THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY

FOUNDED BT JAMES LOEB, LL.U.

EDITED BY

E. H. WAEMINGTON, M.A., F.R.mST.SOC.

PKEVIOTJS EDITORS

tT. E. PAGE, c.H.,LiTT.D. tE. CAPPS, ph.d.,ll.d.
tW. H. D. ROUSE, UTT.D. L. A. POST. L h.d.

PLINY

NATURAL HISTORY

1

PRAEFATIO, LIBRI, I, H

330

PLINY

NATURAL HISTORY

IN TEN VOLUMES

I

PRAEFATIO, LIBRI I, II

WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION

H. RACKHAM, M.A.

FELLOW OF CBRIST'S COLLEOE, OAUBRIDOB

CAMBRIDOE, MASSACHU9ETT9

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON

WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD

IIOULXVU

FntST PRrs-TED . 1938

Repri>-ted .... 1944

Revised and reprinted . 1949

EEPRiirrED .... 1958

Reprinted .... 1967

fRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO. LTD
THE UNIVERSITV PRESS, GLASGOW

CONTENTS

PAQB

PREFATOET NOTE vi

INTRODTTCTION Vii

PLINY's rREFACE 1

BOOK I 23

BOOE n 169

PREFATORY NOTE

The need for a new edition of this volume allows
me to correct some misprints and mistakes in the
text and translation. I am gratified to reviewers
for pointing out a few that I had not noticed myself.
Some of the mistakes of nomenclature were due to
the plan of publication, which prechided postponing
Book I, PUny's Table of Contents, till the whole of the
treatise had been worked through and the objects
mentioned had been so far as possible identified by his
descriptions.

H. R.

October, 1943.

V»

INTRODUCTION

Gaius Plinius Secundus — usually called Pliny
the Elder to distinguish him from his nephew and
ward, Gaius Phnius Caecihus Secundus, whose
coUected correspondence has preserved such a vivid
picture of Roman life in the time of Trajan — belonged
to a family of wealth and position in the North of
Italy. He was born at Como in a.d. 23. After study-
ing at Rome he started when twenty-three years
old on an ofRcial career, serving in Germany under
L. Pomponius Secundus, and rising to the command
of a cavalry squadron. Seven or eight years later he
came back to Rome and took up the study of law.
During most of Nero's principate he lived in retire-
ment, but towards the close of it he re-entered
pubhc hfe and became Procurator in Spain. He held
this post until Vespasian won the principate, when he
returned to Rome and was admitted to the Emperor's
intimate circle ; they had been acquainted in earher
days when at the front in Germany. He also launched
into another field of activity, receiving a naval
commission.

Throughout his busy career as a man of action
he had kept up a constant practice of study and
authorship. His interest in science finally cost him
his life, at the age of 56. He was in command of the
fleet at Misenum on the Bay of Naples in a.d. 79

INTRODUCTION

when the famous eruption of Vesuvius took place on
August 23 and 24, overwhelming the little towns of
Herculaneum and Pompeii. Pliny as a man of science
sailed across the bay to obtain a nearer view ; he
landed at Stabiae, and there was killed by poisonous
fumes. The circumstances are recorded by his
nephew in a letter to Tacitus (Pliny, Epp. VI. xvi).
Vespasian had died and had been succeeded as
Princeps by his son Titus two months before.

Pliny's earher writings were on subjects suggested
by his professional experiences, e.g., the use of the
javehn by cavalry, a history of the German wars,
the training of the orator. During his retirement he
produced Dubius Sermo, a treatise on grammar, and
later a continuation dowTi to his own time of the
history of Rome by Aufidius Bassus ; and lastly
Natural History, the largest and most important of
his works and the only one that has survived, although
his historical -vvritings on the defence of the German
frontier and on the events of his own period were
clearly works of value, the loss of which is much to be
regretted. The substance of both, however, is
doubtless largely incorporated in the writings of
Tacitus and Suetonius, the former indeed repeatedly
citing PHny as his authority both in Annals and in
Histories.

Natural History is dedicated to Titus, who is
referred to in the Preface, § 3, as * sexies consul ' ;
this dates the completion of the work at a.d. 77,
two years before the author's death and the accession
of Titus. It is an encyclopaedia of astronomy,
meteorology, geography, mineralogy, zoology and
botany, i.e. a systematic account of all the material
objects that are not the product of man's manu-

viii

INTRODUCTION

facture ; but among these topies, which are imphed
by the title, Phny inserts considerable essays on
human inventions and institutions (Book VII), as
well as minor digressions on similar subjects inter-
spersed in various other parts of the work. He
claims in his Preface that the work deals with 20,000
matters of importance, drawn from 100 selected
authors, to whose observations he has added many of
his own ; some of the latter he has indicated as they
occur, and there are doubtless others not so labelled,
but even so they form only a small fraction of the
work, which is in the main a second-hand compilation
from the works of others. In selecting from these
he has shown scanty judgement and discrimination,
including the false with the true at random ; his
selection is coloured by his love of the marvellous,
by his low estimate of human abiHty and his con-
sciousness of human wickedness, and by his mistrust
of Providence. Moreover his compilations show httle
methodical arrangement, and are sometimes un-
inteUigible because he fails to understand his
authority, or else because he gives wrong Latin names
to things dealt ^vith by his authorities in Greek.

Nevertheless it is a mistake to underrate the value
of his work. He is dihgent, accurate, and free from
prejudice. Though he had no considerable first-
hand knowledge of the sciences and was not himself
a systematic observer, he had a naturally scientific
mind, and an unaffected and absorbing interest in
his subjects. If he gives as much attention to what is
merely curious as to what has an essential importance,
this curiosity has incidentally preserved much valuable
detail, especially as regards the arts ; moreover
anecdotes that used to be rejected by critics as

ix

INTRODUCTION

erroneous and even absurd have now in not a few
cases been curroborated by modern research. The
book is valuable as an anthropological document :
it is a storehouse of scattered facts exhibiting the
history of mans reaction to his environment — the
gradual growth of accurate observation, of syste-
matic nomenclature and of classification, i.e. of
Natural Science.

PHny's own general attitude towards life, Hke that
of other educated men of his day, may be styled
a moderate and rational Stoicism.

A vnvid account of his authorship written by his
nephew mav be appended here. The younger
PHnv in reply to an enquiry from a friend, a great
admirer of his uncle, gives (Episfles. III, v) a full
Hst of his works, numl^ering seven in all and filling
102 libri or volumes. Of these the Naturae historiarum
(liLri) tripnta septem is the latest. He calls it (S 6)
opus diffusum, eriiditum, nec viinus variiim qriam ipsa
natura ; and he goes on to describe by what m.eans a
busv lawyer, engrossed in important afFairs and the
friend of princes, contrived to find time for all this
authorship (§7): ' He had a keen intelHgence, in-
crcdible devotion to study, and a remarkable capacity
for dispensing wth sleep. His method was to start
during the last week of August rising by candlelight
and long before daybreak, not in order to take
auspices but to study ; and in winter he got to work
at one or at latest two a.m., and frequently at
12 p.m. He was indeed a very ready sleeper, some-
times dropping ofF in the middle of his studies and
then waking up again. Before dawn he used to
wait on the Emperor Vespasian, who also worked
during the night ; and then he went off to the duty

INTRODUCTION

assigned to him. After returning home he gave all
the time that was lcft to study. Very often after
lunch— with him a light and easily digested meal, as
the fashion was in old days — in the summer, if he
had no engagements, he used to He in the sun and
have a book read to him, from which he made notes
and extracts ; he read nothing without making ex-
tracts from it — indeed he used to say that no book
is so bad but that some part of it has value. After
this rest in the sun he usually took a cold bath, and
then a snack of food and a very short siesta, and then
he put in what was virtually a second day's work,
going on with his studies till dinner-time. Over his
dinner a book was read aloud to him and notes were
made, and that at a rapid pace. I remember that one
of his friends, when the reader had rendered a passage
badly, called him back and had it repeated ; but
my uncle said to him, " Surely you got the sense ? "
and on his nodding assent continued, " Then what
did you call him back for .'' This interruption of
yours has cost us ten more hnes ! " Such was his
economy of time. He used to leave the dinner
table before sunset in summer and less than an hour
after it in winter — this rule had with him the force
of law. These were his habits when in the thick of
his eng-ao;ements and amid the turmoil of town.
In vacation, only the time of the bath was exempted
from study ; and when I say the bath I mean the more
central portions of that ritual, for while he was being
shampooed and rubbed down he used to have some-
thing read to him or to dictate. On a journey he
seemed to throw aside all other interests and used
the opportunity for study only : he had a secretary
at his elbow with book and tablets, his hands in

INTRODUCTION

winter protected by mittens so that even the in-
clemency of the weather might not steal any time
from his studies ; and with this object he used to go
about in a chair even in Rome. Once I remember
his puUing me up for going somewhere on foot,
saying " You need not have wasted those hours ! " —
he thought all time not spent in study wasted.
This resolute apphcation enabled him to get through
all those volumes, and he bequeathed to me 160
sets of notes on selected books, written on both sides
of the paper in an extremely small hand, a melhod
that multiphes this number of volumes ! He used
to tell how during his Lieutenant-governorship in
Spain he had an ofFer of £3,500 for these notes, and
at that date they were considerably fewer in
number.'

Text

A large number of MS. copies of Phnys Natural
History have been preserved; the oldest date back
to the 9th or possibly the 8th century a.d. Attempts
have been made by scholars to class them in order of
merit, but it cannot be said that even those that
appear to be comparatively more correct carry any
paramount authority, or indeed show much agree-
ment on doubtful points, while the mass of scientific
detail and terminology and the quantity of curious
and unfamiHar erudition that the book contains has
necessarily afforded numerous opportunities for
copyists' errors and for the conjectural emendation
of the learned. Many of the textual problems raised
are manifestly insoluble. Only a few variants of
special interest are given in this edition.

Many editions have been printed, beginning with

INTRODUCTION

that published by Spira at Venice, 1469, an edition
by Beroaldus published at Parma, 1476, and that
of Palmarius at Venice, 1499. Commentaries start
with Hermolai Barbari Castigatio7ies Plinianae, Romae,
1492, 3.

The text of the present edition is printed from that
of Detlefsen, Berlin, 1866 ; it has been checked by
the Teubner edition of Ludwig von Jan re-edited
by Karl Mayhoffin two volumes, 1905, 1909 (Volume
I reissued 1933), which is admirably equipped with
textual notes.

Useful are the commentary by G. Brotier in
usum DelpJimi (1826) ; Pliny : Chapters on the
Hist. of Art by K. Jex-Blake and E. Sellers (1896)
aud more receiitly Pliny's Chapters on Chemical
Subjects by K. C. Bailey (1929- ); and D. J.
Campbeli's commentary on Book II (1936).

VOLUME I : CONTENTS

Pliny's Preface. This is in the form of a covering
letter from PHny, to accompany the gift of his
treatise on Natural History to his friend Vespasian
Caesar {i.e. the ruling Emperor Vespasian's son,
Titus, his successor as Princeps, who had ah-eady
been vested with Imperium and Tribunicia Potestas).
The reference to him in § 3 dates the passage :
see above, p. viii. The author goes on to say
that this dedication places the work outside the
class of books intended for the general reader,
and invites serious criticism. The subject does not
admit of an elevated style — the treatise is a plain
record of the facts of Nature, designed for utihty

INTRODUCTION

and not for entertainment. Its compilation has
occupied the leisure left to the author by the claims
of pubhc duty. The authorities drawn upon are
faithfully recorded. The matter-of-fact title, in
place of some fanciful label, indicates the author's
aim, and the practical object of the work is aided by
the table of contents that forms Book I, enabhng
the reader to turn to any particular subject that he
desires to look up.

Book I : Table of Contents of the remaining
thirty-six Books, the contents of each Book being
followed by a hst of the previous writers used as
authorities.

Book II (see Book I init.) : Cosmology, astronomy,
meteorology, geography, geology.

XlT

PLINY
NATURAL HISTORY

PLINII NATURALIS HISTORIA

PREFATIO

Plinius Secundus Vespasiano Suo S

LiBROS Naturalis Historiae, novicium Camenis
Quiritium tuorum opus, natos apud me proxima
fetura licentiore epistula narrare ^ constitui tibi,
iucundissime imperator — sit enim haec tui praefatio,
verissima, dum maximi consenescit in patre —

namque tu solebas
nugas esse aliquid meas putare ^

ut obiter emolliam Catullum concerraneum ^ meum
— agnoscis et hoc castrense verbum — (ille enim,
ut scis, permutatis prioribus syllabis duriusculum
se * fecit quam volebat existimari a VeranioUs suis et
Fabulhs), simul ut hac mea petulantia fiat quod
proxime non fieri questus es in aUa procaci epistula

^ nuncupare edd.

* Haupt : esse aliquid meas putare nugas codd.

* v.l. conterraneum. * [se] ? Eackham.

' The Emperor Titus.

* Edd. cj. nuncupare, 'dedicate,' ' assign to your name.*
« Catullus i 3 f.

* Concerraneum = concerronem or congerronem ' booii'
eompauiou ' (oue who congerit, coutributes to a feast).

a

PLINY NATURAL HISTORY
PREFACE

PlINIUS SeCUNDUS TO HIS DEAR VeSPASIAN " GREETINO

MosT Gracious Highness (let this title, a supremely
true one, be yours, while that of ' Most Eminent '
grows to old age with your sire) — I have resolved to
recount ^" to you, in a somewhat presumptuous letter,
the offspring of my latest travail, my volumes of
Natural History (a novel task for the native Muses of
your Roman citizens) —

For 'twas e'er your way
To deem my trifles something worth *

— to give a passing touch of poHsh to my ' opposite
number ' '^ — you recognize even this service slang —
Catullus (for he, as you know, by interchanging the
first syllables * made himself a trifle harsher / than he
wished to be considered by his * darhng Veraniuses
and Fabulluses ') ? and at the same time that my
present sauciness may effect what in the case of
another impudent letter of mine lately you complained

• Catullus wrote meas esse aliquid putare nugas.
' Perhaps alter Latin to give ' made it a little harsher than
he wished it to be thought.'
' Catuilus xii. 16, ut Veraniolum tneum et Fabullum.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

nostra, ut in quaedam acta exeat, sciantque omnes

3 quam ex aequo tecum vivat imperium, triumphalis
et censorius tu sexiesque consul ac tribuniciae
potestatis particeps et (quod his nobilius fecisti dum
illud patri pariter et equestri ordini praestas) praefec-
tus praetorii eius, omniaque haec rei publicae — et
nobis quidem qualis in castrensi contubernio ! nec
quicquam in te mutavit fortunae amplitudo nisi

4 ut prodesse tantundem posses ut velles. itaque
cum ceteris in venerationem tui pateant omnia
illa, nobis ad colendum te famiUarius audacia sola
superest. hanc igitur tibi imputabis, et in nostra
culpa tibi ignosces. perfricui faciem, nec tamen
profeci, quoniam alia \ia occurris ingens et longius

P etiam submoves ingenii fascibus : fulgurat in nullo
umquam verius dictatoria vis eloquentiae, tribunicia
potestas facundiae. quanto tu ore patris laudes
tonas ! quanto fratris famam ^ ! quantus in poetica
es! o magna fecunditas animi — quemadmodum
fratrem quoque imitareris excogitasti !

6 Sed haec quis possit intrepidus aestimare subiturus
ingenii tui iudicium, praesertim lacessitum ? neque
enim similis est condicio publicantium et nominatim

^ famaiu Rackham, famas Detlefsen : amas ciMid.

4

PREFACE, 2-6

of as not coming ofF — that it may result in something
getting done, and everyone may know on what equal
terms the empire Uves with you — you with a triumph
to your name and censorial rank, six times consul,
coUeague in tribune's authority, and (a service that
you have made more iUustrious than these in render-
ing it equaUy to your father and to the equestrian
order) commander of his bodyguard ; and aU this
in your pubUc Ufe — and then what a good comrade
to us in the companionship of the camp ! Nor
has fortune's grandeur made any change in you
save in enabUng you to bestow aU the benefit you
desire. Consequently as aU those methods of paying
you revei-ence are open to everybody else, to me is
left only the presumption of treating you with more
intimate respect. For that presumption therefore
you wiU debit the responsibiUty to yourself, and wiU
grant yourself pardon on the score of my offence. I
have tried to put on a bokl face, and yet have not
succeeded, as your grandeur meets me by another
route and the rods of office that your genius
bears make me move on yet further : in no other
person ever radiate more genuinely the dictatorial
power of oratory and the tribunician authority of
wit ! How eloquently you thunder forth your
father's praises and your brother's fame ! How
great you are in the poet's art ! O mighty fertiUty
of genius — you have contrived a way to imitate your
brother also !

But who could judge the value of these composi-
tions with confidence when about to submit to the
verdict of your talent, especiaUy when that verdict
has been invited ? for formal dedication of the
work to you puts one in a difFerent position from

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

tibi dicantium. tum possem dicere : Quid ista legis,
imperator? humili vulgo scripta sunt, agricolarum,
opificum turbae, denique studiorum ^ otiosis: quid
te iudicem facis ? quom hanc operam condicerem,
non eras in hoc albo : maiorem te sciebam quam ut

7 descensurum huc putarem ! praeterea est quaedam
publica etiam eruditorum reiectio : utitur illa et
M. Tullius extra omnem ingenii aleam positus, et
(quod miremur) per advocatxmi defenditur :

nec doctissimis.
Manium Persium haec legere nolo, luniura
Congum volo.
quod si hoc Lucilius, qui primus condidit stili nasum,
dicendum sibi putavit, Cicero mutuandum, praesertim
cum de re publica scriberet, quanto nos causatius ab

8 aliquo iudice defendimus ? sed haec ego mihi nunc
patrocinia ademi nuncupatione, quoniam plurimum
refert sortiatur aUquis iudicem an ehgat, multumque
apparatus interest apud invitatum hospitem et

9 oblatum. cum apud Catonem, illum ambitus hostem
et repulsis tanquam honoribus inemptis gaudentem,
flagrantibus comitiis pecunias deponerent candidati,
hoc se facere pro innocentia quod in rebus humanis

^ v.l. studiosorum.

" Cic. De Or. II. 25. Nam ut C. Lucilius . . . dicere solebat
ea quae scriberet neque ab indoctissimis se neque a doctis-
simis legi uelle, quod alteri nihil intelligerent, alteri plus
fortasse quam ipse; quo etiam scripsit Persium non curo
legere (hic enim fuit, ut noramus, omnium fere nostrorum
hominum doctissimus), Laelium Decim,um volo (quem cog-
nouimus uirum bonum et non illiteratum, sed nihil at Persium):
sic ego — Brotier thinks that Pliny refers to Cicero's preface
(now lost) to De Repuhlica (as implied below) and that there
the quotation differed from that in De Oratore; but Wilkins
{de Or. I. 256) suggests that Cicero here merely substitutes the
name of a friend of his own.
6

PREFACE, 6-9

mere publication. In the latter case I could have
said : ' Why does your Highness read that ? It was
written for the common herd, the mob of farmers
and of artizans, and after them for students who have
nothing else to occupy their time : why do you put
yourself on the jury? You were not on this panel
when I took the contract for this undertaking : I
knew you to be too great for me to think you hkely
to descend to this ! Moreover even in the court of
learning there is an official procedure for challenging
the jury : it is employed even by Marcus Cicero, who
where genius is in question stands outside all hazard.
It may surprise us, but Cicero calls in the aid of
council —

. . . nor yet for the very learned ;
Manius Persius I don't want to read this, I want
Junius Congus.

But if LuciUus, the originator of critical sniffing,
thought fit to say this, and Cicero to quote it, especially
when writing his Theory of the Constitution, how much
more reason have we to stand on the defensive against
a particular juryman?" But for my part at the
present I have deprived myself of these defences by
my nomination, as it matters a great deal whether
one obtains a judge by lot or by one's own selection,
and one's style of entertainment ranks quite differ-
ently with a guest one has invited and one who has
offered himself. The candidates in a hotly contested
election deposited sums of money with Cato, that
resolute foe of corruption, who enjoyed a defeat at
the poUs as an honour obtained free of charge ; and
they gave out that they did this in the defence of
the highest among human possessions, their inno-

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

summum esset profitebantur. inde illa nobilis M.
Ciceronis suspiratio : ' O te felicem, M. Porci,

10 a quo rem inprobam petere nemo audet ! ' cum
tribunos appellaret L. Scipio Asiaticus, inter quos
erat Gracchus, hoc adtestabatur vel inimico iudici
se probari posse : adeo summum quisque causae
suae iudicem facit quemcumque eligit — unde pro-

11 vocatio appellatur. te quidem in excelsissimo generis
humani fastigio positum, summa eloquentia, summa
eruditione praeditum, religiose adiri etiam a salut-
antibus scio, et ideo curari,^ ut quae tibi dicantur
tui digna sint. verum dis lacte rustici multaeque
gentes et mola tantum salsa litant qui non habent
tura, nec ulli fuit vitio deos colere quoquo modo
posset.

12 Meae quidem temeritati accessit hoc quoque, quod
levioris operae hos tibi dedicavi Hbellos : nam nec
ingenii sunt capaces, quod alioqui in nobis perquam
mediocre erat, neque admittunt excessus aut orationes
sermonesve aut casus mirabiles vel eventus varios,

13 iucunda dictu aut legentibus blanda. sterilis materia,
rerum natura, hoc est vita, narratur, et haec sordi-
dissima sui parte, ac plurimarum rerum aut rusticis
vocabuUs aut externis, immo barbaris, etiam cum

14 honoris praefatione ponendis. praeterea iter est
non trita auctoribus via nec qua peregrinari animus
expetat : nemo apud nos qui idem temptaverit

1 curari Rackham : curavi avX cura ojdd.

8

PREFACE, 9-14

cence. This was the occasion of that famous sigh of
Cicero — ' O happy Marcus Porcius whom no one
dares to ask for sometliing underhand ! ' Lucius
Scipio Asiaticus by appeahng to the tribunes, one
of them being Gracchus, testified that his case
could be made good even to an unfriendly judge :
in fact a judge whom one chooses oneself one
makes the supreme arbiter of one's case — this is the
source of the term ' appeal.' You yourself indeed,
I know, being placed on the loftiest pinnacle of all
mankind, and being endowed with supreme elo-
quence and learning, are approached with reverential
awe even by persons paying a visit of ceremony, and
consequently care is taken that what is dedicated to
you may be worthy of you. However, country folk,
and many natives, not having incense, make offerings
of milk and salted meal, and no man was ever charged
with irreguUirity for worshipping the gods in what-
ever manner was within his power.

My own presumption has indeed gone further, in
dedicating to you the present volumes — a work of a
lighter nature, as it does not admit of talent, of which
in any case I possessed only quite a moderate amount,
nor does it allow of digressions, nor of speeches or
dialogues, nor marvellous accidents or unusual
occurrences — matters interesting to relate or enter-
taining to read. My subject is a barren one — the
world of nature, or in other words Ufe ; and that
subject in its least elevated department, and employ-
ing either rustic terms or foreign, nay barbarian,
words that actually have to be introduced with an
apology. Moreover, the path is not a beaten highway
of authorship, nor one in which the mind is eager
to range : there is not one person to be found among

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

invenitur, nemo apud Graecos qui unus omnia
ea tractaverit. magna pars studiorum amoenitates
quaerimus, quae vero tractata ab aliis dicuntur
inmensae subtilitatis obscuris renim in tenebris
premuntur. ante omnia attingenda quae Graeci
T^s iyKVKXiov TraiSetas vocant ; et tamen ignota
aut incerta ingeniis facta, alia vero ita^ multis prodita

15 ut in fastidium sint adducta. res ardua vetustis
novitatem dare, novis auctoritatem, obsoletis nitorem,
obscuris lucem, fastiditis gratiam, dubiis fidem,
omnibus vero naturam et naturae sua^ omnia.
itaque nobis etiam non assecutis voluisse abunde
pulchrum atque magnificum est.

16 Equidem ita sentio, peculiarem in studiis causam
eorima esse qui difficultatibus victis utilitatem iuvandi
praetulerunt gratiae placendi ; idque iam et in aliis
operibus ipse feci, et profiteor mirari T. Livium,
auctorem celeberrimum, in historiariun suarum quas
repetit ab origine urbis quodam volumine sic orsum :
satis iam sibi gloriae quaesitum, et potuisse se de-
sidere, ni animus inquies^ pasceretur opere. profecto
enim populi gentium victoris et Romani nominis
gloriae, non suae, conposuisse illa decuit ; maius
meritum esset operis amore, non animi causa, per-

^ ita a ? Rachham. * Durand : suae. ' v.l. in quiete.

" Now lost.

* A variant givea ' my mind in a period of rest.'

lO

PREFACE, 14-16

us who has made the same venture, nor yet one
among the Greeks who has tackled single-handed all
departments of the subject. A large part of us seek
agreeable fields of study,while topics of immeasurable
abstruseness treated by others are drowned in the
shadowy darkness of the theme. Deserving of treat-
ment before all things are the subjects included by
the Greeks under the name of ' EncycHc Culture ' ;
and nevertheless they are unknown, or have been
obscured by subleties, whereas other subjects have
been pubhshed so widely that they have become
stale. It is a difficult task to give novelty to what is
old, authority to what is new, brilHance to the
common-place, Hght to the obscure, attraction to the
stale, credibiHty to the doubtful, but nature to all
things and ah her properties to nature. Accordingly,
even if we have not succeeded, it is honourable and
glorious in the fuUest measure to have resolved on the
attempt.

For my own part I am of opinion that a special
place in learning belongs to those who have preferred
the useful service of overcoming difficulties to the
popularity of giving pleasure ; and I have myself
aheady done this in other works also, and I declare
that I admire the famous writer Livy when he begins
one volume " of his History ofRomefrom the Foundation
of the City with the words ' I have already achieved
enough of fame, and I might have retired to leisure,
did not my restless mind * find its sustenance in
work.' For assuredly he ought to have composed
his history for the glory of the world-conquering
nation and of the Roman name, not for his own ;
it would have been a greater merit to have persevered
from love of the work, not for the sake of liis own

IX

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

severasse, et hoc populo Romano praestitisse , non sibi.

17 viginti milia rerum dignarum cura — quoniam, ut ait
Domitius Piso, thesauros oportet esse, non libros —
lectione voluminum circiter duorum milium, quorum
pauca admodum studiosi attingunt propter secretum
materiae, ex exquisitis auctoribus centum inclusimus
triginta sex voluminibus, adiectis rebus plurimis quas
aut ignoraverant priores aut postea invenerat vita.

18 nec dubitamus multa esse quae et nos praeterierint ;
homines enim sumus et occupati officiis, subsicivisque
temporibus ista curamus, id est nocturnis, ne quis
vestrum putet his cessatum horis. dies vobis
inpendimus, cum somno valetudinem conputamus,
vel hoc solo praemio contenti quod, dum ista (ut
ait M. Varro) muginamur,^ pluribus horis viWmus :

19 profecto enim ^nta vigilia est. quibus de causis atque
difficultatibus nihil auso promittere hoc ipsum
tu praestas quod ad te scribimus. haec fiducia operis,
haec est indicatura : multa valde pretiosa ideo
videntur quia sunt tempHs dicata.

20 Vos quidem omnes, patrem, te fratremque, diximus

opere iusto, temporum nostrorum historiam orsi a

fine Aufidii.^ ubi sit ea quaeres ? iam pridcm

peracta sancitur; et alioqui statutum erat heredi

' vJ. musinamuT.

2 Mayhojf (Autidii Bassi codd. det.) : aut tidei aut aut fide
codd.

12

PREFACE, 16-20

peace of mind, and to have rendered this service to the
Roman nation and not to himself. As Domitus Piso
says, it is not books but store-houses that are needed ;
consequently by perusing about 2000 volumes, very
few of which, owing to the abstruseness of their
contents, are ever handled by students, we have
collected in 36 volumes 20,000 noteworthy facts
obtained from one hundred authors that we have ex-
plored, with a great number of other facts in addition
that were either ignored by our predecessors or have
been discovered by subsequent experience. Nor
do we doubt that there are many things that have
escaped us also ; for we are but human, and beset
with duties, and we pursue this sort of interest in
our spare moments, that is at night — lest any of your
house should think that the night hours have been
given to idleness. The days we devote to you, and
we keep our account with sleep in terms of health,
content even with this reward alone, that, while we
are dallying (in Varro's phrase) with these trifles, we
are adding hours to our hfe — since of a certainty to be
aUve means to be awake. Because of these reasons
and these difficulties I dare make no promise ; the
very words I am writing to you are supphed by your-
self. This guarantees my work, and this rates its
value; many objects are deemed extremely precious
just because of the fact that they are votive
offerings.

As for your sire, your brother and yourself, we have
dealt with you all in a regular book, the Hlstory of
our otvn Times, that begins where Aufidius's history
leaves off. Where is this work ? you will enquire.
The draft has long been finished and in safe keeping ;
and in any case it was my resolve to entrust it to my

13

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

mandare, ne quid ambitioni dedisse vita iudi-
caretur : proinde occupantibus locum faveo, ego
vero et posteris quos scio nobiscum decertaturos

21 sicut ipsi fecimus cum prioribus. argumentum huius
stomachi mei habebis quod his ^ voluminibus auctor-
ima nomina praetexui. est enim benignum (ut
arbitror) et plenum ingenui pudoris fateri per quos
profeceris, non ut plerique ex his quos attigi fecerunt.

22 scito enim conferentem auctores me deprehendisse a
iuratissimis et proximis veteres transcriptos ad
verbimi neque nominatos, non illa Vergiliana virtute,
ut certarent, non TulUana simplicitate, qui de re
publica Platonis se eomitem profitetur, in consolatione
filiae ' Crantorem,' inquit, ' sequor,' item Panaetium
de officiis, quae volumina ediscenda, non modo in

23 manibus cotidie habenda nosti. obnoxii profecto
animi et infehcis ingenii est deprehendi in furto
malle quam mutuum reddere, cum praesertim sors
fiat ex usura.

24 Inscriptionis apud Graecos mira feUcitas : KtqpCov
inscripsere, quod volebant intellegi favom, alii
K€/3as 'Afxa\Oeta<;, quod copiae cornu (ut vel lactis
gaUinacei sperare possis in volumine haustum),
iam la, Moiicrai, TravSeKrai, iy^eipiSia, XeLfxwv, TrtVag,
trp^eStov — inscriptiones propter quas vadimonium de-

^ Raclham : in his codd.

" In Book I: cf. xviii. 212, auctores quos praetexuimua
volumini huic.
' 'Opvidwv ydAo, a proverbial rarity like pigeon'8 milk.

14

PREFACE, 20-24

heir, to prevent its being thought that my lifetime
bestowed anything on ambition : accordingly I do
a good turn to those who seize the vacant position,
and indeed also to future generations, who I know
will challenge us to battle as we ourselves have
challenged our predecessors. You will deem it a
proof of this pride of mine that I have prefaced "
these voliunes with the names of my authorities.
I have done so because it is, in my opinion, a pleasant
thing and one that shows an honourable modesty, to
own up to those who were the means of one's achieve-
ments, not to do as most of the authors to whom I
have referred did. For you must know that when
collating authorities I have found that the most
professedly reHable and modern writers have copied
the old authors word for word, without acknow-
ledgement, not in that valorous spirit of Virgil,
for the purpose of rivalry, nor with the candour
of Cicero who in his Republic declares himself a
companion of Plato, and in his Consolation to his
daughter says ' I follow Crantor,' and similarly as to
Panaetius in his De Officiis — volumes that you know
to be worth having in one's hands every day, nay
even learning by heart. Surely it marks a mean
spirit and an unfortunate disposition to prefer being
detected in a theft to repaying a loan — especially as
interest creates capital.

There is a marvellous neatness in the titles given
to books among the Greeks. One they entitled
Krjpiov, meaning Honeycomb ; others called their
work Kepas 'A/xaX^eias, i.e. Horn ofPleniy (so that you
can hope to find a draught of hen's milk * in the
volume), and again Violets, Muses, Hold-alls, Hand-
books, Meadow, Tablet, Imprompiu — titles that might

15

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

seri possit. at cum intraveris, di deaeque, quam
nihil in medio invenies ! nostri graviores ^ Antiquita-
tum, Exemplorum Artiumque, facetissimi Lucubra-
tionum, puto quia Bibaculus erat et vocabatur.
paulo minus adserit Varro in satiris suis Sesculixe

2.5 et Flextabula. apud Graecos desiit nugari Diodorus
et ^i(3Xio6y]Krj<; historiam suam inscripsit. Apion
quidem grammaticus (hic quem Tiberius Caesar
cymbalum mundi vocabat, quom propriae famae
tympanum potius videri posset) immortalitate do-

20 nari a se scripsit ad quos aliqua componebat. me non
paenitet nullum festiviorem excogitasse titulum.
et ne in totum videar Graecos insectari, ex ilUs nos
vehm intellegi pingendi fingendique conditoribus
quos in hbelhs his invenies absoluta opera, et illa
quoque quae mirando non satiamur, pendenti titulo
inscripsisse, ut Apelles faciehat aut Polyclitus,
tamquam inchoata semper arte et inperfecta, ut
contra iudiciorum varietates superesset artifici
regressus ad veniam, velut emendaturo quicquid de-

27 sideraretur si non esset interceptus. quare plenum
verecundiae illud est quod omnia opera tamquam
novissima inscripsere et tamquam singuhs fato
adempti. tria non amphus, ut opinor, absolute

^ v.l. crassiores.

" I.e. forget an important engagement in order to read
the book.

" We should say ' to blow his own trumpet.' Diodorua
Siculus in the time of Augustus, wrote a luiiversal history,
part of which is stiil extaat.

x6

PREFACE, 24-27

tempt a man to forfeit his bail." But when you get
inside them, good heavens, what a void you will
find between the covers ! Our authors being more
serious use the titles Antiquities, Instances and Systems,
the wittiest, Talks by Lamplight, I suppose because
the author was a toper — indeed Tippler was his name.
Varro makes a rather smaller claim in his Satires
A Ulysses-and-a-half and Folding-tablet. Diodorus
among the Greeks stopped playing with words and
gave his history the title of Library. Indeed the
pliilologist Apion (the person whom Tiberius Caesar
used to call ' the world's cymbal,' though he might
rather have been thought to be a drum,* advertising
his own renown) wrote that persons to whom he
dedicated his compositions received from him the
gift of immortahty. For myself, I am not ashamed
of not having invented any HveUer title. And so as
not to seem a downright adversary of the Greeks,
I should hke to be accepted on the hnes of those
founders of painting and sculpture who, as you will
find in these volumes, used to inscribe their finished
works, even the masterpieces which we can never be
tired of admiring, with a provisional title such as
Worked on by Apelles or Polycliius, as though art was
always a thing in process and not completed, so that
when faced by the vagaries of criticism the artist
might have left him a Une of retreat to indulgence, by
implying that he intended, if not interrupted, to
correct any defect noted. Hence it is exceedingly
modest of them to have inscribed all their works
in a manner suggesting that they were their latest,
and as though they had been snatched away from
each of them by fate. Not more than three, I
fancy, are recorded as having an inscription denoting

17

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

traduntur inscripta; Ille fecit (quae suis locis
reddam) ; quo apparuit summam artis securitatem
auctori placuisse, et ob id magna invidia fuere
omnia ea.

28 Ego plane meis adici posse multa confiteor, nec
his solis, sed et omnibus quos edidi, ut obiter caveana
istos Homeromastigas (ita enim verius dixerim), quo-
niam audio et Stoicos et dialecticos, Epicureos
quoque (nam de grammaticis semper expectavi)
parturire adversus libellos quos de granamatica edidi,
et subinde abortus facere iam decem annis, cum

29 celerius etiam elephanti pariant. ceu vero nesciam
adversus Theophrastum, hominem in eloquentia
tantum ut nomen divinum inde invenerit, scripsisse
etiam feminam, et proverbium inde natum suspendio

30 arborem eUgendi ! non queo mihi temperare quo
minus ad hoc pertinentia ipsa censorii Catonis verba
ponam, ut appareat etiam Catoni de miUtari disciplina
commentanti, qui sub Africano, immo vero et sub
Hannibale didicisset miUtare et ne Africanum
quidem ferre potuisset, qui imperator triumphum
reportasset, paratos fuisse istos qui obtrectatione
alienae scientiae famam sibi aucupantur. ' Quid
enim ' ? ait in eo volumine, ' scio ego, quae scripta
sunt si palam proferantur, multos fore qui vitiHtigent,
sed ii potissuuum qui verae laudis expertes sunt.
i8

PREFACE, 27-30

completion — Made hy so-and-so (these I will bring
in at their proper places) ; this made the artist appear
to have assumed a supreme confidence in his art, and
consequently all these works were very unpopular.
For my o^vn part I frankly confess that my works
would admit of a great deal of amplification, and not
only those now in question but also all my pubUca-
tions, so that in passing I may insure myself against
your ' Scourges of Homer ' (that would be the more
correct term), as I am informed that both the Stoics
and the Academy, and also the Epicureans, — as
for the philologists, I always expected it from them —
are in travail with a reply to my publications on
Philology, and for the last ten years have been
having a series of miscarriages — for not even elephants
take so long to bring their ofFspring to birth ! But
as if I didn't know that Theophrastus, a mortal
whose eminence as an orator won him the title of
' the divine,' actually had a book written against
him by a woman — which was the origin of the proverb
about ' choosing your tree to hang from ' ! I am
unable to refrain from quoting the actual words of
Cato the Censor applying to this, to show that even
the treatise on miUtary discipUne of Cato, who had
learnt his soldiering under Africanus, or rather
under him and Hannibal as well, and had been unable
to endure even Africanus, who when commander-in-
chief had won a triumph, found critics ready for it of
the sort that try to get glory for themselves by
running down another man's knowledge. ' What
then? ' he says in the book in question, ' I myself
know that if certain writings are pubUshed there wiU
be plenty of people to quibble and quarrel, but
mostly people quite devoid of true distinction. For

19

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

31 eorum ego orationes si\i praeterfluere.' nec Plancus
inlepide, cum diceretur Asinius Pollio orationes in
eum parare quae ab ipso aut liberis post mortem
Planci ederentur, ne respondere posset, ' cum mortuis
non nisi larvas luctari.' quo dicto sic repercussit illas,

32 ut apud eruditos nihil impudentius iudicetur. ergo
securi etiam contra \itilitigatores (quos Cato eleganter
ex vitiis et litigatoribus conposuit, quid enim illi
aliud quam litigant aut litem quaerunt }) exequemur

33 reliqua propositi. quia occupationibus tuis publico
bono parcendum erat, quid singulis contineretur
libris huic epistulae subiunxi, summaque cura ne
legendos eos haberes operam dedi. tu per hoc et
aUis praestabis ne perlegant, sed ut quisque desi-
derabit aHquid id tantum quaerat, et sciat quo loco
inveniat. hoc ante me fecit in litteris nostris Valerius
Soranus in Ubris quos iTrovTiSwv inscripsit.

" Perhaps this title for a work of spholarship denoted the
inner secrets of leaming into which it admitted the Musea,
Soranua &. 100 a.c

«O

PREFACE, 30-33

my part I have let these persons' eloquence run its
course.' Plancus also put it neatly, when told that
Asinius PoUio was composing declamations against
him, to be published by himself or his children atter
Plancus's death, so that he might be unable to
reply : ' Only phantoms fight with the dead ! '
This remark dealt those declamations such a nasty
blow that in cultivated circles they are thought the
most shameless things extant. Accordingly, being
safeguarded even against quibble-quarrellers (Cato's
nickname for them — a neat compound word, for
what else do these people do but quarrel or seek a
quarrel ?) we will follow out the remainder of our
intended plan. As it was my duty in the public
interest to have consideration for the claims upon
your time, I have appended to this letter a table of
eontents of the several books, and have taken very
careful precautions to prevent your having to read
them. You by these means will secure for others
that they will not need to read right through them
either, but only look for the particular point that
each of them wants, and will know where to find it.
This plan has been adopted previously in Roman
literature, by Valerius Soranus in his books entitled
LMdy IniUates,"

n

BOOK I

LIBER !

Libro II. continentur : (i-iii) An finitus sit mundus
et an unus. de forma eius. de motu eius. ctu-
mundus dicatur. (iv) De elementis. (v) De deo.
(vi) De siderum errantium natura. (y\i) de lunae
et solis defectibus. de nocte. (viii-x) de magnitudine
siderum. quae quis invenerit in observatione
caelesti. (xi) de lunae motu. (xii-xvi) Errantium
motus et luminum canonica ; quare eadem altiora
alias, alias ^ propiora videantur ; catholica siderum
errantium ; quae ratio colores eorum mutet. (xvii)
solis motus ; dierum inaequalitatis ratio. (xviii)
Quare fulmina lovi adsignentur. (xix) Intervalla
siderum. (xx) de sideribus musica. (xxi) de mundo
geometrica. (xxii, xxiii) De repentinis sideribus.
de cometis : natura et situs et genera eorum.
(xxiv) Hipparchea de sideribus agnoscendis. (xxv-
xxxv) De caelestibus prodigiis per exempla historica :
lampades, bolides, trabes caelestes, chasma caeli;
de caeU coloribus ; de flamma caelesti ; de coronis
caelestibus ; de circuhs repentinis ; sohs defectus
longiores ; plures soles ; plures lunae ; diuma *
noctibus lux ; cHpei ardentes ; ostentum caeU semel
notatum. (xxxvi) De discursu stellarum. (xxxvii)
De stelUs quae Castores vocantur. (xxxviii) De aere.
(xxxix-xU) De statis tempestatibus. de caiiiculae

^ alias add. Jan.
24

BOOK I

TaBLE Or CoNTENTS AND AuTH0RTTrE3

Book 11. Contents : (i-iii) The world — is it finite ?
is it one ? its shape ; its motion ; reason for its
name. (iv) The elements. (v) God. (vi) The
planets— their nature. (vii) Eclipses, solar and
iunar. Night. (viii-x) The stars — their magnitude ;
astronomical discoveries. (xi) The moon's motion.
(xii-xvi). Motions of the planets ; theory of their
light ; causes of apparent recession and approach ;
general properties of planets ; reason for changes
of colour. (xvii) The sun's motion ; reason for
inequahty of days. (xviii) Thunderbolts, why attri-
buted to Jove. (xix) The stars — their distances
apart. (xx) Music from the stars. (xxi) Dimensions
of the world. (xxii, xxiii) Shooting stars. Comets ;
their nature, position and kinds. (xxiv) Identification
of stars — method of Hipparchus. (xxv-xxxv) Sky
portents — recorded instances : torches, shafts, sky-
beams, sky-yawning, colom-s of the sky, sky-flame,
sky-wreaths, sudden rings, prolonged solar eclipses,
several suns, several moons, dayhght at night,
burning shield; an unique sky-portent. (xxxvi)
Disruption of stars. (xxxvii) The ' Castores.' (xxxviii)
The air. (xxxix-xh). Fixed seasons. Rise of dog-

diurna Detlefsen : dierum (dieruin<modo> Mayhoff).

25

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

ortu. vis temporvim anni stata. (xlii, iii) De incertis
tempestatibus. de imbribus et quare lapidibus
pluat. de tonitribus et fulgetris. (xliv-viii) Qua
ratione echo reddatur. Ventorum genera, naturae,
observationes. (xlix, 1) Ecnephias, typhon, turbines,
presteres, vertices, alia prodigiosa genera tempe-
statiun. (li-M) De fulminibus, quibus in terris non
cadant, et quare ; genera fulgurum et miracula ;
Etrusca observatio in iis et Romana ; de fulminibus
evocandis ; cathoHca fulgurum ; quae numquara
feriantur. (Ivii) Lacte pluisse, sanguine, carne, ferro,
lana, lateribus coctis. (Iviii) Portenta. (lix) De
lapidibus caelo cadentibus. Anaxagorea de his. (Ix)
Arcus caelestis. (Ixi) Natura grandinis, nivis, pruinae,
nebulae, roris. Nubium imagines. (Ixii) Pro-
prietates caeh in locis. (Ixiii-v) Natura terrae ; de
forma eius ; an sint antipodes. (Ix^i-viii) Quomodo
aqua terrae innexa. quae ratio fluminum. an
circumdatus terrae oceanus. quae portio terrae
habitetur. (Ixix) Mediam esse mundi terram.
(Ixx f.) De obliquitate zonarum. de inaequaUtate
climatum. (Ixxii f.) Ubi echpsis non appareant,
et quare. Quae ratio diurnae lucis in terris ; gnomo-
nica de ea re. (Ixxv, vii) Ubi et quando nullae umbrae,
ubi bis anno. ubi in contrarium umbrae ferantur.
Ubi longissimi dies, ubi brevissimi. (Ixxviii) De
primo horologio. (Ixxix) Quomodo observentur dies.
(Ixxx) DifFerentia gentium ad rationem mundi.
(Ixxxi-vi) De terrae motibus. de terrae hiatibus.
signa motus futuri. auxilia contra motus futuros.
portenta terrarum semel tradita. miracula terrae
motus. (Ixxxvii-xciv) Quibus locis maria recesserint.
Insularum enascentium ratio ; quae et quibus
temporibus enatae sint. quas terras interruperint

26

BOOK I

star. Regular effect of seasons. (xlii, iii) Irregular
seasons. Rain storms. Showers of stones, their
reason. Thunder-bolts and Ughtnings. (xUv-viii)
Echo — its reason. Winds — their kinds, natures and
behaviour. (xUx, 1). Cloud-burst, typhoon, whirl-
winds, presteres, tornadoes, other portentous kinds of
storms. (U-vi) Thunder-bolts — what countries im-
mune from them and why ; their kinds, their pecu-
Uarities ; Tuscan and Roman observances connected
with ; method of calUng down ; general properties ;
what objects never struck. (Ivii) Showers of milk,
blood, flesh, iron, wool, bricks. (Iviii) Portents. (Ux)
Stones faUing from the sky — Anaxagoras as to. (Ix)
Rainbow. (Ixi). Nature of hail, snow, frost, cloud,
dew. (Ixii) Local pecuUarities of the sky. (Ixiii-v)
Nature of the earth ; its shape ; antipodes — do they
exist ? (Ixvi-viii) Water — how Unked with eartli ?
Rivers — their reason. Is the earth surrounded by
the ocean ? What portion of the earth is inhabited ?
(Ixix). The earth at the centre of the world. (Ixx)
ObUquity of zones. InequaUty of cUmates. (Ixxii)
EcUpses — where invisible, and why ? (Ixxiii) Reason
for dayUght on earth ; gnomonics of dayUght.
(Ixxv-vii). Absence of shadows — where and when ?
where twice yearly ? where shadows travel in
opposite direction ? Where days are longest and
shortest ? (Ixxviii) The first clock. (Ixxix) How
days are observed. (Ixxx) Racial difference and
latitude. (Ixxxi-vi) Earthquakes. Chasms. Signs
of impending earthquake. Precautions against
impending earthquakes. Records of unique earth
portents. Marvels of earthquake. (Ixxxvii-xciv)
Retreat of sea, where occurred ? Emergence of
islands — reason for; instances and dates of. Dis-

27

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

maria. quae insulae continenti adiunctae sint.
quae terrae in totum mari permutatae. quae terrae
ipsae se minuerint. urbes haustae mari. (xcv) De
spiraculis. (xcvi) De terris semper trementibus.
de insulis semper fluctuantibus. (xcvii) Quibus locis
non impluat. (xcviii) Acervata terrarum miracula.
(xcix f.) Qua ratione aestus maris accedant et
recedant. ubi aestus extra rationem idem faciant.
(ci-cv) Miracula maris : quae potentia lunae ad
terrena et marina, quae solis. quare salsmn mare.
ubi altissimum mare. (c^i) Mirabilia fontium et
flujninum. (cvii-cx) Ignium et aquarum iuncta
miracula : de maltha ; de naphtha ; quae loca semper
ardeant. (cxi) Ignium per se miracula. (cxii)
Terrae universae mensura. (cxiii) Harmonica mundi
ratio. Summa : res et historiae et observationes
CCCCXVII.

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, Sulpicio Gallo, Tito
Caesare imperatore, Q. Tuberone, Tulho Tirone,
L. Pisone, T. Livio, Comeho Nepote, Seboso, Caelio
Antipatro, Fabiano, Antiate, Muciano, Caecina qui
de Etrusca disciphna, Tarquitio qui item, lulio
Aquila qui item, Sergio Paullo. Externis : Hipparcho,
Timaeo, Sosigene, Petosiri, Nechepso Pythagoricis,
Posidonio, Anaximandro, Epigene, Eudoxo, Dem.o-
crito, Critodemo, Thrasyllo, Serapione gnomonico,
Euchde, Coerano philosopho, Dicaearcho, Archimede,
Onesicrito, Eratosthene, Pythea, Herodoto,
Aristotele, Ctesia, Artemidoro Ephesio, Isidoro
Characeno, Theopompo.

Libro III. continentur situs, gentes, maria, oppida,
portus, montes, flumina, mensurae, popuh qui sunt
aut qui fuerunt (iii) Baeticae, (iv) Hispaniae citerioris,
(v) Narbonensis provinciae, (vi-x) Itahae usque

28

BOOK I

ruption of straits. Junction of islands with main-
land. Total inundation. Shrinkage of land areas.
Cities engulfed by sea. (xcv) Air-holes. (xcvi)
Continuous earth-tremors. Islands in constant
agitation. (xcvii) Places where rain does not fall.
(xcviii) Collection of earth marvels. (xcix f.) Rise
and fall of tides — reason for. Where do irregular
tides occur? (ci-cv) Marvels of the sea : influence
of the moon on earth and sea ; of the sun ; why is the
sea salt ? where is it deepest ? (cvi) Remarkable
properties of springs and rivers. (cvii-cx) Combined
marvels of fire and water : mineral pitch ; naphtha ;
regions constantly glowing. (cxi) Marvels of fire
alone. (cxii) Dimensions of entire earth. (cxiii)
Harmonic principle of the world. — Total : 417 facts,
investigations and observations.

Authorities : Marcus Varro, Sulpicius Gallus,
the Emperor Titus Caesar, Quintus Tubero, TuUius
Tiro, Lucius Piso, Titus Livy, Cornehus Nepos,
Sebosus, CaeUus Antipater, Fabianus, Antias, Muci-
anus, Caecina On the Tuscan System, Tarquitius
ditto, JuUus Aquila ditto, Sergius PauUus. Foreign
authorities ; the Pythagorean viTiters, Hipparchus,
Timaeus, Sosigenes, Petosiris, Nechepsus, Posidonius,
Anaximander, Epigenes, Eudoxus, Democritus, Crito-
demus, ThrasyUus, Serapion On Sun-dials, EucUd,
Coeranus the philosopher, Dicaearchus, Archimedes,
Onesicritus, Eratosthenes, Pytheas, Herodotus, Aris-
totle, Ctesias, Artemidorus of Ephesus, Isidore
of Charax, Theopompus.

Book III. Contents : sites, races, seas, towns,
harbours, mountains, rivers, dimensions, present and
past populations of (iii) Baetica, (iv) North-east
Spain, (v) Province of Narbonne, (vi-x) Italy to the

29

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Locros (ix Tiberis, Roma), (xi-xiv) insularum LXIV
(in his Baliarium, Corsicae, Sardiniae, Siciliae),
(xv-xxii) Italiae a Locris usque Ravennam ; (de
Pado), Italiae trans Padum, (xxiii) Histriae, (xxiv)
Alpium et gentium Alpinarum, (xxv-xxx) Illyrici,
Liburniae, Dalmatiae, Noricorimi, Pannoniae,
Moesiae, insularum lonii et Hadriatici. Summa:
oppida et gentes . . . Summa: flumina clara . . .
Summa: montes clari . . . Summa: insulae . . .
Siunma : quae intercidere oppida aut gentes . . .
Summa : res et historiae et observationes. . . .

Ex auctoribus : Turranio Gracile, Cornelio Nepote,
T. Livio, Catone censorio, M. Agrippa, M. Varrone,
divo Augusto, Varrone Atacino, Antiate, Hygino,
L. Vetere, Pomponio Mela, Curione patre, Caelio,
Arruntio, Seboso, Licinio Muciano, Fabricio Tusco,
L. Ateio, Ateio Capitone, Verrio Flacco, L.
Pisone, GelUano, Valeriano. Externis : Artemidoro,
Alexandro Polyhistore, Thucydide, Theophrasto,
Isidoro, Theopompo, Metrodoro Scepsio, Calli-
crate, Xenophonte Lampsaceno, Diodoro Syracusano,
Nymphodoro, CalUphane, Timagene.

Libro IV. continentur situs, gentes, maria, oppida,
portus, montes, flumina, mensurae, populi qui sunt
aut qui fuerunt (i-iv) Epiri, (v-x) Achaiae, (xi-xiii)
Graeciae, (xiv-xviii) Thessahae, Magnesiae, Mace-
doniae, Thraciae, (xix-xxiii) insularum ante eas
terras (inter quas, Creta, Euboea, Cyclades, Sporades),
(xxiv) Hellesponti, Ponti, Maeotidis, (xxv f.) Daciae,
Sarmatiae, Scythiae, (xxvii) insularum Ponti,
(xxviii f.) Germaniae, (xxx) insularum in GaUico
oceano XCVI, quas inter Britannia, (xxxi-iii) Bel-
gicae GaUiae, Lugdunensis GaUiae, Aquitanicae
GaUiae, (xxxiv) citerioris Hispaniae ab oceano,

30

BOOK I

southernmost point, (ix the Tiber, Rome), (xi— xiv") 64
islands (including the Balearics, Corsica, Sardinia,
Sicily), (xv-xxii) Italy from the south to Ravenna
(the Po), Transpadane Italy, (xxiii) Istria, (xxiv) the
Alps and Alpine races, (xxv-xxx) IUyria, Liburnia,
Dalmatia, Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia, lonian and
Adriatic islands. Totals : " . . . famous rivers ;
. . . famous mountains ; . . . islands ; . . . extinet
towns or races ; . . . facts, researches and observa-
tions.

Authorities : Turanius Gracihs, Cornelius Nepos,
Livy, Cato the Censor, Marcus Agrippa, Marcus
Varro, His Late Majesty Augustus, Varro of Atax,
Antias, Hyginus, Lucius Vetus, Pomponius Mela, the
elder Curio, Caehus, Arruntius, Sebosus, Licinius
Mucianus, Fabricius Tuscus, Lucius Ateius, Ateius
Capito, Verrius Flaccus, Lucius Piso, Gellianus,
Valerian. Foreign authorities : Artemidorus, Alex-
ander the Learned, Thucydides, Theophrastus,
Isidorus, Theopompus, Metrodorus of Scepsis,
CalUcrates, Xenophon of Lampsacus, Diodorus of
Syracuse, Nymphodorus, CalUphanes, Timagenes.

Book IV. Contents : sites, races, seas, towns,
harbours, mountains, rivers, dimensions, present and
past populations of (i-iv) Epirus, (v— x) Achaia,
(xi-xiii) Greece, (xiv-xviii) Thessaly, Magnesia,
Macedonia, Thrace, (xix-xxiii) islands off these
coasts, including Crete, Euboea, the Cyclades, the
Sporades, (xxiv) DardaneUes, Black Sea, Sea of Azov,
(xxv f.) Dacia, Sarmatia, Scythia, (xxvii) Islands of
Black Sea, (xxviii f.) Germany, (xxx) North Sea
islands, 96 including Britain, (xxxi-xxxiii) Belgium,
Lyonuaise, Aquitaine, (xxxiv) North-eastern Spain,

• Figures iost here.

31

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

(xxxv) Lusitaniae, (xxxv-i) insularum in mari Atlan-
tico. (xxxvii) Universae Europae mensura. Summa:
oppida et gentes . . . Simmia : flumina clara . . .
Summa : montium clari . . . Sununa : insulae . . .
Summa : quae intercidere oppida aut gentes . . .
Summa : res, historiae et observationes . . .

Ex auctoribus : Catone censorio, M. Varrone, M.
Agrippa, divo Augusto, Varrone Atacino, Cornelio
Nepote, Hygino, L. Vetere, Mela Pomponio, Licinio
Muciano, Fabricio Tusco, Ateio Capitone, Ateio
pliilologo. Externis : Polybio, Hecataeo, Hellanico,
Damaste, Eudoxo, Dicaearcho, Timosthene, Eratos-
thene, Ephoro, Cratete grammatico, Serapione
Antiochense, Calhmacho, Artemidoro, Apollodoro,
Agathocle, Timaeo Siculo, Myrsilo, Alexandro
PolA'histore, Thucydide, Dosiade, Anaximandro,
Pliilistide Mallote, Dionysio, Aristide, Callidemo,
Menaechmo, Aglaosthene, Anticlide, HeracHde,
Philemone, Xenophonte, Pythea, Isidoro, Philonide,
Xenagora, Astynomo, Staphylo, Aristocrito, Met-
rodoro, Cleobulo, Posidonio.

Libro V. continentur situs, gentes, maria, oppida,
portus, montes, flumina, mensurae, popuH qui sunt
aut qui fuerunt (i-viii) Mauritaniarum, Numidiae,
Africae, Syrtium, Cyrenaicae, insulanun circa
Africam, aversorum Africae, (ix-xi) Aegypti, Chorae,
Thebaidis, NiH, (xii) Arabiae quae est ad mare
Aegyptium, (xiii-xix) Idumaeae, Syriae, Palaestines,
Samariae, ludaeae, Phoenices, Syriae Coeles, Syriae
Antiochiae, (xx-xxxiii) Euphratis, Ciliciae et iunctar-
um gentium, Isauricae, Omanadum, Pisidiae, Lycao-
niae, PamphyHae, Tauri montis, Lyciae, Cariae,
loniae, AeoHdis, Troadis et iunctarum gentium,
(xxxiv-ix) insularum ante Asiam CCX II (in iis. Cypri,

BOOK I

(xxxv) Westem Spain and Portugal. (xxxvi) Atlantic
islands. (xxxvii) Dimensions of the whole of Europe.
— Totals : . . . towns and races ; . . . famous
rivers ; . . . famous mountains ; . . . islands ; . . .
extinct towns or races ; . . . facts, investigations and
observations.

Authorities : Cato the Censor, Marcus Varro,
Marcus Agrippa, His Late Majesty Augustus, Varro
of Atax, Cornehus Nepos, Hyginus, Lucius Vetus,
Pomponius Mela, Licinius Mucianus, Fabricius
Tuscus, Ateius Capito, Ateius the scholar. Foreign
authorities : Polybius, Hecataeus, Hellanicus,
Damastes, Eudoxus, Dicaearchus, Timosthenes, Era-
tosthenes, Ephorus, Crates the philologist, Serapion
of Antioch, CalHmachus, Artemidorus, ApoUodorus,
Agathocles, Timaeus of Sicily, Myrsilus, Alexander
the Learned, Thucydides, Dosiades, Anaximander,
PhiUstides of Mallus, Dionysius, Aristides, CaUidemus,
Menaechmus, Aglaosthenes, AnticUdes, HeracUdes,
Philemon, Xenophon, Pytheas, Isidore, Philonides,
Xenagoras, Astynomos, Staphylus, Aristocritus,
Metrodorus, Cleobulus, Posidonius.

Book V. Contents : — sites, races, seas, towns,
harbours, mountains, rivers, dimensions, present and
past populations of (i-viii) the Mauritanias, Numidia,
Africa, the Syrtes, Cyrenaica, African islands, remote
parts of Africa, (ix-xi) Egypt — Chora, Thebaid, Nile,
(xii) Arabian coast of Egyptian Sea, (xiii-xix) Idumea,
Syria, Palestine, Samaria, Judaea, Phoenicia, HoHow
Syria, Syria of Antioch, (xx-xxxiii) Euphrates,
CiUcia and adjoining races, Isaurica, Omanades,
Pisidia, Lycaonia, PamphyUa, Taurus Mountain,
Lycia, Caria, lonia, AeoUd, Troad and adjoining
races, (xxxiv-ix) Islands on Asiatic coast (212)

35

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Rhodi, Coi, Sami, Chii, Lesbi), (xl-xUii) Hellespon-
tus, Mysia, Phrygia, Galatia et iunctae gentes,
Bithynia. Summa: oppida et gentes . . . Summa:
flumina clara , . . Summa : montium clari . . .
Summa : insulae CXVIII. Summa : quae inter-
cidere oppida aut gentes . . . Summa : res et
historiae et observationes . . .

Ex auctoribus : Agrippa, Suetonio Paulino, M.
Varrone, Varrone Atacino, Cornelio Nepote, Hygino,
L. Vetere, Mela, DomitioCorbulone,LicinioMuciano,
Claudio Caesare, Arruntio, Livio fiUo, Seboso,
actis triumphorum. Externis : luba rege, Hecataeo,
Hellanico, Damaste, Dicaearcho, Baetone, Timos-
thene, Philonide, Xenagora, Astynomo, Staphylo,
Dionysio, Aristotele, Aristocrito, Ephoro, Eratos-
thene, Hipparcho, Panaetio, Serapione Antioche-
no, CalUmacho, Agathocle, Polybio, Timaeo mathe-
matico, Herodoto, Myrsilo, Alexandro polyhistore,
Metrodoro, Posidonio qui TrepiTrXovv aut Trepi-qyrjaLV,
Sotade, Pindaro, Aristarcho Sicyonio, Eudoxo,
Antigene, CalUcrate, Xenophonte Lampsaceno,
Diodoro Syracusano, Hannone, Himilcone, Nym-
phodoro, CaUiphane, Artemidoro, Megasthene,
Isidoro, Cleobulo, Aristocreonte.

Libro VI. continentur situs, gentes, maria, oppida,
portus, montes, flumina, mensurae, popuU qui sunt
aut qui fuerunt (i) Ponti, Mariandynorum, (ii)
Paphlagonum, (iii, viii) Cappadocum. (iv) Themis-
cyrena regio et in ea gentes, Heniochi, (v) regio Co-
Uca et gentes, Achaeorum gentes, ceterae eodem
tractu gentes, (vi-xii) Bosporus Cimmerius, Maeotis,
gentes circa Maeotim, Armenia minor, Armenia
maior, Cyrus fluvius, Araxes flu\ius, Albania, Iberia
et iunctae portae Caucasiae, (xiii) insulae in Ponto,

34

BOOK I

inclurling Cyprus, Rhodes, Cos, Samos, Chios, Lesbos,
(xl-xUii) Dardanelles, Mysia, Phrygia, Galatia and
adjoining races, Bithynia. Totals : . . . towns and
races ; . . . famous rivers ; . . . famous mountains ;
118 islands ; . . . extinct towns and races; . . .
facts, investigations and observations.

Authorities : Agrippa, Suetonius PauUnus, Marcus
Varro, Varro of Atax, Cornehus Nepos, Hyginus,
Lucius Vetus, Mela, Domitius Corbulo, Licinius
Mucianus, Claudius Caesar, Arruntius, Livy junior,
Sebosus, Triumphs — Ojjicial records. Foreign author-
ities : King Juba, Hecataeus, Hellanicus, Damastes,
Dicaearchus, Baeto, Timosthenes, Philonides, Xen-
agoras, Astynomus, Staphylus, Dionysius, Aristotle,
Aristocritus, Ephorus, Eratosthenes, Hipparchus,
Panaetius, Serapio of Antioch, Calhmachus, Aga-
thocles, Polybius, Timaeus the mathematician,
Herodotus, Myrsilus, Alexander the Learned, Metro-
dorus, Posidonius's Circumnavigation or Round Guide,
Sotades, Pindar, Aristarchus of Sicyon, Eudoxus,
Antigenes, CalHcrates, Xenophon of Lampsacus,
Diodorus of Syracuse, Hanno, Himilco, Nympho-
dorus, Calhphanes, Artemidorus, Megasthenes, Isi-
dore, Cleobulus, Aristocreon.

Book VL Contents : — sites, races, seas, towns,
harbours, mountains, rivers, dimensions, present
and past populations of (i) Pontus, Mariandyni,
(ii) Paphlagonia, (iii, viii) Cappadocia, (iv) region of
Themiscyra and its races, Heniochi, (v) CoUc region
and races, Achaean races, other races in the same
area, (vi-xii) Cimmerian Bosphorus, Maeotis and
adjacent races, Lesser Armenia, Greater Armenia,
River Cyrus, River Araxes, Albania, Iberia and
adjoining Gates of Caucasia, (xiii) Black Sea Islands,

35

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

(xiv) gentes a Scythico oceano, (xv— xix) Caspium
et Hyrcanium mare, Adiabene, Media, portae
Caspiae, gentes circa Hyrcanium mare, Scytharimi
gentes, (xx-xxxvi) situs ab oceano Eoo, Seres,
Indi (Ganges, Indus), Taprobane, Ariani et iunctae
gentes, navigationes in Indiam, Carmania, sinus
Persicus, Parthorum regna, Mesopotamia, Tigris,
Arabia, sinus maris rubri, Trogodytice, Aethiopia,
insulae Aethiopici maris. (xxxvii) De insuUs fortu-
natis. (xxxviii f.) Terrae per mensuras conparatae,
digestio terrarum in parallelos et umbras pares.
Summa : oppida MCXCV. Summa : gentes
DLXXVI. Summa : flumina clara CXV. Summa :
montes clari XXXVIII. Summa: insulae CVIII.
Summa : quae intercidere oppida aut gentes XCV.
Summa : res et historiae et observationes
MMCCXIV.

Ex auctoribus: M. Agrippa, M. Varrone, Varrone
Atacino, ComeHo Nepote, Hygino, L. Vetere,
Mela Pomponio, Domitio Corbulone, Licinio Muciano,
Claudio Caesare, Arruntio, Seboso, Fabricio Tusco,
T. Livio fiUo, Seneca, Nigidio. Externis : luba
rege, Hecataeo, Hellanico, Damaste, Eudoxo,
Dicaearcho, Baetone, Timosthene, Patrocle, Demo-
damante, Clitarcho, Eratosthene, Alexandro magno,
Ephoro, Hipparcho, Panaetio, CalUmacho, Arte-
midoro, Apollodoro, Agathocle, Polybio, Timaeo
Siculo, Alexandro polyhistore, Isidoro, Amometo,
Metrodoro, Posidonio, Onesicrito, Nearcho, Megas-
thene, Diogneto, Aristocreonte, Bione, DaUone,
Simonide minore, Basile, Xenophonte Lampsaceno.

Libro VII. continentur (ii f.) gentium mirabiles
figurae ; prodigiosi partus. (iv-xi) De homine
generando : parieudi tempora per iniustria exempla

36

BOOK I

(xiv) races towards the Scythian Ocean, (xv-xix)
Caspian and Hyrcanian Sea, Adiabene, Media,
Caspian Gates, races round Hyrcanian Sea, Scythian
races, (xx-xxxvi) regions towards the Eastern Sea,
China, India (Ganges, Indus), Taprobane, Arians and
adjoining races, voyages to India, Carmania, Persian
Gulf, Parthian kingdoms, Mesopotamia, Tigris,
Arabia, Gulf of Red Sea, Trogodyte country , Ethiopia,
Islands of Ethiopian Sea. (xxxvii) The Fortunate
Islands. (xxxviii f.) Lands compared by measure-
ments, division of lands into parallels and equal
shadows. Totals : 1195 towns ; 576 races, 115
famous rivers, 38 famous mountains, 108 islands, 95
extinct towns and races ; 2214 facts and investigations
and observations.

Authorities : Marcus Agrippa, Marcus Varro,
Varro of Atax, Cornelius Nepos, Hyginus, Lucius
Vetus, Pomponius Mela, Domitius Corbulo, Licinius
Mucianus, Claudius Caesar, Arruntius, Sebosus,
Fabricius Tuscus, Titus Livy junior, Seneca, Nigidius.
Foreign authorities : King Juba, Hecataeus, Hella-
nicus, Damastes, Eudoxus, Dicaearchus, Baeto,
Timosthenes, Patrocles, Demodamas, CUtarchus,
Eratosthenes, Alexander the Great, Ephorus, Hip-
parchus, Panaetius, CalUmachus, Artemidorus,
ApoUodorus, Agathocles, Polybius, Timaeus of Sicily,
Alexander the Learned, Isidore, Amometus, Metro-
dorus, Posidonius, Onesicritus, Nearchus, Megas-
thenes, Diognetus, Aristocreon, Bion, DaUon, the
younger Simonides, BasiUs, Xenophon of Lamp-
sacus.

Book VII. Contents: (ii f.) Ilemarkable racial bodily
configurations ; monstrous births. (iv— xi) Human
gcneration : periods of pregnancy fi'om 7 months to

37

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

a mensibus septem ad tredecira ; signa sexus in
gra\ddis pertinentia ante partum ; monstruosi partus,
excisi utero ; qui sint vopisci ; de conceptu hominum ;
de generatione hominum ; similitudiniun exempla ;
numerosissimae subolis exempla. (xii) Ad quos
annos generatio. (xiii) Mensum in feminis miracula.
(xiv) Quae ratio generandi. (xv) Historica circa
dentes. Historica circa infantes. (xvi f.) Magnitu-
dinum exempla. Praeproperi infantes. (xviii-
xxiii) Insignia corporum, wes eximiae, velocitas
praecipua, visus eximius, auditus miraculum , patientia
corporis. (xxiv-vi) Memoria, vigor animi, clementia,
animi magnitudo. (xx\ii) Rerum gestarum claritas
summa. (xx\dii-xxxi) Tres summae virtutes in
eodem, innocentia summa, fortitudo summa, ingenia
praecipua. qui sapientissimi. (xxxii) Praecepta vitae
utilissima. (xxxiii) De divinatione. (xxxiv-\-i)
Vir optimus iudicatus, matronae pudicissimae ;
summae pietatis exempla. (xxx\di-ix) Artibus
excellentes — astrologia, grammatica, medicina, geo-
metria, architectura, pictura, scalptura aeraria,
marmoraria, eboraria, caelatura. (xl-xlvi) Pretia
hominum insignia ; de felicitate summa ; raritas
continuationis in familiis ; varietatis exempla
mirabilia ; bis proscriptus ; honorum exempla
mirabilia ; decem res in uno felicissimae ; divi
Augusti adversa. (xlvii f.) Quos dii felicissimos
iudicaverint ; quem viventem ut deum coU iusserint.
Fulgur mirabile. (xlix) De spatiis \atae longissimis.
(1) De varietate nascendi. (li) In morbis exempla

" One of a pair of twins bom alive after the premature
birth and death of the other.

38

BOOK I

13 shown by famous examples ; significant pre-natal
indications of sex in the pregnant ; monstrous
births, cases of surgical delivery ; meaning of
vopiscus " ; human conception ; human generation ;
cases of Ukeness ; cases of very numerous progeny.
(xii) Age-hmit of procreation. (xiii) Exceptional
periods of pregnancy. (xiv) Theory of generation.
(xv) Investigation as to teeth ; as to infants. (xvi f.)
Instances of exceptional size. Premature births.
(xviii-xxiii) Bodily distinctions, exceptional strength,
remarkable speed, exceptional sight, marvellous
hearing, bodily endurance. (xxiv-xxvi) Memory,
mental vigour, clemency, magnanimity. (xxvii)
Supremely distinguished exploits. (xxviii— xxxi)
Three supreme virtues in the same person, supreme
innocence, supreme bravery, exceptional talents.
Who are the wisest men ? (xxxii) The most useful
rules of conduct. (xxxiii) Divination. (xxxiv-vi).
The man deemed the best, the most chaste matrons ;
instances of extreme piety. (xxxvii-ix) Cases of
eminence in the sciences and arts, astronomy,
philology, medicine, geometry, architecture, paint-
ing, sculpture in bronze, in marble, in ivory ; en-
graving. (xl— xlvi) Remarkable prizes of mankind ;
supreme happiness ; rarity of its continuance in
famiUes ; remarkable cases of change of fortune ;
twice proscribed ; remarkable cases of honours ; ten
supremely happy things in the case of a single person ;
misfortunes of his late Majesty Augustus. (xlvii f.)
Whom the gods have judged happiest; what man
they have commanded to be worshipped as a god in
his Ufetime. A remarkable flash of Ughtning.
(xUx) Cases of exceptional longevity. (1) Various
modes of birth. (U) Diseases in various cases.

39

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

varia. (lii-lvi f.) De morte ; qui elati revixerint ;
subitae mortis exempla ; de sepultura ; de manibus ;
de anima. (Ivii-lx) Quae quis in vita invenerit ;
in quibus rebus primi gentium consensus. De
antiquis litteris. Quando primum tonsores, quando
primum horologia. Summa : res et historiae et
observationes DCCXLVII,

Ex auctoribus : Verrio Flacco, Gnaeo Gellio,
Licinio Muciano, Masurio Sabino, Agrippina Claudi,
M. Cicerone, Asinio PoUione, M. Varrone, Messala
Rufo, Nepote Corneho, Vergilio, T. Livio, Cordo,
Melisso, Seboso, CorneHo Celso, Maximo Valerio,
Trogo, Nigidio Figulo, Pomponio Attico, Pediano
Asconio, Fabiano, Catone censorio, actis, Fabio
Vestale. Externis : Herodoto, Aristea, Baetone,
Isigono , Cratete , Agatharchide , Calliphane , Aristotele,
Nymphodoro, Apollonide, Phylarcho, Damone, Mega-
sthene, Ctesia, Taurone, Eudoxo, Onesicrito, Clit-
archo, Duride, Artemidoro, Hippocrate medico,
Asclepiade medico, Hesiodo, Anacreonte, Theo-
pompo, Hellanico, Damaste, Ephoro, Epigene,
Beroso, Petosiri, Nechepso, Alexandro polyhistore,
Xenophonte, Callimacho, Democrito, Diyllo historico,
Stratone qui contra Ephori tvprjixaTa scripsit,
Herachde Pontico, Asclepiade qui TpaywSor/Acva,
Philostephano, Hegesia, Archemacho, Thucydide,
Mnesigitone, Xenagora, Metrodoro Scepsio, Anti-
cUde, Critodemo.

Libro VIII. continentur: (i-xi) De elephantis —
de sensu eorum ; quando primum iuncti ; de dociHtate
eorum ; mirabilia in factis eorum ; de natura ferarum
ad pericula sua intellegenda ; quando primum in
Italia visi elephanti ; pugnae eorum ; quibus modis

40

BOOK I

(lii-lvi) Death; cases of the dead coming to life
again ; instances of sudden death ; burial ; ghosts ;
the soul. (Ivii— Ix) Discoveries in Hfe ; matters on
which there was the earhest agreement of the races ;
ancient Hterature ; date of earHest barbers, earHest
time-pieces. Total : 747 facts, investigations and
observations.

Authorities : Verrius Flaccus, Gnaeus GelHus,
Lieinius Mucianus, Masurius Sabinus, Agrippina
wife of Claudius, Marcus Cicero, Asinius PolHo,
Marcus Varro, Messala Rufus, CorneHus Nepos,
Virgil, Livy, Cordus, MeHssus, Sebosus, CorneHus
Celsus, Valerius Maximus, Trogus, Nigidius Figulus,
Pomponius Atticus, Pcdianus Asconius, Fabianus,
Cato the Censor, Official Records, Fabius VestaHs.
Foreign authorities : Herodotus, Aristeas, Baeton,
Isigonus, Crates, Agatharchides, CaHiphanes, Aris-
totle,Nymphodorus, ApoHonides, Phylarchus, Damon,
Megasthenes, Ctesias, Tauron, Eudoxus, Onesicritus,
CHtarchus, Duris, Artemidorus, the medical authors
Hippocrates and Asclepiades, Hesiod, Anacreon,
Theopompus, HeHanicus, Damastes, Ephorus, Epi-
genes, Berosus, Petosiris, Nechepsus, Alexander the
Learned, Xenophon, CaHimachus, Democritus, the
historian DiyHus, Strato's Reply to Ephorus's
' Heuremata,' HeracHdes of Pontus, the Tragoediimcna
of Asclepiades, Pliilostephanus, Hegesias, Arche-
machus, Thucydides, Mnesigiton, Xenagoras, Metro-
dorus of Scepsis, AnticHdes, Critodemus.

Book VHL Contents : (i-xi) Elephants, their
sense ; when first harnessed ; their dociHty ; remark-
able achievements of ; instinctive sense of dangers in
wild animals ; elephants, when first seen in Italy ;
fights between elephants ; modes of capture ; modes

41

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

capiantur ; quibus domentur ; de partu eorum et
reliqua natura ; ubi nascantur ; discordia eorum et
draconum. (xii) De sollertia animalium. (xiii)
De draconibus. (xiv) Mirae magnitudines serpen-
tium. (xv f.) De Scythicis animalibus, de sep-
tentrionalibus, de bisontibus, uris, alce, achli, bonaso.
(x\ii-xxi) De leonibus — quomodo gignantur ; quae
genera eorum ; quae propria naturae ; quis primus
leontomachiam Romae, quis plurimos in ea leo-
nes donaverit ; quis primus Romanorum iunxerit ;
mirabilia in leonum factis. (xxii) A dracone agnitus
et servatus. (xxiii f.) De pantheris senatusconsultum
et leges de Africanis ; quis primus Romae Africanas
et quando, quis plurimas. (xxv) De tigribus et
quando primum Romae visa tigris ; de natura
earum, de catuUs. (xxvi-xxx) De camelis ; genera
eorum. de camelopardali ; quando primimi Romae
visa. de chamate. de cephis, de rhinocerote. de
lynce et sphingibus. de crocottis. de cercopithecis.
(xxxi-iv) Indiae terrestria animalia ; item Aethio-
piae ; bestia visu interficiens ; de basiliscis ser-
pentibus ; de lupis ; unde fabula versipellium.
(xxxv-xl) Serpentium genera. de ichneumone ; de
crocodilo ; de scinco ; de hippopotamo : quis primus
ostenderit eum Romae et crocodilum. (xli-iii)
Medicinae ab animalibus repertae ; prognostica
periculorum ex animaHbus ; gentes ab animaUbus
sublatae. (xliv f.) De hyaenis. de corocottis. de
mantichoris. (xlvi) De onagris. (xlvii-ix) De aqua-
ticis et iisdem terrestribus : de fibris, de lutris, de
vitulo marino, de steUionibus. (1) De cervis. (li f.)
De chamaeleonte ; de reUquis colorem mutantibus ;

" Identified with the alces by some naturalists.
* Perhaps the hyena.
42

BOOK I

of domestioation ; their propagation, and general
physiology ; native habitat ; hostiUty between
elephants and great snakes. (xii) IntelHgence of
animals. (xiii) Great snakes. (xiv) Serpents of
remarkable size. (xv f.) Animals of Scythia ; of the
north; bisons, bears, the elk, the achUs," the
Paeonian bnU. (xvii-xxi) Lions — their mode of
reproduction, their varieties, their characteristics ;
who first produced a battle with Uons in the circus at
Rome ? who gave such a show with the largest number
of Uons ? what Roman first harnessed Uons to a
chariot ? remarkable cases among the exploits of
Uons. (xxii) Man recognised and rescued by a
great snake. (xxiii f.) Panthers, resolution of senate
and laws as to African ; who first showed African
panthers at Rome, and when ? who showed the
largest number ? (xxv) Tigers ; when was a tiger
first seen at Rome ? nature of tigers ; tiger-cubs.
(xxvi-xxx) Camels ; their kinds. The giraffe ;
when first seen at Rome. The spotted lynx.
The cephi. The rhinoceros. The lynx and the
sphynxes. The crocottae.* The kmg-tailed monkeys.
(xxxi-iv) Land animals of India ; ditto of Ethiopia ;
a creature the sight of which brings death ; basilisk-
snakes ; wolves ; source of the fabulous were-wolf.
(xxxv-xl) Snakes, species of; the ichneumon; the
crocodile ; the African Uzard ; the hippopotamus :
who first showed this animal, and the crocodile at
Rome. (xU-iii). Drugs obtained from animals ;
warnings of dangers from animals ; races destroyed
by animals. (xliv f.) Hyaenas ; corocottae ; man-
tichorae. (xlvi) Wild asses. (xlvii-ix) Ampbibious
species : beavers, otters, the sea-calf, geckoes. (1)
Stags. (li f.) Chameleon ; other species that change

43

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

tarandro, lycaone, thoe. (liii) De hystrice. (Tiv)
De ursis ; de fetu eorum. (Iv-viii) De muribus
Ponticis et Alpinis, erinaceis, leontophono, lynces,
meles, sciuri. (lix f.) De cocleis ; de lacertis. (Ix-
Ixiii) Canum natura ; exempla eorum circa dominos ;
qui proeliorum causa canes habuerint ; de genera-
tione eorum ; contra rabiem remedia. (lxiv-%ii)
Equoriun natura ; de ingeniis equorum ; mirabiUa
quadrigarum ; generatio equorum ; vento conci-
pientes. (lx\dii) De asinis ; generatio in his. (Ixix)
Mularum natura et reliquorum iumentorum. (Ixx f.)
De bubus, generatio eorum; Apis in Aegj^pto.
(Ixxii-v) Pecorum natura : generatio eorum ; genera
lanae et colorum ; genera vestium. (Ixxvi f.)
Caprorum natura et generatio ; suum item. (Ixxviii f.)
De feris subus. quis primus vivaria bestiarum
instituerit. (Ixxx— ii) De simiis. de leporum gene-
ribus. de semiferis animalibus. (Ixxxiii) Quae qui-
bus locis animalis non sint ; ubi et quae advenis
tantum noceant, ubi et quae indigenis tantum.
Summa : res et historiae et observationes
DCCLXXXVII.

Ex auctoribus : Muciano, Procilio, Verrio Flacco,
L. Pisone, CorneUo \ aleriano, Catone censorio,
Fenestella, Trogo, actis, Columella, Vergilio, Varrone,
LuciUo, MeteUo Scipione, CorneUo Celso, Nigidio,
Trebio Nigro, Pomponio Mela, MamiUo Sura.
Externis : luba rege, Polybio, Herodoto, Antipatro,
Aristotele, Demetrio physico, Democrito, Theo-
phrasto, Euanthe, Scopa qui '0/\vyu,7riovt'Kas, Hierone
rege, Attalo rege, Philometore rege, Ctesia, Duride,
PhiUsto, Archyta, Phylarcho, Amphilocho Athenaeo,
AnaxipoU Thasio, ApoUodoro Lemnio, Aristophane
MilesiOj Antigono Cumaeo, Agathocle Chio, ApoUo-

44

BOOK I

colour — ^reindeer, lycaon, jackall (liii) The porcupine,
(liv) Bears ; their reproduction. (Iv-viii) Mice,
Black Sea and Alpine ; Hedgehogs, lion-killer, lynxes,
badgers, squirrels. (lix f.) Snails ; lizards. (Ix-lxiii).
Dogs, nature of; instances of relation to masters;
nations that have kept dogs of war ; dog-breeding ;
cures for rabies. (Ixiv-vii) Nature of horses — equine
psychology ; remarkable four-in-hands ; horse-
breeding ; cases of conception by wind. (Ixviii)
Asses ; breeding in their case. (Ixix) Nature of mules
and other draft-animals. (Ixx f.) Oxen, breeding of.
Apis in Egypt. (Ixxii-v) Nature of sheep — their
breeding ; kinds of wool and of colours ; kinds of cloth.
(Ixxvi f.) Goats, their nature and breeding ; swine,
ditto. (Ixxviii f.) Wild pigs. Who originated men-
ageries } (Ixxx-ii) Apes. Hares, their kinds. Half-
wild animals. (Ixxxiii) What animals do not occur
in what places ? which in what places harm only
strangers ? which in what places only natives ? —
Total : 787 facts, investigations and observations.
Authorities : Mucianus, ProciUus, Verrius Flaccus,
Lucius Piso, CorneUus Valerianus, Cato the ex-Censor,
Fenestella, Trogus, Ojjicial Records, ColumeUa, Virgil,
Varro, Lucilius, Metellus Scipio, CorneUus Celsus,
Nigidius, Trebius Niger, Pomponius Mela, MamiUus
Sura. Foreign authorities : King Juba, Polybius,
Herodotus, Antipater, Aristotle, Demetrius's Natural
History, Democritus, Theophrastus, Euanthes,
Scopas's Olympic Victors, King Hiero, King Attalus,
King Philometor, Ctesias, Duris, PhiUsto, Archytas,
Phylarchus, Amphilochus of Athens, AnaxipoUs of
Thasos, Apollodorus of Lemnos, Aristophanes of
Miletus, Antigonus of Cumae, Agathocles of Chios,

45

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

nio Pergameno, Aristandro Athenaeo, Bacchio
Milesio, Bione Solense, Chaerea Athenaeo, Diodoro,
Prienaeo, Dione Colophonio, Epigene Rhodio, Eu-
agone Thasio, Euphronio Athenaeo, Hegesia Ma-
roneo, Menandris Prienaeo et Heracleote, Mene-
crate poeta, Androtione qui de agricultura scripsit,
Aeschrione qui item, Lysimacho qui item, Dionysio
qui Magonem transtuht, Diophane qui ex Dionysio
epitomen fecit, Archelao rege, Nicandro.

Libro IX. continetur aquatihum natura. (1)
Quare maxima in mari animaUa. (ii) Indici maris
beluae. (iii) Quae in quoque oceano maximae.
(iv) De Tritonimi et Nereidum figuris. de elephan-
torum marinorum figuris. (v) De balaenis, de orcis.
(vi) An spirent pisces, an dormiant. (vii-x) De
delphinis quos amaverint ; quibus in locis societate
cum hominibus piscentur; aha circa eos mira.
(xi) De tursionibus. (xii f.) De testudinibus : quae
genera aquatihum testudinum et quomodo capiantur,
quis primus testudinem secare instituerit. (xiv)
Digestio aquatiUum per species. (xv) De vituhs
marinis sive phocis ; quae pilo careant et quomodo
pariant. (xvi) Quot genera piscium. (xvii-xix) Qui
maximi pisces ; cordylae, pelamydes, thynni ; mem-
bratim ex his salsura ; apolecti, cybia ; amiae,
scombri. (xx) Qui non sint pisces in Ponto, qui
intrent, qui aho ^ redeant. (xxi) Quare pisces extra
aquam exihant. gladius piscis. (xxii) Esse auguria
ex piscibus. (xxiii-v) In quo genere pisciimi
mares non sint. qui calculum in capite habeant;
qui lateant hieme ; qui hieme non capiantur nisi
statis diebus ; qui aestate lateant ; qui siderentur
pisces. (xxvi-xxx) De mugile, de acipensere, de

^ Rackham : alia aut alias.

BOOK I

Apollonius of Pergamum, Aristander of Athens,
Bacchius of Miletus, Bio of SoH, Chaeareas of Athens,
Diodorus of Priene, Dio of Colophon, Epigenes of
Rhodes, Euagon of Thasos, Euphronius of Athens,
Hegesias of Maronea, Menander of Priene and
Menander of Heraclea, the poet Menecrates, Andro-
tion On Agriculture, Aeschrion diito, Lysimachus
ditto, Dionysius's translation of Mago, Diophanes's
summary of Dionysius, King Archelaus, Nicander.

Book IX. Subject — the nature of aquatic animals.
(i) Extreme size of marine animals, reason for. (ii)
Monsters of the Indian Sea. (iii) Which are the largest
in each Ocean ? (iv) Tritons and Nereids, shapes of.
Sea elephants, shapes of. (v) Whales, grampuses.
(vi) Do fishes breathe ? do they sleep 1 (vii-x)
Dolphins, persons loved by ; places where they fish in
partnership with men ; other curious facts as to.
(xi) Porpoises. (xii f.) Tortoises — kinds of water-
tortoise ; mode of capture ; who invented cutting
tortoise-shells (xiv) Aquatic animals arranged by
species. (xv) Sea-calves or seals — which species are
hairless? mode of reproduction. (xvi) How many
kinds of fish ? (xvii-xix). The largest fishes ;
tunny-fry, young tunny, fuU-grown tunny ; tunny
divided and pickled, salted tunny shces, chopped
tunny ; amia-tunny, mackerel-tunny. (xx) Fishes
in the Black Sea — which species not found in it,
which enter in from elsewhere, which leave it. (xxi)
Why fishes leap out of the water. The sword-fish.
(xxii) Augury from fishes a fact. (xxiii-v) Species of
fish that have no males ; that have a stone in the
head ; that hibernate in winter ; that are only caught
on certain days in winter; that hide in summer;
that are Hable to planet-stroke. (xxvi-xxx) MuUet,

47

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

lupo, de asello, de scaro, de mustela. mullorum
genera. sargus. (xxxi f.) Mirabilia piscium pretia.
non ubique eadem genera placere. (xxxiii) Genera-
tim ^ de branchiis, de squamis. (xxxiv) Vocales et
sine branchiis pisces ; qui in terram exeant ; tem-
pora capturae. (xxxvi) Digestio piscium in figuras
corporis. rhomborum et passenun differentia. de
longis piscibus. (xxxv-ii) De piscium pinnis et
natandi ratione. (xxxviii) Anguillae. (xxxix) Mu-
renae. (xl) Planorum piscium genera. (xH) Echeneis
effectusque eius. (xhi) Qui pisces colorem mutent.
(xUii) De hirundine ; de pisce qui noctibus lucet ;
de cornuto ; de dracone marino. (xUv) De piscibus
sanguine carentibus ; qui pisces moUes appeUentur.
(xlv) De sepia, de lolUgine, de pectuncuUs ; qui
volent extra aquam. (xlvi-ix) De polypis ; de
navigatore polypo. de navigatore naupUo. (1-Ui)
Crusta intecti : de locustis, cancrorum genera, de
pinotere, de echinis, de cocleis, de pectinibus,
concharum genera. (liii) Quanta luxuriae materia
mari sit. (Uv-Ux) De margaritis quomodo nascantur
et ubi ; quomodo inveniantur ; quae genera unionum ;
quae observanda in iis ; quae natura eorimi ; exempla
circa eos ; quando primum in usum venerint Romae.
(Ix-lxv) Muricum natura: depurpuris; quae nationes
purpurae ; quomodo ex liis lanae tinguantur ;
quando purpurae usus Romae, quando lati clavi et
praetextae ; de conchyUatis vestibus ; de amethysto
tinguendo ; de Tyrio, de hysgino, de cocco. (Ixvi)
De pina et pinotere. (lx\ii) De sensu aquatilium ;
torpedo, pastinaca, scolopendrae, glanis ; de ariete
pisce. (Ixviii f.) De his quae tertiam naturam
habent animaUum et fruticum : de urticis ; de

^ Detlejd&n : generatL
48

BOOK I

sturgeon, pike, cod, wrasse, lamprey; varieties of
muUet ; the sargus. (xxxi f.) Remarkable prices for
fish. Different kinds popular in different places.
(xxxiii) Gills in various species ; scales ditto. (xxxiv f.)
Fish with voice, fish without gills ; fish that go ashore.
Seasons for catching fish. (xxxvi) Classification of
fish by shape. Difference between turbot and
sparrow-turbot. Long fishes. (xxxvii) Fins and
mode of swimming. (xxxviii) E,els. (xxxix) Lam-
preys. (xl) Kinds of flat-fish. (xU) The remora and
how it operates. (xhi) What fish change colours.
(xhii) Swallow-fish. The fish that shines by night.
The horned fish. The Aveever. (xUv) The blood-
less fishes. The so-called soft fishes. (xlv) The sepia-
fish. The cuttle-fish. The smaU scallops. Flying
fish. (xlvi-ix) The polyps, including the saiUng
polyp. The sailor-fish. (l-Ui) SheU-fish : lobster,
varieties of crab, the sea-pen's guard, sea-urchins,
snails, scaUops. Varieties of sheU. (Uii) Quantity
of deUcacies suppUed by the sea. (liv-Ux) Pearls —
how do they grow and where, how found; varieties
of large pearl — their remarkable features, their
nature, instances of their occurrence, when first used
at Rome. (Ix-lxv) Nature of varieties of purple —
the purple-fish ; kinds of purple-fish ; how used to
supply dye for wooUens ; date of use of purple at
Rome, date of purple stripe and purple-bordered
robe ; purple dyed dresses ; dying amethyst ; Tyrian,
vegetable-scarlet, kermes-scarlet. (Ixvi) The sea-pen
and the sea-pen's guard. (Ixvii) Perception of aquatic
animals : the electric ray, sting-ray, scolopendrae,
shad, ramming-fish. (Ixviii f.) Species intermediate
between animal and vegetable : sea-nettles ; sponges,

49

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

spongeis, quae genera earum et ubi nascantur;
animal esse eas. (Ixx) De caniculis. (Ixxi) De his
quae silicea testa cluduntur ; quae sine sensu ullo
in mari ; de reliquis sordium animalibus. (Ixxii) De
venenatis marinis. (Ixxiii) De morbis piscium.
(Ixxiv-vii) De generatione eorum : mira genera-
tionum ; qui intra se et ova pariant et animal ;
quorum in partu rumpatur venter, dein coeat ; qui
volvas habeant ; qui ipsi se ineant. (Ixxviii) Quae
longissima vita pisciimi. (Ixxix fF.) Quis primus vivaria
piscium instituerit. de ostreis ; quis murenarum
vivaria instituerit ; insignia piscinanmi ; (Ixxxii)
Quis primus coclearum vivaria instituerit. (Ixxxiii)
Pisces terreni. (Ixxxiv) De muribus in Nilo. (Ixxxv)
Quomodo capiantur anthiae pisces. (Ixxxvl) De
stelUs marinis. (lxxx\ii) De dactylorum miraculis.
(Ixxxviii) de inimicitiis inter se aquatiUum et amicitiis.
Summa : res et historiae et observationes DCL.

Ex auctoribus : Turranio Gracile, Trogo, Maece-
nate, Alfio Flavo, CorneUo Nepote, Laberio mimo-
grapho, Fabiano, FenesteUa, Muciano, AeUo Stilone,
Seboso, MeUsso, Seneca, Cicerone, Macro AemiUo,
Messala Corvino, Trebio Nigro, Nigidio. Externis:
Aristotele, Archelao rege, CalUmacho, Democrito,
Theophrasto, ThrasyUo, Hegesidemo, Sudine,
Alexandro polyhistore.

Libro X. continentur volucrum natm*ae. (i f.)
De struthocamelo, phoenice. (iii-vi) Aquilarum
genera, natura earum ; quando legionum signa esse
coeperint ; de aquila quae in rogum virginis se
misit. (vii) \^oltur. (viu) Avis sanqualis, immusulus.
(ix-xi) Accipitres : buteo ; in quibus locis societate
accipitres et homines aucupentur ; quae avis sola
a suo genere interimatui- ; quae avis singula ova

50

BOOK I

their kinds and habitat; sponges, hving creatures.
(Ixx) Sea-bitches. (Ixxi) Flint-shell fish ; marine
animals without senses ; other low species. (Ixxii)
Venomous marine animals. (Ixxiii) Diseases of fishes.
(Ixxiv-vii) Their reproduction — curious reproductive
methods ; species both oviparous and viviparous ;
deUvery by rupture of the stomach, afterwards
closing up ; species possessing matrix ; self-fertiHzing
species. (Ixxviii) Longest Ufe of fish. (Ixxix-lxxxi)
First inventor of fish-ponds ; oysters ; who invented
lamprey-ponds. Notable fish-ponds ; who first in-
vented snail-ponds. (Ixxxiii) Land fishes. (Ixxxiv)
Mouse-fish in the Nile. (Ixxxv) Flower-fish, mode
of catching. (Ixxxvi) Starfish. (Ixxxvii) Remarkable
species of finger-fish. (Ixxxvlii) Instances of hostiUty
and friendship between aquatic animals. — Total:
650 facts, investigations and observations.

Authorities : Turranius GraciUs, Trogus, Maecenas,
Alfius Flavus, CorneUus Nepos, the Mivies of Laberius,
Fabianus, Fenestella, Mucianus, AeUus Stilo, Sebosus,
MeUssus, Seneca, Cicero, AemiUus Macer, Corvinus
Messala, Trebius Niger, Nigidius. Foreign authori-
ties : Aristotle, King Archelaus, CalUmachus,
Democritus, Theophrastus, ThrasyUus, Hegesidemus,
Sudines, Alexander the Learned.

Book X. Subject — the nature of birds. (i f.) The
ostrich, the phoenix. (iii-vi) Eagles, their species;
their nature ; when adopted as regimental badges ;
self-immolation of eagle on maiden's funeral pyre.
(vii) The vulture. (viii) Lammergeier, sea-eagle (?)
(ix-xi) Hawks : the buzzard ; use of hawks by fowlers
where practised ; the oiily bird that is kiUed by its
owu kind ; what bird produces one egg at a time. (xii)

51

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

pariat. (xii) Milvi. (xiii) Digestio avium per genera.
(xiv-x\d) De inauspicatis avibus; cornices quibus
mensibus non sint inauspicatae : de corvis ; de
bubone. (xvii) Aves quarum vita aut notitia inter-
cidit. (xviii) Quae a cauda nascantur. (xix) De
noctuis. (xx) De pico Martio. (xxi) De his quae
uncos unguis habent. (xxii-v) De his quae digitos
habent : de pavonibus ; quis primus pavonem cibi
causa occiderit ; quis farcire instituerit ; de galli-
naceis, quomodo castrentur; de gallinaceo locuto.
(xxvi) De ansere. (xxvii) Quis primum iecur anseri-
num instituerit ; de Commageno ; chenalopeces,
chenerotes, tetraones, otides ; grues ; de ciconiis ;
de palniipede reliquo genere ; de oloribus. (xxxiii-v)
De avibus peregrinis quae veniimt: coturnices,
glottides, cychramus, otus ; de a^ibus nostris quae
discedunt, et quo abeant : hirundines, turdi, merulae,
sturni ; de avibus quae plumas amittunt in occulta-
tione : turtur, palumbes. (xxx\d) Quae avium
perennes, quae semestres, quae trimestres : galguli,
upupae. (xxx^ii-xl) Memnonides ; meleagrides ;
seleucides ; ibis. (xH) Quae quibus locis aves non
sint. (xlii-v) Quae mutent colorem et vocem : de
oscinum genere ; de luscinis ; de melancoryphis,
erithacis, phoenicuris, oenanthe, chlorio. (xlvi)
Tempus axium geniturae. (xlvii) Halcyones : dies
earimi navigabiles. (xhiii) De reUquo aquaticarum
genere. (xUx-h) Sollertia avium in nidis : hirundinum
opera mira ; ripariae ; acanthylUs ; merops ; de
perdicibus. (Ui f.) De columbis ; opera earum
mirabiUa et pretia. (Uv f.) Differentiae volatus avium
et incessus ; apodes sive cypseU. (Ivi) De pastu
avium. caprimulgi, platea. (h^ii) De ingeniis avium ;
cardueUs, taurus, anthus. (Iviii-lx) De avibus quae

52

BOOK I

Kites. (xiii) Classification of birds by species. (xiv-
xvi) Birds of ill-omen ; in what montlis crows are not a
bad omen ; ravens ; the horned owl. (xvii) Extinct
birds ; birds no longer known. (xviii) Birds hatched
tail first. (xix) Night-owls. (xx) Mars's wood-
pecker, (xxi) Birds with hooked talons. (xxii-v)
Birds with toes : peacocks ; who first killed the
peacock for food ; who invented fattening peacocks ;
poultry — mode of castrating ; a talking cock. (xxvi-
xxxii) The goose ; who first introduced goose-Hver
(foie gras) ; Commagene goose ; fox-goose, love-
goose, heath-cock, bustard; cranes ; storks ; rest of
reflexed-claw genus ; swans. (xxxiii-v) Foreign
migrant birds : quails, tongue-birds, ortolan, horned
owl ; native migrant birds and their destinations —
swallows, thrushes, blackbirds, starhngs ; birds that
moult in retirement : turtle-dove, ring-dove. (xxxvi)
Non-migrant birds : half-yearly and quarter-yearly
visitors : witwalls, hoopoes. (xxxvii-xl) Memnon's
hens, Meleager's sisters (guinea-hens), Seleucid hens,
ibis. (xli) Where particular species not kno^vn.
(xlii-v) Species that change colour and voice : the
divination-bird class; nightingale, black-cap, robin,
red-start, chat, golden oriole. (xlvi) The breed-
ing season. (xlvii) Kingfishers : sign of fine weather
for saihng. (xlviii) Remainder of aquatic class.
(xhx-H) Craftsmanship of birds in nest-making;
remarkable structures of swaHows ; sand-martins ;
thistle-finch ; bee-eater ; partridges. (lii f.) Pigeons
— remarkable structures of, and prices paid for;
(liv f.) Varieties of birds' flight and walk ; footless
martins or swifts. (]vi) l"ood of birds. Goat-
suckers, spoon-bill. (Ivii) Intefligence of birds;
gold-finch, buU-bittern, yeUow wagtail. (Iviii-lx)

53

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

locuntur : psittaci ; picae glandares ; propter corvom
loquentem seditio populi Romani. (Ixi) Diomediae.
(Ixii) Quae animalia nihil discant. (Ixiii) De potu
a^ium ; de porphyrione. (Ixiv) Himantopodes. (Ixv f.)
De pastu aviimi. onocrotali. (Ixvii f.) De pere-
grinis avibus : Phalerides, Phasianae, Numidicae,
phoenicopteri, attagenae, phalacrocoraces, pyrrho-
coraceSjlagopodes. (Ixix) De novis avibus : vipiones.^
(Ixx) De fabulosis avibus. (Ixxi f.) Quis gaUinas
farcire instituerit,quique hoc primiconsules vetuerint ;
quis primus aviaria instituerit ; de Aesopi patina.
(Ixxiii-lxxx) Generatio avium : quae praeter aves
ova gignant ; ovorum genera et naturae ; \atia et
remedia incubantium ; Augustae ex ovis augurium ;
quales galhnae optimae ; morbi earum et remedia ;
ardeolarum genera ; quae sint ova urina, quae
cynosura, quae hj^penemia ; quomodo optime serven-
tur ova. (Ixxxi f.) Quae volucrum sola animalia
pariat et lacte nutriat. quae terrestrium ova pariant.
serpentium generatio. (Ixxxiii-vii) Terrestrium om-
nium generatio ; quae sit animalium in uteris
positio ; quormn animalium origo adhuc incerta sit ;
de salamandris ; quae nascantur ex non genitis ;
quae nata nihil gignant ; in quibus neuter sexus
sit. (Ixxxviii-xc) De sensibus animaUimi : tactus
omnibus esse ; item gustatus ; quibus visus praeci-
puus, quibus odoratus, quibus auditus ; de talpis ; an
ostreis auditus ; q\u ex piscibus clarissime audiant ;
qui ex piscibus maxime odorentur. (xci-iii) Diversitas
animalium in pastu : quae venenis vivant ; quae
terra ; quae fame aut siti non intereant. (xciv)
De diversitate potus. (xcv f.) Quae inter se dissi-

^ Sillig (cf. X 135) : bibiones aut bubones.
54

BOOK I

Talking birds : parrots, acorn-pies ; riot at Rome
caused by talking crow. (Ixi) Diomede's birds.
(Ixii) What animals learn nothing. (Ixiii) Birds,
mode of drinking ; the sultana hen. (Ixiv) The long-
legs. (Ixv f.) Food of birds. Pelicans. (Ixvii f.)
Foreign birds : coots, pheasants, Numidian fowl,
flamingoes, heath-cock, bald crow or cormorant,
red-beaked or Alpine crow, bare-footed crow or
ptarmigan. (Ixix) New species : small cranes. (Ixx)
Fabulous birds. (Ixxi) Who invented fattening of
chickens, and which consuls first prohibited ? who
first invented aviaries ? Aesop's stewpan. (Ixxiii-
Ixxx) Reproduction of birds: oviparous creatures
other than birds ; kinds and properties of eggs ; de-
fective hatching and its cures ; Augusta's augury
fromeggs; what sort of hens the best ? their diseases
and remedies ; kinds of small heron ; nature of pufF-
eggs, addled eggs, wind-eggs ; best way of preserving
eggs. (Ixxxi f.) The only species of bird that is vivi-
parous and suckles its young. Oviparous species of
land animals. Reproduction of snakes. (Ixxxiii-
vii) Reproduction of all land animals ; posture of
animals in the uterus ; animal species whose mode of
birth is still uncertain ; salamanders ; species not
reproduced by generation ; species whose generated
ofFspring is unfertile ; sexless species. (Ixxxviii-
xc) Senses of animals: all have sense of touch, also
taste ; species with exceptional sight, smell, hearing ;
moles ; have oysters hearing ? which fishes hear most
clearly ? which fishes have keenest sense of smell ?
(xci-iii) Difference of food in animals : which Uve on
poisonous things ? which on earth ? which do not die
of hunger of thirst ? (xciv) Variety of drink. (xcv f.)
Species mutually hostile ; facts as to friendship and

55

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

deant ; amicitiam animalium esse et afFectus animal-
ium ; exempla affeetus serpentium. (xcvii f.) De
somno animalium ; quae somnient. Summa : res
et historiae et observationes DCCXCIV.

Ex auctoribus : Manilio, Cornelio Valeriano, actis,
Umbricio Meliore, Masurio Sabino, Antistio Labeone,
Trogo, Cremutio, M. Varrone, Macro Aemilio,
Melisso, Muciano, Nepote, Fabio Pictore, T. Lucretio,
Cornelio Celso, Horatio, Deculone, Hygino, Sasernis,
Nigidio, Mamilio Sura. Extemis : Homero, Phemo-
noe, Philemone, Boetho qui opiiOoyoviav, Hyla
qui de auguriis, Aristotele, Theophrasto, CalUmacho,
Aeschylo, Hierone rege, Philometore rege, Archyta
Tarentino, Amphilocho Atheniense, Anaxipoli
Thasio, ApoUodoro Lemnio, Aristophane Milesio,
Antigono Cumaeo, Agathocle Chio, ApoUonio Perga-
meno, Aristandro Athenaeo, Bacchio Milesio, Bione
Solense, Chaerea Atheniense, Diodoro Prienaeo,
Dione Colophonio, Democrito, Diophane Nicaeense,
Epigene Rhodio, Euagone Thasio, Euphronio Athe-
naeo, luba, Androtione qui de agricultura, Aeschrione
qui item, Lysimacho qui item, Dionysio qui Magonem
transtulit, Diophane qui ex Dionysio epitomen
fecit, Nicandro, Onesicrito, Phylarcho, Hesiodo.

Libro XI. continentur insectorum animahum
genera. (i) SubtiUtas in his rebus naturae. (ii) An
spirent, an habeant sanguinem. (iii) De corpore
eorum. (iv-xxiii) De apibus ; qui ordo in opere
earum ; quid sit in eo commosis, quid sit pissoceros,
quid sit propolis, quid erithace sive sandaraca sive
cerinthos ; ex quibus floribus opera fiant ; apiura
studio capti ; de fucis ; quae natura meUis, quae
optima meUa, quae genera meUis in singuUs locis,
quomodo probentur ; de erice sive tetraUce sive

56

BOOK I

affection between animals ; instances of affection
between snakes. (xcvii f.) Sleep of animals ; wliich
species sleep ? Total : 794 facts, investigations and
observations.

Authorities : Manilius, CorneHus V^alerian,
Records, Umbricius Melior, Masurius Sabinus, Antis-
tius Labeo, Trogus, Cremutius, Marcus Varro,
Aemihus Macer, Melissus, Mucianus, Nepos, Fabius
Pictor, Titus Lucretius, Cornelius Celsus, Horace,
Deculo, Hyginus, the Saseiniae, Nigidius, MamiUus
Sura. Foreign authorities : Homer, Phemonoe,
Philemon, Boethus's Ornithogonia, Hylas's Anguries,
Aristotle, Theophrastus, Callimachus, Aeschylus,
King Hiero, King Philometor, Ai-chytas of Tarentum,
Amphilochus of Athens, Anaxipohs of Thasos,
Apollodorus of Lemnos, Aristophanes of Miletus,
Antigonus of Cumae, Agathocles of Chios, Apollonius
of Pergamum, Aristander of Athens, Bacchius of
Miletus, Bion of SoU, Chaereas of Athens, Diodorus of
Priene, Dion of Colophon, Democritus, Diophanes of
Nicaea, Epigenes of Rhodes, Evagon of Thasos,
Euphronius of Athens, Juba, Androtion On Agriculture,
Aeschrio ditto, Lysimachus diito, Dionysius's transla-
tion of Mago, Diophanes's epitome of Dionysius,
Nicander, Onesicritus, Phylarchus, Hesiod.

Book XL Subject — the kinds of insects. (i)
Nature 's subtlety in this department. (ii) Do insects
breathe ? have they blood ? (iii) Their bodies.
(iv-xxiii) Bees — structure of their comb ; its materials,
gum, pitch-wax, bee-glue, bee-bread {sandarach,
cerinikus) ; flowers from which materials derived ;
instances of bee-lovers ; drones ; nature of honey ;
the best honey; unique local varieties of honey;
test of varieties; heather (heath, sisyrus); repro-

57

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

sisyro ; quomodo apes generent ; quae regum in
iis ratio ; aliquando et laetum omen esse examinum ;
genera apiimi ; de morbis apium ; quae inimica
apibus ; de continendis apibus, de reparandis.
(xxiv) De vespis et crabronibus. quae animalia ex
alieno suum faciant. (xxv-vii) De bombyce Assyria :
de bombyliis, necydalis ; quae prima invenerit
bombycinam vestem ; de bombyce Coa ; quomodo
conficiatur Coa vestis. (xxviii f.) De araneis qui ex
iis texant ; quae materiae natura ad texendum ;
generatio araneorum. (xxx ff.) De scorpionibus ; de
stellionibus ; de cicadis sine ore esse et sine exitu
cibi. (xxxiii) De pinnis insectorvun. (xxxiv-va) De
scarabaeis ; lampyrides ; reliqua scarabaeorum
genera ; de locustis ; de formicis. (xxxvii-ix)
Chrysallides, asilus, papiliones ; de his animalibus
quae ex ligno aut in ligno nascantur ; sordium
hominis animalia ; quod animal minimvma ; aestatis
animalia. (xl) Animal cui cibi exitus non sit. (xH-
iii) Tineae, cantharides, culices ; nivis animal ;
ignium animal, pyrallis sive pyrotos ; hemerobion.
(xliv-xcvii) Animalium omnium per singula membra
naturae et historiae : quae apices habeant, quae
cristas. (xlv-li) Cornuum genera : quibus mobilia ; de
capitibus : quibus nulla ; de capillo ; de ossibus capitis ;
de cerebro ; de auribus : quae aures non habeant,
quae sine auribus et sine foraminibus audiant ;
de facie, de fronte, de supercilis. (lii-hii) De ocuHs :
quae sine oculis animalia; quae singulos tantum
oculos habeant ; de diversitate oculonmi ; quae
ratio \isus ; noctu \adentes ; de natura pupillae ;
quae non coniveant ; quibus eruti oculi renascantur ;
de palpebris : quibus non sint, quibus ab altera
tantum parte sint; quibus genae non sint. (Iviii-

58

BOOK I

duction of bees ; their system of royalty ; swarming
sometimes actually a good omen ; kinds of bees ;
diseases of bees ; enemies of bees ; beekeeping ;
replenishment of stock. (xxiv) Wasps and hornets.
What animals reproduce from another species?
(xxv-vii) Assyrian silk-worm: chrysalis, larva;
inventor of silk fabric ; silk-worm of Cos ; manufac-
ture of Coan silk. (xxviii f.) Spiders — which varieties
make webs ; material used in webs ; mode of repro-
duction. (xxx IT.) Scorpions ; geckoes ; grass-
hoppers — their lack of mouth and vent. (xxxiii)
Insects' wings. (xxxiv-vi) Beetles ; glowworms ;
other kinds of beetle ; locusts ; ants. (xxx^ii-ix)
Chrysalises, gad-flies, butterflies ; animals born from
wood or in wood ; animals of human refuse ; which
is the smallest animal ? summer animals. (xl) Vent-
less animal, (xli-iii) Moths, beetles, gnats ; snow-
animal ; fire-animal {pyrallis or pyrotos) ; may-flies.
(xliv-xcviii) Nature and accomit of all animals ar-
ranged according to the parts of the body : species
possessing caps ; crested species. (xlv-li) Varieties of
horn — which species can move the horns ; heads, head-
less species ; hair ; bones of head ; brain ; ears — which
species tiave none, which hear without ears or aper-
tures ; face, brow, eye-brow. (lii-lvii) Eyes : what
animals without eyes, what with only one eye ;
varieties of eyes ; method of sight ; species that see
bynight; structure of pu.pil ; species that do not close
the eyes ; species wliose eyes after being destroyed
grow again ; eyelashes — species that lack, species
with lashes on only one Ud ; species with no eyehds.

59

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Ix) De malis ; de naribus ; buccis, labris, mento
maxillis. (Ixi-iv) De dentibus : quae genera eorum ;
quibus non utraque parte sint, quibus cavi ; de
serpentium dentibus, de veneno earum ; cui volucri
dentes ; mirabilia dentium ; aetas ruminantium
ab his. (Ixv) De lingua : quae sine ea ; de ranarum
sono ; de palato. (Ixvi-viii) De tonsillis ; uva,
epiglossis, arteriae, gula, cervix, collum, spina,
guttur, fauces, stomachus. (Ixix-lxxi) De corde,
sanguine, animo; quibus maxima corda, quibus
minima, quibus bina; quando in extis adspici
coepta. (Ixxii) De pulmone : quibus maximus, quibus
minimus, quibus nihil aliud quam pulmo intus ;
quae causa velocitatis animalium. (Ixxiii-vi) De
iocinere, de capite extorum ; haruspicum circa id
observationes ; quibus animalibus et in quibus
locis bina iocinera ; de felle : ubi et in quibus
geminxmn ; quibus animalium non sit, quibus animal-
ium ahbi quam in iocinere ; quae \is eius ; quibus
crescat cimi luna et decrescat iecur ; haruspicum
circa ea observationes et prodigia mira. (Ixxvii)
Praecordia ; risus natura. (Ixxviii) De ventre ; quibus
nullus; quae sola vomant. (Ixxix) Lactes, hillae,
alvos, colon ; quare quaedam insatiabiha animalia.
(Ixxx-iii) De omento, de splene ; quibus animaUum
non sit ; de renibus ; ubi quaterni animahbus ;
quibus nulU; pectus, costae, vesica ; quibus animaU-
bus non sit; iUa; de membranis. (Ixxxiv-viii)
Uterus : de locis, de volvis, de suum volva, sumine ;
quae adipem, quae sebum habeant; de natura
utriusque ; quae non pinguescant ; de medulUs ;
quibus non sint ; de ossibus ; de spinis ; quibus
nec ossa nec spinae ; cartilagines ; de nervis ; quae

60

BOOK I

(Iviii-lx) Cheek-bones ; nostrils ; cheeks, lips, chin,
jaws. (Ixi-iv) Teeth — kinds of ; species with teeth in
one jaw only ; with hollow teeth ; snakes' teeth,
snakes' poison ; which bird has teeth ; remarkable
facts as to teeth ; age of ruminants indicated by teeth.
(Ixv) Tongue — tongueless species ; croaking of frogs ;
palate. (Ixvi-viii) Tonsils ; uvula, epiglottis, wind-
pipe, gullet, nape, neck, backbone, throat, jaws,
stomach. (Ixix-lxxi) Heart, blood, Ufe ; wliich
species has largest heart, which smallest, which
two hearts ; when inspection of heart of victims
began ; (Ixxii) Lungs — which species has largest,
which smallest, which no internal organ besides
hmgs; cause of speed in animals. (Ixxiii-vi) Liver — ■
head of internal organs ; its inspection by augurs ;
species with tAvo hvers, and their habitats ; gall — what
species have two, and where ; what animals have
none, which have gall elsewhere than in Uver; its
fimction ; species whose gall grows and shrinks in size
with moon ; observation of these species by augurs,
and marvellous portents. (Ixxvii) Diaphragm ; nature
of laughter. (Ixxviii) Stomach ; species that have
none ; the only species that vomit. (Ixxix) Smaller
intestines, entrails, stomach, great gut ; why some
animals have voracious appetites. (Ixxx-iii) Caul,
spleen — species without spleen. Kidneys ; habitat
of species with four kidneys — with none ; chest ;
ribs ; bladder — animals without bladder ; entrails ;
membranes. (Ixxxiv-viii) Belly — the ' parts,' the
womb, sows' womb, paps ; what species have suet,
what tallow ; nature of each ; what species have no
fat ; marrow ; species that have none ; bones ;
prickles ; species that have neither bones nor prickles ;
cartilages ; sinews ; species without sinews. (Ixxxix-

6i

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

sine nervis. (Ixxxix-xcii) Arteriae, venae ; quae
nec venas nec arterias habeant ; de sanguine ; de
sudore ; quorum celerrime sanguis spissetur, quorum
non coeat; quibus crassissimus, quibus tenuissimus,
quibus nullus, quibus certis temporibus anni nullus ;
an in sanguine principatus. (xciii f.) De tergore ;
de pilis et vestitu tergoris ; quibus os intus et pedes
subtus hirti. (xcv-xcvii) De mammis ; quae volucrum
mammas habeant. notabilia animalium in uberibus ;
de lacte ; quod solum animal sugat in cursu ;
de colostris ; de caseis ; ex quibus non fiat ;
de coagulo ; genera alimenti ex lacte ; genera
caseoriun. (xcxaii-cxiii) DifFerentiae membrorum ho-
minis a reliquis animalibus : de digitis, de brachiis;
de simianun simiUtudine ; de unguibus ; de genibus
et poplitibus ; in quibus membris corporis humani
sit religio ; varices ; de gressu, de pedibus et
cruribus ; de ungulis ; volucrum pedes ; pedes
animahmn a binis ad centenos ; de pumiUonibus ;
de genitalibus ; de hermaphroditis ; de testibus ;
trium generum semiviri ; de caudis ; de vocibus
animalium ; de agnascentibus membris. (cxiv) Vita-
htatis et morum notae ex membris hominum.
(cxv f.) De anima ; de victu ; quae veneno pasta
ipsa non pereant et gustata necent. (cxvii-ix)
Quibus de causis homo non concoquat ; de remediis
cruditatimi ; quemadmodum corpulentia contingat,
quemadmodum minuatur ; quae gustu famem et
sitim sedent. summa : res et historiae et ob-
servationes MMDCC.

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, Hygino, Scrofa,
Saserna, Celso Cornelio, AemiHo Macro, Vergiho,
Columella, lulio Aquila qui de Etrusca disciplina
scripsit, Tarquitio qui item, Umbricio Meliore qui
62

BOOK I

xcii) Arleries, veins ; species with neither veins nor
arteries ; blood ; sweat ; species whose blood
thickens most quickly, whose blood does not coagu-
late ; wliich species has the thickest blood, the
thinnest, none at all, none at certain seasons of the
year ; whether blood is dominant factor in body.
(xciii f.) Back ; hair and integument of back ; species
having hair inside mouth and under feet. (xcv-xcvii)
Paps ; wliich birds have paps ; noteworthy points
about animals' udders ; milk ; which the only animal
that gives suck while in motion ; biestings ; cheese ;
species whose milk does not form cheese ; curdled
milk ; kinds of food obtained from milk ; kinds of
cheese. (xcviii-cxiii) DifFerences in Umbs between
man and other animals ; the fingers ; arms ; resem-
blance to monkeys ; nails ; knees and thighs ; which
parts of human body associated with ritual ; dilated
veins ; gait, feet and legs ; hooves ; feet of birds ;
feet of animals, between 2 and 100 ; dwarfs ; genital
organs ; hermaphrodites ; testicles ; three kinds of
half-man ; tails ; voices of animals ; hmbs of
subsequent growth. (cxiv) Marks of vitahty and
character derived from conformation of hmbs in man.
(cxv) Respiration ; nutrition ; animals that from
eating poison do not die, but kill those who taste
them. (cxvii-ix) Causes of indigestion in rnan;
remedies for indigestion ; cause of corpulence, and
mode of reduction ; things whose taste allays hunger
and thirst. Total : 2700 facts, investigations and
obstrvations.

Authorities : Marcus Varro, Hyginus, Scrofa,
Saserna, CorneHus Celsus, Aemilius Macer, Virgil,
Cohimella, Julius Aquila's Etruscan System, Tar-
quitius diito, Umbricius MeUor ditto, Cato the ex-

63

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

item, Catone censorio, Domitio Calvino, Trogo,
Melisso, Fabiano, Muciano, Nigidio, Mamilio, Oppio.
Externis : Aristotele, Deraocrito, Neoptolemo qui
/meXiTovpyi/ca, Aristomacho qui item, Philisco qui
item, Nicandro, Menecrate, Dionysio qui Magonem
transtuht, Empedocle, Callimacho, Attalo rege,
Apollodoro qui de bestiis venenatis, Hippocrate,
Herophilo, Erasistrato, Asclepiade, Themisone, Posi-
donio Stoico, Menandris Prienaeo et Heracleote,
Euphronio Athenaeo, Theophrasto, Hesiodo, Philo-
metore rege.

Libro XII. continentur arborum naturae. (i, ii)
Honor earum. (iii-lxiii) De peregrinis arboribus.
(iii-vi) Platanus ; quando primum in ItaUam et
unde ; natura earum ; miracula ex iis ; chamae-
platani ; quis primus viridiaria tondere instituerit.
(vii) Malum Assyrium quomodo seratur. (viii-
xvii) Indiae arbores : quando primum Rpmae
hebenus visa ; quae genera eius ; spina Indica ;
ficus Indica ; Indicarum arborum formosae sine
nominibus ; liniferae Indorum arbores ; arbor pala,
pomum ariena ; piperis arbores, genera piperis,
bregma, zingiberi sive zimpiberi, caryophyllon,
lycium sive pyxacanthum Chironium, macir, sac-
charon. (xviii f.) Arbores Arianae gentis, item
Gedrosiae, item Hyrcaniae, item Bactriae ; bdelHum
sive brochum sive malacham sive maldacum ; scor-
dasti. in omnibus odoribus aut condimentis di-
cuntur adulterationes, experimenta, pretia. (xx f.)
Persidis arbores : Persici maris insularum arbores ;
gossypinum arbor. (xxii-iv) Cynas arbor. ex qui-
bus arboribus lintea in oriente fiant ; quo in loco
arborum nulUs foUa decidant ; quibus modis constent
arborum fructus. (xxv-xxix) De costo ; de nardo,

64

BOOK I

Censor, Domitius Cahinus, Trogus, MeHs<!us,
Fabianus, Mucianus, Nigidius, Mamilius, Oppius.
Foreign authorities: Aristotle, Democritus, Neo-
ptolemus's Production of Honey, Aristomachus
ditto, PhiHscus ditto, Nicander, Menecrates, Diony-
sius's translation of Mago, Empedocles, Calhmachus,
King Attalus, Venomous Aiiimals by Apollodorus,
Hippocrates, Herophilus, Erasistratus, Asclepiades,
Themiso, Posidonius the Stoic, Menander of Priene,
Menander of Heraclea, Euphronius of Athens,
Theophrastus, Hesiod, King Philometor.

Book XH. Contents : trees — their various
quahties. (i, ii) In praise of trees. (iii-lxiii) Foreign
trees. (iii-vi) Plane — when and whence first intro-
duced into Italy ; their nature ; remarkable products ;
dwarf planes ; who first introduced the pruning of
garden trees. (vii) Assyrian apple, instructions for
planting. (viii-xvii) Indian trees; ebony, when
first seen at Rome ; its kinds ; Indian thorn ; Indian
fig ; beautiful unnamed Indian trees ; Indians'
flax-trees; plantain tree, its fruit bananas; pepper
trees, kinds of pepper, defective pepper, ginger,
nut-leaf, wolf-plant or Chiron's box-thorn, macir,
sugar-cane. (xviii f.) Trees of the Arian race, ditto
of Gedrosia, ditto of Hyrcania, ditfo of Bactria ; myrrh
plaut or gum-plant {nialacha, maJdacum) ; germander.
Modes of adulteration, tests and prices specified for
all scents or spices. (xx f.) Trees of Persia ; trees of
islands in Persian Gulf; cotton-tree. (xxii-iv)
Cynas tree ; trees used in East for making hnen ;
locahty with no deciduous trees ; modes in which
trees form fruits. (xxv-xxix) Costus; nard, its

^S

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

differentiae eius XII ; asaron ; amomum, amomis,
cardamomum. (xxx-xxxii) De turifera regione, de
arboribus quae tus ferunt ; quae natura turis et
quae genera. (xxxiii-v) De myrrha : de arboribus
quae ferunt eam ; natura et genera myrrhae.
(xxxvi-xl) De mastiche ; de ladano, scorbo, enhaemo ;
bratus arbor ; stobrum arbor. (xli) De feUcitate
Arabiae. (xlii-xlvii) De cinnamo, cinnamomo, xylo-
cinnamo ; casia, cancamiun, tarum ; serichatum,
gabalium ; myrobalanus ; phoenicobalanus. (xlviii-
Ixi) De calamo odorato, de iunco odorato ; hammoni-
acum ; sphagnos ; cypros ; aspalathos sive ervsiscep-
trum ; maron ; de balsamo,opobalsamo, xylobalsamo;
styrax ; galbanum ; de panace ; spondylion ; de malo-
bathro ; de omphacio ; bryon, oenanthe, massaris ;
elate vel spathe ; cinnamum comacimi. Summa :
res et historiae et observationes CCCCLXVIII.

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, Muciano, Vergilio,
Fabiano, "jeboso, Pomponio Mela, Flavio Procilio,
Hygino, Trogo, Claudio Caesare, Cornelio Nepote,
Sextio Nigro qui Graece de medicina scripsit, Cassio
Hemina, L. Pisone, Tuditano, Antiate. Externis :
Theophrasto, Herodoto, CalUsthene, Isogono, CHtar-
cho, Anaximene, Duride, Nearcho, Onesicrito,
Polycrito, Olympiodoro, Diogneto, Nicobulo, Anti-
clide, Charete Mytilenaeo, Menaechmo, Dorotheo
Athenaeo, Lyco, Antaeo, Ephippo, Dinone, Adiman-
to, Ptolemaeo Lagi, Marsya Macedone, Zoilo item,
Democrito, Amphilocho, Aristomacho, Alexandro
polyhistore, luba, Apollodoro qui de odoribus,
Heraclide medico, Botr}-e medico, Archedemo item,
Dionysio item, Democede item, Euphrone item,
Mneside item, Diagora item, loUa item, Heraclide
Tarentino, Xenocrate Ephesio.

66

BOOK I

12 varieties; hazelwort; aviomum, amoviis. carda-
mon. (xxx-xxxii) The incense-producing distriet,
incense-bearing trees ; nature and kinds of incense.
(xxxiii-v) Myrrh : trees that produce it ; nature and
kinds of myrrh. (xxxvi-xl) Mastic; ladanum,
scorbus, styptic, bratus tree ; stobrum tree. (xli)
Arabia, why happy. (xUi-xlvii) Cinnamon, cinna-
momum, cinnamon-shrub ; wild cinnamon, can-
camum, aloe-wood; serichatum, gabaUum; behen-
nut ; Egy]Jtian date. (x!viii-lxi) Scented reed,
scented rush ; Hammonian gum-tree ; fragrant
moss ; cyprus ; calycotome or erysisceptrum ; cat-
thyme ; balsam, balsam-juice, balsam-wood ;
styrax ; galhanum ; aU-heal ; bear's-foot : cinnamon-
leaf ; grape-plant ; moss, vine-flower, wild vine ;
fir or larch ; cinnamon comacum. Total : 468 facts,
investigations and observatious.

Authorities ; Marcus Varro, Mucianus, Virgil,
Fabianus, Sebosus, Pomponius Mela, Flavius Pro-
cilius, Hyginus, Trogus, Claudius Caesar, Cornelius
Nepos, Greek Treatise on Medicine by Sextius Niger,
Cassius Hemina, Lucius Piso, Tuditanus, Antias.
Foreign authorities : Theoplirastus, Herodotus,
CalUsthenes, Isogonus,CUtarchus, Anaximenes, Duris,
Nearchus, Onesicritus, Polycritus, Olympiodorus,
Diognetus, Nicobulus, Anticlides, Chares of Mitylene,
Menaechmus, Dorotheus of Athens, Lycus, Antaeus,
Ephippus, Dinon, Adimantus, Ptolemy son of
Lagus, Marsyas of Macedon, Zoilus of Macedon,
Democritus, Amphilochus, Aristomachus, Alexander
the Learned, Juba, ApoUodorus On Scents; the phy-
sicians Heraclides, Botrys, Archedemus, Dionysius,
Democedes, Euphron, Mnesides, Diagoras and loUas;
HeracUdes of Tarentum, Xenocrates of Ephesus.

67

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Libro XIII. continentur : de peregrinis arboribus.
(i-v) De unguentis ; quando coeperint ; genera
eorum et conpositiones XII ; diapasmata, magmata
et probatio unguenti ; quanta in unguentis luxuria ;
quando primum Romanis in usu. (vi-ix) De palmis ;
de natura earum ; quomodo serantur ; genera
fructus earum et insignia XVIII. (x-xiii) Syriae
arbores : pistacia, cottana, Damascena, myxa ;
cedrus ; quae arbores trium annorum fructum
pariter habeant ; terebinthus ; rhus. (xiv-xvi)
Aegypti arbores : ficus Alexandrina ; ficus Cypria ;
siliqua ceronia. (xvii-xx) Persica arbor ; quibus
arboribus subnascatur fructus ; cuci ; spina Aegyptia ;
cummium genera VIII, sarcocoUa. (xxi-vii) De
papyro : de chartae usu ; quando coeperit ; quomodo
fiat ; genera eius IX ; probatio chartarum ; vitia
chartarum ; de glutino chartarum ; de Ubris Numae.
(xxviii) Aethiopiae arbores. (xxix-xxxi) Atlantica
ai-bor ; de citri arbore ; de citreis mensis, quae
probentur aut vituperentur in iis ; malum citreum.
(xxxii-iv) Lotos ; Cyrenaicae arbores, paUurus;
Punici maU genera IX, balaustium. (xxxv-xlvii)
Asiae et Graeciae arbores : epicactis, erice, granum
Cnidium sive thymelaea sive chamelaea sive pyro-
sachne sive cnestor sive cneorum ; tragion, traga-
cantha; tragos sive scorpio, myrice sive brya,
ostrys ; euuonymus ; leon arbor ; andrachne ; coc-
cygia, aphace ; ferula ; Thapsia ; capparis sive
cynosbaton sive ophiostaphyle ; saripha ; spina
regia ; cytisus. (xlviii-lvii) Arbores et frutices in
mari nostro ; in mari rubro ; item in Indico ; item in
Trogodytico phycos, grasson sive zoster, bryon mari-
num, Isidos plocamos, Chariton blepharon. Summa:
res et historiae et observationes CCCCLXVIIl.

68

BOOK I

Book XIII. Contents: On foreign trees. (i-v)
Perfumes — when invented; 12 kinds and combi-
nations ; ointments, salves, testing of perfumes; per-
fume as promoting luxury ; when first in use at Rome.
(vi-ix) Palms — their nature ; how planted ; 18 kinds
of fruit and noteworthy facts. (x-xii) Trees of Syria :
pistachio, small fig, damson, Syrian plum ; cedar ;
whattreescarry threeyears' fruitatonce; terebinth;
sumac. (xiv-xvi) Trees of Egypt : Alexandrian fig ;
Cyprian lig ; Carob. (xvii-xx) TPersiau tree ;
what trees produce a successiou of fruit ; cuci
palm ; Egyptian thorn ; gum tree, 8 kinds ;
Persian giim. (xxi-vii) Papyius ; employment of
paper ; when begun ; how manufactured ; 9 kinds ;
mode of testing papers ; defects of papers ; paper-
glue ; Books of Numa. (xxviii) Trees of Ethiopia.
(xxix) Atlantic tree ; citrus-tree ; citrus-wood tables,
their merits and defects ; citrus-fruit. (xxxii-iv)
Lotus ; trees of Cyrenaica, Chiist's-thorn ; pome-
granate, 9 kinds, wild pomegranate. (xxxv-xlvii)
Trees of Asia and Greece ; helleborine, heath, seed of
Cnidus or altar-plant or carline thistle or fiie-fcam
or cnesior or mezereon ; goat-plant, goat-thorn ;
goat or scorpion, tamarisk or brya, hop-hornbeam ;
euonymus ; lion-tree ; purslane ; cuckoo-plant, tare ;
fennel ; Thapsus-shrub ; caper-bush or dog's bush
or snake-vine ; saripha ; king's thorn ; tree-medick.
(xlviii-lvii) Trees and bushes of the Mediterranean ;
of the Red Sea ; of the Indian Ocean ; of Cave-
dwellers' Sea — sea-weed, grasson or girdle-plant,
sea-lettuce, plait of Isis, Graces' eyeUd. Total
468 facts, investigations and observations.

69

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, Muciano, Vergilio,
Fabiano, Seboso, Pomponio Mela, Flavio Proeilio,
Flygino, Trogo, Claudio Caesare, CorneUo Nepote,
Sextio Nigro qui Graece de medicina scripsit,
Cassio Hemina, L. Pisone, Tuditano, Antiate.
Extemis : Theophrasto, Herodoto, Callisthene,
Isigono, Clitarcho Anaximene, Duride, Nearcho,
Onesicrito, Polycrito, Olympiodoro, Diogneto, Nico-
bulo, Anticlide, Charete Mytilenaeo, Mcnaechmo,
Dorotheo Atheniense, Lyco, Antaeo, Ephippo,
Dinone, Adimanto, Ptolemaeo Lagi, Marsya Mace-
done, Zoilo item, Democrito, Amphilocho, Aristo-
macho, Alexandro polyhistore, luba, Apollodoro
qui de odoribus scripsit, HeracHde medico, Botrye
medico, Archedemo item, Dionysio item, Democede
item, Euphrone item, Mneside item, Diagora
item, lolla item, Heraclide Tarentino, Xenocrate
Ephesio.

Libro XIV. continentxir fructiferae arbores. (i-v)
De ^itium natura ; quibus modis ferant ; de uvarum
natura et ciira ; \atium et uvarum genera XCI ; insignia
culturae et vinearum ; (vi-xi) De inventione mulsi ;
\ina generosa L, transmarina XXXVIII ; de vino
Opimiano ; notabilia circa apothecas : de natura vini ;
vini salsi genera VII. de passo et hepsemate et
dulcium generibus XVII. (xii) Secundari vini
genera III. (xiii-xvii) Quam nuper coeperint vina
generosa in ItaUa ; de vino observationes a Romulo
rege ; quibus vinis usi antiqui ; quando primum vini
quattuor genera posita. (xviii-xxi) Ex labrusca usus
V ; qui frigidissimus natura sucus ; vini fictici genera
LXVI : hydromeh sive apomeh sive mehcraton ;
oxymeli. (xxii-v) V ini prodigiosi genera XII ;

70

BOOK I

Authorities : Marcus Varro, Mucianus, Virgil,
Fabianus, Sebosus, Pomponius Mela, Flavius Pi-o-
cilius, Hyginus, Trogus, Claudius Caesar, Comelius
Nepos, Sextus Niger's Greek treatise On Medicine,
Cassius Hemina, Lucius Piso, Tuditanus, Antias.
Foreign authorities : Theophrastus, Herodotus,
CalUsthenes, Isogonus, CHtarchus, Anaximenes,Duris,
Nearchus, Onesicritus, Polycritus, Olympiodorus,
Diognetus, Nicobulus, AnticUdes, Chares of Mitylene,
Menaechmus, Dorotheus of Athens, Lycus, Antaeus,
Ephippus, Dinon, Adimantus, Ptolemy son of
Lagus, Marsyas of Macedon, Zoilus ditto, Demo-
critus, Amphilochus, Aristomachus, Alexander the
Learned, Juba, ApoUodorus On Scents ; the following
medical writers — HeracUdes, Botrys, Archedemus,
Dionysius, Democedes, Euphron, Mnesides, Diagoras,
loUas ; HeracUdes of Tarentum, Xenophon of
Ephesus.

Book XIV. Contents : fruit-trees. (i-v) Vines,
their nature ; their ways of bearing ; grapes, their
nature and tending ; 91 kinds of vines and grapes ;
viticulture and vineyards, noteworthy facts as to
(vi-xi) Mead, its discovery ; 50 wines of quaUty ;
38 foreign vintages ; Opimian 'wdne ; wine-ceUars,
notable facts as to; nature of wine ; salt wine, 7
kinds ; raisin-wine, must, sweet wine, 17 kinds.
(xu) Inferior ^vines, 3 kinds. (xiii-xvii) Wines of
quality, how recently begun to be made in Italy ;
remarks as to wine from reign of Romulus onwards ;
wines used in early periods ; four kinds of wine,
when first estabUshed. (xviii-xxi) Wild vine, 5 uses
of; what juice by nature the coldest; artificial
wine, 66 kinds ; mead or honey-wine or water-mead ;
vinegar-honey. (xxii-v) Remarkable wines, 12 kinds ;

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

qiiibus vinis ad sacra uti fas non sit ; quibus gene-
ribus musta condiant, de pice, resinis. (xxvi f.)
De vasis vinariis, de aceto, de faece, de cellis.
(xxviii f.) De ebrietate ; ex aqua et frugibus vini
vim fieri. Summa : res et historiae et observationes
DX.

Ex auctoribus : Cornelio Valeriano, Vergilio, Celso,
Catone censorio, Sasernis patre et filio, Scrofa, M.
Varrone, D. Silano, Fabio Pictore, Trogo, Hygino,
Flacco Verrio, Graecino, Attico lulio, Columella,
Masurio Sabino, Fenestella, Tergilla, Maccio Plauto,
Fabio Dossenno, Scaevola, L. Aelio, Ateio Capitone,
Cotta Messalino, L. Pisone, Pompeio Lenaeo,
Fabiano, Sextio Nigro, Vibio Rufino. Externis :
Hesiodo, Theophrasto, Aristotele, Democrito, Hie-
rone rege, Attalo rege, Philometore rege, Archyta,
Xenophonte, Amphilocho Athenaeo, AnaxipoHThasio,
Apollodoro Lemnio, Aristophane Milesio, Antigono
Cymaeo, Agathocle Chio, Apollonio Pergameno,
Aristandro Athenaeo, Bacchio Milesio, Bione Solense,
Chaerea Atheniense, Chaeristo item, Diodoro Prie-
naeo, Dinone Colophonio, Epigene Rhodio, Evagone
Thasio, Euphronio Athenaeo, Androtione qui de
agricultura scripsit, Aeschrione qui item, Lysimacho
qui item, Dionysio qui Magonem transtulit, Diophane
qui ex Dionysio epitomen fecit, Asclepiade medico,
Erasistrato item, Commiade, qui de conditura vini
scripsit, Aristomacho qui item, Hicesio qui item,
Themisone medico, Onesicrito, luba rege.

Libro XV. continentur naturae frugiferarum
arborimi. (i-viii) De olea: quamdiu apud Graecos
tantum fuerit ; quando primum in Italia, Hispania,
Africa esse coeperit ; de oleo nationes et bonitates

72

BOOK I

wines not permissible to use at sacrifices ; substances
used to flavour must — pitch, resins. (xxvi f.) Wine-
jars, vinegar, lees, cellars. (xxviii f.) Intoxication ;
drinks made from water and fruit can be as potent as
wine. Total : 510 facts, investigations and observa-
tions.

Authorities: Cornelius Valerian, Virgil, Celsus,
Cato the Censor, Saserna senior, Saserna junior,
Scrofa, Marcus Varro, Decius Silanus, Fabius Pictor,
Trogus, Hyginus, Verrius Flaccus, Graecinus, Julius
Atticus, Columella, Masurius Sabinus, Fenestella,
Tergilla, Maccius Plautus, Fabius Dossennus, Scaev-
ola, Lucius Aelius, Ateius Capito, Cotta Messalinus,
Lucius Piso, Pompeius Lenaeus, Fabianus, Sextius
Niger, Vibius Rufinus. Foreign authorities : Hesiod,
Theophrastus, Aristotle, Democritus, King Hiero,
King Attalus, King Philometor, Archytas, Xeno-
phon, Amphilochus of Athens, Anaxipolis of Thasos,
Apollodorus of Lemnos, Aristophanes of Miletus,
Antigonus of Cumae, Agathocles of Chios, Apollo-
nius of Pergamum, Aristander of Athens, Bacchius of
Miletus, Bion of SoH, Chaereas of Athens, Chaeristus
ditto, Diodorus of Priene, Dinon of Colophon,
Epigenes of Rhodes, Evagon of Thasos, Euphronius
of Athens, Androtion On Agriculture, Aeschrion ditto,
Lysimachus ditto, Dionysius's translation of Mago,
Diophanes's Epitome of Dionysius, the medical writers
Asclepiades and Erasistratus, treatises on The Making
of JVine by Commiades, Aristomachus and Hicesius,
Themiso on medicine, Onesicritus, King Juba.

Book XV^. Contents: Fruit-bearing trees, their
various natures. (i-viii) The oUve tree — how long
was it grown only in Greece ; when first introduced
into Italy, Spain, Africa; olive-oil, its kinds and

73

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

olei ; quae natura olivae et olei incipientis ; olivarum
genera XV ; de natura olei ; cultura olearum ; de
servandis olivis ; quomodo faciendum sit oleum ; olei
fictici genera XLVIII ; cici arbor sive croto sive sili
sive sesamon ; de amurca. (ix-xxxiv) Pomorum
omnium genera et natura : nucum pinearum genera
IV ; cotoneorimi genera IV ; struthiorum genera
IV ; Punicorum genera IX ; Persicorimi genera
VII; prunorum genera XII; de persea; malorum
genera XXX; quo quaeque tempore externa poma
venerint in ItaUam et unde ; quae novissime ;
pirorum genera XLI ; de insitorum varietate et
fulgurum piatione : de pomis servandis et uvis ;
ficorum genera XXIX ; de ficis historica ; de
caprificatione ; mespilae genera III ; sorborimi
genera IV ; nucum genera VIII ; castanearmn
genera XVIII ; siliquae ; de carnosis pomis ; de
moris ; de unedone ; acinorum naturae ; bacarum
naturae ; cerasorum genera VIII ; coma ; lentisci ;
sucorum differentiae XIII. (xxxv-viii) Myrtus:
historica de myrto ; genera eius XI. (xxxix f.)
Laurus : genera eius XIII. Summa : res et historiae
et observationes DXX.

Ex auctoribus : Fenestella, Fabiano, VergiUo,
Corneho Valeriano, Celso, Catone censorio, Sasernis
patre et fiho, Scrofa, M. Varrone, D. Silano, Fabio
Pictore, Trogo, Hygino, Flacco Verrio, Graecino,
Attico luho, ColumeUa, Masurio Sabino, TergiUa,
Cotta Messahno, L. Pisone, Pompeio Lenaeo, Maccio
Plauto, Fabio Dossenno, Scaevola, L. Aeho, Ateio
Capitone, Sextio Nigro, Vibio Rufino. Externis:
Hesiodo, Theophrasto, Aristotele, Democrito, Hierone
rege, Philometore rege, Attalo rege, Archyta,
Xenophonte, Amphilocho Athenaeo, AnaxipoU Thasio

74

BOOK I

valuable properties ; nature of the olive and olive-
oil when forming ; 15 kinds of oHves ; nature of
oHve-oil ; cultivation of olive-trees ; storing of ohves ;
manufacture of ohve-oil ; 48 kinds of artificial ohve-
oil ; the kiki-tree or croto or sih or sesamum (castor-
oiltree); ohve-lees. (ix-xxxiv)The varieties of fruit,
their kinds and nature ; pine-cones, 4 kinds ; quinces,
4 kinds; sparrow-apples, 4 kinds ; pomegranate,
9 kinds ; peach, 7 kinds ; plum, 12 kinds ; the
persea-trea ; apple, 30 kinds ; foreign apples — dates
and sources of introduction into Italy : most recent
introduction ; pears, 41 kinds ; grafting of varieties,
and expiation when struck by hghtning ; storage of
fruit and grapes ; figs, 29 kinds ; researches as to ;
artificial ripening of ; medlars, 3 kinds ; service-
berry, 4 kinds ; nuts, 8 kinds ; chestnuts, 18 kinds ;
carobs ; fleshy fruits ; mulberries ; the arbutus ;
berries, varieties of ; hard fruit, varieties ; cherry,
9 kinds ; cornel-cherries ; mastic-trees ; juices, 13
different sorts ; (xxxv-viii) the myrtle, researches as
to ; 11 kinds. (xxxix f.) The bay-tree, 13 kinds.
Total : 520 facts, researches and observations.

Authorities : Fenestella, Fabianus, Virgil, Corne-
Hus Valerian, Celsus, Cato the Censor, the Sasernae,
senior and junior, Scrofa, Marcus Varro, Decimus
Silanus, Fabius Pictor, Trogus, Hyginus, Verrius
Flaccus, Graecinus, JuHus Atticus, Columella,
Masurius Sabinus, TergiHa, Messalinus Cotta, Lucius
Piso, Pompeius Lenaeus, Maccius Plautus, Fabius
Dossennus, Scaevola, Lucius Aelius, Ateius Capito,
Sextius Niger, Vibius Rufinus. Foreign authorities :
Hesiod, Theophrastus, Aristotle, Democritus, King
Hiero, King Philometor, King Attalus, Archytas,
Xenophon, Amphilochus of Athens, AnaxipoHs of

75

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Apollodore Lemnio, Aristophane Milesio, Antigono
Cymaeo, Agathocle Chio, ApoUonio Pergameno,
Aristandro Athenaeo, Bacchio Milesio, Bione Solense,
Chaerea Athenaeo, Chaeristo item, Diodoro Prienaeo,
Dinone Colophonio, Epigene Rhodio, Euagone
Thasio, Euphronio Athenaeo, Androtione qui de
agricultura scripsit, Aeschrione qui item, Dionysio qui
Magonem transtulit, Diophane qui ex Dionysio
epitomen fecit, Asclepiade medico, Erasistrato item,
Commiade qui de conditura vini, Aristomacho qui
item, Hicesio qui item, Themisone medico, Onesicrito,
luba rege.

Libro X\T. continentur silvestrium arbonim na-
turae. (i f.) Gentes sine arbore ; miracula in septen-
trionaU regione arborum. (iii-xiii) De glandiferis :
de civica corona ; de coronarum origine ; qui frondea
corona donati ; glandium genera XIII ; de fago ;
de rehquis glandiferis ^ ; de carbone ; de galla ;
quam multa praeter glandem ferant eaedem arbores :
cachrys, coccum, agaricum, (xiv) Quarum arborum
cortices in usu. (xv-xx) De scandulis : de pinu,
pinastro, picea, abiete, larice, taeda, taxo. (xxi-iii)
Quibus modis fiat pix hquida ; quomodo cedrium fiat ;
quibus modis spissa pix fiat, qviibus coquatur resina;
zopissa. (xxiv-ix) Quarum arborum materiae in
pretio : fraxini genera IV ; tihae genera II ; aceris
genera X ; bruscum, molhiscum ; staphylodendron ;
buxi genera III ; ulmorum genera IV. (xxx f.)
Arborum natura per situs : quae montanae, quae
campestres, quae siccaneae, quae aquaticae, quae
communes. (xxxii) Divisio generum. (xxxiii-viii)
Quibus foHa non decidant : de rhododendro ; quibus
non omnia folia cadant ; quibus in locis nuUi arborum ;

^ Rackham : glandibus.
76

BOOK I

Thasos, Apollodorus of Lemnos, Aristophanes of
Miletus, Antigonus of Cumae, Agathocles of Chios,
ApoUonius of Pergamum, Aristander of Athens,
Bacchius of Miletus, Bion of SoH, Chaereas of Athens,
Chaeristus ditto, Diodorus of Priene, Dinon of Colo-
phon, Epigenes of Rhodes, Evagon of Thasos,
Euphronius of Athens, Androtion On Agriculiure,
Aeschrion ditto, Dionysius's translation of Mago,
Diophanes's summary of Dionysius, Asclepiades the
physician, Erasistratus ditto, Commiades On Making
Wine, Aristomachus ditto, Hicesius ditto, Onesicritus,
King Juba.

Book XVI. Contents : forest trees, their various
natures. (i f.) Races that have no trees ; remarkable
trees in the North. (iii-xiii) Acorn-bearing trees :
the civic wreath ; origin of wreaths ; wreath of
foUage, on whom bestowed ; 13 kinds of acorns ;
the beech ; the other acorn-bearing trees ; charcoal ;
the oak-apple ; how many fruits beside the acorn
borne by the same trees; catkin, cochineal-berry,
larch-fungus. (xiv) Trees whose bark is utiUzed.
(xv-xx) Roof-shingles : stone-pine, wild pine, spruce,
silver-fir, larch, pitch-pine, yew. (xxi-iii) Liquid
pitch, methods of making ; cedar-oil, methods of
making ; wax-pitch, methods of making ; resin,
methods of boiling ; thick-pitch. (xxiv-ix) Trees
of value for timber : ash, 4 kinds ; lime, 2 kinds ;
maple, 10 kinds ; growth on the maple, maple-
fungus ; pistachio tree ; box, 3 kinds ; elm, 4 kinds.
(xxx f.) Nature of trees classified by habitat :
those that grow on momitains, on plains, on dry
soils, in water, in several habitats. (xxxii) Classi-
fication. (xxxiii-viii) Non-deciduous trees : rhodo-
dendron ; partially deciduous trees ; regions where
all trees evergreen ; natuie of deciduous foliage ;

77

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

de natura foliorum cadentium ; quibus foliorum varii
colores : populorum genera III ; quorum foliorum
flgura mutetur ; quae folia versentur omnibus annis ;
folioriun e palmis cura et usus ; foliorum mirabilia.
(xxxix) Ordo naturae in satis. (xl) Quae arbores
nimiquam floreant : de iuniperis. (xli-1) De con-
ceptu arborum, de germinatione, de partu ; quo
ordine floreant, de comu, quo quaeque tempore
ferant ; anniferae, in triennium ferentes, quae
fructum non ferant ; quae infelices existimentur ;
quae facillime perdant fructum aut florem ; quae ubi
non ferant ; quomodo quaeque ferant ; quibus
fructiis ante quam folium nascatur ; biferae, triferae.
(li) Quae celerrime senescant, quae tardissime;
praecoces fructus, serotini. (lii) In quibus plura rerum
genera gignantur; crataegum. (lui-vi) difFerentiae
arborum per corpora et ramos ; lotos sive faba Graeca.
de ramis, cortice, radicibus. (Ivii f.) Arbores quae
sponte resurrexerint ; quibus modis sponte nascantur
arbores. (lix-lxi) Naturae differentiae non omnia
ubique generantis ; ubi quae non nascantur ; de
cupressis ; nasci saepe ex terra quae ante nata non
sint. (Ixii f.) De hedera : genera eius XX. smilax.
(Ixiv-lxxi) De aquaticis : de calamis ; harundinum
genera XXVIII ; de sagittaris et scriptoris et fistula-
toris calamis ; Opchomenia harundine et aucupatoria
et piscatoria ; de vinitoria harundine ; de alno ; de
salice, genera eius VII ; quae praeter saUcem ad
ligandum utilia ; de scirpis, candehs, cannis, tegulo;
de sabucis, de rubis. (Ixxii f.) De arborum sucis.
(Ixxiv-vii) De natura materiarmn ; de arboribus
caedendis ; de magnitudine arborum ; de sapino ;

78

BOOK I

fcrees wliose foliage clianges colour : poplars, 3 kinds ;
foliage that clianges shape of leaf ; foliage tliat
yearly turns round ; palm-leaves, cultivation
and use of; remarkable foliage. (xxxix) Process
of growth in trees grown from seed. (xl) Non-
flowering trees : the junipers. (xli-1) Concep-
tion, germination and parturition of trees ; order
of flowering ; the husk ; date of bearing of the
various kinds, trees that bear yearly, three-yearly ;
trees that do not bear fruit ; trees believed un-
lucky ; trees that lose fruit or flower most easily ;
which kinds do not bear in which places ; method of
bearing of the various kinds ; kinds that bear fruit
before fohage ; kinds that bear twice a year, thrice
a year. (li) Which age most rapidly, which least
rapidly ; early ripening and late ripening fruits.
(lii) WTiich kinds have products of more than one
sort : the kernel of the box. (hii-vi) Diflferences of
trees in trunks and boughs : the lotus or date plum ;
boughs, bark, roots. (Ivii f.) Instances of trees rising
again of their own accord ; spontaneous generation
of trees, modes of. (lix-lxi) Differences of nature
not generating all kinds everywhere ; places where
particular kinds do not grow ; cypresses ; growth
from the earth of entirely novel kinds a fre-
quent occurrence. (Ixii) Ivy, its 20 kinds. (Ixiii)
Bindweed. (Ixiv-lxxi) Water plants : canes ; reeds,
28 kinds ; reed arrows, reed pens, reed pipes ; the
bird-catcher's and fisherman's reed of Orchomenus ;
the vine-prop reed; the alder; the willow, its
7 kinds ; other plants useful for ties ; bulrushes,
rushhghts, canes, thatch ; elders, brambles. (Ixxi f.)
Sap of trees. (Ixxiv-vii) Nature of timbers ; wood-
cutting ; sizes of trees ; the pine ; charcoal. (Ixxviii-

79

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

igniaria e ligno. (Ixxviii-lxxxi) Quae eariem non
sentiant, quae rimam ; historica de perpetuitate
materiarum ; teredinum genera ; de materiis archi-
tectonica. (Ixxxii-iv) De materiis fabrilia ; de glu-
tinanda materia ; de lamnis sectilibus. (Ixxxv-xc)
Arbonmi durantium vetustas : ab Africano priore
sata ; in urbe Roma D annorum arbor ; ab urbe
condita arbores ; vetustiores urbe in suburbanis ; ab
Agamemnone satae arbores ; a primo anno belli
Troiani arbores ; ab Ih appellatione arbores apud
Troiam antiquiores bello Troiano ; item Argis ; ab
Hercule satae ; ab Apolline satae : arbor antiquior
quam Athenae ; quae genera arborum minimtie durent.
(xci-iv) Arbores ex eventu nobiles ; quae sedem
nascendi suam non habeant ; quae in arboribus vivant
et in terra nasci possint, genera earum IX ; cadytas,
hyphear, stelis, hippophaeston ; de visci et simiUum
natura ; de visco faciendo. Simama : res et historiae
et observationes MCXXXV.

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, Fetiale, Nigidio,
Corneho Nepote, Hygino, Masurio, Catone, Muciano,
L. Pisone, Trogo, Calpurnio Basso, Cremutio, Sextio
NigrOjCornehoBoccho, Vitruvio, Graecino. Externis :
Alexandro polyhistore, Hesiodo, Theophrasto, Demo-
crito, Homero, Timaeo mathematico.

Libro XVII. continentur sativarum arborum na-
turae. (i) Arborum pretia mirabiha. (ii-iv) Caeli
natura ad arbores ; quam partem caeh spectare
vineae debeant ; quahs terra optima ; de terra qua
Graeci et Galhae laeta,nt genera VIII. (v-viii) De
cineris usu ; de fimo ; quae sata uberiorem terram
faciant, quae urant ; quibus modis fimo utendum.
(ix-xxi) Quibus modis arbores serantur; semine

80

BOOK I

Ixxxi) Trees exempt from rot — from splitting;
researchcs as to durability of timbers ; kinds of wood-
worms ; wooden architecture. (Ixxxii-iv) Wooden
tools ; gluing timber ; sawn sheets of wood. (Ixxxv-
xc) Age of long-lived trees : tree planted by the elder
Africanus ; tree in Rome 500 years old ; trees dating
from the foundation of the city ; trees in the suburbs
older than the city ; trees planted by Agamemnon ;
trees dating from first year of the Trojan War ; trees
at Troy sho^vn from designation ' lUon ' to be older
than the Trojan War; ditto at Argos; trees planted
by Hercules ; trees planted by Apollo ; a tree older
than Athens ; what kinds of trees are least long-
lived. (xci-iv) Trees celebrated for some occurrence ;
parasitic plants ; plants parasitic on trees and able to
grow in earth — 9 kinds of these ; cadytas, hyphear,
steUs, hippophaestum ; nature of mistletoe and
similar plants ; manufacture of bird-Ume. Total :
1135 facts, researches and observations.

Authorities : Marcus Varro, FetiaUs, Nigidius,
CorneUus Nepos, Hyginus, Masurius, Cato, Mucianus,
Lucius Piso, Trogus, Calpurnius Bassus, Cremutius,
Sextius Niger,CorneUus Bocchus,Vitruvius,Graecinus.
Foreign authorities : Alexander the Learned, Hesiod,
Theophrastus, Democritus, Homer, Timaeus the
mathematician.

Book XVII. Contents: the natures of cultivated
trees. (i) Remarkable prices for trees. (ii-iv)
Eifect of cUmate on trees ; proper aspect for vines ;
best soil; soil enjoyed by Greece and the GaUie
provinces — 8 kinds. (v-viii) The use of ashes;
dung ; what crops enrich the soil, which em-
poverish it ; methods of using manure. (ix-xxi)
Methods of growing trees ; kinds spriuging from seed ;

8i

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

nascentia ; quae numquam degenerent ; plantis
nascentia, avolsione nascentia, surculo ; de seminaris,
de transferendis seminaris ; de ulmis serendis ;
de scrobibus ; de intervallis arborum ; de umbra ; de
stillicidis; quae tarde crescant, quae celeriter;
propagine nascentia. (xxii-viii) De insitione quo-
modo inventa sit ; genera insitionum ; inoculatio ;
emplastratio ; de vite inserenda ; ramo nascentia ;
quae taleis et quomodo serantur. (xxix-xxxi)Olearura
cultura, operum surcularium per tempora anni
digestio ; de ablaqueandis et adcumulandis. (xxxii-
iv) De salicto ; harundineta ; de ceteris ad perticas et
palos caeduis. (xxxv f.) Vinearum ratio et arbusto-
rum ; ne uvae ab animalibus infestentur. (xxxvii f.)
Morbi arborum ; prodigia ex arboribiis. (xxxix-
xlvii) Medicinae arborum ; quomodo rigandum ;
mirabilia de riguis ; de stercoratione ; quomodo
circiunfodiendum ; castratio arborum ; caprificatio ;
quae putationis vitia ; arboribus medicamenta.
Summa: res et historiae et observationes
MCCCLXXX.

Ex auctoribus : Cornelio Nepote, Catone censorio,
M. Varrone, Celso, Vergilio, Hygino, Sasernis patre
et filio, Scrofa, Calpurnio Basso, Trogo, Aemilio
Macro, Graecino, Colimnella, Attico lulio, Fabiano,
Mamilio Sura, Dessio Mundo, C. Epidio, L. Pisone.
Externis : Hesiodo, Theophrasto, Aristotele, Demo-
crito, Theopompo, Hierone rege, Philometore rege,
Attalo rege, Archyta, Xenophonte, Amphilocho
Atheniense, Anaxipoh Thasio, Apollodoro Lemnio,
Aristophane Milesio, Antigono Cumaeo, Agathocle
82

BOOK I

that never degenerate ; kinds springing from
settings, from a cutting, from a layer; seed-beds,
transference of seed-beds ; growing elms from seed ;
trenching ; distances between trees ; shade ;
droppings from leaves ; slow-growing and quick-
growing kinds ; kinds springing from layers. (xxii-
viii) Grafting — how discovered ; kinds of grafts ;
eye-grafting ; budding ; grafting of vines ; grafts
growing from boughs ; kinds grafted by cuttings,
and method. (xxix-xxi) Olive-growing ; seasonal
arrangement of propagating; trenching round
and banking up vines. (xxxii-iv) The willow
thicket ; reed bed ; other plants cut for poles and
stakes. (xxxv f.) Arrangenient of vineyards and
plantations ; prevention of injury to vines from
animals. (xxxvii f.) Diseases of trees ; remarkable
products from trees. (xxxix-xlvii) Remedies for
diseases of trees ; method of watering ; remarkable
facts as to water-meadows ; use of dung ; method
of hoeing round trunk ; lopping of trees ; how to dig
round trees ; pruning of trees ; effect of gall-insect ;
mistakes in pruning ; medicaments for trees. Total :
1380 facts, researches and observations.

Authorities : Cornehus Nepos, Cato the censor,
Marcus Varro, Celsus, Virgil, Hyginus, the Sasemae
senior and junior, Scrofa, Calpurnius Bassus, Trogus,
AemiUus Macer, Graecinus, Columella, JuUus Atticus,
Fabianus, MamiUus Sura, Dessius Mundus, Gaius
Epidius, Lucius Piso. Foreign authorities : Hesiod,
Theophrastus, Aristotle, Democritus, Theopompus,
King Hiero, King Philometer, King Attalus, Archytas,
Xenophon, Amphilochus of Athens, AnaxipoUs of
Thasos, ApoUodorus of Lemnos, Aristophanes of
Miletus, Antigonus of Cumae, Agathocles of Chios,

83

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Chio, Apollonio Pergameno, Bacchio Milesio, Bione
Solense, Chaerea Atheniense, Chaeristo item, Diodoro
Prienaeo, Dinone Colophonio, Epigene Rhodio,
Euagone Thasio, Euphronio Athenaeo, Androtione
qui de agricultura scripsit, Aeschrione qui item,
Lysimacho qui item, Dionysio qui Magonem trans-
tuUt, Diophane qui ex Dionysio epitomen fecit,
Aristandro qui de portentis.

Libro XVm. continentur naturae frugum. (i)
Antiquorum studium in agricultura. (ii) Quae prima
Romae corona ; de spicea corona. (iii) De iugero.
(iv) Quotiens et quibus temporibus fuerit summa
viHtas annonae. (v) Qui inlustres de agricultura.
(vi) Quae observanda in agro parando. (vii) De
villarum positione. (viii) Praecepta antiquorum de
agro colendo. (ix) Genera frugum. (x-xxix) Naturae
per genera frumenti : de farre, tritico, hordeo,
polenta, ptisana, trago, amylo, sihgine, similagine,
arinca sive olyra, semine sive zea; de reHquis in
oriente generibus ; de pisturis ; de sesima, de
erysimo sive irione, de hormino, miho, panico ; de
fermentis ; panis faciendi ratio et genera ; quando
pistorum initium Romae. (xxx-xxxvi) De legum-
inibus : faba, ciceris genera, faseoh, pisum ; de rapis,
napis, lupino. (xxxvii-xhii) Pabularia vicia, ervum,
sihcia, secale sive asia, farrago ; de ocimo ; ervilia,
medica. (xHv f.) De avena ; morbi frugum, remedia.
(xlvi) Quid in quoque terrae generimi debeat seri.
(xlvii) Diversitas gentium in sationibus. (xlviii-1)
Vomerum genera ; ratioarandi; deoccando,runcando,
sarriendo ; de cratitione. (H-Hii) De summa fertiH-
tate soH ; ratio saepius anno serendi idem arvum ;
stercoratio. (Hv-lxi) Seminum probatio : quantum
ex quoque genere frumenti in iugero serendum; de

84

BOOK I

Apollonius of Pergamum, Bacchius of Miletus, Bion of
Soli, Chaereas of Athens, Chaeristus ditto, Diodorus
of Priene, Dinon of Colophon, Epigenes of Rhodes,
Evagon of Thasos, Euphronius of Athens, Androtion
On Agriculture, Aeschrion ditto, Lysimachus ditto,
Dionysius's translation of Mago, Diophanes's
summary of Dionysius, Aristander On Portents.

Book XVIII. Contents : crops, their natures. (i)
Devotion to agriculture in early times. (ii) The
earHest wreath at Rome ; the wreath of ears of corn ;
(iii) The acre. (iv) Number and dates of lowest falls
in price of corn. (v) Distinguished authorities on
agriculture. (vi) Rules for preparing the ground.
(vii) Location of homesteads. (viii) Old authorities
on methods of agriculture. (ix) Kinds of grain.
(x-xxix) Properties of corn according to kinds ;
emmer, wheat, barley, pearl-bnrley ; barley-groats ;
porridge, starch, common wLeat, wheat-flour, two
grain wheat, seed ; the remaiuing kinds in the east ;
modes of grinding ; sesame, erysimum or irio, clary,
species of millet ; yeasts ; bread, methods of making
and kinds of ; when bakers began at Rome. (xxx-
xxxvi) Leguminous plants : beans, kinds of chick-
pea, calavance, pea ; turnips, navews, lupin.
(xxxvii-xliii) Fodder : vetch, pulse, fenugreek,
secale or rye, mixed fodder, basil, bitter vetch ;
lucerne. (xliv f.) Oats ; corn diseases, remedies.
(xlvi) Proper crops to sow in various kinds of soil.
(xlvii) National differences in methods of sowing.
(xlviii-1) Kinds of plough ; mcthod of ploiighing ;
harrowing, weeding, hceing ; cross-harrowing. (li-liii)
Greatest fertility of soil ; method of cropping
same field more than once a year ; manuring.
(liv-lxi) Seed-testing ; amount of seed of different

85

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

temporibus serendi ; digestio siderum in dies et
notae terrestres rerum in agro agendarum. (Ixii-
Ixxiv) Quid quoque mense in agro fieri oporteat : de
papavere; de faeno, causae sterilitatum ; remedia;
de messibus, de frumento servando, de vindemia et
autumni operibus. (Ixxv f.) Lunaris ratio ; ventorum
ratio. (Ixxvii) Limitatio agrorum. (Ixxviii-xc) Pro-
gnostica : a sole, a luna, stellis, tonitribus, nubibus,
ignibus terrestribus, aquis ; ab ipsis tempestatibus ; ab
animalibus aquatilibus, avolucribus, a quadrupedibus.
Summa: res et historiae et observationes MMLX.

Ex auctoribus : Masurio Sabino, Cassio Hemina,
Verrio Flacco, L. Pisone, Comelio Celso, Turranio
Gracile, D. Silano, M. Varrone, Catone censorio,
Scrofa, Sasernis patre et filio, Domitio Cah-ino,
Hygino, Vergilio, Trogo, Ovidio, Graecino, Colu-
mella, Tuberone, L. Tarutio qui Graece de astris
scripsit, Caesare dictatore qui item, Sergio Paullo,
Sabino Fabiano, M. Cicerone, Calpurnio Basso, Ateio
Capitone , Mamilio Sura, Accio qui Praxidicam ^ scripsit.
Externis : Hesiodo,Theophrasto, Aristotele, Democrito,
Hierone rege,Philometore rege.Attalo rege, Archelao
rege, Archyta, Xenophonte, Amphilocho Athenaeo,
Anaxipoh Thasio, Apollodoro Lemnio, Aristophane
Milesio, Antigono C}Tnaeo, Agathocle Chio, Apollonio
Pergameno, Aristandro Athenaeo, Bacchio Milesio,
Bione Solense, Chaerea Atheniense, Chaeristo item,
Diodoro Prienaeo, Dinone Colophonio, Epigene Rho-
dio, Euagone Thasio, Euphronio Athenaeo, Andro-
tione qui de agricultura scripsit, Aeschrione qui item,

^ Eibbeck : praxidica aui -aa.
86

BOOK I

varieties of corn required per acre ; seasons for
sowing ; position of stars from da)'- to day and
earthly signs as to agricultural operations. (Ixii-
Ixxiv) Agricultural operations proper to the several
months ; poppies ; hay ; causes of various kinds of
infertility ; remedies ; harvests, storage of corn,
vintage and autunm operations. (Ixxv f.) Conditions
of the moon, of the winds. (Ixxvii) Fixing of
bounds of estates. (Ixxviii-xc) Weather-forecasts :
from the sun, moon, stars, thunder-clouds, mists,
earth-fires, waters ; from the seasons themselves ;
from aquatic animals, from birds, from quadrupeds.
Total : 2060 facts, researches and observations.

Authorities : Masurius Sabinus, Cassius Hera-
ina, Verrius Flaccus, Lucius Piso, Cornelius Celsus,
Turranius Gracilis, Decimus Silanus, Marcus Varro,
Cato the ex-Censor, Scrofa, the Sasernae senior and
junior, Domitius Calvinus, Hyginus, Virgil, Trogus,
O^dd, Graecinus, Columella, Tubero, Lucius Taru-
tius's Greek treatise On the Stars, Caesar the Dictator
ditto, Sergius PauUus, Sabinus Fabianus, Marcus
Cicero, Calpurnius Bassus, Ateius Capito, Mamilius
Sura, Accius's Praxidica. Foreign authorities :
Hesiod, Theophrastus, Aristotle, Democritus, King
Hiero, King Philometer, King Attalus, King Arche-
laus, Archytas, Xenophon, Amphilochus of Athens.
Anaxipohs of Thasos, Apollodorus of Lemnos,
Aristophanes of Miletus, Antigonus of Cumae,
Agathocles of Chios, ApoUonius of Pergamos,
Aristander of Athens, Bacchius of Miletus, Bion of
Soh, Chaereas of Athens, Chaeristus ditto, Diodorus of
Priene, Dinon of Colophon, Epigenes of Rhodes,
Evagon of Thasos, Euphronius of Athens, Androtion
On Agriculture, Aeschrio ditto, Lysimachus ditto,

87

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Lvsimacho qui item, Dionysio qui Magonem trans-
tulit, Diophane qui ex Dionysio epitomen fecit,
Thalete, Eudoxo, Philippo, CaHppo, Dositheo, Par-
menisco, Metone, Critone, Oenopide, Conone, Eucte-
mone, Harpalo, Hecataeo, Anaximandro, Sosigene,
Hipparcho, Arato, Zoroastre, Archibio.

Libro XIX, continentur (i-vi) Lini natura et
miracula ; genera eius excellentia XXVII ; quomodo
seratur et perficiatur; quando primum in theatris
vela. (vii-ix) De sparti natura : quomodo perficiatur,
quando primus usus eius. (x) De eriophoro bulbo.
(xi-xviii) Quae sine radice nascantur et vivant ; quae
nascantur et seri non possint : misy, iton, geranion ;
de tuberibus ; pezicae : de laserpicio et lasere :
maspetum, magydaris ; de rubia ; de radicula.
(xix-xxi) Hortorum gratia ; digestio teiTa enascen-
tium praeter fruges et frutices. (xxii-xxxvii) Natura
et genera et historiae nascentium in hortis rerum
XX: de omnium earum radicibus, floribus, foUis;
quibus hortensiorum folia cadant ; quoto quaeque die
nascantur ; seminum natura ; quomodo quaeque
serantur ; quorum singula genera, quorum plura
sint. (xxxviii-lv) Natura et genera et historiae ad
condimenta in horto satarum rerum XXIII. (xlviii)
Lacrima nascentia. (Ivi) Ferulacea genera iv ; can-
nabis. (Ivii-lix) Morbi hortensiorum; remedia: quibus
modis formicae necentur; contra urucas remedia,
contra cuUces; quibus salsae aquae prosint. (Ix) Ratio
rigandi hortos. (Ixi-ii) De sucis et saporibus horten-
siorum ; de piperitide et Ubanotide et zmyrnio. Sum-
ma: res et historiae et observationes MCXLIV.

Ex auctoribus : Maccio Plauto, M. Varrone, D.
Silano, Catone censorio, Hygino, VergiUo, Muciano,
Celso, CoIumeUa, Calpurnio Basso, MamiUo Sura,

BOOK I

Dionysius*stranslation of Mago,Diophanes'ssummary
of Dionysius, Thales, Eudoxus, PhiHp, Cahppus,
Dositheus, Parmeniscus, Meto, Crito, Oenopides,
Conon,Euctemon,Harpalus,Hecataeus,Anaximander,
Sosigenes, Hipparchus, Aratus, Zoroaster, Archibius.

Book XIX. Contents : (i-vi) Flax, nature and
remarkable properties of ; 27 specially good kinds of ;
how grown and how made up ; earliest employment of
awnings in the theatre. (vii-ix) Esparto grass,
nature of; how made up; when first used. (x) The
wool-bearing bulb. (xi-xviii) Plants that spring up
and live without root ; plants that spring up and cannot
be grown from seed: mushroom, iton, stork's bill;
truffles, stalkless mushrooms ; silphium plant, and
its juice, leaf and stalk ; madder ; dyers' rocket,
(xix-xxi) The charm of gardens ; description of plants
other than cereals and shrubs. (xxii-xxxvii) Wature
aud kinds and descriptions of 20 garden plants : roots,
fljwers, leaves of all these ; deciduous garden plants ;
various periods of sprouting ; nature of seeds ; various
niodes of sowing ; which of a single kind and which
of several kinds. (xxxviii-Iv) Nature and kinds and
descriptions of 23 garden plants cultivated for con-
diments. (xlviii) Plants springing from an exudation ;
(Ivi) Fennel-giant, 4 kinds ; hemp. (Ivii-lix) Diseases
of garden plants ; cures ; modes of killing ants ; modes
of protecting against caterpi^ilars, against green-fly ;
what plants benefited by salt water. (Ix) JVIethod of
watering gardens. (Ixi f.) Juices and flavours of
garden plants ; pepperwort, rosemary, mint. Total
1144 facts, investigations and observations.

Authorities : Maccius Plautus, Marcus Varro,
Decimus Silanus, Cato the Ceusor, Hyginus, Virgil,
Mucianus, Celsus, Colimiella, Calpurnius Bassus,

89

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Sabino Tirone, Licinio Macro, Q. Birrio, Vibio Rufino,
Caesennio qui KrjTrovpiKa scripsit, Castritio item,
Firmo item, Potito item. Extemis : Herodoto,
Theophrasto, Democrito, Aristomacho, Menandro
qui /3ioxp^o-Ta scripsit, Anaxilao.

Libro XX. continentur medicinae ex his quae in
hortis seruntur: (ii) cucumere silvestri XXVI, (iii)
elaterio XX\TI, (iv) anguino cucumere sive erratico
V, (v) cucumere sativo IX, (vi) pepone XI, (vii)
cucurbita sive sompho I, (viii) colocynthide X, (ix)
rapis IX, (x) rapo silvestri I, (xi) napis sive
bunio sive buniade V, (xii-xiii) raphano sativo
XLIII, armoracia I, (xiv) pastinaca V, hibisco sive
phstolochia sive moloche agria XI, (xv) staphylino sive
pastinaca erratica XXII, (xvi) gingidio I, (xvii) sisere
XI, (xviii) sile XII, (xix) inula XI, (xx) caepa XXVII
(xxi) porro sectivo XXXII, (xxii) porro capitato
XXXIX, (xxiii) aho LXI, (xxiv) lactuca XLII,
caprina IV, (xxv) caesapo I, isati I, lactuca silvatica
VII, (xxvi) hieracia XVII, (xxvii) beta XXIV, (xxviii)
limonio sive neuroide III, (xxix) intubo, quae
ambubeia, IV, (xxx) cichorio sive chresto sive pan-
cratio XII, (xxxi) hedypnoide FV, (xxxii) seris gen-
eribus II, medicinae VII, (xxxiii) brassica LXXXVII,
(xxxv) cjTna, (xxxvi) brassica silvestri XXVII,
(xxxvii) lapsana I, (xxxviii) marina brassica I,
(xxxix) scilla XXIII, (xl) bulbis XXX, (xh) bulbine I,
bulbo vomitorio, (xhi f.) asparago sativo XVII,
corruda sive ormino sive Libyco XXIV, (xhv) apio
XVII, (xlv) apiastro sive mehssophyllo, (xlvi) olusatro
sive hipposelino XI, oreosehno II, heleosehno I,
(xhdi) petrosehno I, busehno I, (xhiii) ocimo XXXV,
(xhx) eruca XII, (1) nasturtio XLII, (li) ruta LXXXIV,
(lii) mentastro XX, (hii) menta XLI, (hv) puleio XXV,

90

BOOK I

Mamilius Sura, Sabinus Tiro, Licinius Macer, Quintus
Birrius, Vibius Rufinus, Caesennius On gardening,
Castritius ditto, Firmus ditto, Potitus diito. Foreign
authorities : Herodotus, Theophrastus, Democritus,
Aristomachus, Menander's Things serviceable for life,
Anaxilaus.

Book XX. Subject : medicines obtained from
garden plants : (ii) from the wood-cucumber 26, (iii)
wild cucumber 27 ; (iv) snake cucumber or wild
cucumber 5, (v) garden cucumber 9, (vi) pumpkin 11,
(vii) gourd or somphus 1, (viii) colocynth 10, (ix)
turnips 9, (x) vidld turnip 1, (xi) navews or swede of
two varieties 5, (xii f.) garden radish 43, horseradish 1,
(xiv) parsnip 5, marsh mallow or plistolochia or wild
mallow 11, (xv) staphyUnus or wild parsnip 22, (xvi)
French carrot 1, (x^^ii) skirwort 11, (xviii) hartwort 12,
(xix) elecampane 11, (xx) onion 27, (xxi) cut leek
(chives) 32, (xxii) headed leek 39, (xxiii) garUc 61,
(xxiv) lettuce 42, goat-lettuce 4, (xxv) caesapura
lettuce 1, isatis 1, wild lettuce 7, (xxvi) hawk-weed 17,
(xxvii) beet 24, (xxviii) wild beet or neurois 3, (xxix)
endive or wild succory 4, (xxx) chicory or worthy or
championship 12, (xxxi) scented succory 4, (xxxii)
endive 2 kinds, 7 medicines, (xxxiii) cabbage 87,
(xxxv) sprouts, (xxxvi) wild cabbage 27, (xxxvii)
charlock 1, (xxxviii) sea-cabbage 1. (xxxix) squill 23,
(xl) onions 30, (xH) bulhi?ie 1, emetic onion, (xUi f.)
garden asparagus 17, wild asparagus or orminus
or Libyan asparagus 24, (xhv) parsley 17, (xlv)
wild parsley or bee-plant ; (xlvi) olusatrum or horse-
parsley 11, mouutain parsley 2, bog parsley 1, (xlvii)
rock parsley 1, cow-parsley 1, (xlviii) basil 35, (xUx)
colewort 12, (1) cress 42, (U) rue 84, (lii) wild
mint 20 [ Uii) mint 41, (Uv) flea-bane 25, (Iv) wild

91

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

(Iv) puleio silvestri XVII, (Ivi) nepeta IX, (Ivii) cumino
XLVHI, cumino silvestri XXVII, (Iviii) ammi X, (lix)
cappari XVIII, (Ix) Ligustico sive panace IV, (Ixi-v)
cunila bubula V, cunila gallinacea sive origano V,
cunilagine VIII, cunila molli III, libanotide III,
cunila sativa III, cunila montana VII, (Ixvi) piperitide
sive siliquastro V, (Ixvii-ix) origano oniti sive prasio
VI, tragorigano IX, origano Heraclio, gen. III,
medicinae XXX, (Ixx) lepidio III, (Ixxi) git sive
melanthio XXIII, (Ixxii-iv) aneso sive aniceto LXI,
anetho IX, (Ixxv) sacopenio sive sagapeno XIII,
(Ixxvi-lxxx) papavere albo III, papavere nigro VIII
(de sopore, de opio, contra potiones quas avw8vvov<i

et TreTTTLKaq et Xrj^nrvpeTovs et K-otA.ta/cas VOCant ',

meconio I, papavere rhoea II, papavere silvestri
ceratiti sive glaucio sive paraUo VI, papavere HeracHo
sive aphro IV (diacodion), papavere tithymalo sive
paraho III, (Ixxxi) porcilaca, quae et pephs, XXV,
(Ixxxii-iv) coriandro XXI, atriphce XIV, malva
malope XlII, malva malache I, malva althaea sive
phstolochia LIV ; (Ixxxv f.) lapatho silvestri sive
oxaUde sive lapatho canterino sive rumice I, hydro-
lapatho II, hippolapatho VI, oxylapatho IV, lapatho
sativo XXI, bulapatho I, (Ixxxvii-ix) sinapi, gen. III,
medicinae XLIV, adarca XLVIII, marrubio sive
prasio sive Unostropho sive philopaede sive philochare
XXIX, (xc-xcix) serpyllo XVIII, sisymbrio sive
Thymbraeo XXIII, hni semine XXX, bhto VI, meo
Athamantico VII, faeniculo XXII, hippomarathro
sive myrsineo V, cannabi IX, ferula VIII, carduo sive
scolymo VI. (c) Theriacae conpositio. Summa:
medicinae et historiae et observationes MDCVI.

Ex auctoribus : Catone censorio, M. Varrone,
Pompeio Lenaeo, C. Valgio, Hygino, Sextio Nigro qui
92

BOOK I

flea-bane 17, (Ivi) cat-niint 9, (Ivii) cumin 48, wild
cumin 27, (Iviii) ammi 10, (lix) caper-bush 18, (Ix)
lovage or all-heal 4, (Ixi) ox-cunila 5, (Ixii) cock-
cunila or marjoram 5, (Ixiii) cunilago 8, (Ixiv) soft
cunila 3, liLanotis 3, (Ixv) garden cuuila 3, mountain
cunila 7, (Ixvi) pepperwort or Indian pepper 5,
(Ixvii-ix) wild marjoram or horehound 6, goat's-
thyme 9, Heraclean marjoram, 3 kinds, 30 drugs;
(Ixx) pepperwort 3, (Ixxi) git or cultivated fennel 23,
(Ixxii-iv) anise or anicetum 61 ,dill 9,(lxxv) sacopenium
or sagapenum 13, (Ixxvi-lxxx) white poppy 3, black
poppy 8 (narcotic eifect, opium, prophylactics called
anodynes, peptic drugs, febrifuges and purges) ;
poppy-juice 1, wild poppy 2, wild horned poppy or
glaucous or shore poppy 6, Heracles poppy or foam
poppy 4 (medicinal poppy-juice), spurge poppy or
sea poppy 3, (Ixxxi) purslane, also called peplis, 25,
(Ixxxii-iv) coriander 21, orache 14, varieties of mallow-
malope 13, malache 1, althaea or plistolochia 54,
(Ixxxv f.) wood-sorrel or oxalis or horse-sorrel or
dock 1, water sorrel 2, horse-sorrel 6, bitter sorrel 4,
cultivated sorrel 21, cow-sorrel 1, (Ixxxvii-ix)
mustard 3 kinds, 44 drugs, sedge-froth 48, hore-
hound or prasium or flax-twist or lads-love or
philochares 29, (xc-xcix) wild thyme 18, wild mint
or Thrymbraeum 23, flax-seed 30, blite 6, bear-
woit or Athamas 7, femiel 22, horse-fennel or
bay-fennel 5, hemp 9, fennel giant 8, edible
thistle or cardoon 6. (c) Snake-bite antidote, re-
cipe for. — Total 1606 drugs, investigations and
observations.

Authorities : Cato the Censor, Marcus Varro,
Pompeius Lenneus. Gaius Valgius, Hyginus, Sextius
Niger's Greek writings, JuUus Bassus diito, Celsus,

93

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Graece scripsit, lulio Basso qui item, Celso, Antonio
Castore. Externis : Democrito, Theophrasto, Or-
pheo, Menandro qui (iLoxpwTa scripsit, Pythagora,
Nicandro. Medicis : Hippocrate, Chrysippo, Diocle,
Ophione, Heraclide, Hicesio, Dionysio, Apollodoro
Citiense, Apollodoro Tarentino, Praxagora, Plistonico,
Medio, Dieuche, Cleophanto, Philistione, Asclepiade,
Crateua, Petronio Diodoto, lolla, Erasistrato, Diagora,
Andrea, Mneside, Epicharmo, Damione, Dahone,
Sosimene, Tlepolemo, Metrodoro, Solone, Lyco,
Olympiade Thebana, Philino, Petricho, Miccione,
Glaucia, Xenocrate.

Libro XXI. continentur naturae florvun et corona-
mentorum. (ii-ix) De strophioUs ; serta ; qui in-
venerint miscere flores ; quando primum corollae
appellatae et quare ; quis primum coronas fohis
argenteis et aureis dederit ; quare coroUaria dicta ;
de lemniscis ; quis primmn caelaverit eos ; quantus
honor coronarum apud antiquos fuerit ; severitas
antiquorum in coronis ; quem floribus coronaverit
populus Romanus ; pactiles coronae ; de sutihbus
coronis, de nardinis, de Sericis ; Cleopatrae reginae
factum in coronis. (x-xii, Ixxiii-v). De rosa, genera
eius XII, medicinae XXXII ; hh genera III medi-
cinae XXIII ; lacrima nascens ; narcissi genera III
medicinae XVI. (xiii) Quorum semen tinguatur,
ut infecta nascantur. (xiv-xxxvii) Quemadmodum
quaeque nascantur, serantur, colantur, sub singuhs
generibus. violae colores III, (lxx\d) medicinae
XVH) : luteae genera V, (Ixxvi) medicinae X ; de
caltha ; regius flos ; bacchar (medicinae XVII) ;
coml)retum (medicina I) ; crocum (medicinae XX) ;
ubi optimi flores ; qui flores Troianis temporibus in

94

BOOK I

Antonius Castor, Foreign authorities : Democritus,
Theophrastus. Orpheus, Menander's Things service-
ahlefor life, Pythagoras, Nicander. Medical writers :
Hippocrates, Chrysippus,Diocles, Ophion, HeracUdes,
Hicesius, Dionysius, Apollodorus of Citium, Apollo-
dorus of Tarentum, Praxagoras, Pleistonicus, Medius,
Dieuches, Cleophantus, PhiUstion, Asclepias, Crateuas,
Petronius Diodotus, lollas, Erasistratus, Diagoras,
Andreas, Mnesides, Epicharmus, Damion, Dalion,
Sosimenes, Tlepolemus, Metrodorus, Solon, Lycus,
Olympias of Thebes, Phihnus, Petrichus, Miceio,
Glaucias, Xenocrates.

Book XXI. Contents : the natures of flowers and
of flowers for garlands. (ii-ix). Of wreaths ; gar-
lands ; inventors of blending flowers ; when first
ealled ' floral crowns,' and why ; who first bestowed
crowns with silver and gold foliage ; why called
' garland-gratuities ' ; of ribbons — who first repro-
duced them in carving ; high value placed on crowns
of honour among the ancients ; simphcity of crowns
among the ancients ; who received a crown bestowed
by the nation at Rome ; plaited crowns ; stitched
cro^vns, nard-crowns, silk crovms ; Queen Cleopatra's
action with regard to crowns. (x-xii,lxxiii-v). Rose,
12 kinds, 32 drugs ; lily, 3 kinds, 23 drugs ; plant
from an exudation ; narcissus, 3 kinds, 16 drugs.
(xiii) Flowers grown of special colours by dyeing the
the seed. (xiv-xxxvii) Mode of growing from
cuttings, from seed, mode of cultivating various
flowers, arranged under varioiis kinds ; the violet
3 colours (Ixxvi, 17 drugs) ; yellow herb, 5 kinds
(Ixx^q, 10 drugs) ; marsh marigold ; king flower ;
cyclamen (17 drugs) ; rush (1 drug) ; crocus (Ixxxi,
20 drugs) ; where the best flowers are ; what flowers

95

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

usu ; de natura odorum ; Iris (medicinae XLI) ;
saliunca (medicinae III) ; polium sive teuthrium
(medicinae XIX) ; qui flos alium colorem mane
habeat, aHum meridie, alium sole occidente ; vestium
aemulatio cum floribus ; amarantus ; cyanus (medi-
einae II) ; holochrysos (medicinae III) ; petilium,
bellio ; chrysocome sive chrysitis (medicinae VI) ;
qui frutices flore coronent, qui folio ; melothrum,
spiraea, origanum, cneorum sive casia, genera II, me-
Ussophyllum sive mehttaena (medicinae XXI), me-
Ulotos, quae sertula campana sive meUlotum (me-
dicinae XII) ; trifoU genera III (medicinae I\') ;
myophonum. thymi genera III (medicinaeXXVIII) ;
flore nascentia, non semine ; conyza ; lovis flos ;
hemerocaUes (medicinae IV) ; helenium (medicinae) ;
phlox ; quae ramis et foUis odorata ; habrotonum,
(medicinae XXII) : adonium, genera II ; ipsa se
propagantia ; leucanthemum medicina I) ; amaraci
genera II (medicinae LX) ; nyctegreton sive chena-
myche sive nyctalops. (xxxviii f.) Quo ordine tem-
porum flores nascantur ; anemone coronaria sive
phrenion (xciv-ix, medicinae X), oenanthe herba
(medicinae VI), melanthium (medicinae XI), heUo-
chrysos (medicinae XI), gladiolus, hyacinthus (me-
dicinae VIII), lychnis (medicinae VII), tiphyon, pothi
genera II, orsinae genera II, vincapervinca sive
chamaedaphne (xl, medicinae I\^ ; quae semper vl-
reat herba. (xU-ix) Quam longa cuique florum vita.
quae propter apes serenda inter flores ; cerintha ; de
pabulo apium ; de morbis earum et remediis ; de
venenato meUe et remediis eius, de meUe insano,
de meUe quod muscae non attingunt ; de alvariis,
de alvis et cura eorum ; si famem apes sentiant ;
de cera facienda ; quae optima eius genera ; de cera

96

BOOK I

were in vogue in Trojan times ; nature of scents ;
the iris (41 drugs) ; wild nard (3 drugs) ; the hulwort
or teuthrium (19 drugs) ; flowers with different
colours in the morning, at midday, and at sun-
set ; floral patterns in dress ; amaranth ; the
corn-flower (2 drugs) ; the all-gold (3 drugs) ; the
petilium or ox-eye daisy ; the goldy-locks or gilt
lady (6 drugs) ; which plants' flowers provide wreaths,
which plants' leaves ; white byrony, privefc, wild
marjoram, mezereum or casia, 2 kinds, bee-leaf or
balm (21 drugs), melilot, garland of Campania or
honey-lotus (12 drugs) ; trefoil, 3 kinds (4 drugs) ;
mouse bane ; thyme, 3 kinds (28 drugs) ; plants
springing from flower, not seed ; elecampane ; flower
of Jupiter ; martagon-lily (4 drugs) ; calamint (5
drugs) ; phlox ; plant with scented stalk and leaves ;
southern-wood (22 drugs) ; flower of Adonis, 2 kinds ;
self-fertiUzers ; leucanthemum (1 drug) ; marjoram,
2 kinds (60 drugs) ; wake-by-night or chenamyche
or see-by-night. (xxxviii f.) Time-series of birth of
flowers ; garland anemone or phrenion (xciv-ix 10
drugs) ; wine-flower grass (6 drugs) ; cultivated
fennel (11 drugs), marigold (11 drugs), gladiohxs,
hyacinth (8 drugs), lychnis (7 drugs), narcissus,
pothos, 2 kinds, crocus, 2 kinds, periwinkle or
dwarf laurel (xl, 4 drugs) ; evergreen grass. (xli-ix)
Length of Ufe of various flowers ; what kinds among
flowers should be cultivated to attract bees ; wax-
flower ; diet of bees ; their diseases and remedies ;
poisonous honey and its remedies ; honey that
causes madness ; honey that flies will not touch ;
apiaries, hives and care of hives ; do bees feel hunger ?
manufacture of wax ; the best kinds of wax ; Car-

97

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Punica. (l-cxiii) Sponte nascentium herbamm in
quibuscumque gentibus usus, naturae, miracula ;
fraga, tamnum, ruscvmi (c, medicinae IV) ; batis,
genera II (ci, medicinae II), pastinaca pratensis,
lupus salictarius, colocasia (cii, medicinae II),
anthaKtun sive anticellium sive anthyllium (ciii,
medicinae VI), oetum ; quae radices nihil supra
terram gignant ; aracliidna, aracos ; candryala,
hypochoris. caucalis, anthriscum, scandix (eadem
tragopogon),partheniumsiveleucanthessiveamaracus
sive perdicium sive muraUs (civ, medicinae VIII),
trychnum sive strychnum sive haUcacabum sive
caUtha sive dorj^cnion sive manicon sive peritton
sive neuras sive morio sive moly (cv, medicinae
VIII), corchorus (cvi, medicinae VI), aphace,
acynopos, epipetron; quae numquam floreant, quae
semper; cneci genera IV (cvii, medicinae III).
(Uv-^-iu) Aculeati generis herbae (erynge, glycyrriza,
tribulus, ononis, pheos sive stoebe, hippophaes,
urticae genera IV, laminum, scorpio, acorna sive
phonos, leucacanthos. chalceos, cnecos, polyacan-
thos, onopyxos, helxine, scolymos, chamaeleon,
tetralix (acanthice mastiche, cactus, pternica, pap-
pum, ascaUa). (Ux) Herbarum genera per caules :
coronopus, anchusa, anthemis, phyllanthes, crepis,
lotos. (Ix) Differentiae herbarum per foUa : quibus
foUa non cadant ; quae particulatim floreant ; heUo-
tropium, adiantum ; herbae quarum medicinae
sequenti Ubro dicentur. (Ixi-v) Spicatarum genera :
stanyops, alopecuros, stelephuros sive ortyx sive
plantago, thryaUis ; perdicium, ornithogale ; post
annum nascentes, a summo florentes, item ab imo;
lappa herba quae intra se parit, opuntia e foUo

q8

BOOK I

thaginian wax. (1-cviii) Self-grown vegetation, its
use among certain races, its kinds, remarkable cases
of; strawberries, wild grapes, butcher's broom (c,
4 drugs) ; samphire, 2 kinds (ci, 11 drugs), meadow
parsnjp, willow-hop, cuJcas (cii, 2 drugs) Cretan
pitch plant, anthalinm or auticellium or anthjd-
liuni (ciii, 6 drugs); oetimi; roots with no growth above
the surface of the earth ; chickling vetch, aracos ;
candryala, hypochoeris, caucaUs, anthriscum, chervil
(also called goat's beard), maiden-flower or white
blossom or marjoram or partridge-plant or wall-
plant (civ, 8 drugs), nightshade or sti-ychnos or hali-
cacabus or cahtha or dorycnion or mad-plant or
surplus or sinew-plant or lack-wit or moly (cv, 8
drugs), wild pulse (cvi, 6 drugs), chick-pea, acynopus,
rock-plant ; non-flowering plants, plants perpetually
in flower ; safflower, 4 kinds (cvii, 3 drugs). (liv-viii)
Plants of the prickly kind (erynge thistle, licorice root,
land caltrop, rest-haiTow, pheos or stoebe, hoi'se-
beam, nettle, 4 kinds, dead-nettle, scorpion-grass,
acorna or murder-thistle, A\hitethorn, copper-wort,
safBower, many-thoi-n, donkcy-box, helxine, edible
thistle, carline thistle, tetralix heath (thorny mastix,
cactus, pternica, pappum, artichoke). (lix) Plants
classed by stalks : hartshorn, alkanet, chamomile,
pjiyllanthes, crepis, lotus. (Ix) Plants distinguished
by leaves : evergreens ; plants flowering in sections ;
heliotrope, maideuhair ; plants whose use for drugs
will be stated in the next Book. (Ixi-v) Ear-bearing
classes : stanyops, fox-tail, stelephuros, or quail-
pLant or plantain, thryallis, partridge-wort, bird's
niilk ; plants of twelve-month growth, plants
flowering from top, ditto from bottom ; internal-
sprouting burdock, Opus-plant making root £rom

99

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

radicem faciens ; iasione, chondrylla, picris quae
toto anno floret. (Ixvi) Quibus flos antequam caules
exeant, quibus caulis antequam flos, quae ter floreant.
(Ixvii-lxxi) Cypiros, medicinae VIII; Thesium;
asphodelus sive hastula regia (anthericus sive albu-
cimi) ; iunci genera VI, medicinae IV, cyperus, medi-
einae XIV, cyperis, cypira; holoschoenos. (Ixxii)
Medicinae ex iunco odorato sive teuchite X, (Ixxviii-
Ixxxii) medicinae ex asaro VIII, medicinae ex Gallico
nardo VHI, medicinae ex herba quam phu vocant
IV ; (Ixxxii) Syrium crocomagma, medicinae 11.
(cviii) pesoluta, medicina I. (cix) Graecorxmi nominimi
in ponderibus et mensuris interpretatio. Simama :
medicinae et historiae et observationes DCCXXX.

Ex auctoribus : Catone censorio, M. Varrone,
Masurio, Antiate, Caepione, Vestino, Vibio Rufino,
Hygino, Pomponio Mela, Pompeio Lenaeo, Cornelio
Celso, Calpurnio Basso, C. Valgio, Licinio Macro,
Sextio Nigro qui Graece scripsit, lulio Basso qui
item, Antonio Castore. Externis : Theophrasto,
Democrito, Orpheo, Pythagora, Magone, Menandro
qui (^Loxprjcna scripsit, Nicandro, Homero, Hesiodo,
Musaeo, Sophocle, Anaxilao. Medicis : Mnesitheo
qui de coronis, CalUmacho qui item, Phania physico,
Simo, Timaristo, Hippocrate, Chrysippo, Diocle,
Ophione, Heraclide, Hicesio, Dionysio, Apollodoro
Citiense, Apollodoro Tarentino, Praxagora, Plistonico,
Medio, Dieuche, Cleophanto, PhiUstione, Asclepiade,
Crateua, Petronio Diodoto, loUa, Erasistrato, Diagora,
Andrea, Mneside, Epicharmo, Damione, Dalione,
Sosimene, Tlepolemo, Metrodoro, Solone, Lyco,
Olympiade Thebana, PhiUno, Petricho, Miccione,
Glaucia, Xenocrate.

Libro XXII. continetur auctoritas herbarum.

BOOK I

leaf ; iasione, chondrilla, year-long flowering bitter-
plant. (Ixvi) Plants producing flower before stalk,
stalk before flowers, thrice-flowering. (Ixvii-Ixxi)
Gladiolus, 8 drugs ; ccrydalis ; asphodel or royal
spear-grass (asphodel-stalk or bulb) ; rush, 6 kinds,
4 drugs ; cyperus, 4 drugs, cyperis, cypira, holo-
schoenos. (Ixxii) Drugs from scented rush or
teuchites 10. (Ixxviii-lxxxii) Drugs from hazelwort
8, drugs from Gallic nard 8, drugs from ' phu ' grass
4 ; Syrian saffron-Ieas, 2 drugs, (cviii) pcsoluta,
1 drug. (cix) Translation of Greek terms for
weights and measures. Total, 730 drugs, in-
vestigations and observations.

Authorities : Cato the ex-Censor, Marcus Varro,
Masurius, Antias, Caepio, Vestinus, Vibius Rufinus,
Hyginus, Pomponius Mela, Pompeius Lenaeus,
Cornelius Celsus, Calpurnius Bassus, Gaius Valgius,
Licinius Macer, Sextius Niger's Greek treatise, Julius
Bassus's ditto, Antonius Castor. Foreign authorities :
Theophrastus, Democritus, Orpheus, Pythagoras,
Mago, Menander's Things serviceable for life, Ni-
cander, Homer, Hesiod, Musaeus, Sophocles, Anaxi-
laus. Medical writers : Mnesitheus On Wreaths, Calli-
machus ditto, Phanias the natural scientist, Simus,
Timaristus, Hippocrates, Chrysippus, Diocles, Ophion,
Heraclides, Hicesius, Dionysius, Apollodorus of
Citium, Apollodorus of Tarentum, Praxagoras,
Plistonicus, Medius, Dieuches, Cleophantus, Philistio,
Asclepias, Crateuas, Petronius Diodotus, loUas.
Erasistratus, Diagoras Andreas, Mnesides, Epi-
charmus, Damio, Dalio, Sosimenes, Tlepolemus,
Metrodorus, Solon, Lycus, Olympias of Thebes,
Philinus, Petrichus, Miccio, Glaucias, Xenocrates.

Book XXn. Contents : the importance of herbs.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

(i-vi) Gentes herbis formae gratia uti ; herbis infici
vestes ; item pigmento de oleo chortino ; de sag-
minibus, de verbenis et clarigatione ; de corona
graminea : de raritate eius, qui soli corona ea donati,
qui solus centurio. (vii) Medicinae ex reliquis corona-
mentis. (viii-xlv) Erynge,sive eryngion sive centum
capita XXX ; acanos I ; glycyrriza sive adipso XV.
stomatice I ; tribuli genera II, medicinae XII ;
stoebe sive pheos ; hippophaes, genera II, medicinae
II ; urtica LXI ; lamium VII ; scorpionis genera II,
medicina ; leucacantha sive phyllos sive ischias sive
polygonato IV ; helxine XII ; perdicio sive Parthenio
sive siderite, quae urceolaris sive astericum, XI ;
chamaeleone sive ixia sive ulophyto sive cynozolo,
genera II, medicinae XII (mastiche) ; coronopode,
anchusa XIV ; pseudoanchusa sive echis sive doris
III ; onochilo sive archebio sive onocheh sive rhexia
sive enchrysa XXX ; cuius radices colorem mutent ;
anthemide sive leucan themide sive leucanthemo
sive chamaemelo sive melanthio, genera III, me-
dicinae XI ; loto herba IV ; lotometra II ; he-
liotropio sive helioscopio sive verrucaria XII, he-
liotropio sive tricocco sive scorpiuro XIV ; adianto
sive caUitricho sive trichomane sive polytricho sive
saxifraga, genera II, medicinae XXVIII, frutex sine
radice ; picride I, Thesio I ; asphodelo LI ; halimo
XIV; acantho sive paederote sive melamphyllo V;
bupleuro V ; bupresti I ; elaphobosco IX, scandice
IX, anthrisco II ; iasione IV ; caucalide XII ; sio XI ;
sillybo ; scolymo sive limonio V ; soncho, genera II,
medicinae XV ; condrio sive condrille III. (xlvi)
De boletis : proprietas eorum in nascendo. (xlvii-ix)
De fungis : notae venenatorum ; medicinae ex his

loa

BOOK I

^-vi) That nations use herbs because of their beauty ;
herbs used to dye clothes ; dye made of vegetable
oil ditto ; tufts of sacred grass, sacred branches and
the ritual of demanding redress ; wreath of grass,
its rarity, its only recipients, the only centurion
recipient. (vii) Drugs made from the remaining
sorts of wreaths. (viii-xlv) Erynge or eryngion or
hundred-heads, 30; acanos thistle, 1: sweet-root or
licorice, 15 ; mouth-heal, 1 : caltrop, 2 kinds, 12
drugs ; stoebe or pheos ; horse-beam, 2 kinds, 2 drugs ;
nettle, 61 ; dead-nettle 7 ; scorpion-plant, 2 kinds,
1 drug; pellitory or phyllos or sciatica-plant or
polygonaton, 4; helxine, 12; pelhtory or maiden-
herb or iron-wort (the same as pitcher-pohsh or
astericum) 11 ; chamaeleon-plant or carline thistle
or ulophytum or cynozolon, 2 kinds, 12 drugs (gum
mastic) ; hartshorn, alkanet, 14 ; bastard-bugloss or
ecliis or doris, 3 ; donkey-lip or archebius or donkey-
hoof or rhexia or enchrysa, 30 ; the plant whose
roots make dye ; chamomile or white anthemis or
earth-apple or fennel-flower, 3 kinds, 11 drugs ; lotus
grass, 4 ; lotometra, 2 ; heliotrope or turasole or
wartwort, 12 ; heliotrope or three-berry or scorpion'3
tail, 14 ; adiantum or maiden-hair or trichomanes or
many-hair or saxifrage, 2 kinds, 28 drugs, rootless
stem ; bitter lettuce 1, corydalis 1 ; asphodel
51 ; orach 14 ; bear's breech or lad's love or black-
leaf 5 ; hare's ear 5, cow-nettle 1 ; wild parsnip 9 ;
chervil 9 ; southern clievril 2 ; bind-weed 4 ;
caucalis 12; bur-parsley 11; sillybus thistle ; car-
doon or meadow thistle 5 ; sow-thistle, 2 kinds, 15
drugs ; chondrilla 3. (xlvi) Mushrooms : pecul-
iarity in their mode of xepoductioa. (xlvii-ix)
Toadstools : signs of poisonous kinds ; 9 di'ug3

103

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

IX ; silphio VII ; laseri XXXIX. (1-lv) Propoli V,
mellis X\T, aquae mulsae XVIII ; quare genere
ciborum mores quoque mutentur ; mulso VI ; melitite
III; cera VIII. (Ivi) Contra conpositiones medi-
corum. (Ivii-lxxvi) Medicinae ex frugibus (siligine I,
tritico I, palea II, farre I, furfuribus I, arinca, athera
II ; farina per genera ; medicinae XXIX ; polenta
VIII ; polHne V, pulte I, farina chartaria I ; aHca VI ;
milio VI; panico IV; sesima VII; sesimoide III,
Anticyrico III ; hordeo IX, hordeo murino, quam
Graeci Phoeniciam ; I ; ptisana IV, amylo VIII,
avena I ; pane XXI ; faba XVI ; lente XVII, (fjaK^a
cTTi TeXfiaToiv III ; elelisphaco sive sphaco, quae
salvia, XIII; cicere et cicercula XXIII; ervo XX;
lupino XXX^'^ ; irone sive erysimo, quod GalH velam,
XV; hormino VI). (lxx\ii-lxxx) lolio V, miliaria
herba I, bromo I, orobanche sive cynomorio 1.
(Ixxxi f.) Contra leguminum bestiolas. spuma de
zytho. Summa : medicinae et historiae et obser-
vationes DCCCCVI.

Ex auctoribus iisdem quibus priore libro et praeter
eos Chrysermo, Eratosthene, Alcaeo.

Libro XXIII. continentur medicinae ex arboribus
cultis : (ii-xxii) vitibus XX ; foliis vitium VII, pam-
pinis VII; omphacio vitium XIV; oenanthe XXI ;
uvis recentibus ; uvarum servatarum gencribus,
medicinae XI ; sarmentis uvarum I ; nucleis
acinorum VI ; vinaceis VIII ; uva theriace IV,
uva passa sive astaphide XIV ; astaphide agria
sive staphide sive taminia sive pituitaria XII ;
labrusca sive ampelo agria XII ; salicastro XII ; vite
alba sive ampelo leuce sive staphyle sive melothro
sive psilothro sive archezosti sive cedrosti sive mado
XXXI ; vite nigra sive bryonia sive Chironia sive

104

BOOK I

obtained from tliese ; silpbium 7 ; assafoetida
plant 39. (l-lv) Bee-glue 5, honey A^B, liydromel 18 ;
reason for influence of diet on chAracter ; mead 6 ;
honey-must, 3; wax, 8. (Ivi) AVarning against
doctors' mixtures. (Ivii-lxxvi). Drugs from
various grains : common wheat 1, wheat 1, chaff 2,
emmer 1, bran 1, arinca, rye-water 2 ; corre-
sponding varieties of floxir ; 29 drugs ; pearl-
barley 8 ; fine flour, pulse 1, paper flour ] ; alica 6 ;
millet 6 ; Italian millet 4 ; sesauie 7 ; near-sesame 3,
hellebore 3 ; barley 9, wildbarley (Greek' Phoenician
barley ') 1 ; pearl-barley 4 ; starch 8 ; oats 1 ; bread
21 : bean 16; lentil 17; marsh-bean 3; eleUsphacon
or fragrant moss (sage) 13 ; chick-pea and small chick-
pea 23 ; bitter vetch 20 ; lupine 35 ; winter-cress or
erysimum (Gallic ' vela ') 15 ; clary 6. (Ixxvii-lxxx)
Darnel 5, millet grass 1, oats 1, choke-weed or broom-
rape 1. (Ixxxi f.) Protection against maggots in
vegetables. Foam from beer. — Total 906 drugs, in-
vestigations and observations.

Authorities as in preceding book, also Chrysermus,
Eratosthenes, Alcaeus.

Book XXIII. Contents: drugs obtained from
cultivated trees : (ii-xxii) from vines 20 ; vine-
leaves 7; tendrils 7; juice of unripe grape 14; wild
vine 21 ; fresh grapes ; varieties of stored grapes,
11 drugs ; vine-shoots 1 ; grape-stones 6 ; grape-
skins 8; treacle-grape 4; dried grape or raisin 14;
wild raisin or staves-acre or taminia or phlegm-heal
12 ; claret-vine or wdld vine 12 ; sahcastrum wild
vine 12 ; white grape or ampelos leuke or staphyle
or white bryony or psilothrum or archezostis or
cedrostis or madon 31 ; black grape or bryony or

105

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

gynacanthe sive apronia XXXV; musto XV;
Falerno VI, Albano II, Surrentino III; Setino I,
Statano I, Signino I ; ceteris vinis LXIV. (xxiii-vi)
observationes circa vina LXI : quibus aegris danda,
quando danda, quomodo danda ; observationes circa
ea XCI. (xxvii-xxxiii) Aceto XXVIII, aceto scillino
XVII, oxymelite VII, sapa VII, faece vini XII, faece
aceti XVII, faece sapae IV. (xxxiv-xxxix) Foliis oleae
XXIII ; flore IV, olea ipsa VI ; oli^ds albis IV, olivis
nigris III ; amurca XXI, foliis oleastri XVI, omphacio
IIL (xl-1) Oenanthino oleo XXVIII ; cicino XVI ;
amygdaUno XVI ; laurino IX ; myrteo XX ; chamae-
myrsinae sive oxymyrsinae,cupressino,citreo,caryino,
Cnidio, lentiscino, balanino ; cyprino et cypro ipsa
XVI, gleucino I ; balsamino V ; malobathro V ; hyo-
scyamino II, thermino I, narcissino I, raphanino V,
sesamino III, lilino I, Selgitico I, Iguino I ; elaeomeU
II, pissino II. (li-iii) Palmis IX ; palma myrobalano
III ; palma elate XVIL (liv-lxxxiii) Medicinae ex
singulorum generum flore, foUis, fructu, ramis,
cortice, suco, Ugno, radlce, cinere (malorum obser-
vationes VI, cotoneorum XXII, struthiorum I ;
dulciura malorum VI, austerorum IV, citreorum V;
Punicorum XXVI ; stomatice XIV ; cytino VIII
bi^laustio XIL (Ixii-lxix) Pirorum observationes XIII ;
ficorum CXI ; caprificorum XLII ; erineo herba III,
prunis IV, Persicis II, prunis silvestribus II ; Uchene
airborum II ; (Ixx-lxxv) moris XXXIX ; stomatice sive
arteriace sive panchrestos IV, cerasis V, mespiUs II,
sorbis, II, nucibus pineis XIII, amygdaUs XXIX.
(Ixxvi-lxxix) Nucibus Graecis I, iuglandibus XXIX.
(antidoto) ; Abellanis III, pistaciis VIII, castaneis V,
siUquis V, corno I, unedoiiibus. (Ixxx-lxxxiii) Lauris

io6

BOOK I

Chiron's plant or gynacanthe or apronia 35; must
15 ; Falernian 6, Alban 2, Surrentine 3 ; Setine 1,
Statane 1, Signine 1 ; other wines 64. (xxiii-vi)
Observations about wines 61 ; what invalids to be
given them, and when and how ; observations on
these points 91. (xxvii-xxxiii) Vinegar 28, squill-
vinegar 17, vinegar-honey 7, must 7, wine lees 12,
vinegar lees 17, must lees 4. (xxxiv-xxxix) Olive
leaves 23 ; ohve flowers 4, oHve berries 6, white
olives 4, black ohves 3; ohve lees 21, wild ohve
leaves 16, oil of unripe ohves 3. (xl-1) Wild ohve oil
28; castoroill6; almondoill6; bay oil 9 ; myrtle
oil 20 ; oil of dwarf myrtle or prickly myrtle (butcher's
broom), of cypress, of citrus, nut-oil, Cnidian oil,
mastic oil, oil of behen-nut, cyprus oil and cyprus flower
16 ; oil of must 1 ; of balsamS ; of betel5,of henbane 2,
of lupine 1, of narcissus 1, of i-adish 5, of sesame 3,
of lily-seed 1, oil of Selga 1, of Iguvium 1 ; of olive-
honey 2, of pitch 2. (li-hii) Palm-oil 9, palm-oil of
behen-nut 3, of fir 17. (liv-lxxxiii) Drugs from
flower, leaves, fruit, branches, bark, sap, wood, root,
ash, of the diiferent sorts of tree ; observations as to
apple-trees 6, as to quinces 22, as to soapworts 1,
sweet apples 6, crab apples 4, citron apples 5, pome-
granates 26; lip-salve 14; pomegranate blossom 8,
wild pomegranate blossom 12. (Ixii-lxix) Observations
on pear trees, 13, on figs 111, on wild .^gs 42 ; erineus
grass 3, plums 4, peaches 2, wild plmns 2 ; tree lichen
2. (Ixx-lxxv) Mulberries 39 ; lip-salve or wind-pipe
salve or all-heal 4 ; cherries 5, medlars 2, service-
berries 2, pine-cones 13, almonds 29. (Ixxvi-lxxix)
Greek nuts 1, walnuts 24 (antidote) ; filberts 3,
pistachios 8, chestnuts 5, caroes 5, cornel-cherry 1,
arbutuses. (Ixxx-lxxxiii) Bay-trees 69, myrtles 60,

107

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

LXIX, myrtis LX, myrtidano XIII, oxymyrsine sive
chamaemyrsine sive ruscum VI. Summa : medicinae
et historiae et observationes MCCCCXVIII.

Ex auctoribus : C. Valgio, Pompeio Lenaeo, Sextio
Nigro qui Graece scripsit, lulio Basso qui item,
Antonio Castore, M. Varrone, Comelio Celso, Fabiano.
Externis : Theophrasto, Democrito, Orpheo, Pytha-
gora, Magone, Menandro qui /StoxprjrrTa, Nicandro,
Homero, Hesiodo, Musaeo, Sophocle, Anaxilao.
Medicis : Mnesitheo, Calhmacho, Phania physico,
Timaristo, Simo, Hippocrate, Chrysippo, Diocle,
Ophione, HeracHde, Hicesio, Dionysio, Apollodoro
Citiense, Apollodoro Tarentino, Praxagora, PHstonico,
Medio, Dieuche, Cleophante, PhiUstione, Asclepiade,
Crateua,Petronio Diodoto, Iolla,Erasistrato,Diagora,
Andrea, Mneside, Epicharmo, Damione, Dalione,
Sosimene, Tlepolemo, Metrodoro, Solone, Lyco,
Olympiade Thebana, Philino, Petricho, Miccione,
Glaucia, Xenocrate.

Libro XXIV. continentur medicinae ex arboribus
silvestribus : (ii-ix) loto Italica VI, glandibus XIII,
cocco iUcis III, galla XXIII, visco XI, pilulis glandi-
ferarum I, cerro VIII, subere II, fago IV. (x-xix)
Cupresso XXIII, cedro XIII, cedride X, galbano
XXIII, Hammoniaco XXIV, styrace X, spondylio
XVII, sphagno sive sphaco sive bryo V, terebintho
VI, picea VIII. (xx— xxix) Chamaepity X, pityusa
VI, resinis XXII, pice XXXIV, pisselaeo sive palim-
pissa XVI, pissasphalto II, zopissa I, taeda I,
lentisco XXII, platano XXV. (xxx-xxxix) Fraxino
V, acere I, populo VIII, ulmo XVI, tilia V, sam-
buco XV, iunipero XXI, salice XIV, Amerina I,
vitice XXXIII, ericc I ; (xl-xlix) genista V, my-

io8

BOOK I

myrtle-berry wine 13, Prickly myrtle or ground-
myrtle or butcher's broom 6. Total 1418 drugs,
investigations and observations.

Authorities : Gaius Valgius, Pompeius Lenaeus,
Sextius Niger's Greek writings, Julius Bassuss ditto,
Antonius Castor, Marcus Varro, CorneHus Celsus,
Fabianus. Foreign authorities : Theophrastus,
Deniocritus, Orpheus, Pythagoras, Mago, Menan-
der's Things serviceable for life, Nicander, Homer.
Hesiod, Musaeus, Sophocles, Anaxilaus. Medical
writers: Mnesitheus, CalHmachus, Phanias's Natural
Science, Timaristus, Simus, Hippocrates, Chrysippus,
Diocles, Ophion, Heraclides, Hicesius, Dionysius,
Apollodorus of Citium, Apollodorus of Tarentum.
Praxagoras, Plistonicus, Medius, Dieuches, Cleo-
phantes, PhiUstion, Asclepiades, Crateuas, Petronius
Diodotus, lollas, Erasistratus, Diagoras, Andreas.
Mnesides, Epichai*mus, Damion, DaHon, Sosimenes,
Tlepolemus, Metrodorus, Solon, Lycus, Olympias
of Thebes, PhiHnus, Petrichus, Miccio, Glaucias,
Xenocrates.

Book XXIV. Contents : Drugs obtained from
forest trees: (ii-ix) Egyptian water-Hly 6, acorns 13,
holm-oak berry 3, oak-apple 23, mistletoe 11, acorns
of glandiferous trees 1, Tvu-key oak 8, cork 2, beech 4.
(x-xix) Cypress 23, cedar 13, cedar-berry 10, galbanum
23, gumtree 24, styrax gumtree 10, bear's-foot 17,
sphagnus or sphacus or moss 5, turpentine 6, pitch-
pine 8. (xx-xxix) Ground-pine 10, pityusa 6, resin
22, pitch 34, cedar-resin oil or twice-boiled pitch 16,
earth-pitch 2, wax-pitch 1, pitch-pine 1, mastic-tree
22, plane 25. (xxx-xxxix) Beech 5,maple l,poplar 8,
elm 16, Hme 5, elder 15, juniper 21, willow 14,
Axnerian apple 1, chaste-tree 33, heath 1. (xl-xlix)

109

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

rice quae et tamarica III, virga sanguinea I,
brya XXIX, silere III, ligustro VIII, alno I, hederis
XXXIX, cistho V, cisso erythrano II, chamaecisso

II, milace III, clematide III. (1-lix) Harundine
XVIII, papyro charta III, hebeno V, rhodo-
dendro I, rhus gen. II, medicinae VIII (stoma-
tice), rhu erythro IX, erythrodano XI, alysso II,
radicula sive struthio XIII, apocyno II, rore marino
XVIII; (Ix-lxix) cachry VI, herba Sabina VII,
selagine II, samolo II, cummi XI, spina Arabica,
IV, spina alba II, acanthio I, acacia XVIII, aspalatho
sive erysisceptro sive adipsatheo sive diaxylo VIII,
(Ixx-lxxix) spina appendice II, pyracantha I, pahm-o
X, aquifolia X, taxo I, rubis LI (stomatice), cy-
nosbato III, Idaeo rubo I, rhamni gen. II, medic. V,
Lycio XVIII, sarcocolla II, oporice II, (Ixxx-lxxxix)
trixagine sive chamaedrye sive chamaerope sive
Teucria XVI, chamaedaphne V, chamelaea VI,
chamaesyce VIII, chamaecisso herba I, chamaeleuce
sive farfaro sive farfugio I, chamaepeuce V, cham-
aecyparisso II, ampelopraso VI, stachye I, chnopodio
sive cleopiceto sive zopyrontio sive ocimoide III,
clematide centunculo III, clematide sive aetite sive
lagine. (xl-xlviii) Clematide Aegyptia sive daphnoide
sive polygonnide II, aro XIII, dracunculo II, ari

III, millefoUo sive myriophyllo VII, pseudobunio IV,
myrride sive myrra sive myriza VII, oenobreche III.
(xcix-cii) Magica de herbis coracesia et calicia,
Minyade sive Corinthia I, aproxi (Pythagoria de
recidivis morborum), aglaophotide sive marmaritide,
Achaemenide sive hippophobade, theombrotio sive
semnio, adamantide, Arianide, theronarca, Aethio-
pide sive Meroide, ophiusa, thalassaegle sive po-
tamaugide, theangelide, gelotophyllide, hestiateride

IIO

BOOK I

Broom 5, myrice, also called tamarisk, 3, golden-rod
1, brya 29, brook-mllow 3, privet 8, alder 1, ivies 39,
cisthus 5, reddish-ivy 2, ground-ivy 2, yew 3, clematis
3. (l-lix) Reed 18, papyrus reed 3, ebony 5, rhodo-
dendron 1, sumach 2 kinds, 8 drugs (mouth-heal),
red sumach 9, madder 11, madwort 2, radicula or
soapwort 13, dog's-bane 2, rosemary 18. (Ix-lxix)
Rosemary capsule 6, sabine grass 7, savin-tree 2,
brookweed 2, cummin 11, Arabian thorn 4, white-
thom 2, bear's-foot 1, acacia 18, rosewood or erysi-
sceptrum or adipsatheum or diaxylon 8. (Ixx-lxxix)
Bai-berry-bush 2, pyracanthus 1, Christ's-thorn 10,
hoUy 10, yew 1, blackberries 51 (mouth-heal),
dog-rose 3, Ida bramble 1 ; buckthorn 2 kinds, 5
drugs ; Lycium thorn 18, Persian gum 2, oporice 2.
(Ixxx-lxxxix) Germander or dwarf oak or chamaerops
or Teucrian plant 16 ; dwarf laurel 5, dwarf olive 6,
dwarf fig 8, ground ivy 1, chamaeleuce or colt's-foot
or farfugium 1, ground larch 5, ground cypress 2.
field-garUc 6, horsemint 1, wild basil or cleopicetura
or zopyrontium or ocimoides 3, knotweed clematis 3.
clematis or aetis or cimoides. (xl-xlviii) Egyptiar.
clematis or laurel clematis or polygonoides 2, wake-
robin 13, tarragon 2, dragon-root 3, milfoil or yarrow 7
bastard-bunion 4, sweet-cicely or myrra or myriza 7
oenobreche 3. (xcix-cii) Sorcery from herbs : cora-
cesia and caHcia ; Minyad or Corinthian herb 1 ".
aproxis (Pythagorean teachings as to recurrent
diseases), aglaophotis or marble-quarry plant.
Achaemenis or horse's-mane, theombrotion or sem-
nion, uncrushable herb, Ariana plant, theronarca.
Ethiopian plant or hei*b of Meroe, ophiusa, sea-ray
or river-flash, theangelis, gelotophyllis, hestiateris or

XII

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

sive protomedia sive casignete sive Dionysonyin-
phade, helianthide sive heUocalUde, hermesiade,
aeschynomene, crocide, oenotheride, anacampserote.
(ciii-cix) Eriphia, herba lanaria I, lactoris I, militaris I,
stratiotes V, herba de capite statuae I, herba de flu-
minibus I, hngua herba I, herba de cribro I. (cx-cxx)
Herba de fimetis I, herba a canum urina I, rodarura
III, impia II, Veneris pecten I, exedum, notia II,
philanthropos I, lappa canaria II, tordylon sive
syreon III, gramen XVII, dactylos V, fenimi Grae-
cum, quae silicia, XXXI. Summa : medicinae et
historiae et observationes MCLXXVI.

Ex auctoribus : C. Valgio, Pompeio Lenaeo,
Sextio Nigro qui Graece scripsit, luUo Basso qui item,
Antonio Castore, CorneUo Celso. Externis : Theo-
phrasto, ApoUodoro, Democrito, Orpheo, Pythagora,
Magone, Menandro qui ^ioxpT/o-Ta, Nicandro,
Homero, Hesiodo, Musaeo, Sophocle, Anaxilao.
Medicis : Mnesitheo, CaUimacho, Phania physico,
Timaristo, Simo, Hippocrate, Chrysippo, Diocle,
Ophione, HeracUde, Hicesio, Dionysio, ApoUodoro
Citiense, ApoUodoro Tarentino, Praxagora, PUstonico,
Medio, Dieuche, Cleophanto, PhiUstione, Asclepiade,
Crateua, Petronio Diodoto, loUa, Erasistrato, Diagora,
Andrea, Mneside, Epicharmo, Damione, Sosimene,
Tlepolemo, Metrodoro, Solone, Lyco, Olympiade
Thebana, PhiUno, Petricho, Miccione, Glaucia,
Xenocrate.

Libro XXV. continentm- naturae herbarum sponte
nascentimn ; auctoritas herbarum. (i-vi) De origine
usus earum ; qui Latine usus earum scripserint ;
quando ad Romanos ea notitia pervenerit ; qui
primi Graecorum de his conposuerint ; quare minus
exerceantur ea remedia ; herbae mirabiUter inventae.

112

BOOK I

protomedia or casignetes or Dionysonymplias, Iielian-
this or heliocallis, hermesiades, aeschynomenes,
crocis, oenetheris, anacampseros. (ciii-cix) Eriphia,
wool grass 1, milk-wort 1, soldier-grass l,stratiotes 5,
statue*s head grass 1, river grass 1, tongue grass 1,
sieve grass 1. (cx-cxx) Dung-hill grass 1, dog's water
grass 1, rodarum 3, French everlasting 2, Venus's comb

1, exedum, southern-wood 2, goose-grass 1, dog-bur

2, hart-wort or syreon 3, couch-grass 17, lady's
finger 5, Greek hay or fenugreek, our silicia, 31.
Total: 1176 drugs, investigations and observations.

Authorities used : Gaius Valgius, Pompeius Len-
aeus, Sextius Niger's Greek writings, Juhus Bassus's
ditto, Antonius Castor, Cornelius Celsus. Foreign
authorities : Theophrastus, Apollodorus, Democritus,
Orpheus, Pythagoras, Mago, Menander's Things
serviceablefor life, Nicander, Homer, Hesiod, Musaeus,
Sophocles, Anaxilaus. Medical writers : Mnesitheus,
CalUmachus, Phanias the scientific writer, Timaristus,
Simus, Hippocrates, Chrysippus, Diocles, Ophion,
Heraclides, Hicesius, Dionysius, Apollodorus of
Citium, Apollodorus of Tarentum, Praxagoras,
Plistonicus, Medius, Dieuches, Cleophantus, Philistio,
Asclepiades, Crateuas, Petronius Diodotus, lollas,
Erasistratus, Diagoras, Andreas, Mnesides, Epi-
charmus, Damion, Sosimenes, Tlepolemus, Metro-
dorus, Solon, Lycus, Olympias of 'Thebes, PhiUnus,
Petrichus, Miccio, Glaucias, Xenocrates.

Book XXV. Contents : the natures of self-grown
plants ; value of plants. (i-vi) Origin of their use ;
Latin writers on uses of plants ; when this knowledge
reached the Romans ; fii-st Greek writers on the
subject; herbal remedies, why comparutively httle
used ; remarkable discoveries of plants. Dog-rose,

ti3

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Cynorrodum, medicinae II, dracunculus caulis I,
Britannica V. (vii-xix) De maximo dolore. nobilium
herbarum inventores. moly III, dodecatheon I,
paeonia sive pentorobos sive glycysides, I, panaces
Asclepion II, panaces Heraclion III, panaces Chiro-
nion IV, panaces Centaurion sive Pharnacion III,
Herachon siderion IV, hyoscyamos, quae Apollinaris
sive altercum, genera II, medicinae III, linozostis
sive partlienion sive Hermupoa, quae Mercurialis,
genera II, medicinae XXII, Achillea sideritis sive
panaces Heraclium, quae naillefolium sive scopa
regia, gen. VI, med. III. (xx-xxix) Teucria sive
hermione sive splenios II, Melampodium sive elle-
borum, quod veratrum, genera III ; quomodo
coUigatur, quomodo probetur ; medicinae ex nigro
XXIV, quomodo sumendum ; item in albo : medi-
cinae ex eo XXIII ; quibus non dandum; observa-
tiones circa utrumque genus LXXXVIII. Mi-
thridatia II, scordotis sive scordion IV, Polemonia
sive Philetaeria sive chiHodynamus VI, Eupatoria I,
(xxx-xhi) Centaurion sive Chironion XX, Centaurion
lepton sive Hbadion, quod fel terrae, XXII, Centauris
triorchis II, Clymenos II, Gentiana XIII, Lysimachia
VIII, Artemisia sive parthenis sive botrys sive
ambrosia V, nymphaea sive HeracHon sive rhopalon
sive mallos, genera II, medicinae ^TV, Euphorbiae
genera II, medicinae IV, plantaginis genera II,
medicinae XLVI, buglossos III, cynoglossos III,
buphthalmos sive cachla I. (xHii-ix) Herbae quas
gentes invenerunt Scythice III, hippace III, is-
chaemon II, cestros sive psychotrophon, quae
Vettonica sive serratula, XLVIII ; Cantabrica II,
consiHgo I, Iberis VII. (1-Hii) Herbae ab animaHbus
repertae cheHdonia VI, canaria I, dictamnon VIII,

114

BOOK I

2 drugs, tarragon 1, water-clock 5. (vii-ix) The
greatest pain. Discoverers of famous plants. Moly

3, shooting star 1, peony or pentorobus or glycysides
1, varieties of all-heal — Asclepion 2, HeracUon 3,
Chironion 4, Centaurion or Pharnacion 3, iron-wort
HeracUon 4, hyoscyamos or Apollo-plant or henbane,
2 kinds, 3 drugs ; hnozostis or maiden-hair or grass of
Hermes or grass of Mercury, 2 kinds, 22 drugs;
Achilles star-wort or all-heal of Heracles, our
milfoil or king's-broom, 6 kinds, 3 drugs. (xx-xxix)
Teucer's grass or hermione or spleenwort 2 ; Melam-
podium or hellebore, our verati'um 3 kinds, method
of gathering, method of testing; drugs from black
hellebore 24, how taken ; ditto with white hellebore ;
drugs from the latter 23 ; to what patients not to be
given : observations in regard to each kind 88.
Grass of Mithridates 2, scordotis or water-germander

4, Polemonia or Philetaeria or thousand-virtues 6,
Eupatoria 1. (xxx-xhi) Centaury or grass of Chiron
20, lesser centaury or hbadion, our earth-gall (fumi-
tory) 22, triorcliis centaury 2, Clymenos 2, gentian 13,
Lysimachia 8, Artemisia or maiden-herb or mag-
wort or ambrosia 5, water-hly or rod of Heracles or
rhopalon or mallos, 2 kinds, 14 drugs ; Euphorbia 2
kinds, 4 drugs ; plantain 2 kinds, 46 drugs ; bugloss
3; hound's-tongue 3; ox-eye or cachla 1. (xliii-ix)
Plants discovered by various races : Scythian grass
3, mare's-grass 3, styptic plant 2, cestros or psycho-
trophon, our Vettonica or betony, 48 ; Cantabrian
bindweed 2, lung-wort 1, candy-tuft 7. (1-liii)
Plants found from animals : swallow-wort 6, dog's-
grass 1, dittany 8, sham-dittany or horehound.

ii5

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

pseudodictamnon sive chondris. quibus locis po-
tentissimae herbae. propter herbas in Arcadia lac
potari. (liv— lix) Aristolochia sive clematitis sive
Cretica sive plistolochia sive lochia polyrrizos,
quae malum terrae, XXII. argemonia IV, agaricum
XXXIII, echios, genera III, medicinae II, hiera-
botane sive peristereon, quae verbenaca, genera
II, medicinae X, blattaria I, molemonium I, penta-
petes sive pentaphyllon sive chamaezelon, quae
quinquefolium, medicinae XXXIII, sparganion I,
dauci genera FV', medicinae XVIII, theronarca
II, persolata sive arcion VIII, cyclaminos, quae
tuber terrae, XII, cyclaminos cissanthemos IV,
cyclaminos chamaecissos III. (Ixx— xc) Peucedanum
XXVIII, ebulum VI, phlomos quae verbascum XV,
phlomides II, phlomis sive lychnitis sive thryallis,
thelyphonon sive scorpio I, phrynion sive neuras
sive poterion I, aUsma sive damasonium sive lyron
XVII, peristereos VI, antirrhinon sive anarrhinon
sive lychnis agria III, eupha I, pericarpum, genera
II, medicinae II, nymphaea Heracha II, hngu-
laca I, cacalia sive leontice III, callithrix I, hysso-
pum X, lonchitis IV^, xiphion sive phasganion IV,
psyllion sive cynoides sive chrysalUon sive SiceUcon
sive cynomyia XVI, thryseUnon I. (xci-cv) Re-
media oculorum anagalUs sive corchoron, quae feUs
oculus, genera II, medicinae III, aegilops II, man-
dragoras sive Circaeon sive morion sive hippophlomon,
genera II, medicinae XXIV, cicuta XIII, crethmos
agrios I, molybdaena I, capnos trunca, quae pedes
gaUinacei I, capnos fruticosa III, acoron sive acorion
XIV, cotyledon, genera II, medicinae LXI, aizoura
maius sive buphthahnon sive zoophthalmon sive
stergethron sive hypogeson sive ambrosion sive

ii6

BOOK I

Localities where herbs most potent. Milk drunk
for herbal contents in Arcady. (liv-lix) Aristolo-
chia or clematis or Cretan plant or pUstolochia or
many-rooted lochia, our earth-bane, 22 ; agrimony 4,
tinder-fungus 33 ; viper's-bugloss 3 kinds, 2 drugs ;
holy-wort or dove-wort, our vervain, 2 kinds 10
drugs ; moth-mullein 1 , molemony 1 ; pentapetes or
pentaphyllon or chamaezelon, our cinquefoil, 33
drugs ; bur-weed 1 ; wild carrot, 4 kinds, 18 drugs ;
theronarca 2 ; brown mullein or arcion 8 ; cyclamen,
our mole-hill plant, 12 ; ivy-flower cyclamen 4 ;
ground-ivy cyclamen 3. (Ixx-xc) Sulphurwort 28,
dwarf elder 6 ; phlomos, our mullein 15 ; phlomides
2, phlomis or wild lychnis or thryalHs ; thelyphonon
or scorpion-grass (aconite) 1 ; phrynion or neuras or
poterion 1 ; water-plantain or damasonium or lyron
17 ; vervain 6 ; antirrhinum or anarrhinum or wild
lychnis 3 ; eupha 1 ; pericarpum, 2 kinds, 2 drugs ;
Hercules water-Hly 2 ; marsh crowfoot 1 ; colt's-
foot or Hon-wort 3 ; hair-dye plant 1 ; hyssop 10 ;
satyrion 4 ; gladiolus or sword-Hly 4 ; flea-bane or
dog-wort or gold garHc or Sicilian grass or dog-fly 16 ;
thryselinon 1. (xci-cv) Eyesalves: pimpernel or
chickweed, our cat's-eye, 2 kinds, 3 drugs ; aegilops
2, mandragora or Circe's herb or nightshade or white
mandrake, 2 kinds, 24 drugs ; hemlock 13 ; wild sea-
fennel 1, leadwort 1 ; ' dwarfed smoke,' our chicken-
feet (fumitory) 1 ; bush-smoke 3 ; acoron or sweet-
flag 14 ; navelwort, 2 kinds 61 drugs ; greater live-
for-ever or ox-eye or zoophthalmon or love-charm or
gutter-leek or immortal or care-free, our great

"7

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

amerimnon, quae sedum magnvun aut oculus aut
digitellus, medicinae XXXI ; aizoum minus sive
erithales sive trithales sive erysithales, quae isoetes
aut sedum, medicinae XXXII ; andrachle agria,
quae inlecebra, XXXII. (cvi-x) Erigeron sive pappos
sive acanthis, quae senecio, VIII ; ephemeron II,
labrum Venereum I, batrachion, quae ranunculus
sive strumos, genera IV, medicinae XIV stomatice,
genera II. Summa : medicinae et historiae et
observationes MCCXCII.

Ex auctoribus : C. Valgio, Pompeio Lenaeo,
Sextio Nigro qui Graece scripsit, lulio Basso qui item,
Antonio Castore, Corneho Celso, Fabiano. Externis :
Theophrasto, Apollodoro, Democrito, luba, Orpheo,
Pythagora, Magone, Menandro qui ^ioxprjcrTa,
Nicandro, Homero, Hesiodo, Musaeo, Sophocle,
Xantho, Anaxilao. Medicis : Mnesitheo, CaUimachOj
Phania physico, Timaristo, Simo, Hippocrate, Chry-
sippo, Diocle, Ophione, HeracUde, Hicesio, Dionysio,
Apollodoro Citiense , Apollodoro Tarentino , Praxagora,
PUstonico, Medio, Dieuche, Cleophanto, PhiUstione,
Asclepiade, Crateua, Petronio Diodoto, lolla, Erasis-
trato, Diagora, Andrea, Mneside, Epicharmo, Da-
mione, Sosimene, Tlepolemo, Metrodoro, Solone,
Lyco, Olympiade Thebana, PhiUno, Petricho, Mic-
cione, Glaucia, Xenocrate.

Libro XXVI. continentiu- reUquae per genera
medicinae. (i) De no\ns morbis. (u-vi) Quid sint
Uchenes ; quando primum in ItaUa coeperint ; item
carbunculus ; item elephantiasis ; item colum. (vii-
ix) De nova medicina ; de Asclepiade medico. qua
ratione medicinam veterem mutaverint ; contra
Magos. (x-xix) Lichen, genera II, medicinae V;
Proserpinaca I, beUis 11, condurdum I, bechion sive

ii8

BOOK I

houseleek or eye or little finger, 31 drugs ; lesser
live-for-ever or erithales or trithales or erysithales,
our aye-green or stonecrop, 32 drugs ; wild purslane,
our decoy-bird 32. (cvi-x) Erigeron or pappos or
groundsel, our old-man, 8 ; ephemeron 2 ; Venus's-
lip 1, frog-weed, our ranunculus or buttercup, 4
kinds, 14 drugs ; mouth-heal, 2 kinds. Total 1292
drugs, investigations and observations.

Authorities : Gaius Valgius, Pompeius Lenaeus,
Sextius Niger's Greek writings, JuUus Bassus's ditto,
Antonius Castor, Cornehus Celsus, Fabianus. Foreign
authorities : Theophrastus, Apollodorus, Demo-
critus, Juba, Oi*pheus, Pythagoras, Mago, Menander's
Things serviceable for life, Nicander, Homer, Hesiod,
Musaeus, Sophocles, Xanthus, Anaxilaus. Medical
writers : Mnesitheus, CaUimachus, Phanias the
natural scientist, Timaristus, Simus, Hippocrates,
Chrysippus, Diocles, Ophion, Herachdes, Hicesius,
Dionysius, Apollodorus of Citium, Apollodorus of
Tarentum, Praxagoras, PUstonicus, Medius, Dieuches,
Cleophantus, PhiUstion, Asclepias, Crateuas, Petro-
nius Diodotus, lollas, Erasistratus, Diagoras, Andreas,
Mnesides, Epicharmus, Damion, Sosimenes,
Tlepolemus, Metrodorus, Solon, Lycus, Olympias
of Thebes, PhiUnus, Petrichus, Miccio, Glaucias,
Xenocrates,

Book XXVI. Contents : the remaining drugs by
classes. (i) New diseases. (ii-vi) Ringworm — when
first occurring in Italy ; carbuncle ditto ; elephantiasis
ditto ; coUc ditto. (vii-ix) The new medicine ; the
physician Asclepias ; reason for alteration of the old
medicine ; refutation of Magi. (x-xix) Lichen, 2 kinds,
6 drugs, Proserpinaca 1, ox-eye daisy 2, condurdum

119

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

arcion sive chamaeleuce, quae tussilago, III, bechion,
salvia, IV, molon sive syron, amomon III, (xx-xxix)
ephedra sive anabasis III, geum III, tripolion III,
gromphaena, malundrum II, chalcetum II, mole-
monium I, halus sive cotonea V, chamaerops I,
stoechas I, astragalus VI. (xxx-xxxix) Ladanum
VIII, chondris sive pseudodictamnum I, hvpocisthis
sive orobethron, genera II, medicinae VIII, laver sive
sion II, potamogiton VIII, statice III, ceratia II,
leontopodion sive leuceoron sive doribethron sive
thorybethron ; lagopus III ; epithymon sive hippo-
pheos VIII; pycnocomon IV; polypodion III;
scammonia VIII ; tithymalos characias, (xl-xlvi)
Tithymalos myrtites sive carvites XXI ; tithvmalos
paralius sive tithymahs IV, tithymalos heUoscopios
XVIII ; tithymalos cj^parissias XVIII ; tithymalos
plat^^phyllos sive corj^mbites sive amygdaUtes III ;
tithymalos dendroides sive cobios sive leptophyllos
XVIII ; apios ischias sive raphanos agria II : (1-Ux)
Crethmon XI, cachry; anthylUon II, anthyUis II;
cepaea I ; hypericon sive chamaepitys sive corisson
IX ; caros sive hypericon X ; calUthrix I, perpressa I,
chrysanthemum I, anthemis I ; silaus I ; herba
Fulviana ; inguinaUs sive argemo. (Ix-lxix) Chry-
sippeos I; orchis sive Serapia V; Satyrion III,
sat}T-ion Erythraicon IV; lappago sive moUugo I,
asperugo I ; phycos, quod fucus marinus, genera
III, medicinae V; lappa boaria; geranion sive
myrris sive myrtis, genera III, medicinae VI ;
onothera sive onear III. (Ixxiii) Acte sive ebulum,
chamaeacte. (Ixxxiii-xciu) Hippuris sive ephedron
sive anabasis, quae equisaetum, genera III, medi-
cinae XVIII ; stephanomeUs ; erj^sithales I ; poly-
cnemon I ; arsenogonon I, thelygonon I ; mastos I,

BOOK I

1, bechion or arcion or chamaeleuce, our white colt's-
foot, 3 ; bechion, our sage, 4 ; molon or syron, balsam-
shrub 3. (xx-xxix) Horse-tail or anabasis 3, geum 3,
tripoHon 3, amaranth, malundrum 2, chalcetum 2,
molemonium 1 ; comfrey or black bryony 5, wall
germander 1, French lavender 1, Spanish tragacanth
6. (xxx-xxxix) Ladanum 8 ; horehound or bastard
dittany 1, cisthus-parasite or orobethron, 2 kinds,
8 drugs ; laver or sion 2 ; pond-weed 8, statice 3 ;
horn-weed 2, lentopodion or leuceoron or doribethron
or thorybethron ; hare's foot 3 ; thyme-flower or
hippopheos8; devirs-bit 4 ; polypody3; scammony
8 ; stake-spurge. (xl-xlvi) Myrtle-spurge or nut-
spurge 21, sea-spurge or thymahs 4, hehotrope spurge
18, cyparissias-spurge 18, broadleaved spurge or
corymbites or almond-spurge 3; tree-spurge or
cobius or small-leaved spurge 18 ; sciatica-spurge or
wild radish 2. (1-hx) Sea-fennel 11, sea-fennel
kernel, pitch-plant 2, musk-ivy 2, portulaca 1,
hypericon or ground-pine or corisson 9, ground-pine
seed or hypericon 10, hair-dye plant 1, perpressa 1,
marigold 1, chamomile 1, smallage 1, Fulvius-grass,
groin-grass or argemo. (Ix-lxix) Chrysippus-grass 1,
orchis or Serapia 5, ragwort 3, red ragwort 4, lappago-
bur or molhigo 1, prickly bur 1, phycos, our sea-
weed, 3 kinds, 5 drugs ; cattle-bur ; crane's bill or
geranium or myi'tis, 3 kiiids, 6 drugs ; donkey-
hunt or refreshment-plant 3, (Ixxiii) Danewort or
dwarf-elder, ground Dane-wort. (Ixxxiii-xciii) Horse-
tail or ephedron or anabasis, our horse-hair, 3
kinds, 18 drugs; stephanomelis ; eiysithales 1, poly-
cnemon 1, arsenogonon 1, thelygonon 1, mastos 1,

121

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

ophrys. Summa : medicinae et historiae et observa-
tiones MXIX,

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, C. Valgio, Pompeio
Lenaeo, Sextio Nigro qui Graece scripsit, lulio Basso
qui item, Antonio Castore, Cornelio Celso. Externis :
Theophrasto, Apollodoro, Democrito, luba, Orpheo,
Pythagora, Magone, Menandro qui liioxfyqrrra scrip-
sit, Nicandro, Homero, Hesiodo, Musaeo, Sophocle,
Xantho, Anaxilao. Medicis : Mnesitheo, CalUmacho,
Phania physico, Timaristo, Simo,Hippocrate, Chrysip-
po, Diocle, Ophione, HeracUde, Hicesio, Dionysio,
Apollodoro Citiense.ApollodoroTarentino,Praxagora,
PUstonico, Medio, Dieuche, Cleophanto, PhiUstione,
Asclepiade, Crateua, Petronio Diodoto, loUa, Erasi-
strato, Diagora, Andrea, Mneside, Epicharmo,
Damione, Sosimene, Tlepolemo, Metrodoro, Solone,
Lyco, Olympiade Thebana, PhiUno, Petricho, Mic-
cione, Glaucia, Xenocrate.

Libro XX\"II. continentur reUqua genera her-
barimi, medicinae ex his. (ii-x) Aconitum sive
thelj-phonon sive cammoron sive pardaUanches sive
scorpion, medicinae IV; Aethiopis iV; ageraton
IV ; aloe XXIX ; alcea I ; alypon I, alsine ad
eadem quae helxine V ; androsaces VI ; andro-
saemon sive ascyron ^T. (xi-xx) Ambrosia sive
botr}"s sive Artemisia III ; anonis sive ononis V ;
anag}Tos sive acopon III ; anonymos II, aparine sive
omphacocarpos sive philanthropos IV ; arction sive
arcturon V ; asplenon sive heraionios II ; Asclepias
II ; aster sive bubonion III ; asc\Ton et ascyroides
III. (xxi-xxx) Aphaca III, alcibium I ; alectoros
lophos, quae crista, II ; alum, quod symphyton pe-

133

BOOK I

ophrys. Total, 1019 drngs, investigations and
observations.

Authorities : Marcus Varro, Gaius Valgius, Pom-
peius Lenaeus, Sextius Niger's Greek wi-itings, Julius
Bassus's ditto, Antonius Castor, Cornelius Celsus.
Foreign Authorities : Theophrastus, Apollodorus,
Democritus, Juba, Orpheus, Pythagoras, Mago, Me-
nander's Things serviceable Jor life, Nicander, Homer,
Hesiod, Musaeus, Sophocles, Xanthus, Anaxilaus.
Medioal writers : Mnesitheus, CalUmachus, Phanias
the natural philosopher, Timaristus, Simus, Hippo-
crates, Chrysippus, Diocles, Ophion, HeracUdes,
Hicesius, Dionysius, ApoUodorus of Citium, ApoHo-
dorus of Tarentum, Praxagoras, PUstonicus, Medius,
Dieuches, Cleophantus, PhiUstion, Asclepiades,
Crateuas, Petronius Diodotus, loUas, Erasistratus,
Diagoras, Andreas, Mnesides, Epicharmus, Damion,
Sosimenes, Tlepolemus, Metrodorus, Solon, Lycus,
Olympias of Thebes, PhiUnus, Petrichus, Miccio,
Glaucias, Xenncrates.

Book XXVII. Contents : the remaining kinds of
plants, drugs derived from them. (ii-x) Monk's-
hood or lady-kiUer or cammoron or choke-leopard or
scorpion, 4 drugs ; Aethiopic sage 4 ; never-grow-
old 4 ; aloe 29 ; alcea-maUow 1 ; herb terrible 1 ;
chickweed for the same uses as helxine 5 ; androsaces
6 ; man's-blood or St. John's-wort 6. (xi-xx)
Ambrosia or mug-wort or Artemisia 3, rest-harrow or
ononis 5, bean-trefoil or pain-kiUer 3, no-name 2,
cleavers or grape-fruit or goose-grass 4, bear-weed or
bear-ward 5, miltwort or spleenwort 2, SAvaUowwort 2,
aster or star-wort 3, St. John's wort and ascyroides 3.
(xxi-xxx) Chick-pea 3, alcibium 1, alectoros lophos,
our cock's-comb 2, comfrey, our rock wallwort 14,

123

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

traeum, XIV, alga rufa I ; actaea I ; ampelos aijria
IV; absinthium, genera IV, medicinae XLVIII;
absinthium marinum sive seriphum ; ballotes sive
porrum nigrum III ; (xxxi-xl) botrys sive ambrosia
sive Artemisia I ; brabyla I ; bryon marinum V ;
bupleuron I ; catanance I, cemos I ; calyx III ;
calyx sive anchusa sive rhinocha II; Circaea III;
cirsion I; crataegonon, genera III, medicinae VIII;
(xU-1) crocodileon II ; cynosorchis sive orchis IV ;
chrysolachanimi, genera II, medicinae III, coagulum
terrae II ; cucuUus sive strumus sive strychnos VI ;
conferva II ; cocciun Cnidium II ; dipsacos III ;
drj'opteris II ; (xHx) drabe I ; elatine II ; (li-lx)
empetros, quam nostri calcifragam, IV ; epicactis sive
elleborine II; epimedion III; enneaphyllon III;
fihcis genera II, quam Graeci pterim, ahi blachnon,
item thelypterim, njTnphaeam pterim vocant, XI ;
femur bubuliun ; galeopsis sive galeobdolon sive
gahon Yl ; glaux I ; glaucion III (collyrium, me-
dicinae II) ; glycyside sive Paeonia sive pentorobon
XX ; (Ixi-lxx) gnaphaUon sive chamaezelon VI ;
galHdraga I ; holcus sive aristis ; hyoseris I ; holosteon
III ; hippophaeston VIII ; h^-poglossa I ; hypecoon ;
Idaea IV ; isopyron sive phasiolon II ; (Ixxi-lxxx)
lathyris II ; leontopetalon, aUi rhapeion, II ; lycapsos
II ; Uthospermon sive exonychon sive diospyron ;
sive Heracleos II ; lapidis muscus I ; hmeimn I,
leuce sive mesoleucium sive leucas III ; leucographis
V; medion III; myosota sive myosotis III; (Ixxxi,
xc) myagros I ; nyma I ; natrix I ; odontitis I ;
othonna I ; onosma I ; onopradon V ; osyris IV ;
oxys II; polyanthemum sive batrachion III; (xci-c)
polygonos sive polygonatos sive thalattias sive
carcinothron sive clema sive myrtopetalos, quae

124

BOOK I

red seaweed 1, herb Christopher 1, wnld vine
4 ; wormwood, 4 kinds, 48 drugs ; sea-wormwood or
seriphimi ; horehound or black chives 3. (xxxi-xl)
Mugwort or ambrosia or Artemisia 1 , brabyla 1 ;
sea bryon 5, hare's-ear 1, catanance 1, cemos 1,
calyx 3, calyx or strangle-plant or rhinoclia 2, herb of
Circe 3, cirsion tliistle 1 ; crataegonon, 3 kinds, 8
drugs ; (xH-1) crocodile plant 2, hound's-cod or
orchis 4, garden orach, 2 kinds, 3 drugs, earth-
bond 2, nightshade or strumus or strychnos 6,
sah^e-herb 2, Cnidus berry 2, teasel 3, oak-
wing 2, drabe 1, elatine 2. (h-lx) Harts-tongue,
called in Latin break-stone, 4 ; epicactis or helle-
borine 2, epimedion 3, nine-leaf 3, fern, 2 kinds called
by the Greeks ' feather-fern ' or blachnon, also
female feather or bride's-feather, 11; ox-thigh;
dead-nettle or galeobdolon or galion 6 ; owl-plant 1 ;
celandine 3 (pillar-plant, 2 drugs) glycysis or peony
or pentorobon 20. (Ixi-lxx) Cotton-grass or cudweed
6, hairy teasel 1, mouse-barley or aristis, black
centaury, white plantain 3, hippophaeston 8,
butcher's broom 1, humble-plant, grass of Ida 4, iso-
pyron or phasiolon 2. (Ixxi-lxxx) Wolf 's-milk 2, Hon's-
leaf (others call it ' rhapeion ') 2, alkanet 2, Hthosper-
mon or exonychon or diospyron or grass of Hercules
2, stone-crop 1, arrow-poison 1, spotted dead-nettle
or mesoleucium or leucas 3, St. Mary's thistle 5 ;
medion 3, mouse-ear or forget-me-not 3. (Ixxxi-xc)
Mouse-hunter 1, nyma 1, water-snake 1, toothwort 1,
othonna 1, onosma 1, St. Mary's thistle 5, goose-foot 4,
wood sorrel 2, many-flowered crowfoot or frogwort 3.
(xci-c) Knot-grass or polygonatum or sea-gi'ass or
carcinothion or clema or bayleaf (the same as blood-

125

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

sanguinaria sive orios, genera IV, medicinae XL;
pancration XII ; peplis sive syce sive meconion sive
mecon aphrodes III; periclymenon V; pelecinos I;
polygala I ; poterion sive phrynion sive neuras IV ;
phalangites sive phalangion sive leucacanthon IV,
phyteuma I ; phyllon I ; (ci-cx) phellandrion II,
phaleris II ; polyrrizon V ; Proserpinaca V ; rhecoma
XXXVI ; reseda II ; stoechas III ; solanum, quam
Graeci strychnon, II ; Smyrnion XXXII, sinon II ;
Telephion IV ; (cxi-cxvii) trichomanes V, thaUctrum
I, thlaspi sive Persicon napy IV ; Tracliinia I ;
tragonis sive tragion I ; tragos sive scorpio IV ;
tragopogon sive come I. (cxviii-cxx) De aetatibus
herbarum ; quomodo cuiusque vires efficaciores.
Gentium vitia diversa. Summa : medicinae et his-
toriae et observationes DCII.

Ex auctoribus : C. Valgio, Pompeio Lenaeo,
Sextio Nigro qui Graece scripsit, luho Basso qui item,
Antonio Castore, CorneUo Celso. Externis : Theo-
phrasto, Apollodoro, Democrito, Aristogitone, Orpheo
Pythagora, Magone, Menandro qui fitoxp-qa-Ta
scripsit, Nicandro. Medicis : Mnesitheo, CalUmacho,
Timaristo, Simo, Hippocrate, Chrysippo, Diocle,
Ophione, HeracUde, Hicesio, Dionysio, Apollodoro
Citiense, ApoUodoro Tarentino, Praxagora, PUstonico,
Medio, Dieuche, Cleophanto, PhiUstione, Asclepiade,
Crateua, Petronio Diodoto, lolla, Erasistrato, Diagora,
Andrea, Mneside, Epicharmo, Damione, Sosimene,
Tlepolemo, Metrodoro, Solone, Lyco, Olympiade
Thebana, PhiUno. Petricho, Miccione, Glaucia,
Xenocrate.

Libro XXVIII. continentur medicinae ex animaU-
bus. (iii) An sit in medendo verborum aUqua vis.

126

BOOK I

weed or orios) 4 kinds, 40 drugs; succory 12, peplis
or syce or meconion or foam-poppy 3, honeysuckle 5,
hatchet-vetch 1, milkwort 1, tragacanth or frog-cup
or tendon-plant 4 ; anthericum or spider-root or
whitethorn 4; groundsel 1; phyllon 1. (ci-cx)
Phellandi'ion 2, canary-grass 2, many-root 5, Proser-
pinaca 5, rhecoma 36, reseda 2, French lavender

3, nightshade, Greek strychnon, 2 ; common
alexanders 32, sinon 2, purslane 4. (cxi-cxvii) Mad-
locks 5, meadow-rue 1, thlaspi or Persian mustard

4, herb of Trachis 1, tragonis or goatwort 1, goat-grass
or scorpion-grass 4, goat's-beard or come 1. (cxviii-
cxx) Length of life of herbs ; means of increasing
the potency of each kind. Different national
maladies. Total, 602 drugs, investigations and
observations.

Authorities : Gaius Valgius, Pompeius Lenaeus,
Greek works of Sextius Niger, ditto of Julius Bassus,
Antonius Castor, Cornelius Celsus. Foreign authori-
ties : Theophrastus, Apollodorus, Democritus, Aristo-
giton, Orpheus, Pythagoras, Mago, Menander's
Things sei'viceable Jbr life, Nicander. Medical
writers : Mnesitheus, Callimachus, Timaristus, Simus,
Hippocrates, Chrysippus, Diocles, Ophion, Hera-
clides, Hicesius, Dionysius, Apollodorus of Citium,
Apollodorus of Tarentum, Praxagoras, Plistonicus,
Medius, Dieuches, Cleophantus, Philistion, Ascle-
piades, Crateuas, Petronius Diodotus, lollas, Erasis-
tratus, Diagoras, Andreas, Mnesides, Epicharmus,
Damion, Sosimenes, Tlepolemus, Metrodorus, Solon,
Lycus, Olympias of Thebes, PhiUnus, Petrichus,
Miccio, Glaucia, Xenocrates.

Book XXVTH. Contents : drugs obtained frora
animals. (iii) Whether there is any healing power

127

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

(iv-v) Ostenta et sanciri et depelli. (vi-xix) Ex
homine i-emedia ; eontra magos ; ex viro medicinae
et observationes CCXXVI, puero VIII ; (xx-xxiii)
muliere LXI, (xxiv-xxxii) ex peregrinis animalibu&
elephanto VIII, leone X, camelo X, hyaena LXXIX,
crocodilo XIX, crocodilea XI, chamaeleone XV,
scinco IV, hippopotamio VII, lynce V. (xxxiii-xli)
Medicinae communes ex animalibus feris aut eiusdem
generis placidis ; lactis usus et observationes LIV,
de caseis XII ; butyro XXV ; oxygala I ; adipis
usus et observationes LII ; de sebo ; de medulla ;
de felle ; de sanguine. (xlii-lxxx) Privatae ex
animaUbus medicinae digestae in morbos, ex apro
XII, sue LX, cervo III, lupo XXVII, urso XXIV,
onagro XII, asino LXXVI, polea III, equifero XI,
eculei coagulo I, equo XLII, hippace I, bubus feris II,
bove LXXXI, tauro LIII, vitulo LIX, lepore LXIV,
volpe XX, mele II, fele V, capra CXVI, hirco XXXI,
haedo XXI. (Ixxi) De glutino taurino probando,
et medicinae ex eo VII. Summa : medicinae et
historiae et observationes MDCLXXXII.

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, L. Pisone, Antiate,
Verrio, Fabiano, Catone censorio, Servio Sulpicio,
Licinio Macro, Celso, Masurio, Sextio Nigro qui
Graece scripsit, Bytho Durracheno, Rabirio medico,
Ofiho medico, Granio medico. Externis : Demo-
crito, Apollonio qui et Mys, Meleto, Artemone,
Sextiho Antaeo, Homero, Theophrasto, Lysimacho,
Attalo, Xenocrate, Orpheo qui 18loc})V7J scripsit,
Archelao qui item, Demetrio, Sotira, Laide, Ele-
phantide, Salpe, Olympiade Thebana, Diotimo
Thebano, lolla, Andrea, Marcioiie Zmyriia.eo,

128

BOOK I

in spoken charms. (iv-v) Portents ratified ancl r»»-
jected. (vi-xix) Remedies obtained from the hmiian
body ; against magicians ; 226 drugs and observations
derived from an adult male, 8 from a boy ; (xx-xxiii)
61 from a woman ; (xxiv-xxxii) from foreign animals
— elephant 8, hon 10, camel 10, hyena 79, crocodile

19, crocodile's excrement 11, chameleon 15, hzard 4,
hippopotamus 7, lynx 5. (xxxiii-xh) Drugs obtained
equally from wild animals and tame animals of the
same kind ; mihi, modes of using and remarlis as to,
54; cheeses 12; butter 25; sour milk 1 ; fat, modes
of using and observations as to, 52 ; suet ; marrow ;
gaU ; blood. (xlii-lxxx) Special drugs derived from
particular animals arranged according to diseases ;
from the boar 12, pig 60, stag 3, wolf 27, bear 24,
wild ass 12, ass 76, ass's foal 3, wild horse 11,
foaVs rennet 1, horse 42, mare's milk cheese 1,
wild oxen 2, ox 81, bull 53, calf 59, hare 64, fox

20, badger 2, cat 5, she-goat 116, he-goat 31,
kid 21. (Ixxi) On testing bull-glue, and 7 drugs
from it. Total 1682 drugs, investigations and
observations.

Authorities : Marcus Varro, Lucius Piso, Antias,
Verrius, Fabianus, Cato the ex-Censor, Servius Sul-
picius, Licinius, Macer, Celsus, Masurius, Greek
works of Sextius Niger, Bythus of Durazzo, medical
works of Rabirius, OfiUus and Granius. Foreign
authorities : Democritus, Apollonius ahas the Mouse,
Meletus, Artemon, Sextihus Antaeus, Homer, Theo-
phrastus, Lysimachus, Attalus, Xenocrates, Orpheus
writer of Idiophye, Archelaus ditto, Demetrius,
Sotira, Lais, Elephantis, Salpe, Olympias of Thebes,
Diotimus of Thebes, lollas, Andreas, Marcio of
Suiyrna, medical works of Aeschines, Hippocrates,

129

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Aeschine medico, Hippocrate, Aristotele, Metrodoro
Scepsio, Hicetida medico, Apelle medico, Hesiodo,
Bialcone, Caecilio, Bione qui Trept Bvvd/j.ewv scripsit,
Anaxilao, luba rege.

Libro XXIX. continentur medicinae ex animali-
bus. (i-\iii) de origine medicinae ; de Hippocrate ;
quando primum clinice, quando primum iatraliptice ;
de Chrvsippo medico, de Erasistrato ; de empirice ;
de Herophilo : de reliqiiis inlustribus medicis ;
quotiens ratio medicinae mutata sit ; quis primus
Romae mediciis et quando ; quid de medicis antiquis
Romani iudicaverint ; vitia medicinae. (ix-xiii)
remedia ex lanis XXXV et sequenti libro XXV =
LX ; oesypo XXXII, sequenti hbro XX = LII ;
ovis XXII, sequenti libro XLIII=LXV; quae
sitista ova ; quoniodo fiant tota lutea ; de serpentium
ovis ; de Commageno conficiendo ; medicinae ex
eo IV et sequenti libro V = IX. (xiv-xl) remedia
ex animalibus quae placida non sint aut fera (ariete V
et sequenti libro \ II = XII, pecude II et sequenti
libro XV = XVII, muhs I et sequenti hbro V = VI,
cabalhs I et sequenti hbro III = IV, cane XVI et
sequenti hbro XLI = LVII, cane rabioso III et
sequenti hbro II = V, ichneumone I, mure XIV
et sequenti hbro XXVIII = XLII, mure araneo

IV et sequenti hbro I = V, ghre II et sequenti
libro VI= VIII, sorice I et sequenti hbro II = III,
mustela XIX et sequenti hbro XXV = XLIV,
stelhone IV et sequenti hbro XII = XVI, erinaceo

V et sequenti hbro XIII = XVIII, hystrice I et
sequenti hbro II = III, lacerta XIII et sequenti
libro XXX = XLIII, salamandra I et sequenti
libro III = IV, coclea XXVII et sequenti hbro
* XIX 1 = * XL\T, aspide I et sequenti hbro III =

BOOK I

Aristotle, Metrodorus of Scepsis, medical works
of Hicetidas and Apelles, Hesiod, Bialcon, Caeci-
lius, Bion's On Potencies, Anaxilaus, King Juba.

Book XXIX. Contents: drugs obtained from
animals. (i-viii) Origin of medicine ; Hippocrates ;
first employment of clinic medicine, first employment
of embrocations ; Chrysippus the physician, Era-
sistratus ; experimental medicine ; Hierophilus ;
remaining famous physicians ; how often the system
of medicine has altered ; the first physician at Rome,
name and date ; judgement of Romans as to ancient
physicians ; defects of medicine. (ix-xiii) Cures
from wools 35 and in the next book 25, making 60;
from wool-washings 32, next book 20, making 52;
fi-om eggs 22, next book 43, making 65 ; meaning
of ' fattened ' eggs ; how to make eggs all yoke ;
snakes' eggs ; how to make Commagene-cure ;
drugs from it 4, and in next book 5, making 9.
(xiv-xl) Remedies from roaming or wild animals
(ram 5 and next book 7 = 12, sheep 2 and next book
15 = 17, mules 1 and next book 5=6, horses 1 and
next book 3 = 4, dog 16 and next book 41 = 57, mad
dog 3 and next book 5 = 7, ichneumon 1, mouse 14
and next book 28 = 42, pygmymouse 4 and next
book 1 = 5, dormouse 2 and next book 6 = 8, shrew-
mouse 1 and next book 2 = 3, weasel 19 and next
i*book 25 = 44, gecko 4 and next book 12 = 16,
hedgehog 5 and next book 13 = 18, porcupine 1 and
next book 2 = 3, lizard 13 and next book 30 = 43,
salamander 1 and next book 3 = 4, snail 27 and
next book 19 = 46, asp 1 and next book 3 = 4,

^ Asterisks mark numbers corrected by editors to conform
witb text of Book XXIX.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

IV, basilisco IV, dracone * IV et sequenti libro

* VI = * X, vipera XIV et sequenti libro XXI =
XXXV, (xxi de \iperino sale theriace ; xxxviii
echeon), angue VIII et sequenti libro XXVII =
XXXV, hydro I, bova IV et sequenti libro III = VII,
enhydride I et sequenti libro II = III, serpentibus
ceteris VIII et sequenti libro VII = XV, scorpione
IV et sequenti Hbro II = VI, araneorum et phalan-
giorum genera XII, medicinae ex his IX et se-
quentiUbro XXVII = XXXVI, gryllo sive tauro I
et sequenti Hbro VII = VIII, scolopendra sive
multipeda sive millepeda sive centipeda sive onisco
sive iulo I et sequenti libro XX = XXI, (xvii
admiratio naturae nihil sine usu gignentis), Umace
I et sequenti libro III = IV^ uruca I et sequenti
libro II = III, verme terreno II et sequenti Hbro

* XX = * XXII, verme ex arboribus I et sequenti
Hbro IV = V, ex volucribus aquila IV et sequenti
Hbro III = VII, volture * IX et sequenti Hbro

* VII = * XVI, galHnaceo XXI et sequenti Hbro
XXXV = LVI, gaHina X et sequenti Hbro XXII =
XXXII, ansere VII et sequenti Hbro XV = XXII,
cygno I et sequenti Hbro V = VI, (xiii de adipe
aviura conficiendo), corvo II et sequenti Hbro IV =
VI, cornioe I et sequenti Hbro II = III, accipitre II
et sequenti Hbro II = * IV, milvo II et sequenti
Hbro VI = VIII, cenchride II, ciconia II et sequenti
Hbro I = III, anate II et sequenti Hbro IV = VI,
perdice VI et sequenti Hbro XI = XVII, columba VII
et sequenti libro XXV = XXXII, palimnbe II et
sequenti Hbro XIV = XVI, pico Martio I, turture IV
et sequenti Hbro V = IX, hirundine IX et sequenti
Hbro * XXIV =* XXXIII, noctua IV e± sequenti
Hbro V = IX, ulula I et sequenti Hbro I = * II,

132

BOOK I

basilislc 4, serpent 4 and next book 6 = 10, viper 14
and next book 21 = 35 (xxi, salt antidote for viper-
bite ; xxxviii, adder-ash drug) snake 8 and next book
27 = 35, water-serpent 1, ox-snake 4 and next book

3 = 7, water-snake 1 and next book 2 = 3, the other
serpents 8 and next book 7 = 15, scorpion 4 and
next book 2 = 6, spiders and poison-spiders, 12
kinds, drugs from these 9 and next book 27 = 36,
crieket or buU-beetle 1 and next book 7 = 8, scolo-
pendra or multipede or millepede or centipede or
wood-louse or catkin 1 and next book 20 = 21
(xvii, admiration of nature who produces nothing
useless), slug 1 and next book 3 = 4, caterpillar 1 and
next book 2 = 3, earth-worm 2 and next book
20 = 22, tree-woi-m 1 and next book 4 = 5; from
birds — eagle 4 and next book 3=7, vulture 9 and
next book 7 = 16, cock 21 and next book 35 = 56,
hen 10 and next book 22 = 32, goose 7 and next book
15 = 22, swan 1 and next book 5=6 (xiii manufac-
ture of bird's lard) ; raven 2 and next book 4 = 6,
crow 1 and next book 2 = 3, hawk 2 and next book
2 = 4, kite 2 and next book 6 = 8, goshawk 2,
stork 2 and next book 1 = 3, duck 2 and next book
4=6, partridge 6 and next book 11 = 17, dove 7 and
next book 25 = 32, pigeon 2 and next book 14 = 16,
Mars*s woodpecker 1, turtle-dove 4 and next book
5 = 9, swallow 9 and next book 24 = 33, night-owl

4 and next book 5 = 9, screech-owl 1 and next book

133

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

bubone II et sequenti libro V = VII, vespertilione
IV et sequenti libro * IX = XIII, apibus V et
sequenti libro VII = XII, bupresti III et sequenti
libro III = VI, pityocampe II et sequenti libro

IV = VI, (xvii naturae benignitatem etiam foedis
animalibus inseruisse magna remedia), scarabaeo
I et sequenti libro VII = VIII, blatta IV et
sequenti libro XIII = XVII. (xxx) de genere
cantharidum. medicinae ex his V et sequenti
libro XI = XVI, cimice * IX et sequenti Hbro

V = XIV, musca VII et sequenti libro V = XII,
locustis IV et sequenti libro III = VII, attelebis I,
formicis III et sequenti hbro V = * VIII. Summa:
medicinae et historiae et observationes DCXXI.

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, L. Pisone, Flacco
Verrio, Antiate, Nigidio, Cassio Hemina, Cicerone,
Plauto, Celso, Sextio Nigro qui Graece scripsit,
Caecilio medico, Metello Scipione, Ovidio poeta,
Licinio Macro. Externis : Palaephato, Homero,
Aristotele, Orpheo, Democrito, Anaxilao. Medicis :
Botrye, Apollodoro, Archedemo, Aristogene, Xeno-
crate, Democrate, Diodoro, Chrysippo, Phihppo,
Oro, Nicandro, Apollonio Pitanaeo.

Libro XXX. continentur medicinae ex animalibus
reUquae prioribus hbris. (i-vii) de origine magices ;
quando et a quo coeperit, a quibus celebrata sit ;
an exercuerit eam Italia. quando primum senatus
vetuerit hominem imraolari ; de GalHarum Druidis ;
de generibus magices ; opinio magorum de talpis ;
medicinae V. (viii-Hii) reHquae medicinae per
morbos digestae in animaHbus quorum genera non
sunt placida aut fera : pecude * II ^ et priore Hbro
♦ XV = * XVII, ariete VII et priore Hbro V = XII,

* See note on p. 131.

BOOK I

1 = 2, horned owl 2 and next book 5 = 7, bat 4 and
next book 9 = 13, bees 5 and next book 7 = 12,
cow-fly 3 and next book 3=6, pine-grub 2 and next
book 4 = 6, (xvii that the beneficence of nature has
placed powerful remedies even in disgusting animals),
beetle 1 and next book 7 = 8, cockroach 4 and next
book 13 = 17. (xxx) The genus Spanish fly — drugs
from these 5 and next book 11 = 16, bug 9 and next
book 5 = 14, house-fly 7 and next book 5 = 12,
locusts 4 and next book 3 = 7, wingless locust 1,
ants 3 and next book 5 = 8. — Total 621 drugs,
investigations and observations.

Authorities : Marcus Varro, Lucius Piso, Verrius
Flaccus, Antias, Nigidius, Cassius Hemina, Cicero,
Plautus, Celsus, Sextius Niger (Greek works of),
CaeciHus the medical ^vriter, Metellus Scipio, the
poet Ovid, Licinius Macer. Foreign authorities :
Palaephatus, Homer, Aristotle, Orpheus, Democritus,
Anaxilaus. Medical writers : Botrys, ApoUodorus,
Archedemus, Aristogenes, Xenocrates, Democrates,
Diodorus, Chrysippus, Phihp, Orus, Nicander,
ApoUonius of Pitane.

Book XXX. Contents : drugs obtained from
animals (concluded). (i-vii) Origin of magic — date
and place of its commencement, by whom practised ;
whether carried on in Italy. Human sacrifice, when
first prohibited by the senate ; the Druids of the
Gauls ; kinds of magic ; magicians' view as to moles ;
5 drugs. (viii-Uii) Remaining drugs, arranged
according to diseases, found in animals not classed as
tame or wild : cattle 2 and in last book 15= 17,
ram 7 and in last book 5 = 12, wool 25 and in last

135

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

lana XXV et priore libro XXXV = LX. oesypo
XX et priore libro XXXII = LII, mulis V et priore
libro I = VI, caballis III et priore libro I = * IV,
cane XLI et priore libro X.YI = * LVII, cane
rabioso II et priore III = V, \iverra I, mure XXVIII
et priore libro XIV = LXII, mure araneo I et
priore libro IV = V, glire VI et priore libro II =
VIII, sorice II et priore libro I = III, mustela XXV
et priore libro XIX = XLIV, stellione XII et
priore libro IV = XVI, erinaceo XIII et priore
libro V = XVIII, hystrice II et priore libro I = III,
lacerta XXX et priore libro XIII = XLIII, sala-
mandra III et priore libro I = IV, coclea XIX et
priore libro XXVII = XLVI (xliii ageraton ^ medica-
mentum), aspide III et priore libro I = IV, dracone
VI et priore libro IV = X, vipera XXI et priore
libro XIV = XXXV, angue XX\TI et priore libro
VIII = XXXV, bova Ili et priore libro IV = VII,
enhydride II et priore libro I = III, amphisbaena
III, serpentibus ceteris VII et priore libro VIII = XV
scorpione II et priore libro l\ = VI, araneorum
et phalangiorum genera * XII, medicinae XXVII et
priore libro IX = XXXVI, troxahde III, phryganione
I, scolopendra sive multipeda sive millepeda sive
centipeda sive onisco sive iulo XX et priore Ubro

I = XXI, (admiratio naturae nihil sine usu gignentis),
liniace III et priore Hbro I = IV, uruca II et priore
libro I = III, verme terreno XX et priore libro

II = XXII, verme ex arboribus IV et priore libro
I = V, verme ex herba VIII, herpete I, ricino III,
ex volucribus aquila III et priore libro IV = VII,
volture VII et priore hbro IX = XVI, ossifrago VI,
galhnaceo XXXV et priore hbro XXI = LVI,
galUna * XXII et priore Ubro X = XXXII, ovis

136

BOOK I

book 35 = 60, wool-washings 20 and in last book
32 = 52, mules 5 and in last book 1 = 6, horses 3 and
in last book 1 = 4; dog 41 and in last book 16 = 57,
mad dog 2 and in last book 3 = 5, ferret 1, mouse 28
and in last book 14 = 62, shrewmouse 1 and in last
book 4 = 5, dormouse 6 and in last book 2 = 8,
shrew-mouse 2 and in last book 1 = 3, weasel 25 and
in last book 19 = 44, newt 12 and in last book 4=16,
hedgehog 13 and in last book 5 = 18, porcupine 2
and in last book 1 = 3, lizard 30 and in last book

13 = 43, salamander 3 and in last book 1 = 4, snail
19 and in last book 27 = 46 (xliii the drug ' ever-
lasting '), viper 3 and in last book 1 = 4, snake 6
and in last book 4 = 10, viper 21 and in last book

14 = 35, serpent 27 and in last book 8 = 35, bova 3
and in last book 4 = 7, water snake 2 and in last book
1 = 3, Libyan snake 3, remaining serpents 7 and in
last book 8=15, scorpion 2 and in last book 9 = 36,
cricket 3, phryganion 1, scolopendra or multipede or
millepede or centipede or woodlouse or catkin 20
and in last book 1 = 21 (admiration for nature who
produces nothing useless), slug 3 and in last book
1 = 4, caterpillar 2 and in last book 1 = 3, earth-
worm 20 and in last book 2 = 22, tree-worm 4 and in
last book 1 = 5, grass-worm 8, herpes 1, tick 3;
from birds, eagle 3 and in last book 4 = 7, vulture
7 and in last book 9 = 16, lammergeier 6, cock 35 and
in last book 21 = 56, hen 22 and in last book 10 = 32,

^ aKepdTajv, Mayhoff.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

XLIII et priore libro XXII = LXV, Commageno

V et priore libro * IV = * IX, cygno V et priore
libro I = VI, otide II, corvo IV et priore libro
II = VI, cornice II et priore libro I = III, accipitre
II et priore libro II = IV, milvo VI et priore libro

II = VIII, grue I, ciconia I et priore libro II = III,
ibide III, ardiola I, anate IV et priore libro II = VI,
mergo II, perdice XI et priore libro VI = XVII,
palumbe XIV et priore libro * II = * XVI,
galerita IV, cuculo I, pico Martio I, turture V et
priore libro IV = IX, turdis III, merula I, hirundine
XXIV et priore libro IX = XXXIII, noctua V et
priore libro IV = IX, ulula I et priore libro I = II,
upupa I, bubone V et priore libro II = VII, passere
V, galgulo II, vespertilione IX et priore libro IV =
XIII, cicadis I, apibus VII et priore libro V = XII,
vespis II, bupresti III et priore libro III = VI,
pityocampis IV et priore libro II = VI, (naturae
benignitatem et foedis animalibus inseruisse magna
remedia.) scarabaeo VII et priore libro I = VIII,
blatta XIII et priore libro IV = XVII. de genere
cantharidum : medicinae ex his XI et priore libro

V = XVI, cimice V et priore libro IX = XIV,
musca V et priore libro * VII = XII, locustis III
et priore libro IV = VII, formicis V et priore hbro

III = VIII, Summa: medicinae et historiae et
observationes DCCCLIV.

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, Nigidio, M. Cicerone,
Sextio Nigro qui Graece scripsit, Licinio Macro.
Externis : Eudoxo, Aristotele, Hermippo, Homero,
Apione, Orpheo, Democrito, Anaxilao. Medicis :
Botrye, Apollodoro, Menandro, Archedemo, Ari-
stogene, Xenocrate, Diodoro, Chrysippo, Phihppo,
Oro, Nicandro, Apollonio Pitanaeo.

138

BOOK I

eggs 43 and in last book 22 = 65, Syrian cock 5 and
in last book 4 = 9, swan 5 and In last book 1 = 6,
otis 2, raven 4 and in last book 2 = 6, crow 2 and in
last book 1 = 3, hawk 2 and in last book 2 = 4, kite 6
in last book 2 = 8, crane 1, stork 1 and in last book
2 = 3, ibis 3, little heron 1, duck 4 and in last book
2=6, diver 2, partridge 11 and in last book 6 = 17,
dove 14 and in last book 2 = 16, crested lark 4,
cuckoo 1, Mars's woodpecker 1, tm-tledove 5 and in
last book 4=9, thrush 3, blackbird 1, swallow 24
and in last book 9 = 33, night-owl 5 and in last book
4 = 9, screech-owl 1 and in last book 1 = 2,hoopoe 1,
horned owl 5 and in last book 2 = 7, sparrow 5,
galgulus 2, bat 9 and in last book 4 = 13, tree cricket
1, bees 7 and in last book 5 = 12, wasps 2, cowfly 3
and in last book 3 = 6, pine-grub 4 and in last book
2 = 6 (that the beneficence of nature has placed
powerful remedies even in disgusting animals),
beetle 7 and in last book 1 = 8, cockroaches 13 and in
last book 4 = 17 ; the genus Spanish fly — drugs from
these 11 and in last book 5 = 16, bug 5 and in last
book 9 = 14, house-fly 5 and in last book 7 = 12,
locusts 3 and in last book 4 = 7, ants 5 and in last
book 3 = 8. — ^Total 854 drugs, investigations and
observations.

Authorities : Marcus Varro, Nigidius, Marcus
Cicero, Sextius Niger (Greek works of ), Licinius
Macer. Foreign authorities : Eudoxus, Aristotle,
Hermippus, Homer, Apion, Orpheus, Democritus,
Anaxilaus. Medical writers : Botrys, Apollodorus,
Menander, Archidemus, Aristogenes, Xenocrates,
Diodorus, Chrysippus, PhiUppus, Orus, Nicander,
ApoUonius of Pitane.

139

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Libro XXXI. continentur medicinae ex aqnatili-
bus. (i) aquarum mirabilia. (ii) aquarum differ
entiae. (iii-xvi) medicinae : observationes CCLX\T :
quales oculis aquae prosint, quales fecunditatem
faciant, quales insaniae medeantur, quales calculosis,
quales volneribus, quales partum custodiant, quales
vitiliginem tollant, quae colorem lanis faciant,
quae hominibus, quae memoriam, quae oblivionem,
quae sensus subtilitatem, quae tarditatem, quae
canoram vocem, quae vini taedium, quae inebrient,
quae olei vicem praestent, quae salsae et amarae ;
saxa egerentes, risum aut ploratum facientes, quae
amorem sanare dicantur. (xvii) per triduum ca-
lentes haustus. (xviii-xx) aquarum miracula : in
quibus omnia mergantur, in quibus nihil ; aquae
necantes, pisces venenati ; quae lapideae fiant aut
lapidem faciant. (xxi-iii) de salubritate aquarum;
de vitiis aquarum ; probatio aquarum. (xxiv f.)
de aqua Marcia; de aqua Virgine. (xxvi-ix)
aquas inveniendi ratio ; signa aquarum ; differentia
aquarum per genera terrae ; ratio aquarum per
tempora anni. (xxx) aquarum subito nascentium
aut desinentium observatio historica. (xxxi) ratio
aquae ducendae. (xxxii f.) quomodo medicatis
utendum et ad quae genera valetudinum ; item
marinis XXIX. quid prosit navigatio V. (xxxiv-
vi) quomodo marina aqua in mediterraneis fieri
possit I, quomodo thalassomeh I, quomodo hydromeli
I. (xxxvii f.) remedium contra peregrinas aquas ;
ex musco medicinae VI ; medicinae ex harenis.
(xxxix-xlv) de salis generibus et confecturis et
medicinis observationcs CCIV; de saUs auctoritate

140

BOOK I

Book XXXI. Contents : drugs obtained from aquatic
animals. (i) Remarkable facts as to waters. (ii)
Differences in waters. (iii-xvi) Medicinal properties :
266 observations ; what sorts of waters are good for
the eyes, what sorts produce fertiUty, what sorts cure
insanity, what sorts gall-stone, what sorts wounds,
what sorts protect the embryo, what sorts remove
tetter, which make dye for wools, which for human
beings, which produce memory, which forgetfulness,
which keenness of sense, which slowness, wliich a
musical voice, which disUke of wine, which intoxica-
tion, which fill the place of oil, which are salt and
bitter; springs discharging rocks, springs that cause
laughter or weeping, springs said to cure love.
(xvii) Water keeping hot for three days after being
drawn. (xviii-xx) Remarkable waters : waters in
which all objects sink, in which no objects; watei*s
that kill, poisonous fishes ; waters that turn into
stone, or produce stones. (xxi-iii) Health-giving
property of waters ; impurities of waters ; mode of
testing waters. (xxiv f.) The Marcian Spring, the
Maiden Spring. (xxvi-ix) Method of finding water ;
signs of springs ; differences of waters according to
kinds of earth ; variation of springs with the seasons.
(xxx). Historical account of springs suddenly arising
or stopping. (xxxi) Method of carrying water in
pipes. (xxxii f.) Medicinal waters, mode of employ-
ing, for what kinds of illnesses ; ditto sea-water,
29 kinds. Benefits of a voyage, 5. (xxxiv-vi)
Sea-water at places inland, 1 method of producing,
sea-water-honey 1 , water-honey 1. (xxxvii f.) Remedy
against foreign waters ; 6 drugs from moss ; drugs from
sands. (xxxix-xlv) Salt, kind^^ of, preparations and
di-ugs from, 204 observations j liistorical importance

141

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

historica CXX ; spuma salis ; flos salis XX, salsugo
II; de garo XV; de muria XV; de allece VIII;
de natura salis. (xlvi f.) de nitri generibus et
confecturis et medicinis observationes CCXXI ; de
spongeis medicinae et observationes XCII. Summa :
medicinae et historiae et observationes DCCCCXXIV.

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, Cassio Parmense,
Cicerone, Muciano, Caeho, Celso, Trogo, Ovidio,
Polybio, Sornatio. Externis : CalUmacho, Ctesia,
Eudico, Theophrasto, Eudoxo, Theopompo, PolycHto,
luba, Lyco, Apione, Epigene, Pelope, Apelle,
Democrito, Thrasyllo, Nicandro, Menandro comoedo,
Attalo, Sallustio, Dionysio, Andrea, Nicerato, Hip-
pocrate, Anaxilao.

Libro XXXII. continentur medicinae ex aquatili-
bus. (i-iv) summa naturae vis in antipathia. de
echeneide II, de torpedine VII, de lepore marino V;
mirabilia rubri maris. (v-ix) de ingeniis piscium ;
proprietates piscium mirabiles ; ubi responsa dentur
ex piscibus, ubi ex manu edant, ubi vocem agnoscant,
ubi amari sint, ubi salsi, ubi dulces, ubi non muti;
esse et locorum sympathiam et antipathiam. (x)
quando marini pisces in usu P. R. esse coeperint.
Numae regis constitutio de piscibus. (xi) de curaho
medicinae et observationes XLIV. (xii) de discordia
inter se marinorum, pastinaca IX, galeo, mullo XV.
(xiii-xx) de iis quibus in aqua et in terra victus est :
de castoreis medicinae et observationes LVI, de
testudine medicinae et observationes LX^T, aurata
IV, stella marina VII, dracone marino III, salsamento
XXV, sardis I, cybia; rana marina VI, fluviatiles
LII, rana rubeta; observationes circa eas XXXII;
enhydris VI, cancri fluviatiles XIV, cancri marini VII,
cocleae fluviatiles VII, coracini IV, porco pisce II,

142

BOOK I

of salt 120 ; froth of salt ; flower of salt 20 ; brine
2 ; fish-sauce 15 ; pickle 15 ; fish-brine 8 ; nature
of salt. (xlvi f.) Native soda, kinds of, prepara-
tions and drugs from — 221 observations ; sponges,
92 drugs from and observations — Total 924 drugs,
investigations and observations.

Authorities : Marcus Varro, Cassius of Parma,
Cicero, Mucianus, Caelius, Celsus, Trogus, Ovid,
Polybius,Sornatius. Foreign authorities : Callimachus,
Ctesias, Eudicus, Theophrastus, Eudoxus, Theopom-
pus, Polyclitus, Juba, Lycus, Apion, Epigenes,
Pelops, Apelles, Democritus, Thrasyllus, Nicander,
comedies of Menander, Attalus, SaUustius, Dionysius,
Andreas, Niceratus, Hippocrates, Anaxilaus.

Book XXXII. Contents — drugs from aquatic
animals. (i-iv) Nature's supreme force in antipathy.
The sucking-fish, 2 cases ; the electric ray, 7 cases;
the sea-hare, 5 cases; marvels of the Red Sea.
(v-ix) Intellect of fishes ; remarkable properties of
fishes ; places where oracles are given from fishes,
where fishes eat out of the hand, where they recognize
the voice, where they are bitter, where salt, where
sweet, where not dumb ; their sympathy and also
antipathy for locaUties. (x) Sea-fish when first used
by the Roman nation. King Numa's regulation as to
fish. (xi) Coral, drugs from and observations as to,
66. (xii) Discord between marine animals : sting-ray
9, dog-fish, mullet 15. (xiii-xx) Amphibious animals :
beaver-castors, drugs from and observations as to,
56 ; tortoise, drugs and observations 66 ; gilt-bream
4, star-fish 7, sea-snake 3, salt fish 25, sardines 1,
tunnies, sea-frog 6, river-frog 52, bramble-toad ;
observations about them 32 ; water-snake 6, river-
crabs 14, sea-crabs 7, river-snails 7, crow-fish 4, pig-

143

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

vitulo marino X, murena I, hippocampo IX, echinis
XI. (xxi-xxx) ostreorum genera et observationes
et medicinae LIX, purpura IX, alga marina II,
mus marinus II, scorpio marinus XII, sanguisugae
VI, murices XIII, conchylia V, piscium adeps II,
callionjTni III, coracini fel I, sepiae XXIV, ichthyo-
colla V, batia I, bacchus sive my^xon II, marini
peducuh II, canicula IV, cetum I, delphinus IX,
coluthia sive corj-phia III, alcyoneima VII, thynnus
V, maenae XIII, scolopendra II, saurus I, conchis I,
silurus XV, strombus sive concha longa VI, tethea V.
(xxxi-hi) holus marinxmi I, myaces XXV, mituli
VlII, pelorides I, seriphum II, erythinis II, solea
pisce I, rhombo I, blendia I, urtica marina VII,
puhno marinus VI, onyches IV. ex colubra aquatica
I, ex hydro I, mugile I, ex pelamvde IV, sciaena I,
perca IV, ex squatina III, zmarides III, ophidio I,
ex fibro IV, bryon I, ex asello pisce I, phagro I,
ex balaena I, polypo I. ex glano I, glaucisco I,
rubelho I, uva marina I, anguilla I, hippopotamio
I, crocodilo I, adarca sive calamochnus III, calamo
VIII. (liii) animahum omnium in mari viventium
nomina CLXXVI. Summa : medicinae et historiae
et observationes DCCCCXC.

Ex auctoribus : Licinio Macro, Trebio Nigro,
Sextio Nigro qui Graece scripsit, Ovidio poeta,
Cassio Hemina, Maecenate, laccho, Sornatio. Ex-
temis : luba, Andrea, Salpe, Apione, Pelope,
Apelle, Thrasyllo, Nicandro.

Libro XXXIII. rontinentur metallorum nuturae.
(ii-xii) de auro : quae prima commendatio eius ;
de anuloriun aureorimi origine ; de modo auri apud
antiquos ; de equestri ordine, de iure anulorum
aureorxmi, de decuriis iudicum ; quotiens nomen

144

BOOK I

fish 2, sea-calf 10, lamprey 1, sea-horse 9, sea-urchins

11. (xxi-xxx) Shellfish : kinds, observations and drugs
59, purple dye 9 ; seaweed 2, sea-mouse 2, sea-scorpion

12, leeches 6, purple-fishes 13, mussels 5, fishes' fat 2,
callyonymi 3, crow-fish's gall 1, cuttle-fish 24, huso
sturgeon 5, batia 1, bacchus or myxon 2, sea-lice 2,
sea-bitch 4, seal 1, dolphin 9, sea-snail or murex 3,
sea-foara 7, tunny 5, maena 13, scolopendra 2, hzard 1,
conchis 1, sheat-fish 15, sea-snail or longmussel 6,
sponge 5. (xxxi lii) Sea-cabbage 1 , myax mussel 25,
sea-mussels 8, giant mussels 1, seriphus fish 2, sea-
muUet 2, sole-fish 1, turbot 1, blendia 1, sea-nettle 7,
sea-lung 6, scallops 4; from the water-snake 4, frora
the water-serpent 1, mullet 1, from the young tunny
4, grayUng 1, perch 4, from the skate 3, zmarides 3,
conger 1, beaver 4, moss 1, haddock 1, phager 1,
from the whale 1, polypus 1, shad 1, blue-fish 1,
rudd 1, sea-grape 1, eel 1, river-horse 1, crocodile 1,
adarca or sea-foam 3, rush 8. (hii) Names of all
animals Uving in the sea 176. — Total : 990 drugs,
investigations and observations.

Authorities : Licinius Macer, Trebius Niger,
Sextius Niger (Greek writings of), the poet Ovid,
Cassius Hemina, Maecenas, lacchus, Sornatius.
Foreign authorities : Juba, Andreas, Salpes, Apion,
Pelops, Apelles, Thrasyllus, Nicander.

Book XXXIII. Contents : the properties of the
metals. (ii-xii) Gold, what first caused it to be
valued; origin of gold rings ; limited amount of gold
among the ancients ; the equestrian order, its right
of wearing gold rings; its panels of judges; how

145

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

equestris ordinis mutatum ; de donis militaribus
aureis et argenteis ; quando primum corona aurea
data; de reliquo usu auri, feminarum. (xiii-xxv)
de nummo aureo ; quando primum signatum aes,
argentum, aurum ; antequam signaretur, quis mos
in aere ; quae maxima pecunia primo censu ; quotiens
et quibus temporibiLS aucta sit aeris et nummi
signati aestimatio ; de cupiditate auri ; qui pluri-
mum auri et argenti possederint ; quando primum
argenti apparatus in harena, quando in scaena;
quibus temporibus plurimum in aerario populi
Romani auri et argenti fuerit; quando primum
lacunaria inaurata ; quibus de causis praecipua
auctoritas auro ; ratio inaurandi ; de inveniendo
auro ; de auripigmento ; de electro ; primae aureae
statuae ; medicinae ex auro VIII. (xxvi-ix) de
chrysocolla : ratio eius in picturis ; medicinae ex
chrysocolla VII ; de aurificum chrysocolla sive
santerna. (xxx) mirabiha naturae glutinandis inter
se et perficiendis metallicis rebus. (xxxi-v) de
argento ; de argento vivo ; de stimi sive stibi sive
alabastro sive larbasi sive platyophthalmo ; medicinae
sive ex eo VII ; de scoria argenti ; medicinae ex ea VI ;
de spuma argenti ; medicinae ex ea VII. (xxxvi-
xh) de minio; quam rehgiosimi apud antiquos
fuerit ; de inventione eius et origine ; de cinnabari ;
ratio eius in medicina et in picturis ; genera mini,
ratio eius in picturis, in medicina; de hydrargyro.
(xlii f.) de argento inaurando ; de coticuhs aurariis.
(xliv-lv) argenti genera et experimenta : de specuhs ;
de Aegyptio argento ; de inmodica pecunia ; quorum
maximae opes fuerint ; quando primimn populus
Romanus stipem sparserit ; de luxuria in vasis
argenteis ; frugahtatis antiquae in argento exempla ;

146

BOOK I

often the title * equestrian order ' altered ; gold
and silver military gifts ; gold wreath, when first
bestowed; other nses of gold, its use by women.
(xiii-xxv) Gold coinage ; date of earliest coins, copper,
silver, gold; method of using copper before intro-
duction of stamping ; highest money rating at first
census ; how often and at what dates value of copper
and stamped coinage raised; the lust for gold;
largest owners of silver and gold; date of earhest
employment of silver ornaments in the arena, and on
the stage ; dates of largest accumulations of gold
and silver in the national treasury ; date of earhest
gilded ceiUngs ; reasons for special value of gold ;
method of gilding ; discovery of gold ; orpiment ;
synthetic amber ; earliest gold statues ; 8 drugs
from gold. (xxvi-ix) malachite, method of em-
ploying it in painting ; 7 drugs from malachite ;
goldsmith's malachite or mountain-green. (xxx)
Remarkable natural facts as to the welding of
metals and as to metal manufactures. (xxxi-v)
Silver ; quicksilver ; antimony or stibis or ala-
baster or larbasis or platyopathalmus, drugs
made of, 7 ; silver slag, drugs made of, 6 ; foam
of silver, drugs made of, 7. (xxxvi-xli) Minimum,
reverence for among tbe ancients ; discovery and
source of ; cinnabar, method of using in medicine
and in painting ; kinds of red-lead ; method of use
in medicine and painting ; watersilver. (xhii f.)
Gilding of silver ; touchstones for gold. (xliv-lv)
Silver, its kinds and methods of testing ; mirrors ;
Egyptian silver ; immoderate wealth ; who were the
richest people ; when did the Roman nation begin
to squander money ; luxury in silver vessels ;
sparing use of silver in antiquity, instances of;

H7

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

quando primum lectis argentum additum ; quando
lances immodicae factae ; quando repositoriis argen-
tum additum, quando tympana facta; inmodica
argenti pretia ; de statuis argenteis ; nobilitates
operum et artificum in argento. (Ivi-lviii) de sile;
qui primi sile pinxerint et qua ratione ; de caeruleo ;
medicinae ex eo II. Summa: medicinae et historiae
et observationes CCLXXXVHI.

Ex auctoribus : Domitiano Caesare, lunio Grac-
chano, L. Pisone, M. Varrone, Corvino, Attico
Pomponio, Calvo Licinio, Cornelio Nepote, Muciano,
Boccho, Fetiale, Fenestella, Valerio Maximo, lulio
Basso qui de medicina Graece scripsit, Sextio Nigro
qui item. Externis : Theophrasto, Democrito, luba,
Timaeo historico qui de medicina metallica scripsit,
Heraclide, Andrea, Diagora, Botrye, Archedemo,
Dionysio, Aristogene, Democle, Mneside, Attalo
medico, Xenocrate item, Theomnesto, Nympho-
doro, lolla, Apollodoro, Pasitele qui mirabilia opera
scripsit, Antigono qui de toreutice scripsit, Menaech-
mo qui item, Xenocrate qui item, Duride qui item,
Menandro qui de toreutis, Heliodoro qui de Athenien-
sium anathematis scripsit, Metrodoro Scepsio.

Libro XXXIV. continentur : aeris metalla. (ii-
x) genera aeris ; quae Corinthia, quae DeHaca,
quae Aeginetica. de tricliniis aereis, de candela-
bris ; de templorum ornamentis ex aere ; quod
primmn dei simulacrum Romae ex aere factum ;
de origine statuarum et honore. (x-xix) statuarum
genera et figurae. antiquas statuas togatas sine
tunicis fuisse ; quae primae statuae Romae, quibus
primum publice positae, quibus primum in columna ;
quando rostra ; quibus externis Romae publice
positae, quibus Romae mulieribus in publico positae,

148

BOOK I

date of earliest use of silver inlay on couclies, of
silver vessels of excessive size, of trays inlayed with
silver, of making ' drums ' ; excessive prices for
silver ; silver statuary ; famous works of art and
artists in silver. (Ivi-Iviii) Of yellow ochre, who
first used for painting and how. Steel blue ; drugs
made from, 2. — Total 288 drugs, investigations
and observations.

Authorities : the Emperor Domitian, Junius
Gracchanus, Lucius Piso, Marcus Varro, Corvinus,
Pomponius Atticus, Licinius Calvus, Cornelius Nepos,
Mucianus, Bocchus, Fetialis, Fenestella, Valerius
Maximus, Julius Bassus, Greek medical writings of,
Sextius Niger, ditto. Foreign authorities : Theo-
phrastus, Democritus, Juba, the historian Timaeus's
Mineral Drugs, Heraclides, Andreas, Diagoras,
Botrys, Archedemus, Dionysius, Aristogenes, Demo-
cles, Mnesides, Attalus the medical writer, Xeno-
crates ditto, Theomnestus, Nymphodorus, lollas,
ApoIIodorus, Pasiteles's Masterpieces, Antigonus
On Graving, Menaechmus ditto, Xenocrates diito,
Duris ditto, Menander On Gravers, HeIiodorus's
Votive Offenngs of Athens, Metrodorus of Scepsis.

Book XXXIV. Contents : (i) Copper metals.
(ii-x) Kinds of copper — Corinthian,Delian, Aeginetan.
On bronze dining-couches ; on candelabra ; on temple
decorations of bronze ; first bronze image of a god
made at Rome ; on the origin of statues and the
reverence paid to them. (x-xix) Statues, their
kinds and shapes. Ancient statues dressed in toga
without tunic ; the first statues at Rome, the first
erected by the state, the first erected on a column ;
ship's beaks, when added; first foreigners to whom
statues erected by the state at Rome ; tirst women to

149

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

quae prima Romae statua equestris publice posita;
quando omnes privatim positae statuae ex publico
sublatae ; quae prima ab externis publice posita ;
fuisse antiquitus et in Italia statuarios ; de pretiis
signorum inmodicis ; de colossis in urbe celeber-
rimis ; nobilitates ex aere operum et artificum
CCCLXVI. (xx-xxix) difFerentiae aeris et mixturae ;
de pyropo, de Campano aere ; de servando aere ;
de cadmia ; medicinae ex ea XV ; aeris usti effectus
in medicina X ; de scoria aeris, de flore aeris, squama
aeris, stomomate aeris : medicinae ex his XLVII ;
aerugo: medicinae ex ea XVIII; hieracium ;
scolex aeris ; medicinae ex eo XVIII ; de chalcitide ;
medicinae ex ea VII ; psoricon. (xxx-xxxviii)
sory ; medicinae ex eo III ; misy : medicinae ex
eo XIV ; chalcanthum sive atramentum sutorium :
medicinae ex eo XVI ; pompholyx, spodium :
medicinae ex eis VI ; antispodi genera XV ; smegma ;
de diphryge ; de triente Servilio. (xxxix-xlvi) de
ferri metallis : simulacra ex ferro ; caelaturae ex
ferro ; differentiae ferri ; de ferro quod vivum
appellant ; ferri temperatura ; robiginis remedia ;
medicinae ex ferro VII ; medicinae ex robigine
XIV; medicinae ex squama ferri XVII; hygrempla-
strum. (xlvii-lvi) de plumbi metalHs : de plumbo
albo ; de argentario, de stagno ; de plumbo nigro ;
medicinae ex plumbo XV ; medicinae ex scoria
plumbi XV ; spodium ex plumbo ; de molybdaena ;
medicinae ex ea XV; psimythium sive cerussa:
medicinae ex ea VI ; sandaraca : medicinae ex ea
XI ; arrenicum. Summa : medicinae CCLVII ; ex
iis ad canis morsus, ad caput, alopecias, oculos, aures,
nares, oris vitia, lepras, gingivas, dentes, uvam,
pituitam, fauces, tonsillas, anginam, tussim, vocai-

150

BOOK I

whom statues so erected ; first equestrian statue
erected by the state at Rome ; date of removal from
pubhc places of all statues erected by private donors ;
first statue pubUcly erected by foreigners ; existence
of sculptors from early times even in Italy ; excessive
prices for statues ; the most celebrated colossal
statues in the city ; 366 famous instances of bronze
statues and sculptors in bronze. (xx-xxix) DiiFerent
kinds of bronze and alloy; gold-bronze, Capuan
bronze ; preseivatioa of broiize ; cadmia, 15 drugs
made from ; melted bronze, 10 medicinal products
of; copper slag, copper blisters, copper scales,
copper flakes, 47 drugs from these ; copper rust, 18
drugs from ; eye-salve ; worm-eaten bronze, 18 drugs
from ; copper ore, 7 drugs from ; itch-salve. (xxx-
xxxviii) Ink-stone, 3 drugs from ; copperas, 14 drugs
from ; copperas water or shoe-maker's blacking, 16
drugs from ; pompholyx, slag, 6 drugs from these ;
slag-ashes, 15 kinds ; skin-detergent ; diphryx ; the
Servihan family's magic sixpence. (xxxix-xlvi)
Iron mines ; iron statues ; chased iron ; different
kinds of iron ; ' Uve iron ' ; the tempering of iron ;
remedies for rust; 7 drugs from iron ; 14 drugs
from rust ; 17 drugs fi-om iron scale ; wet
plaster. (xlvii-lvi) Lead mines ; white lead ; silver-
lead, stannum, black lead ; 15 drugs from lead ; 15
drugs from lead slag ; dross from lead ; molyb-
daeiia, 15 drugs from ; sugar of lead or cerussa, 6
drugs from ; sandarach, 11 drugs from ; arsenic. —
Total, 257 drugs, including remedies for dog-bite, for
the head, fox-mange, eyes, ears, nostrils, ailments of
the mouth, leprosy, gums, teeth, uvula, phlegm,
throat, tonsils, quinsy, cough, vomiting, chest,
stcmach, asthma, pains in the side, spleen, stomach,

151

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

tiones, pectus, stomachum, suspiria, lateris dolores,
splenem, ventrem, tenesmum, dysenteriam, sedem,
verenda, sanguinem sistendum, podagras, hydropicos,
ulcera, volnera XXVI, suppurata, ossa, paronychia,
ignem sacriun, haemorroidas, fistulas, callum, pusulas,
scabiem, cicatrices, infantes, muliebria vitia, psilo-
trum, Venerem inhibendam, ad vocem, contra
lymphationes. summa : res et historae et observa-
tiones DCCCCXV.

Ex auctoribus : L. Pisone, Antiate, Verrio, M.
Varrone, Cornelio Nepote, Messala Rufo, Marso
poeta, Boccho, lulio Basso qui de medicina Graece
scripsit, Sextio Nigro qui item, Fabio Vestale.
Extemis : Democrito, Metrodoro Scepsio, Menae-
chmo qui de toreutice scripsit, Xenocrate qui item,
Antigono qui item, Duride qui item, Heliodoro qui
de Atheniensium anathematis scripsit, Pasitele qui
de mirabihbus operibus scripsit, Timaeo qui de
medicina metallica scripsit, N}Tnphodoro, lolla,
Apollodoro, Andrea, Herachde, Diagora, Botrye,
Archedemo, Dionysio, Aristogene,Democle,Mneside,
Xenocrate Zenonis, Theomnesto.

Libro XXXV. continentur : (i-x) Honos picturae,
honos imaginum. quando primum clipei imaginura
instituti ; quando primum in pubhco positi ; quando
in domibus. de picturae initiis, de monochromatis
picturis, de primis pictoribus. antiquitas pictura-
rum in Itaha. de pictoribus Romanis. quando
primum dignitas picturae et quibus ex causis Romae,
qui ^ victorias suas pictas proposuerint. quando
primum externis picturis dignitas Romae. (xi)
ratio pingendi. (xii-xxx) de pigmentis praeter
metalhca. de coloribus ficticiis ; de Sinopide ;
medicinae ex ea XI ; de rubrica ; de terra Lemiiia ;

152

BOOK I

slrainiiig, dysentery, the sea,t, tlie private parts,
b!ood-stancLing, gout, dropsy, ulcers, 26 wounds, pus,
bones, whitlows, erysipelas, haemorrhoids, ulcers,
callus, pimples, mange, scars, infants, ailments of
women, depilatory, sex restraint, for the voice,
agiiinst attacks of frerzy — Tutal, 915 facts, in-
vestigations and ohservations.

Authorities : Lucius Piso, Antias, ^^errius, Marcus
Varro, Cornehus Nepos, Rufus Messala, the poet
Marsus, Bocchus, JuHus Bassus's Greek treatise on
medicine, Sextius Niger's ditto, Fabius Vestahs.
Foreign authorities : Democritus, Metrodorus of
Scepsis, Menaechmus's Art of Graving, Xenocrates
diito, Antigonus ditto, Duris ditto, Hehodorus's
Votive Offerings of Athens, Pasiteles's Masterpieces,
Timaeus's Mineral Drvgs, Nymphodorus, lollas,
Apollodorus, Andreas, Herachdes, Diagoras, Botrys,
Archedemus, Dionysius, Aristogenes, Democles,
Mnesides, Xenocrates son of Zeno, Theomnestus.

Book XXXV. Contents : (i-x) Praise of painting,
Praise of sculpture. Shields witli sculptured figures,
when first instituted ; when first set up in pubhc ;
when in private houses. The commencement of
painting ; pictures in monochrome ; the first
paiuters. Antiquity of paintings in Italy. Roman
painters. Painting — when first esteemed at Rome,
and for what reasons, who first exhibited paintings
of their victories. Foreign pictures, when first
valued at Rome. (xi) Method of painting. (xii-
xxx) Non-mineral pigments. Artificial colours ;
red ochre, 11 drugs from it; red chalk ; Lemnian

qui primi ? Eackham.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

medicinae ex ea IX ; de Aegyptia terra ; de ochra ;
medicinae ex rubrica III ; leucophorum ; Paraeto-
nium. Melinum ; medicinae ex eo VI ; cerussa usta ;
Eretria terra, medicinae ex ea VI ; sandaraca ;
sandyx ; Syricum ; atramentum ; purpurissum ;
Indicum : medicinae ex eo IV ; Armenium, medicina
ex eo I ; viride Appianum ; anulare. (xxxi-iii)
qui colores udo non inducantur. quibus coloribus
antiqui pinxerint. quando primum gladiatorum
pugnae pictae et propositae sint. (xxxiv-xli) de
aetate picturae ; operum et artificum in pictura
nobilitates CCCCV, picturae primum certamen ; qui
penicillo pinxerint ; de avium cantu conpescendo ;
qui encausto aut ceris vel cestro vel penicillo pinxerint.
quae quis primus invenerit in pictura ; quid difficilli-
mum in pictura ; de generibus picturae ; quis
primus lacunaria pinxerit, quando primum camarae
pictae ; pretia mirabilia picturarum ; de talento.
(xliii-xlvi) plastices primi inventores ; quis primus
ex facie imaginem expresserit ; nobilitates artificum
in plastice XIV. de figlinis operibus ; de Signinis.
(xlvii-lix) terrae varietates ; de pulvere Puteolano
et aliis terrae generibus quae in lapidem vertuntur ;
de parietibus formaceis ; de latericiis et de laterum
ratione ; de sulpure et generibus eius ; medicinae
XIV ; de bitumine et generibus eius ; medicinae
XXVII ; de alumine et generibus eius ; medicinae
ex eo XXX\'III ; de terra Samia ; medicinae ex ea
III ; Eretriae terrae genera ; de terra ad medicinam
lavanda ; de Chia terra : medicinae ex ea III ; de
Sehnusia ; medicinae ex ea III ; de pnigitide ;
medicinae ex ea IX ; de ampelitide ; medicinae ex
ea IV ; cretae ad vestium usus ; cimolia : medicinae
ex ea IX ; Sarda, Umbrica, saxum ; argentaria ;

154

BOOK I

earth, 9 drugs from it ; Egyptian earth ; yellow
ochre ; 3 drugs from red ochre ; gold size ; Parae-
tonium white ; MeUan white ; 6 drugs from it ;
burnt white-lead ; earth of Eretria, 6 drugs from it ;
sandarach ; vermiUon ; Syrian ; black ink ; dark
purple ink; indigo, 4 drugs from it; ultramarine,
1 di'ug from it ; Appian green ; signet-ring white.
(xxxi-iii) Colours that cannot be painted on a damp
surface. Colours used by painters of early dates.
When battles of gladiators were first painted and
exhibited. (xxxiv-xH) The antiquity of painting;
405 celebrated cases of paintings and artists ; earUest
painting competition ; painters that used the brush ;
how to check the song of birds ; what painters used
encaustic or waxes or graver or brush ; inventors of
successive improvements in painting ; the most
difficult thing in painting ; kinds of painting ; first
painter of panelled ceifings ; vaulted roofs, when
first painted ; remarkable prices for pictures ; the
talent. (xhii-xhd) The first discoveries of modelHng ;
who first took a mould of a face ; 14 celebrated cases
of artists in modehing ; works in pottery ; Segni
plaster. (xlvii-Hx) Varieties of earth : PozzuoH
dust and other kinds of earth used for concrete ;
walls cast in moulds ; brickwork and employment of
bi'ick ; brimstone and its kinds ; 14 drugs ; bitumen
and its Idnds ; 27 drugs ; alum and its kinds ; 38
drugs therefrom ; Samian earth ; 3 drugs therefrom ;
Eretrian earth, its kinds ; on washing earth to make
a drug ; Chian earth ; 3 drugs therefrom ; earth of
SeHnunte ; 3 drugs therefrom ; potters' clay ; 9drugs
therefrom ; vine-earth ; 4 drugs therefrom ; chalks
for use in connexion with clothes ; earth of Kimolo ;
9 di-ugs therefrom ; earth of Sardis, of Umbria, rock ;

155

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

qui et quorum liberti praepotentes ; terra ex Galata,
terra Clupea, terra Baliarica, terra Ebusitana:
medicinae ex eis IV. Summa : medicinae et
historiae et observationes DCCCCLVI.

Ex auctoribus : Messala oratore, Messala sene,
Fenestella, Attico, M. Varrone, Verrio, Nepote
Cornelio, Deculone, Muciano, Melisso, Vitruvio,
Cassio Severo, Longulaao, Fabio Vestale qui de
pictura scripsit. Externis : Pasitele, Apelle, Melan-
thio, Asclepiodoro, Euphranore, Parrhasio, Helio-
doro qui de anathematis Atheniensium scripsit,
Metrodoro qui de architectonice scripsit, Demo-
crito, Theophrasto, Apione grammatico qui de
metallica medicina scripsit, Nymphodoro, lolla,
Apollodoro, Andrea, Herachde, Diagora, Botrye,
Archedemo, Dionysio, Aristogene, Democle, Mneside
Xenocrate Zenonis, Theomnesto.

Libro XXXVI. continentur naturae lapidum. (i-xi)
luxuria in marmoribus : quis primus peregrino
marmore columnas habuerit Romae ; quis primus
in pubhcis operibus ostenderit ; qui primi laudati
in marmore scalpendo et quibus temporibus (ix de
Mausoleo Cariae) ; nobilitates operum et artificum
in marmore CCXXV ; quando primum marmorum
in aedificiis usus ; qui primi marmora secuerint et
quando ; quis primus Romae crustaverit parietes ;
quibus aetatibus quaeque marmora in usum venerint
Romae ; ratio secandi marmora ; de harenis quibus
secantur ; de Naxio, de Armenio ; de Alexandrinis
marmoribus. (xii f.) de onyche, de alabastrite :
medicinae ex eis VI ; de lygdino, coralHtico, Alaban-
dico, Thebaico, Syenite. (xiv f.) de obeUsicis : de eo
qui pro gnomone in campo Martio est. (xvi— xxiii)
opera mirabiHa in terris : Sphinx Aegyptia, pyra-

156

BOOK I

rotten-stone ; what people and whose freedmen are
excessively powerful ; Galatian earth, Kalibian earth,
Balearic earth, Iviza earth ; 4 drugs from these. —
Total 956 drugs, investigations and observations.

Authorities : the orator Messala, Messala senior,
Fenestella, Atticus, Marcus Varro, Verrius, Cornelius
Nepos, Deculo, Mucianus, MeHssus, Vitruvius,
Cassius Severus, Longulanus, Fabius VestaUs On
Painting. Foreign authorities ; Pasiteles, Apelles,
Melanthius, Asclepiodorus, Euphranor, Parrhasius,
Hehodorus's Votive ojferings of Athens, Metrodorus's
Science of Architecture, Democritus, Theoplirastus, the
philologist Apion's Mineral Drugs, Nymphodorus,
lollas, Apollodorus, Andreas, HeracUdes, Diagoras,
Botrys, Archedemus, Dionysius, Aristogenes,
Democles, Mnesides, Xenocrates son of Zeno,
Theomnestus.

Book XXXVI. Contents : the natures of stones.
(i-xi) Luxury in use of marbles ; first owner of foreign
marble pillars at Rome ; first exhibitor of marble in
pubHc works ; first distinguished sculptors in marble,
and their dates; (ix the Mausoleum of Caria) ;
225 famous works and artists in marble ; date of first
employment of marbles in buildings ; what people
first cut marbles, and at what date ; who first used
marble wall-paneUing at Rome ; at which periods
did the various marbles come into use at Rome ;
method of cutting marble ; sands employed in marble-
cutting ; Naxian marble, Armenian marble, marbles of
Alexandria. (xii f.) Onyx, alabaster; 6 drugs there-
from ; Parian marble, coral marble, AUibanda stone,
Theban stone, Syene granite. (xiv f.) ObeUsks :
obeUsk in Campus Martius serving as gnomon.
(xvi-xxiii) Remarkable structures in various countries ;
Egyptian Sphinx, pyramids ; Pliaros Ughthouse ;

157

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

mides ; Pharos ; labyrinthi ; pensiles horti, pensile
oppidum; de templo Ephesiae Dianae; ahorum
templorum admirabilia ; de lapide fugitivo ; echo
septiens resonans ; sine clavo aedificia. (xxiv)
Romae miracula operum XVIII. (xxv-xxx) de
magnete lapide : medicinae ex eo III ; Syrius lapis ;
de sarcophago sive Assio : medicinae ex eo X ;
de chernite, de poro ; de lapidibus osseis, de palmatis,
de Taenariis, de Coranis, de nigris marmoribus;
de molaribus lapidibus ; pyritis ; medicinae ex eo
VII. (xxxi-xl) ostracites : medicinae ex eo IV;
amiantus : medicinae ex eo II ; geodes : medicinae
ex eo III ; melitinus : medicinae ex eo VI ; gagates :
medicinae ex eo VI ; spongites : medicinae ex eo II ;
phrygius ; haematites : medicinae ex eo V ; schistos :
medicinae ex eo VII ; androdamas : medicinae
ex eo II ; Arabicus ; miltites sive hepatites, anthra-
cites; aetites, Taphiusius, calhmus ; Samius : medi-
cinae ex eo VIII. (xH-1) arabus : medicinae ex eo
VI ; de pumice : medicinae ex eo IX ; de mortariis
medicinalibus et aliis ; Etesius lapis, chalazius;
siphnius, lapides molles ; lapis specularis ; phengites ;
de cotibus ; de tophis ; de siUcum natura ; de reliquis
ad structuram lapidibus. (li-lix) genera structurae ;
de cisternis ; de calce ; harenae genera, harenae
et calcis mixturae ; vitia structurae ; de tectoriis ;
de columnis : genera columnarimi ; medicinae ex
calce V ; de maltha ; de gj^pso. (Ix-lxx) de pavl-
mentis : asarotos oecos ; quod primum pavimentum
Romae ; de subdialibus pavimentis ; Graecanica
pavimenta : quando primum lithostrotum ; quando
primum camarae vitreae ; origo vitri ; genera eius et
ratio faciendi ; de Obsianis ; miracula ignium ; medi-
cinae ex igni et cinere III ; prodigia foci. Summa :

t58

BOOK I

labyrinths ; hanging gardens, hanging town ; temple
of Diana at Ephesus ; remarkable facts as to other
temples ; runaway stone ; sevenfold echo ; buildings
constructed without clamps. (xxiv) Eighteen
remarkable works at Rome. (xxv-xxx) Magnetic
stone : 3 drugs therefrom ; Syros stone ; flesh-
eating or Assos stone, 10 drugs therefrom ; Chernites
marble ; tufa ; bone-stones, palm-branch stones,
Taenarus stones, Cora stones, black marbles; mill-
stones ; pyritis, 7 dinigs therefrom. (xxxi-xl) Oyster-
shell stone, 4 drugs therefrom ; asbestos, 2 drugs
therefrom ; earthstone, 3 drugs therefrom ; honey-
stone ; 6 drugs therefrom; jet, 6 drugs therefrom;
sponge-stone, 2 drugs therefrom ; Phrygian stone ;
bloodstone, 5 drugs therefrom ; schistose, 7 drugs
therefrom ; androdamas bloodstone, 3 drugs therefrom ;
Arabian stone ; minium bloodstone or Uverstone,
anthracite ; eagle-stone, Taphiusian stone, callimus;
Samos stone, 8 drugs therefrom. (xH-1) Arab stone ;
6 drugs therefrom ; pumicestone, 9 drugs therefrom ;
medicinal and other mortars ; Etesius stone, hailstone
stone ; Siphnos stone ; soft stones ; muscovy-stone ;
selenite ; whetstones; tufas; flints, nature of;
other building stones. (li-hx) Kinds of building ;
cisterns ; lime ; kinds of sand ; mixtures of sand and
hme ; faults in building ; stuccos ; pillars ; kinds of
pillars ; 5 drugs from chalk ; hme-cement ; white
lime plaster. (Ix-lxx) Pavements : the Tesselated
Hall ; first pavement at Rome ; terrace pavements ;
pavements in the Greek mode ; date of first mosaic
pavement ; date of first glass ceihngs ; origin of
glass ; its kinds and mode of manufacture ; obsidian
panes ; remarkable uses of fire ; 3 drugs from fire
and ash ; marvels of the hearth. — ^Total : 89 drugs

159

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

medicinae ex his LXXXIX, ad serpentes III
bestiarum morsus, ad venena, caput, oculos, epinycti
das, dentes, dentifricia, fauces, strumas, stomachum,
iocinera, pituitam, testes, vesicam, calculos, panos,
haemorroidas, podagras, sanguini sistendo, sangui-
nem reicientibus, luxata; phreneticos, lethargicos,
comitiales, melanchoHcos, vertigines, ulcera, volnera
urenda, secanda, convolsa, contusa, maculas, usta,
phthisin, mammas, muhebria \atia, carbunculos,
pestilentia. Summa omnis : res et historiae et
observationes CCCCXXXIV.

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, C. Galba, Cincio,
Muciano, Nepote Corneho, L. Pisone, Q. Tuberone,
Fabio Vestale, Annio Fetiale, Fabiano, Seneca,
Catone censorio, Vitru^do. Externis : Theophrasto,
Pasitele, luba rege, Nicandro, Sotaco, Sudine,
Alexandro polyhistore, Apione Phstonico, Duride,
Herodoto, Euhemero, Aristagora, Dionysio, Artemi-
doro, Butorida, Antisthene, Demetrio, Demotele,
Lycea.

Libro XXXVII. continentur: (i-x) origo gem-
marum ; de Polycratis tyranni gemma ; de Pyrrhi
gemma ; qui scalptores optimi, nobihtates scalpturae ;
quae prima Ptomae dactyhothece ; gemmae in
Pompei Magni triumpho translatae ; quando primum
murrina invecta ; luxuria circa ea ; natura eorum ;
natura crystalh, medicina ex eo : luxuria in crystallo.
(xi-xx) de sucino : quae de eo mendacia ; genera
sucinorum ; medicinae ex his ; lyngurium : medi-
cinae II ; de adamante sive anancite : genera
adamantis VI, medicinae II ; de zmaragdis : genera
eorum XII, \-itia eorum ; tanos gemma ; chalcozma-
ragdos ; de berylHs : genera eorum VIII, vitia
eorum. (xxi-xxx) de opahs : genera eorum VII,

160

BOOK I

from these matevials, 3 for serpents, animals' bites,
for poisons, for the head, eyes, eyeUd sores, teeth,
tooth-powders, throat, scrofula, stomach, hver,
phlegm, testicles, bladder, stone, tumours, piles,
gout, remedy for bleeding, for vomiting blood, dis-
location, cases of insanity, of lethargy, of epilepsy, of
melancholy, of giddiness, ulcers, caustic and surgical
treatment of wounds, sprains, bruises, moles burns,
consumption, the breasts, diseases of women, car-
buncles, plague. FuU total : 434 facts, investigations
and observations.

Authorities : Marcus Varro, Gaius Galba, Cincius,
Mucianus, CorneUus Nepos, Lucius Piso, Quintus
Tubero, Fabius VestaUs, Annius FetiaUs, Fabianus,
Seneca, Cato the Censor, Vitruvius. Foreign
authorities : Theophrastus, Pasiteles, King Juba,
Nicander, Sotacus, Sudines, Alexander the Leai-ned,
Apion PUstonicus, Duris, Herodotus, Euhemerus,
Aristagoras, Dionysius, Artemidorus, Butoridas,
Antisthenes, Demetrius, Demoteles, Lyceas.

Book XXXVIL Contents : (i-x) Origin of gems :
the tyrant Polycrates's jewel; Pyrrhus's jewel;
the best engravers ; famous specimens of engraving ;
the first coUection of signet-rings at Rome ; jewels
carried in the triumph of Pompey the Great ; murrine
vases, date of first importation ; extravagance
connected with ; their nature ; nature of rock-
crystal, drug from it ; extravagance in use of rock
crystal. (xi-xx) Amber, erroneous statements about ;
kinds of amber, drugs from these ; tourmaUne, 2 drugs ;
diamond or anancite, 6 kinds of diamonds, 2 drugs;
emeralds, 12 kinds, their blemishes; the gem tanos;
malachite ; beryls, their 8 kinds, their blemishes.
(xxi-xxx) Opals, tlieir 7 kinds, their blemishes, tests

i6i

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

vitia eorum, ©xperimenta eorum ; de sardonyche:
genera eius, vitia eius ; de onyche : genera eius;
de carbunculis : genera eorum XII, vitia eorum et
experimenta ; anthracitis ; sandastros sive Gara-
mantitis sive sandacitis, sandaresus ; lychnis : genera
eius IV ; carchedonia. (xxxi-xl) sarda : genera
eius V ; de topazo : genera eius II ; de callaina ;
de prasio : genera eius III ; nilion ; molochitis ;
de iaspide, genera eius XIV, vitia eorum ; de cyano :
genera eius ; de sapphiro ; amethysto : genera
eius IV; socondion, sapenos, pharanitis, Aphrodites
blepharon sive anteros sive paederos. (xli-1) hyacin-
thus ; de chrysohtho genera eius VII ; de chryselec-
tro ; leucochrysos : genera eius IV ; meHchrysi,
xuthi ; paederos sive sangenos sive tenites ; asteria ;
astrion ; astriotes ; astolon. (li— Ix) ceraunia : genera
eius IV ; baetylos ; Iris ; hieros ; achatae : genera
eorum ; acopos : medicinae ex ea ; alabastritis ;
medicinae ex ea; alectoriae, androdamas, argyro-
damas, antipathes, Arabica, aromatitis, asbestos,
aspisatis, atizoe, augitis, amphidanes sive chrysocolla,
Aphrodisiaca, apsyctos, Aegyptilla ; balanitae, batra-
chitis, baptes ; Beh oculus, Belus, baroptenus sive
baripe, botryitis, bostrychitis, bucardia, brontea,
boloe ; cadmitis, callais, capnitis, Cappadocia, callaica,
catochitis,catoptritis,cepitis sive cepolatitis,ceramitis,
cinaediae, ceritis, circos, corsoides, coralloachates,
corallis, crateritis, crocallis, cyitis, chalcophonos,
chelidoniae, cheloniae, chelonitis, chloritis, Choaspitis,
chrysolampis, chrysopis, cepionides ; daphnea, diado-
chos, diphyes, Dionysias, dracontitis ; encardia
sive enariste, enorchis, exhebenus, erythallis, erotylos
sive amphicomos sive hieromnemon, eumeces, eumi-

162

BOOK I

of opals; sardonyx, its kinds, its blemishes ; onyx, its
kinds ; carbuncles, their 12 kinds, their blemishes and
tests ; coal-carbuncle ; sandastros or Garamantitis or
sandacitis ; sandaresus ; lychnis, its 4 kinds ; Cartha-
ginian stone. (xxxi-xl) Carnelian, its 5 kinds ; chry-
solite, its 2 kinds ; turquoise ; leek-green stone, its 3
kinds ; Nile-stone ; malachite ; jasper, its 4 kinds, their
blemishes; lapislazuh,itskinds; sapphire ; amethyst,
its 4 kinds ; socondion, sapenos, pharanitis, Venus's
eyelid or love-returned or lad's-love. (xli-1) Hya-
cinth; chrysolite, its 7 kinds ; golden-amber ; chry-
solite, its 4 kinds ; golden chrysolite ; xuthis ; lad's-love
or sangenos or tenites; cat's-eye; adularia, astriotes,
astolon. (h-lx) St. John's bread, its 4 kinds ; bae-
tylos ; rainbow-stone ; holy-stone ; agates,their kinds ;
crystalline quartz, drugs therefrom ; alabaster-stone,
drugs therefrom ; cock-stones, androdamas, silver-
stone, charm-coral, chalcedony, scented amber,
asbestos-stone, aspisatis, atizoe, turquoise, amphi-
danes or chrysocoUa, Aphrodisiaca, apsyctos, little-
gypsy ; acorn-stone, frog-stone, baptes, cat's eye,
Belus, baroptenus or baripe, grape-stone, lock-of-
hair-stone, cow's-heart, thunder-stone, boloe, cad-
mitis, turquoise, smoke-stone, Cappadocian stone,
turquoise-stone, catochitis, catoptritis, cepitis or
cepolatitis, brick-stone, cinaedias (Idnds of), wax-
stone, top-stone, hair-stone, coral-agate, coral-stone,
crateritis, crocallis, cyitis, brazen-voice, swallow-
stones, tortoise-stones, tortoise-shell-stone, green-
stone, Choaspes-stone, gold-gleam, golden-topaz,
cepionides, Daphne-stone, diadochos, diphyes,
Dionysus-stone, snake-stone, heart-stone or enariste,
enorchis, exhebenus, erythallis, erotylos or amphi-
comos or stone of remembrance, eumeces, eumithres,

163

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

thres, eupetalos, eureos, Eurotias, eusebes, epimelas ;
galaxias, galactitis sive leucogaea sive leucographitis
sive synnephitis, gallaica, gassinnade, glossopetra,
Gorgonia, goniaea; heliotropion, Hephaestitis, Her-
muaedoeon, hexecontalithos, hieracitis, hammitis,
Hammonis cornu, hormiscion, hyaeniae, haematitis
meniu sive xuthos. (Ixi-lxx) Idaei dactyh, icterias,
lovis gemma sive drosoHthos, Indica, ion; lepidotis,
Lesbias, leucophthalmos, leucopoecilos, libanochrus,
limoniatis, liparea, lysimachos, leucochrysos ; Mem-
nonia, Media, meconitis, mithrax, morochthos,
monnorion sive promnium sive Alexandrinum,
myrrit-is, myrmecias, myrsinitis, mesoleucos, rneso-
melas ; nasamonitis, nebritis, Nipparena ; oica,
ombria sive notia, onocardia, oritis sive sideritis,
ostracias sive ostracitis, ostritis, ophicardelos, Ob-
siana; panchrus, pangonus, paneros sive panerastos,
Ponticae genera IV, phloginos sive chrysitis, phoeni-
citis, phycitis, perileucos, Paeanitis sive gaeanis;
solis gemma, sagda, Samothracia, sauritis, sarcitis,
selenitis, sideritis, sideropoecilos, spongitis, synodon-
titis, S)Ttitis, syringitis ; trichrus, thelyrrizos,
thelycardios sive mucul, Tliracia (genera III),
tephritis, tecolithos ; veneris crines, Veientana;
zathene, zmilampis, zoraniscaea. (lxxi-lxx\ii) hepa-
titis, steatitis, Adadu nephros, Adadu ophthalmos,
Adadu dactylos, triophthalmos ; carcinias, echitis,
scorpitis, scaritis, triglitis, aegophthalmos, hyophthal-
mos, geranitis, aetitis, myrmecitis, cantharias,
lycophthalmos, taos, timiclonia ; ammochrj-sos, cen-
chritis, dryitis, cissitis, narcissitis, cyamias, pyren,
164

BOOK I

eupetalos, eureos, Eurotas-stone, eusebes, epimelas;
milk-stone, milky-stone or white-earth-stone or white
graphite or cloud-stone, Galician-stone, gassinades,
tongue-stone, Gorgon-stone, goniaea, striped-jasper,
Vulcan-stone, Mercury's privates, sixty-colour-stone,
hawk-stone, hammitis, ammonite, hormiscion, hyena-
stone, meniou bloodstone or yellow-stone. (Ixi-lxx)
Ida's fingers,icterias, Jove-stone or dew-stone, Indian
stone, violet-stone, scale-stone, Lesbian stone,
white-eye, white-spot, myrrh-colour, emerald,
Lipari-stone, lysimachos, white gold, Memnon-
stone, Persian stone, poppy-stone, mithrax, moroch-
thos, mormorion or promnium or Alexandria stone,
myrrh-stone, wart-stone, myrrh-stone, white-centre,
black-centre, stone of Nasamon, fawn-stone,
Nipparena, egg-stone, rain-stone or storm-stone,
ass's-heart, mountain-stone or star-stone, hornstone
or chalcedony, oyster-stone, ophicardelos, obsidian,
all-colours, all-seeds, love-all or all-love, Black
Sea stone, 4 kinds, flame-stone or gold-stone, purple-
stone, sea-weed-stone, white-ring, Paeanite or gae-
anite, sun-stone, green-stone, Samothracian stone,
Hzard-stone, flesh-stone, moon-stone, iron-stone,
variegated iron-stone, sponge-stone, bream-stone,
Syrtian stone, reed-stone, tricolor, thelyrrizos, thely-
cardios or mucul, Thracian-stone (3 kinds), ash-stone,
tecolithos, love-locks, Veii-stone, zathene, zmilampis,
zoraniscaea. (Ixxi-lxxvii) Liver-stone, soapstone,
Adad's-kidney, Adad's-eye, Adad's-finger, three-
eyed-stone, crab-stone, adder-stone, scorpion-stone,
wrasse-stone, triglitis, goat's-eye, sow's-eye, crane-
stone, eagle-stone, ant-stone, beetle-stone, wolfs-
eye, peacock-stone, timiclonia ; gokl-sand-stone,
millet-stone, oak-stone, ivy stone, narcissus-stone,

165

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

phoenicitis, chalazias, pyritis, polyzonos, astrapaea,
phlo<jitis, anthracitis, enygros, polytrichos, leontios,
pardalios, drosolithos, melichrus, mehchloros, poHas,
spartopolia, rhoditis, meUtis, chalcitis, sycitis,
bostrvchitis, chernitis, anancitis, synochitis, dendritis ;
cochlides ; de figura gemmarum ; ratio probandi.
conparatio naturae per terras. conparatio rerum
per pretia. Summa : res et historiae et observa-
tiones MCCC.

Ex auctoribus : M. Varrone, actis triumphorum
Maecenate, laccho, Cornelio Boccho. Externis :
luba rege, Xenocrate Zenonis, Sudine, Aeschylo,
Philoxeno, Euripide, Nicandro, Sat}TO, Theophrasto,
Charete, Philemone, Demostrato, Zenothemi, Metro-
doro, Sotaco, Pythea, Timaeo Siculo, Nicia, Theo-
chresto, Asaruba, Mnasea, Theomene, Ctesia,
Mithridate, Sophocle, Archelao rege, Calhstrato,
Democrito, Ismenia, Olympico, Alexandro poly-
histore, Apione, Oro, Zoroastre, Zachalia.

t66

BOOK I

bean-stone, pyren, purple-stone, hail-stone, pyritis,
striped-stone, lightning-stone, flame-stone,coal-stone,
enygros, hairy-stone, Hon-stone, leopard-stone, dew-
stone, honey-colour-stone, honey-yellow-stone, gray-
stone, spartopolia, rose-stone, honey-stone, copper-
stone, fig-stone, ringlet-stone, ivory-marble, anancitis,
synochitis, tree-stone, snail-shell. Shape of precious
stones ; method of testing ; natural properties
compared in various countries ; products compared in
respect of price. — Total, 1300 facts, investigations
and observations.

Authorities : Marcus Varro, Records qf Trmmphs,
Maecenas, lacchus, CorneHus Bocchus. Foreign
authorities ; King Juba, Xenocrates son of Zeno,
Sudines, Aeschylus, Philoxenus, Euripides, Nicander,
Satyrus, Theophrastus, Chares, Philemon, Demo-
stratus, Zenothemis, Metrodorus, Sotacus, Pytheas,
Timaeus of Sicily, Nicias, Theochrestus, Asaruba,
Mnaseas, Theomenes, Ctesias, Mithridates, Sophocles,
King Archelaus, CalHstratus, Democritus, Ismenias,
Olympicus, Alexander the Learned, Apion, Orus,
Zoroaster, Zachalias.

167

BOOK II

LIBER II

T. MuNDUM et hoc — quocumque ^ nomine alio
caelum appellare libuit cuius circumflexu teguntur *
cuncta, numen esse credi par est, aeternum, inmen-
sum, neque genitum neque interiturum umquam.
huius extera indagare nec interest hominum nec

2 capit humanae coniectura mentis. sacer est, ae-
temus, inmensus, totus in toto, immo vero ipse
totum, finitus et infinito simiHs, omnium rerum
certus et similis incerto, extra intra cuncta conplexus
in se, idemque rerum naturae opus et rerum ipsa
natura.

3 Furor est mensuram eius animo quosdam agitasse
atque prodere ausos, alios rursus occasione hinc
sumpta aut ab ^ his data innumerabiles tradidisse
mundos, ut totidem rerimi naturas credi oporteret,
aut, si una omnes incubaret, totidem tamen soles
totidemque lunas et cetera ut iam in uno ot inmensa
et innumerabilia sidera, quasi non eadem quaestione

1 Backham : quodcunque aut quod codd.
* v.l. degunt (' go on ').
^ ab add. Rackhim.

' The Pythagorean and Stoic creed.

* A variant gives ' infinite and resembling the finite.'

170

BOOK II

I. The world and this — whatever other name The worid-
men have chosen to designate the sky whose vaulted
roof encircles the universe, is fitly beUeved to be a
deity," eternal, immeasurable, a being that never
began to exist and never will perish. What is out-
side it does not concern men to explore and is not
within the grasp of the human mind to guess. It is
sacred, eternal, immeasurable, wholly within the
whole, nay rather itself the whole, finite and
resembling the infinite,'' certain of all things and
resembling the uncertain, holding in its embrace all
things that are without and within, at once the work
of nature and nature herself.

That certain persons have studied, and have dared ns^i^f-
to pubUsh, its dimensions, is mere madness ; and
again that others,*^ taking or receiving occasion from
the former, have taught the existence of a countless
number of worlds, involving the beUef in as many
systems of nature, or, if a single nature embraces
all the worlds, nevertheless the same number of
suns, moons and other unmeasurable and innumer-
able heavenly bodies, as already in a single world;
just as if owing to our craving for some End the
same problem would not always encounter us at

« The founders of the atomic theory, Leucippus and
Democritua.

171

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

semper in termino cogitationis occursura desiderio
finis alicuius aut, si haec infinitas naturae omnium
artifici possit adsignari, non idem illud in uno facilius

4 sit intellegi, tanto praesertim opere. furor est,
profecto furor, egredi ex eo et, tamquam interna
eius cuncta plane iam nota sint, ita scrutari extera,
quasi vero mensuram ullius rei possit agere qui sui
nesciat, aut mens ^ hominis ^ possit ^ videre quae
mundus ipse non capiat.

6 II. Formam eius in speciem orbis absoluti
globatam esse nomen in primis et consensus in eo
mortalium orbem appellantivmi, sed et argumenta
rerum docent, non solum quia tahs figura omnibus
sui partibus vergit in sese ac sibi ipsa toleranda est
seque includit et continet nullarimi egens compagium
nec finem aut initium ulHs sui partibus sentiens, nec
quia ad motum, quo subinde ^ verti mox adparebit,
talis aptissima est, sed oculorum quoque probatione,
quod convexus mediusque quacumque cernatur, cum
id accidere in alia non possit figura.

6 III. Hanc ergo formam eius aeterno et inrequieto
ambitu, inenarrabili celeritate, viginti quattuor
horarum spatio circumagi solis exortus et occasus

^ mens edd. : meror, miror (haut minor Dellefsen).

2 v.l. homines.

' possit om. nonnulli.

* sublime Detlefsen, rotunde Mayhoff.

' Cf. Martial V. 39. 5 Aut eemel fac Dlud | mentitur tua
quod subinde tussis.

" Convexus is used to denote the ioside aa well as the out-
side of a curve.

172

BOOK II. I. 3-ni. 6

the termination of this process of thought, or as if,
assuming it possible to attribute this iiifinity of
nature to the artificer of the universe, that same
property would not be easier to understand in a single
world, especially one that is so vast a structure.
It is madness, downright madness, to go out of that
world, and to investigate what hes outside it just as
if the whole of what is within it were ah-eady clearly
known ; as though, forsooth, the measure of anything
could be taken by him that knows not the measure
of himself, or as if the mind of man could see things
that the world itself does not contain.

II. Its shape has the rounded appearance of a skipeof
perfect sphere. This is shown first of all by the name ^"

of ' orb ' which is bestowed upon it by the general
consent of mankind. It is also shown by the evidence
of the facts : not only does such a figure in all its
parts converge upon itself ; not only must it sustain
itself, enclosing and holding itself together without
the need of any fastenings, and withoiit experiencing
an end or a beginning at any part of itself ; not only
is that shape the one best fitted for the motion with
which, as will shortly appear, it must repeatedly *
revolve, but our eyesight also confirms this behef,
because the firmament presents the aspect of a
concave * hemisphere equidistant "^ in every direction,
which would be impossible in the case of any other
figure.

III. The world thus shaped then is not at rest Jierohaim
but eternally revolves with indescribable velocity, """^
each revolution occupying the space of 24 houi-s :

the rising and setting of the sun have left this not

' Medius properly denotes the position of the observer at
the centre, and is transferred to the circumference observed.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

haut dubium reliquere. an sit inmensus et ideo
sensum aurium excedens tantae molis rotatae
vertigine adsidua sonitus non equidem facile dixerim
— non Hercule magis quam circumactorum simul
tinnitus siderum suosque volventium orbes — an
diilcis quidam et incredibili suavitate concentus.
nobis qui intus agimus iuxta diebus noctibusque

7 tacitus labitur mundus. esse innumeras ei effigies
animalium rerumque cunctarum inpressas nec, ut in
volucrum notamus ovis, levitate continua lubricimi
corpus, quod clarissimi auctores dixere, rerum
argumentis indicatur, quoniam inde deciduis rerum
omnium seminibus innumeris,^ in mari praecipue,
ac pleriunque confusis monstrificae gignantur effigies,
praeterea ^dsus probatione, alibi ursi, tauri alibi,
alibi plaustri,^ alibi litterae figura, candidiore medio
per verticem circulo.

8 Equidem et consensu gentium moveor. namque
et Graeci ^ nomine ornamenti appellavere eum et
nos a perfecta absolutaque elegantia mundum.
caelum quidem haut dubie caelati argumento dici-

9 mus,* ut interpretatur M. Varro. adiuvat rerum ordo

^ Rackham : innumerae.

* alibi plaustri hic Ratlcham, ante aui post alibi ursi aut om.
coM.

^ v.l. nam quem Koa^iov Graeci.

* v.l. diximus.

" Deltoton, the constellation of the Triangle, Greek A.

** Koafjio^.

' Mundus (adj.) meaos ' neat,' ' elegant.*

174

BOOK II. III. 6-9

doiibtful. WTiether the sound of this vast mass
whirling in unceasing rotation is of enormous
volume and consequently beyond the capacity of
our ears to perceive, for my own part I cannot easily
say — any more in fact than whether this is true of the
tinkUng of the stars that travel round with it,
revolving in their own orbits ; or whether it emits a
sweet harmonious music that is beyond beUef
charming. To us who Uve within it the world
gUdes silently aUke by day and night. Stamped
upon it are countless figures of animals and objects
of aU kinds — it is not the case, as has been stated by
very famous authors, that its structure has an even
surface of unbroken smoothness, Uke that which we
observe in birds' eggs : this is proved by the evidence
of the facts, since from seeds of aU these objects,
faUing from the sky in countless numbers, particularly
in the sea, and usuaUy mixed together, monstrous
shapes are generated ; and also by the testimony
of sight — in one place the figure of a bear, in another
of a buU, in another a wain, in another a letter of the
alphabet," the middle of the circle across the pole
being more radiant.

For my own part I am also influenced by the TkeworWi
agreement of the nations. The Greeks have desig- ^*""'^-
nated the world by a word that means * ornament,' *
and we have given it the name of mundus,'^ because
of its perfect finish and grace ! As for our word
caelum, it undoubtedly has the signification
' engraved,' as is explained by Marcus Vari-o.'*
Further assistance is contributed by its orderly

^ De Lingua Latina V 18: engraved (cadum 'chisel,'
caedcn) with the figures of the constellations. Caelum, ' the
vault of the sky,' is really for cavilum, from cavus.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

discripto circulo qui signifer vocatur in duodecim
animalium effigies, et per illas solis cursus congruena
tot saeculis ratio.

10 IV. Nec de elementis vddeo dubitari quattuor
esse ea : igneum summima, inde tot stellarum illos
conlucentium oculos ; proximum spiritimi quem
Graeci nostrique eodem vocabulo aera appellant,
vitalem hunc et per cuncta reriim meabilem totoque
consertum ; huius vi suspensam cum quarto aquarum

11 elemento librari medio spatii tellurem. ita mutuo
conplexu diversitatis effici nexvma, et levia ponderibus
inhiberi quo minus evolent, contraque gravia ne
ruant suspendi levibus in sublime tendentibus. sic
pari in diversa nisu in suo quaeque loco ^ consistere,
inrequieto mundi ipsius constricta circuitu, quo
semper in se recurrente ^ imam atque mediam in
toto esse terram, eandemque universo cardine
stare pendentem librantemque per quae pendeat;
ita solam inmobilem circa eam volubili universitate
eandemque ex omnibus necti eidemque omnia inniti.'

12 jnter hanc caelumque eodem spiritu pendent certis
discreta spatiis septem sidera quae ab incessu
vocamus errantia, cima errent nulla minus illis.
eorum medius sol fertur amplissima magnitudine ac

^ loco add. Rackham (sic ? CampbeU).
* C. F. H . Muller : currente. * v.l. iimecti.

" * VVanderera,' TrAat^Tcu.
176

BOOK II. iii. 9-iv. 12

structure, the circle called the Zodiac being marked
out into the likenesses of twelve animals ; and also
by the uniform regularity in so many centuries of
the sun's progress through these signs.

IV. As regards the elements also I observe that fout
they are accepted as being four in number : topmost (^^mem».
the element of fire, source of yonder eyes of all those
blazing stars ; next the vapour which the Greeks and
our own nation call by the same name, air — this is
the principle of Ufe, and penetrates all the universe
and is intertwined with the whole ; suspended by its
force in the centre of space is poised the earth,
and with it the fourth element, that of the waters.
Thus the mutual embrace of the unUke results in an
interlacing, the Ught substances being prevented
by the heavy ones from flying up, while on the
contrary the heavy substances are held from crashing
down by the upward tendency of the Ught ones. In
this way owing to an equal urge in opposite directions
the elements remain stationary, each in its own place,
bound together by the unresting revolution of the
world itself ; and with this ahvays running back to
its starting-point, the earth is the lowest and central
object in the whole, and stays suspended at the pivot
of the universe and also balancing the bodies to
which its suspension is due ; thus being alone motion-
less with the universe revolving round her she both
hangs attached to them aU and at the same time is
that on which they aU rest. Upheld by the same The pianeta
vapour between earth and heaven, at definite spaces
apart, hang the seven stars which owing to their
motion we caU ' planets,'" although no stars wander
less than they do. In the midst of these moves the Thesun.
sun, whose magnitude and power are the greatest,

177

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

potestate, nec temponim modo terrarimique sed

13 siderum etiam ipsorum caelique rector. hunc esse
mundi totius animum ac planius mentem, hunc
principale naturae regimen ac numen credere decet
opera eius aestimantes. hic lucem rebus ministrat
aufertque tenebras, hic reliqua sidera occultat
inlustrat, hic ^ices temporimi anmmmque semper
renascentem ex usu naturae temperat, hic caeU
tristitiam discutit atque etiam humani nubila animi
serenat, hic suum lumen ceteris quoque sideribus
fenerat, praeclarus, eximius, omnia intuens, omnia
etiam exaudiens, ut principi Utterarum Homero
placuisse in uno eo video.

14 V. Quapropter effigiem dei formamque quaerere
inbecillitatis humanae reor. quisquis est deus, si
modo est aliquis,^ et quacumque in parte, totus est
sensus, totus visus, totus auditus, totus animae,
totus animi, totus sui. Innumeros quidem credere
atque etiam ex ^itiis hominum, non virtutibus
tantima,^ ut Pudicitiam, Concordiam, Mentem,
Spem, Honorem, Clementiam, Fidem, aut (ut
Democrito placuit) duos omnino, Poenam et Bene-

15 ficium, maiorem ad socordiam accedit. fragilis et
laboriosa mortalitas in partes ista digessit infirmitatis
suae memor, ut portionibus coleret qui quisque ^
maxime indigeret. itaque nomina * aha aliis gentibus
et numina in iisdem innumerabilia invenimus, inferis
quoque in genera discriptis, morbisque et multis

1 Vulg. alius.

* Mmjhoff : atque etiam ex vitiis hominum aut atque
tam ex virtutibus vitiisque homixium codd.

^ Mayhoff : quidque quo codd. * numina ? Backham.

* A variant givea ' if only he be other (than the world),'

* No other authority recordB this of Democritua.
178

BOOK II. IV. I2-V. 15

and who is the ruler not only of the seasons and of the
lands, but even of the stars themselves and of the
heaven. Taking into account all that he effeets, we
must beheve him to be the soul, or more precisely
the mind, of the whole world, the supreme ruHng
principle and divinity of nature. He furnishes the
world with Hght and removes darkness, he obscures
and he illumines the rest of the stars, he regulates
in accord with nature's precedent the changes of the
seasons and the continuous re-birth of the year, he
dissipates the gloom of heaven and even calms the
storm-clouds of the mind of man, he lends his light
to the rest of the stars also ; he is glorious and pre-
eminent, all-seeing and even all-hearing — this I
observe that Honier the prince of Uteratm-e held to
be true in the case of the sun alone.

V. For this reason I deem it a mark of human Thedivint
weakness to seek to discover the shape and form of ^c^u^J"'
God. Wlioever God is — provided there is a God '^ —
and in whatever region he is, he consists wholly of
sense, sight and hearing, whoUy of soul, whoUy of
mind, wholly of himself. To beUeve in gods without
number, and gods corresponding to men's vices as
well as to their virtues, Uke the Goddesses of Modesty,
Concord, Intelhgence, Hope, Honour, Mercy and
Faith — or else, as Democritus held,'' only two,
Punishment and Reward, reaches an even greater
height of folly. Frail, toihng mortahty, remembering
its own weakness, has divided such deities into groups,
so as to worship in sections, each the deity he is
most in need of. Consequently different races have
different names for the deities,*^ and we find countless
deities in the same races, even those of the lower

• Or, altering the text, ' have diiferent deities.'

179

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

etiam pestibus, dum esse placatas ^ trepido metu
1(5 cupimus. ideoque etiam publice Febris fanum in
Palatio dicatum est, Orbonae ad aedem Larum et
ara Malae Fortunae Esquiliis. quamobrem maior
caelitum populus etiam quam hominum intellegi
potest, cum singuli quoque ex semetipsis totidem
deos faciant lunones Geniosque adoptando sibi,
gentes vero quaedam animalia et aliqua etiam
obscena pro dis habeant ac multa dictu magis
pudenda, per fetidos cibos et alia ^ similia iurantes.

17 matrimonia quidem inter deos credi tantoque aevo
ex eis neminem nasci, et ahos esse grandaevos
semper canosque, aUos iuvenes atque pueros, atri-
colores, aligeros, claudos, ovo editos et altemis
diebus viventes morientesque, puerilium prope
deliramentorum est; sed super omnem inpudentiam
adulteria inter ipsos fingi, mox iurgia et odia, atque

18 etiam furtorum esse et scelerum numina. deus est
mortali iuvare mortalem, et haec ad aeternam gloriam
via : hac proceres iere Romani, hac nunc caelesti
passu cum liberis suis vadit maximus omnis aevi
rector Vespasianus Augustus fessis rebus subveniens.

19 hic est vetustissimus referendi bene merentibus
gratiam mos, ut tales numinibus adscribant. quippe

i8o

^ v.l. placata.

* vd. per fetidas cepas, allia et (cf. XIX. 101).

BOOK II. V. 15-19

world being classified into groups, and diseases
and also many forms of plague, in our nervous
anxiety to get them placated. Because of this
there is actually a Temple of Fever consecrated by
the nation on the Palatine Hill, and one of Bereave-
ment at the Temple of the Household Deities, and
an Altar of Misfortune on the EsquiHne. For this
reason we can infer a larger population of celestials
than of human beings, as individuals also make an
equal number of gods on their own, by adopting
their own private Junos and Genii ; while certain
nations have animals, even some loathsome ones, for
gods, and many things still more disgraceful to tell
of — swearing by rotten articles of food and other
things of that sort. To beHeve even in marriages
taking place between gods, without anybody all
through the long ages of time being born as a
result of them, and that some are always old and
grey, others youths and boys, and gods with dusky
complexions, winged, lame, born from eggs, Hving
and dying on alternate days — this almost ranks
with the mad fancies of children ; but it passes all
bounds of shamelessness to invent acts of adultery
taking place between the gods themselves, foUowed
by altercation and enmity, and the existence of
deities of theft and of crime. For mortal to aid
mortal — this is god ; and this is the road to eternal
glory : by this road went our Roman chieftains, by
this road now proceeds with heavenward step, escorted
by his children, the greatest ruler of all time, His
Majesty Vespasian, coming to the succour of an
exhausted world. To enrol such men among the
deities is the most ancient method of paying them
gratitude for their benefactions. In fact the names

181

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

et aliorum nomina deorum et quae supra retuli
siderum ex hominum nata sunt meritis : lovera
quidem aut Mercurium aliterve alios inter se vocari
et esse caelestem nomenclaturam quis non inter-

20 pretatione naturae fateatur? inridendum agere
curam rerum humanarum illud quicquid est sum-
mum. anne tam tristi atque multiplici ministerio
non pollui credamus ? dubitemusne ? vix prope ^
est iudicare utrum magis conducat generi humano,
quando aliis nullus est deorum respectus, aliis

21 pudendus : externis famulantur sacris, ac digitis
deos gestant ; monstra quoque quae cohmt damnant,
et excogitant cibos ; imperia dira in ipsos se ^ ne
somno quidem quietos ^ inrogant ; non matrimonia,
non Hberos, non denique quicquam aliud nisi iuben-
tibus sacris deUgunt ; ahi in Capitoho fallimt ac
fulminantem periurant lovem — et hos iuvant scelera,
ihos sacra sua poenis agunt.

22 Invenit tamen inter has utrasque sententias
medium sibi ipsa mortahtas numen, quo minus
etiam plana de deo coniectatio esset : toto quippe
mundo et omnibvis locis omnibusque horis omnium
vocibus Fortuna sola invocatur ac nominatur, una ac-
cusatur, rea una agitur, una cogitatur,* sola laudatur,
sola arguitur et cum con\-iciis cohtur: volubihs, a
plerisque vero et caeca existimata, vaga, inconstans,

^ Vix prodest Mayhoff, vix profecto Detlefsen.

* se add. Rachhain.

* Backham : quieto.

* [una cogitatur] Campbell.

" I.e. engraved on rings.

* I.e. whether to rear or to expose the chHdren bom to
them.

182

BOOK II. V. 19-22

of the other gods, and also of the stars that I have
mentioned above, originated from the services of
men : at all events who would not admit that it is
the interpretation of men's charaeters that prompts
them to call each other Jupiter or Mercury or other
names, and that originates the nomenclature of
heaven? That that supreme being, whate'er it be,
pays heed to man's affairs is a ridiculous notion.
Can we believe that it would not be defiled by so
gloomy and so multifarious a duty ? Can we doubt
it? It is scarcely pertinent to determine which is
more profitable for the human race, when some men
pay no regard to the gods at all and the regard paid
by others is of a shameful nature : they serve as the
lackeys of foreign ritual, and they carry gods on their
fingers " ; also they pass sentence of punishment
upon the monsters they worship, and devise elaborate
viands for them; they subject themselves to awful
tyrannies, so as to find no repose even in sleep ; they do
not decide on marriage or having a family *" or indeed
any thing else except by the command of sacrifices ;
others cheat in the very Capitol and swear false
oaths by Jupiter who wields the thunder-bolts — and
these indeed make a profit out of their crimes,
whereas the others are penaUzed by their reUgious
observances.

Nevertheless mortahty has rendered our guesses Dei^eatum
about God even more obscure by inventing for itself "^ "^ ""*'
a deity intermediate between these two conceptions.
Everywhere in the whole world at every hour by all
men's voices Fortune alone is invoked and named,
alone accused, alone impeached, alone pondered, alone
applauded, alone rebuked and visited with reproaches ;
deemed volatile and indeed by most men blind as well,
wayward, inconstant, uncertain, fickle in her favours

183

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

incerta, varia indignorumque fautrix. huic omnia
expensa, huic omnia feruntur accepta, et in tota
ratione mortalium sola utramque paginam facit;
adeoque obnoxii sumus sorti,^ ut sors ipsa pro deo

23 sit, qua deus probatur incertus. pars alia et hanc
pellit astroque suo eventus adsignat et nascendi
legibus : semelque in omnes futuros umquam deo
decretum, in reliquom vero otium datum. sedere
coepit sententia haec, pariterque et eruditum vulgus

24 et rude in eam cursu vadit : ecce fulgurum monitus,
oraculorum praescita, haruspicum praedicta, atque
etiam parva dictu in auguriis, sternumenta et
offensiones pedum. divus Augustus prodidit laevum
sibi calceum praepostere inductum quo die seditione

25 militari prope adflictus est. quae singula inprovidam
mortalitatem involvont, solum ut inter ista vel
certum sit nihil esse certi nec quicquam miserius
homine aut superbius : ceteris quippe animantium
sola victus cura est, in quo sponte naturae benignitas
sufficit, uno quidem vel praeferendo cunctis bonis,
quod de gloria, de pecunia, de ^ ambitione, superque
de morte non cogitant.

26 Verum in his deos agere curam renmi humanarum
credi ex usu vitae est, poenasque maleficiis aliquando
seras, occupato deo in tanta mole, nimiquam autem

Edd. : obnoxine sumus sortis.
de add. liackham.

184

BOOK II. V. 22-26

and favouring the unworthy. To her is debited all
that is spent andcredited all that is received, she alone
fills both pages in the whole of mortals' account ;
and we are so much at the mercy of chance that
Chance herself, by whom God is proved uncertain,
takes the place of God. Another set of people
banishes fortune also, and attributes events to its
star and to the laws of birth, holding that for all men
that ever are to be God's decree has been enacted once
for all, while for the rest of time leisure has been
vouchsafed to Him. This belief begins to take root,
and the learned and unlearned mob aUke ffo marchinsr

o o

on towards it at the double : witness the warnings
drawn from hghtning, the forecasts made by oracles,
the prophecies of augurs, and even inconsiderable
trifles — a sneeze, a stumble — counted as omens.
His late Majesty put abroad a story that on the day
on which he was almost overthrown by a mutiny in
the army he had put his left boot on the ^\Tong foot.
This series of instances entanffles unforeseeinar
mortahty, so that among these things but one thing
is in the least certain — that nothing certain exists,
and that nothing is more pitiable, or more presump-
tuous, than man ! inasmuch as with the rest of hving
creatures their sole anxiety is for the means of Ufe,
in which nature's bounty of itself suffices, the one
blessing indeed that is actuaUy preferable to every
other being the fact that they do not think about
glory, money, ambition, and above all death.

But it agrees with Ufe's experience to beUeve that Therot^ert
in these matters the gods exercise an interest in ^^'^'
human affairs ; and that punishment for wickedness,
though sometimes tardy, as God is occupied in so
vast a mass of things, yet is never frustrated ; and

185

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

inritas esse, nec ideo proximum illi genitum hominem

27 ut vilitate iuxta beluas esset. inperfectae vero in
homine naturae praecipua solatia, ne deum quidem
posse omnia, — namque nec sibi potest mortem
consciscere, si velit, quod homini dedit optimum in
tantis vitae poenis, nec mortales aeternitate donare
aut revocare defunctos, nec facere ut qui vixit non
vixerit, qui honores gessit non gesserit, — nullumque
habere in praeterita ius praeterquam oblivionis,
atque (ut facetis quoque argumentis societas haec
cum deo copuletur) ut bis dena viginti non sint
aut multa similiter efficere non posse : per quae
declaratur haut dubie naturae potentia, idque esse
quod deum vocemus. in haec divertisse non fuerit
alienum, volgata iam ^ propter adsiduam quae-
stionem de deo.

28 VI. Hinc redeamus ad reliqua naturae. sidera,
quae adfixa diximus mundo, non ita ^ ut existimat
volgus, singulis attributa nobis et clara divitibus,
minora pauperibus, obscura defectis ac pro sorte
cuiusque lucentia adnumerata mortalibus, nec cum

• Detlefsen : volgatam (v.l. propter volgatam assidue).

* ita Detlefsen : illa.

i86

BOOK II. V. 26-vi. 28

that man was not born God's next of kin for the
purpose of approximating to the beasts in vileness.
But the chief consolations for nature's imperfection
in the case of man are that not even for God are all
things possible — for he cannot, even if he wishes,
commit suicide, the supreme boon that he has
bestowed on man among all the penalties of Ufe,
nor bestow eternity on mortals or recall the deceased,
nor cause a man that has Uved not to have hved or
one that has held high ofRce not to have held it — and
that he has no power over what is past save to forget
it, and (to hnk our fellowship with God by means of
frivolous arguments as well) that he cannot cause
twice ten not to be twenty " or do many things on
similar lines : which facts unquestionably demonstrate
the power of nature, and prove that it is this that we
mean by the word 'God.' It will not have been
irrelevant to have diverged to these topics, which
have aheady been widely disseminated because of
the unceasing enquir)'^ into the natm-e of God.

VI. Let us return from these questions to the
remaining facts of nature. We have stated '^ that the
stars are attached to the flrmament, not assigned
to each of us in the way in which the vulgar beUeve,
and dealt out to mortals with a degree of radiance
proportionate to the lot of each, the brightest stars Astroiog^
to the rich, the smaller ones to the poor, the dim ^^'^^^-
to those who are worn out; they do not each
rise with their own human being, nor indicate by

• Cf. A. E. Housman Last Poems XXXV :

— To think that two and two are four
And neither five nor three,
The heart of man has long been sore
And long 'tis like to be.

* Above, §§ 7-9.

187

PLINY: NATURAL HISTOIIY

suo quaeque homine oriuntur ^ nec aliquem exstingui

29 decidua significant. non tanta caelo societas nobis-
cum est ut nostro fato mortalis sit ibi quoque
siderum fulgor. illa nimio alimento tracti umoris
ignea vi abundantiam reddunt cum decidere cre-
duntur, ut apud nos quoque luminibus accensis

30 liquore olei notamus accidere. ceterum aeterna
caelestibus est natura intertexentibus mundum
intextoque concretis, potentia autem ad terram
magnopere eorum pertinens, quae propter effectus
claritatemque et magnitudinem in tanta subtilitate
nosci potuerunt, sicut suo demonstrabimus loco.
circulorum quoque caeli ratio in terrae mentione
aptius dicetur, quando ad eam tota pertinet, signiferi

31 modo inventionibus ^ non dilatis. obliquitatem eius
intellexisse, hoc est rerum fores aperuisse, Anaxi-
mander Milesius traditur primus Olympiade quin-
quagesima octava, signa deinde in eo Cleostratus,
et prima arietis ac sagittarii, sphaerain ipsam ante
multo Atlas.

Nunc relicto mundi ipsius corpore rehqua inter

32 caelum terrasque tractentur. summum esse quod
vocant Saturni sidus ideoque minimum videri et
maximo ambire circulo ac tricesimo anno cum
brevissime ad ' sedis suae principia regredi certum
est ; omnium autem errantium siderum meatus,

1 Detlefscn : orta oriuntur aut orta moriuntur.

^ inventoribus Sabell.

^ v.l. ad brevissima codd. fere omnes.

' XVIII 210 ff. " VI 211 ff.

• 548-545 B.o.

l88

BOOK II. VI. 28-32

their fall that someone's life is being extinguished.

There is no such close alliance between us and the

sky that the radiance of the stars there also shares

our fate of mortality. When the stars are believed Asirorumy.

to fall, what happens is that owing to their being

overfed with a draught of liquid they give back the

surplus with a fiery flash, just as with us also we see

this occur with a stream of oil when lamps are ht.

But the heavenly bodies have a nature that is eternal

— they interweave the world and are blended with

its weft ; yet their potency has a powerful influence

on the earth, indeed it is owing to the effects that they

produce and to their brilliance and magnitude that

it has been possible for them to become known with

such a degree of precision, as we shall show in the

proper place." Also the system of the revolutions

of the sky will be more appropriately stated when we

deal with geography,'' since it is entirely related to

the earth ; only we must not postpone the dis-

coveries that have been made as to the zodiac.

Tradition says that Anaximander of Miletus in the

fifty-eighth Olympiad '^ was the first person to dis-

cover the obliquity of the zodiac, that is, to open the

portals of science ; and that next Cleostratus

explained the signs in it, beginning with the Ram

and the Archer ; the firmament itself having been

explained long before by Atlas.

Let us now leave the frame of the world itself and The piand.
treat the remaining bodies situated between the sky
and the earth. The following points are certain:
(1) The star called Saturn's is the highest and conse-
quently looks the smallest and revolves in the largest
orbit, returning in thirty years at the shortest to its
initial station. (2) The motions of all the planets,

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

interque ea solis et lunae, contrarium mundo agere
cursum,id est laevom,illo semper in dextram praeci-

33 piti ; et quam^is adsidua conversione inmensae
celeritatis attollantur ab eo rapianturque in occasum,
adverso tamen ire motu per suos quaeque passus ;
ita fieri ne convolutus aer eandem in partem aeterna
mundi vertigine ignavo globo torpeat sed fundatur
adverso siderum verbere discretus et digestus ;

34 Saturni autem sidus gelidae ac rigentis esse naturae,
multumque ex eo inferiorem Io\is circulum et ideo
motu celeriore duodenis circumagi annis ; tertium
Martis, quod quidam Herculis vocant, igne ardens
solis vicinitate, binis fere annis converti, ideoque huius
ardore nimio et rigore Saturni interiectum ambobus
ex utroque temperari lovem salutaremque fieri ;

35 dein solis meatum esse partium quidem trecentarum
sexaginta, sed ut observatio umbrarum eius redeat ad
metas,^ quinos annis dies adici superque quartam
partem diei ; quam ob causam quinto cuique ^ anno
unus intercalarius dies additur ut temporum ratio
solis itineri congruat.

36 Infra solem ambit ingens sidus appellatum Veneris,
alterno meatu vagum ipsisque cognominibus aemu-
lum solis ac lunae : praeveniens quippe ^ et ante
matutinum exoriens Luciferi nomen accipit ut sol
alter diemque maturans, contra ab occasu refulgens
nuncupatur Vesper ut prorogans lucem \icemque

* Detlefsen (metam ? Rackham.) : notas aul motus.

* cuique add. Rackham (quoque Harduin).
' quippe solem ? Rackham.

" In Roman arithmetic, for example, 193S would be called
the fifth year after 1934.

190

BOOK II. VI. 32-36

and among tliem the sun and moon, follow a course
contrary to that of the world, namely to the left,
the world always running to the right. (3) Although
they are borne on by it and carried westward with an
unceasing revolution of immeasurable velocity,
nevertheless they travel with an opposite motion
along their respective tracks. (4) Thus it comes
about that the air is not massed in a dull lethargic
ball by revolving in the same direction because of
the eternal rotation of the world, but is scattered into
separate portions by the opposite impact of the stars.
(5) Saturn is of a cold and frozen nature. The orbit
of Jupiter is much below it and therefore revolves
much faster, completing one rotation every twelve
years. The third star is Mars, called by some Her-
cules ; owing to the proximity of the sun it has a
fiery glow ; it revolves once in about two years, and
consequently, owing to its excessive heat and Saturn's
frost, Jupiter being situated between them combines
the influence of each and is rendered healthy. (6)
Next, the sun's course is divided into 360 parts, but
in order that an observation taken of the shadows
that it casts may come round to the starting-point,
five and a quarter days per amium are added ; con-
sequently to every fourth " year an intercalary day
is added to make our chronology tally with the course
of the sun.

Below the sun revolves a very large star named
Venus, which varies its course alternately, and whose
alternative names in themselves indicate its rivalry
with the sun and moon — when in advance and rising
before dawn it receives the name of Lucifer, as being
another sun and bringing the dawn, whereas when it
slunes after sunset it is named Vesper, as prolonging

191

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

37 lunae reddens. quam naturam eius Pythagoras
Samius primus deprehendit Olympiade circiter
XLII, qui fuit urbis Romae annus CXLII. iam
magnitudine extra cuncta alia sidera est, claritatis
quidem tantae ut unius huius stellae radiis umbrae
reddantur. itaque et in magno nominum ambitu
est: aUi enim lunonis, alii Isidis, ahi Matris Deum

38 appellavere. huius natura cuncta generantur in
terris ; namque in alterutro exortu genitah rore
conspergens non terrae modo conceptus inplet,
verum animantium quoque omnium stimulat. signi-
feri autem ambitum peragit trecenis et duode-
quinquagenis diebus, a sole numquam absistens
partibus sex atque quadraginta longius, ut Timaeo

39 placet. simiH ratione, sed nequaquam magnitudine
aut vi, proximum illi Mercurii sidus, a quibusdam ap-
pellatum Apollinis, inferiore circulo fertur novem
diebus ociore ambitu, modo ante sohs exortum modo
post occasum splendens, numquam ab eo XXII ^
partibus remotior, ut Cidenas et Sosigenes docent.
ideo et pecuUaris horum siderum ratio est neque

40 communis cimi supra dictis ; nam ea et quarta parte
caeU a sole abesse et tertia, et adversa soU saepe
cernuntur, maioresque aUos habent cuncta plenae
conversionis ambitus in magni anni ratione dicendos,

41 Sed omnium admirationem vincit no\issimum
sidus, terris famiUarissimum et in tenebrarum

^ XXIII Hermolaus Barbarus.

« 612-609 B.c.
* 753 B.c.

' magnum annum . . . quitum efficitur cum solis et lunae et
qulnque errantium ad eandem iater se comparationem confectia
omnium spaliis est facta conversio, Cic. HJJ, II. 51. The

192

BOOK II. VI. 36-41

the daylight, or as being a deputy for the moon.
This property of Venus was first discovered by
Pythagoras of Samos about the 42nd Olympiad,*
142 years after the foundation ^ of Rome. Further it
surpasses all the other stars in magnitude, and is so
brilliant that alone among stars it casts a shadow by
its rays. Consequently there is a great competition
to give it a name, some having called it Juno, others
Isis, others the Mother of the Gods. Its influence
is the cause of the birth of all things upon earth ;
at both of its risings it scatters a genital dew with
which it not only fills the conceptive organs of the
earth but also stimulates those of all animals. It
completes the circuit of the zodiac every 348 days, and
according to Timaeus is never more than 46 degrees
distant from the sun. The star next to Venus is
Mei-cuiy, by some called ApoUo ; it has a similar
orbit, but is by no means similar in magnitude or
power. It travels in a lower circle, with a revolution
nine days quicker, shining sometimes before sunrise
and sometimes after sunset, but according to Cidenas
and Sosigcnes never more than 22 degrees away from
the sun. Consequently the course of thcse stars
also is peculiar, and not shared by those above-
mentioned ; those are often observed to be a quarter
or a third of the heaven away from the sun and
traveUing against the sun, and they all have other
larger circuits of full revolution, the specifieation of
which belongs to the theory of tlie Great Year.''

But the wonder of everyone is vanquished by the Th-e.nrri
last star, the one most familiar to the earth, and

theory of the Cosmio Year is attributed to the Pythagoreans
and to Heraclitus; Plato, Tit/uieus 39, gives its length as
10,000 years.

193

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

remedium ab natura repertum, lunae. multiforroi
haec ambage torsit ingenia eontemplantium et
proximum ignorari maxime sidus indignantium, cres-

42 cens semper aut senescens, et modo curvata in cornua
falcis,^ modo aequa portione divisa, modo sinuata
in orbem, maculosa eademque subito praenitens,
inmensa orbe pleno ac repente nulla, alias pernox
alias sera et parte diei solis lucem adiuvans, deficiens

43 et in defectu tamen conspicua, quae mensis exitu
latet cima laborare non creditur ; iam vero humilis,
iam 2 excelsa, et ne id quidem uno modo, sed alias
admota caelo alias contigua montibus, nunc in
aquilonem elata nunc in austros deiecta. quae sin-
gula in ea deprehendit hominum primus Endymion ;
ob id amor ^ eius * fama traditur. non sumus
profecto grati erga eos qui labore curaque lucem
nobis aperuere in hac luce, miraque humani ingeni
peste sanguinem et caedes condere annahbus iuvat,
ut scelera hominum noscantur mundi ipsius ignaris.

44 Proxima ergo cardini ideoque minimo ambitu,
vicenis diebus septenisque et tertia diei parte peragit
spatia eadem quae Saturni sidus altissimum triginta,
ut dictum est, annis. dein morata in coitu solis
biduo, cum tardisstme, a tricesima luce rursus ad

1 Jan : facie.

* iam add. Backham : i>J. et excelsa.
® Mayhoff : amore.

* v.l. eius captus.

" An eclipse of sun or moon was ofteu called labor : Virgil,
Aen. I. 742, Georg. II. 478.

194

BOOK II. VI. 41-44

devised by nature to serve as a remedy for the
shadows of darkness — the moon. By the riddle of
her transformations she has racked the wits of
observers, who are ashamed that the star which is
nearest should be the one about which we knovv
least — always waxing or waning, and now curved
into the horns of a sickle, now just halved in
size, now rounded into a circle ; spotted and then
suddenly shining clear ; vast and full-orbed, and then
all of a sudden not there at all ; at one time shining
all night and at another rising late and for a part
of the day augmenting the Ught of the sun, ecHpsed Edipses
and nevertheless visible during the eclipse, invisible
at the cnd of the month when she is not believed to
be in trouble '^ ; again at one time low down and at
another up aloft, and not even this in a uniform wav,
but sometimes raised to the sky and sometimes
touching the mountain-tops, now borne np to the
North and now carried down to the South. The
first human being to observe all these facts about lier
was Endvmion — which accounts for the traditional
story of his love for her. We foi'sooth feel no grati-
tude towards those whose assiduous toil has given us
illumination on the subject of this luminary, while
owing to a curious disease of the human mind we
are pleased to enshrine in history records of bloodshed
and slaughter, so that persons ignorant of the facts
of the world may be acquaiuted with the crimes of
mankind.

The moon then is nearest to the pole, and there- Themoon.
fore has the smallest orbit, completing the same
distance every 27^ daj^s that Saturn the highest star
covers, as we have said. in .30 years. Then she hngers
two days in conjunction with the sun, and after the

195

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

easdem vices exit, haut scio an omnium quae in caelo
pernosci potuerunt magistra : in duodecim mensium

45 spatia oportere dividi annum, quando ipsa totiens
solem redeuntem ad principia consequitur ; solis
fulgore eam ut reliqua siderum regi, siquidem in
totum mutuata ab eo luce fulgere, qualem in reper-
cussu aquae volitare conspicimus ; ideo molliore et
inperfecta vi solvere tantum umorem, atque etiam
augere, quem solis radii absumant ; ideo et inaequali
lumine adspici quia ex adverso demum plena reliquis
diebus tantum ex se terris ostendat quantum ex

46 sole ipsa concipiat ; in coitu quidem non cerni,
quoniam haustum omnem lucis adversa illo regerat
unde acceperit ; sidera vero haut dubie humore
terreno pasci, quia dimidio orbe nommmquam
maculosa cernatur, scilicet nondum suppetente ad
hauriendum ultra iusta vi — ^maculas enim non aliud
esse quam terrae raptas cum humore sordes ; de-
fectus autem suos et solis, rem in tota contemplatione
naturae maxime miram et ostento similem, magni-

47 tudinum imibraeque indices exsistere. VH. quippe
manifestum est solem interventu lunae occultari lun-
amque terrae obiectu, ac vices reddi, eosdem solis

" This is proved of the moon in the words that follow,
and thence assumed to apply aldo to the other heavenly bodies.

196

BOOK II. VI. 44-vn. 47

30th day at latest sets out again on the same course —
being perhaps our teacher as to all the facts that it
has been possible to observe in the heavens ; (1) that
the year is to be divided into twelve monthly
spaces, because she herself that number of times
folloAvs the sun in his return to his starting point ;
(2) that she is governed by the sun's radiance as are
the rest of the stars, as in fact she shines with a hght
entirely borrowed from him, Hke the Hght which we
see flickering reflected in water ; (3) that conse-
quently she only causes water to evaporate with a
rather gentle and imperfect force, and indeed
increases its quantity, whereas the sun's rays dry it
up ; (4) also that the reason why she is seen to vary
in her light is that she is full only when opposite to
the sun, and on the remaining days shows as much
Hght from herself to the earth as she herself con-
ceives from the sun ; though (5) she is indeed
invisible when in conjunction with the sun, because
being turned towards him she gives back the entire
draught of Hght to the source from which she receives
it ; (6) but that the stars are undoubtedly nourished
by the moisture of the earth,'' since she is sometimes
seen spotted in half her orb, clearly because she has
not yet got sufficient strength to go on drinking —
her spots being merely dirt from the earth taken up
with the moisture ; (7) but that her ecHpses and EcHpxe
those of the sun, the most marvellous and indeed
portentous occurrence in the whole of our observa-
tion of nature, serve as indications of their dimensions
and shadow. VII. It is in fact obvious that the
sun is hidden by the passage across it of the moon,
and the moon by the interposition of the earth, and
that they retaHate on one another, the same rays of

197

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

radios luna interpositu suo auferente terrae terraque
lunae : hae subeunte repentinas obduci terrae ^
tenebras rursumque illius umbra sidus hebetari, neque
aliud esse noctem quam terrae umbram, figuram
autem umbrae similem metae ac turbini inverso,
quando mucrone tantum ingruat neque lunae excedat
altitudinem, quoniam nullum aliud sidus eodem modo
obscuretur et talis figura semper in mucronem deficiat :
spatio quidem consumi umbras indicio sunt volucrum

48 praealti volatus. ergo confinium illis est aeris
terminus initiumque aetheris ; supra lunam pura
omnia ac diuturnae lucis plena, a nobis autem per
noctem cernuntur sidera ut reliqua lumina in tene-
bris. et propter has causas nocturno tempore
defi.cit luna ; stati autem atque menstrui non sunt
utrique defectus, propter obliquitatem signiferi
lunaeque multivagos, ut dictum est,^ flexus, non
semper in scripulis partium congruente siderum
motu.

49 VIII. Haec ratio mortales animos subducit in
caelum, ac velut inde contemplantibus trium maxi-
marum rerum naturae partium magnitudinem
detegit ; non posset quippe totus sol adimi terris
intercedente luna si terra maior esset quam luna.
certior ^ ex utraque vastitas solis aperietur,^ ut non

^ terrae add. (?) Mayhoff.

* [ut dictum est] edd. vet.

* Bedn : t«rtia codd.

* aperietur {viz. § 51 f.) : v.l. aperitur.

" I.e. by the intervention of the earth.

* In § 51 f. A variant gives ' the sun's magnitude is shown
as third in the series, starting from the two others.'

198

BOOK II. VII. 47-vni. 49

the sun being taken away from the earth by the moon
intervening and from the moon by the earth : at the
transit of the former a sudden shadow passes over
the earth, and in return the shadow of the latter
dims the heavenly body (the moon), and the dark-
ness is merely the earth's shadow, but the shape of
the shadow is conical, resembhng a spinning-top
upside doAvn, as it impinges only with its point and
does not go beyond the altitude of the moon, because
no other star is obscured in the same way,** and a
conical figiu-e always tapers off into a point : that
shadows are made to disappear by distance is proved
when birds fly to extreme heights. Consequently
the frontier between the moon and the other
heavenly bodies is at the point where the air ends
and the aether begins. All the space above the moon
is clear and filled with continual Hght, but to us the
stars are \dsible through the night in the same way
as other hghts in shadows. And these are the
reasons why the moon wanes in the night-time ;
but both of her wanings are irregular and not monthly,
because of the slant of the zodiac and the widely
varying curves of the moon's course, as has been
stated, the motion of the heavenly bodies not always
tallying in minute fractional quantities.

VIII. This theory leads mortal minds upward to Thesun.
heaven, and discloses to their observation from that
height, as it were, the greatness of the three greatest
parts of the universe ; clearly it would not be possible
for the whole of the sun to be ecHpsed from the earth
by the passage of the moon between them if the earth
were larger than the moon. The vast size of the sun
will be showTi ^ with the more certainty from the
two bodies, so that there is no need to investigate

199

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

sit necesse amplitudinem eius oculorum argumentis

60 atque coniectura animi scrutari : immensum esse,
quia arborum in limitibus porrectarum in quotlibet
passuum milia umbras paribus iaciat intervallis tam-
quam toto spatio medius, et quia per aequinoctium
omnibus in meridiana plaga habitantibus simul fiat
a vertice, item quia circa solstitialem circulum habi-
tantium meridie ad septentrionem umbrae cadant,
ortu vero ad occasum, quae fieri nullo modo possent
nisi multo quam terra maior esset, et quod montem
Idam exoriens latitudine exsuperet, dextra laevaque
large amplectens, praesertim tanto discretus
intervallo.

61 Defectus lunae magnitudinem eius haut dubia
ratione declarat, sicut terrae parvitatem ipse deficiens.
namque cum sint tres umbrarum figurae, constetque,
si par lumini sit materia quae iaciat, umbram
columnae ^ effigie iaci nec habere finem, si vero
maior materia quam lumen, turbinis recti, ut sit
imum eius angustissimum et simiH modo infinita
longitudo, si minor materia quam lux, metae existere
effigiem in cacuminis finem desinentem, talemque
cerni umbram deficiente luna, palam fit, ut nulla
amph'us reHnquatur dubitatio solem superare

52 magnitudinem terrae. id quidem et tacitis naturae
ipsius indiciis : cur enim partitis vicibus anni brumaUs

^ cylindri ? Rackham.
* I.e. central at every point in the space alike.

BOOK II. viii. 49-52

its size by the evidence of the eyes and by logical
inference, arguing that it is immeasurably large for
the following reasons : (1) the shadow that it throws
of rows of trees along the balks of fields are at equal
distances apart for ever so many miles, just as if over
the whole space the sun were in the centre ; " (2) during
the equinoxes it reaches the vertical simultaneously
for all the inhabitants of the southern region ; (3) the
shadows of the people Uving round the Tropic of Cancer
fall northward at midday but westward at sunrise,
which could not happen unless the sun were much
larger than the earth ; (4) when it is rising its breadth
exceeds Mount Ida, overlapping it widely right and
left — and that though it is separated from it by so
great a distance.

The ecHpse of the moon supphes indubitable
proof of the size of the sun, just as the sun itself
when it suffers ecUpse proves the smaUness of the
earth. For shadows are of three shapes, and it is
clear that, if the soUd object that throws a shadow
is equal in area to the shaft of Ught, the shadow
projected is shaped Uke a pillar and is of infinite
length, but if the soUd body is larger than the Ught,
the shadow has the shape of an upright spinning-top,
so that it is narrowest at the bottom, and infinite
in length as in the former case, while if the soUd is
smaUer than the Ught the result is the figure of s
cone narrowing down to end in a point, and this is
the nature of the shadow observed during an ecUpse
of the moon ; hence it is proved without any further
possibiUty of doubt remaining that the sun exceeds
the earth's size. Indeed, this is also proved by the
silent testimony of nature herself ; for why in the
division of the turns of the year does the winter sun

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

abscedit ut noctium opacitate terras reficiat ? *
exusturus haut dubie, et sic quoque exurens quadam
in parte, tanta magnitudo est.

63 IX. Et rationem quidem defectus utriusque primus
Romani generis in ^Tilgum extulit Sulpicius Gallus
(qui consul cum M. Marcello fuit, sed tum tribunus
militum), sollicitudine exercitu liberato pridie quam
Perseus rex superatus a Paulo est in concionem ab
imperatore productus ad praedicendam eclipsim;
mox et conposito volumine. apud Graecos autem
investigavit primus omnium Thales Milesius
Olumpiadis XLVIII anno quarto praedicto solis
defectu qui Alyatte rege factus est urbis conditae
anno CLXX. post eos utriusque sideris cursum in
sexcentos annos praececinit Hipparchus, menses
gentium diesque et horas ac situs locorum et \isus
populorum conplexus, aevo teste haut alio modo

54 quam consiliorimi naturae particeps. viri ingentes,
supraque mortalium naturam, tantorum numinum
lege deprehensa et misera hominum mente metu
soluta,^ in defectibus sidenmi scelera aut mortem
aliquam pavente (quo in metu fuisse Stesichori et
Pindari vatum sublimia ora palam est deliquio solis)
aut in lunae veneficia arguente mortalitate et ob id
crepitu dissono auxiliante (quo pavore ignarus causae
Nicias Atheniensiimi imperator veritus classem portu

^ reficiat <alit€r> ? Rackham.

* Backham : mente insoluta, mente absoluta.

« At Pydna, 168 B.c.

* Perhaps .situs denotes latitude and visus longitude.

* Or possibly ' as time has shown.'

<* Pindar, fr. 74 (Bergk^J. The passage of Stesichorus ia
not extant.

202

BOOK II. VIII. 52-ix. 54

retire, so as to refresh the earth with the darkness of
the nights ? when otherwise it would unquestionably
scorch up the earth, and even as it is does so in a
certain part, so great is its magnitude.

IX. The first person indeed of Roman nationality EcUpses,
who pubhshed an explanation of both kinds of ecHpse ''"•«^««^ «" '^
was Sulpicius Gallus — the colleague in the consulsliip of
Marcus Marcelhis, but at the time miUtary tribune —
who dehvered the army from fear when on the day
before the defeat " of King Perseus by Paulus he was
brought before an assembly by the commander-in-
chief to foretell an ecHpse ; and later also by writing
a treatise. The original discovery was made in
Greece by Thales of Miletus, who in the fourth year
of the 48th Olympiad (585 b.c.) foretold the ecHpse
of the sun that occurred in the reign of Alyattes, in
the 170th year after the foundation of Rome. After
their time the courses of both stars for 600 years were
prophecied by Hipparchus, whose work embraced
the calendar of the nations and the situations of
places and aspects of the peoples * — Kis method
being, on the evidence of his contemporaries,'^ none
other than fuU partnership in the designs of nature.
O mighty heroes, of loftier than mortal estate, who
have discovered the law of those great divinities and
released the miserable mind of man from fear,
mortaHty dreading as it did in ecHpses of the stars
crimes or death of some sort (those subHme singers,
the bards Stesichorus and Pindar,** clearly felt this
fear owing to an ecHpse of the sun), or in the dying
of the moon inferring that she was poisoned and con-
sequently coming to her aid with a noisy clattering
of cymbals (this alarm caused the Athenian general
Nicias, in his ignorance of the cause, to be afraid to

203

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

educere opes eorum adflixit) : maeti ingenio este,
caeli interpretes rerumque naturae capaces, argu-
menti repertores quo deos hominesque vicistis !

55 quis enim haec cernens et statos siderum (quoniam
ita appellare placuit) labores non suae necessitati
mortales genitos ignoscat?

Nunc confessa de iisdem breviter atque capitu-
latim attingam ratione admodum necessariis locis
strictimque reddita, nam neque instituti operis talis
argumentatio est, neque omnium rerum afferri posse
causas minus mirum est quam constare in aliquis.

56 X, Defectus CCXXIII mensibus redire in suos
orbis certum est, solis defectus non nisi novissima
primave fieri luna, quod vocant coitum, lunae autem
non nisi plena, semperque citra quam proxime
fuerint ; omnibus autem annis fieri utriusque sideris
defectus statis diebus horisque sub terra, nec tamen,
cum superne fiant, ubique cerni, aliquando propter
nubila, saepius globo terrae obstante convexitatibus

57 mundi. intra ducentos annos Hipparchi sagacitate
conpertum est et lunae defectum aliquando quinto
mense a priore fieri, solis vero septimo, eundem bis

• Eclipse of the moon, 27 Aug., 413 b.c, caused Nirias to
delay abandoning the siege of Syracuse: Plutarch, Nicias,
23.

* Cf. § 43 71.

0 It is tempting to rewrite this passage — deos hominesqut
vinxistis ! (so one MS.) guis enim . . . non sua n^cessitate
(Rackham) mortales genitos{Y.l.) agnoscat (Dalec.) ? * — a theory

204

BOOK II. IX. 54-x. 57

lead his fleet out of harbour, so destroying the
Athenians' resources ") : all hail to your genius, ye
that interpret the heavens and grasp the facts of
nature, discoverers of a theory whereby you have
vanquished gods and men ! for who beholding these
truths and the regularity of the stars' periods of
trouble * (for so it has pleased you to call them),
would not forgive his own destiny for the generation
of mortals ? '^

Now I will briefly and summarily touch on facts
that are admitted about the same matters, giving
an account of them only at necessary points and in a
cursory manner, because such theorizing does not
form part of the task that I have set in hand, and
also it is less surprising that explanations cannot be
produced for all the facts than that agreement has
been reached on some of them.

X. It is certain that ecUpses recur in cycles of EcHpses
223 months — ecHpses of the sun only when the moon '^'^' ***
is in her last or first phase (this is called their
' conjunction '), eclipses of the moon only at full
moon — and always within the period of their last
occurrence ; but that yearly at fixed days and hours
ecUpses of either star occur below the earth, and that
even when they occm* above the earth they are not
visible everywhere, sometimes owing to clouds, more
often because the earth's globe stands in the way of
the world's curvature. Less than 200 years ago the
penetration of Hipparchus discovered that an ecUpse
of the moon also sometimes occurs four months
after the one before and an ecUpse of the sun six

whereby ye have fettered gods and men ! for who would not
recognise that mortals are born with a fixed destiny of their
own? '

205

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

in triginta diebus super terras occultari, sed ab aliis
atque aliis ^ hoc cerni, quaeque sunt in hoc miraculo
maxime mira, cum conveniat umbra terrae lunam
hebetari, nunc ab occasus parte hoc ei accidere, nunc
ab exortus, et quanam ratione, cum solis exortu
umbra illa hebetatrix sub terra esse debeat, semel
iam acciderit ut in occasu luna deficeret utroque
super terram conspicuo sidere. nam ut XV diebus
utrumque sidus quaereretur et nostro aevo accidit
imperatoribus Vespasianis patre III. filio itenmi
comuhbus.

68 XI. Lunam semper aversis a sole cornibus, si
crescat, ortus spectare, si minuatur, occasus, haut
dubium est, et ^ lucere dodrantes semuncias horarum
ab secunda adicientem usque ad plenum orbem
detrahentemque in deminutionem, intra quattuor-
decim autem partes soHs semper occultam esse.
quo argvunento ampUor errantium stellarmn quam
lunae magnitudo colligitur, quando illae et a septenis
interdum partibus emergant ; sed altitudo cogit
minores videri, sicut adfixas caelo sohs fulgor interdiu
non cerni, cmn aeque ac noctu luceant, idque mani-
festum fiat defectu sohs et praealtis puteis.

69 XII. Errantium autem tres quas supra solem
diximus sitas occultantur meantes cum eo, exoriuntur

^ v.l. om. atque aliia.
• et add. Rackham.

" I.e. one eclipse to the inliabitants of tlie northern hemi-
Bphere, the other to those of the southem.

" A.D. 71.

2o6

BOOK 11. X. 57-xii. 59

months, and that the latter when above earth is
hidden twice in tliirty days, but that this ecUpse is
visible to different nations," and — the most remarkable
featm-es of this remarkable occm-rence — that when
it comes about that the moon is obscured by the
shadow of the earth, this sometimes happens to it
from the west side and sometimes from the east ;
and he also discovered for what exact reason, although
the shadow causing the echpse must from sum-ise
onward be below the earth, it happened once in the
past that the moon was echpsed in the west while
both luminaries were visible above the earth. For the
echpse of both sun and moon within 15 days of each
other has occurred even in our time, in the year of
the third consulship of the elder Emperor Vespasian
and the second consulship of the younger.*

XI. It is unquestionable that the moon's horns Themoon^s
are always turned away from the sun, and that when ^ "^^^'
waxing she faces east and when waning west ; and

that the moon shines 47^ minutes longer ' daily
from the day after new moon to full and 47i minutes
less daily to her wane, while within 14 degrees of the
sun she is always invisible. This fact proves that the
planets are of greater magnitude than the moon,
since these occasionally become visible even on
reaching 7 degrees' distance; but their altitude
makes them appear smaller, just as the sun's radiance
makes the fixed stars invisible in daytime, although
they are shining as much as in the night, which
becomes manifest at a solar echpse and also when
the star is reflected in a very deep welL

XII. The three planets whose positions we have Thc pianett,
statcd to be above the sun travel with the sun when ^j^^Jions and

c T ■ Am • i 1- occuUalioH

l.e. rises 47^ niinutes earlier.

207

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

vero a^ matutino discedentes partibus numquam
amplius undenis. postea a ^ radiorum eius contaetu
regrediuntur,^ et in triquetro a partibus centum
viginti stationes matutinas faciunt, quae et primae
vocantur, mox in * adverso a partibus centum octo-
ginta exortus vespertinos, iterumque in centum
viginti ab alio latere appropinquantes stationes
vespertinas quas et secundas vocant, donec assecutus
sol in partibus duodenis occultet illas, qui vespertini

60 occasus appellantur. Martis stella ut propior etiam
ex quadrato sentit radios, a nonaginta partibus, unde
et nomen accepit motus primus et secundus nona-
genarius dictus ab utroque exortu. eadem statio-
nalis senis mensibus conmoratur in signis, alioqui
bimestris, cum ceterae utraque statione quaternos

61 menses non inpleant. inferiores autem duae
occultantur in coitu vespertino simili modo, relictae-
que a sole totidem in partibus faciunt exortus
matutinos, atque a longissimis distantiae suae metis
solem insecuntur, adeptaeque occasu matutino
conduntur ac praetereunt. mox eodem intervallo
vespere exoriuntur usque ad quos diximus terminos.
ab his retrogradiuntur ad solem et occasu vespertino
delitescunt. Veneris stella et stationes duas, matu-
tinam vespertinamque, ab utroque exortu facit a

1 a add. Rackham.

* a add. Rackham.

^ Broticr : reguntur auf teguntur.

* iu vJ. om : ex ? Rackham.

208

BOOK II. xn. 59-61

they set and are never more than 11 degrees separate
from the sun at dawn when they rise. Afterwards
they retire from contact with his rays, and make
their morning or ' first ' stations in a triangle 120
degrees away, and subsequently their evening
risings opposite 180 degrees away, and again ap-
proaching from the other side, make their evening
or ' second ' stations 120 degrees away, till the sun
overtaking them at 12 degrees obscures them — this
is called their evening setting. The planet Mars
being nearer feels the sun's rays even from its quad-
rature, at an angle of 90 degrees, which has given
to his motion after each rising the name of ' first '
or ' second ninety-degree.' At the same time
Mars remains stationary in the signs of the
zodiac for periods of six months (otherwise having a
two-month period), whereas Jupiter and Saturn spend
less than four months in each station." The two
lower planets (Mercuiy and Venus) are similarly
obscured at their evening conjunction, and when left
by the sun make their morning rising the same
number of degrees away, and from the further
limits of their distance follow the sun and when they
have overtaken him are hidden in their morning
setting and pass away. Then they rise in the even-
ing at the same distance apart, as far as the limits
we have stated. From these they pass backward to
the sun, and disappear in their evening setting. The
planet Venus actually makes two stations, morning
and evening, after each rise, from the furthest

" Brotier : Martis stella proprio cursu bimestris est, hoo
est duobus mensibus signum unum pervagatur, binis ferme
annis duodena (cf. 34). Eadem ab una statione ad alteram
menses senos insumit : ceterae, Jovis et Saturni, vix quaternos.

209

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

longissimis distantiae suae finibus. Mercurii stationes
bre^dore momento quam ut deprehendi possint.

62 XIII, Haec est luminura occultationumque ratio,
perplexior motu multisque involuta miraculis, siqui-
dem magnitudines suas et colores mutant, et eaedem
ad septentrionem accedurrt abeuntque ad austrum,
terrisque propiores aut caelo repente cernuntur.
in quibus aliter multa quam priores tradituri fatemur
ea quoque illorum esse muneris qui primi quaerendi
vias demonstraverint, modo ne quis desperet saecula
proficere semper.

63 Pluribus de causis haee omnia accidunt. prima
circulorum quos Graeci aiJ/LSa? in stellis vocant
(etenim Graecis utendum erit vocabulis). sunt
autem hi suus ^ cuique earum, aliique quam mundo,
quoniam terra a verticibus duobus quos appellaverunt
polos centrum caeli est, nec non et signiferi oblique
inter eos siti. [omnia autem haec constant ratione
circini semper indubitata.] ^ ergo ab alio cuique
centro apsides suae exsurgunt, ideoque diversos
habent orbes motusque dissimiles, quoniam interiores
apsidas necesse est breviores esse.

64 Igitur a terrae centro apsides altissimae sunt
Saturno in scorpione, Io\i in virgine, Marti in leone,
soh in geminis, Veneri in sagittario, Mercurio in

^ Backham : sui. * Sed. edd.

' Editors reject this as an interpolation.
2IO

BOOK II. XII. 6i-xin. 64

limits of her distance. Mercury's stations have too
short a period to be perceptible.

XIII. This is the system of the shining and
occultation of the planets : it is more complicated
from their motion and involves many remarkable
facts, inasmuch as they change their magnitude and
their colours, and both approach the North and
retire towards the South, and suddenly are seen
closer to the earth or to the sky. And although our
account of these matters will differ in many points
from that of our predecessors, we confess that credit
for these points also must be given to those who
first demonstrated the methods of investigating
them : only nobody must abandon the hope that the
generations are constantly making progress.

All these occurrences are due to a plurahty ofduetothree
causes. The first is the factor of the circles which '^^^-
in the case of the stars the Greeks designate apsides
or arcs (it will be necessary to employ Greek terms).
Each planet has its own circle, and these are not the
same as those of the firmament, since the earth
between the two vertices, named in Greek pnles, is
the centre of the sky, and also of the zodiac, which
is situated on a slant between the poles. [All these
facts are always estabhshed beyond doubt by the
method of compasses."] Therefore the special arc
of each is drawn from a different centre, and conse-
quently they have different orbits and dissimilar
motions, because the inner arcs must necessarily be
shorter.

It follows that the points of the arcs highest above
the centre of the earth are : in the case of Saturn
in Scorpio, in that of Jupiter in Virgo, of Mars in
Leo, of the sun in the Twins, of Venus in the Archer,

211

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

capricorno, lunae in tauro,^ mediis omnium partibus,
et e contrario humillimae atque ad terrae centrum ^
proximae. sic fit ut tardius moveri et minores
videantur cum altissimo ambitu feruntur, cimi vero
terrae appropinquaverint maiores esse et celerius
ferri, non quia adcelerent tardentve naturales
motus, qui certi ac singuli sunt illis, sed quia deductas
ab summa apside lineas coarctari ad centrum necesse
est sicut in rotis radios, idemque motus alias maior
alias minor centri propinquitate sentitur.

65 Altera sublimitatium causa quoniam a suo centro
apsidas altissimas habent in aliis signis, Saturnus in
librae parte vicesima, luppiter cancri quinta decuma,
Mars capricorni XXVIII, sol arietis XXIX, Venus
piscium XXVII, Mercurius virginis XV, luna tauri
IV.

Tertia altitudinum ratio caeli mensura, non circuli,
intellegitur, subire eas aut descendere per profundum
aeris oculis aestimantibus.

66 Huic conexa latitudinum signiferi obliquitatisque
causa est. per hunc stellae quas diximus feruntur,
nec aliud habitatur in terris quam quod illi subiacet,
reHqua a polis squalent. Veneris tantima stella
excedit eum binis partibus, quae causa intellegitur
efficere ut quaedam animalia et in desertis mundi
nascantur. luna quoque per totam latitudinem eius

^ Deflefsen e Beda.

• Backham : ad terrae centrum ante humillimae.

• Theplanets, §30fiii.

BOOK II. xni. 64-66

of Mercury in Capricorn, of the moon in the Bull,
at the middle of each, and the points lowest and
nearest to the centre of the earth are opposite. The
result of this is that they appear to move slower and
to be smaller when they are travelHng at the highest
point of their circuit, but to be larger and travel
faster when they have come nearer to the earth, not
because they actually accelerate or reduce their
natural motions, which are fixed and individual to
them, but because Hnes drawn from the top of the
arc to the centre necessarily converge like the spokes
of a wheel, and the same motion at one time is
perceived as faster and at another slower according
to its distance from the centre.

Another reason of their elevations is because they
have the points of their arcs highest from their
centre in different signs — Saturn in the 20th degree
of the Scales, Jupiter in the 15th of the Crab, Mars
in the 28th of Capricorn, the sun in the 29th of the
Ram, Venus in the 27th of the Fishes, Mercury in
the 15th of Virgo, the moon in the 4th of the BuU.

A third explanation of their altitudes is explained
by the dimensions of the firmament, not that of a
circle, the eye judging them to rise or to sink through
the depth of the air.

Linked with this is the cause of the latitudes ofOrMtsoftf.
the zodiac and of its obliquity. The stars we have rJiMim to
mentioned " travel through the zodiac, and the only thezodiac;
habitable part of the earth is what lies beneath it —
all the other parts towards the poles are frost-bound.
Only the planet Venus goes two degrees outside the
zodiac ; this is understood to be the reason that
causes some animals to be born even in the desert
places of the world. The moon also wanders through

213

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

vagatur, sed omnino non excedens eum. ab his
Mercuri stella laxissime, ut tamen e duodenis
partibus (tot enim sunt latitudinis) non amplius
octonas pererret, neque has aequaliter, sed duas

67 medio eius et supra quattuor infra duas, sol deinde
medio fertur inter duas partes flexuoso draconum
meatu inaequalis, Martis stella quattuor mediis,
lo^ds media et super eam duabus, Saturni duabus
ut sol. haec erit latitudinum ratio ad austrum
de:;cendentium aut ad aquilonem subeuntium. hac
constare et tertiam illam a terra subeuntium in
caelum, et pariter scandi eam quoque existimavere
plerique falso. qui ut coarguantur, aperienda est
subtilitas inmensa et omnes eas conplexa causas.

68 Convenit stellas in occasu vespertino proximas
esse terrae et altitudine et latitudine, exortusque
matutinos in initio cuiusque fieri, stationes in mediis
latitudinum articulis, quae vocant ecliptica. perinde
confessima est motum augeri quamdiu In vicino sint
terrae, cum abscedant in altitudinem, minui ; quae
ratio lunae maxime sublimitatibus adprobatur.
aeque non est dubium in exortibus matutinis etiam-
num augere atque a stationibus primis tres superiores

69 diminuere usque ad stationes secundas. quae cura
ita sint, manifestum erit ab exortu matutino lati-

• § 65 fin. " Prima ratio, § 63.

' Secuivda ratio, § 65. ^ Tertia ratio, § 65 fin.

' See § 71 fin,

214

BOOK II. XIII. 66-69

the whole of its breadth, but without going at all
outside it. The planet Mercury diverges very widely
from these, but without wandering over more than
8 of the 12 degrees of latitude of the zodiac, and
these 8 not uniformly but two in the middle of the
zodiac, four above it and two below it. Then the
sun travels unevenly in the middle of the zodiac
between the two halves with a wavy serpentine
course, the planet Mars over 4 degrees in the middle,
Jupiter one in the middle and two above it, Saturn
two like the sun. This will be the principle of the
latitudes of the planets when setting towards the
South or rising towards the North. Most people
have supposed that with this system agrees also the
third mentioned above," that of their rising from the
earth to the sky, and that this ascent also is made
simultaneously ; but this is a mistake. To refute
them it is necessary to develop an extremely abstruse
argument that embraces all the causes mentioned.

It is agreed ^ that the planets are nearest to the earth (2)jn reia/(or
in both altitude and latitude at their evening setting, '" "^ ^'"^'''"
and that their morning risings occur at the beginning
of both altitude and latitude, while their stations
occur in the middle sections of the altitudes, called
' ecliptics.' It is similarly admitted "^ that their
velocity increases as long as they are in the neigh-
bourhood of the earth and decreases when they
withdraw fi*om it to a height : this theory is specially
supported by the apogees of the moon. It is equally
undoubted '^ that the three higher ones * moreover
increase their motion in their morning risings and
diminish it from their first (morning) stations to their
second (evening) stations. In view of these facts it
will be evident that the latitudes are ascended from

215

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

tudines scandi quoniam in eo primum habitu incipiat
parcius adici motus, in stationibus vero primis et
altitudinem subiri, quoniam tum primum incipiant
detrahi numeri ^ stellaeque retroire. cuius rei ratio
privatim reddenda est. percussae in qua diximus
parte et triangulo solis radio inhibentur rectum

70 agere cursum, et ignea vi levantur in sublime. hoc
non protinus intellegi potest visu nostro, ideoque
existimantur stare, unde et nomen accepit statio.
progreditur deinde eiusdem radii ^dolentia et retroire
cogit vapore percussas. multo id magis in vespertino
earum exortu, toto sole adverso ^ cum in summas
apsidas expelluntur, niinimaeque cernuntur quoniam
altissime absunt et minimo feruntur motu, tanto
minore ^ cum hoc in altissimis apsidum evenit signis.

71 ab exortu vespertino latitudo descenditur parcius
iam se minuente motu, non tamen ante stationes
secundas augente, cum et altitudo descenditur,
superveniente ab alio latere radio eademque vi
rursus ad terras deprimente qua sustulerat in caelum
e priore triquetro. tantum interest subeant radii
an superveniant, multoque eadem magis in vespertino
occasu accidunt.

Haec est superiorum stellarum ratio ; difficilior
reliquarum et a nullo ante nos reddita.

1 v.l. incipiat . . . numerus.

* v.l. auerso.

• v.l. minores.

2l6

BOOK II. xin. 69-71

their morning rising, because in that state their
aceeleration first begins to diminish, but in their first
stations their altitude also is ascended, since then the
numbers first begin to be reduced and the stars begin
to recede. The reason for this must especially be
given. When struck in the degree that we stated
and by a triangular ray of the sun they are prevented
from pursuing a straight course, and are hfted
upward by the fiery force. This cannot be directly
perceived by our sight, and therefore they are
thought to be stationary, which has given rise to the
term ' station.' Then the violent force of the same
ray advances and compels them by the impact of the
heat to retire. This occurs much more at their
evening rising, when they are driven out to the top
of their apsides by the full opposing force of the sun,
and appear very small because they are at the
distance of their greatest altitude and are moving
with their smallest velocity — which is pi-oportionately
smaller when this occurs in the highest signs of their
apsides. From their evening rise their altitude is
descended with a velocity now decelerating less and
less, but not accelerating before their second stations,
when their altitude also is descended, the ray passing
above thera from the other side and pressing them
down again to the earth with the same force as that
with which it had raised them to the sky from the
former triangle. So much difference does it make
whether the rays come from below or from above,
and the same things occur far more in the evening
setting.

This is the theory of the higher stars ; that of
the rest is more difficult and has been explained by
nobody before ourselves.

217

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

72 XIV. Primum igitur dicatur, cur Veneris stella
numquam longius XLVI partibus, Mercurii XXIII
ab sole abscedant, saepe citra eas ad solem recipro-
cent. conversas habent utraeque apsidas ut infra
solem sitae, tantumque circuli earum sub terra
est quantum superne praedictarum ; et ideo non
possunt abesse amplius quoniam curvatura apsidiun
ibi non habet longitudinem maiorem : ergo utrique
simili ratione modum statuunt apsidum suarum
margines, ac spatia longitudinis latitudinum evaga-

73 tione pensant. at enim cur non semper ad quad-
raginta sex et ad partes viginti tres perveniunt?
immo vero ; sed ratio canonicos fallit. namque
apparet apsidas quoque earum moveri, quod num-
quam transeant solem; itaque cum in partem
ipsam eius incidere margines alterutro latere, tum
et stellae ad longissima sua intervalla pervenisse ^
intelleguntur : cum citra fuere margines, totidem
partibus et ipsae ocius redire coguntur, cum sit illa
semper utrique extremitas summa.

74 Hinc et ratio motuum conversa intellegitur.
superiores enim celerrime feruntur in occasu vesper-
tino, hae tardissime, illae a terra altissime absunt
cum tardissime moventur, hae cum ocissime, quia

^ Rackliam : pervenire.
2l8

BOOK II. XIV. 72-74 ,

XIV. First therefore let us state the reason why OrhHs of
Venus never departs more than 46 degrees and ^Mer'^^,
Mercury never more than 23 degrees from the sun,
and why they often retire and return towards the sun
within those Umits. As situated below the sun both
have arcs that are the opposite of those of the other
planets, and as much of their circle is below the earth
as that of the planets mentioned before is above it ;
and they cannot be further from it than they are
because the curve of their arcs does not allow
greater elongation there ; consequently the edges
of their arcs put a hmit on a similar principle for
each, and compensate for the dimensions of their
longitude by the enlargement of their latitude.
But, it will be objected, why do they not reach 46 and
23 degrees always ? As a matter of fact they do, but
the explanation escapes the theorists. For it is
manifest that even their arcs alter, because they never
cross the sun ; accordingly when the edges have
fallen on one side or the other into the actual degree
of the sun, then the stars also are understood to have
reached their longest distances, but when the edges
are short of that, they themselves too are com-
pelled to return with proportionately greater
velocity, since with each of them that is always the
extreme limit.

This also explains the contrary principle of their
motions. For the higher planets travel most quickly
in their evening setting, whereas these travel most
slowly, and the former are farthest from the earth
when their pace is slowest but the latter are highest
when their pace is quickest — the reason being that
with the latter the circumference of the circle
accelerates their pace in the same manner as

219

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

sicut in illis propinquitas centri adcelerat ita in his
extremitas circuli, illae ab exortu matutino minuere
celeritatem incipiunt, hae vero augere. illae retro
cursum agunt a statione matutina usque ad vesper-
tinam, Veneris a vespertina usque ad matutinam.

75 incipit autem ab exortu matutino latitudinem
scandere, altitudinem vero subire ^ ac solem insequi a
statione matutina, ocissima in occasu matutino et
altissima, degredi autem latitudine motumque
minuere ab exortu vespertino, retro quidem ire
simulque altitudine degredi a statione vespertina ;
Mercurii rursus stella utroque modo scandere ab
exortu matutino, degredi vero latitudine a vespertino,
consecutoque sole ad quindecim partium intervallum

76 consistit quatriduo prope immobilis. mox ab alti-
tudine descendit retroque graditur ab occasu vesper-
tino usque ad exortum matutinum. tantumque
haec et luna totidem diebus quot subiere descendunt ;
Veneris quindecies pluribus subit, rursus Saturni et
lovis duplicato degrediuntur, Martis etiam quadru-
plicato. tanta est naturae varietas ; sed ratio
evidens : nam quae in vaporem solis nituntur etiam
descendunt aegre.

77 XV. Multa promi amplius circa haec possunt
secreta naturae legesque quibus ipsa serviat, exempli
gratia in Martis sidere (cuius est maxime inobserva-
bilis cursus) numquam id stationem facere lovis
sidere triquetro, raro adiTiodum sexaginta partibus
discreto (qui numerus sexangulas mundi efficit

* subire add. Urlichs.
220

BOOK II. XIV. 74-xv. 77

proximity to the centre does in the case of the
former ; the former begin to decelerate from their
morning setting, but the latter to accelerate. The
former travel backward from their morning to their
evening station, the planet Venus from her evening
to her morning station. But she begins to chmb her
latitude after her morning rise, but after her morning
station to ascend her altitude and foUow the sun,
being swiftest and highest at her morning setting;
whereas she begins to descend in latitude and
decelerate after her evening rising, and to turn back
and simultaneously to descend in altitude after her
evening station ; on the other hand the planet
Mercury begins to chmb in both ways after his
morning rising, but after his evening rising to
descend in latitude, and following the sun at an
Interval of 15 degrees he stands motionless for almost
four days. Afterwards he descends from his altitude
and proceeds back from his evening setting to his
morning rise. And only this planet and the moon
set in as many days as they have risen in ; Venus
ascends in 15 times as many days as she sets in,
while Saturn and Jupiter descend in twice as many,
and Mars in actually four times as many. So great
is the variety of nature ; but the reason is evident — •
bodies that strain up into the heat of the sun also have
difficulty in desccnding.

XV. Many more facts can be produced about other
these mysteries of nature and the laws that she particviar
obeys — for example, in the case of the planet ^'^^"^* '" ''
Mars (whose course it is very difficult to observe)
that it never makes its station with Jupiter at an
angle of 120 , and very seldom with Jupiter separ-
ated 60^ (whioh amounts to ^th of the celestial

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

formas,^) nec exortus nisi in duobus signis tantum,
cancri et leonis, simul edere, Mercuri vero sidus
exortus vespertinos in piscibus raros facere, creberri-
mos in virgine, in libra matutinos, item matutinos in
aquario, rarissimos in leone, retrogradum in tauro et
in geminis non fieri, in cancro vero non citra vice-

78 simam quintam partem, lunam bis coitum cum sole
in nullo alio signo facere quam geminis, non coire
aliquando in sagittario tantum, novissimam vero
primamque eadem die vel nocte nullo alio in signo
quam ariete conspici (id quoque paucis mortalium
contigit, et inde fama cernendi Lynceo), non
conparere in caelo Saturni sidus et Martis cum
plurimum diebus centum septuaginta, lovis triginta
sex, aut cum minimum denis detractis diebus omnia,
Veneris sexaginta novem aut cum minimum quin-
quaginta duobus, Mercuri tredecim aut cum pluru-
mum septemdecim.

79 XVI. Colores ratio altitudinum temperat, siqui-
dem earum similitudinem trahunt in quarum aera
venere subeundo, tinguitque adpropinquantes utra-
libet alieni meatus circulus, frigidior in pallorem,
ardentior in ruborem, ventosus in livorem,^ sol
atque commissurae apsidum, extremaeque orbitae,
atram in obscuritatem. suus quidem cuique color
est, Saturno candidus, lovi clarus, Marti igneus,
Lucifero candens, Vesperi refulgens, Mercurio
radians, lunae blandus, soli cum oritur ardens, post

^ [qui . . . f ormas] ? Rackham.

* Mayhoff : horrorem aut honorem.

• Literally ' which number produces the hexagonal shapes
of the world ' — apparently meaning that to draw in a circle
6 radii at angles of 60° and join the points where they reach
the circumference produces a regular hexagon. Even if we
222

BOOK II. XV. 77-xvi. 79

sphere <*), and never makes its rises simultaneously
with Jupiter except in two signs only, Cancer and Leo,
whereas the planet Mercury rarely makes its evening
rises in Pisces, and most frequently in Virgo, its
morning rises in Libra, and also its morning rises in
Aquarius, very rarely in Leo ; it does not make its re-
turn in Taurus and in Gemini, and not below the 25th
degree in Cancer; Gemini is the only sign in which
the moon makes conjunction with the sun twice,
Sagittarius the only one in which she does not meet
him at all, Aries the only one in which the old moon
and the new moon are visible on the same day or night
(and this too it has happened to few mortals to see,
hence Lynceus's reputation for keen sight) ; the
longest period of invisibiUty for the planets Saturn and
Mars is 170 days, for Jupiter 36 days ; the shortest
periods for all these are 10 days less ; Venus's period
is 69 days or at shortest 52, Mercury's 13 or at
longest 17.

XVI. The colours of the planets vary with their coiwrs o,
altitudes, inasmuch as they are assimilated to the "'«i'^"'''
stars into whose atmosphere they come in rising,
and the circuit of another's path modifies their
colour in either direction as they approach, a colder
circuit to pallor, a hotter one to redness, a windy
one to a leaden colour, the sun and the intersection
of its orbit with theirs, and also the extremities
of their paths, changing them to black darkness. It
is true that each has its own special hue — Saturn
white, Jupiter transparent, Mai-s fiery, Lucifer
bright white, Vesper glaring, Mercury radiant,
the moon soft, the sun when rising glowing and

emend sexangulas Jorrtias to the singular, this clumsily ex-
preased piece of geometry looks like an iuterpolation.

223

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

radians, his causis conexo visu et earum ^ quae caelo

80 continentur. namque modo multitudo conferta inest
circa dimidios orbes lunae, placida nocte leniter
inlustrante eas, modo raritas, ut fugisse miremur,
plenilunio abscondente aut cum solis suprave dictarum
radii visus praestrinxere nostros. et ipsa autem luna
ingruentium solis radiorum haut dubie difFerentias
sentit, hebetante cetero inflexos mundi convexitate
eos praeterquam ubi recti angulorum conpetant
ictus. itaque in quadrato solis dividua est, in
triquetro seminani ambitur orbe, inpletur autem in
adverso, rursusque minuens easdem effigies paribus
edit intervallis, simili ratione qua super solem tria
sidera.

81 XVII. Sol autem ipse quattuor difFerentias habet,
bis aequata nocte diei, vere et autumno, in centrum
incidens terrae octa^^is in partibus arietis ac hbrae,
bis permutatis spatiis, in auctum diei bruma octava
in parte capricorni, noctis vero solstitio totidem in
partibus cancri. inaequalitatis causa obliquitas
signiferi cum pars aequa mundi super subterque
terras omnibus fiat momentis ; sed quae recta in
exortu suo consurgunt signa longiore tractu tenent
lucem, quae vero obliqua ociore transeunt spatio.

82 XVIII. Latet plerosque magna caeli adsectatione
conpertum a principibus doctrinae viris superiorum

* visu ceterarum Brotier.

' The Etruscans, c. lii.

224

BOOK II. XVI. 79-xviii. 82

afterwards radiant ; with these being causally con-
nected also the appearance of the fixed stars. For
at one time there is a dense crowd of stars in the sky
round the circle of the half-moon, a fine night giving
them a gentle radiance, but at another time they
are scarce, so that we wonder at their flight, when
the full moon hides them or when the rays of the
sun or the planets above-mentioned dim our sight.
But the moon herself also is undoubtedly sensitive
to the variations of the strength of impact of the
rays of the sun, as moreover the curve of the earth
dulls their impact, except when the impact of the
rays meets at a right angle. And so the moon is
at half in the sun's quadrature, and curved in a
hoUow circle in its trinal aspect, but waxes to full
at the sun's opposition, and then waning exhibits
the same configurations at correspouding intervals,
on the same principle as the three planets above
the sun.

XVII. The sun itself has four differences, as there Thesun's
are two equinoxes, in spring and autumn, when *-^'^*^*
it coincides with the centre of the earth at the eighth
degree of Aries and Libra, and two changes of its
course, in the eighth degree of Capricorn at mid-
winter when the days begin to lengthen and in the

same degree of Cancer at the summer solstice. The
variation is due to the slant of the zodiac, as at every
moment an equal part of the fii*mament is above and
below the earth ; but the planets that foUow a
straight path at their rising keep their light for a
longer tract and those that follow a slanting path
pass in a swifter period.

XVIII. Most men are not acquainted with a truth Thunderboiu
known to the founders " of the science from their ^i^eu'^

225

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

triuin siderum ignes esse qui decidui ad terras
fulminum nomen habeant, sed maxime lovis ^ medio
loco siti, fortassis quoniam contagium nimii umoris ex
superiore circulo atque ardoris ex subiecto per hunc
modum egerat, ideoque dictum lovem fulmina
iaculari. ergo ut e flagrante ligno carbo cum crepitu,
sic a sidere caelestis ignis exspuitur praescita secum
adferens, ne abdicata quidem sui parte in divinis
cessante operibus. idque maxime turbato fit aeres
quia collectus imior abundantiam stimulat aut quia
turbatur quodam ceu gravidi sideris partu.

83 XIX. Intervalla quoque siderum a terra multi
indagare temptarunt, et solem abesse a luna undevi-
ginti partes quantam lunam ipsam a terra prodiderunt.
Pythagoras vero, vlr sagacis animi, a terra ad lunam
CXXVI milia stadiorum esse collegit, ad solem ab
ea duplum, inde ad duodecim signa triplicatimi, in
qua sententia et Gallus Sulpicius fuit noster.

84 XX. Sed Pythagoras interdum ex musica ratione

appellat tonimi quantum absit a terra luna, ab ea ad

Mercurium dimidium eius spatii, et ab eo ad Venerem

tantundem, a qua ad solem sescuplum, a sole ad

Martem tonum, id est quantum ad lunam a terra,^

^ Mayhoff : codd. is, his, extia.
* [id est . . . terra] ? Mayhoff.

• A stade roughly equala a furlong.
226

BOOK II. XVIII. 82-xx. 84

arduous study of the heavens, that what when they
fall to earth are termed thunderbolts are the fires of
the three upper planets, particularly those of Jupiter,
whieh is in the middle position — possibly because it
voids in this way the charge of excessive moisture
from the upper circle (of Saturn) and of excessive
heat from the cii-cle below (of Mars); and that this
is the origin of the myth that thunderbolts are the
javelins hurled by Jupiter. Consequently heavenly
fire is spit forth by the planet as crackhng charcoal
flies from a burning log, bringing prophecies with it,
as even the part of himself that he discards does not
cease to function in its divine tasks. And this is
accompanied by a very great disturbance of the air,
because moisture collected causes an overflow, or
because it is disturbed by the birth-pangs so to speak
of the planet in travail.

XIX. Many people have also tried to discover Distanees o
the distances of the planets from the earth, and have ' p^"****
given out that the distance of the sun from the moon

is 19 times that of the moon itself from the earth.
The penetrating genius of Pythagoras, however,
inferred that the distance of the moon from the
earth was 15,750 miles," and that of the sun from the
moon twice that figure, and of the sun from the
twelve signs of the Zodiac three times. Our fellow-
countiyman Sulpicius Gallus also held this view.

XX. But occasionally Pythagoras draws on the TMr
theory of music, and designates the distance between rat^l'""*
the earth and the moon as a whole tone, that between

the moon and Mercury a semitone, between Mercury
and Venus the same, between her and the sun a tone
and a half, between the sun and Mars a tone (the
same as the distance between the earth and the

227

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

ab eo ad lovem dimidium, et ab eo ad Saturnum
dimidium, et inde sescuplum ad signiferum ; ita
septem tonis effici quam diapason harmoniam vocant,
hoc est universitatem concentus ; in ea Saturnum
Dorio moveri phthongo, lovem Phrygio, et in reUquis
simiha, iucunda magis quam necessaria subtilitate.

85 XXI. Stadium centum viginti quinque nostros
efficit passus, hoc est pedes sexcentos viginti quinque.
Posidonius non minus quadraginta stadiorum a terra
altitudinem esse in quam nubila ac venti nubesque
perveniant, inde purum liquidumque et inperturbatae
lucis aera, sed a turbido ad lunam viciens centum
miha stadiorum, inde ad solem quinquiens mihens,
eo spatio fieri ut tam inmensa eius magnitudo non
exurat terras. plures autem nubes nongentis in
altitudinem subire prodiderunt. inconperta haec et
inextricabilia, sed prodenda quia sunt prodita, in
quis tamen una ratio geometricae collectionis
numquam fallacis possit non repudiari, si cui libeat
altius ista persequi, nec ut mensura (id enim velle
paene dementis otii est) sed ut tantum aestumatio

86 coniectandi constet animo. nam cum trecentis sexa-
ginta et fere sex partibus circulum per quem meat
orbis solis ex circuitu eius patere appareat, semperque
dimetiens tertiam partem ambitus et tertiae paulo
minus septimam colligat, apparet, dempta eius

• 'Apfjiovla 8ia naacov twv xop8o>v (all the notes in the scale
played successively, not a harmony in the modern sense.)

* See p. 296 note.

228

BOOK II. XX. 84-xxi. 86

moon), between Mars and Jupiter half a tone,
between Jupiter and Saturn half a tone, between
Saturn and the zodiac a tone and a half : the seven
tones thus producing the so-called diapason," i.e.
a universal harmony ; in this Saturn moves in the
Dorian mode, Jupiter in the Phrygian, and similarly
with the other planets — a refinement more entertain-
incp than convincino^.

XXI. A stade is equivalent to 125 Roman paces,* Heirihtofi
that is 625 feet. Posidonius holds that mists and
winds and clouds reach to a height of not less than
5 miles from the earth, but that from that point
the air is clear and liquid and perfectly himinous, but
that the distance between the cloudy air and the
moon is 250,000 miles and between the moon and
the sun 625,000 miles, it being due to this distance
that the sun's vast magnitude does not burn up the
earth. The majority of writers, however, have
stated that the clouds rise to a height of 111 miles.
These figures are really unascertained and impossible
to disentangle, but it is proper to put them forward
because they have been put forward already, although
they are matters in which the method of geometrical
inference, which never misleads, is the only method
that it is possible not to reject, were anybody
desirous of pursuing such questions more deeply,
and with the intention of establishing not precise
measurement (for to aspire to that would mark an
almost insane absorption in study) but merely a
conjectural calculation. For since it appears from
the sun's revolution that the circle through which Distanceoj
its orb travels extends nearly 366 degrees, and since amisk^"
the diameter of a circle always measures a little less
than ^ -^ 2~ of the circimiference, it appears that, as

229

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

dimidia quoniam terra centralis interveniat, sextam
fere partem huius inmensi spatii quod circa terram
circuli solaris animo conprehenditur inesse altitu-
dinis spatio, lunae vero duodecimam, quoniam tanto
breviore quam sol ambitu currit ; ita fieri eam in

87 medio solis ac terrae. mirum quo precedat inprobi-
tas cordis humani parvolo aliquo invitata successu,
sicut in supra dictis occasionem inpudentiae ratio
largitur. ausique divinare solis ad terram spatia
eadem ad caelum agunt, quoniam sit medius sol, ut
protinus mundi quoque ipsius mensura veniat ad
digitos. quantas enim dimetiens habeat septimas,
tantas habere circulum duo et vicesimas, tamquam
plane a perpendiculo mensura caeli constet.

88 Aeg^^tia ratio, quam Petosiris et Nechepsos osten-
dere, singulas partes in lunari circulo (ut dictum est)
minimo triginta tribus stadiis paulo amplius patere
colligit, in Saturni amplissimo duplum, in soHs, quem
medium esse diximus, utriusque mensurae dimidium.
quae computatio plurimum habet pudoris, quoniam
ad Saturni circulum addito signiferi ipsius intervallo
nec numerabilis multipHcatio efficitur.

89 XXII. Restant pauca de mundo. namque et in
ipso caelo stellae repente nascuntur. plura earura
genera. cometas Graeci vocant, nostri crinitas
230

BOOK II. xxr. 86-xxn. 89

half the circle is subtracted by the interposition of
the earth at the centre, the measure of the sun's
altitude comprises about ^th of this conjecturally
estimated immense space of the solar circle round
the earth, and the moon's altitude yVth, since the
moon runs in a circuit that is much shorter than the
sun's ; so that it comes between the sun and the earth.
It is marvellous to what length the depravity of man's
intellect will go when lured on by some trifling
success, in the way in which reason furnishes impu-
dence with its opportunity in the case of the calcula-
tions above stated. And when they have dared to
guess the distances of the sun from the earth they
apply the same figures to the sky, on the ground that
the sun is at its centre, with the consequence that they
have at their finger's ends the dimensions of the
world also. For they argue that the circumference of
a circle is ^-- times its diameter, as though the measure
of the heavens were merely regulated from a plumb-
line ! The Egyptian calculation published by
Petosiris and Nechepsos infers that one degree of the
kmar circle measures (as has been said) just over
4g- miles at the least, one degree of the widest
circle, Saturn's, twice that size, and one of the sun's
circle, which we stated to be in the middle, the mean
between the other two. This computation is a most
shameful business, since the addition of the distance
of the zodiac itself to the circle of Saturn produces a
multiple that is even beyond reckoning.

XXII. A few facts about the world remain. Conuts.
There are also stars that suddenly come to birth in ''""
the heaven itself ; of these there are several kinds.
The Greeks call them ' comets,' in our language
' long-haired stars,' because they have a blood-red

231

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

horrentis crine sanguineo et comanim modo in vertice
hispidas. iidem pogonias quibus inferiore ex parte
in speciem barbae longae promittitur iuba. acontiae
iaculi modo vibrantur, atrocissimo significatu ; haec
fuit de qua quinto consulatu suo Titus Imperator
Caesar praeclaro carmine perscripsit, ad hunc diem
novissime visa. easdem bre\dores et in mucronem
fastigatas xiphias vocavere, quae sunt omnium pal-
hdissimae et quodam gladii nitore ac sine ulhs radiis,
quos et disceus, specie ^ nomini simihs, colore autem
90 electro, raros e margine emittit. pitheus dohorum
cernitur figura in concavo fumidae lucis. ceratias
cornus speciem habet, quahs fuit cum Graecia apud
Salamina depugnavit. lampadias ardentes imitatur
faces, hippeus equinas iubas celerrimi motus atque
in orbem circa se euntes. fit et candidus ^ cometes
argenteo crine ita refulgens ut \ax contueri Hceat,
specieque humanae faciei ^ effigiem in se ostendens.
fiunt et hirci * villorum specie et nube ahqua circum-
dati. semel adhuc iubae effigies mutata in hastam
est, Oh-mpiade CVIII,^ urbis anno CCCCVHI.«

1 specie add. Detlefsen.

* candidus <Aids> Mayhoff, cf. Lydus, p. 163.
® Mayhoff: humana diei avi dei.

♦ v.l. hirti. 5 V.U. CIX, CV.
« Edd. : CCCXCVIII.

" The title seems to have become an hereditary sumame.
Titus'3 5th consulship was in a.d. 76, his colleague being
Vespasian in his 7th consulship.

* Perhaps to be emended ' a ahining comet called Zeus'H
Comet.'

232

BOOK II. xxn. 89-90

shock of what looks like shaggy hair at thcir top. The
Greeks also give the name of ' bearded stars ' to those
from whose lower part spreads a mane resembhng a
long beard. ' Javehn-stars ' quiver hke a dart ; these
are a very terrible portent. To this class belongs the
comet about which Titus Imperator " Caesar in his
5th consulship wrote an account in his famous poem,
that being its latest appearance down to the present
day. The same stars when shorter and sloping to a
point have been called ' Daggers ' ; these are the
palest of all in colour, and have a gleam hke the flash
of a sword, and no rays, which even the Quoit-star,
which resembles its name in appearance but is in
colour hke amber, emits in scattered form from its
edge. The ' Tub-star ' presents the shape of a cask,
with a smoky hght all round it. The ' Horned star '
has the shape of a horn, hke the one that appeared
when Greece fought the decisive battle of Salamis.
The ' Torch-star ' resembles glowing torches, the
' Horse-star ' horses' manes in very rapid motion and
revolving in a circle. There also occurs a shining
comet * whose silvery tresses glow so brightly that it is
scarcely possible to look at it, and which displays
within it a shape in the hkeness of a man's counten-
ance. There also occur ' Goat comets,' enringed
with a sort of cloud resembhng tufts of hair. Once
hitherto it has happened that a ' Mane-shaped '
comet " changed into a spear ; this was in the lOSth '^
Olympiad, a.u.c. 408.^ The shortest period of

' Apparently the same as hippeus, the Hors3-star, above.

^ 348-345 B.c. Variant readings give 109th (346-341
B.c.) and 105th (360-357 b.c).

' 346 B.o. — an emendation; the MSS. give a.u.c. 393
(356 B.c).

233

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

brevissimum quo cernerentur spatiimi VII dierum
adnotatum est, longissimum LXXX.^

91 XXIII. Moventur autem aliae errantium modo,
aliae inmobiles haerent, omnes ferme sub ipso
septentrione, aliqua eius parte non certa, sed maxime
in candida quae lactei circuli nomen accepit.
Aristoteles tradit et simul plures cerni, nemini
conpertum alteri, quod equidem sciam, ventos autem
ab his graves aestusve significari. fiunt et hibernis
memibus et in austrino polo, sed ibi citra ullum iubar.
diraque conperta Aethiopum et Aeg)"pti popuhs, cui
nomen aevi eius rex dedit Typhon, ignea specie ac
spirae modo intorta, \isu quoque torvo, nec stella

92 verius quam quidam igneus nodus. sparguntur
ahquando et errantibus stelhs ceterisque crines.
sed cometes nonnxunquam ^ in occasura parte caeli
est, terrificum magna ex parte sidus atque non leviter
piatum, ut ci\ili motu Octa\io consule iterum-
que Pompei et Caesaris bello, in nostro vero aevo
circa veneficium quo Claudius Caesar imperium
reliquit Domitio Neroni, ac deinde principatu eius
adsiduum prope ac saevum. referre arbitrantur in
quas partes sese iaculetur aut cuius stellae vires
accipiat quasque similitudines reddat et quibus in

1 Edd. : CLXXX. * Rackham : nunquam.

« Editors alter to 180, cf. Seneca N.Q. 7. 6. 1 etc.

* Mdeorologica, 345a 29.

« The MSS. give ' never ' : Brotier quotes Aristotle Meteorol.
343b 14 aTtavres ol Ka9' rjfias oj^p.ei>oi dvev Bvaecos rj(f)aviadriaav ev
Tw Inrep rov 6pil,ovTOs tottw. But Pliny is not speaking of the
disappearance of comets. If the MS. reading is accepted,
terrificum begins a fresh sentence, and refers to comets in all
quarters.

234

BOOK II. XXII. 90-xxiii. 92

visibility on record for a comet is 7 days, the longest
80."

XXIII. Some comets move, like the planets, but courscso/
others are fixed and stationary, almost all of them '^""^"'^-
towards the due North, not in any particular part of
it, though chiefly in the luminous region called the
Milky Way. Aristotle also records ^" that several
may be seen at the same time — a fact not observed
by anyone else, as far as I am aware — and that this
signifies severe winds or heat. Comets also occur
in the winter months and at the south pole, but
comets in the south have no rays. A terrible comet Cometsas
was seen by the people of Ethiopia and Egypt, to 'P'^tents.
which Typhon the king of that period gave his name ;
it had a fiery appearance and was twisted Hke a coil,
and it was very grim to behold : it was not really a
star so much as what might be called a ball of fire.
Planets and all other stars also occasionally have
spreading hair. But sometimes *" there is a comct
in the western sky, usually a terrifying star and not
easily expiated : for instance, during the civil dis-
order in the consulship ** of Octavius, and again during
the war " between Pompey and Caesar, or in oin- day
about the time of the poisoning which secured the
bequest of the empire by Claudius Caesar to
Domitius Nero,/ and thereafter during Nero's
principate shining almost continuously and with a
terrible glare. People think that it matters in what
direction a comet darts, what star's strength it
borrows, what shapes it resembles, and in what

^ 43 B.c.
• 49, 48 B.o.

/ Nero had succeeded his stepfather, 54 b.c, before he
secured his position by murderiQg Britaonicus.

PLINY: NATUBAL HISTORY

93 locis emicet ; tibiarumspeciemusicaeartiportendere,
obscenis autem moribiis in verendis partibus sig-
norum, ingeniis et eruditioni si triquetram figuram
quadratamve paribus angulis ad aliquos perennium
stellarum situs edat, venena fundere in capite
septentrionalis austrinaeve serpentis.

Cometes in uno totius orbis loco colitur in templo
Romae, admodum faustus divo Augusto iudicatus
ab ipso, qui incipiente eo apparuit ludis quos faciebat
Veneri Genetrici non multo post obitum patris

94 Caesaris in collegio ab eo instituto. namque his
verbis id gaudium prodit : ' lis ipsis ludorum meonmi
diebus sidus crinitum per septem dies in regione
caeli quae sub septentrionibus est conspectum est.^
id oriebatur circa undecimam horam diei clarumque
et omnibus e terris conspicuum fuit. eo sidere
significari volgiis credidit Caesaris animam inter
deorum immortalium numina receptam, quo nomine
id insigne simulacro capitis eius, quod mox in foro
consecravimus, adiectum est.' haec ille in publicum :
interiore gaudio sibi illum natum seque in eo nasci
interpretatus est; et, si verum fatemur, salutare id
terris fuit.

Sunt qui et haec sidera perpetua esse credant
suoque ambitu ire, sed non nisi relicta ab sole cerni,

1 est add. (vel id om.) Eackham.

" Between the Great and Little Bsar.
236

BOOK II. XXIII. 92-94

places it shines ; that if it resembles a pair of flutes
it is a portent for the art of music, in the private parts
of the constellations it portends immoraUty, if it
forms an equilateral triangle or a rectangular quadri-
lateral in relation to certain positions of the fixed
stars, it portends men of genius and a revival of
learning, in the head of the Northern " or the
Southern * Serpent it brings poisonings.

The only place in the whole world where a comet is worMp
the object of worship is a temple at Rome. His late '^''"^'*'
Majesty Augustus had deemed this comet very
propitious to himself; as it had appeared at the
beginning of his rule, at some games which, not long
after the decease of his father Caesar, as a member
of the coUege founded by him he was celebrating
in honour of Mother Venus. In fact he made pubhc
the joy that it gave him in these words : ' On the very
days of my Games a comet was visible for seven days
in the northern part of the sky. It was rising about
an hour before sunset, and was a bright star, visible
from all lands. The common people beheved that
this star signified the soul of Caesar received among
the spirits of the immortal gods, and on this account
the emblem of a star was added to the bust of Caesar
that we shortly afterwards dedicated in the forum.'
This was his pubUc utterance, but privately he
rejoiced because he interpreted the comet as having
been born for his own sake and as containing his own
birth within it ; and, to confess the truth, it did have
a healthgiving influence over the world.

Some persons think that even comets are ever-
lasting, and travel in a special circuit of their own,
but are not visible except when the sun leaves them ;

In tlie hand of Opliiuchus {Aiujuiteiieiis).

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

alii vero qui nasci umore fortuito et ignea vi, ideoque *
solvi.

95 XXIV. Idem Hipparchus numquam satis lauda-
tus, ut quo nemo magis adprobaverit cognationem
cum homine siderum animasque nostras partem esse
caeli, novam stellam ^ in aevo suo genitam depre-
hendit, eiusque motu qua ^ fulsit ad dubitationem
est adductus anne hoc saepius fieret moverenturque
et eae quas putamus adfixas, ideoque * ausus rem
etiam deo inprobam, adnumerare posteris stellas ac
sidera ad nomen expungere organis excogitatis per
quae singularum loca atque magnitudines signaret,
ut facile discerni posset ex eo non modo an obirent
ac nascerentur sed an omnino aliquae transirent
moverenturque, item an crescerent minuerenturque,
caelo in hereditate cunctis relicto, si quisquam qui
cretionem eam caperet inventus esset.

96 XXV. Emicant et faces non nisi cum decidunt
visae, qualis Germanico Caesare gladiatorium specta-
culum edente praeter ora populi meridiano transcu-
currit. duo genera earum : alterum ^ lampadas
vocant, plane faces, alterum bolidas, quale Mutinensi-
bus malis visum est. distant quod faces vestigia

1 eoque ? Raclcham.

* Deilefsen : stellam et aliam, stellam vel aliam.

* v.l. qua die.

* v.l. idemque.

' alterum add. Backham.

"» Possibly the text should be altered to give ' and are
dissolved into them.'

238

BOOK II. xxiii. g4-xxv. 96

there are others, however, who hold that they spring
into existence out of chance moistm-e and fiery
force, and consequently " are dissolved.

XXIV. Hipparchus before-mentioned, who can The
never be sufficiently praised, no one having done ^ip^a^rc/fu!
more to prove that man is related to the stars and

that our souls are a part of heaven, detected a new
star that came into existence during his hfetime ;
the movement of this star in its hne of radiance led
him to wonder whether this was a frequent occur-
rence, whether the stars that we think to be fixed
are also in motion ; and consequently he did a bold
thing, that would be reprehensible even for God —
he dared to schedule the stars for posterity, and
tick off the heavenly bodies by name in a hst,
devising machinery by means of which to indi-
cate their several positions and magnitudes, in order
that from that time onward it might be possible
easily to discern not only whether stars perish and
are born, but whether some are in transit and in
motion, and also whether they increase and decrease
in magnitude — thus bequeathing the heavens as a
legacy to all mankind, supposing anybody had been
found to claim that inheritance !

XXV. There are also meteoric Ughts that are Metcors,
only seen when falHng, for instance one that ran ^^stances^i
across the sky at midday in full view of the pubhc

when Germanicus Caesar was giving a gladiatorial
show. Of these there are two kinds : one sort are
called lampades, which means ' torches,' the other
bolides (missiles), — that is the sort that appeared at
the time of the disasters of Modena.'' The difference

* When Decimus Brutus was besieged there by Antony,
44 B.o.

239

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

longa faciunt priore ardente ^ parte, bolis vero
pei-petua ardens longiorem trahit limitem.

XXVI. Emicant et trabes simili modo, quas
hoKov^ vocant, qualis cum Lacedaemonii classe \icti

97 imperiimi Graeciae amisere. fit et caeli ipsius
hiatus, quod vocant chasma, (XXVII) fit et sanguinea
species et, quo nihil terribilius mortahum timori
est, incendium ad terras cadens inde, sicut OljTnpiadis
centesimae septimae anno tertio, cum rex Philippus
Graeciam quateret. atque ego haec statis tempori-
bus naturae vi ^ ut cetera arbitror existere, non, ut
plerique, variis de causis quas ingeniorum acumen
excogitat ; quippe ingentium malorum fuere prae-
nuntia, sed ea accidisse non quia haec facta sunt
arbitror, verum haec ideo facta quia incasura erant
illa, raritate autem occultam eorum esse rationem,
ideoque non sicut exortus supra dictos defectusque
et multa alia nosci.

98 XXVIII. Cernuntur et stellae cimi sole totis
diebus, plerumque et circa sohs orbem ceu spiceae
coronae et versicolores circuh, quahter Augusto
Caesare in prima iuventa urbem intrante post obitum
patris ad nomen ingens capessendum. existunt
eaedem coronae circa lunam et circa nobilia astra
caeloque inhaerentia. XXIX. Circa solem arcus

1 ardentes ? Eackham.

2 vi add. MayhofficJ. 191).

« At Cnidus, 394 b.c.

* 349 B.c.

' I.e. his great-uncle Julius Caesar, who not long before
his death adopted Octavian into the Gena Juha as his heir :
of this Augustus (then aged \^h) leamt on crossing from
Apollonia and landing near Brindiai shortly after Caesar'8
murder.

240

BOOK II. XXV. 96-xxix. 98

between tliem is that ' torches ' make long tracks,
with their front part glowing, whereas a ' bohs ' glows
throughout its length, and traces a longer path.

XXVI. Other simihir meteoric hghts are ' beams.'
in Greek dokoi, for example one that appeared when
the Spartans were defeated " at sea and lost the
empire of Greece. There also occurs a yawning of the
actual sky, called chasvia, (XXVII) and also something
tliat looks hke blood, and a fire that falls from it to
the earth — the most alarming possible cause of terror
to mankind ; as happened in the third year ^ of the
lOTth Olympiad, when King Phihp was throwing
Greece into distm-bance. My o^vn view is that
these occurrences take place at fixed dates owing to
natural forces, hke all other events, and not, as most
people think, from the variety of causes invented by
tlie cleverness of human intellects ; it is true that
they were the harbingers of enormous misfortunes,
but I hold that those did not happen because the
marvellous occurrences took place but that these
took place because the misfortunes were going to
occur, only the reason for their occurrence is con-
cealed by their rarity, and consequently is not
understood as are the risings and setting of the
planets described above and many other phenomena.

XXVIII. Stars are also seen throughout the day- Soinr ana
time in company with the sun, usually actually sur- "'""^
rounding the sun's orb hke wreaths made of ears of
corn and rings of changing colour — for instance, when
Augustus Caesar in early manhood entered the city
after the death of his father '^ to assume his mighty
surname. Similar haloes occur round the moon and
round the principal fixed stars. XXIX. A bow
appeared round the sun in the consulship of Lucius

241

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

adparuit L. Opimio Q. Fabio coss., orbis L. Porcio
M'. Acilio, circulus rubri coloris L. lulio P. Rutilio
coss.

XXX. Fiunt prodigiosi et longiores solis defectus,
qualis occiso dictatore Caesare et Antoniano bello
99 totius paene anni pallore continuo. XXXI. Et
rursus soles plures simul cernuntur, nec supra ipsum
nec infra sed ex obliquo, numquam iuxta nec contra
terram, nec noctu sed aut oriente aut occidente.
semel et meridie conspecti in Bosporo produntur,
qui ab matutino tempore duraverunt in occasum.
trinos soles antiqui saepius videre, sicut Sp. Postu-
mio Q. Mucio et Q. Marcio M. Porcio et M. Antonio
P. Dolabella et M. Lepido L. Planco coss., et nostra
aetas vidit divo Claudio principe, consulatu eius
Cornelio Orfito collega. plures quam tres simul visi
ad hoc aevi numquam produntur.

XXXII. Lunae quoque trinae, ut Cn. Domitio
C. Fannio consulibus, apparuere.
100 XXXIII. Quod plerique appellaverunt soles
nocturnos, lirnien de caelo noctu visum est C. Caecilio
Cn. Papirio consulibus et saepe alias, ut diei species
nocte luceret.

XXXIV. Clipeus ardens ab occasu ad ortum

• 121 B.O. ' 114 B.O. « 90 B.O.

■* 174 B.o. ' 118 B.c. / 44 B.o.

0 42 B.c. * A.i>. 51. * 222 B.o.

^ 113 B.O. * 86 B.O.

242

BOOK II. XXIX. 98-xxxiv. 100

Opimius and Quintus Fabius," a hoop in tliat of
Gaius Porcius and Manius Acilius,* and a
red rinff in that of Lucius JuHus and PubUus

o

Rutilius."

XXX. Portentous and protracted echpses of the Soiar
sun occur, such as the one after the murder of '^'^''^****
Caesar the dictator and during the Antonine war
which caused almost a whole year's continuous
gloom. XXXI. Again, several suns are seen at other
once, neither above nor below the real sun but at '^ortents!^^
an angle with it, never alongside of nor opposite to
the earth, and not at night but either at sunrise or
at sunset. It is also reported tliat once several
suns were seen at midday at the Bosphorus, and
that these lasted from dawn till sunset. In former
times three suns have often been seen at once, for
example in the consulships of Spurius Postvimius
and Quintus Mucius ^ of Quintus Marcius and Marcus
Porcius,'' of Marcus Antonius and PubUus Dolabella/
and of Marcus Lepidus and Lucius Plancus ; ?
and our generation saw this during the principate
of his late Majesty Claudius, in his consulship, when
Cornelius Orfitus was his coUeague.'' It is not stated
that more than three suns at a time have ever been
seen hitherto.

XXXII. Also three moons have appeared at once,
for instance in the consulship ' of Gnaeus Domitius
and Gaius Fannius.

XXXIII. A Ught from the sky by night, the
phenomenon usuaUy caUed ' night-suns,' was seen
in the consulshipi of Gaius CaeciUus and Gnaeus
Papirius and often on other occasions causing
apparent dayUght in the night.

XXXIV. In the consulsliip * of Lucius Valerius

243

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

scintillans transcucurrit solis occasu L. Valerio C.
Mario consulibus.

XXXV. Scintillam visara ^ e stella cadere et
augeri terrae adpropinquantem, at postquam lunae
magnitudine ^ facta sit, inluxisse ceu nubilo die, dein,
cum in caelimi se reciperet, lampadem factam semel
imiquam proditur Cn. Octa\-io C. Scribonio consuli-
bus. ^adit id Silanus proconsul cimi comitatu suo.

XXXVI. Fieri \"identur et discursus stellanmi,
numquam temere ut non ex ea parte truces venti
cooriantur.

101 XXXVII. Existunt stellae et in mari terrisque.
vidi nocturnis militum vigiliis inhaerere pilis pro
vallo fulgurum effigie eas, et antemnis na\igantium
aliisque navium partibus cum ^ vocali quodam sono
insistunt ut volucres sedem ex sede mutantes,
graves, cum solitariae venere, mergentesque navigia,
et si in carinae ima deciderint, exurentes, geminae
autem salutares et prosperi cursus praenuntiae,
quarum adventu fugari diram illam ac minacem
appellatamque Helenam ferunt, et ob id Polluci ac
Castori iis nomina * adsignant, eosque in mari deos
invocant. hominum quoque capita vespertinis horis
magno praesagio circumfulgent, omnia incerta
ratione et in naturae maiestate abdita.

102 XXXVIII. Hactenus de mundo ipso sideribusque.
nunc reUqua caeli memorabiUa. namque et hoc

^ visam add. Mayhoff.

* v.l. in lunae magnitudinem.
^ Mayhoff : ceu.

* Detlefsen : id nomen aut id numen.

• 66 B.o.

244

BOOK II. XXXIV. loo-xxx-viii. 102

and Gaius Marius a burning shield scattering
sparks ran across the sky at sunset from west to east.

XXXV. In the consulship " of Gnaeus Octavius
and Gaius Scribonius a spark was seen to fall from a
star and increase in size as it approached the earth,
and after becoming as large as the moon it diffused a
sort of cloudy dayUght, and then returning to the
sky changed into a torch ; this is the only record of
this occurring. It was seen by the proconsul Silanus
and his suite.

XXXVI. Also stars appear to shoot to and fro ;
this invariably portends the rise of a fierce hurricane
from the same quarter.

XXXVII. Stars also come into existence at sea
and on land. I have seen a radiance of star-hke
appearance chnging to the javeHns of soldiers on
sentry duty at night in front of the rampart ; and on
a voyage stars aUght on the yards and other parts
of the ship, with a sound resembling a voice, hopping
from perch to perch in the manner of birds. These
when they come singly are disastrously heavy and
wreck ships, and if they fall into the hold burn them
up. If there are two of them, they denote safety
and portend a successful voyage ; and their approach
is said to put to flight the terrible star called Helena :
for this reason they are called Castor and Pollux,
and people pray to them as gods for aid at sea. They
also shine round men's heads at evening time ; this
is a great portent. AU these things adinit of no
certain explanation; they are hidden away in the
grandeur of nature.

XXXVIII. So much as to the world itself and the Atmosrhn
stars. NoM' the remaining noteworthy facts as to ?"''"'"'"^'"
the heavens : for the name ' heaven ' was also given

245

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

caelum appellavere maiores quod alio nomine aera,
omne quod inani simile \italem hunc spiritum fundit.
Infra lunam haec sedes, multoque inferior (ut
animadverto propemodum constare), infinitum ex
superiore natura aeris, infinitum et terreni halitus
miscens utraque sorte confunditur. hinc nubila,
tonitrua et alia fulmina, hinc grandines, pruinae,
imbres, procellae, turbines, hinc plurima mortalium

103 mala et rerum naturae pugna secmn, terrena in
caelum tendentia deprimit siderum vis, eademque
quae sponte non subeant ad se trahit. decidunt
imbres, nebulae subeunt, siccantur amnes, ruunt
grandines, torrent radii et terram in medio mundi ^
undique impellunt, iidem infracti resihunt et quae
potavere ^ auferunt secum. vapor ex alto cadit
rursumque in altum redit. venti ingruunt inanes,
iidemque cum rapina remeant. tot animahum
haustus spiritum e subHmi aere ^ trahit, at ille
contra nititiir, tellusque ut inani caelo spiritum re-

104 fundit.* sic ultro citro conmeante natura ut tor-
mento aliquo mundi celeritate discordia accenditur
nec stare pugnae hcet, sed adsidue rapta convohdtur
et circa terram inmenso rerum causas globo ostendit,
subinde per nubes caelum ahud atque ahud^ obtexens.
ventorum hoc regnum. itaque praecipua eorum

^ Detlefsen : terram mediam aut medio aut mediam.

* Dalec : potuere.

' aere add. Rackham.

^ Rackham : fundit ant infnndit.

* atque aJiud add. vtt. apud Dalec {Brotier).

246

BOOK II. XXXVIII. 102-104

by OTir ancestors to this which is otherwise designated
' air ' — the whole of that apparently empty space
which pours forth this breath of Ufe. This region
below the moon, and a long way below it (as I notice
is almost universally agreed), blends together an
unlimited quantity from the upper element of air and
an unhmited quantity of terrestrial vapour, being a
combination of both orders. From it come clouds,
thunder-claps and also thunder-bolts, hail, frost,
rain, storms and whirhvinds ; from it come most of
mortals' misfortunes, and the warfare between the
elements of nature. The force of the stars presses
down terrestrial objects that strive to move towards
the sky, and also draws to itself things that lack spon-
taneous levitation. Rain falls, clouds rise, rivers dry
up, hailstoi-ms sweep down ; rays scorch, and im-
pinging from every side on the earth in the middle
of the world, then are broken and recoil and carry
with them the moisture they have drunk up. Steam
falls from on high and again returns on high. Empty
winds sweep down, and then go back again with their
plunder. So many hving creatures draw their breath
from the upper air ; but the air strives in the opposite
direction, and the earth pours back breath to the
sky as if to a vacuum. Thus as nature swings to
and fro hke a kind of shng, discord is kindled by the
velocity of the world's motion. Nor is the battle
allowed to stand still, but is continually carried up
and whirled round, displaying in an immense globe
that encircles the world the causes of things, con-
tinually overspreading another and another heaven
interwoven with the clouds. This is the realm of
the winds. Consequently their nature is here
pre-eminent, and ahnost includes all the rest of

247

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

natura ibi et ferme reliquas complexa aeris^ cau^as,
quoniam et tonitruum et fulminum iactus honun
violentiae plerique adsignant, quin et ideo lapidibus
pluere interim, quia vento sint rapti ; et multa
similiter. quam ob rem simul plura dicenda sunt.

105 XXXIX. Tempestatum imbriumque ^ quasdam
statas esse causas, quasdam vero fortuitas aut adhuc
rationis inconpertae, manifestum est. quis enim
aestates et hiemes quaeque in temporibus annua vice
intelleguntur siderum motu fieri dubitet ? ut solis
ergo natura temperando intellegitur anno, sic
rehquorum quoque siderum propria est cuiusque ^
vis et ad suam cuique naturam fertihs. aha sunt in
liquorem soluti umoris fecunda, aha concreti in
pruinas aut coacti in nives aut glaciati in grandines,
aha flatus, aha teporis, aha vaporis, aha roris, aha
frigoris.* nec vero haec tanta debent existimari
quanta cernuntur, cum esse eorum nullum minus

106 luna tam inmensae altitudim*s ratio declaret. igitur
in suo quaeque motu naturam suam exercent, quod
manifestum Saturni maxime transitus imbribus
faciunt. nec meantium modo siderum haec vis est
sed multorum etiam adhaerentium caelo, quotiens
errantium accessu inpulsa aut coniectu radiorum
exstimulata sunt, quahter in sucuhs sentimus
accidere, quas Graeci ob id pluvio nomine hyadas ^

^ Detlefsen : complexa a se aut se (complexa eas, c/. 67
fin. Mayhojf).

" Mayhqff : rerumque. ^ Mayhoff : quibusque.

* v.l. rigoris. * hyadas om. vulg. (cf. § 8).

248

BOOK II. xxxviii. 104-XXXIX. 106

the phenomena caused by the air, as most men
attribute the hurhng of thunderbolts and light-
ning to the winds' violence, and indeed hold that
the cause of the rain of stones that sometimes occurs
is that the stones are caught up by the wind ; and
Ukewise many other things. On this account more
facts have to be set out at the same time.

XXXIX. Storms and rain obviously have some Rain.
regular causes, but some that are accidental, or at
all events not hitherto explained. For who can
doubt that summer and winter and the yearly
vicissitudes observed in the seasons are caused by
the motion of the heavenly bodies? Therefore as
the nature of the sun is understood to control the
year's seasons, so each of the other stars also has
a force of its own that creates effects corresponding
to its particular nature. Some are productive of
moisture dissolved into hquid, others of moisture
hardened into frost or coagulated into snow or
frozen into hail, others of a blast of air, others of
warmth or heat, others of dew, others of cold. But
it must not be thought that the stars are of the size
that they appear to the sight, since the consideration
of their immense altitude proves that none of them
is smaller than the moon. Consequently each of
them exercises its own nature in its own motion, a
fact which the transits of Saturn in particular make
clear by their storms of rain. Nor does this power rn/iumce oj
belong to the moving stars only, but also to many of ll^ig^on
those that are fixed to the sky, whenever they are weaUter,
impelled forward by the approach of the planets or
goaded on by the impact of their rays, as we observe
occurring in the case of the Little Pigs, the Greek
aame for which is consequently the Hyades, a word

249

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

appellant. quin et sua sponte quaedam statisque
temporibus, ut haedorum exortus. Arcturi vero
sidus non ferme sine procellosa grandine emergit.

107 XL. Nam caniculae exortu accendi solis vapores
quis ignorat, cuius sideris effectus amplissimi in
terra sentiuntur ? fervent maria exoriente eo,
fluctuant in cellis vina, moventur stagna. orygem
appellat Aegyptus feram quam in exortu eius contra
stare et contueri tradit ac velut adorare cum sternu-
erit. canes quidem toto eo spatio maxime in rabiem
agi non est dubium.

103 XLI. Quin partibus quoque signorum quorundam
sua vis inest, ut autumnali aequinoctio brumaque,
cum tempestatibus confici sidus intellegimus, nec
imbribus tantum tempestatibusque sed multis et
corporum et ruris experimentis. adflantur alii sidere,
alii commoventur statis temporibus alvo, nervis,
capite, mente. olea et populus alba et salices sol-
stitio folia circumagunt. floret ipso brumali die
suspensa in tectis arentis herba pulei, rumpuntur

109 intentae spiritu membranae. miretur hoc qui non
observet cotidiano experimento herbam unam, quae
vocatur heliotropium, abeuntem solem intueri
semper omnibusque horis cum ee verti vel nubilo
obumbrante. iam quidem lunari potestate ostrearum
conchyhorumque et concharirai omnium corpora
augeri ac rursus minui, quin et soricum fibras re-

" 'TaSes from "en/ ' to rain,' not from vs ' a pig.'
2^0

BOOK II. XXXIX. 106-XU. 109

denoting rain." Indeed some stars move of them-
selves and at fixed times — compare the rising of the
Kids. But the rising of the constellation Arctm-us
is almost ahvays accompanied by a hail-storm.

XL. For who is not aware that the heat of the
sun increases at the rising of the Lesser Dog-star,
whose effects are felt on earth very widely ? At its
rise the seas are rough, wine in the cellars ripples in
waves, pools of water are stirred. There is a wild
animal in Egypt called the gazelle that according to
the natives stands facing this dog-star at its rise, and
gazing at it as if in worship, after first giving a sneeze.
It is indeed beyond doubt that dogs throughout the
whole of that period are specially hable to rabies.

XLI. Moreover also the parts of some constella-
tions have an influence of their own — for instance
at the autumnal equinox and at mid-winter, when we
learn by the storms that the sun is completing its
orbit ; and not only by falls of rain and storms,
but by many things that happen to our bodies and
to the fields. Some men are paralysed by a star, andon
others suflfer periodic disturbances of the stomach "^"ntsf *"
or sinews or head or mind. The ohve and white
poplar and willow turn round their leaves at the
solstice. Fleabane hung up in the house to dry
flowers exactly on midwinter day, and inflated
skins burst. This may surprise one who does not
notice in daily experience that one plant, called heho-
trope, ahvays looks towards the sun as it passes and
at every hour of the day turns with it, even when it is
obscured by a cloud. Indeed persistent reseaxxh
has discovered that the influence of the moon causes
the shells of oysters, cockles and all shell-fish to grow
larger and again smaller in bulk, and moreover that

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

spondere numero lunae exquisivere diligentiores,
minimumque animal, formicam, sentire \-ires sideris

110 interlunio semper cessantem. quo turpior homini
inscitia est fatenti praecipue iumentorum quorundam
in oculis morbos cum luna increscere ac minui.
patrocinatur vastitas caeli ^ inmensa discreta alti-
tudine ^ in duo atque septuaginta signa, hoc est
rerum aut animantium effigies in quas digessere
caelum periti. in his quidam mille sexcentas adno-
tavere stellas, insignes scihcet effectu visuve, exempli
gratia in cauda tauri septera quas appellavere
Vergilias, in fronte suculas, Booten quae sequitur
Septem Triones.

111 XLII. Extra has causas non negaverim exsistere
imbres ventosque, quoniam umidam a terra, alias
vero propter vaporem fumidam exhalari cahginem
certum est, nubesque e ^ liquore * egresso in sublime
aut ex aere coacto in hquorem gigni. densitas earum
corpusque haut dubio coniectatur argumento, cum
solem obumbrent, perspicuum alias etiam urinantibus
in quamhbet profundam aquarum altitudinem.

112 XLIII. Igitur non eam infitias posse in has et
ignes superne stellarum decidere (quales sereno
saepe cernimus, quorum ictu concuti aera verum est,
quando et tela vibrata stridunt), cum vero in nubem
perveniunt, vaporem dissonum gigni ut candente ferro
in aquam demerso et fumidum vorticem volvi.

^ v.l. rei {et discretae Eackham).
2 latitudine Brolier.

* e add. Eackham.

* vapore edd. (sic Aristofeles).

' I.e. the number of davs from the new moon.
* The Hyadcs, see § 106.
« The Oxherd.

"* The Wain, or Ursa Alajor and Ursa Minor.
252

BOOK II. xLi. 109-XL111. 112

the phases of the moon'^ afFect the tissues of the shrew-
mouse, and that the smallest animal, the ant, is
sensitive to the influence of the planet and at the
time of the new moon is always slack. This makes
ignorance all the more disgraceful to man, especially
as he admits that with some cattle diseases of the
eyes increase and diminish with the moon. His
excuse is the heaven's vastness, being divided at an
enormous height into 72 signs, that is, shapes of
things or of animals into which the learned have
mapped out the sky. In them they have indeed
noted 1600 stars as being specially remarkable for
their influence or their appearance, for instance the
seven which they have named the Pleiades in the
tail of the Bull and the Little Pigs ^* in his forehead,
and Bootes,"^ the star that follows the Seven Plough-
oxen.''

XLII. I would not deny that rain and wind can Emporatio
arise from other causes than these ; it is certain that ^Jarth!''^
the carth exhales a damp mist and at other times a
smoky one due to vapour, and that clouds are formed
out of moisture rising to a height or air condensed
into moisture. Their density and bulk are con-
jectured with certain inference from the fact that
they obscure the sun, which is otherwise visible even
to those diving into water to whatever depth.

XLIII. Consequently I would not go against the storms
view that it is also possible for the fires of stars to l't^^l^ ^^
fall from above into the clouds (as we often see happen
in fine weather, and the impact of these fires un-
questionably shakes the air since even weapons
when flung make a hissing noise) ; and that when they
reach the cloud, a hissing steam is produced, just as
when red-hot iron is plunged into water, and a coil of

253

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

hinc nasci procellas, et si in nube luctetur flatus aut
vapor, tonitrua edi, si erumpat ardens, fulmina, si
longiore tractu nitatur, fulgetras. his findi nubem,
illis perrumpi, et esse tonitrua inpactorum ignium
plagas ideoque protinus coruscare igneas nubium

113 rimas. posse et repulsu siderum depressum qui a
terra meaverit spritum nube cohibitum tonare,
natura strangulante sonitum dum rixetur, edito
fragore cum erumpat ut in membrana spiritu intenta.
posse et attritu, dum praeceps feratur, illum quisquis
est spiritum accendi. posse et conflictu nubium
ehdi, ut duorum lapidum, scintillantibus fulgetris.
sed haec omnia esse fortuita ; hinc bruta fulmina et
vana, ut quae nulla veniant ratione naturae, his
percuti montes, his maria omnesque aUos inritos
iactus ; illa vero fatidica ex alto, statisque de causis
et ex suis venire sideribus.

114 XLIV. Simili modo ventos vel potius flatus posse
et arido siccoque anhehtu terrae gigni non negaverim,
posse et aquis aera exspirantibus qui neque in nebu-
lam densetur nec crassescat in nubes, posse et solis
inpulsu agi, quoniam ventus haut ahud intellegatur

" Those mentioned at the beginning of the chapter.

BOOK II. XLIII. II2-XLIV. 114

smoke whirls up. And I agree that these produce
storms, and if there is wind or steam struggling in
the cloud, it gives out claps of thunder, if it bursts
out on fire, flashes of hghtning, if it forces its way on
a longer track, heat-hghtning. The latter cleaves
the cloud, the flashes burst through it, and thunder-
claps are the blows of the fires colhding, causing
fiery cracks at once to flash out in the clouds. It is
also possible for breath emerging from the earth,
when pressed down by the counter-impact of the
stars, to be checked by a cloud and so cause thunder,
nature choking down the sound while the struggle
goes on but the crash sounding when the breath
bursts out, as when a skin is stretched by being
blown into. It is also possible for this breath, what-
ever it is, to be set on fire by the friction during its
headlong progress. It is also possible for it to be
struck out by the impact of the clouds, as by that of
two stones, with heat-lightning flashing out hke sparks.
But all these occurrences are accidental — they cause
mere senseless and inefFectual thunder-claps, as their
coming obeys no principle of nature — they merely
eleave mountains and seas, and aU their other blows
are ineffectual ; but the former " are prophetical
and sent from on high, they come by fixed causes and
from their own stars.

XLIV. Similai-ly I am not prepared to deny that Aircurrem
it is possible for winds or rather gusts of air to be '^^nlouroj
produced also by a dry and parched breath from the ^f^ eanh.
earth, and also possible when bodies of water breathe
out a vapour that is neither condensed into mist or
sohdified into clouds ; and also they may be caused
by the driving force of the sun, because wind is
understood to be nothing else than a wave of air;

255

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

quam fluctus aeris, pluribusque etiam modis. nam-
que et e fluminibus ac sinubus et e mari videmus, et
quidem tranquillo, et alios quos vocant altanos e
terra consurgere ; qui cum e mari redeunt,
tropaei vocantur, si pergunt, apogei.

115 Montium vero flexus crebrique vertices et con-
flexa cubito aut confracta in umeros iuga ac ^ concavi
vallium sinus, scindentes inaequalitate ideo resultan-
tem aera (quae causa etiam voces multis in locis
reciprocas facit sine fine) ventos generant. iam
quidam et specus, qualis in Dalmatiae ora vasto
praeceps hiatu, in quem deiecto levi pondere
quamvis tranquillo die turbini similis emicat procella ;
nomen loco est Senta. quin et in Cyrenaica provin-
cia rupes quaedam austro traditur sacra, quam
profanum sit attrectari hominis manu confestim
austro volvente harenas. in domibus etiam multis
manu facta ^ inclusa opacitate conceptacula auras
suas habent. adeo ^ causa non deest.

116 XLV. Sed plurimum interest flatus sit an ventus.
iUos statos atque perspirantes, quos non tractus ah-
quis verum terrae sentiunt, qui non aurae,* non
procellae,^ sed mares appellatione quoque ipsa venti
sunt, sive adsiduo mundi motu et contrario siderum
occursu nascuntur, sive hic est ille generabilis rerum
naturae spiritus huc illuc tamquam in utero aliquo

^ ac add. Rackham. ^ v.l. madefacta.

* ideo ? Rackham. * liackluini : aura.

^ Eackham : procella.

256

BOOK II. xLiv. 114-XLV. 116

and in more ways as vrell. For we see winds arising
both from rivers and bays and from the sea even
when calm, and others, called altani, arising from the
land ; the latter when they come back again from the
sea are called turning winds, but if they go on, off-
shore winds.

The windings of mountains and their clustered
peaks and ridges curved in an elbow or broken off
into shoulders, and the hollow recesses of valleys,
cleavino- with their irregular contours the air that is
consequently reflected from them (a phenomenon
that in many place causes words spoken to be end-
lessly echoed) are productive of winds. So again
are caverns, Uke the one with an enormous gaping
mouth on the coast of Dalmatia, from which, if
you throw some Hght object into it, even in calm
weather a gust like a whirlwind bursts out ; the name
of the place is Senta. Also it is said that in the
province of Cyrenaica there is a certain cHff, sacred
to the South wind, which it is sacrilege for the hand
of man to touch, the South wind immediately causing
a sand-storm. Even manufactured vessels in many
houses if shut up in the dark have pecuHar exhalations.
Thus there must be some cause for this.

XLV. But there is a great difference between a cansesoj
gust of air and a wind. The latter, regular and ""■'^-
blo^ving steadily, and felt not by some particular
tract only but by whole countries, and not being
breezes nor tempests but winds — even their name
being a masculine word — whether they are caused
by the continuous motion of the world and the
impact of the stars travelUng in the opposite direction
or whether wind is the famous ' breath ' that gener-
ates the universe by fluctuating to and fro as in a

257

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

vagus, sive disparili errantium sideriun ietu radiorum-
que multiformi iactu flagellatus aer, sive a suis
sideribus exeunt his propioribus sive ab illis caelo
adfixis cadunt, palam est illos quoque legem naturae
habere non ignotam etiamsi nondum percognitam.

117 Viginti amplius auctores Graeci veteres prodidere
de his observationes. quo magis miror orbe
discordi et in regna, hoc est in membra, diviso tot
viris curae fuisse tam ardua inventu, inter bella
praesertim et infida hospitia, piratis etiam omnium
mortahum hostibus transituros fama terrentibus,^ ut
hodie quaedam in suo quisque tractu ex eorum
commentariis qui numquam eo accessere verius
noscat quam indigenarum scientia, nunc vero pace
tam festa, tam gaudente proventu hterarum ' artium-
que principe, omnino nihil addisci nova inquisitione,

118 immo ne veterum quidem inventa perdisci. non
erant maiora praemia in multos dispersa fortunae
magnitudine, et ista plures sine praemio alio quam
posteros iuvandi eruerunt. mores hominum senuere,
non fructus, et inmensa multitudo aperto quodcumque
est mari hospitalique htorum omnium adpulsu navigat,

^ Mayhoff : transitus famae terrentibus aut terrentibus.
* Mayhoff: rerum.

258

BOOK II. xLv. 116-118

sort of womb, or air whipped by the irregular impact
of the planets and the non-uniform emission of their
rays, or whether they issue forth from these nearer
stars which are their own or fall from those stars
which are fixed in the heaven — it is manifest that
the winds too obey a law of nature that is not un-
known, even if not yet fully known.

More than twenty Greek authors of the past Persistenet
have pubHshed observations about these subjects. °Ji^lXi^'
This makes me all the more surprised that, although study.
when the world was at variance, and spht up into
kingdoms, that is, sundered Hmb from Umb, so
many people devoted themselves to these abstruse
researches, especially when wars surrounded them
and hosts were untrustworthy, and also when rumours
of pirates, the foes of all mankind, terrified intending
travellers — so that now-a-days a person may learn
some facts about his own region from the note-
books of people who have never been there more
tru;y than from the knowledge of the natives — yet
iiow in these glad times of peace under an emperor
who so delights in productions of literature and science,
no addition whatever is being made to knowledge
by means of original research, and in fact even the
discoveries of our predecessors are not being
thoroughly studied. The rewards were not greater
when the ample successes were spread out over
many students, and in fact the majority of these
made the discoveries in question with no other
reward at all save the consciousness of benefiting
posterity. Age has overtaken the characters of
mankind, not their revenues, and now that every
sea has been opened up and every coast offers a
hospitable landing, an immense inultitude goes

259

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

sed lucri, non scientiae, gratia; nec reputat caeca
mens et tantum avaritiae intenta id ipsum scientia
posse tutius fieri. quapropter scrupulosius quam
instituto fortassis conveniat operi tractabo ventos,
tot milia navigantium cemens.

119 XLVI. Veteres quattuor omnino servavere per
totidem mundi partes (ideo nec Homerus plures
nominat) hebeti, ut mox iudicatum est, ratione;
secuta aetas octo addidit nimis subtili atque concisa.
proximis inter utramque media placuit ad brevem
ex numerosa additis quattuor. sunt ergo bini in
quattuor caeli partibus : ab oriente aequinoctiali
Subsolanus, ab oriente brumali Volturnus (illum
Apelioten, hunc Graeci Eurimi appellant) ; a meridie
Auster et ab occasu brumali Africus (Notum et Liba
nominant) ; ab occasu aequinoctiaH Favonius, ab
occasu solstitiali Corus (Zephyrum et Argesten
vocant) ; a septentrionibus Septentrio, interque eum
et exortuim solstitialem Aquilo (Aparctias et Boreas

120 dicti). numerosior ratio quattuor his interiecerat,
Thrascian media regione inter Septentrionem et
occasum solstitialem, itemque Caecian media inter
Aquilonem et exortum aequinoctialem ab ortu
solstitiah, Phoenica media regione inter ortum
260

BOOK II. XLV. IlS-XLVI. I20

on voyages — but their object is profit not know-
ledge ; and in their bHnd engrossment with avarice
they do not reflect that knowledge is a more re-
liable means even of making profit. Consequently
in view of these thousands of persons who go on
voyages I will give a more detailed account of the
winds than is perhaps suited to the task I have set
in hand.

XLVI. The ancients noticed four winds in all, Desirmntim
corresponding to the four quarters of the world (this "/""'"^-
is the reason why even Homer mentions no more) —
a duU-witted system, as it was soon afterwards
considered ; the following age added eight — this
system on the other hand was too subtle and meticul-
ous. Their successors adopted a compromise, adding
to the short Ust four winds from the long one. There
are consequently two winds in each of the four
quarters of the heaven : Subsolanus blowing from
the equinoctial sunrise (E). and Vulturnus from the
winter sunrise (S.E.) — the former designated by the
Greeks ApeUotes, the latter Eurus ; Auster from the
sim at midday (S.) and Africus from the winter sunset
(S.W.) — named in Greek Notus and Libs ; Favonius
from the equinoctial sunset (W.), Corus from the
sunset at the solstice (N.W.) — these the Greeks call
Zephyr and Argestes ; Septentrio from the North
and Aquilo between him and sunrise at the solstice
(N.E.) — called in Greek Aparctias and Boreas.
The morenumerousschemehadinsertedfourbetween
these : Thrascias (N.N.W.) in the space between
Septentrio (N.) and the sunset at the solstice (N.W.)
and also Caecias (E.N.E.) in the space between
Aquilo (N.E.) and the equinoctial sunrise (E.) on the
side of the sunrise at the solstice, and Phoenix

261

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

brumalem et meridiem, item inter Liba et Notum
conpositum ex utroque medium inter meridiem et
hibernum occidentem Libonotum. nec finis : alii
quippe Mesen nomine etiamnum addidere inter
Borean et Caecian, et inter Eurum Notumque
Euronotum. sunt enim quidam peculiares quibus-
que gentibus venti, non ultra certum procedentes
tractum, ut Atheniensibus Sciron, paulo ab Argcste
deflexus, rehquae Graeciae ignotus : aliubi flatus

121 idem Olympias vocatur ; consuetudo omnibus his
nominibus Argesten intellegi.^ et Caecian aliqui
vocant Hellespontian, et eosdem alii aliter. item
in Narbonensi provincia clarissimus ventorum est
Circius nec ullo \iolentia inferior, Ostiam plerumque
secto 2 Ligustico mari perferens ; idem non modo in
reliquis partibus c.ieli ignotus est, sed re Viennam
quidem eiusdem provinciae urbem attingens paucis
ante milibus iugi modici occursu tantus ille ventus

coercetur. et Austros in Aegyptum penetrare negat
Fabianus : quo fit manifesta lex naturae ventis
etiam et tempore et fine dicto.

122 XLVII. Ver ergo aperit navigantibus maria, cuius
in principio Favonii hibernum rnolhunt caelum sole
Aquari XXV optinente partem : is dies sextus
Februarias ante idus. conpetit ferme et hoc

^ intellegit MaylwSl. ^ Mayhojf : recto aut recta.

262

BOOK II. XLVI. I20-XLVII. 122

(S.S.E.) in the space between winter sunrise (S.E.)
and midday (S.), and also between Libs (S.W.) and
Notus (S.) the combination of the two, Libonotus
(S.S.W.), midway between midday (S.) and winter
sunset (S.W.). Nor is this the end, inasmuch as
others have also added one named Meses betAveen
Boreas (N.E.) and Caecias (E.N.E.), and Euronotus
between Eurus (S.E.) and Notus (S.). There are
also certain winds pecuUar to particular races, which
do not go outside a special region, e.g. the Athenians
have Sciron, slightly diverging from Argestes (N.W.),
a name unknown to the rest of Greece — elsewhere
the same breeze is called Olympias : customarily
all these names are taken to denote Argestes.
Some people call Caecias (E.N.E.) Hellespontias,
and others have other variants for these names.
Similarly in the province of Narbonne the most
famous of the winds is Circius (W.N.W.), which is
inferior to none other at all in force and which usually
carries a vessel right across the Ligurian Sea to
Ostia ; the same wind is not only unknown in the
remaining quarters of the sky, but it does not even
touch Vienne, a city of the same province, a few
miles before reaching which this mighty wind is
checked by the obstacle of a moderate ridge of hills.
Fabianus asserts that South winds also do not pene-
trate Egypt — which reveals the law of nature that
even winds have their prescribed Hmits as well as
seasons.

XLVII. Accordingly the spring opens the seas Seasons oj
to voyagers ; at its beginning the West winds soften
the wintry heaven, when the sun occupies the 25th
degree of Aquarius ; the date of this is Feb. 8.
This also practically appUes to aU the winds whose

263

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

omnibus quos deinde ponam, per singulas interca-
lationes uno die anticipantibus rursusque lustro
sequenti ordinem servantibas. Favonium quidam
a. d. VIII kalendas Martias Chelidonian vocant ab
hirundinis visu, nonnnulli vero Ornithian ab adventu
avium uno et LXX die post brumam flantem per dies
novem. Favonio contrarius est quem Subsolanum

123 appella^imus. dat aestatem exortus Vergiharum
in totidem partibus Tauri sex diebus ante Maias idus,
quod tempus Austrinum est, huic vento Septentrione
contrario. ardentissimo autem aestatis tempore
exoritur Caniculae sidus sole primam partem
Leonis ingrediente, qui dies XV ante Augustas
calendas est. huius exortum diebus octo ferme
Aquilones antecedunt, quos Prodromos appellant.

124 post biduum autem exortus iidem Aquilones con-
stantius perflant diebus XXX,i quos Etesias appellant.
molHre eos creditur solis vapor geminatus ardore
sideris, nec ulli ventonma magis stati sunt. Post
eos rursus Austri frequentes usque ad sidus Arcturi
quod exoritur undecim diebus ante aequinoctiimi

125 autumni. cum hoc Corus incipit ; Corus autumnat :
huic est contrarius Volturnus. post id aequinoctium
diebus fere quattuor et quadraginta Vergiliarum
occasus hiemem inchoat, quod tempus in III idus
Novembres incidere consuevit ; hoc est Aquilonis
hibemi multumque aestivo illi dissimilis, cuius ex
adverso est Africus. et ante brumam autem septem

^ v.ll. diebus XL, his diebua.
264

I

BOOK II. xLvii. 122-125

positions I shall give afterwards, although every
leap-year they come a day earher, but they keep the
regular rule in the period that follows. Cei'tain
persons give the name CheUdonias to the West
wind on the 19th February, owing to the appearance
of the swallow, but some call it Oi'nithias, from the
arrival of the birds on the 71st day after the shortest
day, when it blows for nine days. Opposite to the
West wind is the wind that we have called Subsolanus
(E.). The rise of the Pleiads in the same degrees
of Taurus on May 10 brings summer ; it is a period
of South wind, Auster, the opposite of Septentrio.
But in the hottest period of summer the Dog-star
rises, when the sun is entering the first degree of
Leo — this day is July 17. The Dog-star's rise is
preceded for about eight days by North-east winds :
these are called the Forerunners. But two days
after his rising the North-east winds begin again,
and continue blowing steadily for 30 days ; these are
called Etesian or Annual winds. They are beheved
to be softened by the sun's warmth being reinforced
by the heat of the star; and they are the most
regular of any of the winds, They are foUowed in
turn by South winds, continuing to the rise of
Arcturus, which occurs 40 days before the autumnal
equinox. With the equinox begins the North-west
wind ; this, the opposite of ^^olturnus, marks the
beginning of autumn. About 44 days after the
autumnal equinox the setting of the Pleiads mai'ks
the beginning of winter, which it is customary to
date on November 11 ; this is the period of the
Minter Aquilo, which is very unhke the summer one
mentioned above ; it is opposite to the South-west
wind. But for six days before the shortest day and

265

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

diebus totidemque post eam stemitur mare alcyonum
feturae, unde nomen hi dies traxere. reliquom
tempus hiemat. nec tamen saevitia tempestatum
cludit ^ mare : piratae primum coegere mortis peri-
culo in mortem ruere et hiberna experiri maria, nunc
idem hoc avaritia cogit.

126 XLVIII. Ventorum etiam frigidissimi sunt quos
a septentrione diximus spirare et \icinus his Corus :
hi et reliquos conpescunt et nubes abigunt. umidi
Africus et praecipue Auster Italiae ; narrant et in
Ponto Caecian in se trahere nubes. sicci Corus et
Volturnus praeterquam desinentes. nivales Aquilo
et Septentrio ; grandines Septentrio inportat et
Corus. aestuosus Auster, tepidi Volturnus et Favon-
ius ; idem Subsolano sicciores, et in totum omnes a
Septentrione et occidente sicciores quam a meridie

127 et oriente. saluberrimus autem omnium Aquilo,
noxius Auster et magis siccus, fortassis quia umidus
frigidior est ; minus esurire eo spirante creduntur
animantes. Etesiae noctu desinunt fere, et a tertia
diei hora oriuntur ; in Hispania et Asia ab oriente
fiatus est eorum, in Ponto ab Aquilone, reliquis in
partibus a meridie. spirant autem et a bruma, ciun
vocantur Ornithiae, sed leniores et paucis diebus.
Permutant et duo naturam cum situ, Auster, Africae

128 serenus, Aquilo nubilus. omnes venti vicibus suis
spirant maiore ex parte ita ut ^ contrarius desinenti

^ v.l. concludit.

* ita ut Detlefsen : aut ut aitt autem (autem ut Mayhojf).

" It was thought that there was less likelihood of encounter-
ing pirates in the winter.
266

BOOK II. xLvii. 125-XLV111. 128

six days after it tlie sea calms down for the breeding
of the halcyons from which these days derive their
name. The rest of the time there is wintry weather.
However, not even the fury of the storms closes the
sea ; pirates first compelled men by the threat of
death to rush into death and venture on the winter
seas," but now avarice exercises the same compulsion.

XLVni. The actually coldest ^vinds are those windsand
that we have stated to blow from the North, and their '^'^'^'■^-
neighbour Corus (N.W.) ; these check the other
winds and also drive away the clouds. The South-
west and especially the South are for Italy the damp
■winds ; it is said that on the Black Sea the East-
north-east also attracts clouds. The North-west and
South-east are dry, except when they are falling.
The North-east and North are snow winds ; the North
brings hailstorms, and so does the North-west. The
South wind is hot, the South-east and West warm ;
the latter are also drier than the East wind, and in
general all the northerly and westerly winds are drier
than the southerly and easterly. The healthiest of
all is the North wind ; the South is harmful, and more
so when dry, perhaps because when damp it is colder ;
Hving creatures are believed to be less hungry when
it is blowing. Etesian winds usually cease at night
and rise at eight o'clock in the morning ; in Spain
and Asia they are East winds, on the Black Sea North,
and in other regions South. But they also begin to
blow at midwinter (when they are called the Bird-
winds), but more gently and only for a few days.
Two winds also change their nature \vith their geo-
graphical position : the South wind in Africa is fine
and the North-east cloudy. All the winds blow in
their ovm turns, usually the one opposite to the one

267

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

incipiat. cum proximi cadentibus surgunt, a laevo
latere in dextrum ut sol ambiunt. de ratione eorum
menstrua quarta maxime luna decernit. iisdem
autem ventis in contrarium navigatur prolatis
pedibus, ut noctu pleriunque adversa vela concurrant.
Austro maiores fluctus eduntur quam Aquilone, quo-
niam ille infernus ex imo mari spirat, hic summo;
ideoque post Austros noxii praecipue terrae motus.

129 noctu Auster, interdiu Aquilo vehementior, et ab
ortu flantes diuturniores sunt ab occasu flantibus.
Septentriones inpari fere ^ desinunt numero, quae
observatio et in aliis multis rerum naturae partibus
valet ; mares itaque existimantur impares numeii
sol et auget et conprimit flatus— auget exoriens occi-
densque, conprimit meridianus aestivis temporibus ;
itaque medio diei aut noctis plerumque sopiuntur,
quia aut nimio frigore aut aestu solvuntur. et
imbribus venti sopiuntur ; exspectantur ^ autem
maxime unde nubes discussae adaperuere caelum.

130 Omnium quidem (si libeat observare minimos ambi-
tus) redire easdem \ices quadriennio exacto Eudoxus
putat, non ventorum modo verum et reliquarum
tempestatimi magna ex parte, et esse ^ principium
lustri eius semper intercalario anno Caniculae ortu.

De generalibus ventis haec.

^ fere <dierum> ? Backham. ^ exspectentur ? Rackham.
^ Rackham : est.

" I.e. East to West ; the observer faces South.

* I.e. the wind blowing on the fourth day of the uew moon
nsually continues all the month.
268

I

BOOK II. xLviii. 128-130

that ceases beginning. When those next to the ones
falling rise, they go round from left to right " like
the sun. The fourth moon usually decides about the
course of the winds for the month.* Vessels by
means of slacking sheets can sail in contrary direc-
tions with the same winds, so that collisions occur,
usually at night, between ships on opposite tacks.
The South wind causes larger waves than the North-
east because the former being below blows from the
bottom of the sea but the latter from the top ;
consequently earthquakes following South winds are
specially destructive. The South ^\and is more
violent at night and the North-east wind in the day-
time ; and easterly winds continue longer than
westerly. North M^nds usually stop after blowing an
odd number of days, an observation that holds good
in many other departments of nature also : this is
why the odd numbers are thought to be masculine.
The sun both increases and reduces the force of the
wind — the former when rising and setting, the latter
at midday in summer seasons ; consequently the
winds are usually lulled at midday or midnight,
because either excessive cold or excessive heat makes
them slack. Also winds are lulled by rain ; but they
are most to be expected from quarters where the
clouds have broken, reveaHng a clear sky.

Eudoxus however thinks that (if we choose to
study the minimal circuits) there is a regular re-
currence of all phenomena — not only of Avinds but
largely of other sorts of bad weather as well — in
four-yearly periods, and that the period always
begins in a leap-year at the rising of Sirius.

These are our observations vvith regard to the
winds that are regular.

269

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

131 XLIX. Nunc de repentinis flatibus, qui exhalante
terra, ut dictum est, coorti rursusque deiecti in
terram^ obducta nubi\im cute, multiformes exsistunt.
vagi quippe et ruentes torrentium modo (ut aliquis
placere ostendimus) tonitrua et fulgura edunt.
maiore vero inlati pondere incursuque si late siccam
rupere nubem, procellam gignunt quae vocatur a
Graecis ecnephias, sin vero depresso sinu artius
rotati effregerunt, sine igne, hoc est sine fulmine,
verticem faciunt qui t}^hon vocatur, id est vibratus

132 ecnephias. defert hic secum aliquid abreptum e
nube calidi ^ convolvens versansque et ruinam suam
illo pondere adgravans ac locimi ex loco mutans
rapida vertigine, praecipua navigantiimi pestis, non
antemnas modo verxun ipsa navigia contorta frangens,
tenui remedio aceti in advenientem efFusi, cui frigidis-
sima est natura. idem inlisu ipso repercussus correp-
ta secima in caeliun refert sorbetque in excelsiun.

133 L. Quod si maiore depressae nubis eruperit

specu sed minus lato quam procella, nec sine fragore,

turbinem vocant proxima quaeque prostementem.

idem ardentior accensiisque dmn furit, prester voca-

tur amburens contacta pariter et proterens. Non

^ Caesarius : interim.

* Detlefsen : gelidi aut gelida.

• § 111. » § 112. • Cf. § 133.

270

BOOK II. xLLx. 131-L. 133

XLIX. Now as to sudden blasts, which arise as casuai
has been said " from exhalations of the earth, and ^i^^onm.
fall back again to the earth dra^^ing over it an envelope
of cloud ; these occur in a variety of forms. The
fact is that their om-ush is quite irregular, Hke that of
mountain torrents (as we have pointed out * is the
view of certain persons), and they give forth thunder
and Hghtning. If travelHng with a heavier momen-
tum they burst a great gap in a dry cloud, they
produce a storm called by the Greeks a cloudburst ;
but if they break out from a dowmvard curve of
cloud " with a more Hmited rotation, they cause a
whirl unaccompanied by fire — I mean by Hghtning —
that is called a typhoon, which denotes a whirHng
cloudburst. This brings down with it a portion of
heat torn from a cloud, which it turns and whirls round,
increasing its own downward velocity by its weight,
and shifting from place to place with a rapid whirl ;
it is specially disastrous to navigators, as it twists
round and shatters not only the yards, but the vessels
themselves, leaving only the slender remedyof pouring
out vinegar in advance of its approach, vinegar being
a very cold substance. The same whirlwind when
beaten back by its very impact snatches things up
and carries them back with it to the sky, sucking
them high aloft.

L. But if it bursts out of a larger cavern of down- Kinds of
ward pressing cloud but not so wide a one as in the «'''*'^"'""^-
case of a storm, and is accompanied by a crashing
noise, this is what they call a whirlwind, which over-
throws everything in its neighbourhood. When the
same rages hotter and with a fiery flow, it is caHed
a prester, as while sweeping away the things it comes
in contact with it also scorches them up. But a

271

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

fit autem aquilonius typhon, nec nivalis aut nive
iacente ^ ecnephias. quod si simul rupit nubem
exarsitque et ignem habuit, non postea concepit,

134 fuknen est. distat a prestere quo flamma ab igni :
hic late funditur flatu, illud conglobatur impetu.
vertex autem remeando distat a turbine et quo
stridor a fragore ; procella latitudine ab utroque,
disiecta nube verius quam rupta. fit et caligo
beluae simihs in ^ nube dira navigantibus. vocatur et
columna, cum spissatus umor rigensque ipse se sus-
tinet ; ex eodem genere et aulon, cum veluti fistula
nubes aquam trahit.

135 LI. Hieme et aestate rara fulmina contrariis de
causis, quoniam hieme densatus aer nubium crassiore
corio spissatur, omnisque terrarum exhalatio rigens
ac gelida quicquid accipit ignei vaporis exstinguit.
quae ratio inmunem Scythiam et circa rigentia
a fulminum casu praestat, e diverso nimius ardor
Aegyptum, siquidem calidi siccique hahtus terrae raro
admodum tenuisque et infirmas densantur in nubes.

13G vere autem et autumno crebriora fulmina, correptis ^
in utroque tempore aestatis hiemisque causis ; qua
ratione crebra in Italia, qma mobilior aer mitiore
hieme et aestate nimbosa semper quodammodo ver-
nat vel autumnat. sunt in * Italiae quoque partibus iis

^ v.l. aut nivcm iaciens {del. ut gloss. Pintiunvs).
* in Mayhoff : e aut om. codd. ^ Rackham: corruptis.

* iu add. Backham,

272

BOOK II. L. 133-LI. 136

typlioon does not occur with a northerly wind, nor a
cloudburst with snow or when snow is lying. If it
flared up as soon as it burst the cloud, and had fire in
it, did not catch fire afterwards, it is a thunder-
bolt. It differs from a fiery pillar in the way in which
a flame differs from a fire : a fiery pillar spreads out
its blast widely, whereas a thunderbolt masses
together its onrush. On the other hand a tornado
differs from a whirlwind by returning, and as a whizz
differs from a crash ; a storm is different from either
in its extent — it is caused by the scattering rather
than the bursting of a cloud. There also occurs a
darkness caused by a cloud shaped Uke a wild
monster — this is direful to sailors. There is also what
is called a column, when densified and stiffened
moisture raises itself aloft ; in the same class also is
a waterspout, when a cloud draws up water Hke a pipe.

LI. Thunderbolts are rare in winter and in Thunder-
summer, from opposite causes. In winter, owing to ^f^^}^.^^
the thicker envelope of cloud, the air is rendered
extremely dense, and all the earth's exhalation being
stiff and cold extinguishes whatever fiery vapour it
receives. This reason renders Scythia and the
frozen regions round it immune from the fall of
thunderbolts, wliile conversely the excessive heat
does the same for Egypt, inasmuch as the hot and
dry exhalations from the earth condense very rarely,
and only form thin and feeble clouds. But in spring
and autumn thunderbolts are more frequent, their
summer and winter causes being combined in each
of ihose seasons ; this explains why they are fre-
quent in Italy, where the milder winter and stormy
summer make the air more mobile, and it is always
somewhat vernal or autumnal. Also in the parts of

273

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

quae a septentrione deseendunt ad teporem, qualis
est urbis et Campaniae tractus, iuxta hieme et aestate
fulgurat, quod non in ^ alio situ evenit.^

137 LII. Fulminum ipsorum plura genera traduntur.
quae sicca veniunt non adurunt sed dissipant, quae
fumida ^ non urunt sed infuscant. tertium est quod
clarum vocant, mirificae maxime naturae, quo dolia
exhauriuntur intactis operimentis nulloque alio
vestigio relicto, aurum et aes et argentum liquatur
intus, sacculis ipsis nullo modo ambustis ac ne confuso
qviidem signo cerae. Marcia femina * princeps
Romanarum icta gravida partu exanimato ipsa citra
ullum aliud incommodum vixit. in Catihnariis prodigiis
Pompeiano ex municipio M. Herennius decurio
sereno die fulmine ictus est.

138 LIII. Tuscorum litterae novem deos emittere
fulmina existimant, eaque esse undecim generiun,
lovem enim trina iaculari. Romani duo tantum ex
iis servavere, diurna attribuentes lovi, nocturna
Summano, rariora sane eadem de causa frigidioris
caeli. Etruria erumpere terra quoque arbitratur,
quae infera appellat, brumali tempore facta saeva
maxime et exsecrabiUa, cum sint omnia quae terrena
existimant non illa generaUa nec a sideribus venientia

^ in<uUo>alio ? Rackham.

* evenit om. codd. plurimi.

* fumida (i/foAde»n-a AristotU Meteorol. 371 a 21) Brotier:
umida. ,

* femina add. Mayhoff.

274

BOOK II. Li. 136-U11. 138

Italy that slope down from the north towards the
warmth, such as the district of Rome and the
Campagna, hghtning occurs in winter just as in
summer, which does not happen in any other
locaHty.

LII. Of thunderbolts themselves several varieties their
are reported. Those that come with a dry flash "'^''ieties.
do not cause a fire but an explosion. The smoky
ones do not burn but blacken. There is a third sort,
called ' bright thunderbolts,' of an extremely remark-
able nature ; this kind drains casks dry without
damaging their h*ds and without leaving any other
trace, and melts gold and copper and silver in their
bags without singeing the bags themselves at all,
and even without melting the wax seal. Marcia,
a lady of high station at Rome, was struck by
lightning when enceinfe, and though the child was
killed, she herself sur\ived without being otherwise
injured. Among the portents in connexion with
Catihne, a town-councillor of Pompei named Marcus
Herennius was struck by lightning on a fine day.

LIII. The Tuscan writers hold the view that viewsast
there are nine gods who send thunderbolts, and that '''^^<'<"^e
these are of eleven kinds, because Jupiter hurls three
varieties. Only two of these deities have been
retained by the Romans, who attribute thunderbolts
in the daytime to Jupiter and those in the night to
Summanus, the latter being naturally rare because
the sky at night is colder. Tuscany beUeves that
some also burst out of the ground, which it calls
* low bolts,' and that these are rendered exception-
ally direful and accursed by the season of winter,
though all the bolts that they beheve of earthly
origin are not the ordinary ones and do not come

275

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

sed ex proxima atque turbidiore natura : argumen-
tum evidens, quod omnia e superiore caelo decidentia
obliquos habent ictus, haec autem quae vocant

139 terrena rectos. et quae^ ex propiore materia cadunt
ideo creduntur e terra exire quoniam ex repulsu
nulla vestigia edunt, cum sit illa ratio non inferi
ictus sed aversi.^ a Saturni ea sidere proficisci
subtiUus ista consectati putant, sicut cremantia a
Martis, qualiter cum Volsinii, oppidum Tuscorimi
opulentissimum, totum concrematum est fulmine.
vocant et famiUaria, in totam vitam fatidica, quae
prima fiunt familiam suam cuique indepto. cete-
rum existimant non ultra decem annos portendere
privata praeterquam aut primo matrimonio facta
aut natali die, publica non ultra tricesimum annum
praeterquam in deductione oppidi.

140 LIV. Exstat annalium memoria sacris quibusdam
et precationibus vel cogi fulmina vel inpetrari. vetus
fama Etruriae est inpetratum, Volsinios urbem
depopulatis agris subeunte monstro quod vocavere
Oltam, evocatum a Porsina suo rege. et ante eum
a Numa saepius hoc factitatum in primo annalium
suorum tradit L. Piso, gravis auctor, quod imitatum
parum rite Tullum Hostiliimi ictum fulmine. lucos-

^ Et quae Mayhoff : sed qui».
* Rackham : adversi.

• l.e. the air.
276

BOOK II. Liii. 138-LIV. 140

from the st.ars but from the nearer and more dis-
ordered element " : a clear proof of this being that
all those comin^ from the upper heaven dehver
slanting blows, whereas these which they call earthly
strike straight. And those that fall from the nearer
elements are supposed to come out of the earth
because they leave no traces as a result of their
rebound, although that is the principle not of a
downward blow but of a slanting one. Those who
pursue these enquiries with more subtlety think
that these bolts come from the planet Saturn, just
as the inflammatory ones come from Mars, as, for
instance, when Bolsena, the richest town in Tuscany,
was entirely burnt up by a thunderbolt. Also the
first ones that occur after a man sets up house for
himself are called ' family meteors,' as foreteUing his
fortune for the whole of his hfe. However, people
think that private meteors, except those that occur
either at a man's first marriage or on his birthday,
do not prophecy beyond ten years, nor pubHc ones
beyond the 30th year, except those occurring at
the colonization of a to\vn.

LIV. Historical record also exists of thunderbolts Titumier'
being either caused by or vouchsafed in answer to praycr.
certain rites and prayers. There is an old story of
the latter in Tuscany, when the portent which they
called Olta came to the city of Bolsena, when its
territory had been devastated; it was sent in
answer to the prayer of its king Porsina. Also
before his time, as is recorded on the rehable
authority of Lucius Piso in his Annals I, this
was frequently practised by Numa, though when
Tullus Hostihus copied him with incorrect ritual he
was struck by hghtning. We also have groves and

277

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

que et aras et sacra habemas, interque Statores ac
Tonantes et Feretrios Elicium quoque accepimus

141 lovem. varia in hoc intae sententia et pro cuiusque
animo. imperare naturae sacra audacis est credere,
nec minus hebetis beneficiis abrogare vires, quando
in fulgurum quoque interpretatione eo profecit
scientia ut ventura alia finito die praecinat et an
peremptura sint factum ^ aut ^ prius alia facta ^
quae lateant, innumerabilibus in utroque pubHcis
privatisque experimentis. quamobrem sint ista ut
rerum naturae libuit, alias certa alias dubia, aliis
probata aliis damnanda, nos cetera* quae sunt in
his memorabilia non omittemus.

142 LV. Fulgetrum prius cerni quam tonitrum audiri,
cum simul fiant, certum est (nec mirum, quoniam lux
sonitu velocior) ; ictimi autem et sonitum congruere
ita modulante natura, sed sonitum profecti esse
fulminis, non inlati ; etiamnmn spiritum ociorem
fulmine, ideo quati prius omne et adflari quam
percuti ; nec quemquam tangi qui viderit fulmen aut
tonitnmi audierit. laeva prospera existimantur quo-

^ v.l. fatum. * v.l. ant apertura.

* v.l. fata. * v.l. de cetero.

" Jupiter to whom spolia opima were offered in retum for
victory in battle.

278

BOOK II. uv. 140-LV. 142

altars and rites, and among the other Jupiters, the
Stayers and Thunderers and Receivers of Offerings,*
tradition gives us Jupiter the Invoked. On this
matter the opinion of mankind varies, in corre-
spondence with our individual dispositions. It takes
a bold man to beHeve that Nature obeys the behests
of ritual, and equally it takes a dull man to deny
that ritual has beneficent powers, when knowledge
has made such progress even in the interpretation
of thunderbolts that it can prophecy that others
vvill come on a fixed day, and whether they will
destroy a previous one or other pre\aous ones
that are concealed : this progress has been made
by public and private experiments in both fields.
In consequence although such indications are
certain in some cases but doubtful in othei's, and
approved to some persons but in the view of others
to be condemned, in accordance with Nature's will
and pleasure, we for our part are not going to leave
out the rest of the things worth recording in this
department.

LV. It is certain that when thunder and lightning Thunder a
occur simultaneously, the flash is seen before the ^idhtning.
thunderclap is heard (this not being surprising, as
light travels more swiftly than sound) ; but that
Nature so regulates the stroke of a thunderbolt and
the sound of the thunder that they occur together,
although the sound is caused by the bolt starting,
not striking ; moreover that the current of air
travels faster than the bolt, and that consequently
the object always is shaken and feels the blast before
it is struck ; and that nobody hit has ever seen the
lightning or heard the thunder in advance. Flashes
on the left are considered lucky, because the sun

279

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

niam laeva parte miindi ortus est ; nec tam adventus
spectatur quam reditus, sive ab ictu resilit ignis sive
opere confecto aut igne consumpto spiritus remeat.

143 In sedecim partes caelum in eo spectu di\dsere
Tusci : prima est a septemtrionibus ad aequinocti-
alem exortum, secunda ad meridiem, tertia ad aequi-
noctialem occasum, quarta obtinet quod reliquum
est ab occasu ad septemtriones ; has iterum in
quaternas divisere partes, ex quibus octo ab exortu
sinistras, totidem e contrario appellavere dextras.
ex his maxime dirae quae septemtriones ab occasu
attingunt. itaque plurimum refert unde venerint
fulmina et quo concesserint. optimum est in

144 exortivas redire partes. ideo cum a prima caeli
parte venerint et in eandem concesserint, summa
felicitas portendetur, quale Sullae dictatori ostentum
datum accepimus ; cetera ad ipsius mundi portionem ^
minus prospera aut dira. quidam ^ fulgura enuntiare
non putant fas nec audire, praeterquam si hospiti in-
dicentur aut parenti.

Magna huius observationis vanitas tacta lunonis
aede Romae deprehensa est Scauro consule qui mox
princeps fuit.

145 Noctu magis quam interdiu sine tonitribus ful-
gurat. unum animal hominem non semper ex-

^ Mayhojf (c/. xiii 133 etc.) : cetera ipsius mundi portione.
^ Rackham: quaedam.

* It is assumed that an observer faces South.

* 115 B.C.

' Cf. XXXVI. 144 princeps civitalis.
2S0

BOOK 11. Lv. 142-145

rises on the left-hand "^ side of the firmament ; and
their approach is not so visible as their return,
whether after the blow a fire springs from it or the
breath returns when its Mork is done or its fire used
up.

In making these observations the Tuscans divided Awjurvhv
the heaven into sixteen parts : the first quarter is ''"' erooiu.
from the North to the equinoctial sunrise (East),
the second to the South, the third to the equinoctial
sunset (West), and the fourth occupies the re-
maining space extending from West to North ;
these quarters they subdivided into four parts each,
of which tb.ey called the eight starting from the East
the left-hand regions and the eight opposite ones the
right-hand. Of these the most formidable are those
lying between West and North. Hence the line of
approach and the hne of retirement of thunderbolts
is of very great importance. It is best for them to
retui-n to parts in the region of sum-ise. Accordingly
it will be a portent of supreme happiness when they
come from the first part of the sky and retire to the
same part — a sign that history records to have been
vouchsafed to the dictator Sulla ; but all the others
are less fortunate or actually direful, in accordance
with the division of the actual firmament where they
occur. Some people think it \vrong to give or to
Hsten to reports of thunderbolts, exeept if they are
told to a guest or a parent.

The great folly of paying attention to these occur-
rences was discovered when the Temple of Juno at
Rome was struck by h'ghtning in the consulship ** of
Scaurus, who was afterwards head of the state."^

Lightning unaccompanied by thunder occurs more Urihtning,
often by night than in the daytime. Man is the one '^^'^'^'^ °^'

281

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

stinguit, cetera illico, hunc videlicet natura tribuente
honorem cum tot beluae viribus praestent. omnia
contrarias incubant in partes. homo nisi converta-
tur \-i percussus non exspirat. superne icti
considunt. vigilans ictus coniventibus ocuhs, dorm-
iens patentibus reperitur, hominem ita exanim-
atimi cremari fas non est, condi terra religio
tradidit. nullum animal nisi exanimatum fulmine
accenditur. volnera fulminatorum frigidiora sunt

146 rehquo corpore. LVI. ex iis quae terra gignuntur
lauri fruticem non icit. nec umquam quinque altixis
pedibus descendit in terram ; ideo pa\idi altiores
specus tutissimos putant, aut tabernacula pelUbus
beluarum quas \itulos appellant, quoniam hoc solum
animal ex marinis non percutiat, sicut nec e volucri-
bus aquilam, quae ob hoc armigera huius teli fingitur.
in Italia inter Tarracinam et aedem Feroniae turres
belli Caesariani ^ temporibus desiere fieri nulla non
earum fulmine diruta,

147 LVII. Praeter haec in ^ inferiore caelo relatum in
monimienta est lacte et sanguine pluisse M'. AciUo
C. Porcio coss. et saepe ahas carne sicut P. Volumnio
Servio Sulpicio coss., exque ea non putruisse quod non

^ Deilefaen : bellicea (belli civilis Mayhoff).
* in om. v.l.

" 114 B.c. ^ 461 B.o.

282

BOOK II. LV. 145-LV11. 147

creature that is not ahvays killed when struck — all
others are killed on the spot ; nature doubtless
bestows this honour on man beeause so many animals
surpass him in strength. All things (when struck)
fall in the opposite direction to the flash. A man
does not die unless the force of the blow turns him
right round. Men struck from above collapse. A
man struck while awake is found with his eyes shut ;
while asleep, with them open. It is not lawful to
eremate a man who loses his life in this manner ; re-
ligious tradition prescribes burial. No Hving creature
can be burnt by lightning without being killed. The
temperature of the wound of those struck is lower than
that of the rest of the body. LVI. Among things
that grow in the ground, it does not strike a laurel
bush. It never penetrates more than five feet into
the earth ; consequently when in fear of lightning
men think caves of greater depth are the safest, or
else a tent made of the skin of the creatures called
sea-calves, because that alone among marine animals
hghtning does not strike, just as it does not strike
the eagle among birds ; this is why the eagle is
represented as armed with a thunderbolt as a
weapon. In Italy in the time of the Caesarian war
people ceased to build towers between Terracina
and the Temple of Feronia, as every tower there was
destroyed by hghtning.

LVII. Besides these events in the lower sky, it is Ratn of
entered in the records that in the consulship " of *'""''' '"''^*
Manius Acilius and Gaius Porcius it rained milk and
blood, and that frequently on other occasions there it
has rained flesh, for instance in the consulship * of
PubHus Volumnius and Ser^dus Sulpicius, and that
none of the flesh left unplundered by birds of prey

283

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

diripuissent aves, item ferro in Lucanis anno ante-
quam M. Crassus a Parthis interemptus est omnesque
cum eo Lucani milites, quorum magnus numerus in
exercitu erat : effigies quo ^ pluit ferri spongearum ^
similis fuit ; haruspices praemonuerunt superna
volnera. L. autem Paullo C. Marcello coss. lana pluit
circa castellum Compsanum, iuxta quod post annum
T. Annius Milo occisus est. eodem causam dicente
lateribus coctis pluisse in acta eius anni relatum est.

148 LVIII. Armorum crepitus et tubae sonitus auditos
e caelo Cimbricis bellis accepimus, crebroque et prius
et postea. tertio vero consulatu Mari ab Amerinis
et Tudertibus spectata arma caelestia ab ortu occas-
uque inter se concurrentia, pulsis quae ab occasu
erant. ipsum ardere caelum minvmie mirum est et
saepius visum maiore igne nubibus conreptis.

149 LIX. Celebrant Graeci Anaxagoran Clazomenium
Olympiadis septuagesimae octavae secundo anno
praedixisse caelestium litterarum ^ scientia quibus
diebus saxum casurum esset e sole, idque factum
interdiu in Thraciae parte ad Aegos flumen (qui lapis
etiamnunc ostenditur magnitudine vehis, colore
adusto) comete quoque illis noctibus flagrante. quod
si quis praedictum credat, simul fateatur necesse est

1 Mayhoff : qiie a-ut quae.

* Mayhoff : spongearum ferri aut spongearum.

' v.l. caelestium militiarum.

" In the battle of Carrhae 53 b.o.
' I.e. lumps of porous stone.
' 49 B.c. ■* Now Conza, in Samnium.

• From North Germanv. 113-101 b.c.
103 B.o. * No\v Todi. * 467 b.o.

1S4

BOOK II. Lvii. 147-LIX. 149

went bad; and similarly that it rained iron in the
district of Lucania the year before Marcus Crassus
was killed " by the Parthians and with him all the
Lucanian soldiers, of Avhom there was a large con-
tingent in his army ; the shape of the iron that fell
resembled sponges * ; the augurs prophecied wounds
from above. But in the consulship <= of Lucius Paullus
and Gaius Marcellus it rained wool in the vicinity of
Compsa ** Castle, near which Titus Annius Milo was
killed a year later. It is recorded in the annals of
that year that while Milo was pleading a case in
court it rained baked bricks.

LVIII. We are told that during the wars with the Armtfs m
Cimbri ^ a noise of clangino; armour and the sounding '''* *^'^'
of a trumpet were heard from the sky, and that the
same thing has happened frequently both before then
and later. In the third consulship / of Marius the
inhabitants of Ameria and Tuder? saw the spectacle
of heavenly armies advancing from the East and the
West to meet in battle, those from the West being
routed. It has often been seen, and is not at all
surprising, that the sky itself catches fire when the
clouds have been set on fire by an exceptionally
large flame.

LIX. The Greeks tell the story that Anaxagoras sun-stonei
of Clazomenae in the 2nd year * of the 78th Olympiad
was enabled by his knowledge of astronomical
literature to prophecy that in a certain number of
days a rock would fall from the sun ; and that this
occurred in the daytime in the Goat's River district
of Thrace (the stone is still shown — it is of the size of
a wagon-load and brown in colour), a comet also
blazing in the nights at the time. If anyone beheves
in the fact of this prophecy, that involves his allowing

285

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

maioris miraculi divinitatem Anaxagorae fuisse, soUi-
que rerum naturae intellectum et confundi omnia si
aut ipse sol lapis esse aut umquam lapidem in eo
fuisse credatur. decidere tamen crebro non erit

150 dubium. in Abydi gj^mnasio ex ea causa colitur
hodieque modicus quidem sed quem in medio
terrarum casurum idem Anaxagoras praedixisse
narratur. colitur et Cassandriae, quae Potidaea
vocitata est, ob id deductae. ego ipse vidi in
Vocontiorum agro paulo ante delapsmn.^

LX. Arciis vocamus extra miraculum frequentes
et extra ostentimn ; nam ne plmios quidem aut
serenos dies cum fide portendunt. manifestum est
radium solis inmissum cavae nubi repulsa acie in
solem refringi, colorumque varietatem mixtura
nubium, ignium, aeris fieri. certe nisi sole adverso
non fiunt, nec umquam nisi dimidia circuli forma, nec
noctu, quam\is Aristoteles prodat aliquando visum,
quod tamen fatetur idem non nisi quartadecima ^

151 luna fieri posse. fiunt autem hieme maxime ab
aequinoctio autumnali die decrescente ; quo rursus
crescente ab aequinoctio verno non exsistunt, nec
circa solstitium longissimis diebus, bruma vero [id
est brevissimis ^] frequenter ; iidem sublimes humili

^ Rackham : delatum.

" edd.{= XIV) : tricesima (= XXX).

* Sedusit Mayhqff.

' 'Potidaea'from770Ti = 77poj and Balonai 'to hum'(Brotier)

* The MSS. give ' brought in ' (from the country).

' Aristotle, Meteorologica, III, ii, 372a, 27 ev rfj navaeXi^vcii
(meaning any time when the moon is more than at half ).

■^ The omitted clause ' that is, at the shorte^t days ' looks
lilie a philological note on ' bruma.'

286

BOOK II. Lix. 149-LX. 151

that the divining powers of Anaxagoras covered a
greater marvel, and that our understanding of the
physlcal universe is annihilated and everything thrown
into confusion if it is beheved either that the sun is
itself a stone or ever had a stone inside it. But it
will not be doubted that stones do frequently fall. A
stone is worshipped for this reason even at the present
day in the exercising ground at Abydos — one of
moderate size, it is true, but which the same Anax-
agoras is said to have prophesied as going to fall in the
middle of the country. There is also one that is wor-
shipped at Cassandria, the place that has been given
the name of Potidaea," and where a colony was
settled on account of this occurrence. I myself
saw one that had recently come down ^' in the territory
of the Vocontii.

LX. The common occurr ences that we call rainbows Rairtbows.
have nothing miraculous or portentous about them,
for they do not reliably portend even rain or fine
weather. The obvious explanation of them is that
a ray of the sun striking a hollow cloud has its point
repelled and is reflected back to the sun, and that the
diversified colouring is due to the mixture of clouds,
fires and air. Rainbows certainly do not occur except
opposite to the sun, and never except in semi-circular
shape, and not at night time, although Aristotle
does state that a rainbow has been sometimes seen at
night, though he also admits that it cannot happen
except on the 14th day of the lunar month.'' Rain-
bows in winter occur chiefly when the day is drawing
in after the autumnal equinox ; when the day draws
out again after the vernal equinox they do not occur,
nor in the longest days about the solstice, but they
occur frequently in midwinter '^ ; also they are high

287

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

sole humilesque sublimi, et minores oriente aut
occidente sed in latitudinem demissi, meridie exiles
venrni ambitus maioris. aestate autem per meridiem
non cernuntur post autumni aequinoctium qua-
cumque hora ; nec umquam plures simul quam duo.

152 LXI. Cetera eiusdem naturae non multis dubia
esse video ; grandinem conglaciato imbre gigni et
nivem eodem umore mollius coacto, pruinam autem ex
rore gelido ; per hiemem nives cadere, non grandines,
ipsasque grandines interdiu saepius quam noctu, et
multo celerius resolvi quam nives ; nebulas nec aestate
nec maximo frigore exsistere, rores neque gelu neque
ardoribus neque ventis nec nisi serena nocte ; gelando
liquorem minui, resolutaque glacie non eimdem
inveniri modiun ; varietates colorum figurarumque in
nubibus cerni prout admixtus ignis superet aut

153 vincatur ; LXII. praeterea quasdam proprietates
quibiisdam locis esse, roscidas aestate Africae noctes,
in Italia Locris et in lacu VeHno nullo non die adparere
arcus, Rhodi et Syracusis niunquam tanta nubila
obduci ut non ahqua hora sol cernatur ; quaha aptius
suis referentur locis.

Haec sint dicta de aere.

154 LXIII. Sequitur terra, cui um' rerum naturae
partium eximia propter merita cognomen indidimus
maternae venerationis. sic hominum illa ut caelum
dei, quae nos nascentes excipit, natos aht, semelque

" That is, the water is of larger bulk than the ice was. In
fact of course the opposite is true.

BOOK II. Lx. 151-LX111. 154

in the sky when the sun is low and low when it is
high ; and smaller but of Avider breadth at sunrise or
sunset, and narrow but of large circumference at
niidday. In summer they are not seen during mid-
day, but after the autumn equinox they are seen at
any hour ; and never more than two are seen at once.

LXI. I observe that the facts as to the other Had, snotc
phenomena of the same kind are generally famiUar : {'^^^jj^^^
\iz. that hail is produced from frozen rain and snow
from the same fluid less sohdly condensed, but hoar
frost from cold dew ; that snow falls during winter but
not hail, and hail itself falls more often in the daytime
than at night, and melts much faster than snow ;
that mists do not occur in summer nor in extremely
cold weather, nor dew in frosty or very hot or windy
weather, and only on fine nights ; that Uquid is
reduced in bulk by freezing, and when ice is thawed
the bulk produced is not the same " ; that variations
of colour and shape are seen in the clouds in propor-
tion as the fire mingled with them gains the upper
hand or is defeated ; LXII. and moreover that par-
ticular places have particular special qualities : the
nights of Africa are dewy in summer, in Italy rainbows
are seen every day at Locri and at the VeHne Lake, at
Rhodes and Syracuse there is never such a thick
curtain of cloud that the sun is not visible at some
hour of the day. Such special features will be more
suitably related in their places.

So much on the subject of the air.

LXIII. Next comes the earth, the one division Mothet
of the natural world on which for its merits we have ^'"■'*-
bestowed the venerable title of mother. She belongs
to men as the sky belongs to God : she receives us at
birth, and gives us nurtuie after birth, and when once

289

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

cditos snstinet semper, novissime conplexa gremio
iam a reliqua natura abdicatos tum maxime ut mater
operiens, nullo magis sacra merito quam quo nos
quoque sacros facit, etiam monimenta ac titulos
gerens nomenque prorogans nostrum et memoriam
extendens contra ^ brevitatem aevi, cuius numen
ultimum iam nullis precamur irati grave, tamquam
nesciamus hanc esse solam quae numquam irascatur

155 liomini. aquae subeunt in imbres, rigescunt in
grandines, tumescunt in fluctus, praecipitantur in
torrentes ; aer densatur nubibus, furit procellis;
at haec benigna, mitis, indulgens, ususque mortalium
semper ancilla, quae coacta generat, quae sponte
fundit, quos odores saporesque, quos sucos, quos
tactus, quos colores ! quam bona fide creditum
faenus ^ reddit ! quae nostra causa alit ! pestifera
enim animantia, vitali spiritu habente culpam, illi
necesse est seminata excipere et genita sustinere, sed
in malis generantium noxa est. illa serpentem
homine percusso amplius non recipit, poenasque etiam
inertium nomine exigit ; illa medicas fundit herbas,

156 et semper homini parturit ; quin et venena nostri
miseritam instituisse credi potest, ne in taedio vitae
fames, mors terrae meritis alienissima, lenta nos
consumeret tabe, ne lacerxmi coi-pus abrupta dis-

*■ ultra Uav.pt. ^ faenus v.l. om.

" ' Sit tibi terra gravis.' 'Sit tibi terra levis ' was oommon
on gravestones.

* This oddly inaccurate piirase occurs at V. 24, and ia
Plautus and Cicero.

« Cf. infra 158 fin.

" Cf. XXIX 74.

290

BOOK II. Lxiii. 154-156

brought forth she upholds us always, and at the last
when we have now been disinherited by the rest of
nature she embraces us in her bosom and at that very
time gives us her maternal shelter ; sanctified by no
service more than that whereby she makes us also
sacred, even bearing our monuments and epitaphs
and prolonging our name and extending our memory
against the shortness of time ; whose divinity is the
last which in anger we invoke to lie heavy * on those
who are now no more, as though we did not know
that she is the only element that is never wroth with
man. Water rises in mist, freezes into hail, swells in
waves, falls headlong in torrents ; air becomes tliick
with clouds and rages with storms ; but earth is
kind and gentle and indulgent, ever a handmaid in
the service of mortals, producing under our com-
pulsion, or lavishing of her own accord, what scents
and savours, what juices, what surfaces for the
touch, what colours ! how honestly she repays the
interest lent her ! ^ what produce she fosters for Earth's
our benefit ! since for living creatures that are *""'"*'•
noxious the breath of Ufe is to blame — she is compelled
to receive them when their seed is sown and to main-
tain them when they have been born ; but their
harm Ues in the evils of those that generate them.''
When a serpent has stung a man she harbours it no
more,** and she exacts retribution even on the
account of the helpless ; she produces medicinal
herbs, and is ever fertile for man's benefit ; nay,
even poisons she may be thought to have invented out
of compassion for us, lest, when we were weary of Ufe,
hunger, the death most aUen to earth's beneficence,
should consume us with slow decay, lest precipices
should scatter in fragments our lacerated body, lest

291

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

pergerent, ne laquei torqueret poena praepostera
incluso spiritu cui quaereretur exitus, ne in profundo
quaesita morte sepultura pabulo fieret, ne ferri
cruciatus scinderet corpus. ita est, miserita genuit
id cuius facillimo haustu inlibato corpore et cum toto
sanguine exstingueremur nullo labore, sitientibus
similes, qualiter defunctos non volucris, non ferae
attingerent, terraeque servaretur qui sibi ipsi

157 periisset. verimi fateamur : terra nobis malorum
remedium genuit, nos illud vitae fecimus venenum ;
non enim et ferro, quo carere non possumus, simib'
modo utimur ? nec tamen quereremur merito etiamsi
malefici causa tulisset. adversus unam quippe
naturae partem ingrati sumus. quas non ad delicias
quasque non ad contumelias servit homini ? in
maria iacitur, aut ut freta admittamus eroditur,
aquis, ferro, ligno, igni, lapide, fruge omnibus crucia-
tur horis, multoque plus ut deliciis quam ut alimen-

168 tis famuletur nostris. ut ^ tamen quae summa
patitur atque extrema cute tolerabilia videantur,
penetramus in viscera auri argentique venas et aeris
ac plumbi metalla fodientes, gemmas etiam et
quosdam parvolos quaerimus lapides scrobibus in pro-
fundum actis, viscera eius extrahimus, ut digito
gestetur gemma petitur. quot manus atteruntur ut
unus niteat articulus ! si ulli essent inferi, iam pro-
1 Sillig : et.

" Or ' shovild be effected by our becoming food,' sc. for fishes.
292

BOOK II. Lxiii. 156-158

we should be tortured by the perverted punish-
ment of the noose which imprisons the breath whose
departure it is seeking ; lest if we sought death
in the deep our burial should serve for fodder " ;
lest the torture of the steel should cleave our body.
So is it ! in mercy did she generate the potion whereof Mm's abn.<
the easiest draught — as men drink when thirsty — ofhergifis.
might painlessly just blot us out, without injury to the
body or loss of blood, in such wise that when dead
no birds nor beasts should touch us, and one that had
perished for himself should be preserved for the earth.
Let us own the truth : what earth has produced as a
cure for our ills, we have made into a deadly poison ;
why, do we not also put her indispensable gift
of iron to a similar use ? Nor yet should we have
any right to complain even if she had engendered
poison to serve the purpose of crime. In fact in
regard to one of nature's elements we have no grati-
tude. For what luxuries and for what outrageous
uses does she not subserve mankind ? She is flung
into the sea, or dug away to allow us to let in the
channels. Water, iron, wood, fire, stone, growing
crops, are employed to torture her at all hours, and
much more to make her minister to our luxuries
than our sustenance. Yet in order to make the
sufTerings inflicted on her surface and mere outer
skin seem endurable, we probe her entrails, digging
into her veins of gold and silver and mines of copper
and lead ; we actually drive shafts down into the
depth to search for gems and certain tiny stones ; we
drag out her entrails, we seek a jewel merely to be
worn upon a finger ! How many hands are worn
away with toil that a single knuckle may shine
resplendent! If any beings of the nether world

293

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

fecto illos avaritiae atque luxuriae cuiiiculi refodis-
sent ! et miramur si eadem ad noxam genuit aliqua ?

159 ferae enim, credo, castodiunt illam arcentque
sacrilegas manus ; nonne ^ inter serpentes fodimus et
venas auri tractamus cum veneni radicibus ? placat-
iore tamen dea utimur ob hoc, quod omnes hi
opulentiae exitus ad scelera caedesque et bella
tendunt, quamque sanguine nostro rigamus insepultis
ossibus tegimus, quibus tamen velut expurgato ^
furore tandem ipsa se obducit et scelera quoque
mortalium occultat.

Inter crimina ingrati animi et hoc duxerim quod

160 naturam eius ignoramus. LXIV. est autem figura
prima de qua consensus iudicat. orbem certe dici-
mus terrae, globumque verticibus includi fatemur.
neque enim absoluti orbis est forma in tanta montium
excelsitate, tanta camporum planitie, sed cuius
amplexus, si capita cunctarum^ liniarum conpre-
hendantur ambitu, figuram absoluti orbis efficiat —
id quod ipsa rerum natura cogit, non eisdem causis
quas attulimus in caelo. namque in illo cava in se
convexitas vergit et cardini suo, hoc est terrae, imdi-
que incumbit, haec ut solida ac conferta adsurgit
intumescenti similis extraque protenditur. mundus
in centrum vergit, at terra exit a centro, inmensum

^ v.l. non. ^ Rackkam : exprobrato.

' Ignotus apud Dalecampium : si cuncta aut si capita.

" I.e. iniaginary radii drawn from the centre to the topmost
point of each protuberance on the earth's surface.

294

BOOK II, Lxiii, 158-LXIV. 160

existed, assuredly even they would have been dug up
ere now by the burrowings of avarice and luxury !
And can we wonder if earth has also generated some
creatures for our harm ? since the wild animals, I
well beHeve, are her guardians, and protect her from
sacrilegious hands ; do not serpents infest our mines,
do we not handle veins of gold mingled with the roots
of poison ? Yet that shows the goddess all the kinder
towards us, because all these avenues from which
wealth issues lead but to crime and slaughter and
warfare, and her whom we besprinkle with our blood
we cover with unburied bones, over which neverthe-
less, when at length our madness has been finally
discharged, she draws herself as a veil, and hides even
the crimes of mortals,

I would reckon this too among the crimes of our
ingratitude, that we are ignorant of her nature.
LXIV, But her shape is the first fact about which Theearth'.
men's judgement agrees, We do undoubtedly '^^^^^'
speak of the earth*s sphere, and admit that the globe
is shut in between poles, Nor yet in fact do all these
lofty mountains and widely spreading plains com-
prise the outline of a perfect sphere, but a figure whose
circuit would produce a perfect sphere if the ends of
all the Unes " were enclosed in a circumference. This
is the consequence of the very nature of things, it is
not due to the same causes as those we have adduced
in the case of the heaven ; for in the heaven the
convex hollow converges on itself and from all sides
rests upon its pivot, the earth, whereas the earth
being a soUd dense mass rises Uke an object sweUing,
and expands outward. The world converges to its
centre, whereas the earth radiates outward from its
centre, the ceaseless revolution of the world around

295

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

eius globum in formam orbis adsidua circa eam mundi
volubilitate cogente.

161 LXV. Ingens hic pugna litterarum ^ contraque
volgi : circumfundi terrae undique homines con-
versisque inter se pedibus stare, et cunctis similem
esse caeli verticem,^ simili modo ex quacumque parte
mediam ^ terram * calcari, illo quaerente, cur non
decidant contra siti, tamquam non ratio praesto sit
ut nos non decidere mirentur illi. intervenit sententia
quamvis indocili probabilis turbae, inaequali globo,
ut si sit figura pineae nucis, nihilominus terram

162 undique incoli. Sed quid hoc refert aho miraculo
exoriente, pendere ipsam ac non cadere nobiscum? —
ceu spiritus vis, mundo praesertim inclusi, dubia sit,
aut possit cadere natura repugnante et quo cadat
negante ! nam sicut ignium sedes non est nisi in
ignibus, aquarum nisi in aquis, spiritus nisi in spiritu,
sic terrae arcentibus cunctis nisi in se locus non est.
globum tamen effici mirum est in tanta planitie maris
camporumque. cui sententiae adest Dicaearchus, vir
in primis eruditus, regum cura permensus montes,
ex quibus altissimum prodidit Peliiun MCCL passuum
ratione perpendicuH, nullam esse eam portionem

1 litteratorum ? Rackham.

* v.ll. verticem caeli aut verticem.

^ r.l. media. * terram add. Rackham.

" Passus = 2 gradus = 5 Roman feet, 1-617 yards, making
Pelion'8 heicht as stated here over 6,000 English feet. The
Encyrlopafdm Brilannica gives it as 5,340 feet. Pliny over-
states the AJpine heights fantastically.

296

BOOK II. uciv. 160-LXV. 162

her forcing her immense globe into the shape of a
sphere.

LXV. Here there is a mighty battle between Earth
learning on one side and the common herd on the ^P'"-^''"^'^
other: the theory being that human beings are
distributed all round the earth and stand with their
feet pointing towards each other, and that the top of
the sky is alike for them all and the earth trodden
under foot at the centre in the same way from any
direction, while ordinary people enquire why the
persons on the opposite side don't fall oif — ^just as
if it were not reasonable that the people on the
other side wonder that we do not fall off. There is
an intermediate theory that is acceptable even to
the unlearned crowd — that the earth is of the shape
of an irregular globe, resembhng a pine cone, yet
nevertheless is inhabited all round. But what is the
good of this theory when there arises another marvel,
that the earth herself hangs suspended and does not
fall and carry us with it ? As if forsooth there were
any doubt about the force of breath, especially when
shut up inside the world, or as if it were possible for
the earth to fall when nature opposes, and denies it
any place to fall to ! For just as the sole abode of
fires is in the element of fii-e, and of waters in water,
and of breath in breath, so earth, barred out by all
the other elements, has no place except in itself.
Yet it is surprising that with this vast level expanse of
sea and plains the resulting formation is a globe.
This view has the support of Dicaearchus, a savant of
the first rank, who with the support of royal patrons
took the measurement of mountains, and pubhshed
that the highest of them was Pelion, with an altitude
of 1250 paces," inferring that this was no portion

297

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

universae rotunditatis colligens. mihi incerta haec
videtur coniectatio, haud ignaro quosdam Alpium
vertices longo tractu nec breviore quinquaginta
milibus passuum adsurgere.

163 Sed volgo maxima haec pugna est, si coactam in
verticem aquarum quoque figuram credere cogatur.
atqui non aliud in rerum natura adspectu manifestius.
namque et dependentes ubique guttae parvis glob-
antur orbibus et pulveri inlatae frondiumque
lanuglni inpositae absoluta rotunditate cernuntur, et
in poculis repletis media maxime tument, quae
propter subtilitatem umoris molhtiamque in se resid-
entem ratione facihus quam visu deprehenduntur ;
idque etiam magis mirum, in poculis repletis addito
umore minimo circumfluere quod supersit, con-
tra evenire ponderibus additis ad vicenos saepe
denarios, scilicet quia intus recepta liquorem
in verticem attollant, at cumulo eminenti infusa

164 delabantur. eadem est causa propter quam e
navibus terra non cernatur e naxium mahs conspicua,
ac procul recedente navigio, si quid quod fulgeat
religetur in mali cacumine, paulatim descendere
videatur et postremo occultetur. denique oceanus,
quem fatemur ultimum, quanam alia figura cohaererel
atque non decideret nullo ultra margine includente ?
id ipsum ad miraculum redit, quonam modo, etiamsi

« I.e. a negligible fraction of the earth'8 diameter, a negligible
protrusion.

2qS

BOOK II. Lxv. 162-164

of the earth's general sphericity." To me this seems a
questionable guess, as I know that some peaks of the
Alps rise to a great height, not less than 50,000
paces.

But what the crowd most debates is if it must Spherica'
beheve that the conformation of the waters also ']'fll^^ctajL.
rises in a curve. Nevertheless nothing else in the
natural world is more visibly manifest. For (1)
hanging drops of hquid always take the shape of
small round globes ; (2) •«'hen dropped on dust or
placed on the downy surface of leaves they are seen
to be absolutely spherical ; (3) in goblets when filled
the surface curves upward most at the centre, though
owing to the transparency of the Uquid and its
fluidity tending to find its o^vn level this is more easily
discovered by theory than by observation ; and (4) a
still more remarkable fact is that when a very httle
additional liquid is poured into a cup that has already
been filled the surplus overflows, but the opposite
happens when weighty sohds, often as many as
20 coins, are put into it, presumably because these
pass inside the liquid and raise its surface to a peak,
whereas hquids poured on to the upward curving
surface sHp off. (5) The same cause explains why
the land is not visible from the deck of a ship when in
sight from the masthead ; and why as a vessel
passes far into the distance, if some shining object
is tied to the top of the mast it appears slowly to sink
and finally it is hidden from sight. Lastly (6) what
other conformation could have caused the ocean,
which we acknowledge to be at the extreme outside,
to cohere and not fall away, if there is no boundary
beyond to enclose it ? The very question as to how,
although the sea is globular in shape, its edge does

299

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

globetur, extremum non decidat mare. contra quod,
ut sint plana maria et qua videntur figura, non posse
id accidere magno suo gaudio magnaque gloria
inventores Graeci subtilitate geometrica docent.

165 namque cum e sublimi in inferiora aquae ferantur et
sit haec natura earum confessa, nec quisquam dubitet
in litore ullo accessisse eas quo longissime devexitas
passa sit, procul dubio adparere quo quid humilius
sit propius a centro esse terrae, omnesque linias
quae emittantur ex eo ad proximas aquas breviores
fieri quam quae ad extremum mare a primis aquis ;
ergo totas omnique ex parte aquas vergere in
centrum, ideoque non decidere quoniam in interiora
nitantur.

1C6 LXVI. Quod ita formasse artifex naturae ^ credi
debet, ut, cum terra arida et sicca constare per se ac
sine umore non posset, nec rursus stare aqua nisi
sustinente terra, mutuo inplexu iungerentur, hac sinus
pandente, illa vero permeante totam intra extra
infra ^ supra venis ut vinculis discurrentibus, atque
etiam in summis iugis erumpente, quo spii-itu acta et
terrae pondere expressa siphonum modo emicat,
tantumque a periculo decidendi abest ut in summa
quaeque et altissima exsiliat. qua ratione mani-

^ v.l. natura. * infra add. edd.

300

BOOK II. Lxv. 164-LXV1. 166

not fall away, itself ranks with the marvellous. On
the other side the Greek investigators, greatly to
their delight and to their glory, prove by subtle
mathematical reasoning that it cannot possibly be
the case that the seas are really flat and have the
shape that they appear to have. For, they argue,
while it is the case that water travels downward from
an elevation, and this is its admitted nature, and
nobody doubts that the water on any coast has
reached the farthest point allowed by the slope
of the earth, it is manifest beyond doubt that the
lower an object is the nearer it is to the centre of the
earth, and tiiat all the Unes drawn from the centre to
the nearest bodies of water are shorter than those
drawn from the edge of these waters to the farthest
point in the sea : it therefore follows that all the water
from every direction converges towards the centre,
this pressure inward being the cause of its not falUng
off.

LXVI. The reason for this formation must be cohermceoj
thought to be the inability of earth when absolutely ^"a^"'"^
dry to cohere of itself and without moisture, and of
water in its turn to remain still without being held up
by earth ; the intention of the Artificer of nature must
have been to unite earth and water in a mutual
embrace, earth opening her bosom and water pene-
trating her entire frame by means of a network of
veins radiating within and without, above and below,
the water bursting out even at the tops of mountain
ridges, to which it is driven and squeezed out by the
weight of the earth, and spurts out hke a jet of water
from a pipe, and is so far from being in danger of
faUing down that it leaps upward to aU the loftiest
elevations. This theory shows clearly why the seas

301

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

festum est quare tot fluminum cotidiano accessu
maria non crescant. est igitur in toto suo globo tellus
medio ambitu praecincta circumfluo mari, nec argu-
mentis hoc investigandum, sed iam experimentis
cognitum.

167 LXVII. A Gadibus columnisque Herculis Hispaniae
et Galliarum circmtu totus hodie navigatur occidens.
septentrionalis vero oceanus maiore ex parte navi-
gatus est auspiciis divi Augusti Germaniam classe
circumvecta ad Cimbrorum promunturium et inde
inmenso mari prospecto aut fama cognito Scythicam
ad plagam et umore nimio rigentia. propter quod
minime verisimile est illic maria deficere ubi umoris
vis superet. iuxta vero ab ortu ex Indico mari sub
eodem sidere pars tota vergens in Caspium mare
perna\igata est Macedonum armis Seleuco atque
Antiocho regnantibus, qui et Seleucida et Antiochida

168 ab ipsis appellari voluere. et circa Caspium multa
oceani litora explorata parvoque brevius quam totus
hinc aut illinc septentrio eremigatus, ut iam ^ coniec-
turae locima sic quoque non relinquat ingens argu-
mentimi paludis Maeoticae, sive ea ilUus oceani sinus
est, ut multos adverto credidisse, sive angusto discreti
situ restagnatio. alio latere Gadium ab eodem occid-
ente magna pars meridiani sinus ambitu Mauretaniae

^ Mayhoff: tamen.

*» Cape vSkagen, Jutland.

* The Caspian Sea was believed to have an outlet by a
Strait into the Outer Ocean, which was thought to flow not
far north of the Himalayas and South Bussia.

302

BOOK II. Lxvi. 166-LXV11. 168

do not increase in bulk with the daily accession of so
many rivers. The consequence is that the earth at
every point of its globe is encircled and engirdled by
sea flowing round it, and this does not need theoretical
investigation, but has already been ascertained by
experience.

LXVII. Today the whole of the West is navigated Circum-
from Cadiz and the Straits of Gibraltar all round Spain ^e^ZT "'
and France. But the larger part of the Northern
Ocean was explored under the patronage of his late
Majesty Augustus, w^hen a fleet sailed round Germany
to the promontory of the Cimbri," and thence seeing a
vast sea in front of them or learning of it by report,
reached the region of Scythia and locaUties numb
with excessive moisture. On this account it is
extremely improbable that there is no sea in those
parts, as there is a superabundance of the moist
element there. But next, on the Eastward side, the
whole quarter under the same star stretching from
the Indian Ocean to the Caspian Sea ^ w^as navigated
throughout by the Macedonian forces in the reigns
of Seleucus and Antiochus, who desired that it should
be called both Seleucis and Antiochis after them-
selves. And many coasts of Ocean round the
Caspian have been explored, and very nearly the
whole of the North has been completely traversed
from one side to the other by galleys, so that similarly
also there is now overhwelming proof, leaving no
room for conjecture, of the existence of the Maeotic
Marsh, whether it be a gulf of that Ocean, as I notice
many have beheved, or an overflow from it from which
it is separated off by a narrow space. On the other
side of Cadiz, from the same Western point, a great
part of the Southern gulf is navigated today in the

303

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

navigatur hodie. maiorem quidem eius partem et
orientis victoriae magni Alexandri lustravere usque
in Arabicum sinum, in quo res gerente C. Caesare
Augusti filio signa navium ex Hispaniensibus nau-

169 fragiis feruntur agnita. et Hanno Carthaginis
potentia florente circumvectus a Gadibus ad finem
Arabiae navigationem eam prodidit scripto, sicut
ad extera Europae noscenda missus eodem tempore
Himilco. praeterea Nepos Cornelius auctor est
Eudoxum quendam sua aetate, cum Lathyrum
regem fugeret, Arabico sinu egressum Gades usque
pervectum ; multoque ante eum Caelius Antipater
vidisse se qui navigasset ex Hispania in Aethiopiam

170 conmerci gratia. idem Nepos de septentrionali
circuitu tradit Quinto Metello Celeri, Afrani in
consulatu collegae sed tum GalHae proconsuh,
Indos a rege Sueborum dono datos, qui ex India con-
merci causa navigantes tempestatibus essent in
Germaniam abrepti. sic maria circumfusa undique
dividuo globo partem orbis auferunt nobis nec inde huc
nec hinc illo pervio tractu. quae contemplatio apta
detegendae mortalium vanitati poscere videtur ut
totum hoc quicquid est in quo singulis nihil satis
est ceu subiectum ocuhs quantum sit ostendam.

171 LXVIII. lam primum in dimidio conputari vi-
detur, tamquam nulla portio ipsi decidatur ^ oceano,
qui toti 2 circumdatus medio et omnis ceteras fundens

^ v.ll. decidat, decedat. ^ Rackham : toto.

" The son of Agrippa, adopted by Augustus.

* Both these statements are of course untrue.

' We know from Strabo that this statement about Eudoxus
ifi erroneous. ** I.e. round S. Africa.

" I.e. dividing us from another land-mass (now known as
North and South America) which was assumed to exist on
the other side of the world.

BOOK 11. Lxvii. 168-LXV111. 171

circuit of Mauretania. Indeed the greater part of
it Alexander the Great's eastern conquests also
explored as far as the Arabian gulf ; in which, when
Augustus's son Gaius Caesar " was operating there,
it is said that figureheads of ships from Spanish wrecks
were identified. Also when the power of Carthage
flourished, Hanno sailed round from Cadiz to the
extremity of Arabia,'' and published a memoir of his
voyage, as did Himilco when despatched at the same
date to explore the outer coasts of Europe. More-
over we have it on the authority of CorneUus Nepos
that a certain contemporary of his named Eudoxus
when flying from King Lathyrus emerged from the
Arabian Gulf and sailed right round to Cadiz *" ; and
much before him Caehus Antipater states that he had
seen someone who had gone on a trading voyage from
Spain to Ethiopia.'' Nepos also records as to the
northern circuit that Quintus Metellus Celer, col-
league of Afranius in the consulship but at the time
pro-consul of Gaul, received from the King of the
Swabians a present of some Indians, who on a trade
voyage had been carried oiftheir course by storms to
Germany. Thus there are seas encirchng the globe
on every side and dividing it in two, so robbing us of
half the world,' since there is no re^ion affordina; a
passage from there to here or from here to there.
This reflexion scrves to expose the vanity of mortals,
and appears to demand that I should display to the
eye and exhibit the extent of this whole indefinite
region in which men severally find no satisfaction.

LXVIII. In the first place it is apparently porwon 0/
reckoned as forming one half of the globe — ^just as '^^ \'lahuabie bv
no part were cut off for the ocean itself, which sur- man.
rounding and encircUng the whole of it, and pouring

305

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

recipiensque aquas, et quicquid exit in nubes ac sidera
ipsa tot ac tantae magnitudinis pascens, quo tandem
amplitudinis spatio credetur habitare ? inproba et

172 infinita debet esse tam vastae molis possessio. adde
quod ex relicto plus abstulit caelum. nam cum sint
eius quinque partes, quas vocant zonas, infesto rigore
et aeterno gelu premitur omne quicquid est subiectum
duabus extremis utrimque circa vertices, hunc qui
trionum septem vocatur eimique qui adversus illi
au-strinus appellatur. perpetua caligo utrobique
et alieno molHorum sidenma adspectu maligna ac
pruina tantum albicans lux. media vero terrarum,
qua solis orbita est, exusta flammis et cremata
comminus vapore torretur. circa duae tantum inter
exustam et rigentes temperantur, eaeque ipsae
inter se non perviae propter incendium sideris.

173 Ita terrae tres partes abstulit caelima. oceanirapina
in incerto est ; sed et rehcta nobis una portio haud scio
an etiam in maiore damno sit, idem siquidem oceanus
infusus in multos, ut dicemus, sinus adeo vicino
accessu interna maria adlatrat ut centum quindecim
milibus passuum Arabicus sinus distet ab Aegj^ptio
mari, Caspius vero CCCLXXV mihbus a Pontico,
idem interfusus intra per tot maria quibus Africam
Europam Asiam dispescit, quantimi terrarum occup-

174 at ? Conputetur etiamnum ^ mensura tot flimii-

^ Mayhoff : etiam nunc.

° I.e. especially the sun. * Books III foll.

' Cf. § 167 note.
306

BOOK II. Lxviii. 171-174

forth and i'eabsorbing the waters and pasturing and
all the moisture that goes to form the clouds, the stars
themselves with all their numbers and their mighty
size, can be supposed to occupy a space — of what
extent, pray ? The freehold owned by that mighty cumatic
mass is bound to be enormous — without hmit ! Add '""'"•
that of what is left more than half is taken by the
sky. For this has five divisions called zones, and all
that Hes beneath the two outermost zones that
surround the poles at either end — both the pole
named from the Seven Oxen and the one opposite
to it called after Auster — is all crushed under cruel
frost and everlasting cold. In both regions perpetual
mist prevails, and a hght that the invisibihty of the
milder stars " renders niggardly and that is only white
with hoarfrost. But the middle portion of the lands,
where the sun's orbit is, is scorched by its flames and
burnt up by the proximity of its heat : this is the
torrid zone. There are only two temperate zones
between the torrid one and the frozen ones, and
these have no communication with each other because
of the fiery heat of the heavenly body.

Thus the sky has stolen three quarters of the earth. Encroach-
The extent of the trespass of ocean is unascertained ; "^^'j."-^
but even the one portion left to us suffers perhaps an
even greater loss, inasmuch as the same ocean,
spreading out, as we shall describe **, into a number of
bays, advances with its threatening roar so close to
the inner seas that there is only a distance of 115 miles
between the Arabian Gulf and the Egyptian Sea and
of 375 between the Caspian and the Black Sea <^ ; and
also with its inner channels through so many seas
whereby it sunders Africa, Europe and Asia, it
occupies — what area of the land? Calculate more-

307

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

num, tantarum paludium, addantur et lacus, stagna,
iam elata in caelum ac ardua adspectu quoque iuga,
iam silvae vallesque praeruptae et solitudines et
mille e ■'■ causis deserta ; detrahantur hae tot port-
iones terrae, immo vero, ut plures tradidere, mundi
puncto (neque enim aliud est terra in universo) :
haec est materia gloriae nostrae, haec sedes, hic
honores gerimus, hic exercemus imperia, hic opes
cupimus, hic tumultuamur humanum genus, hic
instauramus bella etiam civiha mutuisque caedibus

175 laxioremfacimusterram! et ut pubUcos gentium furores
transeam, haec in qua conterminos pellimus furtoque
vicini caespitem nostro solo adfodimus, ut qui la-
tissime rura metatas fuerit ultraque famam exegerit
adcolas quota terrarvmi parte gaudeat, vel cum ad
mensuram avaritiae suae propagaverit, quam tandem
portionem eius defunctus obtineat !

176 LXIX. Mediam esse terram mundi totius haut
dubiis constat argumentis, sed clarissimo aequinocti
paribus horis. nam nisi in medio esset, aequales dies
noctesque habere non posse deprehendere est,^
dioptraeque vel maxime confirmant, cxim aequinoc-
tiah terapore ex eadem linea ortus occasusque
cernatur, solstitiali exov tus per suam Uneam, brimiah

^ e add. Rackham. ^ est Mayhoff : et.

" The Romans divided the periods from sunrise to sunset
and from sunset to sunrise each into twelve hours, varying
in iength with the seasons.

30S

BOOK II. LxviiL X74-LXIX. 176

over the dimensions of all those rivers and vast
swamps, add also the lakes and pools, and next the
ridges too that rise into the heaven and are pre-
cipitous even to the eye, next the forests and steep
glens, and the deserts and areas for a thousand
reasons left deserted ; subtract all these portions
from the earth or rather from this pin-prick, as the
majority of thinkers have taught, in the world — for
in the whole universe the earth is nothing else:
and this is the substance of oiu- glory, this is its habita-
tion, here it is that we fill positions of power and covet
wealth, and throw mankind into an uproar, and launch
even civil wars and slaughter one another to make
the land more spacious ! And to pass over the
collective insanities of the nations, this is the land
in which we expel the tenants next to us and add a
spade-full of turf to our own estate by steaHng
from our neighbour's — to the end that he who has
marked out his acres most widely and banished his
neighbours beyond all record may rejoice in
owning — how small a fraction of the earth's sur-
face ? or, when he has stretched his boundaries to
the full measure of his avarice, may still retain —
what portion, pray, of his estate when he is
dead ?

LXIX. That the earth is at the centre of the Geocentnc
univcrse is proved by irrefragable arguments, but ^^'^^-
the clearest is the equal hours of day and night "
at the equinox. I or if the earth were not at the
centi-e, it can be reahzed that it could not have the
days and nights equal ; and binoculars confirm this
very powerfuUy, since at the season of the equinox
sunrise and sunset are seen on the same line, whereas
sunrise at midsummer and sunset at niidwinter fall

309

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

occasus. quae accidere nullo modo possent nisi in
centro sita esset.^

177 LXX. Tres autem circuli supra dictis zonis in-
plexi inaequalitates temporum distingunt, solstitialis
a parte signiferi excelsissima nobis ad septentrionalem
plagam versus, contraque ad alium polum brumalis,
item medio ambitu signiferi orbis incedens aequi-
noctialis.

LXXI. Reliquorum quae miramur causa in ipsius
terrae figura est, quam globo similem esse ^ et cum
ea aquas iisdem intellegitur argumentis. sic enim
fit haut dubie ut nobis septentrionalis plagae sidera
numquam occidant, contra meridianae numquam
oriantur, rursusque haec illis non cernantur attollente

178 se contra medios \isus terrarum globo. Septentriones
non cemit Trogodjtice et confir.is Aegyj)tus, nec
Canopum Italia et quem vocant Berenices Crinem
item quem sub divo Augusto cognominavere Caesaris
Thronon, insignes ibi stellas. adeoque manifesto
adsurgens fastigium curvatur ut Canopus quartam
fere partem signi unius supra terram eminere Alex-
andriae intuentibus videatur, eadem a Rhodo terram
quodammodo ipsam stringere, in Ponto omnino non
cernatur, ubi maxune subhmis Septentrio. idem a
Pihodo absconditur, magisque Alexandriae, in Arabia
Novembri mense prima \igiha occultus secunda se

* v.l. om. esset. ^ esse add. Rackham.

" Koughly Abyssinia and Somaliland.
310

BOOK II. Lxix. 176-LXX1. 178

on a line of their own. These things could not
occur without the earth's being situated at the
centre.

LXX. But the three circles intertwined between Theseasons.
the zones aforesaid are the cause of the differences
of the seasons : the Tropic of Cancer on the side of the
highest part of the zodiac to the northward of us, and
opposite to it the Tropic of Capricorn towards the
other pole, and also the equator that runs in the
middle circuit of the zodiac.

LXXI. The cause of the remaining facts that Oeography
surprise us is found in the shape of the earth itself, '^^trmioiny.
which together with the waters also the same argu-
ments prove to resemble a globe. For this is un-
doubtedly the cause why for us the stars of the
northern region never set and their opposites of the
southern region never rise, while on the contrary
these northern stars are not visible to the antipodes,
as the curve of the earth's globe bars our view of the
tracts between. Cave-dweller Country " and Egypt
wliich is adjacent to it do not see the Great and Little
Bear, and Italy does not see Canopus and the con-
stellation called Berenice's Hair, also the one that
in the reign of his late Majesty Augustus received
the name of Caesar's Throne, constellations that are
conspicuous there. And so clearly does the rising
vault curve over that to observers at Alexandria
Canopus appears to be elevated nearly a quarter of
one sign above the earth, whereas from Rhodes it
seems practically to graze the earth itself, and on the
Black Sea, where the North Stars are at their highest,
it is not visible at all. Also Canopus is hidden from
Rhodes, and still more from Alexandria ; in Arabia in
November it is hidden during the first quarter of the

3"

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

ostendit, in Meroe solstitio vesperi paulisper adparet
paucisque ante exortum Arcturi diebus pariter cum

179 die cernitur. navigantium haec maxime cursus
deprehendunt, in alia adverso in alia prono mari,
subitoque conspicuis atque ut e freto emergentibus
quae in anfractu pilae latuere sideribus. neque
enim, ut dixere aliqui, mundus hoc polo excelsiore se
attollit, aut ^ undique cernerentur haec sidera ; verum
haec eadem quibusque proximis sublimiora creduntur
eademque demersa longinquis, utque nunc sub-
limis in deictu positis videtur hic vertex, sic in
illam terrae devexitatem transgressis illa se attollunt
residentibus quae hic excelsa fuerant, quod nisi in
figura pilae accidere non posset.

180 LXXII. Ideo defectus soUs ac lunae vespertinos
orientis incolae non sentiunt, nec matutinos ad
occasum habitantes, meridianos vero serius nobis ilh.
apud Arbelam magni Alexandri victoria luna defecisse
noctis secunda hora est prodita, eademque in Siciha
exoriens. soHs defectum Vipstano et Fonteio coss.,
qui fuere ante paucos annos, factimi pridie kalendas
Maias Campania hora diei inter septimam et octavam
sensit, Corbulo dux in Armenia inter horam diei
decimam et undecimam prodidit visum, circuitu
globi aUa aliis detegente et occultante. quod si plana

^ ita ut Mayhoff.

" As a matter of fact the eclipse was on Sept. 20, 331 B.C.,
eleven davs before the battle.

* A.D. 59.
312

BOOK II. Lxxi. 178-Lxxn. 180

night and shows itself in the second ; at Meroe it
appears a little in the evening at midsummer and a few
days before the rising of Arcturus is seen at day-
break. These phenomena are most clearly disclosed
by the voyages of those at sea, the sea sloping upward
in the direction of some and downward in the direc-
tion of others, and the stars that were hidden behind
the curve of the ball suddenly becoming visible as it
were rising out of the sea. For it is not the fact, as
some have said, that the world rises up at this higher
pole — or else these stars would be visible every where ;
but these stars are beUeved to be higher the nearer
people are to them, while they seem low to those far
away, and just as at present this pole seems lofty to
those situated on the decHvity, so when people pass
across to yonder downward slope of the earth tliose
stars rise while the ones that here were high sink,
which could not happen except with the conformation
of a ball.

LXXII. Consequently inhabitants of the East locai
do not perceive evening echpses of the sun and Ziiplesf
moon, nor do those dwelling in the West see morning
echpses, while the latter see echpses at midday later
than we do. The victory of Alexander the Great
is said to have caused an echpse of the moon at
Arbela at 8 p.m." while the same echpse in
Sicily was when the moon was just rising. An
echpse of the sun that occurred on April 30 in the
consulship * of Vipstanus and Fonteius a few years
ago wiis visible in Campania between 1 and 2 p.m.
but was reported by Corbulo commanding in Armenia
as observed between 4 and 5 : this was because the
curve of the globe discloses and hides diiferent
phenomenafor different locahties. If the earth were

313

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

esset terra, simul omnia adparerent cunctis, noctesque
non fierent inaequales, nam aeque aliis quam in
medio sitis paria duodecim horarum intervalla
cernerentur, quae nunc non in omni parte simili
modo congruunt.

181 LXXIII. Ideo nec nox diesque, quamvis eadem,
toto orbe simul est oppositu globi noctem aut ambitu
diem adferente. multis hoc cognitum experimentis,
in Africa Hispaniaque turrium Hannibalis, in Asia
vero propter piraticos terrores simili specularimi
praesidio excitato, in quis praenuntios ignes sexta
hora diei accensos saepe conpertum est tertia noctis a
tergo ultimis visos. eiusdem Alexandri eursor
Philonides ex Sicyone Elin mille et ducenta stadia
novem diei confecit horis, indeque, quamvis decHvi
itinere, tertia noctis hora remensus est saepius.
causa, quod eunti cum sole iter erat, eundem remeans
obvium contrario praetervertebat occursu. qua de
causa ad occasum navigantes quamvis brevissimo
die vincunt spatia nocturnae navigationis ut solem
ipsum comitantes.

182 LXXIV. Vasaque horoscopica non ubique eadem
sunt usui, in trecenis stadiis, aut ut longissime in
quingentis, mutantibus semet umbris sohs. itaque
umbilici (quem gnomonem appellant) umbra in
Aegypto meridiano tempore aequinocti die paulo

» Cf. VII 20.

* Starting at daybreak, i.e. took 1.5 hours home as against
9 hours out. Taking the mille passuum of 8 stades (see D.
Ant. s.vv.) at W of an EngHsh mile, we get for the outward
joumey a pace of just over 1.5 miles an hour. But perhaps the
length of the route is overestimated at 1200 stades, about
136 miles, as the distance from Sicyon to Elis measures only
about 80 miles in a straight hne on the map. Elia Ues higher

BOOK II. Lxxn. 180-LXXIV. 182

flat, all would be visible to all alike at the same
time ; also the nights would not vary in length,
because corresponding periods of 12 hours would
be visible equally to others than those at the equator,
periods that as it is do not exactly correspond in
every region ahke.

LXXIII. Consequently also although night and Siinri.ie atu
day are the same thing all over the world, it is not ^^"^^'* '"''■
night and day at the same time all over the world, longitude.
the intervention of the globe bringing night or its
revolution day. This has been discovered by many
experiments — that of HannibaVs towers in Africa
and Spain, and in Asia when piratical alarms
prompted the precaution of watchtowers of the same
sort, warning fires lit on which at noon were often
ascertained to have been seen by the people farthest
to the rear at 9 p.m. Alexander above mentioned
had a runner named Philonides " who did the 1200
stades from Sicyon to Ehs in 9 hours from sunrise
and took till 9 p.m.'' for the return journey, although
the way is downhill ; this occurred repeatedly.
The reason was that going his way lay with the sun
but returning he was passing the sun as it met him
travelhng in the opposite direction. For this reason
ships saihng westward beat even in the shortest
day the distances they sail in the nights, because
they are going with the actual sun.

LXXIV. Travellers' sundials are not the same for Sun'»
reference everywhere, beeause the shadows thrown ^^^'"^ ^j-,^
by the sun as they alter alter the readings at every latuude.
300 or at farthest 500 stades. Consequently in
Egypt at midday on the day of the equinox the

above sea-level than Sicyon, but only the latter part of the
return journey can be described as downhill.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

pliis quam dimidiam gnomonis mensuram efficit, in
urbe Roma nona pars gnomonis deest umbrae, in
oppido Ancona superest quinta tricesima, in parte
Italiae quae Venetia appellatur iisdem horis umbra
gnomoni par fit.

183 LXXV. Simili modo tradunt in Syene oppido,
quod est supra Alexandriam quinque milibus stadio-
rum, solstiti die medio nullam umbram iaci, puteum-
que eius experimenti gratia factum totum inluminari,
ex quo adparere tum solem illi loco supra verticem
esse ; quod et in India supra flumen Hypasim fieri
tempore eodem Onesicritus scribit. constatque in
Berenice urbeTrogodytarum, et inde stadiis quattuor
milibus DCCCXX in eadem gente Ptolemaide oppi-
do, quod in margine rubri maris ad primos elephant-
orum venatus conditum est, hoc idem ante solstitium
quadragenis quinis diebus totidemque postea fieri, et

184 per eos XC dies in meridiem umbras iaci. rursus in
Meroe (insula haec caputque gentis Aethiopum
quinque mihbus stadium a Syene in amne Nilo
habitatur) bis anno absumi umbras, sole duode\ice-
simam tauri partem et quartamdecimam leonis tunc
obtinente. in Indiae gente Oretum mons est Maleus
nomine iuxta quem imibrae aestate in austrum,
hieme in septentrionem iaciuntur ; quindecim tantum
noctibus ibi apparet septentrio. in eadem India
PataUs, celeberrimo portu, sol dexter oritur, umbrae

185 in meridiem cadunt. septentrionem ibi Alexandro
morante adnotatum prima tantum parte noctis

• The Beas.
316

BOOK 11. Lxxiv. 182-LXXV. 185

shadow of the pin or ' gnomon ' measures a h'ttle
more than half the length of the gnomon itself,
whereas in the city of Rome the shadow is |^th shorter
than the gnomon, at the towTi of Ancona ■^gth longer,
and in the district of Italy called Venezia the shadow
is equal to the gnomon, at the same hours.

LXXV. Similarly it is reported that at the town
of Syene, 5000 stades South of Alexandria, at noon
in midsummer no shadow is cast, and that in a well
made for the sake of testing this the light reaches
to the bottom, clearly sho^ving that the sun is
vertically above that place at the time ; and this is
stated in the writings of Onesicritus also to occur at
the same time in India South of the river Hypasis."
It is also stated that in the Cave-dwellers' city of
Berenice, and 4820 stades away at the town of
Ptolemais in the same tribe, which was founded
on the shore of the Red Sea for the earhest elephant
hunts, the same thing occurs 45 days before and 45
days after midsummer, and during that period of 90
days the shadows are thrown southward. Again in
Meroe — this is an inhabited island in the river Nile
5000 stades from Syene, and is the capital of the
Aethiopian race — the shadows disappear twice a
year, when the sun is in the 18th degree of Taurus
and in the 14th of Leo. There is a mountain named
Maleus in the Indian tribe of the Oretes, near which
shadows are throwTi southward in summer and
northward in winter ; the northern constellation is
visible there on only 15 nights. Also in India at the
well-known port of Patala the sun rises on the right
and shadows fall southward. It was noticed when stars and
Alexander was staying at this place that the Great and '<*"'"<^'
Little Bears were visible only in the early part of the

317

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

adspici. Onesicritus, dux eius, scripsit quibus in
locis Indiae umbrae non sint septentrionem non
conspicij et ea loca appellari ascia, nec horas dinum-
erari ibi. LXXVI. At in tota Trogodvtice umbras
bis quadraginta quinque diebus in anno Eratosthenes
in contrarium cadere prodidit.

186 LXXVII. Sic fit ut vario lucis incremento in
Meroe longissimus dies XII horas aequinoctiales et
octo partes unius horae colligat, Alexandriae vero
XIV horas, in Italia XV, in Britamaia XVII, ubi
aestate lucidae noctes haut dubie repromittunt ^
id quod cogit ratio credi, solstiti diebus accedente
sole propius verticem mundi angusto lucis ambitu
subiecta terrae continuos dies habere senis mensibus,

187 noctesque e diverso ad brumam remoto. quod fieri
in insula Thyle Pytheas MassiHensis scribit sex
dierima navigatione in septentrionem a Britannia
distante, quidam vero et in Mona, quae distat a
Camaloduno Britanniae oppido circiter ducentis
milibus, adfirmant.

LXXVIII. Umbrarum hanc rationem et quam
vocant gnomonicen invenit Anaximenes Milesius,
Anaximandri (de quo diximus) discipulus, primusque
horologium quod appellant sciothericon Lacedaemone
ostendit.

188 LXXIX. Ipsum diem aUi ahter observavere,
Babyloni inter duos sohs exortus, Athenienses inter

^ dubie se promittunt Mayhoff, dubitare promittunt
Detlejsen.

" This is inaccurate, as are other poLnts in this passage.

* I.e. towards the South.

* I.e. all between the vernal and the autumnal equinox.
Cf. IV. XX.

BOOK II. Lxxv. 185-LXXIX. 188

night. Alexander's guide Onesicritus wrote that
this constellation is not visible at the places in India
where there are no shadows, and that these places
are called Shadeless, and no reckoning is kept of
the hours there. LXXVI. But according to Eratos-
thenes in the whole " of Cave-dweller Country on
90 days once a year shadows fall the wrong way.*

LXXVII. Thus it comes about that owing to the Daylight
varied lengthening of dayhght the longest day ]Zitu£^
covers 12| equinoctial hours at Meroe, but 14 hours
at Alexandria, 15 in Italy, and 17 in Britain, where the
hffht niofhts in summer substantiate what theory
compels us to beheve, that, as on summer days *
the sun approaches nearer to the top of the world,
owing to a narrow circuit of Hght the underlying
parts of the earth have continuous days for 6 months
at a time, and continuous nights when the sun has
withdrawn in the opposite direction towards winter.
Pytheas of Marseilles writes that this occurs in
the island of Thule,'^ 6 days' voyage N. from Britain,
and some declare it also to occur in the Isle of
Anglesea, which is about 200 miles * from the British
town of Colchester.

LXXVIII. This theory of shadows and the Thefirst
science called gnomonics was discovered by Anaxi- ■'""''"* •
menes of Miletus, the pupil of Anaximander of whom
we have spoken ; he first exhibited at Sparta the
time-piece they call ' Hunt-the-Shadow.'

LXXIX. The actual period of a day has been Day
differently kept by different people : the Babylonians \Zk(med.
count the period between two sumises, the Athenians

"* Now thought to be N.W. Norway.

' I.e. by the Roman Road from Colchcster, the capital of the
pioviuce, by Graiitchester or Cheatertou to Chester.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

duos occasus, Umbri a meridie ad meridiem, vulgus
omne a luce ad tenebras, sacerdotes Romani et qui
diem diffiniere civilem, item Aegypti et Hipparchus,
a media nocte in mediam. minora autem intervalla
esse lucis inter occasus et^ ortus solis iuxta solstitixmi ^
quam aequinoctia apparet quia positio signiferi
circa media sui obliquior est, iuxta solstitium autem
rectior.

189 LXXX. Contexenda sunt his caelestibus nexa
causis. namque et Aethiopas vicini sideris vapore
torreri adustisque simihs gigni barba et capillo
vibrato non est dubiimi, et adversa plaga mundi
candida atque glaciaU cute esse gentes flavis pro-
missis 3 crinibus, trucis vero ex caeH rigore has, illas
mobilitate sapientes ; ipsoque crurum argumento
illis in supera sucxmi revocari natura vaporis, his in
inferas partes depelli umore deciduo ; hic graves
feras, ilHc varias effigies animalium provenire et
maxime alitum [in multas figuras gigni * volucres ^] ;
corporum autem proceritatem utrobique, ilHc ignium

190 nisu, hic umoris aHmento ; medio vero terrae salubri
utrimque mixtura fertiles ad omnia tractus, modicos
corporum habitus magna et in colore temperie, ritus

* occasus et add. Rackham. * RacJcham : solstitia.

* Rackham : promissa. * v.l. igni.

^ Sfcl. Detlefsen.

" I,e. the summer solstice, as often.

* Cf. Galen de temperav^entis III vi 72 et /xfv o/xoAcoj €;^€i to
aoifxa TTJs Kpdaecus, ols /i.ei' laxi/a. ra. sKiX-q ^qpol TidvTu>s €ioiV
vypol Se ols TTax^a^

320

BOOK II. Lxxix. 188-LXXX. 190

that between two sunsets, the Umbvians from middaj
to midday, the common people everywhere from
dawn to dark, the Roman priests and the authorities
who fixed the official day, and also the Egyptians
and Hipparchus, the period from midnight to mid-
night. But it is obvious that the breaks in dayhght
between sunset and sunrise are smaller near the
solstice " than at the equinoxes, because the
position of the zodiac is more slanting around its
middle points but straighter near the solstice.

LXXX. We must deal next with the results cujmtea
connected \vith these heavenly causes. For it is '"f^''^,^

1 1 -ni 1 • • 1 1 characler-

beyond question that the Ijthiopians are burnt by wtiM.
the heat of the heavenly body near them, and are
born with a scorched appearance, with curly beard
and hair, and that in the opposite region of the world
the races have white frosty skins, with yellow hair
that hangs straight ; while the latter are fierce
owing to the rigidity of their cHmate but the former
wise because of the mobihty of theirs ; and their
legs ^ themselves prove that with the former the juice
is called away into the upper portions of the body
by the nature of heat, while with the latter it is
driven down to the lower parts by falling moisture;
in the latter country dangerous wild beasts are
found, in the former a great variety of animals and
especially of birds ; but in both regions men's stature
is high, owing in the former to the pressure of the
fires and in the latter to the nourishing effect of the
damp ; whereas in the middle of the earth, owing to
a healthy blending of both elements, there are tracts
that are fertile for all sorts of produce, and men ire
of medium bodily staturc, with a marked blending
even in the matter of complexion ; customs are

321

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

molles, sensus liquidos, ingenia fecunda totiusque
naturae capacis, isdem imperia, quae numquam
extimis gentibus fuerint, sicut ne illae quidem
his paruerint avolsae ac pro immanitate^ naturae
urguentis illas solitariae.

191 LXXXI. Babyloniorum placita et motus terrae
hiatusque qua cetera omnia siderum vi existimant fieri,
sed illorum trium quibus fulniina adsignant, fieri autem
meantium cum sole aut congruentium et maxime
circa quadrata mundi. praeclara quaedam et inmort-
alis in eo, si credimus, divinitas perhibetur Anaxi-
mandro Milesio physico, quem ferunt Lacedaemoniis
praedixisse ut urbem ac tecta custodirent, instare
enim motum terrae, et tum urbs tota eorum corruit
et Taygeti montis magna pars ad formam puppis
eminens abrupta cladem eam insuperruinaoppressit.^
perhibetur et Pherecydi Pythagorae doctori aUa
coniectatio, sed et illa divina, haustu aquae e puteo
praesensisse ac praedixisse civibus ^ terrae motum.

192 quae si vera sunt, quantum a deo tandem videri
possunt tales distare dima vivant ? et haec quidem
arbitrio cuiusque existimanda rehnquantur : ventos
in causa esse non dubiimi reor ; neque enim umquam

^ Hermolaus Barbarus: nuntiate aut unitate codd.;
numine Mayhoff, perversitate ? Campbell.
^ Rackham : pressit.
^ civibus Mayhoff : tibi aut ibi aut om. codd.

" Satum, Jupiter and Mars, cf. § 82.

* I.e. are in conjunction with the sun, or agree -with him in
aspect, and paiticularly when they are distant from him oue
quarter of the heaven (Brotier).

322

BOOK II. Lxxx. 190-LXXX1. 192

gentle, senses elear, intellects fertile and able to
grasp the whole of nature ; and they also have
governments, which the outer races never have
possessed, any more than they have ever been subject
to the central races, being quite detached and soHtary
on account of the savagery of the nature that broods
over those regions.

LXXXI. The theory of the Babylonians deems Earihquaka
that even earthquakes and fissures in the ground are
eaused by the force of the stars that is the cause of
all other phenomena, but only by that of those three
stars " to v/hich they assign thunderbolts ; and that
they occur when these are travelhng with the
sun or are in agreement with him, and particularly
about the quadratures of the world.* On this subject
a remarkable and immortal inspiration is attributed (if
we can believe it) to the natural philosopher Anaxi-
mander of Miletus, who is said to have warned the
Spartans to be careful of their city and buildings,
because an earthquake was impending ; and subse-
quently the whole of their city coUapsed, and also a
hirge part of Mount Taygetus projecting in the
shape of a ship's stern broke offand crashing down on
it added to the catastrophe. Also another conjecture
is attributed to Pherecydes the teacher of P}i;hagoras,
this also inspired : he is said to have foretold to his
fellow-citizens an earthquake, of which he had
obtained a premonition in drawing water from a well.
Assuming the truth of these stories, how far pray
can such men even in their lifetime be thought to
differ from a god ? And though these matters may
be left to the estimation of individual judgment;
I think it indubitable that their cause is to be attri-
buted to the winds ; for trcmors of the earth never

323

PLrm;: natural histor"^

iutremiscunt terrae nisi sopito mari caeloque adeo
tranquillo ut volatus a^dum non pendeant subtracto
onmi spiritu qui vehit, nec umquam nisi post ventos,
condito scilicet in venas et cava eius occulta flatu.
neque aliud est in terra tremor quam in nube toni-
trum, nec hiatus aliud quam cum fulmen erumpit
incluso spiritu luctante et ad libertatem exire nitente.

193 LXXXIL Varie itaque quatitur, et mira eduntur
opera, alibi prostratis moenibus, alibi hiatu profundo
haustis, ahbi egestis mohbus, ahbi emissis amnibus,
nonnumquam etiam ignibus calidisve fontibus, alibi
averso fluminum cursu. praecedit vero comitaturque
terribiUs sonus, ahas murmuri similis, alias mugiti-
bus aut clamori humano armorumve pulsantium
fragori, pro quahtate materiae excipientis formaque
vel cavernarum vel cuniculi per quem meet, exilius
grassante in angusto, eodem rauco in recurvis,
resultante in duris, fervente in imiidis, fluctuante in

194 stagnantibus, furente contra solida. itaque et sine
motu saepe editur sonus. nec simpHci modo quatitur
nonnumquam,^ sed tremit vibratque. hiatus vero
alias remanet ostendens quae sorbuit, alias occultat
ore conpresso rursusque ita inducto solo ut nulla

* Detlefsen : unquam.
324

BOOK II. Lxxxi. 192-LXXX11. 194

occur except v/hen the sea is calm and the sky so
Btill that birds are unable to soar because all the
breath that carries them has been withdrawTi ; and
never except after wind, doubtless because then the
blast has been shut up in the veins and hidden hol-
lows of the sky. And a trembhng in the earth is
not ditferent from a thunderclap in a cloud, and a
fissure is no different from when an imprisoned
current of air by strugghng and striving to go forth
to freedom causes a flash of hghtning to burst out.

LXXXII. Consequently earthquakes occur in a thnr
variety of ways, and cause remarkablc consequences, f,',^^"""'^'
in some places overtlirow.ing walls, in others drawing (omeiwnc.
them dowTi into a gaping cleft, in others thrusting up
masses of rock, in others sending out rivers and
sometimes even fires or hot springs, in others divert-
ing the course of rivers. They are however preceded
or accompanied by a terrible sound, that sometimes
resembles a rumble, sometimes the lowing of cattle
or the shouts of human beings or the clash of weapons
struck together, according to the nature of the
material that receives the shock and the shape of the
caverns or burrows througli which it passes, proceed-
ing with smaller vohmie in a narrow channel but with
a harsh noise in channels that bend, echoing in
hard channels, bubbhng in damp ones, forming waves
in stagnant ones, raging against sohd ones. Ac-
cordingly even without any movement occurring a
sound is sometimes emitted. And sometimes the
earth is not shaken in a simple manner but trembles
and vibrates. Also the gap sometimes remains
open, showing the objects that it has sucked in,
while sometimes it hides them by closing its mouth
and drawing soil over it again in such a way as to

325

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

vestigia exstent: urbibus plerumque devoratis
agrorumque tractu hausto, maritima autem maxime
quatiuntur, nec montuosa tali malo carent : explora-
tum mihi est Alpes Appenninumque saepius tremuisse.

195 Et autumno ac vere terrae crebrius moventur, sicut
fulmina. ideo Galliae et Aegyptus minime quati-
untur, quoniam hic aestatis causa obstat. ilhc hiemis.
item noctu saepius quam interdiu. maximi autem
motus existunt matutini vespertinique, sed propinqua
luce crebri, interdiu autem circa meridiem. fiunt
et solis lunaeque defectu, quoniam tempestates tunc
sopiuntur, praecipue vero cum sequitur imbres
aestus imbresve aestum.

196 LXXXIIL Navigantes quoque praesentiunt ^
non dubia coniectura sine flatu intumescente fluctu
subito aut quatiente ictu. intremunt vero et in
navibus postes aeque ^ quam in aedificiis crepitu-
que praenuntiant ; quin et volucres non inpavidae
sedent. est et in caelo signum praeceditque motu
futuro aut interdiu aut paulo post occasum sereno
tenuis ceu Unea nubes in longimi porrecta spatium.

197 LXXXIV. Est et in puteis turbidior aqua nec sine
odoris taedio, sicut in iisdem est remedium, quale et
crebri specus praebent, conceptum enim spiritum

^ Raclcham : sentiunt.

* Rueck : positeque vd posita aeque.

326

BOOK II. Lxxxii. 194-LXXXIV. 197

leave no traces ; it being usually cities that are
engulfed, and a tract of farmland swallowed, al-
though seaboard districts are most subject to earth-
quakes, and also mountainous regions are not free
from disaster of the kind : I have ascertained that
tremors have somewhat frequently occurred in the
Alps and Apennines.

Earthquakes are more frequent in autumn and their
spring, as is lightning. Consequently the Galhc ««'"<^''
provinces and Egypt suffer very httle from them,
as in the latter the summer is the cause that prevents
them and in the former the winter. Similarly they
are more frequent by night than in the daytime. The
severest earthquakes occur in the morning and the
evening, but they are frequent near dawn and in
the daytime about noon. They also occur at an
ecHpse of the sun or moon, since then storms are
lulled, but particularly when heat follows rain or
rain heat.

LXXXIII. Sailors at sea can also anticipate an signs ofti
earthquake and forecast it with certainty when a »'«p^"<^'«
sudden wave SAvells up without there being a wind,
or a shock shakes the vessel. Even in ships posts
begin to tremble just as they do in buildings, and
foretell an earthquake by ratthng ; nay more, birds
of timid kinds perch on the rigging. There is also
a sign in the sky : when an earthquake is impending,
either in the daytime or a little after sunset, in fine
weather, it is preceded by a thin streak of cloud
stretching over a wide space.

LXXXIV. Another sign is when the water in proienior,
wells is muddier and has a somewhat foul smell, """*'"'>
just as in wells there is also a remedy for earthquake
such as frequently caves too afford, as they supply

327

PLINY: NATURAL HISTOR^

exhalant. quod in totis notatur oppidis : minus
quatiuntur crebris ad eluviem cuniculis cavata,
multoque sunt tutiora in iisdem illis quae pendent,
sicuti Neapoli in Italia intellegitur, parte eius quae
solida est ad tales casus obnoxia. tutissimi sunt
aedificiorum fornices. anguli quoque parietum postes-
que alterno pulsu renitentes ; et latere terreno

198 facti parietes minore noxa quatiimtur. magna
diiferentia est et in ipso genere motus, pluribus
siquidem modis quatitur ; tutissimum est cimi vibrat
crispante aedificiorum crepitu et cum intumescit
adsurgens alternoque motu residit ; irmoximn et cum
concurrentia tecta contrario ictu arietant, quoniam
alter motus alteri renititur. undantis inclinatio et
fluctus more quaedam volutatio infesta est, aut cimi in
unam partem totus se motus inpellit. desinunt autem
tremores cum ventiis emersit, sin vero duravere, non
ante XL dies sistuntur, plerumque et tardius, utpote
cum quidam annuo et bienni spatio duraverint.

199 LXXXV. Factum est semel, quod equidem in
Etruscae disciplinae voluminibus invenio, ingens ter-
rarum portentum L. Marcio Sexto lulio coss. in agro
Mutinensi. namque montes duo inter se concurrerunt
crepitu maximo adsultantes recedentesque, inter eos
flamma fumoque in caelum exeunte interdiu.
spectante e \ia Aemilia magna equitum Romanorum
familiarxmaque et viatorum multitudine. eo con-

328

BOOK II. Lxxxiv. 197-LXXXV. 199

an outlet for the confined breath. Tliis is noticed
in whole towns : buildinos pierced by frequent
conduits for drainage are less shaken, and also among
these the ones erected over vaults are much safer —
as is noticed in Italy at Naples, the sohdly built
portion of the city being specially liable to collapses
of this nature. The safest parts of buildings are
arches, also angles of walls, and posts, which swing
back into position with each alternate thrust ; and
walls built of clay bricks sufFer less damage from
being shaken. There is also a great difference in vaneiies oj ■.
the actual kind of movement, as the earth shakes in
several ways ; there is least danger when it quivers
with a trembling rattle of the buildings, and when it
rises in a swell and settles back again, with an
alternating motion ; also no harm is done when
buildings colhde and ram against each other, as
the one motion counteracts the other. A waving
bend and a sort of billowy fluctuation is dangerous,
or when the whole movement drives in one direction.
Earthquakes stop when the wind has found an outlet,
or else, if they go on, they do not stop before forty
days, and usually even longer, some in fact having
gone on for one or two years' time.

LXXXV. I find in the books of the lore of Tuscany Mstorkal
that once a vast and portentous earthquake occurred """ "''
in the district of Modena; this was during the
consulship " of Lucius Marcius and Sextus Juhus.
Two mountains ran together with a mighty crash,
leaping forward and then retiring with flames and
smoke rising between them to the sky ; this took
place in the daytime, and was watched from the
Aemih'an road by a large crowd of Knights of Rome
vvith their retinues and passers by. The shock

329

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

cnrsu villae omnes elisae, animalia permulta quae
intra fuerant exanimata sunt, anno ante sociale bel-
Imn quod haud scio an funestius terrae ipsi Italiae
fuerit quam bella civilia. non minus mirum ostentum
et nostra cognovit aetas anno Neronis principis
supremo, sicut in rebus eius exposuimus, pratis
oleisque intercedente publica via in contrarias sedis
transgressis in agro Marrucino, praediis Vetti Mar-
celli equitis Romani res Neronis procurantis.

200 LXXX\T. Fiunt simul cum terrae motu et inunda-
tiones maris eodem videlicet spiritu infusi aut terrae
sidentis sinu recepti. maximus terrae memoria
mortalium exstitit motus Tiberii Caesaris principatu,
XII urbibus Asiae ima nocte prostratis, creberrimus
Punico bello intra eundem annum septies ac quin-
quagies nuntiatus Romam, quo quidem anno ad Trasi-
menum lacum dimicantes maximum motum nec
Poeni sensere nec Romani. nec vero simplex malum
aut in ipso tantum raotu periculum est, sed par aut
maius ostento ^ : numquam urbs Roma tremuit ut
non futuri eventus alicuius id praenuntium esset.

201 LXXXVII. Eadem nascentium causa terrarum
est, cum idem ille spiritus adtollendo potens solo
non valuit erumpere. nascuntur enim nec fluminum

^ ?<in> ostento Rackham.

« A.D. 68.

* The neighbourhood of Teate, now Chieti, on the Adriatio
coast.

«217 B.c. ** Lago di Perugia.

33°

BOOK II. Lxxxv, 199-Lxxxvn. 201

brought do-wTi all the country houses, and a great
many animals in the buildings were killed. It was in
thc year before the AlHes' War, which was perhaps
more disastrous to the land of Italy than the civil
wars. Our generation also experienced a not less
marvellous manifestation in the last year " of the
Emperor Nero, as we have set forth in our history
of his principate : meadows and ohve trees with a
public road running between then got over to the
opposite sides of the road ; this took place in the
Marrucinian territory,* on the lands of Vettius
Marcellus, Knight of Rome, Nero's estate-manager.

LXXXVI. Earthquakcs are accompanied by conseiuem
inundations of the sea, Avhich is presumably caused to ?{> ,„„^a
flood the land by the same current of air, or drawn Hons;
into the bosom of the earth as it subsides. The
greatest earthquake in human memory occurred
when Tiberius Caesar was emperor, twelve Asiatie
cities being overthrown in one night ; the most
numerous series of shocks was during the Punic War,
when reports reached Rome of fifty-seven in a single
year ; it was the year « when a violent earthquake
occurring during an action between the Carthaginian
and Roman armies at Lake Trasimene '^ was not
noticed by the combatants on either side. Nor (Eanhria
yet is the disaster a simple one, nor does the danger r^rttmtou^
coasist only in the earthquake itself, but equally or
more in the fact that it is a portent ; the city of Rome
was never shaken without this being a premonition of
something about to happen.

LXXX\TI. The cause of the birth of new lands (2)new
is the same, when that same breath although powerful uons."'
enough to cause an upheaval of the soil has not been
able to force an exit. For lands are born not only

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

tantum invectu (sicut Echinades insulae ab Acheloo
amne congestae maiorque pars Aeg\'pti a Nilo in
quam a Pharo insula noctis et diei cursum fuisse
Homero credimus) nec recessu maris, sicut idem
Circeis, quod accidisse et in Ambraciae portu decem
milium passuum intervallo et Atheniensium quinque
milium ad Piraeeum memoratur, et Ephesi ubi
quondam aedem Dianae adluebat. Herodoto quidem
si credimus, mare fuit supra Memphim usque ad
Aethiopum montes itemque a planis Arabiae,
mare circa IHum et tota Teuthranie quaque campos
intulerit Maeander.
202 LXXXVIII. Nascuntur et alio modo terrae ac
repente in aUo ^ mari emergunt velut paria secum
faciente natura quaeque hauserit hiatus aho loco
reddente.

LXXXIX. Clarae iam pridem insulae Delos et
Rhodos memoriae produntur enatae, postea minores,
ultra Melon Anaphe, inter Lemnum et Hellespontum
Neae, inter Lebedum et Teon Halone, inter Cycladas
Olympiadis CXLV anno quarto Thera et Therasia,
inter easdem post annos CXXX Hiera, eademquae
Automate, et ab ea duobus stadiis post annos CX
in nostro aevo M. lunio Silano L. Balbo coss. a, d.
VIII Idus lulias Tliia.

^ v.l. aliquo.

• Ody.ssey IV. 354. " H. 10.
« A legendary king in Mysia.

<* The river between Lydia and Caria.

• 197 B.c. The figures in thia passaee are very oncertain.
/ A.D. 19.

332

BOOK II. UCVXVII. 20I-L.XXXIX. 202

through the conveyance of soil by streams (as the
Echinades Islands when heaped up from the river
Achelous and the greater part of Egypt from the
Nile — the crossing from the island of Pharos to the
coast, if we believe Homer," having formerly taken
t\venty-four hours) or by the retirement of the sea
as once took place at Circei ; such a retirement is
also recorded to have occurred to a distance of
10,000 paces in the harbour of Ambracia, and to a
distance of 5,000 at the Athenian port of Piraeus ;
and at Ephesus, where once the sea used to wash up
to the temple of Diana. At all events if we believe
Herodotus,* there was sea above Memphis as far as
the mountains of Ethiopia and also towards the plains
of Arabia, and sea round Ilium, and over the whole
territory of Teuthras '^ and where the Maeander '^
has spread prairie-land.

LXXXVIII. New lands are also formcd in a.n- oiher 7ieu
other way, and suddenly emerge in a different sea, uwfs!"'^'"'^
nature as it were balancing accounts with herself
and restoring in another place what an earthquake
has engulfed.

LXXXIX. The famous islands of Delos and Emergence
Rhodes are recorded in history as having been born '* ""^■''
from the sea long ago, and subsequently smaller
ones, Anaphe beyond Melos, Neae between Lemnos
and the Dardanelles, Halone between Lebedos and
Teos, Thera and Therasia among the Cyclades in the
4th year * of the 145th Olympiad ; also in the same
group Hiera, which is the same as Automate, 130
years later ; and 2 stades from Hiei-a, Thia 110
years later, in our age, on July 8 in the year^ of the
consulship of Marcus Junius Silanus and Lucius
Balbus,

333

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

203 Ante nos et iuxta Italiam inter Aeolias insulas,
item iuxta Cretam emersit MMD passuum una cimi
calidis fontibus, altera OhTnpiadis CLXIII anno
tertio in Tusco sinu, flagrans haee violento eum flatu :
proditurque memoriae magna circa eam multitudine
piscium fiuitante confestim expirasse quibus ex his
cibus fuisset. sic et Pithecussas in Campano sinu
ferunt ortas, mox in his montem Epopon, ciun
repente flamma ex eo emicuisset, campestri aequa-
timi planitiei. in eadeni et oppidum haustum pro-
fundo, ahoque motu terrae stagnimi emersisse, et
aho provolutis montibus insulam extitisse Prochytam.

204 XC. Namque et hoc modo insulas rerum natura
fecit : avellit Siciliam Italiae, C^^prum Syriae,
Euboeam Boeotiae, Euboeae Atalanten et Macrian,
Besbicum Bithyniae, Leucosiam Sirenum promun-
turio. XCI. Rursus abstuht insulas mari iunxitque
terris, Antissam Lesbo, Zephyriimi Hahcarnasso,
Aethusan Myndo, Dromiscon et Pernen Mileto,
Narthecusam Parthenio promunturio. Hybanda
quondam insula loniae ducentis nunc a mari abest
stadiis, Syrien Ephesus in mediterraneo habet,
Derasidas et Sapphoniam vicina ei Magnesia.
Epidaurus et Oricum insulae esse desierunt.

205 XCII. In totum abstulit terras primum omnium
ubi Atlanticum mare est, si Platoni credimus,

" 126 B.o. » Timaeus 24 B.

334

BOOK II. Lxxxix. 203-xcn. 205

Before our time also among the Aeolian Islands
near Ita]y, as well as near Crete, there emerged
from the sea one island 2500 paces long, with hot
springs, and another in the 3rd year" of Olympiad
163 in the bay of Tuscany, this one burning with a
violent blast of air ; and it is recorded that a great
quantity of fish were floating round it, and that
people who ate of them immediately expired. So
also the Monkey Islands are said to have risen in the
bay of Campania, and later one among them, Mouut
Epopos, is said to have suddenly shot up a great
flame and then to have been levelled vdth the
surface of the plain. In the same plain also a town
was sucked down into the depths, and another
earthquake caused a swamp to emerge, and another
overturned mountains and threw up the island of
Procida.

XC. For another way also in which nature has Deiachmmi
made islands is when she tore Sicily away from "jrlnXwin.
Italy, C^^rus from Syria, Euboea from Boeotia, ia'id,
Atalantes and Macrias from Euboea, Besbicus from
Bithynia, Leucosia from the Sirens' Cape. XCI.
Again she has taken islands away from the sea and
joined them to the land — Antissa to Lesbos, Zephyrius
to Hahcarnassus, Aethusa to Myndus, Dromiscos
and Pernes to Miletus, Narthecusa to Cape Parthen-
ius. Hybanda, once an lonian island, is now 25 miles
distant from the sea, Ephesus has Syrie as part of
the mainland, and its neighbour Magnesia the
Derasides and Sapphonia. Epidaurus and Oricum
have ceased to be islands.

XCII. Cases of land entirely stolen away by the Encrmch-
sea are, first of all (if we accept Plato's story *), the "'"" ''•^**"-
vast area covered by the Atlantic, and next, in the

335

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

inmenso spatio, mox interno quoque ^ quae videmus
hodie, mersam Acarnaniam Ambracio sinu, Achaiam
Corinthio, Europam Asiamque Propontide et Ponto.
Ad hoc perrupit mare Leucada, Antirrhium, Helles-
pontum, Bosporos duos.

XCIII. Atque ut sinus et stagna praeteream, ipsa
se eomest terra. devoravit Cibotum altissimum
montem cum oppido Cariae, Sipylum in Magnesia
et prius in eodem loco clarissimam urbem quae
Tantahs vocabatur, Galenes et Galames urbium in
Phoenice agros cum ipsis, Phegium Aethiopiae
iugmn excelsissimmn, tamquam non infida grassa-

206 rentur et Utora. XCIV. Pyrram et Antissam circa
Maeotim Pontus abstuht, HeHcen et Buram sinus
Corinthius, quarum in alto vestigia apparent. ex
insula Cea amphus triginta miha passuum abrupta
subito cum plurimis mortahbus rapuit, et in Siciha
dimidiam Tyndarida urbem ac quicquid ab Itaha
deest, simihter in Boeotia Eleusina.

XCV. Motus enim terrae sileantur et quicquid
est ubi saltem busta urbium exstant, simul ^ terrae
miracula potius dicamus quam scelera naturae. et,
Hercule, non caelestia enarratu difficihora fuerint :

207 metallorum opulentia tam varia, tam dives, tam
fecunda, tot saecuhs suboriens, cum tantum cotidie
orbe toto populentur ignes, ruinae, naufragia, bella,

* quoque add. Mayhoff {om. quae). ^ RackJiam : sunul ut.

« This long peninsula off the W. coast of Acarnania was
made into an island by the Corinthians who in the 7th cent.
B.c. cut a canal through the isthmus joining it with the
mainland.

* The Channel of Istambul and the Kertsch from the Black
Sea to the Sea of Azov.

BOOK II. xCTi. 205-xcv. 207

inland seas also, the areas that we see submerged at
the present day , Acarnania covered by the Ambracian
Gulf, Achaeaby the Gulf of Corinth, Europe and Asia
by the Sea of Marmora and the Black Sea. Also the
sea has made the channels of Leucas," Antirrhium,
the Dardanelles and the two Bospori.^

XCIII. And to pass over bays and marshes, the CoUapseoj
earth is eaten up by herself. She has devoured the '^"'"'*""-
highest mountain in Caria, Cibotus, together with
the town of that name, Sipylus in Magnesia, and
previously the very celebrated city in the same
place that used to be called Tantahs, the territories
of Galene and Galame in Phoenicia with the cities
themselves, and the loftiest mountain range in
Ethiopia, Phegium — ^just as if the coasts also did not
treacherously encroach ! XCIV. The Black Sea
has stolen Pyrra and Antissa in the neighbourhood
of Lake Maeotis, the Gulf of Corinth Hehce and
Bura, traces of which are visible at the bottom of the
water. The sea suddenly snatched away more than
30,000 paces together with most of the human
beings from the Island of Ceos, and half the city of
Tyndaris in Sicily, and all the gap in the coast of
Italy, and similarly Eleusis in Boeotia.

XCV. For let earthquakes not be mentioned, and Products of
every case where at least the tombs of cities survive, mlnerais,
and at the same time let us tell of the marvels of the aems,

1 1 1 1 • r , A1T-11 emanatiom

earth rather than the crimes ot nature. And, 1 will
swear, not even the heavenly phenomena could
have been more difficult to recount : the wealth of
mines so varied, so opulent, so prolific, brought
to the surface in so many ages, although every day
all over the world so much devastation is wrought by
fires, collapse of buildings, shipwrecks, wars, frauds,

337

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

fraudes, tantum vero luxuria et tot mortalesconterant,
gemmarum pictura tam multiplex, lapidum tam
discolores maculae, interque eos candor alicuius praeter
lucem omnia excludens, medicatorum fontium vis,
ignium tot locis emicantium perpetua tot saeculis
incendia, spiritus letales aut ^ scrobibus emissi aut
ipso loci situ, mortiferi alibi volucribus tantum, ut

208 Soracte vicino urbi tractu, alibi praeter hominem
ceteris animantibus, nonnumquam et homini, ut in
Sinuessano agro et Puteolano, quae spiracula vocant,
aHi Charonea, scrobes mortiferum spiritum exhalantes,
item in Hirpinis Ampsancti ad Mephitis aedem locum
quem qui intravere moriuntur, simih modo Hierapoli
in Asia Matris tantum Magnae sacerdoti innoxium ;
ahbi fatidici specus, quorimi exhalatione temulenti
futura praecinant, ut Delphis nobihssimo oraculo.
Quibus in rebus quid possit ahud causae adferre
mortahum quispiam quam difFusae per omne naturae
subinde ahter atque ahter numen erumpens ?

209 XCVI. Quaedam vero terrae ad ingressus tre-
munt, sicut in Gabiensi agro non procul urbe Roma
iugera ferme ducenta equitantium cursu, simihter in
Reatino. quaedam insulae semper fluctuantur,
sicut in agro Caecubo et eodem Reatino, Mutinensi,
Statoniensi, in Vadimonis lacu, ad Cutihas aquas

^ Eackham : alibi aut.

" Phengitis, described XXXVI 163 as translucent but not
transparent.

BOOK II. xcv. 207-xcvi. 209

and so great is the consumption of luxury and of the
multitudes of mankind ; such a variety of patterned
gems, such many-coloured markings in stones, and
among them the brilliance of a certain stone <* that
only allows actual dayhght to penetrate through it;
the profusion of medicinal springs ; the flames of
fire flickering up in so many places, unceasing for so
many centuries ; the lethal breaths either emitted
from chasms or due to the mere formation of the
ground, in some places fatal only to birds, as in the
region of Soracte near Rome, in others to all hving
creatures except man, and sometimes to man also,
as in the territory of Sinuessa and of Pozzuoh — the
places called breathing holes, or by other people
jaws of hell — ditches that exhale a deadly breath;
also the place near the Temple of Mephitis at
Ampsanctus in the Hirpinian district, on entering
wliich people die ; hkewise the hole at HierapoHs in
Asia, harmless only to the priest of the Great Mother ;
elsewhere prophetic caves, those intoxicated by
M'hose exhalations foretell the future, as at the very
famous oracle at Delphi. In these matters what
other explanation could any mortal man adduce
save that they are caused by the divine power of that
nature which is difFused throughout the universe,
repeatedly bursting out in different ways ?

XCVI. In some places, the earth trembles when Eanh
trodden on — for instance in the Gabii district not far "'^'"■*-
from the city of Rome about 200 acres shake when
horsemen gallop over them, and similarly in the
Reate district. Certain islands are always afloat, Fioating
as in the districts of Caecubum and of Reate men- '* "
tioned above and Modena and Statonium, and In
Lake Vadimo, the dense wood near the springs of

339

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

opaca silva quae numquam die ac nocte eodem luco
visitur, in Lydia quae vocantur Calaminae non ventis
solum sed etiam contis quo libeat inpulsae, multorum
civium Mithridatico bello salus. svmt et in N}Tn-
phaeo parvae, Saliares dictae, quoniam in symphoniae
cantu ad ictus modulantium pedum moventur. in
Tarquiniensi lacu magno Italiae duae nemora circum-
ferunt, nunc triquetram figuram edentes nunc
rotundam conplexu ventis impellentibus, quadratam
numquam.

210 XCVII. Celebre fanum habet Veneris Paphos, in
cuius quandam aream non impluit, item in Nea,
oppido Troadis, circa simulacrmn Minervae, in eodem

211 et rehcta sacrificia non putrescunt. XCVIII. iuxta
Harpasa oppidum Asiae cautes stat horrenda uno
digito mobihs, eadem, si toto corpore inpellatur,
resistens. in Taurorum paeninsula in civitate Para-
sino terra est qua sanantur omnia vuhiera. at circa
Asson Troadis lapis nascitur quo consumimtur omnia
corpora; sarcophagiis vocatur. duo sunt montes
iuxta flumen Indum quorum ^ alteri natura ut ferriun
omne teneat, alteri ut respuat; itaque si sint clavi
in calciamento, vestigia avelU in altero non posse, in
altero sisti. Locris et Crotone pestilentiam numquam
fuisse nec ullo terrae motu laboratum adnotatimi
est, in Lycia vero semper a terrae motu quadraginta

1 quorum add. Rackham.
• A promontory in Klyria.

BOOK II. xcvi. 209-xcviii. 211

Cutilia whicli is never to be seen in the same place
by day and by night, the islands in Lydia named
the Reed Islands which are not only driven by the
winds, but can be punted in any direction at pleasure
with poles, and so served to rescue a number of the
citizens in the Mithridatic war. There are also small
islands at Nymphaeum " called the Dancing Islands,
because they move to the foot-beats of persons
keeping time with the chanting of a choral song. On
the great lake of Tarquinii in Italy two islands
float about carrying woods, their outhne as the winds
drive them forward now forming the shape of a
triangle and now of a circle, but never a square.

XC\^II. Paphos possesses a famous shrine o( foeaimrth
Venus on a certain court in which rain does not fall, """*'^"-
and the same in the case round an image of Minerva
at the town of Nea in the Troad ; in the same town
also saci-ifices left over do not go bad. XCVIII. Near
the town of Harpasa in Asia stands a jagged rock
that can be moved with one finger, but that also
resists a push made with the whole body. On the
peninsula of Tauri in the state of Parasinum there is
some earth which heals all Mounds. But in the
neighbourhood of Assos in the Troad a stone is
produced that causes all bodies to waste away ;
it is called the Flesh-eater. There are two moun-
tains near the river Indus, the nature of one of which
is to hold all iron and that of the other to reject it;
consequently if a man has nails in his shoes, on one
of the mountains at each step he is unable to tear
his foot away from the ground and on the other he
cannot set it down on the ground. It is recorded
that at Locri and Croton there has never been a
plague or earthquake, and that in Lycia an earth-

341

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

dies serenos esse. in agro Arpano frumentum satum
non nascitur, ad aras jMucias in Veiente et apud
Tusculanum et in silva Ciminia loca sunt in quibus in
terram depacta non extrahuntur. in Crustumino
natum faenum ibi noxium, extra salubre est.

212 XCIX. Et de aquarum natura complura dicta
sunt. sed aestus maris accedere et reciprocare maxime
mirum, pluribus qmdem modis, verum causa in sole
lunaque. bis inter duos exortus lunae adfluunt
bisque remeant xicenis quaternisque semper horis,
et primum attollente se cum ea mundo intume-
scentes, mox a meridiano caeli fastigio vergente in
occasum residentes, rursusque ab occasu sub terra ^
ad caeli ima et meridiano contraria accedente inun-
dantes, hinc donec iterum exoriatur se resorbentes ;

213 nec umquam eodem tempore quo pridie reflui,
velut 2 anhelantes ^ sidere avido trahente secura
haustu maria et adsidue ahunde quam pridie
exoriente ; parilDus tamen intervalhs reciproci senis-
que semper horis, non cuiusque diei aut noctis aut
loci sed aequinoctiahbus, ideoque inaequales vol-
garium horarum spatio utcumque plures in eos aut
diei aut noctis illarum mensurae cadunt, et aequinoc-

214 tio tantum pares ubique. ingens ai-gumentum
plenumque lucis, ac vocis etiam diuinae, hebetes esse
qui negent suptei-meare sidera ac rursus eadem ex-
surgere, similemque terris, immo vero naturae uni-

^ Deilcfsen : subter. ^ Riiech : reflui ut.

* Mayhoff (cf. Mela III 2) : anci]lantes.

" The Roman hour was a twelfth part of actual daytime
or night-time, thus varying in length throughout the year;
and oaly at the equinox was a diurnal hour equal to a noc-
turnal hour, an exact twenty-fourth of day and night.

342

BOOK II. xcviii. 2II-XCIX. 214

quake is always followed by forty days' fine weather.
Corn sown in the Arpi district does not come up, and
at Mucian Altars in the district of Veii and at Tus-
culum and in the Ciminian Forest there are places
where stakes driven into the gi-ound cannot be pulled
out. Hay grown in the Crustumium district is noxious
on the spot but healthy when conveyed elsewhere,

XCIX. About the nature of bodies of water a ndes, theot
great deal has been said. But the rise and fall of °^'
the tides of the sea is extremely mysterious, at all
events in its irregularity ; however the cause Ues in
the sun and moon. Between two risings of the moon
there are two high and two low tides every 24 hours,
the tide first swelHng as the world moves upward
with the moon, then falHng as it slopes from the mid-
day summit of the sky towards sunset, and again
coming in as after sunset the world goes below the
earth to the lowest parts of the heaven and approaches
the regions opposite to the meridian, and from that
point sucking back until it rises again ; and never
flowing back at the same time as the day before, just
as if gasping for breath as the greedy star draws the
seas with it at a draught and constantly rises from
another point than the day before ; yet returning
at equal intei-vals and in every six hours, not of each
day or night or place but equinoctial hours, so that
the tidal periods are not equal by the space of
ordinary hours whenever the tides occupy larger
measures of either diurnal or nocturnal hours, and
only equal eveiywhere at the equinox." It is a vast
and illuminating proof, and one of even divine
utterance, that those are dull of wit who deny that
the same stars pass below the earth and rise up again,
and that they present a siuiilar appearance to the

343

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

versae, exinde^ faciem in iisdem ortus occasusque
operibus, non aliter sub terra manifesto sideris cursu
aliove effectu quam cum praeter oculos nostros feratur.

215 Multiplex etiamnum lunaris differentia, primumque
septenis diebus : quippe modici a nova ad dividuam
aestus pleniores ab ea exundant plenaque maxime
fervent; inde mitescunt, pares ad septimam primis,
iterumque alio latere dividua augentur, in coitu solis
pares plenae. eadem in - aquilonia et a terris longius
recendente mitiores quam cum in austros digressa
propiore nisu vim suam exercet. per octonos quosque
annos ad principia motus et paria incrementa centesi-
mo lunae revocantur ambitu. augent ^ ea cuncta
solis annuis causis, duobus aequinoctiis maxime tu-
mentes et autumnali amplius quam verno, inanes vero

216 bruma et magis solstitio. nec tamen in ipsis quos
dixi temporvmi articulis, sed paucis post diebus, sicuti
neque in plena aut novissima scd postea, nec statim
ut lunam mundus ostendat occultetve aut media
plaga declinet verum fere duabus horis aequinoctiali-
bus serius, tardiore semper ad terras omnium quae
geruntur in caelo effectu cadente quam visu, sicuti
fulguris et tonitrus et fulminum.

1 v.l. et inde : ostendi ? Campbell.

2 v.l. cm. in. ' Mayhoff : augente.

344

BOOK 11. xcTX. 214-216

lands and indeed to the whole of nature in the same
processes of rising and setting, the course or other
operation of a star being manifest beneath the
earth in just the same way as when it is travelHng
past our eyes.

Moreover, the lunar difference is manifold, and ra?! and
to begin with, its period is seven days : inasmuch as p^l-iojg^
the tides, which are moderate from new moon to
half-moon, therefrom rise higher and at fuU moon
are at their maximum ; after that they relax, at the
seventh day being equal to what they were at first;
and they increase again when the moon divides on
the other side, at the union of the moon with the sun
being equal to what they were at fuU moon. When
the moon is northward and retiring further from
the earth the tides are gentler than when she has
swerved towards the south and exerts her force at
a nearer angle. At every eighth year the tides
are brought back at the hundredth circuit of the
moon to the beginnings of their motion and- to
corresponding stages of increase. They make all
these increases owing to the yearly influences of the
sun, swelling most at the two equinoxes and more at
the autumn than the spring one, but empty at mid-
winter and more so at midsummer. Nevertheless
this does not occur at the exact points of time I have
specified, but a few days after, just as it is not at
fuU or new moon but afterwards, and not immediately
when the world shows or hides the moon or slopes
it in the middle quarter, but about two equi-
noctial hours later, the effect of aU the occurrences
in the sky reaching the earth more slowly than the
sight of them, as is the case with Ughtning, thunder
and thunder-bolts.

345

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

217 Omnes autem aestus in oceano maiora integunt
spatia nudantque quam in reliquo mari, sive quia
motum universitate animosius quam parte est, sive
quia magnitudo aperta sideris \im laxe grassantis
efficacius sentit, eandem angustiis arcentibus, qua
de causa nec lacus nec amnes similiter moventur.
(octogenis cubitis supra Britanniam intumescere
aestus Pytheas Massiliensis auctor est). et interiora

218 autem maria terris clauduntur ut in ^ portu ; quibus-
dam tamen in locis spatiosior laxitas dicioni paret,
utpote cum plura exempla sint in tranquillo mari
nuUoque velorum pulsu tertio die ex Italia pervec-
torum Uticam aestu fervente. circa litora autem
magis quam in alto deprehenduntur lii motus,
quoniam et in corpore extrema pulsum venarimi, id
est spii-itus, magis sentiunt. in plerisque tamen
aestuaris propter dispares siderum in quoque tractu
exortus diversi existunt aestus tempore, non ratione,
discordes, sicut in Sjrrtibus.

219 C. Et quorundam tamen privata natura est,
velut Tauromenitani euripi saepius et in Euboea
septies die ac nocte reciprocantis. idem aestus
triduo in mense consistit, septima octava nonaque
luna. Gadibus qui est delubro Herculis proximus
fons inclusus ad putei modum ahas simul cum oceano
augetur minuiturque, aUas utrumque contrariis
temporibus ; eodem in loco alter oceani motibus

^ in add. Mayhoff.

» I.e. the moon. " I.e. the Straits of Messiua,

BOOK II. xcix. 217-C. 219

But all the tides cover and lay bare greater spaces occm luief
in the ocean than in the rest of the sea, whether (/'^'^^/'tv"
because it is more furious when moved in its entirety i"-'^^ ^tf^-
than when in part, or because the open extent feels
the force of the star " when it marches untrammeled
with more efFect, whereas narrow spaces hinder the
force, which is the reason why neither lakes nor
rivers have tides hke the ocean (Pytheas of Mar-
seilles states that north of Britain the tides rise
120 ft.) But also the morc inhmd seas are shut in
by land hke the water in a harbour ; yet a more
untrammeled expanse is subject to the tidal sway,
inasmuch as there are several instances of people
making the crossing from Italy to Utica in two days
in a calm sea and with no wind in the sails when a
strong tide was running. But these motions are
observed more round the coasts than in the deep
sea, since in the body too the extremities are more
sensitive to the pulse of the veins, that is of the
breath. But in most estuaries owing to the different
risings of the stars in each region the tides occur
irregularly, varying in time though not in method,
as for instance in the Syrtes.

C. And nevertheless some tides have a special Exccpuotiai
nature, for instance the channel at Taormina ^ that ''"^''""'^'''"
ebbs and flows more frequently, and the one at
Euboea that has seven tides in twenty-four hours.
The tide at Euboea stops three times a month, on
the seventh, eighth and ninth day after the new
moon. At Cadiz the spring nearest the shrine of
Hercules, which is enclosed hke a well, sometimes
rises and sinks with the ocean and sometimes does
both at the contrary periods ; a second spring in the
same place agrees with the motions of the ocean.

347

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

consentit. in ripa Baetis oppidum est cuins putei
crescente aestu minuuntur, augescunt decedente,
mediis temporum immobiles. eadem natura His-
pali in ipso oppido ^ uni puteo, ceteris vulgaris. et
Pontus semper extra meat in Propontidem, introrsus
in Pontum numquam refluo mari.

220 CI. Omnia pleno fluctu ^ maria purgantur,
quaedam et stato tempore. circa Messanam et
Mylas fimo similia expuuntur in litus purgamenta,
unde fabula est Solis boves ibi stabulari. his addit
(ut nihil quod equidem noverim praeteream) Aristot-
teles nullum animal nisi aestu recedente expirare.
Observatum id multum in Galhco oceano et dumtaxat
in homine compertum.

221 CII. Quo vera coniectatio existit haut frustra
spiritus sidus lunam ^ existimari, hoc esse quod terras
saturet, accedensque corpora impleat, abscedens
inaniat ; ideo cum incremento eius augeri conchyha,
et maxime spiritum sentire quibus sanguis non sit,
sed et sanguinem hominum etiam cum lumine eius
augeri ac minui, frondes quoque ac pabula (ut suo
loco dicetur) sentire, in omnia eadem penetrante vi.

222 CIII. Itaque sohs ardore siccatur hquor, et hoc esse
masculum sidus accepimus, torrens cuncta sorbens-
que ; sic mari late patenti saporem incoqui sahs, aut

^ Rackham : Hispali {v.ll. in ipsote, in Hispali) oppido.

* Mayhoff : pleni unio.

' spiritum sidus lunae edd. vett.

<» Or, emending the text, ' the moon'8 star is believed to
be breath.'

* XVIII. 321 £f.

348

BOOK II. c. 219-cni. 222

Tliere is a town on the banks of the Guadalquivir
vhose wells sink when the tide rises and rise when it
falls, remaining stationary in the intervening periods.
At Seville there is one well in the actual town that
has the same nature, though all the others are as
usual. The Black Sea always flows out into the Sea
of Marmora — the tide never sets inward into the
Black Sea.

CI. All seas excrete refuse at high tide, some Tidairefu
also periodically. In the neighbourhood of Messina
and Mylae scum resembhng dung is spat out on to the
shore, which is the origin of the story that this is the
place where the Oxen of the Sun are stalled. To
this (so that I may leave out nothing that is within
my knowledge) Aristotle adds that no animal dies
except when the tide is ebbing. This has been widely
noticed in the GalHc Ocean, and has been found to
hold good at all events in the case of man.

CII. This is the source of the true conjecture Lunar
that the moon is rightly beHeved to be the star of '"■/^"«"'^-
the breath," and that it is this star that saturates
the earth and fills bodies by its approach and empties
them by its departure ; and that consequently
shells increase in size as the moon waxes, and that
its breath is specially felt by bloodless creatures, but
also the blood even of human beings increases and
diminishes with its hght ; and that also leaves and
herbage (as will be stated in the proper place ^) are
sensitive to it, the same force penetrating into all
things.

CIII. Consequently hquid is dried by the heat Ef/ecu of
of the sun, and we are taught that this is the male *""^'^^*
star, which scorches and sucks up everything; and
that in this way the flavour of salt is boiled into the

349

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

quia exhausto inde dulci tenuique, quod facillime
trahat vis ignea, omne asperius crassiusque linquatur
(ideo summa aequorum aqua dulciorem profundam,*
hanc esse veriorem causam asperi saporis quam quod
mare terrae sudor sit aeternus), aut quia plurimus ex
arido misceatur ilH vapor, aut quia terrae natura sicut
medicatas aquas inficiat. est in exemplis Dionysio
Siciliae tjTanno, cum pulsus est ea potentia, accidisse
prodigium ut uno die in portu dulcesceret mare.

223 CIV. E contrario ferunt lunae femineum ac molle
sidus, atque nocturnxun solvere umorem et trahere,
non auferre. id manifestum esse quod ferarum
occisa corpora in tabem \dsu suo resolvat, somnoque
sopitis torporem contractum in caput revocet,
glaciem refundat, cunctaque umifico spiritu laxet:
ita pensari naturae vices semperque sufficere, ahis
siderum elementa cogentibus, ahis vero fundentibus.
sed in dulcibus aquis lunae ahmentum esse sicut in
niarinis sohs.

224 CV. Altissimum mare XV stadiorum Fabianus
tradit. ahi in Ponto ex adverso Coraxorum gentis
(vocant [iaOia Ponti) trecentis fere a continenti
stadiis inmensam altitudinem maris tradunt, vadis

* v.l. summam . . . aquam . . . profunda.

35°

BOOK II. ciii. 222-cv. 224

wide expanse of the sea, either because tlie sweet
and Hquid, which is easily attrticted by fiery force, is
drawn out of it, but all the harsher and denser
portion is left (this being wliy in a calm sea the water
at a depth is sweeter than that at the top, this being
the truer explanation of its harsh flavour, rather
than because the sea is the ceaseless perspiration of
the land), or because a great deal of warmth from
the dry is mixed with it, or because the nature of the
earth stains the waters as if they were drugged. One
instance is that when Dionysius the tyrant of Sicily
was expelled from that position, he encountered the
portent that on one day the sea-water in the harbour
became fresh water.

CIV. The moon on the contrary is said to be a Effects oj
feminine and soft star, and to disengage moisture """''' '^
at night and attract, not remove it. The proof
given for this is that the moon by her aspect melts
the bodies of wild animals that have been killed and
causes them to putrefy, and that when people are
fast asleep she recalls the torpor and collects it
into the head, and thaws ice, and unstiffens
everything with moistening breath : thus (it is said)
nature's alternations are held in balance, and there
is always a supply, some of the stars drawing the
elements toffether while others scatter them. But

o

the nutriment of the moon is stated to be contained
in bodies of fresh v.ater as that of the sun is in
seawater.

CV. According to the account of Fabianus, the Depthaf
deepest sea has a depth of nearly two miles. Others
report an immense depth of water (called the Black
Sea Deeps) off the coast of the Coraxi tribe on the
Black Sea, about 37 miles from land, where soundings

351

PLTNY: NATURAL HISTORY

numquam repertis. CVL Mirabilius id faciunt aquae
dulces iuxta mare ut fistulis emieantes. nam nec
aquarum natura miraculis cessat. dulces mari
invehuntur, leviores haut dubie. ideo et marinae,
quarum natura gravior, magis invecta sustinent.
quaedam vero et dulces inter se supermeant alias, ut
in Fucino lacu invectus amnis,i in Lario Addua, in
Verbanno Ticinus, in Benaco Mincius, in Sebinno
Ollius, in Lemanno Rhodanus, hic trans Alpes,
superiores in Italia, multoriun mihum transitu
hospitah suas tantum nec largiores quam intulere
aquas evehentes. proditum hoc et in Oronte amne

225 Syriae multisque aliis. quidam vero odio maris ipsa
subeunt vada, sicut Arethusa, fons Syracusanus in
quo redduntur iacta in Alpheum qui per Olympiam
fluens Peloponnesiaco htori infunditur. subeunt
terras rursusque redduntur Lycus in Asia, Erasinus
in Argohca, Tigris in Mesopotamia ; et quae in
Aesculapi fonte Athenis mersa sunt in Phalerico
redduntur. et in Atinate campo fluvius mersus post
XX miha passuum exit, et in Aquileiensi Timavus.

226 Nihil in Asphaltite ludaeae lacu qui bitumen gignit
mergi potest, nec in Armeniae maioris Aretissa ; is
quidem nitrosus pisces aht. in Salentino iuxta

* <Pitomus> amnis ea; XXXI. 41 Mayhoff.

BOOK II. cvi. 224-226

have never reached bottom. CVI. This is rendered
more remarkable by springs of fresh water bubbUng out
as if from pipes on the seashore. In fact the nature
of water also is not deficient in marvels. Patehes of
fresh water float on the sm-face of the sea, being
doubtless Hghter. Consequently also sea-water being Remarkabu
of a heavier natui-e gives more support to objects ^^"^^["^* "
floating upon it. But some fresh waters too float on
the surface of others ; cases are the river carried on
the surface of Lake Fucino, the Adde on the Lake of
Como, the Ticino on Maggiore, the Mincio on
Garda, the Olho on Lago dTseo, the Rhone on the
Lake of Geneva (the last north of the Alps, but all
the rest in Italy), after a passing visit that covers
many miles carrying out their own waters only and
no larger quantity than they introduced. This has
also been stated in the case of the river Orontes in
Syria and many others. But some rivers so hate the
sea that they actually flow underneath the bottom of
it, for instance the spring Arethusa at Syracuse, in
which things emerge that have been thrown into the
Alpheus which flows through Olympia and reaches the
coast in the Peloponnese. Instances of rivers that flow
under ground and come to the sm-face again are the
Lycus in Asia, the Erasinus in the ArgoUd and the
Tigris in Mesopotamia; and objects thrown into the
Spring of Aesculapius at Athens are given back again
in Phaleron Harbour. Also a river that goes under-
ground in the Plain of Atinas comes out 20 miles
further on, as also does the Timavus in the district
of Aquileia. In Lake Asphaltis in Judaea, which
produces bitumen, nothing can sink, and also in the
Aretissa in Greater Armenia ; the latter indeed is a
nitrous lake that supports fish. A lake near the town

353

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

oppidum Manduriam lacus ad margines plenus neque
exhaustis aquis minuitur neque infusis augetur.
in Ciconum flumine et in Piceno lacu Velino lignum
deiectum lapideo cortice obducitur, et in Surio
Colchidis flumine adeo ut lapidem plerumque durans
adhuc integat cortex. Simihter in flumine Silero ultra
Surrentum non virgulta modo inmersa verum et foHa
lapidescunt, alias salubri potu eius aquae. in exitu
paludis Reatinae saxiun crescit et in rubro mari
oleae virentesque frutices enascuntur.

227 Sed fontium plurimormn natura miro ^ est fervore,
idque etiam in iugis Alpium, ipsoque in mari, ut inter
Italiam et Aenariam in ^ Baiano sinu et in Liri flu\io
multisque aliis. nam dulcis haustus in mari plurimis
locis, ut ad Chelidonias insulas et Aradum et in
Gaditano oceano, Patavinorum aquis calidis herbae
virentes innascuntur, Pisanorum ranae, ad Vetulon-
ios in Etruria non procul a mari pisces. In Casinate
fluvius appellatur Scatebra, frigidus, abundantior
aestate ; in eo ut in Arcadiae ^ Stymphali nascuntur

228 aquatiles musculi. in Dodone lovis fons cum sit
gelidus et inmersas faces extinguat, si extinctae
admoveantur accendit. idem meridie semper deficit,
qua de causa avaTravofjievov vocant ; mox increscens
ad mediima noctis exuberat, ab eo rursus sensim
deficit. in Illyricis supra fontem frigidum expansae

^ Backham : mira. * Mayhoff : ut in aut et in.

^ v.l. Arcadia.

" In Thrace.

^ In the Sabine region from -which the people of Picenum
originally came, cf. III xviii.
• I.e. the petrified bark remains the surface of the log.

354

BOOK II. cvi. 226-228

of Manduria in the Salentine district is full to the
brim, and is not reduced when water is drawn out of
it nor increased when water is poured into it. In
the river of the Cicones " and in the Vehne Lake of
Picenum,'' wood thrown into the water gets covered
with a film of stone, and in the river Surius in Colchis
this goes so far that the stone in most cases is covered
with bark still lasting." Similarly in the Sele beyond
Sorrento not only twigs but also leaves immersed in
the river become petrified, though apart from this
its water is healthy to drink. Rock forms in the
outlet of the marsh at Rieti, and olive trees and
green bushes grow in the Red Sea.

But the nature of a great many springs is of re- Remarkabu
markably high temperature, and this is found even ■'P'"'"^**
on the ridges of the Alps, and actually in the sea,
for instance in the Gulf of Baiae between Italy and
the Island of Ischia, and in the river Garighano and
many others. In fact fresh water may be drawn
from the sea in a great many places, as at the Swallow
Islands and at Aradus and in the Gulf of Cadiz.
Green grass grows in the hot springs of Padua, frogs
in those of Pisa, fishes at Vetulonia in Tuscany near
the sea. A river in the district of Casino called the
Bubbhng Water is cold, and is fuller in summer;
water voles are born in it, as they are in the Stymphahs
of Arcadia. The Fountain of Jupiter at Dodona,
though it is cold and puts out torches dipped in it,
sets them ahght if they are bi-ought near to it when
they are out. The same spring always stops flowing
at noon, on account of which it is called the Wait-a-
bit ; later it rises again and towards midnight flows
abundantly, thereafter gradually ceasing again. A
cold spring in Illyria sets fire to clothes spread out

355

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

vestis accenduntur. lovis Hammonis stagnum inter-
diu frigidum noctibus fervet. in Trogodytis fons
Solis appellatur dulcis et circa meridiem maxime
frigidus ; mox paulatim tepescens ad noctis media

229 fervore et amaritudine infestatur. Padi fons mediis
diebus aesti^ds velut interquiescens semper aret. in
Tenedo insula fons semper a tertia noctis hora in
sextam ab aestivo solstitio exundat, et in Delo insula
Inopus fons eodem quo Nilus modo ac pariter cum
eo decrescit augeturve. contra Timavom amnem
insula parva in mari est cum fontibus calidis, qui
pariter cum aestu maris crescunt minuunturque. in
agro Pitinate trans Appenninum fluvius Novanus

230 omnibus solstitiis torrens bruma siccatur. in Falisco
omnis aqua pota candidos boves facit. in Boeotia
amnis Melas oves nigras, Cephisus ex eodem lacu
profluens albas, rursus nigras Peneus, rufasque iuxta
Ilium Xanthus, imde et nomen amni. in Ponto
fluvius Astaces inrigat campos in quibus pastae nigro
lacte equae gentem alunt. in Reatino fons Neminie
appellatus alio atque alio loco exoritur annonae
mutationem significans. Brundisi in portu fons
incorruptas semper ^ praestat aquas navigantibus.
LjTicestis aqua quae vocatur acidula vini modo
temulentos facit; item in Paphlagonia et in agro
Caleno.

231 Andro in insula, templo Liberi patris, fontem
nonis lanuariis semper vini sapore fluere ^ Mucianus

^ Brotier : in spira {aut om.) codd.
* vJ. saporem fundere.

" In Campania.

BOOK II. cvi. 228-231

above it. The swamp of Jupiter Ammon is cold by
day and hot at night. A spring in the Cave-dwellers'
territory ealled the Fountain of the Sun is sweet and
very cold at midday, but then gradually warming,
towards the middle of the night it becomes spoilt
owing to its heat and bitter taste. The source of
the Po always di-ies up at midday in summer as if
taking a siesta. A spring on the Island of Tenedos
after midsummer always overflows from 9 to 12 p.m. ;
and the spring Inopus on the island of Delos sinks
or rises in the same way as the Nile and at the same
times. On a small island in the sea at the mouth of
the river Timavus there are hot springs that grow
larger and smaller with the rise and fall of the tide.
In the Pitino district across the Apennines the river
Novanus is always hot at midsummer and dried up at
midwinter. In the district of Falerii all the water
makes oxen that drink it white. The Blackwater
in Boeotia makes sheep black, the Cephisus flowing
from the same lake makes them white, the Peneus
again makes them black, and the river Xanthus at
lUum red, which gives the river its name. Mares
pastured on the plains watered by the river Astaces
on the Black Sea suckle their foals with black milk.
The spring called Neminie in the district of Reate
rises now in one place and now in another, indicating
a change in the price of corn. A spring in the harbour
at Brindisi always suppUes pure water for mariners.
The sUghtly acid spring caUed Lyncestis makes men
tipsy, Uke wine ; the same occurs in Paphlagonia and
in the territory of Cales."

It is accredited by the Mucianus who was three
times consul that the water flowing from a spring
in the temple of Father Liber on the island of

357

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

ter consul credit ; dies ^ ©eoSocrta vocatur. iuxta
Nonacrim in Arcadia Styx nec odore differens nec
colore epota ilico necat ; item in Liberoso Taurorum
colle tres fontes sine remedio, sine dolore mortiferi.
in Carrinensi Hispaniae agro duo fontes iuxta fluunt,
alter omnia respuens, alter absorbens ; in eadem gente
alius aurei coloris omnes ostendit pisces, nihil extra

232 illam aquam differentes. in Comensi iuxta Larium
lacum fons largus horis singulis semper intumescit ac
residit. in Cydonea insula ante Lesbum fons calidus
vere tantum fluit. lacus Sannaus in Asia circa
nascente absinthio inficitur. Colophone in Apollinis
Clari specu lacuna est cuius potu mira redduntur
oracula, bibentium brevdore vita. amnes retro
fluere et nostra \-idit aetas Neronis principis supremis,
sicut in rebus eius retulimus.

233 lam omnes fontes aestate quam hieme gehdiores
esse quem falht ? sicut illa permira naturae opera :
aes ac plumbum in massa mergi, dilatatum fluitare,
eiusdemque ponderis aha sidere aha invehi ; onera
in aqua facihus moveri ; Scyrium lapidem quamvis
grandem innatare, eundemque comminutmn mergi ;
recentia cadavera ad vadum labi, intumescentia
attohi ; inania vasa haud facihus quam plena ex-

1 v.l. Aioff.
358

BOOK II. cvi. 231-233

Andros always has the flavour of Avine on January 5th :
the day is called God's Gift Day. To drink of the
Styx near Nonacris in Arcady causes death on the
spot, although the river is not pecuUar in smell or
colour ; similarly three springs on Mount Liberosus
in Taurica irremediably but painlessly cause death.
In the territory of Carrina in Spain there are two
adjacent springs of which one rejects all objects and
the other sucks them down ; another in the same
nation makes all the fish in it look of a golden colour,
although except when in that water there is nothing
pecuHar about them. In the district by the Lake
of Como a copious spring always swells up and sinks
back again every hour. A hot spring on the island
of Cydonea ofF Lesbos flows only in the springtime.
Lake Sannaus in Asia is dyed by the wormwood
springing up round it. In the cave of Apollo of
Claros at Colophon tliere is a pool a draught from
which causes marvellous oracular utterances to be
produced, though the hfe of the drinkers is shortened.
Even our generation has seen rivers flow backward at
Nero's last moments, as we have recorded in our
history of that Emperor.

Again everybody is aware that all springs are vnirenai
colder in summer than in winter, as well as of the fZiZs^^
foUowing miracles of nature : that bronze and lead
sink when in mass form, but float when flattened out
into sheets ; that among objects of the same v/eight
some float and others sink ; that heavy bodies are
more easily moved in water ; that stone from Scyros
in however large a mass floats, and the same stone
broken into small pieces sinks ; that bodies recently
dead sink to the bottom but rise when they begin to
swell ; that empty vessels cannot be drawn out of

359

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

trahi ; plu\ias salinis aquas utiliores esse quam
reliquas, nec fieri salem nisi admixtis dulcibus;

23 1 marinas tardius gelare, celerius accendi ; hieme mare
calidius esse, autumnale salsius ; omne oleo tranquil-
lari, et ob id urinantes ore spargere quoniam mitiget
naturam asperam lucemque deportet ; nives in alto
mari non cadere ; cum omnis aqua deorsum feratur,
exiHre fontes, atque etiam in Aetnae radicibus,
flagrantis in tantum ut quinquagena, centena milia
paijsuum harenas flammarum globo eructet. CVII.

235 (Namque et ignium, quod est naturae quartum ele-
mentum, reddamus aliqua miracula, sed primum
ex aquis,)

C\'III. In urbe Commagenes Samosata stagnum
est emittens limum (maltham vocant) flagrantem
cum quid attigit soHdi, adhaeret ; praeterea tactus
et sequitur fugientes. sic defendere muros oppug-
nante Lucullo, flagrabatque miles armis suis. aquis
etiam accenditur ; terra tantum restingui docuere
experimenta.

CIX. Similis est natura naphthae : ita appellatur
circa Babylonem et in Astacenis Parthiae profluens
bituminis Hquidi modo. hic magna cognatio
ignium, transiHuntque in eam protinus undecumque
visam. ita fertur a Medea paeHcem crematam,
postquam sacrificatura ad aras accesserat, corona
igne rapto.

" On the W. bank of the Euphratea.
* In the Mithradatic War, 74 b.c.

.^6o

BOOK 11. cvi. 233-cix. 235

the water more easily than full ones ; that rain water
is more useful than other water for salt-works, and
that fresh water has to be mixed with sea water for
the salt to be deposited ; that sea water freezes
more slowly, and boils more quickly ; that the sea
is warmer in winter and salter in autumn ; that all
sea water is made smooth by oil, and so divers
sprinkle oil from their mouth because it calms the
rough element and carries Hght down with them ; that
on the high sea no snow falls ; that though all water
travels downward, springs leap upwards, and springs
rise even at the roots of Etna, which is so hot that it
belches out sands in a ball of flame over a space of
50 to 100 miles at a time. CVII. (For we must also
report some marvels connected with fire, the fourth
element of nature,but first those arising from water.)

CVIII. In Samosata the capital of Commagene " ^{^'Jf "'
there is a marsh that produces an inflammable mud
called mineral pitch. When this touches an)i;hing
soUd it sticks to it ; also when people touch it, it
actually follows them as they try to get away from it.
By these means they defended the city walls when
attacked ^ by Lucullus : the troops kept getting burnt
by their own weapons. Water merely makes it burn
more fiercely ; experiments have sho^vn that it can
only be put out by earth.

CIX. Naphtha is of a similar nature — this is the Naphtha.
name of a substance that flows outhke Uquid bitumen
in the neighbourhood of Babylon and the parts of
Parthia near Astacus. Naphtha has a close affinity
with fire, which leaps to it at once Avhen it sees it in
any direction. This is how Medea in the legend
burnt her rival, whose wreath caught fire after she
had gone up to the altar to offer sacrifice.

361

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

236 CX. Verum in montium miraculis ardet Aetna
noctibus semper, tantoque aevo materiam ^ ignium
sufficit, nivalis hibernis temporibus egestumque
cinerem pruinis operiens. nec illo tantum natura
saevit exustionem terris denuntians. flagrat in
Phaselitis mons Chimaera, et quidem inmortali
diebus ac noctibus flamma. ignem eius accendi
aqua, extingui vero terra aut fimo ^ Cnidius Ctesias
tradit. eadem in Lycia Hephaesti montes taeda
flammante tacti flagrant, adeo ut lapides quoque
rivorum et harenae in ipsis aquis ardeant, ahturque
ignis ille pluviis. baculo si quis ex his accenso traxerit

237 sulcum, rivos ignium sequi narrant. flagrat in
Bactris Cophanti noctibus vertex, flagrat in Medis et
in Sittacene,^ confinio Persidis, Susis quidem ad
Turrim Albam quindecim caminis, maximo eorum et
interdiu. campus Babyloniae flagrat e * quadam
veluti piscina iugeri magnitudine ; item Aethiopum
iuxta Hesperium montem stellarum modo campi
noctu nitent. similiter in MegalopoHtanorum agro,
nam si intei-misit ille iucundus frondemque densi
supra se nemoris non adurens et iuxta gehdum fontem
semper ardens Nymphaei crater, dira Apolloniatis
suis portendit, ut Theopompus tradidit. augetur
imbribus egeritque bitumen temperandum fonte illo
ingustabili, et ahas omni bitumine dilutius. sed

238 quis haec miretur ? in medio mari Hiera et Lipara ^

^ Rackham : materia.

* Mayhoff : faeno.

' in Cissia gente (c/. Hdt. 6. 119) Detlcfsen.

* e add. Mayhoff.

* et Lipara add. Mayhoff coll. Strab. VI. p. 277.

" In Lycia. * Now Afghan Turkestan.

362

BOOK n. esL ijfb-i^

CX. But among mountain marvels—Etna always roimnu
glows at night, and supplies its fires with fuel sufficient '"""""»""
for a vast period, though in winter cloaked with snow
and covering its output of ashes with hoar frost.
Nor does nature's WTath employ Mount Etna only to
threaten the lands with conflagration. Mount
Chimaera in the countiy of Phaselis "■ is on fire, and
indeed burns with a flame that does not die by day
or night ; Ctesias of Cnidos states that water increases
its fire but earth or dung puts it out. Also the
Mountains of Hephaestus in Lycia flare up when
touched with a flaming torch, and so violently that
even the stones of the rivers and the sands actually
under water glow ; and rain only serves to feed this
fire. They say that if somebody hghts a stick at it
and draws a furrow with the stick, streams of fire
follow it. At Cophantium in Bactria ^ a coil of flame
blazes in the night, and the same in Media and in
Sittacene the frontier of Persia : indeed at the White
Tower at Susa it does so from fifteen smoke-holes,
from the largest in the daytime also. The Baby-
lonian Plain sends a blaze out of a sort of fishpool
an acre in extent ; also near Mount Hesperius in
Ethiopia the plains shine at night hke stars. Like-
wise in the territory of Megalopolis : for if that agree-
able Bowl of Nymphaeus, which does not scorch the
foHage of the thick wood above it and though near
a cold stream is always glowing hot, ceases to flow,
it portends horrors to its neighbours in the town of
Apollonia, as Theopompus has recorded. It is
augmented by rain, and sends forth asphalt to
mingle with that unappetizing stream, which even
without this is more hquid than ordinary asphalt.
But who would be surprised by these things ? During

2>^i

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

insulae Aeoliae iuxta Italiam cum ipso mari arsere *
per aliquot dies sociali bello, donec legatio senatus
piavit. maximo tamen ardet incendio TheoD
Ochema dictum Aethiopum iugum, torrentesqup
solis ardoribus flammas egerit.

Tot locis, tot incendiis rerum natura terras cremat

239 CXI. Praeterea cimi sit huius unius elementi ratio>
fecunda, seque ipsa pariat et minimis crescat a
scintillis, quid fore putandum est in tot rogis terrae?
quae est illa natura quae voracitatem in toto mundo
axidissimam sine damno sui pascit ? addantur his
sidera innumera ingensque sol, addantur humani
ignes et lapidum quoque insiti naturae attritique
inter se ligni, iam nubium et origines fulminum:
excedet profecto miracula omnia ullum diem fuisse
quo non cuncta conflagrarent, cmn specula quoque
concava adversa solis radiis facilius etiam accendant

240 quam ullus ahus ignis. quid quod innumerabiles
parvi sed naturales scatent? in Nymphaeo exit e
petra flamma quae pluviis accenditur ; exit et ad
aquas Scantias, haec quidem invalida, cum transit,
nec longe in aUa durans materia : viret aeterno hunc
fontem igneum contegens fraxinus ; exit in Mutinensi
agro statis Volcano diebus. reperitur apud auctores

^ v.l. insula Aeolia . . . arsit.

" Probably Mount Kakulima in West Africa (not Ethiopia)
is referred to.

* Or possibly * concave lenses.'

* In Latirnn. ■* In Campania.
« The Feast of Vulcan in August.

364

BOOK II. cx. 238-cxi. 240

the AUies' War Holy Island and Lipari among the
Aeolian Islands near Italy burnt in mid sea for
several days, as did the sea itself, till a deputation
from the senate performed a propitiatory ceremony.
Nevertheless the largest volcanic blaze is that of the
ridge in Ethiopia called the Gods' Carriage," which
discharges flames that glow with truly solar heat.

In so many places and by so many fires does
nature bm-n the countries of the earth.

CXI. Moreover, as this one element has a fertile Uai veis of
principle that engenders itself and grows out of the ^*"*'
smallest sparks, what must be expected to happen in
future among all these funeral pyres of the earth ?
What is the natural principle that pastures a most
voracious appetite on the whole world while itself
unimpaired ? Add thereto the innumerable stars
and the mighty sun, add the fires of man's making
and also those implanted in the nature of stone and
of timber rubbing against itself, and again the fire
of clouds, and the sources of thunderbolts — and
doubtless all marvels will be surpassed by the fact
that there has ever been a single day on which there
has not been a universal conflagration, when also
hoUow mirrors ^ facing the sun's rays set things ahght
more easily than any other fire. What of the
countless small but natural eruptions of fire ? In the
river Nymphaeus " a flame comes out of a rock that
is kindled by rain ; also one comes out at the
Scantian Springs,'* not a strong one, it is true, as it
passes away, and not lasting long on any substance
which it touches — an ash tree shading this fiery spring
is everlastingly green ; one comes out in the district of
Modena on the days appointed as sacred to Vulcan.*
It is found in the authorities that iu the fields lying

365

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

subiectis Ariciae arvis si carbo deciderit, ardere
terram, in agro Sabino et Sidicino unctum flagrare
lapidem, in Sallentino oppido Egnatia inposito ligno
in saxum quoddam ibi sacrum protinus flammam
existere, in Laciniae lunonis ara sub diu sita cinerem

241 inmobilem esse perflantibus undique procellis ; quin
et repentinos existere ignes et in aquis et in corpori-
bus, etiam humanis : Trasimenum lacum arsisse
totmn, Servio Tullio dormienti in pueritia ex capite
flammam emicuisse, L. Marcio in Hispania interemp-
tis Scipionibus contionanti et milites ad ultionem
exhortanti arsisse simih modo Valerius Antias
narrat. plura mox et distinctius ; nunc enim quadam
mixtm'a rerum omnium exhibentur miracula. verum
egressa mens intei-pretationem naturae festinat
legentium animos per totum orbem veluti manu
ducere.

242 CXII. Pars nostra terrarum, de qua memoro,
ambienti (ut dictum est) oceano velut innatans
longissime ab ortu ad occasima patet, hoc est ab
India ad Hercuh ^ columnas Gadibus sacratas
|LXXXV| LXVIII p., ut Artemidoro auctori placet,
ut vero Isidoro, |XCVIII| XVIII. Artemidorus
adicit amplius a Gadibus circuitu sacri promunturii
ad promunturium Artabrum, quo longissime frons

243 procurrat Hispaniae, DCCCXCD. Mensura currit
duphci via : a Gange amne ostioque eius quo se in
Eoum oceanimi effundit per Indiam Parthyenenque

^ Rackham : Herculis.

* In Campania.

* In the b.E. point of ItaXj.

* Capo della Colonna.

^ They fell in battie with tb* Carthaerimans 212 b.c.

366

BOOK II. cxi. 240-cxii. 243

under Arezzo if charcoal is dropped on the ground, the
earth is set on fire ; that in the Sabine and Sidicine
district " a stone flames up when oiled ; that in the
Sallentine town of Egnatia,'' if wood is put on a certain
sacred rock, a flame at once shoots up ; that ashes
on the altar of Juno at Lacinium,'' which stands in
the open air, remains motionless when stormy winds
sweep over it in every direction. Morcover, it is
recorded that sudden fires arise both in pools of water
and in bodies, even human bodies ; Valerius Antias
tells that the whole of Lake Trasimene once was on
fire ; that when Servius Tulhus was a boy a flame
flashed out from his head while he was aslcep ; and
that a similar flame burnt on Lucius Marcius in
Spain when he was making a speech after the death
of the Scipios <* and exhoi-ting the soldiers to revenge.
Later we shall give more instances, and more in
detail ; for at the present we are displaying a sort
of medley of marvels of all the elements. But
leaving the interpretation of nature our mind
hastens to lead the reader's attention by the hand on
a tour of the whole world.

CXII. Our own portion of the earth, which is my Dimensions
subject, swims as it were in the ocean by which, as we ^/['^lfted
have said, it is surrounded ; its longest extent is from eanh fr, m
East to West, i.e. from India to the Pillars con- '"^'"' *^'
secrated to Hercules at Cadiz, a distance of 8,568
miles according to Artemidorus, but 9,818 according
to Isidore. Artemidorus adds in addition from
Cadiz round Cape St. Vincent to Cape Finisterre the
longest projection of the coast of Spain, 890.y miles.
The measmement runs by a double route ; from the
river Ganges and its mouth where it flows into the
Eastern Ocean, through India and Parthyene to the

367

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

ad Myriandrum urbem Syriae in Issico sinu positam
|LII| XV, inde proxima navigatione Cyprum insulam,
ratara Lyciae, Rhodum, Astypalaeam in Carpathio
mari insulam, Taenarum Laconicae, Lilybaeum
Siciliae, Caralim Sardiniae |XXI| III, deinde Gades
|XII| L, quae mensura universa ab Eoo mari efficit

244 |LXXXV| LXVIII. alia via, quae certior, itinere
terreno maxime patet a Gange ad Euphraten
amnem |LI| LXIX, inde Cappadociae Mazaca
CCXLIV, inde per Phrygiam et ^ Cariam Ephesmn
CCCCXCIX, ab Epheso per Aegeum pelagus Delum
CC, Isthmum CCXII-D, inde terra et Alcyonio
mari et Corinthiaco sinu Patras Peloponnesi CII-D,
Leucadem LXXXVILD, Corcyram totidem, Acro-
ceraunia CXXXII-D, Brundisium LXXXVII-D,
Romam CCCLX, trans ^ Alpes usque ad Scin-
gomagum vicum DXVIII, per Galham ad Pyrenaeos
montes Ilhberim CCCCLVI, ad oceanum et Hispaniae
oram DCCCXXXII, traiectu Gades VILD, quae
mensura Artemidori ratione |LXXXIX| XCV efficit.

245 Latitudo autem terrae a meridiano situ ad septen-
triones dimidio fere minor ab Isidoro ^ colhgitur,
|LIV| LXII, quo palam fit quantum et hinc vapor
abstulerit et ilhnc rigor. neque enim id * deesse
terris arbitror aut non esse globi formam, sed in-
habitabiha utrimque inconperta esse. haec mensura
cm-rit a htore Aethiopici oceani, qua modo habitatur,
ad Meroen DCCV, inde Alexandi-iam |XII| 17,
Rhodum DLXXXIV, Cnidum LXXXVID, Coum

^ et add. Rackham. * trans add. Bachham.

368

BOOK II. cxii. 243-245

Syrian city of Myriandrus situated on the Gulf of
Scanderoou 5,215, from there by the shortest sea-route
to the Island of Cyprus, from Patara in Lycia to
Rhodes, to the island of Astypalaea in the Carpathian
Sea, to Taenarus in Laconia, Lilybaeum in Sicily,
CaraUs in Sardinia, 213, thence to Cadiz 1,250, the
total distance from the Eastern Sea making 8,568.
Another route, wliich is more certain, extends
mainly overland from the Ganges to the river
Euphrates 5,169, thence to Mazaca in Cappadocia
244, thence through Phrygia and Caria to Ephesus
499, from Ephesus across the Aegean Sea to Delos
200, to the Isthmus 202 1, thence by land and the
Alcyonian Sea and the Gulf of Corinth to Patras in
the Peloponnese 1025, to Leucas 87^, to Corfu
ditto, to Acroceraunia 82i, to Brindisi 87|, to
Rome 360, across the AIps to the village of Suze 518,
through France to the Pyrenees at Granada 456,
to the Ocean and the coast of Spain 832, across to
Cadiz 7^ — which figures by Artemidorus's calculation
make 8,995 miles.

But the breadth of the earth from the south point to andfrom
the north is calculated by Isidorus as less by about ^gli'}^^
one half, 5,462 miles, showing how much the heat has
abstracted on one side and the cold on the other.
As a matter of fact I do not think that there is this
reduction in the earth, or that it is not the shape of a
globe, but that the uninhabitable parts on either
side have not been explored. This measurement
runs from the coast of the Ethiopic Ocean, where
habitation just begins, to Meroe 705 miles, thence
to Alexandria, 1,250, Rhodes 584, Cnidus 86|, Cos 25,

' Mayhoff (ab add. RackJiam) : fere minoro.
* id add. Rackham.

369

FLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

%XV, Sair.iim C, Chium XClV, Mytilenen LXV,
Tenedurn XLIX, Sigeum promunturium XII-D,
os Pnnti CCCXILD, Carambin promunturiura
CCCL, os Maeotis CCCXII-D, ostium Tanais
CCLXV^I, qui cursus conpendiis maris brevior fieri

34d potest. |XXI| X ab ostio Tanais Nili Canopicum ^
diligentissimi auctores fecere. Artemidorus ulteriora
inconperta existimavit, cum circa Tanain Sarmatarum
gentes degere fateretur ad septentriones versus.
Isitlorus adiecit |XII| L usque ad Thylen, quae
coniectura di\inationis est. ego non minore quam
proxinie dicto spatio Sarmatarum fines nosci intellego.
et alioqui quantum esse debet quod innumerabiles
gentes subinde sedem mutantes capiat? unde
ulteriovem mensuram inhabitabihs plagae multo esse
maiorem arbitror ; nam et a Germania immensas
insulas non pridem conpertas cognitum habeo.

847 De longitudine ac latitudine haec sunt quae digna
memoratu putem. universum autem circuitum
Eratosthenes (in omnium quidem htterarum sub-
tilitate set ^ in hac utique praeter ceteros solers, quem
cunctis probari video) CCLII milium stadiorum
prodidit, quae mensura Romana conputatione efficit
trecentiens quindeciens centena milia passuum,
improbum ausum, verum ita subtih argumentatione
comprehensum ut pudeat non credere. Hipparchus

^ Sic Detlefsen: potest LXXIX. ab ostio Tanais nihil
modicum (immodicum MayJioff).
2 Mayhoff: et.

BOOK II. cxii. 245-247

Samos 100, Chios 94, Mitylene 65, Tenedos 49, Cape
Sigeum 12|, Bosphorus 312|, Cape Carambis 350,
mouth of Lake Maeotis 312 J, mouth of the Don
266, — a route that by cutting down the crossings
can be shortened. From the mouth of the Don
to the Canopic mouth of the Nile the most careful
authorities have made the distance 2,110 miles.
Artemidorus thought that the regions beyond had
not been explored, though admitting that the tribes
of the Sarmatae dwell round the Don to the north-
ward. Isidorus added 1,250 miles right on to Ihule,
which is a purely conjectural estimate. I under-
stand that the territory of the Sarmatae is known to
an extent not less than the limit just stated. And
from another aspect, how large is the space bound to
be that is large enough to hold innumerable races
that are continually migrating.'' This makes me
think that there is an uninhabitable region beyond
of much wider extent ; for I am informed that beyond
Germany also there are vast islands that were dis-
covered not long ago.

These are the facts that I consider worth recording Dimeihnni
in regard to the earth's length and breadth. Its /irenZ'."*'
total circumference was given by Eratosthenes (an
expert in every refinement of learning, but on this
point assuredly an outstanding authority — I notice
that he is universally accepted) as 252,000 stades,
a measurement that by Roman reckoning makes
31,500 miles — an audacious venture, but achieved
by such subtle reasoning that one is ashamed to be
sceptical.'' Hipparchus, who in his refutation of

" Modem authorities say that, whatever his result, the
method of Eratosthenes was sound. See Heath, Greek
Astronomy, pp. 109 ff.

VOL. I. N2

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

et in coarguendo eo et in reliqua omni diligentia
mirus, adicit stadiorum paulo minus XXVI.
248 Alia Dionysodoro fides (neque enim subtraham
exemplum vanitatis Graecae maximum). Melius
hic fuit geometricae scientia nobilis ; senecta diem
obiit in patria, funus duxere ei propinquae ad quas
pertinebat hereditas. hae cum secutis diebus iusta
peragerent, invenisse dicuntur in sepulcro epistulam
Dionysodori nomine ad superos scriptam : pei*venisse
eum a sepulcro ad infimam terram, esse eam stadior-
um XLII. Nec defuere geometrae qui interpretaren-
tur significare epistulam a medio terrarum orbe
missam quod deorsum ab summo longissimum esset
spatium et idem pilae medium. ex quo consecuta
computatio est circuitum esse CCLII stadiorum
pronuntiarentur.

CXIII. Harmonica ratio, quae cogit rerum
naturam sibi ipsam congruere, addit huic rationi
stadiormn XII, terramque XCVI partem totius
mundi facit.

• I.e. 6 X 42,000, the length of the radius, taking -n as 3.

37«

BOOK II. cxii. 247-cxiii. 248

Eratosthenes and also in all the rest of his researches
is remarkable, adds a little less than 26,000 stades.

Dionysodorus (for I will not withhold this outstand-
ing instance of Greek folly) has a different creed.
He belonged to Melos, and was a celebrated geo-
metrician ; his old age came to its term in his native
place ; his female relations who were his heirs
escorted his obsequies. It is said that while these
women on the following days were carrying out the
due rites they found in the tomb a letter signed with
his name and addressed to those on earth, which stated
that he had passed from liis tomb to the bottom of
the earth and that it was a distance of 42,000 stades.
Geometricians were forthcoming who construed this
to mean that the letter had been sent from the centre
of the earth's globe, which was the longest space
downward from the surface and was also the centre
of the sphere. From this the calculation followed
that led them to pronounce the circumference of the
globe to be 252,000 " stades.

CXIII. To this measurement the principle of
uniformity, which leads to the conclusion that the
nature of things is self-consistent, adds 12,000 stades,
making the earth the -^^ih part of the whole world.

373

IXDEX

Persons

References to the sections of the Preface (P) and, the Seeond Book CII>

Africaiuis, see Scipio
Alexander, II 168, 180 f., 185
Alvattes, Kiug of Lydia, 617-560 B.C.,

il 53
Anaxagoras, loDian philosopher, sao-

cessor of Anasimenes and friend of

Pericles, II 149 f.
Aiiaximauder, lonian philosopher,

successor of Thales, q.v., II 31, 187,

ls>l
Auaximenes, lonian philosopher, suc-

cessor of Anaximander, II 187
Autias, Q. Valerius, wrote, about 90

B.c, history of Rome in more than

70 books, II 24
Antiochus, king of Syria, 223-187 B.C.,

II 167
Antony, II 98
Apelles, coui-t paiuter to Philip and

Alexander, P 26
Apion, P 24

Aristotle II 91, 150, 220
Arteinidoras of Ephesus, geographer,

c. 100 B.O., II 242, 246
Asiuius Pollio, orator, poet, historian,

lailitary commander under Caesar

aud Octavius, P 31
Atlas, II 31
Autidius, Gnaeus, historian, praetor,

103 B C P 20
Augustus,''ll 24, 93, 98, 167, 178

Bibaculus, poet, 6. 103 B.C., parodied
by Horace, Sat. II v 41, P 24

Caelius Antipater, juriat and historian,

c. 120 B.C., II 169
Caesar, J., 11 93, 98

Oatiline, II 137

Oato, P 9, 30, 32

OatuIIus, P 41

Oicero, P 7, 9, 22

Oidenas, astronomer mentioned t»y

Strabo, II 39
Oimbri, II 148
Olaudius Oaesar, H 92, 99
Oleostratus, astronomer of Tenedos, c.

600 B.O., II 31
Congius, P 7
Corbulo, general under Olaudius and

Nero, II 181
Oornelius Nepos, II 169 f.
Orantor, Academic philosopher, fl. 300

B.O., P 22
Orassus, II 147
Otesias, contemporary of Xenophon,

physician at Persian court, wrote

history of Persia aud book on Iiidia,

both extant in abridgements by

Photius, II 236

Democritus, atomic philosopher of

Abdera, c. 460-361 B.c, II 14
Dicaearchus, philosopher, geograpber

and historian, pupil of Aj-istotle, II

162
Diodoms Siculus, lemp. Augustus,

author of a universal history, P 24
Dionysius the younger, tyraut of

Syracuse, expelled 356 B.O., II 222
Dionysodorus, II 248
Domitius Piso, P 17

Endymion, II 43
Epiciu-eans, P 28
Eratosthenes,

and savant,

375

INDEX

head of librarv at Alexandria, 276-

196 B.C. II 1S5, 2-17
Eadoxus, astronomer and physicist,

pupil of Plato, II 130
Eudoxus, navigator, II 169

Fabianus, philosopher and physicist,
temp. Tiberius, II 121, 224

Germanicus, npphew and adopted son

of Tiberius, II 96
Gracchus, Tiberius, tribune 187 B.C.,

PIO

Haimlbal, P 30

Hanno, Cartha^inian navigator, earlv

5th c. B.c, author of Periplus. II 169
Herennius, :il.. II 137
Herodotus, II 201
Himilco, Oarthaginian navigator, 5th

c. B.c, II 169
Hipparchus, astronomer, of Khodes

and Alexandria, fl. 150 B.C., II 53.

57, 95, 188
Homer, II 13, 119, 201
Homeromsistiges, P 28

Isidorus, geographical writer of early
empire, author of Srae/xot nap0LKoC,
II 246

Isis, Egyptian deity, II 37

Jnpiters, various, II 140

Livy, P 16

Lucilius, earlv Koman satirist, 148-
103 B.C., P 7

Manius Persius, P 7

Marcellus, consul 51 B.C., II 53

Marcia, II 138

Marius, II 148

Medea, II 235

Milo, political adventurer, killed in a

rising 48 B.C., II 147
Mucianus, II 231

Nechepsos, Egyptian astronomer, II 83

Nepos, see Comelius

Nero, II 92, 199

Nicias, II 64

Numa, second king of Rome, II 140

Onesicritus, Greek historian and geo-
grapher, II 183, 185

^.76

Orbona, ancient Italian goddess, babr-
killer, II 19

Panaetius, Stoic philosopher, friend of

Scipio Africanus, P 22
PauIIus, L. Aemilius, consul, con-

queror of Perseus, II 53
Perseus, last king of Macedonia, con-

quered by Rome 168 B.C, II 53
Petosiris, Egyptian astronomer, II 88
Pherecydes, theologian, 6th o. B.O., II

191
Philip, II 97
Philonides, II 181
Pindar, II 54

Piso, Lucius, historian, n 140
Plancus, L. Munatius, supporter of

Caesar and of Antony, P 31
Plato, P 22, II 205
Plautus, P 31
PoIIio, consul 40 B.C., patron of Virgil

(Ed. iv) and Horace iOdeslI i), P 31
Polyclitus of Argos, sculptor, h. B.O.

452-412, P 26
Porsina, Lars, Etruscan king, attacked

Eome at end of regal period, II 140
Posi Jonius, Stoic philosopher, pupil of

Panaetius, g.v., II 85
Pythagoras, II 37, 84, 191
Pytheas of Marseilles, navigator, temp,

Aristotle, explored North Sea, II

187, 217

Scaurus, M. Aemilius, consul 115 B.O.,

II 144
Scipio Asiaticus, consul 190 B.a,

defeated Antiochus, P 10
Scipio Africanus, Publius Comelius,

conqueror of Hannibai, P 30
Servius TuUius, sixth kiiig of Rome,

II 241
Seleucus I, king of Syria, 312-280 B.O-

II 167
Soranus, P 33

Sosigenes, astronomer, II 39
Stesichorus, Greek lyric poet, 632-553

B.C, II 54
Stoics, P 28

Sulla, dictator 82 B.C., II 144
Sulpicius Gallus, jurist and orato^

consul, 51 B.C., II 53, 83

Thales of Miletus, 638-546 B.c, earliest
Greek natural philosopher, II 53

INDEX

Theophrastus, Greek philosopher,
pupil of Plato and Aristotle, P 29

Theoi'ompu3 of Chios, historian and
rhetorician, 378-305 B.C., II 237

Tiberius, P 25, II 200

Titus, emperor, II 89

Tullus nostilius, third king of Eonie,
11 140

Typhon, legendary king, II 91

Valerius Soranns, literary frieud of

Cicero, P 33
Varro, M. Terentius, 116-28 B.C., en-

cyclopaedic writer, author of De Re

Rustica, De Lingua Latina, P 18, 24,

II 8
Vespasian, P 20, II 18, 57
Vettius Marcellus, II 199
Virgil, P 22

air, 102

astrology dcnied, 29
astronomy, 28, 82
augury, 24
aulon, 135

blood, rain of, 147
bricks, rain of, 147

' caelum,' 8
chance, 23
climates, 189
cloujs, 85
comets, 89 f.
compa.ss, points of, 119
complexion and latitude, 189
ronstellations, 64 f . ; where visible,
178 2.

day, various lengths of, 186 ff.
divinity of universe, 27
dogstar, 107

earth, 154 £f.; central, 11, 63, 176,
191 ff. ; dimensions of, 154, 242 ff. ;
products of, 207 ; shape of, 160 ff.,
171 ff. ; tremors, 195, 209, forecast,
196 ff.

earthquakes, 191 ff., 205 ff.

eclipses, 43, 47, 51, 53, 56, 98, 180

elements, four, 10

exploration, ocean, 167 fl.

tires, yoloamc, etc., 235 fE>

SUBJECTS
References are to the sections of Book It

flesh, rain of, 147
Fortune, 22

gnomon, 187

God, nature of, 14, 2«

hail, 152
heaven, 102
heliotrope, 109
Eyades, 106, 109

infinity, 1 fl.

inundations, 205

iron, rain of, 147

islands, emerging, 292 f. ; floating, 209

land, formation of new, 201 fl.
lightning, 112, 142 fl.

marshes, inflammable, 236

meteoric stones, 149 f.

meteors, 96 ff., 139, 149 f.

mile, Roman, see p. .'il4

milk, rain of, 147

mines, 158

monotheism, 13 fl.

moon, 11, 41 ff., 61, 58, 86, 109; tidal

influence of, 221
raountains, flery, 236 f.
' mundus,' 8
music of spheres, 6, 84

naphtha, 235
nature divine, 27
Dight, 48, 181

omens, 22

377

INDEX

pace (the Boman measure), see pp.

296, 314
petroleum, 235
planets, 12, 32 ff., 37, 58 £f., 66 fE..

72 ff., 82
polytheism criticized, 14 ff.
prester, 133
providence, 26

quarters of the world, 119

rain, 105

rain of blood, etc., 147
rainbow, 150
research, 117 f.

sea, area of, 73 flf. ; depth of, 221
Beasons, 122 ff., 183
shadows and seasons, 183
Sirius, 107
sky, armies in, 148
snow. 152

sprinps, hot, 227 ; medicinal, 20>' ;
remarkabie, 289 f,; volume of, 49
Btade, 86

stars, 68 ff., 78, 101: .
stones, properties of , 211
storms, 103, 112, 131, 142
8un, course of, 35, 81, 86 £f., 183 fl.;
divine, 13

thunder, 142 ff.
thunderbolts, 82, 135 S,
tides, 212 ff.
typhoon, 131 ffi.

volcanic fires, 235

water, 155; distribution of, 163 0.!

relative gravity of, 24 if.
weather seasoual, 122
whirlwind, 133
wind, 111, 114 ff., 119, 126
wool, rain of, 147
world, nature of, 1 II.

zodiac, 9, 32, 48, 66, 110
Eones, 173

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Edgar. 2 Vols. Litebaby Selections (Poetry). D. L.

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Pausanias : Descbiption of Gbeece. W. H. S. Jones. 5

Vols. and Companion Vol. arranged by R. E. Wycherlev.
Philo. 10 Vols. Vols. LV. F. H. Colson and Rev. G. H.

Whitaker ; Vols. VI-X. F. H. Colson ; General Index.

Rev. J. W. Earp.

Two Supplementary Vols. Translation only from an
Armenian Text. Ralph Marcus.
Philostbatus : Imagines : Callistbatus : Descbiptions.

A. Fairbanks.
Philostbatus : The Life of Apollonius of Tyana. F. C.

Conybeare. 2 Vols.
Philostbatus and Eunapius : LiATES OF the Sophists.

Wilmer Cave Wright.
Pindab. Sir J. E. Sandys.
Plato : Chabmides, Alcibiades, Hippabchus, The Lovebs,

Theages, Minos and Epinomis. W. R. M. Lamb.
Plato : Cbatylus, Pabmenides, Gbeateb Hippias, Lessem

HippiAS. H. N. Fowler.
Plato : Euthyphbo, Apology, Cbito, Phaedo, Phaedrus.

H. N. Fowler.
Plato : Laches, Pbotagobas. Meno, Euthydemus.

W. R. M. Lamb.
Plato : Laws. Rev. R. G. Bury. 2 Vols.
Plato : Lysis, Symposium, Gobgias. W. R. M. Lamb.
Plato : Republic. Paul Shorey. 2 Vols.
Plato : Statesman. Philebus. H. N. Fowler : Ion.

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THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY

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PoLTBius. W. R. Paton. 6 Vols.

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Ptolemt: Tetbabiblos. Cf. Manetho.
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Sextus Empibicus. Rev. R. G. Bury. 4 Vols.
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Theophhastus : Chahactees. J. M. Edmonds ; Hehodes,

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2 Vols.
Thucydides. C. F. Smith. 4 Vols.
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Xenophon : Hellenica, Anabasis, Apology, and Sympo-

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Xenophon : Memoeabilia and Oeconomicus. E. C. Mar-

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Xenophom : Schipta Minoea. E. C. Marchant

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