L I B R A R Y AUG - 6 1969 THE ONTARIO iNSTITUTE FOR STUDiES IN EDUCATiON THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY FOUNDED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D. EDITED BY tT. E. PAGE, C.H., LITT.D. fE. CAPPS, PH.D., LL.D. tW. H. D. ROUSE, litt.d. L. A. POST, L.H.D. E. H. WARMINGTOX, m.a., f.r.hist.soc. PLINY NATURAL HISTORY IV LIBRI XII-XVI PLINY NA TURAL HISTORY WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION IN TEN VOLUMES VOLUME IV LIBRI XII-XVI BY H. RACKHAM, M.A. FELLOW UF CHRIST'3 COLI.KCiE, CAMBRIDOB LONDON VVILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS MGMLX First printed 1945 Reprinted 1960 Printed in Great Britain CONTENTS PIQE INTRODUCTION V BOOK XII 1 BooK xm 97 BOOK XIV 185 BOOK XV 287 BooK XVI 385 INDEX OF PERSONS 553 The Editors annoimce with much regret the death of Mr. H. Rackham, whereby the Loeb Classical Library has lost one of its most helpful contributors. Mr. Rackham had completed his work on the galley- proofs of this volume, and was engaged in the revision of the page-proofs. The whole of the translation, except a few verbal changes, is his. INTRODUCTION Tiiis volume contains Books XII-XVI of Pliny's Naturalis Historia. Their subject is trees and vines. The detailed contents will be found in PHny's outhne of the work, which, with Hsts of the authorities used for each Book, forms the contents of Book I. For Books XII-XVI, see Volume I, pp. 65-80, of this edition. Book XII deals with trees — their various quaHties. Book XIII gives foreign trees and their use in supplying scent, fruit, paper and wood. Book XIV discusses vine-growing and varieties of wine. Book XV. OHves, oHve-oil and fruit-trees. Book XVI. Forest trees, their nature and varie- ties ; their value for timber and other commodities. Longevity of trees. Parasitic plants. PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY BOOK XII PLINII NATURALIS HISTORIAE LIBER XII I. Animalium omnium quae nosci potuere naturae generatim membratimque ita se habent. restat ut ^ — neque ipsa anima carentia, quandoquidem nihil sine ea vivit — terra edita aut ^ inde eruta dicantur ac nullum sileatur rerum naturae opus. Diu fuere occulta eius beneficia, summumque munus homini datum arbores silvaeque intellege- bantur. hinc primum ahmenta, harum fronde moUior specus, Hbro vestis ; etiamnunc gentes sic 2 degunt. quo magis ac magis admirari subit his a principiis caedi montes in marmora, vestes ad Seras ^ peti, unionem in Rubri maris profunda,* zmaragdum in imam tellurem ^ quaeri. ad hoc excogitata sunt aurium vulnera, nimirum quoniam parum erat mani- bus, collo, crinibus gestari nisi infoderentur etiam coi*pori. quamobrem sequi par est ordinem vitae et ^ V.l. restant. ^ Madvig : ut (et Mayhoff). ^ V.l. a Seribus. * V.l. profundo. ^ Rackham : ima tellure. PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY BOOK XII I. SucH are the generic and specific characteristics of all the animals about wliich it has been possible to obtain information. It remains to describe the things produced by the earth or dug up from it — these al^^o not being devoid of vital spirit, since nothing hves without it — and not to pass over in silence any of the works of nature. The riches of earth's bounty vvere for a lon^ time '^^^^^J , . , , , , 1 /• * 1 introdnctoTii hidden, and the trees and lorests were supposed to remarks. ' be the supreme gift bestowed by her on man. These first provided him with food, their fohage carpeted his cave and their bark served him for raiment ; there are still races which practise this mode of hfe. This inspires us with ever greater and greater wonder that starting from these beginnings man has come to quarry the mountains for marbles, to go as far as China for raiment, and to explore the depths of the Red Sea for the pearl and the bowels of the earth for the emerald. For this purpose has been devised the fashion of making wounds in the ears, because for- sooth it was not enough for jewels to be worn on the hands and neck and hair without making them even pierce through the body. Consequently it will be weh to follow the biological order and to speak PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY arbores ante alia dicere ac moribus primordia ingerere nostris. 3 II. Haec fuere nummum templa, priscoque ritu simplicia rura etiam nunc deo praecellentem arborem dicant; nec magis auro fulgentia atque ebore simu- lacra quam lucos et in iis silentia ipsa adoramus. arborum genera numinibus suis dicata perpetuo servantur, ut lovi aesculus, ApoUini laurus, Minervae olea, Veneri myrtus, Herculi populus ; quin et Silvanos Faunosque et dearum genera silvis ac sua 4 numina tamquam e caelo attributa credimus. arbores postea blandioribus fruge sucis hominem mitigavere : ex his recreans membra olei liquor viresque potus vini, tot denique sapores anni sponte venientes, et mensae, depugnetur licet earum causa ciun feris et pasti naufragorum coi-poribus pisces expetantur, 5 etiam nunc tamen secundae. mille praeterea sunt usus earum sine quis vita degi non possit. arbore sulcamus maria terrasque admovemus, arbore ex- aedificamus tecta; arborea et simulacra numinum fuere nondum pretio excogitato beluarum cadaver atque ut, a diis nato iure luxuriae, eodem ebore BOOK XII. I. 2-II. 5 of trees before earth's other products, and to bring forvvard origins for our customs. II. Once upon a time trees were the temples of the ^'•^<'« f«<^'?<* to cLcxttcs deities, and in conformity with primitive ritual simple country places even now dedicate a tree of exceptional height to a god ; nor do we pay greater worship to images shining with gold and ivory than to the forests and to the very silences that they contain. The different kinds of trees are kept pei-petually dedicated to their own divinities, for instance, the wdnter-oak to Jove, the bay to Apollo, the oHve to Minerva, the myrtle to Vemis, the poplar to Hercules ; nay, more, we also beheve that the Silvani and Fauns and various kinds of goddesses are as it were assigned to the forests from heaven and as their own special divinities. Subsequently it was the trees with juices more suc- usesof culent than corn that gave mellowness to man ; for ''''^^^' from trees are obtained oHve oil to refresh the limbs and draughts of wine to restore the strength, and in fine all the savours that come by the spontaneous generosity of the year, and the fruits that are even now served as a second course, in spite of the fact that battle must be waged with the wild beasts to obtain them and that fishes fattened on the corpses of shipwrecked mariners are in demand. Moreover, there are a thousand other uses for those trees which are indispensable for carrying on hfe. We use a tree to furrow the seas and to bring the lands nearer togethcr, we use a tree for building houses ; even the images of the deities were made from trees, before men had yet thought of paying a price for the corpses of huge animals, or arranged that inasmuch as the privilege of luxury had originated from the gods, we should behold the countenances of the deities PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY niiminum ora spectarentur et mensarum pedes. pro- dunt Alpibus coercitas ut ^ tum inexuperabili muni- mento Gallias hanc primum habuisse causam super- fundendi se Italiae, quod Helico ex Helvetiis civis earum fabrilem ob artem Romae commoratus ficum siccam et uvam oleique ac vini praemissa ^ remeans secum tulisset ; quapropter haec vel bello quaesisse venia sit. 0 III. Sed quis non iure miretur arborem umbrae gratia tantum ex alieno petitam orbe ? platanus haec est, in ^ mare lonium Diomedis insula tenus eiusdem tumuH gratia primum invecta, inde in SiciHam transgressa atque inter primas donata ItaUae, et iam ad Morinos usque pervecta ac tributarium etiam detinens solum, ut gentes vectigal et pro umbra 7 pendant. Dionysius prior Sicihae tyrannus Regium in urbem transtulit eas domus suae miraculum, ubi postea factum gymnasium ; nec potuisse in ampH- tudinem augescere aut aHas fuisse in ItaHa omni 8 ac Spaniam^ apud auctores invenitur. IV. Hoc actum circa captae urbis aetatem ; tantumque postea honoris increvit ut mero infuso enutriantur : conper- tum id maxime prodcsse radicibus, docuimusque etiam arbores vina potare ! 1 Mayhoff : et. ^ V.l. proraissa. ^ in add. Mayhqff. * Italia oiuni ac 8paniam W armington coll. Theophr. : Italia ac nominatim Hispania. " The vectigal solarium imposed on the provinces. * Spaniam ov Hispania (' Spain ') — so MSS. — is a mistrans- lation or misreading of Theophrastus' a-naviav (*rare ') Se koI iv Tfj 'IraAta Trdarj. " By theGauls, 390 b.o. 6 BOOK XII. II. 5-iv. 8 and the legs of our tables made of the same ivory. It is stated that the Gauls, imprisoned as they were by the Alps as by a then insuperable buhvark, first found a motive for overflowing into Italy from the circumstance that a GalHc citizen from Switzerland named HeUco, who had sojourned at Rome on account of his skill as an artificer, had brought with him when he came back some dried figs and grapes and some samples of oil and wine ; and consequently we may pardon them for having sought to obtain these things even by means of war. III. But who would not be justifiably surprised to Treesintro- hear that a tree has been procured from another cHme aiZad^e merely for the sake of shade ? This tree is the plane, vi^^ne. which was first imported into the lonian Sea as far as the island of San Domenico to plant over the tomb of Diomede, and which crossed from there to Sicily and was one of the first trees bestowed on Italy, and which has now travelled as far as Belgium and actually occupies soil that pays tribute "■ to Rome, so that the tribes have to pay rent even for shade. The elder Dionysius, the tyrant of Sicily, imported plane-trees to the city of Reggio as a marvel to adorn his palace, on the site where afterwards a gymnasium was built ; and it is found in the authorities that these trees were not able to grow to full size, and that in all Italy there were no others except the 'Spania.''' IV. This took place at about the period of the capture of Rome ; ' and so much honour has since accrued to plane-trees that their growth is encouraged by having wine poured on them, as it has been found that this is of the greatest benefit to the roots, and we have tauglit even trees to be wine- bibbers ! 7 PLINY: NATURAI. HISTORY 9 V. Celebratae sunt : ^ primum in ambulatione Academiae Athenis cubitorum xxxiii radice ramos antecedente ; nunc est clara in Lycia fontis gelidi socia amoenitate, itineri adposita domicilii modo, cava octoginta atque unius pedum specu, nemorosa vertice et se vastis protegens ramis arborum instar, agros longis obtinens umbris, ac ne quid desit speluncae imagini, saxea intus crepidinis corona muscosos complexa pumices, tam digna miraculo ut Licinius Mucianus ter consul et nuper provinciae eius legatus prodendum etiam posteris putaverit epulatum intra eam se cum duodevicensimo comite, large ipsa toros praebente frondis, ab omni alflatu securum, oblectante ^ imbrium per folia crepitu ^ laetiorem quam marmorum nitore, picturae varietate, laquearium auro, cubuisse 10 ineadem. aliud exemplum Gai principis in Veliterno rure mirati unius tabulata laxeque ramormn trabibus scamna patula, et in ea epulati, cum ipse pars esset umbrae, quindecim convivarum ac ministerii capace 11 triclinio, quam cenam appellavit ille nidum. est Gortynae in insula Creta iuxta fontem platanus una ^ Celebrata est Sillig. 2 Detlefsen (captantem Pintianus) : obstantem. * Detlefsen : crepitum. A reference to the emperor'8 great height and obesity. BOOK XII. V. 9- II V. Famous plane-trees are ; (1) one that grew in Faniovs the walks of the Academy at Athens, the roots ^f ?"'"^" '""*• which were 50 feet long and spread wider than the branches ; (2) at the present day there is a celebrated plane in Lycia, allied with the amenity of a cool spring ; it stands by the roadside Hke a dwelHng- house, with a hollow cavity inside it 81 feet across, forming with its summit a shady grove, and shielding itself with vast branches as big as trees and covering the fields with its long shadows, and so as to complete its resemblance to a grotto, embracing inside it mossy pumice-stones in a circular rim of rock — a tree so worthy to be deemed a marvel that Licinius Mucianus, who was three times consul and recently Heutenant- governor of the province, thought it worth handing down to posterity also that he had held a banquet with eighteen members of his retinue inside the tree, which itself provided couches of leafage on a bounte- ous scale, and that he had then gone to bed in the same tree, shielded from every breath of w4nd, and receiving more deHght from the agreeable sound of the rain dropping through the foHage than gleaming marble, painted decorations or gilded paneUing could have afforded. (3) Another instance is connected with the Emperor CaHgula, who on an estate at VeHetri was impressed by the flooring of a single plane- tree, and benches laid loosely on beams consisting of its branches, and held a banquet in the tree — ■ himself constituting a considerable portion of the shadow " — in a dining-room large enough to hold fifteen guests and the servants : this dining-room the emperor caHed his ' nest.' (4) There is a single plane-tree at the side of a spring at Gortyn in the island of Crete which is celebrated in records written PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY insignis utriusque linguae monimentis, numquam folia dimittens, statimque et Graeciae fabulositas superfuit lovem sub ea cum Europa concubuisse, ceu vero non alia eiusdem generis esset in Cypro ! sed ex ea primum in ipsa Creta, ut est natura hominum novitatis avida, platani satae regeneravere vitium, quandoquidem commendatio arboris eius non alia maior est quam soles aestate arcere, hieme admittere. 12 inde in Italiam quoque ac suburbana sua Claudio principe Marcelli Aesernini libertus sed qui se potentiae causa Caesaris Ubertis adoptasset, spado ThessaHcus praedives, ut merito dici posset is quoque Dionysius, transtulit id genus. durantque et in Italia portenta terrarum praeter illa scilicet quae ipsa excogitavit Italia. 13 VI. Namque et chamaeplatani vocantur coactae brevitatis, quoniam arborum etiam abortus inveni- mus ; hoc quoque ergo in genere piunihonum infeU- citas dicta erit. fit autem et serendi genere et recidendi. primus G. Matius cx equestri ordine, divi Augusti amicus, invenit nemora tonsilia intra hos Lxxx annos. 14 VII. Peregrinae et cerasi Persicaeque et omnes quarum Graeca nomina aut aUena ; sed quae ex iis " I.e. lack of the natural property of losing its foliage in winter. BOOK XII. V. ii-vii. 14 both in CTreek and Latin, as never shedding its leaves ; and a typical Greek story about it has come down from early times, to the effect that underneath it Jupiter lay with Europa — ^just as if really there were not another tree of the same species in the island of Cyprus ! Shps from this tree, however, planted first in Crete itself — so eager is human nature for a novelty — reproduced the defect 1 ^ for defect it was, because the plane has no greater recommendation than its property of warding off the sun in summer and ad- mitting it in winter. During the principate of Claudius an extremely wealthy Thessahan eunuch, who was a freedman of Marcclkis Aeserninus but had for the sake of obtaining power got himself enrolled among the freedmen of the emperor, imported this variety of plane-tree from Crete into Italy and introduced it at his country estate near Rome — so that he deserves to be called another Dionysius ! And these monstrosities from abroad still last on in Italy also, in addition, that is, to those which Italy has devised for herself. VI. For there is also the variety called the ground- Th^dwarf- plane, stunted in height — since we have discovered ^ "^' the art of producing abortions even in trees, and consequently even in the tree class we shall have to speak of the unhappy subject of dwarfs. The ground-plane is produced by a method of planting and of lopping. CHpped arbours were invented within the last 80 years by a member of the Equestrian order named Gaius Matius, a friend of his late Majesty Augustus. \TI. The cherry and the peach and all the trees with Greek or foreign names are also exotic ; but those among them which have been naturaHzed here II PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY incolarum numero esse coepere dicentur inter frugi- feras. in praesentia extemas persequemur a salutari maxime orsi. 15 Malus Assyria, quam alii Medicam vocant, venenis medetur. folium eius est unedonis intercurrentibus spinis. pomum ipsum alias non manditur, odore praecellit foliorum quoque, qui transit in vestes una conditas ^ arcetque animalium noxia. arbor ipsa omnibus horis pomifera est, aliis cadentibus, aliis 16 maturescentibus, aliis vero subnascentibus. tempta- vere gentes transferre ad sese propter remedii praestantiam fictilibus in vasis, dato per cavernas radicibus spiramcnto (qualiter omnia transitura longius seri artissime transferrique meminisse con- veniet, ut semel quaeque dicantur) ; sed nisi apud Medos et in Perside nasci noluit. hoc est cuius grana Parthorum proceres incoquere diximus escu- lentis commendandi halitus gratia. nec aUa arbor laudatur in Medis. 17 VIII. Lanigeras Serum in mentione gentis eius narravimus, item Indiae arborum magnitudinem. unam e peculiaribus Indiae Vergihus celebravit hebenum, nusquam ahbi nasci professus. Herodotus eam Aethiopiae intellcgi maluit, in tributi vicem ^ Detlefsen : conditiis. » GeorgksU. 116 f. * Herodotus says 200 logs, III. 97. The term ' ebony ' was and still is applied to many difiFerent hard woods imported into European countries. 12 BOOK XII. VII. 14-V111. 17 will be specified among the fruit-trees. For the present we will go through the real exotics, beginning with the one most valuable for health. The citron or Assyrian apple, called by others the ThecUron. Median apple, is an antidote against poisons. It has the leaves of the strawberry-tree, but with prickles running among them. For the rest, the actual fruit is not eaten, but it has an exceptionally strong scent, which belongs also to the leaves, and which pene- trates garments stored with them and keeps off injurious insects. The tree itself bears fruit at all seasons, some of the apples faUing while others are ripening and others just forming. Because of its great medieinal value various nations have tried to acchmatize it in their own countries, importing it in earthenware pots provided with breathing holes for the roots (and similarly, as it will be convenient to record here so that each of my points may be men- tioned only once, all plants that are to travel a specially long distance are planted as tightly as possible for transport) ; but it has refused to grow except in Media and Persia. It is this fruit the pips of which, as we have mentioned, the Parthian xii. 278. grandees have cooked with their viands for the sake of sweetening their breath. And among the Medes no other tree is highly commended. VIII. We have already described the wool-bearing vi. 54. trees of the Chinese in making mention of that race, and we have spoken of the large size of the trees in vii. 21. India. One of those pecuhar to India, the ebony, is hidian spoken of in glowing terms by Virgil,<* who states that '^J^^^*^ it does not grow in any other country. Herodotus,'' however, prefers it to be ascribed to Ethiopia, stating that the Ethiopians used to pay as tribute to the 13 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY regibus Persidis e materia eius centenas phalangas tertio quoque anno pensitasse Aethiopas cum auro et 18 ebore prodendo. non omittendum id quoque, vice- nos dentes elephantorum grandes, quoniam ita signi- ficavit, Aethiopas ea de causa pendere soHtos. tanta ebori auctoritas erat urbis nostrae cccx anno : tunc enim auctor ille historiam eam condidit Thuriis in Italia, quo magis mirum est quod eidem credimus, qui Padum amnem vidisset neminem ad id tempus Asiae Graeciaeque visum. cognita ^ Aethiopiae 19 forma, ut diximus, nuper allata Neroni principi raram arborem Meroen usque a Syene fine imperii per DCcccLxxxxvi p. nuUamque nisi palmarum generis esse docuit. ideo fortassis in tributi auctoritate tertia res fuerit hebenus. 20 IX. Romae eam Magnus Pompeius triumpho Mithridatico ostendit. accendi Fabianus negat, uri ^ tamen odore iucundo. duo genera eius : rarum id quod mehus, arboreum, tereti ^ et enodi materie * nigri splendoris ac vel sine arte protinus iucundi, alterum fruticosum cytisi modo et tota India dis- persum. 21 X. Est ibi et spina simihs sed deprehensa vel lucernis igni protinus transihente. ^ V.l. visu {aut ut sibi, aut aut sibi) cognitum. 2 Rackham : uritur. ^ Detlefsen : iure (purae Madvig). * V.l. enodis raateriae. " 446 B.c. ; but Thurii, where Herodotus settled to escape from political disorders at Halicarnassus, his native city, was not colonized by Greek settlers till 443 b.c. * I.e., apparently, a thin sheet of this wood is transhicent. 14 BOOK XII. VIII. 17-X. 21 Kings of Persia every three years a hundred logs of ebony, together with gold and ivory. Nor also should we omit the fact, since that author indicates it, that the Ethiopians used to pay twenty large elephant tusks on the same account. So high was the esteem in which ivory was held in the 310th year " of our city, the date at which that author composed his history at Thurii in Italy ; which makes all the more surprising the statement which we accept Hdt.iii.ii5. on his authority, that nobody of Asia or Greece had hitherto been seen who had evcr seen the river Po. The exploration of the geography of Ethiopia, which as we have said had Tately been reported to thevi. isi. Emperor Nero, showed that over a space of 1,996 miles from Syene on the frontier of the empire to Meroe trees are rare, and there are none except of the palm species. That is possibly the reason why ebony was the third most important item in the tribute paid. IX. Ebony was exhibited at Rome by Pompey the varieties of Great on the occasion of his triumph over Mithridates. ^^»"i'- According to Fabius ebony does not give out a flame, yet burns with an agreeable scent. It is of two kinds : the better one, which grows as a tree, is rare — it is of a smooth substance and free from knots, and of a shiny black colour that is pleasing to the eye even in the natural state without the aid of art ; whereas the other grows as a shrub hke the cytisus, and is spread over the whole of India. X. In India there is also a thorn the wood of The indian which resembles ebony, but can be detected even '^*^'""- by the flame of a lantern, as the hght at once shines through.* 15 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY Nimc eas exponemus quas mirata est Alexandri Magiii victoria orbe eo patefacto. 22 XI. Ficus ibi eximia pomo, se ipsa semper serens, vastis diffunditur ramis quorum imi in terram adeo curvantur ut annuo spatio infigantur novamque sibi propaginem faciant circa parentem in orbem quodam opere topiario. intra saepem eam aestivant pastores opacam pariter et munitam vallo arboris, decora specie subter intuenti proculve fornicato ambitu. 23 superiores eiusdem rami in excelsum emicant silvosa multitudine vasto matris corpore, ut lx ^ passus pleraeque orbe colligant, umbra vero bina stadia operiant. foliorum latitudo peltae effigiem Amazoni- cae habet; ea causa fructum integens crescere prohibet, rarusque est ^ nec fabae magnitudinem excedens, sed per folia soUbus coctus praedulcis sapore et dignus miraculo arboris. gignitur circa Acesinen maxime amnem. 24 XII. Maioreahapomoetsuavitatepraecellentiore,^ quo sapientes Indorum vivunt. foHum alas avium imltatur longitudine trium cubitorum, latitudine duum. fructum cortice emittit* admirabilem suci dulcedine, ut uno quaternos satiet. arbori nomen 1 XL? Mayhoff. 2 est add. edd. : rarus is parvusque ? Mayhoff. ^ Rackham {vel qua pro quo) : Major . . . praecellentior. * Gelenius : mittit. " I.e. the banyan. i6 BOOK XII. X. 2I-XII. 24 We will now describe the trees that aroused the wonder ol" the victorious expedition of Alexander the Great when that part of the world was first revealed. XI. The Indian fig-tree " bears exceptionally fine The indian fruit, and it is self-propagating, as it spreads its ^" "2"'"- branches to an enormous width and the bottom ones bend down to the earth so heavily that in a year's time they take root, and produce for themselves a fresh offspring planted in a circle round the parent tree hke the work of an ornamental gardener. In- side this bower the shepherds dwell in summer, as it is at once shaded and protected by the fence of the tree — a very attractive sight when looked at from below or from a distance, with its vaulted dome. Its higher branches, however, shoot upward to a great height from the main bulk of the mother tree, forming an extensive grove, so as in many cases to enclose a circle sixty yards across, while they cover with their shade a space of a quarter of a mile. The broad leaves have the shape of an Amazon's shield; consequently they cover over the fruit and prevent it from growing, and it is scanty and not larger in size than a bean ; but as it is ripened by the rays of the sun shining through the fohage it has an extremely sweet tastc, and is worthy of the marvellous tree that produces it. This fig grows mostly in the neighbour- hood of the river Chenaub, XII. There is another fig the fruit of which is larger ^^* banana. and superior in flavour ; the sages of India live on it. The leaf of this tree resembles birds' wings, and is a yard and a half long and a yard broad. The fruit grows out of the bark, and is remarkable for the sweetness of its juice ; one bunch is enough for four PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY palae, pomo arienae. plurima est in Sydracis, expeditionum Alexandri termino. est et alia similis huic, dulcior pomo, sed interaneorum valetudini infesta; edixerat Alexander ne quis agminis sui id pomum attingeret. 25 XIII. Genera arborum Macedones narravere maiore ex parte sine nominibus. est et terebintho simiUs cetera, pomo amygdaUs, minore tantum magni- tudine, praecipuae suavitatis, in Bactris utique. hanc aliqui tcrebinthon esse proprii generis potius quam similem ei putaverunt. sed unde vestes Uneas faciunt foUis moro simiUs, calyce pomi cynorrhodo. serunt eam in campis, nec est gratior uUarum ^ prospectus. 26 XIV. OUva Indiae steriUs praeterquam oleastri fructus. passim vero quae piper gignunt iuniperis nostris similes, quamquam in fronte Caucasi soUbus opposita gigni tantum eas aUqui tradidere. semina a iunipero distant parvuUs siUquis, quales in phasioUs videmus ; hae priusquam dehiscant decerptae tostae- que sole faciunt quod vocatur piper longum, paula- tim vero dehiscentes maturitate ostendunt candidum piper, quod deinde tostum soUbus colore rugisque 27 mutatur. verum et his sua iniuria est, atque caeU ^ V.l. villarum, Pintianus vinearum. " The banana. * Perhaps the cotton-tree ; see also §§ 38-39. ' The name here denotes the Hindu Kuah. i8 BOOK XII. XII. 24-xiv. 27 people. The tree is called the pala," and the fruit ariena, It is most frequent in the territory of the Sydraci, which was the farthest point reached by the expeditions of Alexander. There is also another tree resembHng this one, the fruit of which is sweeter, but causes derangement of the bowels. Alexander issued an order in advance forbidding any member of his expedition to touch it. XIII. The Macedonians have given accounts of kinds of trees that for the most part have no names. There is also one that resembles the terebinth in every other respect but the fruit of which is like an ahnond, though smaller, and is remarkably sweet. at all events when grown in Bactria. This tree has been considered by some persons to be a special kind of terebinth rather than another plant resembUng it. The tree^ frorn which they make Hnen for clothing Theflax-tree resembles a mulberry by its leaves, but the calyx of the fruit is Hke that of a dog-rose. It is grown in the plains, and no other plantations add more to the beauty of the landscape, XIV. The oHve-tree of India is barren, except for The the fruit of the wild oHve. But trees resembHng p'pp^-^'''- our junipers that bear pepper occur everywhere, althougii some writers have reported that they only grow on the southern face of the Caucasus.^ The seeds differ from those of the juniper by being in smaH pods, Hke those which we see in the case of the kidney-bean ; these pods when plucked before they open and dried in the sun produce wliat is caUed ' long pepper,' but if left to open gradually, when ripe they disclose white pepper, which if afterwards dried in the sun changes colour and wrinkles up. Even these products, however, have their own special 19 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY intemperie carbuneulant fiuntque semina cassa et inania, quod vocant bregma, sic Indorum lingua significante mortuum. hoc ex omni genere asperri- mum est levissimumque et pallidum. gratius nigrum, lenius utroque candidum. 28 Non est huius arboris radix, ut ahqui existimavere, quod vocant zingiberi, aUi vero zinpiberi, quamquam sapore simile. id enim in Arabia atque Trogodytica in villis ^ nascitur parva herba ^ : radice candida. celeri- ter ea cariem sentit, quamvis in tanta amaritudine. pretium eius in Ubras X vi. piper longum faciUime adulteratur Alexandrino sinapi. emitur in Ubras X 29 XV, album X vii, nigrum X iiii. Usum eius adeo placuisse mirum est : in aUis quippe. suavitas cepit, in aUis species invitavit, huic nec pomi nec bacae commendatio est aUqua. sola placere amaritudine, et hanc in Indos peti ! quis iUe primus experiri cibis voluit aut cui in appetendi aviditate esurire non fuit satis ? utrumque silvestre gentibus suis est et tamen pondere emitur ut aurum vel argentum. piperis arborem iam et ItaUa habet maiorem myrto nec absimilem. amaritudo grano eadem quae piperi murteo ^ crcdatur esse : deest tosto * iUa matm*itas * vilius Salmasius, in silvis ? Mayhoff. ^ V .1. parvae herbae. ^ Dellefsen coll. xv 118 : musteo. * liackham : tosta. « This was not the case, bot much was imported by way of Arabia and Trogodytica, i.e. N.E. Africa. 20 BOOK XII. XIV. 27 29 infirmity, and inclement weather shrivels them up and turns the seeds into barren husks, called bregma, which is an Indian word meaning ' dead.' Of all kinds of pepper this is the most pungent and the lightest, and it is pale in colour. Black pepper is more agreeable, but white pepper is of a milder flavour than either the black or the ' long ' pepper. The root of the pepper-tree is not, as some people Ginger. have thought, the same as the substance called ginger, or by others zinpiberi, although it has a similar flavour. Ginger is grown on farms in Arabia and Cave-dwellers' Coimtry" ; it is a small plant with a white root. The piant is hable to decay very quickly, in spite of its extreme pungcncy. Its price is six denarii a pound. It is easy to adulterate long pepper with Alexandrian mustard. Long pepper is sold at 15 denarii a pound, white pepper at 7. and black at 4. It is remarkable that the use of pepper has come so much into favour, as in the case of some commodities their sweet taste has been an attraction, and in others their appearance, but pepper has nothing to recommend it in either fruit or berry. To think that its only pleasing quahty is pungency and that we go all the way to India to get this ! Who was the first person who was wilHng to try it on his viands, or in his greed for an appetite was not content mercly to be hungry ? Both pepper and ginger grow wild in their own countries, and nevertheless they are bought by weight like gold or silver. Italy also now possesses a pepper-tree that grows larger than a myrtle, which it somewhat resembles. Its grains have the same pungency as that beheved to belong to myrtle-pepper, but when dried it lacks the ripeness that the other has, and consequently has not the same 21 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY ideoque et rugarum colorisque similitudo. adultera- tur iuniperi bacis mire vim trahentibus, in pondere quidem multis modis. 30 XV. Est etiamnum in India piperis grani ^ simile quod vocatur caryophyllon, grandius fragihusque ; tradunt in Indica loto id gigni ; advehitur odoris gratia. fert et spina ^ piperis similitudinem praecipua amaritudine, foUis parvis densisque cypri modo, ramis trium cubitorum, cortice paUido, radice lata lignosaque buxei coloris. hac in aqua cum semine excocta in aereo vase medicamentum fit quod vocatur 31 lycion. ea spina et in PeUo monte nascitur aduUerat- que medicamentum, item asphodeU radix aut fel bubulum aut absinthium, vel rhus vel amurca. aptissimum medicinae quod est spumosum ; Indi in utribus camelorum aut rhinocerotum id mittunt. spinam ipsam in Graecia quidam pyxacanthum Chironium vocant. 32 XVI. Et macir ex India advehitur, cortex rubens radicis magnae, nomine arboris suae ; quaUs sit ea inconpertum habeo. corticis meUe decocti usus in medicina ad dysintericos praecipuus habetur. XVII. Saccharon et Arabia fert, sed laudatius India. est autem mel in harundinibus coUectum, cummium modo candidum, dentibus fragile, amplis- simum nucis abeUanae magnitudine, ad medicinae tantum usum. * V.l. granis. ' V.I. in spinis. " The Evgenia caryojihyllata of modcrn botany. ^ Thie Laivsonia inermis. " I.e. the juice from the root, stem and berries of several species of Raisin-barberry. ^ Probably ' Tellicherry bark,' from Holarrhena anti- dysenterica. 22 BOOK XII. XIV. 29-xvii. 32 wrinkles and colouring cither. Pcpper is adulterated with junipcr berries, vvhicli absorb its pungency in a remarkable manner, and in the matter of vveight there are several vvays of adulterating it. XV. There is also in India a grain resembUng that of oiher indian pepi')er, but larger and more brittle, called the caryo- '^^"' phyllon,'' vvhich is reported to grow on the Indian lotus-tree ; it is imported here for the sake of its scent. There is also a thorn-bush bearing an ex- tremely bitter fruit that has a resemblance to pepper ; this shrub has small thickly clustering leaves Hke the cyprus^; the branches are 4 J feet long,the bark of a pale colour, and the root vvide-spreading and vvoody, of the coiour of box. This root boiled in vvater vvith the seed in a copper vessel produces the medicinc called lycion. The thorn in question also grovvs on Mount PeHon, vvhere it is used for mixing vvith a drug, as also are the root of the asphodel, ox-gall, wormvvood, sumach and the lees of oHve oil. The best lycion for medicinal purposes is the kind that makes a froth ; this <" is imported from India in leather bottles made of camel skin or rhinoceros hide. The shrub itself is sometimes knovvn in Greece under the name of Chiron's buckthorn. XVI. Another substance imported from India \s indianbaTk. macir, the red bark ^ of the large root of a tree of the same name, which I have been unable to idcntify. This bark boilcd with honey is considered in medicine to be a valuabie specific for dysentery. XVII. Arabia also produces tabaschir, but that ' ^ugar: grovvn in India is more esteemed. It is a kind of honey that collects in reeds, vvhite like gum, and brittle to the teeth; the largest pieces are the size of a filbert. It is only employed as a medicine. PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 33 XVII L Contermina Indis gens Ariana appellatur, cui spina lacrima pretiosa murrae simili, difficili accessu propter aculeos adnexos. ibi et frutex 34 pestilens . . .^ raphani folio lauri, odore equos invitans, qui paene equitatu orbavit Alexandrum primo introitu. quod et in Gedrosis accidit item laureo folio ; et ibi spina tradita est cuius liquor adspersus oculis caecitatem inferret omnibus anima- libus. nec non et herba praecipui odoris referta minutis serpentibus quarum ictu protinus mori- endum esset. Onesicritus tradit in Hyrcaniae convaUibus fico similes esse arbores quae vocentur occhi, ex quibus defluat mel horis matutinis duabus. 35 XIX. Vicina est Bactriana, in qua bdelhum lauda- tissimum. arbor est nigra magnitudine oleae, folio roboris, fructu caprifici : ipsi natura quae cummi, aUi brochon appellant, aUi malacham, aUi maldacon, nigrimi vero et in offas convolutum hadrobolon. esse autem debet tralucidae simile cerae, odoratum et, cum frietur, pingue, gustu amarum citra acorem. in sacris vino perfusum odoratius. nascitur et in Arabia Indiaque et Media ac Babylone. ahqui peraticum vocant ex Media advectum ; fragihus hoc 36 et crustosius amariusque, at Indiciun umidius et ^ Lacunam lan : {magnitudinem non excedens) ? coll. § 23 Mayhoff. ° Perhaps the text is to be emended: 'a poisonous plant not larger than a radish.' ^ A resinous gum obtained from Balsamodendron Mukiil, a kind of myrrh ; for another view cf. Vol. VII, Index of Plants. 24 BOOK XII. XVIII. ^:^ \i\. 36 XVIII. On the frontier of India is a race called the Treexof Arian, which has a thorn-bush that is valuable for the ^adj^mtto juice that it distils, resembling myrrh. It is difficult fndia. to get at this bush because it is hedged with thorns. In the same district there is also a poisonous bush- radish," with the leaf of a bay-tree, the smell of which attracts horses, and nearly robbed Alexander of his cavalry when he first cntered the region. This also happened in Gedrosia as well, on account of the foHage of the bay-trees ; and in the same district a thorn was reported the juice of which sprinkled on the eyes caused bhndness in all animals. There was also a plant with a very strong scent, that was full of tiny snakes whose bite was instantly fatal. Onesicritus reports that in the valleys of Hyrcania there are trees resembHng the fig, named occhus- trees, which for two hours every morning drip honey. XIX. Adjoining India is the Bactrian country, in Treex of which is produced the highly esteemed bdellium.* actnam. The tree is black in colour, and the size of the ohve ; its leaf resembles that of the oak and its fruit that of the wild fig. The subsistence of the fruit is Hke gum ; one name for it is brochos, another malacha, and another maldacos, while a black variety which is rolled up into cakes has the name of hadrobolos. It ought to be transparent Hke wax, to have a scent, to exude grease when crumbled, and to have a bitter taste, though without acidity. When used in reHgious ritual it is steeped in wine, which makes its scent more powerful. This tree is native to Arabia and India, and also to Media and Babylon. Some people give to the bdeUium imported from Media the name of peraticum ; this kind is more^^brittle and also harder and more bitter than the others, whereas the Indian voL. IV. T, 25 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY cumminosum. adulteratur amygdala nuce, cetera eius genera cortice et scordasti — ita vocatur arbor aemulo cummi. sed deprehenduntur — quod semel dixisse et in ceteros odores satis sit — odore, colore, pondere, gustu, igne. Bactrio nitor siccus multique candidi ungues, praeterea suum pondus quo gravius esse aut levius non debeat. pretium sincero in libras X iii. 37 XX. Gentes supra dictas Persis attingit. Rubro mari, quod ibi Persicum sinum ^ vocavimus, longe in terram aestus agente mira arborum natura : namque erosae sale, invectis derelictisque similes, sicco litore radicibus nudis polyporum modo amplexae steriles harenas spectantur. eaedem mari adveniente flucti- bus pulsatae resistunt immobiles ; quin et pleno aestu operiunturtotae, adparetque rerum argumentis asperitate aquarum illas ali. magnitudo miranda est, species similis unedoni, pomum amygdahs extra, intus contortis nucleis. 38 XXI. Tyros ^ insula in eodem sinu est, repleta silvis qua spectat orientem quaque et ipsa aestu maris perfunditur. magnitudo singuUs arboribus fici, flos ^ sinum add. ? coll. vi 108 MayJwjf. 2 F./. Tylos. " VI. 108. * Mangroves. ' Now Bahrein, cf. VI. 148. 26 BOOK XII. XIX. 36-xxi. 38 sort is moister, and gummy. Almonds are used to Trade adulterate Indian bdellium, but all the other sorts are "/"p^^^Mr* adulterated also with the bark of scordastum, that detecium. being the name of a tree that resembles the gum. But these adulterations can be detected — and it must be enough to state this once for all, to apply to all other perfumes as well — by smell, colour, weight, taste and the action of fire. The Bactrian bdellium is shiny and dry, and has a number of white spots Uke finger-nails ; and also it has a specific weight of its own and ought not to be heavier or Hghter than this. The price of pure bdellium is 3 denarii a pound. XX. Adjoining the races above mentioned is Treesof Persia. On the Red Sea, M'hich at this point we have '^""" called ^ the Persian Gulf, the tides of which are carried a long way inland, the trees* are of a re- markable nature ; for they are to be seen on the coast when the tide is out, embracing the barren sands with their naked roots hke polypuses, eaten away by the salt and looking like trunks that have been washed ashore and left high and dry. Also these trees when the tide rises remain motionless although beaten by the waves ; indeed at high water they are completely covered, and the evidence of the facts clearly proves that this species of tree is nourished by the brackish water. They are of marvellous size, and in appearance they resemble the strawberry-tree, but their fruit is Hke almonds outside and contains a spiral kernel. XXI. In the same ffulf is the island of Tyros,^ which ^'"«^* ''/'^* 1 • I 1- -1 r ■ " 1 Persian is covered with lorests m tiie part lacmg east, where isiands: the it also is flooded by the sea at high tide. Each of the '^ttS^'Sem trees is the size of a fiff-tree ; they have a flower with ^rees suppiy- * -^ ingcioth. 27 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY suavitate inenarrabili, pomum lupino simile, propter asperitatem intactum omnibus animalibus. eiusdem insulae ^ excelsiore suggestu lanigerae arbores alio modo quam Serum ; his folia infecunda quae, ni minora essent, vitium poterant videri. ferunt mali cotonei amplitudine cucurbitas quae maturitate ruptae ostendunt lanuginis pilas ex quibus vestes 39 pretioso linteo faciunt. XXII. arborem ^ vocant gos- sypinum, fertiliore etiamTyrominore, quae distat xp. luba circa fruticem lanugines esse tradit, linteaque ea Indicis praestantiora, Arabiae autem arborem ^ ex qua vestes faciant cynas vocari, folio palmae simili. sic Indos suae arbores vestiunt. in Tyris autem et alia arbor floret albae violae specie, sed magnitudine quadruplici, sine odore, quod miremur in eo tractu. 40 XXIII. Est et alia similis, foliosior tamen, roseique floris, quem noctu conprimens aperire incipit solis ex- ortu, meridie expandit : incolae dormire eimi dicunt. fert eadem insula et palmas oleasque ac vites et cum reliquo pomorum genere ficos. nulli arborum folia ibi decidunt; rigaturque gelidis fontibus et imbres accipit. 1 — clavnlo casia, and nevertneiess Arabia is styled Happy tuieex- — a country with a false and ungrateful appellation, as she puts her happiness to the credit of the powers above, although she owes more of it to the power below.* Her good fortune has been caused by the hixury of mankind even in the hour of death, when they burn over the departed the products which they had originally understood to have been created for the gods. Good authorities declare that Arabia does not produce so large a quantity of perfume in a year's output as was burned by the Emperor Nero in a day at the obsequies of his consort Poppaea. Then reckon up the vast number of funerals celebrated yearly throughout the entire world, and the perfumes such as are given to the gods a grain at a time, that are piled up in heaps to the honour of dead bodies ! Yet the gods used not to regard with less favour the worshippers who petitioned them with salted spelt, 61 amined. PLINY: NATUPAL HISTORY salsa supplicantibus, immo vero, ut palam est, 84 placatiores. verum Arabiae etiamnum felicius mare est; ex illo namque margaritas mittit. minimaque computatione miliens centena milia sestertium annis omnibus India et Seres et paeninsula illa imperio nostro adimunt — tanti nobis deliciae et feminae constant ; quota enim portio ex illis ad deos quaeso iam vel ad inferos pertinet ? 85 XLII. Cinnamomum et casias fabulose narravit antiquitas princepsque Herodotus avium nidis et privatim phoenicis, in quo situ Liber pater educatus esset, ex inviis rupibus arboribusque decuti carnis quam ipsae inferrent pondere aut plumbatis sagittis ; item casiam circa paludes propugnante unguibus diro vespertilionum genere aligerisque serpentibus, his 86 commentis augentes rerum pretia. comitata vero fabula est ad meridiani solis repercussus inenarra- bilem quendam universitatis halitum e tota paeninsula existere tot generum aurae spirante concentu, Magnique Alexandri classibus Arabiam primum odoribus nuntiatam in altum — omnia falsa, siquidem cinnamomum idemque cinnamum nascitur in Ae- 87 thiopia Trogodytis conubio permixta. hi mercantes " Casia was the wood, bark and root, and cinnamomum the tender shoots, etc. and flower-heads, of various kinds of cinnamon of China, Tibet, Burma, Ceylon and India, but the Romans attributed the plants to N.E. Africa and Arabia because of the trade-route by which they came. * Sent from Egypt and Mesopotamia round Arabia. 62 BOOK XII. xLi. 83-xLii. 87 but rather, as the facts show, they were more bene- volent in those days. But the title ' happy ' belongs still more to the Arabian Sea, for from it come the pearls which that country sends us. And by the lowest reckoning India, China and the Arabian peninsula take from our empire 100 miUion sesterces every year — that is the sum which our luxuries and our women cost us ; for what fraction of these imports, I ask you, now goes to the gods or to the powers of the lower world ? XLII. In regard to cinnamomum and casia ^ a Cinnamon fabulous story has been related by antiquity, and °"'^ '^^^'^' first of all by Herodotus, that they are obtained iii. 111. from birds' nests, and particularly from that of the phoenix, in the region where Father Liber was brought up, and that they are knocked down from inaccessible rocks and trees by the weight of the flesh brought there by the birds themselves, or by means of arrow^s loaded with lead; and similarly there is a tale of casia growing round marshes under the protection of a terrible kind of bats that guard it with their claws, and of winged serpents — these tales having been invented by the natives to raise the price of their commodities. However, there goes with them a story that under the reflected rays of the sun at midday an indescribable sort of collective odour is given ofF from the whole of the peninsula, which is due to the harmoniously blended exhalation of so many kinds of vapour, and that the first news of Arabiareceived by the fleets ^ of Alexander the Great was carried by these odours far out to sea — all these stories being false, inasmuch as cinnamomum, which is the same thing as cinnamon, grows in Ethiopia, which is Hnked by intermarriage ^vith the Cave- 63 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY id a conterminis vehunt per maria vasta ratibus quas neque gubemacula regant neque remi impellant ^ vel trahant ^ vela,^ non ratio ulla adiuvet : omnium instar ibi sunt homo tantum et audacia. praeterea hi- bernum mare eHgunt* circa bnmiam, euris tum 88 maxime flantibus. hi recto cursu per sinus inpellunt atque a promunturii ambitu argestae deferunt in portum Gebbanitarum qui vocatur OciHa. quamo- brem illi maxime id petunt, produntque vix quinto anno reverti negotiatores et multos interire. contra revehunt vitrea et aena, vestes, fibulas cum armiUis ac moniUbus ; ergo negotiatio illa feminarum maxime fide constat. 89 Ipse frutex duum cubitorum altitudine amplissimus, pahnique minimus, quattuor digitorum crassitudinis, statim a terra vi digitis surculosus, arido simiUs, cum viret non odoratus, foHo origani, siccitate gaudens, steriHor imbre, caeduae naturae. gignitur in planis quidem, sed densissimis in vepribus rubisque, difficiHs coUectu. metitur ' non nisi permiserit deus ' : lovem hunc inteHegunt aHqui, Assabinum iUi vocant. XLiv boum caprarumque et arietum extis impetra- ^ Backham : trahant. 2 Rackham : impellant. ^ vela Mayhoff : non vela. ^ Dalec. : exigunt. " Near the modern Cella. 64 BOOK XII. xLii. 87-89 dwellers. The latter buy it from their neighbours and convey it over the wide seas in ships that are neither steered by rudders nor propelled by oars or drawn by sails, nor assisted by any device of art : in those reo;ions only man and man's boldness stands in place of all these things. Moreover they choose the winter sea about the time of the shortest day, as an east wind is then chiefly blowing. This carries them on a straight course through the bays, and after rounding a cape a west-north-west wind brings them to the harbour of the Gebbanitae called Ocilia.* On this account that is the port most resorted to by these people, and they say that it is almost five years before the traders return home and that many perish on the voyage. In retum for their wares they bring back articles of glass and copper, clothing, and buckles, bracelets and necklaces ; consequently that traffic depends principally on having the con- fidence of the women. The actual shrub of the cinnamon is only about Thednna- three feet high at the most, the smallest being only a "'«»*^'-«*- span high, and four inches thick, and it throws out shoots as low as six inches from the ground ; it has a dried up appearance, and while it is green has no scent ; the leaf is Hke that of the wild marjoram ; it Hkes a dry soil and is less fertile in wet weather ; and it stands constant cHpping. Though it grows on level ground, it flourishes among the thickest bushes and brambles, and is difficult to gather. It can only be cut * with the leave of the god ' — which some understand to mean Jove, but the Ethiopian name for him is Assabinus. They sacrifice 44 oxen, goats and rams to obtain leave to cut it, though this does not include permission to do so before sunrise or after 65 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY tur venia caedendi, non tamen ut ante ortum solis 90 aut post occasum liceat. sarmenta hasta dividit sacerdos deoque partem ponit, reliquum mercator in massas condit. est et alia fama cum sole dividi temas- que partes fieri, dein sorte gemina discerni, quodque soli cesserit relinqui ac sponte conflagrare. 91 Praecipua bonitas virgultorum tenuissimis partibus ad longitudinem palmi, secunda proximis breviore mensura, atque ita ordine ; vilissimum quod radicibus proximum, quoniam ibi minimum corticis, in quo summa gratia, eaque de causa praeferuntur cacu- mina, ubi plurimus cortex.^ ipsum vero lignum in fastidio propter origani acrimoniam, xylocinnamo- 92 mum vocatur. pretium ei in libras X x. quidam cinnami duo genera tradidere, candidius nigriusque ; et quondam praeferebatur candidum, nunc contra nigrum laudatur, atque etiam varium praeferunt candido. certissima tamen aestimatio ne sit scabrum atque ut inter sese tritum tarde frietur. damnatur in primis molle aut cui labet ^ cortex. 93 lus eius a Gebbanitarum rege solo proficiscitur ; is edicto mercatu vendit. pretia quondam fuere in libras denarium milia; auctum id parte dimidia est incensis, ut ferunt, silvis ira barbarorum : id acciderit ^ Edd. : ubi pluribus torpet. 2 Mayhoff : labit aut labitur aut livet. 66 BOOK XII. xLii. 89-93 sunset. A priest divides the twigs with a spear, and sets aside a portion for the god, while the rest is packed up in clumps by the dealer. Another account is also given, that a share is assigned to the sun, and that the wood is divided into three portions, and then lots are cast twice to assign the shares, and the share that falls to the sun is left, and bursts out in flames of its own accord. The finest quahty with cinnamon belongs to the thinnest parts of the boughs, for about a span's length; the second best to the next pieces for a shorter length, and so on in order; the worst in quaUty is the part nearest to the roots, because it has the least amount of bark, which is the part most favoured, and consequently preference is given to the tops of the plants, where there is most bark. The actual wood, however, is held in no esteem, because it has the bitter taste of wild marjoram : it is called wood-cinnamon ; it fetches 10 denarii a pound. Some Prices and writers mention two kinds of cinnamon, one Hghter ^**^^" and the other darker in colour ; and in former days the Hght kind was preferred, but now on the other hand the dark is praised, and even a mottled kind is preferred to the pure white. Still, the most certain test of value is that it must not be rough, and that when rubbed together it must crumble slowly. The lowest value is attached to it when it is soft or when the bark is falUng of. The right of controUing the sale of cinnamon is vested solely in the king of the Gebbanitae, who opens the market by pubUc proclamation. The prices formerly were 1000 denarii a pound, but this was raised to half as much again after the forests had been burnt, so it is said, by infuriated barbarians ; 67 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY ob iniquitatem praepotentium an forte, non satis constat : austros ibi tam ardentis flare ut aestatibus 94 silvas accendant invenimus apud auctores. coronas ex cinnamo interrasili auro inclusas primus omnium in templis Capitolii atque Pacis dicavit imperator Vespasianus Augustus. radicem eius magni ponderis vidimus in Palatii templo quod fecerat divo Augusto coniux Augusta, aureae paterae inpositam, ex qua guttae editae annis omnibus in grana durabantur, donec id delubrum incendio consumptum est. 95 XLIII. Frutex et casia est, iuxtaque cinnami campos nascitur sed in montibus, crassiore sarmento, tenui cute verius quam cortice, quem contra atque in cinnamo diximus labare ^ et exinaniri pretium est. amplitudo frutici trium cubitorum, colos triplex : cum primum emicat, candidus pedali mensura, dein rufe- 96 scit addito semipede, ultra nigricans. haec pars maxime laudatur ac deinde proxima, damnatur vero candida. consecant surculos longitudine binum digi- torum, mox praesuunt recentibus coriis quadri- pedum ob id interemptarum, ut putrescentibus vermiculi lignum erodant et excavent corticem tutum 97 amaritudine. probatur recens maxime, et quae sit ^ livere Detlefsen. " i.e. the writer. 68 BOOK XII. xLii. 93-xLiii. 97 but it is not absolutely certain whether this was incendiarism provoked by injustice on the part of those in power or was due to accident, as we find it stated in the authorities that the south winds that blow there are so hot that they set fire to the forests in summer. His Majesty the emperor Vespasian was the first person to dedicate in the Temples of the Capitol and of Peace chaplets of cinnamon surrounded with embossed gold. We " once saw in the Temple of the Palatine erected in honour of his late Majesty Augustus by his consort Augusta a very heavy cinnamon-root placed in a golden bowl, out of which drops used to distil every year which hardened into grains ; this went on until the shrine in question was destroyed by fire. XLIII. Casia also is a shrub, and it grows close Thecasia to the plains of cinnamon, but on the mountains ; ^^^^' it has thicker stalks, and a thin skin rather than bark, which, in the opposite way to what we said in § 91. the case of cinnamon, gains value when it falls off and thins aMay. This shrub grows to a height of 4:^ feet and it has three colours : when it first sprouts up, to the length of a foot it is white, then for the next six inches it is reddish, and beyond that point it is black. The black part is most highly esteemed, and next the part nearest to it, but the white part has no value at all. They cut the shoots to the length of two inches, and then sew them up in newly fiayed hides of animals slaughtered for the purpose, so that as they rot maggots may gnaw away the wood and hollow out the whole of the bark, which is protected from them by its bitter taste. The bark is valued most highly when fresh, when it has a very pleasant smell 69 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY odoris mollissimi gustuque quam minime fervens potiusque lento tepore leniter mordens, colore purpurae, quaeque plurima minimum ponderis faciat, brevi tunicarum fistula atque non fragili. ladam vocant talem barbaro nomine. alia est balsamodes ab odore simili appellata, sed amara ideoque utilior medicis, sicut nigra unguentis. pretia nulli diversiora, optumae in libras X l, ceteris X v. 98 His adiecere mangones quam Daphnidis vocant, cognominatam isocinnamon, pretiumque ei faciunt X ccc. adulteratur styrace et propter similitudinem corticum laurus tenuissimis surculis. quin et in nostro orbe seritur, extremoque in margine imperii, qua Rhenus adluit, vidi in alveariis apium satam; color abest ille torridus sole, et ob id simul idem odor. XLIV. Ex confinio casiae cinnamique et cancamum ac tarum invehitur, sed per Nabataeos Trogodytas, qui consedere ex Nabataeis. 99 XLV. Eo comportatur et serichatum et gabahum, quae intra se consumunt Arabes nostro orbi tantum nominibus cognita, sed cum cinnamo casiaque nascentia. pervenit tamen ahquando serichatum et • Obtained from Vateria Indica of India. * These drugs have not been identified. 70 BOOK XII. xLiii. 97-xLv. 99 and is hardly at all hot to the taste, and rather gives a sHght nip with its moderate warmth ; it must be of a pui^ple colour, and though bulky weigh very httle, and the pores of the outer coats should be short and not Uable to break. This kind of casia is called by a foreign name, lada. Another kind is near-balsam, so called because it has a scent Uke that of balsam, but it has a bitter taste and consequently is more useful for medicinal purposes, just as the black kind is more employed for unguents. No substance has a wider range of price — the best quaUties seU at 50 denarii a pound and the others at 5. To these varieties the dealers have added one a trade which they caU Daphnis's casia, with the further ^a,^ "■' designation of near-cinnamon, and they price it at 300 denarii. It is adulterated with styrax, and with very smaU sprigs of bay because of the similarity of the barks. It is also grown in our part of the world, and I have seen it on the extreme edge of our empire, where the Rhine washes our frontier, planted among beehives ; but there it has not the scorched colour produced by the sun, and for the same reason also it has not the same scent as the southern product. XLIV. From the border of the casia and cinnamon district gum-resin ^ and aloe-wood are also imported, but they come by way of the Nabataean Cave- dweUers, who are a colony from the Nabataei. XLW The same place is also a centre for the coUec- other scented tion of serichatum and gabaUum,^ the supply of which ^'^^- is used up by the Arabs in their own country, so that they are only known by name to our part of the world, although growing in the same country as cinnamon and casia. However, serichatum does occasionaUy get through to us, and is employed by some persons PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY in unguenta additur ab aliquibus. permutatur in libras X vi. 100 XLVI. Myrobalanum Trogodytis et Thebaidi et Arabiae qua ^ ludaeam ab Aegypto disterminat com- mune est,naseens unguento, ut ipso nomine apparet, quo item indicatur et glandem esse ; arbor est ^ heliotropio, quam dicemus inter herbas, simih folio, 101 fructus magnitudine abellanae nucis. ex his in Arabia nascens Syriaca appellatur, et est candida, contra in Thebaide nigra ; praefertur illa bonitate olei quod exprimitur, sed copia Thebaica. inter haec Trogodytica vihssima est. sunt qui Aethiopicam his praeferant glande nigra ac pingui^ nucleoque gracili, sed liquore qui exprimitur odoratiore, nascentem in 102 campestribus. Aegyptiam pinguiorem esse et cras- siore cortice rubentem et, quamvis in palustribus nascatur, breviorem siccioremque, e diverso Arabicam viridem ac tenuiorem et, quoniam amet * montuosa, spissiorem; longe autem optimam Petraeam ex quo diximus oppido, nigro cortice, nucleo candido. unguentarii autem tantum cortices premunt, medici et ^ nucleos, tundentes adfusa paulatim cahda aqua. 103 XLVII. Myrobalano in unguentis similem proxi- mumque usum habet palma in Aegypto quae vocatur 1 qua ? Mayhoff : que aut quae. 2 Mayhoff : arbore. ^ Dalec. : glandem nigram nec pingue. * amet? Mayhoff : sit. ^ et add. Mayhoff. " Mupo^aAavov, * perfume-nut,' the behen-nut. * Or possibly ' ripens more slowly.' « ' Cure for thirst.' 72 BOOK XII. XLV. 99-xLvii. 103 as an ingredient in unguents. It fetches up to G denarii a pound. XLVI. The Cave-dweller country and the Thebaid Behen-mu. and Arabia where it separates Judaea from Egypt all ahke have the myrobalanum," which is grown for scent, as is shown by its name itself, which also indi- cates in addition that it is a nut ; it is a tree with a leaf that resembles that of the hehotrope, which we shall describe among the herbaceous plants, and a fruit the size of a hazel-nut. The variety growhig in xx.57. Arabia is called the Syrian nut, and is white in coiour, whereas the Thebaid kind is black ; the former is preferred for the excellent quahty of the oil extracted from it, but the Thebaic for its large yield. The Cave-dweller kind is the worst among the varieties. Some persons prefer to these the Ethiopian behen, which has a black oily nut and a slender kernel, but the hquid squeezed out of it has a stronger scent ; it grows in level districts, It is said that the Egyptian nut is even more oleaginous and has a thicker shell of a reddish colour, and that though it grows on marshy ground the plant is shorter and drier, whereas the Arabian variety, on the contrary, is green in colour and also smaller in size and more compact in shape * because it hkes mountain regions ; but the Petraean kind, coming from the town mentioned above, is a vi. 144. long way the best — it has a black rind and a white kernel. Perfumiers, however, only extract the juice from the shells, but medical men also crush the kernels, gradually pouring warm water on them while pounding them. XLVII. The palm-tree growing in Egypt called the Scented adipsos '^ is used in a similar way to the behen-nut in ^" "** perfumery, and is almost as much in request ; it is 73 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY adipsos, viridis, odore mali cotonei, nullo intus ligno. colligitur autumno ^ paulo ante quam incipiat mature- scere. quod si relinquatur, phoenicobalanus vocatur et nigrescit vescentisque inebriat. myrobalano pre- tium in libras X ii. institores et faecem unguenti hoc nomine appellant. 104 XLVIII. Calamus quoque odoratus in Arabia nascens communis Indis atque Syriae est, in qua vincit omnis. a nostro mari cl stadiis inter Libanum montem ahumque ignobilem — non, ut quidam existi- mavere, AntiUbanum — in convalle modica iuxta lacum cuius palustria aestate siccantur, tricenis ab eo stadiis calamus et iuncus odorati gignuntur. sane enim dicamus et de iunco, quamvis aUo herbis dicato volumine, quoniam tantum ^ hic unguentorum ma- 105 teria tractatur. nihil ergo a ceteris sui generis differunt aspectu, sed calamus praestanti odore statim e longinquo invitat, molUor tactu,meUorque qui minus fragiUs et qui assulose potius quam qui raphani modo 106 frangitur. inest fistulae araneum quod vocant florem ; praestantior est cui numerosius. reUqua probatio ut niger sit — damnantur albi — meUor quo brevior crassiorque et lentus in frangendo. calamo pretium in Ubras singulas X i, iunco X v. tra- 1 Mayhoff : aut enim. 2 Pintianus : tamen. " This and the scented rush below belong to the genus Andropogon. For another view ef. Vol. VII, Index of Plants s.v. Calamus. ^ Jebel es Sheikh. 74 BOOK XII. xLvii. 103-XLV111. 106 green in colour, with the scent of a quince, and has no kernel inside it. It is gathered in autumn, a Httle before it begins to ripen. If left on the tree longer, it is called the palm-nut, and it turns black and has the property of making people who eat it intoxicated. The behen-nut is priced at two denarii a pound. The retailers also give the name of behen to the dregs of the unguent made from it. XLVIII. The scented reed^^which also grows in Scented reed. Arabia is shared with the Indies and Syria, the one growing in the latter country being superior to all the other kinds. About 17 miles from the Mediter- ranean, between Mount Lebanon and another range of no importance — not Counter-Lebanon ^ as some have supposed — there is a moderately wide valley near a lake the shallow parts of which dry up in summer, where 3J miles from the lake the scented reed and scented rush grow. For clearly we may speak about the rush also, although I have devoted another volume to herbaceous plants, as here we are only xxi. 120. deaUng with plants that supply material for ungu- ents. These plants then do not differ at all in appearance from the rest of their class, but the reed has a specially fine scent which attracts people even from a long way oif, and is softer to the touch ; the better variety is the one that is less brittle and that breaks in spUnters rather than Uke a radish. Inside the tube there is a sort of cobweb which is caUed the flower ; the plant containing most of this is the best. The remaining tests of its goodness are that it should be black — white varieties are thought in- ferior — and that it is better the shorter and thicker it is and if it is pUant in breaking. The price of the reed is one denarius and that of the rush 5 75 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY duntque iuncum odoratum et in Campania inve- niri. 107 Discessimus a terris oceaniun spectantibus ad con- vexas in nostra maria. XLIX. Ergo Aethiopiae subiecta Africa hammoniaci lacrimas ^ stillat in harenis suis ; inde nomen ^ etiam Hammonis oraculo, iuxta quod gignitur arbore quam metopon appellant, resinae modo aut cummium. genera eius duo: thrauston mascuH turis similitudine,^ quod maxime probatur, alterum pingue et resinosum, quod phyra- ma appellant. adulteratur harenis velut nascendo adprehensis; igitur quam minimis glaebis probatur et quam purissimis. pretium optimo in hbras asses xxxx. 108 L. Sphagnos infra eos situs in Cyrenaica provincia maxime probatur : ahi bryon vocant. secundum locum optinet Cyprius, tertium Phoenicius. fertur et in Aegypto nasci, quin et in Galha, nec dubitaverim: sunt enim hoc nomine cani arborum vilh, quales in quercu maxime videmus, sed odore praestantes. laus prima candidissimis atque latissimis, secunda rutilis, nulla nigris ; et in insuhs petrisque nati improbantur, omnesque quibus palmarum atque non suus odor sit. ^ lacrimas ? Mueller : lacrima. 2 Mueller : nomine. ^ V.l. similitudinem : thrauston (ob) masculi turis simili- tudinem? Eackham. 76 BOOK XII. xLviii. 106-L. 108 denarii a pound. It is reported that scented rush is also found in Campania. We have now left the countries looking on the ocean A/rican to come to those that converge towards our seas. "^^ ^"'"' XLIX. Well, Africa, which Hes below Ethiopia, in its sandy deserts distils tear-hke drops of a sub- stance called hammoniacum ; this is also the origin of the name of the Oracle of Hammon, near to which this substance is produced from a tree called metopon, after the manner of resin or gum. There are two kinds of hammoniacum : one called thrauston (friable), which is hke male frankincense and is the kind most approved, and the other, greasy and resi- nous, which they call phyrama (paste). It is adulter- ated with sand, which looks as if it has stuck to it while growing; consequently it is preferred in extremely small lumps and these as pure as possible. The price of the best hammoniacum is 40 asses a pound. L. The sphagnos valued most highly is found in the Scenud province of Cyrenaica, south of these regions : others call it bryon. The second place is held by the Cyprian kind, and the third by the Phoenician. It is also said to grow in Egypt, and indeed in Gaul as well, and I am not prepared to doubt this ; for there are grey tufts that bear this name growing on trees, resembhng the growths that we principally see on the oak, but having a superior scent. The most highly esteemed are the whitest and most widely spreading mosses, and the bright red ones are in the second class, but no value at all is attached to the black variety ; moreover, the mosses that grow on islands and on rocks are not esteemed, nor are all those that have the scent of palm-trees and not that of their own kind. 77 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 109 LL Cypros in Aegypto est arbor ziziphi foliis, semine coriandri candido, odorato. coquitur hoc in oleo premiturque postea, quod cypros vocatur; pretium ei in hbras X v. optimum e Canopica in ripis Nih nata, secundum Ascalone ludaeae, tertium in ^ Cypro insula : odoris suavitas quaedam. hanc esse dicunt arborem quae in Itaha hgustrum vocetur. 110 LII. In eodem tractu aspalathos nascitur, spina candida magnitudine arboris modicae, flore rosae ; radix unguentis expetitur. tradunt in quocumque frutice curvetur arcus caelestis eandem quae sit aspalathi suavitatem odoris exisistere, sed si in aspalatho, inenarrabilem quandam. quidam eurn erysisceptrmn vocant, ahi sceptrum. probatio eius in colore rufo vel igneo tactuque spisso et odore 111 castorei. permutatur in hbras X v. LIII. In Aegypto nascitur et maron peius quam Lydium, maioribus fohis ac variis : iUa brevia ac minuta et odorata. LIV. Sed omnibus odoribus praefertur balsamum, uni terrarum ludaeae concessum, quondam in duobus tantimi hortis, utroque regio, altero iugerum viginti non amphus, altero pauciorum. ostendere arborum^ hanc urbi imperatores Vespasiani, clarumque dictu, a 1 in add. : Mayhoff. 2 MuelUr : arbutum. Lawsonia inermis. Origanum sipyleum, a kind of marjoram. Commipfiora opohalsamum. 7« BOOK XII. Li. 109-LIV. III LI. A tree found in Egypt is the cypros,^ which has the leaves of the jujube-tree and the white, scented seed of the coriander. Cypros-seed is boiled in ohve oil and afterwards crushed, producing the cypros of commerce, which sells at 5 denarii a pound. The best is made from the tree grown at Canopus on the banks of the Nile, the second best at Ascalon in Judaea, and the third quality on the island of Cyprus, which has a sort of sweet scent. The cypros is said to be the same as the thorn called privet in Italy. LII. In the same region grows the aspalathus, a Scented white thorn of the size of a moderate-sized tree, ^^"' with the flower of a rose ; the root is in request for unguents. People say that any shrub over which a rainbow forms its arch gives out a scent as sweet as that of the aspalathus, but that if this happens in the case of an aspalathus a scent rises that is indescribably sweet. Some call this shrub red sceptre and others sceptre. The test of its genuineness Ues in its fiery red colour, firmness to the touch and scent hke that of beaver-oil. It is sold for 5 denarii a pound. LIII. Cat-thyme * also grows in Egypt, though not so good a kind as the Lydian variety, its leaves being larger and variegated : those of the Lydian are short and very small, and have a strong scent. LIV. But every other scent ranks below hahcim. <^ Baisamof The only country to which this plant has been j^.^^^y^^^^J vouchsafed is Judaea, where formerly it grew in only two gardens, both belonging to the king ; one of them was of not more than twenty iugera in extent and the other less. This variety of shrub was exhibited to the capital by the emperors Vespasian and Titus ; 79 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY Pompeio Magno in triumpho arbores quoque duxi- 112 mus. servit nunc haec ac tributa pendit cum sua gente, in totum alia natura quam nostri externique prodiderant; quippe viti similior est quam myrto: malleolis seri didicit nuper, vincta ut vitis, et inplet colles vinearum modo. quae sine adminiculis se ipsa sustinet tondetur similiter fruticans ; ac rastris nitescit properatque nasci, intra tertium annum 113 fructifera. folium proximum ^ tuberi, perpetua coma. saeviere in eam ludaei sicut in vitam quoque suam ; contra defendere Romani et dimicatum pro frutice est; seritque nunc eum fiscus, nec unquam fuit numerosior ; proceritas intra bina cubita subsistit. 114 Arbori tria genera: tenui ^ et capillacea coma, quod vocatur eutheriston ; alterum scabro aspectu, incurvum, fruticosum, odoratius : hoc trachy appel- lant; tertium eumeces, quia est reUquis procerius, levi cortice. huic secunda bonitas, novissima euthe- 115 risto. semen eius vino proximum gustu, colore ru- fum, nec sine pingui ; peius in grano quod levius ^ proximum {rutae, fructus proximus) lan coll. Theoph. H. Pl. 9, 6, Diosc. 1, 18. 2 V.l. tenue. " Perhaps the text requires expanding, to give ' Its leaf is very like that of rue and its fruit is like the tuber-apple.' 8q BOOK XII. Liv. 111-115 and it is a remarkable fact that ever since the time of Pompey the Great even trees have figm-ed among the captives in our triumphal processions. The balsam-tree is now a subject of Rome, and pays tri- bute together with the race to which it belongs ; it differs entirely in character from the accounts that had been given of it by Roman and foreign writers, being more Hke a vine than a myrtle : it has quite recently been taught to grow from mallet-shoots tied up on trelHses hke a vine, and it covers whole hill- sides as vineyards do. A balsam unsupported by a trelHs and carrying its own weight is pruned in a similar manner when it puts out shoots ; the use of the rake makes it thrive and sprout rapidly, bearing in its third year. Its leaf is very near that of the tuber-apple," and it is an evergreen. The Jews vented their wrath upon this plant as they also did upon their own Hves, but the Romans protected it against them, and there have been pitched battles in defence of a shrub. It is now cultivated by the treasury authorities, and "was never before more plentiful; but its height has not advanced beyond three feet. There are three varieties of balsam-tree : one Varieties of with thin foHage Hke hair, caHed easy-to-gather ; '^ ^'^"*' another with a rugged appearance, curving over, of a bushy growth and with a stronger scent — they call this rough balsam, and the third tah balsam because it grows higher than the rest ; this has a smooth bark. This last is the secondbest in quality, and the easy-to-gather kind is the lowest grade. Balsam-seed tastes very Hke wine, and has a red colour and a rather greasy consistency ; that con- tained in a husk, which is Hghter in weight and greener 81 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY atque viridius. ramus crassior quam myrto; inci- ditur vitro, lapide osseisve cultellis — ferro laedi vitalia odit, emoritur protinus, eodem amputari super- vacua patiens. incidentis manus libratur artifici 116 temperamento, ne quid ultra corticem violet. sucus e plaga manat quem opobalsamum vocant, suavitatis eximiae, sed tenui gutta; ploratus lanis parva colligitur in cornua, ex iis novo fictili conditur, crassiori similis oleo et in musto candidus ^ ; rufescit 117deinde simulque durescit e tralucido. Alexandro Magno res ibi gerente toto die aestivo unam concham impleri iustum erat, omni vero fecundidate e maiore horto congios senos, e minore singulos, cum et duplo rependebatur argento ^ ; nunc etiam singularum arborum largior vena. ter omnibus percutitur 118 aestatibus, postea deputatur. et sarmenta quoque in merce sunt ; dccc HS amputatio ipsa surculusque veniere intra quintum devictae ludaeae ^ annum. xylobalsamum vocatur et coquitur in unguentis ; pro suco ipso substituere officinae. corticis etiam ad medicamenta pretium est ; praecipua autem gratia ^ Detlefsen : candida. ^ Edd. argentum. ^ ludaeae add. Mueller. " The small concha was something over a hundredth part of a pint, the large concha three times that amount. The congius was a httle less than 6 pints. 82 BOOK XII. Liv. 115-118 in colour, is inferior. The branch is thicker than Modeof that of a myrtle ; incision is made in it with a piece '"^^"^ "■**• of glass or a stone, or with knives made of bone — it strongly dishkes having its vital parts M'oimded with steel, and dies oifat once, though it can stand having superfluous branches pruned with a steel knife. The hand of the operator making the incision has to be poised under skilful control, to avoid inflicting a wound going below the bark. The juice that oozes out of the incision is called opobalsamum ; it is ex- tremely sweet in taste, but exudes in tiny drops, the trickle being collected by means of tufts of wool in small horns and poured out of them into a new earthenware vessel to store ; it is Hke rather thick oHve-oil and in the unfermented state is white in colour ; later on it turns red and at the same time hardens, having previously been transparent. When Alexander the Great was campaigning in that coun- try, it was considered a fair whole day's work in summer to fill a single shell,'* and for the entire produce of a-rather large garden to be six congii and of a smaller one congius, at a time moreover when its price was twice its weight in silver: whereas at the present day even a single tree produces a larger flow. The incision is made three times in every summer, and afterwards the tree is lopped. There is a market even for the twigs too ; within five years By-products of the conquest of Judaea the actual loppings and °l^^'^^ the shoots fetched 800,000 sesterces. These trim- mings are called wood of balsam ; they are boiled down in perfumes, and in manufacture they have taken the place of the actual juice of the shrub. Even the bark fetches a price for drugs; but the tears are valued most, the seed coming second, 83 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY lacrimae, secunda semini, tertia cortici, minima ligno. 119 ex hoc buxosum est optimiun, quod et odoratissimum, e semine autem maximum et ponderosissimum, mordens gustu fervensque in ore. adulteratur Petraeo hyperico, quod coarguitur magnitudine, inanitate, longitudine, odoris ignavia, sapore piperis. 120 lacrimae probatio, ut sit e pingui tenuis ac modice rufa et in fricando odora.^ secunda candidi ^ coloris,^ peior viridis crassusque, pessimus niger, quippe ut oleum senescit. ex omni incisura maxime probatur quod ante semen fluxit. et ahas adulteratur seminis suco, vixque maleficium deprehenditur gustu ama- riore ; esse enim debet lenis, non subacidus, odore 121 tantum austerus. vitiatur et oleo rosae, cypri, lentisci, balani, terebinthi, myrti, resina, galbano, cera C}^ria, prout quaeque res fuit, nequissime autem cummi, quoniam arescit in manu inversa et in aqua 122 sidit, quae probatio eius gemina est : debet sincerimi item arescere,* sed hoc cummi addita fragile ^ crusta evenit. et gustu deprehenditur ; carbone vero quod cera resinaque adulteratum est, nigriore flamma. nam melle mutatur statim: in manu con- 123 trahit muscas. praeterea sinceri densatur in tepida 1 V.l. odorata. ^ V.l. candidus. ^ Mayhoff '. colos. * item arescere ? Mayhoff : inarescere aut marcescere. 5 F.Z. fragili. 84 BOOK XII. Liv. 118-123 the bark third and the wood lowest. Of the wood the sort resembhng boxwood is the best, and also has the strongest scent ; the best seed is that which is largest in size and heaviest in weight, which has a biting taste and is hot in the mouth. Balsam is adul- Modesof terated with the ground-pine of Petra, which can be ^^.'/j^''''""' ' detected by its size, hollowness and long shape and by its weak scent and its taste hke pepper. The test of tear of balsam is that it should be thinning out in eonsistency, and sHghtly reddish, and give a strong scent when rubbed. The second quaUty is white in colour, the next inferior is green and thick, and the worst kind black, inasmuch as Hke oHve oil it deteriorates with age. Out of aU the incisions the oil that has flowed out before the formation of the seed is considered the best. Also another mode of adulteration is by using the juice of the seed, and the fraud can be with difRculty detected by the greater bitterness of the taste ; for the proper taste is smooth, without a trace of acidity, the only pun- gency being in the smell. It is also adulterated with oil of roses, of cyprus, of mastich, of behen-nut, of the turpentine-tree and of myrtle, and with resin, galbanum and wax of Cyprus, just as occasion serves ; but the worst adulteration is with gum, since this dries up on the back of the hand and sinks in water, which is a double test of the genuine article — pure tear of balsam ought to dry up Hkewise, but the sort with gum added to it turns brittle and forms a skin. It can also be detected by the taste ; or when adulter- ated with wax or resin, by means of a hot coal, as it burns with a blacker flame. When mixed with honey, its quaHty alters immediately, as it attracts tties even when held in thc hand. Moreover a drop 85 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY aqua gutta sidens ad ima vasa, adulterata olei modo innatat et, si metopio vitiata est, circulo candido cingitur. summa est probatio ut lac coagulet, in veste maculas non faciat. nec manifestior alibi fraus, quippe milibus denarium sextarii, empti vendente fisco tricenis denariis, veneunt : in ^ tantum expedit augere liquorem.^ xylobalsamo pretium in libras X vi. 124 LV. Proxima ludaeae Syria supra Phoenicen styra- cem gignit circa Gabala et Marathunta et Casium Seleuciae montem. arbor est eodem nomine, cotoneo malo simiUs; lacrimae ex austero iucundi odoris, intus simihtudo harundinis, suco praegnas. in hanc circa canis ortus advolant pinnati vermicuh erodentes ; 125 ob id scobe sordescit. styrax laudatur post supra dicta ex Pisidia, Side, Cypro, Cihcia, Creta minime, ex Amano Syriae medicis, sed unguentariis magis. colos in quacumque natione praefertur rufus et pinguiter lentus, deterior furfurosus et cano situ obductus. adulteratur cedri resina vel cummi, ahas mehe aut amygdahs amaris; omnia ea depre- henduntur gustu. pretium optimo X xvii. exit et in Pamphyha, sed aridior minusque sucosus. 1 [in]? Mayhoff. * expedit licere auctorem Ian\ exp. augere licitanti {vel licitatori) Warmington, 86 BOOK XII. Liv. 123-LV. 125 of pure balsam thickens in warm water, settling to the bottom of the vessel, whereas when adulterated it floats on the top hke oil, and if it has been tampered with by using metopium, a white ring forms round it. The best test of all is that it will cause milk to curdle and will not leave stains on cloth. In no other case is more obvious fraud practised, inasmuch as every pint bought at a sale of confiscated property for 300 denarii when it is sold again makes 1000 denarii : so much does it pay to increase the quantity of adultera- tion. The price of wood-balsam is six denarii a pound. LV. The region of Syria beyond Phoenicia nearest styrax to Judaea produces styrax in the part round Gabala SSw). and Marathus and Mount Casius in Seleucia. The tree has the same name ; it is similar to a quince. Its tears have a pleasant, almost pungent scent, and inside it resembles a reed, and is full of juice. About the rising of the Dog-star certain httle maggots with wings flutter about this tree, gnawing away the wood, and consequently it is fouled with their scrapings. The styrax esteemed next to the above-named growths comes from Pisidia, Side, Cyprus and Cihcia, and that from Crete is rated lowest; that from Mount Amanus in Syria is valued by the medical profession, but even more by perfumiers. In every nation a red colour and sticky consistency are preferred, and styrax that is brown and covered with white mould is considered inferior. It is adulterated with cedar « resin or gum, and another way employs honey or bitter almonds; all these adulterations can be detected by their taste. The price of the best styrax is 17 denarii. It is also produced in Pamphyha, but this is a drier and less juicy kind. • Cf. p. 128 note h. 87 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 126 LVI. Dat et galbanum Syria in eodem Amano monte e ferula quam eiusdem nominis resinae modo stagonitim appellant. quod maxime laudant cartilaginosum, purum ad similitudinem hammoniaci minimeque lignosum. sic quoque adulteratur faba aut sacopenio. sincerum, si uratur, fugat nidore serpentes. permutatur in libras X v. L\ II. Medi- cinae hoc tantmii, panacen et unguentis eadem 127 gignit, nascentem et in Psophide Arcadiae circaque Erymanthi fontem et in Africa et in Macedonia, ferula sui generis quinque cubitorum, foHis primo quaternis, mox senis in terra iacentibus ampla magnitudine rotundis, in cacumine vero oleagineis, semine ^ muscariis dependente ut ferulae. excipitur sucus inciso caule messibus, radice autimino. lauda- tur candor eius coacti ; sequens pallido statera ; niger colos inprobatur. pretium optimo in libras X ii. 128 LVIII. Ab hac ferula diifert quae vocatur spondylion fohis tantum, quia sunt minora et platani divisura. non nisi in opacis gignitur. semen eodem nomine sihs speciem habet, medicinae tantum utile. LIX. 129 Dat et malobathrum Syria, arborem foHo convoluto, colore aridi foH, ex quo premitur oleum ad unguenta, fertiHore eiusdem Aegypto. laudatius tamen ex * Mayhoff : semine in aut semine vero. " From Ferula galbaniflua. " See Index of Plants, Vol. VII. " Almost certainly leaf of cinnamon, and not, as was often thought, betel; its attribution to Syria instead of India {malobathrum = Sanskrit tamalapatra, ' cinnamon-leaf '), Ceylon, China, etc, was owing to trade-routes. 88 BOOK XII. Lvi. 126 Lix. 129 L\T. Svria also supplies ffalbanum," which also ^f^«" *«ni- grows on Mount Amanus ; it comes trom a kmd of fennel which they call stagonitis, like the resin of the same name. The kind of galbanum most esteemed is cartilaginous, clear Hke hammonia- cum and free from all woody substance. Even so it is adulterated with beans or with sacopenium.* Pure galbanum, if burnt, drives away snakes with its smell. It is sold at 5 denarii a pound. LVII. Pure galbanum is only useful for medicinal purposes ; but Syria produces all-heal which is used for un- guents as well. It also grows at Psophis in Arcadia and round the spring of Erymanthus, and in Africa and in Macedonia also. It has a pecuHar stalk 7J feet long; this throws out first four leaves and then six lying on the ground, which are very large and of a round shape, but the leaves on the top of the plant are like those of the oHve ; the seed hangs in tufts Hke that of the fennel. The juice is got by means of incisions made in the stalk at harvest time and at the root in autumn. It is valued for white- ness when it coagulates, the next grade being assigned to juice of a pale colour, while the black is held of no value. The price of the best quaHty is two denarii a pound. L\TII. From this fennel the one caHed bear's-wort fennel differs only in the ieaf, which is smaUer, and has divisions Hke a plane-leaf. It only grows in shady places. Its seed, bearing the same name, resembles that of hart-wort; it is only useful for medicine. LIX. Syria also suppHes the malobathnim,'^ a tree with a folded leaf, the colour of a leaf that has dried up ; from it oil is pressed to use for unguents, Egypt also producing it in stiH greater quantity. But the voL. rv. r» ^9 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY India venit; in paludibus ibi gigni tradunt lentis modo, odoratius croco, nigricans scabrumque, quo- dam salis gustu. minus probatur candidum ; celer- rime situm in vetustate sentit. sapor eius nardo similis esse debet sub lingua; odor vero in vino subfervefacti antecedit alios. in pretio quidem prodigio simile est, a denaris singulis ad X cccc pervenire libras, folium autem ipsum in libras Xlx. 130 LX. Oleum et omphacium est : fit duobus generi- bus et totidem modis, ex olea et vite, olea adhuc alba expressa, deterius ex druppa — ita vocatur priusquam cibo matura sit, iam tamen colorem mutans — differentia quod hoc viride est, illud can- 131 didum. e vite psithia fit aut Aminaea. cum sunt acini ciceris magnitudine, ante canis ortum, in prima lanugine demetitur uva eiusque melligo; rehquum corpus sole coquitur — nocturni rores caventur in fictili conditae ^ ; — melhgo cohigitur, subinde et Cyprio aere servatur. optima quae rufa, acriorque ^ V.l. condita. 90 BOOK XII. Lix. 129-LX. 131 kind that comes from India is valued more highly ; it is said to grow there in marshes, hke the lentil, with a scent stronger than that of saffron, a darkish rough appearance, and a sort of salt taste. The white variety is less highly spoken of ; it very quickly acquires a musty smell with age. Malobathrum when placed under the tongue ought to taste hke nard; but its scent when it is put in shghtly warmed wine surpasses any others. In point of price at all events it approaches the marvellous, the pound ranging from one denarius to four hundred, while the leaf itself reaches 60 denarii a pound. LX. There is also the oil of unripe berries, which oumadeof is made in two varieties and by two processes, one l^he^s^and kind beinff made from the oHve and one from the ^^£?*' ^ rr^i T • 1 1 .1 .11 1 . catk%ns,tmld vme. Ihe oiive is pressed while stili white, or an grapes, inferior oil is obtained from the druppa — which is ^iH^HJcun!!^ the name given to an ohve not yet ripe enough to eat but ah-eady beginning to change colour — the differ- ence being that the inferior kind is green and the other white. It is made either from the psithian vine ° or from the vine of Aminaea. The vine is plucked when the grapes are the size of a chick-pea, before the rising of the Dog-star, when the first bloom is on them, and the unripe juice is obtained ; after which the remaining pulp is left to dry in the sun — precaution being taken against nocturnal dews, by storing the grapes in an earthenware vessel — while the unripe juice is collected and at once also put to keep in a C^^prian bronze jar. The best kind is that which is red in colour and rather « See XIV. 80. 91 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY et aridior. pretium omphacio in libras X vi. fit et alio modo, cum in mortariis uva inmatura teritur siccataque in sole postea digeritur in pastillos. 132 LXL Eodem et bryon pertinet, uva populi albae. optima circa Cnidum aut Cariam in sitientibus aut siccis asperisque, secunda in Lyciae cedro. eodem et oenanthe pertinet ; est autem vitis labruscae uva. colligitur cum floret, id est cum optime olet, siccatur in umbra substrato Unteo atque ita in 133 cados conditur. praecipua ex Parapotamia, secunda ab Antiochia atque Laodicea Syriae, tertia ex monti- bus Medicis ; haec utilior medicinae. quidam omni- bus his praeferunt eam quae in Cj^ro insula nascitur. nam quae in Africa fit ad medicos tantum pertinet vocaturque massaris. omnis autem ex alba labrusca praestantior quam e nigra. 134 LXIL Est praeterea arbor ad eadem unguenta pertinens quam alii elaten vocant — quod nos abietem — alii palmam, alii spatham. laudatur Hammoniaca maxime, mox Aegyptia, dein Syriaca, dimitaxat in locis sitientibus odora, pingui lacrima, quae in unguenta additur ad domandum oleum. " The word usually means ' green laver ': here it denotes cluster of catkins. 92 BOOK XII. Lx. i3r-Lxii. 134 bitter and dry to the taste. Omphacium sells at 6 denarii a pound. There is also another way of making it, by pounding up unripe grapes in mortars ; the grapes are afterwards dried in the sun and divided up into lozenges. LXI. To the same family also belongs bryon,'* ob- tained from the catkins of the white poplar. The best kind grows in the neighbourhood of Cnidus or Caria, in waterless districts or on dry rough ground, and a second best quahty grows on the cedar in Lycia. To the same group also belongs oenanthe, obtained from the cluster of the wild vine. It is picked when it flowers, which is the time when it has the best scent, and it is dried in the shade on a Hnen sheet spread out for the purpose, and then put into casks to store. The best kind comes from Parapotamia, the second best from Antiochia and Laodicea in Syria, and the third best from the mountains in Media ; the last kind is more useful for medicines. Some people prefer the kind that grows in the island of C}^rus to all of these. As for the oenanthe produced in Africa it is only used by the doctors, and is called massaris. But all the oenanthe obtained from the white wild vine is superior to that from the black. LXII, There is also another tree that likewise serves for producing unguents, which is called by some people an elate — the Latin for which is ' fir ' — and by others a palm and by others again a spatha. That of Hammonium is most highly spoken of, next the Egyptian variety, and then the Scythian. It only has a scent if it grows in regions devoid of water ; it has tears of a greasy consistency, which are added to unguents to overcome the hardness of the oil. 93 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 135 LXIII. In Syria gignitur et cinnamum quod comacum appellant ; hic est sucus nuci expressus multum a suco illo ^ veri cinnami dilFerens, vicina tamen gratia. pretium in libras asses xxxx. * Fintianus : a susculo aut a surculo. 94 BOOK XII. Lxiii. 135 LXIII. Syria also prodnces the kind of cinnamon called comacum;" this is a juice squeezed out of a nut, and is quite different from the juice of the true cinnamon, although it is almost equally agreeable. Its price is 40 asses a pound. " Possibly nutmeg of the Moluccas, attributed to Syria because ol the traderoute. 95 BOOK XIII LIBER XIII I. Hactenus in odoribus habent pretia silvae, erantque parum ^ per se mira singula, iuvitque luxuriam ^ omnia ea miscere et e cunctis unum 2 odorem facere : ita reperta sunt unguenta. quis primus invenerit non traditur. Iliacis temporibus non erant, nec ture supplicabatur : cedri tantum et citri suorum fruticum et in sacris fumo convolutum nidorem verius quam odorem noverant, iam rosae suco reperto; nominatur enim hic quoque in olei 3 laude. unguentum Persarum gentis esse debet ; iUi madent eo et accersita commendatione inluvie natum virus extingunt. primum, quod equidem inveniam, castris Darii regis expugnatis in reUquo eius apparatu Alexander cepit scrinium unguentorum. postea voluptas eius ^ a nostris quoque inter lautissima * atque etiam honestissima vitae bona admissa est, honosque et ad defunctos pertinere coepit; qua- propter plura de eo dicemus. quae ex his non erunt 1 parum add. ? Mayhoff. ^ Edd. : luxuria. ^ eius ? Mayhoff'. * V.l. laudatissima. » Cf. p. 128, note 6. 98 BOOK XIII I. This is the degree to which the forests are valuable in the matter of scents ; and their various products were not sufficiently remarkable by them- selves, and luxury took pleasure in mixing them all up together and making a single scent out of the combination : thus perfumes were invented. It is Perfumes, not recorded who first discovered them. In the days reiued!^' of the Trojan War they did not exist, and incense was not used when prayers were made to the gods : even in the rites of reUgion people only knew the scent of cedar and citrus wood, trees of their own country, or more truly the reek, as it rose in wreaths of smoke, though attar of roses had ah*eady been discovered,for it also is specified as an ingredient in commending oUve oil. Perfume ought by right to be accredited to the Persian race : they soak themselves in it, and quench the odour produced from dirt by its ad- ventitious attraction. The first case that I am able to discover was when a chest of perfumes was captured by Alexander among the rest of the property of King Darius when his camp was taken. Afterwards the pleasure of perfume was also admitted by our fellow- countrymen as well among the most elegant and also most honourable enjoyments of Hfe, and even began to be an appropriate tribute to the dead ; and consequently we will enlarge on the subject. Those among perfumes which are not the product of 99 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY fruticmn ad praesens nominibus tantum indicabuntur, natura vero eorum suis reddetur locis. 4 II. Unguentis cognomina dedere aliis patriae, aliis suci, aliis arbores, aliis aliae ^ causae ; primiunque id scire convenit, mutata auctoritate et saepius tran- sisse gloriam : laudatissimum fuit antiquitus in Delo insula, postea Mendesium. nec mixtm-a et con- positione tantum hoc accidit, sed iidem suci varie alibi atque alibi praevaluere aut degeneravere. 5 irinum Corinthi diu maxime placuit, postea Cyzici, simiU modo rhodinum PhaseUde,^ quam gloriam abstulere NeapoUs, Capua, Praeneste. crocinum^ SoUs CiUciae diu maxime laudatum est, mox Rhodi ; oenanthinum in Cypro, post Adramytteo, amaracinum in Coo, postea eodem loco praelatum est meUnum, cyprinum in Cypro, deinde in Aegypto, ubi Mende- 6 sium et metopium subito gratius factum est ; mox haec abstuUt Phoenice et cyprini laudem Aegypto reUquit. panathenaicum suum Athenae perse- veranter optinuere. fuerat et pardaUum in Tarso, cuius etiam conpositio et mixtura obUtterata ^ aliae add. Warmington. 2 Rackham : Phaseli. ^ MayhoJJ : crocinum in. But of seeds or plants. BOOK XIII. I. 3-II. 6 shrubs * will for the present only be indicated by their names ; however, an account will be given of their nature in their proper places. II. Perfumes have received their names in some Piaccsof cases from their countries of origin, in others from the °S!gl^^ juices of which they are made, in others from trees, fashion. and in others from other causes ; and the first thing proper to know about them is that their importance changes, quite often their fame having passed away. The perfume most highly praised in the old days was made on the island of Delos, but later that from the Egyptian town of Mendes ranked the highest. Nor was this only the result of the blending and combi- nation of several scents, but the same juices gained supremacy or degenerated in various ways in difFer- ent places. The iris perfume of Corinth was ex- tremely popular for a long time, but afterwards that of Cyzicus, and similarly the attar of roses made at Phasehs, but this distinction was later taken from it by Naples, Capua and Palestrina. Oil of safFron from SoU in CiHcia was for a long time praised most highly, but subsequently that of Rhodes ; vine- flower scent made in Cyprus was preferred, but after- wards that from Adramytteum, and scent of mar- joram made in Cos, but afterwards quince-blossom unguent from the same place, and cyprus-scent made in Cyprus, but subsequently that made in Egypt ; at this point scent from Mendes and almond-oil suddenly became more popular, but later on Phoeni- cia appropriated these two scents and left the credit for cyprus-scent to Egypt. Athens has persistently maintained the credit of her ' all-Athenian ' perfume. There was also once an unguent called panther- scent at Tarsus, even the recipe for compounding lOI PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY est ; narcissinum quoque ex flore narcisso desiit conponi. 7 Ratio faciendi duplex, sucus et corpus ; ille olei generibus fere constat, hoc odorum : haec stymmata vocant, illa hedysmata. tertius inter haec est colos multis neglectus ; huius causa addantur ^ cinnabaris et anchusa. sal adspersus olei naturam coercet ; qui- bus anchusa adiecta est sal non additur. resina aut cummis adiciuntur ad continendum odorem in corpore : celerrime is evanescit atque defluit si non sunt haec addita. 8 Unguentorum expeditissimum fuit primumque, ut verisimile est, e bryo et balanino oleo, de quibus supra diximus. increvit deinde Mendcsium e ^ bala- nino, resina, murra, magisque etiamnum metopium ; ^ oleum hoc est amygdahs amaris expressum in Aegypto, cui addidere omphacium, cardamomum, iuncum, calamum, mel, vinum, murram, semcn 9 balsami, galbanum, resinam terebinthinam. e vilis- simis quidem — hodieque est ob id creditum et id e vetustissimis esse — quod constat oleo myrteo, calamo, cupresso, c}^ro, lentisco, mah granati cortice. scd divulgata maxime unguenta crediderim e * rosa, quae plurima ubique gignitur; itaque simplicissima rho- dini mixtura diu fuit additis omphacio, flore rosae, crocino, cinnabari, calamo, melle, iunco, sahs flore * Rackham : adduntur. - e add. Rackham. ^ Dalec. : metopio. * e add. Rackham. " The plant 'dragon'8-blood.' ' Oil or juice of unripe olives or grapes. I02 BOOK XIII. II. 6-9 which has disappeared ; narcissus-scent has also ceased to be made from the narcissus flower. The recipe for makinxr unffuents contains two Matermis mgredients, tne juice and tne soiid part, the tormer or per/umes. which usually consists of various sorts of oil and the latter of scented substances, the oils being called ' astringents ' and the scents ' sweetenings.' To- gether with these there is a third factor that many people neglect — that of colour, for the sake of which cinnabar " and alkanet should be added. A sprinkle of salt serves to preserve the properties of the oil, but to scents containing an admixture of alkanet salt is not added. Resin or gum are added to retain the scent in the soHd part, as it evaporates and disappears very quickly if these are not added. The unguent most quickly made and probably the Various first invented was made of bryon and behen-oil, 52£^jS. of which we have spoken above. Later the Mendes xii. 108. scent came in, made of behen-oil, resin and myrrh, and at the present day metopium is even more popular ; this is an oil made in Egypt, pressed out of bitter almonds, with the addition of omphacium,* cardamom, rush, flag, lioney, wine, myrrh, seed of balsam, galbanum and terebinth-resin. One of the conmionest unguents indeed — and at the present day it is consequently beheved also to be one of the oldest — is one made of myrtle-oil, reed. cjpress, cyprus, mastic-oil and pomegranate rind. But I am incHned to beheve that the scents most widely used are those made from the rose, which grows in great abundance everywhere ; and so the simplest compound was for a long time that of oil of roses, though additional ingredients used are omphacium, rose and saffron blossoms, cinnabar. reed, honey, 103 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 10 aut anchusa, vino. similis ratio et in crocino, additis cinnabari, anchusa, vino ; similis et in sampsuchino admixtis omphacio, calamo : optimum hoc in Cypro, Mytilenis, ubi plurima sampsuchus. miscentur et viliora genera olei e myrto, lauru, quibus additur sampsuchum, Hlium, fenum Graecum, murra, cassia, 11 nardum, iuncus, cinnamomum. e mahs quoque cotoneis et strutheis fit oleum, ut dicemus, meUnum, quod in unguenta transit admixtis omphacio, cyprino, sesamino, balsamo, iunco, cassia, habrotono. sasi- num tenuissimum omnium cst ; constat ex UHis, 12 balanino, calamo, meUe,^ cinnamo, croco, murra ; et dein ^ cyprinum ex cypro et omphacio et cardamomo, calamo, aspalatho, habrotono ; aUqui etiam ^ cypri- num addunt et murram et panacem: hoc optimum Sidone, mox Aegypto. si vero * addatur sesaminum oleum, durat et quadriennio ; excitatur cinnamomo. 13 TeUnum fit ex oleo recenti, cypro, calamo, meUloto, feno Graeco, meUe, maro, amaraco. hoc multo erat celeberrimum Menandri poetae comici aetate ; postea successit propter gloriam appeUatum megaUum, ex oleo balanino, bal- samo, calamo, iunco, xylobalsamo, cassia, resina. huius proprietas ut ventiletur in coquendo donec ^ Hermolaus : melius. 2 Mayhoff : et idem. ^ etiam ? Mayhoff : et in. * vero ? Mayhoff : non. " Apparently the name is supposed to have come frora li€ya nardi ? Warmington. ' Edd. : coquuntiir. " Iris seems to have fallen out of the list in the last eentence. lo8 BOOK XIII. II. 17-111. 19 oil makes an unguent, provided that the stacte kind xii. 68. is used — otherwise it produces too bitter a flavour. Unguent of cyprus produces a green colour, Hly unguent gives a greasy consistency, oil of Mendes makes the mixture black, attar of roses white, and myrrh gives a pale hue. These are the kinds of perfumes invented in early times, and the subsequent pilferings of the factories. We will now speak of what is the very chmax of luxury and the most important example of this commodity. What then is called the ' royal ' unguent, because 'RoyaV it is a blend prepared for the kings of Parthia, is p^J^"^' made of behen-nut juice, costus, amomum, Syrian cinnamon, cardamom, spikenard, cat-thyme, myrrh, cinnamon-bark, styrax-tree gum, ladanum, balm, Syrian flag and Syrian rush, wild grape, cinnamon- leaf, serichatum, cyprus, cameFs thorn, all-heal, safF- ron, gladiolus, marjoram, lotus, honey and wine. And none of the components of this scent is grown in Italy, the conqueror of the world, and indeed none in the whole of Europe excepting the iris « in Illyria and nard in Gaul — for as to wine and roses and myrtle leaves and oHve oil, they may be taken as belonging to pretty well all countries in common. III. What are called sprinkhng powders are made Howtokeip of dried scents, the dregs of unguents being termed ^*^^"'** * magma.' Among all the scents employed the one added last is the most powerful. Unguents keep best in alabaster boxes, scents when mixed with oil, and the fatter it is, as for instance oil of almonds, the better it helps to preserve them for a long time ; and the unguents themselves improve with age. Sunshine is detrimental to them, and therefore they are stored in the shade, in vessels made of lead. 109 PLINY; NATURAL HISTORY eoruni inversa manu capitur, ne carnosae partis calor vitiet. 20 IV. Haec est niateria luxus e cunctis maxume supervacui ; margaritae enim gemmaeque ad here- dem tamen transeunt, vestes prorogant tempus, unguenta ilico expirant ac suis moriuntur horis. summa commendatio eorum ut transeunte femina odor invitet etiam aliud agentes — exceduntque quad- ringenos X Ubrae ! tanti emitur voluptas aliena, 21 etenim odorem qui gerit ipse non sentit. si tamen et haec aliqua difFerentia signanda sunt, in M. Ciceronis monumentis invenitur unguenta gratiora quae terram quam quae crocum sapiant, quando etiam corruptissimo in genere magis tamen iuvat quaedam ipsius vitii severitas. sed quosdam crassi- tudo maxime delectat spissum appellantes, linique 22 iam, non solum perfundi unguentis gaudent. vidimus etiam vestigia pedum tingui, quod monstrasse M. Othonem Neroni principi ferebant : quaeso,^ qualiter sentiretur iuvaretque ab ea parte corporis ? nec non aUquem e privatis audivimus iussisse spargi parietes balnearum unguento atque Gaium princi- pem solia temperari ac, ne principale videatur hoc ^ Edd. : quaeso ut. BOOK XIII. III. 19-IV. 22 When being tested they are put on the back of the hand, to avoid their being damaged by the warmth of the fleshy part. IV. Perfumes serve the purpose of the most Luxurious superfluous of all forms of luxury ; for pearls and ^^ '^^ "^' jewels do nevertheless pass to the \vearer's heir, and clothes last for some time, but unguents lose their scent at once, and die in the very hour when they are used. Their highest recommendation is that when a woman passes by her scent may attract the attention even of persons occupied in something else — and their cost is more than 400 denarii per pound ! All that money is paid for a pleasure enjoyed by somebody else, for a person carrying scent about him does not smell it himself. Still, if even these matters deserve to be graded after a fashion, we find in the works left by Marcus Cicero that unguents that have an earthy scent are more agreeable than those smeUing of saffron, inasmuch as even in a class of things where corruption is most rife, nevertheless some deffree of strictness in vice itself g;ives more enjoyment. But there are people who get most pleasure from unguent of a dense consistency, which they call * thick essence,' and who enjoy smearing themselves with perfume and not mcrely pouring it over them. We have even seen people put scent on the soles of their feet, a practice said to have been taught to the emperor Nero by Marcus Otho ; pray, how could it be noticed or give any pleasure from that part of the body ? Moreover, we have heard that somebody of private station gave orders for the walls of his bathroom to be sprinkled with scent, and that the Emperor Caligula had the bath- tubs scented, and so also later did one of the slaves IIT PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 23 bonum, et postea quendam e servis Neronis. maxime tamen mirum est hanc gratiam penetrasse et in castra: aquilae certe ac signa, pulverulenta illa et cuspidibus horrida, unguuntur festis diebus, uti- namque dicere possemus quis primus instituisset ! ita est nimirum, hac mercede corruptae orbem terrarum devicere aquilae ! ista patrocinia quaerimus vitiis, ut per hoc ius sub casside unguenta sumantur. 24 V. Quando id primum ad Romanos penetraverit non facile dixerim. certum est Antiocho rege Asia- que devictis urbis anno dlxv P. Licinium Crassum L. lulium Caesarem censores edixisse ne quis ven- deret unguenta ^ exotica : sic enim appellavere. at, 25 Hercules, iam quidam etiam in potus addunt, tantique est amaritudo ut odore prodigo fruatur ex utraque parte corpus.^ L. Plotium, L. Planci bis consulis censorisque fratrem, proscriptum a triumviris m Salernitana latebra unguenti odore proditum constat, quo dedecore tota absoluta proscriptio est ; quis enim non merito iudicet perisse tales ? 26 VI. Cetero terrarum omnium Aegyptus accommo- datissima unguentis, ab ea Campania est copia rosae. ludaea vero incluta est vel magis palmis, quarum natura nunc dicetur. sunt quidem et in Europa volgoque ItaUa, sed steriles. ferunt in maritimis 1 [unguenta] ? (c/. autem Plaut. Most. 42 non omnes possunt olere unguenta exotica) Rackham. 2 V.l. fruantur . . . corporis. " Octavian, Antony and Lepidua, 43 b.c. BOOK XIII. IV. 22-vi. 26 of Nero — so that this must not be considered a privi- lege of princes ! Yet what is most surprising is that this indulgence has found its way even into the camp : at all events the eagles and the standards, dusty as they are and bristhng with sharp points, are anointed on hohdays — and I only wish we were able to say who first introduced this custom ! No doubt the fact is that our eagles were bribed by this reward to conquer the world! We look to their patronage forsooth to sanction our vices, so as to have this legitimation for using hair-oil under a helmet ! V. I could not readilv sav when the use of unffu- introductvjn ■^ of SC€7lt Qt ents first made its way to Rome. It is certain that Uome. in 189 B.c. the censors Pubhus Licinius Crassus and Lucius Juhus Caesar issued a proclamation forbidding any sale of ' foreign essences ' — that being the regular name for them. But, good heavens ! nowa- days some people actually put scent in their drinks, and it is worth the bitter flavour for their body to enjoy the lavish scent both inside and outside. It is a well-known fact that Lucius Plotius, the brother of Lucius Plancus who was twice consul and censor, when proscribed by the Triumvirs « was given away in his hiding-place at Salerno by the scent of the unguent he had been using — a disgrace that acquitted the entire proscription of guilt, for who would not consider that people of that sort deserved to die ? VI. In other respects Egypt is of all the countries Paim-tree in the world the best adapted for the production of ^''^"'' unguents, but Campania with its abundance of roses runs it close. But Judaea is even more famous for its palm-trees, the nature of which will now be described. It is true that there are also palms in Europe, and they are common in Italy, but these are 113 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY Hispaniae fructum, verum inmitem, dulcem in 27 Africa sed statim evanescentem. contra in oriente ex iis vina gentiumque aliquis panis, plurimis vero etiam quadrupedum cibus. quamobrem iure di- centur externae ; nulla est in Italia sponte genita, nec in alia parte terrarum nisi in calida, frugifera 28 vero nusquam nisi in fervida. VII. Gignitur levi sabulosaque terra, maiore in parte et nitrosa. gaudet riguis totoque anno bibere, cum amet sitientia. fimo ^ quidam etiam laedi putant, Assyriorum pars aliqua si non rivis misceat. genera earum plura, et prima fruticem * non excedentia, sterilem hunc, aliubi et ipsum fertilem, brevisque rami. orbe foliorum tectorii vicem hic parietibus plerisque in 29 locis praestat contra aspergines. est et proceriori- bus silva, arbore ex ipsa foUorum aculeo fruticante circa totas pectinatim ; quas silvestres intellegi necesse est, incerta tamen libidine etiam mitioribus se miscent. reliquae teretes atque procerae, densis gradatisque corticum pollicibus aut orbibus faciles ad scandendum orientis se populis praebent vitilem sibi arborique indutis circulum mira pernicitate cum 1 V.l. amet anno sitienti. a fimo. 2 fniticem edd. : frutice. TI4 BOOK XIII. VI. 26-vii. 29 barren. In the coastal regions of Spain they do bear fruit, but it does not ripen, and in Africa the fruit is sweet but will not keep for any time. On the other hand in the east the palm supphes the native races with wine, and some of them with bread, while a very large number rely on it also for cattle fodder. For this reason, therefore, we shall be justified in describ- ing the palms of foreign countries ; there are none in Italy not grown under cultivation, nor are there in any other part of the earth except where there is a warm climate, while only in really hot countries does the palm bear fruit. VII. It grows in a hght sandy soil and for the most part in one containing nitrates. It Ukes running water, and to drink all the year round, though it loves dry places. Some people think that dung actually does it harm, while a section of the Assyrians think that this happens if they do not mix the dung with water from a stream. There are several kinds of pahn, beginning vanetiesnf with kinds not larger than a shrub — a shrub that ^^"^- in some cases is barren, though in other districts it too bears fruit — and having a short branch. In a number of places this shrub-palm with its dome of leaves serves instead of plaster for the walls of a house, to prevent their sweating. Also the taller palms make a regular forest, their pointed foUage shooting out from the actual tree aU round them Uke a comb — these it mastbe understood are wild palms, though they also have a wayward fancy for mingUng among the cultivated varieties. The other kinds are rounded and taU, and have compact rows of knobs or circles in their bark which render them easy for the eastern races to cUmb; they put a plaited noose round themselves and round the tree, and the 115 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 30 homine subeuntem. coma omnis in cacumine et pomum est, non inter folia hoc ut in ceteris sed suis inter ramos pahnitibus racemosum, utraque natura uvae atque pomi. foha cultrato mucrone lateribus in sese bifida tabellas primum demonstravere geminas, nunc ad funes vitihumque nexus et capitum levia mnbracula finduntur. 31 Arboribus, immo potius omnibus quae terra gignat herbisque etiam utrumque esse sexum dihgentissimi naturae tradunt, quod in plenum satis sit dixisse hoc in loco, nullis tamen arboribus manifestius. mas in palmite floret, femina citra florem germinat tantum spicae modo. utrisque autem prima nascitur pomi caro, postea hgnum intus ; hoc est semen eius : argu- mentum quod parvae sine hoc reperiuntur in eodem 32 palmite. est autem oblongum, non ut oHvis orbicu- latum, praeterea caesum a dorso pulvinata fissura, et in alvo media plerisque umbiUcatum : inde primum spargitur radix. seritur autem pronum et bina iuxta composita semina superque totidem, quoniam infirmae ^ singulis plantae,^ quaternae coalescunt. 33 multis candidisque Ugnimi hoc a carnibus discernitur tunicis, aUis corpori adhaerentibus, laxeque distans * infirma e Mayhoff, 2 lan : planta est. ii6 BOOK XIII. VII. 29-33 noose goes up with the man at an astonishingly rapid speed. AU the foliage is at the top of the tree, and so is the fruit, which is not among the leaves as in all other trees, but hanging in bunches from shoots of its own between the branches, and which has the nature of both a cluster and a single fruit. The lcaves have a knife-Hke edge at the sides and are divided into two flanges that fold together ; they first suggested folding tablets for writing, but at the present day they are spHt up to make ropes and plaited wicker-work and parasols. The most devoted students of nature report that Sexofpaims. trees, or rather indeed all the products of the earth fr^^^f^!^ and even grasses, are of both sexes, a fact which it may at this place be sufficient to state in general terms, although in no trees is it more manifest than in the palm. A male palm forms a blossom on the shoot, whereas a female merely forms a bud Hke an ear of corn, without going on to blossom. In both male and female, however, the flesh of the fruit forms first and the woody core afterwards ; this is the seed of the tree — which is proved by the fact that smaH fruits without any core are found on the same shoot. The seed is oblong in shape and not rounded like an oHve-stone, and also it is spHt at the back by a bulging cleft, and in most cases shaped Hke a navel at the middle of the bulge : it is from here that the root first spreads out. In planting the seed is laid front-side downward, and a pair of seeds are placed close to- gether with two more above them, since a single seed produces a weak plant, but the four shoots unite in one strong growth. This woody core is divided from the fleshy parts by a number of white coats, others cHnging closely to its body ; and it is loose and separ- 117 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY tantum cacuminis ^ filo adhaeret. caro maturescit anno ; quibusdam tamen in locis, ut in Cypro, quam- quam ad maturitatem non perveniat, grato sapore dulcis est. folium ibi latius, fructus quam reliquis rotundior, nec ut devoretur corpus, verum ut expua- 34 tur suco modo expresso. et in Arabia languide dulces traduntur esse palmae, quamquam luba apud Scenitas Arabas praefert omnibus saporibus quam vocant dablan. cetero sine maribus non gignere feminas sponte edito nemore confirmant, circaque singulos plures nutare in eum pronas blandioribus 35 comis ; illum erectis hispidum adflatu visuque ipso et pulvere etiam rehquas maritare; huius arbore excisa viduvio ^ post sterilescere feminas. adeoque est veneris intellectus ut coitus etiam excogitatus sit ab homine e maribus flore ac lanugine, interim vero tantum pulvere insperso feminis. 36 VIII. Seruntur autem palmae et trunco duum cubi- torum longitudine a cerebro ipso arboris fissuris diviso atque defosso. et ab radice avolsae vitalis est satus et ramonmfi tenerrimis. in Assyria ipsa quoque arbor strata in solo imiido tota radicatur, sed in frutices, ^ cacumini Gelen. 2 Sillig : biduo et alia. ii8 BOOK XIII. VII. 33-viii. 36 ate, only attached by a thread at its top end. The flesh takes a year to ripen, though in some places, for instance, Cyprus, it has a pleasant sweet flavour even though it does not reach maturity. In Cyprus the leaf is broader and the fruit rounder than it is elsewhere, though people there do not eat the body of the fruit, but spit it out after merely squeezing out the juice. Also in Arabia the palm is said to have a sickly sweet taste, although Juba states that he prefers the palm that grows in the territory of the Tent-dweller Arabs, which they call the dablas, to all other kinds for flavour. For the rest, it is stated that in a palm-grove of natural growth the female trees do not produce if there are no males, and that each male tree is surrounded by several females with more attractive foliage that bend and bow towards liim ; while the male bristhng with leaves erected impregnates the rest of them by his exhalation and by the mere sight of him, and also by his pollen ; and that when the male tree is felled the females afterwards in their widowhood become barren. And so fully is their sexual union understood that mankind has actually devised a mcthod of impregnating them bv means of the flowcr and down collected from the males, and indeed sometimes by merely sprinkhng their pollen on the females. VIII. Palms are also propagated by layering, the Propagatwn trunk for a length of three feet from the actual brain ^^^ingand of the tree being divided by incisions and dug into ^'^'^ , the ground. Also a sHp torn off from the root makes a hardy growth when planted, and so does one from the youngest of the branches. In Assyria the tree itself, too, is laid in a moist soil and throws out roots along its whole length, but these grow into shrubs irg PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY 37 non in arborem ; ergo plantaria instituunt anni- culasque transferunt et iterum bimas, gaudent enim mutatione sedis, verna alibi, in Assyria autem circa canis ortus. nec ferro attingunt ibi novellas, sed religant comas ut in altitudinem exeant. robustas deputant crassitudinis gratia, semipedales ramorum truncos relinquentes, qui decisi alibi necant matrem. 38 diximus salsum ab his solum diligi ; ergo ubi non est tale salem aspergunt, non radicibus sed longius paulo. quaedam in Syria et Aegypto in binos se dividunt truncos, in Creta et in ternos, quaedamque et quinos. ferunt statim in trimatu, in Cypro vero, Syria, Aegj^to, quadrimae, aliae quinquennes, alti- tudine hominis, nullo intus pomi ligno quamdiu sunt novellae, ob id spadonum accepto nomine. 39 IX. Genera earum multa. sterihbus ad materias operumque lautiora utitur Assyria et tota Persis. sunt et caeduae palmarum quoque silvae rursus germinantes ab radice succisae ; dulcis medulla earum in cacimiine, quod cerebrum appellant, exemptaque vivunt, quod non ahae. vocantur autem chamaeropes, foho latiore ac molh ad vitiha ** l.e. forms no seeds. I20 BOOK XIII. VIII. 36-ix. 39 and not into a tree ; consequently the growers plant cuttings, and transplant the young trees when a year old and again when two years old, for they like a change of position — this is done in the spring in other countries, but in Assyria about the rising of the Dog-star. Also there they do not touch the young trees with a knife, but tie back the leafy shoots to make them grow upward to a considerable height. When the trees are strong they prune them down so as to make them grow thicker, leaving the stumps of the branches six inches long ; to lop them at any other point kills the mother tree. We have said 528. above that palms Uke a salt soil ; consequently in places where the ground is not of that nature they sprinkle salt on it, not at the roots of the trees but a httle farther ofF. Some palms in Syria and Egypt divide into two trunks, and in Crete even into three, and some even into five. These begin to bear in three years, but the palms in Cyprus, Syria and Egypt bear when four years old, and others when five, the tree being then the height of a man ; as long as the trees are young the fruit has no woody part inside,^ and consequently they are called ' eunuchs.' IX. Palm-trees are of many varieties. The harren rarietiesof kinds are used in Assyria and throughout the whole of p'^'"'- Persia for building timber and for the more luxuri- ous articles of manufacture. Also there are forests of palms grown for timber which when felled send out shoots again from the root ; the pith of these at the top, which is called their ' brain,' has a sweet taste, and after it has been removed the trees continue to hve, which is not the case with other sorts of palm. The name of this tree is the chamaerops, and it has an exceptionally broad soft leaf which is extremely VOL. TV. T7 '2^ PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY utilissimo, copiosae in Creta, sed magis in Sicilia. 40 e palmis prunae vivaces ignisque lentus. fructi- ferarum aliis brevius lignum in pomo, aliis longius, his molliiLS, illis durius, quibusdam osseum limarum dente contra fascinantes religione politum. aliud pluribus vestitum paucioribusve tunicis, aliud crassi- oribus tenuioribusve. ita fiunt undequinquaginta genera, si quis omnium persequi velit nomina etiam 41 barbara vinorumque ex iis differentias. clarissimae omnium, quas regias appellavere ob honorem, quoniam regibus tantum Persidis servabantur, Baby- lone natae uno in horto Bagou : ita vocant spadones, qui apud eos etiam regnavere. hortus ille numquam nisi dominantis in aula fuit. 42 At in meridiano orbe praecipuam optinent nobiH- tatem syagri proximamque margarides. hae breves, candidae, rotundae, acinis quam balanis simiHores, quare et nomen a margaritis accepere. una earum arbor in Chora esse traditur, una et syagrorum, mi- rumque de ea accipimus, cum phoenice ave, quae putatur ex huius palmae argumento nomen accepisse, intermori ac renasci ex seipsa, eratque, cum prode- * The fabulous bird from Arabia (Herodotus) or India (Philostratus) : ^oin^, ' date-palm.' ' BOOK XIII. i.x. 39-42 useful for wicker-work ; it grows in large numbcrs in Crete, but even more in Sicily. Palmwood makes charcoal that lasts a long time and burns slowly. In the pahiis that bear fruit the core of the fruit is shorter in some cases than in others and also softer ; in some cases it is of a bony substance, and when poHshed with the edge of a file is used by superstition as a charm against witchcraft. The core is wrapped in several coats which in some cases vary in number and in others in thickness. Consequently there are forty-nine kinds of palm, if one cared to go through the names of them all, including those that have foreign names, and the varieties of wine that are extracted from them. The most famous of all is honoured by the name of the royal palm, because it used to be reserved for the kings of Persia alone ; it grew only at Babylon in the Garden of Bagous — the Persian word for a eunuch, some of these having actually been kings in Persia. This garden was always kept within the precincts of the ruler's court. In the southern part of the world the kind called VaHetiesof in Greek the wild-boar date is held in the highest '^^'"* repute, and next to it ranks the Maldive nut date. The latter is a short, rounded fruit of a white colour, more Uke a grape than a Phoenician date, for which reason it has also received the name of pearl- date. It is said that only one palm-tree of this kind exists, at Chora, and the same is the case with the wild-boar date ; and a remarkable story has come to us about this tree, to the effect that it dies off and then comes to life again of itself — a peculiarity which it shares with the phoenix," which is thought to have taken its name fromthe suggestion of thispalm- tree : the tree was bearing fruit at the time when 123 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 43 rem, fertilis. pomum ipsum grande, durum, horri- dum et a ceteris generibus distans sapore quodam ferinae in apris evidentissimo, quae causa nominis. quarta auctoritas sandalidum a similitudine appella- tarum ; iam in Aethiopiae fine quinque harum qui plurimas arbores tradunt, non raritate magis quam 44 suavitate mirabiles. ab his caryotae maxime cele- brantur, et cibo quidem sed et suco uberrimae, ex quibus praecipua vina orienti, inimica ^ capiti, unde pomo nomen. sed ut copia ibi atque fertiUtas, ita nobilitas in ludaea, nec in tota sed Hiericunte maxime quamquam laudata et Archelaide et Phaselide atque Liviade, gentis eiusdem convallibus. dos iis prae- cipua suco pingui lactentibus quodamque vini 45 sapore ut ^ in melle praedulci. sicciores ex hoc genere nicolai, sed ampUtudinis praecipuae, quaterni cubitorum longitudinem efficiunt. minus speciosae sed sapore caryotarum sorores et ob hoc adelphides dictae proximam suavitatem habent, non tamen eandem. tertium ex his genus, patetae, nimio hquore abundat rumpitque se pomi ipsius etiam in sua matre ebrietas, calcatis similis. 46 Suum genus e sicciore turba dactyhs, praelonga ^ Mueller : iniqua. * ut add. Eackham. " Really meaning ' nut-shaped,' but supposed to be from Kapa and vwSrjs and to mean 'pig-headed.' * Called from Nicolaus of Damascus a Peripatetic philoso- pher, who, when visiting Rome with Herod the Great, pre- sented the finest dates procurable to Augustus : Athenaeus XIV. 22. ' More probably the name was due to their growing in pairs on the same stalk. 124 BOOK XIII. IX. 42-46 this book was published. The actual fruit is large, hard and prickly, and difFers from all the other kinds by having a gamey sort of smell that is most noticed in wild boars, which is the reason for its name. The sandahs date, so called from its resemblance to a sandal, ranks fourth ; of this kind again there are said to be at the most five trees in existence, on the border of Ethiopia, and they are as remarkable for the sweetness of their fruit as they are for their rarity. Next to these the most famous are the car}'otae, which supply a great deal of food but also of juice, and from which the principal wines of the East are made ; these strongly affect the head, to which the date owcs its name.'^ But not only are these trees abundant and bear largely in Judaea, but also the most famous are found there, and not in the whole of that country but specially in Jericho, although those growing in the valleys of Archelais and Phasehs and Li^-ias in the same country are also highly spoken of. Their outstanding property is the unctuous juice which they exude and an extremely sweet sort of wine-flavour hke that of honey. The Nicholas date ^ belonging to this class is not so juicy but exceptionally large in size, four put end to end making a length of eighteen inches. The date that comes next in sweetness is less attractive to look at, but in flavour is the sister of the caryotae and consequently is called in Greek the sister-date."^ The third class among these, the pateta, has too copious a supply of juice, and the excess of hquor of the fruit itself bursts open even while on the parent tree, looking hke dates that have been trodden on. Of the many drier dates the finger-date forms a class of its own : it is a very long slender date, 125 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY gracilitate curvatis interim. quos ^ ex his hoiiori deorum damus chydaeos appellavit ludaea, gens 47 contumelia numinum insignis. in totimi arentes Thebaidi atque Arabiae macroque corpore exiles, et adsiduo vapore torrente crustam verius quam cutem obducunt. in ipsa quidem Aethiopia friatur haec — tanta est siccitas — et farinae modo spissatur in panem. gignitur autem in frutice ramis cubitali- bus foUo latiore, pomo rotundo sed maiore quam mali amplitudine, coecas vocant ; triennio matu- rescunt, semperque frutici pomum est subnascente 48 alio. Thebaidis fructus extemplo in cados conditur cum sui ardoris anima ; ni ita fiat, celeriter expirat marcescitque non retostus furnis. E rehquo genere plebeiae videntur Syriae ^ quas tragemata appellant ; nam in alia parte Phoenices CiUciaeque populari etiam nomine a nobis appellantur 49 balani. eorum quoque pkira genera ; differunt figura rotunditatis aut proceritatis, difi^erunt et colore, nigriores ac rubentes : nec pauciores fico traduntur colores, maxime tamen placent candidi. distant et magnitudine, prout multi cubitum effecere, quidam sunt non ampUores faba. servantur hi demum qui nascuntur in salsis atque sabulosis, ut in ^ Detlefsen : nam quas (namque uvas Mueller). 2 Rackham : Syriae et. " x^^Sttto?, common, vulgar. * See p. 134, note 6. 126 BOOK XIII. IX. 46-49 sometimes of a curved shape. The variety of this class which \ve ofFer to the honour of the gods is called chydaeus « by the Jews, a race remarkable for their contempt for the divine powers. All over the Thebaid and Arabia the dates are dry and small, with a shrivelled body, and as they are scorched by the continual heat their covering is more truly a rind than a skin. Indeed in Ethiopia itself the cHmate is so dry that the skin of these dates is rubbed into ^owder and kneaded to make loaves of bread Hke flour. This date grows on a shrub,^ with branches eighteen inches long, a rather broad leaf, and fruit of a round shape, but larger than the size of an apple. The Greek name for this date is koix ; it comes to maturity in three years, and the shrub always has fruit on it, another date sprouting in place of one picked. The date of the Thebaid is packed into casks at once, before it has lost the aroma of its natural heat ; if this is not done, it quickly loses its freshness and dries up unless it is warmed up again in an oven. Of the rest of tlie date kind the Syrian variety, called sweetmeats, seem to be a low-class fruit ; for those in the other part of Phoenicia and Cihcia have the local name of acorn-dates, also used by us. These too are of several kinds, differing in shape, some rounder and others longer, and also in colour, some being blacker and others reddish ; indeed, they are reported to have as many varieties of colour as the fig, though the white ones are the most in favour. They also differ in size, many having reached half a yard in length while some are no larger than a bean. The best kinds for keeping are those that grow in salt and sandy soils, for instance 127 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY ludaea atque Cyrenaica Africa, non item in Aegypto, Cypro, Syria, Selcucia Assyriae, quamobrem sues et 50 reliqua animalia iis ^ saginantur. vitiati aut vetusti eius pomi signum est decidisse candidam verrucam qua racemo adhaeserint. Alexandri milites palmis viridibus strangulati sunt ; in Gedrosis id factum est pomi genere, alibi copia evenit, est enim tanta suavitas musteis ut finis mandendi non nisi periculo fiat. 51 X. Syria praeter hanc pecuhares habet arbores: in nucum genere pistacia nota — prodesse adversus serpentium morsus traduntur et potu et cibo — in ficorum autem Caricas et minores eiusdem generis quas cottana vocant, item pruna in Damasco raonte nata et myxas, utramque iam famiUarem Italiae. e myxis in Aegypto et vina fiunt. 52 XI. lunipiri similem habet Phoenice cedrum mino- rem. duo eius genera, Lycia et Phoenicia,difFerunt foHo ; nam quae durum, spinosum, acutum habet oxy- cedros vocatur, ramosa et nodis infesta altera, odore praestans. fructum ferunt myrti magnitudine, dul- 53 cem sapore. et maioris cedri duo genera ; quae floret fructum non fert, fructifera non floret, et in ea antecedentem fructum occupat novus. semen eius cupresso simile. quidam cedrelaten vocant. ex hac * iis? Maylioff: ex iis. * Damson (Damascene). ^ Cedrus usually = prickly juniper, but here the Phoenician cedar is also described and is elsewhere sometimes referred to. 128 BOOK XIII. IX. 49-xi. S3 in Judaea and the Gyrenaic district of Africa ; the dates in Egypt, Cyprus, Syria and Seleucia in Assyria do not keep, and consequently are used for fattening swine and other stock. It is a sign that the fruit is spoilt or old if the white excrescence by which the dates are attached to the cluster has fallen off. Soldiers of Alexander were choked by eating green dates ; this effect was produced in the Gedrosi country by the quahty of the fruit, and occurs elsewhere from eating it to excess, for fresh dates are so sweet that people will not stop eating them except because of the danger. X. Syria has several trees that are pecuhar to it other Synan beside this date ; in the class of nuts the pistachio is ■^'""" ""^^** well-known : it is reported that taken either in food or in drink it is a remedy for snake-bite. In the fig class Syria has the Carians and smaller flgs of the same class called cottana, also the plum « that grows on Mount Damascus and the myxa, both now accHma- tized in Italy. In Egypt the myxa is also used for making wine. XI. Phoenicia has a small variety of cedar that re- Tfw sembles a juniper. It is of two kinds, the Lycian and ce^r. the Phoenician, which have different leaves ; the one with a hard, prickly, pointed leaf is called the oxycedros, while the other is a branchy tree and the wood is full of knots and has a better scent. They bear fruit the size of a myrtle-berry, with a sweet taste. The larger cedar also has two kinds, of which the flowering one bears no fruit, while the one that bears fruit does not flower, and in its case the previous fruit is replaced by a new one. Its seed is Hke that of the c}^ress. Some people caU this tree the cedar- pine. From it is obtained the resin held in the highest 129 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY resina laudatissima ; materiae vero ipsi aeternitas, itaque et simulacra deorum ex ea factitaverunt : cedrinus est Romae in delubro Apollo Sosianus Seleucia advectus. cedro similis in Arcadia est arbor, in Phrygia frutex vocatur cedrys. 54 XII. Syria et terebinthum habet. ex iis mascula est sine fructu, feminarum duo genera: alteri fructus rubet lentis magnitudine, alteri pallidus cum vite maturcscit, non grandior faba, odore iucundior, tactu osus. resincirca Iden Troadis et in Macedonia brevis arbor haec atque fruticosa, in Damasco Syriae magna. materies ei admodum lenta ac fideUs ad vetustatem, nigri splendoris, flos racemosus olivae modo, sed rubens, folia densa. fert et folUculos emittentes quaedam animalia ceu culices lentoremque 55 resinosum qui et ex cortice erumpit. XIII. Et rhus Syriae mascula fert steriU femina, foUo ulmJ paulo longiore et piloso, foUorum semper inter se contrariis pedicuUs, graciU brevique ramo. peUes candidae conficiuntur iis. semen lenti simile cum uva rubescit, quod vocatur rhus, medicamentis necessarium. 56 XIV. Et Aegypto multa genera quae non aUubi, ante omnia ficus ob id Aegyptia cognominata. " By Gaius Sosius, quacstor 66 b.c, who later held commands in the east under Antony. 130 BOOK XIII. XI. 53-xiv. 56 favour, while its actual timber lasts for ever, and conscquently it has been the regular practice to use it even for making statues of the gods — the Apollo Sosianus in a shrine at Rome, which was brought" from Seleucia, is made of cedar-wood. There is a tree resembhng the cedar in Arcadia, and a shrub in Phrygia is called the cedrys. XII. Syria also has the turpentine-tree. Of this The the male variety has no fruit, but the female has two '^^^'"'^- kinds of fruit, one of them ruddy and the si;^e of a lentil, while the other is pale, and ripens at the same time as the grape ; it is no larger in size than a bean, has a rather agreeable scent, and is sticky to the touch. Round \Iount Ida in the Troad and in Mace- donia this is a low-growing shrub-Hke tree, but at Damascus in Syria it is big. Its wood is fairly flexible and remains sound to a great age ; it is of a shiny black colour. The flower grows in clusters hke the ohve, but is crimson in colour, and the foUage is thick. It also bears foUicles out of which come insects resem- bhng gnats, and which produce a sticky resinous fluid which also bursts out from its bark. XIII. Also the The male sumach-tree of S}Tia is productive, the female ^"'"^ being barren ; the leaf is that of an elm only a Uttle longer, covered with down, and the footstalks of the leaves ahvays lying alternately in opposite directions ; the branches are slender and short. The sumach is used for bleaching leather. The seed, which re- sembles a lentil, turns red at the same time as the grapes ; it is caUed rhus and is required for certain drugs. XIV. Egypt ako has many kinds of trees not found The anywhere else, before aU a fig, which is consequently ^^^ '"" '^" caUed the Eg}-ptian fig. The tree resembles a mul- 131 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY arbor moro similis folio, magnitudine, aspectu, pomum fert non ramis sed caudice ipso, idque ficus est praedulcis sine granis interioribus, perquam fecundo proventu, scalpendo tantum ferreis unguibus, 57 aliter non maturescit ; sed cum hoc factum est, quarto die demetitur alio subnascente, septeno ita numerosa p.-irtu per singulas aestates, item ^ multo lacte abundante. subnascitur, etiamsi non scalpatur, fetus quater aestate prioremque expellit immaturum. materies proprii generis inter utilissimas. caesa statim stagnis mergitur [hoc est eius siccari]^ et primo sidit, postea fluitare incipit, certoque eam sugit alienus umor qui aliam omnem rigat. cum innatare coeperit, tempestivae habet signum. 58 XV. Huic similis quadamtenus quae vocatur Cypria ficus in Creta ; nam et illa ^ caudice ipso fert pomum et ramis cum in crassitudinem adolevere. sed haec germen emittit sine ullis foliis radici simile. caudex arboris similis populo, folium ulmo. fructus quater- nos fundit, totiens et germinat, sed grossus eius non maturescit nisi incisura emisso lacte. suavitas et interiora fici, magnitudo sorbi. 59 XVI. Similis et quam lones ceroniam * vocant, trunco et ipsa fertiUs — pomum ^ siliqua — ob id 1 item? Mayhoff: ita {om. v.l.). " Secl. Rackham (est eis Dalec). 3 V.l. ipsa. * Edd. e Theophr. : ceraunia. ^ V.l. sed pomum. BOOK XIII. XIV. 56-xvi. 59 berry in foliage, size and appearance ; it bears its fruit not on the branches but on the trunk itself, and this is an exceedingly sweet fig without seeds inside it. There is an extremely prolific yield, but only if incisions are made in the fruit with iron hooks, other- wise it does not ripen ; but when this is done, it can be plucked three days later, another fig forming in its place, the tree thus scoring seven crops of ex- tremely juicy figs in a summer. Even if the incisions are not made new fruit forms under the old and drives out its predecessor before it is ripe four times in a summer. The wood of this fig is of a pecuUar kind, and is one of the most useful there is. As soon as it is cut it is plunged into a marsh, and at first sinks to the bottom, but afterwards begins to float, and it is clear that moisture not belonging to it, which soaks into all other timber, drains the sap out of this. When it begins to float on the surface, this is its sign that the timber is ready for use. XV. A tree to some extent resembUng the Egyptian The Cypria fig is one in Crete caUed the Cyprian fig, as it also ^' bears fruit on its actual trunk and on its branches when they have grown to thickness. But the Cj^rian fig puts out a bud without any leaves, resembUng a root. The trunk of the tree is Uke a poplar, and the leaf Uke an ehn. It bears fruit four times a year, and also buds the same number of times, but its unripe figs wiU not ripen unless an incision is made in them to let out the juice. They have the sweet taste and the inside of the common fig, and are the size of a service-tree berry. XVI. Another similar tree is the one caUed by st. John's the lonians the ceronia, which also buds from the '""^'^ trunk, the fruit being a pod, which has consequently PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY quidam Aegyptiam ficum dixere errore manifesto ; non enim in Aegypto nascitur sed in Syria loniaque et circa Cnidum atque in Rhodo, semper comantibus foliis, flore candido cum vehementia odoris, plantigera imis partibus et ideo superficie flavescens, sucum auferente subole. pomo antecedentis anni circa canis ortus detracto statim alterum parit, postea floret per arcturum, hieme fetus eius nutriente. 60 XVIL Aegyptus et perseam ^ arborem sui generis habet, similem piro, foUa retinentem. fertiUtas adsidua eius, subnascente crastino fructu, maturitas etesiarum adflatu. pomum longius piro, inclusum amygdalae putamine et corio colore herbido, sed ubi nux iUi, huic prunum differens brevitate ac moUitia et, quamvis blandiatur praedulcis suavitas, innocuum. 61 materies bonitate, firmitudine, nigritia quoque nihil differens a loto ; simulacra et ex ea factitavere. non eadem gratia quamquam fideU materiae ex arbore quam balanum appeUavimus, magna ex parte contor- 62 ta ; navaUs itaque tantum est. XVIII. At e diverso cuci in magno honore, pahnae simiUs, quando et eius foUis utuntur ad textiUa; differt quod in bracchia ramorum spargitur. pomo magnitudo quae manum ^ Edd. e Theophr. : Persicum. * The Mimusops Schimperi. * Hyphaene thebaica. 134 BOOK XIII. XVI. 59-.\viii. 62 been called by some the Egyptian fig. But this is clearly a mistake, as it does not grow in Egypt but in Syria and lonia. and also in the neighbourhood of Cnidus and on the island of llhodes. It is always in fuU foHage, and it has a white flower with a powerful scent. It sends out shoots at the lower parts, and consequently is of a yellow colour above ground, as the suckers drain away the sap. If the fruit of the preceding year is picked about the rising of the Dog- star, it at once grows a second crop, after which it blossoms through the period of the Bear-ward, and the winter nourishes its fruit. XVII. Egypt also possesses a tree of a peculiar kind Egyptian called the persea,'^ which resembles a pear but is an p^sea, evergreen. It bears fruit without intermission, as^^J^-'^'^' when it is plucked a fresh crop sprouts the next day, but its season for ripening is when the midsummer winds are blowing. The fruit is longer than a pear, and is enclosed in a shell Hke an almond and a rind the colour of grass, but where the almond has a kernel this has a plum, which differs from an almond kernel in being short and soft, and although tempt- ingly sweet and luscious, is quite wholesome. The wood is just like that of the lotus for goodness and soundness and also in its black colour, and it too has liabitually been used for making statues. The timber of the tree we have mentioned called the § ^^- behen-nut, although rehable, is not so highly valued, as a large proportion of it has a twisted grain, so it is only used for ship-building. XVTII. But on the con- trarv the cuci ^ is in great esteem ; this tree re- sembles a palm in that its leaves are also used for textiles, but it differs because it spreads out into branches Hke arms. The fruit is of a size that fills ^35 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY impleat, colos fulvus, commendabili suco ex austero dulci. lignum intus grande firmaeque duritiae, ex quo velares detornant anulos ; in eo nucleus dulcis dum recens est : siccatus durescit ad infmitum ut mandi non possit nisi sit ^ pluribus diebus maceratus. materies crispioris elegantiae et ob id Persis gratissima. 63 XIX. Nec minus spina celebratur in eadem gente dumtaxat nigra, quoniam incorrupta etiam in aquis durat, ob id utilissima navium costis; e^ candida^ facile putrescunt. aculei spinarum et in foliis, semen in siliquis quo coria perficiunt gallae vice. flos et coronis iucundus et medicamentis utilis ; manat et cummis ex ea. sed praecipua utilitas quod caesa anno tertio resurgit. circa Thebas haec, ubi et quercus et persea et oliva, ccc a Nilo stadiis silvestri tractu 64 et suis fontibus riguo. Ibi et prunus Aegyptia, non dissimihs spinae proxime dictae, pomo mespili, matu- rescens bruma nec foUa demittens. lignum in pomo grande, sed corpus ipsum natura et copia messium instar incoUs; purgatum enim tundunt servantque 65 eius ofFas. silvestris fuit et circa Memphin regio tam vastis arboribus ut terni non quirent circumplecti, ^ Mayhojf : nisi si. 2 e add. ? Mayhoff. ^ V.l. candide {edd. candidae). 136 BOOK XIII. XVIII. 62-xix. 65 the hand; its colour is yellow and its juice has an attractive sweet taste, with a touch of astringency. It has a large and very hard shell inside, which is iLsed by turners for making curtain-rings, and inside the shell is a kernel which has a sweet taste while fresh, but which when dried goes on getting continually harder and harder, so that it can only be eaten after being soaked in water for several days. The wood has a rather uneven grain that is most attractive, and it is consequently very much admired by the Persians. XIX. Also thorn-wood is equally esteemed in the same country, that is, the wood of a black thorn, as it lasts without decaying even in Mater, and is conse- quently extremely serviceable for the ribs of ships ; timbers made of a white thorn rot easily. It has sharp thorns even on the leaves, and seed in pods that is used instead of oak-galls in dressing leather. The blossom has a pleasing effect in garlands and also makes a valuable medicine ; also the tree distils gum. But its most valuable property is that when cut do\\Ti it shoots up again two years later. This thorn grows in the neighbourhood of Thebes, where oak, persea and olive are also found, in a forest region nearly 40 miles from the Nile, watered by springs that rise in it. This region also contains the Egyptian plum-tree, which is not unUke the thorn last men- tioned; its fruit resembles a medlar, and ripens in the winter, and the tree is an evergreen. The fruit contains a large stone, but the fleshy part, owing to its nature and to the abundance in which it grows, provides the natives with quite a harvest, as after cleaning it they crush it and make it into cakes for storage. There was also once a forest region round Memphis with such huge trees that three men could 137 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY uniiis peculiari miraculo, nec pomum propter usumve aliquem, sed eventum : facies est spinae, folia habet ceu pinnas quae tactis ab homine ramis cadunt pro- tinus ac postea renascuntur. 66 XX. Cummim optimam esse ex Aeg)^tia spina convenit, vermiculatam, colore glauco, puram, sine cortice, dentibus adhaerentem ; pretium eius in hbras X iii. deterior ex amygdahs amaris et ceraso, 67 pessima e prunis. fit et in vitibus infantium ulceribus aptissima, et ahquando in olea dentium dolori, ulmo etiam in Coryco monte Cihciae ac iunipiro ad nihil utiles, ex ulmi vero cummi et cuhces ibi nascuntur. fit et e sarcocoUa — ita vocatur et ^ arbor et cummis — utihssima pictoribus ac medicis, simihs pohini turis, et ideo candida quam rufa mehor ; pretium eius quod supra. 68 XXI. Nondum pahistria attigimus nec frutices am- nium. prius tamen quam digrediamur ab Aegypto et papyri natura dicetur,cum chartae usu maxime huma- 69 nitas vitae constet,certe memoria. et hanc Alexandri Magni victoria repertam auctor est M. Varro, condita in Aegypto Alexandria ; antea non fuisse chartarum 1 et add. Rackham. " The Persian Penata sarcocolla. 138 BOOK XIII. XIX. 65-xxi. 69 not join hands round the trunks ; and one of them was particularly remarkable, not because of its fruit or its utiUty for some purpose, but on account of the circumstance that it has the appearance of a thorn, but leaves resembUng wings, which when somebody touches the branches at once fall off and afterwards sprout again. XX. It is agreed that the Egyptian thorn suppHes EgypHan the best kind of gum ; it is of a streaked appearance, ^"'"* grey in colour, clean and free from bark, and it sticks to the teeth ; its price is 3 denarii per pound. The gum produced from the bitter almond and the cherry is inferior, and that from plum-trees is the worst kind of all. A gum also forms in the vine which is extremely valuable for children's sores, and the gum sometimes found in the oUve-tree is good for toothache; but the gums also found in the ekn on Mount Corycus in CiUcia and in the juniper are of no use for anything, indeed elm-tree gum there even breeds gnats. Also a gum exudes from the sarcocoUa " — that is the name of the tree and also of the gum — which is extremely useful both to painters and to medical men ; it resembles incense dust, and for the purposes men- tioned the white kind is better than the red ; its price is the one mentioned above. XXI. \Ve have not yet touched on the marsh-plants Papynis: nor the shrubs that grow by rivers. But before we pa^!*^'^ leave Egypt we shall also describe the nature of papvrus, since our civiUzation or at aU events our records depend very largely on the employment of paper. According to Marcus Varro we ow^e even the discovery of paper to the victory of Alexander the Great, when he founded Alexandria in Egypt,before which time paper was not used. First of aU people 139 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY usum. in palmarum foliis primo scriptitatum, dein quarundam arborum libris, postea publica monu- menta plumbeis voluminibus, mox et privata linteis confici coepta aut ceris : pugillarium enim usum fuisse etiam ante Troiana tempora invenimus apud Homerum, illo vero prodente ne terram quidem ipsam, quae nunc Aegyptus intellegitur, cum in Sebennytico et Saitico nomis ^ charta nascatur, postea 70 adaggeratam Nilo, siquidem a Pharo insula, quae nunc Alexandriae ponte iungitur, noctis dieique vehfico navigii cursu terram afuisse prodidit. mox, aemulatione circa bibhothecas regum Ptolemaei et Eumenis, supprimente chartas Ptolemaeo, idem Varro membranas Pergami tradit repertas ; postea pro- miscue patuit usus rei qua constat immortahtas hominum. 71 XXII. PapyrumergonasciturinpalustribusAegypti aut quiescentibus Nih aquis ubi evagatae stagnant duo cubita non excedente altitudine gurgitum, bracchiali radicis obhquae crassitudine, trianguhs lateribus, decem non amphus cubitorum longitudine in gracih- tatem fastigatum, thyrsi modo cacumen includens, nullo semine aut usu eius aho quam floris ad deos 72 coronandos. radicibus incolae pro hgno utuntur, nec ignis tantum gratia sed ad aha quoque utensiha vasorum ; ex ipso quidem papyro navigia texunt et e * Warmington : Saite eius nomo omnis {fortasse recte). " Pergamena, Hepyafirjvri. ^" A rod carried by worshippers of Bacchus, topped by a fir-cone or a chister of grapes or figs. ' As a matter of fact it has a seed, though not easily perceptible. 140 BOOK XIII. XXI. 69-xAii. 72 used to write on palm-leaves and then on the bark of certain trees, and afterwards folding sheets of lead began to be employed for official muniments, and then also sheets of Hnen or tablets of wax for private documents ; for we find in Homer that the //. vi. ig8. use of writing-tablets existed even before theTrojan period, but when he was ^\Titing even the hind itself which is now thought of as Egypt did not exist as such, while now paper grows in the Sebennytic and Saitic nomes of Egypt, the land having been subsequently heaped up by the Nile, inasmuch as Homer wrote that the island of Pharos, which is now joined to Alexan- dria by a bridge, was twenty-four hours' distance by sailing-ship from the land. Subsequently, also according to Varro, when owing to the rivalry be- tween King Ptolemy and King Eumenes about their libraries Ptolemy suppressed the export of paper, parchment " was invented at Pergamum ; and after- wards the employment of the material on which the immortahty of human beings depends spread indis- criminately. XXII. Papyrus then grows in the swamps of Egypt Papyru» or else in the sluggish waters of the Nile where they ^otm. have overflowed and he stagnant in pools not more than about three feet in depth ; it has a sloping root as thick as a man's arm, and tapers gracefully up with triangular sides to a length of not more than about 15 feet, ending in a head Hke a thyrsus * ; it has no seed,<^ and is of no use except that the flowers are made into wreaths for statues of the gods. The roots are employed by the natives for timber, and not only to serve as firewood but also for making various utensils and vessels; indeed the pap^Tus itself is plaited to make boats, and the inner bark is 141 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY libro vela tegetesque, nec non et vestem, etiam stragula ac funes. mandunt quoque crudum de- coctumque, sucum tantum devorantes. 73 Nascitur et in Syria circa quem odoratus ille calamus lacum, neque aliis usus est quam inde funibus rex Antigonus in navalibus rebus, nondum sparto communicato. nuper et in Euphrate nascens circa Babylonem papyrum intellectum est eundem usum habere chartae ; et tamen adhuc malunt Parthi vestibus Htteras intexere, 74 XXIII. Praeparatur ex eo charta diviso acu in prae- tenues sed quam latissimas philyras ^ ; principatus medio, atque inde scissurae ordine. prima ^ hiera- tica appellabatur antiquitus rehgiosis tantum volu- minibus dicata, quae adulatione Augusti nomen accepit, sicut secunda Liviae a coniuge eius : ita 75 descendit hieratica in tertium nomen. proximum amphitheatricae ^ datum fuerat a confecturae loco. excepit hanc Romae Fanni sagax officina, tenua- tamque curiosa interpolatione principalem fecit e plebeia et nomen ei dedit; quae non esset ita re- 76 curata in suo mansit amphitheatrica.^ post hanc 1 fibras Birt. ^ prima add. Birt. 3 V.ll. amphitheatriticae, amphitheatritica. * The amphitheatre of Alexandria. 142 BOOK XIII. XXII. 72-xxiii. 76 woven into sail-cloth and matting, and also cloth, as well as blankets and ropes. It is also used as chewing-gum, both in the raw state and when boiled, though only the juice is swallowed. Papyrus also grows in Syria on the borders of the lake round which grows the scented flag already xii. 104 mentioned, and King Antiochus would only allow ropes made from this Syrian papyrus to be used in his navy, the employment of esparto not yet having become general. It has recently been realized that papyrus growing in the Euphrates near Babylon can also be used in the same way for paper ; nevertheless up to the present the Parthians prefer to embroider letters upon cloths. XXIII. The process of making paper from papyrus Manufactwe is to spht it with a needle into very thin strips made ^^p^p^- as broad as possible, the best quahty being in the centre of the plant, and so on in the order of its sphtting up. The first quaUty used to be called ' hieratic paper ' and was in early times devoted solely to books connected with rehgion, but in a spirit of flattery it was given the name of Augustus, just as the second best was called ' Livia paper ' after his consort, and thus the name ' hieratic ' came down to the third class. The next quahty had been given the name of * amphitheatre paper,' from the place of its manufacture.« This paper was taken over by the clever workshop of Fannius at Rome, and its texture was made finer by a careful process of insertion, so that it was changed from common paper into one of first-class quahty, and received the name of the maker ; but the paper of this kind that did not have this additional treatment remained in its own class as amphitheatre paper. Next to this 143 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY Saitica ab oppido ubi maxima fertilitas, ex vilioribus ramentis, propiorque etiamnum cortici Taeneotica a vicino loco, pondere iam haec, non bonitate, venalis. nam emporitica inutilis scribendo involucris chartarum segestribusque mercium ^ usum praebet, ideo a mercatoribus cognominata. post hanc papyrum est extremumque eius scirpo simile ac ne funibus quidem nisi in umore utile. 77 Texitur omnis madente tabula Nili aqua : turbidus Hquor vim glutinis praebet. in rectum primo supina tabulae schida adUnitur longitudine papyri quae potuit esse resegminibus utrimque amputatis, tra- versa postea crates peragit. premitur ergo prelis, et siccantur sole plagulae atque inter se iunguntur, proximarum semper bonitatis deminutione ad deterri- mas. numquam plures scapo quam vicenae. 78 XXIV. Magna in latitudine earum difFerentia: XIII digitorum optimis, duo detrahuntur hieraticae, Fanniana denos habet, et uno minus amphitheatrica,^ pauciores Saitica nec malleo sufficit, nam emporiticae brevitas sex digitos non excedit. praeterea spec- tantur in chartis tenuitas, densitas, candor, levor. 79 primatum mutavit Claudius Caesar. nimia quippe ^ Rackkam (merciumque segestribus ? Mayhoff) : seges- triumque mercibus. 2 V.ll. amphitheatriticae, amphitheatritica. 144 BOOK XIII. XXIII. 76-xxiv. 79 is the Saitic paper named from the town where it is prodiiced in the greatcst abundance, being made from shavings of inferior quality, and the Taeneotic, from a neigh])ouring place, made from material still nearer the outside skin,in the case of which we reach a variety that is sold by mere weight and not for its quahty. As for what is called ' emporitic ' paper, it is no good for writing but serves to provide covers for documents and wrappers for merchandise, and consequently takes its name from the Greek word for a merchant. After this comes the actual papyrus, and its outer- most layer, which resembles a rush and is of no use even for making ropes except those used in water. Paper of all kinds is ' woven ' on a board moistened with water from the Nile, muddy Hquid supplying the effect of glue. First an upright layer is smeared on to the table, using the full length of papyrus available after the trimmings have been cut off at both ends, and afterwards cross strips complete the lattice-work. The next step is to press it in presses, and the sheets are dried in the sun and then joined together, the next strip used always diminishing in quahty down to the worst of all. There are never more than twenty sheets to a roll. XXIV. There is a great difference in the breadth yarieiieso/ of the various kinds of paper : the best is thirteen inches wide, the hieratic two inches less, the Fannian measures ten inches and the amphitheatre paper one less, while the Saitic is still fewer inches across and is not as wide as the mallet used in making it, as the emporitic kind is so narrow that it does not exceed six inches. Other points looked at in paper are fineness, stoutnoss, whiteness and smoothness. The status of best quaUty was altered by the 145 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY Augustae tenuitas tolerandis non sufficiebat calamis ; ad hoc tramittens litteras liturae metum adferebat ex aversis, et alias indecoro visu pertralucida. igitur e secundo corio statumina facta sunt, e primo subte- 80 mina. auxit et latitudinem pedali mensura. erat et cubitalis macrocolis, sed ratio deprehendit vitium unius schidae revolsione plures infestante paginas, ob haec praelata omnibus Claudia, Augustae in epistuUs auctoritas reUcta ; Liviana suam tenuit, cui nihil e prima erat sed omnia e secunda. 81 XXV. Scabritia levigatur dente conchave, sed caducae Utterae fiunt: minus sorbet poUtura charta, magis splendet. rebeUat saepe umor incuriose datus primo, maUeoque deprehenditur, aut etiam odore cum cura ^ fuit indiUgentior. deprehenditur et lentigo ocuUs, sed inserta mediis glutinamentis taenea fungo papyri bibula vix nisi Uttera fundente se: tantum inest fraudis. aUus igitur iterum texendis labor. 1 cura add. Mayhojf. " *Long-limbed,' in long strips ; Cicero, ad Atf. XVI. 3. 1 and XIII. 253, and some MSS. here also give macrocollum, ' long-glued,' made of strips pasted together. 146 BOOK XIII. xAiv. 79-xxv. 8i emperor Claudius. The reason was that the thin paper of the period of Augustus was not strong enough to stand the friction of the pen, and moreover as it let the writing show through there was a fear of a smudge being caused by what was WTitten on the back, and the great transparency of the paper had an unattractive look in other respects. Conse- quently the foundation was made of leaves of second quahty and the woof or cross layer of leaves of the first quahty. Claudius also increased the width of the sheet, making it a foot across. There were also eighteen-inch sheets called ' macrocola,' « but examination detected a defect in them, as tearing ofF a single strip damaged several pages. On this account Claudius paper has come to be preferred to all other kinds, although the Augustus kind still holds the field for correspondence ; but Livia paper, having no quahty of a first-class kind, but being entirely second class, has retained its position. XXV. Roughness is smoothed out with a piece of Finishing ivory or a shell, but this makes the lettering apt to fade, ^^"^^''** as owing to the polish so given the paper does not take the ink so well, but has a shinier surface. The damping process if carelessly appUed often causes difficulty in writing at first, and it can be detected by a blow with the mallet, or even by the musty smell if the process has been rather carelessly carried out. Spottiness also may be detected by the eye, but a bad porous strip found inserted in the middle of the pasted joins, owing to the sponginess of the papyrus, sucks up the ink and so can scarcely be detected except when the ink of a letter runs : so much opportunity is there for cheating. The consequence is that another task is added to the process of paper-weaving. 147 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 82 XXVI. Glutinum vulgare e pollinis flore tempera- tur fervente aqua, minimo aceti aspersu, nam fabrile cummisque fragilia sunt. diligentior cura mollia panis fermentati colat ^ aqua fervente ; minimum hoc modo intergerivi, atque etiam lini ^ lenitas superatur. omne autem glutinum nec vetustius esse debet uno die nec recentius. postea malleo tenuatur et glutino percurritur, iterumque con- 83 stricta^ erugatur atque extenditur malleo. ita sint longinqua monimenta: Tiberi Gaique Gracchorum manus apud Pomponium Secundum vatem civemque clarissimum vidi annos fere post ducentos ; iam vero Ciceronis ac divi Augusti Vergilique saepenumero videmus. 84 XXVII. Ingentia exempla contra M. Varronis sententiam de chartis reperiuntur. namque Cassius Hemina, vetustissimus auctor annalium, quarto eorum libro prodidit Cn. Terentium scribam agrum suum in laniculo repastinantem effodisse arcam in 85 qua Numa qui Romae regnavit situs fuisset; in eadem libros eius repertos P. Cornelio L. filio Ce- thego, M. Baebio Q. filio Tamphilo cos. ad qaos a regno Numae coUiguntur anni dxxxv ; hos fuisse e charta, maiore etiamnum miraculo, quod infossi du- 1 Mayhoff : colata. - V.l. Nili. ^ V.l. conscripta (concrispata Birt). 148 BOOK XIII. XXVI. 82-xxvii. 85 XXVI. The common kind of paste for papcr is made Pastefor of fine flour of tlie best quality mixed with boihng ^pJ!^ water, with a very small sprinkle of vinegar ; for car- penter's paste and gum make too brittle a compound. But a more careful process is to strain the crumb of leavened bread in boiHng water ; this method requires the smallest amount of paste at the seams, and pro- duces a paper softer than even linen. But all the paste used ought to be exactly a day old — not more nor yet less. Afterwards the paper is beaten thin with a mallet and run over with a layer of paste, and then again has its creases removed by pressure and is flattened out with the mallet. This process may enable records to last a long time ; at the house of the poet and most distinguished citizen Pomponius Secundus I have seen documents in the hand of Tiberius and Gaias Gracchus written nearly two hundred years ago ; while as for autographs of Cicero, of his late Majesty Augustus, and of Virgil, we see them constantly. XXVII. There are important instances forthcoming History oj that make against the opinion of Marcus Varro in ^^^ regard to the history of paper. Cassius Hemina, a historian of great antiquity, has stated in his Annals, Book IV, that the secretary Gnaeus Terentius, when digging over his land on the Janiculan, turned up a cofFer that had contained the body of Numa, who was king at Rome, and that in the same coffer were found some books of his — this was in the consulship of Pubhus 18I b.o. CorneHus Cethegus, son of Lucius, and of Marcus Baebius Tamphilus, son of Quintus, dating 535 years after the accession of Numa ; and the historian says that the books were made of paper, which makes the matter still more remarkable, because of their having 149 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY raverint — quapropter in re tanta ipsius Heminae 86 verba ponam : ' Mirabantur alii quomodo illi libri durare possent ; ille ita rationem reddebat : lapidem fuisse quadratiun circiter in raedia arca vinctum candelis quoquoversus ; in eo lapide insuper libros III sitos ^ fuisse : se ^ propterea arbitrarier non computruisse ; et libros citratos fuisse : propterea arbitrarier tineas non tetigisse. in iis libris scriptae ^ erant philosophiae Pythagoricae — eosque combustos a Q. PetiUo praetore [quia philosophiae scripta 87 essent].* hoc idem tradit Piso censorius primo commentariorum, sed hbros septem iuris pontificii, totidem Pythagoricos fuisse ; Tuditanus tertio de- cumo Numae decretorum hbros xii ^ fuisse ; ipse Varro humanarum antiquitatum vii, Antias se- cundo hbros fuisse xii pontificales Latinos, totidem Graecos praecepta philosophiae continentes ; idem 88 tertio et SC^ ponit quo comburi eos placuerit. inter omnes vero convenit Sibyllam ad Tarquinium Su- perbum tres hbros adtuhsse, ex quibus sint duo cremati ab ipsa, tertius cum Capitoho SuUanis temporibus. praeterea Mucianus ter cos. prodidit nuper se legisse, cum praesideret Lyciae, Sarpedonis ^ m sitos Mayhojf : insitos (m sepositos Detlefsen). ^ se add. Rackham. ^ Madvig : scripta. ^ Secl. Rackham : v.l. om. essent. •'' libros xn add. Gelen. * Urlichs : et se. " The reason ia probably an interpolation. BOOK XIII. XXVII. 85-88 lasted in a hole in the ground, and consequently on a point of such importance I will quote the words of Hemina himself : ' Other people wondered how those books could have lasted so long, but Terentius's explanation was that about in the middle of the coffer there had been a square stone tied all round with waxed cords, and that the three books had been placed on the top of this stone ; and he thought this position was the reason why they had not decayed ; and that the books had been soaked in citrus-oil, and he thought that this was why they were not moth-eaten. These books contained the philoso- phical doctrines of Pythagoras ' — and Hemina said that the books had been burnt by the praetor Quintus Petilius because they were \\Titings of philosophy.<^ The same story is recorded by Piso the former Censor in his Commentaries, Book I, but he says that there were seven volumes of pontifical law and the same number of Pythagorean philosophy ; while Tuditanus in Book XIII says that there were twelve volumes of the Decrees of Numa ; Varro him- self says that there were seven volumes of Antiquities of Man, and Antias in his Second Book speaks of there having been twelve volumes On Matters Pontifical written in Latin and the same number in Greek containing Doctrines of Philosophy ; Antias also quotes in Book III a Resolution of the Senate deciding that these volumes were to be burnt. It is iiowever universally agreed that the Sibyl brought three volumes to Tarquin the Proud, of which two were bumt by herself while the third was destroyed in the burning of the Capitol in the Sulla crisis. Moreover the Mucianus who was three times consul has stated that recently, when govemor of Lycia, he 151 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY ab Troia scriptam in quodam templo epistulae chartam, quod eo magis miror si etiamnum Homero condente Aegyptus non erat : aut cur, si iam hic erat usus, in plumbeis Unteisque voluminibus scriptitatum constet, curve Homerus in ipsa illa Lycia Bellero- phonti codicillos datos, non epistulas,^ tradiderit? 89 sterilitatem sentit hoc quoque, factumque iam Tiberio principe inopia chartae ut e senatu darentur arbitri dispensandae : aUas in tumultu vita erat. 90 XXVIII. Aethiopia Aegypto contermina insignes arbores non fere habet praeter laniferam, quahs Indorum atque Arabiae dicta est. propior tamen huic natura lanae maiorque folHculus granati modo mah, similesque et inter se arbores ipsae. praeter hanc palmae quales retuUmus. insularum arbores ambitu Aethiopiae et nemora odorata in mentione earum dicta sunt. 91 XXIX. Atlans mons pecuUari proditur silva, de qua diximus. confines ei Mauri, quibus plurima arbor citri et mensarum insania quas feminae viris contra 92 margaritas regerunt. exstat hodie M. Ciceronis in iUa paupertate et, quod magis mirum est, iUo aevo ^ [non epistulas] ? Rackham. " 1 .e. cotton, German ' Baumwolle ' = ' tree wool.' See XII. 38 ff. BOOK XIII. XXVII. 88-\xix. 92 had read in a certain temple a letter of Sarpedon written on paper at Troy — which seems to me even more remarkable if even when Homer was writing, Egypt did not yet exist : otherwise why, if paper was already in use, is it known to have been the custom to write on folding tablets made of lead or sheets of linen, or why has Homer stated that even in n. vi. 168. Lycia itself woodcn tablets, and not letters, were given to Bellerophon ? This commodity also is liable to dearth, and as early as the principate of Tiberius a shortage of paper led to the appoint- ment from the senate of umpires to supervise its distribution, as otherwise life was completely upset. XXVni. Ethiopia, which is on the borders of Egypt, Ethiopian has virtually no remarkable trees except the mooI- '^'"^"' tree,« Jike the one described among the trees of India and Arabia. However, the Ethiopian variety xii. 38 ff. has a much woollier consistency, and a larger pod, like that of a pomegranate, and also the trees them- selves resemble each other. Beside the wool-tree there are also palms of the kind which w e have §§ 2S flf. described. The trees and the scented forests of the islands round the coast of Ethiopia have becn spoken of when those islands were mentioned. vi. ins f . XXIX. Mount Atlas is said to possess a forest of a Citnis-wood remarkable character, about which we have spoken. ^^ ' Adjoining Mount Atlas is Mauretania, which pro- duces a great many citrus-trees — and the table- mania which the ladies use as a retort to the men against the charge of extravagance in pearls. There still exists a table that belonged to Marcus Cicero for which with his slender resources and, what is more sur- prising, at that date, he paid half-a-miUion sesterces; VOL, IV. F ^^^ PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY empta HS d; memoratur et Galli Asini HS |x[. venumdatae sunt et duae ab luba rege pendcntes quarum alteri pretium fuit HS |xii|, alteri paulo minus. interiit nuper incendio a Cethegis descendens HS [xTii! permutata, latifundii taxatione, si quis 93 praedia tanti mercari malit. magnitudo amplissimis adhuc fuit : uni commissae ex orbibus dimidiatis duobus a rege Mauretaniae Ptolemaeo quattuor pedes et semipedem per medium ambitum, crassi- tudine quadrantah — maiusque miraculum in ea est artis latente iunctura quam potuisset esse naturae — sohdae autem ^ a Nomio Caesaris hberto cognomen trahenti tribus sicihcis infra quattuor pedes totidem- 94 que infra pedem crassitudinis. qua in re non omit- tendum videtur Tiberio principi mensam quattuor pedes sextante et sicihco excedentem, tota vero crassitudine sescmiciah, operimento lamnae vestitam fuisse, cum tam opima Nomio hberto eius esset. 95 tuber hoc est radicis, maximeque laudatum quod sub terra totum fuerit et rarius quam quae superne gignuntur etiam in ramis ; proprieque quod tanti emitur arborum vitium est, quarum amphtudo ac radices aestimari possunt ex orbibus. sunt autem cupresso feminae atque etiamnum silvestri similes foho, odore, caudice. Ancorarius mons vocatur Citerioris Mauretaniae qui laudatissimam dedit citrum, iam exhaustus. ^ itcm Gelen. BOOK Xlll. XXIX. 92-95 and also one is recorded as belonging to Gallus Asinius that cost a million. Also two hanging tables were sold at auction by King Juba, of which one fetched 1,200,000 sesterces and the other a httle less. A table that was lately destroyed in a fire came down from the Cethegi and had changed hands at 1,300,000 sesterces — the price of a large estate, supposing somebody preferred to devote so large a sum to the purchase of landed property. The size of the largest tables hitherto has been : one made by Ptolemy, king of Mauretania, out of two semicircular slabs of wood joined together, 4i ft. in diameter and 3 in. thick — and the invisibihty of the join makes the table more marvellous as a work of art than it could possibly have been if a product of nature — and a single slab bear- ing the name of Nomius a freedman of the Emperor which is 3 ft. 11 J in. across and 11 J in. thick. Under this head it seems proper to include a table that be- longed to the Emperor Tiberius which was 4 ft. 2J in. across, and 1 J in. thick all over, but was only covered with a veneer of citrus-wood, although the one belonging to his freedman Nomius was so sumptuous. The material is an excrescence of the root, and is very greatly admired when it grows entirely under- ground, and so is more uncommon than the knobs that grow above ground, on the branches as well as on the trunk ; and the timber bought at so high a price is in reahty a disease of the trees, the size and the roots of which can be judged from the circular table- tops. In foliage, scent and the appearance of the trunk these trees resemble the female cypress, which is also a forest tree. A mountain called Ancorarius in Hither Mauretania provided the most celebrated citrus-wood, but the supply is now exhausted. 155 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 96 XXX. Mensis praecipua dos in venam crispis vel in vertices parvos. illud oblongo evenit discursu ideoque tigrinum appellatur, hoc intorto, et ideo tales panthe- rinae vocantur. sunt et undatim crispae, maiore gratia 97 si pavonum caudae oculos imitentur. magna, verum post has, gratia extra praedictas crispis densa veluti grani congerie, quas ob id a simiHtudine apiatas vocant. summa vero omnium in colore : hic maxime mulsi placet, vinis suis refulgens. post haec ampli- tudo est : iam toti caudices iuvant, pluresque in una. 98 Mensae vitia lignum — ita vocatur materiae surda et indigesta simphcitas aut platani foliorum modo digesta, item ihgnae venae simihtudo vel coloris — et, quibus maxime obnoxias fecere aestus ventique, rimae aut capillamenta rimas imitata ; postea murenae ^ nigro transcurrens limite variisque cornicum ^ punctis adprehensus papaverum modo^ et in totum atro 99 propior colos maculaeve discolores. virides terra condunt barbari et inUnunt cera, artifices vero fru- menti acervis inponunt septenis diebus totidem inter- missis, mirumque ponderi quantum ita detrahatur. 1 Warmington : murena. 2 Hardouin : corticum aut coruum. 3 V.l. nodo. » Cf. below, § 99 firi. 156 BOOK XIII. XXX. 96-99 XXX. The outstanding merit of citrus-wood tables is to have wavy marks foiTning a vein or else httle spirals. The former marking produces a longish pattern and is consequently called tiger-wood, while the latter gives a twisted pattern and consequently slabs of that sort are called panther-tables. Also some have wavy crinkled markings, which are more esteemed if they resemble the eyes in a peacock's tail. Besides the kinds previously mentioned, great esteem, though coming after these, belongs to those veined with a thick cluster of what look like grains, these slabs being consequently called parsley-wood, from the resemblance. But the highest value of all resides in the colour of the wood, the colour of meed being the most favoured, shining with the wine that is proper to it.« The next point is size : now-a- days tables made of whole trunks are admired, or several trunks morticed together in one table. The faults in a table are woodiness — that is the name given to a dull patternless uniformity in the timber, or uniformity arranged like the leaves of a plane-tree, and also to a grain resembhng the veining or colouring of the holm-oak — and to flaws or hairy hnes resembling flaws, a fault to which heat and wind have rendered the timber particularly liable ; next comes a colour running across the wood in a black streak hke a lamprey and marked with in-egular raven-scratchings as on a poppy and in general rather approaching black, or blotches of various colours. The natives bury the timber in the ground while still green, giving it a coat of wax ; but carpenters lay it in heaps of corn for periods of a week with intervals of a week between, and it is surprising how much its weight is reduced by this process. 157 PLINY; NATURAL HISTORY naufragia docuere nuper hanc quoque materiam siccatam mari duritie incorrupta cospissari non ullo modo vehementius. nutriuntur optume splende- scuntque manus siccae fricatu a baUneis maxime ; nec vinis laeduntur ut iis genitae. 100 Inter pauca nitidioris vitae instrumenta haec arbor est, quapropter insistendum ei quoque paululum videtur. nota etiam Homero fuit; thyon Graece vocatur, ab aUis thya. hanc itaque inter odores uri tradidit in deUciis Circae, quam deam volebat inteUegi, magno errore eorum qui odoramenta in eo vocabulo accipiunt, cum praesertim eodem versu cedruni laricemque una tradat uri, quo manifestum 101 est de arboribus tantum locutum. Theophrastus, qui proximus a Magni Alexandri aetate scripsit circa^ urbis Romae annum ccccxxxx, magnum iam huic arbori honorem tribuit, memoratas ex ea re- ferens templorum veterum contignationes quandam- que immortaUtatem materiae in tectis contra vitia 102 omnia incorruptae ; radice nihil crispius, nec aUunde pretiosiora opera ; praecipuam autem esse eam arbo- rem circa Hammonis delubrum, nasci et in interiore Cyrenaicae parte. de mensis tamen tacuit, et aUas ^ Backham : haec circa. " Od. V. 60. * Hiet. Plant. V. 3, 7. 158 BOOK XIII. XXX. 99 102 Also wreckage frora sliips has recently shown that this timber is dricd by the action of sea water, and sohdifled with a hardness that resists decay, no other method producing this result more powerfuUy. Citrus-wood tables are best kept and pohshed by rubbing with the dry hand, especially just after a bath ; and they are not damaged by spilt wine, as having been created for the pui-pose of wine- tables. Few things that supply the apparatus of a more ThecUrus- luxurious hfe rank with this tree, and consequently "^^^' it seems desirable to dwell on it for a httle as well. It was known even to Homer — the Greek name for it being thyon, otherwise thya. Well, Homer ^ has recorded its being burnt among unguents as one of the luxuries of Circc, whom he meant to be understood as a goddess — those who take the word thyon to mean perfumes being greatly in error, especially as in the same verse he says that cedar and larch were burnt at the same time, which shows that he was only speaking of trees. Ah-eady Theophrastus,^ who wrote immediately after the period of Alexander the Great, about 314 b.c, assigns a high rank to this tree, stating that it was recorded that the flooring of the old temples used to be made of it and that its timber when used in roofed buildings is virtually everlasting, being proof against all causes of decay ; and he says that no wood is more marked with veins than the root, and that no products made of any other material are more valuable. The finest citrus, he says, is round the Temple of Hammon, but it also grows in the interior of Cyrenaica. He makes no mention, however, of tables made of citrus-wood, and indeed there is no 159 PI.INY : NATURAL HISTORY nuUius ante Ciceronianam vetustior memoria est, quo noviciae apparent. 103 XXXI. Alia est arbor eodem nomine, malum ferens execratum aliquis odore et amaritudine, aUis expe- titum, domus etiam decorans, nec dicenda verbosius. 104 XXXII. Eadem Africa,qua vergit ad noSjinsignem arborem loton gignit, quam vocat celthim, et ipsam Italiae familiarem sed terra mutatam. praecipua est circa Syrtes atque Nasamonas. magnitudo quae piro, quamquam Nepos Cornelius brevem tradit. incisurae folio crebriores, alioqui ilicis viderentur. differentiae plures, eaeque maxime fructibus fiunt. 105 magnitudo huic fabae, color croci, sed ante maturi- tatem aUus atque aUus, sicut uvis. nascitur densus in ramis myrti modo, non ut in ItaUa cerasi,^ tam dulcis ibi cibo ut nomen etiam genti terraeque dederit nimis hospitaU advenarum obUvione patriae. feruiit ventris non sentire morbos qui eum mandant. 106 melior sine interiore nucleo, qui de altero genere osseus videtur. vinum quoque exprimitur iUi simile mulso, quod ultra denos dies negat durare idem Nepos, bacasque concisas cum aUca ad cibos doUis condi. quin et exercitus pastos eo accipimus ultro ^ Edd. : cerasis aut cerasus. " The Lotophagi, see V. 41. i6o BOOK XIII. XXX. io2-xx\ii. io6 older record of one before that of the time of Cicero, which proves their novelty. XXXI. There is another tree with the same name, Thedtron. bearing fruit which some people abhor for its scent and bitter taste while other people are fond of it ; this wood is also used for decorating houses, but it does not need further description. XXXII. Africa also, where it faces in our direction, The African produces a remarkable tree, the lotus, called in the produdng vernacular celthis, which also has been naturahzed in /';"'' ^^ Italy, though it has been altered by the change of soil. The fmest lotus is found round the Syrtes and the district of the Nasamones. It is the size of a pear, ahhough Cornehus Nepos states that it is sl Fr.20Haim. short fruit. The incisions in the leaf resemble those in the holm-oak, except that they are more numerous. There are several varieties of lotus. differing chiefly in their fruits. This one is the size of a bean and saffron-coloured, but it changes colour several times before it is ripe, hke grapes. It grows in thick clusters on the branches Hke myrtle-berries and not hke cherries as it does in Italy ; in its own country it is so sweet to eat that it has even given its name to a race of people " and to a land which is too hospitable to strangers who come there, making them forget their native land. It is reported that chewing this lotus prevents gastric diseases. The better kind has no stone inside it, those of the other variety having a kernel of a bony appearance. Also a wine is pressed from this fruit that resembles mead, which again according to Nepos will not keep for more than ten days ; he states that the berries are chopped up with wheat and stored in casks for food. Indeed we are told that armies have been fed on this while i6i PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY citroque commeantcs per Africam. ligiio colos niger: ad tibiarum cantus expetitur; e radice cul- tellis capulos brevesque alios usus excogitant. 107 Haec ibi natura arboris. est autem eodem nomine et herba et in Aegypto caulis in palustrium genere. recedentibus enim aquis Nili riguis provenit similis fcibae caule foliisque densa congerie stipatis, brevio- ribus tantum gracilioribusque. fructus in capite papaveri similis incisuris omnique alio modo, intus 108 grana ceu milium. incolae capita in acervis putre- faciunt, mox separant lavando et siccata tundunt eoque pane utuntur. mirum est quod praeter haec traditur, sole occidente papavera ea conprimi et integi foliis, ad ortum autem aperiri, donec ma- 109 turescant flosque qui est candidus decidat. hoc amplius in Euphrate tradunt et caput ipsum et florem vespera mergi usque in medias noctes, to- tumque abire in altum, ut ne demissa quidem manu possit inveniri, reverti deinde paulatimque subrigi, et ad exortus soHs emergere extra aquam ac florem patefacere, atque etiamnum insurgere, ut plane ab 110 aqua absit alte. radicem lotos habet mah cotonei magnitudine, opertam nigro cortice, qualis et casta- neas tegit; interius candidum corpus, gratum cibis " The Egyptian water-lily. 162 BOOK XIII. xxMi. 106-110 marching to and fro through Africa. The wood is of a black colour, and is in demand for making melodious flutes, wliile out of the root are devised knife-handles and other short implements. This is the nature of the lotus-tree in Africa. But Kimired the same name also belongs to a herbaceous plant, as well as to a colewort " in Egypt belonging to the class of marsh-plants. Ihis springs up when the flood waters of the Nile retire ; it resembles a bean in its stalk and in its leaves, which grow in large, thick clusters, although they are shorter and more slender than the leaves of a bean. The fruit grows on the head of the plant and resembles the fruit of the poppy in its indentations and in every other way ; it contains grains hke millet-seeds. The natives pile these heads in heaps to rot, and then separate the seeds by washing and dry them and crush them, and use them to make bread. There is a further remark- able fact reported, that when the sun sets these poppies shut up and fold their leaves round them, and at sunrise open again, this going on till they ripen and the flower, which is white, falls off. A further point reported is that in the Euphrates both the head itself and the flower at the evening go on submerging till midnight, and disappear entirely into the depth so that they cannot be found even by plunging the hand in, and then return and by degrees straighten up again, and at sunrise come out of the water and open their flower, and still go on rising so that the flower is raised up quite a long way above the water. The lotus has a root of the size of a quince, enclosed in a black skin Hke the shell of a chestnut ; inside it has a white body, agree- able to eat raw but still more agreeable when boiled 163 PLINY; NATURAL HISTORY crudiim sed gratius dccoctum sive aqua sive pruna. neque aliunde magis quam purgamentis eius sues crassescunt. 111 XXXIII. Cyrenaica regio loton suae postponit pa- liuro. fruticosior haec fructuque magis rubens, cuius nucleus non simul mandatur,iucundusper se ac suavior e vino, quin et vina suco suo commendans. interior Africa ad Garamantas usque et deserta palmarum magnitudine et suavitate constat,^ nobilibus ^ maxime 112 circa delubrum Hammonis; XXXIV. sed circa Cartha- ginem Punicum malum cognomine sibi vindicat : aliqui granatum appellant ; divisit et in genera apyrenum vocando cui lignosus nucleus abesset : candidior ei natura et blandiores acini minusque amaris distincti membranis ; aUas structura eorum quaedam ut in 113 favis, communis nucleos habentium. horum quinque species : dulcia, acria, mixta, acida, vinosa ; Samia et Aegy}:)tia distinguntur erythrocomis et leucocomis. corticis maior usus ex acerbis ad perficienda coria. flos balaustium vocatur, et medicis idoneus et tinguendis vestibus, quarum color inde nomen accepit. 114 XXXV. In Asia et Graecia nascuntur frutices: epicactis, quem aUi emboUnen vocant, parvis foUis quae pota contra venena prosunt sicut erices contra ^ praestat Dalec. * nobilium ? Mayhoff. ^ AiTvprjvov, ' without kernel.' Puniceus, 'purple.' 164 BOOK XIII. XXXII. iio-xxxv. 114 in water or roasted in the ashes. Its peelings are more useful than any other fodder for fattening pigs. XXXIII. The region of thc Cyrenaica ranks the ChnsVs- lotus below its own Christ's-thorn. This is more iripj^l^ '"' the nature of a shrub, and its fruit is redder, and con- ^ranate. tains a kernel that is eaten by itself, as it is agreeable alone ; it is improved by being dipped in wine, and moreover its juice improves wine. The interior of Africa as far as the Garamantes and the desert is covered with pahiis remarkable for their size and their luscious fruit, the most celebrated being in the neighbourhood of the temple of Ammon, XXXIV. But the country in the neighbourhood of Carthage claims by the name of Punic apple what some call the pomegranate ; this it has also split up into classes, by giving the name of apyrenum ^ to the variety that lacks a woody kernel: the consistency of this is whiter than that of the others, and its pips have a more agreeable taste and the membranes enclosing them are not so bitter ; but in other respects these apples have a special structure resembling the cells in a honeycomb, which is common to all that have a kernel. Of these there are five kinds, the sweet, the sour, the mixed, the acid and the vinous ; those of Samos and of Egypt are divided into the red-Ieaved and the white-leaved varieties. The skin of the unripe fruit is specially used for dressing leather. The flower is called balaustium, and is serviceable for doctors and also for dyeing cloth ; it has given its name to a special colour.* XXXV. Shrubs growing in Asia and Greece are the other shmbs epicactis, which others call emboline, with small leaves " "^^^' which taken in drink are an antidote against poisons, as those of the heath are against snakes, and the 165 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY serpentes ; et in^ quo nascitur granum Cnidium, quod aliqui linum vocant, fruticem vero thymelaean, alii chamelaean, alii pyros achnen, aliqui cnestorem, alii cneorum. est similis oleastro, folis angustioribus, cumminosis si mordeantur, myrti magnitudine ; semen colore et specie farris, ad medicinae tantum usum. 115 XXXVI. Tragion fruticem sola Creta insula gignit, terebintho similem et semine, quod contra sagitta- rum ictus efficacissimum tradunt. eadem et traga- canthum spinae albae radice, multum praelatam apud Medos aut in Achaia nascenti; pretium eius in hbras X iii. 116 XXXVII. Tragon et Asiafert sive scorpionem, ve- premsine foUis, ramis rubentibus, ad medicinae usum, myricen et Itaha,quam tamaricen vocat, Achaia autem bryan silvestrem ; insigne in ea quod sativa tantum fert gallae similem fructum. in Syria et Aegypto copiosa haec est, cuius infeUcia Ugna appeUamus. 117quaedam2 tamen infeUciora sunt Graeciae ; gignit enim arborem ostryn, quam et ostryam vocant, soUtariam circa saxa aquosa, similem fraxino cortice et ramis, foUo piris, paulo tamen longioribus crassiori- busque ac rugosis incisuris quae per tota discurrunt, semine hordeo simiU et colore. materies est dura atque firma, qua in domum inlata difficiles partus fieri 1 et ^ naiy!^ have come from abroad. From Chios or Thasos is imported a Greek Hght wine not inferior in quahty to the Aminaean vintages ; the vine has a very tender 201 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY praetenera acino, et uva tam parva ut nisi pinguissimo solo colere non prosit. eugeniam Tauromenitani colles cum generositatis cognomine misere Albano tantum agro, quoniam alio ^ tralata statim mutatur : namque est aliquis tantus locorum amor ut omnem in iis gloriam suam relinquant nec usquam transeant 26 totae. quod et in Raetica Allobrogicaque quam supra picatam appellavimus evenit, domi nobilibus nec agnoscendis alibi. fecundae tamen bonitatis vice copiam praestant, eugenia ferventibus locis, Raetica temperatis, Allobrogica frigidis, gelu mature- 27 scens et colore nigra. ex iis quas adhuc diximus, sed etiam e nigris, vina vetustate in album colorem transeunt. reliquae ignobiles, aliquando tamen caeli aut soli opera non ^ fallunt vetustate,^ sicuti Faecenia et cum ea florens Biturigiaca acino rarior, numquam floris obnoxii, quoniam non favonium * antecedunt ventisque et imbribus resistunt, meliores tamen algentibus locis quam calidis, umidis quam sitientibus. 28 visulla grandi magis quam denso uvarum partu, impatiens variantis caeli, sed contra tenorem unum algoris aestusve constans. quae minor est ex eo genere melior. in eligendo solo morosa pingui ^ alio add. Rackham. 2 vino Detlefsen. ^ MayhofJ { ?) : vetustatem. * non favonium add. lan coll. ii 122, xv 12 sq. " Or possibly Bordeaux. * Not identified. 202 BOOK XIV. IV. 25-28 grape, and such small clusters that it does not pay to grow it except in a very rich soil. The eugenia, with its name denoting high quaUty, has been im- ported from the hills of Taormina to be grown only in the territory of Alba, as if transplanted else- where it at once degenerates : for in fact some vines have so strong an affection for certain localities that they leave all their reputation behind there and cannot be transphmted elsewhere in their full vigour. This occurs also with the Rhaetian and Allobrogian grapes — the latter the grape with the flavour of pitch which we mentioned above — which are famous at § 18. home but not worth recognition elsewhere. All the same, being good bearers they make up in quantity what they lack in quahty, the eugenia grape in warm locahties, the Raetic in those with a moderate cHmate and the Allobrogian in cold districts, as it ripens in frost and has a black colour. The wines made from the grapes so far mentioned, even from the black ones, turn to a white colour with age. The remaining vines are of no quahty, although occasionally owing to the agency of chmate or soil they are not disappointing when old, as in the case of the Faecenian vine, and that of Bourges* which blossoms at the same time but has fewer grapes ; their blossom is never hable to injury, as they do not come before the west wind of early spring and can with- stand wind and rain, although they do better in cold places than in warm ones and in damp situations than in dry . The visulla ' bears clusters of large size rather than closely packed; it cannot stand changes of weather, but lasts well against a continuous spell of cold or heat. The smaller variety of this kind is the better one. It is difficult to please in choice of soil, 203 PIJNY: NATURAL HISTORY putrescit, gracili omnino non provenit ; mediam temperiem delicate quaerit, ob hoc Sabinis collibus familiaris. uva eius indecora visu, sapore iucunda; nisi matura protinus rapitur, etiam non putrescens cadit. contra grandines eam tuetur foliorum ampli- tudo atque duritia. 29 Insignes iam colore inter purpureas nigrasque medio helvolae saepius variantes et ob id varianae a qui- busdam appellatae. praefertur in iis nigrior ; utra- que altemis annis fertiHs, sed mehor vino cum parcior. et praeciae duo genera magnitudine acini dis- cernuntur, quibus materies plurima uvaque ollis 30 utilissima ; folium apio simile. bahscam Dyrrachini celebrant, Hispaniae coccolobin vocant; rarior uva aestus austrosque tolerat, capiti inimica, copia larga. Hispaniae duo genera eius faciunt, unum oblongo acino, alterum rotundo; novissimas vindemiant. quo dulcior est coccolobis, hoc meHor; sed et austera transit in dulcem vetustatem,^ et quae dulcis fuit in 31 austeritatem ; tunc Albano vino aemulantur. tra- dunt vesicae vitiis utiHssimum ex iis potum. albueHs ^ V.l. vetustate. " Said to mean * cox-comb ' in thie veruacular. 204 BOOK XIV. IV. 28-31 as in a ricli soil it decays and in a thin soil it does not come on at all ; its fastidiousness requires an inter- mediate blend of soil, and that is why it is common in the Sabine hill country. Its grapes are not attractive to look at, but have an agreeable flavour ; if they are not gathered as soon as they are ripe, they will fall off even before they decay. Its hardiness and the size of the leaves protect the grapes against hail- storms. The grapes called helvolae again are remarkable other kinds for rather frcquently varying in their colour, which %^^nevcTy- is midway between the purple grapes and the black ^^erefor ones, and they have consequently been called by some """^' people varianae. Among them the blacker kind is prefeiTcd; both kinds bear large crops every other year, though they make better wine when the crop is less abundant. Also the praecia vine has two varieties, distinguished by the size of the grape ; these vines make a great deal of wood, and their bunches are most useful for storing in jars ; the leaf rescmbles parsley. The people of Durazzo speak highly of the bahsca vine, which the Spanish provinces call coccolobis " ; its grapes grow in rather scanty bunches and can stand hot weather and south winds ; its vdno, is apt to go to the head, but the yield is abundant. The Spanish provinces distinguish two kinds of this vine, one having an oblong grape and the other a round one ; they gather them last of all. The sweeter the coccolobis grape is, the better it is ; but even if it has a rough taste it turns sweet with age, and one that was sweet turns roiigh ; in the last state they are held to rival the wine of Alba. It is said that to drink the juice of this grape is very good for disorders of the bladder. The 205 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY summis arboribus fertilior est, visulla imis ; quamo- brem circa easdem satae diversitate naturae locuple- tant. inerticulam e nigris appellavere, iustius so- briam dicturi, inveterato praecipue commendabilem vino sed viribus innoxiam, siquidem temulentiam sola 32 non facit. fertilitas commendat ceteras princi- pemque helvennacam. duo eius genera: maior, quam quidam longam, minor quam emarcum ^ appel- lant, non tam fecundam sed gratiorem haustu; dis- cernitur foho circinato, verum utraque gracilis. furcas subdere iis necessarium, aUoqui ubertatem suam non tolerant. maritimo adflatu gaudent, 33 roscida odere. nuUa vitium minus Italiam amat, rara, parva, putrescens in ea, vino quoque quod genuit aestatem non exuperans ; nec aHa macro solo famiharior. Graecinus, qui alioqui Cornehum Celsum transcripsit, arbitratur non naturam eius repugnare Itahae sed culturam avide palmites evocantium ; ob id fertiUtate sua absumi, si non praepinguis soh ubertas lassescentem sustineat. carbunculare ne- ^ Hardouin e Columella : marcum. 206 BOOK XIV. IV. 31-33 albuelis vine bears more friiit at the top of the trces that it is grown on, the \1sulla on the bottoni branches ; and consequently, when both are planted round the same trees, owing to this difference of habit they produce rich crops. One of the black grapes has been named ' the good-for- nothing,' though it might more properly be styled ' the sober,' as the wine it produces is admirable, particularly when old, but though strong it has no ill effects : in fact this is the only vintage that does not cause intoxication. AU the other kinds of vine have the recommendation of bearing freely, and chief among them the helvennaca. Of this there are two kinds, one larger, which some people call the long helvennaca, the other smaller, callcd emarcus ; the latter is not so prolific but produccs a wine of more agreeable flavour ; it is distinguished by its rounded leaf, but both kinds have a slender growth. They require to be supported on forked props, otherwise they cannot support the weight of their abundant fruit. They like a sea breeze, and dislike damp dews. None of the vines love Italy less, for there it grows leafless and stunted and soon decays, and also the wine it produces will not keep beyond the summer ; and no other ^ine is more at home in a thin soil. Graecinus, who has generally copied Cornelius Celsus, thinks that it is not the nature of this vine to which Italy is not friendly but thc mode of culti- vating it, as growers are too eager to make it put out shoots ; the consequence of this, he says, is that it is used up by its own fertility, unless the bounty of the soil is so rich as to afford it sup- port when it begins to droop. It is said that this vine never contracts carbuncle, which is a very 207 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY gatur, magna dote, si verum est aliqua in vite caelo non esse ius. 34 Aestus fert spionia, quam quidam spineam vocant, autumnique imbribus pinguescit ; quin immo nebulis una alitur, ob id Ravennati agro peculiaris. venicu- lam inter optume deflorescentes et ollis aptissimam Canipani malunt surculam vocare, alii scapulam, Tarracina Numisianam, nuUas vires proprias haben- tem, sed totam perinde ac solum valeat, Surrentinis 35 tamen efficacissima testis Vesuvio tenus. ibi enim Murgentina e Sicilia potentissima, quam Pompeianam aliqui vocant, laeto ^ demum feracem, sicut horconia in Campania tantum. e diverso arceraca Vergilio argitis dicta ultro solum laetius facit, ipsa contra imbres et senectam fortissima, vino quidem vix annua ac vilitatis cibariae sed ubertate praecipua. tolerat et annos mettica, contra omne sidus firmissima, nigro acino, vinis in vetustate rufescentibus. 36 Et hactenus publica sunt genera, cetera regionum locorumque aut ex his inter se insitis mixta, si quidem in^ Tuscis peculiaris est Tudertibus,^ atque 1 laeto (solo) ? Ba^kharn : Latio edd. 2 in add. ? Mayhoff. 3 Tudertibus? Mayhoff Tudemis. " Oeorgics II. 99. 208 BOOK XIV. IV. 33-36 valuablc property, if indccd it is triie that tliere is any vine tliat is exempt from the powcr of the cHmate. The spionia, called by some the thorn-vine, is able to bear heat, and is ripened by rainy weather in autumn ; what is more, indeed, it is the only vine that thrives from fog, on which account it is specially grown in the district of Ravenna. The venicula is one of the best vines that shed their flowers, and its grapes are par- ticularly well suited for preserving in jars ; the people of Campania prefer to call it by the name of surcula, and others by that of scapula, while the name for it at Tarracina is Numisiana ; it has no strength of its own but is entirely conditioned by the strcngth of the soil ; all the same, as far south as Vesuvius it is very potent if kept in earthenware jars from Sorrento. For at Vesuvius there is Murgentina, a very strong vine imported from Sicily, called by some Pompeiana, which only bears well in a rich soil, just as the horconia vine only flourishes in Campania. The opposite is the case with the arceraca, called in Virgil" argitis, which has the property of imparting extra richness to the soil, while itself offering a very stout resistance to rain and to old age, though it will hardly produce wine every year, and its grapes are only valued for eating, but it bears exceptionally large crops. The mettica vine also stands the years, and faces all weather very strongly ; it bears a black grape, and its wines acquire a reddish colour in old age. The kinds of vine mentioned so far are grown itaiian locai everywhere, but those remaining belong to particular ^^apeljor districts and places, or are crosses producedby grafting making^ one of these on another: thus among the vines of Tuscany that of Todi is a special variety, and also 209 wine. PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY etiam nomen iis Florentiae sopina, Arretio talpona et etesiaca et conseminea. talpona nigra candidum facit mustum ; etesiaca fallax, quo plus tulit, hoc laudabilius fundit, mirumque, fecunditate pariter et bonitate cessat; conseminea^ nigra, vino minime durante, uva maxime, post xv dies quam uUa alia 37 metitur, fertilis set cibaria. huius folia sicuti labruscae prius quam decidant sanguineo colore mutantur ; evenit hoc et quibusdam ahis pessimi generis argumento. itriola Umbriae Mevanatique et Piceno agro pecuUaris est, Amiternino pumila.^ isdem bananica fallax est, adamant tamen eam. 38 municipii sni uvam^ Pompeiani * nomine appellant, quamvis Clusinis copiosiorem ; municipii et Tiburtes appellavere, quamvis oleagineam nuper invenerint a simihtudine oUvae : novissima haec uvarum ad hoc tempus reperta est. vinaciolam soU noverunt Sabini, calventinam Gaurani. scio e Falerno agro tralatas vocari Falernas, celerrime ubique degenerantes. nec non Surrentinum genus fecere aUqui praedulci uva. 39 capnios et buconiates et tharrupia in Thurinis coUibus ^ Warmington : consemina. * Rackham: pumula. ^ Dellefsen : municipii suam. * Rackham: Pompei. * Conseminea denotes growing from several different seeds. 2IO BOOK XIV. IV. 36-39 they have special names, a vine at Florence being called sopina and sonie at Arezzo * mole-vine ' and * seasonal vine ' and ' crossed vine.'" The mole-vine has black grapes and makes a white must ; the seasonal vine is a deceptive plant, giving a more admirable wine the larger crop of grapes it bears, and, remark- able to say, coming to the end of its fertility and its good quaUty at the same time ; the crossed vine has black grapes and makes a wine that does not keep at all long, but its grape keeps a \ery long time, and it is gathered a fortnight later than any other variety, bearing a large crop of grapes but only good for eating. The leaves of this vine, hke those of the wild vine, turn a blood-red colour before they fall ofF; this also happens with some other vines, and is a sign of ex- tremely inferior quaUty. The itriola is pecuHar to Um- bria and to the districts of Bevagna and Ancona, and the ' dwarf-vine ' to that of San Vettorino. The same districts have the bananica, an unreHable vine, though people become fond of it. The people of Pompei give the name of their township to a grape, although it grows in greater quantity at Chiusi ; the people of TivoH also name a grape after their township, al- though they have lately discovered the * oHve-grape,' so caHed from its resemblance to an oHve : this is the latest grape introduced hitherto. The vinaciola grape is only known to the Sabines and the calventina to the people of Mount Gaurus. Vines transplanted from the Falernian territory are, I am aware, caUed ' Falernian,' but tliey very quickly degenerate every- where. Some people also have made out a Sorrento variety, with a very sweet grape. The ' smoke-grape,' the ' mouthful ' and the tharrupia, which grow on the hiHs of Thurii, are not picked before there has been a PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY non ante demetuntur quam gelaverit. Pariana gaudent Pisae, Mutina Perusinia nigro acino, intra quadriennium albescente vino. mirum ibi cum sole circumagi uvam quae ob id streptis vocatur, et in Italia Gallicam placere, trans Alpis vero Picenam. dixit Vergilius Thasias et Mareotidas et Lageas con- plurisquc externas, quae non reperiuntur in Italia. 40 Sed sunt etiamnum insignes uva, non vino : ambro- sia e duracinis (sine ullis vasis in vite servabilis ^ — tanta est contra frigora, aestus tempestatesque firmitas ; nec [orthampelos] ^ indiget arbore aut paHs, ipsa se sustinens, non item dactylides digitali gracili- tate), columbinae a racemosis,^ et magis purpureae 41 cognomine bimammiae quando non racemos sed uvas alias gerunt, item tripedanea cui nomen a mensura est, item scirpula passo acino et Raetica in maritimis Alpibus appellata, dissimilis laudatae illi; namque haec brevis, conferta acino, degener vino, sed cute omnium tenuissima, nucleo (quod chium vocant) uno ac minimo, acinum praegrandem unum alterumve habens. est et nigra Aminea, cui Syriacae nomen inponunt, item Hispana ignobiUum probatissima. 1 V.l. servatur. 2 Gloss. Mudhr. 3 V.l. racemosissimis. 212 BOOK XIV. IV. 39-41 frost. Pisa rejoices in the vine ofParos, and Modena in the vine of Perugia, which has a black grape and makes a wine that within four years turns white. It is a reraarkable fact that at Modena there is a grape that turns round with the sun and is consequently called in Greek the ' revolving grape ' ; and that in Italy a grape from Gaul is popular, but across the Alps that of Picenum. Virgil mentions a Thasian Georgks u. vine, a Maraeotid and a Lagean, and a number of other foreign kinds that are not found in Italy. But again there are some vines which are dis- Vinex grown tinguished for their grapes and not for their wine, for f^f^**' instance, among the hard-berry group the ambrosia grape, which needs no jars but will keep on the vine, so strong is its resistance to cold and heat and to bad Mcather, nor does it require a tree or stakes to support it, as it sustains its own weight, though this is not the case with the dactyUs, the stalk of which is only the thickness of a fmger ; and among the vines with large bunches the pigeon-vine, and still more the purple ' double-bosomed ' vine, so called because it does not bear clusters but only secondary bunches ; and also the * three-foot ' vine, named from its size, and also the ' rush ' vine with its shrivelled grape and the vine called the Raetic vine in the Maritime Alps, which is quite unUke the famous vine of that name, because this is a short-stalked vine with closely packed clusters and producing a low class of wine ; but it has the thinnest skin of any grape, and a single very smaU stone (caUed chium), and one or two grapes in each bunch are exceptionaUy large. There is also the black Aminean grape to which they give the name of ' Syrian grape,' and also the Spanish grape, which is the most highly rated of the inferior kinds. 213 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 42 In pergulis vero seruntur escariae appellatae e duracinis, albae nigraeque, et bumasti totidem colori- bus, ac nondum dictae Aegia et Rhodia et uncialis, velut a pondere acini, item picina omnium nigerrima, et coronario naturae lusu stephanitis, acinos foliis intercursantibus, et quae forenses vocantur, celeres proventu, vendibiles aspectu, portatu faciles. contra damnantur etiam visu cinerea et rabuscula ^ et asinus- ca, minus tamen caudas vulpium imitata alopecis. 43 Alexandrina appellatur vitis circa Phalacram brevis, ramis cubitaUbus, acino nigro fabae magnitudine, nucleo molU et minimo, obUquis racemis praedulcibus, foUo parvo et rotundo, sine divisuris. septem his annis in Narbonensis provinciae Alba Hehda inventa est vitis uno die deflorescens, ob id tutissima; carbonicam ^ vocant, quam nunc tota provincia conserit. 44 V. Catonum ille primus, triimipho et censura super cetera insignis, magis tamen etiamnum claritate Utterarum praeceptisque omnium rermxi expeten- darum datis generi Romano, inter prima vero agrum colendi, iUe aevi confessione optimus ac sine aemulo 1 rubuscula ('Uttle bramble-grape') ? W armington. * Edd. {aut Narbonicam) : carbunican. • Perhaps so called from its grey colour. * *AXa)TTr)i, *fox.' ' M. Porcius Cato, whose De re rustica (or De agri cultura) is quoted below, celebrated a triumph in 194 b.c. for his victories in Spain, and was censor in 184 b.c. The capture and destruction of Carthage and Corinth took place in 146 b.c, three years after his death. 214 BOOK XIV. IV. 42 -V. 44 The kind called ' table-grapes,' one of the hard-berry group, are grown on trelHses — they are both white and black — and so are the ' co\v's-udder ' grapes, also of both colours, and those of Aegium and of llhodes, not mentioned before, and the ' one-ounce ' grape, appar- ently named from the weight of the berry, and also the ' pitch grape,' the darkest in colour of all the black grapes, and the ' garland ' grape, the clusters of which by a sport of nature are arranged in a wreath with leaves interspersed among the berries, and the grapes called ' market-grapes,' a very quick bearer that attracts buyers by its appearance and stands carriage well. On the other hand the ashy grape and the dusky grape and the donkey-grape " are condemned even by their appearance, though this is less the case with the alopecis,* which resembles a fox's brush. A grape growing in the vicinity of Phalacra is called the Alexandrian grape ; it is a low-growing vine with branches only eighteen inches long and a black grape the size of a bean, with a soft and very small stone ; the clusters hang aslant and are extremely sw^eet ; the leaf is small and round, and has no clefts. Within the last seven years there has been discovered at Viviers in the province of Narbonne a vine whose blossoms wither in a day and which is consequently extremely immune to bad weather ; it is called the ' charcoal- vine,' and is now^ grown by the whole province. V. The elder Cato,^ who w^as exceptionally cele- catoon brated for his triumph and his censorship, though yet JJ^/"^ more for his Hterary distinction and for the precepts that he has given to the Roman nation upon every matter of utiHty, and in particular as to agriculture — a man who by the admission of his contemporaries was a supremely competent and unrivaUed agricul- 215 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY agricola, paucta attigit vitium genera, quarundam ex 45 his iam etiam nominibus abolitis. separatim toto tractatu sententia eius indicanda est, ut in omni genere noscamus quae fuerint celeberrima anno dc urbis, circa captas Carthaginem ac Corinthum, cum supremum is diem obiit, et quantum postea ccxxx annis vita profecerit. ergo de vitibus uvisque ita 46 prodidit : ' Qui locus vino optimus dicitur ^ esse et ostentus soHbus, Aminium minusculum et geminum eugenium, helvium minusculum conserito. qui locus crassior aut nebulosior, Aminium maius aut Mur- gentinum, Apicium Lucanum serito. ceterae vites miscellae maxime in quemvis agrum conveniunt. in olla cum ^ vinaceis conduntur Aminium minu- sculum et maius et Apicium ; eadem in sapa et musto, in lora recte conduntur. quas suspendas duracinas Aminias maiores, vel ad fabrum ferrarium pro passis 47 hae recte servantur.' Nec sunt vetustiora de illa re Latinae hnguae praecepta : tam prope ab origine rerum sumus. Aminiam proxime dictam Varro Scantianam vocat. In nostra aetate pauca exempla consummatae huius artis fuere, verum eo minus omittenda, ut noscantur etiam praemia, quae in omni re maxime 48 spectantur. summam ergo adeptus est gloriam Acihus 1 V.l. dicetur. 2 cum add. Rackham (in vinaceis Cato). 2i6 BOOK XIV. V. 44-48 tiiralist — has dealt with only a few varieties of the vine, inchiding some even the names of which are now extinct. His opinion deserves to be set out separately and liandled at full lcngth, to make us accjuainted with the varieties which were the most famous in the wholc of this class in the year 154 b.c, about the time of the taking of Carthage and Corinth, the period of Cato's demise — and to show us how great an advance civihzation has made in the subsequent 230 years, The foUowing therefore are the remarks that he made on the subject of vines and grapes : ' In the i^- ^- ^i- ■*-. locahty pronounced to be best for the vine and fully exposed to the sun, you should plant the small variety of Aminian and the double eugenium, and also the small helvia. In a denser soil or a locahty more hable to io^ you should plant the larger Aminian or the Murgentine, the Apician, and the Lucanian. All the othcr varieties of vine, especially hybrids, are suited to anv kind of land. The smah Aminian grape and the larger one and the Apician are stored unstoned in a jar ; they can also be kept in new wine boiled down and must, and properly in after-wine. The larger Aminian hard-berry grapes, which one you hang up, are properly kept, for instance at a blacksmith's forge, to make raisins.' Nor are there any older instructions on this subject written in Latin, so near we are to the origin of things. The Aminian grape last mentioned is called by \^arro the Scantian. In our own period tliere have been few instances of ^odem consummate skiU in this iieki, but it is ali the more vine-groinvg. proper on that account not to omit them, so as also to make known the rewards of success, which in eveiy department attract the greatest attention. Well, the greatest distinction was achieved b}^ Acihus voL. Tv. jj 217 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY Sthenelus e plebe libertina lx iugerum non amplius vineis excultis in Nomentano agro atque cccc 49 nummum venundatis. magna fama et Vetuleno Aegialo perinde libertino fuit in Campania rure Liternino, maiorque etiam favore hominum quoniam ipsum Africani colebat exilium; sed maxima, eius- dem Stheneh opera, Remmio Palaemoni, alias gram- matica arte celebri, in hisce xx annis mercato rus Dc nummum in eodem Nomentano decimi lapidis ab 50 urbe deverticulo. est autem usquequaque nota viUtas mercis peromnia suburbana,ibi tamen maxime, quoniam et neglecta indihgentia ^ praedia paraverat ac ne in pessimis quidem elegantioris soH. haec adgressus excolere non virtute animi sed vanitate primo, quae nota mire in illo fuit, pastinatis de integro vineis cura StheneU, dum agricolam imitatur, ad vix credibile miraculum perduxit, intra octavum annum cccc nummum emptori addicta pendente 51 vindemia ; cucurritque nemo non ^ ad spectandas uvarum in iis vineis strues, Htteris eius altioribus contra id pigra \dcinitate sibi patrocinante, et ^ novis- sime Annaeo Seneca, principe tum eruditorum ac ^ indiligenti (-sc. homini) ? Mnyhoff. 2 Oronovius : non nemo. ' et add. Rackham. " The elder Scipio Africanus retired voluntarily to his country seat at Liternum in 185 b.c. and died there a year or two later. 2l8 BOOK XIV. V. 48-51 Sthenelus, a plebeian, the son of a freedman, by his intensive cultivation of a vineyard of not more than 60 iugera, in the region of Mentana, which he sold for 400,000 sesterces. Also Vetulenus Aegiakis, he too a freedman, gained a great reputation in the district of Liternum in Campania, and a still greater reputation in pubHc esteem on account of his cultivating the estate which had been the place of exile of Africanus"; but the greatest reputation, thanks to the activity of the same Sthenelus, attached to Remmius Palaemon, also famous for his treatise on grammar, who within the last 20 years bought a farm for 600,000 sesterces inthe same regionof Mentana, at the turning ofFthe main road ten miles from Rome. The low price of property through all the districts just outside the city in every direction is notorious, but especially in the neighbourhood referred to, since Palaemon had bought farms that had also been let down by neglect and that were not above the average quahty of soil even among those extremely poor estates. He undertook the cultivation of this property not from any high motive but at first out of vanity, for which he was known to be so remarkable ; but he had the vineyards dug and trenched afresh under the superintendence of Sthenelus, and so, though only playing the part of a farmer, he finally got the estate into an almost incredibly wonderful condition, as within eight years, the vintage, while still hanging on the trees, was knocked down to a purchaser at a price of 400,000 sesterces ; and every- body ran to see the piles of grapes in these vineyards, while the sluggish neighbourhood vindicated itself against this discredit by the excuse of his exception- ally profound studies, and recently Annaeus Seneca, 219 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY potentia quae postremo nimia ruit super ipsum, minime utique miratore inanium, tanto praedii huius amore capto ut non puderet inviso alias et ostentaturo tradere palmam eam, emptis quadriplicato vineis 52 illis intra decimum fere curae annum. digna opera quae in Caecubis Setinisque agris proficeret, quando et postea saepenumero septenos culleos singula iugera, hoc est amphoras centenas quadragenas, musti dedcre. ac ne quis victam in hoc antiquitatem arbitretur, idem Cato denos culleos redire ex iugeri- bus scripsit, efficacibus exempHs non maria plus temerata conferre mercatori, non in Rubrum Htus Indicumve merces petitas quam sedulum ruris larem. 53 VI. Vino antiquissima claritas Maroneo in Thraciae maritimae parte genito, ut auctor est Homerus. neque enim fabulosa aut de origine eius varie pro- dita consectemur,! praeterquam Aristaeum primum omnium in eadem gentc mel miscuisse vino, suavitate praecipua utriusque naturae sponte provenientis. Maroneum vicies tanto addito aquae miscendum 54 Homerus prodidit. durat etiamnum vis in eadem ^ Warmington; conseotamur. BOOK XIV. V. 51-V1. 54 the most learned person of the day, and eminent in power which ultimately grew to excess and came crashing about his ears — a man who was at all events no admirer of frivoUties — was seized with such a passionate desire for this estate that he was not ashamed to concede this victory to one whom he other- wise hated and who was sure to make the most of this advertisement, by buying the vineyards in question at four times the price Palaemon had paid for it within hardly more than ten years of its being under his management. This was a method of cultivation which it would be profitable to apply to the farms of Caecubum and Setia, since even subsequently the estate has frequently produced seven sacks, that is 140 jars, of must to the iugerum. And to prevent anyone from supposing that the records of the days of old were beaten on this occasion, Cato also wrote that there were returns of 10 sacks to the iugerum, these in- stances conchisively proving that the merchant does not obtain more profit by rashly trespassing on the seas nor by going as far as the coast of the Red Sea or of tlie Indian Ocean to seek for merchandise, than is yielded by a diligently cultivated homestead. VI. The most ancient celebrity belongs to the wine Famous of Maronea grown in the seaboard parts of Thrace, ^"l^^''^^^^ as we learn from Homer. However, we need not pursue the legendary or variously reported stories qj. ix. 197 concerning its origin, except the statement that Aristaeus was the first person of all in the same nation who mixed honey with wine, because of the out- standingly agreeable quahty of each of these natural products. Homer has recorded the mixing of Maro- Od. ix. 20!i nean wine with water in the proportion of 20 parts of water to one of wine. This class of wine in the same 22T PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY terra generi rigorque indomitus, quippe cum Muci- anus ter consul ex iis qui nuperrime prodidere sextarios singulos octonis aquae misceri compererit praesens in eo tractu, esse autem colore nigrum, odoratum, vetustate pinguescere. Et Pramnio, quod idem Homerus celebravit, etiam nunc honos durat. nascitur Zmyrnae regione iuxta delubrum Matris deum. 55 In reliquis claritas generi non fuit alicui, anno fuit omnium generum bonitate L. Opimio cos., cum C. Gracchus tribunus plebem seditionibus agitans interemptus est : ea caeli temperies fulsit (cocturam vocant), solis opere, nataU urbis dcxxxiii : durant- que adhuc vina ea cc fere annis, iam in speciem redacta melHs asperi: etenim haec natura vinis in vetustate est ; nec potari per se queant pervincive aqua, usque in amaritudinem carie indomita, sed ceteris vinis commendandis minima aliqua mixtm-a 56 medicamenta sunt. quod ut eius temporis aesti- matione in singulas amphoras centeni nummi statu- antur, ex liis tamen ^ usura multiplicata semissibus, 1 tantum Mayhoff. 222 BOOK XIV. VI. 54-56 district still retains its strength and its insuperable vigour, inasniuch as one of the most recent authors, Mucianus, who was thrce times consul, ascertained when actually visiting tliat region that it is the custom to mix with one pint of this wine eight pints of water, and that it is bhick in colour, has a strong bouquet, and improves in substance with age. The Pramnian wine as well, also celebrated by Homer, still retains its fame. It is grown in the 11. xi. 639, territory of Smyrna, in the neighbourhood of the ^'^' -^" '"^^" shrine of the Mother of the Gods. Among the remaining wines no kind was particu- Winesof larly famous, but the year of the consulship of Lucius a^g^JiT"' Opimius, when the tribune Gaius Gracchus was "^'"^- assassinated for stirring up the common people with seditions, was renowned for the excellence of its vintages of all kinds — the weather was so fine and bright (they call it the ' boiling ' of the grape) thanks to the power of the sun, in the 633rd year 121 b.o. from the birth of the city ; and wines of that year still survive, having kept for nearly 200 years, though they have now been reduced to the con- sistency of honey with a rough flavour, for such in fact is the nature of wines in their old age ; and it w^ould not be possible to drink them neat or to counteract them with water, as their over-ripeness predominates even to the point of bitterness, but with a very small admixture they serve as a seasoning for improving all other wines. Assuming that by the valuation of that period their cost may be put at 100 sesterces per amphora, but that the interest on this sum has been adding up at 6 per cent. per annum, which is a legal and moderate rate, we have shown by a famous instance that in the 223 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY quae civilis ac modica est, in C. Caesaris Gei*manici filii principatu, annis clx, singulas uncias vini eo ^ constitisse nobili exemplo docuimus referentes vitam Pomponii Secundi vatis cenamque quam principi illi dedit : tantum pecuuiarum detinent vini apothe- 57 cae. nec alia res maius incrementum sentit ad vicensimum annum, maiusve ab eo dispendium non proficiente pretio. raro quippe adhuc fuere, nec nisi in nepotatu, singulis testis miha nummum, Viennenses soU picata sua, quorum genera diximus, pluris permutare, sed inter sese amore patrio, creduntur ; idque vinum frigidius reliquis existimatur in frigido potu. SS VII. Vino natura est hausto accendendi calore vis- cera intus, foris infuso refrigerandi. nec alienum fuerit commemorare hoc in loco quod Androcydes sapientia clarus ad Alexandrum Magnum scripsit intemperan- tiam eius cohibens : ' Vinum poturus, rex, memento bibere te sanguinem terrae. cicuta homini venenum est, cicutae vinum.' quibus praeceptis ille si obtemperavisset, profecto amicos in temulentia non interemisset, prorsus ut iure dici possit neque viribus corporis utiHus ahud neque voluptatibus ^ pernicio- sius si modus absit. 1 vini eo Urlichs : vini ex (inl vineae. 2 [voluptatibus] Muretns. " 'JMiis work is not extant. ^ I.e. in the caso of a particular vintage, like Opimian, tbat is known to go on improving. *■ Clitus and Callisthenes. •* I.e. in debasing them and in cutting them short : unless the word is an interpolation. 224 BOOK XIV. VI. 56-vii. 58 principate of Gaius Caesar, son of Germanicus, 160 a.d. 39. years after the consulship of Opimius, the wine cost that amount for one-twelfth of an amphora — -this appears in our biography " of the bard Pomponius Secundus and the banquet that he gave to the emperor mentioned : so large are the sums of money that are kept stored in our wine-cellars ! Indeed there is nothing else which experiences a greater in- crease of value up to the twentieth year — or a greater fall in value afterwards, supposing that there is not a rise of price.* Rarely indeed has it occurred hitherto and only in the case of some spendthrift's extravagance,for wine to fetch a thousand sesterces a cask. It is beheved that the people of Vienne alone sell their wines flavoured with pitch, the varieties of which we have specified, for a higher § i^. price, though out of patriotism they only sell it among themselves ; and this wine when drunk cold is beheved to be cooler than all the other kinds. VII. V>lne has the property of heating the parts of Physioiogicai the body inside when it is drunk and of coohng them '^ when poured on them outside. And it will not be out of place to recall here what the famous philosopher Androcydes wrote to Alexander the Great in an attempt to restrain his intemperance : ' When you are about to drink wine, O King, remember that you are drinking the earth's blood. Hemlock is poison to a human being and wine is poison to hemlock.' If Alexander had obeyed this advice, doubtless he would not have killed his friends '^ in his drunken fits ; so that in fact we are justified in saying that there is nothing else that is more useful for strength- ening the body, and aUo nothing more detrimental to our pleasures ^ if moderation be lacking. 22^ PLINY: NATURAL IIISTORY 59 VIII. Genera autem vini alia aliis gratiora esse quis dubitet, aut non norit^ ex eodem lacu aliud prae- stantius altero germanitatem praecedere sive testa sive fortuito eventu? quamobrem de principatu se 60 quisque iudicem statuet. lulia Augusta lxxxvi ^ annos vitae Pucino vino rettulit acceptos, non alio usa. gignitur in sinu Hadriatici maris non procul a Timavi ^ fonte, saxoso coUe, maritimo adflatu paucas coquente amphoras ; nec aliud aptius medicamentis iudicatur. hoc esse crediderim quod Graeci cele- brantes miris laudibus Praetutianum * appellaverint 61 ex Hadriatico sinu. Divus Augustus Setinum prae- tulit cunctis et fere secuti principes, confessa propter experimenta, non temere cruditatibus noxiis ab ea saliva nascentibus . . .^ nascitur supra Forum Appi. antea Caecubo erat generositas celeberrima in palus- tribus populetis sinu Amyclano, quod iam intercidit incuria coloni locique angustia, magis tamen fossa Neronis quam a Baiano lacu Ostiam usque naviga- bilem incohaverat. 62 Secunda nobiUtas Falerno agro erat et ex eo maxime Faustiano ; cura culturaque id coegerat.® ^ norit add. ? Mayhoff. 2 lxxxnt: coll. Dione Cassio Nipperdey : Lxxxii. ^ Rackham : Timavo. * Rackham coll. §§ 67, 75 : Praicianum, etc. ^ nascentibus add. Warmington, lacunam Rackham. ^ coegerat? colL^ 115 Mayhoff : collegerat. " L. Cornelius Sulla Faustus, son of the dictator. 226 BOOK XIV. VIII. 59-62 VIII. VVho can doubt, however, that some kinds itaiinn of wine are more agreeable than others, or who "J^,^/"* does not know that one of two wines from tlie same ^«■''- vat can be superior to the other, surpassing its wili». " rehition either owing to its cask or from some acci- dental circumstance ? And consequently each man will appoint himself judge of the question which wine hoads the hst. JuHa Augusta gave the credit for her eighty-six years of Hfe to the wine of Pizzino, having never drunk any other. It is grown on a bay of the Adriatic not far from the source of the Timavus, on a rocky hill, where the breeze offthe sea ripens enough grapes to make a few casks ; and no other wine is considered more suitable for medicinal puq^oses. I am inchned to beheve that this is the wine from the Adriatic Gulf which the Greeks have extolled with such marvellous encomiums under the name of Praetutian. His late Majesty Augustus preferred Setinum to all wines whatsoever, and so for the most part did the Emperors who came after him, owing to the verdict of experience that because injurious attacks of indigestion do not readily arise from this liquor. . . . It grows just above Foro Appio. Pre- viously Caecuban wine had the reputation of being the most generous of all ; it was grown in some poplar woods 011 marshy ground on the Bay of Amyclae, but the vineyard has now disappeared owing to the neglect of the cultivator and the confined area of the ground, though in a greater degree owing to the ship canal from the lake of Baiae to Ostia that was begun by Nero. The second rank belonged to the Falernian district, Second-dass and in it particularly to the estate of Faustus '^ in "^'*^' consequence of the care taken in its cultivation ; but 227 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY exolescit haec quoque culpa ^ copiae potius quam bonitati studentium. Falemus ager a ponte Cam- pano laeva petentibus Urbanam coloniam Sullanam nuper Capuae contributam incipit, Faustianus cir- citer iiii milia passuum a vico Caedicio, qui vicus a Sinuessa vi m. passuum abest. nec ulli nunc vino maior auctoritas. solum vinorum flamma accendi- 63 tur. tria eius genera, austerum, duke, tenue. quidam ita distingunt, summis collibus Caucinum gigni, mediis Faustianum, imis Falernum. non omittendum autem nulli eorum quae celebrentur iucundum saporem uvae esse. 64 Ad tertiam palmam varie venere Albana urbi vicina,2 praedulcia ac raro austera,^ item Surrentina in vineis tantum nascentia, convalescentibus maxime probata propter tenuitatem salubritatemque. Ti- berius Caesar dicebat consensisse medicos ut nobili- tatem Surrentino darent, alioqui esse generosum acetum, C. Caesar, qui successit illi, nobilem vappam. certant Massica atque a monte Gauro Puteolos 65 Baiasque prospectantia. nam Falerno contermina Statana ad principatum venere non dubie, palamque fecere sua quibusque terris tempora esse, suos rerum ^ culpa add. Dalec. 2 urbi vicina om. v.l. ^ laro austera ? Mayhoff : rara in austero. » I.e. on palisades, not trained on trees. 228 BOOK XIV. VIII. 62-65 the reputation of this district also is passing out of vogue through the fault of paying more attention to quantity than to quahty. The Falernian district begins at the Campanian bridge as you turn left to reach the Colonia Urbana of Sulla lately attached to Capua, and the Faustus estate begins about four miles from the village of Caedicium, which is about six miles from Sinuessa. No other wine has a higher rank at the present day. It is the only wine that takes hght when a flame is applied to it. It has three varieties, one dry, one sweet and one a Hght wine. Some people distinguish three vintages as follows — Caucinian growing on the tops of the hills, Faustian half-way up them, and Falernian at the bottom. It must also not be omitted that none of the grapes that produce the celebrated vintages are agreeable to eat. The third prize is attained in various degrees by the Third-dn.$s vines of Alba in the neighbourhood of the city, which '^'""' are extremely sweet and occasionally dry, and also by those of Sorrento which only grow in vineyards," and which are very highly recommended for con- valescents because of their thinness and health- giving qualities. The Emperor Tiberius used to say that the doctors had made a corner to puff the Sor- rento vintage, but that except for that it was only a generous vinegar, and his successor the Emperor Gaius called it best quality flat M-ine. Its place is contested by the vineyards of Monte Massico and the slopes of Monte Barbaro looking towards Pozzuoli and Baiae. For the Statana vineyards adjoining the Falernian territory unquestionably once reached the first place, and estabHshed the fact that each locaHty has its own period and its own rise and decHne of 229 PLINY: NATURAL HLSTORY proventus occasusque. iuncta iis praeponi solebant Calena ct quae in lineis arbustisque nascuntur Fundana et alia ex vicinia urbis, Veliterna, Priver- natia. nam quod Signiae nascitur austeritate nimia continendae utile alvo inter medicamina numeratur. 66 Quartum curriculum publicis epulis optinuere a divo lulio — is enim primas auctoritatem iis dedit, ut epistulis eius apparet — Mamertina circa Messanam in Sicilia genita ; ex his Potitiana ^ ab auctore dicta illo cognomine, proxima Italiae laudantur praecipue. est in eadem Sicilia et Tauromenitanis honos lagoenis pro Mamertino plerumque subditis. 67 Ex rehquis autem a supero mari Praetutiana ^ atque Anconae nascentia, et quae a palma una forte enata palmensia appellavere, in mediterraneo vero Caesena- tia ac Maecenatiana, in Veroniensi item Raetica Falernis tantum postlata a Vergiho, mox ab intimo sinu maris Hadriana, ab infero autem Latinieiisia, 68 Graviscana, Statoniensia. Etruriae Luna pahiiam habet, Liguriae Genua. inter Pyrenaeum Alpesquc Massiha gemino sapore, quando et condiendis ahis 1 Dalcc. coU. § 69 : Potulana. 2 Backham coll. § 75 : Praetutia. « The Tuscan Sea. 230 BOOK XIV. VIII. 65 68 fortunc. The adjaccnt vintages of the Calenian hills iised to be prefcrred to them, as werc thosc of Fundi whcre the vines are grown on trellises or traincd up small trees, and others from the vicinity of Rome, thosc of Castcl dcl \'olturno and Pipcrno. As for the winc produced at Segni, it counts as a mcdicine, bcing useful as a stomachic astringcnt owing to its exccssive dryness. For public banquets the fourth placc in the race Fourthciois has becn hcld from thc time of his late Majesty "^"***' .TuUus Cacsar onward — for he was the first person to bring thcm into favour, as appears from his letters — to the Mamertine vintages grown in the neighbour- hood of Messina in Sicily ; of these the Potitian, so called after the name of its original grower, is par- ticularly highly spokcn of — it grows in the part of Sicily nearest to Italy. In Sicily also is grown the Taormina vintage, which when bottled is constantly passed off for Mamertinc. Among the rcmaining wines there are, in the vicinity ofthe AdriaticandIonianSea,the Praetutian and those grown at Ancona and the vines callcd sprig-vincs, becausc they were all struck from a single chance sprig ; and in the intcrior the wines of Cezena and those called by the name of Maecenas ; also in the district of Verona the wines of Tyrol, reckoned by Virgil infcrior only to Falernian ; and GeorgicsU. next at the top of the Adriatic the wincs of Adria, "^^' and from the Lower Sea*^ the Latiniensian, Graviscan and Statonicnsian. Luna carries off the palm of Tuscany and Genoa that of Liguria. Betwecn the Pyrenees and the Alps Marseilles has wine of two flavours, as itproduccs aricher varietv, the localname for which is the * juicy ' brand, which is also used for 231 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY pinguius gignit quod vocat sucosum. Baeterrarum intra Gallias consistit auctoritas ; de reliquis in Narbonensi genitis adseverare non est, quoniam officinam eius rei fecere tinguentes fumo, utinamque non et herbis ac medicaminibus noxiis : quippe etiam aloe mercator saporem coloremque adulterat. 69 Verum et longinquiora Italiae ab Ausonio mari non carent gloria, Tarentina et Servitiana et Consentiae genita et Tempsae ac Bari ac ^ Lucana quae ante- cedunt ^ Thurinis. omnium vero eorum maxime illustrata Messalae Potiti salute Lagarina, non procul Grumento nascentia. Campania nuper excitavit novis nominibus auctoritatem sive cura sive casu, ad quartum a Neapoli lapidem Trebellicis, iuxta Capuam Caulinis, et in suo agro Trebulanis, alioqui semper inter 70 plebeia, et Trifohnis gloriata. nam Pompeianis summum decem annorum incrementum est, nihil senecta conferente ; dolore etiam capitum in sextam horam diei sequentis infesta deprehenduntur. quibus exemplis, nisi fallor, manifestum est patriam ter- ramque refcrre, non uvam, et supervacuam generum consectationem in numerum, cum eadem vitis aliud 1 ac Bari ac Detlejsen (Calabriae MayhoJJ) : ac Babbiae. 2 Detlejsen : Lucanaqiie anteccdentibus. 232 BOOK XIV. VIII. 68 70 seasoning other wines. The importance of the wine of Beziers does not cxtend outside the GalHc })ro- vinces ; and about the rest of the wines grown in the Province of Narbonne no positive statement can be made, inasmuch as the dealcrs have set up a regular factory for the puq:)ose and colour them by means of smoke, and I regret to '^ay also by employing noxious hcrbs and drugs — inasmuch as a dealer actually uses aloe for adulterating the flavour and the colour of his wines. But also the wincs of Italy grown further away from the Ausonian Sea are not without note, those of Taranto and San Scvcrino, and those grown at Cosenza and Tempsa and Bari, and the Lucanian vintages, which hold a better place than those of Tliurii. But the wincs of Lagara, grown not far from Grumentum, are the most famous of them all, on the ground of their having restored the health of Messala Potitius. Campania, whethcr by means of carcful cultivation or by accident, has lately excited considcration by some new names — boasting the TrebeUian vintage four miles from Naples, the Cau- line close to Capua, and the Trebulan when grown in the district of the samc name (though otherwise it is ahvays classed as a common wine), and the TrifoHne. As for the wines of Pompci, their topmost improve- ment is a matter of ten years, and they gain nothing from age ; also they are detected as unwholesome because of a headache which lasts till noon on the following day. These instances,if I amnot mistakcn, go to show that it is the country and the soil that matter, not the grape, and that it is supcrfluous to go on with a long enumeration of kinds, sincc the same vine has a diiferent value in difFercnt PLINY: NATURAL IIISTORY 7J aliis in locis poUeat. Hispaniarum Laeetana copia nobilitantur, elegantia vero Tarraconensia atque Lauronensia et Baliarica ex insulis conferuntur Italiae primis. nec ignoro multa praetermissa plerosque existimaturos, quando suum cuique placet et quo- 72 cumque eatur, fabula eadem reperitur, divi Augusti iudiciorum ac palati peritissimum e libertis censuram vini in epulas eius facientem dixisse hospiti de indi- gena vino novum quidem sibi gustum esse eum atque non ex nobilibus, sed Caesarem non aliud poturum. nec negaverim et alia digna esse fama, sed de quibus consensus aevi iudicaverit haec sunt. 73 IX. Nunc simili modo transmarina dicemus. in summa gloria post Homerica illa de quibus supra diximus fuere Thasium Chiumque, ex Chio quod Ariusium vocant. his addidit Lesbium Erasistrati maximi medici auctoritas, circiter ccccl anno urbis Romae. nunc gratia ante omnia est Clazomenio, 74 postquam parcius mari condiunt. Lesbium sponte « 301 B.c. 234 BOOK XIV. VIII. 70 i\. 74 places. In the Spanish provinccs ihc vinevards of Laeetaniini are famous for the quantity of winc they produce, while for choice quahty the vineyards of Tarragon and Lauron and those of the Balearics among the islands challenge comparison with the first vintages of Italy. And I am not unaware that most people will think that many have been passed over. inasmuch as everybody has his own favourite, and wherever one may go one finds the same story current — how that one of the freedmen of his late Majesty Augustus, who was the most skilful among them for his judgcment and palate, in tasting wine for the emperor's table passed this remark to the master of the house where Augustus was \isiting in regard to a wine of the district : ' The flavour of this wine is new to me, and it is not of a high class, but all the same I prophesy that the emperor will not drink any other.' I would not deny that other wines also dcserve a high reputation, but the ones that I have enumerated are those on which the general agreement of the ages will be found to have pronounced judgement. IX. \Ve will now in a similar manner specify the Fordgn wines of countries overseas. The wines held in dassified. highest esteem subsequent to the great vintages of the Homeric age about which we have spokcn above §§ 53 /ozz. were those of Thasos and Chios, and of the latter thc wine called Ariusian. To these the authority of the eminent physician Erasistratus, about four hundred and fifty years ** after the foundation of Rome, added Lesbian. At the present time the most popular of all is the wine of Clazomenae. now that they have begun to flavour it more sparingly with sea-water. The wine of Lesbos by dint of its own 235 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY suae naturae mare sapit; nec Tmoliti per se gratia ut vino, sed cuius dulci admixto reliquorum duritia suavitatem accipiat, simul et aetatem, quoniam vetustiora protinus videntur. ab his dignatio est Sicyonio, Cyprio, Telmesico, Tripolitico, Berytio, Tyrio, Sebennytico. in Aegypto hoc nascitur tribus generibus uvarum ibi nobiUbus,^ Thasio, aethalo, 75 peuce. post haec auctoritas Hippodamantio, Mystico, cantharitae, protropo Cnidio, Catacecaumenitae, Petritae, Myconio. nam Mesogiten capitis dolores facere conpertum est, nec Ephesium salubre esse, quoniam mari et defruto condiatur. Apamenum mulso praecipue convenire dicitur, sicut Praetutia- num 2 in Italia— est enim et haec proprietas generum ; 76 dulcia utique inter se non congruunt. exolevit et pro- tagion, quod Italicis proximum fecerant Asclepiadis scholae. Apollodorus medicus in volumine quo suasit Ptolemaeo regi quae vina biberet Itahcis etiam tum ignotis laudavit in Ponto Nasperceniten, mox Oreticum, Oeneaten, Leucadium, Ambracioten et quod cunctis praetuHt Peparethium, sed minoris famae esse dixit quoniam ante sex annos non placeret. ^ nobilibus ? Mayhoff : nobilis (nobilissimis edd.). 2 Backham coll. 67 : Praetuitium. 236 BOOK XIV. IV. 74-76 nature smacks of the sea ; and that of Mount Tmolus also is not esteemed as a wine to drink neat, but because being a sweet wine an admixture of it gives sweetness to the dry quality of the remaining vin- tages, at the same time also giving them age, as it at once makes them seem more mature. Next after these in esteem are the wines of Sicyon, Cyprus, Telmesus, TripoH, Beyrout, Tyre and Sebennys. This last is grown in Egypt, being made frora three famous kinds of grapes that grow there, the Thasian, the soot-grape and the pine-tree grape. Ranking after these are the wines of Hippodamas, of Mystus and of the canthareos vine, the protropum*^ of Cnidos, and the wines of the volcanic region in Mysia, of Petra and of Myconos. As for the vintage of Mesogis, it has been found to cause headache, and that of Ephesus has also proved to be unwholesome, because sea-v/ater and boiled must are employed to season it. Apamea wine is said to be particularly suitable for making mead, and so Hkewise is the Praetutian in Italy — for this too is a property peculiar to certain kinds of wine : two sweet wines do not generally go well together. Protagion also has quite gone out, a wine which the medical profession had put next to those of Italy. The physician Apollodorus in his pamphlet advising King Ptolemy what wines to drink — the ItaHan vintages being even then unknown — praised the wine of Nas- percene in Pontus, and next to it the Oretic, Oeneate, Leucadian, Ambraciote and Peparethian vintages — the last he put before all the rest, but said it was less well thought of on account of its not being fit to drink before it was six years old. " A sweet wine drawn off before treading {TpaTTcj) the grapea. PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 77 X. Hactenus bonitas vini nationibus debetur. apud Graecos iure ^ clarissimum nomen accepit quod appellaverunt bion, ad plurimos valitudinum usus excogitatum, ut docebimus in parte medicinae. fit autem hoc modo: uvae paulum ante maturitatem decerptae siccantur acri sole, ter die versatae per tri- duum, quarto exprimuntur, dein in cadis sole in- 78 veterantur. Coi marinam aquam largiorem miscent a servi furto origine orta sic mensuram explentis, idque translatum in album miLstum leucocoum appel- latur. in aliis autem gentibus simili modo factum tethalassomenon vocant, thalassiten autem vasis musti deiectis in mare, quo genere praecox fit 79 vetustas. nec non apud nos quoque Coum vinum ex Italico faciendi rationem Cato demonstravit, super cetera in sole quadriennio ^ maturandum praecipiens. Rhodium Coo simile est, Phorineum salsius Coo. omnia transmarina vina septem annis ad vetustatem mediam pervenire existimantur. 80 XI. V^inum omne dulce minus odoratum, quo tenuius eo odoratius. colores vinis quattuor albus, fulvus, sanguineus, niger. psithium et melampsithium passi genera sunt suo sapore, non vini, ScybeHtes vero mulsi in Galatia nascens, et Aluntium in ^ V.l. curae : cura Hardouin. 2 quadriduo aut triduo edd. " Possibly the text should be altered to give ' four ' or * three daya.' 238 BOOK XIV. X. 77-xi. 80 X. Up to this point the goodness of a wine is ^ medMnai credited to the countries of its growth. Among the Greeks, the wine they have called ' Ufe ' has justly won a very distinguished name, having been de- veloped for the treatment of a great many maladies, as we shall show in the part of our work deaUng xxiii. 53. with medicine. The process of making it is this : the grapes are picked a Httle before they are ripe and are dried in a fierce sun, being turned three times a day for three days, and on the fourth day they are put through the press and then left in casks to mature in the sun. The people of Cos mix in a rather large quantity of sea-water — a custom arising from the peculation of a slave who used this method to fill up the due measure, and this mixture is poured into white must, producing what is called in Greek ' white Coan.' In other countries a blend made in a similar way is called ' sea-flavoured wine,' and * sea-treated ' when the vessels containing the must have been thrown into the sea ; this is a kind of wine that matures young. Also with us as well Cato exhibited a method of «.«. cxii. making Coan ^nne out of Itahan, his most important instruction being that it must be left in the sun for four years * to ripen. The Rhodes vintage resembles that of Cos, but the Phorinean is salter. AU the overseas wines are thought to take seven years to reach the middle stage of maturity. XI. AU sweet wine has less aroma ; the thinner a Aromaand wine is the more aroma it has. Wines are of four ZiZl. colours, white, brown, blood-red and black. Psithian and black psithian are kinds of raisin-wine with a Raisin-wine. pecuHar flavour which is not that of wine ; ScybeHtes is a kind of must produced in Galatia, and Aluntium 239 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY Sicilia. nam siraeum, quod alii hepsema, nostri sapam appellant, ingenii, non natm-ae opiis est musto usque ad tertiam mensurae decocto ; quod ubi factum ad dimidiam est, defrutum vocatur. omnia in adulterium mellis excogitata ; sed priora uva terraque constant. 81 passmn a Cretico ^ Cilicium probatur et Africum. id 2 in Italia finitimisque provinciis fieri certum est ex uva quam Graeci psithiam vocant, nos apianam, item scripulam, diutius uvis ^ in vite sole adustis aut ferventi oleo.^ quidam ex quacumque dulci, dum praecocta, alba, faciunt siccantes sole donec paulo amphus dimidium pondus supersit, tunsasque leniter 82 exprimunt. dein quantum expressere adiciunt vina- ceis aquae puteanae, ut et secundarium passum faciant. diligentiores eodem modo siccatis acinos eximunt ac sine sarmentis madefactos vino excellenti donec intumescant premunt — et hoc genus ante cetera laudant ; ac simili modo aqua addita secun- darium faciunt. 83 Medium inter dulcia vinumque est quod Graeci aigleucos vocant, hoc est semper mustum. id evenit cura, quoniam fervere prohibetur — sic appel- lant musti in vina transitum. ergo mergunt e hicii 1 Hermolaus e Diosc. : Graeco. ^ Detlefsen : et. 3 uvis add. Sillig. * r.Z. dolio. " Apiatia, lit. ' beloved by bees '; perhaps also the English (and Italian) name, though derived from ' musk,' a word of Arabic origin, was popularly associated with musca, ' fly.' * I.e. ferment or effervesce. 240 BOOK XIV. XI. 80-83 another, produced in Sicily. Siraeum, by some called hepsema and in our country sapa, is a product of art, not of nature, made by boiHng down must to a third of its quantity ; must boiled down to only one-half is called defrutum. All these wines have been de- vised for adulterating with honey ; but the wines previously mentioned are the product of the grape and of the soil. Next after the raisin-wine of Cretc those of CiHcia and of Africa are held in esteem. Raisin-wine is known to be made in Italy and in the neighbouring provinces from the grape called by the Greeks psithia and by us * muscatel,' '^ and also scripula, the grapes being left on the vine longer than usual to ripen in the sun, or else being ripened in boiHng oil. Some people make this wine from any sweet white grape that ripens early, drying them in the sun tiU Httle more than half their weight remains, and then they beat them and gently press out the juice. Afterwards they add to the skins the same quantity of well-water as they have pressed out juice, so as also to make raisin-wine of second quaHty. The more careful makers, after drying the bunches in the same manner, pick off the berries and soak them without their stalks in wine of good quality tiU they sweH, and then press them — and this kind of wine is the most highly praised of any ; and then they repeat the process, adding more water, and make a wine of second quaHty. Between the sirops and real wine is the Hquor that ^"^^- the Greeks caH aigleucos — this is our ' permanent must.' Care is needed for its production, as it must not be aHowed to ' boil ' ^ — that is the word they use to denote the passage of must into wine. Consequently, ^weet mnea. as soon as the must is taken from the vat and put into 241 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY protinus in aqua cados donec bruma transeat et consuetudo fiat algendi. est etiamnum aliud genus passi, quod vocat dulce Narbonensis provincia et in ea maxime Vocontii. adservatur eius gratia uva 84 diutius in vite pediculo intorto. ab aliis ipse palmes iuciditur ad medullam, ab aliis uva torretur in tegulis, omnia ex helvennaca vite. his adiciunt aliqui quod vocant diachyton uvis in sole siccatis loco cluso per dies septem in cratibus totidem pedes a terra alte, noctibus ab umore defensis, octavo die calcatis ; ita 85 fieri optimi odoris saporisque. e dulci genere est et melitites ; distat a mulso quod fit e musto cum quin- que congiis ; austeri musti congio mellis et salis cyatho subfervefactis, austerum. sed inter haec genera poni debet et protropum : ita appellatur a quibusdam mustum sponte defluens antequam calcen- tur uvae. hoc protinus diffusum in lagoenis suis defervere passi, postea in sole xl diebus torrent aestatis secutae, ipso canis ortu. 86 XII. NonpossuntiuredicivinaquaeGraecideuteria appellant, Cato et nos loram, maceratis aqua vinaceis, » See § 75, note. 242 BOOK XIV. M. 83-xii. 86 casks, they plunge the casks in water till midwinter passes and re^ular cold weather sets in. There is moreover anotlier kind of raisin-wine known in the Province of Xarbonne, and there particularly to the \'ocontii, under the name of ' sweet wine.' For the purpose of this they keep the grape hanging on the vine for an exceptional time, with the foot-stalk twisted. Some make an incision in the actual shoot as far as the pith and others leave the grapes to dry on tiled roofs, the grapes in all cases being those from the helvennaca vine. To these some add a wine called in Greek ' strained wine,' to make which the grapes are dried in the sun for seven days raised seven feet from the ground on hurdles, in an enclosed place where at night they are protected from damp ; on the eighth day they are trodden out, and this process produces a wine of extremely good bouquet and tiavour. Another wine of the sweet class is called honey-wine ; it dilfers from mead because it is made from must, in the proportion of thirty pints of must of a dry quaUty to six pints of honey and a cup of salt, this mixture being brought just to the boil ; this produces a dry-flavoured liquor. But among these vnrieties ought also to be placed the hquor called in Greek 'protropiim ," the name given by some people to must that flows down of its own accord before the grapes are trodden. This as soon as it flows is put into special flagons and allowed to ferment, and afterwards left to dry for forty days of the summer that foUows, just at the rise of the Dog-star. XII. The liquors made from grape-skins soaked in A/ter-mnes. water, called by the Greeks seconds and by Cato and ourselves after-wine, cannot rightly be styled wines, 243 PLINl^: NATURAL HISTORY sed tamen inter vina operaria numerantur. tria eorum genera : decuma parte aquae addita quam quae musti expressa sit, et ita nocte ac die made- factis vinaceis rursusque prelo subiectis ; alterum, quomodo Graeci factitavere, tertia parte eius quod expressum sit addita aquae expressoque decocto ad tertias partes; tertium est faecibus vini expressum, quod faecatum Cato appellat : nullum ex his plus quam annui usus. 87 XIII. Verum inter haec subit mentem, cum sint genera nobilia quae proprie vini intellegi possint Lxxx fere in toto orbe, duas partes ex hoc numero Italiae esse, longe propterea ^ ante cunctas terras ; et hinc deinde altius cura serpit, non a primordio hanc gratiam fuisse, auctoritatem post dc urbis 88 annum coepisse. XIV. Romulum lacte, non vino, Hbasse indicio sunt sacra ab eo instituta quae hodie custodiunt morem. Numae regis Postumia lex est : Fino rogum ne respargito, quod sanxisse illum propter inopiam rei nemo dubitet. eadem lege ex inputata ^ V.l. praeterea longe. 244 BOOK XIV. XII. 86 XIV. 88 but nevertheless are counted among the wines of the working classes. They are of three kinds : one is made by adding to the skins water to the amount of a tenth of the quantity of must that has been pressed out, and so leaving the skins to soak for twenty-four hours and then again putting them under the press ; another, by a method of manufacture that has been commonly employed by the Greeks, i.e. by adding water to the amount of a third of the juice that has been pressed out, and after submitting the pulp to pressure, boiHng it down to one-third of its original quantity ; while the third kind is pressed out of the wine-lees — Cato's name for this is * lees-wine.' None of these hquors is drinkable if kept more than a year. XIII. Among these topics, however, it occurs to winesof me that while there are in the whole world about '^^Jfy' eighty notable kinds of hquor that can properly be ^««^i''" a"'* understood as coming under the term ' wine,' two- thirds of this number belong to Italy, which stands far in front of all the countries in the world on that account ; and further investigation going into this subject more deeply indicates that this popularity does not date back from the earhest times, but that the importance of the Itahan wines only bcgan from the city's six hundredth year. XIV. 154 b.c. Romulus used milk and not wine for hbations, as is provcd by the rehgious rites estabhshed by him Reguiations which preserve the custom at the present day. The ^SiTv^in^ Postumian Law of King Numa runs : Thou shalt notf'^"^^^' sprinkle the funeral pyre rvith wine — a law to which he gave his sanction on account of the scarcity of the commodity in question, as nobody can doubt. By the same law he made it illegal to offer hbations to the 245 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY vite libari vina dis nefas statuit, ratione excogitata ut putare cogerentur alias aratores et pigri circa pericula arbusti. M. \^irro auctor est Mezentium Etruriae regem auxilium Rutulis contra Latinos tulisse vini mercede quod tum in Latino agro fuisset. 89 non licebat id feminis Romae bibere. invenimus inter exempla Egnati Maetenni uxorem, quod vinimi bibisset e dolio, interfectam fusti a marito, eumque caedis a Romulo absolutum. Fabius Pictor in annalibus suis scripsit matronam, quod loculos in quibus erant claves cellae vinariae resigna^-isset, a 90 suis inedia mori coactam, Cato ideo propinquos feminis osculum dare ut scirent an temetum olerent ; hoc tum nomen vino erat, unde et temulentia appellata. Cn. Domitius iudex pronuntiavit mu- lierem videri plus vini bibisse quam valitudinis causa viro insciente, et dote multavit. diuque eius rei 91 magna parsimonia fuit. L. Papirius imperator adversus Samnites dimicaturus votum fecit, si vi- cisset, lovi pocillum vini. denique inter dona sextarios lactis ^ datos invenimus, nusquam vini. idem Cato cum in Hispaniam navigaret, unde cum triumpho rediit, non aliud vinum bibit quam remiges, * lactis add. edd. " A plantation of trees on which vines were trained. * Lucius Papirius Cursor in 320 b.c. retrieved the dis- aster of the preceding year when the Roman army waa entrapped at the Caudine Forks. « Over the Celtiberi, 195 b.c. 246 BOOK XIV. XIV. 88-91 gods with wine produccd from a vine that had not been pruned, this being a plan devised for the purpose of compelling people who were mainly engaged in agriculture, and were slack about the dangers beset- ting a plantation,*^ not to neglect pruning. We learn from Marcus Varro that Mezentius, king of Etruria, gave help to the RutuH against the Latins at the price of receiving all the wine then in the territory of Latium. At Rome women were not allowed to drink wine. Among various instances we find that the wife of Kgnatius \Lietennus was clubbed to death by lier husband for drinking wine from the vat, and that Romulus acquitted him on the charge of murder. Fabius Pictor has written in his Annals that a matron was starved to death by her relatives for having broken open the casket containing the keys of the wine-cellar ; and Cato says that the reason why women are kissed by their male relations is to know whether they smell of ' tipple ' — that was then the word denoting wine, and also the word ' tipsy ' comes from it. Judge Gnaeus Domitius once gave a ver- dict that a certain woman appeared to have drunk more wine that was required for the sake of her health without her husband's knowledge, and he fined her the amount of her dowry. And great economy in the use of this commodity prevailed for a long time. General Lucius Papirius* before his decisive action against the Samnites vowed to give a small goblet of wine to Jupiter if he were victorious. Lastly among votive offerings we find mention of gifts of pints of milk but nowhere of wine. Moreover Cato, when saiHng on his expedition to Spain, whence he returned with a triumph,'' drank no other wine than what was drunk by the crew of his galley, so Httle did he 247 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY in tantum dissimilis istis qui etiam convivis alia quara sibimet ipsis ministrant aut procedente mensa subiciunt. 92 XV. Lautissima apud priscos vina erant myrrhae odore condita, ut apparet in Plauti fabulis, quamquam in ea quae Persa inscribitur ^ et calamum addi iubet. ideo quidam aromatite delectatos maxime credunt ; sed Fabius Dossennus his versibus decernit ; Mittebam vinum pulchrum, murrinam, et in Acharistione : Panem et polentam, vinum murrinam. 93 Scaevolam quoque et L. Aelium et Ateium Capi- tonem in eadem sententia fuisse video, quoniam in Pseudolo sit : Quod si opus est ut dulce promat indidem, ecquid habet ? — Rogas ? Murrinam, passum, defrutum, mella — quibus apparet non inter vina modo murriiiam, sed inter dulcia quoque nominatum. 94 XVI. Apothecas fuisse et diffundi solita vina anno Dcxxxiii urbis apparet indubitato Opimiani vini argumento, iam intellegente suum bonum Itaha. nondum tamen ista genera in claritate erant ; itaque omnia tunc genita unum habent consulis 95 nomen. sic quoque postea diu transmarina in 1 Sch(3U: Plauti fabula quae Persa inseribitur quamquam " In Persa 87-88 there ia a reoipe for compounding midsum (not for flavouring wine) which gives calamua as one ingredient, but there is no mention of myrrh. * Phiutus, Pseud. 740-741. * Opimius. 248 BOOK XIV. XIV. 91-XV1. 95 resemble the gentlemen who give even their guests other wines than those served to themselves, or else substitule inferior wines as the meal progresses. XV. The finest wines in early days were those Spic^d mnt. spiced with scent of myrrh, as appears in the plays of Plautus, altliough in the one entitled The Persian he recommends the addition of sweet-reed also.<* Consequently some think that in old times people were extremely fond of scented wine ; but Fabius Dossennus decides the point in these verses : I sent them a fine wine, one spiced with myrrh, and in his Acharistio : Bread and pearl-barley and wine spiced with myrrh. I also observe that Scaevola and Lucius Aelius and Ateius Capito were of the same opinion, inasmuch as we find in Pseudolus ^ : A. But if he has to bring out a sweet wine From that same cellar, has he got one ? B. Got one ? Myrrh-wine and raisin-wine and boiled-down must And honey — which shows that myrrh-wine was counted not only among wines but also among sirops. X\'l. The existence of the Opimian wine — 1\ a\y naiianand already understanding the blessing she enjoyed — l^S^ aifords an undoubted proof that wine-lofts existed there and it was usual for wine to be racked off in the 633rd year of the city. Nevertheless the 21 b.c, vintages referred to were not yet celebrated ; and accordingly all the wines grown in that year bear the name of the consul only.*^ Similarly also after- wards wines imported from oversea held the field for 240 VOL. IV. I ^^ PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY auctoritate fuerunt et ad avos usque nostros, quin et Falerno iam reperto, sicut apparet ex illo comici ^ versu : Quinque Thasi vini depromam, bina Falerni. P. Licinius Crassus L. lulius Caesar censores anno urbis conditae dclxv edixerunt, ne quis vinum Graecum Aminniumque pluris ^ octonis aeris si?igula quadrantalia venderet : haec enim verba sunt. tanta vero Graeco vino gratia erat ut singulae potiones in convictu 96 darentur. XVII. Quibus vinis auctoritas fuerit sua iuventa,^ M. Varro his verbis tradit : L. Lucullus puer apud patrem numquam lautum convivium vidit in quo plus semel Graecum vinum daretur : ipse cum rediit ex Asia, milia cadum congiarium divisit amplius cenium. C. Sentius, quem praetorem vidimus, Chium vinum suam domum inlatum dicebat tum primum cum sihi cardiaco medicus dedisset : Hortensius super x cadum heredi reli- 97 quit. hactenus Varro. quid ? non et Caesar dictator triumphi sui cena vini Falerni amphoras, Chii cados in convivia distribuit? idem Hispaniensi triumpho Chium et Falernum dedit, epulo vero in tertio con- sulatu suo Falernum, Chium, Lesbium, Mamertinum, quo tempore primum quattuor genera vini adposita 1 V.l. comico. 2 pluris add. Rackham. ^ Mayhoff : sua in mensa. 250 BOOK XIV. XVI. 95-x\'ii. 97 a long time and right down to our grandfathers' day, indced even after Falernian had already been dis- covered, as appears from the hne of the comedy play^\Tight " : rU broach five casks of Thasian, two of Faler- nian. In the year 665 from the foundation of the city the 89 b.o. censors PubUus Licinius Crassus and Lucius Juhus Caesar promulgated an edict prohibiting ' the sale of Greek and Aminnian wine at a higher price than 8 asses for 6 gallons ' — those being the actual words of the edict. But Greek wine was so highly esteemed that only one cup was given to each guest at a ban- quet. X\'II. Marcus Varro records in the following imported words the wines that ranked highest in his own ^^*'* "^'^^' younger days : ' When Lucius Lucullus was a boy he never saw a full-dress banquet in his father's house at which Greek wine was given more than once, but when he himself came back from Asia he distributed 80 b.c. more than 100,000 jars in largess ; also Gaius Sentius, who was praetor in our time, used to say that the first time that Chian wine entered his house was when the doctor had prescribed it for him for heart- burn ; but Hortensius left over ten thousand jarSoOB.c. to his next-of-kin.' So far Varro. x\nd besides, did not Caesar also, when dictator, at the banquet in celebration of his triumph apportion to each table a 40 b.c. flagon of Falernian and a jar of Chian ? Caesar also gave Chian and Falernian at his triumph over Spain, eOB.c. but at a banquet during his third consulship he 46 b.o. provided Falernian, Chian, Lesbian and Mamertine : this is known to be the first occasion on which four « Unknown. 251 PLINY; NATURAL HISTORY constat. postea ergo reliqua omnia in nobilitatem venere et circiter dcc m-bis annmn. 98 XVIII. Itaque non miror innumerabilia paene genera ficticii reperta multis ante saeculis, quae nunc dicemus, omnia ad medicinae usum pertinentia. omphacium quo modo fieret propter unguenta dixi- mus priore libro. fit e labrusca, hoc est vite silvestri, quod vocatur oenanthinum, floris eius Hbris duabus in musti cado maceratis ; post dies xxx mutantur. praeter hoc radix labruscae et acini coria perficiunt. 99 hi paulo post quam defloruere singulare remedium habent ad refrigerandos in morbis corporum ardores, gelidissima, ut ferunt, natura. pars eorum aestu moritur prius quam reUqua, qui solstitiales dicuntur ; universi numquam maturescunt, et si prius quam tota marcescat uva incocta detur cibo gaUinaceo generi, fastidium gignit uvas adpetendi. 100 XIX. Ficticiorum primum (quod vocant adynamon) fit ex ipso vino ^ hoc modo : albi musti sextarii xx aquae dimidium fervent donec excoquatur aquae mensura. aUi marinae sextarios x, tantundem pluviae in sole xl diebus torrent. dant aegris quibus vini noxiam timent. ^ fit . . . vino hic Warmington : ante quod vocant. * If the text is right, Pliny must mean that vintages other than Chian and Falernian beeame famous after the latter did. 252 BOOK XIV. XVII. 97-xix. loo kinds of wine were served. It follows that all the rest of the vintages came into fame afterwards, and aboiit 54 B.C." XVIII. I am not surprised therefore that many Arti/iciai centuries ago ahnost innumerable kinds of artificial "^""- wine have been invented, which we will now specify, all of them being used for medicinal purposes. In an earher volume we stated the method of making xii. i30. omphacium, which is used for unguents. What is called vine-flower wine is made from the claret vine, that is the wild vine, by steeping two pounds of the flowers of this plant in a jar of must ; 30 days after- wards they are changed. Beside this the root and the grape-skins of the claret-vine are used indressing leather. These grape-skins, a Uttle after the blossom has gone oif, provide a remarkable specific for coohng attacks of fevcrish heat in cases of disease, being said to be of an extremely cold nature. A portion of these grapes die off from the heat before the rest — these are called midsummer grapes ; the whole of them never come to maturity, and if a bunch in an unripe state before it completely withers is fed to poultry it produces in them a distaste for steahng grapes. XIX. The first of the artificial wines, which is called Manufacture weak wine, is made from real wine in the following ^^^JJ"* manner: ten quarts of white must and half that quantity of water are kept boihng till a considerable amount of the water is boiled away. Other people put in five quarts of sea-water and the same amount of rain-water and leave the mixture in the sun for 40 days to evaporate. This drink is given to invahds for whom it is feared that wine may be harmful. 253 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 101 Proximum fit e milii semine maturi cum ipsa stipula libram quadrantem in congios duos musti macerato et post septimum mensem transfuso. ex loto arbore, frutice, herba dictum est ubi quaeque fierent. 102 Fiunt et e pomis quae dicemus interpretationibus non nisi necessariis additis, primumque e palmis, quo Parthi, Indi utuntur et oriens totus, mitiorum quas vocant chydaeas modio in aquae congiis tribus macerato expressoque. sic fit et sycites e fico, quem alii pharnuprium, aHi trochin vocant ; aut si dulce esse non hbeat, pro aqua tantundem vinaciorum adicitur. e Cypria fico et acetum fit praecellens 103 atque Alexandrino quoque meHus. vinum fit et e siUqua Syriaca et e piris malorumque omnibus generibus — sed e Punicis rhoiten vocant — et e cornis, mespiUs, sorbis, moris siccis, nucleis pineis ; hi musto madidi exprimuntur, superiora per se 104 mitia. myrtiten Cato quemadmodum fieri docuerit mox paulo indicabimus. Graeci et aho modo: ramis teneris cum suis foUis in salso musto decoctis, tunsis, Ubram in tribus musti congiis defervefaciunt donec duo supersint. quod ita e silvestris m^Tti " 'P6a, ' pomegranate.' 254 BOOK XIV. XIX. 101-104 The next kind of artificial wine is made fr om ^i^n^n^. ripe millet seed, by putting a pound and a quarter of the seed together with its straw to soak in 1| gallons of must and after an inter^^al of seven months pouring off the Hquor. It has already ^nr. been stated where the varieties brewed from the ^'^*' *^' lotus-tree, lotus-shrub and herbaceous lotus are made. There are also wines, made from fruit, which we will ^cue mne specify, adding only the indispensable explanations : ^ fi^^^^^- First the wine madc from date-palms, which is used by the Parthians and Indians and by the whole of the East, a peck of the rather soft dates called in Greek * common dates ' being soaked in two and a quarter gallons of water and then pressed. Also fig syrup is made from figs by a similar process, other names for it being pharnuprium and trochis ; or if it is not wanted to be sweet, instead of water is added the same quantity of grape-skin juice. Also ex- cellent vinegar is made from the Cyprus fig, and an even better quaHty as well from that of Alexandria. Wine is also made from the Syrian carob, and from pears and all kinds of apples (one from pomegranates is called rhoites") as also from cornels, medlars, service berries, dried mulberries and fir-cones ; the last are soaked in must before being pressed, but the juice of the preceding fruits is sweet of itself. We will indicate a Httle later instructions given by Cato as to how to make myrtle-syrup. The Greeks xv.cxxv. also employ another method : they boil tender sprigs of myrtle with the leaves on in salted must, and after pounding them boil down one pound of the mixture in 2} gallons of must until only IJ gallons are left. The beverage made by the same 255 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY bacis factum est myrtidanum vocatur, hoc manus tinguit. 105 Ex his quae in hortis gignuntur fit vinum e radice asparagi, cunila, origano, api semine, habrotono, mentastro, ruta, nepeta, serpyllo, marruvio; mani- pulos binos condunt in cadum musti et sapae sexta- 106 rium et aquae marinae heminam. e napis fit duum denarionmi pondere in sextarios binos musti addito, item e scillae radice, inter flores ex rosae foliis tusis in Unteolo in mustum coUatis cum pondusculo ut sidat, X L pondere in sextarios musti vicenos — vetant ^ ante tres menses vas aperiri — ,^ item nardo Gallico et aliud e silvestri. 107 Aromatiten quoque invenio factitatum tantum non unguentorum compositione, primo ex murra, ut diximus, mox et nardo Celtico, calamo, aspalatho, oflEis in mustum aut dulce vinum deiectis, ahbi calamo, iunco, costo, nardo Syriaco, amomo, casia, 108 cinnamo, croco, palma, asaro, simiUter in offa ; apud alios nardi etiam et malobathri sehbris in musti congios duos additis, quaUa nunc quoque fiunt pipere et meUe addito quae aUi condita, aUi piperata appeUant. invenitur et nectarites ex herba quam aUi helenion, aUi Medicam, aUi symphyton, aUi 1 vetant MayhoJJ : nec, 2 V.l. vase aperto. 256 BOOK XIV. XIX. 104 io8 process from the berries of the wild myrtle is called myrtle wine ; this stains the hands. Among the plants grown in gardens, wine is made Vegetabie from the root of asparagus, and from cunila, wild- ""'^*' marjoram, parsley-seed, southernwood, wild mint, rue, catmint, wild thyme and horehound ; they put two handfuls of herb into a jar of must, together with a pint of boiled-down grape-juice and half a pint of sea-water. A wine is made from the navew turnip by adding two drams' weight of navew to a quart of must, and in the same way from the root of tlie squill ; and, among flowers, from poundcd rose-leaves wrapped in a hnen napkin and thrown into must with a small weight attached to make it sink, in the pro- portion of 50 drams of rose-leaves to 2i gallons of must — they say the jar must not be opened for three months — and also wine is made from Galhc nard and another from wild nard. I also find that aromatic wine is constantly made Herb uines. from almost exactly the same ingredients as perfumes — first from myrrh, as we have said, next also from Celtic nard, reed and aspalathus, cakes of which are thrown into must or sweet wine ; and in other places, from reed, sweet rush, costas, Syrian nard, cardamom, bark and flowers of cinnamon, saffron, dates and hazelwort, similarly made up in the form of a cake ; and among other people also from a mixture of half a pound of nard and cinnamon-leaf addcd to a gallon and a half of must ; and this is also how at the present day what some people call savoury wines and others peppered wines are made by adding pepper and honey. We also find mention of nectar-wine, extracted from the plant which some call sun-flower, others herb of Media, or 257 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY Idaeam, alii Orestion, alii nectariam vocant, radice ponderis X L in sextarios sex musti addita similiter in 109 linteo. ex ceteris herbis fit absinthites in xl sextariis musti absinthi Pontici Ubra decocta ad tertias partes vel scopis absinthi in vinum additis. simiHter hysso- pites e Cihcio hyssopo unciis tribus in duos congios musti coiectis aut tusis in unum.^ fiunt utraque et 110 aUo modo, circa radices vitium sato. sic et helle- boriten fieri ex veratro nigro Cato docet: sic fit et scammonites, mira vitium natura saporem ahenum in se trahendi, quare et salicem redolent Patavinorum in palustribus vindemiae. sic et helleborum seritur in Thaso aut cucumis silvester aut scammonia, quod vinum phthorium vocatur, quoniam abortus facit. 111 Fit et ex herbis quarum naturae suo loco dicentur : e stoechade et radice gentianae et tragorigano et dictamno, asaro, dauco, elehsphaco, panace, acoro, thymo, mandragora, iunco. vocarunt et scyzinum et itaeomeUn et lectisphagiten, quorum iam obhtterata ratio est. 112 E fruticum vero genere cedri utriusque, cupressus, laurus, iunipiri, terebinthi, calami,^ lentisci, bacae ^ V.l. vinum. * Hermolaus: calleu aut callini aut callia (in Gallia Har- douin). 258 BOOK XIV. XIX. io8 112 symphyton or herb of Ida or Orestion or nectaria, the root of which is added in the proportion of 50 drams to 6 pints of must, after being similarly wrapped in a hnen napkin. Of the remaining herbs, wormwood wine is made by boihng down a pound of Pontic wormwood in five gallons of must to one-third of its amount, or else by putting shoots of worm- wood into wine. Similarly hyssop -svine is made of Cihcian hyssop by throwing three ounces of hyssop into a gallon and a half of wine, or, if the hyssop is first pounded, into three-quarters of a gallon. Each of these wines may also be made in another way, by sowing the plant round the roots of vines. Also Cato shows how to make hellebore wine in the same r.r. oxv. way by using black hellebore ; also the same method is used in making scammony Mine, vines having a remarkable property of drawing into themselves the fiavour of some other plant, which explains why the grapes plucked in the marshes of Padua actually have a flavour of willow. Similarly in Thasos also helle- bore is planted among the vines,or else wild cucumber or scammony ; the wine so obtained is called by a Greek name denoting miscarriage, because it pro- duces abortion. Wine is also made from herbs the nature of which will be described in their proper place ; for instance from lavender and from gentian root and goat- marjoram and dittany, hazelwort, carrot, sage, all- heal, acorus, thyme, mandragora, and sweet rush. There is also mention of scyzinum and itaeomehs and lectisphagites, for which the recipe is now lost. From the shrub and tree class, use is made of both winesfrom kinds of cedar, the cypress, the laurel, the juniper, *'"*"**• the terebinth, the reed and the mastic-tree, the 259 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY aut lignum recens in musto decocuntur ; item cham- elaeae et chamaepityis, chamaedryis Hgnum, eodem modo et ex flore, in congium musti decem X pondere addito. 113 XX. Fit vinum et ex aqua acmelle tantum. quin- quennio ad hoc servari caelestem iubent. aliqui pru- dentiores statim ad tertias partes decocunt et tertiam veteris mellis adiciunt, deinde xl diebus a ^ canis ortu in sole habent. alii difFusa ita decumo die obturant. hoc vocatur hydromeli et vetustate saporem vini adsequitur, nusquam laudatius quam in Phrygia. 114 XXI. quin et acetum melle temperabatur : adeo nihil intemptatimi vitae fuit. oxymeH hoc vocarunt, melHs decem Hbris, aceti veteris heminis quinque, saHs marini Hbra, aquae pluviae sextaris quinque suffervefactis deciens, mox elutriatis atque ita in- 115 veteratis. omnia ab Themisone summo auctore damnata; et, Hercules, coactus usus eorum videri potest, nisi si quis naturae opus esse credit aroma- titen et ex unguentis vina conposita, aut ut biberentur genuisse eam frutices ! ista ^ sunt cognitu iucunda soHertia ^ humani animi * omnia exquirente.^ nihil quidem ex his anno durare, praeterquam quae ^ a add. Sillig. " F./. ita. ^ V.l. sollertiae. * Ita edd. (huiifenae nomine Mayhoff) : humane homine. ^ Edd. : exquLrentis aut -ti. 260 uines. BOOK XIV. XIX. II2-XXI. 115 berries or else the new wood being boiled down in must ; and similarly is used the wood of the dwarf oHve, the ground-pine, and the germander, and in the same way wine is also made from their blossom, by adding ten drams' weight of it to three quarters of a gallon of must. XX. A wine is also made of only water and honey. Honev For this it is recommended that rain-water should be ' " ° stored for five years. Some who are more expert use rain-water as soon as it has fallen, boiUng it down to a third of the quantity and adding one part of old honey to three parts of water, and then keeping the mixture in the sun for 40 days after the rising of the Dog-star. Others pour it offafter nine days and then cork it up. This beverage is called in Greek ' water- honey ' ; with age it attains the flavour of wine. It is nowhere rated more highly than in Phrygia. XXI. Also honey used even to be mixed with vinegar, so exhaustive have been men's experiments in Hving. This mixture was called in Greek * sour honey ' ; it was made with ten pounds of honey, 2J pints of old vinegar, one pound of sea salt and 5 pints of rain- water, heated to boihng ten times, after which the Hquor was drawn off and so kept tiH it was old. AH these wines are condemned by Themison, who is a very high authority ; and, I vow, the employment of them does appear to be a iour de force, unless any- body beHeves that aromatic wine and wines com- pounded of perfumes are products of nature, or that nature gave birth to shrubs in order for them to be used for drink ! Contrivances of this sort are amusing to learn of, owing to the ingenuity of the human mind that investigates everything. There can be no doubt that none of these wines wiH keep 261 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY vetustate ipsa fieri diximiis, et plura ne tricenis quidem diebus, non erit dubium. 116 XXII. Sunt et in vino prodigia. dicitur in Arcadia fieri quod fecunditatem feminis inportet, viris rabiem ; at in Achaia maxime circa Caryniam abigi partum vino, atque etiam si uvam edant gra- 117 vidae, cum differentia in gustatu non sit. Troeze- nium vinum qui bibant negantur generare. Thasios duo genera vini diversa facere proditur, quo somnus conciHetur, alterum vero quo fugetur. apud eosdem vitis theriaca vocatur cuius et vinum et uva contra serpentimii ictus medetur, Hbanodes ^ turis odore, ex qua diis prolibant. e diverso aspendios damnata aris 2 ; ferunt eam nec ab alite uUa attingi. Thasiam uvam Aegyptus vocat apud se praedulcem quae solvit alvum ; est contra Lyciae quae solutam flrmat. 118 Aegyptus et ecbolada habet abortus facientem. vina in apothecis canis ortu mutantur quaedam post- eaque restituuntur sibi ; sic et mari navigato, cuius iactatus his quae duraverint tantum vetustatis adicere sentitm* quantum habuerint. ^ Mayhoff : libadeos. 2 Geleiiius : ab aris (avaris Sellig). " OrqpiaKov, ' good for curing an animars bite ' ; our word * treacle ' comes f rom this Greek word. * ' Not to be used for libations.' 262 BOOK XIV. XXI. 115-XX11. 118 a year, except those which we have stated to be actually the products of age, and that the larger number of them will not keep even a month, XXII. Even wine contains miraculous properties Wineswith One grown in Arcadia is said to produce abihty to ^roperties bear children in women and madness in men ; where- as in Achaia, particularly in the neighbourhood of Carynia, there is a wine that is reported to prevent child-bearing, and this even if women eat the grapes when they are pregnant, although these do not differ in taste from ordinary grapes. It is said that per- sons who drink the wine of Troezen cannot become parents. The people of Thasos are reported to make two difFerent kinds of wine, a wine that brings sleep and another that banishes sleep. The same place has a vine called in Greek the ' wikl-animal vine,'^ the wine made from which and also its grapes cure snake-bites, and another the ' frankin- cense vine,' with a scent Hke that of incense, the wine from which is used for hbations to the gods. That of the vine called * unconsecrated,' ^ on the contrary, is banned from the altars ; also it is said that no bird will touch it. Egypt gives the name of wine of Thasos ' to an extremely sweet native vin- tage which causes diarrhoea ; while Lycia on the contrary has one that has an astringent effect on the bowels. Egypt also possesses a wine called in Greek ' dehvery wine ' which causes abortion. There are certain wines that, while stored in wine-lofts alter in quahty at the rising of the Dog-star and afterwards change back again ; the same is the case with wines shipped over sea, and it is observed that the effect of the motion on vintages that can stand it is merely to double their previous maturity. 263 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 119 XXIII. Et quoniam religione vita constat, proli- bare dis nefastum habetur vina, praeter inputatae, vitis fulmine tactae quamque iuxta hominis mors laqueo pependerit, aut vulneratis pedibus calcata et quod circumcisis vinaceis profluxerit, aut superne deciduo inmundiore lapsu aliquo polluta ; item Graeca, quoniam aquam habeant. Vitis ipsa quoque manditur decoctis caulibus summis, qui et condiuntur in aceto ac muria. 120 XXIV. Verum et de apparatu vini dixisseconveniat, cum Graeci privatim ea praecepta condiderint artem- que fecerint, sicut Euphronius et Aristomachus et Commiades et Hicesius. Africa gypso mitigat asperi- tatem, nec non aUquibus partibus sui calce. Graecia argilla aut marmore aut sale aut mari lenitatem exci- tat, ItaUae pars aliqua crapulana ^ pice, ac resina condire musta volgare ei est provinciisque finitimis ; nonnusquam prioris vini faece acetove condiunt. 121 nec non et ex ipso musto fiunt medicamina ; deco- quitur ut dulcescat pro ^ portione virium, nec durare ultra annum spatium tale proditur. aliqui- bus in locis decocunt ad sapas musta infusisque his 1 V.ll. rapulana, rabulaiia. 2 pro add. ? {vel ad portionem) Mayhoff. " An inferior kind of wine was got by trimming ofif the grape-skins protruding from the press after the first pressing and putting them through the press a second time. Varro R.R. l. 54. * Cf. § 124 and n. 264 BOOK XIV. XXIII. 119-XXIV. 121 XXIII. And since life is upheld by reliffion it is Vin^snot UA&d, for considered sinful to pour libations to the gods, not reii^u4 only with \vines made from a vine that has not been "'"^^- pruned, but from one that has been struck by Hght- ning, or one in the neighbourhood of which a man has been hanged, or wine made from grapes that have been trodden out by someone with sore feet, or squeezed from grape-skins that have been cut round " or have been soiled by something not quite clean dropping on them from above ; and Ukewise Greek wines must not be used for Hbations, because they contain water. The vine itself is also eaten, the tops of the shoots be- ing boiled ; they are also pickled in vinegar and brine. XXIV. But it may also be proper to give an account Methodi of of the method of preparing wine, as Greek authors ^,^*"^ have written special treatises on this subject and have made a scientific system for it — for instance Euphron- ius, Aristomachus, Commiades and Hicesius. The practice in Africa is to soften any roughness with gypsum, and also in some parts of the country with Hme. In Greece, on the other hand, they enUven the smoothness of tlieir w ines w^ith potter's earth or marble dust or salt or sea-water, while in some parts of Italy they use resinous ^ pitch for this purpose, and it is the general practice both there and in the neigh- bouring provinces to season must with resin ; in some places they use the lees of older wine or else vinegar for seasoning. Moreover, medicaments for this purpose are also made from the must itself : it is boiled down so as to become sweeter in proportion to its strength, and it is said that must so treated does not last beyond a year's time. In some places they boil the must down into what is caHed sapa, 265 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY fcrociam frangunt. et in hoc tamen genere et in omni alio subministrant vasa ipsa condimentis picis, cuius faciendae ratio proximo dicetur volumine. 122 XXV. Arborum suco manantium picem resinamque aliae ortae in oriente aliae in Europa ferunt ; quae interest Asia utrimque quasdam habet. in oriente optimam tenuissimamque terebinthi fundunt, dein lentisci, quam et masticen vocant, postea cupressi, acerrimam sapore, liquidam omnes et tantum res.i- nam, crassiorem vero et ad pices faciendas cedrus. Arabica resina alba est, acri odore, difficilis coquenti, ludaea callosior et terebinthina quoque odoratior, 123 Syriaca Attici meUis simiUtudinem habet. Cypria antecedit omnes, item ^ melleo colore, carnosa. Colophonia praeter ceteras fulva, si teratur alba fit, gravior odore: ob id non utuntur ea unguentarii. in Asia quae fit e picea, admodum candida, psagdas vocatur. resina omnis dissolvitur oleo, quidam et creta figulinarum hoc fieri arbitrantur; pudetque confiteri maximum iam honorem eius esse in evellendis virorum corpori piUs. 124 Ratio autem condiendi musta in primo fervore, qui novem diebus cum plurimum peragitur, adspersu ^ Mayhoff : autem (est autem edd.). " Part of Asia Minor. 266 BOOK XIV. xxiv. I2I-XXV. 124 and pour this into tlieir wines to overcome their harshness. Still both in the case of this kind of wine and in all others they supply the vessels themselves with coatings of pitch, the method of making which will be described in the next volume. xvi. 52. XXV. Of the trees which distil a juice, some grow- VaHeties ing in the East and others in Europe produce pitch and "•^ ''^*'"' resin, and the province of Asia," which hes between the two, has some of both sorts. In the East the best and finest resin is produced by the turpentine-tree, and next by the lentisk — the latter being also called gum-mastic; afterwards comes the juice of the cypress, which has a very sharp flavour — all of these trees producing a hqiiid juice and merely a resin, whereas the juice of the cedar is thicker and suitable for making pitch. Arabian resin is white and has a sharp scent, stifling to a person engaged in boiUng it ; the resin of Judaea dries harder and has a stronger scent than even that from the turpentine-tree ; and Syrian resin has a reseinblance to Attic honey. The resin of Cyprus excels all other kinds ; it hkewise is the colour of honey, and has a fleshy consistency. That of Colophon is yellow^er than the rest, but if ground up turns white ; it has a rather oppressive scent, and consequently the perfumers do not make use of it. In Asia a very white resin is made from the pitch-pine ; it is called psagdas. All resin can be dissolved in oil, and some people think that potter's chalk can also be so dissolved ; and I am ashamed to confess that the chief value now set on resin is for use as a depilatory for men. The method of seasoning wine is to sprinkle the useofresin must with pitch during its first fermentation, which ^J^^fdwes is completed in nine days at most, so that \h.t.for flavour- •^ iiuj wifu. 267 PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY picis, ut odor vino contingat et saporis quaedam acu- mina. vehementius id fieri arbitrantur crudo flore resinae excitarique lenitatem, e diverso crapula conpesci feritatem nimiam frangique virus aut, ubi pigra lenitas torpeat, virus addi, Liguriae maxime 125 Circumpadanisque mustis. crapulae utilitas discerni- tur hoc modo : pugnacibus mustis crapulae plus inditur, lenibus parcius. sunt qui et ^ utroque condiri velint ; nec non ahqua est musti picea ^ natura, vitiumque musto quibusdam in locis iterum sponte fervere, qua calamitate deperit sapor : vappae accipit nomen, probrosum etiam hominum cum de- generavit animus. aceti enim nequitiae inest virtus magnos ad usus, et sine quis mitior vita degi non 126 possit. cetero vinorum medicaminis tanta cura est ut cinere apud quosdam ceu gypso aUbi et quibus diximus modis instaurentur ; sed cinerem e vitis sarmentis aut quercu praeferunt. quin et marinam aquam eiusdem rei gratia ex alto peti iubent servari- que ab aequinoctio verno, aut certe nocte solstitio 1 et Mayhoff : ex. 2 Urlichs : alia que est mulsi pice et. » Crapulu, properly intoxication or sick-headache, but transferred to the liquor that was supposed to produce this state. 268 BOOK XIV. XXV. 124-126 wine may be given the scent of pitch and some touches of its piquant flavour. It is thought that a more effective way of doing this is by means of raw flower of resin, this giving briskness to the smooth quaUty of the wine, while on the other hand resin- juice ^ is believed to mitigate the excessive harshness of a wine and to conquer its asperity, or in the case of a thin, smooth, flat wine to add a touch of asperity — this is especially done with the musts of Liguria and the locahties on the border of the river Po. The beneficial employment of resin-juice is adjusted in this way : a larger quantity of juice is put into strong, fiery wines, and it is used more sparingly with thin, flat ones. Some people advise using both resin- juice and pitch to season must ; and in fact must has a certain pitchy quaHty and in some districts the fault of must is that it ferments a second time of its own accord, a disaster that destroys its flavour ; this Hquor is given the name of vappa, which is also applied as a term of opprobrium to human beings when their spirit has deteriorated. For the tartness of vinegar possesses a valuable quality useful for important purposes, and without which it is impossible to Uve in comparative comfort. For the rest, so much atten- tion is given to the treatment of wines that in some places ashes are employed, as is gypsum elsewhere, and the methods that we have specified, for the pur- § 120. pose of improving their condition ; but preference is given to ashes obtained from vine-clippings or from oakwood. Also it is recommended that sea-water should be used for this purpose that has been obtained a long way out at sea at the spring equinox and then kept in store, or at all events that it should be taken up during the night at the time of the solstice and 269 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY et aquilone flante hauriri, vel, si circa vindemiam hauriatur, decoqui. 127 Pix in Itaha ad vasa vino condendo maxime pro- batur Bruttia; fit e piceae resina. in Hispania autem e pinastris minime laudata; est enim resina harum amara et arida et gravi odore. differentiam rationemque faciendi proximo volumine demonstra- bimus inter arbores feras. vitia praeter supra dicta acor aut fumidum virus, picis autem adustio ; experi- mentum vero si fragmenta subluceant ac sub dente 128 lentescant acore iucundo. Asia picem Idaeam maximeprobat,GraeciaPiericam,VergiUusNaryciam. diligentiores admiscent nigram masticen, quae in Ponto bitumini similis gignitur, et iris radicem oleum- que. nam ceram accipientibus vasis conpertum vina acescere ; sed transferre in ea vasa in quibus acetum fuerit utilius quam in ea in quibus dulce aut mulsum. 129 Cato iubet vina concinnari — hoc enim utitur verbo — cineris Hxivi cum defruto cocti parte quadragesima ^ in culleum, vel saHs sesquiUbra, interim et tuso marmore ; facit et sulpuris mentionem, resinae vero 130 in novissimis. super omnia addi maturescente iam ^ Hermolaus e, Catone : quadringentesima. " In the sense of employing wine in a laxative. 270 BOOK XIV. XXV. 126-130 when a north wind is blowing, or if it is obtained about vintage time it should be boiled before being used. The pitch most highly esteemed in Italy for vessels Pitchfor intendcd for storing wine is that which comes from casks? ^^ the Bruttii ; it is made from the resin of the pitch- pine. But the pitch obtained from the wild pine in Spain is very Uttle valued, as resin from that tree is bitter and dry and has a disagreeable smell. The varieties of pitch and the method of making it we shall set out in the next volume when we are dealing xvi. 53 f. with forest trees. The defects in resin beside those already mentioned are acridity or else a smoky tang, while the fault of pitch is being over-burnt ; but the test is if when it is broken up the pieces have a lumi- nous appearance, and if they stick to the teeth with an agreeably tart taste. In Asia pitch from Ida is most popular, and in Greece that of Pieria, but Virgil gives the preference to the pitch of Naryse. Georgicsii. The more careful makers mix with the wine black *^^' mastich, which is found in Pontus and which resembles used^'^" bitumen, and also iris-root and oil. As for waxinsc ^^.^ ^^^^ the vessels it is lound that this makes the wme turn sour ; but it pays better to transfer the wine into vessels that have contained vinegar than into those which have contained sweet wine or mead. Cato /z.H.xxiii, recommends that wine should be ' adjusted ' — this is cxxii. the word he uses « — by adding lye-ashes boiled with boiled-down must in the proportion of a fortieth part to the wine skin, or else a pound and a half of salt, also occasionally some pounded marble ; he also mentions sulphur, but he only puts resin near the end of the list. When the wine is beginning to mature he advises adding on the top of all some of 271 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY vino iubet mustum quod ille tortivum appellat, nos intellegimus novissime expressum. et addi scimus ^ tinguendi gratia colores ut pigmentum aliquod vini, atque ita pinguius fieri. tot veneficiis placere cogitur, et miramur noxium esse. In vitium inclinantis experimentum est lamnae plumbeae mutatus in eo colos. 131 XXVI. Proprium autem inter liquores vino muces- cere aut in acetum verti ; extantque medicinae volumina. faex vini siccata recipit ignes ac sine alimento per sese flagrat ; cinis eius nitri naturam habet easdemque vires, hoc amplius quod pinguior sentitur. 132 XXVII. Magna et collecto iam vino difFerentia in caelo. circa Alpes Hgneis vasis condunt tegulisque ^ cingunt, atque etiam hieme geUda ignibus rigorem arcent. rarum dictu, sed aliquando visum, ruptis vasis stetere glaciatae moles, prodigii modo, quoniam vini natura non gelascit : ahas ad frigus stupet tantum. 133 mitiores plagae dohis condunt infodiuntque terrae tota aut ad portionem situs : ^ ita * caelum prohibent : ahbi vero impositis tectis arcent. traduntque et haec praecepta : latus cellae vinariae aut certe fenestras 1 Mayhoff : addiscimus. 2 tegulisque ? Mayhoff : tectisque aut circulisque. 3 V.l. sinus. * Mayhoff: item. " A conjectural emendation : the MSS. give ' with roofs ' or ' with hoops.' * I.e. so as to cover up a portion of their height as they are placed. A variant reading seems to mean ' up to a portion of the curve of the jar.' 272 BOOK XIV. XXV. 130-xxvir. 133 the must which he calls * squeezinf]^s,' which \ve take to mean that which is the very last pressed out. Also we know that for the sake of colouring the wine colours are added as a sort of pigment and that this gives the wine more body. So many poisons are employed to force wine to suit our taste — and we are surprised that it is not wholesome ! It is a proof that wine is beginning to go bad if a sheet of lead when dipped in it turns a difFerent colour. XX\7. It is a pccuharity of wine among hquids Preseria- to go mouldy or else to turn into vinegar ; and whole vohimes of instructions how to remedy this have been published. Wine-lees when dried will catch fire, and go on burning of themselves without fucl being addcd ; their ashes have the nature of nitre, and the same properties, with the addition that they are greasier to the touch. XXVII. Even in regard to wine already vintaged stomgeo} there is a great difference in point of chmate. In the neighbourhood of the Alps they put it in wooden casks and close these round with tiles^ and in a cold winter also hght fires to protect it from the effect of the cokl. It is seldom recorded, but it has been seen occasionally, that the vessels have burst in a frost, leaving the wine standing in frozen blocks — almost a miracle, since it is not the nature of wine to freeze : usually it is only numbed by cold. Districts with a milder chmate store their wine in jars and bury them in the ground entirely, or else up to a part of their position,* so protectingthem against the atmosphere ; but in other places people keep off the weather by building roofs over them. And they also give the followin-g rules : one side of a wine-cellar or at least 273 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY obverti in aquilonera oportere vel utique in exortum aequinoctialem ; sterculinia et arborum radices procul abesse, omniaque odoris evitandi facillimo in 134 vina transitu, ficos utique et caprificos ; doliis etiam intervalla dari, ne inter sese vitia serpant contagione vini semper ocissima. quin et figuras referre : ventriosa ac patula minus utilia. picari oportere protinus a canis ortu, postea perfundi marina aqua aut salsa, dein cinere e sarmentis aspergi vel argilla, abstersa murra suffiri ipsasque saepius cellas. inbe- cilla vina demissis in terram doliis servanda, valida 135 expositis. numquam implenda, et quod supersit passo aut defruto perunguendum admixto croco pistave iri ^ cum sapa. sic opercula doliorum medi- canda addita mastiche aut pice Bruttia. bruma aperiri vetant nisi sereno die, vetant austro flante lunave plena. 136 Flos vini candidus probatur ; rubens triste signum est, si non is vini colos sit; item vasa incalescentia operculave sudantia. quod celeriter florere coeperit odoremque trahere non fore diutinum. ipsa quoque ^ Fels : pisave iri aut alia. " A mould that forins on the surface and then sinks and ia held in suspension. 274 BOOK XIV. XXVII. 133-136 its windows ought to face north-east, or at all events east ; dunghills and tree-roots must be a long way off, and all objects with a strong smell should be avoided, as it very easily passes into wine — particularly there must be no fig-trees or wild figs near ; also spaces must be left between the jars, to prevent taints passing from one to the other, as wine is always Hable to very rapid infection. Moreover (these instruc- tions proceed) the shape of the jars is important : pot-belHed and broad ones are not so good. Imme- diately after the rising of the Dog-star they should be coated with pitch, and afterwards washed with sea-water or water with salt in it, and then sprinkled with ashes of brushwood or else with potter's earth, and then rubbed clean and fumigated with myrrh, as should frequently be done with the wine-cellars also. Weak vintages shoukl be kept in jars sunk in the ground, but jars containing strong wines should be exposed to the air. The jars must never be filled quite full, and the space above the surface of the wine must be smeared with raisin-wine or boiled- down must mixed with saffron or iris pounded up with boiled must. The Hds of the jars should be treated in the same way, with the addition of mastich or Bruttian pitch. It is laid down that jars must not be opened at mid-winter except on a fine day, and not when a south wind is blowing, or at a fuU moon. Flower ^ of wine forming is thought to be a good Tesis of sign if it is white, but a bad sign if it is red, unless it ^^^^^- is a red wine ; similarly it is a bad sign if the jars feel warm to the touch, or if the Hds sweat. Wine that quickly begins to form a flower and to develop an odour is not going to keep. Also boiled-down must 275 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY defruta ac sapa cum sit caelum sine luna, hoc est in sideris eius coitu, neque alio die coqui debent ; prae- terea plumbeis vasis, non aereis, nucibusque iuglandi- bus additis : eas enira fumum excipere. Campaniae nobilissima exposita sub diu in cadis verberari sole, luna, imbre, ventis aptissimum videtur. 137 XXVIII. Ac si quis diligentius reputet, in nulla parte operosior vita est — ceu non saluberrimum ad potus aquae liquorem natura dederit, quo cetera omnia animantia utuntur, at nos vinum bibere et iumenta cogimus — tantoque opere, tanto labore et inpendio constat ^ quod hominis mentem mutet ac furorem gignat, milibus scelerum ob id editis, tanta dulcedine ut magna pars non aliud vitae prae- 138 mium intellegat. quin immo, ut plus capiamus, sacco frangimus vires, et alia inritamenta excogitantur ac bibendi causa etiam venena concipiuntur, aliis cicutam praesumentibus ut bibere mors cogat, aliis pumicis farinam et quae referendo pudet docere. 139 cautissimos ex iis in balineis coqui videmus exani- mesque efferri, iam vero alios lectum expectare non posse, immo vero nec tunicam, nudosque ibi protinus ^ V.l. praestat. " Cf. II. VIII. 189, Andromache used to give wine to Hector'8 horses — though the genuineness of the whole passage ia suspected; and Columella II. 3, wine given to flagging oxen. 276 BOOK XIV. XXVII. 136-XXV111. 139 and must of new wine should be boiled when there is no nioon, which means at the conjunction of that planet, and not on any other day ; and moreover leaden and not copper jars should be used, and some wahiuts should be thrown into the hquor, for those are said to absorb the smoke. The best way of treating the finest wines of Campania seems to be to set them out in casks in the open air, exposed to the sun, moon, rain and wind. XXMII. And if anybody cares to consider the TrouUe matter more carefully , there is no department of man's wine ^ Ufe on which more labour is spent — as if nature had ^^j^^g not given us the most healthy of beverages to drink, Excessive water, which all other animals make use of, whereas "" *"^' we coinpel even our beasts of burden to drink wine ! « and so much toil and labour and outlay is paid as the price of a thing that perverts men's minds and pro- duces madness, having caused the commission of thou- sands of crimes, and being so attractive that a large part of mankind knows of nothing else worth hving for! Nay, what is more, to enable us to take more, we reduce its strength by means of a hnen strainer, and other enticements are devised and even poisonous mixtures are invented to promote drinking, some men taking a dose of hemlock before they begin, in order that fear of death may compel them to drink, while others take powdered pumice and preparations which I am ashamed to teach the use of by describing them. The most cautious of these topers we see getting themselves boiled in hot baths and being carried out of the bathroom unconscious, and others actually unable to wait to get to the dinner table, no, not even to put their clothes on, but straight away on the spot, while still naked and panting, they snatch up huge 277 PLINY: NATURAL IIISTORY et anhelos ingentia vasa corripere velut ad ostenta- tionem virium ac plena infundere, ut statim vomant rursusque hauriant ; idque iterum tertiimique, tam- quam ad perdenda vina geniti, et tamquam efFundi 140 illa non possint nisi per corpus humanum. huc pertinent peregrinae exercitationes et volutatio in caeno ac pectorosa cervicis repandae ostentatio. per omnia haec praedicatur sitis quaeri. iam vero quae in bibendo certamina, quae vasa adulteriis caelata, tamquam per se parum doceat libidines temu- lentia! ita vina ex libidine hauriuntur, atque etiam praemio invitatur ebrietas et, si dis placet, emitur. alius ut quantum biberit tantum edat ^ pretium vino- lentiae lege accipit, alius quantum alea quaesierit 141 tantum bibit. tunc avidi matronam oculi Ucentur, graves produnt marito ; tunc animi secreta pro- feruntur : aHi testamenta sua nuncupant, alii morti- fera elocuntur rediturasque per iugulum voces non continent, quam multis ita interemptis, volgoque veri- 142 tas iam attributa vino est. interea, ut optime cedat, solem orientem non vident, ac minus diu vivunt. hinc pallor et genae pendulae, oculorum ulcera, 1 V.l. edit. " The proverb In vino veritua. 278 BOOK XIV. XXVIII. 139 -M 2 vessels as if to show off their strength, and pour down the whole of the contents, so as to bring them up again at once, and then drink another draught ; and they do this a second and a third time, as if they were born for the purpose of wasting wine, and as if it were impossible for the Hquor to be poured away unless by using the human body as a funnel. This is the object of the exercises that have been introduced from foreign countries, and of rolUng in the mud and throwing the neck back to show^ off the muscles of the chest. It is declared that the object of all these exercises is merely to raise a thirst ! Then again, think of the drinking matches ! think of the vessels engraved with scenes of adultery, as though tippHng were not enough by itself to give lessons in hcentiousness ! Thus wine- bibbing is caused by Ucence, and actuaUy a prize is offered to promote drunkenness — heaven help us, it is actuaUy purchased. One man gets a prize for tipsiness on condition of his eating as much as he has drunk ; another drinks as many cups as are demanded of him by a throw of the dice. Then it is that greedy eyes bid a price for a married woman, and their heavy glances betray it to her husband ; then it is that the secrets of the heart are pub- Ushed abroad : some men specify the provisions of their wiUs, others let out facts of fatal import, and do not keep to themselves words that wiU come back to them through a sUt in their throat — how many men having lost their Uves in that way ! and truth has come to be proverbiaUy credited to wine." Mean- time, even should aU turn out for the best, drunkards never see the rising sun, and so shorten their Uves. TippUng brings a pale face and hanging cheeks, 279 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY tremulae manus efFundentes plena vasa, quae sit poena praesens furiales somni et inquies nocturna, praemiumque summum ebrietatis libido portentosa ac iucundum nefas. postero die ex ore halitus cadi ac rerum omnium oblivio morsque memoriae. rapere se ita vitam praedicant, cum priorem diem cotidie 143 perdant aUi,^ illi vero et venientem. Tiberio Claudio principe ante hos annos xl institutum ut ieiuni bi- berent potusque vini antecederet cibos, externis et hoc artibus ac medicorum placitis novitate semper 144 aliqua sese commendantium. gloriam hac virtute Parthi quaerunt, famam apud Graecos Alcibiades meruit, apud nos cognomen etiam Novellius Torquatus Mediolanensis, ad proconsulatmn usque e praetura ^ honoribus gestis, tribus congiis (unde et cognomen ilH fuit),^ epotis uno impetu, spectante miracuH gratia Tiberio principe in senecta iam severo atque etiam saevo : alias et ipsi iuventa ad merum pronior 145 fuerat, eaque commendatione credidere L. Pisonem urbis curae ab eo delectum quod biduo duabusque noctibus perpotationem continuasset apud ipsum iam principem. nec aUo magis Drusus Caesar re- 146 generasse patrem Tiberium ferebatur. Torquato 1 alii add. RackJiam, 2 V.l. praeturae. ^ [unde . . . fuit] ? RackJiam. " Tricongius. * This repetition of tlie explanation of the name looks iike au interpolation. ' Praefectus urbia. 280 BOOK XIV. XXVIII. 142-146 sore eyes, shaky hands that spill the contents of vessels when they are full, and the condign punish- ment of haunted sleep and restless nights, and the crowning reward of drunkenness, monstrous hcen- tiousness and dehght in iniquity. Next day the ])reath reeks of the wine-cask, and everything is for- gotten — the memory is dead. This is what they call * snatching hfe as it comes ! ' when, whereas other men daily lose their yesterdays, these people lose to-morrow also. Forty years ago, during the rulc of stonesof the Emperor Tiberius, the fashion set in of drinking '^^*^'- on an empty stomach and preceding meals with a draught of wine — yet another result of foreign methods and of the doctors' poUcy of perpetually advertising themselves by some novelty. This is the kind of prowess by which the Parthians seek fame and Alcibiades won his reputation in Greece, and to which among ourselves NoveUius Torquatus of Milan even owed his surname ^ — a man who held the offices of state from praetor right up to deputy consul — by tossing off 2j gallons at one draught, which was actually the origin of his sumame ; * this was shown ofF as a sort of mystery before the Emperor Tiberius in his old age, when he had become very strict and indeed cruel, though for the matter of that his own earlier years had been somewhat incHned to strong drink, and it was beheved that what recom- mendcd Lucius Piso to Tiberius for selection as custodian of the city '^ was that he had kept on carousing for two days and two nights without a break, at Tiberius's own house after he had become Emperor. And it was said that Drusus Caesar took after his father Tiberius in nothing more than in this. Torquatus had the unusual distinction — as voL. IV. K 281 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY rara gloria — quando et haec ars suis legibus constat — non labasse sermone, non levatum vomitione nec alia corporis parte dum biberet, matutinas obisse sine ^ iniuria vigilias, plurimum hausisse uno potu, plurimum praeterea aliis minoribus addidisse, optima fide non respirasse in hauriendo neque expuisse, nihilque ad elidendum in pavimentis sonum ex vino reliquisse, 147 diligenti scito legum contra bibendi fallacias. Ter- gilla Ciceronem M. f. binos congios simul haurire solitum ipsi obicit, Marcoque Agrippae a temulento scyphum inpactum : etenim haec sunt ebrietatis opera. sed nimirum hanc gloriam auferre Cicero 148 voluit interfectori patris sui M. Antonio ; is enim ante eum avidissime adprehenderat hanc palmam edito etiam volumine de sua ebrietate, quo patro- cinari sibi ausus adprobavit plane, ut equidem arbi- tror, quanta mala per temulentiam terrarum orbi intulisset. exiguo tempore ante proeUum Actiacum id volumen evomuit, quo facile intellegatur ebrius iam sanguine civium et tanto magis eum sitiens. namque et haec necessitas vitium comitatur ut bi- bendi consuetudo augeat aviditatem, scitumque est Scytharum legati, quanto plus biberint tanto magis sitire Parlhos. 1 siiie add. Detlefsen. 282 BOOK XIV. XXVIII. 146-148 evcn this science has its own code of riiles — of never having stammered in his speech or reUeved himself by vomiting or otherwise while he was drinking, but of having always turned up for duty with the morning guard without anything going wrong, and of having drunk thc largest quantity on record at one draught and also added to the record by some more smaller draughts, of not having taken breath or spat while drinking (this on the best evidence), and of not having left any heel-taps to make a splash in the paved floor — under the elaborate code of rules to prevent cheating in drinking. Tergilla brings it up against Marcus Cicero that his son Cicero was in the habit of tossing ofF a gallon and a half at one draught, and that when tipsy he threw a goblet at Marcus Agrippa : these in fact are the usual results of intoxi- cation. But no doubt young Cicero wanted to deprive his father's murderer, Mark Antony, of his fame in this department; for Antony had strained evcry effort to win the championship in this field before him, by actually publishing a book on the subject of his own drunken habits ; and by venturing to cham- pion his claims in this volume, to my mind he clearly proves the magnitude of the evils that he had inflicted on the world through his tippHng. It was shortly before the battle of Actium that he vomited up this vohime, so proving clearly that he was already drunk Mith the blood of his compatriots, and that that made him only the more thirsty for it. For in fact the inevitable result of this vice is that the habit of drinking increases the appetite for it, and it was a shrewd observation of the Scythian ambassador that the more the Parthians drank the thirstier they became. 283 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 149 XXIX. Est et occidentis populis sua ebrietas e^ fruge madida, pluribus modis per Gallias Hispaniasque, nominibus aliis sed ratione eadem. Hispaniae iam et vetustatem ferre ea genera docuerunt. Aegyptus quoque e fruge sibi potus similis excogitavit, nullaque in parte mundi cessat ebrietas ; meros quippe hauriunt tales sucos nec diluendo ut vina mitigant ; at, Hercu- les, illic tellus fruges parare videbatur. heu, mira vitiorimi sollertia ! inventum est quemadmodum aquae quoque inebriarent. 150 Duo sunt liquores humanis corporibus gratissimi, inlus vini, foris olei, arborum e genere ambo prae- cipui, sed olei necessarius, nec segniter in eo vita elaboravit. quanto tamen in potu ingeniosior fuerit apparebit ad bibendum generibus centum octoginta quinque (si species vero aestimentur, paene dupHci numero) excogitalis, tantoque paucioribus olei, de quo sequenti vohimine dicemus. ^ e v.l. om. 284 BOOK XIV. XXIX. 149-150 XXIX. Thc nations of the west also have their own lieerin inloxicant, made from grain soaked in water ; there {'^'JlSl, are a number of ways of making it in the various pro- vinces of Gaul and Spain and under different names, although the principle is the same. The Spanish provinces have by this time even taught us that these liquors will bear being kept a long time. Egypt also has devised for itself similar drinks made from grain, and in no part of the world is drunkenness ever out of action, in fact they actually qualf liquors of this kind neat and do not temper their strength by dilut- ing them, as is done with wine ; yet, by Hercules, it used to be thought that the produet of the earth in that country was corn. Alas, what wonderful ingenuity vace possesses ! a method has actually been discovered for making even water intoxicated ! There are two liquids that are specially agreeable ou. to the human body, wine inside and oil outside, both of them the most excellent of all the products of the tree class, but oil an absolute necessity, nor has man's Ufe been slothful in expending labour upon it. How much more ingenious, however, man has been in respect of drink will be made clear by the fact that he has devised 185 kinds of beverages (or if varieties be reckoned, almost double that number), and so much less numerous kinds of oil — about which we shall speak in the foUowing volume. 285 BOOK XV LIBER XV I. Oleam Theophrastus e celeberrimis Graecomm auctoribus urbis Romae anno circiter ccccxl ne- gavit nisi intra xxxx passuum ab mari nasci, Fenestella vero omnino non fuisse in Itaha Hispania- que aut Africa Tarquinio Prisco regnante, ab annis populi Romani clxxiii, quae nunc pervenit trans Alpes quoque et in Gallias Hispaniasque medias. 2 urbis quidem anno dv Appio Claudio Caeci nepote L. lunio cos. olei librae duodenae denis ^ assibus veniere, et mox anno dclxxx M. Seius L. f. aedilis curulis olei denas hbras singuhs assibus praestitit po- 3 pulo Romano per totum annum. minus ea miretur qui sciat post annos xxii Cn. Pompeio iii. cos. oleum provinciis Itaham misisse. Hesiodus quoque, in primis culturam agrorum docendam arbitratus vitam, negavit oleae satorem fructum ex ea percepisse quemquam — tam tarda tunc res erat ; at nunc etiam in plantariis ferunt, translatarumque altero anno decerpuntur bacae. 4 II. Fabianus negat provenire in frigidissimis oleam neque in cahdissimis. genera earum tria dixit ^ Mayhoff : duodenae aut duae denis. 288 BOOK XV I. One of the most celebrated Greek authors, NaturaJ Theophrastus, who flourished about 314 b.c, stated ^",^^^°£^ that the oHve onlv orrows at plaees within forty miles ?'^.?'?'''/ o\ the sea, while renestella says that in 581 b.c, during the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, it was not found at all in Italy and Spain or in Africa ; whereas at the present day it has penetrated even across the Alps and intothe middleof theGalHcandSpanish pro- vinces. Indeed in 249 b.c, the year in which Appius Claudius the grandson of Appius Claudius Caecus and Lucius Junius were the consuls, olive-oil cost 10 asses for 12 Ibs. and somewhat later, in 74 b.c, the curule aedile Marcus Seius,son of Lucius, throughout the whole of his year of office suppHed the Roman pubHc with oil at the rate of an as for 10 Ibs. These facts wiH seem less surprising to a person who knows that 22 years later in the third consulship of Gnaeus Pompeius Italy exported oil to the provinces. Also Hesiod, who thought that instruction in agriculture was a prime necessity of Hfe, declared that no one had ever gathered fruit from an oHve-tree of his own planting — so slow a business it was in those days, whereas now oHve-trees bear even in the nursery- gardens, and after they have been transplanted oHves are picked from them the next year. II. Fabianus says that the oHve will not grow in oiive- extremely cold places nor yet in extremely hot ones. ^Sw^.''^ 289 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY Vergilius, orchites et radios et posias, nec desiderare rastros aut falces ullamve curam. sine dubio et in iis solum maxime caelumque refert ; verumtamen et tondentur cum et vites, atque etiam interradi gau- 5 dent. consequens earum vindemia est, arsque vel maior olei musta temperandi : ex eadem quippe oliva dilferunt suci. primum omnium cruda dat ^ atque nondum inchoatae maturitatis — hoc sapore prae- stantissimum ; quin et ex eo prima unda preli lautissima ac deinde per deminutiones, sive in sportis prematur sive, ut nuper inventum est, exiUbus 6 regulis pede incluso. quanto maturior baca, tanto pinguior sucus minusque gratus. optima autem aetas ad decerpendum inter copiam bonitatemque incipiente baca nigrescere, cum vocant druppas, Graeci vere drypetidas. cetero distat tum,^ maturi- tas illa in torcularibus fiat an ramis, rigua fuerit arbor an suo tantum baca suco nihilque aHud quam rores caeli biberit. 7 III. Vetustas oleo taedium adfert non item ut vino, plurimumque aetatis annuo est, provida, si Ubeat intellegere, natura, quippe temulentiae nascentibus vinis uti necesse non est, quin immo invitat ad servan- ^ dat add. Mueller. 2 Muelhr : distat an aut distant an. « Georgics II. 85 and 420. ^ From opxis, a testicle. ' The mo(lern long olive. •* Frobably the Olea media rotunda praecox. 290 BOOK XV. II. 4-III. 7 V^irgil ° said that there are three kinds of oHve, the orchites,'' the shuttle-oUve '^ and the posia ; '^ he also stated that the oHve-tree does not require raking or pruning or any attention. There is no doubt that even in the case of oHves the soil and the cHmate are of very great importance ; but nevertheless they are also pruned at the same time as the vine, and they Hke the ground to be raked between them as well. OHve-picking foUows the vintage, and making oHve-oil requires even more science than making wine, as the same oHve-tree produces a variety of oils. The first oil of aH is obtained from the raw oHve and when it has not yet begun to ripen — this has the best flavour ; moreover its first issue from the press is the richest, and so on by diminishing stages, whether the oHves are crushed in wicker sieves or by enclosing the spray in narrow-meshed strainers, a method recently invented. The riper the berry is, the greasier and less agreeable in flavour is the juice. The best age for picking oHves, as between quantity and flavour, is when the berry is beginning to turn black, at the stage when they are caHed druppae with us and drypetides by the Greeks. For the rest, it makes a difference at that stage whether the maturing of the berry takesplaceinthepresses or ontheboughs, and whether the tree has been watered or the berry has only been moistened by its own juice and has drunk nothing else but the dews of heaven. III. It is not the same with oHve-oil as with wine oihe-oii: — age gives it an unpleasant flavour, and at the end p^l^a! of a year it is already old. Herein, if one chooses to understand it, Nature shows her forethought, inasmuch as there is no necessity to use up wine, which is produced for the purpose of intoxication 291 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY dum blanda inveterati caries, oleo noluit parci 8 fecitque ea necessitate promiscuum et volgo. princi- patum in lioc quoque bono optinuit Italia e toto orbe, maxime agro Venafrano eiusque parte quae Licinianum fundit oleum, unde et Liciniae gloria praecipua olivae. unguenta hanc palmam dedere accommodato ipsis odore, dedit et palatum delica- tiore sententia. de cetero bacas Uciniae nulla avis adpetit. relicum certamen inter Histriae terram et Baeticae par est; cetero fere vicina bonitas pro- vinciis excepto Africae frugifero solo. Cereri id totum ^ natura concessit, oleiun ac vinum tantum non invidit,^ satisque gloriae in messibus fecit. re- liqua erroris plena, quem in nuUa parte vitae numerosiorem esse docebimus. 9 Oliva constat nucleo, oleo, carne, amurca. sanies haec est eius amara; fit ex aquis, ideo siccitatibus minima, riguis copiosa. suus quidem olivae sucus oleum est, idque praecipue ex inmaturis intelle- gitur, sicut in '^ omphacio docuimus. augetur oleum ^ Mueller : totum aut totum id. ^ Sillig : non invidit tantum. ^ in add. Mayhoff (de alii). " As well as the grape, see XIV. 8. 292 BOOK XV. III. 7-9 — rather indeed the attractive over-ripeness which it acquires with age tempts us to keep it ; but she did not desire us to be sparing in the use of oil, and she has made it universal even among common people because of the necessity of using it quickly. In the matter of this blessing also ^* Italy has won the highest rank of all the world, particularly in the district of Venafro and the part of it which pro- duces the Licinian oil, which causes the Licinian olive to be exceptionally famous. It is unguents that have given it this eminence, because its scent is so well adapted to them, but it has also been awarded to it by the palate with its more delicate judgement. Moreover no bird will touch the berries of the Licinian oUve. The remainder of the competition is maintained between the territory of Istria and that of Baetica on equal terms, while for the rest the provinces have an approximately equal rank, with the exception of Africa, whose soil is adapted for grain. This territory Nature has yielded entirely to the Corn-goddess, having all but entirely grudged it oil and wine, and having given it a sufficiency of glory in its harvests. The remaining statements prevalent concerning the oUve are fuU of error, which we shaU prove to be more prevalent in no other §§ lo, 1 1 1. department of Ufe. An oUve consists of a stone, oil, flesh and lees ; Propertieso/ the latter constituent is a bitter fluid, which forms ^iy,^ojio/ out of water and consequently there is very Uttle ot^ obtainiTig u, it in dry situations but a large amount in wet ones. The oil is indeed a juice pecuUar to the oUve, and this can be speciaUy learnt from oUves in an unripe state, as we have shown when treating of unripe xii. 130. oUve-juice and grape-juice. The oil continues to PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY ad arcturi exortum ^ in a. d. xvi kal. Oct., postea nuclei increscunt et caro. tum si etiam copiosi imbres ^ accessere, vitiatur oleum in amurcam. huius color olivam cogit nigrescere, ideoque inei- piente nigritia minimum amurcae, ante eam nihil. 10 et error hominum falsus existimantium maturitatis initium quod est vitii proximum, deinde quod oleum crescere olivae carne arbitrantur, cum sucus omnis in corpus abeat Ugnumque intus grandescat. ergo tum maxime rigantur ; quod ubi cura multisve imbribus accidit, oleum absumitur nisi consecuta serenitate quae corpus extenuet. omnino enim, ut Theo- phrasto placet, et olei causa calor est, quare in torcu- 11 laribus etiam ac ceUis multo igni quaeritur. tertia est culpa in parsimonia, quoniam propter inpendium decerpendi expectatur ut decidant olivae. qui medium temperamentum in hoc servant perticis de- cutiunt cura iniuria arborum sequentisque anni damno ; quippe oUvantibus lex antiquissima fuit : 12 oleam ne stringito neve verberato. qui cautissime agunt harundine levi ictu nec adversos percutiunt ramos ; sic quoque alternare fructus cogitur decussis germinibus, nec minus si expectetur ut cadant ^ ; ^ V.l. ab . . . exortu. 2 Mayhojf : cum si etiam copiosiores. ^ Mayhoff : cadat. 294 BOOK XV. III. 9 12 increase until the rising of the Bear-ward, that is till September 16 ; afterwards the increase is in the size of the stones and the flesh. At this stage if rain follows in actually larn^e quantities, the oil is spoiled and turns into lees. The colour of these lces makes the ohve-oil turn black, and consequently when there is only a tinge of black beginning it contains very little lees, and before any blackness shows none at all. People are quite mistaken in supposing what is rcally the near approach of decay to be the beginning of ripening, and it is also a mistake to imagine that the amount of oil is increased by the growth of the flesh of the oHve, since all the juice is then going jnto a sohd form and the woody interior is getting bigger. It is on this account that oHve-trees are watered most plentifully at this period, but watering, whether done intentionally or occurring from repeated falls of rain, uses up the oil, unless fine weather foUows to diminish the solid part of the berry. For, as Theo- phrastus holds, the cause of oil as of other things is entirely warmth, and this is why steps are taken to produce warmth even in the presses and the cellars by h*ghting large fires. A third mistake is in over- economy, as owing to the cost of picking people wait for the oHves to faH. Those who compromise on a middle course in this matter knock the fruit down wilh poles, so injuring the trees and causing loss in the foHowing year ; in fact there was a very old regu- lation for the oHve harvest : ' Neither strip nor beat an oHve-tree.' Those who proceed most carefuHy use a reed and strike the branches with a Hght sideway blow ; but even this method causes the tree to pro- duce fruit only every other year, as the buds get knocked ofF, and this is no less the case if people 295 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY haerendo enim ultra suum tempus absumunt veni- entibus alimentum et detinent locum : argimientum est quod nisi ante favonium coUectae novas vires resumunt et difficilius cadunt. 13 IV. Prima^ ergo ab autumno colligitur vitio operae,^ non naturae, posia cui plurimum carnis, mox orchites cui olei, post radius. has enim ocissime occupatas,^ quia sunt tenerrimae, amurca cogit decidere. difFeruntur vero etiam in Martium mensem callosae, contra umorem pugnaces ob idque minimae, Licinia, Cominia, Contia, Sergia, quam Sabini regiam vocant, non ante favonii adflatum nigrescentis, hoc est a. d. 14 VI id. Feb. tunc arbitrantur eas maturescere, et quoniam probatissimum ex his fiat oleum, accedere etiam ratio pravitati videtur; feruntque frigore austeritatem fieri sicut copiam maturitate, cum sit illa bonitas non temporis, sed generis tarde putre- scentium in amurcam. similis error coUectam ser- vandi in tabulatis nec prius quam sudet premendi, cum omni mora oleum decrescat, amurca augeatur. itaque volgo non amplius senas Hbras singuUs modiis exprimi dicunt : amurcae mensuram nemo agit, ^ primae Mayhoff. 2 Gelen : opere. ^ V.l. ©ccupat estas (aestas edd.). 296 BOOK XV. III. I2-IV. 14 wait for the olives to fall off, for by remaining attached to the branches beyond their proper time they use up the nourishment for the coming crop and occupy its place : this is proved by the fact that if they are not gathered before the west wind blows they acquire renewed strength and fall off with greater difficulty. IV. Well then, the first oHve gathered after the Varietirsof beginning of autumn is the posia, which owing to a yit^ngami faulty method of cultivation and not to any fault of -^<^'^"'"'"?- nature, is a very fleshy fruit ; next the orchites, which contains a great deal of oil, and after that the radius. For as these oUves are very deUcate the lees in them very quickly gets hold of them and cause them to fall off. But the gathering of the hard- skinned oHves, which strongly resist damp and conse- quently are very small, is put off even till the month of March , the Licinian, Cominian, Contian and Sergian kinds, the last called by the Sabines the * royal oHvc,' not turning black before the west wind blows, that is before February 8. It is thought that they begin to ripen then, and as a very excellent oil is made from them reason also appears to reinforce this mis- take ; and people say that the cold causes harshness in the oil in the same degree as the ripening of the berry increases the quantity, whereas in reaUty the goodness of the oil is not a matter of the time of gathering but of the kind of ohve, which is slow in decaying into lees. A similar mistake is made in keeping the oHves when gathered on wooden shelves and not crushing them tih they sweat out juice, inasmuch as aH delay diminishes the yiekl of oil and increases the quantity of lees. The consequence is the common assertion that a peck of oHves yields only six pounds of oil ; but nobody measures the 297 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY quanto ea copiosior reperiatur in eodem genere diebus 15 adiectis. omnino invictus error et publicus tumore olivae crescere oleum existimandi, cum praesertim nec magnitudine copiam olei constare indicio sint quae regiae vocantur, ab aliis maiorinae, ab aliis babbiae, grandissimae alioqui, minimo suco, et in Aegypto carnosissimis olei exiguum, Decapoli vero Syriae perquam parvae nec cappari maiores carne 16 tamen commendentur.^ quam ob causam Italicis transmarinae praeferuntur in cibis, cum oleo vin- cantur, et in ipsa Italia ceteris Picenae et Sidicinae. sale illae privatim condiuntur et ut reliquae amurca sapave, nec non aliquae oleo suo et sine arcessita commendatione purae innatant, colymbades; fran- guntur eaedem lierbarumque viridium sapore con- diuntur. fiunt et praecoces ferventi aqua perfusae quamlibeat immaturae ; mirumque dulcem sucum 17 olivas bibere et alieno sapore infici. purpureae sunt et in his, ut uvis, in nigrum colorem transeuntibus posiis. sunt et superbae praeter iam dicta genera ; sunt et praedulces, per se tantum siccatae uvisque 1 Rackhara : commendantur. 298 BOOK XV. IV. 14-17 quantitv of lees, to discover how much larger an amount is found in the same kind of oHve with every day that is added. There is an entirely unconquer- able and widely prevalent mistake which supposes that the swelHng of the oHve increases the amount of the oil, in spite of the fact that the absence of con- nexion between the size of the berry and its yield of oil is proved by the oHves caUed ' royal oHves, and by some people * large-size oHves,' and by others ' babbiae ' — but anyhow a very large oHve with very Httle juice, and also that the very fleshy oHves in Egypt produce a scanty amount of oil, while the extremely small oHves at DecapoHs in Syria, not larger than a caper, nevertheless have an attractive flesh. It is on this account that imported oHves are preferred for the table to those grown in Italy, in spite of their being inferior for making oil, and in Italy itself the oHves of Picenum and the Sidicini are preferred to aU the other kinds. Those oHves are kept separate and steeped in salt, as weH as in lees or boiled must Hke the rest, and also some of them are left floating in their own oil and clean, without any adventitious attraction — the kind caHed in Greek * swimmers ' ; these oHves are also crushed and then seasoned with a flavouring of green herbs. OHves however unripe are actually made to ripen early by pouring boiHng water on them ; and it is surprising how oHves suck up a sweet juice and take on a flavour that does not belong to them. As with grapes, so also among oHves there are purple varieties, the posia almost shading off into black. Beside the kinds already mentioned there is also the ' proud oHve,' as weH as the very sweet variety, which is merely dried by itself and is sweeter than a raisin ; this 299 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY passis diilciores, admodum rarae in Africa et circa Emeritam Lusitaniae. 18 Oleum ipsum sale vindicatur a pinguitudinis vitio. cortice oleae conciso odorem accipit : medicatio alia ut vino, palati gratia nulla est. nec tam numerosa difFerentia; tribus ut plurimum bonitatibus distat. odor in tenui argutior, et is tamen etiam in optimo brevis. 19 V. Oleo natura tepefacere coi-pus et contra algores munire, eidem fervores capitis refrigerare. usum eius ad luxuriam vertere Graeci vitiorum omnium genitores in gymnasiis publicando ; notum est magis- tratus honoris eius octogenis sestertiis strigmenta olei vendidisse. oleae honorem Romana maiestas magnum perhibuit turmas equitum idibus luliis ea ^ coronando, item minoribus triumphis ovantes. Athenae quoque victores olea coronant, Graecia olcastro Olympiae. 20 VI. Nunc dicentur Catonis placita de oUvis. in calido et pingui solo radium maiorem, Sallentinam, orchitem,posiam, Sergianam, Cominianam, albiceram seri iubet, adicitque singulari prudentia quam earum 1 MayhofJ : ex ea. " Alagistrattis honoris eius is a rendering of yv^iaaLdpxai. ^ I.e. the oil scraped off the athletes' bodies with a strigil. " On this day the equites were reviewed by the censors, and ater by the emperors. •* In an ovatio the victorious general entered the city on foot, and not in a chariot, as at a proper triumphus. 300 BOOK XV. IV. 17-VI. 20 last kiiul of olive is rather rare, and is grown in Arrica and in the vicinity of Merida in Lusitania. The actual oil can be guarded against the defect of thickeninjr bv the addition of salt. An aromatic scent can be given to the oil by making an incision in the bark of the tree ; but any other mode of season- ing, Uke those used for wine, is no gratification to the palate. Nor are there so many varieties of oHve- oil as there are of wine, there being at most three different grades of excellence. In fine oil the odour is more penetrating, though this is short-Uved even in the best kind. V. OUve-oil has the property of imparting warmth cses of to the body and protecting it against cold, and also ''^"^"" that of cooUng the head when heated. Those parents of aU the vices, the Greeks, have diverted the use of oUve-oil to serve the purpose of luxury by making it a regular practice in their gymnasiums ; the governors of those institutions ° have been known to seU the scrapings of the oil * for 80,000 sesterces. The majesty of Rome has bestowed great honour on the oUve-tree by decorating our cavalry squadrons with wreaths of oUve on July 15,*^ and also when they are celebrating a minor triumph.'^ Athens also crowns victorious athletes with oUve wTeaths, and Greece the victors at Olympia with wreaths of wild oUve. \T. We wiU now state tUe rules given by Cato in RuUsofCato respect of olives. In a warm and ricU soil he recom- pr^-owin^'' mends planting the larger radius oUve, tUe SaUentine, sK^nn^ and the orchites, the posia, the Sergian, the Cominian Sivj?,"^ and the wax-white, and he adds with remarkable wisdom that the one among these pronounced in the particular locaUties to be the best should be used ; 301 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY in iis locis optimam esse dicant,^ in frigido autem et macro Liciniam ; pingui enim aut ferventi vitiari eius oleum arboremque ipsa fertilitate consumi, musco 21 praeterea et rubore infestari. spectare oliveta in favonium loco exposito solibus censet, nec alio ullo modo laudat. condi olivas optime orchites et posias vel virides in muria vel fractas in lentisco. oleum quam acerbissima oliva optimum fieri. cetero quamprimum e terra coUigendam, si inquinata sit, lavandam, siccari triduo satis esse ; si gelent frigora, quarto die premendam ; hanc et sale aspergi. oleum in tabulato minui deteriusque fieri, item in amurca et 22 fracibus — hae sunt carnes et inde faeces; quare saepius die capulandura, praeterea concha ^ et in plumbeas cortinas : aere vitiari. ferventibus omnia ea fieri clausisque torcularibus et quam minime ventilatis, ideo nec ligna ibi caedi oportere (qua de causa e nucleis ipsarum ignis aptissimus) ; ex cortinis in labra fundendimi, ut fraces et amurca linquantur : ob id crebrius vasa mutanda, fiscinas spongia tergen- ^ Edd. (dicent Mayhojf) : dicens aut dicunt. ^ Mueller : concham. 302 BOOK XV. VI. 20-22 while he recommends planling the Licinian oHve in a cold and thin st)il, for the reason that rich or warm earth ruins its oil and the tree gets exhausted by its mere fertihty, and moreover is attacked by moss and red rust. He advises that oUve-yards should be in a position exposcd to the sun and facing west, and he does not approve of any other arrangement. He says that the best way of preserving orchites and posia oHves is either to put them in brine when they are green or to crush them and store them in mastic oil ; the best oHve-oil is made from the bitterest olive obtainable ; for the rest the oHves should be coHected olf the ground as soon as possible, and washed if they are dirty ; it is enough to leave them to dry for three days, and if the weather is cold and frosty they must be pressed on the fourth day, and when pressed they should be sprinkled with salt. OHves kept on a boarded floor lose oil and it deteriorates in quaHty, and the same happens if the oil is left on the lees and the grounds — these are the flesh of the olive and produce the dregs ; consequently it should be ladled several times a day, and moreover this must be done with a shell and into leaden caldrons, as copper spoils it. AU these operations, he says, must be carried on with presses that have been heated and tightly closed, admitting as Httle air as possible, and therefore also no wood should be cut there (and con- sequently the most suitable fire is made with the stones of the oUves themselves) ; the oil must be poured out of the caldrons into vats, so as to leave behind the grounds and the lees : for this purpose the vessels must be changed fairly frequently and the osier baskets wiped with a sponge, so that so far as 3^3 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY das, ut quam maxime pura sinceritas constet. 23 postea inventum ut lavarentur utique ferventi aqua, protinus prelo subicerentur solidae — ita enim amurca exprimitur — mox trapetis fractae premerentur ite- rum. premi plus quam centenos modios non pro- bant ^ ; factus vocatur, quod vero post molam primum expressum est, flos. factus tres gemino foro a quaternis hominibus nocte et die premi iustum est. 24 VII. Non erat tum ficticium oleum, ideoque arbitror de eo nihil a Catone dictum. nunc eius genera plura ; primumque persequemur ea quae ex arboribus fiunt, et inter illas ante omnis ex oleastro. tenue id multoque amarius quam oleae et tantum ad medicamenta utile. simillimum huic est ex chamelaea, frutice saxoso, non altiore pahiio, fohis 25 oleastri bacisque. proximum fit e ^ cici, arbore in Aegypto copiosa — aUi crotonem, ahi sibi,^ aUi sesa- mon silvestre eam appeUant — ibique, non pridem et in Hispania, sponte * provenit altitudine oleae, caule ferulaceo, foUo vitium, semine uvarum graci- Uum paUidarumque ; nostri eam ricinum vocant a simiUtudine seminis. coquitur id in aqua inna- tansque oleum toUitur. at in Aegypto, ubi abundat, ' ^ probat? Rackham. 2 Mayhoff: et. 3 V.l. sybi, sive (sili, i.e. alaeXe, cf. vm 112, Sillig). * Dalec. : repente. " Foruniy the part of the press in wbich the oUves or grapes were laid. Varro R.B. I. 54, 2. * KiKi, the castor-oil plant. BOOK XV. VI. 22-vii. 25 possible coniplete cleanlincss niay be produced. It was a later discovery, he says, to wash the olives in absolutely boiHng water, ancl at once put theni whole into the press — for that method crushes out the lees — and then to crush them in oil-mills and put them under the press a second time. People do not approve of pressing more than a hundred pecks of olives at a time : this is called a * batch,' and what is squeezed out first after the millstone is called the * flower.' It is a fair amount for three batches to be pressed in tw enty-four hours by gangs of four men using a double holder." \'II. At that time there was no artificial oil, and Artxficiai that I take to be the reason why Cato says nothing fomuo^'^ about it. At the present time there are severaUfdvo)rai. ' //. XIII. 736, TTdvTT] ydp (7€ TT€pl aT€avos TToAe/ioio SeSrjev. 392 BOOK XVI. III. 8-iv. lo platform,'* like a ^vreath crowning the Roman nation. But later they began to be trampled on and polluted by the seditions of the tribunes, and power began to pass from public into private ownership, and to be sought for the advancement of individual citizens, and the sacrosanct tribunes began to make all things profane ; and after this the Rams passed from underneath the feet of the speakers to the heads of the citizens ; th-is Wreath of Rams Augustus bestowed upon Agrippa, but he himself received the Civdc Wreath from the whole of mankind. IV. In olden times indeed no Civic Wreath was History o/ presented save to a deity — that is why Homer assigns hmow. "^ a wreath only to heaven ^ and to a whole battle-field,'' but to no man individually even in combat — and it is said that father Liber was the first to set a crown on his own head, a wTeath of ivy. Afterwards persons performing sacrifices in honom* of the gods assumed crowns, the \ictims being adorned with wTeaths as well. Most recently of all they were also brought into use in ritual competitions, but in these and at the present day they are not bestowed on the winner, but an announcement is made that by him a viTeath is conferred upon his native place ; and from this has arisen the custom of also bestowing wreaths on victorious generals about to go in a triumplial pro- cession, for them to dedicate as offerings in the temples, and also subsequently the practice of presenting wreaths at the games. To discuss who was the fiirst Roman to receive each kind of wreath would be a lengthy matter, and not relevant to the plan of this work, and as a matter of fact the Roraans were only acquainted with those given for mihtary achievements ; but it is a well-known 393 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY certum est, uni gentium huic plura sunt genera quam cunctis. 11 V. Romulus frondea coronavit Hostum Hostilium, quod Fidenam primus inrupisset : avus hic TuUi Hostilii regis fuit. P. Decium patrem tribunum mihtum frondea donavit exercitus ab eo servatus imperatore CorneHo Cosso cos. Samnitium bello. civica iligna primo fuit, postea magis placuit ex aesculo lovi sacra, variatumque et cum quercu est ac data ubique quae fuerat custodito tantum honore 12 glandis. additae leges artae et ideo superbae quasque conferre libeat cum illa Graecorum summa quae sub ipso love datur cuique muros patria gaudens rumpit: civem servare, hostem occidere, ut ne eum ^ locum in quo sit actum hostis optineat eo die, ut servatus fateatur — aUas testes nihil prosimt — 13 ut civis fuerit: auxiUa quamvis rege servato decus non dant. nec crescit honos idem imperatore con- servato, quoniam conditores in quocumque cive ^ smnmum esse voluere. accepta Ucet uti perpetuo; ^ lan : ut eum. 2 V.l. civem. « The First Samnite War, 343-341 b.c. * /.€., the honour of providing a Civic VVreath always fell to an acorn-bearing tree of some variety. 394 BOOK XVI. IV. lo-v. 13 fact that this one nation has a greater variety of wreaths than all the other nations put together. V. Hostas HostiHus, who was the grandfather of Varieties of King Tullus HostiUus, was crowned by Roinulus with ^^j^'^' ""*^ a garland of leaves for having been the first to enter condnions Fidena. The elder PubHus Decius, who was miHtary " ""^"'^ ' tribune, received a garland of leaves from the army which he had saved from destruction in the war ^ with the Samnites when the consul CorneHus Cossus was 343 b.c. in command of our army. The Civic Wreath was first made of the leaves of the holm-oak, but afterwards preference was given to a wreath from the winter oak, which is sacred to Jove, and also a variety was made with the common oak and the tree growing in the particular locaHty was given, only the honour awarded to the acorn being preserved.* Strict and therefore exclusive conditions were further imposed, which may be compared with that supreme wreath of the Greeks which is bestowed beneath the tutelage of Zeus himself and for which the winner's native place in its rejoicing breaks a passage through its city waUs ; these conditions were — to save the Ufe of a feUow-citizen ; to kiU one of the enemy ; that the place where the exploit occurred must not be occupied by the enemy on the same day ; that the person rescued must admit the fact — witnesses other- wise are of no value ; — and that it must have been a Roman citizen : auxiUarv^ forces, even though it is a king who is rescued, do not bestow this distinction. Nor is the same honour any greater if the rescued person is a general, because the founders of this institution wished the honour to be supreme in the case of any citizen. The receiver of the \\Teath may wear it for the rest of his Hfe ; wlien he appears 395 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY ludis ineunti semper adsurgi etiam ab senatu in more est, sedendi ius in proximo senatui; vacatio munerimi omnium ipsi patrique et avo patemo. 14 XIV eas accepit Siccius Dentatus, ut retulimus suo loco, VI Capitolinus, is quidem et de duce Servilio. Africanus de patre accipere noluit apud Trebiam. o mores aeternos qui tanta opera honore solo dona- verint et, cum reliquas coronas auro commendarent, salutem civis in pretio esse noluerint, clare professi ne servari quidcm hominem fas esse lucri causa ! 15 VI. Glande opes nunc quoque multarum gentium etiam pace gaudentium constant. nec non et inopia frugum arefactis emoUtur farina spissaturque in panis usum ; quin et hodieque per Hispanias secundis mensis glans inseritur. dulcior eadem in cinere tosta. cautum est praeterea lege xii tabu- larum ut glandem in alienum fundum procidentem IG Hceret colligere. genera earum multa; distant fructu, situ, sexu, sapore ; namque aha fageae glandi figura, quernae alia et ilignae, atque inter se quoque generum singulorum differentiae. praeterea sunt aliquae silvestres, aliae placidiores quae culta « Hannibal's second victory in the first year of the Second Punic War, 218 b.o. BOOK XVI. V. 13-V1. 16 at the games it is the custom for even the senate always to rise at his entrance, and he has the right to sit next to the senators ; and he himself and his father and his paternal grandfather are exempt from all pubhc duties. Siccius Dentatus, as we have vii. 102. mentioned at the proper place, won fourteen Civic Wreaths, and CapitoHnus six, one in his case being actually for saving the Hfe of his commanding officer Ser\dHus. Scipio Africanus refused to accept a wreath for rescuing his father at the Trebbia.** How worthy of eternity is a national character that rewarded exploits so distinguished with honour only, and whereas it enhanced the value of its other wreaths with gold, refused to aHow the rescue of a citizen to be a thing of price, thus loudly proclaiming that it is wrong even to save the Hfe of a human being for the sake of gain ! VI. Acorns at this very day constitute the wealth Acnmsas of many races, even when they are enjoying peace. -f^^jf^^ '"^^''"' Moreover also when there is a scarcity of corn they are dried and ground into flour which is kneaded to make bread ; beside this, at the present day also in the Spanish provinces a place is found for acorns in the second course at table. Acorns have a sweeter flavour when roasted in the ashes. More- over it was provided by law in the Twelve Tables that it was permissible to gather up acorns falHng on to another person's land. There are many kinds of acorns, and they differ in their fruit, habitat, sex and flavour, some having the shape of the beech- nut and others of the mast of the oak and the holm- oak, and there are also differences within each of these varieties. Moreover some grow wild in forests and others are more tame, occupying cultivated 397 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY optinent. iam in montuosis planisque distant, sicut et sexu mares ac feminae, item sapore : dulcissima omniimi fagi, ut qua obsessos etiam homines durasse 17 in oppido Chio tradat Cornelius Alexander. genera distinguere non datur nominibus, quae sunt aUa aUbi, quippe cum robur quercumque vulgo nasci videamus, aesculum non ubique, quartam vero generis eiusdem quae cerrus vocatur ne ItaUae quidem maiore ex parte notam esse. distinguemus ergo proprietate naturaque et, ubi res coget, etiam Graecis nominibus. 18 VII. Fagi glans nucleis simiHs triangula cute includitur. foUum tenue atque e levissimis, populeo simile, celerrime flavescens et mediaparte plerumque gignens superne parvolam bacam viridem cacumine aculeatam. fagum muribus gratissimum est, et ideo animaUs eius una proventus ; gUres quoque saginat, expedit et turdis. arborum fertiUtas omnium fere altemat, sed maxime fagi. 19 VIII. Glandem quae proprie inteUegitur ferunt robur, quercus, aesculus, cerrus, ilex, suber. continent hispido calyce per genera plus minusve conplectente. foUa praeter iUcem gravia, carnosa, procera, sinuosa 398 BOOK XVI. VI. 16-V111. 19 ground. Then they are different in mountain regions and in the plains, as also they differ in sex — male and female, and Ukewise in flavour : the sweetest of them all is beech-mast, it being re- corded by Cornehus Alexander that the people in the town of Chios actually held out against a siege by using it for food. It is not possible to distinguish its kinds by their names, which are different in different places, inasmuch as we see the hard-oak and the common oak growing everywhere, but the winter oak not in every region, and the fourth species of the same class, called the Turkey oak, is not known at all even to the greater part of Italy. We will therefore distinguish the varieties by their properties and natures, also using the Greek names when necessary. \TI. The acorn of the beech resembles a kernel, Beech-mast. being enclosed in a triangular shell. The leaf, which is thin and one of the Hghtest that there are, resembles that of the poplar ; it turns yellow very quickly, and on its upper side, usually at the middle, it grows a Uttle green berry with a pointed end. Mice are extremely fond of the beech and consequently in places where it grows these animals abound ; it also fattens dormice, and is good for thrushes, too, Almost all trees grow a good crop only every other year, but this is especially the case with the beech. Vni. The trees that bear acorns in the proper sense varieties 0/ of the term are the hard-oak, the common oak, the "''^* winter oak, the Turkey oak, the holm-oak and the cork tree. These trees carry their acorn enclosed in a bristly cup that embraces more or less of it accord- ing to their kinds. Their leaves with the exception of the hohn-oak are heavy, fleshy and tapering, 399 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY lateribus, nec cum cadunt flavescentia ut fagi, pro differentia generum breviora vel longiora. Ilicis duo genera. ex his in Italia folio non ita multum ab oleis distant milaces a quibusdam Graecis dictae; in provinciis aquifoliae sunt ilices. glans utriusque brevior et gracilior, quam Homerus aculon appellat eoque nomine a glande distinguit. mascu- las ilices negant ferre. 20 Glans optima in quercu atque grandissima, mox aesculo, nam robori parva, cerro tristis, horrida echinato calyce ceu castaneae. sed et in quema aha dulcior molliorque feminae, mari spissior. maxime autem probantur latifoliae ex argumento dictae : distant inter se magnitudine et cutis tenui- tate, item quod aliis subest tunica robigine scabra, 21 aliis protinus candidum corpus. probatur et ea cuius in balano utrimque ex longitudine extrema lapidescit duritia, melior cui in cortice quam cui in corpore, utnmique non nisi mari. praeterea aliis ovata, aliis rotunda, aliis acutior figura, sicut et colos nigrior candidiorve, qui praefertur. amaritudo in extremi- 400 BOOK XVI. VIII. 19-21 with wavy edges, and they do not turn yellow when they fall Hke beech leaves ; they differ in lcngth according to the variety of their kinds. There are two classes of holm-oak. The ItaUan variety, called by some Greeks milax, has a leaf not very different from that of the ohve, but the holm- oak in the provinces is the one with pointed leaves. The acorn of both kinds is shorter and more slen- dcr than that of other varieties ; Homer calls it Od. xi. 212. akylon and distingiiishes it by that name from the common acorn. It is said that the male holm-oak bears no acorns. The best and largest acorn grows on the common oak, and the next best on the ^Wnter oak, as that of the hard-oak is small, and that of the Turkey oak a rough, bristly thing with a prickly cup hke that of the chestnut. But also in the case of the oak in gcneral the acorn of the female tree is sweeter and softer, while that of the male tree is more compact. In the most esteemed variety called de- scriptively the broad-leaved oak, the acoms differ among themseh^es in size and in the thinness of their shell, and also in that some have under the shell a rough coat of a rusty colour, whereas in others one comes to the white flesh at once. Those acorns are also esteemed the kernel of which at each extremity taken lengthwise has a stony hard- ness, those having this in the husk being better than those with it in the flesh of the nut, but in either case it only occurs with a male tree. Moreover in some cases the acorn is oval, in others round, and in others of a more pointed shape, just as the colour also is blacker or hghtcr, the latter being preferred. The ends of acorns are bitter and the middle parts 401 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY tatibus, mediae dulces; quin et pediculi brevitas proceritasque differentiam habet. 22 In ipsis vero arboribus quae maximam fert hemeris vocatur, brevior et in orbem comosa alasque ramorum crebro cavata. fortius Hgnum quercus habet et incorruptius, ramosa et ipsa, procerior tamen et crassior caudice ; excelsissima autem aegilops, in- cultis amica. 23 Ab hac proxima latifoliae proceritas, sed minus utihs aedificiis atque carboni, dolata vitiis obnoxia est, quamobrem sohda utuntur. carbo in aerari- orum tantum officinis conpendio, quoniam desinente flatu protinus emoriens saepius recoquitur, ceterum plurimus scintillis. idem e novelUs meUor. acervi consertis taleis recentibus luto caminantur, accensa strue contis pungitur durescens calyx atque ita sudorem emittit. 24 Pessima et carboni et materiae haUphloeos dicta, cui crassissimus cortex atque caudex et plerumque cavus fungosusque ; nec aUa ita ^ putrescit ex hoc genere, etiam cum vivit. quin et fulmine saepissime icitur,2 quamvis aUitudine non exceUat ; ideo Ugno eius nec ad sacrificia uti fas habetur. eidem rara glans et, cum tulit, amara, quam praeter sues nuUum ^ pariter vel ita add. ? ex Thcophrasto Mayhoff. ^ Edd. : iacitur. *» The identification of this variety is uncertaLn. * Or perhaps ' and which makes a dense canopy of spreading branches,' i.e., spreads out its branches evenly like the ribs of an umbrella. ' A variety ol" oak with edible acorns. 402 BOOK XVI. VIII. 21 24 sweet; also there is a difference in the shortness or length of the stalk. In respect of the trees themselves the one that Varietiesn/ bears the largest acorn is called the hemeris;" this ifk-^ti^li. is a comparativcly low-growing oak which forms a circle of bushy fohage and which is frequently hollow at the spread of the branches.'' The wood of the common oak is stronger and less Uable to decay ; this variety also has many branches, but grows liigher and has a thicker trunk ; but the loftiest kind is the aegilops/ which Hkes wild uncultivated country. Next to this in height is the broad-leaved oak, but it is less useful for builders' timber and for charcoal, and when hewn with the axe is Hable to spht, on which account it is used in the unhewn state. As charcoal it only pays to use it in a copper-smith's workshop, becaase as soon as the bellows stop it dies down and has to be rekindled repeatedly ; but it gives out a great quantity of sparks. A better charcoal is obtained from young trees. Piles of freshly cut sticks are fitted closely together and made into an oven with clay, and the structure is set fire to, and the shell as it hardens is prodded with poles and so discharges its moisture. The worst kind both for charcoal and for timber is the one called in Greek the ' sea-cork ' oak, which has a very thick bark and trunk, the latter usually hollow and spongy ; and no other variety of the oak class is so Hable to rot, even while it is aHve. More- over it is very frequently struck by Hghtning, although it is not particularly lofty ; consequently it is not thought right to u.se its wood for sacrifices either. Also it rarely bears acorns, and when it does they are bitter, so that no animal will touch them 403 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY attingat animal, ac ne hae quidem si aliud pabulum habeant. hoc quoque inter reliqua neglectae reli- gionis est quod emortuo carbone sacrificatur. 25 Glans fagea suem hilarem facit, carnem cocibilem ac levem et utilem stomacho, iligna suem angustara, non ^ nitidam, strigosam ; ponderosam querna, diffusam, grandissima ^ et ipsa glandium atque dulcissima. proximam huic cerream tradit Nigidius, nec ex alia solidiorem carnem, sed duram. iligna temptari sues, nisi paulatim detur ; hanc novissimam cadere. fungosam carnem fieri aesculo, robore, subere. 26 IX. Quae glandem ferunt omnes et gallam altern- isque annis glandem, sed gallam hemeris optimam et coriis perficiendis aptissimam ; similem huic latifolia, sed leviorem multoque minus probatam. fert et nigram — duo enim genera sunt; haec tinguendis 27 lanis utilior. nascitur autem galla sole de geminis exeunte erumpens noctu semper universa. crescit uno die candidior et, si aestu excepta est, arescit pro- tinus neque ad iustum incrementum pervenit, hoc est ut nucleum fabae magnitudine habeat. nigra ^ non add. Rackham : innitidam ? Warmington. 2 Mueller : gravissima. " The MSS. omit this negative. * Towards the end of June. 404 BOOK XVI. VIII. 24-ix. 27 except swine, and not even these if they can get any other fodder. An additional reason among others for its being disregarded for religious ccremonies is that its charcoal goes out during the course of a sacrifice. Beech-mast fed to pigs livens them up, and makes Acomsand their flesh easy to cook and light and digestible ; J^JJ^" whereas the acorns of the hohii-oak make a pig thin, not " glossy, meagre. Acorns from the common oak make it lieavy and hmipish, being themselves also the largest of nuts and the sweetest in flavour. According to Nigidius's account the next best to the common acorn is the acorn of the Turkey oak, and no other kind gives the pig more soh*d flesh, though hard. He says that holm-oak acorn is a trying feed for pigs, unless given to them in small quantities at a time ; and that this is the latest acorn to falh He adds that the acorn of the winter oak, hard-oak and cork-tree make a pig's flesh spongy. IX. AU the acorn-bearing trees produce oak-apples Oak gaiis. as well, and acorns in alternate years, but the hemeris bears the best oak-apple and the one most suitable for dressing hides. The oak-apple of the broad-leaved oak resembles it, but is lighter in weight and much less highly approved. This tree also produces the black oak-apple — for there are two varieties, this last being more useful for dyeing wool. The oak-apple begins to grow when the sun is leaving the sign of the Twins,* and always bursts forth full-size in a night. The Hghter- coloured variety grows in a single day, and if it en- counters a spell of heat it dries up at once and does not attain its proper growth, that is, to have a kernel the size of a bean. The black oak-apple stays fresh 405 PLINYi NATURAL HISTORY diutius viret crescitque, ut interdum mali conpleat magnitudinem. optima Commagena, deterrima ex robore ; signum eius quod cavernae tralucent. 28 X. Robur praeter fructum plurima et alia gignit. namque fert et gallae utrumque genus et quaedam veluti mora, ni distarent arida duritie, plerumque et ^ tauri caput imitantia, quibus fructus inest nucleis olivae similis. nascuntur in eo et pilulae nucibus non absimiles, intus habentes floccos molles lucernarum luminibus aptos ; nam et sine oleo flagrant sicuti galla nigra. fert et aliam inutilem piiulam cum 29 capillo, verno tamen tempore melliginis suci. gignunt et alae ramorum eius pilulas corpore non pediculo adhaerentes, candicantibus umbilicis, cetera nigra varietate dispersa; media cocci colorem habent, apertis amara ^ inanitas est. aliquando et pumices gignit nec non et e foliis convolutas pilulas et in foliorum venis aquosos nucleos candicantes ac tralu- cidos quamdiu molles sint, in quibus et culices nascuntur. maturescunt in <(nodum ad parvae levis gallae)> ^ modum. 30 XI. P'erunt robora et cachrym : ita vocatur pilula in medicina urendi vim habens. gignitur et in abiete, larice, picea, tilia, nuce, platano, postquam 1 et add. Mayhoff. ^ atra Pintianus. ^ Add. lan coll. Theophr. " Perhaps this should be altered to ' black,' to agree with Theophrastus. 406 BOOK XVI. IX. 27-xi. 30 and goes on growing for a longer period, so as some- times to reach the size of an apple. The best kind comes from Commagene, and tlie worst is that pro- duced by the hard-oak ; it can be detected by the transparent hollows in it. X. The hard-oak suppHes a number of other pro- ducts in addition to acorns ; it also bears both kinds of oak-apples, and berries that are hke mulberries except that they are dry and hard, also usually resembhng a bulFs head, which contain a fruit Hke the stone of an ohve. There also grow on it Httle baHs not unHke nuts, having inside them soft flocks of wool suitable for lamp-wicks, since they wiU keep burning even without oil, as is also the case with the black oak-apples. The hard-oak also bears another sort of Httle baH with hairs on it, which is of no use, though in spring-time it has a juice that is Hke bee-glue. Also in the hoHows at the junction of its boughs grow Httle baHs adhering bodily to the bark and not attached by a stalk, the point of attach- ment being white but the remainder speckled with black patches ; inside they have a scarlet colour, but when opened they are bitter <* and empty. Sometimes also the hard-oak bears growths resembHng pumice-stone, as weH as Httle baHs made of the leaves roHed up, and also on the veins of the leaves watery pustules of a white colour, and as long as they remain soft permeable to Hght, in which gnats are born. When they ripen they form a knot Hke the smaH smooth oak-apple. XI. Hard-oaks also bear catkins : that is the name of a smaH round baH used in medicine for its caustic property. It also grows on the fir, the larch, the pitch-pine, the Hme, nut-trees and the plane, 407 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY folia cecidere hieme durans. continet nucleum pineis similem ; is crescit hieme, aperitur vere. pilula tota 31 cadit cum folia coepere crescere. tam multifera sunt, tot res praeter glandem pariunt robora, sed et boletos suillosque, gulae novissima inritamenta, qui circa radices gignuntur, quercus probatissimos, robur autem et cupressus et pinus noxios. robora ferunt et viscum, et mella ut auctor est Hesiodus, constatque rores melleos e caelo, ut diximus, cadentes non aliis magis insidere frondibus ; crematoque ^ robore cinerem nitrosum esse certimi est. 32 XII. Omnes tamen has eius dotes ilex solo provocat cocco. granum hic primoque ceu scabies fruticis, parvae aquifoliae ilicis : scolecium ^ vocant. pen- sionem alteram tributi pauperibus Hispaniae donat. usum eius grani et rationem ^ in conchyh mentione tradidimus. gignitur et in Galatia, Africa, Pisidia, Cilicia, pessimum in Sardinia. 33 XIII. Galliarum glandiferae maxime arbores agari- cum ferunt; est autem fungus candidus, odoratus, antidotis efficax, in summis arboribus nascens, nocte relucens : signum hoc eius quo in tenebris decerpitur. ^ Mayhoff : quoque. ^ Detlefsen coll. xxiv 8 : cusculium aut cuscolium. ' Mayhoff : eius grationem aut eius generationem. " This is really juice exuded from *green-fly ' on the leaves. ^ Pliny here describes the scarlet-producing kermes-maect which infests the small Quercus coccifera. * A species of non-edible Fomea. 408 BOOK XVI. XI. 3o-.\iii. s^ lasting on in thc winter after tlie leaves have fallen. It contains a kernel resembUng the kernel of pine- cones ; tliis grows in winter and opens out in spring. When the leaves have begun to grow, the whole ball falls off. Such is the multiphcity of products in addition to the acorn that are borne by hard-oaks ; but they also produce edible fungi and hog-mush- rooms, the most recently discovered stimulants of tlie appetite, which grow round their roots ; those of the common oak are the most esteemed, but those of the hard-oak and cypress and pine are harmful. Hard-oaks also produce mistletoe, and honey as well according to Hesiod, and it is an ac- w.d. 2Z2. cepted fact that honey-dew faUing from the sky," as we said, deposits itself on the leaves of no other tree ^i- ^o. in preference to the hard-oak ; and it is well known that hard-oak wood when burnt produces a nitrous asii. XII. Nevertheless the holm-oak challenges all these ^^ kermes- products of the hard-oak on the score of its scarlet alone. This is a grain, and looks at first hke a rough- ness on a shrub, which is the small pointed-leaf holm- oak. The grain is called scolecium, ' htte worm '.^ It furnishes the poor in Spain with the means of paying one out of every two instalments of their tribute. We have stated the use of this grain and the mode ix. I40f. of preparing it when speaking of pui^ple dye. It occurs also in Galatia, Africa, Pisidia and Cihcia, and the worst kind in Sardinia. XIII. In the GalHc provinces chiefly the acorn- ^""^«^ <>" bearing trees produce agaric,*^ which is a white fungus with a strong odour, and which makes a powerful anti- dote ; it grows on the tops of trees, and is phosphor- escent at night ; this is its distinguishing mark, by which it can be gathered in the dark. Of the voL. IV. o 409 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY e glandiferis sola quae vocatur aegilops fert pannos arentes, muscoso villo canos, non in cortice modo verum et e ramis dependentes cubitali magnitudine, odoratos, uti diximus inter unguenta. 34 Suberi minima arbor, glans pessima et rara, cortex tantum in fructu, praecrassus ac renascens atque etiam in denos pedes undique explanatus : usus eius ancoralibus maxime navium piscantiumque tragulis et cadorum obturamentis, praeterea in hiberno feminarum calceatu. quamobrem non infacete Graeci corticis arborem appellant. sunt et qui feminam ilicem vocent atque, ubi non nascitur ilex, pro ea subere utantur in carpentariis praecipue fabricis, ut circa Elim et Lacedaemonem. nec in Italia tota nascitur aut in Gallia omnino. 35 XIV. Cortexetfagi,tiliae,abietis,^piceae,inmagno usu agrestium. vasa eo corbesque ac patentiora quaedam messibus convehendis vindemiisque faciunt atque proiecta ^ tuguriorum. scribit in recenti ad duces explorator incidens Utteras "f a sucof ; ^ nec non et in quodam usu sacrorum rehgiosus est fagi cortex, sed non durat arbor ipsa. ' Sic Warmington : fagis, tiliae, abieti. 2 Hardouin : protecta. ^ incisas literas tegente suco Dalec. " Some kind of lichen is referred to. * The reference is to cork floats used either to carry the end of a mooring-cable left attached to an anchor or a stone on the bottom of a harbour or roadstead, or to carry the top edge of a fishing-net held taut by weights along its bottom edge. ' The Greek name for the Quercus Suber was ^eAAds', a word aiso used for the cork floats on a net ; for bark they used ^Aoid?. ** The words a suco have evaded plausible explanation or emendatinn. Tho general sense is that a message was scratched on a strip of bark freshly peeled ofl" a tree, and that owing to 410 BOOK XVI. XIII. 33-xiv. 35 acorn-bearing tree the one called the aegilops alone carries strips of dry cloth <* covered with white mossy tufts; this substance not only grows on the bark but hangs down from the branches in streamers eighteen inches long, and it has a strong scent, as we xii.iog. said when deaUng with perfumes. The cork is a very small tree, and its acorns are Cork-tree. very bad in quaUty and few in number ; its only useful product is its bark, which is extremely thick and which when cut grows again ; when flattened out it has been known to form a sheet as big as 10 feet square. This bark is used chiefly for ships' anchor drag-ropes and fishermen's ^ drag-nets and for the bungs of casks, and also to make soles for women's winter shoes. Consequently the Greek name for the tree is ' bark-tree,' which is not inappropriate.'^ Some people also call it the female holm-oak, and in places where the holm-oak does not grow, for instance in the districts of Ehs and Sparta, use cork-tree timber instead of holm-oak, especially for wain- wright's carpentry. It does not grow all over Italy or anywhere in Gaul. XIV. Also in the case of the beech, the hme, the Barkofother fir and the pitch-pine the bark is extensively used by country people. They employ it for making panniers and baskets, and larger flat receptacles used for carrying corn at harvest-time and grapes at the vint- age, and the roof-eaves of cottages. A scout wites reports to send to his officers by cutting letters on fresh bark from the sap ; <^ and also beech bark is used for ritual purposes in certain rehgious rites, but the tree from which it is stripped does not survive. the sap the incifions closcd iip, but opened again later on when the sap dried, so that the writing became legible. 411 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 36 XV. Scandula e robore aptissima, mox e glandi- fcris aliis fagoquc, facillima ex omnibus quae resinam ferunt, sed minime durans praeterquam e pino. scandula contectam fuisse Romam ad Pyrrhi usque bellum annis cccclxx CorneliiLS Ncpos auctor est. 37 silvarum certe distinguebatur insignibu-;, Fagutali love etiam nunc ubi lucus fageus fuit, Porta Quer- quetulana, Colle Viminali ^ in quem vimina pete- bantur, totque Lucis, quibusdam et geminis. Q. Hortensius dictator, ciun plebes secessisset in lani- culum, legem in Aesculeto tulit ut quod ea iussisset omnes Quirites teneret. 38 XVI. Peregrinae tum videbantur, quoniam non erant suburbanae, pinus atque abies omnesque quae picem gignunt. de quibus nunc dicemus, simul ut tota condiendi vina origo cognoscatur, quae ferunt in Asia aut oriente praedictis. Picem in Europa sex genera cognatarum arb6rum ferunt. ex his pinus atque pinaster folium habent capillamenti modo praetenue longumque at mucrone aculeatiun. pinus fert minimum resinae, interdum et nueibus ipsis de quibus dictum est, vixque ut adscri- 1 Viminali add. Rackham. " The war with Pyrrhus began a.u.c. 473, 2S1 b.c. * On the Esquihne Hill were the Lucus i\[efitis, Lucus lunonis Lucinae, Lucus Fagutalis, Lucus Laruni and Qiierque- tulanum Sacellum. 412 BOOK XVI. XV. 36-xvi. 38 XV. The most suitable roof-.shin«rle.s are got from Roof- the hard-oak, and the next best from the other acorn- *'*"* bearing trees and from the beech ; those most easily obtained are cut from all the trees that produce resin, but these are the least good to last with the exception of those from the pine. Cornehus Nepos informs us that Rome was roofed with shingles right down to the war with Pyrrhus, a period of 470 years." At all events its different regions used to be denoted Trees in by designations taken from the woods ^ — the Pre- 1/'^^^'^'^^ cinct of Jupiter of the Beech Tree (which retains the name even to-day) — where there was once a grove of beeches, Oak-forest Gate, Osier Hill, where people went to get osiers, and all the Groves, some even named from two sorts of trees. It was in Winter-oak Grove that Quintus Hortensius as dictator after the 2S7 b.c. secession of the plebeians to the Janiculum Hill carried the law that an order of the plebs shoukl be binding on all citizens. XVI. The pine and the fir and all the trees that Treesyieid- produce pitch were in those days considered exotics, *"^^' because there were none in the neighbourhood of the capital. Of these trees we shall now speak, in order that the whole of the source from which flavouring for wine is produced may bc known at once, after an account has been given of the trees in Asia or the East which produce pitch. In Europe pitch is produced by six kinds of trees, all related to one another. Of these the pine and the \^11d pine have a very narrow long leaf like hair, with a shai*p point at the end. The pine yields the smallest amount of resin, sometimes also produced from its nuts themselves, about which we have spoken, and xv. 36. scarcely enough to justify its classification as a resinous 413 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 39 batur generi. XVII. pinastcr nihil est aliud quam pinus silvestris minor altitudine et a medio ramosa sicut pinus in vertice. copiosiorem dat haec resinam quo dicemus modo. gignitur et in planis. easdem arbores alio nomine esse per oram Itahae quas tibulos vocant plerique arbitrantur, sed graciles succinctioresque et enodes liburnicarum ad usus, paene sine resina. 40 XVIII. Picea montis amat atque frigora, feralis arbor et funebri indicio ad fores posita ac rogis virens, iam tamen et in domos recepta tonsili facilitate. haec plurimam fundit interveniente candida gemma tam simiH turis ut mixta visu discerni non queat; unde 41 fraus Seplasiae. omnibus his generibus foha brevia sed crassiora duraque ceu cupressis. piceae rami paene statim ab radice modici velut bracchia lateribus inhaerent. Similiter abieti expetitae navigiis situs in excelso 42 montium, ceu maria fugerit, nec forma aha. ma- teries vero praecipua est trabibus et plurimis vitae operibus. resina in ea ^ vitium, unde fructus piceae, ^ MayJioff : resinae. <* A street in Capua occupied entirely by perfumera' shops. 414 BOOK XVI. XVI. 38-xviii. 42 tree. XMI. Tlie piiiasler is iiothing else l)ut a wild ^''(^me. piiie tree of smaller height throwiiig out branches from the middle as the pine does at thc top, This variety gives a larger quantity of resin, in the manner wliich we shall describe. It grovvs in flat countries §5 57f. also. Most people think that trees called tibuH that grow along the coasts of Italy are the same tree with another name, but the tibulus is a slender tree and more compact than the pinaster, and being free from knots is used for building hght galhes ; it is almost devoid of resin. XVII I. The pitch-pine loves mountains and cokl Pitch-pine» locahties. It is a funereal tree, and is placed at the '^" doors of houses as a token of bereavement and grown on graves ; nevertheless nowadays it has also been admitted into our homes because of the ease with which it can be chpped into various shapes. This pine gives out a quantity of resin interspersed with white drops so closely resembhng frankincense that when mixed with it they are indistinguishable to the eye ; hence the adulteration is practised in the Seplasia.'* AU these classes of trees have short leaves, but rather thick and hard hke the leaf of the cypress. The branches of the pitch-pine are of moderate size and grow out almost immediately ffom the root of the tree, attached to its sides hke arms. Similarly the fir, which is in great demand for build- ing sliips, grows high up on mountains, as though it had run away from the sea; and its shape is the same as that of the pitch-pine. But it supphes excellent timber for beams and a great many of the apphances of hfe. Resin, which gives its value to the pitch-pine, is a defect in the fir, which occasionally 415 PLINY: NATURAI. HISTORY exiguumque sudat aliquando contaetu solis. e diverso materies, quae abieti pulcherrima, piceae ad fissiles scandulas cupasque et pauca alia secamenta. 43 XIX. Quinto generi est situs idem, facies eadem ; larix vocatur. materiespraestantiorlonge,incorrupta aevis,^ umori contumax, rubens praeterea et odore acrior. plusculum huic erumpit hquoris melleo colore atque lentore,^ numquam durescentis. 44 Sextum genus est taeda proprie dicta, abundantior suco quam rehqua, parcior hquidiorque quam picea, flammis ac lumini sacrorum etiam grata. hae, mares dumtaxat, ferunt et eam quam Graeci sycen vocant, odoris gravissimi. laricis morbus est ut taeda fiat. 45 Omnia autem haec genera accensa fuhgine inmo- dica carbonem repente expuunt cum eruptionis crepitu eiaculantm'que longe excepta larice quae nec ardet nec carbonem facit nec alio modo ignis vi con- sumitur quam lapides. omnia ea pei*petuo virent nec facile discemuntur in fronde etiam a peritis, 46 tanta natalium mixtura est ; sed picea minus alta quam Iarix,illa crassior leviorque cortice, foho villo- sior, pinguior et densior mollius flexo ; at piceae rariora 1 Mayhoff : incorrupta ac vis. 2 Sillig : lentiora aut recentiora. " Pinus combra. "^ ^vK€a, avKTj, ' fig-tree,' also ' fig,' is used to denote tar or resin by Theophrastus. " Except the larch, which is deciduous. 416 BOOK XVI. xviii. 42 Aix. 46 exudes a small quantity when exposed to the action of the sun. The wood, on the contrary, which in the case of the fir is extremely beautiful, in the pitch- pine only serves for making spUt roof-shingles and tubs and a few other articles of joinery. XIX. The fifth kind of resinous tree has the same Larch. habitat and the same appearance ; it is called the larch. Its timber is far superior, not rotting with age and offering a stubborn resistance to damp ; also it has a reddish colour and a rather penetrating scent. llesin flows from this tree in rather large quantities, of the colour and stickiness of honey, and never becoming hard. The sixthkind is the torch-pine" specially so called, Torch-pine. which gives out more resin than the rest, but less, and of a more hquid kind, than the pitch-pine ; and it is agreeable for kindhng fires and also for torch- Hght at rehgious ceremonies. These trees, at all events the male variety, also produce the extremely strong-smelhng hquid called by the Greeks syce.^ It is a disease of the larch to turn into a torch-pine. rroperties of All these kinds of trees when set fire to make an ^trels!^ enormous quantity of sooty smoke and suddenly with an explosive crackle send out a splutter of charcoal and shoot it to a considerable distance — excepting the larch, which does not burn nor yet make charcoal, nor waste away from the action of fire any more than do stones. All these trees ^ are evergreen, and are not easily distinguishable in point of fohage even by experts, so closely are they interrelated ; but the pitch-pine is not so tall as the larch, which has a thicker and smoother bark and more velvety and oiUer and thicker foUage, the leaf bending more softly to the touch, whereas the fohage 417 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY siccioiaque folia et tenuiora ac magis algentia, tota- que horridior et perfusa resina, lignimi abietis similius. larix ustis radicibus non repullulat, <(picea repullulat),^ ut in Lesbo accidit incenso nemore 47 Pyrrhaeo. aUa etiamnunc generibus ipsis in sexu differentia ; mas brevior et durior <]foUis]>2, fernina procerior, pinguioribus foUis et simpUcibus atque non rigentibus ; Ugnum maribus durum et in fabriU opere contortum, feminae moUius, pubUco dis- crimine in securibus : hae in quocumque genere deprehendunt marem, quippe respuuntur et fragosius sidunt, aegrius reveUuntur. ipsa materies retorrida 48 et nigrior maribus. laricis circa Idam in Troade et aUa differentia, montanae maritimaeque. nam in Macedonia et Arcadia circaque EUm permutant nomina, nec constat auctoribus quod cuique generi adtribuant ; nos ista Romano discernimus iudicio. Abies e cunctis ampUssima est et femina etiam proUxior, materie moUior utiliorque, arbore rotundior, foUo pinnato densa ut imbres non tramittat, atque 49 hilarior in totum. e ramis generum horum pani- ^ Hermolaus e Theophr. 2 Edd. e Theophr. 4l8 BOOK XVI. XIX. 46-49 of the pitch-pine is scantier a-nd also drier and thinner and ot a colder nature, and the whole tree is rougher and is covered with resin ; the wood more resembles that of the fir. When the roots of a larch have been burnt it does not throw out fresh shoots, but the pitch-pine does, as happened on the island of Lesbos after the grove of the town of Pyrrha had been burnt. Moreover there is another difterence within these species themselves in the matter of sex : the male tree is shorter and has harder leaves, while the female is taller and its leaves are more unctuous and not forked and not stiff ; and the wood of the male is hard, and when used in carpentry spUts crooked, while that of the female is softer, the manifestation of the difference resting with the axe, which in every variety detects the male, because it meets with re- sistance and falls with a louder crash and is pulled out of the wood with greater difficulty. With the male trees the wood itself is parched and blacker in colour. In the neighbourhood of Mount Ida in the Troad there is also another variation among the larches, the mountain larch and the coast larch being different. As for Macedonia and Arcadia and the neighbourhood of EHs, in these places the varieties exehange names and the authorities are not agreed as to which name to give to each species, though for our part we settle that sort of question by the verdict of Rome. The biggest of the entire group is the fir, the female Tiiefir. being even taller than the male, and its timber softer and more easily worked, and the tree rounder in shape, and with dense feathery foHage, which makes it impervious to rain ; and in general it has a more cheerful appearance. From the branches of these 419 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY cularum modo nucamenta squamatim compacta de- pendent praeterquam larici. haec abietis masculae primori parte nucleos habent, non item feminae ; piceae vero totis paniculis, minoribus graciUori- busque, minimos ac nigros, propter quod Graeci phthirophoron ^ eam appellant. in eadem nucamenta maribus conpressiora sunt ac minus resina roscida. 50 XX. SimiUs his etiamnunc aspectu est, ne quid praetereatur, taxus minime virens graciUsque et tristis ac dira, nuUo suco, ex omnibus sola bacifera. mas noxio fructu, letale quippe bacis in Hispania praeci- pue venenum inest : vasa etiam viatoria ex ea vinis 51 in GaUia facta mortifera fuisse conpertimi est. hanc Sextius milacem a Graecis vocari dicit, et esse in Arcadia tam praesentis veneni ut qui obdormiant sub ea cibumve capiant moriantur. sunt qui et taxica hinc appeUata dicant venena quae nunc toxica dici- mus, quibus sagittae tinguantur. reperio ^ innoxiam fieri si in ipsam arborem clavus aereus adigatur. 52 XXI. Pix Uquida in Europa e taeda coquitur, navaU- bus muniendis muUosque aUos ad usus. Ugnum eius concisum furnis undique igni extra circumdato fervet. primus sudor aquae modo fluit canaU ; hoc in Syria cedrium vocatur, cui tanta vis est ut in Aegypto ^ Benedictus (phthiropoeon MayhofJ) : phthiroporon. ^ reperio ? MayhoJJ : reperto. " Taxica from taxus, a yew; toxica from to^ov, a bow. 420 BOOK XVI. XIX. 49 XXI. 52 specics, with the exccption of the larch, there hang nut-like growths resembhng catkins, packed togethcr Hke scalcs. Thosc of the male fir have kerncls in their tips, thousch this is not the case with the female fir ; but the nuts of the pitch-pine have kcrncls filhng thc whole of the catkins, which are smaller and narro^vcr, the kernels being vcry small and black, owing to which the Greek name for the pitch-pine is a word meaning * louse-tree.' Also in the pitch- pine the nut-growths are more closely packed in the male trees and less moist with resin. XX. Morcover, not to pass over any variety, re- Theyew sembUng these trees in appearance is the yew, hardly green at all in colour and slender in form, with a gloomy, terrifying appearance ; it has no sap, and is the only tree of all the class that bears berries. The friiit of the male yew is harmful — in fact its berries, particularly in Spain, contain a deadly poison ; even wine-flasks for travellers made of its wood in Gaul are known to have caused death. Sextius says that the Greek name for this tree is milax, and that in Arcadia its poison is so active that people who go to sleep or picnic beneath a yew-tree die. Some people also say that this is why poisons were called ' taxic,' which we now pronounce ' toxic '," meaning ' used for poisoning arrows.' I find it stated that a yew becomes harmless if a copper nail is driven into the actual tree. XXI. In Europe tar is obtained from the torch- pine by heating it, and is used for coating ships' tackle and uses oj and many other purposes. The wood of the tree is '«''• chopi^ed up and put into ovens and heated by means of a hre packed all round outside. The first Hquid that exudes flows hke water down a pipe ; in Syria this is callcd ' ccdar-juicc,' and it is so strong that in Egypt 42T PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY corpora hominum defunctorum perfusa eo serventur. 53 XXII. sequens liquor crassior iam picem fundit ; haec rursus in cortinas aereas coniecta aceto spissatur ut coagulo et Bruttiae cognomen accepit, doHis dumtaxat vasisque ceteris utilis, lentore ab alia pice differens, item colore rutilante et quod pinguior est reliqua omni illa. fit e picea resina ferventibus cocta ^ lapi- dibus in alveis validi roboris aut, si alvei non sint, 54 struis congerie, velut in carbonis usu. haec in vinum additur farinae modo tusa, nigrior colore. eadem resina si cum aqua lenius ^ decoquatur coleturque, rufo colore lentescit ac stillaticia vocatur. sepo- nuntur autem ad id fere vitia resinae cortexque. alia temperies ad crapulam : namque flos crudus resinae cum multa astula tenui brevique avulsus con- ciditur ad cribrum minuta; dein ferventi aqua 55 donec coquatur ^ perfunditur. huius expressum pin- gue praecipua resina fit atque rara nec nisi paucis in locis subalpinae Italiae, conveniens medicis : resinae albae congium in duobis ^ aquae pluviae cocunt ; aUi utilius putant sine aqua coquere lento igne toto die, utique vase aeris albi, item terebinthinam in sartagine cinere ferventi, hanc ceteris praeferentes. proxima ex lentisco. 1 cocta ? MayhofJ : coacta. 2 Mayhoff : levius. ^ cogatur coll. § 53 lan. ^ in II {nonne binis ?) Mayhoff. 422 BOOK XVI. XXI. 52-xxii. 55 it is used for embalming the bodies of the dead. XXII. The hqiior that follows is thicker, and now produces pitch ; this in its turn is collected in copper cauldrons and thickened by means of vinegar, as making it coagulate, and it has been given the name of Bruttian pitch ; it is only useful for casks and similar receptacles, and diifers from other pitch by its viscosity and also by its reddish colour and because it is greasier than all the rest. It is made from pitch- resin caused to boil by means of red-hot stones in casks made of strong oak, or, if casks are not available, by pihng up a heap of billets, as in the process of making charcoal. It is this pitch which is used for seasoning wine after being beaten up into a powder hke flour, when it has a rather black colour. The same resin, if rather gently boiled with water and strained ofF, becomes viscous and turns a reddish colour ; this is caUed ' distilled pitch.' For making this the inferior parts of the resin and the bark of the tree are usually set aside. Another mixing process produced * in- toxication resin ' : raw flower of resin is picked ofF the tree with a quantity of thin, short chips of the wood, and broken up small in a sieve, and then steeped in water heated to boihng. The grease of this that is extracted makes the best quahty of resin, and it is rarely obtainable, and only in a few districts of Italy near the Alps. It is suitable for medical use : the doctors boil f of a gallon of white resin in IJ gallons of rain-water — though others think it pays better to boil it without water over a slow fire for a whole day, and to employ a vessel of white copper, or to boil resin from the turpentine-tree in a flat pan on hot ashes, as they prefer this to all the other kinds. The resin of the mastich is rated next. 423 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 56 XXIII. Non omittendum apud eosdem zopissam vocari derasam navibus maritimis picem cum cera, nihil non experiente vita, multoque efficaciorem ad omnia quil)us pices resinaeque prosunt, videlicct adiecto salis callo. 57 Aperitur picea e parte solari, non plaga sed volnere ablati corticis, cum plurimum bipedali hiatu, ut a terra cubito cum minimum absit. nec corpori ipsi parcitur ut in ceteris, quoniam astula in fructu est ; verum haec proxima laudatur, altior amaritudinem adfert. postea umor omnis e tota confluit in ulcus, 58 item in taeda. cum id manare desiit, simiU modo ex alia parte aperitur ac deinde alia. postea tota arbor succiditur et medulla eius uritur. sic et in Syria terebintho detrahunt cortices, ibi quidem et e ramis ac radicibus, cum resina damnetur ex his partibus. in Macedonia laricem masculam totam ^ 59 urunt, feminae radices tantum. Theopompus scripsit in Apolloniatarum agro picem fossilem non deteriorem Macedonica inveniri. pix optima ubique ex apricis ' totam ndd. Rackham. 424 BOOK XVI. xxiii. 56 59 XXIII. \Ve must not omit to statc that with the UseofpUrh Greeks also the name of ' Hve pitch ' is given to ofThips. " pitch which has been scraped off the bottom of sea- going ships and mixed with wax — as hfe leaves nothing untried — and which is much more efhcacious for all the purposes for whicli the pitches and resins are serviceable, this being because of the additional hardness of the sea salt. An opcning is made in a pitch-tree on the side Wai/sof towards the sun, not by means of an incision but by ?*"*"^p*'<^ a wound made by removing the bark, making an aperture at most two feet long, so as to be at least eighteen inches from the ground. Also the body of the tree itself is not spared, as in other cases, because the chips of wood are valuable ; but the chips from nearest the surface are most esteemcd, those from deeper in giving the resin a bitter flavour. Afterwards all the moisture from the whole tree flows together into the wound ; and so also in the case of the torch-tree. When the Hquid stops flowing, an opening is made in a similar manner out of another part of the tree and then another. After- wards the whole tree is felled and the pith of the timber is burnt. In the same way in Syria also they strip the bark off the turpentine-tree, there indeed stripping it from the branches and roots as well, although the resin from these parts is not valued highly. In Macedonia they bum the whole of the male larch but only the roots of the female tree. Theopompus wrote that in the territory of the Apolloniates a mineral pitch is found that is not inferior to that of Macedonia. The best pitch is everywhere obtained from trees growing in sunny places with a north-east aspect, whereas that from 425 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY aqiiilonis situ, ex opacis horridior virusque praeferens, frigida hieme deterior ac minus copiosa et decolor. 60 qiiidam arbitrantur in montuosis copia praestantiorem ac colore et dulciorem fieri, odorem quoque gratiorem, dum resina sit, decoctam autem minus picis reddere, quoniam in serum ^ abeat, tenuioresque esse ipsas arbores quam in planis, sed has et illas serenitate steriliores. fructum quaedam proxmno anno ab incisu largiuntur, aliae secundo, quaedam tertio. expletur autem plnga resina, non cortice nec cica- trice, quae in hac arbore non coit. 61 Inter haec genera propriam quidam fecere sap- pinmn, quoniam ex cognatione harum seritur quahs dicta est in nucleis ; eiusdemque arboris imas partes taedas vocant, cum sit illa arbor nil aliud quam picea feritatis paulum mitigatae satu, sappinus autem materies caesurae genere fiat, sicuti docebimus. 62 XXIV. Materiae enim causa rehquas arbores natura genuit copiosissimamque fraxinum. procera haec ac teres, pinnata et ipsa foUo, multumque Homeri prae- conio et AchilUs hasta nobiUtata. materies est ad ^ V.L ferum. //. XX. 277 U-qXids . . . fieXlr}. 426 BOOK XVI. XXIII. 59-xxiv. 62 shady places has a rougher appearance, and presents an offensive odour ; and pitch in a cold winter is inferior in quahty and less plentiful in quantity, and of a bad colour. Some people think that the hquid obtained in mountain regions is superior in quantity and colour and sweeter, and also has a more agreeable smell, so long as it remains in the state of resin, but that when boiled down it yields less pitch, because it goes off into a watery residue, and that the trees themselves are thinner than those in the plains, but that both the one and the other kinds are less productive in dry weather. Some trees yield a hberal supply in the year after they are cut, whereas others do so a year later and some two years later. The wound fills up with resin, not with bark or by a scab, as in this tree an incision in the bark does not join up. Among these classes of trees some people have made a special variety of the sappinus fir, because under the name of this group of trees is grown the kind which we described among the nut-bearing xv. 36. kinds ; and the lowest parts of the same tree are called pine-torches, although the tree in question is really only a pitch-pine with its wild character a httle modified by cultivation, whereas the sappinus is a timber produced by the mode of feUing used, as we shall explain. § 196. XXIV. For it is for the sake of their timber that Theash: Nature has created the rest of the trees, and the El/S most productive of them all, the ash. This is a'^^^"- lofty, shapely tree, itself also having feathery foh- age, and has been rendered extremely famous by the advertisement given it by Homer*^ as supplying the spear of Achilles. The wood of the ash is useful 427 PLINY; NATURAL HISTORY plurima utilis. ea quidem quae fit in Ida Troadis in tantum cedro similis ut ementes fallat cortice ablato. 63 Graeci duo genera eius fecere : longam enodem, alteram brevem diu*iorem fuscioremque, laureis foliis. bumeliam vocant in Macedonia amplissimam lentissi- mamque. alii situ divisere, campestrem enim esse 64 crispam, montanam spissam. folia earum iumentis mortifera, ceteris ruminantium innocua Graeci pro- didere ; in Italia nec iumentis nocent. contra serpentes vero suco expresso ad potum et imposita ulceri opifera ut ^ nihil aeque reperiuntur ; tantaque est vis ut ne matutinas quidem occidentesve umbras, cum sunt longissimae, serpens arboris eius adtingat, adeo ipsam procul fugiat. experti prodimus, si fronde ea circimicludantur ^ ignis et^ serpens, in ignes potius quara in fraxinum fugere serpentem. mira naturae benignitas prius quam hae prodeant florere fraxinum nec ante conditas foHa demittere. 65 XXV. In tiha mas et femina differunt omni modo. namque et materies maris dura rufiorque ac nodosa et odoratior, cortex quoque crassior ac detractus in- ' Mayhojf: ac. ^ jMayh-off: circuracludatur. ^ -datur et igni Detlefsen. 428 BOOK XVI. XXIV. ^^-xx-v. 65 for a great many purposes, Tlie kind grown on Ida in the Troad so closely resembles cedar-wood that when the bark has been removed it deceives buyers. The Greeks have distinguished two kinds of ash-tree, a tall one without knots and the other a short tree with harder and darker wood and foUage hke that of the bay-tree. In Macedonia there is a very large ash making very flexible timber, which has the Greek name of * ox-ash.' Other people have distinguished the ash-tree by locaUty, as they say that the ash of the plains has a crinkly grain and the mountain ash is close-grained. Greek writers have stated that the leaves of the ash are poisonous to beasts of burden, though doing no harm to all the other kinds of ruminants ; but in Italy they are harmless to beasts of burden also. Indeed, they are found to be serviceable as an exccptionally effective antidote for snake-bites, if the juice is squeezed out to make a potion and the leaves are apphed to the wound as a poultice ; and they are so potent that a snake wiU not come in contact with the shadow of the tree even in the morning or at sunset when it is at its longest, so wide a berth does it give to the tree itself. We can state from actual experi- ment tliat if a ring of ash-leaves is put round a fire and a snake, the snake wiU rather escape into the fire than into the ash-leaves. By a marveUous pro- vision of Nature's kindness the ash flowers before the snakes conie out and does not shed its leaves before they have gone into hibernation. XXV. In the Ume-tree the male and the female Theiime. are entirely different. Not only is the wood of the male Ume hard and reddish and knotted and more scented, but also the bark is thicker, and when 429 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY flexibilis ; nec semen fert aut florcm ut femina, quae crassior arbore, materie candida praecellensque est. mirum in hac arbore fructum a nullo animalium adtingi, foliorum corticisque sucum esse dulcem. inter corticem ac lignum tenues tunicae sunt ^ multiplici membrana, e quibus vincula tiliae vocantur tenuissimumque eorum ^ philyrae, coronarum lem- niscis celebres antiquorum honore. materies tere- dinem non sentit, proceritate perquam modica, verum utiUs. 66 XXVI. Acer eiusdem fere ampHtudinis, operum elegantia ac subtiUtate citro secundum. plura eius genera: album, quod praecipui candoris, vocatur Gallicum in transpadana Italia transque Alpes nascens ; alterum genus crispo macularum discursu, qui ciun excellentior fuit, a simiUtudine caudae pavonum nomen accepit, in Histria Raetiaque prae- cipuum ; e viUore genere crassivenium vocatur. 67 Graeci situ discernunt, campestre enim candidum esse nec crispum — quod gUnon vocant — montanum vero crispius duriusque, etiamnunc e mascula crispius ad lautiora opera, tertium genus zygian rubentem, fissiU Ugno, cortice Uvido,^ scabro. hoc 1 Detlefsen : tunicas. 2 Mayhoff : tenuissimum quorum. ^ Mayhoff : livido de (1. ac Detlefsen). " Used for well-ropes and for binding sheaves. * Acer pavonaceum. 430 BOOK XVI. .XXV. 65 -XXVI. 67 peeled off cannot be bent ; nor does the male trce produce seed or a flower as the feniale does, and the female is thicker in the trunk and its wood is white and of superior quality. A remarkable fact in regard to the lime is that no animal will touch its fruit, whereas the juice of the leaves and bark has a sweet taste. Between the bark and the wood there are thin coats made by a number of layers of skin, made from which are the ropes called Ume-w4thies,<* and the thinnest part of them provided lime- chaplets, famous for the ribbons of wreaths of honour in old times. Lime-wood is worm-proof, and it makes useful timber although the tree is of extremely moderate height. XXVI. The maple, which is of about the same size Themapie: as the lime, is second only to the citrus in its elegance al^triluuon. as a material for cabinet-making and in the finish it allows of. It is of several kinds : the white maple, an exceptionally Hght-coloured wood, is called Gallic maple, and grows in Italy north of the Po, and on the other side of the Alps ; the second kind has blotches running in wavy lines, and in its hner variety has received the name ^ of ' peacock maple ' from its resemblance to a peacock's tail, the finest sorts growing in Istria and Tyrol ; and an inferior variety is called the thick-veined maple. The Greeks distinguish the varieties by locaUty, saying that the maple of the plains is light-coloured and not wavy — this kind they call glinon — but the mountain maple has a rather wavy grain and is harder, the wood of the male tree being still wavier and suitable for making more elegant articles ; while a third kind is the hornbeam, a reddish wood that splits easily, with a rough bark of a pale colour. 431 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY alii generis proprii esse malunt et Latine carpinum appellant. 68 XXVII. Pulcherrimum vero est bruscum, multoque excellentius etiamnmii molluscum ; tuber utrumque arboris eius, bruscum intortius crispum, molluscum simplicius sparsum, et si magnitudinem mensarum caperet, haut dubie praeferretur citro ; nunc intra pugillares lectorumque silicios ^ ^[aut lamnas] ^ raro usu spectatur. e brusco fiunt et mensae, sed ^ 69 nigrescentes. reperitur et in alno tuber, set * tanto deterius quantum ab acere alnus ipsa distat. aceris mares prius florent. etiamnunc in siccis nata ^ prae- feruntur aquaticis, sicut et fraxini. est trans Alpes arbor simillima aceri albo materie quae vocatur staphylodendron : fert siliquas et in iis nucleos sa- pore nucis abellanae. 70 XXVIII, In primis vero materies honorata buxo est raro crispanti nec nisi radice, de cetero levi, cuius materia est lentitie quadam ^ et duritie ac pallore commendabiUs, ipsa vero arbor et ' topiario opere. tria eius genera : GaUicum, quod in metas emittitur amphtudinemque proceriorem ; oleastrmii in omni usu damnatum gravem praefert odorem ; tertium genus nostras vocant e silvestri, ut credo, mitigatum satu, ^ Mendam Rackham : v.ll. sublicios, solicios (solidos Salma- sius). ^ Gloss. secl. RackJiam. 3 sed add. ? Mayhoff. * lan : tubere aut tuber. ^ Rackham : natae. ^ levi . . . quadam Detlejsen : lenis quies materiae silentio quodam. ■^ Mayhoff : in ipsa vero arbore. " The text is doubtful. If lectorum is genitive plural of lector, perhaps readers' xeading-stands and book-rests are described. 432 BOOK XVI. XXVI. 67-xxviii. 70 Othcrs preftr to class this as belonging to a special kind of tree, and give it the Latin name of carpinus. XXVII. But a very beautiful feature of the maple is the growth on it called bruscum, and yet much more remarkable the molluscum, both knots, the former veined in a twistier pattern, while the latter is covered witli simpler markings, and if it were hirge enough for tables to be made of it would undoubtedly be preferred to citrus-wood ; but as it is, except for writing-tablets and veneering on couches," it is seldom seen in use. Bruscum is also used for making tables, though they have a darkish colour. A simihir growth is also found on the alder, but it is as far inferior to the others as the alder itself is to the maple. The male maple flowers before the female. It must be added that maples grown in dry places are preferred to those in marshes, as is also tlie case with ash-trees. North of the Alps grows a tree ^ making timber that closely resembles the white ash ; its Greek name is the cluster-tree, as it bears pods containing kernels, which taste Uke a hazel nut, XXVIII. But a timber rated in the first rank is Theioz. tliat of the box, which is rarely marked with wrinkles and only at the root, the rest of it being smooth ; box-wood is esteemed for a certain toughness and hardness and for its pale colour, while the tree itself is valued in ornamental gardening. There are three kinds : the Gallic box, which is trained to shoot up into conical pillars and attains a rather large height ; the oleaster, which is condemned for all purposes, and which gives out an unpleasant smell ; and a third kind called our native box, a cultivated variety * Tiie wild pistachio. 433 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY diifusius et densitate parietum, virens semper ac 71 tonsile. buxus Pyrenaeis ac Cytoriis montibus plurima et Berecyntio tractu, crassissima in Corsica, flore^ spernendo, quae causa amaritudinis mellis ; semen cunctis animantibus invisum. nec in Olympo Macedoniae gracilior, sed brevis. amat frigida, aspera;2 in igni quoque duritia quae ferro, nec flamma nec carbone utili. 72 XXIX. Inter has atque frugiferas materie vi- tiumque amicitia accipitur ulmus. Graeci duo genera eius novere : montanam ^ quae sit amplior, campestrem quae fruticosa. Italia Atinias vocat excelsissimas (et ex is siccaneas praefert quae non sint riguae), alterum genus Gallicas, tertium nostrates, densiore folio et ab eodem pediculo numerosiore, quartum silvestre. Atiniae non ferunt samaram — ita vocatur ulmi semen — omnesque radicum plantis proveniunt, reliquae et* semine. 73 XXX. Nunc celeberrimis arborum dictis quaedam in universum de cunctis indicanda sunt. montes amant cedrus, larix, taeda et ceterae e quibus resina gignitur, item aquifolia, buxus, ilex, iuniperus, te- 1 Warmlngtnn : flore non. 2 aspera ? Mayhoff : aprlca. ^ AJayhoff: montuosam. * et add. Rackham, " Tho elm ranges with the timber trees because it supplies timber and with the fruit-trees because vines are grown on it as a trellis. ^' In habit, not in size. ' The meaning is suckers growing from the roots of a tree, which are detached and planted to grow into another tree. 434 BOOK X\'I. .wviii. 70 XXX. 73 as I believe of the \\i\d hox, which spreads more than the others and fornis a thick hedge ; it is an evergreen, and will stand ch})ping, The box abounds in the Pyrenees and the Kidros mountains and in the Berecyntus district, and it grows thickest in Corsica, where it bears an objectionable blossom, which causes the bitter taste in Corsican honey ; its seed arouses the aversion of all Hving creatures. The box on Mount Olympus in Macedonia makes as thick a growth as the Corsican, but it is of a low height. Box loves cold and rugged places ; also in a fire it is as hard as iron, and is of no use for fuel or charcoal. XXIX. Among these and the fruit-bearing trees Theeim. a place is given to the ehn, because of its timber and the friendship betw^een it and the vine.° The Greeks are acquainted with two kinds of elm : the mountain elm which makes the larger growth, and the elm of the plains which grows hke a shrub.^ Italy gives the name of Atinian elm to a very lofty kind (and among these values highest the dry variety, w^hich will not grow in damp places) ; a second kind it calls the GalUc elm, a third, which has thicker fohage and more leaves growing from the same stalk, the Itahan ehn, and a fourth, the wild elm. The Atinian elm does not bear samara — that is the name for elm seed — and all the elms are grown from shoots of the roots,*^ but the other kinds also from seed. XXX. The most notable trees having now been ^^JJ^^ mentioned, some general facts must be pointed out tree$, concerning all trees. The cedar, the larch, the torch- pine and the rest of the trees that produce resin love mountains, and so also do the holly, box, hohn- oak, juniper, turpentine-tree, poplar, mountain ash 435 Distrtbution varioua PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY rebinthus, populus, ornus, carpinus ; est in Appen- nino et frutex qui vocatur cotinus, ad linamenta 74 modo conchylii colore insignis. montes et valles diligunt ^ abies, robur, castaneae, tilia, ilex, cornus. aquosis montibus gaudent acer, fraxinus, sorbus, tilia, cerasus. non temere in montibus visae sunt prunus, punicae, oleastri, iuglans, mori, sabuci ; descendunt et in plana cornus, corylus, quercus, ornus, acer, fraxinus, fagus, carpinus ; subeunt et in montuosa ulmus, malus, pirus, laurus, myrtus, sanguinei frutices ilex tinguendisque vestibus nascentis geni- stae. gaudet frigidis sorbus, sed magis etiam betulla. 75 Gallica haec arbor mirabili candore atque tenuitate, terribilis magistratuum virgis, eadem circulis flexilis, item corbimn costis ; bitumen ex ea Galli excoquunt. in eosdem situs comitantur et spina, nuptiarum faci- bus auspicatissima, quoniam inde fecerint pastores qui rapuerunt Sabinas, ut auctor est Masurius ; nunc facibus carpinus, corylus familiarissimae. 76 XXXI. Aquas odere cupressi, iuglandes, castaneae, laburnum. Alpina et haec arbor, nec vulgo nota, dura ac candida materie, cuius florem cubitalem longitudine apes non adtingunt. odit et quae appellatur lovis barba, in opere topiario tonsilis et in rotunditatem ^ Rac.kham : diligit. '^ Ehus cotiniis. BOOK XVI. XXX. 73-xxxi. 76 and hornbeam ; on the Apennines there is also a shrub called the cotinus," famous for supplying a dye for hnen cloth that resembles purple. The fir, hard-oak, chestnuts, hme, holm-oak and cornel Hke mountains and valleys. The maple, ash, service-tree, Ume and cherry love mountains watered by springs. The plum, pomegranate, wikl ohve, walnut, mulberry and elder-trees are not generally found on mountains ; and the cornel cheiTy, hazcl, oak, mountain ash, maple, ash, beech, hornbeam come down from the mountains to level ground also, while the elm, apple, pear, bay, myrtle, red comel, holm-oak and the broom, designed by Nature for dyeing cloth, spread up from the plains to moun- tain regions as well. The service-tree dehghts in cold places, but even more the birch. The latter is a GaUic tree, of a remarkable white colour and slenderness, a cause of terror as supplying the niagistrates' rods of office ; it is also easily bent to make hoops and Ukewise the ribs of smaU baskets, and the Gauls extract from it bitumen by boiUng. These trees are accompanied into the same regions by the may also, the most auspicious tree for supplying wedding torches, because according to the account of Masurius it was used for that purpose by the shepherds who carried off the Sabine women ; but at the present time the hornbeam and the hazel are most usuaUy employed for torches. XXXI. The cypress, walnut, chestnut and labur- Treesthat num disUke water. The last is another Alpine tree, MS? Rackham. " Brookwillow. ^ The whortleberry does not in fact grow in damp places; but identification is uncertain. Nor does the privet confine itself to damp ground. «^ Greek for ' rose-tree.' 438 BOOK XVI. XXXI. 76-xxxiii. 80 round bushy shape, and having a silvery leaf, also disHkes -svater. Willows, alders, poplars, the siler" and the privet,the last extremely useful for making talHes, will only grow in places where there is water, and the same is the case M'ith the whortleberry,^ grown in bird-snares in Italy, but in Gaul also to supply purple dye for slaves' clothes. All the trees that are common to the mountains and the plains grow larger and fmer to look at when in flat country, but those on the mountains grow better fruit and make timber ^\ath a wavier grain, excepting the apples and pears. XXXII. Beside this, some trees shed their leaves wudand but others are evergreen — although before this differ- '^esT'^ ence another one has to be mentioned first : some trees are entirely wild, but some being more civiUzed — as these are the accepted names by which they are distinguished : the latter, kindly trees which render more humane aid by their fruit or some other property and by affording shade, may not im- properly be called ' civiUzed.' XXXIII. The trees of the latter class that do not Evergreen shed their leaves are the ohve, laurel, palm, mjTtle, ""^"* cypress, the pines, ivy, oleander and savin — though the last may be called a herbaceous plant. The oleander, as is shown by its name,<^ comes from the Greeks (another Greek name given it being nerion, and another * rose-laurel ') ; it is an evergreen that resembles a rose-tree, and throws out shoots from the stems ; it is poisonous for cattle and for goats and sheep, but for man it serves as an antidote against the poisons of snakes. Trees of the forest class that do not shed their leaves are the fir, larch, wild pine, juniper, cedar, 439 PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY aquifolio, suberi, taxo, tamarici. inter utraque genera sunt andrachle in Graecia et ubique unedo: reliqua enim folia decidunt iis praeterquam in cacu- minibus. non decidunt autem et in fruticum genere 81 cedro ^ cuidam, rubo, calamo. in Thurino agro, ubi Sybaris fuit, ex ipsa urbe prospiciebatur quercus una numquara foha demittens nec ante mediam aestatem germinans ; idque mirum est Graecis auctoribus pro- ditum apud nos postea sileri. nam locorum tanta vis est ut circa Memphim Aegj^ti et in Elephantine Thebaidis nulli arborum decidant, ne vitibus quidem.^ 82 XXXIV. Ceterae omnes extra praedictas, etenim enumerare longum est, foha deperdunt; observa- tumque non arescere nisi tenuia et lata et moUia, quae vero non decidant callo crassa et angusta esse. falsa definitio est non decidere iis quarum pinguior sucus sit ; quis enim potest in ihce intellegere ? decidere Timaeus mathematicus sole scorpionem transeunte sideris vi et quodam veneno aeris putat ; cur ergo non eadem causa adversum omnes polleat 83 iure miremur. cadunt plurimis autumno, quaedam amittunt tardius atque in hiemes prorogant moras ; ^ cedro coll. Theophrasto add. Mayhojf. 440 BOOK XVI. XXXIII. 80-xxxiv. 83 tuqjentine, box, holrn-oak, holly, cork, yew, tamarisk. Between the evergreen and the deciduous classes are the andrachle growing in Greece and the arbutus in all countries, for they shed all their leaves except those on the top of the tree. In the class of shrubs Exceptionai also a kind of cedar, the bramble and the reed do not norJ"'^ shed their leaves. In the territory of Thurii, where o sides, with a series of shoots thrown out above the knots alternately, so that one forms on the right side and then another at the next joint above on the left, turn and turn about. From these sometimes grow branches, which are themselves slender canes. LXVI. There are,however,several varietiesofreed. ^,^^ One is rather compact and has joints closer together, laneties o/ with short spaces between them, while another has them farther apart with larger spaces between 493 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY teniiiorque et ipsa. calamiis vero alius totus con- cavus, quem vocant syringian, utilissimus fistulis, quoniam nihil est ei cartilaginis atque carnis. Orcho- menio et nodi continuo foramine pervii, quem 165 auleticon vocant ; hic tibiis utilior, fistulis ille. est aHus crassiore Ugno et tenui foramine ; hunc totum fungosa replet meduUa. alius brevior, alius procerior, exilior crassiorque. fruticosissimus qui vocatur do- nax, non nisi in aquaticis natus, quoniam et haec differentia est, multum praelata harundine quae in 166 siccis proveniat. suum genus sagittario calamo, ut diximus, sed Cretico, longissimis internodiis, obse- quiosum ^ quo Ubeat flecti calefacto. differentias faciunt et foUa non multitudine {tantum et longi- tudine) ^ verum et colore. varia Laconicis et ab ima parte densiora, quales in totum circa stagna gigni putant dissimiles amnicis, longisque vestiri foUis 167 spatiosius a nodo scandente complexu. est et obUqua harundo, non in excelsitatem nascens sed iuxta terram fruticis modo se spargens, suavissima in teneritate animaUbus : vocatur a quibusdam eletia.^ est et in ItaUa palustris ex cortice tantum sub ipsa ^ Backham : obsequiumque. 2 Mayhoff e Theophr.: (tantum) Pintianus, non (modo) multitudine lan. * Detlefsen : iletia Urlichs : elegia. 494 BOOK XVI. Lxvi. 164-167 them, and is also thinner in itsclf. But another kind of cane is hoUow for its whole length ; its Greek name means the flute-reed, and it is very useful for making flutes because it contains no pith and no fleshy substance. The Orchomenus cane has a passage right through even the knots, and is called in Greek the pipe-reed ; this is more suitable for flageolets, as the preceding kind is for flutes. There is another reed the wood of which is thicker and the passage narrow ; this reed is entirely filled with spongy pith. Reeds are of various lengths and thickness. The one called the donax throws out most shoots ; it only grows in watery places — inasmuch as this also constitutes a difference, a reed growing in dry places being much preferred. The reed used as an arrow is a special kind, as we have said, but the Cretan variety has the longest § I6I. intervals between the knots, and when heated allows itself to be bent in any direction you please. Also differences are made by the leaves, which vary not only in number and length but also in colour. The Laconian reed has spotted leaves, and throws out a greater number at the bottom of the stalk, as is thought to be the case with reeds in general that grow round marshy pools, which are different from river reeds, being draped with long leaves cUmbing upward and embracing the stem for a considerable distance above the knot. There is also a slanting reed which does not shoot upward to any height but spreads itself out close to the ground Uke a shrub ; it is very attractive to animals when young and tender, and is called by some people the eletia. Also in Italy there is a growth, found in marsh-reeds, only coming out of the outer skin just below the tuft, named 495 PLINY : NATURAL HLSTORY coma nascens, adarca nomine,^ utilissima dentibus, quoniam vis eadem est quae sinapi. 168 De Orchomenii lacus harundinetis accuratius dici cogit admiratio antiqua. characian vocabant cras- siorem firmioremque, plocimon vero subtiHorem, hanc in insulis fluitantibus natam, illam in ripis 169 exspatiantis lacus. tertia est harundo tibiaUs calami, quem auleticon dicebant. nono hic anno nasce- batur; nam et lacus incremento hoc temporis spa- tium 2 servabat, prodigiosus si quando amplitudinem biennio extendisset, quod notatum apud Chaeroniam infausto Atheniensium proeho. est prope Lebadia** ^ vocatur influente Cephiso. cum igitur anno per- mansit inundatio, proficiunt in aucupatoriam quoque amphtudinem : vocabantur zeugitae ; contra bom- byciae maturius reciproca,*graciles, feminarum latiore foho atque candidiore, modica lanugine aut omnino 170 nulla spadonum nomine insignis. hinc erant arma- menta ad inclutos cantus, non silendo et rehquo curae miraculo, ut venia sit argento iam potius cani. caed' solebant tempestivae usque ad Antigeniden tibicinem, cum adhuc simphci musica uterentur, sub Arcturo. ^ Urlichs : nascens adarca nomine ante palustris. 2 incremento . . . spatium ? MayhoJJ : incrementum . , , spatio. ^ Detlejsen : et saepe lebaida. ^ reciproca ? Mayhojf : reciproco. " At Chaeronea in Boeotia the Athenians and Boeotians were defeated by Philip of Macedon's invading army, 338 b.c. * The Latin text is corrupt. 496 BOOK XVI. Lxvi. 167-170 adarca, whicli is vcry bencficial for tlie teeth, as it has the same pungency as mustard. The admiration exprcssed in old days for the reed- R^^<^' 0/ beds of the Lake of Orchomenus compels me to speak uied esped- about them in greater detail. The Greek name for a S/'^ ratlier tliick, stronger kind of reed used to be ' fence- reed,' and for a more slendcr variety ' plaiting reed,' the lattcr growing in ishinds floating on the water and tlie former on the banks overflowcd by the lake. The third is the flageolet rced — ' pipe-reed ' used to be the Greek name for it. This took eight years to grow, as the lake also regularly took that space of time in rising, it being thought to be a bad omen if ever it continued at its full height two years longer, a thing that was marked by the fatal Athenian i)attie at Chaeronea.'^ Not far otf is Lebadea . . . is called . . . the Cephisus flowing into it.^ When therefore the flooding has continued for a ycar, the reeds grow even to a size suitable for purposes of fowling: these used to be called in Greek ' yoke-reeds ' ; on the other hand those growing when the flood goes down sooner were called ' silky reeds,' witli a thin stalk, those with a broader and whiter leaf being dis- tinguished by the name of ' female reeds,' and those with only a small amount of down or none at all being called ' eunuchs.' These supphed the instruments for glorious music, though mention must also not be omitted of the further remarkable trouble required to grow them, so that excuse may be made for the present-day preference for musical instruments of silver. Down to the time of the flautist Anti- genides, when a simple style of music was still practised, the rceds used to be regarded as ready for cutting after the rising of Arcturus. WTien thus 497 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY sic praej^aratae aliquot post annos utiles esse 171 incipiebant, tunc quoque multa domandae exer- citatione et canerc tibiae ipsae edocendae, com- primentibus se lingulis, quod erat illis theatrorum moribus utilius. postquam varietas accessit et cantus quoque luxuria, caedi ante solstitia coeptae et fieri utiles in trimatu, apertioribus earum lingulis 172 ad flectendos sonos, quae inde sunt et hodie. sed tum ex sua quamque tantum harundine congruere persuasum erat, et eam quae radicem antecesserat laevae tibiae convenire, quae cacumen dexterae, inmensum quantum praelatis quas ipse Cephisus abluisset. nunc sacrificae Tuscorum e buxo, ludicrae vero e loto ossibusque asininis et argento fiunt. aucupatoria harundo e ^ Panhormo laudatissima, piscatoria Abaritana ex Africa. 173 LXVII. Harundinis Italiae usus advineas maxime. Cato seri eam iubet in miiidis agris bipalio subacto prius solo, ocuHs dispositis intervallo ternorum pedum, simul et corrudae,^ unde asparagi fiant, con- cordare amicitiam, saUcis vero circa ; qua nuUa aquaticarum utilior, Hcet popuH vitibus placeant et Caecuba educent, licet alni saepibus muniant contra- ^ Mayhoff : a. * Mayhoff '. corrudam. " A treble flute was held in the right hand and a bass flute in the left, both being played at once. * Oculi the ' eyes ' or knobs on the roots, and so the cuttings used for pianting, c/. XVII. 144. 49S BOOK XVI. Lwi. 170-LXV11. 173 prepared the reeds began to be fit for iise a few years latcr, thougli even then the actual flutes needed maturing with a great deal of practice, and educating to sing of themselves, with the tongues pressing themselves down, which was more serviceable for the theatrical fashions then prevaiUng. But after variety came into fashion, and luxury even in music, the reeds began to be cut before midsummer and made ready for use in three years, their tongues being wider open to modulate the sounds, and these continue to the present day. But at that time it was firmly beUeved that only a tongue cut from the same reed as the pipe in each case would do, and that one taken from just above the root was suitable for a left-hand flute and one from just below the top for a right-hand ^ flute ; and reeds that had been washed by the waters of Cephisus itself were rated as im- measurably superior. At the present time the flutes used by the Tuscans in rehgious ritual are made of box-wood, but those for theatrical performances are made of lotus and asses' bones and silver. The reeds most approved for fowhng come from Palermo, and those to make fishing-rods are from Abarsa in Africa. LXVII. In Italy the reed is chiefly employed to iiaiianreeds serve as a prop for vines. Cato recommends planting f^'' p^'*?^- it in damp lands, after first working the soil with a «.«.vi.3,4. double mattock, a space a yard wide being left between the shoots '^ ; and he says that at the same time also wild asparagus, from which garden asparagus is produced, associates in friendship with it, and so does willow when planted round it — the willow being the most useful of the water-plants, although vines like poplars and the Caecuban vines are trained 499 PLINY: NATUllAL HISTORY que erumpcntium amnium impetus riparum modo ^ in tutela ruris excubent in aqua satae densius, caesae- que 2 innumero herede prosint. 174 LXVIII. Salicisutilitatum^pluragenera. namque et in proceritatem magnam emittunt iugis vinearum perticas pariterque * balteo corticis vincula, et aliae virgas sequaces ad vincturas lentitiae, aliae ^ prae- tenues viminibus texendis spectabili subtilitate, rursus aliae firmiores corbibus ac plurimae agrico- larum supellectili, candidiores ablato cortice levique tractatu amplioribus ^ vasis quam ' ut e corio fiant eadem,® atque etiam supinarum in delicias cathe- 175 drarum aptissimae. caedua salici fertilitas densi- orque tonsura ex brevi pugno verius quam ramo, non, ut remur, in novissimis curanda arbore : nuUius quippe tutior reditus est minorisve inpendi aut tempestatium securior. 176 LXIX. Tertium locum ei in aestimatione ruris Cato adtribuitprioremque quam oHvetis quamque frumento aut pratis — nec quia desint aha vincula, siquidem et genistae et populi et uhiii et sanguinei frutices et betullae et harundo fissa et harundinum foha, ut in Liguria, et vitis ipsa recisisque aculeis rubi ^ Warmington: muro. 2 Urlichs : caesasque densiua. ^ utilitatum ? Mayhoff {ijise etiam) : statim. * Detlefsen: pariuntque. ^ Edd. : alias. ^ amplioribus ? Mayhoff {ipse maioribus) : melioribus atU mollioribus. ■^ Edd. quae. •* Mayhoff: eodem. 500 BOOK XVI. Lxvii. 173-LXIX. 176 up on them, and althoiif^li alders in hedges give protection and, if planted rather close together in water, stand sentry like banks to guard the country against the assaults of the rivers when they overflow, and when cut down they are useful because of the innumerable suckers that they produce as successors. LXVIII. The uses made of willows are of several Wiii/>w8 kinds. They send out rods of great length used for aZiwiih^^' vine-trellises and at the same time provide strips of bark for withes, and some grow shoots of a yielding flexibility useful for tying, others extremely thin ones suitable for weaving into basketwork of an admirably fine texture, and other stronger ones for plaiting baskets and a great many agricultural utensils, while the whiter ones when the bark has been removed and they have been worked smooth do to make bottles more capacious than any that can be made of leather, and also are extremely suitable for luxurious easy chairs. The willow sprouts again after being lopped, and from the short stump, which is more Hke a fist than a branch, makes a thicker growth for cutting, the tree being in our opinion not one of the last to choose for cultivation, inasmuch as none yields a safer return or involves less outlay, and none is more indiiferent to weather. LXIX. Cato'' attributes to the willow the thirdplace Varietiesof in the estimation of the country-side, and puts it before '^'"^- the cultivation of the oHve and before corn or meadow- land — and this is not because other kinds of withes are lacking, inasmuch as the broom, the poplar, the elm, the blood-red cornel, the birch, the reed when spHt and the leaves of the reed, as in Liguria, and the vine itself and braml)les after the thorns have been - R.R. 1. 7. 501 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY alligant et intorta corylus — mirumque contuso ligno alicui maiores ad vincula esse vires ; salici tamen 177 praecipua dos. finditur Graeca rubens, candidior Amerina sed paulo fragilior ideo solido ligat nexu. in Asia tria genera observant : nigram utiliorem viminibus, candidam agricolarum usibus, tertiam quae brevissima est helicem vocant. apud nos quoque multi totidem generibus nomina inponunt : unam ^ viminalem vocant eandemque purpuream, alteram nitellinam a colore, quae est ^ tenuior, tertiam Gallicam quae tenuissima. 178 LXX. Nec in fruticum nec in veprium cauliumve neque in herbarum aut alio ullo quam suo genere numercntur iure scirpi fragiles palustresque, e quibus tegulum tegetesque et qui ^ detracto cortice candelac luminibus et funeribus serviunt. firmior quibusdam in locis eorum rigor ; namque iis vehficant non in Pado tantum nautici verum et in mari piscator Africus praepostero more velum intra malos suspendens, et mapaha sua Mauri tegunt, proximeque aestimanti hoc videantur esse quod in interiore parte mundi papyrum. 179 LXXI. Sui*sed frutectosi generissunt inter aquati- cas et rubi, atque sabuci fungosi generis, aliter tamen * unam add. Rackham. * est? Maykoff: sit. ' Backham : et tegulum tegetesque e quibus (e quibus [et] tegulum tegetesque Mayhoff). * Sillig : sui snpra ciim papyrum edd. * V 2., Egypt. * Bramblesandeldersarenotwater-plants. 502 BOOK XVI. Lxix. 176-LXX1. 179 cut off serve as ties, and also the hazel when twisted — and it is surprising that any wood should make stronger ties after being bruised by twisting; nevertheless it is the willow that has the properties specially required for this purpose. The Greek red willow is spht, whilc the Amerian willow, which has a Hghter colour but is a Httlc more fragile, is conse- quently used as a tie without having been split. Three kinds are known in Asia: the black willow, which is more useful for ties, the white willow for agricultural pui*poses, and a third kind, which is the shortest, called the helix. With us also many people distinguish the same number of varieties by name ; they call one ' plaiting willow ' and also * purple willow,' another, which is thinner, ' dormouse willow ' from its colour, and a third,the thinnest, ' Gallic willow.' LXX. The rush, having a fragile stalk and being a Ruskes. marsh plant, is not rightly to be reckoned in the class of bushes or of brambles or plants with stalks, nor yet among herbaceous plants, or in any other class except its own ; it is used for making thatch and mats, and stripped of its outer coat serves for candles and funeral torches. In some places rushes are stronger and stiffer, for they are used to carry sails not only by boatmen on the Po but also at sea by the African fisherman, who hangs his sail in a preposterous fashion, between masts, and the Moors use them for roofing their cabins ; and if one looks closely into the matter, rushes may appear to occupy the place held by the papyrus in the inner region of the world.** LXXI. Among water-plants, in a class of their own Brambies but of a bushy nature, are also brambles, and so are a"^^^*- elders,* which are of a spongy nature, though in a 503 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY quam ferulae, quippe plus ligni est utique sabuco ; ex qua magis canoram bucinam tubamque credit pastor ibi caesa ubi gallorum cantum frutex illc non exaudiat. 180 rubi mora ferunt et alio genere similitudinem rosac, qui ^ vocatm* cynosbatos. tertium genus Idaeum vocant Graeci a loco, tenerior quam cetera minori- busque spinis et minus aduncis ; flos eius contra lippitudines inlinitur, ex mcllc et igni sacro ; contra stomachi quoque vitia bibitur ex aqua. sabuci acinos habent riigros atque parvos umoris lenti, inficiendo maxime capillo, qui et ipsi aqua d,ecocti manduntur. 181 LXXII. Umor et corpori ^ arborum est, qui sanguis earum intellegi debet, non idem omnibus : ficis lacteus — huic ad caseos figurandos coaguH vis — cerasis cumminosus, ulmis salivosus, lentus ac pinguis, malis, vitibus, piris aquosus. ^dvaciora quibus lentior. atque in totum corpori arborum ut reliquorum animalium cutis, sanguis, caro, nervi, venae, ossa, 182 medullae. pro cute cortex ; mirum, is in moro medicis sucum quaerentibus vere hora diei secunda lapide incussus manat, altius fractus siccus videtur. ]iroximi plerisque adipes ; hi vocantur a colore alburnum, mollis ac pcssima pars ligni, etiam in ^ quae Mayhojf. 2 lilayknjf : cortici. Erysipelas. 504 BOOK XVI. Lxxi. 179-LXX11. 182 different way from the giant fennel, as at all events the elder has more vvood ; a shepherd beheves that a horn or trumpet of elder wood will be louder if the wood was cut in some place where the elder bush is out of hearing of the crowing of cocks. Brambles bear blackberries, and one variety, which is callcd in Greek the dog-bramble, a flower Uke a rose. A third kind the Greeks call the Ida bramble, from the place where it grows, a more slender variety than the others, with smaller and less hooked thorns ; its blossom is used to make an ointment for sore eyes, and also, dipped in honey, for St. Anthony's fire," and also soaked in water it makes a draught to cure stomach troubles. Elder-trees have small black berries with a sticky juice, chiefly used for a hair dye ; these also are boiled in water and eaten. LXXII. There is also a juice in the body of trees, sapin trees. which must be looked upon as their blood. It is not the same in all trees — in figs it is a milky substance, which has the property of curdhng milk so as to produce cheese, in cherries it is gummy, in ehns slimy, sticky and fat, in apples, vines and pears watery. The stickier this sap is, the longer the trees Uve. And in general the bodies of trees, physioio^cai as of other Uving things, have in them skin, blood, 'l^J^^^^^°^ flesh, sinews, veins, bones and marrow. The bark serves for a skin ; it is a remarkable fact as regards the bark on a mulberry that when doctors require its juice they strike it with a stone two hours after sunrise in spring and the juice trickles out, but if a deeper wound is made the bark seems to be dry. Next to the bark most trees have layers of fatty substance, caUed from its white colour albumum ; this is soft and the worst part of the wood, rotting easily VOL. IV. K 5^5 PLINY; NATURAL HISTORY robore facile putrcscens, teredini obnoxia, quare semper amputabitur. subest huic caro, carni ^ ossa, 183 id est materiae optimum. alternant fructus quibus siccius lignum, ut olea, magis quam quibus carnosum, ut cerasus. nec omnibus adipes carnesve largae, uti nec animalium acerrimis ; neutrum habent buxus, cornus, olea, nec medullam minimumque etiam sanguinis, sicuti ossa non habent sorba, carnem sabuci — at 2 plurimam ambae medullam — nec harundines maiore ex parte. 184 LXXIII. In quarundam arborum carnibus pulpae venaeque sunt. discrimen earum facile, venae latiores candidioresque pulpa. fissiUbus insunt ; ideo fit ut aure ad caput trabis quamlibet praelongae admota ictus ab altero capite vel graphii sentiantur penetrante rectis meatibus sono, unde deprehenditur an torta sit 185 materies nodisque concisa. quibus sunt tubera sicut sunt ^ in carne glandia, in iis nec vena nec pulpa, quodam callo carnis in se convoluto ; hoc pretiosissi- mum in citro et acere. cetera mensarum genera fissis arboribus circinantur in pulpam, alioqui fragihs esset vena in orbem arboris caesa. fagis pectines ^ Mayhoff : cui. " Mayhoff: et. ** Edd. : sic sunt. 506 BOOK XVI. Lxxii. 182-LXX111. 185 even in a hard oak and liable to wood-worm, for whicli rcason il \\i\\ always be removed. Lndcr this fat is the llcsh of thc tree and iinder the flesh the bones, that is thc best part of the timber. Those trees which have a drier wood, for instance the oUve, are more Uable to bear fruit only every other year than trees whose wood is of a fleshy nature, Uke the cherry. And not aU trees have a large amount of fat or flesh, any more than the most active among animals ; there is no fat or flesh at aU in the box, the cornel and the oUve, nor any marrow, and only a very smaU quantity even of blood, j ust as the service- tree has no bones and the elder no flesh — though both have a great deal of marrow — nor have reeds for the greater part. LXXIII. The flesh of some trees contains fibres Wood fibres and veins. It is easy to distinguish between them, ""'^ ^^'^*- the veins being broader and whiter than the fibre. Veins are found in wood that is easy to split, and con- sequently if you put your ear to one end of a beam of wood however great its length you can hear even taps made with a graver on the other end, the sound penetrating by passages running straight through the wood, and by this test you can detect whether the timber is twisted and interrupted by knots. In the case of trees in which there are tuberosities resembUng the glands in the flesh of an animal, these contain no vessels or fibres, but a kind of hard knot of flesh rolled up in a baU ; in the citrus and the maple this is the most valuable part. The other kinds of wood employed for making tables are cut into circles by spUtting the trees along the Une of the fibre, as otherwise the vein cut across the round of the tree would be brittle. In beech trees the 507 PLINY; NATURAL HISTORY traversi in pulpa ; apud antiquos inde et vasis honos : M'. Curius iuravit se nihil ex praeda attigisse praeter guttum faginum quo sacrificaret. 186 Lignum in longitudinem fluitat,^ utque quaeque ^ pars propior ^ fuit ab radice, validius sidit. qui- busdam pulpa sine venis mero stamine et tenui constat; haec maxime fissiha. aUa frangi celeriora quam findi, quibus pulpa non est, ut oleae, vites. at e contrario totum e carne corpus fico, tota ossea est * ilex, cornus, robur, cytisus, morus, hebenus, lotos et quae sine medulla esse diximus. ceteris nigricans color, fulva cornus in venabuUs nitet incisuris no- data propter decorem. cedrus et larix et iuniperus 187 rubent. larix femina habet quam Graeci vocant aegida meUeic oloris ; inventum pictorum tabelUs inmortale nuUisque fissile rimis ^ hoc Ugnum : proxi- mum meduUae est ; in abiete lusson Graeci vocant. cedri quoque durissima quae meduUae proxima, ut in corpore ossa, deraso modo Umo. et sabuci interiora mire firma traduntur, quidamque venabula ex ea praeferunt omnibus, constat enim ex cute et ossibus. 1 Pintianus : fluctuatur. 2 Rackham (ut quaeque Mueller) : ut quae aut utque. ^ propior adcl. RackJiam. * est om. Mayhoff : totae osseae sunt ? Rackham. * inventum . . . rimis post hoc lignum . . . voeaut coll. Theophr. tr. Mayhoff. " The clauise ' when made . . . cracks ' ought perhaps to be trausposed below to describe the wood called ' iusson,' in order to conform with Theophrastus. * Aovoaov Theophrastus. ' The alburnum, cf. § 182. •* Sc. in Greece. 508 BOOK XVI. Lxxiii. 185-187 grainings in the fibre run crosswise, and consequently even vessels made of beechwood were highly valued in old days : Manius Curius declared on oath that he had touched nothing of the booty taken in a battle except a flask made of beech-wood, to use in offering sacrifices. A log of timber floats more or less horizontally, Timbn- each part of it sinking deeper the nearer it was to ]^Z7ruded. the root. Some timbers have fibre without veins, consisting of thin filaments merely ; these are the easiest to spHt. Others have no fibre, and break more quickly than they spUt, for instance ohves and vines. But on the other hand in the fig-tree the body consists entirely of flesh, while the holm-oak, cornel, hard oak, cytisus, mulberry, ebony, lotus and the trees that we have stated to be without marrow, § 183. consist entirely of bone. The timber of all of these is of a blackish colour except the cornel, hunting spears made of which are bright yellow when notched with incisions for the purpose of decoration. The cedar, the larch and the juniper are red. The female larch contains wood called in Greek aegis, of the colour of honey ; this wood ^* when made into panels for pictures has been found to last for ever without being spHt by any cracks ; it is the part of the trunk nearest to the pith ; in the fir-tree the Greeks call this 'lusson.'^ The hardest part of the cedar also is the part nearest the pith — as the bones are in the body — provided the shme'' has been scraped ofF. It is reported '^ that the inner part of the elder also is remarkably firm, and some people prefer hunting spears made of it to all others, as it consists entirely of skin and bones. 509 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 188 LXXIV. Caedi tempestivum quae decorticentur, ut teretes ad templa ceteraque usus rotundi, cum germi- nant, alias cortice inextricabili et carie subnascente ei materiaque nigrescente, tigna et quibus auferat^ securis corticem a bruma ad favonium aut, si prae- venire cogamur, arcturi occasu et ante eum fidiculae, novissima ratione solstitio : dies siderum horum reddentur suo loco. vulgo satis putant observare ne qua dedolanda sternatur ante editos suos fructus. 189 robur vere caesum teredinem sentit, bruma autem neque vitiatur neque pandatur, alias obnoxium etiam ut torqueat sese findatque, quod in subere 190 tempestive quoque caeso evenit. infinitum refert et lunaris ratio, nec nisi a xx in xxx caedi volunt. inter omnes vero convenit utilissime in coitu eius sterni, quem diem alii interlunii, alii silentis lunae appellant. sic certe Tiberius Caesar concremato ponte naumachiario larices ad restituendum caedi in 191 Raetia praefinivit. quidam dicunt ut in coitu et sub terra sit luna, quod fieri non potest nisi noctu. ^ Warmington : aufert. " Presumably the structure made for the 'navalis proeli spectaclum ' {Monumentum Ancyranum iv. 43) given by Augustus in 2 b.c. at the dedication of the temple of Mar» Ultor ; for this a basin was dug, probably in the Gardens of Caesar across the Tiber. 510 BOOK XVI. Lxxiv. 188-191 LXXI V. The proper time for felling trees that are to seaion and be stripped of their bark, for instance well-turned trees mH'^'^'' ■^'^ that are to be used for temples and other purposes timber. requiring round pillars, is when they bud — at other times the bark is impossible to detach and decay is setting in under it and the timber is turning black ; but the time for cutting beams and logs to be cleared of their bark by the axe is between midwinter and the period of westerly wind, or if we should be obHged to do it sooner, at the setting of Arcturus and, before that, at the setting of the Lyre, — on the earliest calculation at midsummer: the dates of these constellations will be given in the proper place. It is commonly thought sufficient to xtiii. 27], take care that no tree is felled to be rough-hewn ^^^* before it has born its fruit. The hard oak if cut in spring is Uable to wood-worm ; if cut at midwinter it neither rots nor warps, but otherwise it is even liable to twist and to spht, and this happens in the case of the cork-tree even if felled at the proper time. It is also of enormous importance to take account of the moon, and people recommend that trees should be felled only between the twentieth and thirtieth days of the month. It is universally agreed, however, that the most advantageous time for felhng timber is when the moon is in conjunction with the sun, the date which some call the interlunar day and others the day of the moon's silence. At all events those were the limits fixed in advance by the Emperor Tiberius for felHng larches in Raetia for the re- construction of the deck of the Naval Sham Fight" when it had been burnt down. Some people say that the moon ought to be in conjunction and below the horizon, a thing that can only happen in the night. 5" rUNY: NATURAL HISTORY si competant coitus in novissimum diem brumae, illa fit ^ aeterna materies ; proxime cum supra dictis sideribus. quidam et canis ortum addunt et sic 192 caesas materias in forum Augustum. nec novellae autem ad materiem nec veteres utilissimae. cir- cumcisas quoque in meduUam aliqui non inutiliter relinquunt, ut omnis umor stantibus defluat. mirum apud antiquos primo Punico bello classem Duilli imperatoris ab arbore lx die navigavisse, contra vero Hieronem regem ccxx naves effectas diebus XLV tradit L. Piso ; secundo quoque Punico Scipionis classis XL die a securi navigavit. tantum tempesti- vitas etiam in rapida celeritate pollet. 193 LXXV. Cato hominum summus in omni usu de materiis haec adicit : ' Prelum ex sappino ^ atra potissimum facito. ulmeam, pineam, nuceam, hanc atque aliam materiem omnem cum ecfodies, luna decrescente eximito post meridiem sine vento austro. tum erit tempestiva cimi semen suum maturum erit. cavetoque per rorem trahas aut doles.' idemque 194 mox : ' Nisi intermestri lunaque dimidiata ne tangas materiem; quam effodias aut praecidas abs terra, ^ Dalec. : sit. ^ carpino Cato. " In 260 B.c. the first fleet ever built at Rome, commanded by Cn. Comelius Scipio Asina, was defeated by the Cartha- gmians off Lipara ; the command was transferred to the other consul, Duilius, who fitted the ships with boarding-bridges, and defeated the Carthaginians at Mylae by boarding their vessela. * Hiero, king of Syracuse, in alliance with Carthage, made war against Rome 264 b.c. and was defeated and conchided a peace in the next year. <= R.R. XXXI. 1-2. " Ib. XXXVII. 3-4. 512 BOOK XVI. Lxxiv. 191-LXXV. 194 If conjunctions should coincide with the shortest day of the winter solstice, the timber produced lasts for ever; and the next best is when the conjunction coincides with the constellations mentioned above. Some people add the rising of the Dog-star also, and say that this was how the timber used for the Forum of Augustus was felled. But trees that are neither quite young nor old are the most useful for timber. Another plan not without value is followed by some people, who make a cut round the trees as far as the pith and then leave them standing, so that all the moisture may drain out of them. It is a remarkable fact that in old days in the first Punic War the fleet commanded by DuiUus ° was on the water within 60 days after the timber left the tree, while, according to the account of Lucius Piso, the 220 ships that fought against King Hiero ^ were built in 45 days ; also in the second Punic war Scipio's fleet sailed on the 40th day after the timber had been felled. So effective is prompt action even in the hurry of an emergency. LXXV. Cato, the leading authority on timber in Caioor, all its uses, adds the following advice '^ : ' Make a '^'^^' press of black fir wood for choice. With elm, pine or walnut timber, when you are going to root up these or any other tree, take them up when the moon is waning, in the aftemoon, when there is not a south wind. A tree will be ready for feUing when its seed is ripe. And be careful not to haul a tree or trim it with the axe when there is a dew.' And the same writer later ^ : ' Do not touch timber ex- cept at new moon, or else at the end of the moon's second quarter ; with timber which you dig up by the roots or cut off level with the ground, PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY diebus vii proximis quibus luna plena fuerit, op- time eximitur. omnino caveto ni quam ^ materiem doles neve caedas neve tangas nisi siccam, neve gelidam neve rorulentam.' Tiberius item 2 et in capillo tondendo servavit interlunia. M. Varro adversus defluvia praecipit observandum id a pleni- luniis. 195 LXXVI. Larici^ et magis abieti* succisis umor diu defluit. hae omnium arborum altissimae ac rectis- simae. navium malis antemnisque propter levitatem praefertur abies. commune et his et pino quoque ^ ut quadripertitos venarum cursus bifidosve habeant vel omnino simpUces. fabrorum in ^ intestina opera medulla sectihs optima quadripertitis . . ."^ materies et molUor quam ceterae ; inteUectus in cortice pro- 196 tinus peritis. abietis quae pars a terra fuit enodis est. haec qua diximus ratione fluviata detoratur ^ atque ita sappinus vocatur, superior pars nodosa duriorque fusterna. et in ipsis autem arboribus robustiores aquiloniae partes ; et in totum deteriores ex umidis opacisque, spissiores ex apricis ac diu- turnae ; ideo Romae infernas abiei supernati prae- fertur. ^ Gesner : nigram. ^ Urlichs : idem. ^ Edd. : laricis. * Edd. : abietis. ^ commune . . . quoque ? Mayhoff : communia his pino- que. " in add. Sillig. ' (pessima bifidis) Mayhoff. ^ Detlefsen (decorticatur alii) : decoratur. * Turpentine. * The words rendered ' and that . . . worst ' are a con- jectural addition to the Latin. BOOK XVI. Lxxv. 194-LXXV1. 196 the seven days next aftcr full moon are the best for removing it. Beware absolutely of rough- hewing or cutting or touching any timber unless it is dry, and when it is frozen or wet with dew.' Similarly the emperor Tiberius kept to the period between two moons even in having his hair cut. Marcus Varro advises the plan of having one's hair cut just after fuU moon, as a precaution against going bald. LXXVI. When the laroh and still more the silver fir Larch and has been felled, a Hquid '^ flows from them for a long fhe^^eg time. These are the tallest and the straightest of all «"^ habitati the trees. For the masts and spars of ships the fir is preferred because of its light weight. A property shared by these trees and also by the pine is that of having veins running through the wood in four or in two divisions, or else only in one line. The interior in the four-veined kind is the best timber to cut up for inlaid wood-work and that in the two- veined the worst,^ and softer than the other kinds; experts can tell them at once from the bark. Fir wood from the part of the tree that was near the ground is free from knots. This timber after being floated in a river in the way which we have de- scribed is cleared of bulges, and when so treated § I86. is called sappinus, while the upper part which is knotted and harder is called club-wood. More- over in the trees themselves the parts towards the north-east are stronger ; and in general trees from damp and shady places are inferior and those from sunny places are closer grained and durable ; on this account at Rome fir from the Tuscan coast is preferred to that from the Adriatic. 515 PLINY: NATURAL IIISTORY 197 Est inter ^ se geRtium quoque in his differentia. Alpibus Appenninoque laudatissimae, in Galliae ^ luribus ac monte Vosego, in Corsica, Bithynia, Ponto, Macedonia. deterior Aenianica et Arcadica, pessima Parnasia et Euboica, quoniam ramosae ibi et contortae putrescentesque facile. at cedrus in Creta, Africa, Syria laudatissima. cedri oleo per- 198 uncta materies nec tiniam nec cariem sentit. iuni- pero eadem virtus quae cedro ; vasta haec in Hispania maximeque Vaccaeis ; medulla eius ubicumque ^ soHdior etiam quam cedrus. publicum omnium vitium vocant spiras, ubi convolvere se venae atque nodi. inveniuntur in quibusdam sicut in marmore centra, id est duritia clavo similis, inimica serris ; et quaedam forte accidunt, ut * lapide conprehenso ac ^ recepto in corpus aut alterius arboris ramo. ferunt lapides ita inventos ad continendos partus esse 199 remedio.^ Megaris diu stetit oleaster in foro, cui viri fortes adfixerant arma, quae cortice ambiente aetas longa occultaverat ; fuitque arbor illa fatalis, excidio urbis praemonito '^ oraculo cum arbor arma peperisset, quod succisae accidit ocreis galeisque intus repertis. 1 inter add. RacJcham. 2 Galliae? Mayhojf : Gallia. 3 utique ? Mayhoff. ^ ut Dalec. : in. ^ ac ? Mayhoff : aut. * ferunt . . . remedio hic Warmington : infra post re- pertis. ' Rackham : praemonita aut praemonitas. " Perhaps the Latin should be altered to give ' at all events is.' 516 BOOK XVI. Lxxvi. 197-199 In trees of this class there is also a difference corresponding to their native countries. The most highly spoken of grow on the Alps and the Apennines, on the Jura and \'osges mountains of Gaul, in Corsica, Bithynia, Pontus and Macedonia. The firs of Aenia and Arcadia are inferior, and those of Parnassus and Euboea the worst, because in those places they are branchy and twisted and the wood is apt to rot. As for the cedar, those in Crete, Africa and Syria are the most highly spoken of. Timber well smeared PtcuHanUes with ccdar oil does not suffer from maggot or decay. The juniper has the same excellence as the cedar; this tree grows to a great size in Spain and especially in the territory of the Vaccaei ; the heart of its timber is everywhere <* even more solid than that of the cedar. A general fault of all timber is what is called cross-grain, when the veins and knots have grown twisted. In some trees are found centres like those in marble, that is hard pieces Uke a nail, unkind to the saw ; and there are some hardnesses due to accident, as when a stone, or the branch of another tree, has been caught in a hollow and taken into the body of the tree. It is said that stones found inside trees serve as a preventive against abortion. In the market-place at Me- gara long stood a wild olive tree on which brave warriors had hung their weapons ; these in the course of time had been hidden by the bark grow- ing round them ; and on this tree depended the fate of the city, an oracle having prophesied that it would be destroyed when a tree gave birth to arms — which happened to this tree when it was cut down, greaves and helmets being found in- side it. 5T7 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 200 Amplissima arborum ad hoc aevi existimatur Romae visa quam propter miraculum Tiberius Caesar in eodem ponte naumachiario exposuerat advectam cum reliqua materie, duravitque ad Neronis princi- pis amphitheatrum. fuit autem trabs ea e larice, longa pedes cxx, bipedali crassitudine aequalis, quo intellegebatur vix credibiHs rehqua altitudo fasti- 201 gium ad cacumen aestimantibus. fuit memoria nostra et in porticibus saeptorum a M. Agrippa relicta aeque miracuU causa, quae diribitorio superfuerat, xx pedi- bus brevior, sesquipedaU crassitudine. abies admira- tionis praecipuae visa est in nave quae ex Aegypto Gai principis iussu obeUscum in Vaticano circo statu- tum quattuorque truncos lapidis eiusdem ad susti- nendum eum adduxit ; qua nave nihil admirabiUus visum in mari certum est. cxx modium lentis pro 202 saburra ei fuere : longitudo spatium obtinuit magna ex parte Ostiensis portus latere laevo ; ibi namque demersa est Claudio principe cum tribus moUbus turrium altitudine in ea exaedificatis, factis ^ ob id ex 2 Puteolano pulvere advectisque. arboris eius crassitudo quattuor hominum ulnas conplectentium implebat ; vulgoque auditur lxxx nummum et pluris malos venundari ad eos usus, rates vero conecti 203 XL sestertium plerasque. at in Aegypto ac Syria reges inopia abietis cedro ad classes feruntur ^ factis add. Rackham. * Detlefsen : obiter. " Nero, in his second consulship, a.d. 59, erected a vast amphitheatre of wood, as a temporary structure. 5»8 BOOK X\'I. Lxxvi. 200-203 What is believed to have been the largest tree ExcepHon ever seen at Ronic down to the prescnt tinie was "^ies^''^" one that Tiberius Caesar caused to be exhibited as a marvel on the deck of tlie Naval Sham Fight before mentioned ; it had been brought to llome § 190. with the rest of the timber used, and it lasted till the amphitheatre of the emperor Nero." It w^as a log of larchwood, 120 feet long and of a uniform thickness of two feet, from which could be inferred the almost incredible height of the rest of the tree by calculating its length to the top. Within our own memory there was also an equally marvellous tree left by Marcus Agrippa in the porticos of the Voting-booths, left over from the timber used for the ballot office ; this was twenty feet shorter than the one previously mentioned, and 18 inches in thickness. An especially wonderful fir was seen in the ship which brought from Egypt at the order of the emperor Gaius the obelisk erected in the Vatican Circus and four shafts of the same stone to serve as its base. It is certain that nothing more wonderful than this ship has ever been seen on the sea : it carried one hundred and twenty bushels of lentils for ballast, and its length took up a large part of the left side of the harbour of Ostia, for under the emperor Claudius it was sunk there, with three moles as high as towers erected upon it that had been made of PozzuoU cement for the pui*pose and con- veyed to the place. It took four men to span the girth of this tree wuth their arms ; and we commonly hear that masts for those purposes cost 80,000 sesterces and more, and that to put together the rafts usually runs to 40,000. But in Egypt and Syria Treesfor for want of fir the kings are said to have used cedar J^^''"*^ PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY usi ; maxima ^ in Cypro traditur, ad undeciremem Demetrii suceisa, cxxx pedum, crassitudinis vero ad trium hominum conplexum. Germaniae praedones singulis arboribus cavatis navigant, quarum quaedam et XXX homines ferunt. 204 Spississima ex omni materie, ideo et gravissima, iudicatur hebenus et buxus, graciles natura. neutra in aquis fluvitat, nec suber si dematur cortex, nec larix. ex reUquis spississima lotos quae Romae ita appellatur, dein robur exalburnatum. et huic nigri- cans color magisque etiam cytiso, quae proxime accedere hebenum videtur, quamquam non desunt 205 qui Syriacas terebinthos nigriores adfirment. cele- bratur ^ et Thericles nomine cahces ex terebintho soUtus facere torno : perquam probatur materies ; omnium haec sola ungui vult mehorque fit oleo. colos mire adulteratur iuglande ac piro silvestri tinctis atque in medicamine decoctis. omnibus quae 206 diximus spissa firmitas. ab iis proxima est cornus, quamquam non potest nitere ^ materies propter exihtatem, sed hgnum non aUo paene quam ad radios rotarum utile aut si quid cuneandum sit in hgno clavisve figendum ceu ferreis. ilex item et ' ^ Maykoff : maxima ea. '■^ celebravit Mayhoff. 3 nitere? Mayhoff{cf. 186): videri. See p. 468 n. 520 BOOK XVI. Lxxvi. 203-206 wood for their fleets ; the largest cedar is reported to have been grown in Cyprus and to have been felled to make a mast for a galley with rowers in teams of eleven belonging to Demetrius ; it was one hundred and thirty feet long and took three men to span its girth. The pirates of Germany voyage in boats made of a single tree hoUowed out, some of which carry as many as thirty people. The most close-grained of all timber and conse- Varietiesof quently the heaviest is judged to be ebony and box, %^e^J both trees of a slender make. Neither will float in water, nor will the cork-tree if its bark be removed, nor the larch. Of the remainder the most close- grained is the one called at Rome the lotus," and next the hard oak when the white sap-wood has been removed. The hard oak also has wood of a dark colour, and still darker is that of the cytisus, which appears to come very near to ebony, although people are to be found who assert that the turpentine-trees of Syria are darker. Indeed there is a celebrated artificer named Thericles who used to turn goblets of turpentine-tree wood, which is a highly valued material ; it is the only wood that needs to be oiled, and is improved by oil. Its colour can be wonderfuUy counterfeited by staining walnut and wild pear wood and boiUng them in a chemical preparation. AU the trees that we have mentioned have hard close- grained wood. Next after them comes the cornel, though its wood cannot be given a shiny poUsh because of its poor surftice ; but cornel wood is hardly useful for anything else except the spokes of wheels or in case something has to be wedged in wood or fixed with bolts made of it, which are as hard as iron. There are also the holm-oak, the wild and cultivated 521 PLINY; NATURAL HISTORY oleaster et olea atque castanea, carpinus, populus. haec ct crispa aceris niodo — si ulla materies idonea esset ramis saepe deputatis : castratio illa est adi- 207 mitque vires. de cetero plerisque horum, sed utique robori, tanta duritia ut terebrari nisi madefactum non queat et ne sic quidem adactus avelli clavus. e diverso clavum non tenet cedrus. molhssima tiha ; eadem videtur et caHdissima : argumentum adferunt quod citissime ascias retundat. caUdae et morus, laurus, hederae et omnia e quibus igniaria fiunt. 208 LXXVII. Exploratormn hoc usus in castris pasto- rumque repperit, quoniam ad excudendum ignem non semper lapidis occasio est ; teritur ergo hgnum Ugno ignemque concipit adtritu, excipiente materie aridi fo- mitis, fungi vel foUorum faciUimo conceptu. sed nihil hedera praestantius quae teratur, lauro quae terat ; probatur et vitis ex silvestribus aUa quam labrusca, 209 et ipsa hederae modo arborem scandens. frigidis- sima quaecumque aquatica ; lentissima autem et ideo scutis faciendis aptissima quorum plaga contrahit se protinus cluditque suum vulnus et ob id contumacius tramittit ferrum, in quo sunt genere vitis,^ vitex,'-^ 1 Mayhoff e Theophr. : fici. 2 Mayhoff e Vitruv. : ut ex aut ilex. * Igniaria, Trupeta, fire-sticks, were two pieces of hard wood ignited by rubbing them together. 522 BOOK XVI. Lxxvi. 206-Lxxvii. 209 olivc, the che.stnut, the liurnbeani and tlic |)oj)lar. The last is also mottled hke the maplc - if only any timber could be any good whcn the branches of the tree are frequently lopped : this amounts to gelding the tree, and takes away all its strength. For the rest, most of these trees, but especially the hard oak, are so hard that it is not possible to bore a hole in the vvood until it has been soaked in water, and even then when a nail has been driven right into it it cannot be puUed out. On the other hand cedar gives no hold to a nail. The softest of all woods is Hme, and it is also apparently the hottest as well : it is adduced in proof of this that it turns the edge of adzes quicker than any other wood. Other hot woods are mulberry, laurel, ivy and all those used for making matches." LXXVII. This has been discovered by experience Wood/or in the camps of miUtary scouting parties and '" "^' of shepherds, because there is not always a stone at hand to strike fire with ; consequently two pieces of wood are rubbed together and catch fire owing to the friction, and the fire is caught in a lump of dry tinder, fungus or dead leaves catching most readily. But there is nothing better than ivy wood for rubbing against and laurel wood for rubbing with ; one of the wild vines (not the claret-vine), which chmbs up a tree hke ivy, is also spoken well of. The trees that have the coldest wood of all are all otheruies/or that grow in water; but the most flexible, and "^ consequently the most suitable for making shields, are those in which an incision draws together at once and closes up its own wound, and which conse- quently is more obstinate in allowing steel to penetrate ; this class contains the vine, agnus castus, 523 PLINY: NATURAL IIISTORY salix, tilia, betuUa, sabucus, populus utraque. levissi- mae ex his vitex,^ salix ideoque utilissimae ; omnes autem ad cistas quaeque ^ flexili crate constent habiles. habent et candorem, rigorem et in sculpturis 210 facilitatem. est lentitia platano, sed madida, sicut ahio ; siccior eadem ulmo, fraxino, moro, ceraso, sed ponderosior. rigorem fortissime servat ulmus, ob id cardinibus coassamentisque^portarum utiHssima, quo- niam minime torquetur, permutanda tantum sic ut ca- 211 cumen ab inferiore sit cardine, radix superior. palma est . . .* simiUs et suberis materies, spissae et malus pirusque, nec non acer, sed fragile, et quaecumque crispa. in omnibus silvestria et mascuia differentiam cuiusque generis augent ; et infecunda firmiora ferti- libus, nisi quo in genere mares ferunt, sicut cupressus et cornus. 212 LXXVm. Cariem vetustatemque non sentiunt cupressus, cedrus, hebenus, lotus, buxum, taxus, iuniperus, oleaster, olea ; e reUquis tardissime larix, robm*, suber, castanea, iuglans. rimam fissuramque non capit sponte cedrus, cupressus, olea, buxum. 213 LXXIX. Maxime aeternamputant hebenum, et cu- pressumcedrumque, claro de omnibus materiis iudicio in templo Ephesiae Dianae, utpote cum tota Asia extruente cxx annis peractum sit. convenit tectum 1 Mayhoff : his sicut et. ' quaequae Deilefsen. ^ Schneidewin : crassamentis. ^ Lacunam Mayhoff coll. Theophr. 524 BOOK XVI. Lxxvii. 209-Lxxix. 213 willow, lime, birch, elder, and both kinds of poplar. Of these woods the Hghtest and consequently the most useful are the agnus castus and the willow ; but they are all suited for making baskets and things consisting of flexible wicker-work. Also they are shiny and hard, and easy to use in carvings. Plane has flexibiUty, but of a moist kind, like alder; a drier flexibility belongs to elm, ash, mulberry, and cherry, but it is heavier. Ebn retains its toughness most stoutly, and is in consequence the most useful wood for the hinges and frames of doors, because it is not liable to warp, only it should be put the other way up, so that the top of the tree is towards the lower hinge and the root above. The pahn is . . . and also cork-tree timber is similar; apple and pear are also close-grained, as well as maple, but maple is brittle, and so are any veined woods. In all trees the characteristics of each kind are carried further by wild specimens and by males ; and barren trees have stronger wood than fertile ones, except in species where the male trees bear, for instance the cj^press and the comel. LXXVIII. The following trees do not experience Resistance decay and age — cj^ress, cedar, ebony, lotus, box, ^^„2'^" yew, juniper, wild olive, cultivated oUve ; and of'*'"*^** the remainder the slowest to age are the larch, hard oak, cork, chestnut and walnut. The cedar, cypress, cultivated oUve and box do not split or crack of their own accord, LXXIX. It is believed that ebony lasts an extremely long time, and also cypress and cedar, a clear verdict about aU timbers being given in the temple of Diana at Ephesus, inasmuch as though the whole of Asia was buikUng it it took 120 years to complete. It is 525 PLINY: NATUllAL HISTORY eius esse e cedrinis trabibus ; de simulacro ipso deae ambigitur : ceteri ex hebeno esse tradunt, Mucianus III cos. ex iis qui proxime viso scripsere vitigineum 214 et numquam mutatum septies restituto templo, hanc materiam elegisse Endoeon,^ etiam nomen artificis nuncupans, quod equidem miror, cum antiquiorem Minerva quoque, non modo Libero patre, vetustatem ei tribuat. adicit multis foraminibus nardo rigari, ut medicatus umor alat teneatque iuncturas — quas 215 et ipsas esse modico admodum miror — valvas esse e cupresso et iam cccc prope annis durare materiem omnem novae similem. id quoque notandum, valvas in glutinis compage quadriennio fuisse. cupressus in eas electa, quoniam praeter cetera in uno genere 216 materiae nitor maxime valeat aeternus. nonne simulacrum Veiovis in arce e cupresso durat a condita urbe 2 DLXi ^ anno dicatum ? memorabile et Uticae templum ApolHnis, ubi cedro Numidica trabes durant, ita ut positae fuere prima urbis eius origine, annos * mclxxviii, et in Hispania Sagunti templum ^ Sillig : eandem con. 2 urbe add. edd. ^ numerum varie codd. et edd. * Rackham : annis. " I.e., in view of the moderate size of the statue it ia aurprising that it was not carved out of a single block of wood. * 193 B.o. 526 BOOK XVI. LXAix. 213-216 agreed that its roof is made of beams of cedar, but as to the actual statue of the goddess there is some dispute, all the other writers saying that it is made of ebony, but one of the people who have most recently seen it and written about it, Mucianus, who was three times consul, states that it is made of the wood of the vine, and has never been altered although the temple has been restored seven times ; and that this material was chosen by Endoeus — Mucianus actually specifies the name of the artist, which for my part I think surprising, as he assigns to the statue an antiquity that makes it older than not only Father Liber but Minerva also. He adds that nard is poured into it through a number of apertures so that the chemical properties of the Hquid may nourish the wood and keep the joins together — as to these indeed I am rather surprised that there shoukl be any<* — and that the folding doors are made of cypress wood, and the whole of the timber looks Uke new wood after having lasted nearly 400 years. It is also worth noting that the doors were kept for four years in a frame of glue. Cypress was chosen for them because it is the one kind of wood which beyond all others retains its polish in the best condition for all time. Has not the statue of Vejovis in the citadel, made of cypress wood, lasted since its dedication in the year 561 * after the foundation of Rome ? Noteworthy also is the temple of Apollo at Utica, where beams of Numidian cedar have lasted for 1178 years just as they were when they were put in position at the original foundation of that city ; and the temple of Diana at Saguntum in Spain, thc statue of the goddess, according to the authority of Bocchus, 527 PLINY: NATUIIAL HISTORY Dianae a Zacyntho advectae cum conditoribus annis cc ante excidium Troiae, ut auctor est Boc- chus ; intra ^ ipsum oppidum id habent — pepercit rehgione inductus Hannibal — iuniperi trabibus etiam 217 nunc durantibus. super omnia memoratur aedis AuHde eiusdem deae saecuUs aHquot ^ ante Troianum bellum exaedificata, quonam genere materiae scientia obHtterata. in plenum dici potest utique quae odore 218 praecellant eas et aeternitate praestare. a praedictis morus proxume laudatur quae vetustate etiam ni- grescit. et quaedam tamen in aUis diuturniora sunt usibus quam aHas ^ : ulmus in perflatu firma, robur defossum et in aquis quercus obruta; eadem supra terram rimosa facit opera torquendo sese. larix in umore praecipua et alnus nigra; robur marina aqua conrumpitur. non inprobatur et fagus in aqua et iuglans, hae quidem in iis quae defodiuntur vel principales, item iuniperus (eadem et subdiaHbus aptissima), fagus et cerrus celeriter marcescunt, 219 aesculus quoque umoris inpatiens. contra adacta in terram in palustribus alnus aeterna onerisque quanti- Hbet patiens. cerasus firma, ulmus et fraxinus lentae, sed facile pandantur, flexiles tamen, stantesque ac circumcisura siccatae fideliores.* laricem in maritimis 1 intra? Mayhoff : infra. 2 aliquot add. Brotier. ^ alias vel in aliia ? Mayhoff : alia. * siccatae fiunt duriores Detlefsen. 528 BOOK XVI. Lxxix. 216-219 having been brought thcre from Zac) nthus with the founders of the city 200 years before the fall of Troy ; it is kept inside the town itself — Hannibal from motives of rehgion spared it — and its beams, made of juniper, are still in existence even now. Memorable above all is the temple of the same goddess at Auhs, built some centuries before the Trojan war ; all knowledge of what kind of timber it was built of has entirely disappeared. Broadly speaking it can at all events be said that those woods have the most outstanding durabihty which have the most agreeable scent. Next in esteem after the timbers mentioned stands that of the mulberry, which even darkens with age. At the same time also some woods last longer when employed in certain ways than they do otherwise : elm lasts best ex- posed to the air, hard oak when used under ground, and oak when submerged under water — oak when above the ground warps and makes cracks in struc- tures. Larch and black alder do the best in damp ; hard oak is rotted by sea water. Beech and walnut are also well spoken of for use in water, these timbers indeed holding quite the first place among those that are used under the ground, and hkewise juniper (which is also very serviceable for structures exposed to the air), whereas beech and Turkey oak quickly decay, and the winter oak also will not stand damp. The alder on the other hand if driven into the ground in marshy places lasts for ever and stands a load of any amount. Cherry is a strong wood, elm and ash are tough but hable to warp, although they are flexible ; and they are more rehable if the trees are left stand- ing and dried by ringing round the trunk. Larch is reported to be hable to wood-worm when used in 529 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY navibus obnoxiam teredini tradunt, omniaque prae- terquam oleastrum et oleam ; quaedam enim in mari, quaedam in terra vitiis opportuniora. 220 LXXX. Infestantium quattuor genera. teredines capite ad portionem grandissimo rodunt dentibus ; hae tantum in mari sentiuntur, nec aliam putant teredinem proprie dici. terrestres tinias vocant, culicibus vero similes thripas ; quartum est et e vermiculorum genere, et horum ^ aUi putrescente suco ipsa materie, alii pariuntur sicut in arboribus ex eo qui cerastes vocatur: cum tantum erosit ut 221 circumagat se, gcnerat alium. haec nasci prohibet in aUis amaritudo, ut cupresso, in aUis duritia, ut buxo. tradunt et abietem circa germinationes de- corticatam qua diximus luna aquis non corrumpi. Alexandri Magni comites prodiderunt in Tylo Rubri maris insula arbores esse ex quibus naves fierent, quas ducentis annis durantes ^ inventas, etsi mergerentur, incorruptas. in eadem esse fruticem bacuUs tantum idoneae crassitudinis, varium tigrium macuUs, ponde- rosum et, cum in spissiora decidat, vitri modo fragilem. 1 Rackham : eorum. 2 durantes om. Pintianus. <» Ship-worms. * Tylos or Tyros, now Bahrein (c/. \T. 148, XII. 38 f.) in the Persian Gulf (often included by the ancients in the name ♦RedSea'). '^ Kvidently teak is meant. BOOK XVI. lAxix. 219-LXXX. 221 sea-going vessels, and the same witli all vvoods except thc wild and the cultivated oHve ; in fact some woods are more Hable to faults in the sea and others in the ground. LXXX. There are four kinds of pests that attack Creatures timbers. Borer-worms " have a very large head in pro- JS^^"* '^ portion to their size, and gnaw away wood with their teeth ; these worms are observed only in the sea, and it is held that they are the only ones to which the name of borer-worm properly appHes. The land variety are caHed moths, but the name for those resembHng gnats is thrips, and there is also a fourth kind belonging to the maggot class, of which some are engendered by the wood itself when its sap becomes putrid and others are produced by the worm caUed horned-worm — as they are in trees — which when it has gnawed away enough to be able to turn round, gives birth to another. The birth of these insects is prevented however in some trees, for instance the cypress, by the bitter taste of the wood, and in others, for instance the box, by its hardness. It is also said that the fir wiH not decay in water if about the time of budding and at the lunar period we stated it is stripped of its bark. The § 190, companions of Alexander the Great stated that on the island of Tylos^ in the Red Sea there are trees^ nsed for building ships, the timbers of which have been found continuing free from rot for two hundred years even though they were under water. They further reported that the same island contains a shrub growing only tliick enough for a walking stick, marked with stripes Hke a tiger skin, heavy and Hable to break Hke glass when it faUs on to things of harder substance. PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY 222 LXXXI. Apud nos materiae finduntur aliquae sponte ; ob id architecti eas fimo inlitas siccari iubent ut adflatus non ^ noceant. pondus sus- tinere validae abies, larix, etiam in traversum positae ; robur, olea incurvantur ceduntque ponderi, illae renituntur nec temere rumpuntur, priusque 223 carie quam viribus deficiunt. et palmae arbor valida ; in diversum enim curvatur [et populus] ^ : cetera omnia in inferiora pandantur, palma ex contrario fornicatim. pinus et cupressus adversus cariem tiniasque firmissimae. facile pandatur iuglans, fiunt enim et ex ea trabes ; frangi se praenuntiat crepitu, quod et in Antandro^ accidit, cum e balineis territi 224 sono profugerunt. pinus, piceae, alni ad aquarum ductus in tubos cavantur, obrutae terra plurimis duraturae annis ; eaedem si non integantur cito senescunt, mirum in modum fortiores si umor extra quoque supersit. 225 LXXXII. Firmissima in rectum abies, eadem valva- rum paginis et ad quaecumque libeat intestina opera aptissima, sive Graeco sive Campano sive Siculo fabri- cae artis genere, spectabilis ramentorum crinibus, pampinato semper orbe se volvens ad incitatos runcinae raptus, eadem e cunctis maxime sociabilis glutino, in tantum ut findatur ante qua solida est. ^ ne Mayhoff. 2 Brotier. r ' Brotier coll. Theophr. : Andro. » Perhaps the meaning is that palm branches shoot upward and then curve over downward in an arch. It is true that the branches of other trees do not curve so noticeably, although it is not the case that none of them shoot upward from the trunk. BOOK XVI. Lxxxi. 222-Lxxxii. 225 LXXXI. We have in our country sonie timbers Durabiiuy of liable to split of their own accord, and architects '* ^** consequently recommend that they should be smeared with dung and then dried, so as to make them proof against the action of the atmosphere. Fir and larch are strong weight-carriers, even when placed hori- zontally, and whereas hard oak and oUve bend and yield to a weight, the woods named resist it and are not readily broken, and they fail owing to rot before they fail in strength. The palm tree also is strong, for it curves in a different way to other trees : all the others curve downward, but the palm curves in the opposite direction," making an arch. Pine and cypress are the strongest to resist rot and wood-worms. Walnut bends easily — for this wood also is used for making beams ; when it breaks it gives a warning in advance by a creaking noise, as happened for instance at Antandro, when people in the pubUc baths took alarm at the sound and made their escape. Pines, pitch pines and alders are hoUowed to form pipes for conveying water, and when buried underground wiU last a number of years ; but they age quickly if not covered over, the resistance they offer being remarkably increased if their out- side surface also is covered with moisture. LXXXII. Fir wood is strongest in a vertical posi- Useofjir. tion : it is very suitable for door panels and any kinds of inlaid work desired, whether in the Greek or the Campanian or the SiciUan style of joinery ; under brisk planing it makes pretty curly shavings, always twisting in a spiral Uke the tendrils of a vine ; moreover, of aU sorts of wood it is most adapted for being glued together, so much so that it wiU spUt at a soUd place before it parts at a join. 533 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY 226 LXXXIII. Magna autem et glutinatio propter ea quae sectilibus laminis aut ^ alio genere operiuntur. stamineam in hoc usu probant venam (et vocant ferulaceam argumento similitudinis) quoniam lacu- nosa et crispa in omni genere glutinum abdicant ; quaedam et inter se et cum aliis insociabilia glutino, sicut robur, nec fere cohaerent dissimilia natura, ut si quis lapidem lignumque coniungat. cornum maxime odit sorbus, carpinus, buxus, postea tilia. 227 cuicumque operi flexilia^ omnia quae lenta diximus, praeterque morus et caprificus, forabilia ac sectilia quae modice umida ; arida enim latius quam terebras aut serras ^ cedunt, viridia praeter robur et buxum pertinacius resistunt serrarumque dentes replent aequalitate inerti, qua de causa alterna inclinatione egerunt scobem. 228 LXXXIV. Oboedientissima quocumque in opere fraxinus, eademque hastis corylo melior, cornu levior,. sorbo lentior ; Gallica vero etiam ad currus flexih levi- 229 tate.* aemularetur uhnus ni pondus esset in culpa. facihs et fagus, quamquam fragihs et tenera ; eadem sectiUbus laminis in tenui flexiUs capsisque ac scrineis sola utiUs. secatur in lamnas praetenues et ilex, colore ^ Mayhoff : ac in. 2 Warmington : facilia flexilia. ^ terebras aut serraa Warmingiou : teraa. * Detlefsen : vita. 534 BOOK X\'I. Lxxxiii. 226-la:xxiv. 229 LXXXIII. Gluoiiig also is inipi»rtanl for veneering Vnieer,at,d articles with thin sections of wood or otherwise. i^^lj^"*^* "^ For use as veneer a thready veining is approved of (it is called fennel-pattern grain on account of the resemblance), because in every kind of wood pieces with gaps and twists in them do not take the glue ; some woods cannot be joined by glueing either with wood of the same kind or with other woods, for example hard oak, and in general materials unhke in substance do not liold together, for instance if one tried to join stone and wood. The wood of the service-tree, the hornbeam and the box have a very strong dishke for cornel wood, and so to a smaller degree has lime. All of the woods we have de- scribed as yielding are easily bent for all pui-poses, and so besides are mulberry and wild fig ; while those which are moderately moist are suitable for boring and sawing, since dry woods give way beyond the part which you bore or saw, whereas green woods except hard oak and box offer a more obstinate re- sistance, and fiU up the teeth of saws in an ineffective even Hne ; this is the reason why the teeth are bent each way in turn, so as to get rid of the sawdust. LXXXIV. Ash is the most compliant wood in work Different of any kind, and is better than hazel for spears, lighter 'il^^^^their than cornel, and more phable than service-tree ; uses. indeed the GalUc ash even has the suppleness and Ught weight required for chariots. The elm would rival it were not its weight against it. Beech also is easily worked, although brittle and soft ; also cut in thin layers of veneer it is flexible, and is the only wood suitable for boxes and desks. The holm-oak as weU cuts into extremely thin layers, and also has a not unattractive colour, but it is most 535 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY quoque non ingrata, sed maxime fida iis quae teran- tur, ut rotarum axibus, ad quos lentore fraxinus sicut 230 duritia ilex et utroque legitur ulmus. sunt vero et parvi usus fabrilium ministeriorum, insigneque ^ proditum terebris vaginas ex oleastro, buxo, ilice, ulmo, fraxino utilissimas fieri, ex iisdem malleos, maioresque e pinu et ilice. et his autem maior ad firmitatem causa tempestivae caesurae quam inma- turae, quippe cum ex olea, durissimo ligno, cardines in foribus diutius immoti plantae modo germina- verint. Cato vectes aquifolios, laureos, ulmeos fieri iubet, Hyginus manubria rusticis carpinea, iligna, cerrea. 231 Quae in lamnas secentur quorumque operimento vestiatur alia materies, praecipua sunt citrum, tere- binthus, aceris genera, buximi, palma, aquifolium, ilex, sabuci radix, populus. dat et alnus, ut dictum est, tuber sectile sicut citrum acerque ; nec aliarum tuber tam^ in pretio. media pars arborum crispior, et quo propior radici minoribus magisque flexilibus 232 maculis. haec prima origo luxuriae arborum, aham ^ alia integi et \dUoris hgni e pretiosiore corticem fieri. ut una arbor saepius veniret, excogitatae sunt et ligni bratteae. nec satis : coepere tingui animahum ^ insigneque? Mayhoff culL^ 113 : insignes ideoque. '^ Detlefsen (tuber iam Mayhoff) : tubera aut tuberia. ^ aliam add. Rackham. * The word is primarily used of gold-leaf and otber very tbin plates of metal ; bere it denotes veneer. BOOK XVI. Lxxxiv. 229-232 reliable for things subjected to friction, for instance the axles of wheels, for which ash is selected because of its pHancy, as also is holm-oak for its hardness and elni for both quahties. But wood is also used in small pieces for the operations of carpentry, and a remarkable fact stated is that the most serviceable holders for augers are made from wild ohve, box, holm-oak, elm and ash, and the best maUets from the same woods and larger ones from pine and holm-oak. But with these timbers also seasonable felhng is more conducive to strength than if done prematurely, inasmuch as hinges made of oHve, a very hard wood, that have been left too long un- moved in doorways have been known to put out shoots hke a growing plant. Cato recommends hoUy, r.k. laurel or elm for making levers, and Hyginus horn- ^^^^- ^- beam, holm-oak or Turkey-oak for the hafts of agricultural implements. The principal woods for cutting into layers and renemng for using as a veneer to cover other kinds of wood ^5I^,'"5^"^^ are citrus, turpentine-tree, varieties of maple, box, palm, holly, holm-oak, the root of the elder, and poplar. Also the alder, as has been stated, supphes §69. a tubcrosity that can be cut into layers, as do the citrus and the maple ; no other trees have tuberosi- ties so much valued. The middle part of trees is more variegated, and the nearer the root the smaller and the more wavy are the markings. This first originated the luxury use of trees, covering up one with another and making an outside skin for a cheaper wood out of a more expensive one. In order that one tree might be sold several times over, even thin layers ** of wood have been invented, And this was not enough : the horns of animals began to be dyed VOL. TV. S ^'^^ PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY cornua, dentes secari lignumque ebore distingui, 233 mox operiri. placuit deinde materiem et in mari quaeri : testudo in hoc secta ; nuperque portentosis ingeniis principatu Neronis inventum ut pigmentis perderet se plurisque veniret imitata lignum. modo luxuria non fuerat contenta ligno, iam lignum et e ^ testudine facit.^ sic lectis pretia quaeruntur, sic terebinthum vinci iubent, sic citrum pretiosius fieri, sic acer decipi. 234 LXXXV. Vita arborum quarundam inmensa credi potest, si quis profunda mundi et saltus inaccessos co- gitet. verum ex his quas memoria hominum custodit durant in Liternino Africani prioris manu sata olea,^ item myrtus eodem loco conspicuae magnitudinis — subest specus in quo manes eius custodire draco tradi- 235 tur — Romae vero lotos in Lucinae area, anno qui fuit sine magistratibus ccclxxix urbis aede condita; in- certum ipsa quanto vetustior: esse quidem ve- tustiorem non est dubium, cum ab eo luco Lucina nominetur. haec nunc d circiter annum habet ; antiquior, sed incerta eius aetas, quae capillata dicitur, quoniam Vestalium virginum capillus ad eam defertur. 236 LXXXVI. Verum altera lotos in Volcanali quod Romulus constituit ex victoria de decumis, aequaeva ^ et e Salm. : et aut emi. - modo . . . facit hic Warmington : infra post decipi. ^ Detlefsen : satae olivae. " ' Lucina ' from ' lucus ' : really doubtless from ' lux,' the goddesfl of birth who brings infants into the light of day. BOOK XVI. Lxxxiv. 232-Lxxxvi. 236 and their tusks cut in slices, and wood to be inluid and later veenered with ivory. Next came the fancy of ransacking even the sea for material : tortoiseshell was cut up to provide it, and recently, in the principate of Nero, it was discovered by miraculous devices how to cause it to lose its natural ap- pearance by means of paints and fetch a higher price by imitating wood. A Httle time ago luxury had not thought wood good enough, but now it actually manufactures wood out of tortoiseshell. By these methods high prices are sought for couches and orders are given to outdo tuqDcntine wood, make a more costly citrus, and counterfeit maple. LXXXV. If one thinks of the remote regions of the instances cj world and the impenetrable forests, it is possible that /S!" ^' some trees have an immeasurable span of \ife. But of those that the memory of man preserves there still live an oUve planted by the hand of the elder Africanus on his estate at Liternum and Ukewise a myrtle of remarkable size in the same place — underneath them is a grotto in which a snake is said to keep guard over Africanus's shade — and a lotus oidueeiin tree in the precinct of Lucina at Rome founded in Rome. 375 B.c, a year in which no magistrates were elected ; how much older the tree itself is uncertain, but at aU events there is no doubt that it is clder, since it is from the grove in qtjw^stion that the goddess Lucina <* takes her name. This tree is now about 500 years old ; stiU older, though its age is uncertain, is the lotus tree caUed the Hair Tree. because the \'estal \'irgins' offering of hair is brought to it. LXXXVI. But there is another lotus tree in the precincts of \'ulcan founded by Romulus from a tithe of his spoils of victory, which on the authority 539 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY urbi intellegitur, ut auctor est Masurius. radices eius in forum usque Caesaris per stationes municipiorum penetrant. fuit cum ea cupressus aequalis circa suprema Neronis principis prolapsa atque neglecta. 237 LXXXVII. Vetustior autem urbe in Vaticano ilex in qua titulus aereus ^ litteris Etruscis religione arborem iam tum dignam fuisse significat. Tiburtes quoque originem multo ante urbem Romam habent; apud eos extant ilices tres etiam Tiburno conditore eorum vetustiores, apud quas inauguratus traditur; fuisse autem eum tradunt filium Amphiarai qui apud Thebas obierit una aetate ante Iliacum bellum. 238 LXXXVIII. Sunt auctores et Delphicam platanum Agamemnonis manu satam et alteram in Caphya^ Arcadiae loco.^ sunt hodie ex adverso lUensium urbis iuxta Hellespontum in Protesilai sepulchro arbores quae omnibus ex eo aevis, cum in tantum adcrevere ut lUum aspiciant, inarescunt rursusque adolescunt ; iuxta urbern autem quercus in IH tumulo tunc satae dicuntur cum coepit lUum vocari. 239 LXXXIX. Argis olea etiamnum durare dicitur ad quam lo in tauram mutatam Argus alUgaverit. in ^ Huebner : aereis. 2 Mayhoff: Caphiae. Urlichs : luco. 540 BOOK X\'l. Lxxxvi. 236-Lxxxix. 239 of Masurius is understood to be of the same age as the city. Its roots spread right across the Municipal Offices as far as the Forum of Caesar. With this there grew a cypress of equal age, which about the closing period of Nero's principate fell down and was left lying. LXXXVlI. But on the Vatican Hill thcre is a holm- oak that is older than the city ; it has a bronze tablct on it with an inscription written in Etruscan charac- ters, indicating that even in those days the tree was deemed venerable. The people of TivoU also date their origin far before the city of Rome ; and they have three holm-oaks still hving that date even earher than their founder Tiburnus, the cere- mony of whose installation is said to have taken place near them ; but tradition relates that he was the son of Amphiaraus, who died in battle before Thebes a generation before the Trojan war. LXXXVIII. Authorities say that there is a plane- oidtreestn tree at Delphi that was planted by the hand of Aga- ^ZTmnor. memnon, and also another at Caphya, a place in Arcadia. There are trees at the present day growing on the tomb of Protesilaus on the shore of the Dar- danelles opposite the city of the Trojans, which in every period since the time of Protesilaus, after they have grown big enough to command a view of Ihum, wither away and then revive again ; while the oaks on the tomb of Ilus near the city are said to have been planted at the date when the place first began to be called Ihum. LXXXIX. It is said that at Argos there still survives the ohve to which Argus tethered lo after she had been transformed into a heifer. West of 541 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY Ponto citra Heracleam arae sunt lovis ^Tpariov cogno- mine : ibi quercus duae ab Hercule satae. in eodem tractu portus Amyci est Bebryce rege interfecto clarus; eius tuniulus a supremo die lauro tegitur quam insa- nam vocant, quoniam si quid ex ea decerptiun infera- 240 tur navibus, iurgia fiunt donec abiciatur. regionmi Aulocrenen diximus per quam Apamea in Phrygiam itur: ibi platanus ostenditur ex qua pependerit Marsuas victus ab Apolline, quae iam tum magni- tudine electa est. nec non palma Dcli ab eiusdem dei aetate conspicitur, Olympiae oleaster ex quo primus Hercules coronatus est : et nunc custoditur religio. Athenis quoque olea durare traditur in certamine edita a Minerva. 241 XC. Ex diverso brevissima vita est punicis, fico, malis,et ex his praecocibus brevior quam serotinis, dul- cibus quam acidis,^ et dulciori in punicis, item in viti- bus, praecipueque fertilioribus. Graecinus auctor est sexagenis annis durasse vites. videntur et aquaticae celerius interire. senescunt quidem velociter sed e radicibus repullulant laurus et maH et punicae. ^ Pinfianus (acerbis Urlichs) : acutis. " The coiitest for primacy at Athens, which Zeus had de- cided should go to the deity who did the citizens the best service; Poseidon constructed the harbour and shipyards, but Pallas Athene caused olive-trees to grow on the AcropoUs, and she was declared the winner. BOOK XVI. Lxxxix. 239-xc. 241 Heraclea in Pontus therc are altars dedicated to Jupiter under his Greek title of Stratios, where there are two oak trees planted by Hercules. In the sarrie region there is a port called Harbour of Amycus, famous as the place where King Bebryx was killed ; his tomb ever since the day of his dcath has been shaded by a laurel tree which they call the Mad Laurel, because if a piece plucked from it is taken on board ships, quarrelhng breaks out until it is thrown away. We have mentioned the region of Aulocrene, v. 106. traversed by the route leading from Apamea into Phiygia ; in it travellers are shown the plane-tree from which Marsyas was hanged after losing his match with Apollo, and which w^as selected for the purpose on account of its size even then. Moreover at Delos may be seen a palm tree dating back to the time of the same deity, and at Olympia a wild ohve from which was made the wreath with which Hercules w-as crowned for the first time — veneration for it is preserved even now. Also the ohve tree produced by Minerva in the competition ° is reported still to exist at Athens. XC. On the other hand pomegranates, the fig and ''^f*ort the apple class are extremely short-hved ; and among K^* ° apples those that ripen early are more short-hved than those that ripen late and the sweet ones than the sour, and the same is the case with the sweeter variety among the pomegranates, and hkewise among vines, and particularly the more fruitful ones. Graecinus states that there have been cases of vines hving 600 years. It also appears that trees growing in water die more quickly. Laurels, apples and pomegranates age rapidly, it is true, but they put out shoots again from their roots. Consequently 543 lit-ed PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY firmissimae ergo ad vivendum oleae, ut quas durare annis cc inter auctores conveniat. 242 XCI. Est in suburbano Tusculani agri colle qui Come appellatur lucus antiqua religione Dianae sacratus a Latio, velut arte tonsili coma fagei nemoris. in hoc arborem eximiam aetate nostra amavit Passienus Crispus bis cos., orator, Agrippinae matrimonio et Nerone privigno clarior postea, osculari conplectique eam solitus, non modo cubare sub ea vdnumque illi adfundere. vicina luco est ilex et ipsa nobilis xxxiv pedum ambitu caudicis, decem ceu ^ arbores emittens singulas magnitudinis visendae silvamque sola faciens. 243 XCII. Hedera necari arbores certiun est. similem quidam et in visco tametsi tardiorem iniuriam earum arbilrantur — namque et hoc praeter fructus adgnosci- 244 tur non in novissimis mirabile. quaedam enim in terra gigni non possunt et in arboribus nascuntur, namque cum suam sedem non habeant, in aliena vivunt: sicut viscum et in Syria herba quae vocatur cadytas, non tantum arboribus sed ipsis etiam spinis circum- volvens sese, item circa Tempe Thessalica quae polypodion vocatur et quae dolichos ac serpyllura. 1 ceu add. Mueller, 544 BOOK XVI. xc. 241-xai. 244 the hardiest trees to live are olives, seeing that it is generally agreed among the authorities that they last 200 years. XCI. On a hill named Come in the territory of Tus- Ceiebrated cuhim, near the city, there is a grove named Come xuiniium. which has been held in reverence from early times by the district of Latium as sacred to Diana ; it consists of a beech coppice the foliage of which has the appear- ance of having been trimmcd by art. This grove con- tains one outstanding tree which in our generation excited the afFection of the orator Passienus Crispus, who had twice been consul and who subsequcntly became still more distinguished by marrying Agrip- pina and becoming the stepfather of Nero ; Crispus used regularly not merely to He beneath the tree and to pour wine over it, but to kiss and embrace it. Closc to this grove is a holm-oak which is also famous, as measuring thirty-four fect round the trunk, and sending out what look Hke ten separate trees of remarkable size and forming a w^ood of itself. XCII. It is a well-known fact that trees are killed ParasUic by ivy. Some people believe that a similar property noxi^ms to noxious to trees, though operating more slowly, is also "'^^*' contained in mistletoe — for this plant also is recognised as by no means among the least remarkable on account of other properties beside its berries. For some varieties of plants cannot grow in the earth, and take root in trees, because they have no abode of their own and consequently hve in that of others : instances of this are mistletoe and the plant in Syria called cadytas, which twines itself round not only trees but even teasels, and Hkewise in the dis- trict about Tempe in Thessaly the plant caHed polypodium, and also the doHchos and the serpyllum. 545 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY oleastro quoque deputato quod gignatur vocant phaunos, quod vero in spina fullonia hippophaeston, cauliculis inanibus, fohis parvis, radice alba, cuius suciLs ad detractiones in comitiaH morbo utiHssimus habetur. 245 XCIII. Visci tria genera. namque in abiete, larice stehn dicit Euboea,i hyphear Arcadia, viscum autem in quercu, robore, ihce, piro silvestri, terebintho, nec non et ^ aliis arboribus adgnasci plerisque,^ copio- sissimum in quercu quod dryos hyphear ^ vocant. in omni arbore excepta iHce et quercu differentiam facit acini ^ odor virusque et foHum non iucundi odoris, 246 utroque visci amaro et lento. hyphear ad saginanda pecora utiHus vicia ^ : modo purgat primo, dein pinguefacit quae suffecere purgationi, quibus sit aHqua tabes intus negant durare. ea medendi ratio aestatis quadragenis diebus. adiciunt discrimen visco, in iis ' quae foHa amittant ^ et ipsi decidere, 247 contra inhaerere nato in aetema fronde. omnino autem satum nuUo modo nascitur nec nisi per alvum avium redditum, maxime palumbis ac turdi : haec est natura ut nisi maturatum in ventre avium non proveniat. altitudo eius non excedit cubi- talem, semper frutectosi ac viridis. mas fertiHs, 1 Hermolaus : Euboea nasci. 2 non et add. e Theophr. Mayhojf. ' plerisque ? Mueller : plerique. * Edd. : quercu adhasphear et alia. ^ acini add. in adnol. Mayhoff. * V.l. vitia {yost punctum). ' Rackham : his. * Caesarius : mittant. BOOK XVI. xcii. 244-xcin. 247 Also a plant that grows on a wild olive aftcr it has been lopped is called phaunos, while one that grows on the fuller's teazel is called hippophaestum ; it has hollow stalks.small leaves and awhite root.the juice of which is considered very useful for purgatives in epilepsy. XCIII. There are thrce kinds of mistletoe. One VanfUesoj that grows as a parasite on the fir and the larch is callcd ""*' ** stelis in Euboca and hyphear in Arcadia, and the name of mistletoe is used for one growing on the oak, hard oak. holm-oak, wild pear, turpentine-tree, and indeed most other trees ; and growing in great abundance on the oak is one which they call dryos hyphear. There is a difFercnce in the ca^^e of every tree except the holm-oak and the oak in the smell and poison of the berry and the disagreeably scented leaf, both the berry and the leaf of the mistletoe being bitter and sticky. The hyphear is more useful than tare for fattening cattle; at first it only acts as a purge, but it subsequently fattens the beasts that have stood the purging process, although they say that those with some internal malady cannot stand it. T)iis method of trcatment is employed for forty days in summer. An additional variety is said to be found in mistletoe, in that when it grows on deciduous trees it also sheds its leaves itself, but whcn growing on an evergreen tree it retains its leaves. But universally when mistlctoe seed is sown it never sprouts at all, and only when passed in the excrement of birds, particularly the pigeon and the thrush : its nature is such that it will not shoot unless it has been ripened in the stomach of birds. Its height does not exceed eighteen inches, and it is evergreen and always in leaf. The male 547 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY femina sterilis, nisi quod et fertilis aliquando non fert. 248 XCIV. Viscum fit ex acinis qui colliguntur messium tempore inmaturi ; nam si accessere imbres, amplitu- dine quidem augentur, visco vero marcescunt. sic- cantur deinde et aridi tunduntur ac conditi in aqua putrescunt duodenis fere diebus, unumque hoc rerura putrescendo gratiam invenit. inde in profluente, rursus malleo tusi, amissis corticibus interiore carne lentescunt. hoc est viscum pinnis avium tactu ligandis oleo subactum cum libeat insidias moUri. 249 XCV. Non est omittenda in hac re et Galliarum admiratio. nihil habent Druidae — ita suos appellant magos — visco et arbore in qua gignatur, si modo sit robur, sacratius. iam per se roborum ehgunt lucos, nec uUa sacra sine earum fronde conficiunt, ut inde appellati quoque interpretatione Graeca possint Druidae videri ; tum vero ^ quidquid adgnascatur ilUs e caelo missum putant signumque esse electae 250 ab ipso deo arboris. est autem id rarum admodum inventu et repertum magna reHgione petitur et ante omnia sexta luna (quae principia mensum annorum- que his facit) et saecuH post tricesimum annum, quia ^ tum vero ? Mayhoff : enimvero. BOOK XVI. xciii. 247-xcv. 250 plant is fcrtile and the female barren, except that even a fcrtile plant sometimes does not bear. XCIV. Mistletoe berries can be used for making Mistietoe bird-lime, if gathered at harvest time while unripe ; for if the rainy season has begun, although they get bigger in size they lose in viscosity. They are then dried and when quite dry pounded and stored in water, and in about twelve days they turn rotten — and this is the sole case of a thing that becomes attractive by rotting. Then after having been again poundcd up they are put in running water and there lose their skins and become viscous in their inner flesh, This substance after being kneaded with oil is bird-Hme, used for entangling birds' wings by contact with it when one wants to snare them. XCV. While on this subject we also must not omit Worshipo/ the respect shown to this plant by the Gallic provinces. oaui. The Druids — that is what they call their magicians — hold notliing more sacred than mistletoe and a tree on which it is growing, provided it is a hard-oak. Groves of hard-oaks are chosen even for their own sake, and the magicians perform no rites without using the foHage of those trees, so that it may be supposed that it is from this custom that they get their name oi" Druids, from the Greek word mean- ing ' oak ' ; but further, anything growing on oak- trees they think to have been sent down from hcaven, and to be a sign that the particular tree has been chosen by God himself. Mistletoe is, however, rather seldom found on a hard-oak, and .when it is discovered it is gathered with great ceremony, and particularly on the sixth day of the moon (which for these tribes constitutes the beginning of the raonths and the years) and after everj' thirty years of 549 PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY iam vlrium abunde habeat. nec sit sui dimidia. omnia saniintem appellantes suo vocabulo, sacrificio epulisque rite sub arbore conparatis duos admovent candidi coloris taui-os quorum cornua tum primum 251 vinciantur. sacerdos candida veste cultus arborem scandit, falce aurea demetit, candido id excipitur sago. tum deinde victimas immolant precantes, suum donum deus prosperum faciat iis quibus dederit. fecunditatem eo poto dari cuicumque animalium sterili arbitrantur, contra venena esse omnia remedio ; tanta gentium in rebus frivolis plerumque religio est. 550 BOOK XV I. xcv. 250-251 a new generation, becaiisc it is then rising in strength and not one half of its full size. HaiHn;Lr the moon in a native word that means ' heahng all things,' they prepare a ritual sacrifice and banquet beneath a tree and bring up two white bulls, whose horns are bound for tlie first time on this occasion. A priest arrayed in white vestments cHmbs the tree and with a golden sickle cuts down the mistletoe, which is caught in a white cloak. Then finally they kill the victims, praying to God to render his gift propitious to those on whom he has bestowed it. They beheve that mistletoe given in drink will impart fertiHty to any animal that is barren. and that it is an antidote for all poisons, So powerful is the superstition in regard to trifling matters that frequently prevails among the races of mankind. 551 IXDEX OF PERSONS Afeic biofjraphical notesare added to supplement thefacts given in the textand notcs, Appius Claudius, XV 2 Argus, ' hundred-eyed,' made guardian of lo by Hera, XVI 239 Aristaeus, son of ApoUo and Cyrene, mvthical benefactor of mankind, XiV 53 Aristomachus, Greek writer on agri- culture and domestic economy, XIV 120 Asclepiades of Prusias in Bithynia, practised medicine at Bome, Ist c. B.C., XIV 76 Asinius Gallus, consul 8 B.C., XIII 92 Assabinus, XII 89 Ateius, XIV 93 Augusta, XII 94 ; XHI 79, 83 ; XIV 60, 72 ; XV 47 ; XVI 8 Aueustus, XII 3, 94; XIII 74, 83; XIV 61, 72; XV 47; XVI 8 Acharistio, XIV 92 Achilles, XVI 62 Acilius, XIV 48 Aegialus, XIV 49 Aelius, XIV 93 Aeseminus Marcellas, defended Aeser- nia in Samnium agaiust Samnite rising, but forced to surrender, 90 B.C., XII 12 Africanus Scipio, ilinor, conquered Carthage 146 B.C., XVI 14 Agamemnon, XVI 238 Agrippa, great soldicr, supported Augustus, XIV 147 ; XVI 7 f. Agrippina, d. of G«rmanicus and Agrippina and mother of Nero by first huaband Cn. Domitius, XVI 242 Alcibiades, XIV 144. Aleiander, XII 21; 24, 33, 62, 86, 117; Xni 3, 69, 101; XIV 68; XVI 144, 221 Alexander Comelius, encyclopaedic Greek writer at Rome, 80 B.C., XIII 119; XVI 16. Amphiaraus, XVI 237 Amphilochus, agriculturai writer, XIII 130 Androcydes, Greek physician, XIV 58 Antias, Homan annalist, 90 B.C., XIII 87 Antigenides, Theban flautist and poet, temp. Alexander, XVI 170 Antigonus. general of Alexander, made himself king of Asia, XIII 73 Antiochus, XIII 24 Antonius, XIV 147 Apollo, XII 3; XIII 52; XV 134; XVI 216, 24U ApoUodoruB, XIV 76 Baebius, XIII 85 Bagous, XIII 41 Bebryx, mvthical king, XVI 239 Bellerophon, XIII 88 Bocchus, unknown author, XVI 216 Brutus, nephew of Tarquinius, Super- buB, XV 134 Caesar, XIII 93 ; XIV 56, 72, 95, 97 ; XVI 7 Capito, XIV 93 Capitolinus, Manlius, repuised the Gauls from the Capitol 390 B.C., XVI 13 Cassius Hemina, Roman annalist, 140 B.C., XIII 84 Cato, XIV 44, 52, 86, 90, 129; XV 20, 24, 44, 50, 56, 72, 122 f., 137; XVI139, 141,173, 193 Celsus, see Comelias Celsus. 553 INDEX OF PERSONS Cestins, XV 49 Cetbegus, cos. 181 B.C., XIII 85, 92 Cicero, XIII 83. 92 ; XIV 147 Cineas, XIV 12 Circe, XIII 100 Claudius, XII 12, 78; XIII 78; XVI 204 Commiades, XIV 120 Cornelius, see Alexander Cornelius. Oornelius Celsus, temp. Augustus, authorof De Medicina, XIV 33 CorncliusNepos,/e7np.Cicero,historian and biographer {Vitae Excellentium Imperatorum, still exLant), XIII 104: XVI 36 Corneiius Vaierianus, XIV II Crassns, XV 83, 125 Cremutius Cordus, republican his- torian under Augustus and Tiberius, XVI 108 Crispus Passienus, orator, second husband of Agrippina, XVI 242 Curius M*., friend of Cicero, Quaestor Urbanus 61 B.C., XVI 185 Darius, k. of Tersia, 521-485 B.C., XIII 3 Declus, XVI 11 Demetrius, k. of Macedon, 300 B.C., XVI 203 Democritus of Abdera, 4f>ft-361 B.C., originated atomic theory, XIV 20 Diana, XIV 9 Diomcdes, k. of Argos, fought in Trojan wars, buried in is and called after him off Cape Garganum, XII 6 Dionysius the elder, 430-367 B.C., tyrant of Svracuse, XII 7, 12 Domitius, XIV 90 Dossennus, see Fabius Dosseimus. Druidae, XVI 229 Drusilla, XV 136 Drusus, brother of Eraperor Tiberius, conquered large part of Qermany, XIV 145 Bgnatius, XIV 89 Endoeus, XVI 214 Erasistratus, fl. 300-260 B.C. at Bvrian court and iu Aleiandria, XIV 73 Eumenes, k. of Pergamon, 197-159 B.C., XIII 70 Euphronius, XIV 2 Europa, XITll 554 Fabianus Papirius, rhetorician and piiilosopher temji. Tiberius and Caiigula, XII 20 ; XV 3 Fabius Dosseunus, early Roman comic draraatist, XIV 92 Fabius Pictor, earliest historian of Rome, wrote in Greek, XIV 89 Fagutais. XVI37 Fauni, XII 3 Flaccus Pompeius, XV 91 Gaius Caligula, emperor, A.D. 37-41, XIII 22; XIV 64; XVI 201 Gailus, «ec Asinius. Gcrmanicus Caesar, nephew of Tiber- ius, subjugated western Germany, XIV 56 Gracchi, Tiberius, tribune 133, Gaius trlbune 123, 122 B.C., reformers, XIII 83 Graecinus, cos. A.D, 16, wrote on horticulture, put to death by Nero, XIV 33; XVI 241 Ilaramon, supreme god of Egypt, XII 107; XIII 102, 111 Harpalus, treasurer of Alexander, XVI 144 nemina. see Cassius. Hercules, XVI 234 Herodotus, XII 17, 80, 85 Hesiod, XIV3; XV 3; XVI 31 Hicesias, XIV 120 Hiero, tyraut of Syracuse 478-467 B.C., XVI 192 Homer, XIII 69, 88, 100; XIV 53; XVI 9, 19, 62, 110 Hortensius, dictator about 286 B.C., XIV 96 ; XVI 37 Hostus Hostilius, XVI 11 Ilus, grandfather of Priam, founded lYoy, XVI 238 lo, beloved of Zeus who, because of Hcra'» iealousy, turned her into a heifer, XVI 239 Juba, k.of MauretaniaunderAugustus, voluminous author, XII 39, 56, 60, 67, 80; XIII 34 Julia, XIV6U Julius Caesar, XIII 24 Junius, XV 2 Juno, XIV 9 Jupiter XII 3, 11, 89 INDEX OF PERSONS Lcnaeus, Atbenian freedman of Pompey the Great, auttior and schoolmaster at Rome, XV 129 Liber, Italian god of fields and viiies, identified with Bacchus, XII 85; XVI 9, 155,214 Licinianns Mucius, XII 9 Livia, XIII74; XIV 111 ; XV 70, 136 Lucullus, cos. 74 B.C., «ommanded against Mithridates 71 li.C, famous for hixurious bouses and gardens, XIV OG Maetennius, XIV 89 Mallius, unJinown, XV 49 MarceHus, xee Aeserninus. Marsvas. cballenged Apollo to musical contest, defeated, bound to a tree and flaved by Apolio, XV 240 Maso, cos. 231 B.C., XV 126 Masurius Sabinus, iurtst, temp. Tiber- ius, XV 126, 135'; XVI 75, 236 Matius, XII 13; XV. 49 Medi, XII 16 Minerva, XII 3 ; XVI 214, 240 Mithridates, 120-63 B.C., k. of Poutus, XVI 137 Mucianus, cos. A.n. 52, 70, 75, sup- ported Vespasian against Vitellius, XIII 88; XVI 213 Nepos, see Oomelius. Nero, emperor A.D. 54-68, XII 19, 83 ; XIII 22 ; XIV 61 ; XVI 206, 233, 242 Nomius, XII 193 Novellius, sce Torquatus. Numa, second king of Rome 715-673 B.C., XIII 84 f.; XIV 88 Onesicritus, historian of AIexander's Asiatic campaigns, on which he served, XII 34 ; XV 68 Otho, emperor for 3 months, A.n. 69, XIII 22 Palaemon, tee Bemmius. Papinius, cos. A.D. 36, XV 47 Papirius, XIV 91 ; XV 126 Passienus, see Cri.spus. Petilius, praetor ISl B.C., XIII 86 Piso, XIll 87; XVI 12G-192 Plancus. cos. 42 B.C., supporter of Julius Oaesar and Octavian, XIII 25 Plautus. XIV 92 Plotius, XIII 25 Ponipeius, XII 20, 111; XV 3, 70 12G; XVI 7 Pomponius Secundus, tragic poet, cos. A.D. 41, XIII 83; XIV 56 Poppaea, mistress and later wife of Nero, XII 83 Postumius, cos. 505 B.C., XV 125 Protesilaus, Thes.salian cliief, landed first at Troy and killed, XVI 238 Ptolcmaei, kings of J'^gyiit, XII 56, 76, XIV 76 Ptolemaeus of Mauretania, XIII 93 Pyrrhus, 318-272 B.C., k. of Epirus, XIV 12; XVI 36 Remmius, Q. Palaemon Fannius. liberated Greek slave, famons scholar, taught Quintilian, XIV 49 Saturnus, XV 42 Scaevola, XIV 93 Scandius, XV 49 Scipio Africanus Maior, XVI 192 Secundus, see Pomponius. Seius, XV 2 Seleucus, 353-250 B.C., k. of Syria, XVI 135 Seneca, author and statesman under Claudius and Nero, XIV 51 Sentius, XIV 96 Servilius, XVI 14 Sibylla, XIII 88 Siccius, XVI 14 Silenus. XVI 155 Silvani, XII 3 Sol, XII 90 Sosianus Apollo, statue hrought to Rome from Seleucia by Q. Sosius, XIII 53 Spartacas, XV 125 Sthenelus, XIV 48 Stratius, XVI 239 Tamphilus, cos. 181 B.C., XIII 85 Tarquinius Priscus, k. of Ronic, 616-579 B.C., XV 1 Tarquinius Superbus, iast k. of Rome, 534-510 B.C., XIII 88 Tergilla, XIV 147 Theoi)hrastus, pnpil and successor of Aristotle, XIII 101 ; XV 1, 10, 83, 138; XVI 144 Theopominis, liistorian, patronized by Alexander, XVI 59 555 INDEX OF PERSONS Tlberius, emperor, A.D. 14-37, XIII 89,94; XIV 16, 64, 143 ff.; XV 54; XVI 190, 200 Torquatus Novellius of Milan, temp. Claudius, sumamed Tricongius be- cause he drank 3 congii (about 2J gallons) of wine at a draught, XIV 144 Tubertus, see Postumius. Tuditanus, cos. 129 B.C., orator and rhetorician, XIII 87 Valerianus Cornelius, friend of Plinv, XIV 11 Valerius, M., brother of Valerius Publicola who eipelled the TarquinB, XV 126 Varro, encvclopaedic author, XIII 69f., 84, 87; XIV47, 58, 96; XV 34,60; XVI7, 115, 194 Veiovis, old Italian deity, XVI 126 Venus Myrtea, XVI 121 Venus Victrix, XV 125 Vergilius, XII 17; XIII 83; XIV 7, 18,35,39,67,128; XV 4, 56; XVI 127 Vespasianos, emperor, a.d. 70-79, XII 94, 111 Vetulenus, XIV 49 Vitellius, XVI 83, 91 PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BT KICHARD Olay and Oompany, Ltd., BUNOAT, SUFFOLK. THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY VOLIMES ALREADY Pl BLISHED Latin Authors Ammianus Mabcellinus. Translated by J. C. Rolfe. 3 Vols. Apuleius: The Gotjjen Ass (Metamorphoses). W. Adling- ton (1566). Revised by S. Gaselee. St. Augustine: City of God. 7 Vols. Vol. I. G. H. McCracken. Vol. VI. W. C. Greene. St. Augustine, Confessions of. W. Watts (1631). 2 Vols. St. Augustine, Select Lettebs. J. H. Baxfer. AusONius. H. G. 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Anderson. 2 Vols. SiLius Italicus. J. D. DufT. 2 Vols. Statius. J. H. Mozley. 2 Vols. SuETONius. J. C. Rolfe. 2 Vols. Tacitus: Dialogues. Sir Wm. Peterson. Agricola and Germania. jNIaurice Hutton. Tacitus : HiSTORiES AND AxNALS. C. H. Moore and J. Jackson. 4 Vols. Terence. John Sargeaunt. 2 Vols. Tertullian: Apologia and De Spectaculis. T. R. Glover. MiNUCius Felix. G. H. Rendall. Valerius Flaccus. J. H. Mozley. Varro: De Lingua Latina. R. G. Kent. 2 Vols. Velleius Paterculus and Res Gestae Divi Augusti. F. W. Shipley. ViRGiL. H. R. Fairclougli. 2 Vols. VlTBUVius: De Architectura. F. Granger. 2 Vols. Greek Authors AcHiLLES Tatius. S. Gaselee. Aelian: On the Natube of Animals. A. F. .Scholfield. 3 Vols. Aeneas Tacticus, Asclepiodctus and Onasander. The Ulinios Greek Chib. Aeschines. C. D. Adams. Aeschylus. H. Weir Smyth. 2 Vols. ALcrpHBON, Aelian, Philostratus : Letters. A. 11. Benner and F. H. Fobes. Andocides, Antiphon, Cf. MiNOR Attic Obators. Apollodobus. Sir James G. 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Aristotle: Obganon — Categories, On Interpretation, Prior Analytics. H. P. Cooke and H. Tredennick. Abistotle: Obganon — Posterior Analytics, Topics. H. Tre- dennick and E. S. Foster. Abistotle: Organon — On Sophistical Refutations. On Coming to be and Passing Away, On the Cosmos. E. S. Forster and D. J. Furley. Abistotle: Pabts of Animals. A. L. Peck; Motion and Pbogbession of Animals. E. S. Forster. 4 Aristott.e: Physics. Rev. P. Wicksteed and F. M. Cornford. 2 Vols. Aristotle: Poetics and Longinus. W. Hamilton Fyfe; Demetrius on Stvle. W. Rliys Roberts. Aristotle: Politics. H. Racklmm. Aristotle: Problems. W. S. Hett. 2 Vols. Aristotle: Rhetorica Ad Alexandrum (witii Puoblems. Vol. II.). H. Rackham. Arrian: History of Alexandeu and Indica. Rev. E. Iliffe Robson. 2 Vols. Athenaeus: DEiPNOsorHiSTAE. C. B. Gulick. 7 Vols. St. Basil: Letters, R. J. Deferrari. 4 Vols. Callimachus: Fragments. C. A. Trypanis. Callimachus, Hymns and Epigrams, and Lycophron. A. W. Mair; Aratus. G. R. Mair. 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Oldfather. 2 Vols. EuRiPiDES. A. S. Way. 4 Vols. Verse trans. EusEBius: Ecclesiastical History. Kirsopp Lake and J. E. L. Oulton. 2 Vols. Galen: On the NATURAii Faculties. A. J. Brock. The Greek Anthology. W. R. Paton. 5 Vols. Greek Elegy and Iambus with the Anaceeonxea. J. M. Edmonds. 2 Vols. 6 The Greek BucoLtc PoETs (Theocritus, Bion, Moschus). J. M. Eilinonds. Greek Mathematical Wouks. Ivor Tliomas. 2 Vols. Hekodes. Cf. Theophuastus: Characters. Herodotus. A. D. Codley. 4 Vols. Hesiod and Tiie Homeric Hymns. H. G. Evelyn White. HirPOcu.\TEs and the Fragments of Heuacleitus. W. H. S. Jones and E. T. Withington. 4 Vols. HoMEu: Iliao. A. T. Murray. 2 Vols. Homer: Odyssey. A. T. Murray. 2 Vols. Isaeus. E. W. Forster. IsocRATES. George Norlin and LaRue Van Hook. 3 Vols. St. .John Damascene: Barlaam and Ioapaph. Rev. G. R. Woodward and Harold Mattingly. JosEPHUS. H. St. J. Thaciceray and Ra!ph Marcus. 9 Vols. Vols. I.-VIT. JuLlAN. Wilmer Cave Wright. 3 Vols. Lucian. 8 Vols. Vols. I.-V. A. M. Harmon. Vol. VI. K. Kilburn. Lycophuon. Cf. Callimachus. Lyua Guaeca. J. M. Edmonds. 3 Vols. Lysias. W. R. M. Lamb. Manetho. W. G. Waddell: Ptolemy: Tetuabiblos. F. E. Robbins. Maucus Aurelius. C. R. Haines. Menandeu. F. G. Allinson. Minou Attic Ouators (Antiphon, Andooides, Lycuugus, Demades, Dinauchus, Hypeueides). K. J. Maidment and J. O. Burrt. 2 Vols. NoNNOS: DiONYSiACA. W. H. D. Rouse. 3 Vols Oppian, Colluthus, Tryphiodorus. A. W. Mair. Papyri. Non-Literary Selections. A. S. Hunt and C. C. Edgar. 2 Vols. Literary Selectioxs (Poetry). D. L. Page. Parthenius. Cf. Daphnis and Chloe. Pausanias: Description of Greece. W. H. S. Jones. 4 Vols. and Companion VoL arranged bj'^ R. E. Wycherley. Philo. 10 Vols. Vols. I.-V.; F. H. Colson and Rev. G. H. Whitaker. Vols. VI.-IX.; F. H. Colson. Philo: two supplementary Vols. (Translation only.) Ralph Marcus. Philostratus : The Life of Apollonius of Tyana, F. C. Conybeare. '2 Vols. Philostratus : Imagines; Callistratus : Descbiptions. A. Fairbanks. 6 PniLOSTRATUs and Euxapius : LivEs OF THE SopnisTS. Wilmer Cave Wright. PlNDAR. Sir J. E. Sandys. Plato : CiiARMiDEs, Alcibiades, Hippauchus, The Lovers, Theaoes, Minos and Epinomis. W. K. M. Lanib. Pi.ATO: Cratvlus, Parmenides, Greater Hippias, Lesser HiPPiAS. H. X. Fowler. Plato: Euthyphro, Apolooy, Crito, Phaeuo, Phaedrus. H. N. Fowler. Plato: Laches, Puotagoras, Meno, Kuthydemus. \V. 11. M. Lamb. Plato: Laws. Rev. R. G. Bury. 2 VoIh. Plato: Lysis, Symposium, Gorgias. W . R. M. Lamb. Plato: Republic. Paul Sliorey. 2 Vols. Pl.\to: Statesmax, Philebus. H. N. J'owler; Ion. W. li. .M. Lamb. Plato: Theaetetus and Sophist. H. N. FowJer. Plato: Timaeus, CuniAS, Clitopho, Menexesus, Epistulae. Rev. R. G. Bury. Plutarch: Moralia. 15 Vols. Vois. L-V. F. C. Babbitt. Vol. VI. W. C. Helmbold. Vol. Vll. P. H. De Laey and B. Einarson. Vol. IX. E. L. Minar, Jr., F. H. Sandbaeh, W. C. Holmbold. Vol. X. H. N. Fowler. Vol. XII. H. Cherniss and W. C. Helmbold. Plutarch: The Parallel Lives. B. Perrin. II Vols. PoLYBius. W. R. Paton. 6 Vol.s. Procopius: History of the Wars. H. B. Dewing. 7 Vols. Ptolemy: Tetrabiblos. Cf. Manetho. QuiNTUS Smyunaeus. A. S. Way. Verse trans. Se.xtus Empiricus. Rev. R. G. Bury. 4 Vols. Sophocles. F. Storr. 2 V^ols. Verse trans. Strabo : Geogbaphy. Horace L. Jones. 8 Vols. Theophrastus : Characters. J. M. Edmonds. Herodes, etc. A. D. Knox. Theophrastus: En^uiry into Plants. Sir Artliur Hort, Bart. 2 Vols. Thucydides. C. F. Smith. 4 Vols. Tryphiodorus. Cf. Oppian. Xenophon: Cvropaedia. Walter Miller. 2 Vols. Xenophon: Hellenica, Anabasis, Apology, and Symposium. C. L. Brownson and O. J. Todd. 3 Vols. Xenophon : Memorabilia and Oeconomicus. E. C. Marchant. Xenophon: Scripta Minora. E. C. Marchant. IN PREPARATION Greek Authors Aristotle: HisTOttv of Animals. A. L. Peck. Plotinus: A. H. Armstrong. Latin Authors Babrius and Phaedrus. Ben E. Perry. DESCRIPTIVE PROSPECTUS ON APPLICATION London WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD Cambridfie, Mass. HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS 878P728Nv.4c.1 Pliny # Natural history. 3 0005 02002755 6 The R.W.B. Jackson Library OISE viim V. 4 Plinius Sacundus Natural history 878 P728N V. 4 Plinius Secundus Natural history