NATIVE • RACES • OF
THE -BRITISH -EMPIRE

BY-W-D-HAMBLY

BOOKL-H

NORTH
AMERICA

HUMPHREY • MILFORD
OXFORD-UNIVERSITY-PRESS • '

Native Races of the British , Bmph '<",''>,'•';'.;

THE NATIVE RACES OF
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN CHIEF.

THE NATIVE RACES OF
BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

BY

W. D. HAMBLY, F.R.A.I., B.Sc.

(RESEARCH DEGREE, OXON.)
OXFORD DIPLOMA IN ANTHROPOLOGY

ASSISTANT ANATOMIST IN THE \VF.I LCOME RESEARCH EXPEDITION
TO THE ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN, 1913-14

HUMPHREY MILFORD
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON, EDINBURGH, GLASGOW

TORONTO, MELBOURNE, CAPE TOWN, BOMBAY

1920

-

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY
MORRISON & GIBB LTD., EDINBURGH

PREFACE

DURING recent years there has been a very
happy tendency to change the nature of
geographical teaching from a monotonous memoris
ing of the names of natural features to a subject of
living interest.

In the endeavour to effect this change there has
been a serious omission in our failure to appeal to
natural interests of children by making the human
element a central feature of geographical work.

A study of the picturesque lives of native races of
the British Empire is an absolute essential if the
teacher wishes to impart the appropriate colour and
setting to a subsequent course of economic, regional,
and political geography.

The sharp contrast between European beliefs and
customs and those of primitive people is in itself an
incentive to study and interest. In addition to this,
a sympathetic understanding of the many native
races who are controlled by English statesmanship
is necessary for the material and moral progress of
dominions in the British Empire.

W. D. HAMBLY.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1

1'AGE

THE COUNTRY AND ITS PEOPLE . . 9

CHAPTER II
SOME OCCUPATIONS OF INDIAN TRIBES . .16

'CHAPTER in

SOCIAL LIFE AMONG INDIAN TRIBES . .22

CHAPTER IV
THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE ESKIMO . . .28

CHAPTER V
THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER . . -36

CHAPTER VI
TALES TOLD BY THE ESKIMO . . • 52

NATIVE TRIBES OF BRITISH
NORTH AMERICA

CHAPTER I
THE COUNTRY AND ITS PEOPLE

THE " Old World " was startled in 1493 by
the great navigator Columbus, who returned
with wonderful narratives concerning the " New
World " of North America, whose native population
he called " Indians " because, strange as it may
seem to us, he thought that by sailing west he must
come to the land of India. At the present day
scientists are at a loss to account for the origin of
Eskimo and North American Indian tribes ; some
times the former are connected with the European
cave dwellers, who did such beautiful work in bone
and ivory toward the end of the old Stone Age.
Whatever may have been the origin of countless
numbers of Indians, comprising hundreds of tribes,
we may be certain that they had inhabited the
continent from a very remote period, for in very
deep old layers of soil one may find stone axes and
arrowheads, which are side by side with human
remains and the bones of extinct species of the
horse.

Not one little book, but many large ones, would

OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

be required in order to give an account of all the
Eskimo and Indian tribes of British North America,
to say nothing of the vast numbers of tribes watched
over by the United States. So we shall have to
content ourselves with a glimpse at the lives of a
few tribes inhabiting country which lies between
the extreme north of North America and a boundary
line passing from the south of Vancouver Island
through the Great Lakes, to the south of the St.
Lawrence estuary.

Eskimo tribes on the west coast of Greenland are
under Danish rule, while Eskimo and Indian people
of Alaska are subject to control by the U.S.A.
Hence we shall concern ourselves chiefly with the
" Central " Eskimo of Hudson Bay, Baffin Land,
Davis Strait, and Labrador ; while with regard to
Indian tribes we may select just a few of those
which lie wholly, or to some great extent, within
British territory.

Although Eskimo tribes are to be found from
Behring Strait to Greenland, and Indians anywhere
between Vancouver Island and Newfoundland,
the appearance of peoples in widely separated tribes
is very much the same. All the Eskimo are short
of stature (average height 5 ft. 2 in.), well built and
sturdy, while the skin colour is a dark yellowish
brown, not unlike the shade that characterises
the Southern European. In some respects the
Eskimo is not unlike an inhabitant of Mongolia, for
at once a traveller would notice the broad face,
high cheek bones, straight black hair, and oblique
eyes. The head of an Eskimo is long in proportion
to the breadth, and the very high vault enables a

THE COUNTRY AND ITS PEOPLE n

student to pick out an Eskimo skull from a great
number of those belonging to other races. The
North American Indians, too, are very uniform

A NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN.

in appearance, and a native taken from one place
could easily be mistaken for an inhabitant of some
region far away ; for in almost all cases there is
the broad face, long well-shaped nose, and pointed

12 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

chin. To speak of a " Red " Indian gives quite a
wrong impression, for the skin is of a coppery
brown, with a kind of underlying red tinge. The
hair is usually long, straight, and black, but in
British Columbia, and amongst the Dene, a reddish
shade of hair is not uncommon, while among Salish
tribes of the Pacific Coast the hair may be wavy or
slightly curled.

Of all the native tribes of British North America
the Eskimo have by far the hardest and most un
pleasant life, because they have no vegetable foods,
cannot practise agriculture, and are entirely depen
dent on the products of hunting expeditions, which
for nine months out of twelve are undertaken in
bitterly cold weather, and among dreary wastes of
snow. Indians such as the " Haida " of Queen
Charlotte Islands, the " Kwakiutl " of Vancouver,
and some of the " Salish" and " Dene " tribes of
British Columbia, are most fortunate on account
of a warm temperate climate and an abundant
supply of various animal and vegetable foods.

To the west of the Rocky Mountains lies a hilly,
well-wooded country, abounding with game such
as deer, foxes, bears, hares, beavers, squirrels,
while birds are plentiful, and delicious salmon may
be obtained from the Fraser River and its tribu
taries. Of all trees the cedar has been most useful
to the coastal tribes, for it is to them what the
cocoa-nut palm is to the people inhabiting the South
Sea Islands. From the wood of cedar trees, houses
and canoes are made, while clothing may be manu
factured from the inner bark ; and there is no part
of this useful tree which is not put to some good

THE COUNTRY AND ITS PEOPLE 13

purpose. Basket work is very cleverly woven with
strands of different colours representing geometrical
patterns, people, and objects. It may be thought
that the outlines of human and animal figures are

BASKET-WORK HAT : WHALING SCENE INWOVEN.
WOOTKA SOUND, N.W. AMERICA.

too stiff, but one must remember that the rigid
nature of the basket work compels the worker to
make straight lines.

Some drawings of animals are provided with
human, or almost human faces. This is done, not
because] the worker is unskilful, but because he

14 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

believes that spirits of his ancestors may dwell
in animals. Therefore the human and animal
features are combined in sketches, tattooing, and
masks.

Very different from British Columbia is a vast
stretch of country from the eastern slopes of the
Rocky Mountains to the shores of Hudson Bay.
Here are to be found many branches of the Dene
Indians under the names of " Beavers," " Dog
Ribs/' and " Yellow Knives," who have figured
in many a story of breathless adventure ; and it is
with this snow-clad trappers' country that Jack
London has dealt in several of his novels. On the
southern shore of Hudson Bay the Algonkin
Indians have come into contact with Eskimo
peoples, but nowhere are the two very friendly.
To the south of the Algonkins are the Lakes
Superior, Erie, and Ontario, in which region live
the remnants of such important tribes as the Huron,
Iroquois, and Mohawks ; the last named have
been the heroes of many a story book. In the year
1858 all Indian tribes came under the charge of a
special department of the Dominion Government,
which set aside certain localities for their use.
Naturally the natives changed very rapidly when
ifi contact with Europeans, so that to-day they are
not the wild people described by siich travellers as
Eraser, Vancouver, and Mackenzie, who explored
the North -West Territories between the years 1793
and 1808, Indian dress, weapons, canoes, carving,
religious songs, and dances are still extremely
common, and in the United States there is a special
department of the Government concerned with the

THE COUNTRY AND ITS PEOPLE i 5

publication of books describing the lives of Indian
tribes.

Mr. C. Hill-Tout, who has spent much time in
observing the Indian tribes of the Pacific Coast of.
British North America, says : " There is no doubt
in my mind that the present Salish population of
about 12,000 does not represent nearly a fifth of
the population of this stock at the time of Simon
Eraser's visit to them. One tribe alone, the
' Lukungen/ whose settlements are at the south
eastern end of Vancouver's Island, was estimated
in 1859 to number 8500. To-day they could not
muster 200, or less than one -fortieth of their former
numbers." ..." That dying race the Haida of
Queen Charlotte's Islands numbered, in 1840, 8328.
Twenty years ago that number had dwindled to
2000, and to-day the native population of these
small islands is about 700." Perhaps it is safe to
say that the total native population of British North
America is only one-tenth part of what it was
a hundred years ago. Alcohol, small-pox, and
pneumonia have caused a heavy death rate, in
addition to which the easier lives, and the adoption
of a good deal of European clothing, have made
the natives less robust, and therefore an easy prey
to all forms of sickness.

CHAPTER II

SOME OCCUPATIONS OF INDIAN TRIBES

AT many points along the shores of British
Columbia the traveller may notice the
large strongly-built dwellings of the coast Salish,
who are experts in splitting stout logs from the
cedar tree by means of implements made from the
horns of the elk and wood of maple trees. Such
large dwellings, some of which had a length of over
200 feet, were, of course, occupied by more than
one family, and as a rule there were at least half
a dozen hearths, each belonging to one of several
closely related families who occupied the same large
dwelling. The interior of the building was divided
into rooms by curtains manufactured from reeds
or grasses ; temporary screens of this kind were
easily removed when the whole room was required
for winter dancing festivities, which were generally
connected with religious beliefs. Extending all
round the walls of the hut was a low platform, which,
covered with skins and blankets made from hair
of dogs and mountain goats, served as a most
comfortable bed, while on its under side could
be stored dried fish, roots and berries collected
during summer, and vast quantities of fir cones and
firewood. Such stores were frequently hidden in

SOME OCCUPATIONS OF INDIAN TRIBES 17

the forest, for years ago, before the Canadian police
were known, large bands of fierce Indians, named
' Kwakiutl," from Vancouver Island preyed upon
the quieter coast Salish, carrying off their women,
children, and stores. Even now, says a missionary
named Father Morice, the Dene are afraid of the
fierce, warlike tribes who paddled their long canoes
for many miles up the Fraser River.

The only pieces of furniture worth mentioning
are large treasure chests constructed from planks
of cedar firmly held by wooden rivets, so that the
joints are quite watertight. Such boxes held
blankets, costumes worn at dances, and other
treasures, of which a chief owned a vast supply.

Salish tribes of the interior had two sets of dwell
ings, a heavy timber one for winter use, and for
summer a light cool structure made by stretching
mats over a wooden framework. A similar summer
habitation is made by the northern Dene tribes,
whose pointed tent has the appearance of a true
Indian " wigwam/' and at the present time an en
campment of these tribes has the same appearance
as it had a century ago, when visited by the
great explorer Sir Alexander Mackenzie.

Of equal importance with the building of houses
is the manufacture of clothing, for which all Indian
tribes have an abundance of raw material obtained
during hunting excursions. The moose — which by
the way is a domestic animal and beast of burden
among the northern Dene — furnishes a good hide,
which along with deerskin can be made into
strong trousers and leggings, or into shoes named
" moccasins." Blankets, forming a covering for
3

1 8 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

the shoulders and body, are made from wool of the
mountain goat, and in some cases, down from ducks
is interwoven with the fabric, which is made by use
of the old-fashioned spindle. Among the interior
Salish a man usually possesses a shirt, trousers,
leggings, moccasins, and cap. The shirt and trousers
are generally made ornamental by fringes of deer
skin, while to the moccasins are added dyed
porcupine quills, goose feathers, or horse hair.
Winter socks are made from skins of the bear,
buffalo, or deer, but in summer these are replaced by
lighter socks, manufactured from grass and cedar
bark. Small animals, such as the fox, lynx, hawk,
and beaver, furnish material suitable for caps, and
among the " Thompson " Indians a man always
made a cap from the covering of what an Indian
calls his " totem," that is, an animal which he
believes to be his own special friend and helper.

The summer dress 1 worn by women did not differ
much from that of the men, save that it was longer,
and usually ornamented with claws and teeth of the
beaver. A chief's dress was very elaborate, and the
most interesting part of his costume consisted of a
cap made from the hair of women from noble
families. Most boys are acquainted with tattooing,
which is very common amongst soldiers and sailors
nowadays. A favourite Indian pastime was the
tattooing of figures representing animals ; and
sometimes the chin, forehead, or cheeks would be
ornamented with tattooed designs of some animal,

1 For details of customs which still survive, also for informa
tion concerning practices which have fallen into disuse, see
books recommended for the teacher's reference librarv.

SOME OCCUPATIONS OF INDIAN TRIBES 19

usually the " manitou," or creature which a boy
selected for his companion and guardian through life.

A good many occupations are connected with
the food supply, and everywhere near the coast or
the banks of Fraser River there are Indians busy
catching, cleaning, drying, and extracting oil from
fish, among which the salmon is most prized.
Gathering quantities of roots, berries, and nuts is a
favourite occupation with women and children,
who are made responsible for laying in large quanti
ties of vegetable food for winter. While men are
occupied with hunting and fishing, women collect
roots of the cedar tree, and from the bark of these
baskets of varied patterns are neatly manufactured.
Human and animal designs are interwoven with
pieces of coloured fibre in such a way as to give an
ornamental effect, though the Indian's idea is not
merely decoration, but a desire to portray the
animal helpers which he holds in reverence. Very
light vessels may be made from bark of birch and
spruce trees ; some hold several gallons, and may be
held on the back by leather thongs, one of which
passes round the forehead of the carrier. Canoes of
birch bark are so light that they can be carried
across land for several miles, and travellers have
many times crossed from Hudson Bay to Vancouver
chiefly by use of these light portable canoes.

The manufacture of bows and arrows is an im
portant undertaking, for on these the hunter's life
and food supply entirely depend. Very great care
is taken in providing a bow string which will not be
affected by damp, and after threads of sinew have
been neatly plaited into one strand, the whole is

20 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

rubbed with glue from the sturgeon, or perhaps with
gum from the black pine tree. Some tribes provided
the end of the bow with a sharply pointed stone, so
that the implement could be used as a thrusting spear
when an animal came to close quarters, and the
hunter had not time to fit another arrow. Willow
and mountain maple are tough, elastic woods suitable
for the bow, which is always strengthened by a layer
of sinew, cherry-tree bark, or snake skin, which is
glued to the wood. Barbed and leaf-shaped arrow or
spear points are used for hunting and warfare. Rock
crystal, quartz, and a hard, dark, shiny stone named
obsidian are most serviceable for weapons ; poison
made from fangs of the rattlesnake is used as a varnish
for these stone arrow points, so the hunter must be
very careful that he does not scratch himself when
fitting an arrow to the bow. Metal plays an ever
increasing part in the Indian's outfit, but there are
still many knives, daggers, war clubs, spears, and
tomahawks, in the manufacture of which sharpened
stone is employed. ' Tomahawk " means a skull
cracker, and no better name could have been em
ployed, for this implement pecks out a little circular
hole in the skull, and many graves have been opened
in which the skeleton shows plainly by what instru
ment the fatal blow was delivered. No stone im
plement is more prized than the hammer, which
takes a great deal of chipping and rubbing from hard
stone. During long evenings men will sit round
the fire talking and polishing their hammers, merely
rubbing with the palms of the hands ; the imple
ments take a very smooth gloss, and are handed
down from father to son for many generations.

NORTH AMERICAN IMPLEMENTS, WEAPONS ETC

'' W£Jf^"»l»- (*««»'»« 4- Wooden comb representing a beast.
uc , ciaw. $m A peace-pipe.

: A SEBSS: f. AA £%S3£ (sku" — '•

«, 9, 10. Wooden masks from Vancouver Island. These represent the

1 eagle; they are

2gg«

bone ; No. 14 is wood tipped with bone

CHAPTER III

SOCIAL LIFE AMONG INDIAN TRIBES

T ^ VERY boy is familiar with the arrangement
i~J of Boy Scouts, who name themselves the
" Beavers," " Lions," " Bears," or " Eagles " ; and,
strange to say, there is a similar practice among
many savage peoples in America, Australia, and the
Pacific region, though primitive tribes have many
strange beliefs which we do not hear of among boys
who take animals as their emblems.

One of the Dene tribes is divided into halves, the
people of one division being " Bears," while the
others are all " Birds." Now it is so ordered that a
man or woman of the " Bear " division may not
marry any one from his or her own half of the tribe ;
a person belonging to the " Bears " must always
marry into the " Bird " clan, and an individual in
the " Bird " division must select a partner from the
" Bears." The Indians cannot explain how this
order originated ; they say it always has been so
and must remain. Some go so far as to declare that
animals, who were their ancestors, ordered this
tribal division, and laid down the rules for marriage.
The missionary, Father Morice, tells us that among
another Dene tribe named " Carriers," there are
four of these animal clans, namely, the Grouse,

SOCIAL LIFE AMONG INDIAN TRIBES 23

Beaver, Toad, and Grizzly Bear. People of the
Grizzly Bear clan think that they themselves,
also their ancestors, are closely connected with the
Bear in some mysterious way. They respect the
animal, and apologise to him when it is necessary
to kill him in order to get food and clothing. The
bear is thought to have a spirit which would haunt
the " Bear " clan if the animal were not treated
respectfully. Some Indian hunters who will have
no respect -for an animal belonging to some other
clan, sit by the dead bear, their own totem animal,
and smoke the pipe of peace, which implies that
there is a good feeling between the hunter and his
dead bear, whose spirit will not take revenge.

In addition to this animal " totem," which serves
as a badge for the clan, a boy always has his own
special personal " totem," which he obtains in the
following way. At the age of fourteen he is subject
to very harsh treatment, being beaten frequently,
and driven to bathe in cold water on winter mornings.
Then there is among some tribes a " sweat -bath,"
which a boy enters in order to perspire out all his
badness, while starvation and solitude in the woods
are thought to be necessary before a boy is turned
into a man who can have a " totem " animal. It is
during this starvation and fasting in the woods that
the boy dreams of some animal, or, as he puts it,
" the ghost of the animal comes to him while he is
asleep," and the first creature which appears is his
" totem," to whom he prays when in danger and
trouble. The youth must rise at once, and after
killing one of his " totem " animals, he makes a
little bag which is worn like a charm round the

24 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

neck. Should this " medicine
bag " be lost, the youth is
disgraced until he has killed
an enemy, and stolen his op
ponent's skin bag. A chief
may have more than one
" totem " animal, and outside
a house, say of the Haida
Indians, one may see a high
pole on which are carried the
portraits of totem animals
belonging to all who dwell
within the hut. Tattooing
portraits of " totem " animals
on the hands and face is very
common, especially among the
Haida of Queen Charlotte Is
lands.

Winter dances in honour of
animals are very common, and
at these festivities, masks in
the form of animals are worn,
while people caper round in
imitation of the movements
of their own particular totem.
A very important social
gathering among Salish tribes
is named "potlatch," at which
presents of great value are
Vj given away by a chief who
wishes to become very famous.

TOTEM POLE, 38 FT. HIGH, peOple crowd to the top of the
HAIDA, ON. CHARLOTTE . n .

Is. (now in Brit. MUS.). long cedar-wood huts, and for

SOCIAL LIFE AMONG INDIAN TRIBES 25

days there is a distribution of skins, horses, clothing,
blankets, canoes, and every other form of wealth.
About twenty-five years ago a great chief of Van
couver Island gave a " potlatch " to 2500 persons
from different tribes. The guests were feasted
for over a month, and the savings of five years
were distributed ; so no wonder the chief who is
wealthy and a great warrior readily becomes the
judge and lawgiver in Indian society.

Slaves, usually people taken in war, were at one
time common, and very miserable was their lot,
for they were regarded as being no better than
dogs, and any man might put his slaves to death
for a trifling offence. Mr. Hill-Tout, who knows
the Indians well, says : " Slavery has, of course,
been abolished since they came under our rule,
but the descendants of those formerly slaves are
still looked down upon and despised by the other
Indians."

The North-Western tribes had no belief in a
Supreme Being, or in God Who made the universe,
though they did think of a soul, spirit, or ghost
which could survive after the body was killed.
Not only people, but animals, and even weapons
and articles of clothing, were thought to have a
ghost which went to some other world when the
creature was killed or the article broken. The
Thompson Indians were very much afraid of the
spirits of deer, and they always took care to bury
with respect all such parts of the carcase as were
not required. One way of keeping friendly with the
bear spirits was to hang the skull of the animal
on a tree, and all who took part in the ceremony
4

26 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

were expected to join in a chorus praising bears,
while each performer was expected to paint his face.
The " medicine man," " shaman," or shall we say
priest, is most important among Dene tribes, for
this peculiar person goes into a deep sleep or trance
in which he is supposed to visit the world of spirits,
who tell him how to cure sick people. So clever is
the " shaman " thought to be, that he is held quite
capable of chasing a soul which has left the body,
and when the truant soul is caught, he goes through
a performance of returning it to the dying person.
A man who is very ill indeed will sometimes recover
just because he has such great faith in the medicine
man, whose power he trusts absolutely.

Burial is performed in various ways : the body
may be left on a staging concealed in the boughs of
a tree, or the tomb may be a hut which was specially
constructed for the dying person, or perhaps his
remains are cremated. Whatever method is adopted,
there is always the greatest fear of death and a
return of haunting spirits, which can be kept away
only by the observance of certain superstitious
practices. The mourners must not eat meat for
several days, then they are not to cut it with a
knife. The encampment where death takes place
is sometimes deserted, and what is most important,
the name of the dead must not be mentioned, for
the ghost may think he is called if he hears
his name.

Social gatherings are made happy by the narra
tion of stories which refer to the lives and adventures
of animals. Here is one concerning a sea-gull and
a raven : the former bird is credited with having

SOCIAL LIFE AMONG INDIAN TRIBES 27

kept daylight in a large box until a raven induced
him to open the lid. After lighting torches and
searching the seashore, the raven returned carrying
prickly eggs of the sea urchin, which he strewed
before the house of the sea-gull. Next day he made
a call on the sea-gull, and found him in bed with
his feet full of prickles, which the raven volunteered
to take out with a knife. When the operation was
in progress, Master Raven said : " You must open
the lid of your box and let out some daylight, for I
cannot see what I am doing." So the gull opened
the lid a little way, and the visitor continued
taking out prickles from the sea-gull's feet. At
last the little bit of daylight was exhausted, and
once more the raven asked for more light in order
to continue his work. Very reluctantly the sea
gull opened the lid of his " daylight " box, but on
this occasion the raven was too quick for him, and
forced the lid right open, with the result that
daylight rushed out, spread all over the world,
and could not be gathered in again.

Sea-gull was very much distressed, bitterly he
cried, and to-day the Indians say that sea birds
flit along the shore, uttering their plaintive cries
because of the trick played by the raven so many
years ago.

CHAPTER IV
THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE ESKIMO

LONG before daybreak the Eskimo housewife
_/ rises, and at once supplies the lamp with a
new wick and more blubber ; and while the break
fast of seal's flesh is being prepared, the hunter
removes the block of snow constituting a door ;
then, making his way along the under-snow passage
where the sleeping dogs lie, he emerges into the open,
at which point a piercing Arctic wind greets him.
The sledge is cut loose from its ice fetters, and
the dogs are harnessed ready for an immediate
start.

The women who stay at home are occupied in
making boots and clothing by sewing skins of the
seal, reindeer, or walrus ; children and puppies have .
to be fed and played with ; then, of course, there
is the hunter's evening meal to prepare : the raw
liver of a seal caught during the day is regarded
as a great delicacy. A strange superstition de
mands that women shall do no work while the
spoils a&e being unloaded from the sledge, for it is
thought that the supreme goddess Sedna, who
created all sea animals, will be extremely angry if
some mark of respect is not shown to her dead

creatures. Seal and walrus soups constitute the

28

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE ESKIMO 29

first part of the evening meal, but of these the
women do not partake, and as a rule they share only
in the last course, consisting of large quantities of
frozen meat. The soup is generally passed round in
a large horn cup,
from which each
takes a drink, a
proceeding which
is followed by the
introduction of a
large mass of meat
that is passed
round and bitten
by each in turn.
A person retiring
to rest always
takes the. precau
tion of leaving
meat near the
snow couch, so
that he may re
fresh himself if
awake during the
night. The Es
kimo are, of
course, hunters
and nothing more;
upon animal life they depend entirely for food,
clothing, weapons, and locomotion ; the cold is
intense, the hours of work long and laborious,
so it comes to pass that enormous quantities of
animal food are essential.

An American explorer who spent many evenings

AN ESKIMO MAN.

30 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

with the Eskimo, who are very hospitable, says :
' The men visit one another and spend the evening
in talking, singing, gambling, and telling stories.
The events of the day are talked over, success in
hunting is compared, the hunting tools requiring
mending are set in order, and the lines are dried and
softened. Some busy themselves in cutting new
ivory implements and seal lines. . . . During these
social visits, the host places a large lump of frozen
meat and a knife on the side bench behind the lamp,
and every one is welcome to help himself to as much
as he likes. The first comers sit down on the
ledge, while those entering later stand or squat
in the passage. When any one addresses the whole
assembly, he always turns his face to the wall, and
avoids facing the listeners." The young children
are not required to go to bed early, so they have
a good time playing on the snow couches, which are
covered with skins.

' The women sit on the bed in front of their
lamps, with their legs under them, working con
tinually on their own clothing or on that of the
men, drying the wet foot-gear and mittens, and
softening the leather by chewing and rubbing. If
there is a litter of pups, it is the women's business
to look after them, to keep them warm, and to feed
them regularly. Generally the pups are put into
small harness, and are allowed to crawl about the
side of the bed, where they are tied to the wall by a
trace."

Games, such as cat's-cradle and gambling with
dice, are numerous ; there is no money among the
Eskimo, trade is by barter, so when gambling, the

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE ESKIMO 31

stakes are articles of clothing, weapons, and food.
Several summer games are played with a ball of
deerskin, which is thrown among players, who keep
it in motion by means of whips or blows from the
hand, the object frequently being to prevent the
ball from touching the ground ; meanwhile various
merry little songs are sung. Toy sledges, kayaks,
bows, and dolls are very popular with the children,
who soon make a wooden figure clad in a little pair
of deerskin trousers, which are a good imitation of
the clothing of their own parents.

Winter, during which all bays and inlets are
frozen, is a good time for visiting friends, because a
sledge journey over the ice is a very easy means
of travelling many miles. A journey of 100 miles
is not uncommon, and when so great a distance
has been accomplished, the visitors make a long
stay of almost a year, though it is understood that
they must help readily with all the hunting and
domestic work. During the great war " communal
kitchens " were established in many places, and it
is thought that by having one central cooking-
place there is a great saving in food, fuel, and
labour. The Eskimo have a similar arrangement
in their summer encampment, where each family
in turn will take a whole day, during which they are
responsible for the collection of fuel and the cooking
of food for the whole encampment. When the
meal is prepared, the master of the duty household
shouts " Ujo ! Ujo ! " (boiled meat), and the hungry
Eskimo emerge from their huts, each man carrying
a large knife with which he cuts a portion for his
f amity.

32 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

The education of Eskimo children consists entirely
of learning the occupations which will have to be
undertaken in later years. Girls practise sewing
and preparation of skin garments, while very young
boys accompany hunters, and soon become expert
in the management of dogs, fishing tackle, and
hunting appliances of every type. As soon as a
boy shows that he is able to support a wife, he is
at liberty to marry ; and though adults frequently
arrange that certain children shall marry when
grown up, these early contracts are not binding,
and there is a good deal of freedom in choosing a
wife or husband. In general the husband goes to
live with his wife's parents, and so becomes one of
the family, which he must help to support ; if the
suitor comes from another tribe he may not take his
wife to his own people, but is expected to settle
with her kindred. After the death of his wife's
parents a young man may live where he pleases,
but he must always be kind to his wife and treat
her well, or she is free to leave him and marry some
one else.

Children are affectionately treated, and according
to one traveller are " never scolded or whipped."
Sometimes it. has been said that people of certain
tribes kill their children ; such a dreadful proceeding
is extremely rare, and happens only when food is
very scarce. The Greenland Eskimo say that if a
child were killed, its spirit would come back to
haunt them. Some people are unable to provide
food for the children, then the youngsters are adopted
by a relative or friend. Among the Eskimo there
are no slaves, some reasons being that time is fully

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE ESKIMO 33

occupied in hunting ; journeys are difficult, also
the Eskimo are naturally peaceable and kind, so it
comes to pass that warfare is almost unknown, and
captives are not taken. Servants there are, usually
cripples or unfortunate men who have lost their
dogs, sledges, and hunting apparatus.

The Eskimo have some religious ideas concern
ing a good spirit " Sedna," to whom they pray for
success in hunting. This goddess is supposed to
have created all animal life, and her special care
is the protection of Eskimo people, who have many
stories and legends concerning the goodness and
bounty of their protectress. Almost all people
believe that there is some part of a man which
lives after the body is dead, and the Eskimo are
no exception to the general rule, for they have
distinct ideas of heaven ruled over by Sedna. As a
matter of fact, there are thought to be four heavens,
or at any rate four stages through which the soul
has to travel before it reaches the " good land "
where it will be for ever happy. Some people
are not good enough to go to the " good land "
where summer is continuous, so they wander about
in the first three stages of the journey ; and so low
is the roof of each of these first stages, that a man
has to bend very low all the time he is travelling.

The Eskimo have some very clear rules for the
division of game and the restoration of lost property
to its owner, but there are no kings, chiefs, judges,
or law courts, so justice and punishment are in the
hands of the whole settlement. Murder is not
common, but when it does occur there is a terrible
blood feud between the two families, and thirst

34 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

for revenge may continue for many, many years,
unless the murderer, or one of his relatives, is killed
as a punishment for the crime.

Animals, and even lifeless things, are thought to
have a spirit which goes to some sort of heaven,
so we understand why a hunter's property is buried
with him ; his relations think he will need it in the
next world. A very wonderful man among the
Eskimo is a person whom they call " angakok," a
priest or " medicine man," who goes through some
very strange performances, during which he claims
to have a talk with ghosts who tell him how to cure
diseases, or in what way some misfortune can be
averted. Dr. Boas tells us that : " The lamps
being lowered, the ' angakok ' strips off his outer
jacket, places the hood over his head, and sits
down in the back part of the hut, facing the wall.
He claps his hands, which are covered with mittens,
and shaking his whole body utters sounds which
one would scarcely recognise as human." After
this performance he pretends to summon to his
aid the spirit of an animal which is supposed to be
his particular helper and guardian. Then all in
the hut join in a chorus, following which the patient
is questioned : " Did you eat when it was for
bidden ? " Did you work when it was for
bidden ? " and perhaps the sick man is obliged to
admit that he has broken some tribal law. The
" angakok " may impose some rules on the whole
community ; perhaps he forbids every one to eat
the flesh of the deer, or he may command a general
cleansing of the hut ; soms orders are very sensible,
others just foolish and superstitious.

THE SOCIAL LIFE OF THE ESKIMO 35

Perhaps the efforts of the medicine man are all
in vain, and when death seems certain the patient
is carried to a small skin tent or snow hut, where he
is left alone to die ; for if death should occur in
the ordinary dwelling, everything within would
have to be broken and thrown away. The Eskimo
*are terrified of a dead body, but the dying person
is said to be very courageous, and not at all un
willing to leave this world ; one young girl asked
for some tobacco and meat which she wished to take
to her mother, who had died a few weeks before.

The body, wrapped in deer skin, is buried at
once, and if the season is summer, a pile of stones
is erected, great care being taken that these do not
rest over the body, for their weight would be thought
to hinder the journey of a soul in the next world.
Evidently the Eskimo believes that life in the
next world is very like existence here, for with a
man is buried a variety of hunting implements ;
a dead woman requires pots, lamps, and knives ;
while toys are always placed with the body of a
little child. The nearest relatives always pull
the body to the burial-ground; dogs may 'not be
used on such solemn occasions, and the sledge
used must always be left by the grave. Silently
the friends return to their hut, where for three
days and nights they mourn for the dead person.

Sitting around their tiny lamp, the Eskimo hear
the raging of the storm, and with awe listen to the
terrible noises of shrieking winds or crunching ice.
For these are said to be the voices of spirits who
knock wildly at the huts and pursue the dogs ; terrible
is the fate of a poor Eskimo who falls into their grip.

CHAPTER V
THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER

I^HE Algonkin Indians were so disgusted with
the habits of life adopted by the Innuit, that
they called them "Eskimo," a name which means
" eater of raw flesh." It would be difficult to find
a much better description, for so barren is the snow-
clad country, and so intense the cold, that the
Eskimo has no opportunities for practising agri
culture ; neither would vegetable food sustain life in
this inhospitable region.

The fatty diet is obtained chiefly from the seal,
whale, and walrus, while the reindeer, together with
an abundant supply of sea birds and fish, furnish
food and clothing. An encounter with polar bears
is not looked upon as a regular part of the hunter's
life, and a successful combat with one of these
animals is an event talked about during many a
long winter evening. So proud is the hunter, that
he tattoos himself with special marks indicating
how many whales or polar bears he has taken ; one
great hunter had across his chest tattooed marks
in the form of the flukes on the tail of a whale.
These showed that he had killed seven of these
creatures ; and such was the pride of his wife, that
she had tattooed herself in the same way.

THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER 37

Seal hunting is perhaps the most common means
of obtaining a large supply of food and material
for clothing, and usually the 'animal is harpooned,
though the method of capture depends on the
season of the year and the condition of the
ice.

The shaft of the harpoon, to which a line is
attached, is made of wood, strengthened by a thong
of reindeer hide. The head consists of a sharply
pointed piece of ivory, probably obtained from the
tusks of the walrus ; and in order that the sharp
point may detach itself in the wounded animal,
the head fits very loosely in the shaft, to which it is
fastened by a strong thong of reindeer sinew. The
floating wooden shaft, to which a bladder is fastened,
is plainly seen each time the wounded animal comes
up to breathe. The whole proceeding has been
described by Dr. Boas, who says :

' When the day begins to dawn, the Eskimo
prepares for the hunt by gathering his harpoons
and harnessing the dogs to the sledge. The harpoon
line and the snow knife are hung over the deer's
antlers, which are attached to the hind part of the
sledge, a seal or bear skin is lashed upon the bottom,
and the spear secured under the lashing. The
hunter takes up the whip, and the dogs set off at a
great pace for the hunting ground.

" Near the place where he expects to find seals,
the hunter stops his team and takes the implements
from the sledge, which is then turned upside down
in such a way as to prevent the dogs from running
away. A dog with a good scent is then taken from
the team, and the Eskimo follows his guidance

38 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

until a seal's hole is found. In winter it is entirely
covered with snow, but generally a small elevation
indicates the situation. The dog is led back to the
sledge, and the hunter examines the hole to make
sure that it is still visited by the seal. Cautiously

ESKIMO SEAL HUNTER WAITING AT BREATHING HOLE.

he cuts a hole in the snow covering and peeps into
the excavation. If the water is covered with a
new coat of ice, the seal has left the hole, and it
would be in vain to expect its return. The hunter
must look for a new hole promising better
results.

THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER 39

"If he is sure that the seal has recently visited
a hole, he marks its exact centre on the top of the
snow and then fills up his peep-hole with small
blocks of snow. These preparations must be
made with the utmost caution, as any changes in
the appearance of the snow would frighten awav
the seal,"

The hunter stands on a small piece of seal skin
with the harpoon poised in both hands, and there
he may have to wait for several hours ; sometimes
he builds a screen of snow to protect himself from
the bitterly cold wind. Now he bends low, and
listens intently for the blowing which indicates
that a seal is at hand ; then suddenly he stands
upright, and with all his strength sends down the
harpoon into the hole, where the seal is in such a
position that it usually receives the weapon in the
head. The line is paid out, and at the same time
the hunter cuts down the snow covering from the
hole, to the edge of which the animal is dragged,
and dispatched by a blow on the head.

The blood of a seal is highly prized, and to pre
vent waste all wounds are closed by driving in ivory
pegs ; sometimes the hunter refreshes himself with
a copious drink of the warm blood.

In the month of March, mother seals prepare
long burrows in the snow, and here the Eskimo finds
the baby seal, which is dragged forth by means of
a large hook ; the mother, too, is often caught or
harpooned because of her courage in attempting
to save her young. Perhaps these methods of
hunting appear to be somewhat cruel, but it is to be
remembered that the Eskimo is constantly fighting

4o TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

hard to sustain life in a severe and inhospitable
climate. On some occasions the hunter finds only
the skin of a young seal in one of these burrows ;
the foxes have arrived first and devoured the carcase.
With the advance of summer the young seal breaks
from its snow burrow, and, until the end of June,
the mother and her calf may be seen basking together
on the ice, where they are shot or harpooned by
the hunter, who, clad in seal skin, can approach to
very close range. Many men still prefer a harpoon
to the guns which may be obtained from whalers
in exchange for skins, but nowadays the head of
the harpoon is 'usually made of iron, which is more
effective than sharpened ivory. This method of
stalking the seal may produce a bag of from ten to
fifteen animals in a day, whereas the winter tactics
rarely result in the capture of more than one
animal even after twelve hours of weary waiting
by the breathing hole.

When the ice breaks, " kayaks " are launched,
and the summer hunting of the seal and walrus is
soon in full swing. The double pointed canoe,
which is widely distributed between the shores of
Greenland and Alaska, consists of a stout framework
of wood and whalebone, twenty-five feet long, over
which are stretched seal skins, sewn firmly together
with the sinews of reindeer. The top is covered
by skin, with the exception of a small hole just
large enough to accommodate a man's body ; a
double paddle serves to propel the craft, which is,
of course, provided with a large harpoon when used
for pursuing a seal or walrus.

Sometimes a framework covered with skin is

THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER

attached to the harpoon line in such a way that
when the cord is paid out the broad framework
is dragged through the sea at right angles to the
line. How great is the resistance of the water to
such a device may be illustrated by holding the
edge of a piece of board while dragging it in water.
Of course a wounded animal is quickly exhausted
by towing this apparatus rapidly through the sea.

An explorer named Lyon has left a very interesting
account of one method adopted by hunters of the
walrus :

' When the hunters in their canoes perceive a
large herd sleeping on the floating ice; as is their
custom, they paddle to some other piece near them
which is small enough to be moved. On this they
lift their canoes and then bore several holes through
which they fasten their tough lines, and when

42 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

everything is ready they silently paddle the hummock
towards their prey., each man sitting by his own
line and spear. In this manner they reach the ice
on which the walruses lie snoring, and if they
please, each man may strike an animal, though
in general two persons attack the same beast.
The wounded and startled walrus rolls instantly
to the water, but the harpoon being well fixed
he cannot escape from the hummock of ice to which
the Eskimo have fastened the line. When the
animal becomes a little weary, the hunter launches
his canoe, and, lying out of reach of the animal's
fearful tusks, spears him to death."

At one time whaling was a favourite occupation
of the central Eskimo, and in some places it is con
tinued to the present day, chiefly by pursuing the
whale with a great number of kayaks and skin
boats of a larger pattern. The creature is followed
by numerous hunters, each of whom endeavours
to drive his harpoon into the animal, which, from
loss of blood and the resistance caused by harpoon
lines, floats, and framework, is tired out, and killed
with lances.

During the very short summer, herds of deer
wander in search of herbage, and the Eskimo follows
on foot in order to secure a supply of deer skins,
which are fit for clothing only when taken at this
period. The snow huts have been abandoned,
and the hunter takes with him a light portable
tent of reindeer hide, which is often pitched near
the shores of a lake habitually crossed by the herd.
Sometimes the hunting party is divided, and while
some men drive the frightened animals into the

THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER

43

water, others sit in " kayaks " waiting for the deer
to swim by. A lake into which a long narrow
peninsula projects is considered very suitable, for
a number of hunters extended in skirmishing order
can drive the herd along the narrow projection of
land, and eventually into the lake. Kayaks are
propelled more quickly than the animals can swim,
so they are overtaken and killed with the spear.
At times the deer does a little hunting, and if

ESKIMO SUMMER TENT OF BEAR SKIN AND SEAL SKIN, AND SNOW HUT

provided with a stout pair of antlers he will rip
open the boat and make the Eskimo swim hard
for the shore.

In some instances the herd is driven along a
deep narrow valley with steep sides, and as there
is no means of escape, the animals are killed by
hunters extended in line at the narrowest part of the
defile. Bows are made either of wood or antlers of
the deer, and as a rule the wooden weapon is made
stronger and more pliable by the addition of a

44 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

strong strip of sinew, which is bound firmly to the
wooden portion. The bowstring is manufactured
from sinew ; and the arrow tips, formerly cleverly
made by flaking pieces of slate, are now replaced
by sharpened scraps of tin or iron riveted into a
slit at the pointed end of the shaft, to the other
extremity of which a few feathers of the owl are
fastened in order to give a true flight. A large
quiver of seal skin is divided into compartments
containing the arrows, the bow, arid a number of
spare arrow tips. A handle of ivory serves as a
means of carrying the quiver when the hunter is
travelling, but as soon as game is in sight, the
quiver is slung over the left shoulder.

Eskimo dogs are eager in the pursuit of herds
of the musk ox, which always defends itself by
forming a circle around the calves. While the oxen
are busy keeping a number of ferocious dogs at
bay, the hunters approach and let fly their arrows
into the herd. Sometimes an infuriated animal
breaks from the defensive ring, and at such times
the Eskimo is saved by his dogs, who harass the
creatures until the hunter is again prepared to
shoot. Polar bears are pursued by hunters on light
sledges, and when the quarry is exhausted by the
chase, the traces of the most reliable dogs are cut,
and very soon the bear is standing at bay, striking
fiercely at the dogs with his huge forepaws, until
the hunter is able to come up and launch a spear
or arrow. The best season for bear hunting is
March or April, when the bears come a considerable
distance inland in pursuit of young seals. In the
region of Davis Strait, the Eskimo diligently search

EsKiMOjTooLS, WEAPONS, ETC.

Pick of wood and ivory ; 2. Adze of bone and iron ; ^5. Antler club ; 4. Gaff
for salmon ; 5. Snow-knife of bone ; 6, 7, 8; 9 Arrow heads of antler ;
No. 9 is pointed with stone ; 10. Arrow straightener of bone; II. Hide
scraper of bone and iron ; 12 Carving on ivory depicting a whale hunt;
!3' Tobacco pipe of ivory.

46 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

i^g%g£M^

ESKIMO DOGS' ATTACK ON A BEAR.

for holes where the bear is having his long winter
sleep, from which the hunter intends that he shall
never be awakened.

THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER 47

Hunters do not consider wolves sufficiently
valuable to repay the trouble of pursuit, and these
creatures are ignored unless they prove dangerous
to the Eskimo encampments. Traps for wolves
consist of a hole ten feet deep, very small at the
bottom, but gradually widening towards the circular
top, which is surrounded by a snow wall. A thin
sheet of ice covers the wide top, in the centre of
which some strongly smelling meat is placed. In
order to get the bait, the wolf must leap the snow
wall, with the result that he crashes through the
thin covering of ice, and is- soon trapped at the
narrow base of the pit. A very cruel method
of killing wolves consists of rolling a very
sharp piece of whalebone inside a piece of meat,
which is eagerly gulped down by a hungry
animal. The meat digests and dissolves, and
before long the wolf suffers very great pain,, for
the whalebone coil unwinds and the sharpened
ends penetrate the walls of the stomach and
intestines.

Small game, such as foxes, hares, ermines, and
lemmings, are caught in snares, while for birds the
following clever contrivance is frequently employed.
" It consists of seven or eight sinew cords, nearly
three feet long and tied together at one end, while
to the opposite ends weights of ivory or stone are
attached. Before being launched at the bird, the
sling is whirled round the head, so that when it
leaves the -hand a rotatory movement is imparted
to it, and all the weights fly apart, the striking
diameter of the weapon covering five or six feet.
The bird is thus brought to the ground, whether

48 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

it is struck by the weights or entangled in the
strings."

A favourite method of catching gulls depends
entirely on the quickness of the hunter, who has
concealed himself in a small snow house, one block
of the roof of which is made from a thin, transpa
rent piece of ice to support the bait. When a bird
settles on this thin ice, the trapper quickly pushes
his hand through, seizes the creature, and drags
it into the hut. By far the greater number of
birds are caught in the moulting season, partridges
by hand, and waterfowl after pursuit with the
kayak. Swimming birds dive as soon as the boat
comes near them ; immediately they .are pursued,
and time after time are driven down whenever
they attempt to breathe at the surface ; eventually
they are drowned, and the bodies float on the
water.

Fish, among which the salmon is very plentiful,
are harpooned, taken by ivory fishing hooks, or
chipped out of blocks of ice in which they have
become deposited at the freezing of a small lake,
which may have been converted into a solid mass of
ice. The scraping, chewing, and drying of skins
is one of the chief employments of women, and so
careful are they, that no part of the carcase is
wasted, and even the intestines of a seal are made
to furnish transparent waterproofs, which are, of
course, very light and convenient to carry. Drift
wood from the seashore is used in making bows and
sledges, while the antlers of the reindeer help to
form smooth runners, and the sinews give elasticity
to wooden bows. Knives, scrapers, hooks, utensils,

THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER 49

prongs of harpoons, and arrowheads, all depend for
their manufacture on supplies of ivory and bone, in
the working of which the Eskimo is most ingenious.
Strange to say, the caves of very ancient Europe,
when excavated, have sometimes yielded speci
mens of engraved ivory very closely resembling
the products of the Eskimo. From the caves La
Madeleine and Bruniquel are derived some excellent
specimens of engraving on bone, an art which
flourished in some parts of Southern Europe towards
the end of the old Stone Age. The question of the
origin and migrations of the Eskimo, together with
speculations concerning their connection with the
bone workers of ancient Europe, are very interesting,
but perhaps too long and difficult for a small reading-
book.

In addition to the kayak already described,
women use a large open boat shaped like a trough
and capable of holding about twenty people. With
this " umiak " single-bladed paddles are employed,
and a low lug-sail made of strips of walrus-intestine
is sometimes hoisted. For steering, a paddle is
used, and a rudder is to be found only when the
Eskimo have copied the steering device from
European whalers.

The best sledges are made by the tribes of Hudson
and Davis Straits, for in these regions the most
substantial pieces of driftwood are to be found.
The dog team is strong, intelligent, and willing to
work ; so ready to start that the Eskimo driver
may be in danger of being left behind. Careful
training of the animals is necessary, and sometimes
there is a great deal of harshness before they are

50 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

fit to harness ; perhaps the worst qualities of the
dogs are extreme ferocity and pugnacity Dr.
Boas says •

THE ESKIMO AS A HUNTER 51

' The Eskimo rarely brings up more than three
or four dogs at the same time ; and if the litter is
larger than this number the rest are sold or given
away. The young dogs are carefully nursed, and
in winter they are allowed to lie on the couch, or
are hung up near the lamp in a skin cradle. When
almost four months old the pups are first put to
the sledge, and gradually they become accustomed
to pull with the others. If food is plentiful the
dogs are fed every alternate day, and then their
share is by no means a large one. In winter they
are fed with the heads, entrails, bones, and skins
of seals, and they are so voracious at this time of
the year that nothing is secure from their appetite.
Any kind of leather, particularly books, harness,
and thongs, is eaten whenever they can get at it.
In the spring they are better fed, and in summer
grow quite fat, but at any time of their life food
may not be procurable for five or six days. In
Cumberland Sound, Hudson Strait, and Hudson
Bay, where the rise and fall of the tide are con
siderable, the dogs are carried in summer to small
islands, where they live upon what they can find
on the beach : clams, codfish, etc., and if at liberty,
they seem very happy, and well able to provide
for themselves/'

Dr. Boas remembers two runaway dogs which
had lived on their own account from April to
August, during which month they returned quite
fat.

CHAPTER VI
TALES TOLD BY THE ESKIMO

IF we could creep along the narrow underground
passage leading to the snow hut, we might

INTERIOR OF AN ESKIMO SNOW HUT.

have the good fortune to find the Eskimo family
crowded together round the small, evil-smelling
oil lamp, which from time to time is replenished
by a new supply^of fat from the seal or whale.

TALES TOLD BY THE ESKIMO 53

Around the small, dome-shaped snow dwelling are
low seats constructed from blocks of frozen snow,
which, covered with several layers of skin and fur'
make comfortable couches for the inmates. Already
the small room has become so warm that most
members of the family have cast aside their outer
fur garments, and each person is settling down
to the evening task. The women are busy chewing
skin of the reindeer in order to make it soft and

ESKIMO BOW-DRILL FOR FIRE MAKING.

pliable, so that it may be sewn into boots and
jackets, while the men are constructing harpoons,
mending harness for the dogs, or perhaps cleverly
engraving small sketches on pieces of ivory obtained
from the tusks of the walrus.

Oil lamps are kept burning day and night in
winter, but should the Eskimo require a light he
can quickly produce it by means of the bow-drill.
A peg of hard wood rests in a hole in a soft board,

54 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

and near to the point of contact is a small pile of
tinder ; that is very finely powdered wood, which is
kept quite dry. The peg of hard wood can be made
to spin round rapidly by twisting it in a bow string,
which is made tight, then released suddenly. Boys
at school adopt a similar method for spinning a
disc of cardboard, or setting a toy aeroplane in
flight. The rapid twirling of the hard peg sets up
a great deal of heat, which causes the tinder to
smoulder, then to burst into flame when gently
blown.

Presently the work is put on one side, and after
a hearty meal has been made from the flesh and
warm blood of a young seal, stories of great age
are told concerning the perils of the hunter, and the
wanderings of the Eskimo people over the great ice
fields of Hudson Bay or Davis Strait. Eagerly we
listen, and although the names are very long and
strange to our ears, we may judge that the favourite
stories are not unlike our own tales of love and
valour, with this exception, that the Eskimo has no
knowledge of writing, so stories are handed down
from one generation to another by word of mouth,
while, to amuse the children, the story-teller will
make little sketches of the chief characters in his
narrative.

A long, long time ago a young man, whose name
was Itit, went timidly to the hut of a young orphan
girl, in order to ask whether she would become his
wife. However, as he was very shy, and afraid to
speak to the young girl for himself, he called her
little brother, who was playing before the hut, and
said : " Go to your sister, and ask her if she will

TALES TOLD BY THE ESKIMO 55

marry me/' Away ran the little fellow, but almost
immediately he was back again in order to ask the
name of the suitor. When the Eskimo maiden
heard that the name " Itit " was the short pet
name for " Ititaujang," she said : " Oh, go away !
I will not marry a man with such an ugly name/'
Three times the young brother carried a message
of love from the poor Itit, who was becoming very
cold and angry, for he had been standing in deep
snow for a long time. When the maiden refused
for the third time, Itit turned away from the hut,
left his own country, where there was no other
maiden whom he could love, and for many days
and nights he wandered, sad and lonely, over great
hills and valleys covered with snow.

At last he arrived in the land of birds, and saw
a lake on which geese were swimming. On the
shore he noticed a great many boots, so cautiously
he crept near and stole as many as he could
carry. The birds returned, and greatly alarmed
at this theft, they flew away, with the exception of
one bird which remained behind, crying, " I want
my boots ! I want my boots ! " " You shall have
your boots/' said Itit, " if you will become my
wife/' Then, returning the magic boots, he had
the pleasure of seeing the beautiful bird transformed
into a handsome young Eskimo maiden, who wan
dered with him to the seaside, where they settled
in a large village. Itit became the best whaler and
seal catcher, so was very much respected by all
the Eskimo of that country ; and what was more
pleasing still, he had a young son who was rapidly
becoming a brave and clever hunter.

56 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

It so happened that the Eskimo, led by Itit, had
killed a whale, and all except the wife of Itit were
busy carrying the meat and blubber to their huts.
When the lazy wife was called, she answered : "I
do not like food from the sea, I want all my food
from the land. I will not eat the meat of a whale,
and I will not help." She came down to the beach
leading her young son by the hand, and after finding
some feathers, she placed them between her fingers
and those of her son, both twirled their hands
quickly, and on whispering some magic words were
changed into geese, which flew away, leaving Itit to
carry out a sorrowful search for his wife and child.

After many weary months of travel he came to
the bank of a swiftly flowing river, where an old
man was striking off chips of wood, which, when
polished between his hands, turned into little
salmon, that leaped into the water and began to
swim towards a large lake. Itit at once asked
questions concerning his wife and child, and to his
great surprise learned that they were dwelling on a
small island in the lake. He was furious on hearing
that his wife had taken another husband, and now
he loved her no more, but sought only for revenge.
There was no canoe, but the clever old man, who
could make salmon from chips of wood, took the
backbone of a fish, and after vigorously polishing
this for a time, it turned into a small boat which the
Eskimo calls a " kayak." This the old man pre
sented to Itit, who immediately pushed off from
the shore in the direction of the island where his
wife was hiding.

Very soon a small hut came into view, and there

TALES TOLD BY THE ESKIMO 57

was his son, playing in the garden. The little boy
ran into the house, crying, " Mother ! Father is
here, and is coming to our hut ! " to which the
mother replied, "Go on with your play ; your
father is far off, and cannot find us." No sooner
were the words spoken than Itit entered and glared
fiercely round the room, while the frightened woman
quickly opened a box from which there flew a
cloud of feathers. These stuck to the woman, her
son, and the new husband, and before Itit could
carry out his revenge, the hut suddenly disappeared,
and his enemies, immediately transformed into
geese, flew rapidly away until they became mere
specks in the distance.

Among our own boys and girls, stories of Father
Neptune, who lives on the bed of the ocean and
rules the waves, are very common. The Eskimo,
too, have traditions of " Kalopaling," who seems
to be very much like the " Old Man of the Sea,"
mentioned in stories of Sinbad the Sailor. To the
Eskimo, Kalopaling is a dreadful monster of human
form, covered with feathers of the eider duck, and
so large is the hood of his cloak that it will easily
contain a kayak and the fisherman who sculls
it. This hood is said to be filled with Eskimo
fishermen who have either been drowned by
accident or captured by the dreaded Kalopaling,
who, although unable to speak, can make a long
wailing cry of " bee-bee-bee." The feet of this
creature are very large, and appear like sealskin
floats, or the water wings which boys use when
learning to swim.

58 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

The Eskimo believe that in olden times there were
a great number of "Kalopaling," but happily their
numbers are diminishing, and now only a few of the
strongest are left. These are often seen swimming
a few feet below the surface of the sea, and from
time to time they rise in order to breathe, then once
more disappear below the surface with much
splashing of arms and legs. The hunter has only
one chance of killing a " Kalopaling," and this must
be done when the monster is asleep on the ice. The
flesh is said to be poisonous, but it may be used for
fattening dogs that draw the sledges.

One story says that an old Eskimo woman lived
with her little son, and as they were very poor
they had to depend on small gifts of blubber and
seal's meat. On one occasion the boy was so
hungry that he kept crying out for food, and in spite
of his- mother's threat to call Kalopaling, the noise
continued until the woman became so angry that
she actually called the monster, who walked away
with the shrieking child hidden in his enormous
hood. Later on, food became plentiful, and the
woman told Eskimo fishermen how sorry she was
that her little son had been taken away, and before
long a brave hunter and his wife promised to help
her to secure the child.

Kalopaling used to allow the boy to play near the
edge of a large crack in the ice, but always had a
rope of seaweed around him, so that he could be
pulled into the water when any one was approach
ing. The hunter and his wife made several un
successful attempts to rescue the boy, but at last
their patience was rewarded, for coming out quickly

TALES TOLD BY THE ESKIMO 59

from their hiding-place behind a block of snow,
they cut the rope of seaweed, and carried the
lad to his mother's hut, where he grew up to become
a great hunter.

Ages ago there lived on the shore of Davis Strait
a young orphan boy named " Kaud/' who, on
account of his loneliness, was so ill-treated that he
was not allowed to sleep in the hut, but had to
cuddle up to the sledge dogs which lay outside.
His food consisted of the toughest pieces of walrus
hide, which he was obliged to eat without a knife,
until a little Eskimo girl took pity on him and
made him a present of a knife, which he concealed
in the hood of his jacket. So badly treated was
young Kaud that he remained very small, and even
young children took advantage of his weakness and
ill treated him when at play. When the villagers
gathered in the house used for singing, Kaud would
lie in the passage listening to the music, and wish
ing he could take part in the enjoyment. Some
times a sturdy man would look out, and espying
young Kaud, would take him by the ear and lift
him into the room, where some heavy task would be
found for him.

The man in the moon had for some time been
watching the miseries of this Eskimo orphan, and
at last decided to come to earth and help him.
For a time the small boy was too frightened to
leave the hut where he was hiding, but soon
ventured forth, and to his surprise the man from
the moon told him to move some very large stones,
which seemed too heavy even for a strong man. Of

60 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

course Kaud could not move the stones although
he tried very hard, when the man from the moon
began to flick him with a whip and shout, " Now, do
you feel stronger ? " " Yes, I feel stronger," said
poor Kaud ; but as the stone was still in the same
position the man from the moon used his whip a
little more freely. At last the stone moved just a
little, and the small boy, encouraged by success,
exerted his strength, which was every moment
increasing, and to the delight of his taskmaster he
was soon able, not only to move the stone, but
actually to lift it a great height from the ground.

' Very good," said the man from the moon.
" To-morrow I will send three bears, then you may
show your full strength." So saying, he got' astride
a cloud and sailed away towards the full moon,
whose silver light was glistening on the frozen snow.
Next morning three large bears made their appear
ance in the village, much to the dismay of all the
men, for not even the oldest hunter had seen such
large, fierce, white, shaggy bears.

The men, who crowded timidly into their huts,
were astounded when they saw the boy whom they
had despised and ill-treated making his way quickly
towards the ferocious animals. ' The bears will
soon finish him," said the men ; but this was not to
be, for Kaud seized one animal by its hind legs and,
exerting all his strength, swung it round so that its
head crashed against a sharp piece of ice, and the
animal lay quite still. A second bear was treated
in the same way, and at this point Kaud deter
mined to have his revenge on those who had ill-
treated him when he was little and weak. So he

TALES TOLD BY THE ESKIMO 61

secured the mouth of the third bear with a thong
made of reindeer's hide, then lifting the huge
animal, he carried it into the village as easily as he
would previously have lifted a young puppy. He
unmuzzled the bear, and pushed it among his
enemies, who fled across the snow with the great
animal in pursuit. Then there came from a hiding-
place the little girl who had presented a knife to
Kaud when he was young and weak, and after a few
days spent on a very pleasant honeymoon among the
hills of snow, Kaud and his bride settled in a snow
hut near the sea, and it is said that the boy who had
been so weak became a hunter whom every one
feared and admired.

The Eskimo are particularly fond of stories
describing some poor ill-treated boy who lived to
become strong and famous, so in the story of
Kiviung we have no exception to the general rule.

This poor boy was kept by a grandmother who
had no one to go out hunting, and no articles to
offer in exchange for skins of the seal and reindeer,
so it came to pass that both of them had to be
content with clothes made from the skins of birds,
instead of the double fur suit which Eskimo people
usually wear. Playmates who were better clad
mocked young Kiviung, and some went so far as
to tear his birdskin coat, a cruel act which made
him run home to his grandmother, crying for
protection.

Now it so happened that the grandmother was a
very clever witch, but no one knew of this, for the
old lady had been too kind to harm any of the

62 TRIBES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

villagers until her anger was aroused by the unkind
treatment of her grandson, who had many times
been chased home by big strong men who called
out insulting remarks concerning the birdskin suit.
At last the old woman swore to have revenge,

AN ESKIMO BOY.

and in order to do this she commanded her boy
to step into a puddle which had formed in their
miserable dwelling. No sooner had he obeyed
than he was transformed into a healthy young seal.
His coat was so beautiful and glossy that it
attracted the attention of all the villagers, who
watched him basking on a piece of ice near the

TALES TOLD BY THE ESKIMO 63

shore. Then the kayaks were launched, and each
Eskimo began to paddle furiously in the direction
of the young seal, which could see the cruel-looking
harpoons always carried by the hunter. Nearer
and nearer they came, then the baby seal slipped
gently from the ice and disappeared beneath the
surface of the cold green sea. Presently he came
up to breathe, and at the same time noticed with
pleasure that all the kayaks were being swiftly
paddled in his direction. So diving once more, he
headed for a most dangerous piece of water, where
heavy green seas were breaking, and huge pieces of
ice were floating about, dashing together with a
crunching noise. Excited by the chase, these
Eskimo hunters had no thought of danger, and so
little Kiviung, in the form of a seal, led them into
the perilous position from which no one escaped.
Once among the billows and blocks of ice, these
frail kayaks, made of skin stretched over a frame of
whalebone . were tossed about and dashed against
the ice until not one of them remained on the
surface, and the hunters, after a few feeble struggles
in the ice-cold water, sank down and down into the
regions inhabited by fierce Kalopaling.

The agile little seal used his tail and strong
flappers to good advantage, and presently landed
safely at a point where the old witch, his grand
mother, was waiting to restore him to human form.
This severe lesson had a good effect on the remain
ing inhabitants of the Eskimo encampment, and
never again were they inclined to be cruel and
unkind to those who were weaker and poorer than
themselves.

BOOKS FOR SCHOOL REFERENCE LIBRARY

British Museum Guide Book to Ethnographical Collections.
Native Races of the British Empire, " British North
America," by C. HILL-TOUT. (Constable & Co. Ltd.,

1907.)
The Central Eskimo, by FRANZ BOAS. See Annual Reports

of American Bureau for Ethnology, for information

concerning Indian and Eskimo Tribes. (Washington,

U.S.A.)
Legends of Vancouver, by E. PAULINE JOHNSON. (Sunset

Press. Vancouver, B.C.)

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