commenced would have been much more nearly maintained, and our numbers would be nearly as sreat as at present. Thesudden and rapid reduction of the rate of natural increase of the north during the past forty years I be- eve to be due to this flood of immigration, and it is a question whether we have gained by this substitution of a mixture of Kuropean for American blood. There is another result produced by immigration which is not so apparent, but which, it seems to me, is of great and far- reaching importance in connection with this question. As has been stated, the immigration consists, as a rule, of the lower classes, mainly of skilled and unskilled labor, and these millions of mechanics and laborers have filled and practically monopo- lized the lower classes of avocations in the north. In this way they have forced the native American element into the higher walks of life. The head-work of the country is practically in 42 Henry Gannett—Movements of our Population. . the hands of Americans almost as fully as half a century ago. Our industrial enterprises of all sorts are under the management of Americans and the hewing of wood and the drawing of water have been assumed by the immigrant. The fact that the native is still the ruling element probably accounts for the fact that the foreign element, in spite of its great numerical importance, has thus far exerted but a triflmg influence upon our political, in- dustrial and social life. THE ELEMENT OF FOREIGN EXTRACTION. The effects of immigration on our population are not con- fined by any means to the foreign born. Although to some extent Americanized, the children of the Irish, Germans and Scandinavians retain many of their parents’ characteristics ; measurably they are Irish, Germans and Scandinavians still. It is interesting, therefore, to note to what extent our population is composed, not only of the foreign born but of the children of the foreign born, and this information was obtained both in 1870 and 1890. Moreover, in 1870 practically all the foreign blood in the country must have been accounted for by the enumeration of the foreign born and their children, since immigration had commenced on a large scale only twenty-two years earlier, and it is not possible that there was any considerable number of children of the second generation in the country. The element of foreign extraction in the United States in 1870 numbered by this enumeration 10,892,000, and comprised about one-third of the entire white population of the country. In 1890 those born of foreign parents, including the foreign born, numbered 20,626,000, and constituted 37 per cent of the entire white popu- lation of the country. To this large number are yet to be added probably four or five millions in the second generation to com- plete the tale of foreign blood. The distribution of the foreign born and their children is illus- trated in plate 17, the highest proportion being in New England and the northwestern states. Indeed.in the northern states east of the plains 45 per cent, or nearly one-half of the inhabitants, are foreign born or the children of foreigners. In Massachusetts there are 56 per cent; in Rhode Island, 58; in Connecticut, 50; in New York, 56, and in New Jersey, 48 per cent; but the heaviest proportion is found in the northwestern states. In Wis- consin and Minnesota three-fourths of the people are foreign VOL. V 1893 PL.18 NAF. GEOG. MAG. RATES OF INCREASE OF ALL WHITES AND OF THE NATIVE ELEMENT OF THE NORTH AND OF ALL WHITES OF THE SOUTH 068] OLOSS! oss! OLOZSI 0281 OLO98! 098! OL OS! Oss! OL OVE! 0478] OLOESI oes! OLOZEI 028i OLOISI O18{ OL OOS! 008! O1 O6ZI ‘Da HSWM 31LYVE SSNVAZ Ad GBAVYOND NAT. GEOG. MAG. VOL. V 1893 PL. 19 1790 1800 1810 POPULATION AT EACH CENSUS CLASSIFIED BY RACE AND NATIVITY 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 NATIVE COLORED 1890 NATIVE OTHERS IRISH BRITISH COLORED enn CANAD ANEEENEIE| Saag DINAVIA GERMAN ['4 ENGRAVED BY EVANS & BARTLE WASH. DG. Alienation of our Cities. 43 born or children of foreign born, and in the new state of North Dakota four-fifths of the people are of immediate foreign extrac- tion, while only one-fifth of the inhabitants are of American stock. In our great cities the situation is even more startling. Thus, in Boston the native element constitutes but 50 per cent; in Brooklyn, 28, and in Buffalo, 22; while New York, with only 18 per cent, is practically a foreign city, so far as its population is concerned. Chicago contains a native element of but 20 per cent and Detroit of 21, while among these great cities Milwaukee stands at the head, or foot, as you please, with a native element of but 18 per cent. These are presented graphically in the accompanying plate 17. The most extreme case which has fallen under my notice, however, is that of the little city of Ishpeming, in the heart of the iron region of Michigan, a city of some 11,000 people, of which only 6 per cent are native born of native parents, the remainder, 94 per cent, being foreign born or the children of the foreign born. SUMMARY. J have attempted tosum up ina diagram (plate 19) a part of the substance of this paper. This is an attempt to show the growth of each element of the population for a century, with its status at the end of the century. The breadth of the diagram opposite the years is proportional to the population at that date, and the breadth of the various subdivisions is proportional to the numbers of the three elements, colored, native and foreign. The immigration of each decade is indicated by the additions between the dates. The separation between the elements of native and foreign blood is, of course, only anapproximation. A tentative separation was made under the assumption that the rate of natural increase of the foreign element was equal to that of the native element. Under this as- sumption the separation was carried forward to 1870, where, as explained above, a definite separation was made by the census enumeration. This gave a correction which showed that the natural increase of the foreign element had been more rapid than that of the native element. Accordingly the earlier results were corrected and the rates of increase of the foreign and of the native elements thus deduced were projected forward to 1890. The 44 Henry Gannett— Movements of our Population. diagram at the bottom shows the present status of the population as regards colored, native and foreign blood, classifying the last by the leading nationalities. From this it appears that the present composition of the pop- ulation is somewhat as follows: Colored en Tiree Scart tree nn CN en D Lee 7,500,000 White of native extraction ....... Tg Se a 30,000,000 White of foreisn extraction: 1.7. 225-2/).2- 2. .20;000,000 The principal elements of the latter are: IBEVEIS Tete ietsinr. EArt ee AAR Re a A 4,000,000 I ras sR a eT ae IRENE acta Bae Bsr onl. | 6,500,000 Germann tite Ryne Societe eae amas Pe een 6,800,000 Swedesand Norweoians). 5. een eee eee 1,000,000 leone WEN OS) G15 ne oicig SS Olce Beton teraiiaie teas Metse acd 500,000 WGall nes yee ie Sees ea AVN a i eet a ee 500,000 Gamardilanspys yi ete Sty een ei neti ne ec hah nels ... 1,600,000 The remainder of the 25,000,000 are distributed among vari- ous nationalities in small numbers. The white element of native extraction is apparently in the minority today in this country, being exceeded in number by the sum of the foreign element and the colored. British blood is, however, still largely in the as- cendant, for if we add to the white native element the 4,000,000 of _ British and 6,500,000 of Irish we get 40,500,000, about two-thirds of the entire population and three-fourths of the entire white population. ie) Ole u x eat eens Sane ie APRIL 29, 1893 INCORPORATED A.D.1288. a ; : NOILNSIYLSIGO T1V4 NiVY 4O S3dAL ZIAD WIS SVX31L \ Ses it : \ S IN _— E il psi 4, tf, ‘he ., oe DUS py) Alien Olay EA No oS esa Lh So ee ee th he ee x a Z H > L Shy g H sf a . /, . “sp — pL A Sf f 7 | YU Ws ‘Mb tYy, Uy J fj —. a, Af f/f A Viz YY: ss 68 ©6 OZ Id ‘€68!1 A 10A ‘OVW 9039 1VN VoL. V, PP. 45-58, PL. 20 APRIL 29, 1893 Walle NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE RAINFALL TYPES OF THE UNITED STATES ANNUAL ReEPporRT BY VICE-PRESIDENT GENERAL A. W. GREELY (Presented before the Society January 6, 1893) In carrying out the announced policy of the National Geo- graphic Society with regard to annual contributions from its vice-presidents in their respective domains of geographic science, it has seemed advisable for the vice-president of the ‘Geography of the Air” to place before the Society this year a special paper. The subject selected is the typical distribution of rainfall in the United States and contiguous territory, and an attempt has been made to treat the subject in such a manner that it may bea permanent contribution to the physical geography of the United States. It goes without saying that a paper covering twenty minutes’ reading cannot go much into detail, but it is hoped that the treatment, while general, is yet such as to give definite and clear ideas on the subject treated. This paper does not consider the distribution of rain from fie standpoint of the mean annual precipitation, does not dwell on the variability or unequal amounts in consecutive years, omits to discuss the distribution from the standpoint of varying eleva- tions, and is silent on the question of distribution with reference to frequency or absence of excessive rains of periodic or acci- 7—Nart. Groce. Maa., vor. V, 1893. (45) 46 Gen. A.W.Greely—Rainfall Types of the United States. dental occurrence. It confines itself to a question of great and sometimes vital importance, to the characteristic distribution of precipitation throughout the year, and, as is believed, presents a successful analysis of the average fluctuations from month to month, so that for the first time a satisfactory presentation is possible of all the simple rainfall types and of most of the composite types which obtain over the broad expanse of the inhabited portions of North America. The necessity of careful and scientific study of climatic condi- tions in connection with prospective enterprises, whether per- taining to agriculture, commerce, navigation, or to special indus- tries, has become obyious the past few years through the spur of competition. Among such conditions, this of rainfall dis- tribution throughout the year is one of the most important. With relation to agriculture, it is essential to know whether pre- cipitation comes at such seasons as to be a benefit or a detriment to the proposed crop. In the initiation of irrigation enterprises not only are the questions of guarding against extensive and torrential rainfalls on one hand and of tiding over temporary droughts on the other of importance, but, further, whether the most copious precipitation occurs in such months as to afford water at seasonable periods, or the rain comes at such times that it must be stored for many months with consequent loss from seepage and evaporation. Similarly, this question of distribu- tion of rain throughout the year affects most potently other busi- ness interests of importance. That these questions are of current and practical value is evident to every thoughtful man, and that their earlier elucida- tion and the publication of results would have been an extended benefit cannot be questioned. Take agriculture, for instance, which in eastern Colorado is pursued under difficult conditions wherever irrigation is impracticable. Failure of crops very frequently resulted until observation showed that a scanty rain- fall in June is the rule in that section, and that by planting at a certain season the injurious effects of the June drought could be mitigated. Nor is the necessity of a definite and accurate determination of the typical forms of annual precipitation in the eastern part of the United States less obvious, since the latest text-book on meteorology in use in the United States, that of Loomis, contains the statement that “ Throughout most of the United States east Definition of Rainfall Types. 47 of the Rocky mountains the rain is pretty equally distributed through the different months of the year, but the rain of sum- mer is everywhere somewhat greater than that of winter, including ‘melted snow.” In reality the whole section of country, about 200,000 square miles in extent, dominated by the Tennessee type of rainfall experiences a larger precipitation in winter than in summer, the excess averaging in northern Alabama and southern Kentucky about 10 per cent, in western Georgia and in Tennessee over 20 per cent, and in southeastern Arkansas and northern Louisiana from 40 to 50 per cent (plate 20). I have pointed out elsewhere the vital importance of a favor- able distribution of rainfall to certain sections of the country, where this favoring type of precipitation has proved to be one of the great bases on which rests the national prosperity of this ereat republic. Allusion is made to the great grain-producing sections throughout the water- sheds of the upper Mississippi, the Missouri, the Red river of the North, comprising the Dakotas, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin and Illinois. Over the greater part of this immense area the annual rainfall is very materially less than that of the regions to the eastward or southward, but, most fortunately for the country, about three-fifths of the rainfall for the entire year occurs oppor- tunely through the period when it is most beneficial to crops, from April to July, inclusive. A less favorable type of rainfall, the Mexican or the Saint Lawrence, for example, would render growing of grain unprofitable throughout the whole of this favored region. It remains to briefly indicate the few. types of simple rainfall with the localities to which they refer, and to the composite types occurring through the overlapping and interference of simple types. Composite types must prevail where two simple types are not separated by high mountain ranges, and thus gradually shade or merge into each other. One dividing line, the Rocky moun- tain range, separates by its crest, if not absolutely, yet quite sharply and definitely, the Missouri type in Montana and Wyoming from the Pacific type in Idaho and Washington. The term simple has been applied to those rainfall types which can be graphically expressed by a curve with a single bend or inflection. The average monthly amounts pass from the single 48 Gen. A.W.Greely—Rainfall Types of the United States. maximum to the single minimum through uninterruptedly diminishing quantities, and thence rise with unbroken increases to the maximum. The composite types are those in which the eraphic expression would be shown by two inflections, from a primary maximum through the minimum to a secondary max- imum and secondary minimum. In general terms it may be said that each simple type of rain- fall in the United States appertains to a single body of water for its resulting precipitation ; thus the Pacific type comes directly from the Pacific ocean, the Mexican type from the gulf of Cali- fornia, the Tennessee type from the gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic type from the Atlantic ocean. In the Missouri type, however, two sources are evident—primarily the gulf of Mexico, and secondarily, and to a much larger degree than has been usually advanced, Hudson bay and the chain of great American lakes. In treating the fluctuations of rainfall throughout the year it is evident that the unequal lengths of the different months affect somewhat the accuracy of direct inter-comparisons of normal monthly rainfalls. There fell under my observation lately a curve showing such inter-comparisons which proved misleading, as it showed a decrease of rain from January to February and an increase from February to March, when in reality, as shown by the average amount daily for each month, the rainfall became more copious from January to February and from February to March. ; In this discussion the rule has been followed of obtaining the normal daily rainfall by dividing the normal yearly rain- fall by 365.25. In like manner the average daily rainfall of February has been found by using 28.25 as a divisor, and the longest months by using 31. In this paper, for the sake of brevity and in order to avoid repetition, it is to be explained that the term “normal daily rainfall” is applied to the mean determined from the annual precipitation, and that the terms “January rainfall, March rainfall,” etc, unless otherwise explic- itly stated, mean the average daily amount determined for the month in question by the methods above indicated. The best defined type of rainfall within the limits of the United States is that which dominates the Pacific coast region ; hence the specific name “ Pacific” herein applied. In general terms it may be said to dominate British Columbia, Washington, The Pacific Type. 49 Idaho, Oregon, California, Nevada and western Utah; in other words, the great interior basin and the entire Pacific water-shed from British Columbia to Lower California, excluding the section draining into the gulf of California. The characteristic features are very heavy precipitation during midwinter, and an almost total absence of rain during the late summer. The infrequency of summer rain is marked in British Columbia, and thence southward it becomes steadily more pronounced, passing through the gradations of a single rainless month in northern California, then two and three to its culmination of four rainless months in a considerable part of southern California and western Nevada. There is a tendency in the upper half of the San Joaquin valley and thence southward into the western part of San Diego county for rain to cease about a month earlier and to remain absent a month later than over the rest of the Pacific coast region, the dry season being from June to Septem- ber, inclusive, and being usually unbroken even by a passing shower. Eastern Nevada appears to share freedom from rain during July, but the autumnal rains appear in September or earlier, under the influence in the southern part of that state of the Mexican type projecting northward. The marked tendency of the winter rains to continue into spring is evident in Washington, whence it shades with diminishing persistency to northern Cali- fornia and northwestern Nevada. It may be remarked that in the Pacific coast regions the amounts of rain vary very greatly, according to the topography of the section and the distance from the ocean; so that the interior depressions, such as the Sacramento, San Joaquin and other val- leys, particularly those parallel with the coast, have a scantier rainfall than either the coast itself or the Sierra Nevada and other mountain ranges to the eastward. 5 These variations in the total rainfall do not, however, affect the distribution throughout the year, which is typically Pacific throughout the whole region. As might be expected where the rainfall is very small, a single month of excessive precipitation occasionally increases the rain- fall so as to be misleading. For instance, it is apparent from inspection that the greatest normal precipitation is that of De- cember at both San Diego, California, and Halleck, Nevada; yet excessive rainfalls of 9.05 inches in February, 1884, at the former 50 Gen. A.W.Greely—Rainfall Types of the United States. place, and 4.00 inches in February, 1870, at the latter, throw the February daily precipitation slightly above that of December. Of the following examples of the Pacific type, five are drawn from the interior, viz, Spokane, Washington, records of 12 years ; Delano, California, 15 years; Boisé City, Idaho, 22 years; Prom- ontory, Utah, 21 years; Halleck, Nevada, 21 years; and three from coast stations, viz, Astoria, Oregon, 29 years; San Diego and San Francisco, California, each 41 years. Normal daily Rainfall and monthly Departures therefrom. (Values are in fractions of an inch.) STATIONS. 1 2 =r 19 toa 1 =H hy an ae) SH 3 m ii em a ee bE. (ee (ee (Satta ee aa == mR Bs <= oe me Se a ea ee oa as os he ae a= |Cae | 2s Ae pee | ose | = Sas e® .| 682 SS 2) 8.) S82 (SSS | se. am OBS | ae | ee | ee Vee | ee oe culmea Sica OS asst Se 53 SS — Pi yf an Ho en Ose | Sas es WOM | ae | see || aS | ose ope SSF 4 Se Sea avs OSS ape ales Bee |mah |One | saa | Sah | oem | oma | sae Ooco ce a ao) S80 |/48q / 48a | aso an BOR | Sha | Soh | eee | Ea | oE&N |] Soh] SBa = D nD =) n ~Q isa AY ; DEPARTURES. SIE NID ENA iteryoRonedogoneuoeeeein -208 -099 027 .010 0384 .040 -012 -015 TNO OIRDIRWIAY cctceccococonascoxsce 094 .060 044 029 055 O14 020 008 Mareh -109 .039 .015 .013 | — .010 .019 -002 O04 ANDRA erent ean evevuegescee — .0385 | — .002 | -— .003 .015 | — .015 -O16 .OO1 -005 MEV Ri oit bc seceacencaivecmassooes — .092 | — .064 | — .016 -000 | — .013 .005 .O10 -000 SU Op ee eee acecaceseeenees oe — .114 | — .066 | — .027 | — .017 -009 | — .014 | — .008 | —.008 Diy eee ae cuicogetecesesesneeees — .169 | — .066 | — .027 | — .017 | — .082 | — .033 | — .018 | —.014 IANS Disa sada serseoeenecs — .166 | — .066 | — .027 | — .017 | — .042 | — .084 | — .016 | — .009 Se pLemib eiweewecssssseseeeees — .099 | — .061 | — .027 | — .017 | — .020 | — .028 | — .016 | — .002 @Mctoberickescncceeee — .050 | — .0384 | — .016 | — .007 -006 | — .018 | — .001 | — .002 NOVeMbe?.........06.0.0c0008 .131 | — .030 | — .008 -009 | — .006 008 | — .001 | — .008 Mecemilbeiewscee serceee L187 .106 | — .042 O11 033 .028 0135 009 Another simple type of rainfall is that which in a previous paper I designated as the “ Trans-Pecos,” from the fact that it dominates extreme western Texas beyond the Pecos river. On further investigation it proved to prevail in the province of The Mexican Type. 51. Chihuahua, and now later data shows the great probability that it dominates far the greater part of Mexico ; hence it is now called the “ Mexican ” type. The characteristics of the Mexican type are very heavy pre- cipitation after the summer solstice and a very dry period after the vernal equinox. August is the month of greatest rainfall and, with July and September, furnishes over 75 per cent of the year’s precipitation at Mazatlan, about 87 per cent at Topolo- bampo, 58 per cent at Hl Paso, Texas, fort Davis, Texas, and fort Union, New Mexico. On the other hand, the months of February, March and April are marked by an almost entire absence of precipitation, aggregating for this period only 1 to 2 per cent of the year’s rain on the western coast of Mexico, and about 8 per cent at Chihuahua, Mexico, the city of Mexico, El Paso, Texas, fort Davis, Texas, and fort Union, New Mexico (34 years). This type dominates New Mexico, save the small drainage basins of the Gila and San Juan, the trans-Pecos region of Texas, and probably all of Mexico, except the eastern coast and possibly the southern part of that country. The proof of its prevalence in Mexico rests on about ten years’ observations at the city of Mexico, ten at Pueblo (where, however, the type is composite and the maximum falls in July, conforming to the rainfall regime of Vera Cruz as given by Loomis}, six years at Mazatlan, seven at Leon de Aldemas, five at Chihuahua and four at Topolo- bampo. While the Mexican type of rainfall does not absolutely obtain in Arizona, yet, taken as a whole, its influence is more potent than that of the Pacific type. The Arizona rainfall is of a com- posite type, the result of interference between the Pacific and Mexican. The primary maximum, closely following the Mexi- can type, occurs from July to August, while most generally the second maximum falls with the Pacific type in December. Interference of the types, however, brings about the principal minimum in October and the secondary minimum in May or June. The following shows the departures from the daily normal rainfall of .028 inch at fort McDowell, deduced from the longest record (24 years) in Arizona: January, .006 inch; February, 015 ; March, — .004; April, — .010; May, — .024; June, — .024; July, — .012; August, .019; September, .003; October, —.014; 52 Gen. A. W.Greely—Rainfall Types of the United States. November, — .001, and December, .028. Similarly Colorado and a portion of Texas to the eastward of the Pecos water-shed ex- perience a composite type of rainfall arising from interference of the Mexican type from the westward and the Missouri type from the eastward. Colorado has its principal rainfall maximum in July or Aueust and its principal minimum in January, while the secondary maximum occurs in April or May and a secondary minimum in June. It is hardly necessary to state that certain localities, according to their contiguity either to the simple Mexican or the simple Missouri type in their rainfall, reverse in order of importance the primary and secondary maxima and minima here mentioned. Utah has a great diversity of rainfall fluctuations, resulting from its being so situated that it is more or less influenced from different quarters by the Pacific, Mexican, and even the Missouri type, the first named being most potent, especially in the western and extreme northern part of the territory. The “ Missouri” type of rainfall is the most important in the United States, both from the vast area over which it obtains and also from its extremely favorable bearing on agriculture. This type dominates the water-sheds of the Arkansas, Missouri, and upper Mississippi rivers and of lakes Ontario and Michigan, as well as over Oklahoma and the greater part of northern Texas, thus covering Montana, the Dakotas, Minnesota, Nebraska, Kansas. Iowa, Missouri, Oklahoma, Wisconsin and Illinois, together with parts of Arkansas, Texas, Michigan, Indiana and Indian territory. The Missouri type indicates a very light winter precipitation, followed in late spring and early summer by the major quantity of the yearly rain. The area of country covered by this type is so large that certain shght modifications could be anticipated. For instance, while the June rainfall is as a rule the most abun- dant, yet along the eastern slope of the Rocky mountains the May rainfall is somewhat greater than that of the following month. Again, while January is usually the month of least precipitation, yet in some localities the minimum has a ten- dency to occur in December and in others to delay itself until February. As examples of the Missouri type, there are here presented rainfall data from Riley, linois, record of 59 years; Muscatine, The Missouri Type. 53 Towa, 45; Bismarck, North Dakota, 18; Fort Randall, South Dakota, 32; Fort Ripley, Minnesota, 27; Fort Riley, Kansas, 36 ; Miami, Missouri, 43; Fort Shaw, Montana, 19; Omaha, Ne- braska, 24, and Madison, Wisconsin, 24 years: Normal daily Rainfall and Departures therefrom. (Values are in fractions of an inch.) STATIONS. ‘ye teres 4 ae Bae g Fe) om = iS 5 ae ie Aa ae ee) Ke) Ta co as) ce a 4 “ff A110 ae ae Ona | oo oun oo Fea eas cle fS |Sla |r = isle | See | sie, 22 Sa See ae. (Ses | ae | os |aee | ses (=a B = i) 2S es H oat yy 8 sites eau = ye fa wt | ea Se |) SSB | ofS | SS) a8e a are Gai |) lS Rese lees Fl etches Am | Eas | oase aps as . | Gd | Gz Bae | Mae | a8 | Sea) 85 | ako | Sad | gag | Ses | STS gos mea ao & 5S a| Sy Felice) gee) oy UD AS 2 SS Bs. pppoe) Rais eS ne Sar 2 SS asl aes 8 See leon | Se Sayer |) Te Ne Gy os Has | Baw Bea | 288 | S22] S38n | kok | sok | SS | See | Soe | See = x = He Fy aa) es) em Fi is) Fy + | ei = (at DEPARTURES. Jan.....] — .016 | — .037 | — .043 | — .047 | — .086 | — .069 | — .049 | — .045 | — .044 | — .023 Feb....|) — .014 | — .029 | —- .03 — .041 | = .036 | — .065 | — .038 | — .033 | — .0385 | — .034 Mar — .013 | — .018 | — .023 | — .024 | — .O11 | — .044 | — .041 | — .020 | — .021 — .023 April...| — .005 022 002 | — .020 049 013 | — .004 005 001 — .011 May 037 032 058 023, -019 054 036 035 034 014 June 037 068 053 071 043 097 060 052 O74 030 July 007 026 O31 O57 042 O75 053 020 037 016 Aug 002 O19 027 032 -009 019 045 035 021 022 Sept 000 | — .013 O11 036 013 021 029 020 020 015 Oct.....| — .011 | — .014 | — .014 | — .022 | — .005 | — .002 | — .014 | — .009 .002 | — .022 Noy....| — .013 | — .032 | — .040 | — .017 | — .030 | — .050 | — .026 | — .022 | — .027 | — .031 Dee..... — O11 | — .028 | — .029 | — .045 | — .033 | — .058 | — .045 | — .031 | — .033 | — .042 The general character of the Missouri type is, perhaps, satis- factorily illustrated by the rainfall of Nebraska, this state being central, as regarding this type. In Nebraska only about 6 per cent of the year’s precipitation occurs from December to Feb- ruary, inclusive. In April, however, the percentage of the entire annual rainfall is 11, in May 17,in June 16 and July 16, mak- ing about 60 per cent for these four months. In other words, three-fifths of the yearly rainfall occurs most opportunely during the period when it is most beneficial to the growing crops. It is well known that the annual rainfall is small, yet 8—Nart. Grog. Maa, vot, V, 1893. 54 Gen. A.W.Greely—Rainfall Types of the United States. eastern Nebraska receives during these four months, April to July, inclusive, a larger amount of rainfall than the interior portions of the eastern states from Maine to Virginia; and western Nebraska receives only a slightly lesser amount. While the rain precipitation of the year diminishes to the northward and westward of Nebraska, yet the same favorable type of distribu- tion prevails. The Missouri type changes by interference with the Mexican type in the southwest, the Tennessee type to the southeast, and the Saint Lawrence to the northeast. The “ Tennessee” type, although not covering a very extended region, is well marked, the highest rainfalls occurring the last of winter or the first of spring, while the minimum is in mid- autumn. The Tennessee type obtains over Tennessee, Arkansas, Mis- Sissippi, eastern Kentucky, western Georgia and, except on the immediate gulf coast,in Alabama and Louisiana. In some localities (western Kentucky and Tennessee and adjacent parts of Arkansas) the rain of February slightly exceeds that of March, the usual month of maximum, while in northern Louisiana and adjacent regions, the tendency is toward shghtly greater rainfalls in April than in March. It is also to be noted that in some cases there is a tendency toward the minimum rainfall in August or September rather than October, in which month the minimum occurs for the ereater portion of the area. Montgomery, Alabama; Atlanta, Georgia; Chattanooga and Memphis, Tennessee, are examples of the Tennessee type of pre- cipitation. The Tennessee Type. 55 Normal daily Rainfall and Departures therefrom. (Values are in fractions of an inch.) STATIONS. Ga es | 36 | ss 5 5 f= Se cole) a ee eae | egies eo Sas ists eee Pair Sathel G, es aloe Stes Ogn | ge) Be | see a2 Cl Ses | Siae | Sec Gye | POS | add | ove See es | et on eee ee Co) GaSe =a) gaco Ot) aan oOaN oan | sae Ase | sae Ba | So [85 S23 | 22 | 260 |4eX | Oss Sully ee via St gre Sas 2A" oat a2 | oa | RR rieios OF | STS | Sig | 4 ew | So7 | Sow | ee. | ope Sea |r| see |seaa | Soe | a2 | Se | ae 3 = Cw) 3 3 = Sse | 588 |ese| zee.| PSP SSL] SeS | Fae 5 ies a ZA = ay a A DEPARTURES. APONTIERAY meanrecoesceonen eeces — .038 | — .018 | — .012 | — .008 014 000 | — .020 | — .010 He fon any ate ees — .030 | — .011 | — .009 001 010 | — .001 | — .023 | — .002 Mian Clie oseccosasyeseercetess — .019 | — .002 | — .007 | — .004 | — .003 | — .010 | — .022 | — .006 JN; onal enaaeee cen nace eRe — .050 | — .013 | — .001 | — .008 | — .005 | — .012 | — .007 | — .008 IN Anaya nse aceon EES one — .014 001 004 002 | — .019 006 008 007 SUMMON Ge larecsciaceeseatecesence 020 006 015 | — .007 O11 019 030 006 MUU Nyasa ec ace eee 075 032 | 013 012 035 054 032 003 | NOYES ha docoad eeacod ooaenctbe 097 037 .026 .038 024 .007 O11 025 September............00000+ 050 | - .005 000 | — .001 003 | — .015 004 | — .004. OGtoberis ccs — .026 | — .020 | — .012 | — .011 | — .044 | — .019 SOND || = sii INOWeMlbersereees senor — .052 | — .018 _— .006 | — .005 | — .018 | — .016 | — .001 000 | Mecemberee eee — .031 | — .005 — .006 | — 003 | — .012 | — .014 | — .017 | — .003 The New England Type. 57 In New England the Atlantic type is seriously modified and the character of the distribution, difficult to determine with ex- actness owing to the slight variations, is possibly affected by the interference of the Saint Lawrence type. In consequence, we find in New England a composite type in which the August maximum of the Atlantic type is generally primary, and a - November maximum secondary, though in some localities these maxima are reversed in order of their importance. The Atlantic November minimum is replaced by a June primary minimum, while a secondary minimum falls in some localities in September and in others in April. Normal daily Rainfall and Departures therefrom. (Values are in fractions of an inch.) STATIONS. ea ies ea & iS Gir aa Go ae SU eral sama OES cy cea, Meets wine gf |28 |s5 |g= |28 |g |g | 88 ec oelbaeceael uee gel en eeepc ee | ors a = = = os = = =Se|sen|e8eo| Ete | sss] we BSS | oe we | Sn |=Sn | SEA | SSE | Pes | .£8 | ass Seal hears Ciel reieagotit Mea gy ea We Se hee Spel] ap@|/—pe | Soe] Sew lose] ape | gee see | Seq | Oa .S ae SSa ll OL Gl See+| oe 4 =O | =SO Sao bao ano da 0 Bao | eso Sdp | Sd | 50> | 585] scm] sos] kos | Sos = aics = Zz as 4a & | 69 DEPARTURES. MATA AT: ese ssaccceesecasesetes — .016 | — .014 | — .017 | — .001 | — .006 | — .013 | — .009 | — .00L TBC IDRBRIIAY. ceodoctocssocaueceose — .019 | — .009 | — .013 .008 | — .017 | — .008 007 005 Miam@livsss--snscsccsseceneacetas — .003 | — .011 | — .003 -008 | — .024 | — .005 -006 -012 AU stsaed acc sauticescetecuwes .010 | — .016 -005 .005 | — .021 | — .021 | — .008 -006 IMA Varsecsassecss ne aveues scactesees 000 003 004 -000 006 005 001 | — .007 SUNN OW ete easwocoseseeseeesy es — .010 003 | — .003 | — .022 015 022 |— .014 | — .020 MU vaeesvececsrscssssswosest scene 005 022 OOL | — .019 012 018 | — .013 | — .009 PATI SUIS Dicsecescassceseersi sess: -031 -021 -028 | —.011 | ° .018 .009 -000 -0138 September — .004 | — .007 | — .007 | —.011 000 001 | — .012 | —.O11 October teraesec sees: -008 .003 -003 .000 -010 -004 .023 | — .005 INowemlbersecsscscscesereneee -021 -006 -O16 -O17 .027 | — .008 .022 -O15 Mecemilbereecste-sscssscee: — .018 | — .006 | — .010 .006 | — .019 | — .015 .0OL | — .001 The distribution of rain through the Saint Lawrence valley, although of composite type, probably merits from its peculiarity to be designated separately as the “Saint Lawrence” type. The 58 Gen. A.W.Greely—Rainfall Types of the United States. characteristics are scarcity of precipitation during the spring months, April being very decidedly the month of least rainfall followed by October, and a heavy rainfall during the late sum- mer and late autumn months with the maximum precipitation in November and nearly as heavy rain in July or August. The heavy rainfalls of the Saint Lawrence valley during November are the more remarkable in view of the fact that in this month the minimum precipitation occurs from northern Florida to central New York. Detailed data regarding this type is not at hand, but Professor Charles Carpmael, chief of the meteorological service of the Dominion of Canada, is authority for the statement that the minimum precipitation occurs in April at Kingston, Rockliffe, Montreal, Quebec, Father point, Saugeen, and Parry sound, as well as throughout the province of New Brunswick. It is in- teresting to note that in the composite rainfall types of New- foundland and New Brunswick, as well as along the greater part of the Massachusetts and Maine coasts, the November max- imum obtains, and is as a rule the principal maximum, with March as the month of secondary maximum, although in some localities these maxima are reversed in order of importance. There may possibly be added a Gulf type, so called from its prevalence along the northern shores of the gulf of Mexico, where the maximum rain falls in September and the minimum in the early spring. Western Florida and the Texas coasts are the only sections in which this obtains. The normal daily rain- fall at Key West, Florida, of 47 years, is .107 inch, with depart- ures as follows: January, — .038; February, — .050; March, — .062; April, — .064; May, — .006; June, .044; July, .022; August, .055; September, .111; October, .053; November, — .038, and December, — .048 inch. It is not within the scope of this paper to discuss the special causes which produce these differing types of rainfall distribu- tion in North America. It may be said, however, that there is no doubt in my mind that the maxima and minima phases of precipitation are simply the result of the fluctuation throughout the year of atmospheric pressure over North America and its contiguous waters, thus affecting the relative positions of high and low areas and consequently causing winds, either favorable or unfavorable to precipitation, according to season and locality. yo pine) ab ei Sra eth heise CONTENTS The Natural Bridge of. Virginia; by C: D. Watcorr....... 0.60500. The geographical Position and Height of Mount Saint Elias; by Dr T. C. Mrnpennai Sek ee ewe ele ew me eh ele ee me ee te ww ee te eh et ete we ee Se a eS An undiscovered Island off the northern Coast of Alaska: TASB Va MEAROUS ANGER eee tenths aut tie patune a taD epi ui aa aieete men Ca II—By Captain E. P. Herepren Til By: General AL AW (GREY oN Li a ei Gen ake The Geologist at Blue Mountain, Maryland ; by C. D. Waxcorr..... The great populous Centers of the World; by General A. W. Greery. Our youngest Volcano; by J. S. DitLEr Ve Mg ee ele we elke ew eee ee wie te we ee ew Pe ee Ee Sr eee SS Se 89 NAT. GEOG. MAG. VOL. V., 1893. PL. 24, eri ge NATURAL BRIDGE, VIRGINIA. VOL. V, PP. 59-96, PL. 21 JULY 10, 1893 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THH NATURAL BRIDGE OF VIRGINIA BY CHARLES D. WALCOTT The Natural Bridge of Virginia is one of those striking geo- graphic features of America which, like Niagara falls and many other natural features, will in time disappear under the action of the agencies of erosion. The same forces that created, will ultimately destroy them. In the case of Niagara, the rate of wear of the platform over which the water rushes has been measured, and the rate of retreat of the falls of the stream is known. Natural bridge is slowly but surely wearing away ; and it appears to be desirable to record by photographs and notes the present condition of the: bridge as a means of deter- mining in the future the changes that occur from time to time. For this purpose a set of photographs, with notes taken in 1891, have been placed in the library of the Umited States Geological Survey. The present article includes a few observations on the origin and the present condition of the bridge. The accompanying view (forming plate 21) is one looking northward through the arch, and it accurately represents the condition of the bridge and canyon at the time it was taken. It may be that a more detailed description, with a full series of views, will be published in the future. During the field season of 1891 I studied the rocks exposed along the channel of Cedar creek, a small tributary of the James river in Rockbridge county, Virginia. The first strata g9—Nav, Grog, Maa, von, V, 1893. (59) 60 C. D. Walcott—The Natural Bridge. met with in passing up from the river are highly inclined lime- stones and shales of middle or upper Cambrian age. These are succeeded by the massive Knox dolomites, which are nearly vertical or inclined slightly westward. A few hundred feet below Natural bridge the westward dip decreases very rapidly, and at the bridge the beds are nearly horizontal, while a short distance above they are rising westward and dipping eastward toward the bridge at an angle of 5° to 10°. This increases to 20° to 25° higher up the stream. A diagramatic section of the rocks cut through in the can- yon of Cedar creek gives the outlne shown in figure 1. The bridge is at A, Lace falls at B, and Jamesriverat C! No attempt is made to show the depth of the canyon or gorge through which Cedar creek flows. : It is not supposed that the present Cedar creek began to wear its channel across the edges of the upturned beds from B to C when the present topographic features were established ; on-the contrary, it began its work long before, under conditions Frqure 1.—Attitude of Strata at Natwral Bridge. and in rocks that have since disappeared in the general erosion of the surrounding country. The course of the stream was determined by circumstances connected with the life history of James river. When the latter obtained a new lease of active life and lowered its channel through the Blue ridge, Cedar creek began to cut down it§ bed in the peneplain and to prepare the way for the possibility of the existence of an arch over its chan- nel. : The general mode of formation has long been described for this and other natural rock bridges. In this case in detail it is considered to be as follows: Cedar creek was engaged for a considerable period in excavating the gorge from the James river to a point not far below the present site of the bridge, where a fall appears to have existed, the summit of which was not far if at all below the present level of the top of the bridge. About this time the water found a subterranean passage in the limestone fur- ther up the stream than the present site of the bridge, and through this it flowed and discharged beneath the brink of the falls. The Origin of the Bridge. 61 The passage gradually enlarged until all the waters of the creek passed through it and the bridge began its existence. What the length of this subterranean passage was is a matter of conjecture ; it may have been one hundred or several hundred feet. All of its roof has disappeared except the narrow span of the bridge, and the abutting walls have been worn back by erosion until the gorge or canyon is much wider than at the bridge. The bridge is massive and strong, and the supporting walls rise in solid, almost unbroken, mural faces to the spring of the arch, nearly 200 feet above the bed of Cedar creek, as clearly shown in the accompanying plate (which is reproduced mechanically from a photograph taken by the author). The position of the massive layers of limestone at the center of the low synclinal gives them power to resist erosion to a much greater extent than the upturned strata above and below the bridge. The condition of the latter favors rapid disintegration, and the result is shown in the widening of the gorge. ‘The re- treating lower level of the stream is now at Lace falls, nearly a mile above the bridge. The gorge below the bridge widens out more rapidly, owing partly to the erosion caused by a small brook that enters from the north, partly to the greater period of erosion to which it has been subjected. On the northern side, opposite Pulpit rock, about twenty feet west of the public road, the summit of the bridge is 236 feet above the water, and this part of the arch has a thickness of 44 feet and a span of from 45 to 60 feet. ‘The western edge is about ten feet higher, and the eastern edge about ten feet lower than the central point. The massive layers of limestone forming the bridge are grad- ually wearing away on the outer edges from the action of water and frost. If water-breaks were arranged so that the water could not flow in upon the bridge and about it from the southwestern side, and if a shed with water-tight roof were built over the arch, disintegration and destruction would be indefinitely postponed. As it is, it will be many centuries before the natural processes of erosion now at work upon and within the arch will completely break it down. Since the preceding was written, an article has appeared in the New York Tribune of May 15,1893, in which an account is given of the discovery of a passage in the limestones near Natural 62 C.D. Walcott—The Natural Bridge. bridge that extends from the plain above down to the stream below. It is described as follows: “The passage was probably created by a stream of water finding a crevice in the limestone mountain, and by the gnawing of gases, the same causes that created the natural bridge. But it has all the appear- ance of design and purpose. A brief description by one who has recently seen it in the light of hundreds of candles shows at the entrance a room about twenty feet by ten, with a ceiling sixty feet in height, then a low, arched doorway into a room narrower than the former and extending forty or fifty feet up a steep flight of steps. The arches here are from fifteen to twenty feet in height, and their color a liquid blue. There are a few stalactities from the ceiling and many crystal forms on the wall. Turning here from a direct course through another arched doorway, beautifully decorated, about six feet in height, there is a round room, twenty feet in diameter and perhaps fifty feet from pit to dome. Out of the side of this springs a stone cascade, perfect as any waterfall, trans- parent at the lower edge, about ten feet in length and eight in breadth. As the ight is thrown upon this it has all the appearance of a living waterfall. A passage under this, over a bridge, leads to a labyrinth barely wide enough for one to pass. The arch is about fifteen feet in height and the walls glisten like polished marble. Thése windings extend about thirty feet and open into a well-shaped room not at any point more fifteen feet in diameter and opening, about thirty feet above, to the sky.” From the description it is evident that the passage was worn by percolating waters that found their way from the plain above to the baselevel cut by the stream below, along some previously existing crevices. This process of erosion may be seen at the “Underground river” between Natural bridge and Lace falls, where a strong current of water flows through a channel in the limestone that is about ten feet above the level of Cedar creek and only exposed to view for a few feet of its length. All of the phenomena observed at Natural bridge and in the canyon of Cedar creek are repeated in many limestone regions. Some- times they give rise to underground caverns, as at Mammoth cave, and more rarely to canyons and natural bridges. The illustration at the natural bridge is one of the finest known, and worthy of study by any: one interested in geologic phe- nomena or the beautiful in nature. THE GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION AND HEIGHT OF MOUNT SAINT ELIAS BY DR T. C. MENDENHALL (Presented before the Society April 28, 1893) In connection with the survey of the boundary line between Alaska and the British Northwest Territory it became necessary to determine the geographical position of mount Saint Elias. Previous approximate determinations had shown that the peak of this mountain must be very near the 141st meridian, which constitutes the greater part of this boundary line, and that its distance from the seacoast must be very nearly ten marine leagues, which by treaty is to determine the position of the line in the absence of a range of mountains parallel to the windings of the coast. It thus appeared that this peak is hkely to prove of very great value as a corner-stone in this great boundary line, being at the junction of the 141st meridian and that part of the line which is so vaguely defined in the treaty. The execution of the work in the immediate vicinity of the mountain was intrusted to assistants J. E. McGrath and J. Henry Turner, whose previous explorations and long residence in the interior of Alaska in connection with the determination of the 141st meridian are well known to the members of this Society.* The complete reduction of the observations made has not yet been accomplished, but enough has been done to show the geo- graphical position of the mountain peak within a very small error, and the Society will probably be interested in the pre- liminary results of this work, which are not likely to be modi- fied sensibly by the completed calculations. The fieldwork was executed during the summer of 1892. *An account of their work appears in Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. iv, 1892, pp. Lie (63) 64 T. O. Mendenhall— Mount Saint Elias. The party was carried to the working ground by the Coast Survey Steamer Hassler, in command of Captain Harber, who personally took great interest in the work and facilitated its successful performance very much, taking a very important part, in fact, in the determination of the difference of longitude between Sitka and the astronomical station at Yakutat bay. In the absence of telegraphic connection with any of these points, a series of chronometric journeys was made between Tacoma, which is near one of the telegraph longitude stations of the great system of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Sitka, which has been fixed as the base of the longitude work throughout the territory of Alaska. Contemporaneously a series of journeys was made between Sitka and the astronomical station at Yakutat bay by the Coast Survey Steamer Hassler, and by these two loops the longitude of the stations was connected with that of the telegraphic system of the United States. Time observations at Tacoma and the comparison of chronometers at that point were under the direc- tion of assistant J. F. Pratt. Six complete chronometer tours from Tacoma to Sitka and return were made on board of the Steamer Queen, the chronometers being in charge of Mr. T. D. Davidson, of San Francisco; this link having also been taken in by the Hassler chronometers on her way to and from the field, seven complete journeys are available between Tacoma and Sitka. Six complete journeys between Sitka and the astronom- ical station at Yakutat bay were made. An astronomical station was established at Sitka under the direction of sub-assistant Fremont Morse, who had charge of time-observations and the comparison of both sets of chronometers on reaching that point. Seven chronometers made the journeys between Tacoma and Sitka, and the same number between Sitka and Yakutat bay. The astronomical station at the latter place was in charge of assistant J. Henry Turner. The connection of this station trig- onometrically with the summit of mount Saint Ehas was under the direction of assistant J. E. McGrath. The astronomical sta- tion was on the southern side of Yakutat bay, and the measured base line from which the triangulation was developed was on the northern side. The length of this line was a little less than 7,000 metres, or about four and a half miles. The scheme of triangulation is shown on the accompanying sketch (figure 2). The latitude of the astronomical station was determined by Results of chronometric Towrs. 65 vertical circle observations of the sun’s limb by the method of circum-meridian altitudes and also by the use of a meridian telescope and the Talcott differential method. The vertical circle used was ten inches in diameter and read to five seconds by means of four verniers. The latitude here given depends on these observations, as those made by the meridian telescope have not yet been reduced. ¢ 1 Scale 1000 000 Statute Mules UOaaracensvensanni South Base } * Port Mulgrave stronorm, Station. H Ocebn Cape 140 04> Hieure 2.—Triangulation in the vicinity of Mount Saint Elias. Of the six chronometric tours between Sitka and Yakutat bay three only have been reduced, and the results are as follows : First trip, June 8 to 13; difference of longitude, 17 m. 48.17 sec. Second trip, June 24 to 29; “ i a i AS 3h Third trip, July 9 to 14; - . e Wits 48. Gis Of which the indiscriminate mean is 17 m. 48,21 sec. 66 T. C. Mendenhall— Mount Saint Elias. A preliminary reduction of a portion of the chronometric comparisons between Tacoma and Sitka gives for the longitude of Sitka 9 hours 1 minute 20.5 seconds, from which we have the adopted longitude of Yakutat astronomical station 9 hours 19 minutes 8.7 seconds. The latitude of this station from circum-meridian observations on the sun’s limb, consisting of sixteen pointings on the sun near culmination on August 1, 1892, was 59° 83’ 51.8”, and on August 11, 1892, from twenty pointings, the result was 59° 33” 48.2” the mean of which is 59° 33’ 50”, which is accepted as the latitude of this station, subject, of course, to further small correction from the reduc- tion of the results obtained from the meridian telescope work. Extending these coérdinates to the summit of mount Saint Elias by means of the scheme of triangulation as shown in the sketch, the latitude of the summit is found to be 60° 17’ 35”, and the longitude 140° 55’ 21.5”, The principal base for the determination of the position of the summit of the mountain was a line connecting. mount Hoorts and South base. The length of this line was a little less than 38,000 metres, or about 232 miles, and the angle which is subtended at mount Saint Elias was about 20°. Incidentally in connection with this work, the height of the summit of the mountain was determined. A series of zenith distance measurements was executed from five stations, namely : North base, South base, mount Hoorts, Ocean cape, and the astronomical station. At the latter point observations were made on fourteen different days. The result for each day is the mean of three sets of six repetitions each, and the series is as follows, the observations being made near noon : ZENITH DISTANCE OF MOUNT SAINT ELIAS. Jrumre s Ws MS OD ees se Pe ise la curate ene ei Weyeh eet ses S02) 20aoU Rona TMI MRC atic ss Nya eas 5 eRe aaa 87° 207 64.27 Celi s07 5 SCO Oa RO ROE Raa eta aeRO OR A 87° 20/ 51.8/7 Fike} WAALS Tare Meh. $7, os Sl ROR 87° 20’ 51.3// STaenliye rQ)s 8 RRS Im ge on 87° 20/ 57.1/7 . SoRONTIO) if) SOME a ete ae 87° 20’ 49.877 beat 6. 8 aA SG ieee ae a. CO 87° 20/ 44.8/7 22a I a MaRS RSL 3 REAL IN a 87° 20’ 40.6” (CEN maine a Te, SMO ac 87° 20/ 59.8// CS 2 Se RELA Bae bn goth, alae Bier dratenele S720 207 sabes Comparison of Saint Elias and Orizaba. 67 PAVE OO ea AIS OMe abrn Se ae! Yancy he sRe one fe eienucaa weasels G2 Be W335 peer lille Crete IS ote cp ehel As Oath hey ink decadence tes. Sen ZUM D2 R04 Ci Sa TUT ir eS a ine aati eR te ERE oO a 87° 207 50.8”” Sona relI Same Rectan gst. 2a) Gare DOR SRR gel BoM Sie 20 arAlie Wigan @it id! GEnySaseslecs oc oe S72 AY a0 24 It will be seen that in the total fourteen days of observation _the range of variability in vertical angles amounted to but 28”, indicating remarkable steadiness in atmospheric conditions. The observations for height at other stations, although less numerous, are. extremely satisfactory. The great uniformity of the final results for the height of the mountain as computed from observations at the five different stations is exhibited in the following table. The remarkably close agreement of these figures is satisfactory evidence that this determination of the height of the mountain is such as to leave little to be desired. SUMMARY OF HEIGHT AND POSITION. Mount Saint Elias from — UN OIE DAS CMe Steals ac sssne faces ee ha oe ee wane esse eeaaye 18,014 feet. Southvbase 22s .5.: Pushes RANT eee gies eh Mona UE SOMA Vitoria tps @ OTE SMS See a Steer aca ae eye rane WOW Weearmican ey oe see ee ee Le a ee AL Se Ota ACTOMOMNICAY SUMMONS 5 bacscagccccsocgaenaso das 18,000 “ eiohtemtOpred medi + 4.). eee ene eee 18,010 “ BERET AUUCIE ier etre nope itis aR QS U7 Bay BOMOMGU Cees sles ke Ss eek eee Gs we eens EOS aay Pal sy” It is interesting to note that in the light of the information of the last year or two, it can no longer be claimed that mount Saint Hlias is the highest peak upon the continent. This dis- tinction seems to belong to mount Orizaba, in Mexico, which has recently been measured by means of railroad levels and trigonometrically by Dr J. T. Scoville, of Terre Haute, Indiana. The height of this mountain, as obtained by Dr Scoville, is 18,314 feet. The character of the observations is such that it does not seem likely that this result will be found to be very many feet in error. It therefore appears to be entirely safe to say that Orizaba is the highest peak in North America, and that its altitude exceeds by two or three hundred feet that of mount Saint Elias. A detailed report on the latter mountain, to- gether with the results of revised and complete calculations, will be published in due time. 10—Nart, Groc, Mac, vot. V, 1893. THE. IMPROVEMENT OF GEOGRAPHICAL TEACHING BY PROFESSOR WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS (Presented before the Society February 3, 1893) The improvements needed in teaching geography in our schools involve a fuller investigation of the facts of the subject, a better knowledge of these facts by teachers, and a more skilful use of them in the processes of teaching. As a society, we are less concerned with the last two necessities than with the first, but I may briefly state my belief that skilful teaching goes along closely with fullness of knowledge. The third need will therefore be largely cared for when the second is supphed; but fullness of knowledge cannot be expected of a teacher while her under- standing of the geographical features of the world and of our own country and of the home state in particular is gained only from the impoverished statements of the ordinary text-books, and while the original sources in which she may seek additional information are generally so few, so inaccessible, and so far below the standards of modern geographical research. It might truly be said that even if better sources of information were within reach little use could be made of them; for we must recognize the great difficulties under which the teachers in our public schools labor: the variety of subjects that they have to teach, the overlarge number of scholars in their classes, the restrictions that tend to smother their individuality, the fatigue following many tiresome duties, the smallness of salary by which freedom of action toward large opportunities is hampered. Would that some means of overcoming these difficulties might be devised ! But at present it does not seem so practical to turn our action as a society in this direction as to look to remedying the funda- mental need—the need of a fuller investigation of the facts. It may not be generally recognized by our members that there is still great need of exploration close at home. It is not only in the further corners of the world that discoveries are to be (68) > / The New England Peneplain. 69 made. Nearly every state in our country must be much more carefully studied than it yet has been before its physical features will be made known to us. The geographical descriptions now accessible in print would be very gently characterized if only -ealled “old fashioned.” Where newer material has been pub- lished, it is generally fragmentary, brief, and imperfectly illus- trated. The first elements of geographical study, the physical features of the earth—especially of its surface—still call for devoted investigation. It is not simply a description of the forms of the land that is wanted. It is a recognition of the forms as dependent on struc- ture and sculpture, and a comparison of like and unlike forms in a systematic manner. This requires special study, precisely as petrography does, and the desired end will not be gained until the work is placed in the hands of men especially trained for it. Having found this study an absorbing interest for several years past, I shall try to make my meaning clearer by introducing specific illustrations from New England. Southern New England consists essentially of a gently inclined plateau, rising to 1,400 or 1,600 feet above sea level in the rolling uplands of western Massachusetts** and southwestern New Hampshire, and thence descending gradually southward and eastward to sea level at the coast. This inclined plateau is nothing more than a slightly tilted lowland of denudation, the product of long-continued destructive action of the atmosphere by which a once larger mass was worn down to a surface of moderate relief close to the baselevel of its time. The south- eastern extension of the old lowland was depressed beneath the sea at the same time that its interior portion was elevated to form our New England plateau; the present coast line therefore lies roughly midway on the surface of old New England. The continuity of the plateau-like uplands is interrupted in two ways; isolated mountains rise above it, and branching valleys sink below it. Mount Monadnock is a typical example of the former, with its bold summit more than a thousand feet above the surrounding plateau. When seen from a distance to the southwest, it rises in symmetrical triangular outline above the level skyline of its base. It is not a mountain of local con- struction, raised by upheaval above the mass of the plateau ; it * Nearly all the districts thus referred to in the address were illustrated by lantern slides. 70 W. M. Davis—Geographie Teaching. is simply an unconsumed remnant of the greater mass of un- known dimensions and form, from which the old lowland was carved. When the lowland was uplifted, Monadnock and its fellows were raised with it. In my teaching, Monadnock has come to be recognized as an example of a distinct group of forms, and its name is used ‘as having a generic value. A long para- eraph of explanation is packed away when describing some other mountain as a ‘* monadnock ” of greater or less height. The valleys by which the plateau is dissected have all been excavated since the uplift of the old lowland. Where the plateau is high the valleys are sunk deep below it. The Deerfield valley in northwestern Massachusetts is a full thousand feet deep. Where the uplift was small near the coast, the valleys are shallow. Where the rocks are hard, as is generally the case, the valleys are narrow, like that of the Deerfield above named. Where the rocks are soft, the valleys are wider; illustrating the general principle that mature and old forms are more rapidly developed on soft than on hard rocks. The Berkshire valley, excavated in limestone between crystalline rocks and schists, is six or more miles wide. The Connecticut valley, excavated in weak sand- stones, is even wider, forming a valley lowland ten or fifteen miles from side to. side and broadly dividing the plateau into eastern and western portions. Occasional beds of hard rocks, chiefly ancient lava flows, occur in the sandstone belt, and are much less eroded ; they form ridges rising far above the lowland, and indeed still retain nearly the height of the adjacent plateaus. Mount Holyoke, opposite Northampton, is a type of these ridges. It holds essentially the same relation to the lowland that Monadnock holds to the plateau. Both are residual mountains of harder rocks; but the two manifestly belong to different generations of geographical development. It appears from this brief outline that our New England geog- raphy is of composite quality. The uplands with their residual mountains represent the closing stages of one generation or “cycle” of development; the valleys represent the more or less advanced beginning of another cycle. The distribution of our villages and our occupations, the lines of travel, and the move- ments of population may all be shown to depend largely on the topographic forms thus classified. By following some plan of treatment such as this, it becomes possible to make just comparisons between different regions— ° New England and the Rhine Country. 71 for example, a clése correspondence may be found between our dissected New England plateau and the Hunsrtick-Taunus plateau, through which the Rhine has cut its famous gorge below Bingen.* Here we find an even upland, with occasional eminences rising above it, and with deep valleys sunk below it. The eminences on the plateau are there, as’with us, residuals of a once much greater mass, rising moderately above a base- levelled surface; the valleys are the work of a later cycle of development, inaugurated when the old baselevelled surface was uplifted to its present altitude. In all this, southern New Eneland and the plateau of the middle Rhine are thoroughly homologous, but certain significant differences between the two regions should be noted: The plateau of the middle Rhine is so extremely flat-topped that it must be conceived as having advanced further in its first cycle of denudation than New England; indeed, it is the best illustration of a smoothly baselevelled’ area that I have found, and serves me as a type of such a form. On the other hand, its valleys are much narrower than ours; hence its second cycle must be regarded as less ad- vanced than ours. Both recions possess composite topography, including similar elements; but the stages in the two cycles of development represented in each case do not precisely agree. I cannot now delay to illustrate other elements of our New England topography, even in so brief a manner as the plateau, with its residual mountains and its initiated valleys, has been treated; but I may record my conviction, based on experience with scholars of different ages and with teachers in schools of various grades, that all our geographical features, when studied out ina manner similar to that outlined above, become lumi- nous in comparison with the obscurity of the conventional ac- counts in our school books. The drowned valleys that form our bays, the drowned rivers that form our estuaries, at once gain a hew meaning when thus explained ; and it is not a little remark- able to see how little recognition there is in general teaching of the control exerted by depression of the land on the form of its coast line. J.ook at Narragansett bay, the fiord of the Thames at Norwich, of the Connecticut above Saybrook, of the Housa- tonic towards Birmingham. of the Hudson even up to Albany—_ all “ drownded,” like Pegotty’s brothers at old Yarmouth; yet * Excellent lantern slides of this picturesque region may be had from dealers ; much better, in fact, than can be found for our scenery at home, although the latter is much the more important for our schools. He. W. M. Davis—Geographic Teaching. what school boy ever hears our coastal rivers thus simply and rationally characterized? Look at the sprawling outline of Greece, and ask our classical scholars if they describe it as a rugged mountainous region standing in the Mediterranean up to its knees; and yet how effective is the homely comparison ! It is the same with the results of glacial action. The text books of geography are practically silent on this important topic; yet many features of glacial origin must be known in fact to every boy who has rambled through the woods on his half holidays. Our gravel ridges and mounds and our sand plains may be reckoned as characteristic of our home geography as Lowell’s “ Bigelow Papers” are of Yankee dialect. It is a pity that they are not duly mentioned in our schools and com- pared with that suggestive fund of fresh material brought by Russell from Alaska and so honorably associated with the name of our society. The comparison that may be drawn here is as fair as that instituted already between New England and the plateau of the middle Rhine, but the two comparisons are of different kinds. The comparison of the two plateaus associates distant regions that are now alike. The comparison of New England and Alaska employs the present of the latter region to illustrate the past of the former; and this style of comparison is extremely suggestive in geographic study. For several years past, some of my more advanced students nave chosen as subjects for their theses the physical geography of various states with which they were more or less familiar trom residence or field observation, or with which they wished to become familiar. They have thus had occasion to search the literature of each state for accounts of its physical features, and the search has generally been without largereward. The practice has been useful, but the product has not been great. It is this want of material that convinces me that nothing less than the direct exploration of our home country, with the single object of investigating its topographical development, will secure the facts that are now needed in geographical teaching; and thus we return to the general question that was laid aside while southern New Hugland was before us. It is of course impossible in the limits of this address to give a full statement of the scheme of systematic geography, the ap- preciation of which seems to me essential in the desired explora- tion and investigation; but there are two leading principles The Cycle of geographic Development. 73 which I may outline, since without them no progress can be made: The first is that every land form passes through a com- paratively systematic series of changes from its youth, when its form is defined chiefly by constructional processes, past its maturity, when the processes of sub-aerial sculpture have carved a great variety of mouldings and channellings, toward its old age, in which the accomplishment of the full measure of denuda- tion reduces the mass essentially to baselevel, however high it may have been originally. I have become accustomed to call this unmeasured time a geographical cycle. It may be long for a structure of hard rocks, or shorter for a structure of weak rocks ; but in both the sequence of immature, mature, and senile forms is essential. The particular expression of these forms varies with the structure of the mass concerned ; but for every structure there is an appropriate sequence of young, mature, and old features. It is therefore important to determine in accordance with this fundamental principle the stage in which any given area stands in its life’s journey. The standard descriptions of many of our states gives no such account of their topographic forms, and the student or teacher who seeks it has little reward. The account is needed not only because the reader can gather from it a better understanding of the relations of a region to the rest of the world, but also because such an account enables him to appreciate much more closely and more easily the actual forms of the region itself. A second important principle is in a measure a corollary of the first: At any time during a geographical cycle a land area may be disturbed by depression or elevation. A new relation is then established with the baselevel of drainage, and a new eycle of denudation is introduced. The forms developed by denudation in the first incomplete cycle then become, as it were, the constructional forms of the new cycle, and from those as a beginning the forces of denudation go on anew. The combina- tion of the topographic features developed in the two cycles produces what I have called “ composite topography,” and this is of extremely common occurrence—for an example, we may refer again to the dissected plateau of southern New England. The upland with its residual mountains is the product of an earlier cycle; the valleys are the work of a later cycle; the glacial features may be referred merely to a short-lived climatic episode late in the second cycle, so brief was the occupation of 74 W. M. Davis—Geographie Teaching. the country with ice compared to the time required for the ex- cavation of the valleys in the uplifted plateau. Geographical descriptions and the appreciation of them are ereatly advanced by a recognition of these principles; they are essentially simple conceptions, but the variety of their ap- plication is infinite. The work of more than two cycles may not infrequently be recognized. Thus, 11 Pennsylvania the crest lines of the Appalachian ridges are remnants of an uplifted and almost consumed plateau of Cretaceous denudation, of which only the hardest parts now remain; the open valley lowlands between the ridges are the product of Tertiary excavation in the uplifted plateau; the narrow trenches, in which the rivers traverse the lowlands, are of post-Tertiary origin. Many points of view may be selected on the Susquehanna, where these three elements of the landscape stand out with much distinctness, and the pleasure of their contemplation is greatly increased by the recognition of their distinct conditions of origin in succes- sive geographical cycles or during successive uplifts of the land. What is the most effective way in which we can. promote the advance of geographic investigation and secure accounts and illustrations of our home country in accordance with a system- atic and scientific method? It has seemed to me that appeal might be profitably made for the codperation of the directors of the various state geological surveys. I therefore propose to ask the directors of our various state geological surveys to devote annually a part of their funds to the study of the physical features of their domains in the hght of modern geographical science, provided that the terms of their appropriation bills will allow them to cover this side of the eeological field; and if nof, I shall hope that special appropria- tions of moderate amount may be made for this particular pur- pose. Experts should be employed for this work, as they are now in paleontology and petrography. The results thus gained would appear in successive annual reports, brief at first, increasing in scope as opportunity offers, and setting forth the larger and smaller elements of the topography in such simple style and with such comparisons and illustrations as should be of immediate value to teachers in grammar schools and high schools. The state boards of education might secure special reprints of these geographical chapters at very moderate cost for distribution as state products to all public libraries and to all | A oul de The Study of Home Geography. public schools of the higher grades; much in the same way as the energetic commissioners of the topographic survey of Rhode - Island have secured the distribution of their state map free to all their public schools and libraries. ‘The legislature would soon see, from the employment of these geographical chapters year after year by thousands of teachers, the appreciation that this hitherto undeveloped economic field might receive from those occupied with the advance of public education, and as- sured support would then be given to the work, even on enlarged scale. By some such practical steps we may secure a material advance in the quality of geographical instruction. During the past year, I have had many illustrations of the need of material of geographical of the kind here referred to. Teachers in our public schools are well aware that they have not now the fuller account of the facts that they would enjoy; and yet they know not where to turn to find what they need. Many teachers, principals, and superintendents with whom I have spoken admit at once that the books to which they now have access are quite insufficient to satisfy their wants, and they listen gladly to any feasible plan that will provide a more ex- tended and more scientific description and explanation of the facts of geography near at home, with which they have to deal from their earliest to their latest teaching. Geologists or geog- raphers who are already acquainted with our local geography from personal experience can perform a grateful service to the schools by preparing elementary accounts of the regions with which they are familiar, and such books as these should be greatly multiplied; but, so far as I have been able to learn, it is only the smaller part of our country that is now known well enough to those who can be prevailed on to write elementary books, and hence the importance of actual geographical exploration in order to supply our teachers with what they need. If some such plan as the one proposed above were put in operation, it might come to pass in a decade or two that the graduates of our common schools would not be so blinded as they now are to the facts of their home geography. Harvarp Unrversity, CAMBRIDGE, Mass. ‘ 11—Nar. Groce. Maa,, von. V, 1893. AN UNDISCOVERED ISLAND OFF THE NORTHERN COAST OF ALASKA (Presented before the Society April 28, 1893) I—BY MARCUS BAKER On a map of the polar regions published in Gotha eleven years ago, land is indicated as existing about 150 miles north- northeastward from point Barrow, the northernmost point of Alaska. The position of this land is latitude 732° N. and longi- tude 153:° W. of Greenwich. I have not succeeded in finding this land indicated on any other map, neither have I found any published statement respecting it. — Inthe summer of 1849, Kellett and Moore. in the Arctic search vessels Herald and Plover, cruised in the Arctic ocean, between point Barrow and Herald island, searching for Sir John Frank- lin. It was during this cruise that Herald island was discovered and landed upon, and the high peaks of what we now know to be Wrangell island were seen to the westward. In the map ac- companying their report * an “ appearance of land” is shown in latitude 722° N., longitude 1612° W. of Greenwich, being about 130 miles northwest of point Barrow. On a small map ac- companying Osborn’s “Stray Leaves from an Arctic Journal,” land is indicated in the same locality,as also on an undated map published by Longman in London in 1850 or 1851. Russian hydrographic chart number 1495, published in 1854, also shows land here, with the note *‘ Indications of land accord- ing to report of the English sloop Plover in 1849.” These four maps are the only ones, out of a considerable num- ber examined by me, which show this appearance of land, and they are all obviously derived from the same authority, viz, Kellett and Moore. In Kellett’s narrative the only reference to this appearance of land is the following statement at p. 14: * Additional papers relative'to the Arctic expedition, etc, presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty. Folio, London, 1852, Pl. 15, ad fin. (76) The Evidence of the Maps. ee “This was our most northern position, lat. 72° 51’ N., long. 168° W. The ice, as far as it could be seen from the mast-head, trended away W. S. W. (compass), Commander Moore and the ice-master reporting a water sky to the north of the pack, and a strong ice-blink to the S. W.” It appears obyious from this statement that the evidence of land existing here is very slight. The appearance of land is omitted from all the late maps. It does not appear on the British Admiralty charts, nor on the charts of our own Hy- drographie Office or Coast Survey. Indeed, on hydrographic chart 68, a sounding of 54 fathoms, muddy bottom, is shown in this place. It is clear, I think, that land does not exist here. Now, on the circumpolar map first mentioned the land shown north-northeast of point Barrow is about 150 miles northeast of the place where Kellett’s “ appearance of land” isshown. Thad supposed before examination that these indications referred: to the same thing, but. having made an examination, I am of opinion that the indication of land shown on the circumpolar map is not derived from Kellett and Moore, but from some un- published source of information. That there is an undiscovered or rather unyvisited land some- where north and east of point Barrow is a matter of common talk among the whalers who annually visit this region. Captain John Keenan, of Troy, New York, master of the whaling bark Stamboul, of New Bedford, reports that he and all his crew saw it while on a whaling voyage some time during the seventies. The Eskimos have traditions of this land and of a visit to it by their fathers “ long ago.” The known facts respecting this hypothetical (or should we not say real?) land are exceedingly meager and all unpublished. It has therefore seemed to me desirable to put these few facts on record, and that no place was more suitable than the journal of a society devoted to the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge. The facts have all come to me through my old friend Captain K. P. Herendeen, who, at my request, has written the account to which these remarks are intended merely as an introduction. Captain Herendeen, a native of Woods Holl, Massachusetts, has been for many years engaged in whaling, having entered the Arctic in pursuit of whales as early as 1850, and has since then made more than a score of voyages to this region. I have had the pleasure of making three voyages to the northern Pacific and ° 78 EK. P. Herendeen—An Undiscovered Island. Arctic oceansin his company. In 1882-88 he was a member of the United States Signal Service party stationed at point Barrow. He is well acquainted with all the natives on the Arctic coast from the East cape of Asia eastward to the mouth of the Mac- kenzie river. Hespeaks their language and is universally known to the natives of that region under the name of “ Heretic.” From the natives and through Captain Keenan of the whaling fleet he has obtained the following information, which he has kindly written out for the National Geographic Society. I beg to suggest the desirability of calling this very little- known land Keenan island. JI—BY CAPTAIN EDWARD PERRY HERENDEEN Among the many traditions of the point Barrow Eskimo the following is not without geographic interest : Since no account is kept by them of the lapse of time, it is impossible to fix a date to any story related by them previous to the life of their father or grandfather. Their simple answer to any question regarding the date of these occurrences is always the same, “eidrarnee” (long ago). Our story is this: An Eskimo was out on a whale hunt with his umiak and crew (in April or May). Venturing much farther than their companions and being encompassed by ice, they were carried away to the north and east by the moving pack until at last they came in sight of a strange land. After many hardships and the death of most of the crew, some at last reached the mainland, their own be- loved * Nunah,” greatly exhausted, and related their adyentures to wondering listeners. They told of times when starvation erimly threatened and when the timely catching of a seal or killing of a bear saved them from a dreadful fate, and the skins furnished material to repair their worn garments. These tales, by whomsoever related, seem to bear testimony to one point, viz, of land somewhere to the north and east of point Barrow, which has been seen by some of these people under such circumstances of hardship, distress and loss of life as to have fixed the event in their minds and been related by father to son for perhaps many generations. It is often told that natives wintering between Harrison and Camden bays have seen land to the north in the bright, clear days of spring. In the winter of 1886-’87, Uzharlu, an enterprising Eskimo of Ootkeavie, was very anxious for me to get some captain to take The Evidence of the Eskimo. 79 him the following summer, with his family, canoe and outfit, to the northeast as far as the ship went, and then he would try to find this mysterious land of which he had heard so much; but no one cared to bother with this venturesome Eskimo explorer. So confident was this man of the truth of these reports that he was eager to sail away into the unknown, like another Columbus, in search of an Eskimo paradise. In the winter of 1887 several of the most intelligent of the cape Smyth Hskimo came to me about dusk of the evening of February 15 and reported that three strange men had come up from the southwest along the shore ice, and appeared very weary, but on coming opposite the village (which could not have been seen by the travelers before) they quickened their pace, turned abruptly off shore, and disappeared in the ice-pack. It was just as the sun was setting, and the strangers could be seen distinctly, but not until they had gotten into the rough ice did it occur to these people standing on the bank that these three wanderers were strangers indeed ; and the more they talked the matter over the more wonderful it seemed that any tired hunter should pass their village without stopping for rest and refresh- ment. It was evident that they turned away in fear when they saw the village and the people standing on the bank. Who could these men be who turned away from their hospitable vil- lage, where food and a warm welcome awaited them? They reasoned that every man on the coast from point Hope to point Barrow was known to all the others, and knew he would be wel- come to food and shelter. The more they talked, the stranger it seemed, until the conclusion was reached that these were “ inu tumuktua,” (lost people,) and of course their home must be the mysterious land of their fathers’ tradition. As a proof of this they said these three men wore white clothing, which was most likely made of white bear skins, while the Eskimo of the coast wear brown clothing made of reindeer skins. Another point in favor of their assertion was that these men had no guns, which fact was noted before they turned off shore into the pack. They had spears and a coil of seal line, and used the spears as walking-sticks as they plodded wearily along. The circumstance was most strange. Every man in the vil- lage of Ootkeavie gave an account of himself that evening, and I took the trouble to send to point Barrow the next morning, but none of them had been in that vicinity or were able to throw any light on the subject. From my knowledge of the Eskimo, I am 80 A. W. Greely—An Undiscovered Island. sure no one acquainted would have passed a village without stopping. It was near night, yet these men in evident alarm turned off shore into the ice pack and were never seen again. I made arrangements to go out in the morning and trace these men and solve the mystery; but the morning dawned with a fierce blizzard, causing the abandonment of the search, and left us wondering whence they came and whither they went. The only report of land having been seen by civilized man in this vicinity was made by Captain John Keenan, of Troy, New York, in the seventies. He was at that time in command of the whaling bark Stamboul, of New Bedford. Captain Keenan said that after taking several whales the weather became thick, and he stood to the north under easy sail, and was busily engaged in trying out and stowing down the oil taken. When the fog cleared off, land was distinctly seen to the north by him and all the men of his crew; but, as he was not on a voyage of discovery and there were no whales in sight, he was obliged to give the order to keep away to the south in search of them. The success of his voyage depended on keeping among whales. This fact was often discussed among the whalemen on the re- turn of the fleet to San Francisco in the fall. The position of Captain Keenan’s ship at the time land was seen has passed from my mind, except that it was between Harrison and Camden bays. A ietter addressed to Captain Keenan by the writer in Febru- ary, asking for more definite information as to date and position of his ship and other points of interest, tailed to reach him and was returned. IJI—BY GENERAL A. W. GREELY Mr Baker’s notes on “An undiscovered island off the northern coast of Alaska” are extremely interesting. I am, however, unable to agree with Mr Baker in the belief that land exists in the polar sea between point Barrow and Melville island. On my attention being called to the paper and German map of 1882, I did not at first recall that I had before seen charts marked with the signs of land referred to. On later considera- tion I remembered maps containing this knowledge, and have since examined all maps of arctic America from 1844 to 1858 in my private collection and one or two others accessible elsewhere. It is interesting to note to what extent these signs of land were credited by map-makers of that period. For many years Negative Evidence of the Maps. 81 chart number 260 of the hydrographic office of the royal navy was the standard map of the polar regions. So far as I have learned, there were but two such charts between 1855 and 1886, one being that of 1835, the other bearmg date of December 24, 1855. The chart of 1835 had no such land upon it, nor did the first edition (see Scoresby’s “Search for Franklin,” London, 1552), which bore the note, “corrected to 1849,” and such land dis- appeared from the corrected chart of 1855. It appears that cor- rections were constantly made on this chart of 1849, some, even of the most important character, without additional foot-notes. This is strikingly illustrated by a copy of the chart published in the Parliamentary Blue Book referred to by Mr Baker (folio, London, 1852, plate 15). Although the chart has the engraved note, “ corrected to 1849,” yet there appear thereon the impor- tant discoveries of Admiral Inglefield made in Smith sound during the summer of 1852, which were not known in Great - Britain until his return in November of that year. Itis probable that these discoveries were adde | to the chart in the final revise, just as the report was going to press. Sir John Barrow, the great authority on Arctic discoveries, in his polar chart of 1846 (‘ Voyages to ‘the Arctic Regions,’ London, 1847) enters no note regarding the new land. The land referred to, so far as 1 know, first appeared on the polar map in Richardson’s “Arctic Searching Expedition: A Boat Voyage through Ruperts Land,” Longman, London, 1851, this probably being the Longman undated chart of Mr Baker. Later, in chronologic order, it ap- peared in Osborn’s “Stray Leaves from an Arctic Journal,” London, 1852; “Additional Papers Relative to the Arctic Expe- dition,” ete, London, 1852 (evidently printed after November 1, 1852), both quoted by Baker. In the Revue Britanique of December, 1855, (Paris,) was pub- lished a map of the polar regions, with the legend “land seen” in 72° 30’ N.161° W. To the southwest of this land is a dotted line marking the limits of the polar ice in 1849. This evidently is the line of ice charted by the Plover in 1849. Then follows the Russian hydrographic chart number 1495, 1854, quoted by Bakef, with the note, “Indications of land according to the report of the English sloop Plover in 1849.” With Mr Baker I have searched in vain for corroboration of this entry. The Herald was in company with the Plover, and the parlia- mentary report finds confirmation in Seeman’s “ Voyage of the Herald,” London, 1853, vol. 11, page 106: 82 A. W. Greely—An Undiscovered Island. y “Tt was a fine, clear night. * * At midnight the latitude was obtained by the inferior passage of the sun, 72° 107 30/7 N. * * * (29 July, 1849.) * * * Our soundings had gradually increased to thirty- five fathoms of soft blue mud. * * * This position was our most northern one, latitude 72° 51/ N., longitude 163° W. * * * Commander Moore (of the Plover) and his ice-master reporting a water sky to the north of the pack, and a strong ice-blink to the southwest.” The evident incorrectness of the land charted is shown, by the experience of Collinson in 1850, when the general line of the heavy pack-ice was somewhat farther northward, extending from southeast to northwest from 75° N. in 160° W. to 72° 40’ *N. in 165° W. Collinson; on August 26, 1850, was in 73° 23’ N., 164° W., and on August 28 was im 72° 35! N.,, 161° W., thus hayv- ing passed directly over the position of the learn charted as above. On the 17th he was in 72° 45’ N., 159° W.; August 22 in 72° 25’ INS WS! Woe UAtIouiste Yl tum 72 UO Ns 153° W. Collinson says: “ Auoust 17 (1850). * * * The fog cleared away at 1p. m., and we, found ourselves in a lane of clear water ten miles wide, with a clear sea tothe N. E. * * * Our observations placed us 100 miles N. W. by N. from point Barrow, and we found 45 fathoms of water, muddy bottom.” “91 —Had traced pack from 72° 45’ N. in 159° W. for 275 miles to 8. E., toy 71° 427N,,, 154° 307 WW.” “ Aug. 28.—Here we reached our furthest point north in 73° 23” N. and longitude 164° W. In the afternoon, the pack edge trending more to the southward, we got much encumbered by endeavoring to get through it to the eastward, straining our eyes in that direction in the hope of seeing either Jand or water.” On August 18, 1850, McClure was in 70° 48’ N., 138° W., with no sign of land. The weight of opinion in the following few years was decidedly against there being such land, as shown by its omission from the charts of arctic America in the followine-named works: Seoresby’s Search for Franklin, London, 1851. Hooper’s The Tents of the Tuski, London, 1852. Mangle’s Arctic Searching Expedition, 2d edition, London, 1852, where Peterman’s Search Map is reproduced (there being no map of the first edition, London, 1851). Sutherland’s V oye to Baflin’s Bay and JEON Strait (Peterman’s map), London, 1852 Further ee and Proceedings Connected with the Arctic Expedition, presented to Parliament, London, 1852 (Peterman’s map). Lieutenant S. Gurney Cresswell’s map, dated May 15, 1854. Brande’s Sir John Franklin, map by Langes, Berlin, 1854. Armstrong’s Northwest Passage, London, 1857. Improbability of the Positive Evidence. §3 Osborn’s McClure Discovery of the Nonainniest Passage, London, 1856.* McDougall’s Eventful Voyage of H. M.S. Resolute, London, 1857. Brown’s Northwest Passage, 2d edition, ‘Tendon, 1860, which contains a map by Arrowsmith, 1858. It thus appears that the “ Plover” land is a myth, Mr Baker agreeing with me on this point. The Keenan land lies, however, somewhat east of the myth- ical land already disposed of, being indefinitely located between Harrison and Camden bay, north of the 72d parallel. The uncertainty of position of whalers is well known, as no care is eiven to longitude or other astronomical observations. Since definite data are lacking, the subject can be approached from another standpoint, that of the depths of the adjacent seas. It will be recalled by those familiar with the Arctic ocean to the north of Bering strait region that it is a very shallow sea. In one direction only does it deepen, and, unfortunately for Keenan island, it is in that particular quarter. In my opinion, the great improbability of land in the region mentioned appears from an examination of the soundings of the sea from the northwest to east of point Barrow, which are as follows, the position being approximate: 172° W. longitude, 73° 5 N. latitude, 78 fathoms; 159° W.,72° 6’ N., 1383 x CG indicates no bottom) ; oe Wet Qo Ne ale opse: ea We Oss SAIN LO Oa: IDI IWe Oe dN. I45\ x 126° We Oo Ne 110, and 124° Wi 74° 5 IN. (on co asl of ee land), 45 fathoms. The above observations show that the parts of the Arctic ocean passed over and most nearly adjacent gradually and in- terruptedly increase in depth from the west, from the south and southeast toward the reported land, attaining in its neighborhood the greatest known depth of water to the northward of Bering strait. That this condition of depth is not strictly local but ex- tends uninterruptedly northward is proved conclusively by the very heavy ice met with by Collinson and McClure between point Barrow and Banks land, which ran upward of 200 feet in thickness. As this thick ice is unquestionably of land origin, from an ice-capped country of considerable extent, there must be deep water for its transition. It is possible, but not probable, saat the southern edge of this land gs so close to arctic America. * This omission is str iking, ee as (oenee inserted it in Tek te i: AY Leaves fr om an Arctic Toren Wlsaoe 12—Nar. Grog. Maa., voz. V, 1893. THE GEOLOGIST AT BLUE MOUNTAIN, MARYLAND BY CHARLES D. WALCOTT Most of the summer visitors at Blue mountain, Maryland, give little thought to the origin of the mountain, nor how it came to be a ridge rising so boldly on the west from the Cum- berland valley and on the east overlooking the mountain valley to the foot of the Catoctin ridge, which rises above the plain stretching thence southeastward to Washington. During the summer of 1892 the writer discovered that the rocks forming the crest of the Blue ridge belong among the oldest formations deposited in the Appalachian trough, since they carry types of life occurring in the most ancient fossiliferous rocks on the North American continent that are distinguished by a recognizable fauna; the geologic structure also shows that these rocks rest upon the ancient sea-bed of the Appalachian trough, and that they are of the same relative geologic age as the Cambrian rocks that occupy an equivalent stratigraphic position in Vermont, New Jersey, New York, Virginia and Ten- nessee. The recent work of Dr G. H. Williams demonstrates that, with one partial exception, the older crystalline rocks underlying the Cambrian strata have hitherto been misinterpreted and misun- derstood by the geologists who have studied them. Instead of being sedimentary formations originally deposited in the sea-bed, they are volcanic rocks and almost identical with the lavas found in Nevada, Wyoming and in many portions of the Rocky mountain region. This discovery proves that the laboratory of nature produced a certain type of volcanic rock almost at the beginning of the evolution of the North American continent, and again produced the same type many millions of years afterward on the western side of the continent. The broad mountain crossing the Pennsylvania-Maryland line includes eastern and western border ridges and an intervening (84) Phe Rocks of Blue Mountain. 55 valley. On the western or Blue Ridge side it is built up of sedi- mentary rocks originally deposited in the sea on the bottom and, it may be, the side of the Appalachian trough. In the interven- ing valley it consists to a considerable extent of eruptive rocks, which poured out as flows the ancient land surface prior to the existence of the Appalachian trough and before the deposition of the stratified rocks which so largely form the North American continent within the limits of the United States. The elevated eastern side forms the Catoctin ridge, which is capped by a com- pressed fold of the old shales and quartzites. Both ridges con- tinue south of the Maryland line toward Harpers Ferry and far into Virginia as compressed synclinal folds of the Cambrian rocks, resting on the rocks of the ancient Appalachian trough, the older rocks and the more recent rocks having been involved in the same series of folding. In addition to this folding, numer- ous thrusts of one mass of rocks upon another are to be found all along the Blue ridge, especially north of the Pennsylvania- Maryland line, in the northern extension of Blue mountain, or the South mountain of Pennsylvania. In some instances the ancient eruptive rocks have been thrust westward, so as to rest upon and above the more recent sandstones and shales which were originally deposited upon them in the bottom and along the shore of the Appalachian trough. Often the pressure has cleaved the massive lavas and formed slates and shales that appear like those deposited in quiet waters. The result of this has been to complicate the geologic structure and topography of South mountain and the Blue ridge, and to make the region one of great interest to both professional and amateur geolo- gists. Erosion has aided their study by cutting away thousands of feet of strata from above the present mountain area and adja- cent valleys, and thus laying bare a portion of the ancient shore- line of the Atlantic coast area of Cambrian time and of the foundation upon which much of the present continent is built. The history of the Blue ridge and its rocks as now interpreted is essentially as follows: It began long after the first known primitive rocks of the earth were raised into plateaus and ridges to form the platforms of the present continents. At the close of the periods in which the earlier crystalline rocks of the conti- nent were formed, and also the great masses of bedded rocks beneath those containing the Cambrian or oldest known fauna, *See Am. Journ. Sci., vol. xliv, 1892, pp. —. 86 C. D. Walcott—The Geologist at Blue Mountain. that portion of the North American continent then above the sea is thought to have consisted of (1) a large part of what is now the British possessions; (2) a long, broad mountain area (Atlantic) extended southwestward from Newfoundland to the present site of the Gulf of Mexico and it may be the West Indian archipelago, (8) and one or more areas (Pacific) on the western side of the continental plateau, on the line of the present Rocky mountain and Sierra Nevada ranges.* The eastern or Atlantic area and the bed of the interior sea toward the west, in what may be called the Appalachian trough, were then formed of variouss kind of rock, including granite, schists of various kinds, crystalline and unaltered sedimentary rocks and, in some localities, of great masses of volcanic material that had been poured out over the surface in very much the same manner as were the relatively recent lavas found in the vicinity of the Yellowstone National Park and in various parts of the Rocky mountain region. The waves of the interior sea wore away from the western shore of the Atlantic land area various rock materials and depos- ited them along with that brought in by the brooks and rivers as layers of sand and gravel on the sea-bed all the way from the present site of the Saint Lawrence river to Alabama. In these deposits fragments of the volcanic rocks, schists, etc, were min- eled, and spread out in sheets. At times the supply of ma- terial was very fine and formed thin layers of mud that after- ward consolidated into shales and slates. After a deposition of several thousand feet of this character of materials the water deepened, probably by the subsidence of the bed of the sea, and calcareous muds were deposited during a great interval of time until in places they reached the thickness of several thousand feet. These now form the limestones found in the Cumberland and Shenandoah valleys and their extensions northward to Canada and southward to Alabama. All along this ancient coast line, from Labrador to Alabama, various forms of marine life existed, and their hard parts, such as shells of crustaceans (allied to the living king crab) and other organisms, were buried in the mud and sand. The deposition of sediments in the sea, immediately west of the Atlantic area, continued until from 12,000 to 40,000 feet in thickness were piled over the ancient sea-bottom, layer upon * See article on the North American Continent during Cambrian Time, jn Twelfth Ann. Rep. U, 8, Geol. Survey, 1892, pp. —, The Lifting of Blue Mountain. 87 layer, sometimes of one kind of sediment and sometimes of another. These are now found as layers of sandstone, limestone, coal, shale, slate and various combinations of sandstone, shale, ete. With the close of the first great age (Paleozoic) in sedi- mentation in the Appalachian trough, the earth’s forces again became active, and sufficient pressure was exerted from the Atlantic coast side of the continent to raise this great mass of sediments above the sea and to fold it in ridges and hollows, very much as layers of paper or cloth would fold from pressure applied to the edges of the layers if they were partially confined above and below. This was varied, however, in the great rock- masses by the frequent shearing on the line of the folds and the thrusting of masses of rock one over the other, as cards shift over each other under pressure. One of these folds, with minor folds within it, has by sybsequent agencies been carved into the Blue ridge. The epoch of folding was several millions of years ago; so long since that sufficient time has elapsed for thousands of feet of sediments to be deposited in the interior lakes and seas of the North American continent and for animal life to develop from the then highest types of fish and reptile to the higher mammals. at the head of which man stands today. During the thousands of centuries since the first great Appa- lachian uplift, the rain, frost, and snow have been at work sculpturing the old land surface and slowly working out the mountains, valleys, and plains. It is not improbable that the process of mountain uplift and that of wearing away the mount- ains to a relatively level area (baselevel of erosion) may have taken place several times, the intervals of rest between the wear- ing away of the highland and mountains and the succeeding epoch of uplift being of long duration—so long, in fact, that centuries might pass without effecting a marked change in the re- lations of the land and sea. It was not far back, geologically speaking, that the Blue ridge was a part of, and not distinct from, a great plain that was broken by low hills and valleys and drained by streams flowing into a river that occupied relatively the same position that the Potomac does now. The continent was then at a lower level in relation to the sea, and it was not until it became elevated that the Potomac began to cut down into its bed in the old plain and carry out to the ocean the material which filled the areas now 88 O. D. Walcott—The Geologist at Blue Mountain. represented by the Cumberland and Shenandoah valleys. As this process continued and the river lowered its channel the Blue ridge began to take shape as a distinct feature in the land- scape. Slowly but surely the softer beds were broken up, dis- solved and carried away, and the harder beds of rock began to project above the ancient plateau. It was only the question of which beds of rock could the longer resist the forces of rain and frost to determine the location of mountains and valleys. We have thus hastily sketched the evolution of a portion of the continent and the evolution of one of its topographic fea- tures as shown by the Blue ridge. This evolution has gone on everywhere. Every ridge, however small; every valley, whether shallow or deep, narrow or broad; every stream-channel all over the surface of the continent, has its history back in the past, and it is by the studies of the geologists that we learn something of that history. It is now nearly forty years since William B. and H. D. Rogers discovered many elements of the structure of the Appalachian mountains; but it was not until within the last few years that the means of correlating and thus interpreting more accurately the structure of the various mount- ains formed by the lower and oldest series of the sedimentary rocks have been obtained. During the deposition of the 40,000 feet of sediments in the Appalachian trough many millions of invertebrate animals lived and died along the shore and on the sea-bed. Those that lived in the earlier epochs became extinct and new forms succeeded them, and these in turn were succeeded many times during the vast interval between the first deposit and the closing one before the epoch of the last Appalachian uplift and folding. The re- mains of the various groups of life now afford the data by which the geologist correlates the various disturbed and often separated masses and determines what were their original relations to each other. There are hundreds of local details yet to be studied and in- terpreted, and the work will be done by those who love to study the record of creation in the fragmentary book of nature, where all is written that we know of the past before barbaric man, began his imperfect record by myth and legend. THE GREAT POPULOUS CENTERS OF THE WORLD BY GENERAL A. W. GREELY The astonishing growth of urban population in the United States during the past decade induced the writer to cursorily examine the tendencies of other countries in this direction, which developed facts indicating very clearly that it is a general and not local migration. In conducting the research, lists were made of the five hun- dred or more cities in which the population exceeds fifty thousand, in which doubtless live one-fifth of the fourteen hun- dred and eighty millions which make up the population of the world. From this list have been selected the hundred cities having the greatest number of inhabitants, and, with one excep- tion (Canton,) no place has been included unless its population has been determined by census. In general, the figures here given agree with those in that most excellent publication, ‘The Statesman’s Year Book.” The census year is not uniform, and as it may be said that the growth of cities outside of the United States lies, in general, between one and two per cent annually, the order of rank here given is not absolute. Of the five hundred cities with a population above fifty thou- sand, the countries having the greatest number are: United States, 85 India, 76; Great Britain, 72; Germany, 47; Russia, 34; France, 383; Japan, 17; Spain, 16; Austria-Hungary, 15; Italy, 14. Four-fifths of all are situated in these ten countries and one-sixth in the United States. No less than three of the ten cities having a million of inhabitants are in the United States, and also four of the sixteen great population centers of the world. This last designation is here given to cities of more than three-fourths of a million, this dividing line in rank being at once apparent, as there are practically no cities with popu- lation between half a million and three-fourths of a million. (89) 90 A. W. Greely—The World’s Cities. Last of the most populous Cities by last Census. Rank. ee | Population. 1891 | “Greater London,” England (outer ring).. / 5,633,332 1 1891 | London, England (registration)..........- | 4,211,056 London, England (central area)........... 1,022,529 2 LS Ques “Paricl Kream GO pace hare tere cama eevee aaa 2,447,997 3 1890 | “Greater New York,” United States*..... 3,250, 000 L892h | New. Vouk UmiredsStatese issues elena | 1,801,639 4 We al) Cangton Chima (estimated) aes meaner | i 600, 000 5 INO) yp LBxerAlbin, (Gewwanennwon sos escocosevondesuee dace 1,579,244 6 AS OU Mle eve nv, WANTS ERIE fever coee ree, sche eli at ee ec ate geen | 1,389,684 INST lahat \Wireratingsla VANISH Celery alesis maySiniaol@nlels areata aad aa | + 1,364,548 7 TSO TOO re eupeatine cbies aks ceeded acl cece oe cre | 1,161,800 8 IWAN) |) Claearexoy, Whamllvecl SWAUES . occ sb korn ocdeoce | 1,099,850 9 1890 | Philadelphia, United States....<.......--.| 1 046, 964 10 1889 | Saint Petersburg, Russia (in winter)... | 1 ‘003 3,315 1889 | Saint Petersburg, Russia (in summer)...... 845,315 11 1892) 3 SBrooklymn Umitedy Sta tess ume iran aera 957,163 12 1885 | Constantinople, Muankeyie on shee eee 873,569 13 1891 | Calcutta, India (excluding Howrah, 129,800). 840,150 14 SON Me Omnia eli diane saree neers | 804,470 15 SOI (Glassowascotlande foe 0g hee See 792,728 1 Gleason) SeOWeINGl boned so dicunqosec sac: | + 865,714 16 1884 | Moscow, USSU A.W a a Lye aya ne a ee | 753,469 U7 1891 | Buenos ‘Ayres, Argentine Republic........ | 561,160 18 1891 | Liverpool, Eneland BR regels res eraaity Caco 6 | 517,991 iG) SOO sBudapesttELumoaty simian lene apse | 506,384 20 1801 | Manchester, Pnglamd..................4-- 505,343 21 1891 | Melbourne, BVActonia ak eee aa 491,578 22 1891 } Osaka, J apan. SE TANG UNG CNT 5 8 TS | 483,609 23 1891 | Brussels, Belgium Sree Larne See Roc 482,268 24 1887 | Madrid, ‘Spain BPS TRES Ve Phas, BRIAN SI | 472,228 25 SOiiea Warsaw, RUSSIA aah eed oi aneee tees Natl tearm 465,2 272 26 1881 | Naples, Italy Soren Pee eet MRA os. 0 463172 27 1890 | Saint Louis, United States.............. Pes 45] 770 28 PSO Millia clas celia Cia eee cesar rye dere ero 449,950 29 TRO) ||) TEXo¥stouM,, Whankrersl SHWE sooo cccasecbencucce | 448,477 3 TS90h baltimore; Unitedestatess.n «cr acacia 434,439 3 CCIE | Jermain Ihoedenil 45 nqoscaccsoe5 wes | 429,171 32 1890 | Amsterdam, Netherlands......... ....... 417,539 es USE yf Ibayayilsh NING. ao au ced da ckomooe ur poe et | 416,029 3 USGI Ne Marsenllestshramcekee nis momen ee errs 403,749 ya) 1891 | Sydney, New South Wales ............... 386,400 36 ISI i Copentiaiaenes Demian kee eats 4 onsen | 375,251 In@openhacentDemmiackren shone oe keener | f 312,387 37 TSS2\ ii Cate owabionio teeta eevee tals eaten Wnt! ee area | 368,108 38 nlEStow Mamie Braver cI I Si ovel eiavel laa nce anew am Alla eo 42 | 367,506 39 1890) }\ eipztes Germania nines it ee: cece 353,272 PAbeiljovate Cemmeimny 3. scacasabobooeecce sss | + 298,525 40 1891 | Dublin, Ireland (Metropolitan police dist.) ., 361,891 | Dublin, Tire laine eers peg etek boas eee | f 254,709 41 1890 | Munich, Germany SIS | SO ee era ES rs 8 | 348,317 42 S9OR Sreslaur Germany aeeeeeees esi eee \ 330,174 43 SOON) Elana bums egmaumayeeeen eer aie oleate tee 329,923 44 SOO): Mexico, IMiescatco ements ile cea 329,539 * Mr. Henry Gannett’s figures; this volume, p. 31. } Excluding suburbs, The World’s Great Cities. Sit List of the most populous Cities—Continued. Rank. | Ueasts | Population year. ; 45 OMe etielde Hinelaien ly tise. 2 aa ethos eee) o pay al 324,243 AG | IURIO) e OClesisele Say SSIE) 24 Le Gar iblooienec aoe aomo sc 313,687 | AuSGhilis. |) ebm enenoenel, JONG0G), ome web ac ant oeeorees 312,390 48 ‘| 1890 | San Francisco, United States ............- | 298,993 49 WSS ENS At ALG Voy oye Fay oYzHa Bsa) 4 Gocytn, ORE Iae Raa ARTs eee 297,027 50 1890 -Cimeinmati, United States -.2:5.2....2--.- | 296,908 Ne Poss te eMule Ttaliyeki eee wo eeeles nts wi ho oye | 295,543 52 USOOmn Oolosme se Germanys. artis aie ally erere 281,273 53 IG |) IspnkVl@, Whanvecl SURES 2c bec ascodoobadsonde 278,727 54 S90 aD nesdent Geman ce nes see cis. )2/4 eet 276,085 59 WS || IENO Cle demavertino, JBeAVAUL, Gonos soscosasodec | 274,972 56 USS lope! Ales ayaa yaad ie ici ieg ae Ree ela, au Ora nte PA Rs | 273,268 Bar. SUSE a IL oko inGhe, Boo eonedooosabanese toedel | 273,090 OS) ap odliter | EENCelOMEl SOEUR Swan easinobs eerie snoS | 272, 481 59 | 1890 | Cleveland, United States................. | 261,353 60 SOI ek dinate SCotlaidery ar. scrsmla cine ate acl. 261,261 61 USOIe ebeliast Imelamdi ei iacea canara trowel sats 255,896 62 ALAS)... 1exorRCleRU EC NO) coon dugacdsnoccadseoesd | 252,415 13 TSO Ge Srocsnolm pS wedlenes leary seen ohm oc 246,564 64 ISS Mtslovotn etoranhteral ly GRe dae aa ca aN A | 246,348 65 1890 | New Orleans, United States.:............. | 242,039 66 WANO) 4) Leitnslonualn. Winiwercl SWANS Gscocdccosaocen- | 238,617 67 | 1890 | Washington, United States.............:. 230,392 OSHA ees Silas cE italiys Mii Pees eit ater ees eater aes cnc | 230,183 69 LOO, |CAMiWwerps Deloiuime ee arity neers sotiden .e 227,225 70 ASO he Henares angie reve te sea attease cust ie ala i | 222,520 71 IQ || IBinelovawesit, IO MOMENI: 5 6 ood den scoaescdq ee 221,805 ehi2 ENT) MiP AB retinol a Broved bey velee ordiynn 5 tags Hone ae acti Se 221,665 73 TSO a lone: Kone @himaeis ep reeeiys ae eusnrerays 221,441 74 USOtieml eMontrenly Camad an sink ser eet e ccs ch 216.650 79 1891 | Bradford, England..... Pited ta 8 aaa ae tamer sore 216,361 76 USO | Nowmawlngvmn, Iieleinl,.oonaceocsnccakone 211,984 Ue 1890 | Rotterdam, Netherlands.................. 209,136 78 ISGO |) IWeinRomis,, Winmivecl SWANS. cons sncoceu Gace oe 205,876 73) WS Siac ae Ballermro italy tere pee marer ae eee tinenrs = 205,712 80 TSO Wiest llama shina lands eee eee iar 204,902 81 1890 | Milwaukee, United States................ 204,468 82 SOO. |e Macdebures| Germanys secession: 202,235 85 WEI |) IUMMe, WENOES ceonascapscsscogemop ane gnc 201,211 84 Wor | EVES GuNClMel, ISAO clocos ods sce cag geeole ar 200,755 85 US Soe Sauauiac ow Olam iy in ipa otic ce Orne me 200,000 86 1891 | Kingston-on-Hull, England............... 199,991 87 Itsets) A dalenenorn Oop meimmare Boden. aes onco soc 198,261 88 UO | Seilliomel, Wiley occ co Gaccsovedoosedcns 198,136 89 TUS elehe ABR e hi eaD ESI Caen mmeN ay iS BIBI AN. oe ie G.- 195,668 90 TSO ine Welinn Macias eco fi)... a ese eee are 193,580 91 ISAS, | NEON MATES CRM ORR OUE oso too co 6 188,469 92 OI | Nimoy, IGN ews buaabcscsdcoucoccecus 187,910 93 Solem Newcastle) bneland:.: 2.7.0 meee 186,345 94 ISON ao Suu overzn CYONKe euavery NORMA ogres cokcaascone 184,554 95 TSO0R eeraewe eeumMeary... 2. Pit oee BE ae 184,109 96 TSO WORSE lta USSTas 0, . O) ih rece eee ew ett 185,640 97 LBOte Fi Caympores [aGiay. .. : 2/6) ieee. = 183,210 98 SO eNew ake Umitede Statesh = aera es 181,850 99 ISeil |) Werrointie, zwei ceonne coc AS Nema p eS 65 181,220 100 ISO | IRamMeco, WiNChe Ske ouec coos esr oemupndoe 181,210 13—Nar. Grog. Mac., von. V, 1893. 92 - A. W. Greely—The Worlds Citres. In view of the preponderating influence exercised by great cities upon the progress and welfare of the world, it is extremely interesting to note that more than one-half of the cities herein named are either populated by English-speaking races or are under their control. Of these fifty-two cities, two are in Aus- tralia, two in Canada, one in China, two in Hegypt, thirteen in England, ten in India, two in Ireland, two in Scotland, one in Singapore and seventeen in the United States. It is not the purpose of this sketch to investigate the causes which particularly favor the enormous aggregations in modern cities, for such causes must. be complex, local, and numerous. It is evident, however, at a glance, that the elements of easy transportation and a moderately rigorous climate are the most frequent concomitants, if they are not the predominating causes. As some one not very wisely remarked, ‘it is fortunate that great rivers run by so many great cities,” and in this list but few cities are found which have not facilities for water transpor- tation. By far the greater number of large cities are situated climatically in an average temperature between 45° and 55°. In the parts of Europe and America where these annual tem- peratures prevail there is one city of 100,000 inhabitants to about every 2,000,000 of population. In Russia there is only one such city to over 9,000,000, and in India one to over 10,000,000 souls. With but few exceptions the populous cities of the world are - the product of the age, as is illustrated by the fact that at the beginning of this century the United States had no city of one hundred thousand inhabitants, while now it has twenty- eight; England had one only, now it has twenty-four. ‘OUR YOUNGEST VOLCANO BY J. S. DILLER (Presented before the Society April 28, 1893) Our youngest volcano is in Alaska. There was an eruption at Bogoslov in October, 1883, and at other points since then, and there can be no doubt whatever concerning the existence of active volcanoes in Alaska. In our own country, exclusive of Alaska, there may be some doubt whether living voleanoes exist. It is well known to all, no doubt, that the greatest volcanic region in the world lies in the northwestern part of our own country, occupying a large tract in Idaho, Washington, Oregon and California. There were many active volcanoes there during the middle and latter portions of the Tertiary period, and there is still a considerable number of them which can hardly be called extinct. Frequent reports of volcanic eruption may be seen in western newspapers, but the large majority of them are of doubtful authenticity. There is considerable evidence, however, that in 1842-45 mount Baker and mount Saint Helens, in Washington, discharged large quantities of “ashes ” with which the adjacent country was covered as with a light fall of snow. Professor Davidson, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Mr J. 8. Hittel report eruptions of mount Baker in 1854, 1858 and 1870. These reports are based on observations made at long range, and so far as I know have not been corroborated by actual ascent of the mountain. Dr Harkness, of San Francisco, reported to the California Academy of Sciences a volcanic eruption in Plumas county of that state, at a point about ten miles northeast of Lassen peak. He found the trees near the lava were scorched as if by the heat of the lava at the time of the eruption. He visited the locality, 94 JS. Diller—Our Youngest Volcano. and from data he gathered there, with historical evidence from natives and early settlers in the Sacramento valley, he concluded that the eruption occurred in January, 1850. In 1885 Captain (now Major) Dutton and I visited the region and, approaching it from the same side as Dr Harkness did, saw no reason whatever to doubt his conclusions. A few years pre- vious Major Dutton had studied the active volcanoes of the Sandwich islands, and he was deeply impressed with the new- ness in the appearance of the lava field and cinder cone north- east of Lassen peak. Later in the same season I revisited the volcano alone for the purpose of studying the phenomena more thoroughly, and found good reason for believing that it is very much older than was at first supposed. Pine trees grow from terminal buds in joints at the rate of one joint each year; so it was thought that if we could finda living tree that was well scorched we could climb up and count the number of joints above the scorching and could thus dis- cover the number of years since the eruption. We started out around the lava field to find a suitable tree, but to our great surprise on the further side of the lava field the scorched sides of the trees were away from the lava, so that it was evident that the scorching was not produced by the lava. A little further examination convinced us that a forest fire had swept through that region from the north and scorched all the trees more or less on that side. We returned to the cinder cone and, finding large pine trees growing close to the cone, it was doubted whether the trees could have survived so close to the voleano. The question arose as to the thickness of the layer of volcanic sand near the cone where the trees were growing ; and with soup-plates for shovels (we had no better in camp) we dug down to find the bottom, but the loose sand caved in and we could not penetrate it. A quarter of a mile away from the base of the cinder cone another attempt was made, and at that distance the layer of volcanic sand was found to be seven feet thick. Of course, it was evident at once that no living trees in the neighborhood could have survived such a shower of hot * ashes.” The large living trees must have erown up entirely since the eruption. Near the cinder cone there are some dead trees which have been partially burned, Examining these it was found that they had Relation of the old and new Forest Trees. o8 not grown on the top of the layer of volcanic sand like the living trees, but that they extended down through this layer to the original soil beneath. The relation of the old and new forest trees, as well as that of the stumps of the older forest, is shown in the accompanying sketch (figure 5).* It is evident that the tree from the original soil beneath is older than the eruption, and that since the tree was either dead 1 Volcanic Ashes Lapilli &c 2 Original soil. 3 Present forest tree 4 Tree of former forest killed by shower of Volcanic Ashes Sand kc. 5S Pit formed by the decay of old forest tree..., Fieure 3.—Relations of older and younger Forests to volcanic Sand. or killed at that time and has not completely decayed, that the eruption cannot have occurred many centuries ago. Of the time that has since elapsed we have some measure in the age of the living trees. In thesame region the timber is cut for lumber, and by counting the number of rings of growth it was found that Hula eroded fone, Bulletin 7 79, Law 8. ‘coon Survey, 1891, p. 96 J. S. Diller—Our Youngest Volcano. largest trees near the cinder cone are not less than 200 years old, so that the eruption at the cinder cone must have occurred a little more than 200 years ago. On the whole, it would seem probable, therefore, that our youngest volcano south of Alaska is not the cinder cone ten miles northeast of Lassen peak as once supposed, but is most likely to prove to be mount Baker, in Washington. We a ig ms ee vie WHT . J eee ¢ 7 JANUARY 81,1894 | PROCEEDINGS , GHOGRAPHIC CONFERENCE Soy eae oe ee ee \ IRCORPORAT eee . A.D1883, _ : ; “WASHINGTON : tire Nariowat. Gro bivcnuGie VoL. V, PP. 97-256 JANUARY 31, 1894 Wale NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE PROCEEDINGS OF THE INTERNATIONAL GHOGRAPHIC CONFERENCE IN CHICAGO JULY 27-28, 1893 CONTENTS Page iniroduction 8)... ehh TO A EA ae apa te ee agate pM ge lh 98 Ninantes ofthe Conference. . 000. .6: 25. cneaeaes =. Brean Wear a enn 3 101 Wremnanmsdanide AG GKeSSeS! Mii) 4G, Bole ce er breton oes eater ic Lie late Sle 112 The Relations of Air and Water to ca csa ainine and Life; by COARDENERY Gn UELUBBARD. Airs nemean te oe Meme AE as oe P88 112 The Relations of Geography to History; by Francis W. Parker. 125 Norway and the Vikings; by Caprain MaGnus ANDERSEN....... 132 Geographic Instruction in the public Schools; by W. B. Powetu. 137 The Relations of Geology to Physiography in our educational SiS bemuucntoiyy Wise Ce (CEUANEE RIL UNi 2 mae ane Mee dais cee Sat ein css 154 The Relations of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current; by AWAnTaIEACME EGER EY OWN TOR. Sais oss eae sider meets a cae yi nae tant ne 161 - The arid Regions of the United States; by F. H. Newerr...... 167 Recent Explorations in Alaska; by Exvizs Runaman Scrpmore.. 173 The Caravels of Columbus; by Vicror Marra Concas.......... 180 In the Wake of Columbus; by Frrepmrick A. OBER............. 187 Recent Disclosures concerning pre-Columbian Voyages to Amer- ica in the Archives of the Vatican; by Winnram Everoy Curtis. 197 Early Voyages along the Northwestern Coast of America; by SHOR G MEDAN IOSONRE) iis cinch ti. Monte meen gunna en! i) 285 14—Nar. Grog. Maa., von. V, 1893. (97) INTRODUCTION. Inasmuch as the World’s Columbian Exposition, held at Chicago, Illinois, from May 1 to October 30, 1898, was in com- memoration of the greatest geographic discovery of recorded history, the NationaL GroGRAPHIC Socipty. felt that in some manner American geographers should participate therein. Since space and means were lacking for the installation and main- tenance in the Columbian Exposition of a geographic exhibit fittingly illustrating the evolution of geographic discovery and exploration in the American hemisphere, it became necessary to devise other means of celebrating the discovery of our hemis- phere by Columbus. For these reasons the President and Board of Managers of this Society took into consideration the advisability of participat- ing in the series of remarkable congresses which were to be held at Chicago during the period of the Exposition. It was thought that a separate congress of geography was inadvisable and that a meeting to be designated a “Conference of American and European geographers,” should form a section of the World’s Congress of Education. This decision was formally approved by the Society, and action in accordance therewith was promptly initiated. The Board of Managers decided that this conference should be held under the auspices of the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, and with this view appointed the following committee with full powers in the premises: The Honorable Gardiner G. Hubbard, General A. W. Greely, Dr T. C. Mendenhall, Professor W. B. Powell, and Professor T. C. Chamberlin. - The United States Commissioner of Education, the Honorable William T. Harris, President of the World’s Congress of Educa- tion, cordially approved of the plans of the committee and offered all possible facilities for their satisfactory completion. The preliminary notices were incorporated in the program of the World’s Congress of Education. The Hall of Washington, Art Institute Building, was assigned as a place of meeting, and two days, Thursday and Friday, July 27 and 28, 1898, were set apart for a “ Conference of American and Kuropean geog- raphers” by authority of the Congress of Education. 3 (98) . ry +s Foreign Societies Participating. 99 Formal invitations, in the name of the NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC Soctery, were extended to the principal geographic societies of the world to participate in the Conference by delegates, or by the presentation of memoirs, and many favorable replies were received. The Conference met on the designated day ; its pro- ceedings were marked by a degree of interest and an attendance quite beyond the expectations of the committee, and it is be- lieved that it exercised a material and beneficial influence toward the study of geography in the United States. With a view of affording variety to the meetings, and also of utilizing, in the interests of the Conference, the numerous objects of geographic interest in the Columbian Exposition, it was de- cided that the sessions of July 27 should be held in the Art Institute Building, Chicago, and those of July 28 within the Exposition grounds. As this Conference was the first international meeting of ‘geographers in America, the Board of Managers of the NaTionaL GEOGRAPHIC Society deem it proper to publish, under the auspices of the Society, the record of this Conference, together with such of the memoirs as it has been found practicable to incorporate therewith. Among the countries and societies which showed their lively interest in the Conference by designating delegates are the fol- lowing : BRAZIL. Instituto Historico Geografico y Ethnografico (Rio de Ja- neiro); delegate, Baron de Marajo. FRANCE. Société de Géographie (Paris) ; delegate, M HE. Levasseur, Mem- bre de l'Institut. _ Société de Géographie de Lille; delegate, M Paul le Blau. ENGLAND. Royal Geographical Society ; delegate, Colonel Sir Casimir S. Gzowski, K. C.M.G. Manchester Geographical Society; delegate, Mr James D. Wilde, Member of the Council. 100 International Geographic Conference. MEXICO. Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica ; delegate, Sefior Dr D. Inau N. Navarro, Consul-General of Mexico at New York. PORTUGAL. La Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa ; delegate, Mme Regina Maney. SCOTLAND. Royal Scottish Geographical Society; delegates, Dr George Smith, C. I. E., LL.D., Member of the Council, and the Honor- able John Abercrombie. UNITED STATES. American Geographical Society (New York); delegate, Pro- fessor William Libbey, Junior. The Geographical Society of the eae (San Francisco) ; delegate, Professor George Davidson, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, President of the Society. . The NatronaAL GEOGRAPHIC Society was represented’ by the Honorable Gardiner G. Hubbard, President, and General A. W. Greely, U.S. Army, Vice-President, as delegates ; Miss EH. R. Scid- more and Mr F. H. Newell, Secretaries; Professor William B.- Powell, of the Board of Managers ; Major J. W. Powell, Director Uitiea States Geological Senay Colonel F. W. Pigs and others. MINUTES OF THE CONFERENCE F. H. NEWELL AND ELIZA R. SCIDMORE, Secretaries The sessions were opened in the hall of Washington, Art Institute building, Chicago} at 10 o’clock a m, July 27, 1895. There were present about four hundred individuals, including delegates and invited guests. The Honorable Gardiner G. Hubbard, President of the Na- TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SovrETy, was called to the chair as presiding officer of the Conference, and Mr F. H. Newell was appointed Recording Secretary. Several communications from societies and individuals were laid before the Conference. The Royal Geographical Society, through its Secretary, Mr J. Scott Keltie, expressed its sincere regret that it could not be represented by a member of its Council in addition to the regu- lar delegate, Sir C.8. Gzowski. The Royal Scottish Geographical Society, through its Secre- tary Colonel Fred. Bailey, offered its congratulations to the Con- ~ ference and expressed its cordial good wishes for the success of _so important an assemblage. Dato Sri Amar d’Rajah, of the Johore Commission, regretted that his unexpected departure for HKurope prevented him from reading a paper on Johore. On the part of the Johore Commis- sion he expressed the hope to be able shortly to present the first complete map of Johore ever published. Baron de Marajo, delegate of the Instituto Historico Geog- - rafico y Ethnografico de Rio de Janeiro, expressed the very lively interest of himself and the society he represented in the Confer- ence, and presented nine volumes of geographic researches, etc, published by his society. While he could not then speak on the geography of Brazil, he promised a memoir thereon for future publication. | : Sefior Graciano A. de Azambuja, Commissioner from Brazil, congratulated the Conference on its meeting, and promised for publication a paper on the development of southern Brazil. M KE. Levasseur, Membre de l’Institut, delegate from the Société de Géographie of Paris, wrote from New York that im- (101) OZR International Geograph Conference. paired health prevented his attendance, greatly to his regret. His thirty years of geographic study and research inspired him with an intense desire to participate actively in the discussions of the Conference. He had hoped to set forth the importance of economic geography, and enclosed a bibliography of his works. General John Eaton, formerly United States Commissioner of Education, took the Chair and presented to the Conference the Honorable Gardiner G. Hubbard, who made the opening address, treating of the relations of the currents of air and water to the temperature of countries and to animal and vegetal life. Honorable John Abercrombie, delegate from the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, spoke briefly as follows: Mr Prestpent, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: Though here to rep- resent the Royal Scottish Geographical Society I had not in- » tended to address the Conference, as [am not a professional geographer, and indeed have only been actively associated with the work of the Society for less than a year; I come rather to pick up information than to impart it, rather in the capacity of an absorbent sponge than as an overcharged rain-cloud. Such ~ being the case, I confine myself to giving a brief summary of the origin and work of my own Society. The Royal Scottish Geographical Society was formed some nine or ten years ago with the laudable object of educating the Scottish public in the subject of geography and of keeping them thoroughly informed of the progress made in the subject in all parts of the world through the medium of a monthly magazine, which I am glad to say has also a certain circulation in the United States. Some of the earlier numbers contain valua-. ble papers on the various methods employed by map-makers — to overcome the inherent difficulty of transferring geographic points on an irregular globular surface like the earth to a flat surface like that ofa map. Other technical matters have also been treated of at various times, so that the magazine has a real educational value apart from the papers descriptive of travel, adventure and the strange habits and customs of savage peoples. Our late secretary, Mr A. Silva White, contributed more than one monograph on the geography and history of that part of eastern Africa in which Great Britain and Germany are more nearly interested, and they will always possess a permanent value, Spelling of Gaclic Names. 108 In order to popularize the subject.as much as possible, papers are read monthly before the members of the Society and their friends for nine months every year. Most of the explorers who have read papers before the Royal Geographical Society of Lon- don are willing to speak before us in Edinburgh as well as at our branch societies at Glaszow and Aberdeen. The first speaker to address our new-born Society was Mr Stanley after his return from one of his earlier travels of exploration in the great African continent; and the session this year was expected to close by an address from Lieutenant Peary, on his projected expedition in the direction of the North Pole. Unfortunately a letter arrived from him shortly before I left home expressing regret that owing to unforeseen circumstances he was obliged to abandon his scheme of coming to lecture in Great Britain before the de- parture of his expedition. IT ought not to omit to mention that though we are a private society and receive no aid from the government, our brary and the privilege of consulting maps, books and consular reports is freely opened to the public. Considerable use is made of these facilities by persons engaged in commerce, and almost daily our librarian is consulted by those who are not members of the Society, but are desirous of obtaining commercial information in regard to foreign countries. In this way the Society distinctly - benefits the public. Another way in which the public may re- ceive instruction free of cost is by courses of lectures on physical geography or geology in relation to geography, on the distribu- tion of plants and animals over the globe, and other kindred subjects. These lectures are given either by a member of the Society or by some other competent person, and are generally well attended, especially by the young and by the fair sex. The most important work on which a committee of my Society is now engaged is a thorough and complete revision of the spell- ing of the Gaelic and worse names in northern Scotland, in con- junction with the director of the Ordnance Survey of the United Kingdom. On existing maps the Gaelic names are not always given correctly ; the spelling is irregular, and when given cor- rectly cannot be pronounced properly by a person ignorant of Gaelic and its remarkable spelling. For instance, in the island of Skye the Calin hills are spelt on the ordnance map Cuchulin, as if they were called after the old Irish hero of that name, though they have never received that designation from the people 104 International Geographic Conference. of Skye. The committee is proceeding in this manner: Every local name on the map is submitted to three or four of the oldest men in the parish, and their pronunciation is taken down by a person speaking Gaelic. In this way the local pronunciation is surely fixed, and if the words have a significant meaning they can easily be written in standard literary Gaelic if that should differ from the local pronunciation. As I am not on the com- mittee myself, | am not certain whether the words are to be given phonetically on the map or according to literary usage in Gaelic; but I have no doubt that they ought to be rendered phonetically, so that even those unversed in Gaelic would be able to read them correctly. Old Irish was written as it was pronounced, but unfortunately the faddists of the sixteenth century—for there were faddists even in those days—invented an absurd rule, opposed to every philological principle, and still in force, which they called in Irish or Gaelic, “ caol ri caol, leathan ri leathan ;” that is to say, if there is a slender vowel, an e or an i, in the first syllable, then the first vowel of the next syllable must be slender. Similarly, if the vowel of the first syllable is broad, as a, 0, u, the first vowel of the second syllable must also be broad. These extraneous, inorganic vowels do not affect the pronunciation, and in a reformed spelling ought cer- tainly to be omitted. Another fruitful source of inaccuracy in writing Gaelic words arises from spelling in accordance with a fanciful and in reality a baseless etymology. The dictionary of the Highland Society and O’Brien’s Irish Dictionary are full of examples of this sort, though there is this excuse for them, that both were compiled before philology became an exact science and before old Irish of the ninth and tenth centuries was known to the learned world. The task which the committee has to accomplish is therefore by no means an easy one. Another subject which the Royal Scottish Geographical Society has had under consideration, though no action has yet been taken, is one that relates to lake basins. On all our ordnance maps the configuration of the earth’s surface always ceases with the surface of the water; no soundings are given, no under-water contours, and all knowledge of the bottom of the lakes is left to the imagination. Such a state of things is clearly inexcusable, but unfortunately the funds of the society are in- sufficient for the task. The Admiralty, which considers fresh- water lakes beyond its province and draws the line at salt water, Definition of Geography. 105 has been applied to but without success, and so for the present the subject is in abeyance. General A. W. Greely, chairman of the committee on awards of prizes of THr NatTIoNAL GnroGRAPHIC Society, made an an- nouncement of the progress of the committee and of the steps taken to call public attention to the generous offer of the Society. The chairman then introduced Mme Regina Maney, delegate from La Sociedade de Geographia de Lisboa, who made a few remarks concerning the attitude of that society and of the Por- tuguese people toward the Conference. General John Haton, ex-Commissioner of Education of the United States, presented the following address on the relations which may or should exist between THE Natrona GEOGRAPHIC Socrety and geographic instruction. Mr Presipent, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: Voluntary activity in America for the benefit of mankind has an almost boundless opportunity. Toe NavrioNAL GEOGRAPHIC Socrety, as one of our voluntary agencies, has proposed to itself as one of its object the promo- tion of the knowledge of geography among the people of the United States. Geography in its narrower sense, as a description of the surface of the earth which we inhabit, lays under contribution various sciences, and includes topics of deep interest. Its literature is not a collection of meaningless words. Geographic discovery with its thrilling adventures is by no means at an end. But geography in its larger sense not only includes as is said, “ The forms and measures of the earth, its astronomical relations, the relative positions and distances of places, and the representa- tions of the whole or portions of its surface on globes or maps,” which is known as mathematical geography; it describes as well “ The principal features of the earth’s surface as consisting of land and water, its atmosphere, its climate, and its various animal and vegetable and mineral productions,” which is called physical geography; it also considers “ The earth as the abode of mankind,” and treats of all that relates to the moral or social condition of the different races or nations which dwell upon it. So comprehensive is geography in its bald definition. As mankind in all conditions must have a definite habitat on the face of the earth, so knowledge in all its forms has a local 15—Nat. Grog. Mag., von. V, 1893. 106 International Geographic Conference. habitation. Shakespeare has taught us that when the poet would make real “‘ Forms of things unknown,” he gives To airy nothings A local habitation and a name. Herein is recognized a law with which both the action of mind and the logic of the subject of thought are in accord. This fact is of supreme importance to the educator. He who has the facts in human progress fixed in the place where they occurred has a ready index to the history of mankind—to what man has thought and done. He may at will call up any actor, event, science, or philosophy. He has only to introduce the element of time to unfold, in order and at will, the record man has made for himself as he has ordered his ways under the hand of his Creator. Naturally, as the oak springs from the acorn, the human mind follows the tree from the seed to the fruitage, and in obedience to this law we have, in teaching, the historical method. Naturally, too, the mind looks on this and on that and compares one with another, and in obedience to this law we have, in teaching, the comparative method. Geography can furnish from its stores untold data adapted to use in both of these methods most essential to successful instruc- tion. Out of its data may be drawn in the greatest abundance that which is fitted to the attention and understanding and to awaken the interest of beginners in school and of those of any grade of progress. If this view is correct, it cannot be doubted that schools among us have treated geography and related sub- jects most unfitly. Asa result, there has been inattention where there should have been attention, dullness where there should have been enthusiasm, waste where there should have been gain. Let geography be put in its proper place and treated ac-- cording to sound pedagogical principles, and all that pupils acquire of what man is and what man has thought and done will be gained, with less waste of time, energy and purpose and with far more satisfactory results, in other subjects of instruction. Geography, if rightly taught, will furnish the pupil what is needed for nourishment of mind on the one hand, and for dis- cipline on the other. It will not unbalance the faculties ; it will not cultivate reason to the injury of memory, or reflection to the destruction of expression, or vice versa. Here, therefore, in this Department of Education, there is most ample scope for the efforts of the National GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. Objects of the Society. 107 Voluntary in its methods of action, it may move with all the free- dom consistent with good reason. It has before it as its objects, (1) The perfection of geography itself; (2) The dissemination of the data of geography; (3) The selection of the data and their adaptation to other subjects of instruction and to the best results in teaching; (4) The training of all teachers in the right knowl- edge of the subjects and in the best methods of teaching them for pupils in all grades; and (5) The devising and use of all objects, graphics or stereoptics, and other aids in illustration to make most effective the presentation of places, persons, events, and their relations. Thus, travel will unite instruction with diversion. For the student, man, races, nations will arise and take their places on the stage of action in their true relation and character. } THe NATIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC Society, voluntary in its character as we have noticed, in promoting its great ends by improving the methods of education, may ally itself with all codperative official agencies. Its purposes are most strictly in accord with the statutes regulating that great disseminating agency, the United States Bureau of Education, now so ably and efficiently administered by its Commissioner, the Honorable W. T. Harris. By the aid of the facilities of that Bureau and the great confi- dence reposed init, the Society may bring its helpful service, by its leadership, prizes, lectures and publications, to the aid of every teacher and school in the land; other nations, too, may gain its cooperation; and thus it may accomplish the great and beneficent purpose of its honored president and his collaborators. Following General Eaton’s address the Chairman announced : We have with us to-day a friend who promised to speak pro- vided his name was not placed on the program. He will now address you; Major J. W. Powell, Director of the United States Geological Survey. Major Powell addressed the Conference as follows: Mr Prestpent, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN: The occasion on which we meet, the anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus, notes a great geographic event, the greatest event of human history. It had a wonderful influence on the world, this discovery of America of which you have heard so much during the past year; and it had an influence in a direction which perhaps you have not considered, 108 International Geographic Conference. Prior to the discovery of America, all the humbugs of the , world gathered under the skirts of religion. /If any man had a nostrum which he wished to vend or a doctrine which he wished to inculcate, he claimed that it was a revelation from heaven. Somehow or other the discovery of America changed all that. Up to that time the people of the world had not believed the earth to be round. Here and there a scholar believed it, but the teachings of scientific men and scholars had but little effect on the world at large. When Columbus proved by sailing across the sea that the earth is actually round, that it is in fact a globe, so that the great multitude of people themselves came at last to believe it, it made science respectable; and when the feat of Columbus had the effect of making science respectable, people came ultimately to place on the shoulders of science the respon- sibility for all the humbugs of the world. If a man now has a wonderful nostrum which he wishes to vend, he does not say it was revealed to him by heaven, but it was taught to him by sci- ence; if a man wants to bombard the heavens for rain, it is scientific to do it; if a man wants to recover the lost rivers of the arid regions, he has some scientific theory on which to do that work. So science has come at last to be the bolster and the foundation of very many of the humbugs of the world. That is not all. Science has gone forward to accomplish something, and since the time of Columbus science has accom- plished much in the great field of geography. The earth has three envelopes, movable, ever-changeable, moving vertically and moving horizontally. There is one envelope of air, another of water, and another of rock. These three envelopes are chang- ing their positions, moving back and forth over the surface of the earth horizontally, and rising and falling forever; three ereat classes of movements are discovered on the surface of the earth—one in the air, one in the water, and one in the rocks themselves. We study the movements of the atmosphere in modern scientific geography, and have learned much about them. Your president has to-day learnedly placeds before you some most interesting results of scientific investigations in rela- tion to the movements of the atmosphere and the movement of the waters of the earth. As the winds blow about the earth, and the air rolls in vertical movements, storms gather and hur- ricanes blow here and there, and thus we find that the whole aérial envelope is forever in motion. In a similar manner the watery envelope is forever in motion; it is not alone moving in The Earth's three Envelopes. 109 currents in the ocean and in great rivers, but it is forever moving vertically. In some portions of the earth 20 inches of water are evaporated every year, and in other portions 120 inches, and the envelope of water, varying from 20 to 120 inches in thickness, is lifted into the heavens and descends again as rain every year. There is a third envelope of the earth, which is in the same manner in motion: Modern geography is no longer engaged simply in the study of the position of geographical localities, no longer engaged solely in measuring the depths of the ‘seas and the heights of the mountains, no longer engaged in simply de- lineating the currents of the seas and the winds which blow about the earth, but modern geographic science has come to study the origin of the land areas and the reason why the rivers run where they do and why the waters circulate as they do, and it is especially throwing vast light in modern times, in the last decade or two, on the origin of land forms; it is classify- ing valleys, it is classifying plateaus, it is classifying mountains and hills and explaining their origin, it is classifying islands. This study of physiography, this new branch of the study of geography, is being cultivated in many lands, and it has dis- covered that there is an envelope of rock moving horizontally with the waters as the rivers wash the hills and valleys and mountains, and moving vertically by upheaval from beneath and by the pouring out of volcanic lavas from below; so that the three movable envelopes of the earth, the air, the water and the geologic formations of the rocky envelope, are forever in motion, and the laws of these motions are being studied. It is thus that a new theme is being introduced into the study of our schools; and the reason that geography is in this Conference allied with education is that these new facts, new laws, new principles of this systematic knowledge in relation to the earth, are to be introduced into our schools; and it forms a theme of wonderful interest. Colonel Francis W. Parker, principal of the Cook County Normal School, read a paper entitled “The Relation of Geog- raphy to History.” It is printed on later pages. Captain Magnus Andersen, of the ship Viking, delivered an address on ‘‘ Norway and the Vikings.” ‘This address also will be found on later pages. At 1 p m the session was adjourned for two hours. 110 International Geographic Conference. AFTERNOON SEssion, July 27, 1893. At 3 p m the Conference was resumed, about 200 persons being present. The first paper, “Geographic Instruction in the puble Schools,” was by Professor W. B. Powell, Superintendent of Public Schools, Washington, D. C. Professor T. C. Chamberlin, representing the University of Chicago, read an essay on “ The Relations of Geology to Physi- ography in our educational System.” Professor William Libbey, Junior, delegate from the American Geographical Society of New York, spoke briefly on ‘‘ The Rela- tions of the Gulf Stream and the Labrador Current off the New England Coast,” describing his researches into the effect of these currents on the distribution of food-fishes. Mr F. H. Newell, United States Geological Survey, read a paper entitled ‘The arid Regions of the United States.” These communications appear among the “memoirs and ad= dresses” appended hereto. The session was then adjourned until 8 p m. EVENING Session, July 27, 1893. At 8 pm President Hubbard introduced General A. W. Greely, United States Army, who delivered an address on interpolar expeditions, making especial reference to his own expedition, the explorations of Lieutenant Lockwood and the terrible suf- ferings and partial destruction of the party on their retreat. There were about 500 persons present. At 9.30 p m the Conference adjourned to meet next morning at the monastery of La Rabida, in the Fair grounds, Jackson park, and afterward to continue the session at 11 a m in Recital hall. Frinay, July 28, 1898. The members of the Conference met in Jackson park, where, through the courtesy of Mr William E. Curtis, chief of the Latin- American department, they had the exclusive use of the mon- astery of La Rabida from 9to 11am. Mr Curtis and Captain John G. Bourke, United States Army, escorted the members through the monastery and explained the precious collection of historical papers there exhibited. At 11 am President Hubbard called the session to order in Recital hall, introducing Miss E. R. Scidmore, who read a paper entitled ‘‘ Recent Explorations in Alaska,” printed elsewhere, Closing of the Conference. aL Dr Adolph Ernst, Venezuelan Commissioner to the World’s Columbian Exposition, delivered an address on “ Venezuela,” and Ensign Roger Welles, Junior, United States Navy, described a trip up the Orinoco river. Dr Emil Hassler, Paraguayan Commissoner to the Exposition, was present, but asked to be excused from attempting an ad- dress in English. The Brazilian commissioners to the World’s Columbian Ex- position, Sefor Graciano A. de Azambuja and Baron de Marajo, while expressing their highest regards, also made their apologies for not participating more fully. At 1 p m the meeting adjourned until 3 p m. AFTERNOON SEssIon, July 28, 1893. Present about 100 persons. President Hubbard first intro- duced Captain John G. Bourke, United States Army, who read a paper on the history of the old monastery of La Rabida, de- scribing the changes in that part of Spain in which it is located. Paul B. du Chaillu then spoke of his travels among the Norsemen and of the character of their ancestors, the Vikings. Captain Victor Maria Concas, commandant of the Spanish caravels, related what is known of the history of the caravels of Columbus, and upheld the Spanish sovereigns and their court. Mr Frederick A. Ober read a paper entitled ‘“ In the Wake of Columbus,” reciting his searches for relics of Columbus and his examinations of the places at which Columbus probably landed. Honorable William E. Curtis, in a paper entitled “‘ Recent Dis- coveries in the Archives of the Vatican regarding early Norse Voy- ages to America,” described his successful search for records re- garding the probable early Norse voyages to America, and stated that there was evidence there showing a knowledge of land in the direction of North America. Several of these papers are appended. The representative of the Rajah of Johore was not able to be present, owing to an unexpected call to London. At 5 pm the Conference adjourned sine die. MEMOIRS AND ADDRESSES RELATIONS OF AIR AND WATER TO TEMPERATURE AND LIFE BY HONORABLE GARDINER G. HUBBARD PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Circulation of Air and Water. It was said in olden times, ‘‘ The wind bloweth where it listeth, and thow hearest the sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth.” That which was unknown, science hath revealed. The wind in its currents is governed and directed by laws as fixed as those of the solar system. If a moisture-laden wind passes over the country it leaves the land fruitful; but a dry wind leaves it barren. The currents of air are among the most important fac- tors in the physical geography of our earth, affecting not only soil and climate but also vegetal and animal life. The winds obtain their moisture through evaporation, which goes on everywhere and at all times; in the equatorial and polar oceans, from the rich cultivated soil and the arid desert, from the valley and the snow-clad mountain. MReclus tells us that the evaporation from the equatorial ocean is from 15 to 16 feet a year. This estimate is confirmed by the United States Geological Survey, which found the evaporation from the south- ern Colorado river to be 102 inches, or nearly 9 feet in a year. The quantity of water evaporated from the land must be very large, as only about two-fifths of the rainfall is returned by the rivers to the ocean. A great part, probably more than one-half of this quantity, is reévaporated to fall the second and third time as rain. The movements of the atmosphere depend either directly or indirectly on differences of temperature ; without these differ- (112) The Origin of Trade Winds. 113 ences the air and ocean would be stagnant. There is a constant interchange of atmosphere between the equator and the poles. Cool air from the north blows toward the equator, first in a southwesterly, then in a westerly direction, crossing the Atlantic about the tropic of Cancer. Cool air from the south blows in a northwesterly and westerly direction, and crosses the Atlantic near the equator. The difference of solar accession between the equator and the poles gives the northward and southward mo- tion to these currents; the revolution of the earth on its axis gives the westerly motion. These air currents are the great trade winds which wafted Columbus across the Atlantic and Magellan across the Pacific. The trade winds of the northern Atlantic are about 20° in width from north to south; those of the southern Atlantic are not quite so wide. These winds oscillate northward in August and southward in February, following the sun. Between the trade winds of the north and the trade winds of the south there is a zone of calm. While the winds blow over the land as well as-over the ocean, their movements, interrupted by hills and mountains and af- fected by temperature, lose that broad sweep and uniformity so characteristic of the ocean. Return currents of warm air blow across the ocean from the torrid zone toward the northeast in the northern Atlantic, and toward the southeast in the southern Atlantic. The trade winds, or equatorial currents, blow around the world from east to west ; the polar currents blow from west to east. The ereat ocean currents follow the same general courses as the wind system. Their movements are initiated by differences in density, caused chiefly by temperature and by evaporation ; yet the larger part of the motive power is derived from the wind. These movements have been ascertained by years of observation on vessels in every ocean, sea and gulf, by the cumu- lative evidence of drifting objects, some of which have had their influence on the spread of vegetal and animal life and even civilization itself, and by the researches of scientific exploring expeditions to polar regions and remote islands. These oceanic movements are as well understood as those of the great atmos- pheric ocean above us. When water has acquired its movement, the configuration of the bottom of the ocean and of the shore line, the rotation of the 16—Nar. Grog. Maa., von. V, 1893. 114. G. G. Hubbard—Avw and Water, Temperature and Infe. globe on its axis, and the direction and velocity of the wind modify its movement. South America. By this circulation the equatorial waters of the Atlantic blow across that ocean, impinge against the coast of South America, and are deflected northward and southward. The southeasterly trade winds blowing over it become surcharged with moisture and pass directly up the valley of the Amazon, watering the earth with frequent rains for 2,000 miles to the foot-hills of the Andes, where some of this moisture is deflected by the moun- tains southeastward to water southern Brazil; the remainder ascends the slopes of the Andes until it is condensed and falls as rain and snow, and only dry winds blow across the compara- tively narrow plains between the Andes and the Pacific. The vapor from the Atlantic falling in rain over the valley of the Amazon and along the eastern slope of the Andes and the Cor- dilleras Hows back to the ocean through the Orinoco, the Amazon and la Plata, and makes the interior of South America one of the richest countries of the world. The Amazon, a great mediterranean sea as it is often rightly called, is projected into the heart of the continent. Its total fall from the foot-hills of the Cordilleras to the ocean is not over 300 or 400 feet, affording for the largest vessels uninterrupted navi- gation and innumerable harbors for 1,500 miles into the interior, and 1,000 miles further for smaller vessels. The aggregate navi- gable waters of the main stream and its tributaries are estimated at 50,000 miles. The moist winds abundantly water the valley and modify its climate. Their influence in tempering the climate is felt directly more than 1,000 miles up the valley, and indi- rectly still further, through the shadows thrown by the clouds and through the rainfall and the cooling effect of the drops of rain falling from a high altitude. It is from 8° to 10° cooler than on either side of this rain belt, and it is more healthful than other equatorial regions. The tropical woods are so thick and the creepers and undergrowth so luxuriant that animal life - is almost entirely confined to the trees above and the waters below. Nature has thus far been more powerful than man, who has struggled in vain to subdue this fertile valley to his use. The winds that pass up the valley of Rio de la Plata to the mountains of Peru, Bolivia and Argentina are not so heavily The South American Lowland. 115 charged with moisture as those of the Amazon valley; conse- quently the thick forests and dense vegetation gradually disap- pear, and, instead of an inland sea, there are vast plains or pampas, over which roam herds that could not live in the valley of the Amazon. ‘Thus the difference in the rainfall changes the entire vegetal and animal life. Through the center of South America, from the Caribbean sea to the straits of Magellan, there is a vast stretch of lowland through which run the waters of the Orinoco, Amazon and la Plata, with low divides between their valleys. A boat can pass up the Orinoco, thence by Cassiquiare river to the Rio Negro,a branch of the Amazon, thence through the Amazon and its branches to a low divide between the valleys of the Amazon and Rio de la Plata. Here there is a carry of six or eight miles, and then continuing down la Plata to the Atlantic ocean, the traveller may make a water journey of over 3,000 miles between the Cordillera and the eastern plains of South America. The easterly currents flowing from the Antarctic pole are de- ‘flected by Cape Horn along both the eastern and western coasts of Patagonia. On the eastern coast the winds blow off shore, leaving that coast arid. The westerly current, as it approaches the tropics, is deflected further westward and forms the greatest of the equatorial currents. The moisture of the winds that blow over this antarctic current is precipitated on the cool shores of Patagonia and lower Chile, and these countries are correspondingly enriched, while the same winds continuing over the heated plains of upper Chile, Peru and southern Ecua- dor are rarefied and take up what little moisture there is in these plains, to be afterward condensed and precipitated on the mountain slopes. From this cause the western coast of South America for the 3,000 miles from lower Chile to upper Ecuador is dry and bar- ren, and would be uninhabited except for the mines of gold and silver in the mountains and the deposits of nitrates and guano along the coast and on the islands. Yet the rainfall in South America is greater than in any other part of the world, and more than twice as great as the rainfall in Asia. North America. The northern equatorial current, less powerful than the south- ern, crosses the Pacific about the tropic of Cancer, where it is 116 G. G. Hubbard—Air and Water, Temperature and Lafe. deflected by Japan, and flows northward as the Kuroshiwo current, recrossing the Pacific in a northeasterly direction. The Pacific ocean is so wide that it is doubtful if this current would reach the American coast were it not for the drift caused by the wind which blows across the Pacific with strong and steady force. When it strikes the shores of North America it is feebler and has a lower temperature than the Gulf stream of the Atlantic ocean on reaching the coast of Kurope. The currents of wind strike the coast between the fiftieth and fifty-fifth degrees of north latitude, the region of greatest rain- fall, and are in part deflected northward and southward by the Coast range of mountains; the remaining portion blows over the mountains and up the valley of the Columbia. Continual fogs and rains abound on these shores, and the coasts of southern Alaska, British Columbia, Washington and Oregon are covered with the densest and largest growth of evergreen forest in the world. These winds prevail as far southward as the latitude of San Francisco, where the southeasterly trade winds commence and blow off-shore, leaving southern California and the western coast of Central America a zone of calms, dry and barren. While the western coast of the continent is bathed by the waters of the Pacific, its eastern shores are washed by the equa- torial current of the northern Atlantic, which flows around the West India islands, through Caribbean sea and the Gulf of Mexico. The trade winds from the Gulf of Mexico water the . eastern coasts of Central America and Mexico, and impinging on the mountains of the interior are deflected toward the north and east over the southeastern states and up the Mississippi valley, where they unite with the warm winds which blow directly up the valley from the Gulf of Mexico, and water the valley of the Mississippi. The rainfall in the upper part of the valley is derived largely from the Rocky mountains, the waters of the Pacific carried by the winds and deposited on the Rocky mountains as rain and snow being again evaporated and carried eastward to fall as rain. This great valley extends from Canada southward to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Rocky mountains eastward to the Alle- ghanies; it is 1,500 miles long and about 2,000 miles wide, the largest and richest valley of the temperate zone. A very low and narrow divide separates the Mississippi valley from another great valley extending from the Rocky mountains The North American Lowland. 7 eastward, with a gentle slope to Hudson bay and the Atlantic. It is as long from west to east as the valley of the Mississippi is from north to south, and is from 500 to 600 miles wide. The western portion of this plain is drained by Saskatchewan river. The winds which blow over this valley from the Rocky moun- tains in some years water imperfectly the western portion of this plain, but with a copious rainfall the land yields abundantly ; the eastern portion is watered from Hudson bay, lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba and the other large lakes of that province. As the climate is cold, less rainfall is required than in the valley of the Mississippi. Another very low divide separates this valley from the great plain, 2,500 miles long, descending with a gentle slope to the Arctic ocean, through which runs the Mackenzie river. The winds that blow from the Arctic ocean fall in rain and snow in this valley. Thus through the center of America, from the Arctic to the Antarctic oceans, there are no high elevations, while there is a more uniform distribution of rainfall and temperature than on any other continent. From the Arctic ocean cold currents of water flow along both the eastern and western coasts of Greenland and bear immense icebergs and fields of ice southward until they ineet the warm waters of the Gulf stream, when the ice melts, causing fog banks and depositing the débris brought from the Arctic glaciers, thus aiding in the making of the great fishing banks of Newfoundland. The Arctic current, still cold, runs southward inshore from the Gulf stream, and affects the climate of North America to the latitude of New York if not to Cape Hatteras. From the Caribbean sea and the Gulf of Mexico the Gulf stream passes around Florida and flows along the southern At- lantic States. The currents of air from the Gulf stream blow over slightly cooler waters and deposit rain on the eastern side of the Alleghanies and water the eastern coast of the United States. ve Hurope. The main Gulf stream is deflected, by the shape of the ocean bottom and the contour of North America, northward and east- ward toward Europe; but its drift is largely increased by the winds, The drift from the southward sets around the North 118 G. G. Hubbard—Aivr and Water, Temperature and Life. cape of Norway, 71° north latitude, keeping the coast free from ice all the year round, and is felt in the Kara sea. It is by means of this current that Nansen hopes to be borne through the Kara sea and from the Lena delta by way of the north pole to Greenland. The winds that blow over the Gulf stream, water the western coast of France, Great Britain and Scandinavia, and temper the climate of these northern regions to such a degree that Stockholm and St. Petersburg have become great cities, while in a lower latitude in Labrador, on the other side of the At- _lantic, “The country is so rocky and rough and the tempera- ture so intensely cold in the winter (ower than the inhabited parts of Greenland) that Labrador would be worthless and unin- habitable except for the seals and fish.” These currents are deflected by the coasts of France and Spain toward the west and are drifted in different directions by the wind, watering the eastern coasts of Spain and Portugal, but having precipitated their moisture they leave the high lands of Spain dry, cold in winter and hot in summer. In the Mediterranean the evaporation is much greater than in the Atlantic ocean; its water is therefore salt and heavier. To supply this loss by evaporation, water flows from the Atlantic into the Mediterranean from west to east as a surface current. The projection of Italy and Greece into the sea deflects these currents along each coast of both countries. The general course of the winds of southern Europe is inter- rupted by the Alps and Apennines in Italy, and by the high mountains in Greece. Land and sea breezes water these coun- tries in August and September, while the winter snow on the Alps fills the Italian streams in summer and irrigates the land through numerous canals. ; A plain, beginning in Holland and Belgium, runs through Ger- many, gradually growing broader, into Russia, where it is known as the Black zone; thence nértheastward through a large part of Siberia. It is low in the west, gradually rising toward the east, though in- Siberia its northern margin dips gently beneath the Arctic ocean. The western part of this plain is watered by the winds from the Atlantic and from the North and Baltic seas and the Gulf of Finland. The eastern part in Siberia is watered by the winds from the Arctic ocean, These plains are the granary Effects of Mountain Masses. 119 of Europe and Siberia, although a small’ part, comparatively, of the Siberian plain is good for corn. Asia. The regularity in the motion of the currents of air and water _ prevailing in the western hemisphere and the Atlantic ocean is apparently lacking in Asia and the Indian ocean. The moun- tains of America run northward and southward, and have little, if any, effect in originating currents of air, and none at all on the ocean currents. In Asia the largest and highest mass of mountains in the world runs east and west, and from their foot- hills the great plains of India and China extend to the Indian ocean and the China sea, bringing a polar climate into close contact with the torrid zone. Cold winter winds blow from the Himalayas and the high plateaus of central Asia southwestward into Indian ocean and China sea and drift the waters with them. When the sun turns toward the north in the summer solstice and the plains in India and China become heated by the torrid sun, the wind changes and blows toward the northeast. At the meeting of the winds the monsoon breaks, and the cyclones of India and the typhoons of China follow. They are soon over, and then the monsoon blows over Indian ocean and China sea. All India, Kashmir and western Tibet, Farther India, Annam, and eastern China _and Japan are well watered, fifty feet of rain falling in a year in some parts of India. In these countries there are generally six months of rainy season and six months of dry. In parts of India the water of the rainy season is stored in large reservoirs for irrigation in the dry season, while in China numerous canals between the dif- ferent rivers in like manner irrigate the land. India and China are among the richest countries of the world and have the densest population, though destined to be surpassed in the future by the population of the Amazon and Mississippi valleys. We have thus seen the effects of the winds and ocean currents in modifying the climate and in enriching the great valléys of South America and North America, of Europe, India, China and Japan. Deserts or Basins. About one-fifth of the territory in each continent is arid and desert land. With one or two possible exceptions these arid 120 G. G. Hubbard—Aw and Water, Temperature and Life. regions are basins, where the rivers and rainfall either run into salt lakes or are lost in the desert and never reach the ocean. These deserts are caused by the winds which blow either from colder over warm areas and are therefore dry, or over vast plains or mountaious regions upon which they nave precipitated their moisture. The average rainfall on the great deserts does not exceed ten inches a year, and the evaporation is usually greater than the rainfall. They are situated generally between the twentieth, and fortieth degrees of north latitude and between the twen- tieth and thirtieth degrees of south latitude. In the northern belt are the Carson and other basins of Nevada, the Salt Lake of Utah, the desert of Sahara, Arabia, Persia, the Aral-Caspian desert, the Tanin Gobi and Mongolia desert. In the southern belt is the desert of Atacama in South America, Kalahari in South Africa and the Australian deserts. These basins in the northern belt contained formerly, lakes much greater than are now found in either of the continents. Salt Lake was formerly much larger and deeper, for its waters once beat upon shores one thousand feet higher up the moun- tain sides than at present; its waters then found their way to the ocean. This was probably in the ice age, when the surround- ing mountains were covered with snow and great glaciers, and the evaporation was much less than the rainfall and the water from the melting glaciers. In the desert of Sahara numerous dry water-courses show where great rivers formerly ran into Lake Tchad. In Asia the Caspian and Aral seas were connected, covering a territory many times greater than at present, with an outlet to- the Bosphorus and Mediterranean. We have not sufficient knowledge of Arabia to know the former condition of that arid country. The process of desiccation is still going on, and how much longer it will continue no one can tell. Mountains of America. Next we will notice the influence of the mountains on the atmosphere, either in enriching or impoverishing a country, or in intensifying the movements of the currents of air and water. The mountains of America rise at the Arctic ocean and form the divide between the Mackenzie and Yukon rivers. little more of the causes of climate, many of the results of climate having been taken on faith, without having had recourse to their causes. Some physical phenomena of the United States would have been better understood had the children known better the climatic causes ; such causes however, it is believed, are too.dif- ficult for them to master at the time of their development, when the facts were learned. The children are now stronger. The climate of South America and its resulting effects are a little more difficult to understand than those of North America, partly because they are farther from home; so we give a httle study of the trade winds, their causes and effects, and try to give an understanding, if not of the causes, certainly of the existence of the Gulf Stream and its effect on climate, which prepares the children for the study of South America in a way corresponding to that in which they studied North America. It may be stated, in passing, that South America is studied largely in its commer- Study of Foreign Countries. 151 cial relations to the commercial centers of the United States. The people of course, demand a large part of our effort in the study of this country. In point of quantity, the study of South America is very small compared with that of North America or even of the United States. Now Europe is studied in a corresponding way; but Hurope is more difficult to study than South America. The geographic history of North and South America is easily obtained and easily remembered because of its sequential character and because of its relation to our present condition. The historical geography of Europe, however, is long and complicated. Not much of it therefore, is attempted. The causes of climate however, are studied and physical reasons for present state lines are consid- ered. Europe is studied by representative nations in their relation to the United States and representative commercial centers of the United States. In this study the locations of commercial centers are definitely fixed and means of communi- cation are considered and learned. Of course the people are studied, and their lives, habits and industries are considered. To accomplish these ends we study the habits of their repre- sentatives among us and ascertain their home life in fatherland by studying the causes of their coming here. Their manufact- ures are brought into the school-room and studied by compari- son with our own. The location of some of their representatives in this country is ascertained ; the location of some of our rep- resentatives in their country is ascertained ; the result of having such representatives in two countries is ascertained to some extent. Thus the children are made to know as far as they are able to understand, the governmental, the social, and the com- mercial relations existing between the great centers of Hurope and of those of America, and while learning them they are led to consider their causes and their effects upon our lives and upon our industries, and thus they come to know how man is making and changing geography. Now Asia, Africa and Oceanica are studied, but to only a limited degree by comparison with Europe or even by compari- son with South America, because there is not time to study them more. The purpose of teaching geography in the school, as has been before stated, is to train the children how to study it. Itis not possible to teach anything exhaustively; itis not desirable. We have trained the children to see that an interest- 152 W. B. Powell—Geographic Instruction. ing purpose of their work in school is the knowledge of the geography of man, of what he is, of what he has been, of what he is doing, and of how he is related to the activities of the world, and to the ever and constantly changing geographic phenomena of the world. Later in the school course, if I may speak definitely, in the eighth grade, the children have a study of the essential outlines of physical geography from a logical and scientific standpoint, during which study there is opportunity for relegating the vast amount of phenomena with which they have become acquainted during their study of geography into categorical series, and thus classifying them sequentially and logically. I must not omit one other point. I have stated from time to time that our children do much reading from standard authors, accounts of travels, descriptions of peoples and of countries, ex- positions of processes etc, which they are able to understand because of the character of their preparation for such reading, namely, their contact with things first hand. I have stated also that the teacher and children avail themselves of charts and maps and pictures or graphic representations almost with- out number or limit for the purpose of explanation, elaboration or more definite view, some school-rooms being veritable mu- seums or picture galleries. For instance, when a city like Lon- don or Philadelphia is being studied, these pictures hang side by side with Washington pictures, with which they are compared. But there is one other class of reading for which we have been preparing our children, which without this preparation could not be appreciated by them, even if it could be made intelligible to them. I mean pure literature that has for a part of its con- tents, facts of nature, all of which when properly studied, 4s a part of the study of geography. I do not refer to that valuable literature used largely in getting information, of which I have spoken so much in this paper, a® that for instance, by Bayard Taylor, in his account of other lands; Washington Irving, in tales of travel, such as his voyages, Italian scenes, description of London; John Burroughs, in his fascinating accounts of animals and their haunts, and other similar authors. This is studied as a means of getting information. I refer to a body of pure literature, whose office is to please and cultivate rather than to instruct and cultivate. Alhambra by Moonlight; A Description of Niagara; A Description of a Storm at Sea; Oli- Study of Nature. 158 ver Wendell Holmes’s Chambered Nautilus; Gray’s Elegy in a Country Church-yard; Whittier’s Barefoot Boy; Bryant’s Waterfowl, and Proctor’s The Sea, represent this literature. ‘“*T thought the sparrow’s note from heaven, Singing at dawn on the alder bough ; I brought him home, in his nest, at even, He sings the song, but it pleases not now, For I did not bring home the river and sky. He sang to my ear—they sang to my eye.” One must get close to nature and know it well; must learn much of birds and flowers; must commune with river and sky as a lover, to understand how Mr. Emerson could see in them the enchanting part of bird song. “Ye banks and braes 0’ bonny Doon, How can ye bloom sae fresh and fair? How can ye chaunt, ye little birds, Amn’ I sae weary, fu’ 0’ care ?’”’ No dictionary can define for the student this most masterful contrast of English tongue; no grammar or rhetoric explain it ; no eloquent master develop it. He alone can know and feel its full force who, though life may have given to him the darkest sorrow, knows by experience of the caroling of birds, of flowery banks, of chattering brooks, and of carpeted meadow lands stretch- ing to shaded nooks in the hillside beyond. A large part, not the larger part, of our literature can be under- stood and appreciated only by him who has been properly pre- pared to study geography aright. How many men and women, how many students, read such hterature only as words. This body of literature is to be studied and classified and known by authors as literature proceeding from a knowledge and love of nature. 21—Nat. Grog, Maa., vor. V, 1893, THE RELATIONS OF GEOLOGY TO PHYSIOGRAPHY IN OUR EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM BY T. C. CHAMBERLIN There was a time when it was necessary to search for the material of instruction, but that time has passed. Research has not only supplied a sufficiency of intellectual matter, but has overwhelmed us with a plethora of knowledge. There is much, infinitely much, yet to learn, but more is in hand than can be taught. The day of selection has come. It falls to us now, as educators, to look over our several fields and choose that which is most serviceable for general educational purposes, setting aside the remainder for specialists. This is not less true of the field of geography and geology than of the fields of other sciences. The primary question is, What shall be the criteria of our selection? Granting that all knowledge and all culture are good, the question that presses for solution is, What is best— best on the whole; best for the average student; best at the several stages of study? It will be but repeating an ancient and much-worn maxim to say that the selection should have high regard for disciplinary culture. It does not follow, however, that disciplinary culture is not compatible with other desirable characteristics, and that these should not determine the selec- tion. An intellectual wrestling with an economic problem or a struggle to gain knowledge inherently valuable may be as dis- ciplinary as though the problem or the knowledge were value- less in itself. The quest is rather to find that which shall possess value in itself when attained together with disciplinary value in its attainment. It is not one merit alone that should be sought, but a combination of the greatest possible merits. The selection should, therefore, have high regard to the value of the knowledge involved. The selection should embrace a due measure of phenomena with which the student may come into direct contact. The (154) Union of the Disciplinary and the Useful. 155 more immediately he deals with the phenomena themselves, the more clear and definite will be his basal concepts, and the more solid and tangible his fundamental ideas. The basal factors of thought in any department should be vivid, and in the study of earth-forms and earth-structure this vividness may be best derived by work on the part with which the students are in immediate contact. _ The selection should be such as to call forth not simply ob- servation and acquisition through memory, but the higher mental processes, analysis, induction, imagination, interpreta- tion, and so forth. The selection will fall short of the highest merit if it does not invite and promote a constant inquiry into the causes that lie back of the phenomena, the history through which they have passed, their significance, and the extension and application of the results of the study to remote phenomena and to broader fields. The selection should embrace matter that has inherent and stimulating significance, that will lead students to read similar significances in like phenomena whenever and wherever pre- sented. The value of the selection will be enhanced if it has immediate and evident relationship to human affairs. However beautiful the purely idealistic conception of mental activity and mental acquisition for its own sake may be, the fact remains that we are human beings and more easily and effectively interested in human affairs than in that which is remote from man’s interests. Tf the selection shall have an evident relationship to economical and industrial interests, its effectiveness will be promoted; but if it does not also bear upon man’s sociological, intellectual, esthetical, and ethical interests, it will fall short of the full measure of merit. It should make its contribution to these not only by helpful knowledge, but by the culture that accompanies its acquisition, by the suggestiveness of its laws, its modes of action, and its analogies. In addition to these qualities, which may be common to other subjects, the selection in each field should be so made as to open to the student a special realm of culture, and to familiarize him with some great factor of thought not equally well developed by any other subject of study. Hach great field may be assumed to possess a richness of its own and to be competent to yield a fruitage which has its own peculiar and incomparable qualities, 156 T.C.Chamberlin—Relations of Geology to Physiograp hy. Now, the study of the earth may assume the phase which we term geography, or the phase which we term geology, or the intermediate phase which we are coming to designate physiog- raphy. Each of these has its peculiar place and merits, each makes contributions to the other, and each imposes the duty of selection within its own field. But besides this there are questions of the inter-relationship between these. It falls to me to discuss the relations of geology to physiography in general education. 4 It may be assumed that the natural order of ‘succession of the phases of earth-study in our educational system is—first, geography, then physiography, and lastly, geology. A practical question of importance presents itself on the threshold: How far will the best selection and adaptation of subject-matter take material from the field of geology and use it in the field of physi- ography? How far, on the other hand, should physiography relinquish its field to be cultivated in the name of geology? Or, since the field is a common one in a large degree, with no sharp dividing lines, what shall we select as the chief subject-matter of instruction and training in physiography ?: The great features of the earth are at once geographic, physiographic, and geo- logic. We may shift our somewhat arbitrary lines of distinc- tion very much as we see fit. We may choose that which is educationally best with little regard to these. From the geologic standpoint the physical study of the earth divides its attention between three great elements: First, the agencies and processes engaged in the sculpturing of the land and their results; second, the agencies and processes concerned in the deposit of the waste of the land in the seas and other basins and in the building up of strata; and third, the internal agencies and processes which disturb and distort the surface and modify the preceding activities and their results. Now, if we are to study processes and agencies in the geologic phase, we must make selection from these three great fields, and our study should embrace agencies and processes if it is to meet the criteria of merit already sketched. To some extent we may make selection from all these fields, and within limits this is eminently desirable to give balance, scope and completeness to the general conception; but an equable distribution will prevent thoroughness of study in any one field. Besides, they possess unequal merits as educational The Prevalence of Land Sculpture. 157 factors. There is furthermore, a natural order of succession that cannot wisely be ignored. That should be selected which comes first to hand in natural order and is least dependent on other factors. It is obvious that the study of the internal forces presents the most obscure and difficult of the three fields. These forces were very influential in determining the grosser outlines of the earth’s physiognomy, but they were only indirectly involved in de- veloping the finer tracings of the earth’s features, the lineaments of which furnish the best subjects of detailed study in the earlier courses. When the selection is limited to a choice between the sculp- turing of the land and the deposition of the seas, the application of the eriteria above indicated seems at once decisive. We may be said to be everywhere in contact with the land and in the presence of land-sculpturing. We are only here and there in contact with the seas or other depositional basins, and the pro- cesses of strata-building and land-growth are not everywhere sub- servient to direct study. Wemay be said to be constantly deal- ing with the results of the disintegration, wear and wastage of the land. We are only here and there immediately concerned in the depositions of the seas or of like agencies. The natural sequence of processes brings the land action first to ourstudy. The material must be loosened and borne down to the basins before it can be deposited. Derivation goes before deposition. *The surface-shaping processes are simple in part and complex in part. They presenta gradation from simplicity to complexity, and from ease to difficulty, that makes them happily subservient to the skillful teacher in leading scholars on step by step from the mastery of one point to another as their capacities develop and their previous successes warrant. ‘The processes of deposi- tion and of land growth are simpler and have narrower limita- tions and hence afford a less rich and pliable field for disciplinary endeavors. The surface-shaping agencies are more intimately associated with human affairs and more determinative of human interests ~ than are the depositional processes. From many points of view, therefore, if not from all, the sculpturing of the land constitutes a more rich, pliable, and inviting field for the earlier educational processes than the depositional work of the basins or the crust- disturbing activities ofthe more obscure forces within the earth. 158) 1.0. Chamberlin—Relations of Geology to Physiography. Obvious as this seems upon mere statement, it is nevertheless, true that the sculpturing of the land has been rather the last than the first field systematically and adequately cultivated by geologists, and contributions from it to geography and physi- ography have been among the tardiest and thus far among the most incomplete. The earlier efforts of geologists were largely bestowed on the old strata that form the outer part of the crust and that were produced by ancient deposition, and to the great wrinklings and reliefs of the surface produced by the earth’s internal forces. It is only within recent years, perhaps we may be justified in say- ing only within the last decade or two, that the detailed pro- cesses by which the surface contours, the drainage features, and the agronomic adaptabilities were wrought out and are being wrought out, have received systematic and analytic study at the hands of any considerable body of specialists. It is now, per- haps for the first time in the history of the earth-study, possible to teach effectively the processes by which surfaces take on the forms they possess, and to read the history and the significance of the physiognomy of the land. The face of the land has its ages and stages as truly as does the face of man. It has its babyhood, its youth, its maturity, its advancing age, its senility, and its end. Jivery portion of the earth is in some one of these ages or stages and is passing on to the next succeeding. There may arise intercurrent events which cut off the history of a land- scape as accidents cut off the history of a man, but a new his- tory begins and a new succession of stages is inaugurated. Every part of the surface of the earth is, therefore, full of signifi- eance. Every valley, every stream, is young or old, and is working out a definite history. Every hill and every mountain is developing toward maturity or decadence. Every part of the earth carries on its face a record of what is being done, of what has been done, and of what is to be done, unless intercurrent events cut off its natural progress. There is, therefore, a physi- ognomy of the earth as well as a physiognomy of man, full of interest, full of significance, full of bearings upon industry and upon civilization. This new field, though chiefly opened up by the geologists, is ground common to geography, physiography and geology. As a field of original investigation it will doubtless remain largely the possession of the geologists until there shall arise a special- Disciplinary Use of physiographic Study. 159 ized class of physiographers who shall assume its particular culti- vation. It is yet rich in unsolved problems and invites the advanced student and the young investigator as well as the ex- pert specialist. In our established educational system there appear to me sufficient grounds in the considerations offered, for urging that this phase of activity should constitute the central training ground in physiography, not to the exclusion of the other departments, but as that basal part of the subject on which the early disciplinary endeavor should be chiefly ex- pended and from which the work of the beginner may proceed to other fields. Respecting the place of physiography, the same considerations seem to assign it an intermediate position between geography, as usually introduced, and geology. Geography may be said to have for its special function the presentation of the features of the earth as they are; physiog- raphy has for a part of its special field the study of the physiog- nomy of the earth as an exhibition of agencies and processes and as a portrayal of the forces that are making and unmaking the face of the land and influencing its inhabitants; while geology has for its function the revelation of the history and structure of the earth and of the forces that work within as well as with- out it. These are only the salient features. Hach has a wider field when given its full compass. It is the peculiar province of geology to teach us something of the extent and significance of time. No study opens up in like degree the great vista of time and extends and amplifies our conceptions in terms of this fundamental condition of thought. Astronomy performs a like function respecting space. These are the twin expansive studies in terms of time and space. The special function of physiography is to develop our perceptions and conceptions of present surface activities and environment and to give us an intellectual command of the agencies which are constantly engaged in moulding its configuration into that wide variety and expressiveness and that diverse utility which gives to its intellectual and physical reactions upon the human race such scope and potency in the development of human civilization. Not the least of my purposes has been to invite attention to the important contributions which recent studies have made to physiographic study, and to the important place it is entitled 160 T.C.Chamberlin—Relations of Geology to Physiography. to occupy in our educational system. It is my conviction, as already indicated, that physiography should be given a distinct recognition under this distinctive term and a definite place in our curricula intermediate between geography, as usually un- derstood, and geology. To avoid possible misunderstanding, permit me to say that I recognize, as already intimated, the breadth of the field appro- priate to physiography. It may be made to embrace the entire physical environment of man and so to include large factors of meteorology and astronomy as well as the distribution and physical relations of plants, animals, the races of man, and the types of civilization. Its realm is broader than that of either geography or geology, and in this breadth and comprehensive- ness lies one of its claims to a place in our high-school courses. It is because of this very breadth that I urge selection and a sufficient concentration upon the part most available for educa- tional purposes, to furnish typical ideas and basal training. I urge concentration upon the immediate environment of man and upon the processes and activities transpiring in our very presence, as a groundwork and point of departure for the broader view of man’s physical surroundings. The immediate environ- ment involves an important meteorological factor, but that does not fall within my special theme. When physiography shall be developed effectively along these lines, it may very wisely, I think, replace the formal study of geology in our high schools except in special cases where there are local or personal reasons for retaining it, for physiography taught in this vital and genetic way contains many of the most essential and fundamental elements of geology. THE RELATIONS OF THE GULF STREAM AND THE LABRADOR CURRENT BY WILLIAM LIBBEY, JUNIOR The problem assigned to the writer in the fall of 1888 by Colonel McDonald, the United States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries, was the study of the movements of the schools of fish along a portion of the Atlantic coast. These movements have been a constant puzzle to the fishermen in their efforts to follow the schools. The object of our investigation was to see if some relation could not be discovered between the changes in temperature in the water and the migrations of the fish which inhabit it. Colonel McDonald has shown that such a connection exists, in his researches on the shad, and the same was found true in Professor Goode’s study of the menhaden. We attempted to verify this on a larger scale and in a systematic manner. The United States Fish Commission schooner Grampus was placed at our disposal and especially equipped for the work assigned to the party. The body of water off the New England coast was chosen be- cause it was supposed that in this region the contrasts between the currents would be more distinctly shown, from the fact of their being forced closer together by the projection of the main- land so far southeastward from its general curve. This expecta- tion was realized in the course of the work. We aimed to cover the space lying between Block island and Nantucket, and extending southward to a distance of 150 miles from the land, with a network of stations which should be 10 miles apart in all directions, and on which, at as regular inter- vals as possible, observations were to be made. These observations related to the temperature and specific eravity of the surface water, together with a regular hourly 92—Nat. Grog. Maa., vou. V, 1893. (161) 162) William Libbey—Gulf Stream and Labrador Current. series of meteorologic observations ; and serial observations were made on the temperature of the water at each of the several stations. In the serial temperature work the thermometers were fastened to a wire cable of 19 strands of number 24 crucible steel music wire, with a breaking strain of 1,500 pounds. The interval be- tween the instruments varied'as the depth increased. ‘They were placed closer together where the changes were quickest—~. ¢., near the surface—and where the temperatures became more reeular they were placed further apart. We only adopted a regular system for the distribution of the thermometers along the cable after having examined the whole area to be studied from north to south along several lines and were sure that all the facts were covered by the system. The area was studied by running out a series of lines 10 miles apart, along which at intervals of 10 miles the stations were made. These lines were repeated as often as possible, and temperature profile curves were plotted along these lines, based on the observa- tions made at the stations. On most of these temperature pro- files we have given the curves of 70°, 60° and 50° as being the most important. The 50° curve has been an interesting one from the beginning, as it was the means of showing us that there were two sets of conditions under which the two measurably distinct bodies of water came in contact. It will be convenient to speak of these two portions of the main current of the Gulf stream separately. I shall therefore speak of the upper portion first. I, Upper Portion. The boundary between the cold and the warm currents of the surface is very seldom a straight line, perpendicular to the sur- face. It marks the position of the resultant of all the forces at work. Ofcourse the general position of the boundary will be determined by the velocities of the two bodies and the direction of their currents when they come in contact. If we leave out of consideration the wind as an effective agent in the production and directing of the oceanic currents, we find that it becomes a most potent factor in the changes which are Influence of Winds on the Gulf Stream. 163 produced in the position of this line at the surface. The winds sway the surface of these currents one way or another, some- times for many miles, and they may retard or reinforce th ecur rents in their flow. The winds which blow over this portion of the northern Atlantic may for convenience be grouped in two classes. One may be said to blow in a southeasterly direction and the other in a north- westerly direction. The general tendency of the first group, or the summer set, will be to drive the warmer waters at the sur- face over toward the coast, thus forcing them above the colder waters of the Labrador current. The other, or winter set, may be considered to have the opposite effect on these waters, and the final position reached after a cycle is completed will depend on the relative velocities of the winds. It is not denied that there are other factors which enter into this result, nor that this position is not affected by the physical characters of the waters, viz, their relative temperatures, densities, ete; but it is claimed that, after due allowance for other factors, the winds are the most active causes of the daily and seasonal variations which take place in this boundary. While these motions may equalize one another and the re- sultant position remain the same from year to year, it is sup- posable that there may be an excess in one of these directions for a series of years, with the result that the boundary will be earried far inshore from its normal position and thus to a great extent obliterate the surface indications of the other current near the surface. II. Lower Portion. Here only the general causes which produce and modify the. currents in the oceans can produce any change, unless by the cumulative effect, spoken of in the previous section, modifica- tions are brought about. As a rule, however, the variations referred to might almost be classed as accidental, because they are rarely productive of changes below 25 fathoms. When these changes are brought about, they are usually of such a character as to evade detection unless the averages of many observations are carefully studied, when the change in the position of the re- sultant can be seen, 164. William Libbey—Gulf Stream and Labrador Current. These two portions of the Gulf stream are therefore seen to have different characters. The lower one, being more steady and constant, is further characterized by the slight changes which take place in it. The upper one, on the other hand, might be said to be characterized by the rapidity of its changes of position. As has been said, the 50° temperature curve is the line which bounds these two portions. The shape of this curve beyond the edge of the continental platform is that of the letter 8 inverted. The lower part of the letter represents the main body or lower portion of the Gulf stream. In the year 1889 the lower portion did not touch the edge of the continental platform at any point within the area we were studying. In 1890 this portion of the curve touched both at Block island and at Nantucket in the latter part of the season; and in 1891 it touched along the whole edge for the greater part of all the summer months. The change which was thus pro- duced in the temperature at the bottom along this edge of the continental platform was somewhere in the neighborhood of 10°, an item of considerable importance. The effect produced by this temperature change can be seen to kest advantage by refer- ence to a very interesting problem in biology on which it directly bears. In the years 1880 and 1881 a new edible fish was found in considerable numbers in the area we were studying, and had attracted so much attention among fishermen that preparations were made to take it on a commercial scale for the New York and Boston markets during the ensuing season. Unfortunately it happened, however, early in the summer of 1882, before the fishermen could enter upon their work, that the water from Cape May to Nantucket, in a long crescent-like curve following the continental edge, was covered with the bodies of this fish, dead and dying, in countless millions. From that time the tile-fish (Lophilatilus chameleonticeps) disappeared from this area entirely, and attempts to find the fish since that time have been unsuccessful. The subject, moreover, had become a sort of biologic puzzle. Fortunately the temperature of the water in which the fish was caught had been noted at a number of points. In studying over the three sets of profiles for the three years, 1889, 1890, and 1891, obtained from our work I noticed the fact The Puzzle of the Tile-Fish. 165 that there had been a progressive movement of the warm body of water toward the shore, and saw plainly that if the same rate were to hold good this year the whole of the continental edge of the area in question would in all probability be covered by the warm water. The idea then suggested itself that if such were the case the conditions for the reappearance of the tile-fish would be established, if environment meant anything in the case. The fish had been previously in a depth of water varying from 70 to 120 fathoms, and its feeding ground, being on the bottom, would occur just at the edge of the platform. It was probably, moreover, a tropical deep-sea fish, and the temperature at which it was caught (50° to 58°) could only be established on the New England coast by just such an invasion of the continental edge as has been described. It is only necessary to conceive that the whole of the continental edge from Florida to Nantucket is thus overflowed by this warm band of water to see how the regular feeding ground of a tropical fish could be extended so that the fish could follow it throughout the whole of this largely increased area. While in the midst of this interesting theoretic work I was aroused by a letter from Washington, from Colonel McDonald, stating that owing to an economical turn, Congress had largely reduced the appropriation for the Commission, so that we should have to give up a great portion of the scientific work. I went to Washington with my facts, and they interested the Commis- sioner to such an extent that he agreed to give me the chance to test the theory, and further expressed a wish to take part in the work himself. We first went out south of Marthas Vineyard, found that the temperature was right, set the trawl lines and caught the fish. During the next two months I spent considerable time in tracing up the area over which the temperature of 50° and over was to be found on the continental edge, fishing at the same time with the trawls to see if the fish were there. We found them all the way to the Delaware capes, and were satisfied that though they were not numerous they had taken advantage of changed conditions over the area to occupy an enlarged feeding ground. The explanation of the disappearance of the fish in 1882, as suggested by Colonel McDonald, seems now to cover the ground 166 Wiliam Libbey—Gulf Stream and Ladrador Current. perfectly. If we suppose this area to have been flooded by warm water in the years previous to that date in the manner suggested above, it is easy to see that when this warm band receded the first break in its continuity would occur in that extreme part of the bend in the coast between Cape May and Nantucket. The fish over this portion of the bottom would, in the event of the withdrawal of the warm water, be suddenly exposed to a bath of water of sufficient degree of coldness to benumb them and start them on their way to the surface. After they had reached a point in the water which marked the limit of their adjustment to water pressure, they were bound to go the rest of the way to the top, where they arrived in abnormal condition, as their bodies were all puffed up, and in most instances their stomachs protruded from their mouths as a result of the diminution of pressure. This study of the environment of the life forms in this area has therefore led to interesting results. It is to be hoped that Congress will some day see the connection between pure and applied scientific work clearly enough to enable them to supply the means for the carrying out of investigations which can lead to practical results, and that the scientific commissions of the Government will not be forced to suffer through the lack of in- telliigent support which should be given them. THE ARID REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES BY F. H. NEWELL Our honored President in his opening address on “the rela- tions of the currents of air and water to animal and vegetal life and to the temperature of countries” gave an admirable description of the interdependence of climatic forces and showed in a concise manner how the topography of a country modifies the character of life, and through this fixes the industrial and social relations of its inhabitants. His address renders it unnecessary to discuss the causes of aridity, or to more than mention the general effects; so this paper, supplementing what has been said, will dwell more upon the industrial or economic side of the matter, describing in general terms the present utilization of this vast region, much of it consisting of vacant lands. To the people of many countries, as well as our own, the geog- raphy of the arid regions of the United States has a peculiar interest, owing to the fact that they include by far the greater part of the public lands, upon which new homes can be freely made either by our citizens or by foreigners intending to become citizens. These regions may be described in a general way as being in the western half of the United States, beyond the great plains, and extending westward nearly to the Pacific coast. On the north and south they are bounded by territorial lines, the conditions of aridity prevailing in the north through Canada nearly or quite to the Arctic circle, and south throuech Mexico until interrupted by the belt of tropical rains. Although characterized by pre- yailing or occasional droughts, these areas are by no means a continuous desert. On the contrary, the deserts, as the term is applied in the old world, are comparatively rare and relatively small in extent. The arid regions may be defined as those portions of the United States where the rainfall, in quantity or distribution, is not favor- able for the production of the ordinary cultivated food products. (167) 168 -F. 1. Newell—Arid Regions of the United States. The limits are not easy to place, for they depend upon climatic forces which vary in intensity from year to year—that is to say, in any given locality within the arid regions there may not be for several successive years sufficient moisture for maturing crops of grain, while in the following year rain occurring at the right time may enable a farmer to produce a heavy crop. Thus in the latter year these arid regions might be considered as re- duced in size, to be again increased as drought follows drought. It is necessary, therefore, to assume certain arbitrary boundaries based upon considerations of general success or failure of ordi- nary agricultural operations in so far as they are dependent upon rainfall. For the eastern boundary it is convenient to assume the one hundredth meridian west of Greenwich, although, as a matter of fact, “dry” farming has been successfully carried on as far west as the one hundred and fifth meridian or even beyond. The western boundary is more irregular, owing to a wide differ- ence in the topography of the country which hes between the well-defined arid and humid areas near the Pacific coast. As laid down by Powell* on the maps of the Geological Survey, the southwestern boundary of the arid region is the Pacific ocean up to a point on the coast of California north of Monterey bay. From here the line turns inward across the valley of the San Joaquin, then, excluding the bay counties, follows northward along the western foothills of the Sierra Nevadas and the eastern slopes of the Cascade range of Oregon and Washington, in which latter state it turns eastward, excluding from the arid regions the northeastern portions of Washington and Idaho. These lines, as originally drawn, were based largely upon the assumption that twenty inches of annual rainfall were necessary for farming opera- tions, but were modified, however, by considerations of the sea- sonal distribution.t The lines thus laid down, although they may be criticised from various standpoints, are sufficiently exact for any general discussion, and are, perhaps, more useful than others drawn with greater nicety and attempting to reach higher precision. *J. W. Powell: Second annual report of the irrigation survey, in Eley- enth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey, part 2, irri- gation, Washington, 1891. + Lands of the Arid Regions of the United States, J. W. Powell, Wash- ington, 1879, p. 3 et seq. Reclamation of the arid Region. 169 Within this great area, the extent of which is nearly half that of the United States, there is almost every variety of topography and climate, from the low sandy plains exposed to almost tropical heat to the lofty mountain ranges with alpine snows and winds. Portions of it are as truly humid as any part of the east, but these are too small and isolated to be severally distinguished in a broad survey of the whole. Plant life is everywhere abundant, but it is of a kind strange to the eyes of the traveller from the EKastern states, appearing to him sparsely distributed and par- taking of the general dry sun-burned character of the landscape. The bright green of fields and trees is rarely seen in the natural conditions, except after the rainy season, or on the high, well- watered mountain slopes. During the long seasons of drought the vegetation becomes brown and dusty, apparently dying, to revive, however, after the occasional rains. During the many years in which the population was spread- ing from the Atlantic coast westerly over the broad Mississippi valley the arid regions were regarded as of little or no value, and were left for the Indians, the wandering trapper or pros- pector, and the despised Mormon; but when at last the fertile areas of the east were exhausted and places for homes must be had elsewhere, the people of the eastern part of the United States suddenly awoke to the realization that there were great resources yet to be developed within this vast extent of country. Thus within comparatively few years the population of the arid region has enormously increased. Every possible resource is being rapidly exploited, and the results of geographers and other in- vestigators are being immediately acted upon to aid in pushing forward the development of this new land, which from its enormous extent promises to furnish homes for future millions. The arid regions, as a whole, are best known by their mineral wealth, especially of the precious metals. For many years min- ing has been the principal industry, the necessary supplies being originally brought from great distances. Agriculture was then deemed not only as too slow a road to wealth, but it was even asserted that owing to drought it would be utterly impracticable. Stock-raising, however, gradually encroached upon the areas hitherto regarded as deserts, the cattle men, as they were forced westward by the advance of civilization, gradually displacing the roving bands of Indians and buffaloes. A peculiar form of agriculture, looked down upon by the adventurous miners and 23—Nav. Grog. Mae, von. V, 1893. 170) =F. Hl. Newell—Arid Regions of the United States. - cattle men, had long been practiced by the Pueblo Indians and neighboring Mexicans, and to a certain extent adopted by Mor- mons when driven into the wilderness by their fellow-Christians. This depended upon the cultivation of the soil by artificial application of water, obtained usually from a small river or creek, and conducted to the field by laboriously-made ditches, often miles in length. The expense and trouble of applying water necessitated the tillage of relatively small farms, this disadvantage being compensated in part by a larger average production. Nothing could be in greater contrast to the broad corn fields of the Mississippi valley, extending on all sides to the horizon, than the miniature gardens, from which, however, come luscious fruits and extraordinary vegetables. As mines were opened and towns established it soon became evident that in the long run the furnishing of food-stuffs and forage would be equally profitable with laboring in the mines and mills, if not more so. The methods of the Mormons and Mex- icans were copied, new sources of water-supply sought, ditches dug, and land brought under cultivation wherever it could be irrigated. Thus it has resulted that within a few years towns have sprung up in every direction, most of them dependent to a large extent upon mining, but having, through practice of agri- culture by irrigation, capabilities of self-support and of future extension. These areas are so vast that the land irrigated or occupied by towns and mines or other industries forms but a very small percentage of the total area, most of which still be- longs to the United States and is open to entry and settlement under the homestead laws. The total land area west of the 100th meridian and exelud- ing certain of the more humid portions of Oregon and Washing- ton is 1,371,960 square miles,* or, in round numbers, 878,000,000 acres. Of this, about 7 per cent, or 64,000,000 acres, may be con- sidered as desert, having no known value, even in its minerals. A somewhat larger area—about 9 per cent, or 83,200,000 acres— is timbered, this heavily wooded land consisting mainly of moun- tain slopes and plateaus. Fringine this and scattered on the hill slopes and along the streams are clumps of trees capable of yielding firewood, fence posts, etc. The aggregate area of these scantily wooded lands is estimated to be 115,200,000 acres, ora *Thirteenth annual report of the United States Geological Survey, part 3, p. 8, The Extent of Irrigation. ical little less than 138 per cent of the total. Deducting the aggre- gate acreage of desert and wooded lands, there are left about 615,600,000 acres, the greater part of which supports a scanty herbage which, either green or sun-cured, is readily eaten by cattle. This may all be grouped under the head of grazing lands, since at one time or another of the year herds of cattle or sheep can find sustenance. Most of this latter class of land, com- prising over two-thirds of the area west of the 100th meridian, has a fertile soil and climate favorable to agriculture in all re- spects save that of moisture. With water, great crops could be produced, but without it nothing but the scanty native grasses succeed. The area which has actually been redeemed by irri- gation is quite small, not to exceed 1 per cent. The eleventh census of the United States found that in 1889 only 3,631,381 acres* were irrigated, this being but four-tenths of 1 per cent of the entire area west of the 100th meridian. Besides the area irrigated a relatively small area was cultivated by “dry ” farm- ing, the yield being, however, small. _ The further extension of agriculture within the arid region rests on the complete utilization of the water supply. As previously stated, the streams have been employed to a large extent and there now remain only a few rivers from which water for irrigation is not diverted.; These flow on undisturbed because of the great expense, and the engineering difficulties encountered rendering doubtful the financial success of any undertaking. In the case of many of the smaller streams the agveregate of the claims to the water exceed by far the ordinary quantity discharged, and, as a result, most of the claimants must be satisfied with an amount of water less than that to which they assert ownership. At the same time a large proportion of the water of these streams flows to waste either in floods or in winter, all of which could be used to advantage if it could be held by storage.{ The enormous cost of creating reservoirs for the waste waters and the small appafent profits have to a large extent deterred private capital from entering upon such projects. * Kleventh Census of the United States, 1890, Irrigation in Western United States by F. H. Newell, p. 3. + Water Supply for Irrigation by F. H. Newell, in thirteenth annual report of the United States Geological Survey. {t Hydrography of the Arid Regions by F. H. Newell, in twelfth an- nual report of the United States Geological Survey, p. 224 et seq. 172 =F. H. Newell—Arid Regions of the United States. The tillable lands to be benefited by water conservation or by the utilization of the larger streams not now diverted by canals are almost wholly owned or claimed by individuals or corpora- tions, so that future developments must rest most largely with these. Wise legislation will do much to aid in making feasible many great undertakings, but as a rule it may be said that de- velopments in this line must depend largely upon individual efforts and upon the ordinary laws of supply and demand. It has been estimated that by a complete utilization of the water supply of the arid regions about 40,000,000 acres can be irrigated ; but, allowing even that 100,000,000 acres of the fer- tile grazing land can be thus redeemed, there still remain over 500,000,000 acres, most of which, as well as the desert and timber acres, are still in the hands of the general Government. The question as to the best utilization of the great body of unoccupied lands is one of immediate concern to the country at large, as well as to the inhabitants of this area. In a general way it may be said that the more easily available resources have already been taken possession of by individuals or by associa- tions of men, and there remain only such as were rejected or not available. Much of the best mineral land is owned by private parties, but even on the explored Government land there are probably many mines yet to be discovered. The herds of cattle have increased to such an extent that the lands, whether owned by the Government or by corporations, are thoroughly grazed over, and in many localities the herds must be fed with hay, during part of the year at least. All of the water supply of the country which can be readily diverted is claimed or appropriated by irrigation or land companies, and almost without excep- tion the irrigable lands along perennial streams has passed out of the hands of the Government. ° Still the demand for homes continues, and settlers are from necessity forced to attempt to make a living where conditions seem to be against them. There are thousands or perhaps millions of farms which can be pur- chased from individuals or corporations, but the possibilities ot obtaining agricultural land from the Government seem to be almost exhausted, ze RECENT EXPLORATIONS IN ALASKA _BY ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE When the United States made purchase of Russian America by the treaty of June 20, 1867, there was acquired a vast empire, whose shores were not even wholly surveyed or explored, whose interior was untrodden by whites, and of whose resources almost nothing was known. It had been maintained only as a fur- preserve by the Russian company holding lease of the entire country. They had made no effort to explore the interior, satis- fied that the natives should bring their pelts down to the coast forts. They had traced only the largest river for a few hun- dred miles, and the Hudson Bay Company’s men had dis- covered its head-waters and found out that the Yukon and the Russian Kwichpak were the same. The Coast range and its ereat peaks were only known as navigators of the Pacific had seen them, and of the interior ranges only the surveys of the Western Union Felegraph Company in 1863-’65 had given any account. There was a considerable interest in the new territory at the time of its purchase, and Secretary Seward immediately arranged for a scientific reconnaissance in the summer of 1867 under the charge of Professor George Davidson, of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. His observations covered the coast country from Dixon entrance to Unalaska, and so much of in- terest resulted that the American Geographical Society of New York petitioned Congress to have a thorough survey made of the newly acquired territory. A quarter of a century has elapsed without the general govern- ment yet undertaking any systematic scheme of survey or ex- ploration. There are no official maps of the mining regions, which have been adding $1,000,000 in gold to the wealth of the world each year. Only the mineral laws and not the general land laws apply to the territory, which has but a skeleton form of government and no yoice or representation at Washington. (173) 174. EL R. Scidmore—Recent Explorations in Alaska. None can explain this neglect of and indifference to such a valu- able territory, and Elisée Reclus in his “ Boreal America ” rather sharply notes that the United States considered Alaska “ un- worthy of its attention until the pockets of its concessionaires [the seal island lessees] were touched.” During the first ten years of military rule (1867 to 1877) no reconnaissances or expeditions were attempted. The presence ofa nayal ship in southeastern Alaska for fourteen years has added nothing to our geographic knowledge of the country. With the exception of the expeditions sent from the Columbia by General Miles, all exploration has been by private enterprise. Miners found their own way over to the Yukon, and their camps and communities are still without shadow of government con- trol. Professor Muir discovered and first reported the great glacial system as the result of his own investigations, and the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Socrety’s two expeditions to mount Saint Elias anticipated government surveys and measurements of that corner-stone of the continent. After General Miles’ summer pleasure trip to southeastern Alaska in 1882, he had some expedition to Alaska always in hand so long as he remained at fort Vancouver. At his in- stance Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka was detailed to make a military reconnaissance of the Yukon river, following the route used by some three hundred miners during the two seasons preceding his famous raft voyage. It was not discovery in any sense, as not only these miners but the surveyors of the Western Union Telegraph Company had long preceded him, and the Drs Krause, of the Berlin and Bremen Geographical Societies, had but a short time before mapped the passes over the range at the head of Lynn canal. General Miles next detailed Dr Everette to further explore Chilkat pass and the source of the Alsek, and dispatched Lieu- tenant Abercrombie to ascend Copper river, but neither expe- dition was. fully successful. . His detail of Lieutenant Henry T. Allen for a reconnaissance of the Copper river in 1885 resulted in the first discoveries and really important contribution to the geography of the country since the transfer. He traversed an absolutely unknown region, tracing Copper river up to its head-waters and the Tanana down from that same divide to the Yukon, and made a hasty survey and track-chart of the Koyukuk river before hastening Work of the National Geographic Society. ion to Saint Michaels. His triangulations gave the first reliable data concerning the active volcano of mount Wrangell, whose summit is by his estimate only 17,500 instead of the fabled 28,000 feet above the sea. He accomplished all this in the face of the greatest hardships; and while the Allen expedition was the most successful and noteworthy of any thus far made in Alaska, it has been the least exploited and appreciated. Had his rivers, canyons, glaciers and great voleano been in Green- land, New Guinea or central Africa, two continents would have applauded and bestowed medals on him. The Natrona, Grograpuic Socrery has not only equipped two expeditions to Alaska, but it claims enrolled in its member- ship nearly every individual who has discovered, explored, ex- ploited or made any special contributions to our knowledge of this farthest northwest territory. It has twice attempted to have mount Saint Hlias scaled, and it may yet find the navigable channel of the Yukon, a river easily navigable for two thousand miles were a deep channel known through the flats that extend a hundred miles off its mouth. While ships run aground before they are within sight of land, the white whale enters the slug- gish river by some deep pass and spouts for hundreds of miles up the stream. One eminent member of the Society, Professor John Muir, discovered the great bay full of tide-water glaciers at the foot of mount Fairweather in 1879. Captain Lester Beardslee, another member, named this Glacier bay, and furnished its first rough sketch map; and a third member, Captain James Carroll, suc- cessfully navigated it by ogean steamer in 1883, and named the great Muir glacier. There has not been an actual government survey of the waters since the bay was discovered, and all charts are compiled from private sources. In 1890 Professor Harry Fielding Reid, another member of the Society, explored and mapped Muir glacier and its twenty- six tributary ice streams. In 1892 Professor Reid explored the upper end of the bay, finding and naming the Woods, Charpentier, Johns Hopkins, Rendu and Carroll glaciers, and mapping also the Geikie, Hugh Miller and Grand Pacific glaciers, which Professor Muir saw from the mountain summit ten years previously. Four other members of the NaTrionaL GEOGRAPHIC Society camped at the Muir glacier one season, exploring the region as a’ hunting ground, while Professor T. J. Richardson 176 E.R. Seadmore—Recent Explorations in Alaska. made careful record of its landscape features in the series of ice studies and other paintings exhibited in the Alaska section of the Government building at Chicago. Tn 1890 the late Frederick Schwatka, who had ‘hen resigned from the army, led an expedition through the British north- west and Alaska to seek an easier route from Juneau, the mining center of Alaska, to the head-waters of Yukon river, and a new route from that region to the seacoast. His untimely end prevented his publishing the narrative of a journey as hazardous and important as any he ever attempted. He was accompanied by Dr C. Willard Hayes, of the NationaL GmOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. The first half of their journey, while not over wholly unknown ground, was virtually an exploration, in that it was a practical search for and trial of a new route to the Yukon. They as- cended Taku river, crossed the Cordilleran divide, and rafted down rivers and lakes to the junction of Pelly and Lewis rivers which form the Yukon; thence, following White river to its source, they crossed a divide formed by a spur of the Saint Hlias range and descended the Nizzenah to Copper river, and thence to the ocean—their route describing a great arc behind the Coast ~ range and twice crossing it. A brief narrative with maps and descriptive text representing the scientific results of this expedi- tion, prepared by Dr Hayes, has been published in the National Geographic Magazine. Mr E. J. Glave, fresh from African exploration, spent two seasons in exploring between the Chilkat pass and the Alsek’s mouth. His later success in taking pack-horses over Chilkat pass in 1891 and finding rich pasturage for them in the bush country beyond proved the feasibility of pack-trails all through those mountains. The miners have vainly urged upon the gov- ernment the building of a military road across the Yukon passes, but even Mr Glave’s demonstration of the pack-horse problem does not incline that institution to heed the request of the thou- sand wholly ungoverned miners. There is no record that any of the navigators who sighted mount Saint Elias and made such varying estimates of its height ever made any attempt to reach it. The first known attempt to climb the great mountain was that made by Professor Charles H. Taylor, of Chicago, in 1877. He went out admirably equipped and accompanied by Lieutenant C. E.S. Wood, of the United States Army. The refractoriness and final mutiny of their In- | =, Russells Work on Saint Elias. 77 dian canoemen after leaving Sitka prevented their scaling this keystone of the great Cordilleran arch. The unfortunate New York Times expedition, led by Lieu- tenant Schwatka in 1886, did: not succeed in reaching even the’ base of the mountain. The Topham expedition, led by Messrs Topham of the Royal Geographical Society, included also Mr William Williams of the NatronaL GroGRApuHic Socirty. They were the first to stand on mount Saint Elias itself, and climbed to a height of 11,460 feet on the crumbling rim of the crater on the southern face of the mountain. Further ascent was im- possible from that side, and Mr Williams left the American flag and his tin box of records at that point in July, 188s. Professor Israel C. Russell was given charge of the NarTionaL GEOGRAPHIC Socrrty’s first expedition to mount Saint Elias in 1890. He landed in Yakutat bay, at a point 60 miles southeast of the great peak, and ascending to the snow-line followed the glaciers along the slope of the range to Newton glacier, on the southeastern slope of Saint Elas. He was imprisoned in his tent alone at the highest point, 9,500 feet, for two days by a heavy storm which, covering everything with soft snow, ren- dered climbing impossible for the rest of the season, and made the return difficult and dangerous. In 1891 a second mount Saint Ehas fund was raised by vol- untary subscription within the Society, and Professor Russell was again given charge. He landed at Icy bay, 40 miles directly south of the mountain, and in a measure followed the Schwatka and Topham routes to the foot of Libbey glacier. There he diverged toward the east and joined his trail of the preceding sea- son. He followed up past magnificent ice falls and ice ampithe- aters to the head of Newton glacier, and attained an elevation of 14,500 feet on the northeastern face of the mountain. From that outlook he saw for 100 miles northward myriad dark peaks pricking through the great mantle of snow and ice, and mount Saint Elias showed itself a detached peak—an abrupt spur running out from the main range of mountains. He camped at an elevation of 10,000 feet for days, waiting for the favorable day to scale the summit, but the storms continued, the proyis- ions ran low, and they retreated from that near point when as- sured that all chances were against them for the season, and their strength failing from the meager diet to which they were reduced and continued storms that threatened their light tent, 24—Nat, Grog. Maa., von, V, 1893, 178 EE. XR. Scidmore—Recent Explorations in Alaska. Professor Russell then made his great march across the pla- teau of Malaspina glacier, which fronts the ocean for 60 miles, all the Saint Ehas ice streams uniting in this great ice mantle which so awed Vancouver. Captain C. L. Hooper, of the revenue marine service, known to geographers by his arctic voyages in search of the Jeannette, touched at Yakutat bay in the autumn of 1890 to bring away the members of the Russell expedition. Before leaving he at- tempted some independent exploration. He took his vessel through the bergs of Yakutat bay into Disenchantment bay, and sailed 60 miles beyond the solid wall of ice that met Malaspina a century before. Captain Hooper found there a magnificent tide-water glacier, dropping jeweled bergs into the sea from all its four-mile front of glittering ice cliffs. As a loyal member of the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Society, he named this Hubbard glacier and its guardian peak for the President of the NaTronan GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. In 1891 Professor Russell took canoe after his exploration of Malaspina glacier, and, following the shore-line of Disenchant- ment bay, went another 60 miles further than Captain Hooper had gone. He found that the bay extends as a long, narrow inlet down to a broad plain reaching to the base of mount Fair- weather, and his observations introduced many striking details into that blank space of the maps. The height of mount Saint Elias, which has been estimated all the way from 12,000 to 20,000 feet, was put at 18,000 plus or minus 100 feet, by Professor Russell as the result of his triangu- lations from the Iey bay beach. The field party of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, consisting of Messrs Turner and McGrath—and it is unnecessary to say that they, too, are members of the Nationa GrograpHic Sociery—devoted all of the season of 1892 to observation, and their final determination was 18,010 feet as the height of Bering’s bolshoi sopka. Mount Saint Ehas still awaits its conqueror, and while the | NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Society retains its interest in the un- scaled, peak, it yields the right of way to the other societies reported as anxious to send out expeditions to it, greeting warmly even another expedition like that one from over the seas which, learning at Sitka that there were no guides for the region, went bear hunting and then to their homes. This Society has with especial emphasis claimed that American geog- * The untrodden Field of Alaska. 179 raphers should first consider the unknown and unexplored regions on their own continent; that American mountaineers should climb American mountains, and American geologists seek American glaciers and American volcanoes. The ascent of mount Rainier, that isolated peak which holds a small Switzerland on its sides and promises reason for another Zermatt to grow up on its slope, has been made by only thirty- eight people, while the records of Alpine clubs tell what American climbers can do on other 14,000-foot summits in other countries. All the northwestern coast from mount Rainier to mount Saint Elias and down the recurved shore to Unalaska offer such a field for the explorer, the mountaineer, the geologist, and geographer as exists nowhere else on any continent. Only one of the eight ereat glaciers in Glacier bay has been explored, mapped, and measured, and not one of the trinity of great peaks that guard the bay have been trodden by white men, if ever by a human foot. The exquisite Taku glacier, only eighteen miles by water from the largest town in Alaska, is unexplored, unmapped, un- measured, and the world knows only the facts apparent from its beautifully sculptured front. The great glaciers in Prince William sound, the grandest and gloomiest fiord on any coast within the temperate zone, are unnamed, unvisited, unsung. No more is known of them really than in Vancouver's day, and in that great landscape reserve of Cook inlet the living volcano of Iliamna has been climbed but once since the transfer. No one has ever attempted the greater volcano of Shishaldin, sloping steeply from the sea at the head of the Aleutian chain, the most exquisite uplift of earth even upon all that coast, a mountain with a more purely perfect outline than the Japanese Fujiyama. THE CARAVELS OF COLUMBUS BY VICTOR MARIA CONCAS Invited only a few days ago to take a part in this congress as commander of the caravels as well as a member of the Geo- graphical Society of Madrid, I am very sorry that my address cannot be as important as the subject demands. Although Iam intimately acquainted with every detail of the history of the carayels, the special mission assigned to me by the Spanish government, to repeat the voyage of Columbus in the Santa Maria and the many ways in which the voyage has been de- scribed, make my position the more difficult. The history and the serious representation of that great enterprise, you must admit, are very different from the many descriptions of fancy that have been written on the subject. You all know the history of the caravels of Columbus ; you have heard of his troubles and difficulties, which have grown with the last 400 years ; but history as recorded by Navarrete, whom the great Humboldt calls the father of history, says that Spain then approved generally the project, although while the conquest of Granada was hanging in the balance the government decided to undertake no new venture until that was settled. This delay doubtless caused Columbus great sorrow, as he was growing old; but his project was not rejected by Spain. The Duke of Medinasidonia supported Columbus during two years ; the other two years Father Diego Deza, professor at Salamanca, afterward Archbishop of Seville, supported him; and he was always protected by the Marchioness of Moya, the best friend of the Queen, which proves that even if he had difficulties he had high protectors to sympathize with and encourage him. The picture so often painted, depicting the learned men of the Uni- versity of Salamanca scoffing at Columbus, conveys an erro- neous idea, as the records of every meeting were kept and exist to- day, and nowhere can be found recorded any such action against Columbus. On the contrary, Salamanca was the scientific center (180) oy The Inception of the Plan. 181 of the world, and there the theory of the spherical form of the earth was sustained. Nothing is more worthy of mention, in a similar case a few years after, than when Copernicus, who was excommunicated by Rome because of his theory of the solar system, applied to that university, its learned doctors answered in this magnificent form: “ Read Nicolaus Copernicus.” That is the best defense of that scientific center, which was for centuries the foremost in the world. You all know that Spain was consolidated by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella, sovereigns of Aragon and Castile. Por- tugal was almost a part of Spain, as the King had married the heiress of the throne of Spain, who unfortunately died without succession—a misfortune that will never be regretted enough by both nations. The only thing to be done by Ferdinand and Isabella to finish their great plan was to drive the Mohammedans from Granada; but that conquest was extremely difficult, as the cities when conquered were depopulated to be repopulated by the conquerors. The last bulwark of the Moors in Spain was so over-peopled by crowds ousted by the former conquests that there were millions of inhabitants disposed to fight to the last, as they had only the sea behind them. So strong was the struggle on both sides that Spain, instead of keeping its soldiers in camps, built before Granada the city of Santa Fé. King Ferdinand took his residence there, making the conquest paramount to all other business. Queen Isabella, going herself several times to bring supplies to the army, put all her attention in that war; and how is it possible that any serious historian could think that under such circumstances these sovereigns, being such great politicians, could support Colum- - bus or any other venture, whatever might have been the sorrows of the man with whom the voyage was the only thought? The best proof that the voyage was not forgotten is that after Granada was surrendered, on January 2, 1492, the capitulations were signed on April 30; on August 3 the ships sailed from Palos, and on October 12 of the same year Spain opened to the New World the gates of history. And tell me when, before or since, in history have events gone so quickly? Tell me why to your great Fulton you delayed twenty-two years to grant him in August, 1807, a patent to navi- gate his steamer only for twelve months? Could you tell me why, in the nineteenth century, the New York legislature was 182 V. M. Concas—The Caravels of Columbus. obliged to threaten with prison and fine anybody that should speak or act against Fulton? Tell me, where is his family, that J suppose are very rich, according to the service of that great countryman of yours? And when those who pity Columbus so much have answered satisfactorily, we shall consider the behavior of Spain toward Columbus and his descendants, who, after 400 years, you have seen yourselves so highly honored in this city of Chicago. As you know, the expedition of Columbus was prepared in Palos, and consisted of three ships. The largest was a vessel that was employed before in trading with Holland. She was called the Gallega, or the Galitian. That name was changed to Santa Maria. The circumstance that she was chartered by the king, and that afterward, when wrecked on the coast of Santo Domingo, Spain paid for the whole ship and her equipment, has supplied much information about the Santa Maria, as all inventories and contracts made by the government exist in the archives at the present time. This permitted the new Santa Maria to be built to such a degree of exactitude that I consider at least nine-tenths an exact reproduction of the original, which certainly could not be done with other historic ships of even more recent date. It is: not possible to get the same data concerning the Pinta and the Nina, as they were in fact merchant ships that went on their owners’ account. There is only a memorandum of the general line of the exterior form, gear and sails; but that cir- cumstance proves that Columbus found welcome and help in the opinion, since he was supported by regular merchants and sailors, who willingly took a part in the enterprise not only with their persons, but on their own account. These ships have been reproduced in Spain with the greatest exactitude by Lieutenant W. McCarty Little, of the United States Navy, and with the greatest skill and economy. | The historical treasures, which you can consult at the convent of La Rabida in the exhibition, show to the most incredulous that the spherical form of the earth was already accepted by every learned man in Europe. Even was it true to those mari- ners who navigated to the west as far as the Azores and Canary islands, and it was especially so to the Portuguese, who had dis- covered those western islands of the group called Terceras; but only in Spain was that feeling strong and popular, a feeling that, Ixnowledge of the Sphericity of the Earth. 183 although it was not called by the name of “ public opinion,” as nowadays, directed the people of all nations with irresistible force. For that reason Columbus came to Spain; for that rea- son he was obliged to wait until Spain could undertake the voyage of discovery, and for that reason he found owners of ships and rich sailors who risked willingly life and property in the enterprise. Only ignorance can see miracles and wonders instead of the natural development of tacts, science, navigation, astronomy, cartography and preparatory voyages to Africa, the Canary and Azores islands and Iceland. All these made ripe the fruit of crossing the ocean toward the west, and the praise belongs to the tree where that fruit was most ripe. ‘That tree was Spain, where Columbus brought the fortunate error of Toscanelli, be- levine the distance about one-fourth of what itis. He expected to arrive at Cathay, and so the discovery was made by Spain, and could not have been done by any other nation without com- mitting Providence to historical injustice. But when we speak of La Rabida, allow me.-to tell you how much you are indebted to Mr Curtis for that wonder. Let me eall it a wonder, for the work could not have been better done. It is not a copy; it is the same, stone by stone, the original building of La Rabida. The great discovery was not appreciated in all its importance until twenty years after, when more and more new lands and ereat empires were explored; and the voyage of the Victoria, com- manded by Sebastian Eleano, went around the world, and whose family yet use for a coat-of-arms a globe with the lem primus me circumdedisti ; all that made us think what Spain had in her hand. In behalf of that opinion I am going to quote the pro- banza of 1513 and 1515, in the lawsuit against Diego Colon, son of the admiral (volume 3 of Navarrete, page 538), documents of my private library; but I offer them with pleasure to the mem- bers of the congress who wish to consult them. Those probanzas, that today would be called inquests, were to clear up the par- ticulars of the discovery, and there were heard more than fifty witnesses, some speaking of what they had seen, others of what they had heard from this same Columbus. Among other curi- ous details it is perfectly proved that Columbus contracted with Martin Alonso Pinzon, captain of the Pinta, to divide with him in equal parts honors and profits if they succeeded, which con- 184 V. M.:Concas—The Caravels of Columbus. tract he afterward did not fulfill because it was not in writing. Let us forget and forgive the man and always think of the hero. But I will finish to explain why there do not exist so many details of the caravels Pinta and Nina as of the Santa Maria. This is because the smaller ships were in their owners’ or cap- tains’ hands; they did not enter into the contracts and inven- tories of the admiral. The three vessels being ready, they sailed from Palos on August 38, arrived at the Canary islands on August 9, and re- mained there until September 6, and did not sail from Gomera, an island south of Tenerite. The instruments that they used in navigation were similar to those you see on this table. The astrolabe, well known in Spain since the eleventh century; the jacob-staff, that. instrument that proceeds from the Chaldeans; and I offer besides for your inspection these others, which are not copies, but real instru- ments that have been used at sea and that belong to the Spanish section of the exposition, and I am now to describe to you briefly the use of them. (The description followed.) The voyage of the caravels was made by the parallel of 27° through the trade winds that, as we know today, come more to the north in summer, in which season the voyage was under- taken. You know how the deviation of the compass was dis- covered by Columbus, and how skillfully he overcame the diffi- culty between his men, changing the card on the needle as much as was necessary to correct the difference. You know also the history of the mutiny, made conspicuous by many curious pic- tures, one of which you can see in La Rabida, where Columbus is menaced by poignards during hissleep. Read the magnificent inquests (Mumbers 15, 16 and 17, Diplomatic Collection, pages 565-567), where you will see that Columbus consulted Martin Pinzon about returning to Spain that night, and that Pinzon answered, “ No, sir; God would never allow a fleet of such a great king to return, not only tonight, but not for a year” (page 566); to which Columbus answered, “ Let you be the blessed of God.” How could it be otherwise in a short voyage of thirty days that the only thing that made them uneasy was the steadiness of the wind, since it is the only thing referred to in the admiral’s log of the 22d of September, when he says that he was very happy at having a head-wind, as the sailors were uneasy at the steadi- Nobility of Ferdinand and Isabella. 185 ness of the direction of the wind? Neither was that of the greatest importance, as they had only sixteen days of voyage. Land was sighted on October 12, and there we again meet the man Columbus. Land was seen by a sailor of the caravel Pinta, called Rodrigo de Triana, at 2 o’clock in the night, but the ad- miral awarded to himself the prize, consisting of an amount of money and a pension for hfe, because he said he had seen a ‘light at 10 o’clock. According to his own log, Thursday, Octo- ber 11, they were sailing at the rate of twelve miles an hour, or nine knots of the actuel measure, and how on a stormy night was it possible that he could see a light thirty-six knots distant on a low sandy inland that scarcely could be seen from the deck at five or six knots on a clear day? Rodrigo de Triana aban- doned Spain in despair and made himself a Mohammedan, and Columbus received the prize allowed to him who first saw land. Let us again forget the man to admire always the hero of an idea; but if you would read the original letter of Columbus to the nurse of the Infanta Dofia Juana, which you can see also in the exposition at La Rabida, you will see that Columbus him- self, by his own handwriting, states that he had money enough, although he had been five years without paying anybody; and after that study you will be able to appreciate how much value there is in those ridiculous stories and paintings of chains and poignards of authors and artists who otherwise could not sell their works. I do not excuse Bobadilla, who was very tyran- nical, even in those times, in all the nations of Europe; butall that exalts more and more the behavior of Ferdinand and Isabella, who forgot the man to reéstablish immediately the hero, the great discoverer, in all his privileges as general governor and admiral of the lands he discovered ; and even today in the more cultured and more enlightened nation in the world, and under very similar circumstances, although we know what the Suez canal is for navigation, and that in the time of Ferdinand and Isabella nobody knew what was discovered, yet even now de Lesseps has found one hundred Bobadillas. How, then, can you wonder that Columbus should find one? And where are the Ferdinands and Isabellas of the nineteeeth century to forget the man and only remember the hero of another idea that opened a thoroughfare for six hundred millions of men? After that, tell me where is a nation in the world that should dare to throw the first stone at Spain of the fifteenth century ? 25—Natv, Grog. Mac., von. V, 1893, 186 V. M. Concas—The Caravels of Columbus. On that twelfth of October Columbus planted on this continent a flag in the first island discovered, quite like the one which I offer for your inspection. It was the distinguishing signal of his authority, the admiral’s flag. The Pinzon brothers carried these others. These are the flags of the discovery, granted by the king to the enterprise—the true flags of America, planted on the shores by the captains of the Pinta and Nina. The usual pictures are not in accord with the historical truth, - since the flags were similar to the flags you can see here, and there was no priest, with the party on’ either of the caravels, although you always see one represented in the pictures of the landing of Columbus. A great day was the twelfth of October; a day that placed the name of Columbus and the flag of Castile in the book of immor- — tality; a great day that opened this immense continent to Hurope, already threatened by reform under the weight of relig- ious intolerance; a great day, that one, when the gun of the Pinta proclaiming Land! the cry answered from the tops of the Andes and the Rocky mountains, “ For the White Man!” The Spanish government, wishing to renew that memory, offered again to the wind the old flag of Castile and another Santa Maria, the fac-simile of the caravel of Columbus. A kind Providence has permitted me to complete such a historical voyage and to cross the Atlantic in thirty-six days, the same time that the great admiral employed in crossing it; and after reaching the island where was the first European settlement, and after, at Havana, saluting the tomb where are the remains of that great hero of science and perseverance, I have brought the memory of his immortal spirit and the order of all Spain to wish from the high deck of the Santa Maria peace and pros- perity to all the countries of the New World. IN THE WAKE OF COLUMBUS. ‘BY FREDERICK A. OBER I have selected as the subject of this paper that of a work re- cently published by me, entitled “In the Wake of Columbus.” Certain friends have rather cruelly suggested that it might better be called “At the wake of Columbus,” since the subject has been a long time dead, and it is high time he was buried. But, ignoring their evident flippancy, we shall, with your per- mission, follow awhile in the wake of the great navigator, and inquire if there are any remaining evidences of his voyages and of his discoveries in the land he was the means of bringing to the notice of Europe. The fact that several towns and cities claim the honor of his birth-place and two islands possess his last and only remains should not deter the investigator, since there are places identified with his career that are well authen- ticated. Leaving the somewhat mythical events of Columbus’ youth and early manhood to the historian, we will glance at those places that stand forth most conspicuously, particularly in Spain and the New World. Summoning before us the picture of those times, when occurred the events that shaped the beginnings of American history, I suppose there is not one so well defined as the siege of Granada, when, after years of fighting, the Spaniards had at last reduced the Moors to the last extremity, had cooped them up in the fortress of the Alhambra, and had seated them- selves before the city of Granada, determined to drive them from this their last stronghold in Europe. That they succeeded we know, and that it was at the termination of the siege, when Boabdil, the last king of the Moors, had surrendered the keys of Granada, that Columbus appeared upon the scene, is a matter of history. It was in April, 1491, that the armies of Ferdinand and Isa- bella, 50,000 strong, entered the Vega of Granada and intrenched (187) 188 I. A. Ober—In the Wake of Columbus. themselves upon the site of the present city of Santa Fé, build- ing there a camp that eventually became a city. Here Columbus found them in January, 1492, and here he made his last plea for his projected voyages. Disappointed, he left the fortified camp of Santa Fé, and departed toward the coast of Spain, all his years of attendance on the court having apparently been passed in vain. Fate or fortune took him to the convent of La Rabida, on the coast, near the important town of Huelva, and here he met and conversed with the prior, who, formerly confessor to Isabella, retained Columbus at the convent until he himself had seen her and obtained her sanction to his return. The resu‘t the world knows. The “ capitulation” between Columbus and the sover- eigns of Spain was signed April 17, 1492, and the Genoese re- turned to La Rabida and Palos, where he completed his prepa- rations for the voyage, sailing in August, to the discovery of the New World. With: all this, of course, every one is familiar; but with the places most closely identified with the life and career of Colum- bus, and particularly in the hemisphere he discovered, very few people now living are acquainted. After more than two months of sailing, or about October 12, Columbus found himself at the New World’s portal—at the gateway to the unknown lands beyond. This island, the Guanahani of the natives, called by the sailor San Salvador, the landfall of the first voyage, has been variously located in different portions of the Bahaman chain. We for a long time accepted the statement of Irving that it was that now known as Cat island, an opinion in which Hum- boldt coincided; but later investigators have assigned it to Watlings island, most of them agreeing on it who have given the matter nwel attention. Of one thing we are sure, that it was an island in the Babb! mas and about midway the chain, though islands so far apart as Grand Turks and Cat, with 300 miles between them, have been claimed as the landfall. It is unfortunate that the journal of Columbus, which was doubtless written on the voyage and in detail, is lost, since that might have settled all doubts on this as on many other points. But, in view of what has been published, and after a careful sifting of all available evidence, I think we may assume it to- The Landfall of Columbus. 189 have been Watlings. All the evidence, and careful descriptions of the island, I have given in my recently published book, “ In the Wake of Columbus,” to which I must refer any one for fur- ther particulars. Having followed Columbus throughout Spain over five years ago, and having been commissioned by the Exposition to inves- tigate the route of the navigator through the West Indies, as well as to search out all existing remains of his settlements and plantations, when in those islands as a special commissioner during the past two years, I can claim to have given the matter some attention. Accepting the courses of the first voyage across the Atlantic as worked out by eminent navigators of modern times, we bring Columbus, at least approximately, to an island midway the Bahama chain. He “lay to” outside the reefs, and landed in his small boats, finding an island (described as nearly as possi- ble in his own words from the “ Diary of Colon,” transcribed from his journal by Las Casas), large and very level, with a large lagoon in the middle, without any mountain, and covered with verdure. The journal also describes the great barrier-reef of coral that surrounds the island and within which the water is as ‘still as a well,” as Columbus himself says. Now, the distinctive feature of this island and this description is the great lagoon in the center of the island, a feature possessed by no other in the chain except Crooked island, which has never been claimed as that of the landfall. Cat island has no such body of water, and in no respect does it answer the description as given by the admiral. It should be observed that the only weak lnk in the chain of evidence in favor of Watlings is the fact that there are no other islands of any size visible from any portion of it, as mentioned by Columbus; but this may not be an objection, for he may have seen distant portions of the same island and taken them for different isles and islets. The island itself is about twelve miles long by from five to seven broad, with great salt-water lagoons in the center—ege shaped—and almost entirely surrounded with dangerous coral reefs. Like all the Bahama islands, it is composed of limestone, with a very scant covering of soil—in fact, the rocks are almost denuded of vegetal covering, and that little of the poorest and 190 EP. A. Ober—In the Wake of Columbus. thinnest. Still the natives have their “farms,” as they call them, from which they gain the scantiest subsistence ; at the time of my visit, a year ago, they were on the verge of starvation. The particular spot at which it is thought Columbus and his crew landed on that memorable October morning, 1492, is on the northeastern coast of Watlings island at the end of a bay now known as Greens harbor. From the light-house, half a mile distant, the whole coast is visible, and the beautiful beach lies before you, a stretch of silver sands some two miles long, terminated by promontories of coral, and bordered by a low growth of sea-grape, dwarf palmetto, and sweet-smelling shrubs, such as the southern coast of Florida yields. Near the south- eastern extremity of this beach, where the coral rock of the head- land juts out toward the barrier reefs, it is assumed that the famous landing took place; but the spot is as desolate now as at that time, four hundred years ago, no sounds breaking the stillness except the murmur of the waves and the cries of sea- birds. On the promontory there stands a monument, erected by the correspondent of the Chicago Herald in 1891, who arrived at the conclusion, after careful examination, that this was the landing-place. | : Regarding the natives found in possession by Columbus, we can only say that they have long since disappeared. It was during the first century of Spanish occupation that their exter- mination was brought about through deportation to Haiti to labor in the mines. Columbus describes them well, and also the few articles of domestic use they had in their possession, as well as the flocks of parrots and the animals of the island. Parrots are no longer found here, but are still seen in flocks on Acklins island, a hundred miles or so away. The only relics of the aborigines I succeeded in finding were the stone implements they used in their agricultural operations, such as celts, locally known as “thunderbolts,” a few bones, and a skull. All these are shown in the monastery of La Rabida, that most interesting building erected at the Exposition through the recommendation and efforts of Mr W. EH. Curtis, and which contains also other invalu- able relics of the great discoverer, presenting an epitome of American history. The present inhabitants of Watlings are mostly black and colored, some 700 in number, and have no knowledge of the The Coasting of Columbus. 19u history of the island at all. Their historical lore is limited to the times of the wreckers, and their information respecting Columbus may be summed up in the query of the old negro who took me across from Fortune to Watlings: “Say, boss, who is dis ole man Columbia you is so anxshus about? Here T’s been sailing dese Bahama islands more’n forty year, an’ I’s neber seen him yit.” They declare that the relics of the Indian are ‘“‘ sho’ enuff t’?underbolts ” and that they came down from the sky. One old black man solemnly assured me that he himself saw a celt descend, strike a tree and split it, and that he picked it up at the roots of the tree “after de hghtning done pass by.” The name of “thunderbolt,” is universal, as apphed to these objects, throughout the West Indies; in the Spanish island they are known as “ piedras de raya,” and the present descend- ants of the Caribs call them by that name. But we will not leave Columbus at Watlings; he sailed thence over to Rum cay; after that to Long island, which he called Fernandina, and then to the present Fortune and Crooked islands, the former of which he called Isabella. The island first discovered by Columbus is very little visited and is difficult of access. Having come up toward it from Haiti, and having been dropped from the steamer at Fortune, only 100 miles away, I was ten days in the latter island before I could get taken across to Watlings. Respecting the delights of travel in the Bahamas during the summer time, with the thermometer away up in the nineties, no means of communica- tion except dirty ‘“turtlers” manned and officered by black men, and no shade all day save the shadow of the main-boom, I will have nothing to say, except that I do not want to repeat the experience. From Isabella or Fortune island Columbus sailed south- westward, toward a land the natives told him of, and which they called ‘‘Cuba.” His first landing there was at or near the pres- ent port of Jibara, on the northern coast of Cuba, and thence he sailed eastward, entering the harbor of Baracoa, rounding the cape known as Point Maisi, and discovering another large island to the southward, that of Haiti. He first saw this new island on December 5; arrived at Point Saint Nicolas (recently a subject of dispute between Haiti and this government) on the seventh, and coasted until the twenty-fourth. It was on that date, after leis- LOZ FE. A. Ober—In the Wake of Columbus. urely examining the various beautiful harbors encountered and trafficking with the natives, that the fleet of Columbus first met with disaster. On Christmas eve the Santa Maria ran on a reef and was wrecked, proving a total loss. The first Christmas in the New World was a sad one for Columbus and his sailors, but their distress was somewhat alleviated by the good offices of the Indian cacique, Guacanagari, whom they were seeking at the time of the wreck. He sent out canoes to assist them and took them to his village, Guarico, where they were hospitably enter- tained. Near this place Columbus erected a fort, which he called Navidad, or the nativity, in commemoration of the day of dis- aster, and then, leaving here a garrison of forty men, sailed be- yond, as far as the bay of Samana, whence he took his departure for Spain. The places discovered by him after the first landfall are easily identified, as are all the important settlements made during subsequent voyages. — Returning to America on his second voyage, Columbus found land at a point farther south than on the first, sighting the mountains of Dominica and landing at Guadeloupe. I was at the landing-place in Guadeloupe a little over a year ago, and saw the bay in which the vessels lay while their crews were ex- ploring the woods, when they made their first acquaintance with the cannibals. ) The second landfall is a quiet and peaceful country, now the center of the sugar industry of Guadeloupe, but the general features of the country are unchanged, and the great waterfall, so grand and impressive, and which was described by Colum- bus, may still be seen (to use his own expressive language) “dropping from the clouds that drift around the brow of the volcano.” - In Dominica, across the channel, still live the descendants of the veritable Caribs found by Columbus, and who for many years held the Spaniards at a distance. In this island, and in that of Saint Vincent, reside the only Indians remaining in the West Indies, of the estimated millions found here at the coming of the Spaniards. I myself have lived with them, have hunted with them for months, have studied and photographed them, and willingly testify to their many admirable qualities. Now reduced to a few hundred in number, yet the Caribs formerly occupied all the: The Anchor of the Santa Maria. 198 islands of the West Indies south of Puerto Rico, and were a constant menace to the more peaceful Indians of the Greater Antilles. Coasting northward, Columbus brought to view all those beautiful islands between Guadeloupe and Santo Domingo and finally arrived off the scene of his wreck and the site of the fort he had erected. It was night, and all was still as death ; the Spaniards fired a gun, but there was no response, and in the morning they discovered that the fort had been destroyed and the garrison massacred. Nota man survived, and not a timber or gun has been found since to indicate the site of the ill-fated Navidad. But I secured one relic two years ago that without doubt once belonged to the Santa Maria and which was once within the fort. I visited the coast of Haiti twice, and during my first visit to the island secured evidence of the existence there of an anchor of the caravel, which was in the possession of a blac« man near cape Haitien. By a chain of evidence that led back to the time of the wreck and established beyond a doubt the authenticity of the anchor in question, I have shown that this relic is genuine. After a great deal of trouble and after a con- test with the black man aforementioned I secured this anchor, and it is now in the monastery of La Rabida. This anchor is especially noteworthy as it is the only authen- ticated relic we possess of the first settlement in the New World—that of Navidad. Of the second attempt at settlement, made immediately after, I secured many minor objects, which are also in La Rabida. It was in December, 1493, that the first town was founded, and it was soon after the discovery of the massacre at Navidad. At Isabella, as this settlement was called, there were erected but four or five structures that were intended to be permanent, and the houses of the rank and file of the army have long since disappeared. Of the few houses that were built of stone some traces still remain, and when I went to Isabella two years ago I found some hewn stones and tiles, but these were all that remained of the town founded by Columbus four hundred years ago. Though I staid there a week, and persistently hunted, I found only the few stones you may now see in the monastery; not even the ghosts of the departed hidalgos, who are,said to walk 26—Nav. Grog, Maa, von. V, 1893, 194 F. A. Ober—In the Wake of Columbus. nightly through the forest adjacent, deigned to honor me with their presence. Isabella today is in desolation, completely over- grown with rank vegetation, and with no inhabitants within the region that was settled by the Spaniards. The nearest port is that of Puerta Plata, some forty miles away, and the only means of communication with the outside world is by small sailing vessels. Although the original settlement of Isabella was soon aban- doned, the early settlers made sé@veral attempts to erect forts and towns in the interior of Santo Domingo, starting out from this initial town on the coast. .They soon after penetrated the Cibao, the famous gold region of the island, and there erected the fortress of Santo Tomas de Yanico, near the head- waters of the Rio del Oro, or the river from which Columbus obtained the first gold in 1492. : I myself have explored the region of Columbus’ Rio del Oro and have a nugget weighing half an ounce from the river Yanico, and also some flakes of gold; for there is yet much gold in the interior of Santo Domingo and the region has never been fully exploited. Santo Tomas is indicated at present only by rude earthworks, but the traditions of its early days still survive, and the memory of the audacious exploits of Alonzo de Ojeda and the fierce Caonabo still lingers. This fortress was erected in 1494, and immediately after were started the towns of Concepcion de la Vega and Jacagua, about 1495. Both towns were destroyed by an earthquake in 1564, but from their ruins I succeeded in taking away some interesting relics, which are to be seen in the monastery, and in photographing the fort and the ruins of the church. Not far from these ruins is the hill of Santo Cerro, overlooking the glorious plain called by Columbus the Vega Real, or Royal Plain, where his forces had a decisive battle with the Indians in 1495, which reduced them to subjection and sealed their fate forever. From a tree still standing on the Cerro and called the “ Nispero de Colon” the discoverer watched the first impor- tant battle between red and white races, and afterward erected here a cross, which was long a venerated relic. The interior of the island of Santo Domingo is little known, and my explorations there were well rewarded, so far as Colum- bian relics go, and I would recommend it to the adventurous traveller as an interesting field for exploitation. The Remains of Coluwnvbus. 195 The Spaniards finally drifted away from the northern coast of Haiti, and the city of Santo Domingo was founded on the south in 1496, which yet contains many thines that take us back to those first years of conquest. The chapel still stands, though in ruinous condition, from the porch of which Bobadilla pro- claimed the downfall of Columbus, and the house built by Don Diego, the son of the Admiral, rises above the right bank of Ozama river. There is a castle also, the Homenage, which was built in the year 1509, or during the dominion of Don Diego. Here also are the ruins of the first American university—date, 1507 or 1509; the vast convent of the Franciscans, a contemporary structure; and lastiy here are some of the remains of Columbus. To be more explicit, I may say that here are to be seen one set of the remains that Columbus left behind him at his departure, the other being claimed by the city of Havana. It is too long a story to narrate; all the evidence on both sides is given in my book and also in the monastery of La Rabida, reproduced in Jackson Park. Briefly, Columbus died at Valladolid, in Spain, in 1506. His remains were taken to Santo Domingo about 1540, where they were deposited at the right hand of the high altar in the cathe- dral, remaining there until 1795, when the Spaniards took up and transported what they thought were the bones of Columbus to Havana; but in 1877, in making some repairs in the cathe- dral, the workmen found another vault, which contained a casket and bones; also inscriptions showing that those were the real remains and that the Spaniards had made a mistake and had probably taken away the ashes of Don Diego, the son. But, wherever may rest the bones of the Great Admiral, it is with the island of Santo Domingo that his greatest exploits are associated, and in that island he expressed the wish to be buried. Nearly every island of the Caribbean sea has an association with the great Colon. In his second voyage he discovered the Caribbees, or Lesser Antilles; on his third he found Trinidad and the peninsula of Paria, as well as the Pearl islands, sailing thence to Santo Domingo again, whence he was sent home in chains, in the year 1500. On his last and most disastrous voyage, 1502, and the two years succeeding, he coasted the east- ern shores of Yucatan and Central America, the yoyage ending 196 I. A. Ober—In the Wake of Columbus. at Jamaica, where all of his vessels were wrecked and where he remained a twelvemonth a prisoner on his stranded ships, fighting the Indians and engaged in conflicts with his own mutinous men. | The scene of his last shipwreck is well authenticated, and, as the conclusion of my labors in the search for Columbian foot- prints, I visited and photographed the little bay in which for a whole year he remained at the mercy of the sea and the savages. It is on the northern coast of Jamaica, in the parish of Saint Anns, the most beautiful portion of that beautiful island. A mile distant from the bay of Saint Anns is a little sea-nook, called today Don Christopher’s cove, and on its narrow stretch of beach, with bordering fringe of sea-grape and cocoa-plum., Columbus stranded his vessels, building over their decks a shelter of palm-thatch, and here lived for a year, as Irving says, “ castled in the sea.” Half way between Jamaica and Haiti is an island known as Navassa, at which the canoe sent by Columbus to Haiti for assistance touched on its way, the starving crew finding there a little raw fish and some water, which enabled them to complete their most perilous voyage. But perhaps I have followed too long after the ships of Colum- bus. I might mention many other spots he visited, and which I have seen; but with you assent I will bring this description to a close. RECENT DISCLOSURES CONCERNING PRE-COLUMBIAN VOY- AGES TO AMERICA IN THE ARCHIVES OF THE VATICAN BY WILLIAM ELEROY CURTIS Several eminent Scandinavian scholars, and others who have made the early voyages of the Norsemen the subject of special study, have for years contended that the archives of the Vatican contained important evidence bearing upon the pre-Columbian discoveries of America. Some have even had the courage to assert that the legends and traditions of the Icelandic sagas would be established as facts if the records of the church could be called as witnesses, while others have gone even still farther and have insisted that, through the secret aid of the pope, Colum- bus enjoyed full knowledge of the voyages of the Norsemen and the country they called Vinland the Good, and simply followed the course over which they had cruised across the ocean four hundred years before his birth. But until Leo XIII came to the Vatican no amount of argument or influence was able to unlock the mysterious manuscripts, which for eighteen hundred years have been accumulating upon the shelves of the Holy See. Some years ago a woman went to Congress and asked the pas- sage of a resolution directing the President of the United States to use his influence with the pope to have them examined, but no notice was taken of her petition, and year after year applica- tions from students and historians were made in vain. The officers of the church denied nothing. They simply said that they did not know what the early archives of the church con- tained ; that they had not been disturbed for centuries, and that no one with access to them had either the time or the disposi- tion to make an examination. In the summer of 1892 Congress passed a resolution request- ing the governments of Spain, France, Great Britain, the Pope of Rome, the Duke of Veragua and others to loan for exhibition in the convent of La Rabida, at the World’s Columbian Exposi- tion, certain manuscripts, maps, and printed volumes relating (197) 198 W. E. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. to the voyages of Columbus and the discovery and early settle- ment of America. It was my pleasant duty to convey this request to the nations and persons named, and with the excep- tion of the government of France and the municipality of Genoa, the response was prompt, generous, and complete. His emi- nence, Mer Rampolla, cardinal secretary of state, who repre- sented the pope in the negotiations, was extremely cordial and interested, and although he could not permit any original papers to be taken from the files of the Vatican, he caused a thorough investigation to be made, and furnished a fac-simile of every important or interesting document that could be found bearing upon the early history of America. While the claims of the Scandinavian scholars were not sustained, and no evidence was disclosed to show that the discoveries and adventures of the Norsemen in America were ever known to the church, or that Columbus obtained any information or assistance whatever from this source, there were brought to light several historical docu- ments of the greatest value, relating to the settlement of Green- land and the propaganda of the church in the middle ages. The work of investigation was done under the direction of Mr J. C. Heywood, a ripe and skillful scholar, who has devoted many years to the study of the history and the policy of the Catholic church, and who kindly consented to serve as the representative of the Department of State of the United States in securing a historical exhibit from the Vatican. Mr Heywood was formerly a resident of Philadelphia, but of late years has made his homeat Rome, and is one of the chamberlains of Pope Leo XIII. He was inspired in his work by a double motive— the desire to have the Vatican represented at the World’s Colum- bian Exposition by some important and unusual exhibit, and to add to the records of the Department of State at Washington a collection of most valuable historical papers. The documents were exhibited in the convent of La Rabida, at the World’s Columbian Exposition, with the relics of Columbus, and the catalogue of the collection contained, among much other new and interesting historical matter, the following description from Mr Heywood’s pen: ‘The fac-similes of documents relating to the early history of America here exhibited are taken from the famous series of the Papal registers or letter books. These are a collection of more than 12,000 yolumes in folio, written partly on parchment Source of Information. sles > 9 and partly on paper, and are preserved in the secret archives of the Holy See, at the Vatican palace. “Tn these registers almost all the letters issued by the popes were recorded before being sent to their destinations. They contain, also, the petitions received, and offer, therefore, original and most important materials for the histories of all nations. “The collection now begins with Pope Innocent III (1198- 1216). All the portion of it prior to that date was lost or de- stroyed in the commencement of the thirteenth century. What remains is classified as follows: A. The Vatican registers, over 2,000 volumes, 1198-1600. B. The Avignon registers, about 350 volumes, 1316-1417. C. The Lateran registers, about 2,300 yolhicinves. 1417-1831. D. The fee eis of the Requests, about 7,400 volumes, 1352- 1831. “It must cause a peculiar satisfaction to Leo XIII that one of the early results of his enlightened liberality in opening’ the secret archives is, as shown by these letters, to make accessible to all proofs that, by whomsoever represented, the papacy has always been faithful to the divine mission which it claims for itself; that whenever discoveries of, till then, unknown coun- tries have been announced it at once has made provision for the preaching of the gospel and the introduction of christianity among the people of such countries. “The papers, of which the fac-similes are here shown, may be divided into four groups, viz: “Those which relate to the bishopric of Gardar, Greenland ; “Those which relate to the line of demarcation ; “Those which relate to the sending of missionaries to America “Those in which Pope Julius II recommends Barolo: and Diego Columbus. “A. Documents Concerning the Bishopric of Gardar, Greenland. “Greenland certainly is the part of the new world which was first brought into relation with the old. This was done through the Northmen of Norway and Iceland. It was by their means that christianity was first carried to America and there gave occasion for the documents in question. “ According to Adam, of Bremen (died about 1076), and the sagas, Norwegians first reached the American coast at the end 200 W. BE. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. of the ninth or beginning of the tenth century ; but, as in Nor- way itself, so in Greenland, the complete establishment of the Christian religion is attributed to King Olaf IIT (died 1050). It is said that Archbishop Adalbert, of Bremen (1055), sent Albert as the first bishop to Greenland. This bishopric certainly ex- isted in 1124. It was the first bishopric erected in America. “The numerous researches and publications in regard to the extension of settlements which Christian Greenlanders effected on the American continent, and in regard to the positions of the Helleland, the Markland and the Vinland, make apparent, not only the posite but also the prowabiier that a considerable portion of that continent felt in some degree at that time the eivilizing influence of the bishops of Gardar. ‘“Rafn identified the Vinland with Massachusetts. The ques- tion has lately been thoroughly reéxamined by Storm. His opinion is that Vinland, and consequently the extreme point reached by Christian Northmen, cannot be sought for further south than Nova Scotia. In any case, the historic importance of the bishopric of Gardar is plain. “The bishopric belonged first to the metropolitan see of Ham- burg-Bremen; but in 1146 Pope Eugene III sent the cardinal- bishop of Albano, Nicolas, who afterward became Pope Hadrian IV, to Norway to arrange in a more convenient manner the ecclesiastical affairs of that country. He established a metropol- itan see at Drontheim, to which he subjected the bishoprics of Norway, of the Northern islands, and of Gardar, or Greenland. “The letter of Innocent IIT, the earliest in order of time and the first here exhibited, epitomizes the apostolic case with which his predecessors in the twelfth century had bestowed on the only part of America then known. “Tn all ordinary matters the dioceses were governed by the bishops, without any direct interference on the part of the pope. But when Gregory X, in the council of Lyons (1174), ordered that a tithe of all ecclesiastical revenues should for six years be contributed, in order to provide means at least to preserve the last Christian position in Palestine, which, after the death of Louis IX of France (died August 25, 1270), seemed almost lost, such interference in some cases een necessary. “The letters of the popes, written under these extraordinary cir- cumstances to the archbishop of Drontheim, contain interesting information regarding the condition of the Greenlanders in the The Condition of the Greenlanders. 201 thirteenth century, and show that a part of-America helped to furnish money for the crusade. “The archbishop has informed the pope (letters 2, 6) that it would take him five years, including the voyage to and from, to visit the diocese of Greenland, and has asked permission to send some proper person in his place. Other letters (letters 3, 4) say that the archbishop would have to spend six years in order to collect personally the tithes in his arch-diocese, and that in doing so he would be obliged to live, sometimes five or more consecu- tive days, in a tent while traveling through desert regions. Therefore he thinks it needful that a larger number of collectors should be appointed. “ In other letters (letters 5, 8) the archbishop notes the poverty of the country. The people had no money of any kind, and no erain or fruit could be grown. The inhabitants lived on milk, or food produced from it (laticinia), and fish. In Greenland particularly the people could offer nothing for the expenses of the crusade but skins, probably of the elk or of the musk-ox and of seals (coria bovina et phocaruwm) and the teeth and soper of whales (funes balenarum). The non-production of grain and grapes made it necessary for the faithful (letter 7) to provide for a - supply of bread and wine to be used in celebrating the eucharist. “From a letter of Pope Nicolas V, dated September 22, 1148 (letter 9), it appears that the Greenlanders attributed their con- version to Saint Olaf, King of Norway (died 1030); that they had built, beside a goodly number of parish churches, a respect- able cathedral at Gardar; that about the year 1418 heathen foreigners, with a fleet, invaded their country, killed or carried into slavery the inhabitants and burned their habitations and buildings, leaving only nine churches, which were in the least accessible regions. Some of the captives, having escaped and returned to their own country, unable to go to the distant churches, have begged the pope to provide them with priests and a bishop. Nicolas therefore empowers the two neighboring bishops of Iceland to satisfy the pious desires of the Greenlanders. “The information contained in this letter of Nicolas V is in some measure completed and confirmed by one from Pope Alexander VI, written 1492-’93, just when Columbus had made his great discovery. It seems that the letter of Nicolas did not reach its destination, or failed to effect its purpose. At any rate, the Greenlanders had addressed a petition to Innocent VILI, 27—Natt. Grog. Maa., von. V, 1893, 202. W. BH. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. setting forth that for about eighty years (since’ the heathen in- vasion, in about 1418) they had been deprived of priests and of a bishop. Asa consequence many had already lost their faith, and to those who remained faithful the only memorial of Christian worship yet belonging was the coporal on which, nearly one hun- dred years before, a priest had, for the last time among them, consecrated the blessed sacrament. Once every year. this holy and venerated relic was shown to all the people. “ Before his elevation to the pontificate Alexander, as chan- cellor, had proposed Matthew, a Benedictine monk, for the bishop of Gardar. By this letter he frees him from the payment of all fees that were due in such.cases and praises the willingness with which he had undertaken the difficult mission. “ Documents that Relate to the Line of Demarcation. “Acting on the approved general opinion, a common consent of the time, which acknowledged the right of popes to interfere authoritatively even in political and international affairs, when the welfare of souls are involved, the Portuguese kings, with their discoveries along the western coast of Africa, commenced a series of demands for the exclusive right of discovery and coloniza- tion in that direction. This the popes, Martin V, Eugene IV, Nico- las V, and Sextus IV, gradually ceded to them till their successive grants covered all the region from Ceuta around Africa to India. “The discovery announced by Columbus, and believed even by himself till the day of his death to be only a new and shorter way to the eastern part of India, naturally excited the appre- hensions and jealousy of the Portuguese court. On the return of the great discoverer (March 4, 1493) from his first voyage, Ferdinand put in operation all his diplomacy at Lisbon for the purpose of preventing any interference with his claims, and at Rome, in order to procure from the pope a sole proprietorship of the new world, he obtained three papal letters, dated May 3d and 4th, which was to effect this result. “The letter beginning ‘ inter cetera,’ of the date of May 3, gave to Spain: First, the exclusive right to the lately discovered islands and to the other lands which might still be found, so far as they were not already possessed by some Christian power ; secondly, the same privileges and rights for its new colonies as those previously conceded to Portugal for its possessions on the The Demarcation Line. 203 west coast of Africa. The other letter, of same date, which begins ‘eximie devotionis,’ contains only the last-mentioned concession. “The third letter, dated May 4, on the other hand gives the first concession indicated above, but not the second, and is, therefore, to some extent, a repetition of the first letter. But it contains, in addition, a definition of the famous line of de- mareation, determining more exactly the donation given by the first letter, evidently on account of the grant made to Por- tugal, although that is not mentioned. The line is fixed one hundred leagues to the west and south of the westernmost island of the Azores, ‘To the south’ was added because the region was particularly desired by both parties, and because Portugal had already proposed the drawing of a line from east to west in order to confine Spain to the northern side of such a boundary. The condition of geographical science at the time did not permit the intended boundary to be defined more accu- rately. In proposing it to Alexander VI, Spain only knew that it would fall far from San Salvador and hoped that, by keeping its ships. at a distance of one hundred leagues from the most western of the Portuguese possessions, alarm and jealousy on the part of the last-named power might be prevented. But Portugal, like Columbus and Spain, believed San Salvador to be part of India, to which country, passing the cape of Good Hope, in 1487, it had opened anew way, and to which it claimed the exclusive right. It was, therefore, impossible for Spain to maintain the demarcation line of Alexander VI, and in the con- vention of Torderillas (7th June, 1494) it was moved one hun- dred and seventy leagues farther west, a change which, without the cognizance of either party, gave Brazil to Portugal. But although the position of the demarcation line of Alexander VI had been changed, it continued, nevertheless, to be the basis of all subsequent transactions and conventions for dividing the sovereignty of the new world, and thus preserved peace between the two colonizing powers. “Tt is clear from the text of these letters that the popes, and especially Alexander VI, founded such action, as was his in this case, on their duty to provide for the christianization of the new countries; a duty which carried with it the right and authority to use all power, and particularly all indispensable means for its accomplishment. The conversion of these heathen popula- tions seemed impossible, unless somehow they should be incor- 204 W. EB. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. porated into and peace preserved between the Christian kine- doms of Spain and Portugal. “The Sending of Bishops and. Missionaries to the New World. “Tn these grants of lands newly discovered or to be discovered Alexander VI and his predecessors emphatically insisted on the duty of Christian kings to codperate, by all means under their control, in the conversion of the inhabitants of such lands; in fact, such cooperation was a clearly implied condition and con- sideration of the grants. The evidence appears insufficient to support a positive assertion that on his first voyage Columbus was accompanied by a priest; but it is a plain fact that for the second expedition, in 1495, Ferdinand and Isabella, as well as Alexander VI, solicitously provided missionaries, not only for the spiritual well-being of the Spaniards, but also and princi- pally for the conversion of the natives. : “Bernard Boil, greatly esteemed for his saintly life and for his great ability in the management of ecclesiastical and also of political affairs, offered himself for this mission, the first apostle who, after Columbus’ discovery, went to the new world. Till 1492 he was a Benedictine monk, or hermit, at Montserrat; but at the time of his mission to the lately discovered islands—that is to say, at least from September 22, 1492, to December 8, 1497— he belonged to the order of the Minimi, which shortly before had been established by Saint Francis of Paul. In 1488 he returned to the Benedictine order and became abbot of Cuxa. The copyist of the letter of Alexander IV to Boil made, therefore, a very excusable mistake in writing ‘minorum’ instead of ‘ mini- morum,’ in consequence of which Ragnaldus, Wadding, and many other writers assigned Boil to the Franciscan order. By this letter of June 25, 1493, Alexander granted to Boil and his twelve companions all the powers and privileges which could aid to make their enterprise successful. Of. these twelve com- panions only Pedro de Asena and Fray Jorje arenamed. Pedro de Asena is said to have celebrated the first mass in the new world after it was discovered by Columbus. “As early as 1501, at the request of Ferdinand and Isabella, Alexander took steps to provide bishops for the infant colonies in America. In 1504 an archbishopric and two bishoprics were erected at Tagusta, Magua, and Bayuna, in Hispaniola (Haiti), but through the operations of Ferdinand’s well-known financial Early American Dioceses. 205 policy the plan came to nothing. On August 8, 1511, these three dioceses were suppressed, and three others were established at Santo. Domingo and Concepcion de la Vega, in Hispaniola, and at San Juan, in Porto Rico, and placed under the jurisdic- tion of the archbishops of Seville, where the government of the colonies had its seat. “Tn August and September, 1515 (see five letters of that date), John of Quevedo, a Franciscan friar, was appointed to the see of Banta Maria del Antiqua, or Darien, and his appointment announced to the authorities and people. He was the first bishop of a diocese on the American continent. He died at Barcelona about December 5, 1520. “Already a considerable body of priests, both secular and regu- lar, were working for the religious good of the colonists and to convert the natives. The popes, however, and the rulers of Spain wished to increase the number of these laborers and to provide for their government. A letter of Clement VII, dated June 7, 1526 (letter 22), the better to effect their wish, urged the general of the Franciscans to visit personally the members of his order in the new world. By another letter etter 23) Clement authorized the emperor, Charles V, who had asked for mission- aries, to send one hundred and twenty Franciscans, seventy Dominicans, and ten Serougmites to the lately discovered islands, even without the permission of their respective superiors, grant- ing to those who should be sent many privileges and exemptions. With like solicitude the kings of Spain and Portugal continued to fulfill the condition under which they had received the papal erants of newly discovered, or to be discovered, territories.” t Pope Julius IT Recommends Bartholomew and Diego Columbus to the King of Spain. On the death of Christopher Columbus (May 20, 1506) began for his heirs the difficulties which, aggregated by the character- istic tenacity of the family, occasioned the endless lawsuit, well known as Los Pleitos de Colon. With a hope of ending these difficulties, Bartholomew, the brother, and Diego, the son, of the discoverer, determined to join King Ferdinand, then at Naples. Passing through Rome, on their way thither, they were kindly received by Pope Julius II, and obtained from him a.recom- mendation to Ferdinand, who seems already to have been fayorably disposed toward them. 206 W. EH. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. ° The documents from the secret archives of the Vatican, of which fac similes were furnished by Cardinal Rampolla for ex- hibition in the monastery of La Rabida, are as follows: il, 985. Letter of Pope Innocent III, dated February 13, 1206, to the archbishop of Drontheim, confirming his metropolitan rights over the diocese of Greenland, which had been established by Pope Hugene III in 1148. (Translation. ) Innocent III to the archbishop of Drontheim and his canon- ically appointed successors in perpetuity : Although the power of binding and loosing was given to all, although one and the same command of preaching the gospel to every creature was given to all, nevertheless a certain distinc- tion of dignity was decreed and one alone received above all the rest the care of the Lord’s sheep, according to the Lord’s words: Peter, lovest thou me? Feed my sheep. It was Peter likewise who obtained the preéminence among all the apostles; he who received a special command from the Lord to confirm his brethren, in order that posterity might thereby understand that though many should be ordained to govern the church, one alone was to hold the supreme dignity, one alone was to be over all the rest in authority and jurisdiction; hence, and in accord- ance with this design, a distinction of dignities is observed in the church, and just as in the human body the different mem- bers thereof are destined for different purposes, so also in the church different persons receive different orders for different ministries, for some are ordained for special churches, some for the government of different cities and the settlement of different affairs, others are set over special provinces, others have jurisdic- tion over their brethren for the trial of cases pertaining to their subjects. Over all these, however, the Roman pontiff, ike Noah in the ark, is recognized 4s holding the first place, for he, by virtue of the privilege granted him from on high in the person of the prince of the apostles, judges and settles the causes of all, and ceases not to confirm in the Christian faith the sons of the church throughout the world, rightfully endeavoring to prove that he has heard the voice of the Lord saying, “ and thou being Purposes of the Vatican. 207 once converted, confirm thy brethren.” The apostles and men who have successively risen to the government of the apostolic see since the blessed Peter have likewise striven with unfailing zeal to accomplish the same, and either personally or by means of their legates they have endeavored to their utmost to correct whatsoever needed correction and to decree whatsoever was required. Our predecessor of happy memory, Pope Hugene, following in their footsteps, was anxious, in accordance with the duty of his office, to correct in the kingdom of Norway all that seemed to demand correction, by sowing therein the word of faith, and what he himself was unable to do, owing to his care of the universal church, he entrusted for execution to his legate Nicholas, then bishop of Albano and later Roman pontiff, who, having gone to that country, loaned out, obediently to the com- mands of his master, the talent he had received, and like a faith- ful and wise servant endeavored to derive an increase therefrom, Among other things which he there accomplished to the glory of God’s name and the credit of his ministry, according as he had been commanded by our aforesaid predecessor, he bestowed the pallium upon thy predecessor John, and lest the province of Nor- way should lack the supervision of a metropolitan he designated the city of Nidras, now under thy charge, as the metropolitan see in perpetuity of the said province and gave to it as suffrage sees in perpetuity Aslo, Amatrip, Bargen, Stavanegri, the Orkney, Farde, and Subraie islands, Iceland and Greenland, ordering the bishops of the same to obey him and his successors as their metropolitans. Lest, therefore, any one should ever presume to violate the order of the aforesaid legate, we, after the ex- ample of the above-mentioned Eugene, of happy memory, of Alexander and of Clement. our predecessors and Roman pon- tiffs, confirm the same order by apostolic authority, and by the present ordinance decreeing that the city of Nidras is to be for- ever regarded as the metropolitan see of the above-mentioned cities; that their bishops are to obey thee and thy successors as their metropolitan, and to receive from your hands the grace of consecration ; that thy successors, however, are to come to the Roman pontiff alone, in order to receive the gift of consecration, and that they are to be subject to the Roman church alone. Moreover, thy fraternity will use the. pallium which has been given thee, the emblem of the plenitude of the pontifical office, within church only during the solemn celebration of mass 208° W.E. re-Columbian, Vatican Documents. throughout thy entire province, and on those days only which are written below, viz., the Lord’s nativity, the Epiphany, the Lord’s Supper, the Resurrection, Ascension and Pentecost, on the festivals of the blessed Mother of God, Mary, ever virgin ; the feast of Saints Peter and Paul, the finding and exaltation of the Holy Cross, the nativity of Saint John the Baptist, the feast of blessed John the Evangelist, on the commemoration of all saints, when consecrating churches or bishops, blessing abbots or ordaining priests, on the anniversary of the consecration of thine own church, the feasts of the Holy Trinity and of Saint Olaf and the anniversary of thy consecration. Wherefore let thy fraternity perform all things with such diligence that the ornaments of thy conduct may be in keeping with the fullness of the great dignity thou hast received. Let thy life be an ex- ample to all who are under thee, so that they may learn there- from what they should seek after and what they are obliged to shun; be distinguished for thy prudence, chaste of thought, pure in thy conduct, discreet in silence, useful in speech; seek rather to do good to men than to rule them. In thyself thou shouldst consider not the power of order, but the equality of thy condition. Have a care lest thy life render void thy teaching or thy teaching be in contradiction with thy conduct. Remem- ber that the government of souls is the art of arts. Strive above all things to observe faithfully the decrees of the apostolic see, humbly obeying the same as thy mother and mistress. These, most beloved brother in Christ, are some among the many duties which pertain to thy archiepiscopal and sacerdotal office, all of which thou canst easily perform with Christ’s aid, nroned that thou hast charity, which is the mistress of all virtues, and humility, and that thou hast inwardly what thou seemest out- wardly to have. Accordingly we decree, etc, unto the end. Given in Rome, at Saint Peter’s, by the hand of John, cardinal, deacon of Saint Mary’s, in Cosmedin, chancellor of the holy Roman church, on the 13th day of February, the sixth indic- tion, in the year of the Lord’s incarnation 1205, and the 5th year of the pontificate of Pope Innocent IIT. 2. 986. Four letters from Pope John XXI to the archbishop of Drontheim, relative to the collection of tithes in Greenland for the Crusade, dated December 4, 1276. bo = The Collection of Tithes. (Translation. ) John XXI to the archbishop of Drontheim : Having received, by apostolic brief, the commission to collect tithes in the kingdom of Norway for the Holy Land, and having been expressly commanded in the same brief to visit personally all the countries of the said kingdom for this purpose, thy fra- ternity informs us that such visitation seems in a measure im- possible, for the diocese of Gardar, which belongs to thy province and kingdom, is so far from the metropolitan see and the diffi- culties of navigation are so great that five years are scarcely sufficient for the round journey; hence thou hast reason to doubt whether the apostolic mandate or thine will reach the aforesaid country within the period named for the payment of the tithes. Accordingly thou hast had recourse to the wisdom of the apostolic see for a remedy in this matter. We therefore, in our desire that the collection of the said tithes be diligently attended to, do wish and by apostolic letters do command thy fraternity, the above facts being true, to appoint certain capable and faithful persons, regarding whom we charge thy conscience, who shall go to that country and shall see to and diligently superintend the said collection. Thou shalt also zealously pro- vide whatsoever shall seem expedient in the said matter, that thou mayest obtain thy reward of the Lord and merit for thy- self more abundantly the favor of the apostolic see. Given at Viterbo December 4th, in the first year. To the same: Having received by apostolic brief the commission to collect - tithes in the kingdom of Norway for the Holy Land, and having been expressly commanded in the same brief to visit personally all the countries of the said country for this purpose, thy fra- ternity has informed us that several of the dioceses in that kingdom and belonging to thy province are so widely scattered over the sea and so extensive in territory that it would be diffi- cult for thee to visit personally all the districts of the aforesaid dioceses within a period of about six years and without most serious expense to thy see, and since thou wouldst have to travel for some five or more seasons (?) through countries where, because there are no houses, thou wouldst be compelled to carry tents, thou hast asked to be authorized to depute, notwithstanding the 28—Nat. Grog, Maa., von. V, 1893. 210) W. EB. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. apostolic brief to the contrary, certain prudent and capable com- missaries to collect the tithes in the said countries. Wherefore, in order to spare thee and thy see such expense, we have con- cluded to grant thee, by tenor of these present, permission to appoint such commissaries for the collection of tithes in the said diocese, in case the above be in accordance with the facts, and if thou seest fit so to do, regarding which we charge thy con- science. We wish thee, however, to visit personally such of the aforesaid dioceses as thou canst, without great inconvenience, and to attend zealously to the collection of the said tithes, in order that thou mayest expect a recompense from the Lord, whose work it is, and mayest more abundantly merit the favor of the apostolic see. Given at Viterbo December 4th, in the first year. To the same: Thou hast informed us that, owing to the great extent of the dioceses in the kingdom of Norway, wherein thou hast been appointed by apostolic letter collector of tithes for the relief of the Holy Land, the two collectors named, with apostolic per- mission, for every diocese, are not sufficient for the said work, nor can they.attend to the matter without inconvenience and very great expense. By the advice and with the assent of thy suffragans in the said kingdom, thou hast appointed for the country districts of the different dioceses several other collectors, who by their own efforts and at their personal expense are to collect the tithes and then consign them to the two city col- lectors. Wherefore thou hast humbly besought us to consider the labor and expense to which these country collectors put themselves and to grant them some indulgence; hence, as we desire that these country collectors should derive some profit from their labors and expense, we grant them the indulgence which has been accorded to those who by their efforts and coop- eration further the cause of the Holy Land. Given at Viterbo December 4th, in the first year. To the same: Thou has informed us that in the kingdom of Norway, where thou hast been entrusted with the collection of tithes for the Holy Land, the current coin is so base as to be of no value beyond the frontiers of the kingdom, and that in certain parts The Baseness of the Coin. 211 of the said kingdom money is not used at all, besides no crops are grown and no fruits are produced, the people subsisting almost entirely upon milk, cheese, and fish; hence thou hast humbly asked us to tell thee what thou art to do with the tithes collected of the aforesaid milk, cheese, fish,and money. Accord- ingly, in our desire that whatever is most advantageous to the work to be done in the matter, we think it would be well, if the above be exact, to exchange, as circumstances will permit, all such coin and tithes for gold or silver. As for the nuns and other religious orders of the same kingdom whose incomes and ecclesiastical revenues are so small as to be inadequate for their support, thou canst observe that which is more fully set forth in the declarations concerning this collection of tithes. Given at Viterbo December 4th, in the first year. 3. 987. Letter from Pope Nicholas III, dated January 31, 1279, to the archbishop of Drontheim concerning the collection of tithes in Greenland. (Translation. ) Nicholas III to his venerable brother, the archbishop of Dron- theim : We have gathered from thy letters to us that the island on which the city of Gardar is situated is rarely visited by a ship because of the storminess of the ocean within which it lies ; hence, when recently certain seamen set sail for the said island to the said city, thou didst avail thyself of the opportunity to send, in company with the said seamen, a prudent man whom thou didst depute to collect the tithes, and, relying upon our approval, thou didst authorize him to absolve clerics from the sentence of excommunication which they had incurred for not having paid the tithes within the appointed time, and to free them from whatsoever irregularity they might have contracted ; hence thou hast humbly besought us to grant our gracious ratification. Since then we cannot favorably assent to this demand, inasmuch as it is not supported by reason, and wishing on this account to accede to thy desires by applying a ready preservative against dangers to souls, we hereby authorize thee to impart to those whom thou has sent or whom thou wilt hereafter send to the 212 W. E. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. aforesaid islands to absolve clerics, whether in the above men- tioned or in whatsoever other islands of the same sea, from the aforesaid sentence according to the form of the church, and to dispense them from this kind of irregularity. Given in Rome, at Saint Peter’s, January 31, 1279. 4, Letter from Pope Nicolas III to Master Bertrand Arnabrie, dated June 9, 1279, concerning the purchase of wine and altar bread for the churches in Greenland. (Translation. ) Nicholas III to the same (Master Bertrand Amabric): We have lately been informed by thee that certain revenues have been assigned by the piety of the faithful in the cathedral churches of Denmark and Sweden for the special purpose of procuring wine and altar-bread for the clergy of the churches within the said kingdoms. As, however, thou hast consulted the apostolic see as to whether tithes should be taken from such revenues, we, while commending thy diligence, do by apostolic letter leave the matter to thy discretion, so that, if the revenues be so considerable that thou art certain a large sum is left over after the furnishing of wine and altar-bread, we desire that tithes be paid thereof. If, however, little or nothing remains of the said revenues, nothing is to be paid, out of reverence for worship and the sacrament of the Lord. Given in Rome, at Saint Peter’s, June 9, 1279. 5. 988. Letter of Pope Martin IV to the archbishop of Dron- theim, dated March 4, 1281, instructing him as to the skins and whalebone contributed as tithes by the people of Greenland. (Translation. } Martin IV to the archbishop of Drontheim: Thy fraternity has informed us that the tithes which are being paid in the Iceland and Farée islands, in the kingdom of Nor- way, consist of various articles which cannot easily be exchanged or sold, on which account the same cannot well be sent to the The Tithes of Greenland. 213 Holy Land or to the apostolic see. Thou hast added, moreover, that the only tithes which can be collected in Greenland consist of skins (probably) of the elk or of the musk-ox or of seals (coria bovina elphocerum), teeth ropes of whales (funes balnearum), which, according to thee, can hardly be sold for any suitable price. Wherefore thou hast asked instructions of the apostolic see as to what thou shouldst do in the premises. Accordingly, whilst we praise thy zealous solicitude, we answer thy question to this effect: thou wilt endeavor to exchange the tithes of Greenland and the aforesaid islands to the best possible advantage, either for silver or gold, and will forward this same as soon as thou canst, together with the other tithes collected in the kingdom for the relief of the Holy Land, faithfully informing as to the nature and amount of what thou sendest. We likewise write to our most dear son in Christ, the illustrious King of Norway, asking him not to prevent nor to allow any one to prevent the free exportation from his kingdom of the tithes which are to be applied, according as the apostolic see shall see fit, to the relief of the aforesaid Holy Land, and effectually to endeavor to repeal the prohibition decreed against clerics of the said kingdom, for- bidding any layman of the same to sell sterlings or other silver. Given at Orvieto, March 4, 1281. 6. 989. Letter from Pope Nicolas V, dated September 20, 1448, to the Irish bishops of Skalholt and Holar concerning the con- dition of the church in Greenland. (Translation. ) Nicholas, ete., to our venerable brothers, bishop of Skalholt and bishop of Holar, health, ete. : In directing the government of the universal church by virtue of the apostolic charge delivered to us from above, it is our solicitude in God’s name to secure the salvation of souls re- deemed by the precious blood of our Saviour, not only by calm- ing the storms of impiety and error which sweep over them, but also by sheltering them when exposed to calamities and the whirlwinds of persecution. From the natives and inhabitants of Greenland, an island said to be situated in the most distant 214. W. E. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. parts of the ocean off the northern coast of the kingdom of Nor- way, in the province of Drontheim, a mournful wail has reached our ears and saddened our heart. This people nearly 600 years ago received the faith from the lips of their glorious apostle, the blessed King Olaf, and preserved it unchanged and pure, guided by the ordinances of the holy Roman church and the apostolic see. In the lapse of time, burning with a constant devotion, they erected numerous churches and a splendid cathedral, in which divine worship was faithfully carried on until, 30 years ago, by the permission of Him who, in His inscrutable wisdom and knowledge, chastises those whom He loves in order to per- fect them, barbarians from the neighboring pagan shores sent a fleet for the invasion of the island. The country was devastated with fire and sword; sacred temples were destroyed in the whole island, which is said to be of vast extent. Only nine parochial churches were left untouched, because they could not easily be reached on account of their situation among the mountains. Many of the miserable natives of both sexes who seemed able to bear the yoke of perpetual slavery, and on account of their physical endurance best fitted for the purposes of their tyrants, were led away by them captives. However, as the same report added, after some time many of them returned to their native shores, and having here and there re-erected what the barbarians had demolished, they desired to spread divine worship and restore it to its former splendor. But past calamities had left them in such a starving and destitute condi- tion that they were without the means of supporting a bishop and priests, and unless, in their desire for religious services, they could undertake a journey of many days to the churches which had escaped the hands of the barbarians, they were for those 30 years in want of the solace of a pastor and the ministry of priests. Accordingly they have most humbly implored that in our paternal commiseration we would aid them in the gratifica- tion of their pious and salutary desire; that we would deign to satisfy their spiritual wants and show our benevolence and that of the apostolic see in this matter. Wherefore, moved by the just and lawful petitions and desires of the aforesaid natives and inhabitants of the island of Greenland and not having cer- tain knowledge of the above facts and their circumstances, we by apostolic letters order one or both of you, whom we under- stand to be of the neighboring bishops, after haying diligently The Bishop of Greenland. 215 examined and understood what we have said above, to ascer- tain whether it be true. If this is the state of affairs, and if you find the number and resources of the population sufficiently increased to make expedient the fulfillment of their desire, it is our wish that you ordain fitting priests of exemplary life, and provide rectors for the government of the restored parishes and churches and for the administration of the sacraments. More- over, if to one or both of you it seem timely and expedient (having asked the advice of the metropolitan if the distance per- mit), we give you power to appoint and constitute as bishop for them some useful and qualified person in communion with us and with the apostolic see, to consecrate him in our name with the usual form of the church, and to concede to him the admin- istration of spiritual and temporal affairs, after havigg received from him a fitting and customary oath of allegiance to us and the apostolic see. Making this a matter of conscience, we, by our apostolic authority, concede to one or both of you full and unrestricted power in this matter according to the tenor of these presents, all statites and constitutions, whether apostolic or of gen - eral councils or of any other kind whatsoever, notwithstanding. Given at Rome, at Saint Potenciana’s, in the year, etc., fourteen hundred and forty-eight, twelfth day before the kalends of Octo- ber, the second year of our pontificate. a = ( 990. Letter of Pope Alexander VI,1492-’93 appointing Mathias, amonk of Saint Benedict, to the bishopric of Gardar, Greenland, and deseribing the condition of the people of that country (Translation. ) We are informed that the church of Gadar, on the confines of the world, in the country of Greenland, whose inhabitants are wont to subsist upon dried fish and milk on account of the dearth of bread, wine, and oil, and that because of the very rare voyages which can be made to the said country, owing to the freezing of the waters, no ship is supposed to have landed there during the past eighty years. We are told, moreover, that such voyages are not considered possible except in the month of August, after the thawing of the ice, and that no resident bishop or priest has governed the said church for some eighty years past ; hence, because of the absence of the priests, it has hap- 216 W. E. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. pened that a great many of the inhabitants of that diocese who were once Catholics ‘have, alas! denied the sacred baptism they had received. It is said that the people of that country have no other reminder of the Christian religion than a certain capa- ral which they show once a year and upon which the body of Christ was consecrated by the last resident priest, one hundred years ago. Owing to these and other considerations our prede- cessor, Pope Innocent VIII, of happy memory, wishing to pro- vide an efficient and worthy pastor for the said church, which has for so long been deprived of such a consolation, in accord- ance with the advice of his brethren, of whom we were one, appointed to the said see our venerable brother Mathias, a pro- fessed member of the order of Saint Benedict and now bishop- elect of Gades, having been preconized at our request previous to our election. In his great zeal for the conversion of those who have fallen away and for the expiration of error, he now cheerfully resolves to set out upon his most dangerous voyage. Whilst most highly commending in the Lord his pious and laudable intention, we wish to assist him somewhat because of his poverty. Wherefore, of our own act, cognizance, and upon the advice and with the consent of our brethren, we command, under penalty of excommunication, to be incurred ipso facto, our beloved sons, the copyists, abbreviators, the solicitors, the officials of seals and registerator, and all other officials in the respective offices, whether of the chancery or the apostolic chamber, to forward and have forwarded promptly and entirely free of charge all apostolic letters concerning the promotion to- the aforesaid church of Gades which have to be sent to the said bishop-elect. Moreover, by the same act, with hke cognizance and under the same penalties, to be incurred by those who dis- obey, and all else to the contrary notwithstanding, we order the clerics and notaries of the apostolic chamber to deliver to the said bishops all such briefs and bulls without payment or exac- tion of any tax or of any of the fees or gratuities usually paid on like occasions. Let everything be done gratis in all the offices, because he is very poor, etc. This concludes the series of letters relating to the American continent on the files of the Vatican dated prior to 1492, and while they furnish presumptive evidence that the existence of Evidence of Land west of Greenland. Daly unexplored lands and savage races west of Greenland was known to the church, they are equally strong proof that Columbus re- ceived no information or encouragement from them, particularly as he never expected or desired to discover new lands, but sought a shorter passage to the lands of opulence described by Marco Polo. The remaining letters from the Vatican files relating to the early history of America, are of interest, and historical value. 8. 991. Letter of Pope Alexander VI to Ferdinand and Isabella, dated May 3, 1493, congratulating them upon the triumph of Columbus and granting to them full sovereignty over all lands discovered by him. (Translation. ) Alexander, etc., to his most dear son and daughter in Christ, the illustrious Ferdinand and Isabella, King and Queen of Castile and Leon, Aragon, Sicily and Granada, health, ete. : Among the works which are pleasing to the divine Majesty and dear to our hearts, none is so important as that of the ex- altation and diffusion of the Christian religion and Catholic faith, more especially in these our times, the salvation of souls, and the repression and conversion of barbarous nations. Where- fore, when, by favor of God’s clemency and despite our inade- quate merits, we were elevated to this holy see of Peter, knowing that you, like true Catholic kings and princes, as we have ever known you to be, and as your famous achievements now prove, not only ardently desired the same end, but strove to attain it with all zeal and diligence, aliowing yourselves to be deterred by no labors, expenses, dangers, nor even the effusions of your own blood, and being, moreover, aware that you had for a long time dedicated all your thoughts and efforts thereunto, as is shown by the recovery of Granada from the Saracen yoke, accom- plished by you in these days, to such great glory of God’s name, we with reason concluded togrant you spontaneously and approv- inely whatsoever would enable you to promote, with ever increas- ing zeal for God’s glory and the propagation of christianity, an aim so holy, so laudable and so pleasing to the immortal God. We have indeed heard that you, who had long been deter- mined to search for and find certain remote and unknown con- 29—Na'. Geog. Maa , von. V, 1893. 218) W. E. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. tinents and islands, which no one had ever discovered, in order to convert the natives and inhabitants thereof to the worship of the Redeemer and the profession of the Christian faith, being most earnestly engaged in the conquest and recovery of the said kingdom of Granada, were enabled to carry into execution your holy and laudable resolve. When at length, however, by God’s will, the said kingdom had been reconquered you, in your desire to begin at once the accomplishment of your purpose, sent our beloved son, Christopher Colon, with ships and suitable crews and cargoes, prepared with great labor, risk and expense, to make diligent search for the said unknown and remote conti- nents and islands in a sea whereon none had ever before.sailed. Finally, with the divine assistance and by the greatest effort, your envoys, while navigating the ocean to the westward, it is reported, in the direction of the Indies, discovered certain most distant islands and continents also which had never before been found, the inhabitants whereof are numerous and peaceful and, accord- ing to rumor, go naked and eat no meat. Moreover, as your said envoys have reason to think, the inhabitants of these islands believe in one God, the Creator, in heaven, and appear suffi- ciently disposed to embrace the Catholic faith and to become imbued with good morals, and it is hoped that by means of in- struction the name of our Lord Jesus Christ can easily be intro- duced into the said islands. The said Christopher has already erected a sufficiently fortified citadel, in which he has placed a garrison of his fellow-voyagers, who are to search for other distant continents andislands. In those already discovered gold, spices and a great number of other precious products of different kinds and qualities are to be found. Wherefore you, on diligent consid- eration of all these facts, being, like your great and royal ancestors (as becomes Catholic kings and princes), most of all concerned with the exaltation and diffusion of the Catholic faith, have re- solved with God’s merciful assistance to subdue the aforesaid countries and to convert their inhabitants to the Catholic faith. Hence, whilst we most highly commend in the Lord your holy and laudable purpose and desire that it be duly accomplished, and that by this means our Saviour’s name be made known in those countries, we most earnestly exhort you in the Lord and demand of you, in virtue of holy baptism; by whose reception you have bound yourselves to obey our apostolic orders, and The Christianizing of the New World. 219 through the bowels of the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ, that, inasmuch as you intend of your own free will and out of zeal for the orthodox faith to undertake this expedition, you will diligently and out of a sense of duty induce the inhabitants of the said countries to embrace the Christian religion. We more- over exhort you not to allow yourselves to be deterred by dan- gers or trials and to remain firm in the hope that Almighty God will prosper your efforts; and, in order that vou may the more willingly and courageously set about so great an undertaking, after having received of the abundance of apostolic bounty by — our own act, without being moved thereunto by any petition presented to us by you or by another in your behalf, but out of our sheer liberality, with certain cognizance, out of the fullness of apostole power by the authority of Almighty God given us in blessed Peter, and of the vicegerency of Jesus Christ which we exercise upon earth, we, by tenor of these presents, give, grant and assign in perpetuity to you and your heirs and successors, the kings of Castile and Leon, all the aforesaid un- known continents and islands that have been or shall hereafter be discovered by your envoys which are not actually under the temporal dominion of any Christian prince, together with all their territories, cities, castles, towns and villages, all their rights, jurisdictions and possessions. We moreover create, constitute and appoint you and your heirs and successors aforesaid lords of the same, with full, free and universal authority. We decree, however, that by this our grant, donation and assignment no acquired right of any Christian ruler is to be understood as taken away, nor is it to be taken away. We moreover command you, in virtue of holy obedience (according to your promise, which we feel certain you, in your great devotion and royal magna- nimity will fulfill), to appoint with all due diligence virtuous, God-fearing, learned, experienced and tried men, who shall in- struct the natives of the aforesaid islands in the Catholic faith and imbue them with good morals. Moreover, we strictly for- bid, under penalty of excommunication, to be incurred in the act of disobedience, all persons of whatsoever rank, be it even imperial or royal, state, degree, order or condition, to presume to go, whether for the purpose of trade or for any other what- soever, to the aforesaid islands and continents after they have been discovered by your envoys or by those sent for the purpose 220 W. E. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. by you without your special permission and that of your afore- said heirs and successors. And, inasmuch as certain kings of Portugal also have, by an apostohe grant made to them, discoy- ered and acquired other islands in the countries of Africa, Guinea and the Gold Coast, and have been accorded different privileges; favors, liberties, immunities, exemptions and indults, we wish you to use, possess and enjoy all and every one of the same favors, privileges, exemptions, liberties, faculties, immunties and indults, all whose tenors we desire to be considered as though inserted word for word in the present letter, and to be regarded as sufficiently expressed and inserted in the same just as if they had been granted to you and your heirs and successors by the same act, authority, knowledge and fullness of apostolic power and by special gift of favor. We extend and give the same in all respects to you, your heirs and successors aforesaid, notwith- standing apostolic constitutions and orders, and all which has _ been granted in the above letters, and all else whatsoever to the contrary, trusting in Him from whom empires, governments and all good things come that under His guidance of your actions your labors and endeavors will soon reach a most happy result, to the joy and glory of all christendom, if you do but continue in this holy and praiseworthy (resolve) enterprise. Since, however, it would be difficult to send the present letter to all those places in which it would be expedient to have it pub- lished, we wish and by the same act and with like cognizance we decree that the same be copied by public notary thereunto de- puted and sealed by some ecclesiastical dignitary, and that the same value be attended to the said copies, whether in or wher- ever else soever out of court, as attaches to the present original should they be shown or exhibited. No one shall go counter to our exhortation, requisition, donation grant, assignment, investi- ture, act, constitution, deputation, order, inhibition, indult, ex- emption, gift, will and decree, ete. Whosoever, etc. Given in Rome, at Saint Peter’s, in the year, etc, 1498, third of May, in the first year of our pontificate. , Coll. A. Dk CAMPANIA. N, CASANOVA, By order gratis. B.-CApoccl. D. SoRRANO, Spain’s Sovereignty over the New World. 221k oe 992. Letter of Pope Alexander VI to Ferdinand and Isabella, dated May 3, 1493, granting them sovereignty over all unknown continents and islands in the Indies that may be discovered by the explorers of Spain and confining to Portugal the newly dis- covered lands of Africa. (Translation. ) Alexander, etc, to his most dear son and daughter in Christ, the illustrious Ferdinand and Isabella, King and Queen of Castile, Leon, Aragon and Granada, health, etc: The sincere and extraordinary devotion and the perfect faith with which you honor us and the Roman church truly deserve that we approvingly grant you whatsoever may enable you to promote more speedily and effectually your holy and laudable undertaking of discovering remote and unknown continents and islands for the glory of Almighty God, the extension of Christ’s dominion, and the exaltation of the Catholic faith. Accordingly, by our own act, with full cognizance and in virtue of the pleni- tude of apostolic authority, we have this day given, granted and assigned to you and your heirs and successors, the sovereigns of Castile and Leon, in perpetuity, as is more fully set forth in our letter on this subject, all and every one of the remote and un- known continents and islands lying towards the west and the ocean and not at present under the temporal authority of any Christian princes which have been or shall be discovered by yourselves or your envoys, who have been equipped for the | purpose with great pains, risks and expense. We have included in the same donation all the states of the aforesaid continents and islands, their cities, castles, towns, and villages, rights, and all jurisdictions whatsoever. As, however, on another occasion, different privileges, favors, liberties, immunities, exemptions, faculties, briefs and indults were granted by the apostolic see to certain kings of Portugal, who, after obtaining a like apostolic donation, discovered and acquired other islands in the regions of Africa, Guinea and the Gold Coast, we also, wishing, as is proper, to bestow equal favors, prerogatives and benefits upon you and your heirs and succes- sors aforesaid, by a similar act, without being moved thereunto by any petition presented to us by yourselves or by another in » 222 W. EB. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Docwments. your behalf, but out of our sheer liberality, with like cognizance and fullness of apostolic power, by apostolic authority and by eift of special favor, do hereby grant you and your heirs and successors aforesaid the free and legitimate exercise, possession and enjoyment in the islands and countries thus far discovered or that shall hereafter be discovered by yourselves or in your name of all the favors, liberties, privileges, exemptions, faculties, immunities, briefs and indults which have been accorded to the kings of Portugal. We desire that the tenors of all the aforesaid concessions be considered as inserted, word for word, in the present letter, and as sufficiently inserted and expressed to signify that the said favors are specially granted to you and your heirs and successors aforesaid. In like manner and form we give in perpetuity all the above to you and your heirs and successors aforesaid, apostolic decrees and ordinances and all of a similar nature that is contained in letters to the kings of Portugal to the contrary notwithstanding, ete. Given in Rome, at Saint Peter’s, May 3, 1493, in the first year of our pontificate. 10. 995. Bull of the Pope Alexander VI, dated May 12, 1498, establishing the line of demarcatian between the dominions of Spain and Portugal. (Translation. ) Alexander, etc, to his most dear son and daughter in Christ, the illustrious Ferdinand and Isabella, King and Queen of Castile, and Leon, Aragon, Sicily, and Granada, health, etc : Among those works which are pleasing to the divine majesty and dear to our heart none is so important as that of the exalta- tion and diffusion of the Christian religion and Catholic faith, more especially during our times, the salvation of souls, and the repression and conversion of barbarous nations. Wherefore, when by favor of God’s clemency and despite our own inade- quate merits, we were elevated to this holy see of Peter, know- ing that you, like true Catholic kings and princes, as we have ever known you to be and as your nrost famous achievements now prove, not only ardently desired the same end, but strove to attain it with all zeal and diligence, allowing yourselves to ° 2) i) Discovery of distant Lands. 2 be deterred by no labors, expenses, dangers, nor even the effu- sion of your own blood, and knowing, moreover, that you had for a long time dedicated all your thoughts and efforts thereunto, as 1s shown by the recovery of Granada from the Saracen yoke, brought about by you in these days, to such great glory of God’s name, we with reason concluded to grant you spontaneously and approvingly whatsoever would enable you to promote, with ever-increasing zeal for God’s glory and the propagation of christianity, an aim so holy, so laudible, and go pleasing to the immortal God. We have, indeed, heard that you, who had long been determined to search for and find certain remote and unknown continents and islands which no one had eyer dis- covered, in order to convert the natives and inhabitants thereof to the worship of the Redeemer and the profession of the Christian faith, being most earnestly engaged in the reduction and recovery of the said kingdom of Granada, were unable to carry into exe- cution your holy and laudable resolve. When at length, how- ever, by God’s will, the said kingdom had been reconquered you, in your desire to begin at once the accomplishment of your purpose, sent our beloved son, Christopher Colon, a worthy and most commendable man and well fitted for so great an under- taking, with ships and suitable crews and cargoes, prepared with great labor, risk and expense, to make diligent search for the said remote and unknown continents and islands in a sea whereon none had ever before sailed. Finally, with the divine assistance and by dint of the greatest care, your envoys, while navigating the ocean, discovered cer- tain most distant islands, and continents also, which had never before been found, the inhabitants whereof are numerous and peaceful and, according to report, go naked and eat no meat. Moreover, as your said envoys have reason to think, the inhab- itants of these islands believe in one God the Creator, in heaven, and appear sufficiently disposed to embrace the Catholic faith and to become imbued with good morals, and it is hoped that by means of instruction the name of our Lord Jesus Christ can easily be introduced into the said islands. The said Christopher has already erected a sufficiently fortified citadel, in which he has placed a garrison of his fellow-voyagers, who are to search for other distant continents and islands. In those already dis- covered gold, spices and a great number of other precious 294 W. EB. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. products of different kinds and qualities are to be found. Wherefore you, after diligently considering all these facts, being, like your great and royal ancestors (as becomes Cathole kings and princes), most of all concerned with the exaltation and diffusion of the Catholic faith, have resolved with God’s merci- ful assistance to subdue the aforesaid countries and to convert their inhabitants to the Catholic faith. Hence, whilst we most highly commend in the Lord your holy and laudable purpose and desire that it be duly accom- plished, and that by this means our Saviour’s name be made known in those countries, we most earnestly exhort you in the Lord, and demand of you in virtue of holy baptism, by whose reception you have bound yourselves to obey our apostolic orders, and through the bowels of the mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ, that inasmuch as you intend of your own free will and out of zeal for the orthodox faith, to undertake this expedition, you will diligently and out of a sense of duty induce the inhab- itants of the said countries to embrace the Christian religion. We moreover exhort you not to allow yourselves to be deterred by dangers or trials, and to remain firm in the hope that Almighty God will prosper your endeavors. _And in order that you may the more willingly and coura- geously set about so great an undertaking, after having received of the abundance of apostolic bounty by our own act, without being moved thereunto by any petition presented to us by you or by another in your behalf, but out of our sheer liberality, with certain cognizance, out of the fullness of apostolic power, by the authority of Almighty God given us in blessed Peter and of the vicegerency of Jesus Christ, which we exercise upon earth, we by tenor of these presents give, grant and assign in perpetuity to you and your heirs and successors, the Kings of Castile and: Leon, all the islands and continents that have been or shall be found and discovered westward and southward of a line drawn from the Arctic pole, or the north, to the Antarctic pole, or the south, whether these continents or islands that have been or shall be found lie in the direction of India or of any other country, the said line to be one hundred leagues distant to the west and south from the most western and most southern of the islands commonly called the Azores and Cape Verde—that is to say, all the islands that have been or shall be discovered The Demarcation Line. 925 west or south of the aforesaid line which were not actually owned by any other Christian king or prince prior to the last feast of the nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ, from which the present year, fourteen hundred and ninety-three, began, at the time when some of the aforesaid islands were discovered by your envoys and captains, together with all their territories, cities, castles, towns and villages, all their rights, jurisdictions and possessions. We moreover create, constitute and appoint you and your heirs and successors aforesaid lords of the same, with full, free and universal authority. We decree, however, that by this our grant, donation and assignment no acquired right of any Christian ruler who was in actual possession of any of the said islands prior to the above-mentioned feast of the nativity of our Lord Jesus Christ is to be understood as taken away, nor is it to be taken away. We moreover command you in virtue of holy obedience (according to your promise, which we feel certain you in your great devotion and royal magna- nimity will fulfill) to appoint, with all due diligence, virtuous, God-fearing, learned, experienced and well-tried men, who shall instruct the natives of the aforesaid islands in the Catholic faith and imbue them with good morals. Moreover we strictly forbid, under penalty of excommunication, to be incurred in the act of disobedience, all persons of whatsoever rank, be it even imperial or royal, state, degree, order or condition, to presume to go, whether for the purpose of trade or for any other whatsoever, to the continents or islands that have been and shall be dis- covered to the west and south of a line drawn from the north to the south poles, whether in the direction of India or of any other country, the said line to be one hundred leagues distant to the west and south from the most western and most southern island of those commonly called the Azores and Cape Verde, as has already been set forth, without the special permission of yourselves ‘and. your aforesaid heirs and successors, apostolic constitutions and decrees and all else to the contrary notwith- standing. We trust in Him from whom empires, governments and all goods things proceed that if you persevere in this your holy and laudable purpose your labors and endeavors will under the divine guidance be speedily crowned with a most fruitful result, to the joy and glory of all christendom, ete. Given in Rome, at Saint Peter’s, in the year of the Lord’s incarnation 1493, May 12, in the first year of our pontificate, 30—Nat. Grog. Mac., vor. V, 1893. 2 226 W. EB. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. Hake 996. Bull of Pope Alexander VI, dated Rome, June 25, 1499, confirming Bernard Boil as the first missionary to the New World. (Translation. ) Alexander, etc., to our beloved son, Bernard Boil, friar of the order of Minors and vicar of the said order in the kingdom of Spain, health, ete. : By virtue of apostolic authority, with certain cognizance and by tenor of these presents, we grant to thee, who art a priest, full, free and universal faculty, permission power, and authority, and the same to any members of thy own or another order, to’ be selected by thyself or by the King and Queen, viz., Ferdinand and Isabella, without any necessity of permission unto this end from thy superiors or from any others whatsoever, to go to the aforesaid islands and countries, and to reside therein at your pleasure, to preach and sow the word of God, of thyself or by means of another or other suitable priests, whether secular or recular and of whatsoever orders, and to bring into the Catholic faith the said natives and inhabitants; to baptize and instruct them in that faith, and to administer to them as often as neces- sary the sacraments of the church; to hear them, one and all, in their confessions, whenever requisite, either in person or by. means of another or other priests, whether secular or regular, and, after having carefully heard them, to grant them the re- quired absolution from their crimes, excesses and transgressions, even from such as may demand consultation of the apostolic see, in anywise whatsoever, and to enjoin upon them salutary penance; to commute to other works of piety all their temporal vows, excepting only those of pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul, Saint James of Compostella, and the vows of religion; to found and erect, provided nobody’s right be infringed upon thereby, any churches whatsoever, chapels, monasteries, houses of any religious orders whatsoever, even of mendicant orders, whether for men or women; holy places, with belfries, bells, dormitories, cloisters, refectories, orchards, gar- dens and any other necessary adjuncts; to receive into houses of the professed of mendicant orders erected by thee for the same and to grant permission to dwell permanently therein ; to The first Priest of America. bo 27 bless the said churches, and as often as they and their respect- ive cemeteries chance to be desecrated, whether by the shedding of blood, pollution or otherwise, to bless and rededicate them through any Catholic priest, after the customary manner ; to eat, freely and lawfully and as often as necessary, meats and other kinds of food that are forbidden thee and thy associates by the rules of the said orders, with regard to which matter we charge your consciences, and to execute and dispose all things and everything in the above and all things necessary thereto. More- over, in order that the faithful may the more willingly go to those countries and islands out of devotion and in the hopes of securing the salvation of their souls, we grant to all and every one of the aforesaid faithful, of either sex, who personally go to the aforesaid countries and islands, by order and with consent, however, of the above-mentioned king and queen, the choice of a suitable confessor, either secular or regular, who shall have power to absolve them all or any one of them, after the manner above stated, from their crimes, transgressions and even such sins as are reserved to the said see; to commute their vows and to impart to them, in virtue of the aforesaid authority, once in life and at the hour of death induigence and remission of all _ their sins for which they shall be heartily sorry and which they shall have orally confessed, continuing steadfastly in the sin- cerity of faith, in union with the holy Roman church, and in obedience and fealty to us and to the Roman pontiffs, our legiti- mate successors. We also grant to the monasteries, establish- ments and houses which may be founded and to the monks, brethren and temporary sojourners therein the full and lawful exercise, possession and benefit of all and every one of the favors, privileges, liberties, exemptions, immunities, indulgences and concessions which have been given in general or which may here- after be given to the monasteries, establishments, houses and to the monks and brethren of the orders to which the aforesaid places and persons belong. We bestow the above as a mark of special favor, notwithstanding the decrees of our predecessor of happy memory, Pope Boniface VIII, forbidding mendicant friars to ac- cept new houses without special permission of the said see, ete. Given at Rome, from Saint Peter’s,in the year 1495, June 25th, in the first year of our pontificate. - 228) W. EL Curtis—Pre- Columbian, Vatican Documents. 12, 997. Pope Julius IT commends Bartholomew, the brother, and Diego, the son, of Columbus to the favor of King Ferdinand, dated April 10, 1507. (Translation. ) Our most dear son in Christ, health, etc: Our beloved son, Bartholomew Colum (sic), the brother of Christopher, who of late years discovered those islands of India which were unknown to our forefathers, being on his way to see your majesty, tarried with us in order to show his devotion to our person. We kindly received him and heard him because of his long sojourn in those islands. We were, moreover, pleased to give him our recommendation, inasmuch as Christian govern- ments appear to have greatly profited by the discovery of the said islands. Wherefore we beseech your majesty, whgse aim and desire has ever been the good ot the Catholic faith, to con- sider Bartholomew himself, and his nephew, the admiral of the said islands, as most highly recommended, though we are of the opinion that you will do this of your own accord. Given at Rome, April 10, 1507, in the fourth year of our pon- tificate. Dy ‘ 15. 998. Bull of Pope Leo X, August 28, 1513, appointing John of Quevedos of Santa Maria del Antiqua (Darien), the first bishop on the American continent; also letters to the people of that diocese and to Queen Johanna of Spain. (Translation. ) Leo X to our beloved son John of Quevedos, elect of 5. Maria del Antiqua, health, etc: The debt of our pastoral office requires that amidst the divers cares by which we are constantly harassed this above all should occupy our attention; that over all churches, and especially those which, like young plants budding forth in the garden of the Lord, are most exposed to the misfortunes of vacancy, by our diligence those pastors be appointed, through whose fruitful care the same churches may with the Lord’s help be able to receive a happy increase in spiritual and temporal affairs. A short time ago we reserved to our appointment and disposal The first Bishop of America. 229 provisions for all churches which were then vacant or which from that time forward should become vacant, declaring thence- forth null and void all attempts made to the contrary, no matter by whom or by what authority, whether designedly or not. Afterwards, however, the church of §. Maria del Antiqua became vacant, which we to-day, counselled by our venerable brothers and in the plenitude of our apostole power, have erected in that newly discovered land of primeval India, liberated from pagan tyranny under the auspices of our beloved son in Christ, Ferdi- nand, illustrious king of Aragon and both Sicilys. We then, to provide quickly and happily for the same church, concerning which none but us could or can provide on account of our reser- vation and decree to the contrary, with paternal and solicitous care, carefully deliberated with our venerable brothers regarding the choice of a useful and zealous person to place over the same church, lest it be subjected to the ravages of a long vacancy ; and finally we directed our mind’s eye to you, a priest and professed member of the order of Friars Minor, known as observants ; you, of whose zeal for religion, literary requirements, purity of life, regularity of morals, providence in spiritual and circumspection in temporal affairs, and many other virtuous gifts, Suitable testi- mony has been given; all which things having been duly con- sidered by the counsel of the same brothers, we, with the afore- said authority, make provision for that church in your person, you who for your merits have proved acceptible to them and to us, and we appoint you its bishop and pastor, committing entirely to you its care and the administration of its spiritual and temporal matters; and confiding in the giver of mercies we hope that, God directing your actions, that church, under your wise and happy government, may with the help of God’s grace be usefully and prosperously ruled and receive a gratifying in- crease in temporal and spiritual affairs. Receive, then, with alacrity the yoke of the Lord which we place on your shoulders ; strive to care for and administer that church with such fidelity, solicitude and prudence that it may rejoice in being commit- ted to so provident and profitable an administration, and that you, besides a reward in eternity, may merit henceforth more abundant blessings and grace from us and the apostolic see. Given at Rome, at St. Peter’s, in the year of the incarnation of our Lord one thousand five hundred and thirteen, the fifth day before the ides of September, the first year of our pontificate. 230° Wek Curtis Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. In like manner to our beloved children, the people of the city and diocese of the church of 8. Maria del Antiqua, health, etc: Today, advised by our brothers and in the fulness of our apostolic authority, we provide for the church of 5. Maria del Antiqua, in the island of India, which has been vacant since its first erection, in the person of our beloved John, elect of S. Maria del Antiqua, acceptable to us and to our brothers for his merits, and we appoint him bishop and pastor of the same, committing entirely to him its care and administration in spiritual and temporal matters, according as is more fully expressed in our letters written to this effect.. Wherefore we earnestly ask and exhort you all; we order you by apostolic letters to receive the same John elect as your father and pastor of your souls with grateful honor, to pay him devout and fitting reverence, humbly to obey his salutary admonitions and commands, so that’ he may rejoice to have found in you dutiful sons, and you in conse- quence to have found in him a benevolent father. Given as above. In the same manner, to our beloved daughter in Christ, Johanna, illustrious Queen of Castile and Leon, health, etc, grace, etc: Since then, beloved daughter in Christ, it is the work of virtue to act with benign favor towards the ministers of God and to revere them by word and deed for the glory of the eternal King, we earnestly request and exhort your royal serenity, out of love for us and the apostolic see, to consider the same John elect andhis church of S. Maria del Antiqua as most heartily commended, ete, Given as above. 14. Letters from Pope Leo granting authority for the confirmation of John of Quevedos as bishop of Darien. . (Translation. ) M. XX XIX de Campania. Leo X to our beloved son, John of Quevedos, elect of 5. Maria del Antiqua, health, etc: ' Since we by apostolic authority, counselled by our brothers, have thought it proper to provide for the church of 8, Maria del Oath of Office. . 231 Antiqua, in a certain manner bereft of the solace of a pastor, in your person acceptable to us and to our brothers, as your merits require, appointing you its bishop and pastor according, as is contained more fully in our letter written for that reason, gra- ciously attending to what may be to your greater convenience, we grant your request, conceding to you full and free leave, ac- cording to the tenor of these presents, to receive consecration at the hands of whatsoever Catholic bishop you wish,+n favor and communion, and we grant to the same bishop leave by our au- thority, freely and lawfully, to perform the aforesaid function after having received from you, in our name and that of the Roman church, the usual oath of fidelity, according to the form indicated by these presents. However, we wish and by the afore- said authority command and decree that if the same bishop presume to confer on you that charge without having received fromm you the aforesaid oath, and if you dare to accept it, that bishop be suspended from the exercise of his pontifical office and both he and you be suspended, by that very fact, from the administration of your churches in both spiritual and temporal matters. We desire, moreover, that you see to it that the form of this oath taken by you be sent to. us as soon as possible, through your own nuncio, word for word, by your letters patent, signed with your own seal. This is the form of the oath which you will take: I, John, elect of 8. Maria del Antiqua, from this hour henceforth will be faithful and obedient to blessed Peter and the holy Roman church and to our Lord Pope Leo X and his successors canonically constituted, so help me God and these His holy gospel. Given at Rome, at Saint Peter’s, in the year of the incarnation of our Lord one thousand five hundred and thirteen, the fourth day before the ides of September, in the first year M. XX de Campania, ils: Letter from Pope Leo X dos, bishop of Darien. granting absolution to John of Queve- To our beloved son, John of Quevedos, professed member of the order of Friars Minor, known as Observants, health, etc : The customary clemency of the apostolic see employs oppor- tune remedies, according as is fitting, in order that the disposi- 232. W. E. Curtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. tions made by it for the time being regarding cathedral churches may not meet with opposition, but that the persons to be placed over them may be able to preside over the same with pure heart and sincere conscience. Whereas, then, we this day, with the advice of our brothers, provide in your person, acceptable to us and to our brothers, as your merits require, for the church of S. Maria del Antiqua, which, vacant from its early erection till now, we by apostolic authority and counseled by the same brothers have this day erected; and whereas we intend to place you over it as its bishop and pastor, desiring that this provision and appointment meet with no opposition on account of any eccle- . siastical sentences or censures which you may have been under, we, according to the tenor of these presents, by apostolic authority do absolve you and do declare you absolved henceforth from any excommunication, suspension, etc., to this end only that the aforesaid provision and appointment and all the apostolic letters written above obtain their effect, notwithstanding apostolic con- stitutions and ordinations and whatsoever others to the contrary ; no one therefore to infringe on our absolution and declaration, ete: lif any, one, etc, Given at Rome, at Saint Peter’s, in the year of the incarna- tion of our Lord one thousand five hundred and thirteen, the fifth day before the kalends of September, in the first year. M. XX DE CAMPANIA. 16. 1002. Letter from Pope Clement VII, dated Rome, June 7, 1526, to Friar Francisco de los Angeles, minister-general of the order of Saint Francis, bestowing upon him the apostolic bene- diction upon his departure for America. (Translation. ) Clement VII to Brother Francis of the Angels, minister-general of the order of Saint Francis, beloved son, etc: In our recent conversations with you we have had the ocea- sion to admire your spirit of religion and sanctity, your learning and prudence, and your zeal for the honor of God and His wor- ship, and we are of opinion that such dispositions on your part fully deserve our paternal love and favor. Being minister-gen- eral of the order of Saint Francis because of your virtues and The Apostolic Benediction. UBS: services to religion, you desire to see the Christian faith preached and propagated in the new world among the nations of those countries recently discovered by our most dear son in Christ, Charles, emperor-elect of the Spains, etc., and Catholic king. Not content with having sent your brethren and religions to those new nations, you wish to go to them in person, and like God’s holy apostles devote your whole strength to infusing into their minds the truth of the gospel, and extending the limits of christendom to those distant regions by means of the most holy sign of the cross. You are now preparing yourself for your apostolate and are on the point of taking your departure. We pray God to bless your holy dispositions and the zeal which impels you to so salutary a work, upon which we congratulate you exceedingly. We exhort you to persevere with hope and confidence in this undertaking, which you have chosen to direct in person. We pray Almighty God, who inspires you with so much zeal, to aid you with His heavenly hght that you may the more easily induce those nations now lying in darkness to ac- cept the truth. We give you our apostolic benediction, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost. After the example of Jesus Christ our Savior, we send you, as He sent His apostles, to conquer for heaven, which will be your reward, those countries and nations in the name of the same Jesus Christ our Lord. Given at Rome, the 7th of June, 1526, in the third year of our pontificate. We 1008. Letter from Pope Clement VII to Charles V of Spain,dated October 19, 1532, authorizing missionaries to be sent to America. (Translation. ) To our dearest son in Christ, Charles, ever august emperor of the Romans : Our dearest son in Christ, health, ete. You have recently made known to us that by the blessing of the Lord you have subjected to your authority some other islands of the new world anda savage people living therein unacquainted with the name of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ and the orthodox faith, and that, unable to provide for the salvation of the souls of the natives % ~31—Narr. Grog. Maa, von. V, 1893, 234 W. EF. Ourtis—Pre-Columbian, Vatican Documents. and to procure their instruction in the faith, you desire that there be appointed some professed members of an approved religious body who shall preach and make known the word of God in these islands and direct and guide the natives in the way of the Lord’s commandments. Accordingly in God’s name we most heartily approve your pious desire and in the pleni- tude of our apostolic authority grant you by these presents full, and unrestricted power to assign for this work 120 minorites of the order of Preachers and 10 professed Jeronymites, whom you, beloved son, or your representatives in those islands shall ascer- tain to be qualified for the undertaking and willing to assume it. We grant, moreover, to those professed religions liberty to repair thither even without having asked or obtained the permission of their superiors; to preach there the word of God, and for this purpose to reside there, living, however, in a manner becoming the religious and wearing the habit of their order. It is also our’ wish that these religions have free and lawful possession, use _and enjoyment of each and every one of the privileges, immu- nities, exemptions, prerogatives, favors and indults which other members of the same orders dwelling in their own houses and monasteries possess, use and enjoy by law, custom or any other title, and this we concede notwithstanding constitutions and pro- visions of the apostolic see, statutes of the aforesaid orders con- firmed by oath, apostolic letters to these orders and to their superiors, prelates and members, no matter of what tenor they may be, what form they may have, and what clauses or decrees they may be furnished with, even if granted freely and spon- taneously, with certain knowledge and in the form of a brief, and though conceded repeated times, approved and renewed ; all of which and all other provisions to the contrary we espe- cially and expressly annul in this case, though otherwise they are to remain in full force. Given at Rome, ete, the 19th of October, 1532, 9th year Blosius. EARLY VOYAGES ON THE NORTHWESTERN COAST OF AMERICA ‘BY PROFESSOR GEORGE DAVIDSON, PH. D., SC. D., ETC. (President of the Geographical Society of the Pacific) Preliminary Remarks. The geodetic work of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey was extended to the Pacific seaboard in 1850, at a time when the geography of the coast was very imperfectly known, and when the names of capes, bays, rivers and islands were in much confusion. Part of my duty, in the initiation of this public work, consisted in the determination of the latitude and longitude of the head- lands, islands, harbors. rivers, rocks and dangers, and in the geographic reconnaissance of the coast line from the Mexican boundary to the forty-ninth parallel. While in command of the surveying brig Fauntleroy I entered upon the self-imposed task of writing a Coast Pilot for California, Oregon and Washington. Very naturally my early interest in the old explorations became intensified as I sought to give the authority for each discovery and for each name; and I made many special examinations of the narratives that were then available for the identification of doubtful localities. This work continued with more or less directness until I was gathering the material for rewriting the fourth edition of the Coast Pilot,* and when I had familiarized myself with every mile of our own coast and had a fair acquaintance with the ocean coast of Lower Cali- fornia as far as San José del Cabo. Along the whole seaboard * United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. F. M. Thorn, superintend- ent, Pacific coast. Coast Pilot of California, Oregon and Washington. By George Davidson, assistant U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Fourth edition. (Entirely rewritten.) Washington; Government Printing Office, 1889, 4to: 721 pp. and 464 views. (299) 236 G. Davidson— Northwestern Coast of America. I had sketched the landfall, the headlands and the notable features of the coast to be able to recall their peculiarities. Collation of the Old Narratives. In order to preserve some of the results of these investigations, incidental to my official duties, I determined to collate the nar- ratives of Ulloa, 1539; Cabrillo and Ferrelo, 1542~’43; Drake, 1579, and Vizcaino, 1602-’3, and later authorities; and in the extended record thereof I am satisfied that most, if not every one, of the discrepancies of the old Spanish and English navi- eators have been reconciled. The inaccuracies of the earliest discoverers arose principally from errors of their crude instruments, ignorance of the coast currents, errors of judgment in estimating distances, unreliable compasses, etc. Among the Spanish discoverers the meagerness of detailed descriptions, a failure to seize the salient points for determining their positions, the want of minute accuracy in most of their plans, sometimes giving importance to general features, and sometimes to details without distinction, and a human weakness to exaggerate certain discoveries, and yet to overlook completely others as or more important, have much involved the locating of many of their landfalls, headlands, bays and anchorages. Even with the accuracy of Vizcaino, personal acquaintance with parts of the coast is absolutely necessary to establish identification. The earlier navigators had not the education to carry through extensive and orderly narratives, and we can easily imagine that the priest, who invariably accompanied these expeditions, was the principal author of the reports. Moreover, the effects of the ever-present scurvy harassed the commander and lowered the whole nervous tone of the strongest men and the wretched In- dians. Vizcaino returned with half his crew, and but two or three men able to do ordinary duty. The broken records of Drake’s two anchorages on our Pacific coast are very meager and unsatisfactory until carefully weighed and elucidated by personal knowledge and the assembling of nearly contemporary material. The minuteness of record in the full and faithful narratives of Cook and Vancouver, of comparatively recent date, has enabled me to follow their track day by day, and to correct their posi- The early Explorers. 237 tions by personal knowledge of the localities which they de- scribe; but while giving these great discoverers the fullest credit for surveys unparalleled before or since their time (when all the attendant circumstances are considered), I cannot withhold my admiration for the indomitable courage and perseverance of the older Spanish navigators who, in ill-conditioned and ill-supplied vessels, with crude instruments and methods, and with crews nearly destroyed by scurvy, fought their way from the tropics to the wildest parts of the Alaskan coast regardless of seasons. “ There were giants in the earth in those days.” The records of such of these earlier voyages as have been pub- lished are too short and meager to be of much more value than isolated statements of what was done on given dates; and the inaccuracy of the observations for the determination of the geo- graphic positions has led many writers to judge that all these men were touched with the spirit of Maldonado, de. Fonte and de Fuca. In comparatively recent controversy, which was un- fortunately marred by national feelings, Cabrillo and Ferrelo have been placed not only at the latitudes which their erroneous in- struments presumably gave, but located on the immediate coast, when they were storm-driven far to seaward, while Drake has, even at this late day, been carried as far north as the island of Vancouver. a But with the present knowledge of our coast it is possible to locate Ulloa in his heroic struggle north of the gulf of Sebastian Vizcaino; to track Cabrillo and Ferrelo in their discoveries in the terrific “southeasters”’ of our mid-winter; to place Drake under cape Ferrelo and Punta de los Reyes, and to fix with cer- tainty the most of Vizeaino’s positions. Later than 1605 I have not undertaken identifications in this short paper, except to inci- dentally mention Father Taraval’s visit to point Eugenio, and his landing upon Natividad and Cerros islands, which has been so much misapprehended by a recent author. The Voyages of Cabrillo and Ferrelo, 1542~43. I was particularly interested in the voyages of Cabrillo and Ferrelo, and in studying their narratives have endeavored to put myself in their places. Understanding the character of the sea- sons and the difficulties of the winds, currents, swell and fogs which they encountered, I have tried to follow them day by 238 G. Davidson— Northwestern Coast of America. day in their exciting discoveries. The two narratives had to be collated and studied as a general statement; then every word and idiomatic phrase had to be carefully weighed and defined. The mistranslation of certain words in Cabrillo, Ferrelo and Vizcaino had misled previous investigators. I based my translation of the narrative of Cabrillo upon the condensed, unconnected and unsatisfying chapters of Herrera corrected several mistakes and deciphered one or two obscure passages. TFerrelo’s narrative is in moderate detail, and presents several critical passages where important issues are involved, yet I feel satisfied that every case of doubt has been elucidated. These two narratives are of unequal value. The original of Ca- brillo has certainly been lost, and as he died during the explo- ration the statements after the first ten days are extremely meager. Discoveries like that of San Diego bay are not men- tioned; once there is a difference of date with Ferrelo, and occasionally particular expressions are common to both narra- tives. : For Drake’s share of discovery on this coast we have “The World Encompassed,” printed by the Hakluyt Society; the ‘“Arcano del Mare,” of Dudley; the “English Hero,” and later productions. For the narrative of Vizcaino I have used the “ Noticia de la California,” etc, by the Father Miguel Venegas, of which the published English translation is unsatisfactory. So far as I have learned, there are no charts of Ulloa, Cabrillo and Ferrelo extant. Learning that there was a manuscript chart in the Royal Museum of Mtinchen exhibiting the line of coast as seen by Drake between latitudes 423° and 38°, I ob- tained full-sized photographs of this invaluable record, which was evidently the basis for Dudley’s chart of that part of the coast in his “Arcano del Mare” of 1647. Except the orien- tation of Drake’s chart the shore-line from Rogue river, in 422°, to Drake’s bay, under 38°, is remarkably consistent with the general outline of the coast as laid down by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. From the British Museum I obtained tracings of the Portus Nove Albionis of Drake, and part of the hemisphere whereon is shown his northwesternmost position and the Crescent City reef (the Dragon rocks of Vancouver), never before connected with his landfall of the coast. Errors of Latitude. 239 To trace Vizcaino’s narrative I first followed his chart of Cali- fornia as given by Burney; but have sinee obtained from the State Department at Washington copies of the coast line, as drawn from his thirty-two plans, by the navigators of the Sutil and Mexicano, 1802, with all his names. This chart is of vari- able scale and without parallels of latitude, but when these are supplied through means of well recognized capes and harbors, it isa remarkably good work for that period. The modern charts which have been consulted have all been made by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, and the coast pilots from San José del Cabo northward have been con- sulted for exactness of geographic position and for the views of headlands. The Errors of their Instruments. As the investigation progressed it became evident that there were large errors in the determinations of the latitude by Ca- brillo and Ferrelo; these and the erroneous estimates of dis- tances were at first very confusing for the identification of capes and harbors insufficiently described, and I had to rely upon my personal knowledge of the coast and seaboard to locate them. The navigators rarely gave the latitude nearer than half a de- gree, but the effect of this was not apparent at the outset, where their reported measures were very nearly in accord with the true positions. When I had established the large and constantly increasing errors as the vessels sailed northward the identifi- cation was much simplified. There were several points on the coast of Mexico, and one or more near the southern extremity of Lower California, whose latitudes were doubtless known to all the navigators with a rea- sonable decree of accuracy, and evidently accepted by Cabrillo and Ferrelo. The latitude of Puerto de Navidad, whence the San Salvador and La Victoria sailed, is 19° 13’ north, and quite naturally it is not mentioned by either of the captains. Cape Corrientes, which was well known, is distant thirty leagues from Navidad, in lati- tude 20° 25’, and although Ferrelo says they had a southeast wind, and estimated the distance at forty leagues, Cabrillo places the cape in latitude “twenty degrees and a half.” At this time I assume he did not observe. for the latitude, but adopted that given by previous authorities. 240 G. Davidson—Northwestern Coast of America. After crossing the gulf of California Cabrillo says: “On Sun- day, the second of July, they found themselves in twenty-four degrees and more, and recognized the Puerto del Marquez del Valle, which they called la Cruz, which is the coast of Califor- nia.” Ferrelo says: “ They anchored the following Monday, on the third of the same month, off the point of California,” ete. The easternmost land of the peninsula of Lower California is cape Pulmo, under which there is a good anchorage and fresh water. The eastern point of the land, which is a cliff 410 feet. high and rises rapidly inland, is in latitude 23°. 23’, and if Cabrillo observed for latitude, as we may feel assured he did when he made this landfall, the correction to his determination is —0° 37’ “and more.” At cape San Lucas, the southwesternmost point of the penin- sula, the ships anchored in the comfortable bay and took in water. The anchorage is in latitude 22° 52’ and its position was already known. Cabrillo does not mention this harbor, and Ferrelo evidently did not observe for latitude, for his narrative states, “they say that this port is in twenty-three degrees.” This indicates a correction of — 0° .08’ to the assumed position. - From cape San Lucas the navigators followed the coast, which Ulloa had discovered three years earlier. If they had copies of his chart or of his report they never refer to them or to him or use his names of capes and bays, except the island of Cedros. Northward of cape San Lucas we begin to find the large errors of latitude which began at the “ Point of California.” As they were reconnoitering the coast during the summer months, the weather was generally fair for observation, the winds adverse and sometimes quite strong, the swell heavy, and the fogs in- creasing as they advanced. Until well to the northward the togs would rarely prevent a noon observation for latitude. The two narratives refer to seventy-one positions that are sub- ject to identification ; yet it issomewhat singular that the Cabrillo narrative has only two independent observations for latitude, while the Ferrelo narrative has twenty-two. Whenever the latitude of a place is given by both narratives, which occurs eight times, the two statements are identical, except in the case of point Conception, where the correction to Cabrillo’s determi- nation is — 2° 3’ and to Ferrelo’s — 1° 33’ “and more.” The corrections, with a gradual increase as the latitude in- creases, are fairly uniform for certain stretches, when we consider Latitude and Distance. QAI that the latitude was rarely stated closer than half a degree, except to add that it was ‘‘ more” on four occasions and “scant” on another. From latitude 23° 23’ to 28° 6’ the average correction to eleven determinations is — 0° 48’, with a range from — 37’ to— 58’ ; from latitude 28° 55’ to 31° 45’ the average correction to nine deter- minations is — 1° 4’, with a range from — 42’ to — 75’; from lati- tude 31° 51’ to 34° 27’ the average correction to nine determna- tions is — 1° 24’, with a range from — 60’ to — 123’. This line of coast includes San Diego, San Buenaventura and point Con- ception. From latitude 36° 3’ to 38° 31’ the average correction to eight determinations is — 1° 18’, with a range from — 79’ to — 91’, including the determination in the gulf of the Farallones and of the landfall of Cahto mountain, which are not closely located. It is somewhat remarkable that the position of San Diego bay and of point Conception, which latter was to them a notable cape, should present larger errors of the instruments than any other places on the coast. At San Diego the correction to Fer- relo’s determination is — 1° 40’; and at point Conception — 1° 33’ ‘and more” to Ferrelo,and — 2° 3’ to Cabrillo. In these extreme and infrequent cases I suspect erroneous readings of the instru- ments, amounting to not less than thirty minutes of arc, or of the whole diameter of the sun. These corrections must govern the high latitudes which the navigators report to have reached when they were struggling for life in the great storms far from land, and almost up to the latitude reached by Drake less than thirty-seven years later. Erroneous Estimates of Distances. The estimates of distances along the exposed seaboard, when the vessels were buffeted by the regular northwesters and the large swell and offshore adverse current, are,as a rule, so irregular and erroneous that they are almost useless for determining in- termediate positions. When they reached the quieter waters of the Santa Barbara channel, with little wind, before the rainy season, with very small swell and little current, it was possible to preportion the erroneous estimate of distance between San Buenaventura and point Conception, and with a personal knowl- edge of localities I was able to fix every anchorage they made under that pleasant and populous coast, and where they held frequent intercourse with the friendly Indians, 32—Nat, Groce, Maa., vot. V, 1893. 242, G. Davidson—Northwestern Coast of America. The Main features of the Discoveries of Cabrillo and Ferrelo. The general progress of the two ships may be first briefly stated by mentioning the more easily identified places and then by following their narratives in more or less detail. The vessels sailed in company from cape San Lueas, in lati- tude 22° 52’, July 6, 1542; reached Magdalena bay, in latitude 24° 32’, July 13; Pequefia bay and point, in latitude 26° 14’, July 19; port San Bartolomé, in latitude 27° 39’, August 1; Cerros island, in latitude 28° 02’, August 5; point Canoas, in latitude 29° 25’, August 15; port San Quentin, in latitude 30° 24, where they took possession of the country, August 21; point Santo Tomas, in latitude 31° 33’, September 8; San Diego bay, in latitude 32° 40’, September 28; Santa Catalina island, in lati- tude 33° 27’, October 7, and San Buenaventura, at the eastern entrance to the Santa Barbara channel, in latitude 34° 17, Oc- tober 10. During these three months their progress had been very slow, because the prevailing summer wind was directly ahead, and they must have made many and many a tack to work their clumsy vessels to windward. With the modern vessel of the same size the time would have been less than a month. The weather was favorable, no storms of wind and rain, but gener- ally clear skies, with fogs at night but absent by day. They reached the Santa Barbara channel in the pleasantest part of the year, after the long dry season, and the country apparently much parched. They had no difficulties with the natives, and we may well suppose that they looked forward with hope and confidence to continued success and the prospect of the discovery of precious metals. AtSan Buenaventura they established very friendly relations with the populous villages of that vicinity, with the river coming through the mountains on the west and the Santa Clara coming through the broad flat valley to the eastward. They readily obtained food from the natives, and perhaps had no need to draw the seine. In their progress through the Santa Barbara channel, they must have been charmed by its beauty and by the friendliness of the natives, for they anchored half a dozen times, Cabrillo says: “ They sailed little in several days on account of the too fine weather, and on Wednesday, the eighteenth of said month [October], they arrived at a long point which forms a cape, and The Southeast Storms. 243 on account of its length, like a galley, they named it el Cabo de la Galera.” This is the point Conception of our charts. The weather of the Santa Barbara channel at that season of the year is extremely lovely. When at point Conception for three and a half months, in 1850, I have seen sailing vessels five or six days ‘“‘in irons,” drifting slowly from Santa Barbara to point Conception, with the weak current to the westward, while ‘outside the cape a steady ten-knot breeze from the northwest was blowing for weeks.