Natural Areas of the

Chesapeake Bay Region

ECOLOGICAL PRIORITIES

Center for Natural Areas
Ecology Program
Smithsonian Institution

NATURAL

ret
—

AREAS OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY

Ecological Priorities.

A Report By

Center for Natural Areas
Ecology Program

Smithsonian Institution

May 1974

REGION :

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report would not have been possible without the generous
financial aid and substantive guidance provided by three organiza-
tions: The Nature Conservancy, the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, and
the Irving Kingsford Charitable Trust. We are most indebted to them
for their kind support.

We would also like to thank Smithsonian staff who are not part
of the Ecology Program but who nevertheless applied their valuable
time and services to this effort, especially the energetic volunteers
who came to us through the Smithsonian Associates volunteer program.

We are grateful to all those in the scientific community and
other professions who have given their time and specialized compe-
tence to the study of natural history in the Bay region. We hope that

they are all credited properly in the pages that follow.

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Table of Contents

Acknowledgements
List of Tables sh te de DAN g:
Ibis Ceres 9G oo old iG Wom oo

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Objectives

Survey Concept

Scopevof Surveyinn Coy tuts
Sources of Information :
Stafivected Areas of. Chbespec

PRESENTLY PROTECTED AND PRESERVED LANDS

Protected Federal Lands . . .
Protected State and Local Lands
Preserved Natural Areas

DEFINING THE NATURAL AREAS oun.

Important Biotic Communities 5
Rare and Endangered Animals

Rare and Endangered Plants

Range Phenomena .

Seasonal Goneenecati ont of eden

Commercial Game and Unusual Animal Populations
Railleontoliogdicale Reatures emia nents), cee Wel yseimrst | ibe

Well-documented Sites

Exceptional Individuals or hesoetations oo ~o Je

MASTER LIST OF NATURAL AREAS

APPENDIX

APPENDIX FE

Size of Areas

RANKING THE AREAS SAD reall Muse aaehin (oie tse

On Methods oie
The Numerical Rankine Sve ben 62'S
Example of the Rating System in Use

(Colored Section).

Primary Natural Areas Recommended for Protection .

Secondary Areas Recommended for Consideration .

Index of Areas by State and County

Index of Areas by Alphabetical Order .

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CHESAPEAKE BAY REGION

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APPENDIX A — DESCRIPTION OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY REGION
BIOTIC COMMUNITIES OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY

APPENDIX C — RARE, ENDANGERED AND THREATENED VERTEBRATE
SPECIES OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY REGION

APPENDIX D —- RARE, ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC PLANTS OF THE

PRESENTLY PROTECTED AREAS OF THE BAY REGION

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LIST OF TABLES

page

Agencies and Organizations Contacted in the Survey . .. . 8

Presently Protected Areas of Chesapeake Bay Region . . . . 12

Preserved NaturaligAreasi, Hmaaaa en. i Repsol cease pte emcee!
Criteria and Quantitative Values for Selection of

Natural Areas BT rise ek ahaa Tae ool Ma) Mig remy cnt Ae mre eine te nc na RE 2

Master List of Natural, Areas “(Collored: Section)? “sla sn) le oo) DD

iii

LIST OF MAPS

Map of Chesapeake Bay Region . . . . . . 2. « » 6
Areas Currently Protected in Chesapeake Bay Region
1:250,000

Zoological Factors of Ecological Importance in the
Chesapeake Bay Region 1:250,000

Botanical Factors of Ecological Importance in the
Chesapeake Bay Region 1:250,000

Areas Proposed for Preservation in the Chesapeake

Bay Region 1:250,000

Topographic Maps (280) of the Chesapeake Bay Region

(7.5 minute USGS Quadrangles) 1:24,000

These maps are on file at The Nature Conservancy, the Chesapeake

Bay Foundation, and the Center for Natural Areas. Copies may be

obtained from the Center by calling (202) 381-6568.

iv

I. INTRODUCTION

Chesapeake Bay and its watershed comprise one of the most
productive estuarine areas of the world. It is not altogether
coincidental that the Chesapeake Bay region also supports one of
the nation's fastest-growing populations. The result is that the
land, especially along the coast, is sprouting residential, commer-
cial and recreational developments at an accelerating pace.

In a region that historically has been heavily lumbered and
extensively tilled, the present encroachments severely threaten
what few undisturbed natural areas still remain -- bogs, mature
forests, tidal wetlands, swamps, marshes and other areas of
importance to plant life, wildlife, fisheries and man. It is a
familiar litany in most parts of the United States.

Recently private groups and public institutions and govern-
ments have recognized the urgency of preserving natural areas of
various kinds. A number of states have endeavored to inventory
the natural lands within their borders as a necessary first step
in enacting protective measures. For example, New Jersey is pre-
paring detailed maps of its coastal wetlands to form the basis of
stringent new laws regulating development. Among notable state-
wide inventories of natural areas are those of Wisconsin, Georgia,
Illinois, Michigan and the New England states. About 30 states

have some natural areas program underway.

Chesapeake Bay has not lacked such surveillance. A "Catalog of
Natural Areas in Maryland" was prepared by the Maryland State Planning
Department in 1968 and is presently (1973-74) being revised. This
includes historical, geological and ecological areas for the entire
state. Another report, “Integrity of Chesapeake Bay," done for
Maryland, describes the Bay's problems and some goals for it in rela-
tion to water supply, pollution, population, recreation, transportation
and industry.

A "Maryland Outdoor Recreation and Open Space Plan" was developed
to provide recreation opportunities and guidelines for conserving and
preserving depletable natural resources. A few natural areas of high
scenic or scientific value were earmarked for limited recreation use
and for the preservation of unusual plant and animal species and extra-
ordinary habitats.

In Virginia, a report called "Critical Environmental Areas" identi-
fies, in a preliminary way, areas of natural, scenic or historic value
which contribute to economic, esthetic or cultural well-being of indi-
viduals and society. Both Maryland and Virginia have published reports
that propose rivers for official Scenic River designation and stress
unique scenic, fish and wildlife, and other recreation values that
warrant preservation and enhancement.

These and other studies that touch on Chesapeake Bay recommend the
preservation of areas primarily to meet the greatly increasing demands
for outdoor recreation. They, therefore, tend to treat biotic communi-

ties only in a general way. They consider ecological preservation and

values only as a requirement for maintaining the areas in a healthy
and esthetically pleasing condition. Clearly, there are many legiti-
mate uses and values of natural areas, from camping to insect observa-
tion and from boat-landings to bird sanctuaries, but some areas need
to be set aside in their natural condition and left alone. If we are
to preserve the Bay's tremendous ability to produce fish, shellfish,
waterfowl and other important life; to break down human sewage wastes;
and to carry out its many other functions, then we also have to pre-
serve a significant number of breeding grounds, freshwater and salt-
water marshes, and other areas of ecological significance. In short,
in order to maintain the valuable natural yields of the Bay, we need
to assure the maintenance of the Bay's natural integrity.

Not all of the Bay can be preserved, however. Growth of
industrial and residential areas will continue, as will the expansion
of recreational uses of the land and water. Faced with the reality
that only limited preservation is possible, the ecologists' responsi-
bility became apparent: to point out areas which should receive the
highest priority in preservation efforts. Thus, as thoroughly surveyed
as the Bay had been, there remained an urgent need to determine its
ecologteally most important plants, animals, biotic communities and
natural areas. It is urgent that such areas be evaluated and priorities

set for procurement and preservation.

———~

Recognizing this need, The Nature Conservancy and the Chesapeake
Bay Foundation established a grant of $15,000 for an ecological survey

of the Bay region. In July, 1972, the Ecology Program in the

Ea

Smithsonian Institution's Office of Environmental Sciences provided
matching funds and established the Smithsonian Center for Natural

Areas to undertake the task.

Objectives

Briefly stated, the task was this: on the basis of a new survey,
to recommend for procurement those natural areas which Smithsonian
personnel judged to be of highest priority for preservation action.
This in turn called for the creation of a survey concept including an
evaluation system -- a concept that could function within rather narrow
limits of time (two years) and expenditure, and therefore make use of
already available information. Also, the system for organizing the
data and ranking the areas had to be flexible, to allow for additional
details as they accumulated and for changes in the landscape as they
occurred. Development rarely pauses for surveys of this kind: on
several occasions in the course of the study, a prime natural area
would be taken out of contention by development, and we would have to
erase it from our maps. Finally, the new survey concept, it was hoped,
would not only provide the data necessary for decision-making in the
Chesapeake Bay region but also would serve as a model for similarly

motivated surveys in other regions.

Survey Concept

The survey concept includes four fairly distinct phases. (1) It

was first necessary to determine and map all of the areas in the

region which are presently protected from uncontrolled development and
those which are properly preserved and managed as natural areas. (2)
The second phase involved determining and mapping the locations of
ecologically important and significant flora, fauna, biotic communities
and ecosystems. This was done on the basis of a full literature search
and of existing field studies and recommendations from available sources
as well as preliminary field checks of the information thus received.
(3) Selected ecological criteria were assigned numerical ratings and,
by the use of overlay maps and a computerized data storage and
retrieval system, all the locations noted from phase 2 were given a
numerical rank. Thus, locations with the highest ecological value
could be determined and proposed as the primary targets for procurement
and other protective measures.

A final and crucial phase (4) was not within the scope of the

contract for this study: it remains to conduct extensive field checks

and feasibility studies of the proposed areas. The purpose of such
fieldwork is threefold: to determine if the ecological information
used in this study was accurate and up-to-date; to determine how
vulnerable the proposed sites are to development and other intrusion;
and to determine such matters as ownership, availability, cost of
acquisition and the requirements for proper management after procure-

ment.

NOTE: This survey should not be considered final or complete. Some
prime natural areas may have been inadvertently missed which
should have been included. The Center for Natural Areas
welcomes any and all additional ecological information to
improve its knowledge of the Bay region.

VICINITY MAP

CHESAPEAKE

BAY
Study Area

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Scope of Survey

In this survey, the first three phases were accomplished including
preliminary field checks on about 70 out of 232 areas, or 30 percent
of the areas studied. The survey covers some 12,600 square miles (see
map on page ). The region includes the Chesapeake Bay drainage basin
between the Pennsylvania and North Carolina state boundaries. It is
bordered on the west approximately by the fall line, i.e., the line
separating the coastal plain from the Piedmont area extending from
Baltimore through Washington to Richmond. On the east, the boundaries
include the Chesapeake Bay estuarine drainages (though not those drain-
ing to the Atlantic). Most of Delaware is excluded. While the study
area includes the land adjacent to the tidal reach of the major rivers,
it does not include the extensive drainage areas of the upper Potomac
or Susquehanna Rivers.

Of the 12,600 square miles covered in the survey, 941 square miles
were found to be in the category of ‘already protected.' Some 534
square miles, in 232 separate sites, were identified as natural areas
with potential need for protective action -- that is, about 4.2 percent
of the total study area. Of these 232 sites, 64 have been placed in a
high-priority category so that roughly 2 percent of the Bay region area

is recommended for procurement or other preservation action.

Sources of Information

One of the results of this survey is an awareness on our part of

the considerable amount of ecological and biological information already

efeysh

available concerning the region. Our efforts have shown that in areas
similarly endowed with published data, this kind of survey can be an
effective means of making a rapid and inexpensive evaluation of natural
areas. There are, of course, gaps in the available information -- and
some of them are pointed out in the pages that follow -- but the region
is blessed with much data and many individuals and organizations with
considerable knowledge.

In the course of the survey, the Center for Natural Areas
received invaluable data from the groups and organizations listed in

Table l.

Table 1. AGENCIES AND ORGANIZATIONS CONTACTED IN THE SURVEY

PRIVATE

American Fisheries Society

American Shore and Beach Preservation Society
Audubon Naturalist Society of the Central Atlantic States, Inc.
Audubon Society of Southern Maryland

Canoe Cruisers Association

Central Atlantic Environment Service
Chesapeake Bay Foundation

Citizens Committee on the Chesapeake Bay
Conservation Council of Virginia
Conservation Foundation, The

Federated Garden Clubs of Virginia

Garden Club of Virginia, The

Izaak Walton League (local chapters)

Junior League (local chapters)

Kent Conservation, Inc.

League of Women Voters (state chapters)
Maryland Environmental Trust

Maryland Wetlands Committee

Maryland Wildlands Committee

National Campers and Hikers Association
National Wildlife Federation (state chapters)

Nature Conservancy, The

Northern Virginia Conservation Council
Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences
Potomac River Association of St. Mary's County
Sierra Club (local chapters)

Talbot County Historical Society

Virginia Society of Ornithology

Wilderness Society, The

Wye Institute

MARYLAND

Maryland State Department of Natural Resources
Department of Chesapeake Bay Affairs
Departments of Forests and Parks
Fish and Wildlife Administration

Maryland Natural Resources Institute
Chesapeake Biological Lab (Solomon's Island),
University of Maryland

Maryland State Department of Planning

VIRGINIA

Commission of Game and Inland Fisheries

Commission of Outdoor Recreation

Virginia Institute of Marine Science

Virginia State Department of Conservation and Economic Development

FEDERAL

Department of Commerce
National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA
Department of Defense
Air Force
Army (Baltimore District, Corps of Engineers)
Navy
Department of the Interior
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
U.S. Geological Survey (and CARETS program)
National Park Service
Smithsonian Institution
Chesapeake Bay Center for Environmental Studies

UNIVERSITIES

American University
Georgetown University
Johns Hopkins University
Old Dominion University
University of Maryland

S10]

Several organizations, such as the Audubon Naturalist Society
of the Central Atlantic States, the Chesapeake Bay Foundation, the
Maryland Ornithology Society and the Virginia Society of Ornithology,
assisted the project staff on a voluntary basis by soliciting infor-
mation and recommendations from their members who are directly familiar
with the Chesapeake Bay area. Volunteers assisted in contacting other
private groups, local officials, and individuals to obtain more

detailed information on specific areas.

Staff

The staff of the survey all worked part-time; the total combined
effort amounted to about three man-years. The survey staff and
consultants were: Dale W. Jenkins, Ph.D., Director of the Ecology
Program and principal investigator. Special consultants:

Anne LaBastille, Ph.D., wildlife ecologist; Richard W. Wagner, Ph.D.,
Ecologist; Clyde Reed, Ph.D., Botanist; Edward F. Rivinus, M.A.,
Ornithologist.

Mr. Stephen L. Keiley, MBA, Director of the Center for Natural
Areas. Fonda R. Hivick, M.A., Botanist, Russell Kologiski, B.S.,
Botanist, and Gary S. Waggoner, M.A., Ecologist, were involved in data
gathering and evaluation. Interpretation and cartography were completed
by Luis Calvo, Cartographer; David Kunhardt, B.A., Administrative
Assistant; Bryan Thompson, MLA, Landscape Architecture; David Vreeland,
B.S., Geographer, and J. Copperidge Wilson, B.S., Zoologist. Secretar-

ial and clerical: Fay Davis, Willa Afshar, Karan Shaffer, Mary Kadziel.

ees
II. PRESENTLY PROTECTED AND PRESERVED LANDS

About 941 square miles or over one-half million acres (just over
240,000 hectares) of land is presently protected in the Chesapeake
Bay region by virtue of being owned either privately or by the federal
or state governments. These lands may be subject to a variety of human
activities from landing airplanes to lumbering, fishing, hunting or
intense recreational uses. So, while they are not subject to unplanned,
market-dominated real estate development, they are also not necessarily
preserved in any true sense. In our opinion, these lands should be ana-
lyzed in greater depth and ranked according to the ecological criteria
set forth in this report. Those found of prime value should then be so
designated and action should be taken to change their management status
to assure their protection in perpetuity. Such an analysis was not
within the scope of this survey, on the grounds that these lands are,
at the very least, protected from development and thus not as threatened
as the others that formed the bulk of the survey.

A number of areas within the region are preserved, in the sense
that damaging use or development is largely ruled out. These include
seven National Wildlife Refuges plus seventeen other areas, some of
them state parks or refuges and others being privately owned, (and
listed in published reports as natural areas, research natural areas
or natural landmarks).

None of these protected or preserved areas were actively investi-
gated by us. They were, however, depicted on a 1:250,090 scale map

with appropriate coding to show different categories of ownership and

Ses

management. This information is summarized in Table 2 and explained
in the text which follows. It is interesting to note that already
protected and preserved land in the region amounts to 7.5% of the
entire study area. For a detailed listing of all these areas, consult

Appendix E.

TABLE 2. PRESENTLY PROTECTED AREAS OF CHESAPEAKE BAY

Ownership Number of Sites Acres Hectares!
FEDERAL
Military x 43 266,000 107,500
National Wildlife Refuges“ 8 32,400 13,100
Other 20 56,200 22,700
STATE
Forests 5 20,750 8,380
Parks 36 56,760 22,930
Wildlife Management Areas? 30 78,700 31,800
Other 26 80,600 32,570
PRIVATE OR QUASI-PUBLIC 8 10,770 4,350

Total 602,200 243,300

Ithe hectare is a unit of area in the metric system. One hectare equals
10,000 square meters or 2.471 acres. There are approximately 258
hectares per square mile.

2Tncludes some land not in the N.W.R. system but administered by the

U. S. Department of Interior's Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.

aTacludes some land not in the W.M.A. systems but held with identical

Management practices. Also includes Virginia Natural Areas.

Bee

Protected Federal Lands

Military Lands. The Department of Defense has more public pro-
tected land in the Bay region than other Federal agencies. Topographic
maps show that much military land is undeveloped forests, marshlands,
and shorelines. Nine of the forty-three reservations and installations
listed below contain or are directly adjacent to what we later

determined to be valuable natural areas:

Name Location Hectares
Aberdeen Proving Grounds (Army) Harford Co., Md. 13,445
Fort George G. Meade (Army) Anne Arundel Co., Md. e202
Navy Propellant Plant Charles Co., Md. 889
Cedar Neck Naval Research Lab Charles, Md. 566
Fort Belvoir (Army) Fairfax, Va. 2,707
Dahlgren Weapons Lab (Navy) King George, Va. 1,495
Fort Eustis Military Reservation Newport News City, Va. 2,304
Plum Tree Island Bombing Range York, Va. 22
U. S. Navy Transmitter Station Nansemond Co., Va. 323

235093

Four reservations enclose more than two-thirds of the total mili-

tary acreage in the Bay region with a diversity of land-use potential:

Name ; Location Hectares

Aberdeen Proving Grounds (Army) Harford Co., Md. 13,445

Fort George G. Meade (Army) Anne Arundel Co., Md. a 8y

Quantico Marine Corps Schools Prince William & 25,048
Staftord Co"s., Va.

A. P. Hill Military Reservation Caroline 28,967

TAA

SHAS

Public hunting and fishing is allowed in parts of some areas, such
as Quantico and A. P. Hill reservations. The Department of Defense has
created directives for the use of land and the services have shown an
increasing sensitivity to ecological concerns (as evidenced by the Air
Force effort to set ecologically sound management practices at their
bases).

National Wildlife Refuges and Bureau of Sport Fisheries and
Wildlife Land. Seven National Wildlife Refuges (N.W.R.) are in some-
what remote and naturally well-protected locations in the Bay. An
eighth area was designated by both the Society of American Foresters
and the Federal Committee on Research Natural Areas as a valuable
natural area: the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center. These refuges

constitute some of the better protected natural areas in the Bay.

Name Location Hectares
Susquehanna N.W.R. Harford Co., Md. 1.5 land
4,050 water
Eastern Neck N.W.R. Kent Co., Md. 923
Blackwater N.W.R. Dorchester Co., Md. 4,031
Martin N.W.R. Somerset Co., Md. 1,786
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center Anne Arundel & Prince
George's Co., Md. 287
Mason Neck N.W.R. Ratinfax) (Coleus 580
Presquile N.W.R. Chesterfield 536
Fisherman's Island N.W.R. Northampton Co., Va. 404
13,100

Other Federally-Owned and Administered Open Space. This class of

land includes National Parks, a National Forest, and various other

Federal areas. The parks range from the 3,810-hectare Colonial National

-15-

Historical Park of James City, Virginia, to the 35.5-hectare Theodore
Roosevelt Island Memorial Park in the Potomac River at Washington,

D. C. The fifteen parks have a total of approximately 9,211 hectares.
Three of the parks, Theodore Roosevelt Island, the George Washington
Memorial Parkway, and Colonial National Historical Park, contain
marshland that is considered valuable natural land. Their prime
function, however, is for tourists who seek historical and recreational
establishments; conservation regulations are limited.

The Prince William Forest Park in Prince William County, Virginia
is the only National Forest in the region. It covers 7,353 hectares
and has moderate recreational use.

Other federal lands include the U. S. Department of Agriculture
Research Station in Prince George's County which has over 3,878
hectares of land; and the Pamunkey Indian Reservation in King William
County, Virginia which includes valuable wetlands and wildlife in its

404 hectares.

Protected State and Local Lands

State Forests. Five state forests in the Bay region in Maryland
total approximately 8,400 hectares. The largest is the new and still
growing Pocomoke State Forest in Worcester County. It has 5,600 hectares
of land along and near the Pocomoke River. The state has designated the
Pocomoke a Scenic River, and will expand forests and local parks along
its banks. These state forests enjoy good protection with some

restrictions on their use, but their numbers are few and none has been

a16=

established near the Bay in Virginia. The proper officials in each
state should be contacted to ascertain state plans for further use
and development of the forest systems.

State, local and regional parks. The park system in each state
administers various historical, recreational and natural lands of
several types. This category probably contains the widest variety of
land uses. Only in the last five or six years has there been an
official recognition of the need to preserve certain sites as Natural
Areas rather than as recreation sites or camping grounds. Of the
20,000 hectares of parkland in 36 parks, we recommend that approximate-
ly 3,500 hectares within the following seven parks should be maintained
in their natural state. More details of the sites recommended are

shown on marked topographic maps in the Center for Natural Areas.

Name Location Hectares

Susquehanna State Park Harford Co., Md. 646
Severn Run Natural Envir. Area Anne Arundel Co., Md. 640
Wye Oak State Park Talbot Co., Md. 9
Patuxent River State Park Prince George's Co., Md. Py 2ii2
Shad Landing State Park Worcester Co., Md. 220
Chippokes Plantation State Park Surry Co., Va. 404
Seashore State Park Virginia Beach Co., Va. 1,050

4,181

Wildlife Management Areas. The State of Maryland has 20,000
hectares of Bay region land in its Wildlife Management System. The
Commonweath of Virginia, in both its Wildlife Management-/and Natural-
Areas Systems, has 3,393 hectares in the Bay region. These systems

include some lands not owned by the states but administered by them

hye

under easement agreements. Public hunting is allowed in regulated
peeconce In this category are some of the very large prime wetlands
of the Eastern Shore of the Bay (some 14,000 hectares on the shore of
four counties). These areas are more isolated and less used than the
majority of the parks: most if not all of them can be considered
valuable potential natural areas.

Other State, Regional and Local Lands. About 13,770 hectares of
land and water have been categorized as undeveloped land. The greater
part of this area, 10,630 hectares, consists of state and city reser-
voirs. Among the remainder are four tracts containing interesting

natural areas:

Name Location Hectares

Crownsville State Hospital Anne Arundel Co., Md. 384
Eastern State Hospital James City Co., Va. 202
Reservation
Salt Ponds and Northend Point Hampton City, Va. 303
Natural Preserve
Elko Tract Henrico Co., Va. 898
1,697

Private and Quasi-Public Properties. Privately protected lands,

conservation easements, and holdings by small conservation-minded
groups are not all compiled here. The Chesapeake Bay lands of the
Nature Conservancy and the Smithsonian Institution are plotted on map l.
The Nature Conservancy's lands are well protected natural areas. Two
properties which might be considered as preserves because of their

prime natural value are:

Sa

Name Location Hectares
Camp Rodney Scout Reservation Cecil Co., Md. 414
Belt Woods (The Episcopal Church) Prince George's Co., Md. 16

439

Belt Woods has been nominated by the Center to receive Registered
Natural Landmark status from the National Park Service because of its

unique stand of mature hardwoods and large bird population.

Preserved Natural Areas

The designation of preserved natural areas is difficult when deal-
ing with state-owned lands since there are different types of preserva-
tion and protection. State and federal forests preserve flora and
fauna but are subject to cutting, management and "multiple use." State
and federal parks have much human use and are subject to management and
partial development for recreation. The status of state and Federal
wildlife management areas and refuges also varies inasmuch as they pre-
serve wildlife and flora but are subject to changing management policies.

There are 17 sites which may be considered as designated natural
areas, but this list should be considered as very tentative since some
of the areas may not qualify as fully preserved natural areas.

The Nature Conservancy sites, the Natural Landmark areas, and the
Smithsonian Institution areas can be considered as preserved natural
areas. The State of Virginia has designated three natural areas--
Charles C. Steirly Natural Area, Parkers Marsh Natural Area, and
Seashore Natural Area and these are fully preserved. The latter is

also a state park with some tourist facilities and use.

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III. DEFINING THE NATURAL AREAS

To a slum-dweller a natural area could be a quarter-acre
park; to an accomplished hiker, the term might not be served by
anything less than a 1,000 square-mile primeval wilderness. As
varied as the definitions of ‘natural area' are the uses to which
humans put such areas. For the purposes of this survey, a rather
stringent definition was assumed, for the task was to identify
natural areas with demonstrable, intrinsic ecological value.

Under such stringent definition, as we were well aware, many
valuable features of the landscape are omitted from consideration.
No definition of an ecosystem can escape the fact that an ecosystem
is not a self-contained unit with definable limits. Plant life,
for example, depends on a host of features--geological, climatic
end so forth. And geologists may well find their most valued
areas given short shrift in this survey. Archeologists and
historians, as well as recreation planners, certainly will.

The definition of a natural area to be judged in this survey
is: an area of land or water where natural ecosystem processes
operate relatively undisturbed and where natural biological
communities, their interactions, structures and functions can be
studied. This is somewhat more restrictive a definition than that
used by the "Catalog of Natural Areas in Maryland" published by
that state's planning department. It is more precise, though not
necessarily more to the point, than another definition of natural

areas: "That which is His, not ours."

= Di

Altogether, using the ecological criteria outlined in this
section, the survey identified 232 sites to be considered natural
areas--a total potential land area of 138,319 hectares, or 4.2% of
the entire study area.

The major types of natural areas of the Bay region are as
follows:

a. Primeval Area. Areas which preserve examples of signifi-
cant species of plants and animals. These wilderness areas should
remain natural and unchanged by direct human influences, except in
cases of successional communities which may require management to
maintain them. They may have limited monitoring as remote
"primitive''or "benchmark" areas.

b. Gene Pool Preserve. Special preserves for rare and
endangered species of plants and animals requiring complete
protection and, often, surrounding buffer zones.

c. Research Natural Area. Ecological research areas where
natural processes are allowed to predominate and which are
preserved primarily for research. Human use and collection is
limited and non-destructive. They can also be used as "benchmark,"
"baseline," or "check" areas for monitoring environmental change.

d. Manipulative Research Area. Areas where research may
modify an area to understand its function and permit better
ecological prediction and management.

e. Educational Natural Area. Areas used to teach students
and the public, and which may be used for minor research projects.
Some development of human facilities and trails or access routes

are usually needed.

2990=

The management of such natural areas would, as implied above,
vary with the type, use and value of the area in question. The
uses and values are several, and include:

Esthetic enjoyment. There is ultimately an esthetic value
that urges the preservation of the best examples of the various
types of plant and animal communities. Beyond that, one can say
without being didactic that preserving such examples can only
improve the national conscience and thus help prevent the mindless
destruction of this part of our national heritage for future
generations.

Baseline and long-term monitoring of environmental quality.
Natural areas allow collection of essential baseline monitoring
data to study trends and changes in populations, levels of
pollutants and the effects of man's disturbance.

Study of the structure and function of natural ecosystems.
Rational decisions on development and management of our environ-
ment depend on theoretical understanding of the natural environ-
ment. Integrated systems analysis and development of ecological
models require detailed studies of natural ameaswee develop a
predictive ecological capability.

Preservation of germ plasm reservoirs, gene pools, and
endangered species. Natural areas preserve the genetic stock of
organisms needed by man for new or improved strains of economic
and survival value to society in agriculture, horticulture,

silviculture, mariculture, medicine and other areas. Rapid

2235

development and change of the world requires use of new strains
of species with different adaptations. Threatened endangered
species and natural communities once lost are gone forevermore.

Educational and training value. Natural areas are outdoor
laboratories for complex research investigation as well as living
museums where students and the public can observe nature first-
hand. In some natural areas, manipulation of the environment is
studied to show the impact of man's technology.

Contribution to environmental quality. Natural areas may
act as ecological buffers to modulate the environment, helping in
flood control, aquifer recharge and breeding areas for hunting,
sport, and commercially important organisms. Natural areas maintain
an environment which supports diversity and variety of individual
choices.

When faced with the urgent need to make choices, one must
choose with a combination of whatever scientific information and
experiential judgment is available and thus decide what are the
salient features to emphasize: The word 'value' has been used
often in this report and it will be used many times again. The
values of the Center for Natural Areas are, at the very least,
implicit in what follows.

There is an enormous amount of accumulated information about
the Chesapeake Bay Region--in scientific and popular literature,
from unpublished sources such as knowledgeable biologists and

conservationists, and from the biological collections of various

Oh

museums. It is altogether likely that some of this information is
outdated, given the rapid rate of habitat modification taking place
in the region, and ideally all this information should be rechecked,
especially in the case of data about wetlands, coastal areas and
islands.

At the same time, from the standpoint of making an ecological
survey, there are great gaps in our knowledge. It is not always
known, for example, what the correlation is between plant communi-
ties of various sorts and the niches of some animals, especially
migratory ones. Nor is it always known what the tolerances of
various plants and animals are to various changes in environmental
quality. Faced with such gaps, the Center for Natural Areas was
forced to rely on several traditional sets of parameters in classi-

fying and ranking the natural areas of this vast region.

Important Biotic Communities

No natural ecosystem, even a simplified version such as a plant
community, is discreet. All are bounded by gradients (ecotones)
where the species characteristic of one habitat are gradually
replaced by those of another. At its upper edge a salt marsh
merges into a freshwater marsh which in turn passes without break
into the forest on its edge. Only men make maps with lines on
them, but such map lines—and categories—are necessary. The

Chesapeake Bay region is rich in the categories of biotic

-25-

communities and, as distinctive communities, each type takes on
an ecological value based on abundance, diversity, productivity,
and other factors described later.

What follows is a brief taxonomy of the region's key
ecosystems. The typical plants present in each ecosystem are
mentioned, along with associated animals. Appendix B gives a more
complete description of each ecosystem type, with more varieties
of plants and animals, including the scientific nomenclature.

Salt Marsh or Brackish Tidal Marsh. This type of biotic
community is flooded periodically, the period depending on the
elevation of the marsh. The classic low marsh, flooded twice
daily, is characterized by the ecologically important salt-marsh
cordgrass, which serves as a base for many complex foodchains.
The frequency of low marsh increases from north south in the Bay,
particularly on the eastern shore. The flushing action of the
tides is essential to the low marsh community, bringing in both
fishes and nutrients and flushing out wastes. Tidal creeks
meander through the salt marsh, rich in silt and organic debris
from inland runoff, which provide additional nutrient supply.

High salt marsh is flooded only irregularly, and is composed
of associations of grasses, rushes and sedges such as salt grass,
saltmeadow cordgrass, black needlerush, glasswort, etc. Typical
animals of both low and high salt marshes include: horseshoe,
fiddler and marsh crabs; several species of snails, mussels and

snakes; mallard, pintail and black ducks; sparrows, hawks and

26s

herons; opposum, shrews, voles, rats, raccoons, and many other
animals.

Freshwater Marsh. While freshwater marshes are more
abundant toward the head of the Bay where the water is virtually
fresh, they are also found upstream in almost every tributary
stream in the Bay. A great diversity of plants is distributed
in these marshes in response to variations in depth of water and
salinity. The most important representative species include
three-square, cattail, wild rice, common reed, and arrowhead.
Also often occurring are varieties of rushes, sedges, and alder.

Corresponding with the high diversity of plant life, there
is also a high diversity of animal life, including: salamanders,
toads, many varieties of frogs, turtles, and snakes; herons, mallards,
bald eagles, hawks and osprey; moles, beaver, muskrat and fox.

Bogs. Rather limited in size and distribution, bogs differ
significantly from swamps and marshes. Bogs are so acid that
biomass accumulates in their basins in the form of peat rather
than decomposing and being recycled in the system as is more
often the case in marshes and swamps. Bogs have a cushion-like
surface layer of vegetation dominated by mosses. Also found is
buckbean, cotton grass, numerous sedges, cranberry, and bog
rosemary. A variety of unusual plants are found in bogs,
including pitcher plant, baldderworts, orchids, sundews, and
highbush blueberry. It is not unusual to find certain pine,

maple and gum trees in and around bogs. The animal species of

Oa

bogs would generally be those of the surrounding ecosystems,
such as quail, turkey, woodcock and warbler. One rare species
found here would be the bog turtle.

Ponds. Both fresh- and saltwater ponds occur in the region.
Salt ponds contain many of the species found in shallow marine
habitats, but ditch grass is most characteristic. Freshwater
ponds have a wide range of species: submerged aquatics such as
tape grass, water milfoil, and bladderwort, and emergent species
including arrowhead and pickerel weed.

Cypress-Gum Swamp Forest. The distribution of the Cypress-
Gum Swamp Forest reaches its northern limits in the Chesapeake
Bay region, where some of the species typical of the Bottomland
Hardwood Forest give way in deeper water to the dominance of the
baldcypress and the water tupelo. Typical animals include such
birds as the double crested cormorant, the common egret, black
crowned night heron, red shouldered hawk, barred owl, and
pileated woodpecker. Such mammals as the gray fox, raccoon,
mink, river otter, and even the black bear, bobcat and white-tailed
deer also appear.

Bottomland Hardwood Forest. This community type is one of
the most diverse terrestrial plant communities in the Atlantic
Coastal Plain. It occupies the floodplains of the major rivers,
and is often flooded in winter and spring with either lower water
levels or no standing water in summer and fall. The vegetation

is mostly trees wth some shrubs and vines. The hardwoods in swamp

733"

forests are black gum, red maple, tupelo, swamp poplar, various
oaks, sweet gum, and sweet bay. The more mature bottomland forests
may have beech, oaks and elms. In the smaller floodplains of the
northern sections of the Bay, the dominant species are: beech,
river birch, sycamore, box elder, and silver maple.

Animal species are also quite abundant in bottomland forests,
due to the presence of a large supply of foods. Typical animals
include: salamanders, toads, frogs, turtles, snakes, ducks, hawk,
turkey, woodcock, woodpeckers, warblers, and cardinals. The list
of mammals occurring here is much the same as those of the cypress-
gum swamp forest, and should also include the opossum, eastern
cottontail, squirrels, and beaver.

Pine Flatwoods. Loblolly and pitch pine dominate the coastal
flatwoods, with loblolly pine particularly important in Virginia
and pitch pine dominant in Maryland. The pine flatwoods are
generally rather open with an incomplete canopy, and often have a
diverse shrub and herb zone. These forests may be successional,
and thus will eventually be naturally replaced by an upland hard-
wood forest. Some frequently found animals are the pine woods tree
frog, fence lizard, cornsnake, hawks, quail, several woodpecker
varieties, the pine warbler, pine woods sparrow, meadowlark,
towhee, and pine mouse.

Upland Hardwood Forest. This is the climax forest of the
upland parts of the region, and is dominated by various species

of oak. Other mixed hardwoods including blackgum, hickories,

=10=

beech, sweetgum, magnolia and dogwood, are found in the uplands.
Animals of the upland hardwood forest range from several species
of salamander, skink and snake to the long-tailed weasel and the
striped skunk. Birds typically found include hawks, owls, and
woodpeckers, the ruby throated hummingbird, flycatchers, crows,
jays, warblers, and vireos. Mammals commonly occurring are
shrews, voles, mice, chipmunks, squirrels, raccoon, and deer.

Old Field Community. This is a very common community type
which develops on abandoned lands, particularly agricultural lands.
Many species of grasses, wildflowers, weeds, vines and briars are
among the first to invade old fields. Next to arrive are plants
like broomsedge, which can completely dominate the community within
a few years. Not long after, sweetgum and pines begin to grow, and
the old field can progress into a pine forest or eventually a
hardwood forest. Common animal species found during the early
stages of old field succession are savanna-, grasshopper- and
field sparrows, and snakes and hawks which feed on the shrews,
moles, voles, and mice which are so prevalent.

Dune Communities, Maritime Shrub Thickets, and Maritime
Forests occur in the Chesapeake Bay region, but mostly on the Atlantic
side of the DelMarVa peninsula and they are therefore not included

in this study.

=30=

Rare and Endangered Animals

Many of our plant and animal species are being destroyed by man's
developmental activities, by overgrazing, fire, introduced exotic
species and diseases, and particularly destruction of habitats. Some
of these species are of national significance, some are important as
gene pools for food and fiber producers, as pharmaceuticals, or are of
unknown potential use to humans. For many species, preservation of
critical habitats as natural areas is sufficient to preserve the
species from extinction. Other species require special laws to
prevent hunting, picking or collecting.

At present, the species of endangered vertebrate animals are
fairly well known. The enormous numbers of invertebrate animal
species are less known and many have not even been described to
science and have completely unknown status. (Certain species of
endangered molluscs, butterflies, and a few other groups of inverte-
brates are presently fairly well known.) Most preservation efforts
for endangered animal species are limited to the relatively small
number of the larger and more obvious and interesting species. People
tend to identify with vertebrates more than with invertebrates; they
even choose them as symbols.

In the Chesapeake Bay region there are at least four species of
vertebrate animals that are rare or endangered. This includes the
southern bald eagle, the DelMarVa fox squirrel, the Maryland darter
and the bog turtle. They are discussed below along with the osprey

which is rapidly declining, but not yet in the endangered category.

=—3]—

The southern bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus)
was once very abundant in the Chesapeake Bay region. In 1936 there
were over 250 active nests throughout the Delaware, Virginia and
Maryland areas. Today, around 90 nests, not all active in any given
year, can be found in the same area. Not only have the number of
nesting eagles declined but there has been a shift from the upper parts
of rivers and the northern part of the Bay to the estuarine segments
of the rivers and the southern bay. Despite pesticide-induced shell
thinning (recorded for a number of birds of prey including fish
predators such as the cormorant and brown pelican), the major cause
of eagle mortality continues to be shooting, pollution of feeding
areas, and loss of habitat to various forms of development). Even
though the eagle population has declined by at least 60% in the
last 10 years, the Chesapeake Bay region is the most productive area
north of Florida for southern subspecies of bald eagle. The prognosis
is not good, however, since the reproductive rate, 5-35%, is
considerably below that necessary for a stable population.

The DelMarVa fox squirrel, also known as the Bryant fox squirrel
(Sciurus niger cinereus), is a subspecies of the more widespread
eastern fox squirrel. Never very abundant or widespread in its range,
the DelMarVa fox squirrel is confined today to four eastern shore
counties in Maryland: Kent, Queen Anne, Talbot, and Dorchester. The
population apparently lies somewhere between 500 and 1500 individuals.
Although protected in Maryland since 1971, this species is easily

confused with the more abundant eastern gray squirrel Sciurus

=32=

carolinensis and many are probably killed during the hunting season.
Continued reduction of habitat by real estate developments and
cutting of the old-aged, mixed pine-hardwood stands which are the
prime habitat, have doubtless contributed to population decline as well.
The Maryland darter (Etheostoma sellare) is a small and rather
nondescript fish found in only two streams, Deer Creek and the east
branch of Swan Creek, both tributaries of the Susquehanna in Harford
County, Maryland. While the population size is unknown, it is assumed
because of the very limited habitat to be rather small. Since the
species appears to be endemic at the periphery of the range of its
closest relatives, it has not been abundant for rather a long time.
The bog turtle (Clemmys muhlenbergi) as its name suggests, is
limited to wetland areas in the northeast and the southern Appala-
chians. Because of its rather secretive behavior its numbers are
difficult to determine. Its decline can be inferred both from the
destruction of its rather limited habitat and the high value placed
on it by pet shops because of its scarcity. It has been protected

in Maryland, the only state in the Bay region where it occurs, since

WOTAS
The osprey (Pandion haliaetus) is not an endangered species, but
populations are declining in many places along the east coast -- an

example of a rare, declining, or depleted species. Annual production
to guarantee replacement for a stable population has been estimated
at between 0.95 and 1.30 young fledged per breeding female. In only

a few parts of the Bay is this figure reached every year. Despite

-33-

the decline, the Bay region has the highest concentration of nesting
osprey in the United States -- roughly estimated at 1400 pairs in
1972 and 1100 in 1973. Reasons for the decline, where observed, seem
similar to those responsible for the southern bald eagle decline.

The abundance and distribution of most invertebrate animal
species is in general poorly known except for certain pests or
commercially important species. The Washington, D. C. area has been
the site of extensive biological study so that many type localities
exist where species have been described. For many species, this is
the only known information as the species may never have been collected
again. It is important to determine the rarity or endangered status
of these species with specialized field studies.

Two species of rare and endangered crustacea are known from the

Chesapeake Bay region:

Hay's Spring scud (Stygonectes hayi) is a blind white crustacean
known only from a single spring in Washington, D. C. and threatened
by urbanization and groundwater pollution. Once widespread, it is
now greatly restricted in habitat and has been extensively looked for

in recent years.

The Tidewater scud (Stygonectes indentatus), a unique interstitial
crustacean, is limited to several groundwater seeps in Nansemond
County, Virginia, and is threatened by groundwater pollution throughout
its range and by suburban sprawl. It is a primitive member of the

genus and is believed to live in the ancestral habitat that once was

23%

characteristic of the genus. It has been sought but not found else-

where in the tidewater area.

Rare and Endangered Plants

The rare and endangered plants of the Chesapeake Bay region had
never been compiled before this survey and no list existed. Plant
distribution and abundance is much less known (except for certain
trees) than for vertebrate animals. Many plant records are from old
records in herbaria, often with vague locality dat , and the plant
species may no longer exist.

Major disruption of habitats due to agriculture, lumbering, and
introduction of exotic weeds has resulted in enormous changes,
driving many species close to extinction.

An extensive survey of the literature, consulting with
specialists, and examination of herbaria (U. S. National Museum of
Natural History, Harvard Gray Herbarium, Clyde Reed Herbarium)
resulted in a preliminary list of 23 species of plants which are
reported to be rare and endemic. Of these, about 15 species may be
considered endangered. The total population of the local and endemic
seaside alder (Alnus maritima) occurs in only four counties in the

Bay area, but it is not endangered or threatened.

-35-

Much more field work and collecting is necessary to validate
the exact present status of each species of rare and restricted
plant. Extensive field work is required to prove whether or not
certain plant species have become extinct.

Range Phenomena

Plant and animal species usually have distinct areas where
the major populations occur. But at the edges of the range there
may be outliers or disjunct populations which may have developed
taxonomic or other differences if they have been isolated for some
time. They may include both new endemic or old relict populations
of scientific importance and often need protection. At the edges
of ranges, species may be rare and require protection.

Because of its position halfway up the Atlantic Coastal Plain,
the Bay region includes many edges of ranges or outlying disjunct
populations.

Northern Limit. Many species with an essentially southern
distribution extend into the Bay region; e.g., longleaf pine
(Pinus palustris) and water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica).

Northern Outlier. Some southern species have disjunct
populations, often just a few individuals, well north of the contig-
uous populations: e.g., bald cypress (Taxodium distichum), water
hickory (Carya aquatica), overcup oak (Quercus lyrata), and live oak

(Quercus virginiana).

=36=

Southern Limit. Essentially northern species whose
southernmost distribution extends into the Bay region: e.g.,
black ash (Fraxinus nigra).

Southern Outlier. Populations in the Bay region that are
disjunct from the southern continuous populations to the
north: e.g., balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera).

Eastern Outlier. Species whose distribution is primarily
midwestern extend eastward as disjunct outliers: e.g. chinkapin
oak (Quercus muehlenbergii), shumard oak (Quercus shumardi), and bur
oak (Quercus macrocarpa).

Coastal Plain Outlier. Upland species characteristic of the
Appalachians are occasionally found in small colonies deep in the
coastal plain over a hundred miles from the nearest upland popula-
tion; e.g., white pine (Pinus strobus), hemlock (Isuga canadensis) ,
and rhododendron (Rhododendron maximum).

Regardless of their nature, these populations are of far
greater importance than as mere geographical curiosities. Any
organisms living on the edge of its range is operating at the limit
of its adaptation to its environment as well, and it may be parti-
cularly sensitive to environmental stresses with which it can cope
in the center of the range. If we are to understand the ecological
amplitude of any species, it must be studied under extreme conditions
as well as optimal ones. For this reason, a few acres of scraggly
hemlocks on the eastern shore may be worth a hundred acres on the

Blue Ridge. These range phenomena have been located as precisely

=37=

as records allow, and they enter importantly into the natural area
selection process.

Various species are restricted or endemic to the region and
are of particular ecological significance. Most of these endemic
species are rare and endangered. Some endemic species such as
seaside alder (Alnus maritima) are restricted and local, but not yet
in the category of endangered or threatened. If these species are
locally exterminated, it will result in the worldwide loss of the
species.

Seasonal Concentration of Animals

While endangered, rare, and uncommon species are critically
important and figure strongly in the selection of desirable natural
areas, the most striking feature of Bay wildlife is the seasonal
concentration of various species. There are three major groups:
overwintering species, seasonal breeders, and migratory stopovers.

Overwintering Species. Many Bay area residents, hunters or not,
eagerly look forward to the October arrival of noisy skeins
of geese and ducks followed later by whistling swans. By April, the
old-squaw, canvasback, mergansers, Canada geese, and swans have
returned to their northern breeding places, but their economic and
ecologic impact is considerable. Unlike the endangered species
which tend to stay put, overwintering species frequently move about
on their overwintering grounds and have even adapted new habits as

old food supplies disappear and new ones appear.

382

The swan, Cygnus columbianus, which as recently as a few
years ago fed offshore in shallow water while the less wary
geese flew inland to feed on stubble fields, have now begun to
emulate the habits of geese and can be seen in flocks of several
hundred on fields far from open water. This may be due in part
to a decrease in the supply of food offshore resulting from
increased turbidity and pollution. Nevertheless, it is difficult
to anticipate in which bay or river the overwintering species will
concentrate from year to year.

Setting aside natural areas to accommodate overwintering
species is not practical unless the areas are specifically managed
for waterfowl, and such management may then interfere with other
uses or values of a given area. Even so, unusual concentrations
of overwintering waterfowl have been noted and considered as a
criterion for natural areas selection.

Seasonal Breeders. Various species of animals concentrate
in certain areas to reproduce. This is particularly true of many
migratory species of birds and fish and for some mammals and
amphibia. Birds nesting in certain areas, e.g., heronries and sea
bird nesting sites, may result in very high seasonal populations.
Spawning fish, especially anadromous species, concentrate in
selected areas during reproduction periods. In Chesapeake Bay,
striped bass (Morone saxatilis), herring (Alosa aestivalis),
hickory shad (Alosa mediocris), white shad and American shad

(Alosa sapidissima) ascend freshwater streams to breed, many in

=20)=

large enough quantities to be of commercial value. The striped
bass is of course a highly regarded sport fish as well. The
importance of small tributary streams as breeding areas and their
attendant marshes as nurseries for the subsequent fry has been
considered in assessing natural area value.

Wood duck nesting concentrations have been noted (in the
study's computer print-out) where information was available.

This species, considered endangered 30-40 years ago, has made an
astonishing come-back. The wood duck (Aix sponsa) declined as the
old trees which had proper nesting cavities were logged off and
younger trees cut before reaching proper size. Artificial nesting
sites have helped the wood duck to become relatively common again.
Since the male is one of the most beautifully marked birds in
North American, nesting data was included in the natural areas
evaluations.

Heronries are present in the Bay region, mostly of the great
blue heron (Ardea herodias) but other types of heronries are found
too -- green heron (Butorides virescens), black-crowned night heron
(Nyctocorax nycticorax), and American egret (Casmerodius albus).
At the present about 30 active heronries have been plotted on Map 2,
although others probably exist.

Migratory stopovers. Certain areas such as peninsulas and
islands are utilized by shorebirds, birds of prey, and passerines
passing north or south during migrations. The birds pause to feed

and rest for a few days before resuming their migratory flights.

=/,0=

Whenever possible, such areas were located and considered in

selecting natural areas.

Commercial Game and Unusual Animal Populations

It is important to provide protected areas for wild game,
fish, and shellfish where the populations are protected from over-
exploitation. These areas should include breeding areas where
populations can build up in sufficient numbers to supply the
populations required for commercial or sport hunting and fishing.
Game refuges and wildlife management areas are examples of this
concept. However, a wider distribution of more areas with
different habitats will insure larger and more widespread
populations than the relatively few larger wildlife refuges.
This is particularly important for certain non-game species.

These protected natural areas are necessary for preservation
of many fur bearing animals of interest such as otter, beaver,
mink, bobcat, bear, fox and other animals which most humans are
happy to occasionally observe in the wild and to know that they
still exist. These animals plus deer are rarely seen by the
average person.

The high point of many vacationers is to have observed some
of these animals in the wild. Preservation of natural areas assures
more abundant populations of these animals. A natural area next to

a park or recreation area enhances the park greatly.

ie

Clam and oyster beds are quite intimately related to both the
bay or estuary where they are located and the nearby marshes
which provide the production which the shellfish, in part,
harvest. Shellfish are sessile ea nednles and are quite sensitive
to siltation. Some species such as oysters (Crassostrea virginica)
lack the siphon that permits clams to be buried by silt. Clams
are also dependent on detritus from marshes for food, especially
in the younger stages. Adult crabs Callinectes sapidug may feed
in turn on smaller detritus feeders. Although crabs are quite
mobile and migrate during the winter into deeper water near the
mouth of the Bay, their attraction to certain areas in the
summer reflects the high productivity of those areas. These
places should be identified wherever possible as well as oyster

bars and clam beds.

Paleontological Features

Fossils, mostly of Miocene age (25,000,000 years before
present), are abundant in many exposed Bay front areas: Calvert
Cliffs is probably the best known example. The nature of the
material (snail shells, shark teeth, whale bones) and its age
give glimpses into the past continuum of environments leading to
the present. More than any other geological feature, fossils
bring home to the general public the meaning of geological
time. Fossil sites were given consideration in this survey,
but they generally included few ecologically valuable features

and received low ratings.

y=

Strictly geological features and archeological sites were not
included in this study. In any expansion or subsequent refine-

ment, they should ideally be included.

Well-Documented Sites

An area that has been the subject of continuing scientific
research, is of great value for it is possible to use the back-
ground of data to help predict the future and to deepen our
understanding of the local environment. Such areas were given
high consideration in the selection of natural areas.

Plummers Island in the Potomac River above Washington, D. C.
is the site of many biological surveys and censuses and is the
type locality site for many species of plants and animals.

Areas of this type with many years of records and numerous publi-

cations should be preserved with a high priority.

Exceptional Individuals or Associations

Records are often kept for the largest individual of a
species, such as the Wye Oak, located in the eastern shore area
of Maryland, which is the largest white oak known. While of
limited scientific value, these largest and oldest individuals
are of interest to the public.

The presence of a virgin (or late successional) stand of
almost any species of tree is of interest in the eastern United

States and should be preserved with a high priority.

1/13.

Associations of species rarely found together are also of
interest, such as northern mountain species occurring together
with southern lowland species. This often indicates relict
conditions such as hemlock and rhododendron isolates and northern
species left in sphagnum bogs adjacent to southern communities

of plants.

Size of Area

The bigger an area, the greater its diversity of ecosystems,
communities and species is likely to be. In smaller isolated
areas the larger predators which act as regulators are usually
missing and may require intervention by man to prevent too
large populations of primary herbivores.

The minimum size required for a natural area has been
discussed almost endlessly and to halt repetitive debate certain
arbitrary sizes have been set. The prime function of size as a
criteria lies in the viability of the ecosystem to be protected.
This varies greatly depending on the ecosystem. A tenth acre
bog may be quite defensible with some protecting buffer zone.

A small area of mountain top or a small island can be preserved
and maintained with relative ease. In addition, a half acre

plot of rare tall-grass prairie in a cemetary or along a railroad
should be preserved as a natural area.

On the other hand, pine flatland may require over 1,000
acres to provide examples of the usual species expected in such

an area. There is no rule for determining the minimum size of an

=

area to be protected, but 'the larger the better’ is the usual
rule as long as the natural area contains ecologically important
and significant biota and functions.

Some natural areas may require a buffer area to prevent
contamination, silting, or protection from other human inter-
ferences. Buffer zones may themselves be true natural areas or
areas with conservation easements to prevent destruction or
exploitation, hunting and/or fishing, or otherwise to assure

the protected area's viability.

ZS

IV. RANKING THE AREAS

=

On Methods

For this survey ecological and other data for the region were
compiled from all available sources including scientific publica-
tions, popular literature, and from individuals and organizations.
A questionnaire entitled "Chesapeake Bay Natural Areas Survey" was
sent to several individuals to ascertain its effectiveness but it
was found that direct contacts and other sources were more
effective: the questionnaire was not extensively used. A question-
naire on rare and endangered species, however, was very productive.

The data for the region and each proposed site were entered
onto maps and a data retrieval system was set up to handle non-
graphic data. Eventually these data were organized in the format
of the National Registry of Natural Areas and entered into its
computer file. In the early part of the survey, time limitations
and the need for portability of the information suggested a simpler,
interim solution. Data cards (Burroughs Y-0 Unisort) conducive to
a punch-hole sorting technique were typed for each natural area.
The system can handle 22 blocks of ten bits each or 220 items per
card. Desired information can be located in the master key
describing the block information, a rod run through the proper
hole, and the cards punched for that hole fall loose and deliver
the data. The major advantages of the system are the portability

of the entire deck, the elimination of alphabetization and cross

=46—

indexing, and the ability, with a modest amount of hand sorting,
to group and regroup the data in any desired way. The information
from the data cards was used to develop the computer registry.

A geographic inventory approach was developed so that each
element of data would be mapped at a common scale on a standard
base map of the entire Chesapeake Bay study area. Since there
was no existing map of the entire region sufficiently detailed
to portray area information such as wetlands or other important
natural areas, a base map was made using a mosaic of the seven
1:250,000 scale U. S. Geological Survey topographic maps of the
area.

‘ Data were mapped on transparent overlays to allow for
manipulation and analysis, and on topographic map base sheets
that could be inexpensively reproduced as osalid prints. Several
reproducible mylar base sheets were prepared, each containing a
photographic copy of the map mosaic and displaying the standard
information such as cities and towns, roads, topography, and
water features.

Because of the need for more detailed mapping of specific
sites and natural phenomena, it was necessary to prepare a set
of 1:24,000 scale (7 1/2 minute) USGS topographic quadrangle maps
covering the study area represented on the 1:250,000 scale maps.
A complete set of 281 topographic maps was assembled and keyed to

the larger study area map by numerical index.

NG)

The 1:250,000 maps and overlay techniques visually showed the
ecologically important and significant features of the area, and

areas required for their preservation.

The Numerical Ranking System

To set priorities among 232 diverse areas calls for a numeri-
cal ranking system whereby one can weight selected criteria that
delineate ecological and, in some instances, social values. Some
criteria require not only detailed knowledge of the sites in question
but also a broad knowledge of the range and rarity of plant and
animal species.

In other words, numerical values were assigned each criterion
based on ecological judgment. Modifications were made in the course
of the project and testing and further improvements of the system
are needed. The weighting system gives greater importance to plant
communities or types that are not in the National System of
Research Natural Areas, those for which there are already many exam-
ples. Also, the factors of diversity, quality, lack of past and
present disturbance, protectability, and other factors have been
given appropriate weighting.

Subjective evaluation could be added to take into account
species with human emotional or national significance. The condor,
whooping crane or bald eagle have higher importance for preservation
than a subspecies of sedge which can be identified by only a few

specialists.

=18"

Several other ecological ranking systems have tried to take
into account the factors of man-induced pressures on the land
and relative isolation from development. Indeed, one of the
original rankings used in this study gave added weight to threatened
areas. This seems to make sense for any setting of priorities as
far as timing is concerned. But as far as true ecological value
is the measure, isolation from threatened destruction should
receive greater numerical value. If both of these factors are
included in one system, they tend to cancel each other out. For
these reasons we have excluded the factors of threat and isola-
tion. In the implementation of preservation actions, however,
the ecologically important areas that are threatened most should
of course be worked on first.

Selection of Proposed Natural Areas. In making the quantita-
tive evaluation of each site considered as a natural area, all of
the data in the file for each site were put into a standardized
format for natural areas. This is the system jointly developed for the
Natural Area Registry by The Nature Conservancy and the
Smithsonian Center for Natural Areas. It is compatible with
the system used by the U. S. Committee on Conservation of
Ecosystems of the International Biological Program. The data for
the considered sites for the Chesapeake Bay are shown in the
complete print-outs. They also contain the present rating for

each site (also shown in the lists in this report). The ratings

are not permanent and can be updated with the addition of further

ecological information.

=49=

Some areas, of course, have extensive information, perhaps
including records of species no longer present, and other areas
have very little data but are still of great value. Therefore,
the system is designed to be highly flexible with regular updating
and change of ratings possible. For this reason, no data on sites
with low ratings are destroyed since data may accumulate to
increase the ratings. Also, areas with high ratings may be
lowered with loss or destruction of ecological features.

Several versions of the ranking system were tried out in this
survey. One of the early systems used gave equal weighting to
each of the criteria but it was only partially successful in
establishing what the project staff judged to be valid priorities.
With the acquisition of more detailed data from each area a
reevaluation was required and the present evaluation system was
used. [SEE TABLE 4]

A separate but related procedure in the rating process was
the use of mapping techniques. When all of the ecologically
significant data on plants, animals, unique communities and habitats,
wetlands and other features have been mapped and printed on trans-
parent overlays, the data are then visually available. A base map
of the areas presently protected, transparent ecological data
overlays, and an overlay of the proposed natural area sites
permit visual evaluation of the value of each proposed site and
shows the need for additional specific natural area sites to protect

concentrations of important fauna, flora, and ecosystems. Overlays

E50=

show the ranges of certain species, help in specifying critical
sites for preservation, and are of great value in evaluating how
effective the list of existing and proposed sites are in
preserving the ecological features. Those sites with many
valuable ecological features can then become the target of high
priority field studies, as a prelude to procurement.

There were 232 areas considered, and rated, using the
criteria and numerical weighting system in Table 4 and overlay
maps 3 and 4. The highest rating was 24 and the lowest was 1.
There were 57 areas with a rating of over 10. These have been
selected for highest priority proposed primary natural areas.
The rest are recommended for secondary consideration except for
7 areas recommended for special consideration. These include
areas with 10 or less points but are essential to provide
examples of outlier hemlock, bogs, or other special categories.
Thus there are 64 areas which should be given primary considera-
tion for procurement. This system gives a premium to diversity
and the greater the variety of natural features and biota, the
higher priority is the area. However, ecological judgment is
required in making the final recommendations based on the number
of ecosystem types represented and any special categories that
must be considered. Since the data have been computerized, it is
possible for a procurement agency to selectively determine
priorities using selected categories. For example, if it is

desired to select the areas with virgin or mature hardwoods, or

-51-

areas containing eagle nests, these can now be selected readily.

The 64 natural areas of prime ecological importance are listed
below in Table 5 in order of numerical ranking. These and the
remaining 168 areas are indexed by state and county on Page
and by alphabetical order on Page » for ease in cross-referencing.
The remaining areas under consideration which appear in Table 6 all
received lower rankings using this particular system. They should
not, however, be neglected because they could easily score much
higher with different weightings or with the inclusion of other
factors in the rating system.

The 64 prime natural areas represent roughly 28% of the original
232 areas considered and ranked. In area, the sixty-four sites
include about 236 square miles. Thus we are recommending procurement
or other preservation action for roughly 2% of the land in the
Chesapeake Bay region study area. The Center for Natural Areas is
already evaluating some of these areas as part of the Atlantic Coastal
Plain Natural Landmark Survey, under contract with the National Park

Service, Department of the Interior.

NOTE: This survey should not be considered final or complete. Some
prime natural areas may have been inadvertently missed which
should have been included. The Center for Natural Areas welcomes
any and all additional ecological information to improve its
knowledge of the Bay region.

=50=

TABLE 4. CRITERIA AND QUANTITATIVE VALUES

FOR SELECTION OF NATURAL AREAS

Ecosystem Types
Diversity of ecosystem types
Little or no past and present disturbance
High diversity of species
Type not represented in National Research Natural
Area System

Endangered, or Threatened Biota and Gene Pool Species
Endangered and threatened plant or animal species
Rare, declining, or depleted species

Range Phenomena
Outliers, disjuncts, or relict species
Limits of range—N, S, E, W
Restricted and endemic species

Seasonal Concentrations of Animals
Seasonal breeders - nesting, spawning
Overwintering concentrations
Migratory concentrations

Commercial, Game, or Unusual Animal Populations
Ungulates, game birds, fur bearers
Fish, clams, oysters, crabs

Paleontological, Geological and Archeological Features
Bones and artifacts, deposits of fossils, peat,
lignite, sediments, structural and geomorphological
features

Sites of well documented scientific research or
discovery and records over period of years

Oldest, largest, or otherwise exceptional individuals
or associations

Size of area

Acres Hectares
Under 100 acres Under 45
100 - 1,000 45 - 457
1,000 - 5,000 457 - 2,270

over 5,000 over 2,270

Points

1 (each)

& NN

>

(each sp.)
(each sp.)

PRR tv

a

1 (each
feature)

1 (each)

PWNH

=53=

Example of the Rating System in Use. Below is an illustration of

the rating system as applied to Zekiah Swamp, the first-ranked area.
The natural features of the site are listed or summarized on the left.
On the right are the numerical values which apply to those features,

according to the scheme in Table 4 on the previous page.

Data Points Awarded

Zekiah Swamp

Maryland

Charles County

5,385 hectares in size 4
Private ownership

Hardwood swamp forest i

Good stands of Ilex opaca, Quercus palustris,
and Liquidambar styraciflua. Mature Timber.
High diversity of plant species.
Populaous heterophylla, southern outlier
Beaver, mink (commercial species)
Osprey (depleted), heronry (seasonal breeders)
Wilson's snipe and wood duck (overwintering)
Concentration of migrating birds
Southern Bald Eagle nest (endangered)
Rare animals: red bellied woodpecker,
Maryland Diamondback Terrapin, Allocapania
Zekiah Stonefly 4
One of the largest of Maryland's remaining
undisturbed swamps 2

PRP WREDN

Rating Total 24

= Gy

V. MASTER LIST OF NATURAL AREAS

The following eighty-six color pages consist of a computer print-
out of key information on all 232 areas considered in this survey, listed
in order of ecological importance. There is of course no hard-and-fast
necessity for the particular placement of each area in the list, especially
for the areas which received equal numerical ratings. Therefore the reader
should view this list with a certain fluidity, remembering that the ranks
may change with improvement in data or insight. The list is separated on
page 73, with primary areas recommended for preservation above and second-
ary areas recommended for consideration below. Note that some areas in
the secondary section deserve special attention and should therefore be
considered for preservation with the primary group. These seven areas are:

Helen Creek Hemlock Preserve; Calvert Co., Maryland; p73

Chisel Run Bog; James City Co., Virginia; p74

King Creek - Kingston Landing; Talbot Co., Maryland; p76

Blinkhorn Creek; Dorchester Co., Maryland; pp87 & 88

Round Bay Bog; Anne Arundel Co., Maryland; p91

Andover Branch; Queen Anne Co., Maryland; pl01

Hemlock Stand on Mill Creek; Caroline Co., Maryland; pl02

When searching for areas with high priority, consult the first part
of the master list. When searching for areas within a particular county,
consult the Index on page 119. Areas themselves can be found in the
Alphabetical Index on page 130. To find the map location of an area,

consult the U.S. Geological Survey 7.5 minute series topographic maps

named under "Quadrangle" in the master list.

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PAGE: 119

INDEX I - BY STATE AND COUNTY, PAGES 120-129

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t3—

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th] —

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34 pp.

APPENDIX A

DESCRIPTION OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY REGION

by

Stephen L. Keiley
Director, Center for Natural Areas

Center for Natural Areas

Ecology Program

Smithsonian Institution

June, 1973

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DESCRIPTION OF CHESAPEAKE BAY REGION

The Chesapeake Bay area as shown on the accompanying maps including
the tidewater counties of Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware covers an
area of about 100 by 200 miles or about 20,000 square miles. This area
is divided as follows (Jenkins, 1971):

Square Miles

Maryland 6800
Virginia 6700
Delaware 2100
Chesapeake Bay and

tributaries 4400
Total 20000

The name Chesapeake is derived from its original Indian name, and
literal interpretations vary from "Great Waters" to 'Mother of Waters",
all refer to its immense size (Shands and Mathes, 1972), and, in fact,
Chesapeake Bay is the largest estuary on the East Coast, and with its
tributaries it is considered by some scientists to be the greatest
estuarine system in the world. Four major rivers and 50 large tributaries
drain into Chesapeake Bay from headwaters in New York, Pennsylvania,
West Virginia, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. The shoreline
(particularly the western edge) is irregularly <ligitated by the tidal
river estuaries. The tidal shore line is about 4,600 miles in length,
of which 3,400 are miles in Maryland and 1,200 miles in Virginia (Corps,
HOWL)

The Bay has a drainage basin of 74,000 square miles an area
larger than all of New England. The Susquehanna River (largest river
in the eastern U. S.)contributes 49 percent of the annual freshwater
runoff of the entire Bay, and 87 percent of that north of the mouth of
the Potomac. The Potomac River estuary contributes about 18 percent of
the total freshwater inflow into the Bay. The annual contribution by
the other western rivers are: James - 16 percent; Rappahannock —- 4
percent; York - 2 percent; and others - 4 percent. The eastern rivers
(Choptank, Nanticoke and Wicomico) contribute only 7 percent of the
total runoff (Saila, 1973).

The mean tidal fluctuation in Chesapeake Bay is small, generally
between one and two feet. Saline water intrusion is highest along the
eastern side of the estuary due to the influence of the Coriolis force.
Salinities range from 35 parts per thousand inside the mouth of the
bay to near zero at the north end of the bay and at the heads of embay-
ments tributary to the bay. Spring floods and the relatively dry fall

A-1

periods contribute to seasonal variations in salinity throughout the
Bay.

The Chesapeake Bay study area lies entirely within the Atlantic
Coastal Plain, and is underlain by a thick, wedge-shaped series of
sedimentary formations which strike northeast and dip gently toward the
southeast. These ''soft' rocks are composed of mostly unconsolidated
beds of sands, clays, marls, and gravels, which range from Lower
Cretaceous to Recent in age. The base upon which these sedimentary
formations rest is composed of very ancient, predominantly pre-Cambrian,
erystalline rocks upon which a prolonged pre-Cretaceous erosion cycle
produced a peneplained surface. Along the inner westernmost edge of
the Coastal Plain, the crystalline rocks emerge from beneath the over-
lapping unconsolidated formations along a line of demarcation known as
the "Fall Line" which marks the head of navigation on some tributaries
to Chesapeake Bay, such as the Patapsco River at Baltimore, the Potomac
River at Washington, and the Rappahannock River at Fredericksburg,
Virginia. The Fall Line also marks a topographic change westward, from
the flat or gently rolling low elevation of the Coastal Plain to the
higher elevated, bolder relief of the Piedmont Plateau (Corps, 1970).

Of the 20,000 square miles of the Chesapeake Bay region, 15,600
square miles are land. Table 1 shows the distribution of this land
into forests, agricultural land, pasture, urban areas, and marsh wet-—
lands.

The forest land covers an area of slightly over 6 million acres
or 9450 square miles. Forests include 68 percent of the tidewater
counties of Maryland, 60 percent of Virginia and 48 percent of
Delaware. The total value of the cut timber (stumpage) is about $13
million in Maryland, $13 million in Virginia, and $0.5 million in
Delaware.

The forests of the Chesapeake Bay include the combination of oak,
hickory, and pine as the major type, but, in the southern part, the
combinations are oak with hickory, oak with pine, loblolly pine with
shortleaf pine, and oak with gum and cypress. In many areas with
better soils there are a large number of mixed mesophytic deciduous
species with maple, tulip tree, beech, gum, various species of oak,
flood plain species of ash, elm, maple, sycamore, birch, and many
other species. The main timber trees are red and white oak, tulip tree,
pine, sweetgum, and various other hardwoods.

OF DELAWARE, MARYLAND, AND VIRGINIA

Bartey

Corn

Hay

Peanut

Soybean

Tobacco

Wheat

Vegetables

Other

Data for 1969

Data from

Maryland State
Board of Agriculture
Virginia Dept. of
Agriculture & Commerce

1
t
ik

- €

Figure 1.

a
ed,
a :
\

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enact

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P]

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A

Prepared by Daniel Nigman
Smithsonian Institution

TABLE 1. — LAND USE IN CHESAPEAKE STUDY AREA

Maryland Virginia Delaware
Use (percent) (percent) (percent)
Forest 68 60 48
Agricultural Crops 23 23 32
Pasture 6 2 2455)
Urban/industrial 3 6 9
Coastal marsh = - 8.5

The agricultural cropland of the tidewater counties covers an
area of 3670 square miles. The agricultural cropland of the Bay
region in Maryland is 23 percent, in Virginia 23 percent, and in
Delaware 32 percent. The value of agricultural crops and livestock
of this region is an estimated $500 million dollars.

Fizure 1 shows the agricultural crops of the Chesapeake Ba
region. These include mainly corn, soybeans, barley, potatoes,
tobacco, peanuts, hay, and tomatoes and other vegetables. The -
eastern shore of Maryland is agriculturally suited for truck crops
because of its sandy productive soil, sufficient water, and long
growing period. The most important crops are soybeans, corn, wheat,
and vegetable crops. On the western shore of Maryland the major
crops are hay, corn, tobacco, wheat, and some soybeans, and vege-
tables. In the Virginia region, the main agricultural crops are
corn, soybeans, peanuts, wheat, barley, and tobacco. In the
Delaware area the main crops are corn, soybeans, hay, barley, rye,
oats, and lima beans, and other vegetables.

Extensive vegetation along the Chesapeake Bay shoreline includes
salt marshes and wetlands. This vegetation is estimated to be 8.5
percent of the land area in Delaware alone. Recent studies show the
wetlands comprise 152,000 acres in Virginia (Wass and Wright, 1969),
and 84,000 acres in Maryland (McHarg, 1972). Other sources indicate
that there are perhaps as much as 500,000 acres of wetlands in the
Bay area (USDI, 1970). These wetlands are of great importance to
wildlife and production of aquatic life. The main vegetation is
grass of various types, saltbush, cattail, and many other species of
plants. Salt grass is mowed in some of the regions and is valuable
for mulch and other uses (Jenkins, 1971).

The climate of the Bay region is moderate with average annual
temperature varying a few degrees from the northern to the southern
end of the Bay. The average annual temperature is 55°F in the north,

with an average of 190 frost-free days annually to 60°F in the south
with an average of 210 frost-free days.

Normal annual total precipitation is 44 inches throughout the
Bay region. Prolonged droughts are rare but short dry spells prompt
the use of supplemental irrigation for the production of crops
(Forest Service and Soil Conservation Service, 1972).

USES AND PRESSURES

Chesapeake Bay has provided man with food, wealth, an easy means
of travel, and satisfaction for some 5,000 years. The Indians reaped
a rich harvest of fish and shell fish, gathered shells for making
trading wampum, and plied its seemingly endless waterways in their
dugout canoes.

The imprint the Indians made was small indeed-so small that
evidence of their long tenure is difficult to find. Far different
have been their European successors. Great changes have been
wrought. Changes are still being made. Yet amid these changes
there are still many areas of the Bay that appear virtually untouched.
Others look much like they must have in Colonial times. The Chesa-
peake estuary retains fragments of all the different eras that have
occurred from the most primitive to the most modern.

Although the major uses of the Chesapeake have changed little,
the techniques by which the uses are effected have undergone consid-
erable modification. Often uses are in direct conflict with each
other. However, the estuary is so vast and the uses are so varied
that the Bay has accommodated most of them. In the past few decades
however, it has become increasingly apparent that even this vast area
is being transformed. Some of these changes are hardly evident and
others have profound effects far from the locations being changed -
and many are in the best interests of only a few people but at the
expense of many.

The population pressure on the Bay is increasing. The Chesa-
peake estuary is the southern anchor of the Atlantic coastal
megalopolis that sprawls from Massachusetts to Virginia. The ports
of Baltimore and Hampton Roads, their satellite cities and the
others that have developed around the Bay supported 11 million people
in 1960 - a population expected to more than double in the next 40
years. An additional 3 1/2 million people live within a day's drive
from the Bay

Waterborne commerce has always been among the most important

uses for the Chesapeake estuary. Approximately 110 million tons move
annually over the waterway and contribute, in large measure, to the
economy of an 11 state area, extending into the Midwest, (U.S.D.1I., 1970).

The port of Baltimore alone handles nearly 50 million tons
annually and if the annual increase in freight traffic in the harbor
is maintained, freight traffic tonnage will triple by the year 2000.
A recent survey showed that the commercial complex making up the port
of Baltimore directs $1.56 billion a year into Maryland's economy,
which represents 11.7 percent of the Maryland gross State product
(McHarg, 1972).

The trend in commercial navigation is toward larger ships,
which in turn require deeper channels, posing greater problems
locating dredge spoil disposal areas. Modifying channel geometry
May cause increases in upstream salinity, and unwise disposal of
spoil can have marked effects on living marine organisms. It is
estimated that the raw sewage discharged into the Bay by ships in
transit is equivalent to that of a community of twenty-five
thousand people, constantly.

Fishing is another important industry with Bay-wide significance.
The region is one of the richest fish and wildlife habitats in the
world and as such, it is a most important seafood harvesting area.
More than 400 million pounds of fish and shellfish worth $30 million
were taken from Bay waters in 1966. The weight of fish landed was
almost triple that of shellfish with nearly 304 million pounds of
fish harvested as compared to 125 million pounds of shellfish. But
the value of fish was only $7.3 million, or less than one third of
the value of the shellfish which netted $22.2 million. Oysters alone
represented $15 million, or one half the value of the total fisheries
harvest. Of the finfish the menhaden catch was the largest with 243
million pounds worth $3.9 million.

TABLE I. COMMERCIAL FISHERY 1966

Type Pounds Value
Finfish 303.5 mil S78 emit:
Oysters 20 1

Clams 8 2S!
Crabs 95 6.8

Superimposed on the heavy commercial seafood harvest is a grow-
ing recreational fishery. In 1966 it was estimated that Bay anglers
caught 22 million pounds of fish and generated about $10 million in
expenditures.

Strategically positioned in the Atlantic Flyway, Chesapeake Bay
is very important in the migratory bird pattern. Most of the waterfowl
produced on both sides of the James and Hudson Bays all the way up to
Greenland funnel into the Chesapeake marshes on their southward
migration. As a wintering area for waterfowl, the Chesapeake salt
marshes have few equals. More than 75 percent of the wintering
population of Atlantic Flyway Canada geese occurs on or near tide water,
from Kent County in Delaware to Hyde County in North Carolina. The
marshes and grain fields of the Delmarva Peninsula are particularly
attractive to Canada geese and to grain feeding black ducks and mallards.
In the early fall, home is the Susquehanna flats for huge flocks of
American widgeon. Several species of diving ducks including the
canvasback, redhead, ring-necked duck, and sometimes, scaup, winter on
Chesapeake Bay from the Susquehanna flats south to the confluence of
Bay and ocean at the tip of the Delmarva Peninsula. About half of the
80,000 whistling swans in North America winter on the estuaries of
Chesapeake Bay and Currituck Sound. Much of the breeding area in the
Atlantic Flyway is still wild and remote. It can be counted on to
send hundreds of thousands of new birds winging down the flyway each
fall. But good wintering areas, adjacent to preferred feeding grounds,
are relatively scarce, and as human populations inevitably expand, the
size, number, and quality of these wintering areas will diminish
accordingly. At present, Chesapeake Bay provides some of the best
and most heavily used waterfowl wintering habitat remaining in the

Flyway.

The Atlantic Flyway has more than 32 million acres of wetland
habitat and 96 percent of it is located from Maryland south. Only
4 million acres are of moderate to high value for waterfowl, and only
2 1/2 million acres are salt-marsh, the type of high-quality waterfowl
habitat found in the Chesapeake Bay. Estimates vary, but the bay area
encompasses roughly one-third of a million acres of salt-marsh habitat
of which about one-quarter of a million acres is of moderate to high
value for waterfowl. Public owned wetlands in the Chesapeake Bay area
total about 95,000 acres. Most of this habitat too, is high in quality
and supports large populations of wintering birds. An additional 55,000
acres of quality marsh is owned and managed by approximately 380 private
waterfowl hunting clubs. Thus, about 150,000 acres or approximately
half of the salt-marsh in Chesapeake Bay is managed specifically for
waterfowl and is likely to continue to be managed for this purpose in
the foreseeable future.

In recent years, Chesapeake Bay has wintered approximately 550,000
ducks and 350,000 geese which provided an estimated 250,000 man-days
of waterfowl hunting and 275,000 birds in the bag. Nearly 100,000
Canada geese, the king of waterfowl, are harvested on Chesapeake Bay,
the queen of bays (USDI, 1970).

Erosion and siltation constitutes a significant problem for the
Bay region. The earth lost from the land to the Bay has hurt the farmers
who need the soil for their crops, the shippers whose vessels must
navigate shoaling channels, and the fishermen whose aquatic harvest
is being stifled and lost.

Evidence derived from early charts and maps, from historical
documents, and from field studies and borings indicates that the rate
of sedimentation in different portions of the Chesapeake Bay has varied
over historic time. Prior to settlement by colonists and the initiation
of land clearing and agriculture, rates of sediment contribution from
land under forest cover were perhaps on the order of 100 tons/sq.mi./yr.
However, with the advent of extensive clearing for agriculture, these
rates rose rapidly to values of 400 to 800 tons/sq.mi./yr. As early as
the latter part of the seventeenth century visitors to colonial America
noted both the erosion of the fields and the muddy character of the
freshets. In addition, they observed the rapid siltation taking place
in a number of the early colonial harbor and river towns (State of
Maryland, 1968).

The Potomac and Susquehanna Rivers transport the major sediment
loads deposited within the Chesapeake Bay system. The sediment con-
tribution of the Susquehanna is considerably moderated by the hydro-
electric dams between Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, and Conowingo, Mary-
land, in that these reservoirs trap a significant amount of sediment
moving downstream. The Susquehanna watershed is estimated to supply
some 600 thousand tons per year, or approximately 23 tons per square mile.
The largely unregulated Potomac River Basin, on the other hand, con-
tributes an estimated 2.5 million tons per year to the estuarine
system. This is approximately 170 tons per square mile (Corps, 1970).

The fact that each tributary entering the Chesapeake Bay deposits
the bulk of its sediment load in the vicinity of its entrance to the
Bay constitutes an obvious economic "fact of life'' for the economy of
the Bay itself. Perhaps the most striking illustration is provided
by the Potomac and the Anacostia Rivers in the vicinity of the nation's
capitol where channel improvement and dredging operations have been
virtually continuous since 1804. Much of the land adjacent to the
river including Haynes Point, the parkland along the Anacostia River,
and the National Airport are all made of sediments dredged from the
rivers. It is estimated that the annual cost of dredging on the
Potomac is on the order of $150,000 per year (State of Maryland, 1968).

Recently it has become evident that increasing urbanization and
accompanying construction activities on the landscape may contribute
immense quantities of sediment to local areas. It is estimated that
of the million tons per year in the Potomac at Washington, approxi-

mately 25-30 percent is derived from construction sites in the metropolitan
region. Inasmuch as population can be expected to continue to burgeon in
many areas surrounding the Chesapeake Bay, construction activities can

also be expected to increase. This in turn will transform the landscape
and may lead to the addition of uncontrolled quantities of silt to the
estuarine tributaries (State of Maryland, 1968).

Shoreline erosion also contributes to the silt load and is the
single most dramatic, and most readily apparent geomorphological process
occurring in the Bay. Historical data, though somewhat spotty, provides
some perspective. It has been estimated that, along the 230 miles of
Maryland's primary Bay shoreline, some 6,000 acres of land have been
lost to the sea between 1845 and 1942. Recent rates of erosion loss are
estimated to be approximately 0.17 acres/mile/year in the northern Bay
area and 0.34 acres/mile/year in Maryland's southern Bay portion. To
illustrate the variability of erosion loss rates estimated between 1845
and 1942, the Cecil-Somerset County shoreline losses were estimated to
be 0.13 acres/mile/year, while Dorchester County losses were estimated
to be of the order of 0.64 acres/mile/year. It must be emphasized that
land area losses do not indicate volumes of material handled, because
of the differential in land elevation of various areas of Bay frontage.

The present and anticipated future social and economic development
of the Chesapeake Bay Basin, with the estimated large increase in popu-
lation, emphasizes the vulnerability of the Bay's sensitive estuarine
system to the future works of man. In particular, the waste discharges
of man's commerce and activity have a growing impact on the Bay. These
waste loads are derived from municipal, industrial and agricultural
sources.

Agricultural pollutants consist primarily of silt, fertilizer,
insecticides, herbicides, and animal wastes. Industrial wastes contain
a wide assortment of detrimental material ranging from sand and gravel
wastes and heavy metals through complex chemical compounds and mine
waste. Many of the latter waste types are toxic to both aquatic biota
and man. Municipal discharges contain human wastes and a huge panorama
of household and industrial by-products, and often inject significant
bacterial loads into the aquatic environment, infecting both finfish
and shellfish, making them potentially dangerous and therefore unfit
for human comsumption.

Gross estimates indicate that pollution affects some 400,000 acres
of finfish habitat and 42,000 acres of shellfish habitat in Chesapeake
Bay. Municipal and domestic discharges cause the major pollution
problem.

There are other significant threats to the Chesapeake Bay
environment. These include both inter- and intra-basin diversions

A-10

of freshwater. The determination of the effects of upstream manage-
ment of the fresh water resource on the marine environment have only
recently become of concern to oceanographers and marine biologists.
Current examples of this problem in Chesapeake Bay are (1) the
deepening of the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal, which will increase
the net amount of water flowing from the head of Chesapeake Bay into
Delaware Bay from about 900 cubic feet per second to about 2100 cubic
feet per second, and (2) the Baltimore Water Supply Tunnel which taps
the Susquehanna River above Conowingo Dam. Fresh water diversions
can alter the salinity regime of the headwaters of the Bay, affecting
the spawning opportunity of many species of fish. Further study of
these problems will undoubtedly reveal presently unknown ecological
ramification of the estuary's struggle to reach and maintain suit-
able equilibrium in the wake wf the incursions of man (Corps, 1970).

References:

The Corps of Engineers. 1970. The Chesapeake Bay Plan of Study.
Baltimore District, Baltimore, Maryland.

Forest Service and Soil Conservation Service. 1972. North
Atlantic Regional Water Resources Study, Land Use and Manage-
ment. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.

Jenkins, D. W. 1971. Agriculture and Forestry. Identification,
Vigor and Disease. Article from Remote Sensing of Chesapeake
Bay, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Washington,
D. C. NASA SP-294.

McHarg, Ian. 1972. Integrity of the Chesapeake Bay. Urban
Research and Development Corporation, Bethlehem, Pa.

Saila, Saul B. 1973. Coastal and Offshore Environmental
Inventory. University of Rhode Island, Kingston, Rhode Island,
Marine Publication Series #2.

Shands, W. E. and Mathes, Ruth. 1972. The Future of Chesapeake
Bay. Sierra Club Bulletin, Vol. 57, No. 4.

State of Maryland. 1968. Proceedings of the Governors Conference
on Chesapeake Bay. Westinghouse Ocean Research and Engineering
Center, Annapolis, Maryland.

U. S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1970.
National Estuary Study, vol. 3. U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C.

Wass, Marvin L. and Wright, Thomas D. 1969. Coastal Wetlands of
Virginia. Virginia Institute of Marine Science, Glouster Point,
Virtginia.

APPENDIX B

BIOTIC COMMUNITIES OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY REGION

by

Gary S. Waggoner
Ecologist

Center for Natural Areas
Ecology Program
Smithsonian Institution

June, 1973

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BIOTIC COMMUNITIES OF THE CHESAPEAKE Bay!

INTRODUCTION

This report presents a summary of the characteristic
biota and biotic communities of the Chesapeake Bay region, defined
in terms of typical vegetation, associated animal species, and
critical environmental factors. The plant species listed are the
dominant or characteristic species typical of the various biotic
communities. The animal species lists are more extensive and in-
clude the common and/or characteristic species associated with
each biotic community.

The ecology of the Chesapeake Bay region has been
influenced strongly by the presence of civilized man. But even
before the colonists had set foot on the continent, Indians had
made their presence known. Fire was an often used tool of the
Indians for hunting purposes and clearing land.

Following colonization by white men, more intensive
land clearing occurred during the eighteenth and early part of
the nineteenth centuries. Lumber was needed for shelter and
firewood and the settlers brought their European agricultural
system with them. Virgin land was so plentiful that a shifting
form of agriculture with little care for the soil became
prevalent. Tobacco depleted much of the soil of its nutrients
and when fields were abandoned, erosion quickly exhausted the
topsoil. At the time of the Civil War, labor became scarce and
much of the previously cultivated land was abandoned. These
abandoned fields were invaded by loblolly pine Pinus taeda,
pitch pine Pinus rigida and scrub pine Pinus virginiana. These
species are typical pioneer tree species in old field or
secondary succession. ;

Pine forests, although common, are not the climax
vegetation but are dominant due to a history of disturbances
including fire, agriculture and lumbering. Braun (1950) indicates

1 The information for this appendix has been taken from a
report by the author on the "Atlantic Coastal Plain Natural

Region Survey" written for a contract with the National Park
Service's Natural Landmarks Program. This report was edited by
the principal investigator and author by extracting those portions
relevant to the Chesapeake Bay region. This report has certain
shortcomings primarily relating to the difference in scope of the
two reports; the larger Atlantic Coastal Plain region versus the
more circumscribed Chesapeake Bay region.

that the Chesapeake Bay region should actually be considered an
Eastern Oak-Hickory Forest region due to the dominance of oaks
Quercus spp. and hickories Carya spp. in the climax communities.

The following is a breakdown of the major plant
community types occurring in the Chesapeake Bay region with an
indication of some of the critical environmental factors
(limiting factors) controlling the community. After each
description of a plant community type, some of the typical ani-
mal species associated with it are listed.

Aquatic Ecosystems

The northern portion of the Atlantic Coastal Plain is
characterized by drowned river valleys, the best example of which
is the Chesapeake Bay. The Chesapeake Bay is a unique estuary
comprised of the drowned Susquehanna River Valley and several of
its tributaries. The bay is unique because of its size and
isolation from the Atlantic Ocean.

Salt Marsh

The salt marsh community is here divided into two
different phases, the regularly flooded phase, and the irregularly
flooded phase. Salt marsh develops in the low areas where
inundation by salt water is frequent enough to prevent the sur-
vival of non-salt-tolerant species. The vegetation is dominated
by various grasses and sedges. Woody species occur only on the
higher ridges in this community.

The regularly flooded salt marshes occur along the open
ocean and in the shallow sounds behind barrier islands. They are
inundated twice daily to a depth of six inches or more by the
highly saline waters of normal high tides. The flushing action
of the tides is essential to this salt marsh community. It
brings in certain nutrients from the surrounding estuary and
flushes out toxic waste materials. Tidal creeks meander through
the salt marsh and are rich in silt and organic debris from inland
runoff. This provides additional nutrient supply to the surround-
ing marshes.

The regularly flooded salt marshes are generally dominated
by saltmarsh cordgrass Spartina alterniflora. Saltmeadow cordgrass
Spartina patens, salt grass Distichlis spicata, black needlerush
Juncus roemerianus and glasswort Salicornia spp. are usually abun-
dant. Along the more elevated ridges of the marsh, groundsel
Baccharis halimifolia, marsh elder Iva frutescens, sea oxeye
Borrichia frutescens, and sea lavender Limonium spp. occur.

The variations in drainage and salinity account for rather distinct
plant zonation and distribution.

Irregularly flooded salt marshes occur along the shores
of bays, sounds, and rivers. They are flooded only irregularly by
wind and storm tides with from a few inches to several feet of
water. Tidal creeks also dissect the irregularly flooded salt
marshes but are typically shorter and straighter than those of the
regularly flooded salt marshes. The water in these tidal creeks
generally is less rich in organic debris and silt.

The vegetation is largely dominated by black needlerush
Juncus roemerianus with saltmeadow cordgrass Spartina patens, salt
grass Distichlis spicata, glasswort Salicornia spp. and saltmarsh
three-square Scirpus robustus occurring as common associates. On
ridges of high ground, marsh elder Iva frutescens and groundsel
Bacharis halimifolia are common. Switchgrass Panicum virgatum
May occur over large areas adjacent to the upland along with sea
lavender Limonium spp. and sea oxeye Borrichia frutescens.

Typical animals include:

Horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus
Fiddler crabs Uca spp.

Marsh crab Sesarma reticulatum

Saltmarsh snail Melampus bidentatus
Periwinkle snail Littorina irrorata
Ribbed mussel Volsella demissa

Stinkpot Sternotherus odoratus
Diamondback terrapin Malaclemys terrapin
Water snake Natrix sipedon

Eastern hognose snake Heterodon platyrhinos
Canada goose Branta canadensis

Snow goose Chen hyp hyperborea

Mallard Anas ss platyrhynchos

Black duck Anas rubripes

Pintail Anas acuta

Blue winged teal Anas discors

American widgeon Mareca americana
Shoveler Spatula clypeata

Herons

Egrets

Marsh hawk Circus cyaneus

Sparrow hawk Falco sparverius

Clapper rail Rallus longirostris

Short eared owl Asio flammeus

Sharp tailed sparrow Ammospiza caudacuta
Seaside sparrow Ammospiza maritima

Opossum Didelphis marsupialis

Least Shrew Cryptotis parva

Least cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
Rice rat Oryzomys palustris

Meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus
Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus

Raccoon Procyon lotor

Mink Mustela vison

River otter Lutra canadensis

White tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

Critical environmental factors in the salt marsh include
salinity, frequency of inundation, and nutrient input and flushing
action of the tides.

Brackish Marsh

The brackish marsh community develops in the transition
zone between freshwater and salt marshes. Brackish marshes are
located along bays and coastal rivers and are irregularly inundated
by high winds and storms.

Several different plant associations are characteristic
of this major community type. A short form of saltmarsh cordgrass
Spartina alterniflora usually dominates the well drained areas. In
the more poorly drained depressions, Olney's three-square Scirpus
olneyi dominates with salt grass Distichlis spicata and black
needlerush Juncus roemerianus occurring more abundantly along the
better drained edges of such depressions. The taller form of salt-
marsh cordgrass Spartina alterniflora may be found in abundance
adjacent to tidal creeks, while saltmeadow cordgrass Spartina
patens dominates in well drained soils adjacent to pond and creek
borders. In the more elevated and drier areas, groundsel Baccharis
halimifolia and marsh elder Iva frutescens are common. Other
important plants in brackish marshes include widgeongrass Ruppia
maritima,atriplex Atriplex patula, sea lavender Limonium carolinianun,
seashore mallow Kosteletskya virginica and glasswort Salicornia spp.

Typical animals include:

Mud crabs Xanthidae

Blue crab Callinectes sapidus
Saltmarsh snail Melampus bidentatus
Periwinkle snail Littorina irrorata
Canada goose Branta canadensis

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos
Black duck Anas rubripes

Pintail Anas acuta

Blue winged teal Anas discors

Green winged teal Anas carolinensis
Gadwall Anas strepera

American widgeon Mareca americana
Shoveler Spatula clypeata

Hooded merganser Lophodytes cucullatus
Osprey Pandion haliaetus

King rail Rallus elegans

Short eared owl Asio flammeus

Opossum Didelphis marsupialis

Least shrew Cryptotis parva

Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
Rice rat Oryzomys palustris

Meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus
Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus

Raccoon Procyon lotor

Mink Mustela vison

River otter Lutra canadensis

White tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

Critical environmental factors include amount of salinity,
frequency of inundation, and depth of water.

Freshwater Marsh

As with the salt marsh community, the freshwater community
is divided into two phases, the coastal freshwater marsh phase and
the inland freshwater marsh phase. The primary source of water for
these marshes is precipitation and runoff via rivers and streams and
thus a totally different type of community develops.

The coastal freshwater marsh phase occurs along rivers and
streams where there is little or no tidal action as well as in
interdunal areas. The water is fresh or slightly brackish and
ranges in depth from ground level to several feet. A great diversity
of plants is distributed in these marshes in response to variation
in depth of water and salinity.

In areas where water is usually fresh, plants such as
cattail Typha spp., wildrice Zizania aquatica, sawgrass Cladium spp.
pickerelweed Pontederia cordata, and waterlily Nymphaea odorata
may form extensive stands. In the more brackish areas, species
characteristic of the more saline environments occur including tall
cordgrass Spartina cynosuroides and Olney's threesquare Scirpus
olneyi. Other typical species of the coastal freshwater marsh are
smartweeds Polygonum spp., spikerushes Eleocharis spp., sedges

Carex spp., phragmites Phragmites communis, arrowhead Sagittaria

spp., bulrushes Scirpus spp., pondweeds Potamogeton spp., button-
bush Cephalanthus occidentalis, jewelweeds Impatiens spp. and

alders Alnus spp.

The inland freshwater marsh phase is characterized by
many of the same species but forms in shallow lake basins, limestone
sinks sloughs, or at the borders of open water. The soil is water-
logged and may be covered by three feet or more of freshwater.
Cattails, pondweeds, bulrushes, arrowheads, smartweeds, sedges and
water lilies again are very important constituents of the marsh.
However, in the inland marshes, grasses Poaceace, rushes Juncus
spp., watermilfoils Myriophyllum spp., duckweeds Lemna spp., and
spatterdock Nuphar luteum occur, often in great abundance, choking
off open water areas.

Corresponding with the high diversity of plant species is
a high diversity of animal species.

Typical animals include:

Spotted salamander Ambystoma maculatum
Tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum
Spotted newt Notophthalmus viridescens
Fowler's toad Bufo woodhousei fowleri
American toad Bufo americanus

Tree frogs Hyla spp.

Chorus frogs Pseudacris spp.

Cricket frog Acris gryllus

Leopard frog Rana pipiens

Bull frog Rana catesbeiana

Green frog Rana clamitans

Snapping turtle Chelydra serpentina
Eastern mud turtle Kinosternon subrubrum
Stinkpot turtle Sternothaerus odoratus

Spotted turtle Clemmys guttata
Bog turtle Clemmys muhlenbergi

Painted turtle Chrysemys picta
Water snake Natrix sipedon

Eastern ribbon snake Thamnophis sauritus
Great blue heron Ardea herodias

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos
Southern bald eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus

leucocephalus
Marsh hawk Circus cyaneus
Osprey Pandion haliaetus
King rail Rallus elegans
Sora Porzana carolina

Common gallinule Gallinula chloropus
Coot Fulica americana

Short eared owl Asio flammeus

Belted kingfisher Megaceryle alcyon

Tree swallow Iridoprocne bicolor

Long billed marsh wren Telmatodytes palustris
Yellowthroat Geothypis trichas

Red winged blackbrid Agelaius phoeniceus
Meadowlark Sturnella magna

Song sparrow Melospiza melodia

Swamp sparrow Melospiza georgiana

Opossum Didelphis marsupialis
Masked shrew Sorex cinereus

Star nosed mole Condylura cristata
Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
Beaver Castor canadensis

Rice rat Oryzomys palustris

Meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus
Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus

Red fox Vulpes fulva

Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Raccoon Procyon lotor

Mink Mustela vison

Striped skunk Mephitis mephitis

River otter Lutra canadensis

White tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

Critical environmental factors in the freshwater marsh
include depth of water, salinity, rate of siltation, turbidity of
the water and competition for light and space.

Bog

Bog communities are divided into two different phases,
sphagnum bogs and cedar swamps. All bogs have several features
in common. They generally develop. in areas where drainage is
restricted, all have a surface layer of cushion-like vegetation,
and all have an accumulation of peat. The decidedly acid condition
of bogs limits the species which can persist here.

Sphagnum bogs are more typical of the mountain region and
the far north, however, particularly in the northern section of the
Atlantic Coastal Plain, they occur scattered across the landscape.
Very few sphagnum bogs have persisted in the Chesapeake Bay region.
The vegetation is generally low to the ground with the exception of
some scattered shrubs and trees. Two mosses Sphagnum and Hypnium
dominate the bog by creating a covering over the entire surface.
Other species scattered through the bog include buckbean Menyanthes
trifoliata, cotton grass Eriophorum spp., numerous sedges Carex
Spp-, cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon, sweet gale Myrica gale, bog

rosemary Andromeda glaucophylla, leatherleaf Chamaedaphne
calyculata and Labrador tea Ledum groenlandicum. Insectivorous
plants including pitcher plants Sarracenia purpurea, sundews
Drosera spp. and bladderworts Utricularia spp. also occur in
this rather unique community (Smith, 1966).

Cedar swamps are bogs dominated by dense, generally
even-aged stands of Atlantic Coastal Plain from New Jersey north.
While sphagnum bogs are usually small, cedar swamps may be exten-
sive as in sections of the Pocomoke River swamp. Pitch pine
Pinus rigida is widely scattered while red maple Acer rubrun,
black gum Nyssa sylvatica, and sweet bay Magnolia virginiana
form a dense understory. Other typical shrub species include
highbush blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum, fetterbush Leucothoe
spp. clammy azalea Rhododendron viscosum and bayberry Myrica
pennsylvanica. The herbaceous ground cover includes chain fern
Woodwardia virginica, bladderworts Utricularia spp., pitcher
plant Sarracenia purpurea, swamp pink Calopogon pulchellus, and
partridgeberry Mitchella repens which are generally rather
common.

Typical animals include:

Bull forg Rana catesbeiana

Green frog Rana clamitans

Carpenter frog Rana virgatipes

Bog turtle Clemmys muhlenbergi
Water snake Natrix sipedon

Bobwhite quail Colinus virginianus
Turkey Meleagris gallopava
Woodcock Rhilohela minor

Mourning dove Zenaidura macroura
Eastern wood pewee Contopus virens
Wood thrush Hylocichla mustelina
Parula warbler Parula americana
Hooded warbler Wilsonia citrina
Opossum Didelphis marsupials

Masked shrew Sorex cinereus

Star nosed mole Condylura cristata
Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
Beaver Castor canadensis

Red-backed vole Clethrionomys gapperi
Meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus
Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus

Red fox Vulpes fulva

Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus

B-9

Black bear Ursus americanus

Raccoon Procyon lotor

Mink Mustela vison

River otter Lutra canadensis

White tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

Critical environmental factors in this community include
frequency and severity of fire, duration of flooding and amount of
peat or elevation.

Cypress—Gum Swamp Forest

The cypress-gum swamp forest is probably the most
characteristic community of the South. It reaches its northern
distribution in the Chesapeake Bay region occurring in several
isolated areas such as Battle Creek Cypress swamp. In deeper
swamps where the land is flooded almost continuously, baldcypress
Taxodium distichum and/or water tupelo Nyssa aquatica will exist
without associates, although water tupelo is mush less tolerant
of flooding than is baldcypress (Penfound, 1952). This community
represents some of the wildest country remaining in the Atlantic
Coastal Plain. Several of the larger predators persist in these
swamps.

Typical animals include:

Pine woods tree frog Hyla femoralis
Green tree frog Hyla cinerea

Bull frog Rana catesbeiana

Snapping turtle Chelydra s Chelydra serpentina
Eastern mud turtle Kinosternon subrubrum
Stinkpot Sternothaerus odoratus

Spotted turtle Clemmys guttata

Painted turtle Chrysemys picta
Water snake Natrix sipedon

Eastern hognose snake Heterodon platyrhinos
Double crested cormorant Phalacrocorax auritus
Common egret Casmerodius albus

Black crowned night heron Nyct: Nycticorax nycticorax
Wood duck Aix sponsa

Red shouldered hawk Buteo lineatus

Woodcock Philohela minor

Barred owl Strix varia

Pileated woodpecker Hylatomus pileatus

Acadian flycatcher Empidonax virescens
Prothonotary warbler Protonotaria citrea
Cardinal Richmondena cardinalis

Opossum Didelphis marsupialis

B-10

Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
Gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis
Flying squirrel Glaucomys volans

Beaver Castor canadensis

Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus

Black bear Ursus americanus

Raccoon Procyon lotor

Mink Mustela vison

River otter Lutra canadensis

Bobcat Lynx rufus

White tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

Critical environmental factors include depth of water,
duration of flooded condition, amount of peat developed, and
occurrence of fire.

Land Ecosystems

Dune Community

This major community type fringes the Atlantic Ocean
encompassing the frontal dune complex which extends from the
ocean side base of the foredune, inland through the often closely
spaced, smaller, hummocky dunes.

The community is usually dominated by perennial grasses
with an occasional shrub or wind-shorn tree in protected areas.
All of the species which persist here must have a certain degree
of physiological salt tolerance to both salt spray and substrate
salinity. They also must be able to withstand high winds and
sand blasts, possess drought resistance, and be able to tolerate
low levels of certain nutrients such as nitrogen. Physiologically,
this is perhaps the harshest environment in the Atlantic Coastal
Plain.

Due to this harsh environment, the vegetation is sparse
with sea rocket Cakile spp.,pigweed Amaranthus pumila and saltwort
Salsola kali occurring on the beach and several grasses dominating
on the dunes. American beachgrass Ammophila breviligulata, salt-
meadow cordgrass Spartina patens, silver bunchgrass Panicum
amarulum and running beachgrass Panicum amarum are the dominant
grasses in the dune community. Herbaceous species gaining
importance behind the foredune include beach pea Strophostyles
helvola, sandbur Cenchrus tribuloides, seaside spurge Euphorbia

polygonifolia and various broomsedges Andropogon spp.

Typical animals include:

Horseshoe crab Limulus polyphemus
Ghost crab
Coquina clam

Six lined racerunner Chemidophorus sexlineatus
Eastern hognose snake Heterodon platyrhinos
Black racer Coluber constrictor

Black rat snake Elaphe obsoleta

Sparrow hawk Falco sparverius

Plovers Charadrius spp. and Squatarola squatarola
Turnstone Arenaria interpres

Willet Catoptrophorus semipalmatus
Sanderling Crocethia alba

Gulls Larus spp.

Terns Sterna spp.

Horned lark Eremophilia alpestris
Savanna sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis
Ipswich sparrow Passerculus princeps
Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
White footed mouse Peromyscus leucopus _
House mouse Mus musculus

Meadow jumping mouse Zapus hudsonius

The critical environmental factors in this community
include high salinity (salt spray and substrate salinity), drought
conditions (due to sandy soils, high winds, and high solar
radiation), and low nutrient availability.

Maritime Shrub Thicket

This community occupies the area behind the dune community
and is characterized by a dense growth of low shrubs, often tangled
with numerous lianas. Usually the closed cover of the shrub thicket
begins abruptly, with the shrubs massed on the ocean side of old
dunes. The first shrubs are commonly prostrate and become progressively
taller inland. The tops of these shrubs are closely sheared by wind-
borne salt spray and form a smooth, compact surface gradually increas-
ing in height inland.

The dominant plants in this community include common wax
myrtle Myrica cerifera, groundsel Baccharis halmifolia, shining
sumac Rhus copallina redcedar Juniperus virginiana and marsh elder
Iva frutescens. Important vines include Virginia creeper Parthenocissus
quinquefolia, poison ivy Rhus radicans, green briar Smilax spp. and
wild grape Vitis spp. Bayberry Myrica pennsylvanica, as well as
highbush blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum are important shrub species
(Higgins et. al., 1971.)

Typical animals include:
Toads Bufo spp.

Tree frogs Hyla spp.
Six lined racerunner Cnemidophorus sexlineatus

Eastern hognose snake Heterodon platyrhinos
Black racer Coluber constrictor

Yellow shafted flicker Colaptes auratus
Mockingbird Mimus polyglottus

Prairie warbler Dendroica discolor

Red winged blackbird Agelaius phoeniceus
Boat tailed grackle Cassidix mexicanus
Meadowlark Sturnella magna

Towhee Pipilo erythrophthalmus

Opossum Didelphis marsupialis
Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus

White footed mouse Peromyscus leucopus
Meadow jumping mouse Zapus hudsonius
Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Raccoon Procyon lotor

Mink Mustela vison

The critical environmental factors in this community are
basically the same as those of the dune community, however, they are
less severe due to the protection afforded by the foredune complex.

Maritime Forest

This community type develops immediately behind the maritime
shrub thicket community and consists of closely spaced trees. It
occurs on the mainland and/or on offshore islands and barrier beaches.
Although protected to some extent by large dunes and maritime shrub
thicket, it is strongly influenced by salt spray blown in from the
Atlantic Ocean (Wells, 1939; Boyce, 1954).

The community is dominated by redcedar Juniperus virginiana,
holly Ilex opaca, bear oak Quercus ilicifolia and pitch pine Pinus
rigida. (Harshberger, 1900).

Maritime forest normally develops on old dune systems and
interdunal freshwater marshes and ponds are common. The presence
of this freshwater supply allows for large populations of wildlife,
many species not normally associated with forest communities.

Typical animals include:

Snapping turtle Chelydra serpentina
Eastern mud turtle Kinosternon subrubrum

Spotted turtle Clemmys guttata

Ground skink Lygosoma laterale

Five lined skink Eumeces fasciatus

Water snake Natrix sipedon

Eastern hognose snake Heterodon platyrhinos

Black racer Coluber constrictor

Black rat snake Elaphe obsoleta
Diamondback rattlesnake Crotalus adamanteus
Sharp shinned hawk Accipter striatus velox
Red shouldered hawk Buteo lineatus

Red tailed hawk Buteo jamaicensis

Whip poor will Caprimulgus vociferus
Crested flycatcher Myiarchus crinitus
Carolina wren Thryothorus ludovicianus
White eyed vireo Vireo griseus

Red eyed vireo Vireo olivaceus

Parula warbler Parula americana

Yellow throated warbler Dendroica dominica
Pine warbler Dendroica pinus

Cardinal Richmondena cardinalis

Opossum Didelphis marsupialis

Gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis

White footed mouse Peromyscus leucopus

Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Raccoon Procyon lotor

Mink Mustela vison
White tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

The critical environmental factors controlling this
community are basically the same as those of the previous two
communities, namely, high salinity, drought conditions, and low
nutrient availability. However, this community has much less
severe conditions than the previous communities discussed.

Pine Flatwoods

In the northern portion of the Atlantic Coastal Plain
loblolly pine Pinus taeda, and pitch pine Pinus rigida become the
dominants of the coastal flatwoods. Loblolly pine is particularly
important in Virginia while pitch pine dominates in Maryland. The
pine flatwoods are generally rather open with an incomplete canopy
but often have a diverse shrub and herb zone.

Typical animals include:

Eastern spadefoot Scaphiopus holbrooki

Pine woods tree frog Hyla femoralis

Green tree frog Hyla cinerea

Box turtle Terrapene carolina

Fence lizard Sceloporus undulatus

Six lined racerunner Cnemidophorus sexlineatus
Ground skink Lygosoma laterale

Five lined skink Eumeces fasciatus

Cornsnake Elaphe guttata

Diamondback rattlesnake Crotalus adamanteus
Red tailed hawk Buteo jamaicensis

Broad winged hawk Buteo platypterus
Bobwhite quail Colinus virginianus

Mourning dove Zenaidura macroura

Great horned owl Bubo virginianus

Yellow shafted flicker Colaptes auratus
Hairy woodpecker Dendrocopus villosus

Downy woodpecker Dendrocopus pubescens

Red cockaded woodpecker Dendrocopus borealis
Brown headed nuthatch Sitta pusilla

Eastern bluebird Sialia sialis

Yellow throated warbler Dendroica dominica
Pine warbler Dendroica dominica

Pine warbler Dendroica pinus

Prairie warbler Dendroica discolor
Meadowlark Sturnella magna

Towhee Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Pine woods sparrow Aimophila aestivalis

Opossum Didelphis marsupialis
Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
Pine mouse Pitymys pinetorum

Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Raccoon Procyon lotor

Bobcat Lynx rufus
White tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

Critical environmental factors governing the composition
of this community include frequency of fire, drainage, and lack of
local relief.

Bottomland Hardwood Forest

This community type is one of the most diverse terrestrial
plant communities in the Atlantic Coastal Plain and is again,best
developed in the southern section of that province. It occupies the
floodplains of the major rivers, and is closely associated with the
cypress-gum swamp forest.

Behind a natural levee, three types of minor relief occur,
low ridges, flats, and sloughs. The presence of a clay pan restricts
drainage behind the levee and the flats and sloughs are flooded for
varying lengths of time. Cypress-gum swamp forest occupies the
sloughs and flats which remain flooded for long periods. The low
ridges, however, being a few feet above the normal flood level are
inundated only occasionally. Bottomland hardwood forest develops
on these ridges and on the higher flats. On older floodplain
terraces or second bottoms, this forest community attains its best
development (Putnam et. al., 1960).

Typically the most important trees are sweetgum

Liquidambar styraciflua, white oak Quercus alba, swamp chestnut
oak Quercus michauxii, laurel oak Quercus laurifolia, water oak
Quercus nigra, willow oak Quercus phellos, overcup oak Quercus

lyrata, pin oak Quercus palustris, Nuttall oak Quercus nuttalli,

water ash Fraxinus caroliniana, winged elm Ulmus alata, American
elm Ulmus americana, swamp tupelo Nyssa sylvatica var. biflora,
red maple Acer rubrum, loblolly pine Pinus taeda and hackberry
Celtis laevigata. Early successional stages, occurring close
to the river, are dominated by cottonwood Populus deltoides and
heterophylla and black willow Salix nigra.

Hotchkiss and Stewart (1947) indicate that beech
Fagus grandifolia dominates in the mature bottomland hardwood
forests of Maryland. On the smaller floodplains, especially
in the northern section of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, river
birch Betula nigra, sycamore Platanus occidentalis, box elder
Acer negundo and silver maple Acer saccharinum dominate the
stream sides.

The floodplain soils are quite rich due to the
frequent addition of alluvium. Farmers have cleared much of
the best drained bottomlands for cultivation and have reaped
great benefits from this land. This, must be considered as a
major threat to the survival of this forest as a community type.

Animal species are also quite abundant in this community
due to the presence of a large supply of foods.

Typical animals include:

Two lined salamander Eurycea bislineata
Fowler's toad Bufo woodhousei fowleri
Squirrel tree frog Hyla squirella

Pine woods tree frog Hyla femoralis
Green tree frog Hyla cinerea

Bull frog Rana catesbeiana

Box turtle Terrapene carolina

Broad headed skink Eumeces laticeps
Water snake Natrix sipedon

Eastern hognose snake Heterodon platyrhinos
Wood duck Aix sponsa

Red shouldered hawk Buteo lineatus
Bobwhite quail Colinus virginianus
Turkey Meleagris gallopavo

Woodcock Philohela minor

Barred owl Strix varia

B-16

Pileated woodpecker Hylatomus pileatus
Red headed woodpecker Melanerpes erythrocephalus
Acadian flycatcher Empidonax virescens
Prothonotary warbler Protonotaria citrea
Cardinal Richmondena cardinalis

Opossum Didelphis marsupialis

Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
Gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis

Fox squirrel Sciurus niger

Flying squirrel Glaucomys volans

Beaver Castor canadensis

Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus

Black bear Ursus americanus

Raccoon Procyon lotor

Mink Mustela vison

River Otter Lutra canadensis

Bobcat Lynx rufus

White tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

Critical environmental factors controlling the composition
of this community include duration of flooding, elevation and
drainage of soil, occurrence of fire and length of time covered
with vegetation.

Upland Pine Forest

This community type is here divided into two phases,
loblolly pine-shortleaf pine phase and pitch pine phase. The
overall importance of this community in the uplands of the
Atlantic Coastal Plain reflects the history of disturbance in
this region. The community is successional in nature, being com-
prised of a canopy of pines Pinus spp. and an understory of hard-
woods usually dominated by oaks Quercus spp.

The loblolly pine-shortleaf pine phase occupies the
disturbed upland habitats and is definitely successional. It is
generally associated with soils which possess more clay than the
soils in the pine flatwoods which are generally quite sandy.
Loblolly pine Pinus taeda in particular is the first tree species
to invade abandoned lands. It may dominate the forest for more
than 80 years before the climax hardwoods become dominant (Oosting,
1942). Shortleaf pine Pinus echinata, also a pioneer species,
attains its best development in the drier habitats as on ridge
tops. Except in the youngest stands, an understory of mixed hard-
woods including white oak Quercus alba, scarlet oak Quercus coccinea,

red oak Quercus rubra, black oak Quercus velutina, post oak Quercus
stellata, southern red oak Quercus falcata, water oak Quercus nigra,

mockernut hickory Carya tomentosa, pignut hickory Carya glabra,
black gum Nyssa sylvatica and sweetgum Liquidambar styraciflua
occurs. Often the hickories appear late in succession. Scrub
pine Pinus virginiana is also an important pioneer species,
particularly in the northern portion of the Chesapeake Bay region.

The pitch pine phase dominates the disturbed uplands
from Maryland north to Cape Cod along the Atlantic Coastal Plain.
Associated with the pitch pine are blackjack oak Quercus
marylandica, post oak Quercus stellata, black oak Quercus
velutina and scarlet oak Quercus coccinea. The scrub oak
Quercus ilicifolia is also a common associate on the drier
sites. (McCormick, 1970).

Typical animals include:

Dusky salamander Desmognathus fuscus

Red backed salamander Plethodon cinereus
Slimy salamander Plethodon glutinosus
Eastern spadefoot Scaphiopus holbrookt
Fowler's toad Bufo woodhousei fowleri

Box turtle Terrapene carolina

Fence lizard Sceloporus undulatus

Six lined racerunner Cnemidophorus sixlineatus
Ground skink Lygosoma laterale

Eastern garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis
Eastern hognose snake Heterodon platyrhinos
Black racer Coluber constrictor

Eastern coachwhip Mastigophis flagellum

Corn snake Elaphe guttata
Black rat snake Elaphe obsoleta

Pine snake Pituophis melanoleucus
Copperhead Agkistrodon contortrix

Timber rattlesnake Crotalus horridus
Bobwhite quail Colinus virginianus
Screech owl Otus asio

Great horned owl Bubo virginianus

Ruby throated hummingbird Archilochus -colubris
Eastern wood pewee Contopus virens
Carolina chickadee Parus carolinensis
Blue gray gnatcatcher Polioptila caerulea
White eyed vireo Vireo griseus

Pine warbler Dendroica pinus

Summer tanager Piranga rubra

Cardinal Richmondena cardinalis

Field sparrow Spizella pusilla

Opossum Didelphis marsupialis
Masked shrew Sorex cinerea

Short tailed shrew Blarina brevicauda
Common mole Scalopus aquaticus

Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
Gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis

Fox squirrel Sciurus niger

Red squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus
Flying squirrel Glaucomys volans

White fotted mouse Peromyscus leucopus
Meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus

Pine vole Pitymys pinetorum

Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Raccoon Procyon lotor

Bobcat Lynx rufus
White tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

Critical environmental factors determining the
vegetational composition in this community include frequency
of distrubance, water holding capacity of the soil, and fre-
quency of fire.

Upland Hardwood Forest

This vegetational type is considered to be the climax
vegetation in the upland regions of the Atlantic Coastal Plain.
In fact however, it is not particularly common on the Coastal
Plain due to the frequency of disturbance there. The upland
hardwood forest is dominated by various species of oak Quercus.

The xeric or dry phase of this community type occurs
primarily on the dry, sand ridges of the Coastal Plain. It is
dominated by scrubby oaks which persist after the timbering or
death of various pines, especially shortleaf pine Pinus echinata,
scrub pine Pinus virginiana, and pitch pine Pinus rigida. On
the more mesic sites, southern red oak Quercus falcata often
dominates. Blackjack oak Quercus marylandica,post oak Quercus
stellata and scrub oak Quercus ilicifolia are the characteristic
species however, pine is usually always present due to the
frequency of fire and/or other disturbances.

The intermediate phase of the upland hardwood forest
is the most common representative of this community type. In
the northern section of the Coastal Plain, the dominant species
include biack oak Quercus velutina, chestnut oak Quercus prinus,
white oak Quercus alba and scarlet oak Quercus coccinea with
blackgum Nyssa sylvatica, post oak Quercus stellata and several
hickories Carya spp. also being common.

The rich or mesic phase occurs only on the best sites,
such as moist ravines. The most indicative species of this
community is the beech Fagus grandifolia. Quarterman and
Keever (1962) termed this community (in southern Coastal Plain)
the Southern Mixed Hardwood Forest. They identify 14 species
which are very important and 10 taxa which are highly restricted
to this community. The 14 species include beech Fagus grandifolia,
white oak Quercus alba, sweetgum Liquidambar styraciflua, laurel
oak Quercus laurifolia, southern magnolia Magnolia grandiflora,
water oak Quercus nigra, mockernut hickory Carya tomentosa,
pignut hickory Carya glabra, loblolly pine Pinus, taeda, southern
red oak Quercus falcata, blackgum Nyssa sylvatica, holly Ilex
opaca, dogwood Cornus florida, and farkleberry Vaccinium arboreum.

Typical animals include:

Dusky salamander Desmognathus fuscus
Red backed salamander Plethodon cinereus
Slimy salamander Plethodon cinereus

Two lined salamander Eurycea bislineata
Fowler's toad Bufo woodhousei forleri
Box turtle Terrapene carolina

Ground skink Lygosoma laterale

Broad headed skink Eumeces laticeps
Eastern garter snake Thamn amnophis sirtalis
Black racer Coluber constrictor

Black rat snake Elaphe obsoleta
Copperhead Agkistrodon contortrix

Red shouldered hawk Buteo lineatus

Red tailed hawk Buteo jamaicensis

Broad winged hawk Buteo platypterus
Bobwhite quail Colinus virginianus
Turkey Meleagris s gallopavo

Screech owl Otus asio

Great horned owl Bubo virginianus

Ruby throated hummingbird Archilochus colubris
Yellow shafted flicker Colaptes auratus
Pileated woodpecker Hylatomus pileatus
Red headed woodpecker Melanerpes erythrocephalus
Hairy woodpecker Dendrocopus villosus
Downy woodpecker Dendrocopus pubescens
Acadian flycatcher Empidonax virescens
Eastern wood pewee Contopus virens
Crested flycatcher Myiarchus crinitus
Common crow Corvus brachyrhynos

Blue jay Cyanocitta cristata

Tufted titmouse Parus bicolor

Carolina chickadee Parus carolinensis

White breasted nuthatch Sitta carolinensis
Carolina wren Thryothorus ludovicanus
Wood thrust Hylocichla mustelina
Yellow throated vireo Vireo flavifrons
Red eyed vireo Vireo olivaceus

Black and white warbler Mniotilta varia
Oven bird Seiurus aurocapillus

Hooded warbler Wilsonia citrina

Summer tanager Piranga rubra

Cardinal Richmondena cardinalis

Slate colored junco Junco hyemalis
Opossum Didelphis marsupialis

Masked shrew Sorex cinereus

Short tailed shrew Blarina brevicauda
Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus
Eastern chipmunk Tamias striatus

Gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis

Fox squirrel Sciurus niger

Flying squirrel Glaucomys volans

White footed mouse Peromyscus leucopus
Pine vole Pitymys pinetorum

Gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Raccoon Procyon lotor

Long tailed weasel Mustela frenata

Striped skunk Mephitis mephitis
White tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus

Critical environmental factors controlling the character
of this community include water holding capacity of the soil,
frequency of disturbance, and topography.

Old Field Community

This is a community type which occurs over the entire
Atlantic Coastal Plain in almost all upland situations. The old
field community develops on abandoned lands, particularly
agricultural lands.

The vegetational composition of these old fields is
largely dependent on the amount of time since abandonment.
Immediately following abandonment weeds invade the land including
crabgrass Digitaria sanguinalis and horseweed Erigeron canadensis.
The first year after abandonment, old fields are totally domi-
nated by horseweed. The next few years the old field community
is dominated by white aster Aster pilosus. During this time,
broomsedge Andropogon virginicus appears and begins to spread
until it eventually dominates the old field community. During
the broomsedge stage, young pines begin to appear in the fields
and eventually as they grow their crowns meet and a closed
canopy develops. Once this occurs the broomsedge will become

uncommon as it cannot survive under the dense shade produced by

the closed canopy. As the pines grow the community type changes
to a pine flatwoods or upland pine forest community and if

there is little or no further disturbance upland hardwood

forest becomes the climax vegetation. This sequence of changes

is occurring throughout the Atlantic Coastal Plain and is called
secondary succession or old field succession.

Typical animals of the early stages include:

Fowler's toad Bufo woodhousei fowleri

American toad Bufo americanus

Six lined racerunner Cnemidophorus sexlineatus
Black racer Coluber constrictor

Black rat snake Elaphe obsoleta

Red shouldered hawk Buteo lineatus

Red tailed hawk Buteo jamaicensis

Marsh hawk Circus cyaneus

Bobwhite quail Colinus virginianus

Mourning dove Zenaidura macroura

White eyed vireo Vireo griseus

Prairie warbler Dendroica discolor
Yellowthroat Geothlypis trichas

Yellow breasted chat Icteria virens
Meadowlark Sturnella magna

Cardinal Richmondena cardinalis

Towhee Pipilo erythrophthalmus

Savanna sparrow Passerculus sandwichensis
Grasshopper sparrow Ammodramus savannarum
Bachman's sparrow Aimophila aestivalis bachmanii

Field sparrow Spizella pusilla
Opossum Didelphis marsupialis

Short tailed shrew Blarina brevicauda
Least shrew Cryptotis parva

Common mole Scalopus aguaticus
Eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus

White footed mouse Peromyscus leucopus
Meadow jumping mouse Zapus hudsonius
Housemouse Mus musculus

Meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus
Long tailed weasel Mustela frenata
Striped skunk Mephitis mephitis

Red fox Vulpes vulpes

Critical environmental factors determining its vegetational
composition include length of time left abandoned, low soil water
holding capacity, low soil nutrient status and frequency of disturb-
ance. It has been shown that allelopathy or "Chemical warfare
between plants" occurs in the early stages of succession (Keever,
1950) and thus this is a critical environmental factor.

B-22

REFERENCES

Bernard, J. M. andar: A. Bernard. 1971. Mature upland forests
of Cape May County, New Jersey. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club
98(3):167-171.

Boyce, S. E. 1954. The salt spray community. Ecol. Monogr.
24(1) :29-67.

Braun, E. L. 1950. Deciduous forests of eastern North America.
Hafner Publishing Company, Inc., New York, p. 596.

Buell, M. F. and R. L. Cain. 1943. The successional role of
Southern White Cedar, Chamaecyparis thyoides, in south-
eastern North Carolina. Ecol. 24(1):85-93.

Burt, W. H. and R. P. Grossenheider. 1964. A field guide to the
mammals. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, p. 284.

Conant, R. 1958. A field guide to reptiles and amphibians,
Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, p. 366.

Fenneman, N. M. 1938. Physiography of eastern United States.
McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New York, p. 714.

* Gerlach, A. C. (ed). 1970. The national atlas of the United
States of America. U. S. Government Printing Office.,
Washington, D. C. p. 417.

Golley, F. B. 1962. Mammals of Georgia. University of Georgia
Press, Athens, Georgia, p. 218.

Hamilton, W. J. Jr. 1943. The mammals of eastern United States.
Comstock Publishing Company, Ithaca, New York, p. 432.

Hammond, E. H. 1964. Classes of land surface form in the forty-
eight states, U.S.A. . Annals of the Assoc. of Amer.
Geographers 54(1): map supplement no. 4.

Randley, C. 0. Jr. and C. P. Patton. 1947. Wild mammals of
Virginia. Commonwealth of Virginia, Comm. of Game and
Inland Fisheries, Richmond, Virginia, p. 220.

Harshberger, J. W. 1900. An ecological study of the New Jersey
strand flora. Proc. of the Acad. of Nat. Sciences of
Phila. 52:623-671.

B-23

Higgins, E.A.T., R. D. Rappleye, and R. G. Brown. 1971. The flora
and ecology of Assateague Island. Univ. of Maryland Agriculture
Experiment Station Bull. No. A-172. Univ. of Maryland, College
Park, Md. p. 70. i

Hotchkiss, N. and R. E. Stewart. 1947. Vegetation of the Patuxent
Research Refuge, Maryland. Amer. Midl. Nat. 38(1):1-75.

\) Keever, C. 1950. Causes of succession on old fields of the Piedmont,
North Carolina. Ecol. Monogr. 20:229-250.

Kellogg, C. (ed.). 1957. Soil--The 1957 yearbook of agriculture.
U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. p. 784.

Laessle, A. M. 1958. The origin and successional relationships of
sandhill vegetation and sand-pine scrub. Ecol. Monogr.
28(4) :361-387.

McCormick, J. 1970. The pine barrens: A preliminary ecological
inventory. New Jersey State Museum Report No. 2.

Monk, C. D. 1965. Southern mixed hardwood forest of northcentral
Florida. Ecol. Monogr. 35:335-354.

Monk, C. D. 1968. Successional and environmental relationships of
the forest vegetation of north central Florida. Amer. Midl.
Nat. 79(2):441-457.

Monk, C. D. and T. W. Brown. 1965. Ecological considetations of ©
cypress heads in northcentral Florida. Amer. Midl. Nat.
74(1) :126-140.

Murray, G. E. 1961. Geology of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal
Province of North America. Harper and Brothers, New York,
p- 692.

Oosting, H. J. 1942. An ecological analysis of the plant communities
of Piedmont, North Carolina. Amer. Midl. Nat. 28(1):1-126.

Oosting, H.’ J. 1954. Ecological processes and vegetation of the
maritime strand in the southeastern United States. Bot. Rev.
20(4) :226-262. °

Penfound, W. T. 1952. Southern swamps and marshes. Bot. Rev.
18 (6) 413-446. |

Peterson, R. T. 1947. A field guide to the birds. Houghton
Mifflin Company, Boston, p. 230.

Neprouce, W. F. 1952. Carolina bays and their origin. Geol. Soc.
Amerc. Bull. 63:167-224.

B-24

\ Putnam, J. A.,G. M. Furnival, and J. S. McKnight. 1960.
Management and inventory of southern hardwoods. Agriculture
Handbook No. 181. U. S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D. C. p. 102.

Quarterman, E. and C. Keever. 1962. Southern mixed hardwood
forest: Climax in the southeastern Coastal Plain, U.S.A..
Ecol. Monogr. 32:167-185.

Shelford, V. E. 1963. The ecology of North America. Univ. of
Illinois Press, Urbana, I1ll., p. 610.

Sirkin, L. A. 1972. Origin and history of Maple Bog in the
Sunken Forest, Fire Island, New York. Bull. Torrey Bot.
Club 99:131-135.

Smith, R. ti 1966. Ecology and field biology. Harper and Row,
Publishers, New York, p. 686.

Trewartha, G. T. 1954. An introduction to climate. McGraw-Hill
‘ Book Company, Inc., New York, p. 402.

Wells, B. W. 1939. A new forest climax: The salt spray climax
of Smith Island. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 66:629-634.

Wells, B. W. and I. V. Shunk. 1931. The vegetation and habitat
factors of the coarser sands of the”’North Carolina Coastal
Plain: An ecological study. Ecol. Monogr. 1:465-521.

APPENDIX C

RARE, ENDANGERED AND THREATENED VERTEBRATE SPECIES

OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY REGION

by

Anne LaBastille, Ph.D.

Center for Natural Areas

Ecology Program

Smithsonian Institution

April, 1973

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RARE, ENDANGERED, AND THREATENED VERTEBRATE SPECIES IN THE CHESAPEAKE
BAY REGION

INTRODUCTION

This report is part of a larger series of reports dealing with
the Atlantic Coastal Plain and the Maine Coast as part of a coordinated
effort to identify and analyze conservation priorities and selection of
natural areas and landmarks along the east coast of the United States.

The Chesapeake Bay region, being one of the most outstanding
because of its natural resource values and its proximity to large
metropolitan complexes, was given special attention. This project
was originated by The Nature Conservancy, in conjunction with the
Chesapeake Bay Foundation, and was carried out by the Smithsonian
Center for Natural Areas.

This report deals with rare, endangered, and threatened vertebrate
animals occurring in the Chesapeake Bay area. Geographically the area
is delineated by U. S. Highway 13 on the east, the North Carolina/
Virginia state line to the south, the Fall Line or Interstate 95 on
the west and north. This includes the Bay and its tributaries roughly
to the limit of tidal influence.

A series of base maps has been developed by the Smithsonian
Center for Natural Areas showing significant ecological data along the
Atlantic Coastal Plain. A special set of maps of the Chesapeake Bay
region indicates detailed zoological factors and sites where rare,
endangered, or threatened fish and wildlife occur. Areas harboring
such species have been given high rating among the conservation
priorities in selecting natural areas for preservation.

SCOPE OF REPORT

The report summarizes existing and current information on rare,
endangered, and threatened species of fish, amphibians, reptiles,
birds, and mammals which occur in the Chesapeake Bay region. Included
are species which are recognized on the U. S. Department of Interior's
federal registry of endangered animals; and also species which are
apparently experiencing rapid depletion in numbers and may be threatened.
The data presented cover the status, estimated numbers, present distri-
bution, reasons for decline, ecological values, and conservation
measures taken or proposed for those species listed below. This
information is presented in the same format as the U. S. Department of
Interior's Redbook, "Threatened Wildlife of the United States", and
the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(I.U.C.N.), Red Data Books.

METHODOLOGY

Data were assembled by contacting competent persons known
to be experts on particular species or groups of species.
Contact was made by personal interview, by telephone, and by a
three-page questionnaire asking for detailed information on
rare, endangered, or threatened species. This material was
then compiled on the following data sheets.

The significant literature was reviewed, with emphasis
placed on more recent papers and books (from 1960 to 1973).
Since a time lag often exists between gathering of data and
its publication, the most-up-to-date information was obtained
through personal communication.

CLASSIFICATION OF SPECIES

There are not many rare, endangered, or threatened
species of vertebrate animals in the Chesapeake Bay region.
Those that occur there are dependent in part on the presence
of natural and undisturbed habitats, and also on the broader
aspect of uncontaminated environmental conditions. This is
particularly important to birds of prey which are dependent on
a long food chain, and where they may accumulate high levels
of persistent chemicals. Chesapeake Bay is especially important
as a nesting area for the endangered southern subspecies of the bald
eagles and for ospreys. Both species reach relatively high con-
centrations in this area.

c-3

CLASSIFICATION OF RARE, ENDANGERED, AND THREATENED FISH AND WILDLIFE
SPECIES IN CHESAPEAKE BAY REGION

Rarity Classification

Species Name USDI IUCN
Delmarva Fox Squirrel Endangered 1(b)R
Southern Bald Eagle Endangered 2(b)P*
Osprey Threatened
(Amer .Birds,1973)
Arctic Peregrine Falcon Endangered
Ipswich Sparrow Rare 2(a)P*
Bog Turtle Rare 2(a)
Sea Turtles:
Green Threatened 3(a)PT
Loggerhead 3(a)PT
Leatherback
Hawksbill 1(a)PT
Atlantic Ridley
Maryland Darter Endangered 2(a)S Endangered
(Miller, 1972)
Key to Classification on IUCN List:
(a) = full species
(b) = subspecies
* = denotes species or subspecies critically endangered
1 = endangered
2 = rare
3. = depleted
T = subject to substantial export trade
P = legally protected, at least in some parts of its range
S = secrecy still desirable

Reference to List:

American Birds, 1973 (in press).
early warning system for birds).

I.U.C.N. 1971 (Rev.) Red Data Books, vol. 1-4:

The Blue List for 1973: (an

(Pisces, Amphibia

and Reptiles, Aves, Mammalia) Morges 1110, Switzerland.

Milaler REAR’, 1977/2:

Threatened freshwater fishes of the United

States. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., Vol. 101 (2):239-252.

U.S.D.1. 1973. Threatened Wildlife of the United States. Office

of Endangered Species and International Activities, Bureau Sport
Fisheries and Wildlife.

DELMARVA FOX SQUIRREL Sciurus niger cinereus (Linnaeus)
or
Bryants Fox Squirrel Sciurus niger bryanti

Sciurus niger neglectus (Gray) *

Order: RODENTIA
Family: SCIURIDAE

Estimated Numbers: About 500+ are known, and may be 1000+, but no total
estimates are available. In 1964, Linduska estimated the population in
the low thousands.

Present Distribution: These squirrels are found only in four Maryland
counties, with certainty, plus one isolated record on the county line
of Caroline/Talbot County. Introductions were made in one area at
Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge, Virginia. The main range is

50 to 75 miles x 25 miles. These are plotted in the map of zoological
factors of ecological importance (Map 2).

Kent County - Eastern Neck Island and Eastern Neck National Wild-
life Refuge, found in grain fields and woodlands and marsh on
refuge, especially along Hickory Ridge. There is an estimate of
250+ squirrels (Refuge Manager, 1972). Possibly a few still occur
on land owned by Eugene DuPont near Rock Hall, but no recent
records.

Queen Anne County - On Wye Island about 75 acres of loblolly
pine near Wye River with an estimate of several squirrels.
Possibly also at Wye Mills; possibly also near Church Hill.

Talbot County - near Trappe along Choptank River (Walsh, 1973;
Flyger, 1973); at head of Miles River (duPont McConnell, 1973);
possibly around Bruceville, Windy Hill and Barber areas - the
latter being along the LaTrappe River and creek with no name
north of Choptank River (Walsh, 1973). Possibly at Little Neck
and Island Creek Neck area (Walsh, 1973).

Dorchester County - Drawbridge area (Flyger, 1973); Walsh, 1973;
also suggested from Presque Isle, Vienna, Ellicott and Steele

Neck (Walsh, 1973) Linkwood State Wildlife Management Area has an
area of 300 acres but few squirrels were estimated (Germany, 1972).

Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge - There are 11,300 acres with
about 400 to 500 acres wooded and suitable for squirrel habitat
with an estimate of 150+ squirrels (Julien and Germany, 1972).

C-5

The squirrels are usually found in ratio of one to three with
Gray Squirrels (the latter predominating.) In one census 142
nests were counted, but this is,poor indicator since one
squirrel or pair of squirrels may make more than one nest. On

a 52 acre sample plot on the Refuge, 15 Dalmarva Fox Squirrels
were trapped and released (8 females, 7 males). An estimated 18
squirrels for the plot was calculated. Population density based
on trap-recapture census study at Blackwater N.W.R. indicates
that .37 Fox Squirrels occur per acre; or one squirrel needs
about four acres of habitat, depending on mast crops. (Germany
and Julien, 1972). It is also suggested that squirrels occur
outside the Refuge in Kentuck and Greenbriar Swamps.

L'Compte State Wildlife Refuge contains 500 acres but few
squirrels. Although this is supposedly a Fox Squirrel sanctuary,
the area is not being managed for their benefit.

Piney Swamp, north of Blackwater River, has also been suggested
as a squirrel habitat.

Caroline County - Only one record, but as mentioned above only a
few squirrels were estimated.

Somerset County - It was suggested that Big Swamp next to an
existing wildlife management plot may have some squirrels
(Rivinus, 1972) but no proof exists.

Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge: Delmarva Fox Squirrels
are not known to exist here in the past, although they might have

been within the overall range. Squirrels were introduced in
March, 1968, 14 squirrels (7 females, 7 males), but several died.
Another introduction made in January, 1971, of 23 squirrels, but
5 died. There are 600 acres of marginal to fair habitat between
Sow Ponds, along ridge of White Hills, to Tom's Cove. This is

a total area of 2.6 x .5 miles. A young squirrel was seen in
January 1972 and in the fall of 1972, (Appel, 1972), (Julien and
Germany, 1972). It is estimated that 4 to 5 years may be
necessary to build up a viable population; however, squirrels
are not doing well and may die out completely.

Note: Good stands of mature to old loblolly pine and also pine
mixed with hardwoods are preferred by squirrels. Some large
timber exists in private estates on the peninsulas west of Rt.
33 near St. Michaels and Royal Oak. Inquiry did not disclose
whether squirrels have ever been seen here.

Status: Classified as endangered by U. S. Department of Interior.
Considered to be threatened with extinction (Flyger, 1973). May be
thought of as a threatened "island form" because of restricted range
on Delmarva Peninsula. The populations are decreasing fairly rapidly.

Reasons for Decline:

1. Encroachment on habitat by real estate (vacation homes, etc.)
and agriculture.

2. Heavy cutting of pine and hardwood stands during 1880's and again
at present. State forestry policy encourages woodlot owners to cut
their mature hardwood stands and plant quick-growing loblolly pine
for marketing.

3. Fires destroy habitat.

4. Indiscriminate hunting and poaching, and occasional confusion
by hunters between Delmarva Fox Squirrel and Eastern Grey Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis, because they have no knowledge of different
characteristics. Also, juvenile Fox Squirrels may be mistaken for
Grey Squirrels.

One pair of captive squirrels is being held at Remington
Farms, Chestertown, Md., for breeding purposes. Squirrels have been
held for 4 years and have not yet produced young. (Galbraith, 1973).

Protective Measures Taken:

1. Establishment of Blackwater and Eastern Neck National Wild-
life Refuges; plus the L'Compote State Wildlife Management Area (1970)
where squirrels find sanctuary and their habitat is protected.

2. State of Maryland banned hunting Delmarva Fox Squirrels in
1971 and imposed a $50 fine for taking them.

3. Introduction to Chincoteague N.W.R. in 1968 and 1971 to pro-
vide a breeding nucleus on federally protected lands.

4. Research is being conducted at the University of Maryland by
Dr. V. Flyger and Mr. G. Taylor.

Protective Measures Proposed:

1. Stop logging mature stands of loblolly Pinus taeda and hard-
woods where good squirrel habitat exists. Another incentive might be
offered for leaving land in woodland condition.

2. Acquire untouched areas of Kentuck and Greenbriar Swamps
adjoining the Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge which contain good
squirrel habitat and possibly squirrels. Also try to investigate
and acquire habitat on LaTrappe Creek and Big Swamp. An attempt
should be made to acquire, (if not too late) the Wye Mills or Wye
Island land since this is proposed to be developed into five-acre
housing lots.

3. L'Compte State Wildlife Management Area should be managed
specifically for squirrels, not for other species of game.

4. Develop further research efforts into distribution,
behavior, limiting factors, and optimum habitat conditions for the
species.

5. Breed in captivity if possible so as to have extra stock;
release into wild to restock good habitat.

6. Public education to help people differentiate between Grey
and Fox Squirrels so that they will not hunt the wrong species, nor
molest them in other ways.

Ecological Significance:

1. <A beautiful and unique mammal.
2. Sport hunting, wildlife photography, nature viewing.

3. Serves as prey species for several forms of predators
(owls, hawks, foxes, eagles, etc.)

4. Squirrels plant seeds of mast trees and help forest
reproduction.

5. The enzyme defect in the heme biosynthetic pathway is the
same in the Fox Squirrel Sciurus niger as in porphyric cattle and
human beings. Therefore, members of this species can provide a
small animal laboratory model for studies of congenital erythro-
poietic porphyria (a hereditary disease of humans and cattle)
associated with a similar partial deficiency of uroporphyrinogen III
cosynthetase (Levin and Flyger, 1971).

References: (Personal communication)

Dr. Vagn Flyger, Institute of Natural Resources, University of
Maryland, College Park, Md.

Mr. Galbraith, Asst. Mg., Remington Farms, Chestertown, Md.

Mr. Bob Germany, Asst. Mgr., Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge,
Cambridge, Md.

Mr. W. Julien, Refuge Mgr., Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge,
Cambridge, Md.

Mrs. Jean duPont McConnell, (estate owner near St. Michaels), %120
120 Delaware Trust Bldg., Wilmington, Del., 19801.

Refuge Manager (former). Eastern Neck National Wildlife Refuge,
Rock Hall, Md.

Rivinus, Edward F. Aug. 22, 1972, and Nov. 3, 1972. Office memo
to Office of Environmental Sciences, Smithsonian Institution.

Gary Taylor, graduate student, Institute of Natural Resources,
University of Maryland, College Park, Md.

Mr. Mike Walsh, game warden, Md. State Dept. Natural Resources,
Talbot County, Md.

Literature:

Flyger, Vagn. 1964. Urban Sprawl endangers native Maryland
mammals. Maryland Conservationist. 41(3):6-7.

Levin, E. Y. and V. Flyger. 1971. Uroporphyrinogen III
cosynthetase activity in the Fox Squirrel Sciurus niger. Science
174:59-60.

Linduska, J. P. Apr. 9, 1964. in litt. Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife, Dept. of Interior, Washington, D. C.

Miller, G. S., Jr. and R. Kellogg. 1955. List of North American
Recent Mammals. U. S. Natl. Museum. Bull. 205, Washington, D.C.

Paradise, J. L. 1969. Mammals of Maryland. North American Fauna
66: 193 pp.

Rhodes, L. 1971. Delmarva Peninsula Fox Squirrel study - first
report for Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge. Unpublished
report. 19 p.

c-9

SOUTHERN BALD EAGLE Haliaeetus leucocephalus leucocephalus
Order: FALCONIFORMES

Family: ACCIPITRIDAE

Estimated Numbers: The Chesapeake Bay region has had a population of
about 65 pairs of eagles since the mid-1960's, following a 60 percent
reduction in nesting pairs. (Abbott, 1971).

1972 - 40 breeding pairs (Natl. Audubon Soc., pers. comm. 1972).

1972 - 58 active nests; 20 young hatched; 1.3 young/successful
nest; 32% hatching success of rechecked nests (Abbott, 1972).

1971 - 56 active nests; 26 young hatched; 1.2 young/successful
nest; 35.7% hatching success of rechecked nests (Abbott,
1971).

1970 - 58 active nests; 22 young hatched; 1.3 young/successful
nest; 32.6% hatching success of rechecked nests (Abbott,
1970).

1969 - 50 active nests; 29 young hatched; 1.5 young/successful
nest; 38.8% hatching success of rechecked nests (Abbott,
1969).

1966 - 70 pairs (Natl. Audubon Soc., 1966).

1936 - 200 pairs of eagles; 250 active nests (Abbott, 1965);
1.8 young/successful nest (Sprunt, 1973).

Present Distribution:

See map 2, and reports at Smithsonian Institution with detailed
locations of eagle nests (active and inactive) for Chesapeake Bay
region (1970-1973), provided by Jackson Abbott. A total of 89 nest
sites (not all active in one year): 4 in Delaware, 45 in Maryland; and
41 in Virginia. The region is the most productive area for Southern
Bald Eagles north of Florida.

Mason's Neck National Wildlife Refuge - contains 904 acres of
federal land with 4000 acres collectively protected by State and

other lands on Mason Neck. The area has a year-round concentration
of eagles, both winter and summer roosters, and a few nesters.

Some artificial nest platforms have been installed for eagle use.
There are usually 12 to 20 adult birds in the area. Recently up

to 4 pairs nested; now only one pair, (Julien, 1972). No nests

are on the N. W. Refuge, but one site close by on State land.

Assateague Island National Seashore - occasional sightings only
(Norris, 1973).

Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge - one or two seen each year;

used to be fairly common as a wintering bird. None nesting now,
(Appel, 1972).

Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge - one or two seen each year;

but they used to be fairly common as a wintering bird. None are
nesting now. (Appel, 1972).

Blackwater N.W.R. - Has densest population of breeding eagles in
Chesapeake Bay area. In 1972, 3 nests on Refuge lands; 1971, 7
nests on Refuge and adjacent lands, (Julien, 1972).

Status: Endangered - on U. S. Dept. of Interior federal list of
endangered species. Seriously threatened and declining. A long-term
trend downwards in numbers. A shift in location of nesting activities
has accompanied the decline in numbers. Eagles have disappeared from
upper parts of the tributaries and rivers and the upper part of the
Bay. They now concentrate near river estuaries and in the lower part
of the Bay. Pollutants here seem to be more diluted and dispersed due
to the action of currents; therefore, the food supply is better,
(Abbott, 1965, 1971).

Reasons for Decline:

1. Trauma, primarily from shooting, is one of the greatest, if not
the greatest, cause of mortality among eagles, (Coon, et.al., 1970).

2. Concentrations of pesticides and their metabolites which are
probably major factors causing decrease in Bald Eagle populations
through egg-shell thinning from non-lethal amounts of DDE and other
metabolites, or by direct mortality by lethal amounts, (see literature
references on contamination).

3. Pollution of waterways (feeding areas) which limits fish
(food supply) of eagles.

4, Removal of habitat and nest sites around the bay by farming,
real estate development, encroachment of power transmission lines, and
lumbering of tidewater forests.

5. Reproductive rate is below that considered necessary to main-
tain the population. A 50% fledgling rate is needed, or at least one
fledged young per nest, for stable populations. In the Chesapeake Bay
area, however, the fledgling rate is only 5 to 35% (Abbott, 1971).
According to Sprunt (1969) and Sprunt et al. (1966), nesting success is
only 15% here.

Protective Measures Taken:

1. Protection by federal law and fine of $500 for killing an eagle.
Laws to prohibit shooting.

2. Removal of bounty for eagles (which Alaska had for years).

3. Intensive investigations into pesticide and other chemical
contamination of eagles and eagle eggs, their biology, distribution,
behavior, etc. being carried out by Patuxent Wildlife Research Center,
National Audubon Soc., State fish and game departments, etc. Investi-
gations into artificial breeding programs.

4. Censuses are being made annually by Jackson Abbott, Fred
Scott, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, and others to locate
nest sites around Chesapeake Bay and determine activity, productivity,
etc. Usually two airplane flights are made per breeding season.

5. Continued protection and acquisition of nest sites where not
owned by federal or state conservation agencies to avoid destruction
or disturbance to nesting eagles. In some cases, as in Maine and
Florida, individual agreements are reached with private landowners to
protect nest sites and birds.

6. Continued protection on federal and state refuges.

Protective Measures Proposed:

1. Acquisition of all known nest sites around Chesapeake Bay
area as sanctuaries.

2. Continued research on, and control of, environmental contam-
inants, especially pesticides and PCB's which can effect eagle repro-
duction.

3. Increased public education and involvement in saving the
species.

4. Continued research on eagle behavior and reproduction, plus
emphasis on captive breeding programs.

5. Increased enforcement of eagle laws and increased punish-
ment of offenders.

6. Water pollution abatement.

7. Proper safe-guards on power lines to prevent electrocution,
where needed.

Ecological Significance and General Value:

1. U. S. National symbol - with all accompanying traditional,
cultural, aesthetic, historical, symbolic and inspirational qualities
with which this bird is imbued.

2. Important indicator species to monitor effects of pesticides
and other environmental contaminants.

3. Predation and maintenance of healthy prey populations.

4. Bird-watching as a popular past-time, plus wildlife
photography.

5. Political expediency to "save'' the species.

6. Excellent educational tool to teach conservation attitudes
to children.

References: (personal communication)
Mr. Jackson Abbott, 8501 Doter Drive, Alexandria, Va. 22308.

Mr. J. Appel, Refuge Manager, Chincoteague National Wildlife
Refuge, Box 62, Chincoteague, Va. 23336.

Mr. W. Julien, Refuge Manager, Blackwater National Wildlife
Refuge, Cambridge, Maryland.

National Audubon Society, Research Division, 115 Indian Mound
Trail, Tavernier, Fla. 33070.

Mr. Thomas Norris, Jr., Superintendent, Assateague Island
National Seashore, Rt. 2, Box 294, Berlin, Md. 21811.

A. Sprunt. 1969. Population trends of the bald eagle in North

America. p. 347-351. In Peregrine Falcon Populations: their
biology and decline. J. J. Hickey (ed.) Univ. of Wisconsin
Press, Madison, Wisc.

A. Sprunt and F. J. Ligas, 1966. Audubon bald eagle studies,
1960-1966. National Audubon Soc., N. Y. 6p.

C. Snow. 1973. Habitat management series for endangered species.
Southern Bald Eagle and Northern Bald Eagle. Report No. 5,
Technical Note. Bureau Lane Mgt., U.S.D.I., Denver Public Library,
Denver, Colorado.

Literature;

Abbott, J. M. 1965. The Chesapeake Bald Eagles: Summary report,
119365) 1955-1965... Ati. (Nat.,) voll. 22, G)r20—25.

Abbott, J. M. 1967. Bald Eagle Nesting report, Chesapeake Bay
region. Atlantic Naturalist, vol.23(1):19.

Abbott, J. M. 1968. Bald Eagle Nesting report, Chesapeake Bay
region. Atlantic Naturalist, vol. 24(1):18.

Abbott, J. M. 1969. Bald Eagle Nesting report, Chesapeake Bay
region. Atlantic Naturalist, Vol. 24(4):212.

Abbott, J. M. 1970. American Eagle nest survey of the Chesapeake
Bay region.

Abbott, J. M. 1971. American Eagle nest survey of the Chesapeake
Bay region.

Abbott, J. M. 1972. Chesapeake Bay Bald Eagle nest survey.

Coon, Locke, Cromartee and Reichel. 1970. Causes of Bald Eagle
mortaility - 1960 - 1965. Jour. Wildlife Diseases. vol. 6:72-76.

Mulhern, Reichel, Locke, Lamont, Belisle, Cromartie, Bagley and
Prouty. 1970. Organochlorine residues and autopsy data from
Bald Eagles. Pesticides Monitoring Jour. vol. 4(3):141-144.

National Audubon Soc. 1966. Bald Eagle Studies -— 1960-1966.
Research Department., Indian Mound Trail, Tavernier, Fla. Mimeo
copy. 6 p.

Sprunt, A. IV, et al. 1973. Comparative productivity of six Bald
Eagle populations. Paper presented at North American Wildlife
Conference, March 19, 1973, Washington, D. C.

Weimeyer, Mulhern, Ligas, Hensel, Mathisen, Robards and Postupalsky.
1972. Residues of organochlorine pesticides, polychlorinated
biphenyls, and mercury in Bald Eagle eggs and changes in shell

thickness - 1969 and 1970. Pesticide Monitoring Jour. vol. 6(1):
50-55.

OSPREY Pandion haliaetus

Order: _FALCONIFORMES

Family: PANDIONIDAE

Estimated Numbers:

Virginia =

Delaware =

Maryland =

Chesapeake

500 plus pairs; in 1972, 390 nests, 130 known
productive nests, 262 known young produced, 209
known fledglings (Byrd, 1973).

25 to 30 pairs

750 pairs +

Bay has largest known population in North America

Present Distribution:

Virginia -

Delaware -

Maryland -

See map 2 of locations of nest sites provided by

Dr. M. Byrd, Dept. of Biology, College of William
and Mary, Williamsburg, Va. Also see Table I, Pro-
ceedings of the first North American Osprey research
conference (Byrd, 1973).

Information available at Delaware Dept. Natural
Resources and Environmental Control (Lesser, 1973);
however, many of the sites are outside Chesapeake
Bay drainage.

See map 2, with nest site locations provided by Mr.
Stan Wiemeyer, Research Biologist, Patuxent Wild-
life Research Center, Laurel, Md.; and by Mr. Jan
Reese, researcher, St. Michaels, Md.

Selected Areas with Active Nests:

Virginia -

1970 1971
James River 3 6
Chickahominy River = 12
York River 11 28
Mobjack Bay 15 17
New Pt. Comfort 50 45
Rappahannock River 57 i,

Fleets Bay IL7/ 29

1970 1971
Eastern Shore
Atlantic Side 41 46
Eastern Shore
Ches.Bay Side = 49
Total Active Nests 194 309

Maryland/Virginia - Lower Potomac River east of Rt. 301
(Wiemeyer, 1972)

Maryland Shore - 100 pairs
Virginia Shore - 40 pairs
Pt. Lookout at

mouth of Potomac

River - 20+ pairs
Smith) Pt. at
mouth - 20-30 pairs

Maryland - lower part of Patuxent River - 10+ pairs
(Wiemeyer, 1972)
from Cove Pt. at mouth of Patuxent To Fair Haven,
south of Annapolis - 1 to 2 pairs (Wiemeyer, 1972)

from Chester River to Martin Wildlife Refuge along
Eastern Shore of Md. to Va. border of Delmarva
Peninsula —- 500 to 600 pairs (Reese, 1973)

Poplar Island 30 to 35 pairs

Broad Creek - 50 pairs

Martin N.W.R. - 20 to 30 pairs

Choptank River - 24 pairs

South Marsh Island and Bloodworth Island -
100 pairs

Chincoteague Natl. Wildlife Refuge - 10 to 20 pairs
(Appel, 1972); maximum of 8 pairs (Byrd, 1973).

Assateague National Seashore - rare sightings, uncommon
(Norris, 1973).

Delaware - Atlantic shore, mostly out of Chesapeake Bay drainage,
from Oak Orchard to Bombay Hook National Wildlife
Range - 20 to 30 pairs (Norris, 1973)

Oak Orchard and
Little Bay area - 2 to 3 pairs

Little Assawoman Bay — 5 pairs
Rehoboth Bay (1 colony)
13 pairs
(nesting on duck blinds)
Cape Henlopen up to

Reedy Island 6 to 8 pairs
Bombay Hook Natl.

Wildlife Refuge 1 pair
Nanticoke Refuge 1 pair
Blackbird Creek 1 pair

Status;

Not officially classified as rare or endangered; however, is
declining in specific regions and may be seriously threatened.

Reasons for Decline:*

1. It has been estimated that the annual production of ospreys
must be between 0.95 to 1.30 young fledged/breeding female to maintain
a stable population (Henry and Wight, 1969). (However, this may be
underestimated by 5 to 10% if nests with no eggs are excluded from
original figures (Henny and VanVelzen) and only the productive nests
used, rather than active nests.) Byrd (1973) estimates an annual
production of 1.22 young/productive nest is needed in Virginia. Reese
(1965) calculated a minimum annual rate of decline of 2 to 3% in
Maryland. In many areas of the Chesapeake Bay, annual production is now
below these averages, as per following reports:

Maryland shore, Charles County, of Potomac River - 0.70
young fledged/active nest (Wiemeyer, 1971)
Virginia shore, as above, Westmoreland Co. - 0.70 (Wiemeyer,1972).

Talbot County, Eastern shore, Maryland - -.96 to 1.16 (1965 -
1966) (Reese, 1970);

Talbot County, Eastern Shore, Maryland - 1.03 (1964-65) (Reese,
1965).

Virginia shore from Norfolk to Potomac River - 0.69 (1971)
0.60 (1972) (Byrd, 1973).

Martin National Wildlife Refuge, Md. - 1.4 young/active nest,
1.8 young/productive nest (Rhodes, 1972).

Choptank River, Eastern Shore, Md. - 0.93 to 0.96 (Reese, 1972).

2. The use of pesticides and other environmental contaminants is
causing contamination in ospreys from accumulation of chlorinated hydro-
carbons through the food chains, which in turn are responsible for egg
failure in active nests. Reproductive decline in ospreys has been
reported from many sections of the United States (Ames, 1966), Hickey,

(1969), etc. In Maryland, Hickey and Anderson (1968) reported 2.0
to 2.8% decrease in egg shell weights. This is resulting in egg
breakage and embryonic death.

3. Losses to osprey eggs and young by predators such as
raccoons and rats.

4. Destruction of nests and nestlings by high tides, waves
and winds.

5. Destruction of nests by U. S. Coast Guard personnel when
they are found on top of lighted navigational markers. For example,
43 nests were removed in Talbot Co., between 1963-1969, (Reese, 1970)
and maybe as high as 15 nests/year in the central Chesapeake Bay
region (Reese, 1965).

6. Increased use of boats and disturbances around osprey nest
sites.

Protective Measures Taken or Proposed:

1. Artificial nesting platforms have been erected and main-
tained annually to enhance osprey nesting success. Reese (1970)
erected 133 platforms between 1964 and 1969 in Talbot Co.; anda
total of 72 nests platforms have been erected in Martin National
Wildlife Refuge. These have shown a high degree of occupancy; for
example, a total of 59 nests were active on the 72 structures
between 1968 and 1971 (Rhodes, 1972). Production tripled since
artificial nest structures were started in 1968, up to 1971.

2. Coast Guard directive against removing osprey nests from
navigational aids was issued by Admiral Bullock. It covers Coast
Guard personnel and activities in Maryland, Virginia, North
Carolina and part of New Jersey. Nests may not be touched during
breeding season but may be removed afterwards if interfering with
navigational aids.

3. Dr. Byrd and students are putting up signs around marinas
and fishing sites asking boaters and fishermen not to tie up next
to osprey nests because this may drive off parents and cause death
of eggs or young.

4. Continued research on effects of pesticides on osprey
reproduction such as presently being carried out at Patuxent Wild-
life Research Center, and other research centers.

5. Continued continental censusing and evaluation of populations,
plus continued surveillance of Chesapeake Bay populations.

6. Discontinued use of pesticides and other chemicals so as to
increase chances of reproductive success; also abatement of water
pollution so as to increase fish (food) supply.

Ecological Significance and General Importance:
1. Aesthetic value as a bird of prey and beautiful species.

2. Important indicator species to monitor effects of pesticides,
especially in Chesapeake Bay which is near large metropolitan centers.

3. Predation and maintenance of health in prey populations.
4. Bird-watching as a popular recreation.
References: (personal communication)

Mr. J. Appel, Refuge Manager, Chincoteague National Wildlife
Refuge, Chincoteague, Maryland.

Dr. M. Byrd, Dept. Biology, College of William and Mary, Williams-
burg, Virginia.

Charles Lesser, Mgr. Technical Services, Division Fish and Wild-
life, Dept. Natural Resources and Environmental Control, Edward
Tathall Bldg., Legislative Add. and D Street, Dover, Delaware,
19901.

T. F. Norris, Supt. Assateague National Seashore, Rt. 2, Box 294,
Berlin, Md.

Jan Reese, Researcher, St. Michaels, Md., 21663; also c/o Medical
College, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland.

Stanley Wiemeyer, Research Biologist. Patuxent Wildlife Research
Center, Laurel, Maryland.

Literature:

Ames, P. L. 1966. DDT residues in the eggs of the osprey in the
northeastern U. S. and their relation to nesting success. Jour.
Applied Ecology 3 (suppl): 87-97.

Byrd, M. (Edit.) 1973 in press. Proceedings of the first North
American osprey research conference. Dept. Biology, College of
William and Mary, Williamsburg, Va.

Henry, C. J. and J. C. Odgen. 1970. Estimated status of osprey
populations in the United States. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 34(1):
214-21.

Henry, C. J. and W. T. VanVelzen. 1972. Migration patterns
and wintering localities of American ospreys. Jour. Wildlife
Met. 36(4):1133-1141.

Henry, C. J. and H. M. Wight. 1969. An endangered osprey
population: estimates of mortality and production. Auk 86(2):
188-198.

Hickey, J. J. (Edit.) 1969. Peregrine falcon populations:
their biology and decline. Univ. Wisconsin Press, Madison,
Wisc. 596 p.

Hickey, C. J. and D. Anderson. 1968. Chlorinated hydrocarbons
and eggshell changes in raptorial and fish-eating birds.
Science 162 (3850) :271-273.

Reese, J. 1965. Breeding status of osprey in central Chesa-
peake Bay. Maryland Birdlife 21(4):105-108.

1969. A Maryland Osprey population 75 years ago
and today. Maryland Birdlife, 25(4):116-119.

1970. Reproduction in a Chesapeake Bay osprey
population. Auk 87(4):747-759.

1972. Osprey nesting success along the Choptank River,
Maryland. Chesapeake Science 13(3) :233-235.

1972. Supplement Report #3: Breeding osprey survey
of Choptank River, Md., Maryland Ornithological Society, Un-
published.

Rhodes, L. 1972. Success of osprey nest structures at Martin
National Wildlife Refuge. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 36(4):1296-1299.

Wiemeyer, S. 1971. Reproductive success of Potomac River
ospreys - 1971. Chesapeake Science, Vol. 12(4) :278-280.

ARCTIC PEREGRINE FALCON Falco peregrinus tundrius
Order: FALCONIFORMES

Family: PANDIONIDAE

Estimated Numbers: known as fall (and spring to a lesser degree)
migrants only, passing Atlantic oceanside. No known breeding birds
now reported anywhere in eastern United States (Cade, 1973); up to
2000 individuals (Mattox, 1973); about 1000 first year migrants
(Ruos, 1972), 500+ individuals (Ward, 1973).

Present Distribution: Usually sighted at Assateague Island in
Maryland and Virginia (36 mi. x 1+ mi.) along the Atlantic Coastal
migration route. Largest concentrations found within two-mile swath
of ocean. This is probably the largest and most significant resting
and feeding site for Arctic Peregrines anywhere in continental United
States (Ward, 1973). (Lies outside Chesapeake Bay area).

The major area at Assateague Island is on the north edge of Fox Hill
Levels. Other sites given in table below.

PEREGRINE SIGHTINGS ON ASSATEAGUE ISLAND
(taken from Table 4, Ward & Berry, 1972)

1970 Observation Time 1971 Observation Time
in 4 aT r7

Maryland, North

of State Park 1 3 aby) afin
Md., State Park - NT 2 1
Md. beach south

State Park 18 52 53 54
Md., Fox Hills

Levels 41 36 40 27
Md., Little Fox

Levels - NT 2 1

Virginia Sector 8 9 ial 6

C-22

Barrier beaches along islands of Delmarva Peninsula where falcons
also occur include: Fisherman, Myrtle, Smith, Shipshoal, Hog, Revel,
Cobb, Parramore, and Wreck Islands.

Occasional sporadic sightings are seen around Chesapeake Bay region;
more often spring migrants may be seen on west side of Chesapeake
Bay and Delmarva oceanside. Birds usually stay 1 to 5 days en route.
10% or less of the adults migrate along the Atlantic Coast beaches
with the immatures. Usually the immatures are in a ratio of 5 or
more to every one adult (Shor, 1970, b).

Status: Classified as endangered on the U. S. Dept. of Interior's
official list. No appreciable recent decline in general abundance

of migrants along Atlantic Coast (Ruos, 1972; Ward & Berry, 1972;

92nd Congress). In addition, the age ratios of immatures to adults

in 1970-71 seemed similar to those recorded since 1938 (Ward & Berry,
1972; Ruos, 1970). Nevertheless, there is a strong implication that

a substantial population decline took place after 1947 (Nye, 1969;

Ward & Berry, 1972). Appel (1972) reports fewer sightings of immatures
at Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge in 1972.

Reasons for Decline:
1. Shooting of birds.
2. Destruction of nests.

3. Stealing of eggs, young, and adults, and trapping by
falconers and collectors.

4. Breeding failure resulting from cumulative effects of
pesticides and other environmental contaminants, affecting the
reproductive and egg shell mechanisms. The problem resulting from
cumulative effects of pesticides and other environmental contaminants
is very well presented by Ward & Berry, 1972, p. 484-485. In addition,
there is an occasional direct poisoning from pesticides. There is
reason to believe that, based on experience with the American
Peregrine Falcon, this subspecies will go into the same pattern of
decline even though many migrants seem to come from Greenland where
there is a low contamination by pesticides at present.

5. Periodic short-term adverse effects of weather on repro-
duction, for example, summer of 1972 (Ruos, 1970).

Protective Measures Taken:
1. Federal and most State laws protect the species.

2. Federal year-round protection by law in the U. S., plus most
States and Provinces.

3. Research investigations into artificial propagation techniques
at Cornell University's Laboratory of Ornithology, Patuxent Wildlife
Research Center, and possible other research centers in Canada, plus
by 20 or more falconer-aviculturalists.

4. Protection by Denmark, and its colony, Greenland.

5. Surveillance and protection of known nest sites out West and
in Canada and Alaska.

6. Cooperative program between the Canadian Wildlife Service
and U. S. Wildlife agencies.

7. Continued monitoring of pesticides and effects on birds of
prey.

Protective Measures Proposed:

1. An immediate and forceful recommendation against the proposed
hardtop road which is to be built between the Chesapeake Bay bridge in
Maryland to the Virginia bridge, following along Assateague Island
National Seashore. This development would destroy a significant
wilderness area which falcons presently utilize for feeding and resting
during migration.

2. Further acquisition and protection of barrier beaches and
islands along the Atlantic side of Delmarva Peninsula to provide
additional safe resting sites for migrating falcons.

3. Reduced use of persistent and other environmental contaminants
in the U. S. and Canada and Europe.

4. Continued research on reproductive failure reasons; and
improved artificial breeding in captivity.

5. Increased legal protection and enforcement in all countries
where Peregrine Falcons breed and winter.

6. Limit use by surf fishermen and motor vehicles along barrier
beaches during time of migration of falcons, because resting should
not be disturbed. (This added stress factor may be more deleterious
than normal if birds are loaded with DDT, DDE, DDD. The birds appear
to have less tolerance to disturbances when in this condition).

7. Strengthen efforts to monitor flyways and obtain accurate annual
migration numbers and any changes in numbers or age ratios which might
signal decline of populations.

8. Encourage competent falconers to trap immature birds and handle
them with controlled diets (free of chemicals), exercise, artificial
incubation of eggs to prevent breakage, etc. (Cade, 1970).

9. Refrain from planting erosion grasses on barrier beaches, and

forbid camping on traditional resting sites so as not to disturb birds
unnecessarily or obstruct their surveillance of surroundings.

Ecological Importance and General Importance:
1. Aesthetic appeal as a magnificent bird of prey.
2. Bird-watchers, photography, nature loving.

3. Important indicator species to use in monitoring effects of
pesticides, and other environmental contaminants.

4, Predation which helps maintain a healthy population of prey
species.

5. Traditional, historical and scientific use of falcons by
falconers.

References: (personal communication)

Mr. J. Appel, Refuge Mgr. Chincoteague National Wildlife
Refuge, Chincoteague, Virginia.

Dr. Tom Cade, Professor. Researcher. Laboratory of Ornithology,
Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850.

Mr. J. Mattox. Asst. Deputy Director. Dept. Natural Resources,
907 Ohio Depts. Bldg., Columbus, Ohio, 43215.

Dr. Prescott Ward. DVM. Ecology Division, Edgewood Arsenal,
Baltimore, Maryland.

Mr. Jim Ruos, Research biologist. Patuxent Wildlife Research
Center, Laurel, Maryland.

Literature:

Cade, T. 1970. A program for managing the survival of Peregrine
Falcons in the 1970's (Outline of ideas). Unpublished report.
Laboratory of Ornithology, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 14850.

Hickey, J. J. (Edit.) 1969. Peregrine Falcon populations, their
biology and decline. Univ. of Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisc. 596 p.

92nd Congress. Fish and Wildlife Legislation, Rt. 2, Hearings of
subcommittee on Fish and Wildlife Conservation; Hawks, Owls, and
Eagles. No. 92-14. Trends in populations of raptors in North
America. Special briefing summary. Government Printing Office.

Nye, A. G., Jr. 1969 Assateague Island peregrines, 1938-1947.
Paper presented at North American Falconers Association Peregrine
Falcon symposium. Ft. Collins, Colo. Nov. 26-29, mimeo. 7 p.

Ruos, J. L. 1970. Correlation of Arctic temperatures in July with
numbers of tundra peregrines (Falco peregrinus tundrius) seen per

part day in October along the mid-Atlantic coast. Special Report,
Patuxent Wildlife Research Center, Laurel, Md. 5 p.

Shor, W. 1970. (a). Banding recoveries of Arctic migrant peregrines
of the Atlantic Coast and Greenland populations. Raptor Research
‘News 4(4):125-127.

Shor, W. 1970. (b). Peregrine Falcon population dynamics deduced
from band recovery data. Raptor Research News 4(2):49-59.

Snow, C. 1972. Habitat management series for endangered species.
Report No. 1. American Peregrine Falcon and Arctic Peregrine
Falcon. Technical note. Bureau of Land Management, U.S.D.I1.,
Washington, D. C.

Ward, F. P. and R. B. Berry. 1972. Autumn migrations of Peregrine
Falcons on Assateague Island, 1970-71. Jour. Wildlife Management,
vol. 36(2):484-492.

IPSWICH SPARROW* Passerculus princeps
Order: PASSERIFORMES

Family: FRINGILLIDAE

* Discussed more fully in reports: "Rare, Endangered, and Threatened
Fish and Wildlife of the Maine Coast", and "Rare, Endangered, and
Threatened Fish and Wildlife of the Atlantic Coastal Plain", by
A. LaBastille.

Estimated Numbers and Present Distribution: only rare sightings are
reported from Chesapeake Bay region, mainly on Assateague Island and
other barrier beaches of Delmarva Peninsula during migrations.
Sparrows prefer undisturbed coastal beaches with dunes, rocks and
grass; therefore, might be expected to stop and rest wherever appro-
priate habitat still exists.

BOG TURTLE Clemmys muhlenbergi

Order: TESTUDINATA
Family: TESTUDINIDAE
Estimated Numbers: Very difficult to estimate, but probably in magnitude
of 30 adults in Chesapeake Bay area of Maryland (Nemuras, 1973); Arndt
(1973) estimates 500+ adults in all Chesapeake Bay region; Barton (1973)
estimates 1000+ (15 + colonies).
Present Distribution:

Maryland: only recorded from 3 counties: Baltimore, Harford

and Cecil and most of these locations actually occur on the

Piedmont area; however, the following are probably within the

Chesapeake Bay drainage (Nemuras, 1967).

a. Near Conowingo Dam, Susquehanna River, Cecil Co. 1965-68
and 1947-1969 records.

b. Broad Creek, Harford Co. - old record.

c. Elk Neck, Cecil Co. - 1945 record.

d. Grave Run Mills, Baltimore Co. — 1941 record.
e. Eko, Baltimore Co. - 1960 record.

f. Gunpowder Falls, Baltimore Co. — 1960 record.

g. Sassafras River, Kent Co. - This is the southernmost point
where turtles are found on Delmarva Peninsula.

h. Bel Air, on Rt. 1 near Baltimore —- possibly gone.
Delaware:

a. Newark, New Castle Co. - 1955 record (Nemuras, 1972).

b. Northern 3/4 of New Castle Co. (Nemuras, 1972).

c. Odessa, New Castle Co. (Arndt, 1972)

Virginia: No colonies known on coastal plain.

Reasons for Decline:
1. Destruction of bogs.

2. Removal of large numbers of specimens from their colonies
by collectors. Bog turtles bring $100 to $150 or more per turtle in
pet stores and from individual sales.

3. Drying up or pollution of cold, clear ground water and
seepage water sources above bogs can change bog habitat and drive
out turtles.

4. Flooding, both natural (especially Hurricane Agnes), and
man-made (by dams) destroys bogs and colonies of turtles.

Protective Measures Taken:

1. Protected by state law in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey
and Maryland (Oct. 1972). Illegal to take, sell, transport or hold
these turtles, $1000 fine in Maryland; no enforcement or fines in
New Jersey; $10 in Pennsylvania.

2. A single swamp has been bought by a naturalist to save one
colony of Bog Turtles.

3. Extreme secrecy among Bog Turtles investigators and con-
servationists to prevent information about locales from being made
public.

Protective Measures Proposed:

1. Acquire known Bog Turtle bogs and swamps with adjacent
drainage basins to save from development. Possibly introduce turtles
to prime habitat in hopes of establishing new colonies.

2. Set up state Bog Turtle sanctuaries.

3. Strict fines and enforcement against purchase and sales by
pet dealers and collectors.

4. Public education about value of bogs and wetlands and their
unique fauna.

5. Continue censuses and life history studies to determine
localities, numbers and disturbances, (may be undertaken in 1973 by
James Weaver, for Smithsonian Institution).

Ecological Significance and General Values:

1. Of no specific ecological importance, but does add to diversity
of wetland fauna.

2. A very old relic, boreal, species of evolutionary interest.

3. Aesthetically pleasing reptile of remarkable intelligence and
adaptability to captivity.

4. Scientific and natural appeal of wetlands areas.
References: (Personal communication)

Dr. Rudolf Arndt, Senior Research Biologist, c/o Icthyological
Associates, 100 S. Cass Street, Middletown, Del. 19709.

Mr. A. J. Barton, c/o Undergraduate Program, National Science
Foundation, Washington, D. C.

Mr. Ken Nemuras, Herpetologist, 5101 Gwynn Oak Ave., Baltimore,
Maryland, 21207.

Mr. Jim Weaver, Herpetologist, 30 Eshelman Rd., Lancaster, Pa. 17601.
Literature:

Arndt, R. G. 1972. Additional records of Clemmys muhlenbergi in

Delaware, with notes on reproduction. Bull. Md. Herp. Soc.

Barton, A. J. and J. W. Price, Sr. 1955. Our knowledge of the Bog

Turtle, Clemmys muhlenbergi, surveyed and augmented. Copeia.

3:159-165.

Campbell, H. W. 1960. The Bog Turtle in Md. The Md. Naturalist,
vol. 30(1-4): 15-16.

Nemuras, K. T. 1966. Some records for Clemmys muhlenbergi in
Cecil Co., Md. Bull. Md. Herp. Soc. 2(2):1-2.

Nemuras, K. T. 1967. Notes on the natural history of Clemmys
muhlenbergi, Bull. Md. Herpetological Society, vol. 3(4):80-96.

Weaver, J. (editor) Bog Turtle Conservation News. Oct. 17, 1972.
etc.

SEA TURTLES* Green Turtle - Chelonia mydas
Loggerhead Turtle - Caretta caretta
Leatherback Turtle - Dermochelys coriacea
Atlantic Ridley Turtle - Lepidochelys kempii
Hawksbill Turtle - Eretmochelys imbricata

Order: CHELONIA

Family: CHELONIDAE

* Discussed more fully in Atlantic Coastal Plain report.
Estimated Numbers and Distribution:

All are endangered or threatened. With exception of the Loggerhead
Turtle. The occurrence of marine turtles is largely sporadic and unde-
terminable along the Atlantic Coast, especially Chesapeake Bay area.

The presence of barrier beaches and islands on the Atlantic side of
Delmarva Peninsula, and bays of Chesapeake Bay Region, provide possible
areas where turtles can rest and feed on journeys along coast.

Green Turtle - rare but regular wanderer along coast - 20 to 30
nest per year (Pritchard, 1972), Rainey, 1972), (Brongersman,
1972). Noted in summer months in Calvert County and Worcester
County, Maryland, (Cooper, et al, 1972).

Loggerhead Turtle - most important remaining nesting localities
are between Florida Keys and North Carolina.

Noted at Worcester, Wicomico, Dorchester and Calvert Counties in
Maryland (Cooper, et al, 1972).

Delaware Fish and Game personnel report few sightings at Delaware
River Bay. May have nested historically along Delmarva barrier
beaches.

Leatherback Turtles - only sporadic and rare captures on coast
(Pritchard, 1972), (Rainey, 1972), (Brongersman, 1972). Four
specimens known from shores of Chesapeake Bay: (3 in Calvert
County, one in Dorchester County, Cooper, et al., 1972).

Atlantic Ridley Turtle - commonly captured as immatures along
coast as far as Mass. (Pritchard, 1972), Rainey, 1972), (Brongers-
man, 1972).

4 Maryland specimens known: one from Baltimore Harbor, 2 from

Calvert County, 1 from mouth Potomac River (Cooper, et al, 1972).

Hawksbill Turtle - very sporadic to Massachusetts (Brongersman,
1972). No known specimens from Maryland, but undoubtedly occurs
in estuaries of Potomac and other rivers (Cooper, et al, 1972).

Protective Measures Proposed:

1. Educate public about endangered status of sea turtles and urge
their cooperation towards protecting any turtles seen while on beach or
while boating, fishing or swimming.

2. Acquire and protect barrier beaches along Atlantic Coast for
those turtles which might possibly nest there.

References:

Delaware Fish and Wildlife Div., Dept. of Natural Resources and
Environmental Control, Edward Tathall Bldg., Dover, Del., 19901.

Dr. P. Pritchard, Department of Zoology. Univ. of Florida,
Gainesville, Florida, 32601.

Mr. William Rainey. Caribbean Research Institute., College of
Virgin Island, St. Thomas, U. S. Virgin Islands, 00801.

Literature:

Brongersman, L. D. 1972. European Atlantic Turtles, Zoologische
Verhandelingen, #121, 2 vols., E. J. Bryll Publ; Lyden, Netherlands.

Cooper, J. E. (Chairman), et al. 1972. Endangered amphibians and
reptiles of Maryland. Report of Maryland Herpetological Society,
2643 No. Charles St., Baltimore, Md. 21218.

Hardy, J. D., Jr. 1962. Comments on the Atlantic Ridley Turtle,
Lepidochelys olivacca kempi, in the Chesapeake Bay. Chesapeake
Sci. 3(3):217-220.

Hardy, J. D., Jr. 1969. Records of the Leatherback Turtle,
Dermochelys coriacea coriacea, from the Chesapeake Bay. Bull. Md.
Herp. Soc. 5(3):92-96.

Harris, H. S. 1969. Distributional Survey: Maryland and the
District of Columbia. Bull. Md. Herp. Soc. 5(4):97-161.

Hardy, J. D. 1972. Reptiles of the Chesapeake Bay region. Rept.
to U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. in press.

Klimkiewicz, M. K. 1972. Reptiles of Mason Neck. Atlantic
Naturalist, 27(1):20-25.

MARYLAND DARTER Etheostoma sellare
Order: PERCIFORMES

Family: PERCIDAE

Estimated Numbers: There are evidently only one or two small populations,
with numbers unknown.

Present Distribution: Found only in two streams in Harford County, Md.

1. Deer Creek - This is a tributary of Susquehanna River, 1.3
miles southeast of Lanington along Stafford Road; second
riffle above mouth of the Creek; 20 to 30 miles above
Susquehanna.

a. 34 specimens taken in State Park, May, 1965, by Dr. Raney
and Dr. Schwartz (Tsai, 1973).

b. 8 specimens taken July, 1970, and October, 1971, by
Dave Thomas for private collection (Wang, 1973).

c. No specimens taken after careful sampling along creek
10-15 miles in length, checking over 100 holes and
every few feet along course, upstream and downstream
from point where specimens were caught previously (Wang,
11973).

2. Swan Creek - east Branch

a. 2 specimens collected in 1912 by Radcliffe and Welsh;
the type specimen (see literature).

b. 1 specimen taken June 10, 1962, by Drs. Knapp, Richards,
Miller and Foster, probably for Smithsonian Institution
collection (see literature).

c. No specimens taken by Dr. Tsai summer of 1967 and 1968
after sampling (Tsai, 1973).

Status: Listed as endangered by USDI federal list of endangered species;
also as rare or extinct (2(a)S) by IUCN list. Nevertheless, both organi-
zations state "there are no data to support a statement that fish

have declined". Species is not extinct, as of 1970-71, but is con-
sidered endangered by Wang (1973). Tsai (1973) considers species

very rare.

c-33

Reasons for Decline:

1. Limited habitat. Much of its habitat was drowned out in Ice
Age Melt.

2. Very small population.

3. Possible slow natural change of aquatic environment. (e.g.
water chemistry, stream contours, stream bottom, ground
water, etc.).

4. Evolutionary changes. Species is at the periphery of range
of the subgenus.

5. Potential pollution by housing and commercial developments
near streams. Presently streams are not polluted, and those
nearby developments are not apparently threatening. Potential
damming of creeks.

6. Extreme fluctuations in creeks could reduce population, as
could siltation.

7. Conowingo Dam, downstream on Susquehanna, has not had any
apparent effect on the darters in Deer and Swan Creeks.

Protective Measures Taken:

None other than to request biologists and ichthyologists not to
collect or disturb fishes and habitat.

Protective Measures Proposed:

1. Acquire stream banks and bed for several miles on either
side of main center of population and maintain as wooded, natural
sanctuary for Maryland Darter. This would prevent dams flooding up-
stream and any developments would have to be set back from creek.

2. Precautions are needed to assure proper handling of sewage,
storm water run-off, and other wastes from nearby residential and
commercial development to prevent seepage into creeks.

3. Begin investigations into life history of darter, including
population movements, to determine possible migratory or seasonal

movements in and out of creeks.

4. Prevent fish collectors from decimating existing populations.

C-34

Ecological Significance and General Value:

1. Biological and genetic values as unique evolutionary develop-
ment and species.

2. No value as aquarium fish or pets.
3. Diversity of freshwater fish fauna.
References: (personal communication)

Dr. E. Raney, Director, Ichythyological Associates, Forest Drive,
Ithaca, New York, 14850.

Dr. Chufa Tsai, Institute of Natural Resources, University of
Maryland, College Park, Maryland.

Dr. Johnson Wang, Ichythyological Associates, Odessa, Delaware.
Literature:

Knapp, L. S., W. J. Richards, R. V. Miller and N. R. Foster. 1963.

Rediscovery of the percid fish Etheostoma sellare (Radcliffe and

Welsh). Copeia:455.

Radcliffe, L. and W. W. Welsh. 1914. Description of a new darter
from Maryland. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fisheries, vol. 32:29-32.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special appreciation is extended to the Office of Endangered
Species of the United States Department of the Interior's Bureau of
Sport Fisheries and Wildlife for its cooperation and willingness to
share information contained in the files and "Redbook" of threatened
fish and wildlife. In addition, gratitude is expressed to the many
Government biologists at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center and at
the Bird and Mammal Laboratories in the Smithsonian Institution for
providing valuable information.

A number of scientists at Universities and Cooperative Wildlife
Research Units, National Park supervisors and biologists, National
Wildlife Refuge Managers, and State Fish and Game Agents were con-
tacted personally, or by telephone and letter. To each of them who
responded with pertinent data, sincere thanks is given.

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APPENDIX D

RARE, ENDANGERED, AND ENDEMIC PLANTS

OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY REGION

by

Russell L. Kologiski
Fonda R. Hivick
Clyde W. Reed
Dale W. Jenkins

Center for Natural Areas
Ecology Program

Smithsonian Institution

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4% io} vaso8>
jc Mpeione

RARE, ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC PLANTS OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY REGION

No list of rare, endangered or endemic plants exists
for the Chesapeake Bay Region or for the States of Maryland,
Virginia, or Delaware. A list was prepared by reviewing all of
the botanical books and manuals of the region, contacting local
and other botanists, and checking herbarium specimens in the
National Museum of Natural History, the Gray Herbarium at Harvard,
and the Herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. Specimen
records were verified and exact locality data were obtained.

Only native species of higher plants were included and
rare introduced or adventive species were not considered. The
rarity or endangered status was determined on the basis of rarity
as a species, not with regard to local rarity in the region or
State involved. There were 23 local or endemic species and valid
varieties found in the region. Many of these species are known
as endemic in only one or a few localities and no where else in
the world. Several of the species are possibly extinct at present
since they have not been collected for many years and have not
been reported. Some of the species have wide distributions but
are being rapidly depleted and may be endangered in the near
future. No field studies were conducted to determine whether
the species presently exist, but all recent information was
utilized in determining rarity status.

The data for each species are presented together with
distribution maps showing the species distribution, and the de-
tailed distribution in the Bay Region. It is hoped that this
will stimulate study of rare and endangered flora and will help
in preservation.

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gemtoeg? .telikd (6Slreto% dvcY wet oa to mituadyel sd3 bas
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anenexq 36 Tociwee wiitexoy es weloeqe ad2 Jo fausyvel sbisow ea
300 ein line Ghee wien t0t doibelloo assed. Jon aved yas’ eanke —
dan atokbodl yeni sdk. sicll aalowqe saa to seek .bstitoges feed
geet afi 2) Wetegreias 34 Yee bow hogelqab yibiqay gated eae
yaittenly series) 2) becovhavo eiw wotbute bfali of eras
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D-2

Summary List of Rare, Endangered, and Endemic Plants of the Chesapeake Bay

Plant Name Map Symbol
Alnus maritima (Marsh) Nuttall 1
Aristida lanosa var. macera Fern.& Grisc. 10
Bacopa simulans Fern. 8
Bacopa stragula Fern. 9
Baptisia pinetorum Larisey 5
Calamovilfa brevipilis var. calvipes Fern. 24
Cassia fasciculata var. macrosperma Fern. 11

Diodia teres var. hystricina Fern.é& Grisc.

Eupatorium saltuense Fern. 4
Gaylussacia brachycera (Michx.) Gray 2
Juncus caesariensis Coville. 23
Juncus griscomi Fern. 18

Justicia mortuifluminis Fern.

Lechea maritima var. virginica Hodgdon 3
Oxypolis canbyi (Coult.& Rose) Gern. 12

Panicum aculeatum Hitchc. & Chase

Panicum mundum Fern. ibs.
Pycnanthemum monotrichum Fern. 20
Pyxidanthera brevifolia Wells. 21
Rudbeckia heliopsidis T. & G. 22
Schwalbea americana L. 6
Scirpus flaccidifolius (Fern.) Schuyler 17

Trillium pusillum var. virginianum Fern. 14

BETULACEAE

Alnus maritima (Marsh) Nuttall Seaside Alder

Habit: Small tree or shrub

Habitat: Pond shores and stream banks.

Range: Southern Delaware and adjacent Maryland, also several
small populations in Oklahoma; Sussex County, Delaware
and Wicomico, Worcester, Caroline Cos. Maryland.

Status: Endemic to the above regions, locally abundant.

Reference: Mr. Peter Mazzeo, National Arboretum

U.S. National Herbarium.

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(BS al ere) Claas HA eT ya a $s
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D-5 GRAMINEAE
Aristida lanosa var. macera Fern. & Grisc.
Habit: Herb
Habitat: Dry woods
Range: Southeastern Virginia; Princess Anne County, Virginia

Reference: Rhodora 37:135, 1935.

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SCROPHULARIACEAE

Bacopa simulans Fern. Water-hyssop

Habit: Low herb

Habitat: Wet tidal shores

Range: Chickahominy River; Charles City Co., Virginia.

Status: Very rare, endemic and possibly endangered.

Reference: M. L. Fernald. Rhodora, Vol. 44, p.438,
November, 1942.

U.S. National Herbarium
Gray Herbarium

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ESERVATION

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Bacopa stragula Fern. Water-hyssop

Habit: Low herb

Habitat: Wet tidal shores
Chesapeake Bay drainage system; New Kent, Charles City

Range:
and King William Cos., Virginia.
Status: Rare, endemic and possibly endangered.
M.L. Fernald, Rhodora, Vol. 44 p. 434, November, 1942

Reference:
U.S. National Herbarium.

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D-11
LEGUMINOSAE

Baptisia pinetorum Larisey

Habit: Herb

Habitat: Open woods and clearings

Range: Accomac Co., Virginia

Status: Very rare, endemic and probably endangered.

Reference: Dr. Clyde Reed, Reed Herbarium, Baltimore, Maryland.

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D-13

GRAMINEAE
Calamovilfa brevipilis var. calvipes Fern.
Habits) Herb
Habitat: Wet areas and sphagnum aes

Range: Southeastern Virginia; Greensville and Brunswick Counties, Virginia.

Status: Very Rare

Reference: A.B. Massey, Virginia Flora, 1961.

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Calamovilfa brevipilis var. calvipes Fern.

D-15
LEGUMINOSAE

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Cassia fasciculata var. macrosperma Fern, Partridge—Pea

Habit: Herb

Habitat: Tidal marshes
Range: Eastern Virginia; Charles City, James City, New Kent,

King William and King & Queen Cos., Virginia

Status: Endemic
Reference: M.L. Fernald, Rhodora, Vol. 42, p.455, November, 1940.

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RUBIACEAE
Diodia teres var. hystricina Fern. & Grisc. Buttonweed
Habit: Herb
Habitat: Dry sands
Range: Coastal Virginia; Essex, Princess Anne and Northampton Counties, Virginia.
Status: Endemic

Reference: U.S. National Herbarium

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COMPOSITAE
D-19

Eupatorium saltuense Fern, Thoroughwort

Habit: Herb
Habitat: Rich woods, thickets and clearings

Range: Southeastern Virginia; Surry, Sussex and Dinwiddie
Cos., Virginia
Status: Endemic and rare

Reference: M.L. SEE he Rhodora, Vol. 44, p. #61; BEcembeD: 1942.

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D-21 ERICACEAE

Gaylussacia brachycera (Michx.) Gray Box Huckleberry

Habit: Evergreen, low shrub
Habitat: Sandy woods and slopes
Range: Maryland and Delaware to Pennsylvania and Kentucky
and eastern Tennessee; very local except in W. Virginia;
Sussex Co., Delaware and Anne Arundel Co., Maryland.
Status: Rare in areas outside of West Virginia but of special
interest because it is possibly the oldest living plant.
Reference: H. N. Moldenke, Wildflower, Vol. 33, pp. 4-8,
January, 1957.
U.S. National Herbariun.

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JUNCACEAE

Juncus caesariensis Coville.

Habit: Herb

Habitat: Wet peaty places

Range: New Jersey; Southeastern Virginia; Glen Burnie, Anne
Arundel Co., Maryland; Elko Station, Henrico, Burgers
Station, Dinwiddie, and James City Counties, 3 miles
West of Williamsburg, Virginia.

Status: Local. Rare.

Reference: U. S. National Herbarium

Gray Herbarium
A. B. Massey, Virginia Flora, 1961

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D-25

JUNCACEAE

Juncus griscomi Fern.

Habit: Herb

Habitat: Wet woodlands

Range: Princess Anne, James City and Norfolk Counties, Virginia.

Status: Endemic and rare.

M.L. Fernald, Rhodora 38: 401, Nov., 1936.

Reference:
U.S. National Herbarium

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D-27

ACANTHACEAE

Justicia mortuifluminis Fern.
Habitat: Wooded bottomlands and shaded margins of quiet water.

Range: Southhampton, Surry, Nansemond counties, Virginia.

Status: Endemic and rare.

Justicia mortuifluminis Fern.

D-29

CISTACEAE
Lechea maritima var. virginica Hodgdon Pinweed
Habit: Herb
Habitat: Dunes and open sand flats

Range: Southeastern Virginia: Virginia Beach City, Norfolk and Northampton
Counties, Virginia.

Status: Endemic and rare

Reference: Drs. Clyde Reed, Reed Herbarium, Baltimore, Maryland

JUNCTION U.S. 601 MI.
3] 3 ares ES 12M
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SS ee 1s’ 39
XK, ¢ _NEWPoRT iS HAMPTON” 3 Serr Cue lek

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D-31

UMBELLIFERAE
Oxypolis canbyi (Coult. & Rose) Fern. Parsley Family
Habit: Herb
Habitat: Meadows and bogs

Range: Hampton Co., South Carolina and Cooke Co., Lee Co.,
Georgia; Ellendale in Sussex Co., Bloomington, Delaware.

Status: Local, perhaps extinct.

References: National Herbarium
Gray Herbarium

D-33

GRAMINEAE
Panicum aculeatum Hitche. & Chase
Habit: Herb
Habitat: Moist to wet woods

Range: Connecticut, Eastern New York to North Carolina; District
of Columbia and Arlington and Fairfax Counties, Virginia.

Status: Rare and little known.

References: Rhodora 8:209. 1906.

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GRAMINEAE

Panicum mundum Fern. Panic grass

Habit: Herb

Habitat: Peaty soil

Range: Southeastern Virginia; Sussex, Princess Anne and Norfolk Counties, Virginia.
Status: Endemic eraneave, possibly endangered.

Reference: M.L. Fernald, Rhodora, Vol. 38, p. 392, November, 1936.

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Pycnanthemum monotrichum Fern. Mountain mint
Habit: Herb
Habitat: Dry sandy woods and clearings
Range: Southeastern Virginia; Sussex and Nansemond Counties, Virginia.
Status: Endemic and rare

References: M.L. Fernald, Rhodora, Vol. 47, p. 176, May, 1945.

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D-39

DIAPENSTACEAE
Pyxidanthera brevifolia Wells Flowering moss; pyxie

Habit: Herb
Habitat: Sandy pine barrens

Range: Burlington, New Jersey; Ocean, Moumouth and Atlantic
Cos., South Carolina; Nansemond, and South of Zuni and
South of Lee's Mill, Isle of Wight Counties, Virginia.

References: Gray Herbarium
A. B. Massey, Virginia Flora, 1961.

D-41

COMPOSITAE

Rudbeckia heliopsidis T. & G.

Habit: Herb

Habitat: Dry woods - pine and oak woods and thickets.

Range: Southeastern Virginia, Georgia and Alabama; 2 to 3
miles North of Disputanta, Prince George County,
Virginia; South Carolina and North Carolina.’

Status: Very local; rare.

Reference: National Herbarium
North Carolina State University Herbarium

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D-43 -

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Schwalbea americana L. Chaffseed
Habit: Herb
Habitat: Moist sandy soil; pinelands, oakwoods and clearings.

Range: New England south to Florida and Texas; Wicomico and Worcester
Counties, Maryland; New Castle County, Delaware; and Greenville
County, Virginia.

Status: Rare and endangered

Reference: U.S. National Herbarium
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D-45

CYPERACEAE
Scirpus flaccidifolius (Fern.) Schuyler
Habit: Herb

Habitat: Wooded alluvial bottomland

Range: Southeastern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina; Southampton
County, Virginia.

Status: Endemic and rare.

References: Dr. A.E. Schuyler, Rhodora 69: 198-202, 1967.
U.S. National Herbarium

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Trillium pusillum var, virginianum Fern, Trillium

Habit: Herb
Habitat: Damp woodlands
Range: Southeastern Virginia, Nansemand Co. and Chesapeake City,
Virginia.
Status: Rare and endangered
Reference: Brooke Meanley, Atlantic Naturalist, Vol. 24,
No. 1, Summer 1969

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APPENDIX E

PRESENTLY PROTECTED AREAS OF CHESAPEAKE BAY

David W. Kunhardt
Research Assistant

and staff

SUMMARY OF PRESENTLY PROTECTED AREAS OF CHESAPEAKE BAY

Ownership Number of Sites Acres Hectares?
FEDERAL
Military 43 266,000 107,500
National Wildlife Refuges“ 8 32,400 13,100
Other 20 56,200 22,700
STATE
Forests 5 20,750 8,380
Parks 36 56,760 22,930
Wildlife Management Areas? 30 78,700 31,800
Other 26 80,600 32,570
PRIVATE OR QUASI-PUBLIC 8 10,770 4,350

Total 602,200 243,300

Ithe hectare is a unit of area in the metric system. One hectare equals

10,000 square meters or 2.471 acres. There are approximately 258
hectares per square mile.

2
“Includes some land not in the N.W.R. system but administered by the
U. S. Department of Interior's Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife.

3Includes some land not in the W.M.A. systems but held with identical

Management practices. Also includes Virginia Natural Areas.

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4. Existing Preserved Natural Areas

Designation of preserved natural areas is difficult since
there are different types of preservation and protection. State and
federal forests preserve flora and fauna but are subject to cutting,
Management, and multiple use. State and federal parks have much
human use and are subject to management and partial development
for recreation. The status of State and federal wildlife management
areas and refuges is also variable since they preserve wildlife and
flora, but are subject to management and change.

There are 17 sites (Table 3) which may be considered as
preserved natural areas, but the status of some of these areas are
not clear, particularly those preserved by State departments as
forests, parks, or refuges. This list should be considered as
very tentative, since some of the areas may not qualify as fully
preserved natural areas.

The Nature Conservancy sites, the Natural Landmark areas, and
the Smithsonian Institution areas can be considered as preserved
natural areas. The State of Virginia has designated three natural
areas--Charles C. Steirly Natural Area, Parkers Marsh Natural Area, and
Seashore Natural Area. The latter is also a State Park with some tourist
facilities and use.

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