Wie RPh Aah te See ahora tiheheden t Role Debchatet since ‘ ars ‘ era tee “6 — tel a fivbtellsaeine he Tatohy Daler re pints 0 ie uss ‘ FA Seyi P od Peiiytey el o. ra ef 8 ae are oer wis wrasse ™ opiate ;. dghvly te hehehe ia Vetere 3 tebe fern . ete a teeth Oe as Rnd (Mone ee bs, “ is. full e Ber pe he Bite yo 2 ee ree eh cabo . nthe terete — ae fonbd abe-rinruinmrdremy (cent [J 4 F pent ebb es sh ae af ee ee See se . sieirar's Kee feta 70 sf 4 es NAO ee Al oe Tal Te hotit wh Mineews $8 °°. s icsiehad shh tabotanenaettinted tetadi\ntbetin ed 3 ayia heat Sa NATURAL HISTORY THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOLUME XxXI 1Q21 a Ac ay ae, y4 Published bimonthly by THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY NEW YORK CITY 1921 - An fustratea magazine devoted to ie vancemer tory, the recording of scientific research, e loration, and discover hg and the development of museum exhibition and museum influence education. Contributors are men eminent in these fields, including the scientific staff, explorers, and members of the American Museum | es NATURAL HISTORY IS. SENT «ols 0) _ TO ALL CLASSES OF MUSEUM Rese “}, -- MEMBERS AS ONE OF THE oe PRIVILEGES OF MEMBERSHIP Fi aad ee GH aH Hi a} ‘ yy ‘> " at le ; yw jw Hey TS ee a Y ; y . Al . mek “as CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXI JANUARY-FEBRUARY, No. 1 Frontispiece, Portrait of Dr. V. K. Ting, Director of the National Geological Survey of China............ 4 mumniional Geological Survey of China. ..... 5.6.5.0... cc ck eee ccc tetas ce nitilele eae J. G. ANDERSSON 5 SE TIOUDE IC CRRALUIS 5 5 25.55 chia cs aco. 0:4 vies 4 0: aipues se tial gets ithe-a/eeaaneetele Reale eli yield a aie CLARK WISSLER 13 A TESEOTAC? FRATIEIS EG girs cs. cig -n's. «28 acaouin,5 eWS.0'ai0 0.4! ¥ eyalbin 8 whoa alo aid Bibione eet @iateleie' a A. E.Doucrass 27 EET Te GOCr an FLIS. WOLK s..0)..5 5 oo s.o.6 0s: esegcc 0, 6 ola seme eM brane, waa ass 40 18D elias») We JAMES F. KEMP 31 Marie Sklodowska Curie. .................5. “sn ale Dee» hn the SAMI? ag Roar Eos a se Ch Nagle vior a ie GEORGE F. KUNZ 34 Bird Collecting in the Highlands of Santo Domingo............. 0.020 c cece eee cee eee ee eee RoLtLto H. Beck 36 meee ene iirde of Tierra del Fuego... .<. osc \in. cols dipie tials ae + alsa b ccne's ¢ oipisinin’y + * ceieels F. E. BLaauw_ 50 neritic is (central ASia. 2... 65 vis.0 aereicissoyeio oe aialela eeie ale hllves boalehale grees Roy CHAPMAN ANDREWS~ 69 IESE SALOL UNG. E’ATATIIO 5. 6.5) 5s! v5.4: ina 4 0.0, 0, ane Alen hee pain A Abolecare ew Vos, Shae lac HERBERT J. SPINDEN 71 RETEST: TVETSCUIIS: 5 5.005 ses he o's: 0 ta sinned due Rvs) aiamalw es Sereiele aks + lee epeib Wa ezk ove 0% FREDERIC A. LUCAS 74 Meeerar Brandreth s Bird Paintings... 12 5, ois die vieteiaieidin's ojepeelvia.> elaine She Vareie vie 6 FRANK M. CHAPMAN’ 78 I ernie coc ain't e aeviaanat. aldiaahbig:b">: Scsigserace wy sia $05 6ieid'S SatR RR UREe Co aR ciara Ae eonerel y Siduici bs BRE co erate Ie Ge Poe eg we gin: 432 SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER, No. 5 Seoneamioce, Color Plate of Peruvian Gold. our aceiidusenabteveie Ges Le ve oe VES Ui 0.3 acd vis wits Me Beriwingcold-or the Chimu Kingdom: «. 6.323 Wks ie ehhh oso ae a orb eee Piiny E. GODDARD ¥ 447 Prehistoric Mining in Western South America... 2.0.00 coc cnc tee tlee es cee wom ga cle CHARLES W. MEap 453 The Physical Characteristics of the Two Prehistoric Chilean Miners. ................. Louis R. SULLIVAN 456 From Humid Forest to Snow-capped Height in Ecuador. .............0 00 cece ceeeeecees H. E. ANTHONY 458 Bee are tr COG arauipinl PLO 35/0555... 3535, <’s 0 5c we elem eee Suis ion satire tes G. KINGSLEY NOBLE 474 Pages from the Photographic Journal of the Harvard-Peruvian Expedition. .......... G. KINGSLEY NOBLE 486 aay rmmbie RCC IAY CC! XUINTAS. 6 ois 'a) sei od.» 0, «'« win natenan eae Male ieeota «\2 aie a alatetoibeel enna EpWarRD W. BERRY 495 Bird Life in the Urubamba Valley: A Review. ...........ccccceccccscceceecs ROBERT CUSHMAN MuRPHY 507 iii An Appreciation. ........ccccecec cere ceeesec eres seeecressmsnssesares HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN 513 A Life of Abtmdant Accomplishment. ....%/.icc.s nove ce nce piace esis ss e's eco: FRANK M. CHAPMAN 515 Radium—The Supreme Marvel of Nature’s Storehouse...............+++.0--- G. F. KUNZ AND G. FAILLA 520 The Marie Curie Radium Fund......... _« olen, wid SiBCarens pte! 6 Aisa eI mRNEa in S(ohc soe. o' swe’ s/s iManage . F. KUNZ 536 Recent Activities of European Archzologists. .......... SIRS? kn es eS ei N.C. NELSON 537 Personnel of the Second International Congress of Eugenics... ............ 022 cece cee e cece rete ee ceeeees 542 WHER oy nn cw wc cc cc cco a 5 ccna tate tite lata earl eure MEERA Ess. |, 2c a0 cl yen eee 545 - NOVEMBER-DECEMBER, No. 6 Frontispiece, Portraits of Sir Ray Lankester and J. Reid Moir. .................. URL TEEER 564 The Pliocene Man of Foxhall in East Anglia. . 2.0... 05.0... ccc ccc eee eee HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN 565 The Dawn Man of Piltdown, Sussex: ’). iveeiasi rates eitteee ote cnt Wane ater totbs ca ore HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN 577 Did the Indian Know the Mastodon?. ati, Shs vse stata owilo Sienabe lee awk Ree eternal Wks eanie Jay L. B. TAYLOR 591 Tras and Bison. . .. . . o ac obo Si ek = bile Rene pens DR n eran al act une nese te ecient ESS W. D. MATTHEW 598 © Reins of Fishes. . . so .s.g05 ces cee wih he wk oO eae oe lap MI TG satus aCe T nara We ie E. W. GUDGER 607 Erwin S. Christman, 1885-1921.) 5.0. eine ee ee evnas eis Wel eng laa $a ... WILLIAM K. GREGORY 620 Glimpses of the Home Life of the Saw-whet Owl...... ROBERT B. ROCKWELL AND CLARK BLICKENSDERFER 626 Why Paleontology? 5 ic:2 5.2 Sie sis ce ss. 5 sass a nese Sen oy aaa te ore le ae a RCA Ta edt sn atin . D. MATTHEW 639 Junior Horticulturists of Greater New York. 2.2.0... 0... eee cee eee cece eee eee RutTH CRosBY NOBLE 642 The Gypsy. Moth in New: Jersey. i/'.06:505. 08 OES Gaia ie abe ain pete el ataidt «BAND ai oo? des alsa 647 Notes oo 5 cc cS dls ES vin srele pales ieee’ o a's ime’ s'est sina @"s. Sainte ve inpete .e teas acne aia trc io 2c ts ott 649 ILLUSTRATIONS Across the Andes to the Yungas, 494-506 Atlin Lake Region, B.C., (Cordilleran Ice Sheet), 250— 2 Australians (natives), 227, 228 Birds:—Booby, 401, 402, 407; Courtenay Brandreth’s Bird Paintings, 78-84; Diatryma, 324; Dominican lls, 65; egg of noddy tern, 405; hornbill, 243; ce goose, 60: great horned owl, 175-184; pen- guins, 50, 54; red-tailed tropic bird, 406; Santo Domingo birds, 36-49; short-billed petrel, 403; sooty terns, 406; steamer ducks, 56, 57; Tierra del Fuego birds, 50-68; Urubamba Valley bird life, 508-510; visiting the nests of seabirds by automo- bile, 102, 398-407 Bison, 602, 605, 606 Borneo, 240243 Boy Scout Museum, 216, 331 Burroughs, 112-125 Butterfly migration, 439 Cat, Borneo, 241 Cover designs for NATURAL History, 207-209 Dayaks, Borneo, 240-243 : } Diagrams: Aztec ruin, 29; Foxhall pit, 570; Piltdown gravels, 582; Jacobs’ Cavern, 592; Muséum d’His- toire Naturelle, Brussels, Belgium, 665 Diamond polishing, 292-294 Dinosaur hall, 641 Ecuador, 146-160; 458-473 Elephant heads (African), 245 Flint ay eee rte 572-576, 587 Flower Exhibition, 642-646 . Fossils: Agate Quarry, 325; Bisen_regius, 606; bone pace: 594, 595; Diatryma, 324; dinosaur, 659, ; Foxhall jaw, 568; glyptodonts, 559; ground sloths, 558; reel ty 23 Foxhall (Pliocene man), 564-576 Frog, marsupial, 474 Geological Survey of China and Its Museum, 4-11 Gila monster, 92, 95 . Gold of Chimu, facing 447, facing 452 Gorilla, John, 655 “Great Friar of Paramo,”’ 71-73 Gypsy moth extermination, 647 Harpswell Laboratory rock formation, 653 Harvard Peruvian Expedition photographs, 486-493 Hawaiian volcanic region, 336-355 Humane Education Poster Contest, 215 Hyde, T. B. T., 331 Indians: Chimu gold objects, opposite 447, opposite 452; Hidatsa, 440; Fuegian, 62, 63; Hopi, 212, 419-424; Huichole, 233-239; Indian corn, 408-424; Jivaro, 146-160; Laguna, 417, 420, 421; Mayan art, 212; miners’ tools, 453-457; Navajo, 418; Taraharsare, 231, 232; Zufii, 416, 418 Insects as food, 192-199 Jacobs’ Cavern, 592, 597 Loco weeds and locoed animals, 86-91 Maps: drainage basin of Arkansas River, 282; East Anglia, 582; Kilauea section of Hawaii Nat’l Park, 338; Peru, 450; Southern Islands of Mariana group, 128 Mariana Islands, Guam and Saipan, 126-145 Marsupial frog and its environment, 474-485 Miami Aquarium, 356-364 Miners’ implements from Chili, 453-457 Monkey, 241; 655 Motor truck that will be used in Mongolia, 69 Mount Desert Island, 653 be.) Museums: Boy Scouts, 216, 331; early museums, 74, 76; Geological Museum, Peking, 8-11; d’Historie Naturelle, 665 “Northern Lights,” painting by Howard Russell But- ler, 205 Peruvian gold, 447, 452 Pitcher plants and their moths, 296-316 Piltdown discoveries, 577-5 Portraits: Carl E. Akeley, 428; Joel Asaph Allen, 514; Henri Becquerel, 526; John Burroughs, 112, 116, 120, 123; Marie Curie, 34, 162, 527 (with Monsieur Curie); Erwin Christman, 620; Leonard Darwin, 246, 544; Walter Granger, 320; Gerard DeGeer, 31; Sir Ray Lankester, 564; Carl Lumholtz, 224; Lucien March, 544; J. A. ewes 542; J. Reid Moir, 564; Frederick H. Stoll, 662; C. K. Ting, 4 .. Posters, 207-209, 212, 215 Radium, 520-535 Rock crystal ball, 96, 98 Roosevelt hall (model of projected hall), 430 Roseg Glacier of Switzerland, 271 Ruins of Southwest, 13-30 Sharks, 272-278 Snakes, 166-171; 216, 476, 491° Sonora desert, 235-238 Spiders, 367-380 Squid, 434, 435 Swiss lake-dweller discoveries, 172 Tibetan shrine, 547 Trees, 386-397 Urus, 601 Volcanoes, 336-356 Yungas, 504-505 NATURAL HISTORY THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGH. THE MUSEUM JANUARY—FEBRUARY, 1921 [Published May ] VoLumME XXI, NumBer 1 NATURAL HISTORY VoLuME XXI CONTENTS FOR JANUARY—FEBRUARY NUMBER I Frontispiece, Portrait of Dr. V. K. Ting, Director of the National Geological Survey of China The National Geological Survey of China................ J. G. ANDERSSON 4 The story of how this progressive institution, which had its birth in the Revolution of 1911 , is influencing the future welfare of China through the development of that country’s mineral resources Illustrations from photographs of the Geological Museum at Peking Dating Our . Prehistoric Ruins... ise oan CLARK WISSLER 13 Search of the Archer M. Huntington Survey for the key to the mysteries of the cliff dwellers, the mesa dwellers , and the builders of the great pueblos of the American Southwest With two color plates Dating Our. Prehistoric: Ruins 2:00.32 Yeas see A. E. DouGLass 27 A remarkable method of estimating time by the annual growth rings of timbers is explained by its discoverer Baron Gerard De Geer and His Work.................. .... JAMES F, Kemp 31 Notes on his researches as to the recession of the great ice sheet in Sweden With a portrait Marie Sklodowska Curie ....) 00) 0.3 04 se. eee ee GEORGE F. Kunz 34 With a portrait : ; Bird Collecting in the Highlands of Santo Domingo.......... Roitto H. Beck = 36 Illustrations from photographs by the Author Days with the Birds of Tierra del Fuego.................... F. E. BLAAUW 50 With copyrighted illustrations by Rollo H. Beck The Motor Truck in Central Asia Roy CHAPMAN ANDREWS 69 The American Museum’s Third Asiatic Expedition first to “break the trail” for motor transportation across the Mongolian plains The Great Friar of the Paramo............. Seis HERBERT J. SPINDEN- 71 Glimpses of Early “Museums. 2.000204. Goa fae FrepDEerRic A. Lucas 74 The genesis of the habitat group Illustrations from original engravings loaned by Major W. H. Mullens Courtenay Brandreth’s Bird Paintings.............. FRANK M. CHAPMAN 78 Review of an exhibition of unusual interest in the art of bird portraiture held at the American Museum With illustrations from photographs of some of the paintings exhibited : Loco: Weeds 5.536325) coe tat en reesei ean ARTHUR HOLLICK 85 A survey of certain plants injurious to live stock The - Venom. of -Heloderima sf cea fs Sure eh es es Lo Leo LoEB 92 Discussion of the question of its fatality to man and beast ; Rock Crystal: Baligy 7 yiiteb oie oe bene a a HERBERT P. WHITLOCK 96 NNOtes oo oo ieee Dinre mney alte nla God Ueno che Boaiobeia rae ec nich anne cr ean 99 Published bimonthly, by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Subserip- tion price, $3.00 a year. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secretary of the American Museum, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. NatuRAL History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges of member- ship. Entered as second-class matter April 3, 1919, at the Post Office at New York, New York, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, t917, authorized on July 15, ro18. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY MEMBERSHIP For the enrichment of its collections, for scientific research and ex- ploration, and for publications, the American Museum of Natural History is dependent wholly upon membership fees and the generosity of friends. More than 5600 friends are now enrolled who are thus supporting the work of the Museum. ‘The various classes of membership are: ME See rie, So ae ks Se PRU A, OOOO NEEL WASTE OE 5 See Sa AD Re ei care eh | EGOS ESOCIALE MONCIACLON 080) 5s Pe ew a Pat eed, OOOO NN i etal sig) os og’ OL eI ieee RN IMS recite ES 3 . EREO REO iC Oe fea ig cs iach Diet ae ae Tenn ah Bs 500 Be REM OE st elk grr wa tite Seep ae nee aw 2 gt nil 100 Sustaining Member or ie see amtally 25 Annual Member 2. ee ose eS annually 10 Associate Member (nonresident)*. . . . . annually 3 Full information regarding membership may be obtained from the Secretary of the Museum, 77th Street and Central Park West. *Persons residing fifty miles or more from New York City. NATURAL HISTORY: JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM ¢ NATURAL History, recording popularly the latest activities in natural science and exploration, is published bimonthly by the American Mu- seum of Natural History. The subscription price is Three Dollars a year. NATURAL History is sent to all classes of members as one of the privi- leges of membership. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Secre- tary of the Museum. POPULAR PUBLICATIONS A large number of popular publications on natural history, based on the exploration and research of the Museum, are available in the form of handbooks, guide leaflets, and reprints. A detailed list of these publications with price lists and full information may be obtained by addressing the Librarian of the Museum. SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS The field and laboratory researches of the American Museum of Natural History and other technical scientific matters of consider- able popular interest are represented by a series of scientific publi- cations comprising the Memoirs, Bulletin, and Anthropological Papers. A condensed list of these publications will be found on the inside back cover of Narurat History. Price lists and complete data may be obtained from the Librarian. DR. V. K. TING Director of the National Geological Survey of China NATURAL HISTORY VOLUME XXI JANUARY-FEBRUARY, 1921 NUMBER 1 THE NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CHINA BY J. G. ANDERSSON* The geology of China is so closely related to the future welfare of that country, and especially to its agriculture, its forestry, its mines, and mechanical industries, that we welcome in NATURAL History the full and interesting account of the National Geological Survey and its fine museum, prepared by Dr. J. G. Andersson, well known as a geologist and paleontologist, who was called from the University of Upsala to the staff formed by Director V. K. Ting; and as the Survey of New York State was the most important factor in building up the state museum, so we may be sure that the Survey of China will give a great impetus to the establishment of museums in that country. When our thoughts go back to the institution of the Natural History Survey of the State of New York in 1836 and we witness the intellectual and practical benefits to the people of the state, we may express the hope and belief that the year 1911 may be no less auspicious in the future history of China. In its Third Asiatic Expedition the American Museum of Natural History plans to coéperate with the Geological Survey of China in the same way that it at home is codperating with our national and state surveys for the promotion of knowledge and the welfare of the people. HE young and progressive insti- {ution which carries the name “The Geological Survey of China” is a child of the revolution which over- threw the Imperial régime of the Man- chus and inaugurated the present Re- publican era. When, at the end of tort, the Provisional Government was formed at Nanking, Mr. H. T. Chang, a graduate of Tokyo University, was appointed chief of the section of geology in the De- partment of Mines under the Board of Commerce and Industries, and in the following year he published in the Pro- ceedings of the Geographical Society of China a program for a systematic geo- logical survey of the country. Upon the removal of the Central Gov- ernment to Peking, Mr. Chang was ap- pointed geological expert in the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. Shortly afterward the two ministries became amalgamated as the Ministry of Agricul- ture and Commerce, and the section of geology of the Bureau of Mines came under the leadership of Dr. V. K. Ting, —HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN. a pupil of the eminent British geologist, Professor J. W. Gregory, of Glasgow. When it was planned by Messrs. Chang and Ting to begin extensive geo- logical field researches, a serious difficulty was encountered in the total lack of a staff of experienced field geologists. In his above mentioned program for a na- tional geological institute Mr. Chang had proposed the establishment of a school for the training of surveying. geologists, and this school was organized in Septem- ber, 1913, with Mr. Chang as its director. The pupils were selected from among the graduates of middle schools, and the aim of the enterprise was to give to these young men a course of about three years’ intensive training in the branches neces- sary to a field geologist. It will be noted that this “geological school” boldly re- placed university training as it was then given, and the eminent success of the experiment will commend it to the inter- est of all colleagues of Messrs. Chang and Ting, who in other countries have tried to solve by different methods the *Late Director of the Geological Survey of Sweden, Mining Adviser to the Chinese Government, and Curator of the Museum of the Geological Survey of China 5 6 NATURAL HISTORY Students of the Geological School, Peking, during an excursion in the Kaiping coal basin, April, 1916. difficult problem of recruiting a body of field geologists. The teachers of the Geological School were mostly officials in the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce who, during nearly three years, persistently carried on these courses voluntarily and without any remuneration. Within an official- dom which by foreign writers is not in- frequently spoken of with contempt as being devoid of patriotic sentiments, this patient and unostentatious work certainly stands out as a piece of splendid patriotism. I believe that it has never before been told in foreign language how these representatives of Young China quietly but zealously worked for years to teach a-still younger generation how to open up this immense country for geological research. It gives me especial pleasure to pay this tribute to the teach- ers of the Geological School, which is no longer in existence because it has fully accomplished its aim, which was to give the Geological Survey of China its first staff of efficient field men. I well recall these courses which, dur- ing the later terms, were held in the premises of the present Geological Survey where I also had my office. At every hour of the day the bell rang for a change of teachers, and often, when I arrived to begin my day’s work, I met one or an- other of my Chinese friends who had just finished his first teaching hour for the day and who then went to his routine work in some office of the Minis- try. aa Besides Mr. Chang, the founder of the school, and Dr. Ting, the director of the present Geological Survey, I> want to mention among the teachers Dr. W. H. Wong, graduate of the University of Louvain, a charming man and distin- guished scientist, our petrologist who, in Dr. Ting’s absence, is acting ditector of the Geological Survey. Another most noteworthy member of the staff of teachers of the Geological School was Mr. Chang Yi-ou, M. E., educated in Mons. He was the first director of the Department of Mines, a position so eminent that a holder of such a rank in title-ridden Europe would hardly dream of stepping down to be- come a teacher of youths. Yet, in this land of ceremonies and of formalism, this high mandarin, in rank next to a Minister of State, walked quietly to his classes in metallurgy. The subjects: of study in the school were selected for the sole purpose of THE NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ‘OF CHINA 7 training geologists for the Survey. Be- sides pure and applied geology, including mineralogy, petrology, and paleontology, with some short courses in biological sciences, the program included chemis- try, physics, geodetic and topographic surveying, mining methods, the elements of metallurgy, and some teaching of foreign languages. The training was conducted not only in the schoolroom but also during numer- ous and trying field excursions. The average upper class Chinese is very little inclined to corporal exertions, but the writer of this article, who has traveled with educated Chinese of many types, can testify that the graduates of the Geological School have totally aban- doned the sedan chair and fully realize that a pair of strong legs is the field geologist’s sovereign means of locomo- tion. When the last term of the school neared its end I was asked by the Minister of Agriculture and Commerce to undertake the examination of the twenty-two students, and I was per- mitted to conduct this in the form of an excursion in the Kaiping coal basin, where we stayed ten days. During the first three days we went as one party all over the field, after which each student was given a week’s time to examine a selected portion of the region in detail. To some was assigned a mine, to others a special group of strata, and to still others an examination of the industries based upon the mineral materials of the region. After their reports, written in English, had been turned in, I had the pleasure, in consultation with the director and the teachers of the school, to recommend the larger number of the graduates for promotion to junior membership on the staff of the Geological Survey. There is no doubt that the Geological School: has proved a success. I have since carried on field work for months with a number of these young men. There are of course large individual dif- ferences, but these men are all serious and very active workers. A number of them have been sent abroad, mostly to the United States, for additional train- ing. One of them, who recently left for the United States, completed, before his departure, a monograph in English on the western hills of Peking, which is a piece of remarkably ripe and clear thinking, while at the same time it is a fine linguistic performance for a young fellow who had never been abroad. The paper is now in print and will soon be distributed. This article began with the statement that the Geological Survey was in its beginning a product of the revolution of torr. In its present form it is a creation of the Emperor-elect Yuan- Shih-Kai, who in 1916 was the center of an attempt to restore the monarchy. In ro15 the writer of this article had an opportunity, under the auspices of the then Minister of Agriculture and Commerce, Chow-Tzu-Chi, to explain during a two hours’ audience to President Yuan, and to illustrate by means of maps, sections, and numerous specimens, the result of our work with reference to iron ore deposits. This demonstration remains for me a most remarkable memory because of the deep impression I received of the powerful strength and penetrating genius of this man who was then the almighty ruler of China. I believe that to some small extent it contributed toward giving to President Yuan a clearer understanding of the methods and possibilities of geological research. The would-be emperor, Yuan, desired to enhance the splendor of his ascen- sion to the throne by creating a number of modern institutions intended to pro- mote industries and education. Orders to this effect were given to the different ministers, and in our Board a number of institutions were planned or created, among them an enlarged Geological Survey with a considerable staff and a budget able to meet the necessary ONINAd ‘WOASAW TVOIOOTO’D AHL AO ONIGTING IVALNAD I¥VCO GNV NOUI CL aalOAaa ‘ONINAd ‘WOASAOW TVOISOIOdDS AHL NI NOIWIGIHXA es EN : ; THE SECTION OF STRATIGRAPHY AND PALASONTOLOGY METALLIFEROUS DEPOSITS (EXCEPT TRON) THE NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CHINA II expenses. Some of Yuan’s innovations have not materialized because of the prolonged political struggle which fol- lowed upon his tragic downfall. But the Geological Survey has, under Dr. Ting’s able and determined leadership, always enjoyed the full support of the men in power, and has become such an important factor in the development of for a number of years was connected with the Survey, is ready for publica- tion. The general geological survey of the provinces of Chihli, Shantung, and Sharisi has also made considerable prog- ress, and the geological description of the two last named provinces will soon be completed.” Surveys for China’s par- NONMETALLIC DEPOSITS (EXCEPT COAL) China’s mineral resources that it may be safe to consider its continued growth fully assured. The staff of the Survey at present includes thirty persons, among them eighteen field geologists. For practical reasons the Ministry has very largely utilized the personnel for the examina- tion of various kinds of mineral deposits, and a large number of ore bodies and coal fields have been surveyed in detail on the scales of 1: 20,000, I: 10,000, and larger scales. The iron ore deposits have been made the object of special detailed research, and a monograph on the iron ore resources of China, pre- pared by Dr. F. R. Tegengren, who ticipation in the international geological map on the scale of 1: 1,000,000 have recently been begun. Two series of publications have begun to appear, a Bulletin for smaller, com- munications and Memoirs for larger monographic work. The first number of the Bulletin (1919) is available to the public, as well as the first Memoir, in which Dr. Wong gives a summary of all available data on the mineral resources of China (metals and nonmetals except coal). In this work is contained a vast amount of information on the mineral deposits of China hitherto absolutely unattainable to foreigners. So far Dr. Wong’s work is issued only in Chinese, 12 NATURAL’ HISTORY but a French edition is planned to appear in the near future. No‘distribution of the publications to geological surveys in other countries will take place before another far ad- vanced memoir is fully completed. ° The greatest difficulty for scientific work within the Survey has been the lack of literature. In the early part of this year the director of the Survey suc- ceeded in collecting from private donors, principally a number of mining com- panies, funds sufficient to start the establishment of an up-to-date geological library. The building is under con- struction, and at the same time the litera- ture is being collected through many channels in Europe, as well as in the United States of America. Even in the early days of the Survey a beginning was made in the establish- ment of a geological and paleontological museum. ‘The larger part of the exhibi- tion is devoted to the mineral resources of the country. In addition to a large section devoted to practical geology there are small but comprehensive col- lections of the minerals of China and of its igneous rocks and its fossils. The stratigraphic section is at present under- going revision, and a section for dynamic geology has recently been organized. At present there are 2850 specimens on exhibition, under glass and_ properly labeled, all collected in China by our own men. A very considerable extension of the museum is contemplated within a few years, in order to put on exhibition the large series of animal and plant fossils which we have already collected and which are at present in the hands of a number of specialists for monographic preparation. It is not surprising that a Geological Survey which is only a few years old and which has been kept busy with technical problems, has not yet had time todo much purely scientific research. But extensive and systematic collecting of fossils of all kinds has been carried on during a number of years, and several prominent coworkers have been secured for the examination of this material. In 1917 Dr. Th. G. Halle, keeper of the paleobotanical department of, the Stock- holm Museum of Natural History, traveled extensively in this country, col- lecting fossil plants. Since then we have continued the collecting, and at present Dr. Halle is engaged in the study of the very extensive material of Paleozoic and Mesozoic floras thus brought together. In 1916 I began research work on the Cenozoic deposits of northern China, and in this connection a large number of fossil vertebrates, mostly mammals, have been brought together. As pale- ontological collaborator for this material I have succeeded in securing the codp- eration of another of my countrymen, Prof. Carl Wiman, of Upsala, who is now engaged in preparing a monograph on the Hipparion fauna. Recently Dr. A. W. Grabau, formerly professor of paleontology in Columbia University, New York, has come to China in the joint capacity of paleon- tologist to the Geological Survey and professor of paleontology in the Na- tional University of Peking. This emi- nent expert on invertebrate fossils has begun work on the material, mostly of Paleozoic age, which has been accumu- lated as the result of a number of seasons of field work. It has been decided by the director of the Survey to issue the monographs to be prepared by Messrs. Grabau, Halle, and Wiman, as well as by other future paleontological coworkers, in a special publication entitled Paleontologia Sinica, which is intended to cover in a series of independent monographs all the fossil faunas and floras of China proper, as well as such material from the vast de- pendencies of China as may be brought together by the Survey. JET AND TURQUOIS INLAY These objects were found in the ruin of Pueblo Bonito by members of the Hyde Expedition DATING OUR PREHISTORIC RUINS THE SEARCH FOR CIVILIZATION’S TIME CLOCK IN THE SOUTHWEST MAY REVEAL DEFINITE FACTS REGARDING THE STORY OF MAN IN PREHISTORIC AMERICA BY. CLARK WISSLER Foreworp.—The Archer M. Huntington Survey of the Southwest was organized in 1909 by Clark Wissler, curator of anthropology in the American Museum, to include work among the living Indians of the American Southwest as well as a search for the history of the builders of the ruins so numerous throughout that region. The persons who have taken an active part in the investigations are: P. E. Goddard, R. H. Lowie, H. J. Spinden, N. C. Nelson, Leslie Spier, E. H. Morris, and M. L. Kissell, of the American Museum staff. In addition, a special investigation of the Zuni was made by Prof. A. L. Kroeber, of the University of California. The tree-ring investigation has been delegated to Prof. A. E. Douglass, of the University of Arizona, the originator of the method. The entire investigation to date has been supported by Mr. Archer M. Huntington. OR many years a band of wild kK Indians concealed themselves in a bit of wilderness in the moun- tains of California, but were at last reduced to a single man, who, after a hopeless struggle against hunger and want, staggered forth into civilization and into captivity. Through the hu- manity of two or three professors in the University of California, he was given ahome. He became the subject of many investigations. One of these professors, an expert in archery, soon found that, al- though the Indian had always used the bow, his archery was inferior. The professor out-shot the Indian in every trial. Like every true professor, he began to inquire into the reasons for this, making a number of experiments, the outcome of which was that the white man excelled the Indian solely because his methods were better. There is a profound truth in this result. |The civi- lized man of today is far more efficient than the man of the Old Stone age, chiefly because his methods are superior. The graduate of a medical college han- dles a case of typhoid, whereas an African conjurer would make a mess of it, the difference being one of technique. And ‘we shall not be far wrong if we say that man has advanced in proportion to the improvements in his methods, particu- larly in his methods for getting at the facts. Wells, in his remarkably readable The Outlines of History calls attention to the generally recognized fact that the status of astronomical knowledge is an index to the degree of civilization. And the fundamental thing in astronomical affairs is precision in the reckoning of time. This science began with the first efforts of primitive men to keep a date and advanced bit by bit until today the clock and the calendar are so intricately interwoven with our civilization that they could by no possible means be eliminated without destroying the whole fabric. One would have even more chance of keeping his rug after pulling out the warp than of maintaining a civilization without calendars or clocks. But, you ask, what has this to do with ruins in the United States or elsewhere? It has everything to do with them. All of the earth sciences and all of those having to do directly with man are eternally concerned with time in one form or another. Geology, that digni- fied and imposing science of the rocks, would be a ghastly chaos without its periods, and what are these periods but marks on the time chart of creation! So, when we set out to study ruins, we are concerned first and last with their time-relations. In 1909 Mr. Archer M. Huntington expressed himself as sufficiently in- terested in the prehistory of south- western United States to finance a systematic survey of the ruins found there, with a view to discovering their time-relations. In other words, men 13 Photograph by N.C. Nelson SECTION OF REFUSE HEAP AT PUEBLO BONITO, CHACO CANON, NEW MEXICO Something of the history of any human settlement may be learned by examining the accumula- tions of débris thrown out from day to day during the life of the community. At Pueblo Bonito, one of the largest and most interesting ruins in the Southwest, and one from which the American Museum possesses extensive collections, the accumulated refuse lying in front of the village forms a long mound measuring about 75 x 500 feet at the base and all of 16 feet in height. In 1916 two separate trial sections were made, of which the above is the highest. The results were disappoint- ing in that the broken pottery, and other industrial remains found showed comparatively little change during the supposedly long process of accumulation. Elsewhere in the Southwest the stylis- tic changes, for example, in pottery, are often very marked 14 ————— eT DATING OUR PREHISTORIC RUINS _ I5 were to be sent out to seek in these ruins the marks by which they could be ar- ranged in order, according to their ages. So a research staff was organized to grapple with this problem and has been engaged upon it at intervals during all the succeeding years. At the outset it was conceived that since the earth left telltale marks of its progress in the rocks and sands, so man in and about these ruins must also have left the record, if one could find out how to read it. Just lately, for example, a celebrated European geologist has been touring this country to see how the clays beneath our soil are laid down and he is reading in their hitherto imperceptible lines the successive pulsations of time. So in the case of the ruins, it promises to be but a matter of method, and the Archer M. Huntington Survey may be said to have as its object the discovery of civilization’s time clock in the South- west. Once with its key in our hands we can unravel many of the mysteries of the cliff dweller, the mesa dweller, and the builders of the great pueblos like Bonito and Aztec. Experience in other parts of the world, particularly in Egypt and _ western Europe, suggested that the most likely means of dating ruins was to be found in the fragments of pottery scattered about. Pottery is truly an art, for while it has utility, it is at the same time so plastic in origin as to give almost free rein to styles of artistic expression and the use of decorative technique. Fur- ther, though pots are easily broken, their pieces are practically indestructible, so whenever and wherever pottery was made, one may find the samples. The record, therefore, is in the simple pot- sherds, and our problem was to find a method for reading it. Descriptions of technique are apt to be wearisome, so we will content ourselves with a few of the simpler steps in the method of dating ruins by potsherds. In the first place, where things pile up on the ground, the first to go down will be at the bottom of the heap. In the days of our pioneer forefathers, a cabin was built in the forest, and a clear- ing made. As the ashes accumulated in the fireplace, they were dumped out behind the cabin. Here also were cast the sweepings from the hearth, bones, broken glass, dishes, etc. So, in the course of time, a considerable heap was formed in which was recorded, in one way and another, the story of what went on in the cabin. Now, it so happens that most of the ruins in south- western United States are of the com- munity type, that is, they contain a number of rooms, in a few instances as many as five hundred, one to a family. The: families usually cast their ashes and sweepings in one place, where from year to year the community dump grew and grew, until in some cases it reached a depth of twenty feet. It was in these dump heaps that our investigators found part of the answer to their ques- tions. Such a deep deposit of ashes and other waste contains several kinds of pottery and of these the oldest is at the bottom and the latest at the top. This method of dating, according to which is above and which is below, is, for convenience, called the method of superposition, or the stratigraphic method, because it has some analogy to the earth’s strata which the geologist interprets in terms of time. If the people once living in what is now a ruin in southwestern United States had never moved away and had always rebuilt near the same spot, there would be little difficulty in reading their history. All we would then need to do would be to dig a trench through the accumulated ashes, sweepings, etc., and study the markings and contents of the exposed sections, where everything is laid down more or less successively in order of time. But nowhere is the problem so simple. Every now and then the population shifted. For aught we know, new peoples came as con- querors and evicted the rightful owners. Photograph by G. H. Pepper DETAIL OF CEILING IN PUEBLO BONITO This rectangular room has ceiling beams of pine placed transversely and covered with a layer of willow stalks, which in turn is covered with cedar bast; a four-inch layer of adobe over this formed the floor surface of the room above. ‘The bark-stripped beams and peeled willows give the ceiling the most ornate appearance of any in the pueblo 16 Photograph by E. H. Morris CEILING CONSTRUCTION AT THE AZTEC PUEBLO RUIN, NEW MEXICO The Pueblo Indians from the earliest times to the present appear to have used only two types of ceiling construction, of which the above is the simplest and most common. Heavy timbers up to eighteen inches in diameter served as chief support and were laid usually (not so in the illustra- tion) two or more feet apart and across the long axis of the chamber. Resting on these came a longitudinal course of lighter timbers, placed only a few inches apart. Next above was placed a transverse course of thinly split timbers, or else sticks, laid as close together as possible. This in turn was covered with a layer of twigs, bark, or grass and then capped with a few inches of clay or adobe, pounded down hard. The surface of the adobe, if it was to serve as a floor, was sometimes coated with blood and then smoothed and polished with a stone 17 aN, Wientte Photograph by N.C. Nelson VILLAGE OF TAOS, NEW MEXICO This is the northernmost of the Pueblo villages in the Rio Grande Valley and one which has been sufficiently conservative to have preserved for us another type of communal house construc- tion. The village consists of two main buildings, each four or five stories high. These buildings are terraced in the shape of a rough pyramid, in place of being terraced only on the south side, as in the case of Acoma. The doors, windows, and chimneys, as well as the hive-shaped ovens to be seen on the ground level adjoining the buildings, are of European origin. Population in 1910 was about 500 Photograph by N.C. Nelson VILLAGE OF ZUNI, NEW MEXICO This is the largest Indian village in the United States, having a population of about 1700. It is the home town, as it were, of a separate tribe or linguistic stock, many members of which live in outlying settlements during the farming season. The apparent rise of ground on which the vil- lage stands is due in part to the accumulated débris of fallen houses surmounted by later construc- tions. Until recently the building material consisted largely of sun-dried clay or adobe. ‘The fenced areas are garden plots. The Zufis were the first of the Pueblos to come in contact with the Spanish explorers more than 350 years ago 18 Photograph by N.C. Nelson STREET SCENE IN ACOMA, NEW MEXICO This Keresan village is unique in several respects. It is built on top of an isolated rock about 360 feet high, and has occupied that fortress-like situation since before the white man invaded the country in 1540. Probably, therefore, it is the oldest inhabited community in the United States. Again, this village, housing today about 700 people, preserves for us one of the most highly devel- oped types of ancient Pueblo architecture. Thus it consists of three long, parallel, communal buildings, all facing south, there being no doors or windows in the north wall, which latter rise sheer two or more stories, as seen in the left of the picture. In the foreground at the east end of the principal “‘street’’? may be seen the water reservoir, occupying a hollow in the surface of the great rock. ‘This stronghold was stormed and partly burned by the Spanish in 1598 a AMT + - - Pe a eta * Photograph by N.C. Nelson VILLAGE OF LAGUNA, NEW MEXICO This village was founded in historic times, which partly accounts for its lack of architectural compactness. Thus here, in addition to the modern doors and windows, we see isolated one-story houses, strongly suggestive of the breaking up of the communal form of organization. To this might be added the further fact that the greater number of the population credited to this: vil- lage, 1441, actually live in small outlying settlements, all far more favorably situated for agriculture and stock raising than is the home village itself 19 oS ynoqe jo uornendod v pazyepourmodse 41 JeY} PoyeUll}sa SI }I puv ‘sWMIOOI [eIUOWIAIID g pur Ip[Ndas PII sUTeIUOD JJ “Buoy Jay QIz pue daap yooj 6g ‘aAvd [eINZeU MOTL[RYS B satdnoo0 UNI ay, “ABo;OUyIY ULoTToUTY Jo NvsINg a4} JO ‘SoyMIT “Mf ‘aq Aq poaatedas pue porvazo Apayapduroo sea ‘go6r ul pue ‘16gT Ur “W]OYYI0}g Jo ‘pjQrysuepioN *H uorrg Aq po}RAvoxe Ajyied sea 31 {QggT UI ‘OpRIO[OD ‘soouR PL JO ATTULR] [[LIIYIAAA OY} JO SIoquuaut Aq patIAOISIpP SVM UINI OY, “uoryeyIqey Jo dA} Sty} Jo ajdurexa auy v ‘sapIsaq ‘ST puv uorenys 0} adsar yyIM onbsoinjord sour 9y} st asnoFY IA, sonidg “yIeg [PUOHRN aps9A wSAPY IY} UT S9sNOY HII as1e] [RIVAIS 94} JO Odvuao10d ‘ACUYAA VSAN ‘ASNOH AAAL AONAdS WISIIN “DN XQ YF DASO[OY T MOpoq WuseYS daap ay} OJUT Sur[ey Wory soyeuUT JaSUNoA dy} Suuaaasd pur yno sorwous Surdsoy ‘aavd ay} JO JUOI] 9Y} SuoTe uses 9q 0} ST ‘apeajsnjeq & SB dAIIS 0} YSnoua YysrIY pastes soovjd ur ‘yea Sururezor y “jovzUT Buleq suoor day-A]UIM} 9 JO [ersAes fad} JaT[aMp “BY [BUNUVIUAOS oY} Jo SuINI paAsosaid 4saq IY} JO 9UO SI I] “SAITJOMP YI aps9A Vsapy IY} JO syUoWdaaryor [eInqoo]TYDIV jsoysty oy} SuTIqiy ® paparesor st ‘ainjord 9Y} JO JYSU sut91}xe 9Y} Iv9U Ud—S [AI] A10]S-pUODaS JY} UO BPURIAA IO J[aYS dy} WO; poureU os ‘gsnoyy Auooreg OdVUOTOO “ACNAA VSAW ‘ASQOH ANOOTVA uos}aN *D*N set ee td Photograph by G. H, Pepper PUEBLO BONITO, CHACO CANON, NEW MEXICO This photograph taken from the cliff shows the west third of the ruin partly excavated. In the foreground may be seen under construction the field laboratory of the expedition 26 NATURAL HISTORY ment of the collections in the American Museum. The attainment of the above chronological outline and the perfecting of the methods noted for reading the time-relations of ruins has been a slow and laborious process and is, like most things of this kind, not the work of a single individual. A number of investi- gators have given their best efforts to the problem, but the Huntington Survey has predominated in the two regions noted, the San Juan and the east Rio Grande district, through the work of Mr. N. C. Nelson and Mr. E. H. Morris, of the American Museum staff. The work now under way promises to reveal the subdivisions of the periods given in our table and thus render our dating ~ more exact. It seems clear then, that the Archer M. Huntington Survey will in the end: contribute something precise and definite to the story of man in pre- historic America. It has already given us better methods and, as we have seen, the attainment of better methods prom- ises new triumphs. eo) ely Re ees elele pn 400 efe ie +4 ~ & ~ 4 y ejete EH “Te epe\e . _e lelg . LJ o Z , . cay a ei? r we 2 = = or je 2 . P3 e J = ~~ aa . mad ee Ia Two fine examples of two-color painted ware from Pueblo Bonito. The colors are black and creamy white A PAINTED TABLET OF WOOD From the ruined pueblo of Bonito, New Mexico. The Hyde Expedition SS DATING OUR PREHISTORIC RUINS HOW GROWTH RINGS IN TIMBERS AID IN ESTABLISHING THE RELATIVE AGES OF THE RUINED PUEBLOS OF THE SOUTHWEST A. E. DOUGLASS* , | ‘HE freedom from undergrowth of the pine trees of northern Arizona and their exposure to the characteristic drouths of the country, first suggested to the writer the idea that their chief variations in growth had a climatic origin. Accordingly a_ long search was made for evidence of climatic effects, which has resulted in the iden- tification, dating, and measurement of more than 100,000 rings in nearly 400 different trees. Many interesting re- sults have been obtained, and an exten- sive technique of ring-study has been developed. Of that technique the most important feature of present interest is the cross-identification of the growth rings in the different timbers. This was first developed in tg11 in studying trees near Prescott, Arizona, where it was found that nineteen trees out of twenty had ring systems showing marked re- semblance to one another. This gave additional confidence in the yearly identity of the rings and the climatic _ character of their major variations. The extent of area over which this extreme similarity is found may be only a half mile, as in the mountainous region near Prescott, or 50 miles as found between groups in the Sequoia region, or even more than 200 miles, as shown between Flagstaff, Arizona, and Durango, Colo- rado. Occasional rings of extreme character are found to be alike in the Sequoias of California and in the pines of Arizona, 450 miles away. Very rare rings have been traced across 750 miles of country. In tor15 Dr. Clark Wissler wrote a letter expressing interest in the study of tree rings and offering sections of beams from ruins in New Mexico. The offer was gladly accepted and a selection was made at once from beams, from surround- ing trees, and from trees growing in ruins. From these specimens it was evident that pine and spruce beams were very good for this study, while juniper often was very disappointing. In 1918 Mr. Earl H. Morris, working in the Aztec ruins for the American Museum, sent six sections from Aztec and three from Pueblo Bonito, in Chaco Cafion. The six from Aztec were immediately found to cross-identify, three or four of them very well and the other two or three only fairly. The three from Chaco Cafion have not yet been identi- fied. Part of this was very encouraging, and in August, 1919, I visited Aztec in order to plan more satisfactorily the next step. I found that the sections had come from a pile of loose beams whose exact loca- tions in the ruins were not known. It was immediately evident that the loca- tion of each beam should be known and that a way must be devised to get the rings without injuring the floor beams or other parts of the structure still in a good state of preservation. Ac- cordingly soon after this visit I had special borers made of steel tubing, one inch in diameter, with saw teeth at the one end and brace attachment at the other. Small teeth, some ten to the inch, have proved better for dry beams than coarse teeth of twice that size. These borers were tried out at the laboratory in Tucson and the fine- toothed one sent to Mr. Morris. With patience and skill he has used this borer on the beams at Aztec and: obtained for me cores from twenty-six beams located in sixteen different rooms, with- out injury to the ancient construction of. the building. *Professor of Physics and Astronomy, University of Arizona 27 No oO NATURAL HISTORY Core from northwest corner room at Aztec, showing latest cutting date, R.D. 531. Three black dots (really pin pricks in the wood) form the century mark, one dot indi- cates the decade. (Twice natural size) I obtained finally the ring-records of thirty-seven different beams, of which thirty-two were accurately located in the ruins. About twenty different rooms were included, passing across the large north portion of this great 450-room building. |The cross-identification in nearly all was perfectly easy and satis- factory and the relative dates of cutting the timber ascertained. In order to express these conveniently a purely hypothetical date, R. D. (Relative Date) 500, was assumed for one of the larger of the outer rings and all dates expressed with reference to that year, whatever the real date in our era may have been. It will be seen from the diagram that nine years will cover the time of cutting the various timbers examined and that it was not continuous. The principal cutting years were R. D. 524-25 and 528. The builders probably worked in the forest in the colder part of the year and obtained enough logs to last two or three years. These were used until nearly or entirely exhausted, when more were obtained. As a result of this study, the beams brought back to the American Museum by the Hyde Expedition to Chaco Cafion, twenty-five years ago, were examined and sections cut from seven. Of these one was cedar and could not be inter- preted and one was a small pole used in pueblo floor construction to lay upon the beams. ‘Two were posts, the rest ceiling beams. It was noticed that a peculiar sequence of rings occurred near the out- side of each. This made the determina- tion of the relative cutting dates in this group very easy. Then it was recol- lected that a similar sequence existed in the Aztec beams. Upon careful comparison the cross-identification be- tween these ruins became absolutely convincing. Similarity was found for the years R. D. 480-84, 475, 470, 461, 454, 448 Or 449, 435, 432; 427, 423, 418, 408, 406, 402, 393-95, etc. There is no doubt that the beams in Aztec and Pueblo Bonito were living trees together during more than a hundred years and that the cutting of the timbers for Aztec followed that for Pueblo Bonito by from forty to forty-five years. Finally one beam from Pefasco Blanco, a few miles down the Cafion from Pueblo Bonito, appears to have 6c douIsS 9UOP Udeq Sey YON *Z161 Jo pua dy} 7 SUOT}RAROXI 9Y} JO UONIPUOS 94} pu ‘s1dqUIT} 9Y} JO SUTZINI oY} JO Se}J¥p IATIEIAI VY} YIM ‘suvaq pdzEp IY} JO TOT}eIO] BY} SMOYS STYT, NINY O9LZV AHL JO NVId ened We hoy ek Poe dia eas log Ee Ppl on : beglne wader? phere an eS a Ae ge eae uacialy Pence Ocal hone eee NOstioae Ao Sats Fes ag epee Sybase vee ' ' - ; / ' ; ' : ; ! ‘ ' i | " Se ' ' ' t 1 : ' fr Wee cei umes se SS 8 GF Ny PES oe eis - Aes prepare 4 V/ Y ' ay 5 ee ' \ i ' ( ‘ ap ye / ' ‘i \ ' { ' 1 f ‘ dg We eee ee ' iD \ \ j \t VALY I) \ ea ye ; \ I) hy 2s Seca Mice bey aa) ANN yl ° raha pumpadien dees: oe. os aege ate ae ee Pf : ‘ 1 i vo Wen ‘ tt way pega te ; ! Ns:226/ ‘ \ ed es ee <4 Pe hme, ; ene dat ibe eae eS, ‘ ' a ! ! ' ‘ } : ' ' ir \ ' H é / ' . 4 ! ! 1 : ; ep ts seater aies Gee ' { v i H 1} MALY Mets: 1 \ . ' Js | 1 1 ! 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Reet Soin ie We 1 { t 1 1 ! ; ye 3 ; 1 : i i 1 : \ = ' ' ‘ pas PBs at ah ae Oe een elle bree an as es ee ad 2 F aa 4 epee opr nee --r 4-7 L T ' 4 1 ; 4 1 ' \ t ! N-OES | ; : ‘ Vo, ! ezs! ' | 1 . ' St eer t oe \ 8%S | 82S ; 8%Si 1¢¢ Fins SE ee hee wroctew a otas ebm enw un ares ed oy 30 NATURAL HISTORY Sections of two beams, the upper from Aztec and the lower from Pueblo Bonito, placed side by side with their rings matching, to show how much the Aztec timbers grew after the Pueblo Bonito timbers had been cut been cut about twenty years after the greater number of the Pueblo Bonito beams. Two of these Pueblo Bonito beams are from identified rooms, namely 32 and 36 as numbered by the Hyde Expedition. In conclusion I should state that an ex- tensive study has been made of the types of growth records which most nearly resemble the rainfall periods in localities near by and very careful selection and weighting of the Aztec and Pueblo Bonito curves of tree growth have been completed. The resulting curves have been combined and standardized and show yearly growth as in the aecompany- ing figure. This curve undoubtedly gives us a fair idea of rainfall variations near this ruin during the two centuries preceding its construction. There is reason to hope that by the aid of the Sequoias it may sometime be- come possible to determine just how long ago this particular sequence of variations occurred in northwest New Mexico. Mah vid Wada bl ‘his tah, ye vee | Tree growth at Aztec and Pueblo Bonito from R.D. 288 to R.D. 527, arranged to test climatic periods by an optical method Baron Gerard De Geer, Professor of Geology, University of Stockholm BARON GERARD DE GEER AND HIS WORK JAMES F. KEMP* MERICAN and Canadian geolo- ay gists and many others interested in geological science have re- cently had the great pleasure and privi- lege of welcoming on this side of the Atlantic Baron Gerard De Geer, past- president of the International Geological Congress of 1910, professor of geology in the University of Stockholm, and fore- mast among the European investigators of the great Ice Age. Baron and Baroness De Geer, with two experienced assistants, have been applying in Canada and the northeastern United States the methods of investigation already carried by them to an almost perfect technique in Scandinavia. Very promising results are indicated, and in Canada and the United States the full publication of the report of the expedition will be awaited with deep interest. Geologists in these two countries have already profited greatly by field trips, conferences, and lectures extended by our distinguished visitors. Baron De Geer is now in his sixty- *Department of Geology, Columbia University 31 32 NATURAL HISTORY third year. His university training was gained in the ancient seat of learning of Sweden, Upsala, where the traditions of Linneus and Berzelius still linger. While yet a candidate for his degree, he began his work on the Swedish Geological Survey in 1878, and soon became espe- cially attracted by the problems presented by the moraines, sands, and clays left by the retreating continental glacier in the geological times just preceding our own. In 1882 he made the first of five trips to Spitzbergen, then a No Man’s Land in the Polar sea. In 1896, 1808, and rgor he went again, and in 1910 he conducted a large party from the International Congress of that year. The Spitzbergen work has thrown a flood of light.on the geological formations of this far northern land and has given a clue to the structure and large tectonics not alone of the islands but of the North Atlantic ocean bottom, as well. Baron De Geer’s most interesting results have been attained, however, in the study of the laminated clays which were deposited in many parts of Sweden from south to north. It appears that the melting and retreating continental glacier backed up in front of it extended bodies of fresh water, which often reached considerable depths next the ice itself. Into these waters the sediment-laden streams, fed by the melting ice, poured from tunnels in the bottom of the glacier just as they do now from the fronts of glaciers resting on the surface in‘ the valleys of the Alps and elsewhere. In the warm seasons the melting was great and the supply copious; in the winter the melting ceased and the streams failed. Following the cold months the supply of water and suspended sediment was renewed and passed through the annual cycle of the seasons. The sedi- ments in the cold and heavy waters spread out over the lake bottom and, as they settled, produced widely extended deposits of laminated clays. The laminated clays thus were laid down in annual layers of the same signifi- cance as are the rings of growth in a tree trunk. As melting waned in the autumn, the amount and coarseness of the sediment fell off, giving a layer of fine, fat clay, which is easily recognizable and which marks the close of a year’s work. By its aid the annual increments can be detected, measured in thickness, and counted. They vary widely. Some may reach six inches when the summer was unusually hot and melting was copi- ous. Some may be only an inch or even less, corresponding to cold summers which may have been occasioned by sun spots. When: the annual layers have been measured by ingenious and expeditious methods, the thickness of each one can be represented to scale by a vertical line, and the lines can be drawn in series, standing one half centimeter apart upon one base line for a long series of years or measurements. When the sum- mits of these vertical lines are connected, a saw-tooth curve results which practi- cally shows the ups and downs of the seasons, the very hot ones being shown by high summits in the curve, the very cold ones by low notches. { After years of work in developing these methods, Baron De Geer realized that, of the markedly hot seasons, each pre- vailed over a wide area, and would be recognizable by its especially high sum- mit in the curves which were plotted for separated places perhaps many miles apart. The summit was _ necessarily preceded and followed by characteristic ups and downs. Matching the curves’ soon revealed such startling uniformity that individual years could be correlated without an appreciable chance of error, Still more remarkable was the later dis- covery that curves taken in Finland across the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Bothnia, as well as others over the mountainous divide in Norway, could be matched with those established in Swe- den, and the same years in each could be recognized. Now comes the question, can they not also be matched and com- pared with those taken in North Amer- BARON GERARD DE GEER AND HIS WORK 33 ica, since study of comparative mete- . orological records today brings out a practical uniformity in hot years and cold years on both sides of the Atlantic. Baron De Geer was therefore moved to come to America, measure as many exposures of laminated clays as possible, plot the curves, and compare them with his series of similar ones in Scandinavia. In the four months since his arrival in August last he has found exposures of much interest in Vermont, Quebec, Ontario, Wisconsin, New York,and.in the Connecticut Valley of the New England States. In the elaboration of the details he will be greatly aided by his assistants, Dr. Ernst Antevs and Dr. Ragnar Lidén. The former is spending a year in the United States, working over the problems during the closed season at one or two of the American universities, and with the codperation of American and Canadian friends and colleagues, will resume field work when the warm weather comes around again. Should the establishment of correlated years result for both sides of the Atlantic it would be a great step forward. In Sweden Baron De Geer has reached a measurement of about 13,500 years for the retreat of the continental glacier across Sweden. For the first portion of the time of retreat, which is repre- sented by the area lying between the terminal moraine in Denmark and Ger- many, and which is partly beneath the North Sea, measurements are less ac- cessible than for the succeeding stages. The latter are, however, almost, if not quite as accurate as if he could have counted the rings of growth on a gigantic, long-lived tree. In southern and central Sweden 5000 years have been estab- lished, with an almost negligible limit of possible error, and in northern Sweden 8500 years with a possible error of one or two centuries. Various interesting corollaries follow. For instance, a deposit of prehistoric flint implements has been found on a delta in Sweden whose relations with known laminated clays can be made out, giving a pretty accurate clue to the number of years ago that primitive users of flint followed the retreating ice into Sweden. Again, the continental glacier extinguished plant life, and, on its retreat, gradually the vegetation followed it northward. The actual number of years can now be quite closely made out, and the time required to change inhospi- table sands, gravels, and clays to soils capable of supporting the present plants and trees can be determined. A chro- nology is afforded for the distribution not alone of plants, but of animals as well. Should a parallel chronology result for America, we shall be able to check the estimates of time already based on the retreat of the crest of Niagara Falls, on the retreat of the Falls of Minnehaha, of the Mississippi, and the one or two local attempts by American observers to count clay layers in single localities. and Canada were under the general charge of the American-Scandinavian Foundation, with coépera- tion from the International Educational Alliance. The following groups of American and Canadian geologists cordially joined in making the trip a success: President Henry F. Osborn, of the American Museum of Natural History; Director George Otis Smith, of the United States Geological Survey; Dr. I. C. White, president of the Geological Society of America; Vice Chancellor Adams, of McGill University; President Branner, of Stanford University; Professor Chamberlin, of Chicago University; Professor Coleman, of Toronto University; Dr. W. O. Hotchkiss, director of the Wisconsin Survey; Professors Kemp and Luquer, of Columbia University; Dr. Leverett, of the United States Geological Survey; Professor Lindgren, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Professor Scott, of Princeton; Dr. Upham, of Minneapolis; and Professor Woodworth, of Harvard. An executive committee consisting of Consul General Lamm, of Sweden, Mr. John G. Bergquist, Dr. I. C. White, Dr. Waldemar Lindgren, Dr. H. G. Leach, president of the American-Scandinavian Foundation, with Dr. J. F. Kemp as chairman, gave attention to the details. Baron De Geer lectured at Chicago, Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, and Michigan universities; and before the American Geo- graphical Society, the American Philosophical Society, the Carnegie Institution, the National Academy of Sciences, and the New York Academy of Sciences. At the annual meeting of the last- named he was elected one of the limited number of Honorary Members. MARIE SKLODOWSKA CURIE BY GEORGE ADIUM, discovered in 1898 by RR vine Curie in association with her husband, Pierre Curie, marked an epoch in the development of physical science, for the wonderful phenomena shown by this strange element seem destined to revolutionize our conception of the material universe. - It was Mme. Curie who took the ini- tiative in the researches leading to this discovery, following the indications of- fered by some experiments on uranium made by Henri Becquerel, and in coédper- ation with her husband she carried on the investigation step by step until it resulted in the great discovery. She was born in Warsaw, Russian Poland, November 7, 1867, and is the daughter of Ladislaus Sklodowski, professor of physics and chemistry in the University of Warsaw. In 1891 she went to Paris, where, in 1893, she received a licentiate’s degree in mathematics, and in 1895 a degree in physical and chemical sciences. She soon after became instructor in physics at the high school of Sévres. In 1908, two years after her husband’s death, she was appointed chief professor of physics in the Sorbonne (Université de Paris). In conjunction with her husband and with Henri Becquerel, she was awarded in 1903 the Nobel Prize in phys- ics, and in 1911, the Nobel Prize in chem- istry was awarded to her alone. When Mme. Curie’s visit to the United States was announced, her many admir- ers were united in the wish to offer her some notable testimonial of their regard. While this recognition of her work was highly appreciated by her, she stead- fastly refused all proffers of a fund for her personal use, but in the spirit of the true scientist, she consented to accept the gift of one gram of radium, which she could use for her experiments. Contributions toward the Marie Curie Radium Fund, organized for the purpose of making such a gift possible, may be sent to the Equitable Trust Company, F. KUNZ Treasurer, 37 Wall Street, New York City. One gram of radium costs $100,000; thus far $78,000 have been raised. The ceremonies attending the presenta- tion of the radium to Mme. Curie will take place at 4 p.m. on May 20, 1921, in the White House, Washington. Presi- dent Harding himself will make the presentation. A reception in honor of Mme. Curie, which will be held in the auditorium of the American Museum on the evening of Tuesday, May 17, at 8:15, is being arranged by the American Museum of Natural History, the New York Academy of Sciences, and the New York Mineral- ogical Club, which have selected from their membership the following representa- tives to act asa reception committee: Dr. Henry Fairfield Osborn, Dr. Frank M. Chapman, Dr. William J. Gies, Dr. Edmund O. Hovey, Dr. D. Willis James, Mr. Ivan O. Lee, Dr. Frederic A. Lucas, Dr. William D. Matthew, Prof. Alex- ander H. Phillips, Dr. Edward L. Thorn- dike, Dr. Ralph W. Tower, Mr. Herbert P. Whitlock, Dr. George F. Kunz. Mme. Curie will speak on this occasion and, in addition, addresses will be made by Professor Michael Ivorsky Pupin, Dr. George B. Pegram, Professor Alexander H. Phillips, President Henry Fairfield Osborn, Dr. Robert Abbe, Dr. Francis Carter Wood, and Dr. George F. Kunz. An important collection of radio-active minerals will be exhibited in the west wing of the American Museum, compris- ing a full series from the magnificent Morgan Collection of the museum, sup- plemented by interesting specimens from the private collections of the members ‘of the New York Mineralogical Club, and minerals and apparatus, both physical and medical, loaned by other institutions and individuals. Some interesting liter- ature relating to the history of radium will also be shown. The exhibition will be opened the night of the meeting and will continue indefinitely thereafter. 35 gt TIVUL GATAAVAL TIAM AHL SNOTV HIOMOS AHL WOW ONVANL ONIBOVOUddV BIRD COLLECTING IN THE HIGHLANDS OF SANTO DOMINGO* ROLLO H. BECK in the fall of 1916 direct from a South American bird collecting trip, with instructions to reach, if pos- sible, the higher portions of the island of Santo Domingo. The presence, however, of American marines in full control of the city and the reports of bands of insur- rectionists in various parts of the country made immediate compliance with the instructions out of the question. After consulting the military commander, I collected about the city for a couple of months, crossing the river to visit prom- ising ground on the other side and _hir- ing a boat to go up the river a few miles. I also worked the wilder plantations outside the city limits. One day, while walking along the river bank, I heard shooting on the other side and saw na- tives running along the far bank and disappearing in the brush; sailors from the warship on the river pulled hurriedly for shore and hastened up the main street of the village. Later in the day I learned that two American officers had been shot by natives who had escaped in the thick brush that surrounded the village. Prudence suggested that I circum- scribe my going and coming still more, so much so that I packed up one day and took the steamer for Sanchez on the north side of the island. The marines at this post and the native population seemed to be on friendly terms, so a visit to La Vega, a town forty miles inland, was planned. Here conditions were more strained and a guard was sometimes placed at the entrance to the country roads to search incomers for firearms. At this place I discarded my khaki shirt and pants and bought a cheap na- tive outfit. Attired in the blue denim, soaked from hours of rain, and sloshing | ARRIVED in Santo Domingo City along through mud puddles and pools of water on one of the less frequented lanes, I, no doubt, looked like a mal hombre (bad man), as one native muttered when in the morning I passed his hut at a rapid stride, headed for the hills. At any rate, my looks were not reassuring to one of the young marines who was occupying the post on my trail as I neared town. He wanted to know where I was going, and whether I had a permit for the gun, but he allowed me to proceed when I mentioned his Major’s name and offered to show his signature to my pass. A battle took place twenty miles from La Vega a few days later between marines and natives, but my peregrinations about the country were not interrupted. Completing my work in the vicinity, I returned to Santo Domingo. Quiet reigning there, I left forsAzua, where a guide and mules were hired and the trip to the higher parts of the island was begun. We started before daylight and were well on our way by sunrise. The call of the burrowing owl by the roadside gave way to the coo- ing of doves as we passed a stream of water and headed out through the brushy lowlands toward the rolling hills in the distance. Wild guinea fowl crossed the road on foot once or twice ahead of us and one covey lost a member, as the twenty gauge was ready when they flushed from the side of the road at our approach. By noon we had reached a small brook of warm water but it was late afternoon before we arrived at our destination, the village of Tubano, where the search for specimens was to begin. Tubano consists of a couple of dozen houses, two stores, and a church, and is located in a little valley on the south side of the Rio de los Cueves, a fine stream * Illustrations from photographs by the Author 37 38 NATURAL of water heading among the highest peaks of the island. A letter to the leading storekeeper from a friend in Azua placed me in possession of a good bed in the rear of the store, with all facilities for satisfactory work, but after a few days’ collecting about the village I decided that a camp nearer Mt. Tina, the highest charted peak in the West "SS al < ‘ . x HISTORY by, but the clearings where tobacco and cane were grown, I learned later, were miles away. One of my first acts on reaching the settlement was to drop a_red-tailed hawk which was swooping down toward a flock of chickens in the back yard. Judging by two or three experiences in Santo Domingo, I believe such wing er The bird collector and his guide returning from a mountain trip in Santo Domingo Indies and distant only fifteen miles or so, would be more productive of desir- able birds. Arrangements were made with Sefor Ramon Velasquez, a prominent resident who lived up the river several miles, and, saddling the mules, we moved up and located in the storeroom of the ranch. The ranch was built on a high bluff over- looking the river which here ran between mountains of considerable height. There were three or four other houses near shooting was unknown to the natives. Several red-tailed hawks lived near the settlement, and although they frequently caught fowls and were not wild, they were permitted to live on until my ad- vent. One of them with a chicken in its crop I shot one evening, and another was taken care of when it lit near my camp in the cane field to watch an old hen and her brood. Although my guide from Azua claimed to have done much hunting, his success BIRD COLLECTING IN THE HIGHLANDS OF SANTO DOMINGO 36 with the gun which I furnished was very negligible, but when he told me the rea- son of his inability to shoot a certain kind of pigeon that. was occasionally seen in the underbrush near our camp at Mt. Tina, and which later proved to be a new variety, it surprised me so that I soon found it necessary to send the mules back to Azua in his care and depend on local guides in my further wanderings about the higher peaks of the island. As possibly some American shooter may be interested, I will give the reason for his nonsuccess with my gun. It was that the pigeon, when approached near enough to be in range, continued to walk away instead of standing perfectly still until the shot was fired! I later went over the ground this guide had hunted and secured several of the pigeons. The gun I used luckily did not require such an immovable target previous to the pulling of the trigger. Mt. Tina lay at the head of a stream which entered the river close by the settlement, and Sefior Velasquez a couple of days after my arrival agreed to pilot me to the top of it. We left one after- noon, following up the bed of the canon to an old camp occasionally used by pig hunters. Two young men and four dogs accompanied us to hunt for wild pigs. When we reached the hut we found it occupied by two other pig hunters and their retinue of canine assistants. Shortly before reaching the camp, which was located on the creek bank at the lower end of a wide flat, we climbed up over a steep, rocky formation where a warm stream of water, bubbling out of the hillside a few yards away, kept a growth of green grass flourishing. From this we flushed a couple of killdeer uttering their characteristic notes as they flew out to meet us. They seemed to me decidedly out of place inthe bottom of a narrow, heavily forested cafion, where beautiful trogans and _ strident- voiced parrots were the principal avian inhabitants. Here, as darkness fell, I Mountain guides with outfit on slopes of Mt. Tina ov sdoo1} sasnoy |[Ns snquinjod jo sAep oy} ur yINq WOJ plo oy OONINOG OLNVS LV LYod BIRD COLLECTING IN THE HIGHLANDS OF SANTO DOMINGO 41 heard for the first time the clear, sweet notes of the hilgaro, a small bird that sings usually only at dusk or daylight. The natives consider this the finest song- ster in the island. We started from camp early next ‘morning and soon left the bottom of the cafion to begin a steep, zigzag course that, after luncheon, led us out on the ridge terminating at the peak of Mt. Tina. The last few hundred feet to the top was a stiff climb, and the Azua man, complaining of a tired feeling, was left in charge of the horses, while the Sefor and myself went to the top. We found it to be an acre or so in extent, thickly covered with ferns and bushes and with no evidence of having been visited be- fore. It dropped sharply away on all -sides and afforded a fine viewpoint from which to locate other peaks in the range, but the height was disappointing to me, for several other peaks not far distant are some hundreds of feet higher. I regretted not having an aneroid barom- eter with me, but my work was origi- nally planned for sea level conditions and the desirability of an instrument for measuring uncharted mountain heights was not thought of. I have not yet learned who first pro- claimed Mt. Tina to be more than ten thousand feet high, as it is marked on the charts, or whether some other peak might have been measured and Mt. Tina given the credit. To one doing the measuring by climb- ing the mountain itself Mt. Tina affords easy approach on horseback, but to reach Mt. Pedro Blanco a few miles to the south, or Mt. Pelone some twenty or so miles to the north, both slightly higher than Mt. Tina, considerable foot work is required. Oneé of the objects in visiting the highest part of the island was to search for nesting sites of an ocean bird, Pterodroma jamaicensis, one of the West Indian petrels, which former- ly nested on Jamaica and Guadeloupe islands but apparently -has now been exterminated on those islands by the in- troduced mongoose. No petrel burrows were found, but from the scattered pines of the mountain tops to the mangrove swamps of the sandy shores, wintering warblers from the Eastern States were always in evidence, the black and white and the redstart being two of the most common. Jt interested me greatly some months later to find on the summit of Cuba’s highest peak, after a week’s chopping and climbing to reach it, a black and white warbler sharing with a common island tody the distinction of being the only birds present at the time of my visit. On our return from Mt. Tina late at night, the pig hunters were found at camp, having been unable to follow their dogs through the tangled brush that the wary pigs frequented. Senor Velasquez and his men returned to their homes next day, while the guide and myself spent several days at the camp collecting a number of species that found favorable living conditions in the deserted flat and the tall branching trees that dotted its surface. There were several old, sour-orange trees scattered along for a mile near the trail through the flat, and these were particularly patronized by the parrots, for the seeds of the ripe oranges seemed to form one of the principal items of their food just then. “Pericos,” the local name for a smaller paroquet that was sometimes seen, did not appear tofavor this part of the cafion, although a chattering flock used to sweep down through the royal palms in the cane fields about five miles below our camp, and later I obtained specimens down there. The handsome blue ground pigeon, living more like a quail or par- tridge than like our American pigeons, we sometimes caught sight of, or shot at in the shady parts of the forest, and it was here and with this species that my guide demonstrated his unfitness as a bird collector’s assistant. When our provisions ran short we packed up and went down to the ranch house, the guide returning with the mules to Azua while The Santo;Domingo burro seems able to carry as large a load of charcoal as two men can pile on his back Watching a boy in the warehouse at Sanchez shoveling over the drying cocoa beans reminded me of former years in California when I shoveled dried prunes in a similar manner in a San Jose warehouse 42 Tobacco for pipe smokers is wrapped in a palm leaf, tightly roped by a burly laborer, and left to dry for some time before shipment to market In the vicinity of La Vega one strolls but a short distance along the river bank before encounter- ing a busy washerwoman intent on her work 43 bY ONINYOW ATAVA AHL NI AOVId ASNA V SI ODNINOG OLNVS LV MNVd AAATA AHL OONINOG OLNVS LV SYASVHOUNd ONILIVMV GOOMAYIA JO SGVOT AONVO 46 NATURAL I collected about the settlement, await- ing a fresh supply of rice, beans, bologna sausage, and coffee from Tubano. The tobacco harvest was on at this time and the boys were routed from their slumbers at two o’clock in the morning to get a drink of coffee, mount their mules, and ride several miles up the river to the tobacco field, to return in the afternoon with the capacious~ saddle- bags heaped with dried tobacco leaves. It was cold work, until sunrise at least, for I shivered under my two blankets as I watched the shivering boys saddle their mules, drink their coffee, and ride out of the yard into the windy, starlit trail. The tobacco was brought in, moistened with water and stripped by hand (a half dozen neighbors helping at this part of the labor), and then either rolled into cigars or wrapped up in a palm leaf to be tightly roped and pressed into a long, cylindrical roll for shipment to Santo Domingo. When the tobacco was gathered it was time to cut a part of the sugar cane, fifty acres of which were growing on a Cleared hillside two miles up the cafion, so the family moved to the cane field and I shifted also to a shelter in the lower part of the field, spending - several days collecting pigeons, numbers of which flew into the royal palms morn- ing and evening to eat the ripening seeds; also blackbirds, which were more numerous here than elsewhere, paro- quets, one compact flock being a daily visitor to the palms, as well as some of the smaller birds that the cleared land had an attraction for. The cane was carried on the backs of burros to the crude press, was crushed by horse power between primitive rollers, and then boiled in an iron cauldron, one of the family standing by to keep the fire going and the scum cleared from the boiling juice. When boiled, the syrup was poured into clean, neatly sewn palm leaf molds which, when filled, weighed about a kilo each. This is the standard sugar of the villagers and finds ready sale in Tubano. HISTORY I wished to visit some of the higher peaks to the southward of Mt. Tina, so Sefior Velasquez furnished me a good guide, and taking beans, corn meal, coffee, sugar, and a roll of bologna sausage suf- ficient for a five days’ trip, we walked up the river some distance and then turned into a cafion that led toward the peaks. We kept to the bottom of the canon for hours until a solid wall of rock faced us, with water pouring over in a pictur- esque fall. We were compelled to retrace our steps to where an easier slope offered — a chance to scale the southern side of the cafion. Slowly cutting a trail and holding to the tough bushes, we suc- ceeded in reaching a ridge that stretched upward in the direction we were headed for. We cut our way upward until nearly dark and then camped by a trickle of water not far from a ridge that would carry us straight up to our destination. On the morrow we started out in good shape and by eleven o’clock had arrived within a mile of the peak I desired to ascend. The guide at this point refused to go farther. He insisted on turning down a cross ridge that led back toward the settlement miles away. My imperfect knowledge of Spanish prevented me from fathoming his reasons for not wanting to go higher, so I told him to wait a few hours for me and I would come back that way in the afternoon. An indistinct pig trail up the moun- tain-side was thereafter my guide, but this led me in a roundabout way to the tops of several peaks with little valleys in between, where there were more North American birds singing and flying about than West Indian. A few of the little mountain sparrows, a hummer or two, and a flock of calling parrots could not compete in numbers with the many warblers flying back and forth from one pine tree to another. Soon after one o’clock a fog began to gather around the peaks and, finding no birds differing from those of the lower levels, I returned BIRD COLLECTING IN THE HIGHLANDS OF SANTO DOMINGO 47 uF - f WIE a RA ae OS a f » Eile GM, ; #) , VLA lee, ‘ ; | ny 3 Late in the afternoon the washerwomen of Sanchez stroll homeward to my baggage and dropped down to where the guide was to await me. I arrived at the spot and called. He answered from a mile away, across two dangerous looking cafions. As they did not seem absolutely impassable, I started across; by dint of careful climb- ing—at one place throwing the gun and bag across a grassy slide and holding on to the grass roots as I worked over, and getting out of one rockbound cafion by crawling up a long pine-tree root that with all its twisting could find no crack large enough to crawl into—reached the narrow, broken ridge down which the trail led. The guide pointed across a small valley to a fire burning on the mountain-side above it, and said we must reach that as the country below us was too rugged to work through. We plunged down through ferns and bushes, and dodging rocks and boulders, crossed the valley and reached the top of the jagged ridge at last to find a long, easy trail stretching away below us. At one point the fire, started by a pig hunter hours before, was burning over the ridge we ascended, and while for me it was a matter of stifling heat and hold- ing my breath as we ran up across the burning area, for the shoeless guide it must have been still more interesting with hot rocks and burning sticks under- foot, as he stepped high and lively after me. Our way led down the crest of a long, fern- and piné-covered ridge- to the thickly forested slopes below—my former camp at Mt. Tina—but it was long after dark when we reached the camp, for the guide failed to locate the right cross trail and we were forced to take a tortuous cow path that eventually landed us in the flat where the trail was known to both of us even in the darkness. A couple of days at the flat and a couple more at the ranch finished the Mt. Tina region, and I returned to Tubano to hear a tale of woodpeckers on the slopes of Mt. Pelone about thirty miles to the northwest on the 48 NATURAL HISTORY rar nies eas At Bani many of the residents were shingling their roofs with a fresh covering of palm leaves headwaters of the San Juan River. Woodpeckers were a desiderata, so a guide was hired and we started forth on a search for them. A day’s ride into the mountains landed us at a friendly mountaineer’s home, and here a second guide and his son were obtained to lead us into a region never visited by anyone other than the few mountain residents, who used the well watered valley lying at the base of Mt. Pelone to pasture a few cattle in the summer time. Reach- ing this valley late one afternoon, we found a little open hut and a well built corral where the cattle were held over- night before starting out on the return journey to the settlement. Immediately on our arrival the boy started out to round up a couple of cows with small calves. The calves were corralled and we had fresh milk for coffee every morn- ing during our stay. The cold water and frosty mornings of this mountain valley were very invigor- ating after my months of coast living in the tropics. If some kindly disposed sportsman would plant a few trout from the United States in the headwaters of the San Juan River, this region would furnish an excellent recreation ground for lowland dwellers who desired a change of climate at little cost. Wild pigs range in all the cafons but the pigeons and doves of several species are found more common at a lower altitude. The most interesting birds to me, after thorough search failed to reveal signs of the mythical woodpeck- ers, were the crossbills, typical boreal birds which somehow had become resi- dents of this tropical isle. Their presence on. the island had been discovered but a few months before by Doctor Abbott, an old Smithsonian collector, of whom I used to read years ago in short museum papers as discoverer of new species on various East Indian islands. I met him in Sanchez as he was leaving for Wash- ington and he told me the rainfall of the interior of Santo Domingo would equal BIRD COLLECTING IN THE HIGHLANDS OF SANTO DOMINGO — 49 that of any East Indian land he had visited. Fortunately for me the rainy season was over when I reached the highlands of the island and only a desultory shower or two were encoun- tered during my entire stay. The crossbills, as a rule, kept to the high pine ridges and much climbing was necessary to reach their haunts, but a flock of crows that also frequented the region were more friendly and often flew down to light on the corral fence but a few yards away from us. I climbed to the top of Mt. Pelone one day and left a small monument on the highest point as a record of my visit. On the rocky slope below: me a forest fire was crawling slowly upward, and the next day from a distant ridge I saw it sweeping over the barren dome of the mountain. Fire-setting seems to be a favoritepastime of the mountaineers and, while it may help the pasture and reduce the wild pigs’ refuges, it is bound, by the destruction of so much vegetation on the steep mountain-sides, to cause greater floods along the lowland river banks when the rainy season is at its height. Although the woodpeckers proved non- existent, I was well satisfied with the week’s stay at Mt. Pelone and returned to Tubano with a good series of Domin- ican birds. _ The patriarchal schoolmaster of the village came in the first night of our return to enthuse over the success of the trip, and I still have at home a con- gratulatory letter he wrote to me at Sefior Velasquez’s ranch after our. ascent of Mt. Tina, in which he characterizes, in rich Castilian phrases, the climb as the first successful attempt by a foreigner to scale the highest peaks of the island since the day that Columbus first sighted them in 1492. To his beneficent in- terest in my work I attribute much of the success of the trip, for without it the question of guides would have been much more serious. After packing the birds for mule- back transportation, I left Tubano one morning with a pack train bound for Azua and with a much higher regard for the mountain inhabitants of the Dominican Republic than I had ex- pected to have on my entrance to their fastnesses. From Azua I elected to travel overland to Santo Domingo instead of waiting for a steamer, so, arranging for transporta- tion of specimens and outfit, I hired a boy and mules and sallied forth. At Bani an auto-stage became the means of trans- portation, and rough though the road was, it surpassed the slow travel of the ancient mules except at river crossings where ox teams became the motive power. It was roofing week in Bani seemingly, and most of the residents of the town were replacing their house coverings with a fresh coating of leaves. Bani is quite a shipping point for coffee and several yards of drying coffee were seen as we entered the town. As Santo Domingo was neared, cleared fields and cultivated plantations became more common, and the last few miles over an excellent motor road gave one a feeling of pleasant anticipation for the change to city living. A few days in Santo Domingo City suffices one, and the next steamer for the Haitian coast saw me aboard as a passenger for Aux Cayes to outfit for a trip to the higher parts of the La Hotte Mountains in southern Haiti. JACKASS PENGUINS AT HOME The so-called jackass penguins of southern South America and South Africa do not incubate their eggs upon ice as some other species are obliged to do, but enjoy the shelter of a burrow a few feet deep. They are now seen in the bottom of their home after being dug out by the inquisitive photographer wm re) ‘yr DAYS WITH THE BIRDS OF TIERRA DEL FUEGO* BY F. E. BLAAUW, C.M.Z.S. Last June the American Museum was visited by the author of this article, who is one of the best known of living aviculturists. On his estate at Gooilust, between Amsterdam and Utrecht, Holland, he has a park 140 acres in extent, devoted to the rearing of exotic mammals and birds. As far back as 1889 one may read in the Bulletin de la Société Nationale d’ Acclimatation an account by Mr. Blaauw of the collection of living animals and birds at Gooilust, and for many years he has kept white-tailed gnus, American bison, blesbok, banteng (or Malayan ox) eland, Przewalski’s horses, and kan- garoos. Among the birds his favorites are the waterfowl, and the ornithological and avicultural journals of France, Holland, and England contain many an entertaining account from his pen of the habits and nesting of the rare species of birds that he has kept and bred. In 1897 Mr. Blaauw published a Monograph of the Cranes, beautifully illustrated from paintings of live specimens in the Zoological Garden of Amsterdam, which constitutes.an authoritative review of this family of birds. Wishing to see more of South American waterfowl in the wild state, he undertook in 1911 a journey across the southern part of that continent to Chile and south to Tierra del Fuego. It is of his visit to this remote Land of Fire that we are fortunate to read in the following account. Three years later he paid a visit to South Africa, observing both the wild birds and the farming of ostriches. Like all nature lovers at the present time Mr. Blaauw is deeply concerned over the gloomy prospect confronting the wild creatures of even the most remote lands. In the letter to President Osborn which accompanied this manuscript he called attention to a few of the most glaring instances of slaughter. “In Zululand, following the advice of some professor or other, they are waging a great war against all the wonderful game of that country, under the delusion that this will also exterminate the tsetse fly. Just as if the fly won’t find other animals to live on! In the Addo Bush near Port Elizabeth they have almost exterminated the last South African elephants to please the greed of the surrounding land owners, who want the reserve notwithstanding the fact that thousands of acres are not being used elsewhere. “T fondly hope,”’ he writes, ‘‘that my paper will not send people with guns to Tierra del Fuego to kill and destroy what I have loved to watch. So if you think that it may have this effect, please burn it instead of printing it.”—TuHer Eprror. Punta Arenas in the Strait of Magel- lan, with the object of crossing over to see something of Tierra del Fuego, that land of wonders which I knew only from Darwin’s description in the Voyage of the Beagle. Although this great island is so near Punta Arenas, I found it ex- tremely difficult to get any useful in- formation concerning the country, and it required a couple of days to complete my preparations so that I could cross the strait. When at last I was ready to start, I left the bulk of my luggage in the. care of a hotel keeper at Punta Arenas, con- fiding to him also a pair of live, long- billed parrakeets which I had brought from Osorno. Taking only a valise, I proceeded to the boat, which was to leave at half past three that afternoon. The little steamer was of the worst pos- sible description, and looked as though [: WAS in April of 1911 that I visited the least bit of bad weather would prove its undoing. At the last moment, just as we were about to cast off, a peon arrived with two saddle horses, expecting to board the vessel. The captain, a young Norseman who spoke English, refused to submit to such a delay, saying it was too late to load the horses, and off we went, leaving the poor man on the pier! All about the harbor, on every buoy or empty boat, were numbers of white- breasted cormorants (Phalacrocorax al- biventer), and as we proceeded we saw many penguins (Spheniscus magellani- cus) swimming in the sea. The latter navigate in long strings, one behind the other, and I counted as many as forty- nine in such a file. They would swim unconcernedly until quite near the vessel and then suddenly take fright and dive. They would reappear at a short distance, but their fear would cause them *Illustrations from copyrighted photcgraphs by Rollo H. Beck 51 il iN ; a> \ _ “ . | quit att TAI VAL \ Ni ‘ : General view of the town of Punta Arenas, from which the author started on his trip to Tierra del Fuego SS Waves at high tide along the water front at Punta Arenas DAYS WITH THE BIRDS OF TIERRA DEL FUEGO 53 to dive again with a jerk, and this would be repeated until they were far away. On one occasion as the ship crossed their course they were so near that they dived right under the keel, reappearing on the other side. Their behavior gave one the impression that they saw the ship or realized what it was only when quite close. They were most entertaining to watch, and I saw them during nearly _ the whole trip across the strait. There were also plenty of black-backed gulls and terns about. We were apparently midway between Punta Arenas and Tierra del Fuego when I asked the captain at what time we were to land. “Oh, sir, we will probably not land at all tonight,’”’ was his unexpected answer. “T cross for the first time, and the en- trance of Porvenir is very difficult; so if there is a fog, I dare not risk it.” “But in that case where am I to spend the night?” I inquired. “Oh, you will have to spend the night, sir, on the sofa in the saloon.”’ As he. said this a cold shudder ran down my back. The “sofa’’ was the dirtiest bench imaginable, and the saloon a low, stuffy compartment full of evil smelling half-castes. “But,” continued the captain, “if there is no fog, and the moon comes out, I'll venture it.”’ Heartily did I pray that the moon would come out; and when we were close to the land, my trust was rewarded. So my friend the captain said he would attempt to enter the harbor. “I am glad for your sake,’ was his good- natured remark. “It would not have been comfortable for you to spend the night on that sofa.” As we neared the land, there was no vestige of any habitation or entrance, and I began to wonder where Porvenir could be; the boat approached still closer, and then I saw a side entrance of the sea into the land. Thither we steered under a glorious moon, and I began to realize that the captain had not exaggerated in saying that the entrance was difficult. We were obliged to follow a zigzag course, to double three or four corners, and to avoid, so I was told, numerous sand bars, before the lights of Porvenir became visible in the dis- tance, at the end of a deep bay. Near the last turn there was a wide sand bank, and on it a large flock of upland geese (Chloéphaga dispar) were quietly watch- ing us pass. A little farther on a pair of steamer ducks fluttered away from our vessel. At length we tied up at a pier a good distance from the lights of the “‘town”’; and there being no one to help me with my valise, the captain kindly detailed a seaman to carry it for me. This sailor seized my bag and ran off into the darkness. My shouting brought him back. ‘Where are you going, my friend?” I said. “I believe I told you I wanted to go to the inn.” “Well, sir, I was never here before,”’ he answered. “T don’t doubt it,” said I, “but you surely must suspect that the houses are where we see the lights.” So telling the man to follow me, I steered through the obscurity toward the town, hoping to find the inn called the ‘‘ Hétel Alleman.” Eventually I succeeded; the hostess, who was a German, asked me whether I wanted a first- or a second-class accom- modation. Upon my demanding her best first-class room she showed me into a small one at the end of a long passage. It contained a bed and a washstand, but nothing else. The room, however, looked clean, so I pronounced myself satisfied, and begged her to prepare dinner. -This she promised. In the meantime her husband, an Englishman, had come in. I told him I wished to go on to Jente Grande the next day. “Then you had better telephone.”’ What a welcome and unexpected answer! “You can do that at a shop close by.” So to the store -I went, and by tele- phone received a most courteous answer from the Jente Grande Company, with +S AJL9GT] [PIBOTOYITUIO paploap v Uz} Sv 1O}V[SULI} OY} PUR ‘yNe UL sUROUT AT[VOI [eUISLIO oY} Jo ,,uMoSurd,, ay) yey} ayer 0} sasned IS[[VANIVU OY} BY ING “Woy} eztasuvas 0} papsacoid pue usu 10} SpItq 94} YOoysnu oym ‘punjs] uInSuag Sues, 2BO}eUY JO JULES pazYySIs-re9u pyo poos OY} SAISIOJ AjISva URI VAL “SIOGUINU 9fqeJIPISUOD UT SUIVeSOISUOD ‘spuLLY[e] ay} UO pooiq OsTe ULTFAsEP_ Jo teIYS 9yI Ur JOYINe dy} Aq uses sumsued ayy, SGNVIMTvVa ‘ANVISI YANVATA NO SNINONAd ssvMovl ive) ny yorq 194 }I1VF 9[}71] & uNSued ay} 03 YsvI7 “WOD SUOIYS UT Was Spatq Jo sodA} Ie] OMY asoy 9A UOIIY JYSIU B spueyzs s][n3 oy} 1eaN "ysnp Je spuod useyjsou Ino syunvy YyoryA yey} 0} Iejruts AI SGNVTIMIVA AHL NI AAOD LAINO V NI ONILSAY STTOS 56 NATURAL HISTORY What’s in a name? the offer of a saddle horse, and for my luggage the use of a cart which took goods to their place from the steamer. The favor was gladly accepted, and I went back to my inn, hoping for dinner. In a clean-looking room was a well- set table—even flowers were not lacking. The apartment, however, was icy cold, while a big stove stood there fireless but apparently quite ready to light. When requested to start the fire, my host replied that the stove would give no warmth, only smoke; I asked him never- theless to try, and in ten minutes volumes of smoke filled the room. Now I happened to be well acquainted with this kind of stove, and I soon put things right, so that a genial heat re- placed the choking fumes.. My host was very much astonished, but fuel is scarce in some parts of Tierra del Fuego. Next I asked for my dinner. This was no easier to get than the heat, and consisted of one egg, a slice of meat, and a little bread. Say what I would, noth- ing else was to be had. So I went to The steamer ducks were so called after a noisy, old-fashioned side-wheeler, rather than the stolid freighters which here serve them as a background. Perhaps we can call them namesakes, nevertheless bed rather hungry, enjoining my hostess to get me something more for the next morning. This she did, and after breakfast I went out to enjoy the beautiful views about Porvenir, the capital of Chilian Tierra del Fuego. This settlement lies at the end of the deep bay, which looks more or less like a lake, and is surrounded by rising ground. Around the bay were large flocks of upland geese, upon its waters some pairs of steamer ducks, and flying about were several pairs of crested! ducks (Anas cristata) which often came quite near. The males of these last birds seemed a little larger than the females, and showed more white in the wing; they were very pretty and quite tame. The bay, I afterward heard, was a sanctuary where no birds could be shot. The steamer ducks in the bay were of 1 Crested duck” is the oldest name for Anas cristata, It was used by Latham. Unfortunately Sclater and Hudson use “crested duck” for a bird of another genus, Sarkidiornis. Crawshay, in Birds of Tierra del Fuego, calls Anas cristata the “Antarctic duck.”’ This name is not very appropriate, because the bird ranges north to Peru and is not found in the true Antarctic regions. DAYS WITH THE BIRDS OF TIERRA DEL FUEGO 57 the small, “flying” species, and they also went in pairs. I may as well give my opinion concerning these birds and tell of my experiences at the same time. It is a subject of controversy among ornithologists whether there are one or two species of steamer ducks. In my belief there cannot be the slightest doubt that there are two species. Much has been said and written on this subject, but the differences between the two species have seldom been properly appreciated. The typical Yachyeres cinereus, the steamer duck of seafarers, is a big, heavy bird quite unable to fly, not only when old, but even less able when just attain- ing maturity. These birds cannot even rise above the water, but when alarmed make off by striking the water with their wings, so that a great splashing ensues. They are absolutely confined to large bodies of salt water; and I have seen great numbers of them in Smith Channel, in Eden Harbor, Indian Reach, —as many as forty-two together. These flocks consisted of pairs of old birds with full-grown young of the year. In this species both sexes are gray; the male has a pale or pearl-gray head and neck, and a bright yellow bill. In the female the gray is duller, so that the head is not strikingly paler than the rest of the body. The bill is also yellow, but not so clear in color. In the young birds seen by me in Smith Channel, and later on at Melinka near the northern- most island of the Chonos Archipelago, the plumage is tinged in some parts with brownish gray, but not enough to ob- scure the generally gray aspect. The bill- color of such young birds is mixed with a dark greenish tint, and their legs are dark. These birds were evidently young of the year, since they were under the guidance of a pair of adults. This was readily observed at Melinka, where they were tame. Yet they looked even heavier and clumsier than the adults, and most certainly could not fly. They were expert divers. OE Noe 2 F Closer view of two steamer ducks resting on the rocks.—The differences between flying and nonflying birds are not evident in a photograph; indeed, some of our most competent authorities on ducks are not yet converted to the view that they are of specific importance Pe) The second, or flying species, is quite a different bird. To begin with, both sexes are much smaller than in Tachyeres cinereus, and the female is still smaller than the male. She is also very differ- ently colored. The male is clear gray with a white breast and a clear yellow bill. His tail is elongated, and its point carried upright when swimming. The female’ has a brown head, and the rest of the body is of a beautiful vinaceous color, with a white breast. The bill is brown. The white speculum in the wing is present in both species. On the seashore near Jente Grande I saw small flocks of these flying steamer ducks, and a good many pairs: on the lagoons inland. I watched them re- peatedly flying high overhead, and at the sea coast I noted that they went from the inland lakes toward the shore, and vice versa. Not a single bird of the nonflying species was observed by me in this part of Tierra del Fuego. My kind hosts at Jente Grande, who aided me in these researches, were quite convinced of the validity of the two species, as was also Mr. Cameron, the director of the Jente Grande Company. The smaller kind is found a good deal inland, they told me, but the large one is restricted entirely to the sea. This quite agrees with my own observations. In the lagoons about Jente Grande the birds were very tame, and when I rode around a pond or stood at the edge of the water, pairs of small steamer ducks would come near to look at me. When alarmed they sometimes start off without getting quite clear of the water, then they rise above it but still touch with the points of the wings as they fly away. This is nevertheless quite a different mode of progression from that of Tachyeres cinereus, and resembles the way a coot sometimes starts away. The larger steamer duck does not succeed in raising its heavy body out of the water, but strikes right into it with both wings, and makes a great splashing. Of the small flying species of steamer 58 NATURAL HISTORY - duck (for which the name Tachyeres patachonicus has been proposed) there are a female and a young male (both from the Falklands) in the Leyden Museum, several females in the British Museum, and an adult pair in the Buenos Aires Museum. Let us return now to the fine clear day when I was admiring Porvenir Bay. In a farmhouse on the far side I caught signs of movement; a small wagon was taken out and a pair of horses harnessed to it; then a white saddle horse was brought forward. Half an hour later the wagon ~ was seen advancing in my direction and a man mounted the white horse. This seemed not so easy, for the animal re- sented it very much. With the man on its back, the horse advanced by jerks and starts, with nose in the air, and after a while both wagon and rider were at my door. The man descended, my valise was placed in the vehicle, and I mounted the white horse. The wagon was to show me the way; this was easy, and I followed at some distance. We first ascended the hills behind Porvenir, and then reached some undulating ground grown over with short grass and low bushes but quite without trees. Soon we were passing along a little piece of water where many upland geese were running about, feed- ing on the short grass; they let us go by without their being disturbed in the least. Climbing still higher, I now enjoyed a good view of the country, most beautiful in its wild loneliness, its undulating sur- face apparently without end, short grass and low bushes stretching away until everything was lost in the purple of the horizon. Several lagoons were passed, some large and of intricate shape, with deep bays, high promontories, and outstand- ing islets. Others were round, with smooth margins like an ornamental lake in a park of old Europe,—or sometimes only a part was thus rounded, the rest running on to more irregular shape, full of bends and corners. eed ee ee DAYS WITH THE BIRDS OF TIERRA DEL FUEGO 59 In one section of a large lagoon were great numbers of coscoroba swans, and as I approached, they challenged me with their call of “‘coscoroba.” In the different museums I visited in South America I found only fairly large cygnets of Coscoroba candida, which had lost the markings of the newly hatched young, and were now yellowish gray. I am therefore very much pleased to be able to figure, through the kindness of the Duchess of Bedford, the newly- hatched young of the species, bred at Woburn, England. The so-called coscoroba swan I have always regarded as a gigantic tree duck, and the character of the head markings found on the downy young at this age go far to prove that I was more or less correct in my surmise. In fact these markings as shown in the figure combine those of the duckling of a shelduck with those of a tree duck. The head mark- ings show to a great extent the char- acteristics of those of a young tree duck, while the pattern on the body is very like that found in the downy young of a shelduck. About the same body of water thou- sands of upland geese were running everywhere, and a good many crested ducks were along its margin and in the lake. All these bird's were so tame that I could get quite near them. After ad- miring them for a while I rode on, and having passed over some higher ground, came to another piece of water, or per- haps another arm of the same lagoon. There a great number of black-necked swans (Cygnus melanocoryphus) greeted my view. It was a beautiful sight; there were some little islands and every- where black-necked swans, with only an occasional coscoroba among them. Prob- ably these two species do not mix readily, but they were both equally tame, and I could ride down to the mar- gin of the lake without their taking wing. On the little islands, I afterward heard, black-faced ibises (Theristicus melanop- sis) breed. Leaving the black-necked swans I rode on after my guide and passed flock upon flock of upland or black-banded geese (Chloéphaga dispar). This goose is often called the Chilean form of Chloéphaga magellanica; but the expres- sion is misleading, for although Tierra del Fuego belongs for the greater part to Chile, C. dispar was not found by me in Chile proper. I have been over a good part of southern Chile, but I have never’ seen a single specimen, nor even heard of it. On the other hand it inhabits Tierra del Fuego in countless numbers as a resident, and would probably be still more numerous were it not so much persecuted. One meets it almost every- where, and it seems to be especially at- tracted by the fine grass which results from the grazing of sheep. In spite of its being a resident in Tierra del Fuego its life history is not completely known; for example, several people told me it had never been found molting. Indeed, the common belief was that it did not Coscoroba cygnet two weeks old, sketched by the author. The peculiar color pattern indicates that in spite of its large size it is prob- ably more closely related to the shelducks and tree ducks than to the typical swans. The ground color is white, the markings are dark gray, bill and feet flesh color 60 NATURAL HISTORY molt like other geese. Now it is quite certain that Chloéphaga dispar molts its flight feathers all at the same time like nearly other goose. There is really only one exception to this rule, Anseranas melanoleuca, the Australian pied goose, which molts like a hen, and can always fly. So it only proves that at the critical time of the molt the birds wander away to some unknown part of Tierra del Fuego, or to some of the adjacent islands, where they can renew every flocks of C. dispar. Nor have I ever met any considerable number of C. magel- lanica together. At last after a three hours’ ride from Porvenir, I saw a deep bay formed by the sea, and not far from it some houses, painted yellow with scarlet roofs. The bay is the ‘“Jente Grande” and the houses constitute the settlement of the same name, where I was going to spend a few days. I was welcomed with the - greatest}kindness by the director of the Kelp goose (a near relative of the upland goose) and her family.—The female shows a con- siderable degree of protective resemblance to her surroundings, yet the young are less fortunate in this respect. their pinions in peace and security. This circumstance is probably all that keeps the species from destruction, inasmuch as it would certainly be exterminated if it molted in the inhabited country, and meanwhile lost the power of flight. Among all the flocks of Chloéphaga dispar \ have seen only very few white- breasted birds belonging to the allied C. magellanica of the Falklands. They had probably lost their way and joined As for her consort, unless nature designed him to lure enemies away from the brood, we cannot guess why he was made so conspicuous Jente Grande Company, and at luncheon made the acquaintance of his whole household. Two thousand sheep were to be shipped that afternoon. They are loaded by driving them in small parties on to a narrow bridge that ends on the vessel. At the end of the gangway that rests on the ship the hurdles along its sides are so close together that but one sheep can pass atatime. In this way it is possible dred yards farther on. DAYS WITH THE BIRDS OF TIERRA DEL FUEGO 61 to count the sheep and to get them into the spaces prepared for them, which hold six sheep each. The difficulty is to get one or more sheep to set foot on the gangplank, but this achieved, the others follow in the proverbial way, so that a continuous stream of sheep flows into the ship. These poor creatures were to be taken across the strait to Rio Secco, where all were to be slaughtered the next morning. On the morrow I was again in the saddle, and under the kind guidance _ of Mr. Aylwin set out to see as much as possible of the birds around Jente Grande. The first ones seen that day were large flocks of ruddy-headed geese (Chloéphaga rubidiceps) or “brent” as they were called there. These geese were grazing not a hundred yards from the house, and only took wing after I came quite near, alighting again a hun- Unlike the upland geese (C. dispar), these are only summer visitors to Tierra del Fuego. _ At the time of my visit in the beginning of April they had gathered into flocks previous to their departure, which would take place probably in a few days. I was told that still another member of the genus Chloéphaga poliocephala, a scarce breeder and summer visitant in this country, sometimes associates with the ruddy-headed geese in these flocks, but personally I did not see a single example of this goose in Fireland. Proceeding on our ride we came to a large but apparently very shallow lagoon, with flat margins. Some of these bodies of water are fresh, others are salty. On this one I found five flamingos (Phoeni- copterus chilensis), which my guide told me came to the Jente Grande lagoons in autumn to spend the winter. They were rather shy and flew off as we came near. While I was standing at the water’s edge looking at the flamingos, _a pair of large ducks came flying over- head, and landed or, better, alighted in the water with a splash not far from where I stood. They proved to be the flying steamer ducks mentioned before. Riding along the shore, I observed five more pairs of these ducks; when I stood still they all came quite near, so I could see them well. All were of the same kind, the males light gray, larger, and with bright yellow bills, the females vinaceous, and with brown bills. This was a fine sight! In the same lagoon in the shallow water stood numbers of upland geese, while a good many crested ducks were swimming about. One large red-necked grebe (4ichmophorus major) was also seen. Leaving the lake, we came into some hilly country, and in a small valley where the bushes had attained slightly greater dimensions were two old carancho nests. These were built of sticks right from the bottom of the bush, filling it entirely and reaching a height of five or six feet. The carancho or carrion hawk (Poly- borus tharus) is a large bird of prey, with more or less vulturine habits, very characteristic of southern South America. Sitting on the ground as though sun- ning themselves, were two big eared ‘owls looking like cats, and fairly tame. In the same neighborhood a beautiful gray hawk, probably Buteo erythronotus, with white tail tipped with black, flew over. the ground; and I also met the cinnamon kestrel (Tinnunculus cinna- momeus). The chimangos (Milvago chi- mango), likewise large birds of prey of versatile habit, were not very numer- ous. In a tall shrub there perched a flock of black starlings (Curaeus. aterri- mus) singing lustily in their peculiar busy way. That afternoon I went out on foot alone to see something of the sea birds along the Jente Grande Bay. Between the house and the bay were some low meadows with water holes in them. In the dampest places grew great masses of a succulent plant, extraordinary in appearance, of most vivid scarlet and carmine shades, but reaching only to the height of a few: inches. 62 NATURAL HISTORY A Fuegian Indian couple in camp. out-door life in this inclement region is scarcely fitted to combat the insidious dangers of a more comfortable existence Following the shore line I came to a projection of stones and pebbles on which were great numbers of the white- breasted cormorant (Phalacrocorax al- biventer), as well as some small gray gulls (Larus glaucodes), with black hoods and orange-yellow bills, and some oyster catchers (Hemalopus leucopus). Then rounding a promontory I came upon a number of lesser steamer ducks, several of which flew away as I approached. These were all of one species, and a lone pair of crested ducks was near them. The next day I was to go to Philips Bay, where there is a station of the Explotadores Company; and I was to lunch half way at the second farm of the Jente Grande Company. It glorious morning, but with a driving, icy-cold wind. The first led along the eastern shore of Jente Grande was a road at Bay, after which I turned inland amid It is easy to believe that a race accustomed to a rude lovely scenery. The country here was hilly, wild, and grand in its desolation. On an eminence to my right a guanaco stood out clear against the sky, watching me intently. Never before had I ap- preciated the wild, elegant beauty of the guanaco. The rich rufous color of his coat and the black of his head harmo- nized to perfection with the ruddy grass of the hills. After looking at me for a while he cantered away at a fine springy gait. On I rode, and after a time, turning around, I saw him again watching me alertly as before. Everywhere were flocks of upland geese. A little later I sighted another guanaco, and toward noon I saw the sea from the top of a hill on my way, but then the road carried me more to the landward. Passing a small stream, I encountered a flock of a couple of thou- sand sheep being driven to Philips Bay, DAYS WITH THE BIRDS under the guidance of two mounted peons and some dogs. Farther on by the bank of another small stream I saw a brown pintail duck (Dafila spinicauda) squatting motionless, allowing me to pass in the hope of remaining unob- served. Nor did I wish to undeceive it. One more turn between some hills, and the Jente Grande farm, Estancia Sarita, lay before me. It was reached in a few minutes. Near the manager’s house I alighted, and my horse, wet as it was from the exertions of the ride, was simply tethered to a post in spite of the driving wind. At the house I had lunch and was taken after that to a small stream in a hollow where ducks usually abounded. I was “in luck” for the ducks were there, and I could admire, as they swam in a small pool, the Chiloe widgeon (Mareca_ sibilatrix), yellow-billed teal OF TIERRA DEL FUEGO 63 (Nettion flavirostre), gray teal (Quer- quedula versicolor), brown pintail (Dafila spinicauda), and red shoveler (Spatula platalea), the last of which had not yet been recorded from Tierra del Fuego. The only ones to take wing at our intru- sion were the widgeons; the others were exceedingly tame, taking no more notice of us than my own captive ducks of these species at home in Holland. No one was allowed to disturb the birds, said the manager, and they became tame ac- cordingly. After inspecting the ducks I saw a few tame Indians. They served as peons, and I was sorry to hear that these poor creatures do not stand civilized life, even in a low stage. Clothes and houses cause them to contract tuberculosis; the children succumb first, then the adults. About half past one we again mounted our horses to proceed to Philips Bay. Fuegian squaw in her canoe. South America has provided the African native with his domestic duck, and primitive man, even in Tierra del ‘Fuego, it appears from this picture, has adopted the domestic cat, an animal of largely African descent b9 SuIO} puv s[[ns oy} se Yons sdnois uvzjodowsod 0} SuiSuojaq asoy} aie soANeJUasaidar UIIY}IOU ay} 0} drys “UOT}RJAI ISO] B SULMOYS SpIIq ATUO oY} pu ‘vuUNvy 94} 0} pud}x9 ASIN0D Jo JOU S9Op AjLIRIIWIS BY, “BYse[y JO de1Zap [[eUIs OU UI SN sputwer ainqoId sIyT, OOdNA Tad VaddIL NAYAHHLNOS AO MAIA YWAWWAS V eS It [eyo jo sduasaid ay} Aq paqzoevIz3" weeq eAvy Ady} YOIYA 0} JUSUTYsSTqe}so Suryoed-jvow ev ynoqe UMOYS 194 IB ‘S9JBUTT[D IOWIVAL JO SaIN}[NA ay} Ajyeo1S0[oIe aovjdar Yor ‘s][NS asoy,y, «WOMTXOSTaA,, V ONITOWIOND STIND NVOININOG th ORE id ee df CHET BE 66 NATURAL HISTORY The country to the east of Estancia Sarita was at first quite flat. In little pools I saw more gray and yellow-billed teal, as well as some coots, and in the grass countless flocks of upland geese. Next we passed over some beautiful, wild, hilly country, and in front of us lay a large plain as flat as a billiard table, with the sea to the north and hills to the east. Coarse rufous grass growing in patches covered the plain, and a great many cows and horses were feeding upon it. As we rode on, some buildings came into view. They were those of the Philips Bay station of the Explotadores Company, which holds the greater part of Chilean Fireland. Close to the sea stood the largest building, the so-called “‘orasserie,’’ where every year thousands of sheep are slaughtered for the prepara- tion of tallow. This ghastly establishment was shown me by the manager, but the only things I found at all attractive were the thou- sands of sea birds, which fed on the blood and refuse that had run from the factory into the sea.. Among them were count- less gulls (Larus -dominicanus), many crested ducks, oyster catchers, little plovers, and occasionally other birds. After seeing the birds I was taken to the manager’s house, situated in the midst of this wild country, grand in its mono- tony. The following morning I took a walk into the hills, and coming to a part where some low bushes grew, I saw a small bird fluttering helplessly in front of me unable to fly. .A short run and I had caught it, a very beautiful sparrow-like creature, yellow, gray, and black, with gleaming black eyes. It uttered a low, continuous, rattling sound as I took it up. Apparently it had flown against a telephone wire and hurt its wing. This was a male of the finch known as Phrygilus princetonianus. The species is a representative of the Lapland bunt- ing (or longspur) in the southern hemi- sphere. Its habits, style of song, its form, and hind toe with long claw all point to this, and the bird is really not a Phrygilus at all, though usually so called. I took it back to the house, and my host procured a small cage in which to put the poor little bird. It was very thin and feeble, and after having drunk, it took a sound sleep. After that it began to feed on canary seed, and I ultimately succeeded in bringing it home in good health. Later on, during the homeward voyage, as the weather grew warmer, this bird, quite tame, came into full voice. Its charming song, in style much like the continuous one of the Lapland bunting, and very sweet, began on shipboard every morning as soon as the day broke. After my host had helped me care for my bird, he told-me that he had another surprise for me in the form of a living seed snipe (Attagis malouinus), which had also damaged its wing against a_ telephone wire near the house. This was brought forth, and I could now admire a living example of this curious grouselike bird at close range. Un- fortunately its wing was so badly broken that I could not venture to add it to my traveling menagerie. So it was decided to put the bird out of its misery. My host told me that the seed snipe bred inland in wild, desolate country, laying only four eggs. In the great plain mentioned above which I passed in going to Philips Bay, there are still some guanacos, living peacefully with the cattle. The adult animals are not killed, but the young that they bear are at once secured for — the sake of their skins. In snowy win- ters, moreover, many guanacos die of starvation throughout the sheep districts. Before the sheep were so numerous the guanacos could live on the long grass which stuck out of the snow, but now that this grass is entirely eaten by the sheep, there is nothing for their wild competitors to live on, if the snow lies thick for any length of time. This fact, and the destruction of their young, must eo. a ante sepas SEASHORE VIEW AMONG THE ISLANDS OF SOUTHERN CHILE The rowboat is traversing a patch of great brown seaweed; the bleak shore supports little vegetation other than tussocks of coarse grass. For the birds, however, isolation spells safety, and {most of the waterfowl have little need of more luxuriant plant life on land 67 68 NATURAL HISTORY very soon put an end to the existence of the guanaco; I deem it a great pity that some means are not adopted by the settlers for its preservation. In the afternoon of my second day at Philips Bay I was to leave Tierra del Fuego, where I had spent such a delight- ful time. A boat was to take me across the strait to Rio Secco on the mainland, with a cargo of live sheep. Because of the low water, the boat could not land near the Philips Bay station, so I had to drive out to the place of its anchorage, five or six miles away. The best road to take went along the shore, and I passed again near where the many birds were feeding on the blood of the sheep. A small flock of nine guanacos was also admired on the way. At different places along the shore I saw great tangles of giant sea weed, colored brown; also some kinds that were green, and others carmine red. We reached our boat in good time, and after taking leave of my kind host, I went aboard with my luggage and my bird. At ten o’clock that same night we arrived at Rio Secco on the other side of the strait, but I passed the night on board, and breakfasted next morning at the house of the manager of the Refrigeratores Company. He showed me what became of the sheep which had come over with us. These were all animals of the first quality; they were slaughtered and their carcasses frozen for shipment to England. The manager had some business in Punta Arenas, so about eleven o’clock he kindly offered to take me with him, and after an hour’s drive which took us continually through the remains of burnt forest, I was back again at the Kosmos Hotel in Punta Arenas. There I found . the luggage I had left, and my two long-billed parrakeets, which were still in good health. Sunrise in Beagle Channel, along the cold, forbidding coast of Tierra del Fuego. But if you would see the waterfowl, go rather to the earth’s remote, desolate fastnesses than to wooded shores on the equator where lurk so many of the deadliest enemies of birds FULTO N oe — iI——__-—_—— Type of truck that will be used on the Mongolian Plateau and the Gobi Desert THE MOTOR TRUCK IN CENTRAL ASIA BY ROY CHAPMAN ANDREWS* ITHIN the last few years it has \\ been found that automobiles can be operated successfully on the grasslandsof Inner and Outer Mongo- lia and the rolling surface of the Gobi Desert. Motoring on the Gobi is not quite like rolling down Fifth Avenue. If anything happens to your car there are no garages just around the corner—in fact, there are no corners! You must be prepared to remedy any difficulties yourself, for to be alone on the desert when something is wrong with the diges- tion of your automobile can have its serious aspects. If you are on the main caravan trail it may mean a walk of only forty or fifty miles to the nearest well, where you will perhaps spend days of waiting until help arrives from Kalgan or Urga—unless you are an _ expert mechanic and have an assortment of spare parts. But if you happen to be running across one of the vast areas which separate the caravan trails and your car goes wrong, help is out of the question; you must depend upon your own resources. I remember once when we were return- ing to Kalgan from Urga, the capital of Mongolia, we discovered that the oil of our motor had all leaked out of the cans. It was impossible to go much farther and we were debating what to do. As our car swung over the summit of a rise, we saw the white tent and grazing camels of an enormous caravan. Of course, Mongols would have mutton fat and why not use that for oil! The caravan leader assured us that he had fat in plenty and in ten minutes a great pot of it was warm- ing over the fire. We poured it into the motor and pro- ceeded merrily on our way. But there was one serious obstacle to our enjoy- ment of that ride. We had had very little food for some time and were very hungry. When the engine began to warm, a most tantalizing odor of roast lamb arose from the car! Shortly, I even imagined that I could smell mint sauce. Once again we were without cup grease for the cars and Mrs. Andrews sacrificed all the cold cream and vaseline which she had prepared for a summer in the field. Mongol cheese, too, was sub- stituted with good results. The caravan trail between Kalgan, Urga, and Kiachta on the Siberian frontier is one of the oldest trade routes in the world and is the only one in Mon- *Associate Curator of Mammals of the Eastern Hemisphere in the American Museum of Natural History, and Leader of the Museum’s Third Asiatic Expedition. 69 70 NATURAL HISTORY golia on which automobiles have been operated to any extent. The Chinese government maintains a passenger ser- vice as a branch of the Peking-Suiyuan Railway over this route and it has proved successful after some initial difficulties. A private Chinese company also ran cars in 1918-19 between Kalgan and Urga, but they had a great deal of misfortune. . During one .year nineteen cars were smashed and lay in masses of twisted metal beside the road. The difficulty was due largely to the native chauffeurs. Al- though these men can drive a car they have no mechanical training and danger signals from the motor are entirely dis- regarded. Moreover, all Chinese dearly love ‘‘show’’and the chauffeurs delight in driving at tremendous speed over roads where they should exercise the greatest care. The deep cart ruts are a continual menace, for between them the road is often smooth and fine. But a stone or a tuft of grass may send one of the front wheels into a rut and capsize the car. The Chinese company has lost count of the passengers killed or injured! We must be prepared to meet all sorts and conditions of ground in Mongolia. In some places the grass-covered plains are as hard and smooth as a floor; in others the surface is a chaotic mass of ruts and holes, and on the Gobi Desert soft sand alternates with solid beach like stretches of fine gravel. Our motor equipment will consist of six five-passenger cars and two one-ton trucks. The latter will act as movable bases and the expedition can thus work in widely separated regions. Supplies of gasoline will be carried in the trucks, or will be sent by camel caravan to various wells in the region which will be the center of operation. The use of motor trucks will be a new departure and one which should have important economic results. Trans- portation is the greatest of all com- mercial factors in the Orient and upon it largely depends the development of any country. In Mongolia the problem can be easily solved. At present it rests upon camel caravans, ox- and pony carts, and upon automobiles for passengers. Camel traffic begins in September and is virtually ended by the first of June. Then its place on the trail is taken by ox- and pony carts. Camels make the journey from Kalgan to Urga in from thirty to fifty days but the carts require twice as long. They travel slowly at best, and the ani- mals must be given time to graze andrest. Of course they cannot cross the desert when the grass is dry, so that transporta- tion is divided by the seasons—camels in winter and carts in summer. Each camel carries from 450 to 500 pounds, and the charges vary from five to fifteen cents (silver) per cattie (one and one third pounds). Thus by the time goods reach Urga their value has increased vastly. _ As against thirty to ninety days for the journey between Kalgan and Urga, motor trucks could easily make the trip in five days. Trucks have never yet been used on the Mongolian plateau and our expedition will have the honor of “breaking the trail.”’” The machines which we have selected are the regu- lar one-ton trucks made by the Ful- ton Motor Company, of Farmingdale, Long Island. This car has a speed of forty miles an hour, is light, and so strongly made that it is especially fitted for the rough work on the plateau. The motor transportation of the ex- pedition will be in charge of Mr. Bayard Colgate, of Orange, New Jersey. Mr. Colgate, who has a thorough knowledge of automobiles and their construction, will be responsible for the care and operation of the cars and will have a number of native mechanics under his direction. Unfortunately, the Mongolian plateau is the only region which the expedition will investigate where motor transporta- tion is possible under present conditions. The greatest need of China is good roads and every year sees an advance in this direction; with increasing develop- ment of its natural resources road build- ing will inevitably advance and a great field will open for motor transportation. THE GREAT FRIAR OF THE PARAMO BY HERBERT J. SPINDEN* The Espeletia takes its name from one of the Spanish viceroys of New Granada, named Espelata. It is the characteristic plant of the paramo or land above timber line in the eastern Andes of Colombia and Venezuela and grows to a height of six or seven feet. The few leaves which come out fresh each year are felted deep against the cold with a cottony growth that almost conceals the underlying green. The name Frailejon— the great friar—comes from the general similarity of these plants, when seen at a distance, to a human figure in white cowl and black cloak I am the stalwart Frailejon, The guardian of the wind-swept pass. Upon bold peaks and ridges lone I piously hold watch and mass. *Associate Curator of Mexican and Central American Archeology, American Museum a | bo NATURAL HISTORY My gown is black of withered leaves That hang about my body cold; My felted cotton cowl receives In spring a garlanding of gold. Where winds the one trail to the gap Up from the peopled gorge below, To drop again to Comfort’s lap, A cross is set that men may know. For muleteers there a mass I hold Where sodden mosses mat the ground. And ice-carved cliffs guard off the cold: For me, I take my place as found. Across the faithless paramo, Where dwell the gods of ancient days, Up to the glacier’s edge I go To make my prayer and tell my praise. Let Chen, the Fog God, belch his hate From caves below the riven peak. With lifted heart I mock his state And for the true Church loud I speak. THE GREAT FRIAR OF THE PARAMO 73 My brothers of the easy life, Who fatten in the vale below— They know not Hunger, Frost, and Strife, That walk upon the paramo. I ask no tithe to purchase wine, Nor do I plot for worldly power, Only I ask the sun to shine Upon me for one little hour. Must I be left the last of those That scorn delights and joys resign, While all my brothers seek repose, Or jockey for a place in line? I am the aged Frailejon That stands and faces wind and snow. My pains the sins of all atone Who cross the trackless paramo. My rusty rags of withered leaves A gaunt and shivering form enfold, Save when my felted cowl receives In spring its broideries of gold. umasn yy ATP $,poolyng ’ OOIXGW NYAGOW ANV INAIONV dO NOILIGTHXA AHL FO MIA if GLIMPSES OF EARLY MUSEUMS BY FREDERIC A. LUCAS sand years ago King Solomon wrote, “Is there anything whereof it may be said, See this is new! It hath been already of old time which was be- fore us.” And some of our younger museum men, installing their striking habitat groups, do not realize that these were fore- shadowed a century or more ago nor give the earlier men credit for what they did in the face of many obstacles. What would the present generation accomplish if it had to work in rooms that relied upon fireplaces for heat and candles for light? So a few words about Bullock’s mu- seums that flourished in London from 1795 to 1824 may serve to show how many things were thought of and how much accomplished more than a hundred years ago. Tam indebted to Major W. H. Mullens for the loan of the original engravings from which the illustrations were made and have drawn my information from his account of Bullock’s Museum pub- lished in Volume XVII of the Museums Journal. “Tn 1801 Bullock had housed his museum at 24, Lord Street, Liverpool, and in the Companion issued in that year he described himself as ‘William Bullock, Silver Smith, Jeweller, Toyman, and Statue Figure Manufacturer.’ In 1804 or 5 Bullock removed with his rapidly increasing collection from Lord Street to ‘premises at the corner of Church Street and Whitechapel [Liverpool] that had been just erected on the site of the old poorhouse, where he had fine apartments fitted up for the museum.’ (G. H. Morton.) “In 1809 Bullock finally removed his museum from Liverpool to London; this date can be definitely fixed from the fact that he published two issues of the seventh edition of the Companion in that year. The first describes the museum as being at ‘The House of William Bul- BS sta yes more than two thou- lock, Jeweller and Silversmith to his Royal Highness the Duke of Gloucester, Church Street, Liverpool,’ while the second informs us that it was ‘now open at 22, Piccadilly, London.’ This, how- ever, was but a temporary resting-place, and in the twelfth edition, 1812, it is described as removed to the Fgyptian Temple, Piccadilly—known afterward as the Egyptian Hall—which had been ‘just erected for its reception.’ “In December, 1822, Bullock, ac- companied by his son, sailed from Ports- mouth, via Jamaica, to Mexico, remain- ing in that country some six months, and on his return landing at Portsmouth November 8, 1823. “In Mexico Bullock was well received by the authorities, and with their assist- ance he took over possession of the abandoned silver mine of Milan, or Del Bada, near Themascaltepec, and with the aid and sanction of the Mexican Government, he collected many valuable curiosities both ancient and modern, including ‘Original Specimens of Ancient Sculpture and Paintings; of Casts of the Enormous and monstrous Idols of the supreme Temple; of the grand Altar or Sacrificial Stone, on which thousands of victims were annually immolated; of a Cast of the famous Kallender Stone (commonly known as Montezuma’s watch); of a model of the immense Pyramid of the Sun; of the original map of the ancient City, made by order of Montezuma for Cortez; of remarkable Manuscripts and Picture writings; and of Antiquities in Arts, Manufactures, etc., etc., of this Aboriginal People.’ “With these materials and with speci- mens of the industry and art of the country, of its mineral resources and vegetable products, and of its natural history, comprising numerous specimens of birds collected by himself, he opened in May, 1824, an Exhibition at the Egyptian Hall entitled ‘Ancient and Modern Mexico.’”’ Ancient and Modern Mexico is very interesting, for its modeled foreground 75 sn Dp 3 Q & 5 &§ as 7% 8 o 8 AE o < HS nan MS a o HW a= fea} ™ "¥en. Ue pe ue D 2 8 (abe oie ae + a i zi ia GLIMPSES OF EARLY MUSEUMS 77 and painted background, so arranged as to be viewed from a distance, fore- shadow the cyclorama so popular in modern times. This exhibition, the out- come of a journey to Mexico, was in- stalled at Egyptian Hall in 1824, or five years after Bullock had disposed of bis “London Museum.” One feature of Ancient Mexico, the gi- gantic Serpent Column that dominates the landscape, is something of a puzzle: As we know today, the Serpent Columns were the door jambs of the Temple of the Jaguars and supported the lintel on their upraised tails—why is this one reversed? Bullock visited Mexico in 1823 and made molds of the Calendar Stone and the Earth Goddess. Why did he figure the Serpent upside down? It is quite possi- ble—even probable—that he was unable to visit Chichen Itza, knew the columns by hearsay only, and constructed them in what seemed to him the correct atti- tude. But that Bullock exhibited actual casts of objects like the Earth Goddess and Calendar Stone that were not shown in the United States until sixty years later, speaks volumes for his energy. The Group of African Mammals occupying the center of the hall is worthy of note as a bold attempt at a “habitat group.” Even today it is a courageous curator well provided with funds that would attempt to show the great mam- mals of Africa; but here is an exhibit, made by a private individual a century ago, years before Livingstone had even touched the edge of Darkest Africa, that included the largest known mammals. More than this, some of the groups shown in Bullock’s Museum seem to have been provided with painted backgrounds and artificial foliage! As stated in the introduction to the Companion to Bul- lock’s Museum, published in 1813: “Various animals, as the lofty Giraffe, the Lion, the Elephant, the Rhinocerous, etc., are exhibited as ranging in their na- tive wilds and forests; whilst exact mod- els, both in figure and colour, of the rarest and most luxuriant plants from every clime give all the appearance ‘of reality; the whole being assisted with a panoramic effect of distance and appro- priate scenery affording a beautiful illus- tration of the luxuriance of a torrid clime.”’ This seems very much like a descrip- tion of some recent habitat group, in fact, one can say little more of our Florida and Orizaba groups in the American Museum. And when we consider the handicap of building and especially of lighting under which these early museum men labored, we can but admire their courage and skill. But even earlier than this, that univer- sal genius, Charles Willson Peale, wrote: tg it is not only pleasing to see a sketch of a landscape, but by showing the nest, hollow, cave or a particular view of the country from which they [the animals] came, some instances of the habits may be given.” And this was written about 1800, while the first bird group was installed in the British Mu- seum in 1877, and the first in the Amer- ican Museum of Natural History not until ten years later. So if “old-timers” like Akeley and my- self are inclined to smile at some of the “discoveries” now and then brought forward by younger members at meetings of the Association of Museums, it is well to remember that some of our own dis- coveries were anticipated by museum men of other days, and to recall, for ex- ample, that when in 1885 Akeley and Critchley were called upon to mount the famous Jumbo, they used practically the same method that was employed by French taxidermists in mounting the elephant that died at the Jardin du Roi about one hundred years before. No wonder that after due consideration, Solomon again wrote, “There is nothing new under the sun.” LOON ON AN ADIRONDACK LAKE, CALLING AND RUNNING OVER THE WATER IN A COURTSHIP EVOLUTION a. ea x -) a. S = _ Portrait of a least sandpiper.—Ideal treatment of bird drawing for purposes of scientific illustration COURTENAY BRANDRETH’S BIRD PAINTINGS BY FRANK M. CHAPMAN* “NHE form of a bird at rest is so | definite, its lines so simple and continuous, that one might im- agine they could be reproduced by any- one with even slight talent for drawing. Nevertheless, good bird artists are rare. Possibly the very simplicity of the bird’s outline makes it a difficult subject, for although each species possesses its own characteristics of form, pose, and expres- sion, which to the bird student are pronounced and obvious, they are not evident to the artist who has not suffi- cient interest in bird life to study his subject sympathetically. How many otherwise excellent paintings are marred by the introduction of the figures of birds as anatomically incorrect as would be a human figure drawn with arms, let us say, attached to the hips instead of to the shoulders! No artist would attempt to draw a man without having previously studied the original; why, therefore, should he hope for success in bird portraiture when he relies on his imagination rather than on nature for a model? *Curator of Ornithology, American Museum, It requires, however, something more than study from life to produce a wholly adequate bird picture, just as it requires something in addition to good draftsman- ship to paint the portrait of a human subject. Where on the one hand there is needed that sympathetic insight into human nature which permits of char- acter interpretation, so on the other there is need for that love of birds which sees not merely a feathered form but a creature marvelously endowed with its own special traits, disposition, and potentialities, which are evident only to one who is familiar with what we call the habits of his subject. It is clear, for example, that one should not depict a dove with the expression of a hawk, but only the bird student knows the differ- ence in expression, physiognomy, and attitude between a warbler and a vireo. Without going further it may be said, in a word, that no one has ever reached or ever will reach the first rank of bird artists who is not possessed of that keen interest in birds which marks the born ornithologist. 79 A1asqo sea Sunured stu} Jo [eutst0 ay} YOryA\ UT aUV—Vs OY} puL UOSpNyT ay} WO SutuTss—_ Je pa INVad MOVIE COURTENAY BRANDRETH’S BIRD PAINTINGS 81 This sharp, vibrating response to the sight of a bird or the sound of its voice is a heritage as rare as it is priceless, and when in the fortunate individual possessing it we find also the talents of an artist, we have that exceptional combination of gifts which makes the true bird artist. The world has known but few men and no women of this type, and those who are interested watch eagerly for the exhibition of gifts which -mark their possessor as a man of promise in the field of bird art. During November, 1920, there was held at the Congressional Library in Washington an exhibit of bird paintings at which twenty-four artists were rep- resented. Among the pictures shown were several by Mr. Courtenay Brandreth, of Ossining, New York. Mr. Brandreth’s name is new among bird artists, but his pictures aroused such favorable comment that he was subsequently invited to ex- hibit his work in the American Museum. About twenty-five of his paintings were therefore shown in the forestry hall of the museum in December, 1920, several of which are herewith reproduced. Black and white reproduction un- fortunately gives no indication of Mr. Brandreth’s skill as a colorist, but does do justice to his draftsmanship, to the excellence of which the most exacting _ technical ornithologist would bear wit- ness. Mr. Brandreth’s success in por- traying form, pose, and expression is due to his natural gifts, to genuine love of birds which sends him to nature for his subjects, and to a course of study under Louis Agassiz Fuertes, master painter of bird portraits. Not only are his birds correct in form, but also in feather. To the landscapist who introduces an alleged eagle or gull into his painting for purely artistic pur- poses it is quite immaterial whether his figure has five or ten primaries; never- theless, the same man would not think of giving a human subject an incorrect number of fingers, and to the ornitholo- gist it is quite as important to give a bird its proper number of wing quills. Mr. Brandreth has certainly not de- tracted from the beauty of his figures of birds by giving them their due allot- ment of feathers; he has thereby greatly increased their charm to the bird student who is as much pained by a picture of a five-primaried swallow as he would be by that of a two-fingered man. But Mr. Brandreth is something more than a gifted and accurate drawer of birds. Among artists of his class his pic- tures show that he has already attained an unusual measure of success in placing his bird in the landscape, or perhaps I should say in placing landscape about his bird. The purposes of scientific illustration to aid in the identification of the species drawn are best served by the elimination or suppression of all unnecessary ac- cessories. Given a branch on which to perch, or a stick to stand upon, and all other suggestion of out-of-doors may be omitted. The accompanying evening grosbeak and least sandpiper pictures are good illustrations of this kind of bird drawing. But it is one of the most promising features of Mr. Brandreth’s art that he is not content to rest here. In several of the paintings in his exhibi- tion he has aimed to portray not merely the bird on the bough, but the bird in its haunts, a kind of bird painting in which it is evident success can be won only by an artist who is a good landscapist as well as a good bird portrait painter. The painting of the loon, here inade- quately reproduced in black and white, gives some conception of the character of Mr. Brandreth’s work in this higher branch of ornithological art. The loon, a male, is shown in one of its courtship evo- lutions when, calling loudly, it seems to half run, half jump over the water about the female. The bird’s excitement at this season is increased by an approaching storm, and its calls echoing over the water voice the spirit of the wilderness. No one who has been thrilled by the loon’s weird cries can fail to have the experience recalled by Mr. Brandreth’s painting,—an indication, therefore, that RED PHALAROPE A swimming member of the order of sandpipers and snipes which sits lightly on the water pe TREE SWALLOW PLAYING WITH A FEATHER Note the detail with which the feathers of the wing aie diczwn 83 84 NATURAL HISTORY Female evening grosbeak.—An excellent example of bird portraiture the artist has at least approached the mark toward which he was aiming. The brant pictured was captured in the Hudson near Ossining, an unusual locality for this coastwise bird, and the scene in which it is placed is therefore far from typical. The painting, how- ever, is pleasing not only because of the admirable manner in which the bird is drawn, but also because of the skill with which the artist has enveloped the bird in the delicate lavender atmosphere of his painting, without in any way affect- ing the scientific accuracy with which the colors of the bird’s plumage are rendered. Other subjects give additional proof that if Mr. Brandreth continues to follow the path in which he has made so promising a start, he will win a place among the few men who can claim to be both painters of birds and of nature. ———— LOCO WEEDS BY ARTHUR HOLLICK* stock, especially sheep and cattle, due to their eating plants that possess toxic properties, are frequently reported from widely separated localities through- out the eastern United States; but such instances are isolated and usually only | Rees of the poisoning of live ‘a few or individual animals are victims; and the effects, as a rule, are immediate and acute, with either death or complete recovery following quickly. ‘‘ Moun- - tain laurel” (Kalmia latifolia) and “sheep laurel” or “lambkill” (Kalmia angusti- folia) appear to be responsible for most of the cases of sheep poisoning, while “poison hemlock” (Conium maculatum) and “water hemlock” or ‘“‘cowbane” (Cicuta maculata) are probably responsi- ble for a majority of the cases of cattle poisoning. In extensive regions west of the Mis- sissippi River, however, the annual loss of horses, cattle, and sheep from ‘‘loco poisoning,” as it is called, is a serious matter which has to be reckoned with as though it were a disease or pestilence, and unremitting precautionary and pre- ventive measures are necessary in order to minimize its ravages. In some parts of Montana, Colorado, Nebraska, and Kansas, because of the large number of horses that die of loco poisoning, it has been found impossible to allow them to run freely upon the ranges. The losses of cattle have been heavier in Colorado, apparently, than in any other state, while the losses of sheep have been more serious in the states to the north, especially in Montana. The effects are relatively slow in manifesting themselves and the ultimate outcome may be long deferred; _ but death or more or less permanent physical and nervous derangement is inevitable, according to the extent of the poisoning. The plants that produce these effects are called “loco weeds” and the animals poisoned by eating them are said to be “‘locoed.”’ This term is of Spanish origin, meaning “‘crazy,” and it is applied by reason of the erratic actions and behavior of the animals during the early and secondary stages of the disease. Certain initial symptoms appear to indicate a disturbance of the nervous system, resulting in a condition of hallu- cination. A locoed horse, if led or ridden up to some slight obstacle or in- equality in a road, such as a fence rail or a conspicuous rut, will stop short and, if urged forward, will leap as though trying to surmount some obstruction several feet in height, or as if to clear a wide ditch. Objects and inequalities apparently appear to it to be exaggerated in size, although loss of normal muscular control may be the explanation, in part. A badly locoed horse is likely to shy violently, often apparently at some imaginary object, or to move straight ahead until stopped by walking or run- ning into some perfectly obvious bar to further progress. It may also let a per- son approach without, apparently, its taking any notice, and then will sud- denly rear and perhaps fall over back- ward. Abnormal development of the mane and tail is also a characteristic feature of badly locoed horses. A steer will start, tremble, and may rear and jump backward if suddenly alarmed and, when badly afflicted, may become frantic and run around. or straight ahead until exhausted or stopped by some obstruction. A cow may lose her calf and never be able to find it again, and will not recognize it if brought to her. Loco poisoning also seems to predispose to abortion, and the normal increase in locoed herds is thus seriously reduced. The symptoms in connection with sheep are not characterized by the *New York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park 85 86 NATURAL HISTORY Typical locoed horse.—The abnormal growth of mane and tail is one of the characteristics of loco poisoning in horses. Agriculture) spectacular, violent actions seen in horses and cattle. Lack of muscular control is perfectly evident, but a condi- tion of weakness is the most obvious characteristic. They stumble, fall, and rise again with difficulty. In the final stages all animals are rough-coated, be- come more or less paralytic, lose flesh, refuse to eat, and ultimately die of star- vation. Practically all grazing animals in the regions where loco weeds grow eat them, at times, to a greater or less extent; but if grass is abundant this is generally preferred, and they do not seem to take naturally to the weeds, as a rule, if grass or other good fodder is readily ob- tainable. Individual animals, however, sometimes appear to have a predilection for them, and nearly all are liable to contract the loco habit, in which event they will seek the weeds and eat them almost exclusively. Exactly when it was that loco poison- ing first attracted serious attention is (Photograph through courtesy of the United States Department of somewhat uncertain, so far as any pub- lished records are concerned; but it must have been some time prior ’to 1870, as indicated by an article on the subject by George Vasey, describing instances in California, included in the report of the United States Commissioner of Agricul- ture for the year 1874. The probability seems to be that it was not until the finer breeds of animals were introduced that loco poisoning produced effects suffi- ciently extensive to cause apprehension and to lead to careful investigation. Generally speaking, the poorer the breed the less liable to. poisoning it appears to be, and native breeds are seldom locoed to the same extent as are those that are imported. The former are more familiar with the forage plants of the region and are more accustomed to travel long dis- tances in search of those that are desir- able, whereas imported animals have not learned by experience, and they are also more inclined to eat whatever is most easy of access. t \ / : Typical locoed steer.—Note particularly the rough coat characteristic of locoed cattle. (Photograph through courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture) Sheep in final stage of diseased condition due to loco weed. (Photograph through courtesy of the United States Department of Agriculture) 87 (uapiesy [eoTURJOg YOK MON “wINLreqioy Ut uauntoeds yo umasnyy ursuoury Aq ydeisojoyg) “soja [eI ej S}I 0} quinoons os[¥ ‘4aAoMmoy ‘daays pue I9}72D = *SSIOY 07 snososuep Aprejnonzed st jueld sty} “eyyeype sulpquiesas AyyeIoy -rodng ) =*(wnskydip wnysty) premapyyei IO O90] INT (uaprey [eotUR}Og YIOR MON ‘uniieqi9y ut uawdeds jo wmasnyy URdeuy Aq Ydeis0joyg) ‘satdeds Airey Ssa] 10 J1OUI 19Y}O TeIVAVS 0} ‘TaAamoy ‘pordde oureu vB ‘Od0T ATTOOAL Sv OS[E UMOUY SI SAIvY JO SULIBAOD asUap s}I JO asnvdeq YOIyM “ued sty} Jo sumtjorA [edioutd oy} a1 sasiofy *(Snmzssijou snpp3p4js py) 0d0] a1dIng > Se a ee : Ye eS ee: th 2 ks 7 ‘ 1 i DO Se, S LOCO WEEDS 8 Probably at least a dozen different species of more or less closely related plants have had loco properties ascribed to them; but similarity in general ap- pearance, and the application of the color character in connection with the popular name,—‘‘white loco,” “blue loco,” “purple loco,” etc.,—have resulted, in- evitably, in considerable confusion of identity, especially as striking color vari- ations are common in several of the species. It appears probable that not more than five or six possess toxic properties sufficiently virulent to make them seriously dangerous to live stock, and recent critical investigations by the United States Department of Agriculture have resulted in officially reducing the number of poisonous species of serious importance to three. The three species now recognized as the typical loco weeds of the West were formerly included, with several hundred others, in the comprehensive genus Astragalus, which in recent years, how- ever, has been split up into about seven- teen distinct genera. Incidentally, also, it is of interest to note that these and nearly all other plants that are known or suspected to possess true loco proper- ties belong to the Leguminose, the family that includes the pea, bean, clover, alfalfa, etc.—all of them plants of the highest forage value. Aragallus Lambertii (Pursh) Green (=Oxytropis Lambertii Pursh) has the greatest range of the three species men- tioned, extending from Mexico to Alaska, east to middle Minnesota and west to middle Arizona and Utah. It includes a dozen or more forms which many botanists are inclined to regard as species; but economically they may all be regarded as belonging to the one species. The flowers are commonly bluish purple, but in some localities a white or albino form is predominant and in others pink is the prevailing color. This species is therefore known either as blue, purple, white, or pink loco, ac- cording to the locality in which one or the other color form prevails. It has no true stem and hence is sometimes called “stemless loco”; and the pods, when dry, rattle and make a sound like a rattlesnake, by reason of which the name “‘rattleweed”’ is also applied toit. None of these names, however, possesses any value, so far as identifying the plant is concerned, inasmuch as one or another of the names is equally applicable to several other species. The leaflets are relatively long and lanceolate in form. Aragallus Lambertii is probably the most destruc- tive of all the loco weeds, not only because of its wider distribution but also because it is equally deadly to horses, cattle, and sheep. It is a source of heavy annual losses in all of these classes of animals. Astragalus mollissimus Torrey has a range that extends from Mexico to South Dakota, east to middle Kansas and Oklahoma and west to middle Arizona. It rarely grows anywhere in such abundance as the species previously mentioned, but occasionally it occurs in patches that cover several acres. The flowers are usually bright purple in color and the range of color variation is, relatively, inconsiderable, for which rea- son it is more generally known as “pur- ple loco” than are either of the others. The leaflets are ovate or elliptical and the entire plant, especially the leaves, is densely covered with hairs, from which the popular name “woolly loco” is derived. This name, however, is also applied to several other more or less hairy species that occur in certain areas of the range. Astragalus mollis- simus is particularly fatal to horses. Cystium diphysum (A. Gray) Rydberg (= Astragalus diphysus A. Gray) is more restricted in its distribution than is either of the others. It ranges from southern Arizona and New Mexico to middle Utah and Colorado and west to southern California. In many localities it grows in great abundance, covering acres almost to the apparent exclusion of all other vegetation. The flowers are BLUE, PURPLE, WHITE, PINK, OR STEMLESS LOCO This widely distributed plant (Aragallus Lambertii) is alike fatal whatever color form it assumes. Because of its great northward and southward range—from Mexico to Alaska— coupled with the fact that it is equally deadly to horses, cattle, and sheep, it probably deserves the opprobrious distinction of being the most destructive of all the loco weeds. (Photograph by American Museum of specimen in herbarium, New York Botanical Garden) go LOCO WEEDS ss prevailingly blue in color, hence the commonly applied name “blue loco,” and the entire plant presents quite a different appearance from the other two. The leaflets are small, ovate or oblong. In color of flowers and leaves and general style of growth it resembles alfalfa. The seed pods become inflated and bladder- like and, if disturbed when dry, make a noise which has earned for the plant the name ‘“rattleweed” in common with Aragallus Lambertii and several other species in more or less closely related genera. Cystium diphysum affects mostly horses, but is also fatal to cattle and sheep. Apparently this species was the first loco weed to attract serious attention, although it may have been confused with Astragalus Hornii Gray and A. lentigino- sus Douglas, both of which, it is said, possess loco properties, and all three of which are native in the southern parts of California. The exact nature of the constituent that produces loco effects has not, as yet, been satisfactorily determined. The hairs on certain species of loco weeds have been suspected, and it has also been suggested that’ some obscure fungoid or animal parasite on the plants may be responsible. Neither of these theories, however, has been substantiated. Chem- ical analysis, also, has failed to. isolate any alkaloid of a poisonous nature; but certain mineral elements have been found to be common to nearly all loco plants, and further experimentation with these will, it is believed, yield the in- formation and proof desired. Photcgraph by Albert E. Butler A Colorado meadow, with Aragalius Lambertii of evil repute in the foreground 4 S Sa THE GILA MONSTER The species shown here (Heloderma suspectum of Arizona) is distinguished from its less known but larger Mexican relative (H. horridum) by the greater number of orange and yellow spots on the head. Both forms may be seen in a series of reptiles on the second floor of the American Museum, including the one which served as the original of this. photograph j ; r ’ 5 A THE VENOM OF HELODERMA' BY LEO LOEB* HE Gila monster is a poisonous reptile which is found in certain parts of the United States and in Mexico. There seems to be little defi- nite information concerning the degree of its poisonous character, and occasionally ‘we may hear reports which are evi- dently exaggerated. It might, there- fore, not be without interest to refer to a few of the observations and experiments which were made by us and our collabo- rators more than ten years ago under a grant from the Carnegie Institution. Two species of Gila monster are known, the common species, Heloderma sus- pectum which is found in Arizona, and the less familiar Mexican form, Helo- derma horridum. We studied mainly the former. Heloderma possesses two poison glands of large size which are situated on the outer side of the anterior half of the lower jaw, immediately under the skin. These are a transformed sublabial gland, in contradistinction to the poison gland of snakes which is situated higher up and which corresponds to the parotid gland of mammals. Each poison gland of the Gila monster consists of three or four lobes, and each lobe ends in a canal which opens on the outer side of the jaw close to the base of the tooth in a groove in which the venom may collect. While in snakes a muscle coat surrounds the gland and expresses the venom, in Heloderma the mechanism is somewhat different; here the con- traction of the muscle makes tense a fibrous fascia which in turn presses out the fluid from the sacs of the gland. When the animal bites, the secretion gushes into this groove. Consequently the venom is ejected in the neighborhood of several wounds made by the teeth, the grooves present on the outer side of the teeth carrying the venom into the wound. There is, however, no means by which the Heloderma can inject venom directly into an enemy as does the Cro- talus. In order to collect the venom we caused the animal to bite upon a piece of soft rubber, and with a capillary pi- pette we drew off the secretion from the lower side of the rubber. An animal in good condition will usually chew the rubber for several minutes and each time the jaw closes there is a gush of venom into the groove. The poison gland resembles glands which prepare digestive juices such as we find in the intestines and stomach of man. In the secreting cells there ap- pear very minute granules in both the ordinary digestive glands of the intes- tines and in the poison gland. These granules are the carriers of the active digestive substance as well as of the poison. There is known a toxic sub- stance (pilocarpine) which stimulates the production of digestive ferments; we found that this substance stimulates equally well the production of the Helo- derma venom. The real function of the poison gland in snakes has not been definitely deter- mined. Some investigators have main- tained that it merely eliminates from the blood of the snake the venom which had been formed elsewhere by different cells; others believed that the poison gland itself produces the venom. In snakes the blood or even some organs are poisonous as well as the poison gland; therefore the exact function of the gland cannot very well be analyzed. In Helo- derma we found the blood and other or- gans to be free from venom and, through removal of the poison gland, we could de- termine quite definitely that it is the function of the poison gland to produce The Venom of Heloderma,”’ by Leo Loeb, with the collaboration of Carl L. Alsberg, Elizabeth Cooke, Ellen P. Corson-White, Moyer S. Fleisher, Henry Fox, T. S, Githens, Samuel Leopold, M. K. Meyers, M. E. Rehfuss, D. Rivas, and Lucius Tuttle. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D. C., ror3. *Department of Comparative Pathology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis 93 64 | | NATURAL HISTORY the venom and not merely to eliminate the preformed product. In order to procure a large amount of venom for experimental purposes we kept a number of Gila monsters in our labo- ratory. When fed with chicken eggs, these reptiles lived for a considerable time in captivity and behaved quite normally. We thus had a chance to study the properties of the venom and es- pecially its effects on various kinds of animals. We found that the venom as it comes out of the mouth of the animal contains many bacteria which may be quite virulent for certain animals. It was therefore necessary before injecting it to sterilize the venom. This could readily be done by heating it to 100 centi- grade for ten minutes. Thus the viru- lent bacteria were killed, while the venom was preserved. It resisted heat better than the much more poisonous venom of the cobra snake which it other- wise resembled in many respects. If kept in the liquid state the venom grad- ually deteriorated; but by drying it its strength could be preserved for a long period of time. It was also possible to free the venom from bacteria by filtering it through porcelain filters with very fine pores, through which the venom passed readily while the bacteria were held back. Through parchment paper, on the other hand, the. venom diffused only very slowly. We tested the effect of the venom on — many kinds of animals by injecting it in measured quantities in various ways. All kinds of warm-blooded animals were found to be susceptible to the venom. ‘The lethal dose for a guinea pig was, on the average, 7%» of a cubic centimeter of fresh venom or 5 milligrams of the dried material. On the whole, there was not much difference in the sensitive- ness of different species of warm- blooded animals, but white rats seemed to be slightly less susceptible. Cold- blooded vertebrates are much less sen- sitive to the venom than mammals and birds; and especially the toad can stand a great amount, about thirty times as much as the guinea pig, if fig- ured out for equal weights of both spe- cies. The venom is not toxic for inver- tebrate animals. Wherein does the toxic action of the venom consist? It acts mainly on that part of the brain which regulates respi- ration, as Van Denburgh and Wight had already observed. When a warm-blooded — animal receives a lethal dose of Helo- derma venom, the first conspicuous ef- fect is a disturbance of respiration. The breathing becomes quickened and the respirations are forced. After a time the respiratory rate diminishes and the respirations grow shallow, until after a period of respiratory spasm they cease altogether. The venom produces, as we could show, some changes in the structure of the nerve cells. In only a few of the other organs does it produce changes, which usually are very slight. After a person has been bitten by a Heloderma, there may be some swelling near the seat of injury; but it is doubtful whether this effect is due to the action of the venom as such. It is more prob- able that it is caused by an admixture of another secretion or perhaps it is due to bacterial action. In general, as to its action on man, a bite of Heloderma may cause very marked local changes which, however, in most cases are of a temporary character. It is said that in some instances persons have died as a result of the bite. How- ever that may be, we have not been able to find an authentic case where death was due to the action of the Heloderma venom. Knowing the lethal dose for animals, we can figure out that it would be necessary for the Gila monster to introduce at least one half of a cubic centimeter of venom into the wound in the process of biting, in order to kill an — adult, but probably a much greater amount would be needed. It seems hardly possible for an animal to succeed EE ——— a a ee Tse Ss a a =a ee i PSO ee ee eee re ". F _ THE VENOM OF HELODERMA 95 in injecting so large a quantity of venom into the wound. One of the most interesting observa- tions which have been made in the study of poisonous animals is the fact that the animals are generally resistant to their own venom. This holds good in the case of snakes, and the same we found to be true in the case of Heloderma. If we inject, for instance, into a Gila monster as much venom as is sufficient to kill in a short time forty-five guinea pigs, no effect whatever is noticed. On the other hand, Heloderma is sus- ceptible to the toxic action of snake venom and snakes are susceptible to the toxic action of Heloderma venom. We carried out a series of experiments in which we tried to determine to what mechanism may be attributed this im- munity of the Gila monster to its own venom. It seems possible that it is due to the fact that in Heloderma the liver and probably also the kidneys have the power to hold back greater quantities of venom than the same organs can in other animals, and these organs thus prevent the venom from reaching the sensitive parts of the brain in a concen- tration which might be injurious. It is possible to immunize artificially ’ other kinds of animals, for instance, rab- bits, against the venom of Heloderma, by injecting them at regular intervals with gradually increasing doses of the venom; thus the injected animals ac- quire a resistance against the venom. Two of our rabbits withstood the in- jection of about eight times the dose lethal for ordinary rabbits. While these rabbits were thus to some extent protected against the toxic action of the venom, they did not yield in their blood an antitoxin which was able to protect another individual hot immun- ized previously against the toxic action of the venom; but inasmuch as we have seen that the venom of Heloderma is usually not lethal for human beings, the production of such an antitoxin is not of particular practical importance. We found, however, that an antitoxin which is active against cobra venom and which has been produced by the French pathologist, Calmette, has a slight antitoxic effect even if mixed with Heloderma venom; but this effect is much less than that exerted against cobra venom. As to the chemical char- acter of the Heloderma venom Dr. Carl S. Alsberg, who analyzed our material, found that it was not of a protein nature but much simpler in structure, and that it resembled in this respect some snake venoms which had _ been previously studied. As we stated above, the action of Heloderma venom resembles very much that of the cobra snake; both act mainly on the respiratory center of the brain, both have a slight effect on the blood corpuscles under certain conditions, both are devoid or almost devoid of such marked local destructive actions as are found at the seat of the bite of a poison- ous viper or in case the viper poison is injected under the skin of animals. The toxic action of Heloderma, however, is much weaker than that of the cobra; and there can be no doubt that both venoms are chemically different. We see, therefore, that with different mechanisms of secretion, with differently situated poison glands, with different kinds of venom, somewhat similar bi- ological and pathological effects are ob- tained in two species as distinct from each other as the Heloderma and the cobra. Lower jaw of the Gila monster ROCK CRYSTAL BALL, TEN CENTIMETERS IN DIAMETER, MOUNTED ON A BRONZE ELEPHANT OF HINDU WORKMANSHIP Presented to the American Museum by Messrs. Sidney and Victor Bevin 90 AL ~ ROCK CRYSTAL BALLS BY HERBERT P. WHITLOCK * MONG the semiprecious stones there is none, with the exception of jade, which has been so ex- tensively used as a material for carved ° objects as rock crystal. From Italy and France have come the graceful vases, chalices, bowls, and drinking vessels of classic beauty, of fine and rich ornamentation; from Russia art objects of more severe and geometric treatment, as well as exquisite statuettes and figu- rines in this limpid medium; and from the Orient the odd-shaped vases and snuff bottles characteristic of Chinese art. Among all of these, however, there are probably no series of objects fash- ioned of rock crystal which are more striking than the spheres made by the lapidary artists of Japan. The best of these are cut from flawless quartz crys- tals, clear and absolutely colorless, and are usually mounted on bronze wrought into decorative forms, such as dragons, storks, tortoises, and grotesque human figures. The clear, polished ball, con- trasting with its dark bronze mounting, is preéminently an artistic object, lending itself with especial facility to the Japa- nese taste, which sets aside one beautiful thing as sufficient to contemplate and -admire in an entire room. Groups of these balls delicately balanced in their mountings have been frequently em- ployed in that land of earthquakes to give warning of shocks, the slight preliminary tremors shaking them from their balanced poises. Rock crystal spheres have, moreover, been since very ancient times the es- pecial stock in trade of the occult fore- teller of events. Gazing into the still depths of these bits of earth’s clearest substance, these seers of the future, so they tell us, can conjure up pictures im- possible of production from common- place glass. It is this alleged occult property which has raised the rock crystal sphere from a place of preéminent beauty to one of even higher romance and of unreality and woven around it an intricate web of legendary mysticism. Dr. Dee, a crystal gazer of the seven- teenth century,. has handed down in his diary a very elaborate and complete description of the methods employed by occultists of that period, which are practically the same as those in use to- day. The crystal ball is supported upon a background of neutral tone, pref- erably black, in a room hung with similar draperies and lit only with can- dles or lamps which concentrate what little light there is present on the crystal. The operator fixes his gaze upon the brilliant spot of light reflected from the polished surface of the crystal until consciousness of his surroundings is re- placed by subconscious “‘vision.” It is significant that, in all descriptions of these “visions,” what we may call the critical period is marked by the fading away of the image of the ball itself from conscious sight and its replacement by a thin cloud or mist upon which the prophetic “‘images”’ appear. In a certain sense no less marvelous than the alleged occult powers of the crystal ball are the simple means. em- ployed by the Japanese artisans in pro- ducing them. This art, which, it is said, has been handed down from father to son for generations, consists of manual dexterity carried to a superlative degree. Armed with only two primitive tools, the lapidary shapes from an angular quartz crystal a sphere of perfect round- ness and high polish. The quartz crys- tal is first roughly shaped to the form of a ball by chipping and abrading it with a piece of steel about twelve inches long and one half inch wide, which has a con- cave cutting edge somewhat like a car- penter’s gouge. When by means of this treatment the mass has been made * Curator of Mineralogy, American Museum of Natural History 97 98 NATURAL HISTORY round and approximately smooth, a joint of bamboo is used to complete the polishing, quartz dust, which lodges in the pores of the bamboo and, finally, rouge, furnishing the abrasives. This all sounds extremely simple and no doubt is, to one who is trained to do it, but let the reader undertake it himself if he doubts the wonderful manual skill of these Orientals. Of course, in the lapidary shops of Europe and America where the grinding and polishing of crystal balls are undertaken, the lathe and the casting of just the right curva- ture for a ball of required diameter render the task infinitely more simple; but even with these aids the produc- tion of a rock crystal ball of a diame- ter of, say, three inches is a matter of weeks. Inasmuch as the labor expended on a crystal ball of even modest size renders it a very costly object, the question which naturally presents itself is how can a purchaser be sure he is buying quartz and not glass? There are two very good ways of distinguishing quartz from its much more plebeian imitator, In the first place, almost every piece of glass large enough for a ball of even small size is reasonably sure to contain one or more round bubbles. Although extremely minute, these may be de- tected with a good “loop” or hand lens. * And inasmuch as quartz never contains round cavities, the presence of these latter will at-once stamp the ball in which they are found as spurious. There is, moreover, a much more exact test, which the writer has found to be applicable to balls from about one and one half inches diameter up. Quartz has the optical property, called double refraction, of exhibiting two images of everything which is viewed through it in a certain direction. It therefore be- comes a very easy matter to apply the test by drawing a cross of fine lines on a piece of paper and then resting the ball on this cross and shifting it until a double image of the lines appears to the eye through the ball. It is impossible for a glass ball to produce this effect. So we come at the end to an actual vision which any one can see by gazing into a rock crystal ball. Primitive tools used by the Japanese lapidaries when making a crystal ball, which is shown in five successive stages of completion. Columbia University The specimens pictured are from the Egleston Museum, ae NOTES SINCE the last issue of NatuRAL History the following persons have been elected members of the American Museum: Associate Benefactors, Messrs. Cuitps FRIck, H. P. Wuirney, and Mrs. Henry CLay FRICK. Patrons, Messrs. Sipney M. Corcate and ARTHUR A. FowLer. Life Members, Mrespames FRANK E. AIKEN, Wru1am H. Cottiys, Aucustus KirkHam, the Misses VirGINIA FRANCES BALLARD, MARGARETHE WATSON PotTEeR, CORNELIA SAFFORD, Emity ScHwarz, COLONEL JOHN C. F. Tittson, CoMMENDATORE BARTOLOMEO Mazza Fu CRESCENZO, Proressor A. La- cRorx, Messrs. JOHN ASPEGREN, JAMES Carr Dunn, Maynarp D. Fon, FEnLEy Hunter, Menco L. MorcentuHau, GEorGE L. Nicnots, Donatp Rowe Lt, J. M. VANDER- GRIFT, and CorNELIUS AYER Woop. Sustaining Members, Messrs. GERARD Foun- TAIN, E. C. HENDERSON, and Harorp S. SLOAN. Annual Members, Mrespames H. HarrincTon Burscu, J. CAESAR GUGGENHEIMER, J. R. WatsH, FRANK OsMAN WARNER, ARNOLD WHITRIDGE, WALTER WuRzBURGER, the Misses CiarA AttscHuL, ETHEL Boyp Bowers, EizABeETH FALCONER, MARTHA GAMBLE, FLORENCE E. House, Fanny E. Roperts, Harrier Oris SmirH, GLApys Vore, the REVEREND EDWARD PoUuTHIER, BrotHer Leo, Docrors MaArTHitpE BEv- SAUDE, SIDNEY V. Haas, Wm. VAN VALZAH Haves, C. FrepreRIC JeELtIncHAus, S. Pot- LITZER, JoHN A. Roprnson, the Hon. Morcan J. O’Brien, Messrs. JAMES FRED ALLEN, Epcar §S. AscH, Wm. Henry Barnum, Wittrm M. CHADBOURNE, GEORGE C. CLARK, Jr., Netson S. CLARK, FRANK E. Compton, G. R. Crosstey, Wm. B. Daven- PORT, FRANKLIN Epson, MAx FARRAND, CorneEtius F. Fox, Grurio Garri-Casazza, RatpH GopparD, WALTER D. GOoOoDALE, Epwarp L. Gruresy, A. A. Hopkins, H. C. Hosktrer, ALBERT F. JAECKEL, RicHarp M. Jesup, FRANK E. KARELSEN, JR., JAMES B. KILSHEIMER, Jr., ADOLPH LEEWITZ, ROBERT H. Lyman, M. D. Mason, Josepn L. B. Mayer, Cart A. MEAD. FReEpDERIC J. Mip- DLEBROOK, ANDREW J. Mitter, H. H. Moore, CuHartes A. Munn, Roriin C. NeEwron, BEDELL PARKER, JAMES D. PELL, WILLIAM PFOERTNER, LEO M. Prince, G. Extis REED, Sami. W. Reypurn, Louis W. Rice, ELLis G. RicHarps, OWEN F. Roperts, Percy A. ROCKEFELLER, S. M. ROSENTHAL, CLEON J. SAWYER, GEORGE ScuHmitt, NEeEtson S. SPENCER, JOSEPH W. STEIN, MEYER STERN, S. B. THorneE, G. B. ViITELLI, JoHN WALLER, R. L. WEGEL, and Lazarus WHITE. Associate Members, the Misses PHEeBe H. BEADLE, GERTRUDE E. Drxon, Bessie C. ENGLE, Doctors R. A. BEISE, ERNEST W. Brown, IRA EuGENE CuTLER, RatpH E. Dre Lury, Moses J. EISENBERG, HARRY FRIEDENWALD, CHARLES B. GRAVES, MICHAEL F. Guyver, SIDNEY Storrs HAtt, E. B. Hart, Morris HeErzSTEIN, THEODORE Hoven, G. Cart Huser, WILLIAM JEPSON, ERNESTE JOHANSEN, JAMES T. JoHNSON, Epwin O. JorRDAN, Howarp T. KARSNER, FRANKLIN JoHN KAUFMANN, W. W. KEEN, F. M. Ketty, Howarp A. Ketty, ArtHuR D. KiInsMAN, S. Krrxpatrick, Orro Ktotz, Kari K. Koesster, J. S. LANKFORD, WILLIAM LERCHE, JAs. H. Livrorp, W. B. Morrison, MuRRAY Gatt Morter, Lioyp Pirkinron, E. T. WARREN, Proressor WILtiAM C. Hoan, Messrs. D. Curry ARMSTRONG, ROSCOE G. BAKER, JEREMIAH S. BLACK, JR., GEORGE F. BowErMAN, GEeorGE De Lury, J. R. Dy- MOND, JAMES R. Extiott, THos. H. Foote, W. T. Foster, H. Warren K. HAte, Rosert T. Hatt, LAvurRENcE HEILpRIN, THomAS SLOAN HEWERDINE, S. M. HunTER, LAURENCE T. Kerr, LAURENCE LA ForGE, Cart O. LAMPLAND, J. FEDERICO LEGRAND, Matruew Luce, HERBERT Lyman, M. HAL McALLIsTEer, E. A. Mitter, E. J. Morera, R. KENNETH PERRY, H. SEVERN REGAR, Cart T. RoBERTSON, ADRIAN E. Smiru, EucenE R. Smitu, G. J. SPENCER, A. W. THOMPSON, CARROLL S. Tyson, Jr., ANDREW S. WHITE, REMBERT WURLITZER, and STANLEY P. Youne. On December 14 President Henry Fairfield Osborn, of the American Museum, attended a dinner in celebration of the organization of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History and de- livered an address on ‘‘The City and the Mu- seum.”’ Mr. Paul Marshall Rea, president of the American Association of Museums, was in- augurated as director of the new institution. On January 14 Director Rea and not a few of the trustees of the Cleveland Museum visited the American Museum and were entertained at luncheon by President Osborn. In acknowl- edging the courtesies shown them, which in- cluded an explanation in detail of the educational work of the museum, Mr. Harold T. Clark, sec- retary of the board of trustees of the Cleveland Museum, paid this handsome compliment: ‘‘It is our hope that in working toward the goal of our ambition for Cleveland we shall always fol- low the same broad, unselfish policy of helping other institutions that has been so characteristic of the American Museum of Natural History.” 99 Ioo PRESIDENT HENRY FAIRFIELD OsBorn, of the American Museum, received notice in January of his election to honorary membership in the Société Belge de Géologie, de Paléontologie et d’Hydrologie, a society founded at Brussels on the seventeenth of February, 1887. — The Society has an appropriate motto, Mente et Malleo (with the mind and with the hammer), and numbers among its members Dr. Louis Dollo, Dr. A. Rutot, and other leading palzon- tologists and geologists of Belgium. Dr. Freperic A. Lucas, director of the American Museum, was elected a Foreign Member of the Zoological Society of London, at their January meeting. This honor is restricted to twenty-five residents of foreign countries and carries with it the privilege of receiving the Pro- ceedings of the Society. Dr. Lucas has been a Corresponding Member of the Society since IQII. Dr. Henry E. CRAMPTON, curator of inverte- brate zodlogy in the American Museum, was elected vice president of the American Society of Naturalists at their annual meeting in Chi- cago in December. At the last meeting of the American Associ- ation for the Advancement of Science, Mr. Roy W. Miner, associate curator of lower inverte- brates in the American Museum, was elected a fellow. On January 25, 1921, Dr. Robert Cushman Murphy, associate curator of marine birds in the American Museum, was elected a Life Fellow of the American Geographical Society. Mr. Roy CHAPMAN ANDREWS, associate cu- rator of mammals of the eastern hemisphere in the American Museum and leader of the Mu- seum’s Third Asiatic Expedition, expects to sail from San Francisco on March 19, headed for Peking. The scientific staff of the expedition during the first and second years includes, in addition to Mr. Andrews: Messrs. Walter Gran- ger, palzontologist, Charles P. Berkey, geologist; James P. Chapin, ornithologist; George Olsen, assistant in paleontology; Clifford Pope, assistant in zodlogy, and Bayard Colgate, motor transportation. In contrast to the slow and laborious travel by means of the old-time caravan, the expedition will traverse the Mon- golian plains with up-to-date motor trucks. The reader is referred to Mr. Andrews’ article on pages 69-70 of this issue. Mr. H. E. ANTHONY, associate curator of mammals of the western hemisphere in the American Museum, and Mr. George K. Cherrie, representing the department of ornithology, recently returned to the Museum after a very NATURAL HISTORY successful expedition to Ecuador. It is unusual on such a trip to secure mammals exceeding in. number a few hundred, but the mammal speci- mens brought back by the present expedition reached the substantial total of 1560, of which 940 were collected by the expedition. The birds secured numbered about 2200 specimens. The working up of this material should reveal not a few forms new to science. Among the mammals taken are many species hitherto very poorly rep- resented, while the large series collected of the common species will give a much-needed in- sight into the degree of importance of individual variation. The base of operations for field work was at an early stage established at Portovelo, the mining camp of the South American Development Com- pany, where the expedition was given every fa- cility and assistance. From this base were made trips lasting from one month to six weeks. An account of the Jivaro Indians, with whom the expedition came in contact, will be given by Mr. Anthony in a subsequent num- ber of Naturat History. Specimens of the handicraft and war trophies of these Indians are familiar to those who have visited the third floor of the Museum. While at Quito, Mr. Anthony called upon Mr. Ludovic Séderstrom, whose name stands out as a landmark in the study of the natural history of Ecuador. For fifty years Mr. Séder- strom has resided in the South American re- public, regarding the fauna of which he has accumulated a vast store of valuable data. Mr. Séderstrom generously presented to the Ameri- can Museum a number of rare and very choice mammals. The American Museum is cordially apprecia- tive also of the valuable assistance given the ~ expedition by Sefior Dr. Don Rafael E. Elizalde, Ecuadorian Minister to the United States, whose interest and help went far toward making the trip a success; by the officers of the South American Development Company, including its president, Mr. William Adams Kissam, its vice president, Mr. J. W. Mercer, its resident man- ager, Mr. A. M. Tweedy, and its superintendent, Mr. L. O. Kellogg, who gave the expedition housing facilities and assisted in the securing — of pack animals, and in many other ways man- ifested their interest in the undertaking; and by Mr. E. Hope Norton, president of the Guaya- guil & Quito Railway Company, and Mr. Paget, superintendent of terminals at Guayaquil, who by their courtesy and aid smoothed the path of travel for the members of the expedition. TuRouGH the instrumentality of its president, Henry Fairfield Osborn, and the good offices also of the Abbé Henri Breuil, of the Institut de Paléontologie Humaine in Paris, the Ameri- can Museum recently obtained a fine series of stone implements from northwest Africa. This NOTES makes the second collection from Africa ac- quired during 1920, the first one—a gift from Mr. August Heckscher—being of Egyptian origin. Still other collections of fairly recent acquisition from the late ‘‘Dark Continent” hail from Somaliland, the Congo, and Rhodesia, with minor additions also from Cape Colony. The material in the new collection comprises about 1300 pieces, including implements of flaked and chipped flint, of ground and polished stone, of bone, and also some beads made from stone and from thick egg shells. Geograph- ically, the collection is derived from two princi- pal localities; namely, the vicinity of Tebessa in the Government of Algeria and the region of the Sahara Desert close to the Moroccan border. In all, seventeen or more specific sites are indicated. Chronologically, all the local culture stages, ranging from the Chellean through Acheulean, Mousterian, Capsian (equivalent in time to the Upper Paleolithic of western Europe), and Neolithic, are represented. While the Museum is not prepared at this time to give a full account of the specimens typi- cal of each culture level, it may be stated at ence that the deliberate classification made by Breuil yields some surprises. For example, the Chellean and Acheulean traits do not seem to be distinguished very sharply with respect to the coup de poing. What is equivalent to the Levallois flake of France is, however, as we _should expect, confined to the Acheulean. It is the Mousterian series which is the most startl- ing. Here, in addition to the typical so-called “point,” there is a large representation of stemmed points! These are crude and irregu- lar in outline, but otherwise conform to the Mousterian-Aurignacian practice in being re- touched on the convex side only. The strange thing is that they disappear with the Mousterian to reappear again, in perfected form, in the Neolithic. A similarly startling fact is the pres- ence in the upper Mousterian of double-pointed blades, chipped on both sides after Solutrean and Neolithic fashion. These also disappear with the rise of the Capsian. The Capsian series it- self represents but a crude approach to the var- ied specializations of the Aurignacian, Solutrean, etc., of western Europe. Toward the end, the double-pointed blade, chipped on both sides, turns up again, this time to be regarded as a forerunner of the Neolithic. The Neolithic series, finally, includes broken pottery, beads of stone and egg shell, some polished celts, and quite a number of chipped arrow points. These last fall into four distinct groups as follows: stemmed, stemless with round base, stemless with straight base, and stemless with a notched base. Altogether the grouping of the material is not entirely convincing, but as it has been done by one of Europe’s most brilliant investigators of the Paleolithic, it must stand for the present. Iol Perhaps the significance of thes2 discoveries in Africa is that we must ultimately give up the idea that the French Paleolithic industrial development is standard for the world. Dr. CHARLES-EDWARD A. WINSLOW, curator of public health in the American Museum and professor of public health in Yale University School of Medicine, is at present abroad in connection with his responsibilities as general medical director of the League of Red Cross So- cieties with headquarters at Geneva, having suc- ceeded in this office Dr. Richard P. Strong. Dr. Winslow is impressed with the sound lines on which the League is operating and predicts that it will accomplish a great work. ‘One turns,”’ says he, ‘‘ from the organization of a child welfare clinic in Slovakia to a malarial campaign in Spain, a nursing school in Serbia, and a social hygiene conference in Copenhagen, with an in- spiring sense of the unity and importance of the modern public health campaign.” While in London, Dr. Winslow took occasion to visit the different museums dealing with public health. He was particularly interested to note that in the great Natural History Mu- seum in South Kensington the central hall on the ground floor was devoted largely to public health. An impressive set of exhibits dealing with insects and diseases there found place. “Tt is certainly encouraging,’ Dr. Winslow comments, ‘‘to find that in England, as in America, the public health aspects of natural history are recognized as deserving a leading place,” During the great war the American Museum, interested in furthering the cause in which the nation was engaged, prepared a food exhibit. In the form of wax models of different edibles, accompanied by explanations of their value in calories and their food properties, this exhibit served as a trustworthy guide to the community at a time when a judicious use of food was being emphasized as one of the factors necessary to the winning of the war. This exhibit, of ser- vice in times of peace as well as of strife, has de- servedly survived the emergency that called it into existence. It is now being rearranged to meet the altered conditions. A more or less kindred reminder of war time Dr. Winslow found at the Museum of the Royal Medical College. Here he saw what he describes as ‘‘a most wonder- ful collection of original material dealing with military hygiene, which could not be equaled anywhere else in the world.’ Dr. Winslow contemplates a visit also to the Swiss and German museums. Tue American Museum Novitates is a new publication issued, as occasion requires, for the embodiment of preliminary announcements, descriptions of new forms, and similar matters. The articles are numbered serially but paged in- I02 dependently. An index will be provided for each three hundred (approximately) pages. The first two numbers, which appeared on January 31, are devoted respectively to ‘““The Evolution, Phylogeny, and Classification of the Proboscidea,”? by Henry Fairfield Osborn, and “Descriptions of Apparently New Birds from Bolivia, Brazil, and Venezuela,” by Frank M. Chapman. SINCE the first of the year three letters have been received from Mr. Rollo H. Beck, the Amer- ican Museum’s field representative of the Whit- KD 6) ing grounds of birds. NATURAL HISTORY ney Expedition in the western South Pacific. The first contains news from Tahiti, where Mr. Beck and his associate, Mr. Quayle, encount- ered great difficulty during their arduous col- lecting work, owing to the constant rains and the swollen state of the mountain streams. Among the birds obtained was an interesting species of black rail. In January Messrs. Beck and Quayle visited Christmas Island, through the courtesy of its owner, Pére Rougier, and also one or more islands of the Marquesas group. At these islands and in the surrounding waters they obtained many species of sea birds, including petrels, gulls, terns, boobies, frigate birds, and tropic birds, as well as doves and other land birds. Noteworthy among the specimens are examples of the rare petrel, Bulweria bulweri. Upon Christmas Island the collectors had the novel experience, as shown in the accompanying illustrations, of visiting by automobile the breed- Several cases of specimens are now en route from the field and their arrival is awaited with deep interest, for no adequate series of specimens, accompanied by exact data, have previously reached the museum from these parts of the world. THE redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens), which share with the Big Trees of the Sierras (Sequoia gigantea) the distinction of being the oldest of living things, are threatened with destruction and only prompt action can save them. Along the State Highway in Humboldt County, Cali- fornia, tie camps are being erected with a view to start lumbering as soon as the season permits. To rescue from impending annihilation some at least of these magnificent trees a bill has been introduced in the California State Legislature asking an appropriation of $300,000. The bill vests authority and power in the State Board of Forestry to make purchases out of the appro- priation stipulated, of redwood timber lands in Humboldt County, adjacent to the State High- way, to manage and control these lands and, whenever in the judgment of the board it is necessary, to exercise the right of eminent do- main in acquiring such lands by condemnation proceedings. President Henry Fairfield Osborn, of the American Museum, ever vigilant in protecting the natural wonders of our land, sent under date of February 23 to Governor William D. Stephens, of California, the following appeal: ‘*‘T write as president of the American Museum of Natural History and as president of the Zoo- logical Society of the City of New York—insti- tutions with combined memberships from all parts of the United States of eight thousand public-spirited citizens, also with combined popular attendance of more than five million people annually—to urge strongly your support of the bill now before the State Legislature of ; . } : NOTES 103 California providing for an appropriation of $300,000 to purchase redwood groves through Humboldt County. “T have followed the great movement in New York State which led to the establishment of the superb Palisade and Highland, and Adiron- dack parks, which are now enjoyed by all the people of the state and especially by those of limited means who cannot afford to travel abroad or to distant countries. It is in the democratic interests of these people of limited means but of firm patriotism that the reserves in the state ___ of California should be made. As you know, I have traversed this country personally. I know almost every foot of it. I think there is no doubt that future generations will call this generation blessed if we save these majestic for- ests before it is too late and will cheerfully pay the small annual tax. The mind and spirit and soul of man are far more important than his body, yet how readily we tax people for the care of their bodies—for water supply, for sewerage, for roads—and how loath we are to tax them for the enjoyment and advancement of the beauties of nature! “It is one of the glories of the state of Cali- fornia that so large a percentage of tax funds is devoted to educational purposes. I regard the saving of the redwoods by a small addition to the educational tax as of the greatest value to all the people.” It is to be hoped that by the enactment of the proposed bill and through the activities of the Save the Redwoods League this impressive tree may be permitted to continue to justify its sci- entific name sempervirens, “ever-living,” in- stead of succumbing, after having survived the vicissitudes of the centuries, to the destructive- ness of man. ON DECEMBER 27 last the University of Pennsylvania entertained as guests the Ameri- can Anthropological Association and the Amer- ican Folklore Society when these. two: organiza- tions held their joint meeting in Philadelphia. For the coming year Dr. William C. Farabee, of the University Museum, was elected president, and Dr. John R. Swanton, of the Bureau of American Ethnology, editor and treasurer, to suc. eed Dr. P. E. Goddard, curator of ethnol- ogy in the American Museum, who has edited the publication for the last six years. A number of interesting papers were read, including one by Dr. Robert H. Lowie, associate curator of ethnology in the American Museum, on “The Cultural Connection of Californian and Plateau Shoshonean Tribes,” and one by Dr. P. E. God- dard entitled ‘Notes on the Wailaki of Cali- fornia.” THE government of Chile has under con- struction at Santiago a large agricultural college equipped with a model farm, vineyards, stables, and other necessary facilities for the teaching and investigation of agricultural subjects. Mr. Vincente Valdivia, director of the department of cenology in the college, recently visited the United States to study the grape industry of California. AN APPEAL for the preservation and, in some cases, utilization for camping sites of the Indian rock shelters (asiniwikams) in Palisades Inter- state Park is made by Mr. Meade C. Dobson in the Conservationist. These are the only monu- ments of the aborigines throughout this region. They consist of natural lean-tos or projecting ledges used by the Indian hunters when on the trail. Quantities of arrow points, spear heads, and other relicshave been found’on their floors at various times, among others by Mr. Max Schrabisch, who explored them extensively in connection with the archeological survey of the state of New Jersey undertaken some years ago by the American Museum. Mr. Dobson’s recommendation that park trails be made to pass close to these shelters and that they be converted into comfortable overnight rest places by the use of chestnut slabs and concrete floors, is a picturesque idea but some at least should be kept intact. THERE is probably no more striking instance of the evil results of man’s interference with nature than that shown by the ravages of the gypsy moth (Porthetria dispar). This insect was accidentally turned loose in the United States and sums running into the millions have been expended in the effort to exterminate, or at least to limit the range of, the pest. The recent discovery that it'had entered New Jersey, a state previously free from its devastations, was, therefore, viewed with alarm. Happily, intelligent efforts are being applied to its con- trol. Mr. H. B. Weiss, chief of the Bureau of Statistics and Inspection, New Jersey State De- partment of Agriculture, who in the issue of Natura History for September-October, 1920, gave a statement of the problem with which the New Jersey authorities were con- fronted, records, in the paragraphs that follow, the progress that has been made in combating the evil: “Due to the prompt action of the New Jersey Legislature in appropriating $112,000 on No- vember 8, for» immediate use in fighting this insect, it was possible by the last week of No- vember to place a force of fifty men in the field. This force was increased as rapidly as possible until now (February 1, 1921) there are almost 100 men engaged in the work. ‘‘The infested area at present covers approxi- mately 150 square miles, reaching New Bruns- wick on the east, Clover Hill-on the west, Plucke- min on the north, and Kingston on the south. In this area, the territory in the vicinity of 104 NATURAL HISTORY Duke’s Park, Manville, Millstone, Blackwell’s Mills, and Bound Brook, which comprises about 50 square miles, is generally infested, while the remainder of the area appears to be only mildly infested. Light infestations have been found also in both ridges of the Watchung Mountains north of Bound Brook. **At the present time the work consists of locating and killing egg clusters (by painting them with creosote). Of all located egg clusters, two thirds have been creosoted, and the scout- ing of the entire territory is about one third completed. “The spraying, which will take place in the spring when the eggs are hatching, will be con- fined to places in the area where enough eggs were found to warrant the application of the spray. Arsenate of lead will be used. Con- tracts have been made for the purchase of nine high-power, solid-stream, automobile sprayers, each capable of maintaining a pressure of 225 pounds at the nozzles. “Two hundred and seventy-three shipments of nursery stock made by the James B. Duke estate to various parts of New Jersey, have been traced and infestations found at eight places; namely, Glen Rock, Wyckoff, Paterson, Madi- son, Elizabeth, Scotch Plains, South Orange, and Deal Beach. All egg masses found at such places are being creosoted. In the course of the work a rather severe infestation was found in three apple orchards near Mendham, New Jer- sey, this infestation apparently having no con- nection with the Somerville colony and its origin being obscure. With the codperation of the owners, several hundred of these trees are being cut and burned together with brush, etc., in the immediate vicinity. ‘All of the extermination work is being con- ducted jointly by the New Jersey Department of Agriculture and the United States Bureau of Entomology, ard the experience of the federal men, gained by long association in fighting the ‘moth’ in New England, is reflected in the satis- factory progress made in New Jersey during the past several months.” It is the ravages of insects like the gypsy moth that are doubtless responsible for the belief, not infrequently held, that a substantial part ef the insect world is inimical to man. Nothing however, could be farther from the truth. As pointed out in connection with the exhibit of in- sects on the third floor of the American Museum the damage done is almost entirely due to less than 1 per cent. of the species. It is only fair to remember that while the havoc wrought by some insects is extensive, pollination of crops like clover would be impossible without insect visitations, while many of our most beautiful flowers and delicious fruits largely owe their existence to the pollination of their blossoms by the same agencies. Finally, it is upon para- sitic insects that man must rely in large measure for the control of insect pests. In waging war upon the gypsy moth the Government has, among other insects, a valuable.ally in the beetle Calosoma sycophanta. Mr. WitttAmM BEEBE, director of the Trop- ical Research Station of the Zodlogical So- ciety in British Guiana, returned on April 5 from Georgetown on the S.S. “Guiana” of the Fur- ness Line. The vessel took fire while approach- ing the harbor of St. Kitts, and Director Beebe stood by Captain Carmichael in the difficult work of extinguishing the fire. Fortunately his valuable collections of notes, photographs, and drawings were saved without serious dam-— age; the loss of this fourth season’s work would have been irreparable. An article will soon appear in NaturAL History describing some of the general features of the work of this labor- atory. The Bulletin and Annual Report of the Zoblogical Society will also contain a full account. Three important articles are in preparation for the third volume of Zoologica, which is now chiefly devoted to the work of the Station. One of the most distinguished visitors to the Station this year was Prof. William Morton Wheeler, research associate in social insects, of the American Museum. The working staff in- cluded Mr. Tee Van, first assistant; Miss Isabel Cooper and Miss Mabel Satterlee, artists; and Mr. Inness Hartley, Mr. Alfred Emerson, and Prof. J. F. M. Floyd, of Glasgow Uni- versity. THE sinister project of utilizing for irrigation purposes the Falls River Basin in Yellowstone Park, with the contemplated erection and maintenance of a dam not more than three miles below the outlet of Lake Yellowstone, has prompted President Henry Fairfield Osborn, of the American Museum, to direct the following vigorous protest to the Hon. Charles L.McNary, chairman of the committee on Irrigation and Arid Lands, United States Senate: “As president both of the American Museum and the Zodlogical Society, institutions with a national membership of more than ten thousand public-spirited citizens, I record emphatic pro- test against the corporate influences threatening to invade and despoil the heart of the Yellow- stone National Park. Some years ago the Hetch Hetchy Valley of the Yosemite was invaded on a similar plea of the interests of the people of San Francisco. It has now revealed itself in its true light as a water-power project and the people of San Francisco are forgotten. I have studied all the national parks at first hand since 1878. Their enjoyment by the people of the great arid region of the West is exerting a great educational and uplifting influence incompar- ably more important to the future of America than the present purely material and economic movement. I hope to appear in person before i CO Ee ee a NOTES the Committee at a later date and I request this hearing.”’ Senator McNary, who presided February 22 at the hearing on the bill before the Committee on Irrigation, United States Senate, stated that the meeting was only the first part of a general hearing that would be held. He added that he had received a number of telegrams and letters protesting against the adoption of the bill and that he had notified the objectors that y opportunity would be given for a full hear- ing. Str Lazarus FLetcuer, the noted English mineralogist, died at Grange-over-Sands on January 6 last, in his sixty-seventh year. Sir Lazarus was appointed director of the British Museum of Natural History in 1909 and held the position until 1918, when he retired to give place to the present director, Dr. Sidney F. Harmer. A note concerning his retirement appeared in - Naturat History for March, rg109. Before Sir Lazarus was twenty, his natural ap- titude for science and mathematics had won for him two medals and a science scholarship. His deepening interest in the study of crystals brought him to the attention of Professor Story- Maskelyne, who was the Keeper of the Minerals at the British Museum. Sir Lazarus was appointed an assistant in the Mineral Department in 1878, being then twenty-four years of age, and two years later he succeeded to the Keepership. Despite the many duties and responsibilities of his position, he continued with marked success the work on meteorites of Dr. Walter Flight, whose “Chapter in the History of Meteorites” he edited in 1887. In 1892 he published “The Optical Indicatrix and the Transmission of Light in Crystals.” One of his great talents was the ability to use to the fullest extent the educational power of the museum exhibit. The perfection of the specimens in the galleries he arranged, and their logical disposition, the lucid and clear-cut ex- planations he supplied, the guide books he com- posed—planned with especial consideration for the needs of the beginner—have proved inval- uable to those in search of information. Next to the conundrum, “Does the flying fish fly?’’ no question has probably met with so many diverse answers as, ‘‘Is the bite of the Gila monster poisonous?” Replies have been made by Gray, Gunther, Cope, Mitchell, Yarrow, and Garman, to say nothing of men less widely known, and while these have agreed that Heloderma is a suspicious character, some have said that its bite was deadly and some that it was harmless. More recently Dr. Leo Loeb investigated the poison of the Gila monster with great care, and he has very kindly prepared for NATURAL History a summary of the results of his re- 105 searches, which will be found on pages 92-05. Briefly, these are that the venom of Heloderma is much like that of the cobra, and its effects, when injected, much the same as those that follow the bite of that snake. And yet there seems to be no evidence that a man has died from the bite of Heloderma, although several have died after it. For it is on record that one man, bitten by a Gila monster, was subsequently run over by a trolley car, and another died hap- pily from acute alcoholic poisoning. It is quite possible, too, that remedies for Heloderma bite in the shape of large quantities of poor whisky may have killed one or two persons, as has happened in cases of snake bite. As for pigeons and kittens, it seems to be necessary to shave off the feathers or hair in order to render the bite fatal; otherwise the venom seems to be wiped off before it can penetrate the wound. That birds and small mammals die from injec- tions of Heloderma poison is not at all surprising, but Heloderma itself fortunately cannot give a hypodermic injection. Thus Heloderma is one of nature’s paradoxes, not to say blunders. In it we have an animal provided with a deadly poison but without the apparatus for using it properly. Not only is Heloderma devoid of the hypodermic syringe of the rattlesnake, but the poison glands are in the under side of the mouth and imperfectly con- nected with the teeth, and as liquids do not flow uphill, in order to bite to advantage the liz- ard should turn itself upside down. Moreover, being a short-legged, heavy-bodied creature, Heloderma is sluggish in its movements and still further handicapped by warning coloration. But it has been under a cloud from its first in- troduction to so-called civilized man, for as early as the middle of the seventeenth century the Spaniards brought from Mexico accounts of a reptile so venomous that even its breath caused death. As with other suspicious characters, it is safest to leave it alone, for at the best it is a beast of uncertain temper: the first one the writer ever saw was used as a plaything by Pro- fessor Ward’s five-year-old daughter and never offered to bite; the last one, after being handled for a year by an attendant at the Children’s Museum, Brooklyn, inflicted the worst bite on record, catching the attendant in the fleshy base of the thumb when the jaws were vertical and there was a good chance for the venom to run along the teeth. But as Goldsmith might have written, the man recovered from the bite; the Heloderma died—though some time later. By AL. Dr. Luts Marta Torres, curator of the de- partments of archeology and ethnology in the Museo de la Plata, has been elected to the di- rectorship of that museum to succeed Professor Lafone Quevedo, who died on June 18, 1920. Professor Quevedo was a distinguished arche- 106 NATURAL HISTORY ologist and linguist, well known in the United States and in Europe. As showing the growing recognition and im- portance of physical anthropology, we have just received from P. Blakiston’s Son and Com- pany of Philadelphia a laboratory manual of anthropometry by Dr. Harris H. Wilder that will be reviewed at length in a subsequent number of NATurRAL History. Two noted anthropologists, the Abbé Henri Breuil, famous for his investigations in connec- tion with palxolithic cave paintings in France, and Sir James G. Frazer, author of the “Golden Bough,” received the degree of doctor of letters (honoris causa) from Cambridge University last year. WE are apt to think of the bison as of Amer- ican origin, but ancestral forms of the bison lived in Europe and Asia long before the animal reached the western hemisphere during the Pleistocene. Indeed in Lithuania the Bos bison or Bison bonasus has survived to the present time. The superb representations of the bison in the Altamira cave in Spain—to cite only one case—testify to the interest that early European man took in thisungulate. - The American Museum has recently received from the Cambridge Museum of Zoology an incomplete skull of the European bison (Bison priscus), commonly known as the wisent, with the horn cores nearly perfect and finely pre- served. The specimen, which was found in the older Pleistocene gravels of Great Barring- ton, near Cambridge, was secured as the result of an exchange arranged by the curator of the Cambridge Museum of Zoology, who at one time studied paleontology under Dr. William K. Gregory, curator of comparative anatomy and associate in paleontology in the American Museum. From the same source and through the same friendly agency the American Museum has ob- tained a fine skull and jaws of the urus or extinct wild ox of Europe (Bos primigenius). It has been thought that this animal represents, in a general way at least, the primitive stock from which the existing domestic cattle have been derived. This view point is discussed in the course of an article on the urus and the bison which Dr. W. D. Matthew, curator of vertebrate paleontology in the American Museum,. will contribute to a later issue of NATURAL History. Mr. Epwarp JAmes NotLan, for fifty-eight years recording secretary and librarian of the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, died on January 9 at the age of seventy-four. Tue New York Zoological Garden announced the birth of a pygmy hippopotamus on January 26. This is the second born in captivity. The first was born in the Garden two years ago but was unable to nurse and lived only a few days; it was presented to the American Museum and may be seen in the hall of mammals. The mother is one of three hippopotami brought from Liberia six years ago. PROGRESS in making anthropometric measure- ments of inhabitants of the Hawaiian Islands is reported by Mr. Louis R. Sullivan, assistant curator of physical anthropology in the Ameri- can Museum. Six thousand six hundred in- dividuals had been examined at the close of February and a good growth series obtained of Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, American, and part-Hawaiian children. It will be difficult, Mr. Sullivan points out, to secure a growth series of pure-blooded Hawaiian children, for among the younger generation of Hawaiians, individ- uals without admixture of foreign blood are a rare occurrence. At a meeting of the trustees of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, held on December 16, 1920, the following motion was unanimously passed: “Voted to record the appreciation of the trustees of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum of the spirit of codperation in scientific research so graciously shown by the American Museum of Natural History in the leave of absence on full salary allowed to: Mr. Louis R. Sullivan, assist- ant curator in anthropology, in order that he might join one of the Bayard Dominick Expe- ditions of Yale University now being conducted by this Museum; and Voted that the secretary be directed to for- ward a copy thereof to the president of the American Museum of Natural History.” Ir 1s with great regret that we learn of the death on January 30 of Mr. C. E. Fagan, secre- tary of the British Museum (Natural History) The following brief but excellent summary of Mr. Fagan’s long and valuable services is taken from Nature for January 13: “Mr. C. E. Fagan is expected to retire from the British Museum (Natural History) in the spring of this year. He entered the service of the Trustees in 1873, and became assistant secretary in 1889. He received the title of secretary in 1919, in recognition of the conspicu- ous value of his services. It is safe to say that Mr. Fagan has done more than any other living man in developing the importance of the museum as a center of scientific activity. His long ex- perience, his grasp of affairs, and his unfailing capacity for forming a correct judgment have made his coéperation and advice invaluable to the Trustees and to his colleagues. His admin- istrative ability has been of the greatest ser- vice to successive directors, whom he has as- sisted in innumerable ways, while during more than one period of interregnum he has succeeded hit NOTES in maintaining the efficiency of the museum at a high level. Although not himself an investiga- tor, Mr. Fagan has taken a keen interest in many aspects of natural history and has been quick to appreciate the importance of an open- ing, whether the chance of securing a valuable collection or the opportunity of encouraging an expedition to some distant country. He has ____ been closely associated with such societies as the British Ornithologists’ Union and the Royal Geographical Society, the interests of which are connected with those of the Natural History Museum. Opportunities of making the museum practically useful have a special appeal for him and he has taken great interest in exhibits of economic importance. From the first he has been a strong supporter of the close connection which happily exists between the museum and the Imperial Bureau of Entomology. Mr. Fagan has rendered exceptional services to sci- ence by single-minded devotion to his ideal of increasing and developing the scientific import- ance of the museum. The fact that he is suffer- ing from a severe illness at the time which he had hoped to devote to putting the finishing touches to his long period of successful service will com- mand the ready sympathy of his many friends.” Dr. George F. Herbert Smith (D. Sc. Oxon), late of the department of minerals in the British Museum (Natural History) succeeds Mr. Fagan as assistant secretary. Mr. Basi H. Soutssy, M. A., has been ap- pointed librarian of the British Museum (Nat- ural History), in the general library, with supervision over the five departmental libraries, —zoblogy, entomology, geology, minerals, and botany. THERE has been a growing feeling among the employees of the American Museum that, be- cause of the very evident necessity for special- ization in the work of the various departments, " a proper perspective and knowledge of the work » of the museum as a whole was not possessed by its workers. In answer to many requests to remedy this situation, the administration has inaugurated a series of informal talks for its . - employees, to be given every other Wednesday from 12:45 to 1:15 o’clock. It is planned to supplement these lectures by visits to the dif- ferent exhibition halls under discussion until eventually all the departments of the museum have been covered. The introductory lecture was given on January 19 by Director Lucas, who chose as his subject, ‘‘The Purpose and Aim of a Museum.” : This was followed on February 2 by Dr. Reeds’ address on ‘The Meaning of Geology to a Mu- seum.” A week later Dr. Reeds conducted a _tour through the hall of geology. ‘‘Why Palzontology,” was the subject of Dr. Matthews’ address at the last meeting in February. 107 In LINE with our efforts to save the redwoods it is worthy of note that in far-off New Zealand enlightened protest has been made against the wanton destruction of the native trees. As long ago as 1903 a vigorous and convincing plea for timely protection of the forests of the islands was made in the Second Annual Report of the Department of Tourist and: Health Resorts, New Zealand. ‘Our forests,” says the Report, ‘have been and still are being destroyed in a wholesale, ruthless manner, without a thought being given to the future. In many cases bush lands have been sold for very small sums, and valuable timber has been wasted in a manner which is absolutely a crime against the nation. The timber on areas of utterly worthless land, quite unfit. for settlement, has been burnt off, denuding the soil of the only crop it will ever produce.” Both in the conditions encountered and in their solution, which includes the recommen- dation that “the Government immediately proceed to resume the control of specially inter- esting and attractive forest lands on the princi- pal routes of travel,” the Report shows that the struggle for scenic preservation that has been waged in our own country has had its counter- part in other lands. THE members of the American Museum have been cordially invited to join the Cascadians during their summer outing on the east side of Mount Adams, Washington, from August 7-21. The club proposes that those taking part in the outing leave’ Yakima, Washington, by auto- mobile at eight o’clock on the morning of August 7. Camp fire programs will be arranged and games played on the greensward at permanent camps. There will be many easy trips for those. who cannot take part in the more strenu- ous excursions of the seasoned climbers. Com- munications should be addressed to Mr. J. R. Vincent, Yakima, Washington. Nort the least interesting thing in the recent report of the Biological Survey is the fact that it shows very clearly the difficulties man has brought upon himself by his intentional or un- intentional interference with nature. Also, that an animal may be beneficial at one time or in one locality and harmful at another. On one page we are told of the plague of rab- bits, on another of the bounties on coyotes, na- ture’s most effective check on the rabbits. Ground squirrels and prairie dogs are pests in some places, but we see nothing about encour- aging badgers to keep them in check. On one page we are told that meadow larks are seriously destructive of sprouting oats, and two pages farther on that they are among the birds having the best records as destroyers of grass- hoppers. One of the last items in the report is a timely 108 NATURAL HISTORY plea for conservation of marsh areas, whose utility is generally overlooked. In parts of Massachusetts the influence of the conversion of ““pnond holes’? and swamps into cranberry bogs is well marked in the shrinkage of ponds and the consequent decrease of fishes. There is the ever- recurring clash between the ‘‘sentimentalist” and the so-called ‘‘ practical man,” and we are by no means sure that the former gets just treat- ment—why should thousands of people be de- prived of the pleasure of seeing birds and mam- mals amid their natural surroundings because a few people wish to make a few more dollars? For the practical man does not for a moment think of any one besides himself and, while he poses as a public benefactor, he has not the slightest intention of sharing his profits with his neighbor. Not that the sentimentalist can have it all his own way, either—it is doubtful, for example, if beavers can be allowed in many parts of the Adirondacks, but in others they should be a source of revenue. Man is himself partly to blame for this state of things for he has depleted the forest to such an extent that it cannot recup- erate fast enough to keep the beaver in provi- sions. ALONG with other heads of government de- partments the Commissioner of Fisheries reports a serious depletion of his technical staff (36 per cent) during the last year.! Notwithstanding this depletion, the biological investigations of the Commission have been notably advanced. The commissioner reports progress in the study of the life histories and migration of the Pacific Coast salmon and of the whitefish and ciscoes of the Great Lakes. Valu- able information has been secured also from in- vestigations on the paddlefish and smelts. Dis- eases of fishes in the St. Lawrence River were investigated and experimental work in fish cul- ture has been carried on. The Commission’s steamers. Albatross and Fish Hawk, which had been loaned to the Navy Department for war service, were returned and again utilized in oceanographic studies and fishery trials. Of the laboratories, the only one actively operated was that at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, which was engaged in investigations on oysters, the reddening of salt fish, gelatin from seaweed, and the habits, food, and parasites of fishes. Tue first text in the English language on an- thropometry, the science of human measure- 1Annual Report of the Commissioner of Fisheries to the Secretary of Commerce for the year ended June 30, 1920. ments, has just been published by Dr. Ales Hrdlitka of the United States National Museum. It is a wholly original work based on the inter- national anthropometric agreements. Dr. Hrd- litka covers all aspects of the science: the use of the instruments, technique of measurements on the living, on skeletal remains, and on the ca- daver. He also includes some physiological observations. In the issue of NAruRAL History for November-December, 1920, mention was made (p. 595) of the recently installed exhibit in the southwest pavilion on the second floor of the American Museum, illustrating the definite points of measurement agreed upon by anthro- pologists to insure uniformity of methods and thereby make possible a comparison of the results of one investigator with those obtained by another. This exhibit will prove particu- larly valuable to those interested in physical anthropology. THe History and Bibliography of Anatomic Illustration in Its Relation to Anatomic Science and the Graphic Arts, by Dr. Ludwig Choulant, first published in 1852, has recently been repub- lished in translation by the late Dr. Mortimer Frank, secretary of the Society of Medical History, Chicago (University of Chicago Press). The work includes an account of pictorial anatomy from the earliest times, chiefly in the form of biographic-literary notes on different anatomists and artists. Three appendixes have been added: one by Dr. Choulant on ‘Chinese Anatomy”; a second by Dr. Fielding H. Garrison and Dr. Edward C. Streeter on ‘‘Sculp- ture and Painting as Modes of Anatomical Il- lustration”; and a third by Dr. Garrison on ‘‘Anatomical Illustration Since the Time of Choulant.”’ INCREASED efficiency in the use of the micro- scope for biological purposes has been attained with ultra-violet light by means of which photo- graphs are taken showing greater resolution than with ordinary light.’ As objects which are transparent in ordinary light show definite absorption bands in -ultra-violet light, this photographic method is its own staining process. An additional advantage is that the material - can be dealt with in the living state. The chief difficulties lie in the technique which requires considerable familiarity with physical methods, and in the expense of the optical apparatus, which must be computed from fused quartz. 1J. E, Barnard, ‘Microscopy with Ultra-violet Light.” Nature, Vol. 106, p. 378. Nov. 18, 1920. ~ NATURAL: HISTORY |THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGH THE MUSEUM MARCH—APRIL, 1921 [Published July] Vo_tuME XXI, NuMBER 2 NATURAL HISTORY VoLuME XXI CONTENTS FOR MARCH-APRIL NUMBER 2 Frontispiece, John Burroughs, from a Portrait by Her Serene Highness, the Princéss, Lwoff 050 be ee Shown by courtesy of the Artist Reminiscences of John Burroughs...................... G. CLyDE FISHER 113 A rare pen picture of the great naturalist by one who knew him intimately Illustrations from hitherto unpublished photographs by the Author A Journey to the Mariana Islands—Guam and Saipan... HENRY E. CRAMPTON 126 Colorful glimpses of life in these islands of the East, gathered in the course of the recent expedition to Micronesia With copyrighted illustrations from photographs taken by the Author The Jivaro Indians of Eastern Ecuador....................H. E. ANTHONY 146 These South American head-hunters, in spite of their unamiable practises, offer much of curious interest With copyrighted i!lustrations from photographs taken by the Author _ Shrunken Human Heads and How They Are Made...... CHARLES W. MEAD 160 Science Honors Madame Curie at the American Museum.................. 162 A report of the gathering at the Museum as a tribute to the discoverer of radium ‘ Snakes that Tete os oe ee eheiaty ns eee G. KINGSLEY NOBLE 166 The Author explains the manner in which certain harmless snakes escape molestation by assuming attitudes that - inspire terror. With illustrations Swiss _ akedoweller : Discoveriess 2:50... oD re. ou oy N. C. NELSON 172 The recent emergence of relics of a vanished civilization through the subsidence of the lake waters in Switzerland gives occasion for an interesting discussion of neolithic culture | With a picture of recently exposed remains of a pile-dweller village Photographing: 4eveat Horned *Owls.i..55). 502 5 iin. wane FRANK OVERTON 175 Experiences with a bird whose readiness to resent intrusion is a challenge to the photographer : With a copyrighted series of remarkable close-range pictures of the owl in the nest, on the wing, and in bold en- counter Notes on Scientific Museums of Europe....................W.D. MatTHEw 185 A survey of the natural history museums of Europe under the trying conditions of war and its aftermath Insects as: O00) 0). Ge" er EN Me ig oR OER Lee J. BEQUAERT IgI Instances of the use of this strange diet, whether from necessity or choice, in ancient and modern times With illustrations Notes . 20 cee bee eibate ow dela whee tee bse a eb Eyal neo ee Published bimonthly, by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, N.Y. Subscrip- tion price, $3.00 a year. Subscriptions should be addressed to Henry P. Davison, Treasurer, American Museum of Nat- ural History, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. NATURAL History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges of member- ship. Entered as second-class matter April 3, 1919, at the Post Office at New York, New York, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. i a a a JOHN BURROUGHS From his portrait by Her Serene Highness, the Princess Lwoff. Shown by courtesy of the artist had ever seen. _ Signs and Seasons. author. his essays in a way that few men of NATURAL VOLUME XXI MARCH-APRIL, 1921 HISTORY NUMBER 2 REMINISCENCES OF JOHN BURROUGHS BY G. CLYDE FISHER* into my hands the first volume of Si twenty years ago there fell Mr. Burroughs’ essays that I It happened to be I am now sure that the result would have been the same, had it been any other volume. The interest and charm that this book held for me prompted me to secure and read the others that he had written up to that time, and to be on the look-out for those that have come from his pen since. One cannot read any book by Mr. Burroughs without a feeling of affection for the He has put his lovable self into letters have succeeded in doing. As my interest and admiration grew, I ventured to hope that I might some- time have the privilege of knowing him personally. On my first visit to New York, eighteen years ago, what I wanted to do more than anything else was to visit the Sage of Slabsides. So I went up to Riverby, his home, which is sit- uated on the west bank of the Hudson about eighty miles north of New York City. It will not be difficult to imagine my disappointment when I was informed by Mrs. Burroughs, who came to the door, that her husband had gone to Slide Mountain, the highest peak in the Catskills, and would not return for several days. I could not wait, so had to leave without seeing him. Like a thoughtless schoolboy, I had neglected to find out beforehand whether he would be at home and whether it would be con- venient to have me call. However, I saw Riverby, the stone house, the build- ing of which he describes in the essay “Roof-Tree,” which is included in the first book of his that I had read. Here he makes us feel the joy he felt and the enthusiasm he had in building his home by the river. It was not until after I joined the staff of the American Museum eight years ago, that I actually had the privilege of meeting the poet-naturalist, and later of visiting him at Riverby. This first visit was on a bright November day in 1915, an ideal day for such a pilgrimage. Mrs. Fisher and I were to be the guests of Dr. Clara Barrus, Mr. Burroughs’ physician and friend, while we visited our hero. Mr. and Mrs. Burroughs were then living in the stone house at Riverby, but were taking their meals with Dr. Barrus, who lived in The Nest on adjoining grounds. This cottage, which Dr. Barrus on making her home there had rechristened The Nest, had been built for Mr. Burroughs’ son, Ju- lian. It is one of the most attractive little houses I have ever seen. There is no varnish or paint or veneer anywhere. The naked beams and ceilings of .chest- nut, the wainscoting of curly birch and other woods that had grown on the sur- rounding hills, the panels of white birch with the bark intact,—all these reminded one of what Mr. Burroughs had written in ‘‘ Roof-Tree:”’ “The natural color and grain of the wood give a richness and simplicity to an interior that no art can make up for. How the eye loves the genuine thing; *Associate Curator, Department of Public Education, American Museum 113 114 NATURAL HISTORY how it delights in the nude beauty of the wood!” The fine, large fireplace in the living- room, shown in the photograph on page 123, makes it complete. When reading John Burroughs—Boy and Man by Dr. Barrus, I was much interested to learn President Roosevelt’s reaction when he stepped into the big living room of this cottage in the summer of 1903—how he rushed out, calling to Mrs. Roosevelt, “Come here, Edith! I want you to see _ this—something original, and American.”’ Knowing that Mr. Burroughs did his writing in the forenoons, we proposed not to disturb him until lunch time. He had said, ‘‘My mind works best, and my faith is strongest, when the day is wax- ing and not waning.” He was not a burner. of midnight oil. I had brought my camera hoping to get one picture of the great poet-natural- ist. Before noon I started out to secure a few photographs about his home. First I undertook to make one of the Summer House on the banks of the Hudson just a few steps from the bark-covered Study between the stone house and the river. In this Summer House, which commands a wonderful view up and down the river, Mr. Burroughs used to sit by the hour during the warmer months of the year, reading or thinking out the essays he has givenus. While focusing my camera on the Summer House, I was discovered by Mr. Burroughs, who appeared at the door of his Study, and after cordially greeting me, said, “‘I thought you might like to have me in the picture.” I was so delighted that I could hardly operate my Graflex camera. However, I made a picture of John of Birds examining a wren box on the big sugar maple by the Summer House, one of him standing in the door of the Study looking out over the Hudson, and one of him sitting by the fireplace in the Study. So, my wish was more than fulfilled on that first visit. The Study is a most interesting place, a beautiful little one-room building lined with books, with here and there on the wall a portrait of a friend. Among these photographs were those of Emer- son, Muir, and Whitman. At one end is a large fireplace, the chimney of which is made of cobblestones. In this Study before Slabsides was built, Mr. Bur- roughs wrote many of his essays, and since that time has written there during the winter months. In the orchard at Riverby, there were a few of “the gentle but sharp-nosed gillyflower’’ or sheep-nose apples: still hanging on one of the trees, apparently unharmed by whatever frosts had come previous to November 6. These reminded us of one of Mr. Burroughs’ most de- lightful essays, ‘‘The Apple,’’ which was published in his second nature book, Winter Sunshine. ‘““A rose when it blooms, the apple is a rose when it ripens. It pleases every sense to which it can be addressed, the touch, the smell, the sight, the taste; and when it falls, in the still October days, it pleases the ear. It is a call to a banquet, it is a signal that the feast is ready.” “The apple is indeed the fruit of youth. As we grow old we crave apples less. It is an ominous sign. When you are ashamed to be seen eating them on the street; when you can carry them in your pocket and your hand not constantly find its way to them; when your neighbor has apples and you have none, and you make no nocturnal visits to his orchard; when your lunch basket is without them, and you can pass a winter’s night by the fireside with no thought of the fruit at your elbow,—then be assured you are no longer a boy, either in heart or in years.”’ Mr. Burroughs’ love of the apple is not completely expressed in that early essay, for in his volume of verse, Bird and Bough, published many years later, one of the best poems is “In Blooming Orchards.” One of his later books, which was written in the orchard — ee ee : : f » - third was not so fortunate. REMINISCENCES OF JOHN BURROUGHS back of Woodchuck Lodge, although not expressing any of his thoughts about the apple, is entitled Under the Apple Trees. _ Several acres of the grounds at Riverby are devoted to a vineyard, and especially during the early years of his residence _ there Mr. Burroughs spent considerable time growing grapes, by which activities he gained the nickname, “The Vine- dresser of Esopus.” Before the develop- _ ment of West Park, the village of Esopus __was his post-office address. Ona subse- _ quent visit he told me how men and boys were in the habit of pilfering his vineyard at night, and how some, not content with what they could eat at the time, _ carried away large quantities in row- _ boats across the Hudson. So, one night he concluded to watch. He put on a long black coat, and sat down in the vineyard for a period of “watchful wait- ing.” He had not long to wait before three boys came down the road on bicycles. Laying their wheels by the roadside, they climbed over the fence ~ into the vineyard and began sampling — the luscious grapes. Mr. Burroughs got up and walked slowly down between __ the rows of grapes toward the boys, who _ soon spied him and started to run, the owner of the vineyard after them. Two of the boys reached the fence, scaled it, mounted their wheels, and rode off. The “Just as he was going over the fence,’’ said Mr. Burroughs, “I caught him by the leg. He let out an unearthly yell, and as I did not want to scare him to death let him go.”’ The boy picked up his bicycle and hurriedly attempted to mount it, but in his excitement, he fell off. Then he jumped to his feet and abandoning his wheel, ran down the road after his companions. The next morning the owner of the wheel returned and begged for it, declaring that he had never been in the vineyard before and would never enter it again. Leading him down to the vineyard, Mr. Bur- roughs presented him with a hatful of II5 grapes to take home and restored to him his bicycle. At luncheon, in deference to my train- ing, Mr. Burroughs told us about some © of the botanical rarities he had found in the vicinity—the showy lady’s-slipper, climbing fumitory or mountain fringe, and others, the finding of which he so vividly describes in the volume of out- door essays entitled, Riverby. Since his first discovery of mountain fringe, it has become a common plant around Slabsides. Last November, on the an- niversary of our first visit, we found it blooming in profusion around that cabin. After luncheon, Mr. Burroughs con- ducted us up to Slabsides—which is located about a mile and three quarters in a westerly direction from Riverby. After leaving the main highway, we followed a somewhat winding woods road which led through a beautiful stretch of hemlock forest. As we walked along, Mr. Burroughs would occasionally pluck a gorgeous oak leaf from a young tree and, holding it between his eye and the sun, would comment on its beauty. I never realized until then how much more beautiful an autumn leaf is by trans- mitted light than by reflected light. On the way we flushed a ruffed grouse, or partridge, from the road in front of us, and it whirred away through the woods. We were all delighted with this glimpse of wild life. As Mr. Burroughs watched its flight he said, ‘‘I hope it will escape the gunners this fall.”” Subsequent visits to Slabsides have shown that there are ruffed grouse still to be found about this cabin. Late in May two or three years after this first visit, I surprised a mother ruffed grouse and her family of downy young on this very road. It is to be hoped that the woods about Slabsides will be made a permanent sanctuary, so that the birds, which meant so much to . Mr. Burroughs and about which he has written so charmingly, may be found there always. Slabsides is so well hidden by the natural conformity of the encircling SOIPIAIJOV IOOpyNo 19430 pure Surdures} -pue Surdured jo puoj Zutaq ‘poaowial aou0 ‘y¥a0]q pyo 94} jo dryo v st uyof ra8uno4 94} 103 ‘pnoid Ajqeuopied SPM oY TOY Jo “pz sysnoiing uyof ‘uospueis Aju sty pue sysnoring uyof—‘uyofitmeq pue uyof 2}¥P SIY} 19}je 990 ynq sepisqes ye sem oF “0761 “*Z JaquIaAON—sapIsqeisS ul WY jo spew sJaAd Yydeis0}0y4d sv] oy, “sAessa Joopyno siy jo Auvw pur Mpg pv :upmpy jy 0 4 9YOIM sysNolng soy If qv} 94} JW—'sepIsqryis jo weg oyy, QII sysnoiing ‘Ij Ut soUspYUod [[NJ paMmoys Aja} eIPSWIU! JISTA JsIy JOY JO IUUT} Vy} ye siosuvi}s prvMO} padrasal Ajlvulpio ‘Aqeq sty, *2A0] SITY PouINjal UsIP[IyO sy} puv ‘UaIp[IYyd 10j javay sty ut jods WdIeM & YIM URW ATpury ‘uUvUINY W—UsIpylyd jo 1aA0'T i/ eee oe ee er es aon REMINISCENCES OF JOHN BURROUGHS hills, that one comes almost upon it before seeing it.. We reach the cabin and notice how it is sheltered under the brow of a steep, rocky cliff (see illustra- tions in NATuRAL History, December, 1919, p. 576, and November-December, 1920, p. 572). The weather boarding is made of slabs with the bark still on,— hence the name. At the south end is a stone chimney connecting with the huge fireplace within. beautiful bronze-colored. bark still on, is even more attractive than outside. There were rustic hickory chairs, and two wonderful rustic beds, with old- fashioned coverlets which Mr. Bur- roughs’ mother had had made. The bed on the first floor is built into the house and has a substantial, comfortable look. The one in the south room up-stairs is even more picturesque. It is made chiefly of bark-covered yellow birch, the upright pieces at the head being water beech (Carpinus). The legs of the table upon which Mr. Burroughs wrote many of his essays are tridents of staghorn sumac. He told me that inverted, symmetrical tripod- formations were to be found more fre- quently in staghorn sumac than in any other of our trees or shrubs. Mr. Burroughs had an eye for the ~ picturesque in the natural forms to be found in the trees. This is evidenced many times in his mountain cabin,—by the arm at the end of a window seat; by the spiral-shaped crosspiece above the fireplace, caused by the strangling by bittersweet or some other twiner; by the peculiar, X-shaped pine root over the door of the bedroom down- stairs. This last and another similar to it, which lies back of the front door in the living room, were dug up when the swamp just south of the cabin was drained. For the best description of Slabsides that has been written, read two chapters in Our Friend, John Burroughs, by rep! Inside, Slabsides, : by virtue of its rustic furniture and its partitions of yellow birch with the 117 Clara Barrus,—one entitled “The Retreat of a Poet-Naturalist” and the other “A Winter Day at Slabsides.” These suggest the atmosphere of the place and give much of the man who tarried there. Mr. Burroughs built Slabsides in 1895, to get away from the annoyances of civilization. At Slabsides, on this first visit I asked Mr. Burroughs about a number of distinguished visitors he had had there. Dr. Chapman of the Ameri- can Museum had gone to see him when he was clearing the ground for the rustic cabin, and was one of his earlier visitors after the cabin was built. These pilgrim- ages were written up in the first number of the first volume of Bird-Lore and in a chapter in Camps and Cruises of an Ornithologist. Whenever I went to see Mr. Burroughs, he always asked about Dr. Chapman. His friend, Walt Whitman, visited him where Slabsides was subsequently built, and wrote a vivid description of Black Creek and the surrounding region, which waslater printed in Specimen Days. Black Creek, whose falls are within hear- ing of Slabsides, is a wild place where Mr. Burroughs used to go every May for warblers. More than once in May, since my first visit, I have tramped along this creek (in “Whitman Land”’’) looking for warblers and finding them, too. All wild life about this mountain cabin is unusually interesting because it has been immortalized in the essays of the great naturalist. John Muir was one of the earliest visi- tors to Slabsides. He came in 1897 and spent several days. After discussing the qualities and work of the Naturalist of the Sierras, Mr. Burroughs said, “Muir told us the story of Stickeen one night in Slabsides. We did not go to bed until one o’clock that night!” Stickeen is a fascinating story to read, but how much more impressive it would have been to have heard Muir tell this story, and in Slabsides with John Bur- roughs as one of the listeners! “Stickeen, by John Muir,” said Mr. Burroughs, 118 NATURAL HISTORY John Burroughs and President Roosevelt watching an eruption of Old Faithful.—*At the time I made the trip to Yellowstone Park with President Roosevelt in the spring of 1903, I promised some friends to write up my impres- sions of the President and of the Park, but I have been slow in getting around to it. The President himself, having the absolute leisure and peace ‘of the White House, wrote his ac- count of the trip nearly two years ago! But . with the stress and strain of my life at ‘Slab- sides,’ administering the affairs of so many of the wild creatures of the woods about me,—I have not till this blessed season (fall of 1905) found the time to put on record an account of the most interesting thing I saw in that won- derful land, which, of course, was the Président himself.”’ (From Camping and Tramping with Roosevelt.) “will rank with Rab and His Friends, by Dr. John Brown, as one of the greatest dog stories of literature.” Burroughs returned this visit a dozen years later and Muir showed him the Grand Cafion and the Yosemite. I asked Mr. Burroughs about the visit of President and Mrs. Roosevelt in July, 1903. They had come up the Hudson in “The Sylph” on the hottest day of the summer—g6 degrees in the shade at Slabsides. The host and his guests walked from the river up to the mountain cabin. “How the President did per- spire!” said Mr. Burroughs. At luncheon in Slabsides, although his cup had been filled with cold water from the spring near by, the President jumped up and helped himself several times during the meal. In discussing the strenuous life of the President, Mr. Burroughs said: “There is no dead wood in Roosevelt.” Mr. Burroughs also related how he and President Roosevelt had gone bird- ing one day at Pine Knot, Virginia, and how they had identified some seventy species of birds, two of which were new to the President and two of which were new to Mr. Burroughs. Had they found a Lincoln’s sparrow, which Presi- dent Roosevelt had seen there before, and which Mr. Burroughs had never seen, the President would have been one ahead. He told about the ‘difficulty they had in identifying a female blue grosbeak. Mr. Burroughs said, “Roose- velt knows the birds.” Upon leaving Slabsides on that memor- 2 able day, I found an herb-robert in ~ bloom, and plucking the little,” red- purple flower, placed it between the leaves of the first volume of my set of Burroughs’ works, which I had brought along in order to ask Mr. Burroughs to inscribe it. place, I thought, to preserve a flower plucked while walking with John Bur- roughs. On the way back to Riverby che Slabsides, I expressed my appreciation to Mr. Burroughs for what he had done to stem the tide of sham natural history which was sweeping over the country When I reached home, I pressed the specimen and mounted it in the back of Wake-Robin, a suitable ee ee Deacon Woods where Burroughs saw his first warbler.—In the woods shown in the middle ground, John Burroughs, when a boy, saw his first warbler, and then many years later described the incident in “The Invitation,” the last essay in Wake-Robin. The notchin the mountains back of the Deacon Woods in this photograph is Montgomery Hollow where our naturalist in his boyhood went fishing with his grandfather. It is probable that these early fishing trips, as well as the sight of that first warbler, had much to do with making him a naturalist Whitman Land.—One of the falls on Black Creek near Slabsides, where the Good Gray Poet had visited the poet-naturalist before the famous rustic cabin was built. Near this spot, seated on a fallen tree, Whitman wrote a description of the place which was later printed in Specimen Days. (See Our Friend, John Burroughs, by Dr. Clara Barrus, p. 25) 11g JOHN BURROUGHS ON HIS EIGHTY-THIRD BIRTHDAY “Lucky is he who can get his grapes to market and keep the bloom upon them, who can carry some of the freshness and eagerness and simplicity of youth into his later years, who can have a boy’s heart below a man’s head.” “The longer I live the more my mind dwells upon the beauty and wonder of the world.” (From The Summit of the Years) hited halal some twelve years before. He then told me how he had discovered the work of one of the most active and, at the same time, one of the most popular writers of this fake natural history. One of the books of this author had been highly recommended to Mr. Burroughs by a _ New York school teacher. Upon finding “at a subsequent meeting that Mr. Be tarroushs had not yet read the book, this teacher offered to send him a copy. _ When he received it, Mr. Burroughs : q sat down expecting an enjoyable hour _ readingit. “But,” said Mr. Burroughs, " Bases had not toad ten minutes until I kicked out in the air—I just had to kick j - out against something, and I exclaimed, “This writer is a humbug.’” His love of truth prompted him to write an article in the Atlantic Monthly for March, 1903, entitled “Real and Sham Natural His- tory,” which was directed against this sort of thing. Other naturalists, in- cluding Roosevelt and Chapman, took sides with Mr. Burroughs in this fight, ~ and before long, they had about snuffed out the writer referred to, as well as _ others of his kind. As a result, these books of fake natural history have been ruled out of the lists of supplementary reading in many of the public schools of the country, and their harmful effects have been reduced to a minimum. Since the days of that controversy, Mr. Burroughs said he had talked with people who know the writer above re- ferred to, and that they had assured him — that this writer actually believed the _ things he wrote. ‘So, now,” said Mr. Burroughs, “I think of him as a mytho- maniac.” ____Upon bidding farewell to his guests at the railroad station at West Park that evening, Mr. Burroughs said, ‘ When- ever you want to come to Slabsides, the key is yours.” In response to this generous invitation, we have camped in this mountain cabin, for two or three days at a time, about twice a year since that first visit. We have been there in May_when the warblers were abundant, ve REMINISCENCES OF JOHN BURROUGHS I21 and we have been there the last week in November, with the thermometer down to twenty at night, when, instead of warblers around the cabin, we had the winter wren, the junco, and the chick- adee. First things make lasting impressions, and so it is with my first visit with John Burroughs, but the visits that have meant the most to me have been subse- quent ones. Perhaps the most inspiring have been those at Woodchuck Lodge on the home farm near Roxbury in the western Catskills, where for many years it has been his custom to spend _ his summers. The farm on which he was born is situated “in the lap of Old Clump,” which has since been rechrist- ened Burroughs Mountain. Woodchuck Lodge is only about a half mile distant from -his birthplace. It gets its name from the abundance of woodchucks in the vicinity. The country about Woodchuck Lodge is full of interest. In the apple orchard back of this cottage was located Bush Camp, where he wrote the collection of essays entitled Under the Apple-Trees. It is where he found out how the chip- munk digs its burrow, which he describes in the first essay of this volume. Up the road a little way is the barn which he used for a study when he wrote “A Barn-Door Outlook,” “A Hay-Barn Idyl,” and other essays. A little farther up the road toward the birthplace are the “Giant’s Stairs,’ a natural stair-step formation, though crude—the steps. be- ing too high to be negotiated by a human being—hence the name, applied when he played there as a boy. Across the road are many hour-glass- shaped thorn trees or haw trees (Crate- gus) in every stage of development, which is influenced by the browsing of the dairy cows. “The way the wild apple trees and the red thorn trees in the pasture, as des- cribed by Thoreau, triumph over the cattle that year after year browse them down, suggests something almost like 122 NATURAL HISTORY human tactics. The cropped and bruised tree, not being allowed to shoot upward, spreads more and more laterally, thus pushing its enemies farther and farther away, till, after many years, a shoot starts up from the top of the thorny, knotted cone, and in one season, pro- tected by this cheval-de-frise, attains a height beyond the reach of the cattle, and its victory is won. Now the whole push of the large root system goes into the central shoot and the tree is rapidly developed.” (Ways of Nature, p. 153.) Immediately after the central shoot gets up beyond the reach of the cows the tree becomes strikingly hour-glass- shaped. At the hay barn at Woodchuck Lodge, one day, Mr. Burroughs was discussing Thoreau, speaking very highly of the essays, ‘‘ Walking” and ‘Wild Apples,” both of which are included in Excursions. Then he referred to certain peculiarities, and to a number of surprising inaccura- cies to be found in the writings of this author. ‘But,’ he said finally, “I would rather be the author of Thoreau’s Walden than of all the books I have ever written.” While I do not sympathize. with that statement, it must be admitted that Burroughs could hardly have paid a higher compliment to Thoreau. For myself, I would rather be the author of Burroughs’ Wake-Robin than all I have ever read of Thoreau’s works. Nearby is the Deacon Woods where Mr. Burroughs, when a boy, saw his first warbler—a _ black-throated blue—origi- nally described in Wake-Robin, in the chapter, “The Invitation.” On my first visit to Woodchuck Lodge, as we walked past this woods on our way down to the birthplace, Mr. Burroughs retold this story tome. He said, “ My brothers were with me, and they saw the bird; however, they did not remember it,— but it ‘stuck in my craw.’” I often think how much the sight of that beauti- ful little warbler may have influenced him to become a naturalist; how much it may have added to his natural bent; how much this and the early fishing trips to Montgomery Hollow with his grand- father may have had to do in preparing him for the influence that the Audubon books had upon him when he discovered them many years later in the library of the West Point Military Academy. It hap- pens that Mr. Burroughs was the first person to find an occupied nest of the black-throated blue warbler, which had been his first warbler. This reminds us of other contributions to ornithology made by Mr. Burroughs, such as the finding of the first nest of the mourning warbler and the first description of the flight-song of the ovenbird. However, his actual discoveries in natural history are not his most important work. It is his literary interpretation of the common things about us,—in short, his books, that are his great legacy to man- kind. Near the birthplace is the sugar bush where Mr. Burroughs had made. maple sugar from his early youth. He says the only farm work that appealed to him as a boy was sugar-making in the maple woods in spring. From an autobiographical sketch in Our Friend, John Burroughs, we learn that here he earned his first money. Anticipating the general tapping a week or so, he would tap a few trees on his own account along the sunny border of the woods, and would boil the sap down on the kitchen stove, to the distress of the women folk as he said. Then he carried the small cakes of maple sugar to the village where they found ready sale, being the earliest on the market. He bought his first algebra and his first grammar with some of this precious money. At his eighty-third birthday party at Yama Farms Inn I made several photo- graphs of Mr. Burroughs boiling down maple sap, when he evidently thoroughly enjoyed showing his friends how he used to do it. (See photograph on page 123). In the garden at Woodchuck Lodge, idk ba) By the fireside.—John Burroughs and Dr. Clara Barrus, his literary executor and biographer in The Nest at Riverby Boiling down maple sap.—John Burroughs making maple sirup at Yama Farms on his eighty- third birthday A brigand steak.—The last one Burroughs ever cooked at Slabsides, November 7, 1920. (Photograph by Farida A. Wiley) 123 124 NATURAL HISTORY Mr. Burroughs raised peas, beans, golden bantam sweet-corn, Hubbard squashes, etc. At the time of one of my visits, he had two of the largest Hubbard squashes I had ever seen, and I had observed a great many, for they were a favorite product on the farm on which I was born and reared. Later, Burpee, who had furnished the seed, assured him in reply to a note telling of the weight, that the heaviest one was a record. (For photograph of Mr. Burroughs and one of these squashes, see NATURAL HIsTory, December, 1919, page 577). When I gave Mr. Burroughs a copy of this photograph, he said: “‘I sent that squash to Edison, and told him it was the larg- est squash Old Mother Hubbard ever had in her cupboard.” The Laird of Woodchuck Lodge was proud of his garden up there, but it would have been impossible to have had a garden if nothing had been done to hold’ the woodchucks in check. So Mr. Burroughs shot a great many of them. One day I asked him how many he had killed that season, and he replied that the number was more than forty and the season was not over. He said at times it did not appear to do any good,—that when he shot one, several others seemed to come to the funeral. However, he had a good rifle, and when he was past four score years, I have seen him hit them at surprisingly long range— at longer range than I would have cared to chance a shot. Sometimes he would trap them at their burrows. One morn- ing we went out to inspect a trap that he had set, and when we reached the bur- row, to our surprise and regret there was in the trap not a woodchuck but a skunk. If I should tell you what he said, you would know that-he was human. Out of the woodchuck skins he made rugs for Woodchuck Lodge, a coverlet for his bed on the sleeping porch, a great coat for himself, and a coat for Dr. Barrus. The coat he had made for him- self now belongs to his son, Julian. During the last few years woodchuck became a favorite dish at Woodchuck Lodge. The fact that he learned to eat woodchuck so late in life proves that he had not grown old, that he was still as adaptable as a boy. And I want to say that when I ate woodchuck with John Burroughs, I liked it too. At Woodchuck Lodge, I saw the home- made cradle in which John Burroughs had been rocked more than eighty years ago. It is made of apple wood and is painted a dull gray-blue. 7 As we slept on the porch one night, we heard just across the road from Wood- chuck Lodge, the bark, or squall as Mr. Burroughs called it, of a red fox that had come down from the mountain. It was a. delight to hear this wild voice of the night, especially when sojourning with the poet-naturalist who had given us such a faithful word-picture of Reynard in Winter Sunshine. In “The Heart of the Southern Cat- skills,’ in Riverby, Mr. Burroughs de- scribes his favorite valley in that range. Twice I had had a wonderful tramp in this, the Woodland Valley, along the brook where our naturalist friend had camped and tramped and fished for trout. Once I climbed Wittenberg and slept on its summit with his grandson, John Burroughs 2d. In like manner years before the elder had climbed it and slept on the top with a companion. On these tramps I had seen the painted wake-robin (Trillium undulatum) grow- ing in great abundance, and I naturally suspected that this was the flower that had suggested the title for his first book. So, one morning in the kitchen at Wood- chuck Lodge, while Mr. Burroughs was frying the bacon and making partcakes for breakfast, I asked him whether it was the painted wake-robin for which his first book was named. “No,” he replied, “it was not, but it was the large-flowered white wake-robin (Tril- lium grandiflorum). “T had several possible titles, and I took them to Walt Whitman. He looked them over, and when he came ————————— ee Oe REMINISCENCES OF JOHN BURROUGHS to ‘Wake-Robin,’ he asked, ‘What’s that?’ I told him it was the name of a wild flower. He then said, ‘That’s your title’-—and this helped me to decide upon the name ‘Wake-Robin.’ “After the book was published, in _ speaking to me about it, Emerson said, ‘Capital title! Capital title!’”’ At the close of a visit at Woodchuck _ Lodge, my host undertook to drive me in his Ford car to the railway station at Roxbury. We had not gone far when _ the car refused to go. I got out and _ pushed, thinking that, if I could move _ it to the brink of a slight incline, it would probably pick up and goagain. Pushing an automobile is not child’s play, and as I was not making rapid headway, my host got out to help me. I said, “Mr. Burroughs, you should not do this.” He turned on me and quick as a flash replied, “Why shouldn’t I?” He al- ways retained the spirit of youth, and I had by implication accused him of being no longer young. I was reminded of this incident again when I read that classic on old age by William Dean Howells, entitled “Eighty Years and After.” . My last visit with John Burroughs was during the week end of November 6-8, 1920, the first of these three days be- ing the anniversary of my first visit. We 125 camped in Slabsides, and on the second day (November 7) Mr. Burroughs ate his midday meal and spent several hours with us. He cooked one of his favorite ™ brigand steaks for luncheon—the last he ever cooked at Slabsides. While pre- paring the steak, we talked about his latest book; Accepting the Universe, which had appeared a little while before. He told me of a number of letters he had received concerning it, and that two or three preachers had thanked him warmly for writing such a book. (See review in NATURAL History, November-Decem- ber, 1920.) ; On the afternoon of that day, I made what proved to be the last photographs of him at Slabsides. In fact, he visited Slabsides only once after this date. We found the herb-robert in bloom near by, as we found it on my first visit. We also found the climbing fumitory or moun- tain fringe and the witchhazel in bloom. When he left Slabsides toward evening, we walked with him to the bend of the road in the hemlocks, and there bade him good-bye. Little did we think that this would be the last time we would'see him alive. While we shall not be able to talk with him again, or to shake his hand, or to look into his honest gray- blue eyes, he still lives in our hearts. The spirit of John Burroughs will live on. Boyhood Rock.—‘“Here I climbed at sundown when a boy to rest from work and play, and to listen to the vesper sparrow sing, and here I hope to rest when my work and play are over—when the sun goes down—here by my boyhood rock. (See John Burroughs—Boy and Man, by Clara Barrus, M.D., p. 47). The rock which marks Burroughs’ last resting place lies in the pasture field on the old home farm near Roxbury in the western Catskills STONE RUINS IN GUAM The ruined stone pillars upon which the Chamorro natives built their houses in ancient times are found at various places in the “bush” of Guam and of other islands of the Mariana®group. The retiring Governor of Guam and the new Governor are standing in the background 120 _ A JOURNEY TO THE | y UT why gotoGuam?” “Where is Guam?” Almost invariably — these questions were forthcom- when plans were announced early 1 1920 for a journey to our far-distant ssion in the western Pacific Ocean. the object of the present article to ar such queries, and to describe he incidents of travel and observation “a ng a sojourn of two months in the © most important members of the na Group,—the American island uam, and the island of Saipan, in the hands of Japan. its entire course, the expedition ded later to the Philippine Islands, , Siam, Java, and Australia; its eral purpose throughout was to 2 fuller knowledge of the zodlogy ethnology of the western Pacific and of the contiguous areas of Malaysia and | Asia. The five expeditions that ‘the author had made in former years to islands of the Pacific Ocean were concerned primarily with southeastern Oceania, or Polynesia in the stricter sense, where the Society, Cook, Tonga, _ and Samoan islands are situated; it is in this subordinate area that the material selected for special investigation is _ most abundant and most interesting,— namely, the land snails of the genus _ Partula, which have proved so valuable _ for the study of variation, distribution, _ and evolution.’ _ In view of the profitable nature of _ the Polynesian researches, still in pro- _ gress, it seemed desirable to make a _ comparative exploration of the extreme _ northwestern part of the entire oceanic _ area occupied by the genus in question, that is, in Micronesia, or the “region of little islands,’ where the Mariana 2See NATURAL History, Vol. XX, No. 4, Sept.-Oct., 1920. of Malaysia and the Philippines. MARIANA ISLANDS— GUAM AND SAIPAN’ BY HENRY E. CRAMPTON* and Caroline Islands are the most im- portant. In brief, therefore, Guam and Saipan were chosen for investigation in the direct continuity of the author’s special researches on evolution. In- cidentally, of course, general zodlogical collections were to be made, in the in- terests of the American Museum and of the Bishop Museum in Honolulu as well, for the latter institution generously came to the support of the project, which was also assisted by Mr. James B. Ford and Mr. B. Preston Clark. A word may be added with reference to the ethnological problems. The scien- tific traveler in Polynesia inevitably becomes deeply interested in the natives of the several groups of islands, whose distribution in the islands and evolution during the past are precisely the same in principle as in any group of lower organisms. The people of Tahiti, Rar- otonga, Tonga, Samoa, New Zealand, and Hawaii are clearly related in an- cestry, and the evidence of such relation- ship is provided by the fundamental likeness in physique, in language and in other cultural matters, beneath the diversities that are the results of recent differentiation. And in their common qualities the true Polynesians differ markedly from the natives of Fiji, the Solomon Islands, and the New Hebrides, whose black, Ethiopic qualities give to the southwestern region the subtitle of Melanesia; while, on the other hand, the Malayan features of the peoples of Micronesia separate them from _ the Polynesians and Melanesians, and ally them more closely with the natives The traditions of the Polynesians tell of their origin long ago from a distant land, “ Hawaiki,’ which was probably *Honorary Curator of Lower Invertebrates, American Museum 1Article and illustrations copyrighted by Henry E. Crampton, 1921 127 “To eee ton™ l=? ‘ To Manila 1506 miles Agana Ba Port Apra --¥ Umatac Bay Je---7"-7" 95 Honolulu 3387 oe“ W.E.Belanske. 144° 128 ) 4 JOURNEY TO THE MARIANA ISLANDS—GUAM AND SAIPAN 129 in southern Asia; and their migrations _ throughout the centuries traversed Ma- _ laysia and Melanesia, and_ possibly parts of. Micronesia on the way to _ Hawaii. In view of these and similar facts, it was certain that the countries _ to be visited during the last expedition _ would yield, as they did, many interest- _ ing observations on the natives and _ their cultural characteristics which would indicate points of contact, linguistic _ relations, and other mutual influences _ in the centuries long past. _ The Mariana Group consists of a chain of fifteen islands, together with a _ few coral banks and shoals, that spread - out along a line about 420 miles in length. As a slightly curved bow, this _ line trends generally north and south; _ it extends from approximately 13° to 20° north latitude, and it lies between _ 144° and 146° east longitude. Guam is the southernmost and largest member _ of the group, and its approximate sailing distances from ports of primary interest in the Pacific are as follows: San Fran- cisco 5053 miles, Honolulu 3337 miles, Yokohama 1353 miles, Manila 1506 miles, and Yap, in the neighboring Caroline Group to the south, 458 miles. Saipan lies about 120 miles north- - northeast of Guam. _ Many of the northern islands are _ smoking volcanic cones that are still growing; others have only recently ceased to be active, and some rise to heights of more than two thousand feet. Passing southward, the islands prove to be geologically older, and the evi- dences of volcanic origin are more or less effaced, while the limestone masses of ancient reefs, now uplifted as dry land, constitute the lower ground above which rise the weathered and truncated mountain peaks. i ~ On June 26, 1920, our ship came in sight of the Marianas after the long voyage of three weeks from San Fran- cisco, broken for a day or two by a stop at Honolulu. Practically the sole means of reaching Guam is by transport, and through the good offices of the then Secretary of War, the Hon. Newton C. Baker, my family and I were privileged to travel on the United States Army transport “Logan,” and to become ac- quainted with the genial company of officers of the Army and Navy, proceed- ing with their families to their distant posts in the Far East. A most fortunate circumstance was the presence on board of Captain Ivan C. Wettengel, U.S. N., and Mrs. Wettengel, whose aid during the following weeks was indispensable for the successful accomplishment of the scientific work, and whose hospitality made our sojourn delightful beyond any possible anticipation. Almost at the same time, Guam and Rota, the smaller island to the north, emerged from the mists of the horizon, becoming ever more definite in form and green in color as the ship approached. We could well imagine the joy of Magellan and his crew when in 1521 they first discovered these islands during the famous voyage of circum- navigation of the globe, at a time when illness and shortage of food and water made their plight most serious. In Magellan’s time, the people were notable sailors and exploiters of the sea, and as their sailing canoes put out to meet the newcomer, Magellan was so im- pressed by their craft that he named the group the “Islands of the Lateen Sails.”” When, however, he had an- chored and obtained the much-needed provisions and water, his quondam hosts proceeded to steal various objects about the ship and the cordiality of their mutual relations disappeared. Magellan thereupon re-named the place the La- drones, or “Islands of the Robbers”; and to this day the name is largely used, although for obvious reasons the people themselves do not approve of it. The Spaniards established their sway some decades later, missionaries of the Catholic Church began their work, and in the seventeenth century, the 130 group was named the Mariana Islands, in honor of Queen Maria Ana de Austria. From our vessel, as we rounded the northern end of Guam, we could see much of the general character of the island. Guam is about thirty miles in length, and from four to seven miles in width. The northern half is relatively flat, and consists of limestone strata raised high above the sea and terminating in abrupt drab-colored cliffs. Dense, green forests cover this part of the island. Coming southward on the western side, we neared the Bay of San Luis de Apra, now called Apra Harbor for the sake of brevity, where the mountains of the southern half came into view. The upper ground does not bear so much vegetation of higher growth, save in restricted areas, but is covered for the most part with grasses of xerophytic nature. Coming to anchor, the launches put out to convey us to the landing port of Piti, whence by automobile we traversed the five miles of excellent road that follows the winding shore to Agana, the principal town and the seat of government of the island. It seemed a veritable home-coming to be again in a tropical island, to pass by a plantation of graceful cocoanut palms, or a hedge of scarlet-flowered hibiscus, fronting a bungalow or a row of native houses. Yet even on first acquaintance, there were differences to be seen in the flora, and more strikingly in the natives and their houses, which made it evident that we were not in Polynesia but in the contrasted geographical region of Micronesia. In Agafia headquarters were estab- lished in the Officers’ Club, where also we resided for a time until, with the departure of the retiring executive, Captain W. W. Gilmer, U. S. N., we removed to the “Palace” as the guests of Governor and Mrs. Wettengel. Almost every day, and sometimes twice a day, field trips were made to one and another part of the island, in quest of the speci- mens for the American Museum’s col- NATURAL HISTORY lections and of the special material in the way of land gasteropods. The weather was very hot during the early -weeks, with occasional showers, but later the season changed and the westerly monsoon brought heavy rains almost every day. The region of the Pacific Ocean where Guam is situated seems to be the place where typhoons take their disastrous form before they sweep on westward toward the Philippine Islands and the China Sea. Although the wet weather rendered it impossibe to be entirely comfortable during the hours of field work, yet the increased moisture brought the snails from their hiding places, so that many more could be found than on a clear, sunny day. -So the time passed profitably and all too quickly. as the exploration of Guam was brought toward completion. Agana is a town of great antiquity. Even at the time of first discovery there was a village on the plain within the shallow roadstead at this place, and undoubtedly this site was selected on account of the river that rises as a spring in the central hills back of the town, which provides the town with an adequate water supply at all seasons of the year. Agafa extends for more than a mile along the shore, and has several streets paralleling the water front, as well as numerous intersecting roadways at right angles. Nowadays, the streets are well paved with the abundant limestone rock called cascao, or cascajo, which makes a very satisfactory surface. Good water supply is provided, and electric lights, as well. The general aspect of the town is most pleasing, owing to the cleanliness of the streets and the neatness of the white houses. As limestone is very plentiful, the better homes as well as the government buildings are made of this material; the walls are thick, so as to make the interiors as cool as possible. Wooden houses are also made, and they, too, are whitewashed as a rule. If the roof consists of tiles or of corrugated iron, ee ea a a en The town of Agana as viewed from the hills to the south. Agafia is the principal town of Guam and the seat of government The road through Umatac, which is a characteristic outlying village of Guam 131 The “Palace” or Government House at Agafia in Guam at the time of the ceremony of in- stalling the new Governor, July 7, 1920 per | hed a! pute ot 6 5g wile ne te. Cal. eke boa s The Cathedral or Church of Dulce Nombre de Marfa, recently rebuilt. This church stands on the site of the original house of worship built in 1669 A JOURNEY TO THE MARIANA ISLANDS—GUAM AND SAIPAN its slope is gradual, but if thatch is employed as a covering, the pitch is usually steep, so as to make an effec- tive rainshed. The entire population of Guam is q upward of 13,000, and of these almost _ gooo live in Agafia. Very few indeed _ live in the open ranch country, for they prefer to dwell in the main city and in the smaller towns that are situated at intervals on the coasts of the southern half of the island; there are few such a villages in the north. Efforts have been made to induce the people to reside on their ranches and little farms, for na j they lose considerable time during the ___week in their daily journeys to and fro, in their slow-moving ox-carts, but the age-old custom is strongly fixed, and little success has been attained as a result of such efforts. The rigid custom owes its origin to the fact that the Spaniards in olden times required the people to come back to the settlements at night, not so much for the purpose of mutual protection, but rather for the purpose of maintaining the re- ligious hold of the priestcraft upon the minds and thoughts of the natives. Incidentally, it may be remarked that at the time of Magellan 100,000 natives were said to dwell in Guam; two hundred years later there were 1000! The Plaza is the center of the official life of Guam. It is a beautiful field about three or four hundred feet square, bordered by cocoanut and royal palms. The old Palace or Government House stands on the south, toward the hills of the interior; it is a masonry building, constructed long ago, and modernized lately so as to be more in keeping with ' American ideas. The lower or ground floor is occupied by the offices of the Governor and his staff and by some of the government departments, while liv- ing quarters take up the whole upper floor. The Marine Barracks adjoin the Palace.on the west, and beyond these stands the new school, Dorn Hall. The old prison, the island bank, 133 and quarters of ranking officers stand on the north, while the Cathedral grounds adjoin the Plaza on the east. East of the church stands an excel- lent and _ well-equipped hospital — to whose competent staff we were to be- come eternally grateful for skilful care at critical times during the following weeks. Although it wears the aspect of great age, the Cathedral as it now stands is not old. It was rebuilt in 1912 because it had been badly damaged by the earth- quakes of former years. However, much of the stone work was taken from the former edifice, and the newer parts have been so blended as to preserve the general appearance of antiquity. The name ‘‘ Dulce Nombre de Maria” is the same as that of the first church which was built in Agafia in 1669, and there are evidences that the present Cathedral stands on the original site, even if the building is not actually the same. The Chamorros are Roman Catholics with few exceptions, and the services on Sundays and Saints’ days are fully attended. As the people come out of the doors after their devotions, the Plaza for a time is bright with the varied colors of the women’s holiday garments, and the fresh white of the men’s clothing. Then, too, the routine of a naval establishment gives an unusual amount of life to the Plaza. Every morning at eight o’clock, the full band assembles before the Palace, and the halliards of the two flag staffs are manned by marines. Promptly at the first stroke of “eight bells,” the band plays the “Star-Spangled Banner,” and the national flag and the Union Jack are hauled up, while everyone in sight and _ hearing stands at attention. All the children of the primary grades have previously assembled in formation on the parade ground itself, and after “colors” they go through calisthenic exercises while the band plays suitable music. On Sunday mornings, the men of Agafa are exercised in military drill, which is compulsory for all the able-bodied 134 men within certain age limits. While they have a standard or uniform dress, this is worn only on special occasions. Yet dress parade is a truly dignified affair, for the youths maintain that erect and self-reliant carriage which is so characteristic of native races. Occa- sionally a most interesting drill is witnessed of the “‘carabao cavalry,” as it is called, although the mounts are NATURAL HISTORY obligations to him, as the extended assistance and hospitality offered by his successor, Captain Ivan C. Wettengel, U.S. N., assured the memorable success of our two months’ stay in the island. Soon after our arrival, namely on July 7, occurred the formal ceremonies when the transfer of authority was made. On a bright and rainless morning, the officers of the station assembled in the A drill of the “carabao cavalry” on the Plaza in Agana not water buffalo but domestic cattle. All through the day, the bells tell the time as on shipboard, arid _ bugles sound the calls that direct the military life of the station. Again at seven o’clock in the evening, the musicians assemble in the bandstand and play classical and other selections for an hour, while the officers and their families stroll about in ‘the comparative cool of the evening. Captain W. W. Gilmer, U. S. N., was the governor in office at the time of our arrival, and his courteous aid of our scientific work put us under real lower verandah of Government House, while the marines in khaki and the bluejackets in white duck were drawn up under the palms of the roadway. Seventeen guns spoke their farewell to Governor Gilmer after his valedictory had been delivered, and the flag had been hauled down for an interval. Governor Wettengel then read his official orders, seventeen guns gave their loud greeting, and the flag was again hauled into place on the staff. The new administration had begun. Owing to the oceanic isolation of Guam, its animal life is restricted and A JOURNEY TO THE MARIANA ISLANDS—GUAM AND SAIPAN peculiar to a‘.marked degree. The earlier explorers reported the presence of two mammals only, both of which are bats and these still exist in the island. The large fruit-eating ‘flying fox” (Pteropus) is not an uncommon sight during the daytime, as it goes about the forest in its quest for bread fruit, guavas, and the edible fruit of a kind of screw pine. The smaller bat is insectivorous, and is like our own common forms in its crepuscular habits. Since early days, several mammalia have been introduced, of which one is a wild animal; this is the Guam deer, of Malayan affinities, which was brought in during the latter part of the eighteenth century by the Spanish governor of the period. The deer are more abundant on the more thinly settled inlands of Saipan and Tinian, but now and again they are killed in the wilder parts of Guam. The inevitable rats and mice have established themselves with- out any direct human _ interposition, having landed from vessels that har- bored them; in the case of the former, much loss is caused by their attacks on cocoanuts as everywhere else in the Pacific islands. The carabao or water buffalo holds a high place in the list of domesticated quadrupeds, by virtue of its strength. The animal was introduced from the Philippines long ago, and if it can enjoy a daily wallow in a muddy pool or stream, it thrives very well. Cattle are also employed as draft animals, as well as for dairy purposes. Hogs are highly prized as food, and many have escaped to run wild in the forests where they find a sufficiency of roots and fallen fruit to sustain them. Horses are few, for they do not breed well. Naturally, dogs and cats are abundant, and many of these also have become wild pests. The birds, like the indigenous mam- mals, are not frequently met with, although there are many more species of this class. The boobies nest in con- 135 siderable numbers on the rocks near the entrance of Apra Harbor, and terns occur in some abundance in places. Herons and a kingfisher are the fre- quenters of the rivers, and afew snipe as well; the kingfisher is remarkable on account of its habit of eating small lizards. The fruit doves of the wooded regions are the most showy in plumage, and their colors are set off to advantage by the green leaves and shadows of the forest. Lizards are ubiquitous. Along the roads, on logs and tree trunks, quantities of small, blue-tailed skinks sun them- selves and lurk for insects. Little tan- brown geckos appear in_ prodigious numbers in the evening when the lights are lit and insects fly about. At that time the geckos take up their stations on theceilingsand walls of the verandahs, as well as on the white houses near the street lamps. Their pursuits of beetles and small moths are most amus- ing to watch, as well as their contésts for special points of vantage. They are called ‘‘Guam canaries” on ac- Chamorro native riding on a carabao or water buffalo NATURAL The large monitor called by the natives iguana or leguan count of their cheerful, chirping calls; in point of fact, the same kind of lizard is elsewhere called the ‘‘ Manila canary” and the “Siam canary,” so that its dis- tinction in Guam is not peculiar. The natives never molest the geckos, be- cause they consume large numbers of insects, including the all too prevalent mosquitoes. Of course there is a large lizard called “iguana” or “leguan,” although it is not iguana but a monitor, which often attains a length of more than an _areas of the main island. HISTORY four feet. While it is more abundant in the thickly wooded portions of the island, it also lurks about the plantations, where it attacks young chickens, and robs the nests of their eggs. In Saipan it is even more abundant than in Guam, even in the immediate neighborhood of Garapan and the smaller town of Tanapag. Only one small snake a few inches in length exists in the Mariana Islands; it is a Typhlops, which lives like the earthworms it resembles, under logs and stones. Insects of nearly all orders are re- presented, although the numbers of species are not great. Butterflies are few, excepting those which are naturally to be expected in a region near to Ma- ‘laysia. Dragon flies are more in evi- dence. The most annoying insect that we encountered in the bush was a small wasp, whose sting is very painful for a time. On Cabras Island, north of Apra Harbor, these wasps are so numer- ous as to render collecting a very lively occupation indeed. Centipedes of small and large kinds are present almost everywhere. On one occasion the author was severely bitten by one of these organisms during the night’s sleep in bed, and the severe pain lasted for several hours. One instance of death came to _ notice, where a native woman had been bitten four times at short intervals; but such fatalities are very rare, and ordinarily the effects of a bite can easily be toler- ated. The life of the shores and the coral reefs constitutes another realm. The reefs are not continuous about the island, and hence the dead shells of mollusks and crustacea are cast up on local No thorough investigation has yet been made of the varied and interesting fauna of the reefs and shores. The natives of Guam and of the Mariana Islands in general, are called Chamorros, and they are extremely interesting in history, culture, language, a nein “ie * The Bay of Umatac with its characteristic shores and background of mountains. In Spanish times the Governors lived in Umatac during the hotter season and the ruins of the old residence are still to be seen, overgrown with vegetation Characteristic “bush” in Guam. Pandanus, or screw pine, and the sago are the dominant plants 138 NATURAL HISTORY and physique. To the newcomer their pallid, light brown color and Malay features are the most marked qualities that distinguish them from the Poly- nesians. Since the time of their dis- covery by Magellan they have changed somewhat as a result of the alien in- fluences of many kinds that have affected their lives; nevertheless their race constitutes a distinct group, whose affinities with other Pacific peoples are capable of specification with some certainty. The early navigators and missionaries have left very satisfactory and unusually consistent accounts of the people and their lives during the centuries that followed Magellan’s discovery. The student of the Mariana Islands, and indeed of the Pacific Ocean in general, is fortunate in having available an extensive volume by Lieutenant William E. Safford, U. S. N., retired, an officer for some time on the staff of the Smith- sonian Institution. This work is en- titled The Useful Plants of Guam, but in addition to its exhaustive botan- ical sections, it comprises a full account “of the physical features of the island, of the character and history of its people, and of their agriculture.’’ Lieutenant Safford has also written extensively on the language of the Chamorros; needless to state, his works have afforded indispensable guidance to the studies of the present writer. In early days, the Chamorros were tall and well formed, robust, and un- usually free from disease, living to an age often exceeding a century. They were expert boatmen and swimmers, but time has led them to live their lives more and more upon the land, so that very few now engage in fishing and life upon the sea. In origin, the Cham- orros unquestionably came from a funda- mental Malay stock, but their isolation in their chosen island homes was followed by distinctive evolutionary changes. They used the betel nut for chewing with lime and pepper-leaf, as the Malays do today, and they grew rice. These two customs are most significant in - connection with the question of origins. Furthermore, they did not use “kava” as a beverage or the paper mulberry for the manufacture of ‘‘tapa”’ bark cloth, as did the peoples of the eastern Pacific Islands. Nevertheless, the Chamorro language displays many likenesses with Polynesian dialects in structure and in the astonish- ing number of similar words for the commoner objects of everyday exper- ience. There are also Melanesian ele- ments in their culture, as well as Poly- nesian components. The best summary statement with regard to Chamorro origins is the following paragraph from Safford’s work: ; ‘From a Consideration of these features in the language, customs, and arts of the aboriginal inhabitants of Guam it is evi- dent that they did not accompany the settlers of Polynesia in their exodus from the region of their common origin, but that they remained united or in com- munication with the ancestors of the in- - habitants of the Philippines, Madagascar, Malaysia, and certain districts of Cam- bodia until after the evolution of the grammatical features which are common to their languages and the introduction of rice as a food staple. And it is prob- able that they did not leave the cradle of the race until after the adoption of the habit of betel chewing, which was intro- duced from India long after the departure eastward of the settlers of eastern Polynesia, who took with them yams, taro, sugar cane, and cocoanuts from their former home.” Today there are no _ pure-blooded Chamorros because so much mixture with other races has taken place. The Spaniards themselves infused a new element into the racial complex, while Filipinos were brought to Guam in considerable numbers as workers and as prisoners, and their intermarriages have had even greater effects. One of the results has been a marked de- crease in the average height of the people, which is now scarcely greater than in the ee eg ae Eek ee ee ee ee A JOURNEY TO THE MARIANA ISLANDS—GUAM AND SAIPAN 139 A family of Chamorro natives at Umatac. The man is the teacher in charge of the local school — > Filipinos proper. Despite the adoption of many words from other languages, the old language still lives, because the Chamorro mother passed it down to her children. The people are occupied largely with agricultural pursuits, in which nearly all are engaged, for they have only a slight degree of economic division of labor, and virtually everyone is a “jack of all trades.”’ The care of their farms and of their domesticated animals engrosses them completely during the week. They grow rice, maize, sweet potatoes, and the like, each family for itself. The only real industry with an export value is the making of copra from cocoanuts. The smaller villages distant from the capital are lesser counterparts of Agafia, but more primitive in the nature of the case. ‘They comprise fewer stone houses, of course, but there is always a stone church and usually one or two places belonging to the leading men are built of the more durable materials. Every town has its schoolhouse and teacher; and even in the smallest places the work of education is carried on. Lately a spirit of rivalry has been developed through the institution of district fairs, when the people exhibit their prize livestock and farm products as well as the best examples of their handiwork in the way of basketry and embroidery. The effect has been most stimulating, and has led to awakened interest in affairs that were formerly regarded as matters of drudgery and routine. Much might be written about the botanical characteristics of Guam and its associated islands, with which the 140 NATURAL HISTORY field naturalist becomes closely ac- quainted during the days of study and collection. The flora is what is called the ‘‘strand association” because it includes so many elements like “Barring- tonia”’ and the many kinds of Pandanus that are characteristic of island shores. The northern half of Guam, above the transverse zone of farming country, is covered almost completely by a dense bush, which does not grow very high as there are few of the more lofty kinds of trees. The mountainous ter- ritory is relatively bare, save in the upper regions of a few of the southern and western heights. The southeastern areas are covered with “cogon” grasses, excepting where the darker green bush grows along the borders of the main streams and their tributaries, marking the water courses with great distinctness. The journey to Saipan was made during the last week of July, 1920, and yielded some of the most interesting experiences of the whole expedition. My son and I had looked forward to this trip with much keenness, partly because the collections from another island of the group would be particu- larly valuable in comparison with the material from Guam, and partly be- cause we knew that in Saipan there was a colony of natives from the Caroline Islands, with distinctly different physical characteristics. It was necessary first to cable to the Foreign Office at Tokio, requesting official sanction for our pro- spective visit, for Japan now controls all of the Mariana Islands, with the sole exception of Guam. Before the Great War, these islands belonged to Germany, to whom they were sold by Spain, with the acquiescence of the United States, after the Spanish War and the capture of Guam by our vessels. A prompt reply from Tokio gave us the desired permission to visit Saipan, as well as the intervening islands of Tinian and Rota, but as it transpired, we were able to land only at the first named place. There are no vessels plying between Guam and the Japanese islands; the latter are reached only from Yoko- — hama by the trading steamers that touch at Saipan and then proceed to some of the places in the Caroline Group, such as Yap, Truk, and Ponape. But Governor Wettengel added to the many favors he had already conferred, by arranging for our transportation by the “Bittern,” a small naval vessel stationed at Guam. Accordingly we embarked late one evening, and steamed out of Apra Harbor at midnight under the clear light of the tropic moon. With the dawn we were passing Tinian, which is much like the northern half of Guam in its characters; for the most part it is composed of elevated reef limestone, and it is thickly covered with cogon grass and low bush. Saipan appeared more rugged in character as the distance lessened, and its broken mountain ridges, trending north and south, rose high above the flat coastal plains of disintegrated limestone and soil. Only the lower ground, devoid of the thick forests of the heights, is suitable for the many small plantations of the na- tives and the larger enterprises of the newly established Japanese companies. The general aspect of the lower country, seen from a distance, was most abnormal in so far as the cocoanut trees were sadly affected by the scale insects introduced from the Carolines; fully 80 per cent. of the trees were destroyed, and either hung their dejected clusters of brown fronds from the top of the curving trunk, or ~ were entirely devoid of leaves. Our destination was the town of Garapan, situated on the western side of the island, ~ and this soon came distinctly into view at a point about midway between the northern and southern points of land. The “Bittern” came to anchor off the reef which grows far out from the shore, and a launch was put over the side to convey us to land. The sea was rough and dangerous, but the opening in the ee oe ma S Zi A JOURNEY TO THE MARIANA ISLANDS—GUAM AND SAIPAN I4I The old church and the new Japanese headquarters at Garapan, in the island of Saipan reef was found and passed without mishap; we glided over the quieter waters of the lagoon with a sharp lookout for submerged coral masses, and neared the little “summer house” on a wharf that seemed to be the proper landing place. Long before we stepped on shore, all the natives of the town who were at home and not at work on their distant farms, thronged to the jetty to await our coming—Japanese in their characteristic robes, Chamorros in sing- let and trousers, and the brown Caroline Islanders with far less in the way of clothing. They manifested considerable excitement, for the event was of a most unusual order; an American vessel from the South was about as unaccountable as an aéroplane. We were met by three or four Japanese officials in formal uniforms that had hastily been donned as our intention to land became evident, and to these officials our various creden- tials were presented. In spite of the fact that some of the Japanese could converse in English, the situation was rather strained, and it would have been difficult indeed to explain our visit and its purposes without assistance. By the greatest good fortune, there was present a young Spanish Chamorro named Gregorio Sab- lan, who was entirely proficient in English and Japanese, and, as I learned later, in six or seven other languages as well. I had hoped he was at Garapan, and had brought letters to him from relatives in Guam, where he had been born and had formerly resided. Sablan was not only a teacher and missionary, but he was also the official interpreter on all occasions. It was through his capable services that we came to an understanding with the officers who met us at the shore. And he remained with us when our little party climbed the hill above the old stone mission church, built long ago by the Spaniards, to present our respects and to explain our presence to the Governor, Lieutenant Commander Yamamoto, of the Im- perial Japanese Navy, who awaited us at headquarters in a modern building of wood, above which floated the white flag with its red sphere as the symbol of Japanese authority. Over the warm lemonade and cigars, cordial relations were soon established, while we dis- cussed the scientific work which was our special object. The “Bittern” returned ad a Natives of the Caroline Islands, now residing in Saipan, dressed in gala costume. These are the chief dancers of the settlement An informal group of Caroline Island natives A JOURNEY TO THE MARIANA ISLANDS—GUAM AND SAIPAN to Guam until it should call for us a. few days later at a time that had been agreed upon. Sefior Sablan virtually adopted us, very much to our satisfaction. After consulting with various officials he arranged for our occupation of a suite of rooms belonging to the absent Civil Governor, in a well built stone house on a back street of the town. Sablan also conducted the necessary negotia- tions with a Japanese restaurateur for our meals, which were duly brought by Japanese maids wearing clattering gitas, or sandals raised on_ little blocks of wood. He accompanied us at all times in our excursions about the island, and he manifested as much interest in our pursuits as we ourselves would show in the place and its people. In effect, he made our stay in Saipan a real success. Garapan is the home of less. than 3000 people. There are a few score Japanese officers and traders, while the __bulk of the population is composed of Chamorros and Caroline Islanders in approximately equal numbers. The town extends along the shores for a mile or so, and its houses are built on two or three straight and wide road- ways paralleling the strand. Stone build- ings are few, and for the most part the dwellings are made of wood or bamboo, with thatched roofs, as in the remoter towns of Guam. The two main com- ponents of the population dwell in separate halves of the town, the Cham- orros to the north and the Caroline Islanders to the south. Their relations are entirely amicable, but practically no intermixture of the two races has taken place through intermarriage. Each perpetuates the culture of its ancestors without modification. The Caroline Islanders were of the greatest interest to us. Our tempor- ary home stood in their part of Garapan, and they were about our doors and windows at all times. We were the only Caucasians on the island, and as 143 such were objects of much curiosity, especially in the case of my son, Henry, who was the only white youth many of them had seen. Whenever we strolled about the town, there was invariably a following group of youngsters in our train, observing every detail of our dress and speech and action. The women of this race ordinarily wear a single strip of cloth about the body below the waist, or the more characteristic mat of woven banana or hibiscus fiber, dyed in pleasing patterns and colors. The men wear a simple loin cloth, while the children run about naked until the age of ten or twelve. The gala costume comprises highly colored mats, bead necklaces of various forms, .and ornaments of tortoise shell, while bright flowers are worn as garlands and decora- tions in the hair. This whole commu- nity has been constituted by emigrants from Yap, Uleai, and the Mortlocks, and several other islands to the south, who first came to work on plantations owned by foreigners. Formerly there were a few in Guam, but after the Spanish war they joined their fellows in Saipan. They are colloquially called “Kanakas,” but this term refers properly to the true Polynesians. In many respects the Caroline Islanders do fe- semble the Polynesians, and their like- nesses are all the more emphasized by their real differences from the Cham- orros, who, as we have noted, are more like the natives of the Philippines and Malaysia. Despite the heavy rains and oppressive heat, our work progressed favorably. Early in the morning, Sefior Sablan would appear with one or two heavy native carts drawn by cattle. Soon we would be joined by a Japanese officer named Mr. Kowno, who had been assigned by the Governor to ac- company and aid us in our travels. The creaking carts jolted over the worn and uneven roads in such a way as to rack our bones and bruise our muscles, so that we were glad now and then to 144 walk for a little distance or to dash into the brush after a novel species of butter- fly or dragon fly. On occasions we were the noontime guests of Japanese planters, in houses that seemed to have been transported entire and complete from Tokio, and where our hosts in flowing garments tendered the polite hospitality of their race. At other times, the journey to a forested height would be made necessarily on foot, across the farm lands of the natives and through the thick brush, where we found the desired land snails in satisfactory abundance. In all, about four thousand specimens were brought back from Saipan. The evenings were fully occupied with the care of the collections, the writing of notes, or the quest for night- flying insects. On one occasion, Gov- ernor Yamamoto tendered us a formal banquet at which we met most pleasantly ie NATURAL HISTORY some of the prominent officers and citizens of Saipan. Not the least memor- able was an evening en famille with Sefor Sablan and his relatives, when after dining we talked over many things of mutual interest, and the nephews and nieces sang songs in English and- Chamorro which their gifted uncle had taught them. During the last two or three days, the rains were virtually incessant, and the winds were blowing strongly from the storm-breeding quarter of the west. It was with some concern that we looked forward to the day when the “ Bittern” was to return for'us. A real typhoon did indeed develop, but fortunately its center passed to the eastward so that we escaped its greatest severity. Nevertheless, the sea was very high when finally the expected vessel arrived off the reef, and we put off on the tossing waves to be received again on board. On the road in Saipan. The carts are strongly built to stand the jolting on the uneven roads. he natives on the left are Caroline Islanders residing in Garapan A JOURNEY TO THE MARIANA ISLANDS—GUAM AND SAIPAN The eventful trip to Saipan was ended when on the following morning we reached Apra Harbor at Guam. At last the day arrived when the transport came that bore us to Manila. The two months in the Mariana Islands, so crowded with interesting experience and observation, were over, and the collections were packed and ready for 145 shipment to New York. It was hard indeed to say farewell to our new-won friends, whose many kindnesses had made our sojourn so profitable and enjoyable. As the island faded in the receding distance, the hope grew ever more definite that fate would be so kind as to take us again to the delightful island of Guam. _) The author’s son, Henry E. Crampton, Jr., and our Japanese companion, Mr. Kowno. The photograph was taken in Saipan at a splendid collecting ground for Partule, and it shows a number of the animals on a leaf of the elephant’s-ear or Caladium sadoys 9say} Jo [[B SIAAOD I9}DvIvYD Jsasuap 94} Jo ajsuNf{ ,,"9}UITIQ,,, 94} JO JAvOY OY} OJUI UMOP Suryoo’yT woavaod ‘VaONVZ OFX AHL AO AATIVA THE JIVAROINDIANS OF EASTERN ECUADOR’ BY H. E. ANTHONY * a broad strip, running north and south, made up of numerous short ranges which extend in all directions and make it exceedingly difficult for the traveler to discern any definite sys- tem of main mountain ranges. When the easternmost edge of this strip is reached, however, a lofty barrier of high, wind-swept peaks marks the beginning of Amazonian drainage, and the region eastward from their Atlantic-facing slopes is known as the ‘‘Oriente.” It is in the “Oriente” that the tribe of the Jivaros make their home. Accompanied by Mr. George K. Cherrie, the veteran of many a South American expedition, I spent about a |: southern Ecuador the Andes form month in the ‘‘Oriente”’ and during that time saw a little of these Indians and was told a great deal concerning their customs by the few scattered families of whites who live on the edges of the Jivaro territory. The Jivaros are a tribe of warriors and hunters, and devote but little attention to the cultivation of the soil. They live in small, scattered communities located on the rivers, and raise a little cotton and such things as yuca or cassava. Although they recognize a captain or chief, his authority appears to be largely nominal. He exerts but little influence upon the members of the tribe. As a result the communities are controlled by the heads of the families and the system may, perhaps, be best described as patriarchal. The father of a family is a responsible member of the com- munity and his relatives aid him in of- fensive campaigns or rally to his defense. The Jivaro looks down upon the white man, who has only one wife, because among the Indians the measure of a man’s valor is the number of his wives. Polygamy is regularly practised and a man may have four or five wives or even as many as eight. This custom is the cause of the greater part of the fighting and killing that takes place in the Jivaro territory. When a daughter reaches the marriage- able age, twelve to fourteen years, she is given to a man who is friendly to the father. There is no price set on the girl and the transaction involves merely the good will of the two men. The girl herself is not consulted. This method of gaining a wife is, however, rather a slow process for the ambitious Jivaro who is striving to acquire a Jarge household in a region where women are at a pre- mium and every girl of marriageable age is much sought for. A more efficacious method, provided all goes well, is to wage war upon some neighbor or against a family of an adjacent tribe and to con- fiscate, as the spoils of victory, the widows of such a man. By a carefully planned stroke of this kind the Jivaro may gain several wives at once. The Jivaros do not believe in a benign deity, but in a power which is spoken of by the Spaniards as el diablo, the devil. This being is not necessarily malicious in his attributes, but rather is considered to be a ‘“Super-Jivaro,” one powerful in all matters, omnipotent for good or evil, but not loving evil for its own sake. When an important project is under consideration—a foray for wives or a long hunting trip into the territory of a hostile neighbor—the Jivaro deems it of the utmost importance that the “devil” be consulted. For this purpose he retires to some secluded spot, let us say a small hill off in the jungle, and there drinks a quantity of a certain vegetable extract. This extract, made from the bark of a root, is a dark fluid 1Article and illustrations copyrighted by H. E. Anthony, ro2t. *Associate Curator of Mammals of the Western Hemisphere and Leader of the American Museum’s Expedition to Ecuador, 1¢20-21. 147 148 NATURAL HISTORY A burly Jivaro who was a frequent and interested visitor at our skinning table resembling coffee. It produces a nar- cotic effect upon the human system and the Jivaro passes into a stupor of several hours’ duration, during. which he ex- periences various weird hallucinations. One of these hallucinations is that the devil comes to him and gives advice regarding the proposed plan. If favor- able views upon the matter are enter- tained by the devil, the project will be attempted. Consultation with the devil may be had by any man, for it is not the special province of any priestly class. I have spoken with white men who have sampled this narcotic drink and from the reports of its effects I judge the active principle of it must be some powerful alkaloid. Perhaps some neighbor in the same tribe has been selected as a victim and the Jivaro plans to kill him with as little personal risk as possible. ‘These Indians are adept in the use of the long blowgun, employing poisoned arrows, but prefer THE JIVARO INDIANS OF EASTERN ECUADOR \ 149 _ ~ Tserie,” a young man of the Jivaro tribe. I was told that “T’ serie” is the name these people give to the small marmoset monkey to do the man-hunting with guns which they obtain from traders. The ap- proved method, when the raiding party consists of two or more individuals, is to surround the hut of the designated victim, and wait for the man to come out through the doorway. As he steps forth, he receives the contents of several muzzle-loading muskets at close range. Then the place is raided and all the women and children are taken prisoners. The women enter the household of the victor as wives, while’ the children are adopted and given the same treatment as the man’s own offspring. That is to say, the captives are not considered to be slaves, but henceforth are a part of the victor’s immediate personal family. The Jivaro has his own peculiar method of celebrating the ‘successful coup against an enemy and in many respects this custom might be compared with that of the North American Indians in taking scalps. The Jivaro cuts off the head of his enemy and, when he has returned to the safety of his own hearth, 150 NATURAL HISTORY converts it into a lasting trophy by re- moving the skull and shrinking down the skin into a miniature head about the size of a man’s fist. The process whereby the head is prepared is described in a separate article in this issue by Mr. Charles W. Mead. As a culmination this trophy is used in a ceremonial dance, which generally occurs within a month of the time when the head was taken. The event is in some respects the counterpart of certain. scalp dances. The victorious. Jivaro dances with his trophy to celebrate his bravery in over- coming an enemy. His friends attend the ceremony and drink quantities of an. intoxicating liquor, making much of the occasion. Until this ceremony is consummated, the Jivaro cannot be persuaded’ to part with the head, but afterward he will trade it for a sufficient ‘inducement, such as a rifle, or in the absence of such a consideration he may hang it up in the hut. The possession of several heads fixes the standing of the owner, although the acquisition of each new head makes the retention of his own the more uncertain, for the rela- tives of the slain man will assuredly attempt vengeance. Thus it is that there exists constant warfare in the land of the Jivaro, where the two powerful, primal passions pre- vail, struggle for woman and thirst for vengeance. The lot of the Jivaro woman is not a happy one as she is destined to do the greater part of the work and is the storm center for most of the strife. On the other hand, the men impressed me as being good-natured toward the women and spoke kindly to them. I believe, therefore, that in all minor matters the women receive some consideration. Sternest discipline, however, awaits any woman, who is found. to be unfaith- ful to her husband. Even for the first offense an extremely cruel punishment is inflicted. The erring woman is thrown to the ground and held there while her husband, using the long, heavy machete or brush knife, cuts down on her head as hard as he dares to do without actually killing her. He cuts a number of times in one direction and then again at right angles, so that when the woman is released her hair is all chopped to bits and she is streaming blood. , If this treatment does not deter her from a second manifestation of infidelity, an even more rigorous punishment awaits her. She is pinned to the earth by the large lance or spear used by the men, the spear being thrust through the fleshy parts of the legs and then deep into the ground. She is kept thus for several days or even as long as three weeks, being given food and water and sufficient attention to preserve life. The punishment for the third offense is death outright. i The men are hunters of the highest order, and are keen observers of all that takes place in the jungle about them. They penetrate the thickest tangle, using game trails wherever they find them; the bear makes many a highway for these hunters. They never get lost and their highly developed sense of direction enables them to point back at any time toward a given place, such as the camp they left in the morning. This ability is known to those whites who occasionally penetrate into “Jivaria.” Sometimes a white man, wishing to test their powers, will ask them at different times to point out the direction to camp or to a certain river, thereby earning the supreme con- tempt of the Jivaro, who thinks that any fool should know such simple mat- ters. The Jivaros have a specific name for practically every bird and mammal to be seen about them and, when our skin- ring table was piled up with specimens for the day’s work, one of them would unhesitatingly name each animal. If a test was made on a later date with a bird or mammal of the same species, the designation previously used was invari- ably applied, proving that these names were not made up on the spot. —— ISt souvivedde anbsoinjoid e pejuasaid ‘dares ino poyista oy ‘Apuep orvalf sty} “Jured 3y311q YIM poqjods pur Spvoq pue sioyzeay Jo Alauy ysoq sty Jo [Te url payed OUVAIL ONILISIA V 152 NATURAL HISTORY The “kinkajou” or “honey-bear” of the Jivaros has no immediate relatives north of Mexico. Its thick fur is a‘soft golden-brown On one occasion, Mr. Cherrie had shot an olive-backed thrush, a sober-colored species that nests in North America and migrates southward in the winter, and consequently not one of the birds strictly belonging to the region. A Jivaro who was going over the birds and naming them, promptly singled out the thrush and said in substance: ‘‘ This bird is a foreigner. He visits us only in the winter and does not nest here.” An instance of this sort implies the keenest sort of observation, because the Jivaro must meet with from two to three hun- dred distinct varieties of birds, most of the smaller species of which have at best little value to him as food and conse- quently are of but minor importance. The birds of brighter color are often killed so that they may be attached as ornaments to the ceremonial necklaces, headbands, etc. that are worn in the dances. A great part of their game the Jivaros kill with the blowpipe or blowgun. The blowpipe is a long, slender rod of wood, made from two strips which are carefully hollowed out down the midline, in such fashion that when bound together by a long strip of bark there is a straight, smooth, cylindrical bore the full length of the rod. The blowpipe is generally — made of black palm, which has a very tough, interlacing fiber, so that the rod, though slender, has great strength and — will not warp or twist. The ammuni- tion for this weapon may be either little balls of clay or arrows. Clay is shaped into small balls, of a diameter just big enough to fit the bore. These balls, after having been baked in the sun, are placed in the mouth and blown through the tube as a small boy blows a bean in a toy blowpipe, but the length of the Indian blowpipe, often eight to ten or more feet, gives the clay ball a great velocity. As a result the projectile will kill small birds or mammals such as squirrels or rabbits. The arrows. are long, slender strips of cane, straight and with a sharpened point; a tuft of cotton is twisted about the rear end of the arrow to make it fit the bore in an airtight manner. These arrows fly ex- ceedingly true and game may be struck with them at long distances. For larger game poison is used; for small birds the arrow is plain. For this purpose the Jivaros use a black, gumlike substance brought up from the lower Amazon and undoubtedly a form of curare. The arrows are pre- pared by dipping into the poison about half an inch of the tip which then looks very much as if it had been coated with tar. This poison is narcotic in its action and very deadly and an animal that has been wounded with an envenomed arrow will drop in a very few minutes. If the Indian is hunting monkeys, his favorite game, the arrow is scored with a knife about an inch back of the point so that it may break readily at this place. The monkey shows considerable cleverness when hunted and, if wounded, invariably plucks out or breaks off the arrow. He is outwitted, however, by this precaution, because the al —oe —_— THE JIVARO INDIANS OF EASTERN ECUADOR 153 Demonstrating the use of the blowpipe.—This Jivaro had killed an enemy but a short time previously and was still on the vegetable diet, which, in accordance with the tribal custom, Ils prescribed at such times arrow breaks and leaves the poisoned tip in the wound. I was told that salt is an antidote for the poison, and if the Jivaro wishes to take a monkey alive, he may do so by hurrying at once to a stricken animal and placing salt in its mouth. Another weapon frequently seen among these people is the lance or spear. The point of the Jance is of iron, very sharp and flat; the shaft is of some tough wood. With this they may kill bear, peccary, or any of the larger terrestrial mammals. The Jivaro lives along the water courses and does considerable fishing in a very ingenious fashion. A variety of creeper or vine, called barbusco, is gathered at some point along a stream, and then the plants are pounded into a pulp upon the rocks. When sufficient barbasco has been prepared—the quantity may total from two to three hundred pounds—and the Indians have stationed themselves down stream, the mass is thrown into the river. The juice of the bruised vine is a poison and, if the river is not flowing a great volume of water, it kills any fish in its path for a distance as great as three miles down stream. The Jivaros catch the fish as they come float- ing along belly up and in this way secure great hauls. The use of barbasco does not spoil the fish for human consumption, as we can attest through personal ex- perience. One disadvantage in its use-is the heavy drain upon the fish life of that particular region, and a stream cannot be fished in this manner indefinitely. Even a large river may be poisoned by this comparatively small amount.of barbasco. The Jivaro will eat most of the animals of the forest, but there are one or two surprising exceptions. For some S9A0IS }eaIB UI puNnoy ATJUONbas; aie pue vireArf ul adeospur] ay} Jo s1nzeaj Snonoidsuod v are suyeg VaONVZ AO ASHWITDS LSaIt V a, SSr BIOWLT ONY JUITNGIN} 9y} JOU 0} UMOP SMO] OIvISEqUIOg III AT[NJYNvaq dy} say Aa[VA MOIILU ¥ UT SAT] JUIWI[}}AS 9]}}1] OLIO}STY STY YT, VaAOWNVZ AO MHIA AAAVAN V oSt og -d uo umoys spray uayunays ay} Jo sdiy 24} 07 payoeyqe ore YoY asoy} 07 reTTUNIS ‘9INJIVINULUT BALJLU JO PIO U0}}09 dSIVOD JO SpuRI}S 91v UBUT SITY} JO ITVY IY} OJUT pauaqseT ‘ueIpuy sures ay} Jo sainjord Juarayip are YSU ay} UO 9UO 94} PUR JOJUGD OY} UT sINSY oY], “poywoIpUl aioy ore SONSLIOJOwARYD [eV] [ENPIAIpPU! pue ssorppeoey Jo spoyjzow yUNSsICT ; SOUVAI! JO SAUd4AL GALSVALNOD OML LS1 IVI} OU POMOYS USWIOM Iap]O sy, “ydei Q oO [a8 oy} JO diy I9MO] 9Y} UT OUD Jo adaId [[eUIS 94} 9J0N ‘Ajipeor pasod pur viowied 94} Jo ojoyd 03 yNoyIp pure Ays AJ9A SBA YS . “pareU st ‘pyo srvaA Ud9}INOF JNoqe ATUO YSnoyyye “TAs ay, agiaL OUVAIL AHL JO NAWOM 158 unknown reason he will not touch the flesh of the deer although he has no scruples against killing it for a white man to eat. A very peculiar custom we observed is the diet chosen by one who has recently killed an enemy. Such a man avoids meat, confining himself to a vegetable diet. The reason given us was that if he consumed meat, he would be easily surprised and killed by the friends of the man he had slain, whereas if he ate vegetables he would be hard to surprise. These people have a very wholesome respect for the snakes of their jungles and with good reason, for there are several venomous varieties among them. It is said they have an antidote for snake bite, using some plant which counteracts the venom. Because they go about barefooted, they are often bitten but, thanks to this plant, seldom killed by a snake. during a day’s work I had a small coral snake (genus Micrurus) which was alive although somewhat __ incapacitated through rough handling in capture. At the time I judged it to be a non-veno- mous species, but nevertheless retained enough caution to handle it by the back of the neck so it could not strike me. A Jivaro who was standing over our table, very much interested in everything that was transpiring, displayed some apprehen- sion when I showed him the snake coiled up in a small can, and beat a very hasty retreat when I took it out in my hand, acting in much the same manner as might a timid girl in the presence of a - mouse. The Jivaros have the reputation of being rather cowardly. As far as open warfare is concerned, the experience of the whites who have lived among them has been that the Indian will not dare to attack the white man under any conditions that approximate equal com- bat. As an instance, I was told of a Spaniard who lived among the Jivaros for a number of years in a rather remote locality where he was far separated from any other whites. He early incurred Among the material collected NATURAL HISTORY the enmity of the Indians and, as he was harsh in his dealings with them, it was not long before he was a marked man. On several occasions parties of the Jivaros attempted a raid against him, having first consulted their “devil” as to the propitiousness of the opportunity, but it would seem that the Spaniard as well must have been on intimate terms. with the devil for he learned each time of the projected attack and killed so many of the Jivaros that the parties fled. By means of this bold front he was able to more than hold his own with them for a great many years, but even- tually he so far relaxed as to hand over his gun to one of his Jivaros to carry while he went on ahead, and the Jivaro _ promptly made the most of the unex- pected opportunity. In general their behavior toward the whites who treat them properly leads to. rather amicable relations. With us they were very friendly and very good- natured, answering any questions as well as their poor Spanish allowed. Only a few of them speak Spanish, but they are intelligent and quick to grasp an idea so that a few words in Spanish aided by signs, may convey much. No one of those we met knew much Spanish, and a peculiarity I noted was the fact that almost always the verbs were used in the participial form. This gave to their conversation a sound very like that produced by riming verse. As an ex- ample, I heard this sentence: “En camino pasando, animales en- contrando, un mono matando, cuero sacando, billetes ganando,” which would be translated as: ‘‘He goes along the trail, meets animals, kills a monkey, skins it, and gets some money.” The Jivaros were very much interested in our work, which appealed to them be- cause it dealt with the most vital feature of their daily lives, the animals of their own jungles. They are a rather difficult people with whom to deal, for the reason that money has scarcely any value in “ Jivaria” and — se a Dade THE JIVARO INDIANS OF EASTERN ECUADOR 159 their material wants are few. It is possible to gain their friendliness by gifts of such a nature as mirrors, needles, fishhooks, or powder and shot; but if one desires to secure the labor of a Jivaro, as a canoe man for example, it may be necessary to do a great deal of patient and tactful trading before you succeed in engaging him. The Jivaro hut is a simple affair, made of a long, rectangular frame of poles stuck into the ground and thatched over with the leaves of palms or plantains. The fire is built inside on the ground and the smoke finds its way out through the most convenient openings. As evidence of their handiwork, I saw very creditable cotton cloth, which had been made by them from their own cotton. Strangely enough, the men, when ques- tioned, said that they personally had woven this, the household weaving of fabrics being peculiarly a feminine province everywhere else in Ecuador. THE RIO DESTROZO One of the countless, crystal-clear, streams that plunge down the slopes of the “Oriente.” It owes its significant name of Destroyer to the fact that its descent to the Zamora is accomplished in a series of precipitous leaps, the water tearing away everything in its path except the largest bowlders WAR TROPHIES OF THE JIVARO INDIANS OF ECUADOR These human heads, which have been subjected to a shrinking process after the removal of the bones, are a ghastly tribute to the cunning rather than the prowess of the Indian who has acquired them. To the notion of the white man this method of warfare, which is pursued partly for the acquisition of heads but also and to an even greater extent for the purpose of gaining wives—the victim’s family being incorporated in that of the conqueror—is but stealthy assassination 160 io Aby Ps SHRUNKEN HUMAN HEADS AND HOW THEY ARE MADE CHARLES HE diminutive shrunken heads | made by the Jivaro Indians, sug- gesting, save for their long, straight hair, the heads of Negro pygmies, have been familiar objects in museums for many years and many have been the queries as to how and why they are made. Just how they are made is a problem that has only recently been solved, though many, and oftentimes absurd, have been the speculations as to the way the Indians managed to shrink them to so small a size. One that for some time obtained widespread credence was, that in an early stage of the work the skin of the head was boiled. Of course, boil- ing would have caused it to fall to pieces. The heads are always black in color, and _ this was accounted for by the supposition that they had been smoked over a fire. The details of the process did not come to us all at one time, but by driblets from different travelers who had visited some part of the Jivaro country in east- ern Ecuador. Indians guard such tribal secrets very jealously, and it is ex- tremely difficult, and in most cases impossible, for one who remains but a short time in their country to obtain exact information about them. The method is as follows: The head, with a small part of the neck, is severed from the body. A cut is made from the base of the skull down through the skin of the neck. Through the opening thus made the bones of the head are carefully removed, and the skin and remaining soft parts are dipped into the juice of the huito fruit, which stains them black. The skin is now ready for the shrinking process, which varies somewhat in dif- ferent localities. In some divisions of BY W. MEAD* the Jivaro tribe a number of hot stones are put into the cavity, and the whole is constantly turned in order to’bring them in contact with all parts of :the inner surface. When one Indian tires, the head is passed to another. It is said that the process sometimes continues for a week or more before the head is reduced to the desired size. Bs In other localities a single stone, nearly the size of the head, is first used, then a smaller one, and so on until ihe work is completed. In still other localities hot sand takes the place of stones. Long, pendent cords usually fasten the lips together, and one is run through the top of the head to suspend it. The cut in the back of the neck is then sewed up, and the trophy is finished. The first heads that found their way out of the Jivaro country did se by being passed from hand to hand until they came into the possession of some trader who brought them down the Amazon to Para, where they were disposed of. Unfortunately the Jivaro soon learned that these heads were much in demand by white men and began to prepare them for the traders, being by no means particular as to whose head was used, and it is said that advance orders were frequently taken and filled. Certain it is that now and then short-haired heads bearing mustaches find their way into the market. In early times the Spaniards, and after them several South American countries, passed laws with severe penalties for any one known to have prepared one of the heads; but it was difficult for the law to reach the transgressors and not much seems to have been accomplished toward stopping the practice. *Assistant Curator of Peruvian Archeology, American Museum. 161 MARIE SKLODOWSKA CURIE Honorary Fellow of the American Museum of Natural History and Honorary Member of the New York Mineralogical Club A picture taken in her Paris laboratory shortly before her departure for America, showing her concentrated on her scientific investigations that have already enriched the world with one of the greatest discoveries of all time. With the gram of radium recently presented to her, Madame Curie will have the opportunity of pursuing her research under conditions-not hitherto enjoyed, with results that may further amaze the scientific world and redound to the benefit of mankind SCIENCE HONORS MADAME CURIE AT THE AMERICAN MUSEUM N the evening of May 17, in the Auditorium of the American Museum, which was packed to capacity, three scientific bodies,— the New York Academy of Sciences, the American Museum of Natural His- tory, and the New York Mineralogical Club,—united to do honor to Madame Marie Curie, ‘‘a lady whose name,” to use the eloquent words of Dr. George F. Kunz, who presided on the occasion, “will live long, long after those who have aspired to fame ostentatiously or otherwise, will all have passed away.” In addition to the tribute paid from the platform to the genius of Madame Curie by such distinguished scientists as Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, Dr. Robert Abbe, Professor Alexander H. Phillips, Professor Michael Idvorsky Pupin, and Doctor Kunz, supplemented by the enthusiasm of an audience that gave warm expression to its appre- ciation of her achievements, two testi- monials were presented to the discoverer of radium,—the one a certificate sig- nalizing her election as an Honorary Fellow of the American Museum of Natural History, the other conferring upon her Honorary Membership in the New York Mineralogical Club. In bestowing the former, President Osborn said: “My pleasant duty tonight is to extend the hospitality of the American Museum of Natural History to Madame Curie and to announce that, by un- animous vote of the scientific staff and unanimous vote of the trustees of this institution, we have elected Madame Curie an Honorary Fellow of the American Museum of Natural History. I have in my hand the certi- ficate of membership and I would present this certificate to Madame Curie with the statement that she is the first woman to receive this honor; that it is given in recognition of her great discovery in the fields of physics, of mineralogy, and of chemistry; and that we give it with the greatest enthusiasm because of the fundamental character of her discoveries in these fields. “Madame Curie, may I greet you as an Honorary Fellow of the American Museum of Natural History?” In presenting the certificate of honor- ary membership in the New York Mineralogical Club, a ceremony which took place toward the close of the even- ing, Professor Phillips spoke as follows: “The New York Mineralogical Club, by unanimous vote, at the annual meeting of the organization, on the evening of April 20, 1921, at the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History, desiring to express its fullest appreciation of Madame Curie and her transcendent service to humanity through the dis- covery of radium in the year 1898, and many great contributions to radial knowledge since, hereby confers Honor- ary. Membership; with life tenure ap- pended thereto. “Tt gives me great pleasure to present this, Madame Curie, and the three organ- izations that arranged this meeting are here to honor you, Madame Curie, and to show their appreciation of your great services to humanity.” Madame Curie then arose and, speaking with the modesty that is characteristic of greatness, said: “T am very grateful to the New York Academy of Sciences, the New York Mineralogical Club, and the American Museum of Natural History, for this beautiful reception and for the recogni- tion of my work. “T cannot say how happy I am that I was permitted to be the discoverer of radium, but I would like to remind you of the names which are associated with this, of which you know many,— as Sir William Ramsay, Berthelot, Ruth- erford, Soddy, Becquerel, Abbe, etc. “Then I would like to say how deeply I am moved by the beautiful progress 163 164 NATURAL HISTORY of the medical application of radium, of which you have just now heard from Doctor Abbe, and we must remem- ber that the success of that is due, not only to the discovery itself, but also to the splendid efforts of distinguished specialists which were made and espe- cially by Doctor Abbe, and we must be thankful to all of them, just the same as to the discoverer.”’ Dr. Robert Abbe, alluded to in Madame Curie’s address and_intro- duced by Doctor Kunz as “one of our first surgeons to use radium, and one of the first to realize that successful as he was with the knife, it was possible to avoid using the knife by using other means,”’ had given earlier in the evening an impressive account of the therapeutic , uses of radium. “What is the present status of cancer versus radium and X-rays?’’ Doctor Abbe answered the question he had himself propounded: “The biological science has furnished » us with a classification of malignant diseases, which has gradually been modi- fied to malignant and semimalignant —all of them antagonistic to life; some of them curable, some of them not yet. The obstructionist surgeon still says, ‘If you speak of a wart or a small tumor, oh, I can cure that; [I can cut it out or burn it out with caustic.’ That sometimes helps the patient but never cures the disease. It simply removes it. “Now we have put in our hands an invincible weapon, a little tiny tube of radium—no larger than a small penholder. The diseased tissue of a tumor isn’t cut out; it isn’t burned out; it is simply showered with a little fine peppering of radium energy,—little electrons of negative electricity. What happens? Nothing, for a week—but in a month, the tumor has gone. It has melted away, and thereby the disease has been made to cure itself. “Now, as to the nature of the various things that radium will cure. The gravest forms of cancer in the smallest areas we can find it, say, no bigger than rice grains, are easily .cured by radium. The diseased cells are restored completely and become part of a healthy structure, but in larger masses it is impossible to say at the present time, that it can be cured. We can reduce it, but to say we can effect a cure is to claim too much. It takes so many years to demonstrate a cure that we wait patiently. The people cannot be > more eager than the surgeons and doctors to find a remedy. - “Meanwhile, a young woman had lost her beautiful singing voice? Then her Surgery has never been The warts always up with warts. able to cure that. come back. “Eight years ago a young woman with a beautiful singing voice and a throat full of such warts had a radium tube put in her throat for half an hour. Two months later the warts had gone. Today, after eight years, her voice is more beautiful than ever. “Ts it nothing that a little, three- year-old girl had a tumor growing in her tongue? Was it cancerous? No. Lympho sarcoma it is called; destructive to life but not cancerous. It was cut out; it came back. The surgeon knew it was a serious case. It was then burned out with caustics; it came back. Then there was a conference of surgeons and they said to the distracted mother of the child: ‘There is only one thing now that surgery can do; we must cut the tongue out unless radium can save it.’ That little, malignant tumor was pinched between two tubes of radium for twenty minutes. In six weeks, the tumor was gone. Two weeks ago I saw that young girl of thirteen years. She was the picture of health (she was ‘three years old when the radium was applied), and her mother was — perfectly happy. is it nothing that. ae wart can be cured? Is it nothing that. breathing | became obstructed as her larynx filled = shrunken away. normal ‘size. 2 Prof. Charles Baskerville. SCIENCE HONORS MADAME CURIE AT THE AMERICAN MUSEUM : 165 “Ts it nothing that a young man of seventeen with a tumor on his jaw should have been restored to health? Eighteen years ago, when I had one of the first two tubes of radium that Madame 1G Es, Curie a young man with a diseased jaw came FP, to me. hour upon it. __was replaced by the tumor (destructive Myeloid sarcoma), and the teeth were loosened and separated. I put the allowed to come to America, I used the radium for half an The jaw on one side radium upon the tumor and_ into it. In two months it was rapidly _ changing for the better; the bone was getting hard; the jaw was solid; the teeth were firmly embedded in the jaw. In six months the tumor had As years went by, that tumor and all indications of it utterly disappeared. Marvelous! That very large, solid tumor shrank back completely and the jaw became of That young man today is married and has four children, and | jaw is as solid and beautiful on ‘the side where the tumor was as it is on the other side, and all the teeth are BD ots “Ts it nothing that a gentleman, one of the best scientists in this country, - came to me two years ago, with cancer _ of the eyelid? He had been unable to get it cured and was obliged to give up his work; would radium cure it? I used radium upon it for half an hour; today it is perfectly well. Last week he sent me a bundle of checks, gathered from the men with whom he is associated in his work, $308, given in gratitude to Madame Curie to swell that little fund for her. Life is full of dramatic inci- dents. When he was cured, he said, “You didn’t notice my other eye, Doctor? 1Part of this first radium was presented to the American Museum of Natural History by Dr. Edward Dean Adams for the experiments carried on by Dr. George F. Kunz and It was exhibited at the American Museum of Natural History at that time, the anncuncement bringing six thousand visitors in one day. This was the first tadium used by the Memorial Hospital in its experiments upon cancer, Part of this is still in the possession of the useum. It is a glass one. I lost that eye when I was a boy.’ Those are the dramatic things that occur every day. Thousands of the smaller tumors, many forms of what has always been considered incurable, are being easily cured by this wonderful radium. It seems reasonable to expect that if Madame Curie can be equipped with the beautiful laboratory that is being thought of, and can be free from dis- tractions, so that she can work with her accustomed concentration in quiet, she will be able to reveal something new, something that will help all humanity,— the women of this country especially.” Professor Pupin in the course of his address pointed out that the radiation of radium is not like the radiation of an ordinary luminous body. Positive and negative electrons are sent out by it. ‘‘These projectiles furnish the physi- cist a new key to unlock the secret chambers of nature and to see things which he never dreamed of seeing. You can easily see that an electron like that, the diameter of which is ten thousand times as small as the diameter of an atom, is a beautiful projectile to hit an atom directly and make it vibrate and send forth the new light which we call X-rays, and today we are study- ing these X-rays with the same ease and the same accuracy with which we formerly studied ordinary light. And what does this reveal? Briefly stated, that in all probability, matter is electricity, because the atoms are made up of positive and negative electricity.” Those present listened with keenest interest to the presentation of the various aspects of the subject and rejoiced in being able to do honor to the discoverer of this new element, a woman who has been repeatedly designated “the greatest living scientist.” Considered from the standpoint of the chemist, the mineralogist, the phys- icist, or the physician, radium remains a substance surpassingly wonderful. gor SUITES 34} SISBO Te ur Afjuoredde st ustuvyoeui oy], “seyxeus pozejerun jo 1aqunu ve Aq Apuapusdepur posmmboe useq aavy 0} sumsas Gey Sunegul ayy, “Surdyt4a} Aro readde yaszt Suryeur yo afqedeo st yt Apoq sjt Jo zxed r0uazue 9y} Sueur Aq ynq ‘ssapurrey ApJajI0d st ‘snuvaexam snywynd sajonds ‘Qyvus UIYOIYD uUvdIeUTY [eIWUED 94], GaLVIANI MOAN HLIM ‘aasnouy rT SNAKES THAT INFLATE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF AN AGGRESSIVE WARNING ATTITUDE ASSUMED BY CERTAIN REPTILES BY G. KINGSLEY NOBLE HE American Museum Expedition to Nicaragua in 1916 brought back alive a beautiful specimen of the _ Central American chicken snake, Spilotes = pullatus mexicanus, measuring more than six feet in length. Hardly had the _ creature been placed in a cage when, with a low hissing sound, it drew in a long _ breath, and in another moment had in- flated the whole anterior region of its its new environment. - mouth, it lunged forward at any one who approached close to the wire netting of its cage. body. The snake was very nervous in With wide open At the same time it beat with the end of its tail against the cage wall, _ producing a dry and whirring rattle that reminded one instantly of the danger signal of the rattlesnake. This whole ~ performance,—the swollen neck, the vi- - cious lunges, the vibrating tail,—was suf- ficiently startling to make even the most assured hesitate before drawing near _ to this entirely harmless creature. It must be emphasized that this im- _ pressive bulging of the neck region was a true inflation, not a mere spreading. Still, the swollen chicken snake could not fail to remind one of the deadly cobra, which, with widely distended neck, rears well up before striking. The cobra’s hood, however, is different in character from the inflated neck of our chicken snake. In the first place, it is flattened in a horizontal plane. Of more importance ‘is the fact that it is spread by a series of elongate ribs and not just ballooned into shape as would seem to be the case in our chicken snake. Many snakes are able to flatten their heads and to spread their necks widely Without the aid of any specialized mech- anism such as is possessed by the cobra. The “threatening” attitude of our Spreading adder, Heterodon contortrix, is known to many boys living in our eastern states. The habit is not a com- mon one among snakes in general. It seems to have been acquired indepen- dently in different groups throughout the world. Liophis epinephelus and Ninia atrata in Central America, Ithycyphus' in Madagascar, Tropidonotus piscator in In- dia, Pseudoxenodon in China and Macro- pisthodon in the East Indies flatten their necks remarkably when disturbed. None of these snakes is poisonous. The old myth that a poisonous snake may be distinguished by its flat, triangular head has not the slightest foundation. Spilotes is not the only snake capable, when excited, of inflating with air the anterior part of its body. In Siam, there is a large snake, Coluber radiatus, with much the same habits as the Central American chicken snake. It lives on the outskirts of the plantations and feeds chiefly on rats. According to Smith,” the snake when disturbed swells its neck and assumes a defensive attitude “with the fore-part of its body thrown into a series of loops, and the mouth widely agape, ready to dash at any- thing’. One specimen of C. radiatus, after four months in captivity ‘“‘was nearly as wild and fierce as on the day it was captured’. In India, Baluchistan, and Transcas- pia, there is an inflating snake, Boiga trigonata, belonging to a totally different group, Opisthoglypha,—characterized by the presence of one or more grooved teeth posteriorly on the upper-jaw. In Africa there are two other opisthoglyphs which have developed this peculiar habit of distending the anterior part of the body with air. One of these, the 1Krefft, P. 1910. Blatter fiir Aquarien und Terrarienkunde XXI, pp. 460-62. 2Smith, M. 1914. 95- Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam, Vol. I, p. 167 168 famous boomslang, Dispholidus typus, of South Africa, is the rare exception of a “back-fanged”’ snake having a bite fatal or nearly so to man. Most opistho- glyphs feed on cold-blooded vertebrates and their fangs are neither long enough nor their poison sufficiently virulent to. be dangerous to human beings. Ac- cording to Fitzsimons,’ “the boomslang distends its throat and body only when in a furious state of anger’. The other inflating opisthoglyph of Africa, Thelotornis kirtlandii, has been carefully studied by Miller.” His graphic account may be quoted in part (p. 608, translation): “Tf one should annoy the snake, some- thing very remarkable happens. It raises itself, lifts threateningly the fore part of its body and swells its neck greatly. The neck is distended only below by this inflation, so that it appears laterally compressed. . . . The neck of the snake : appears in the in- flated condition dazzJingly light with dark bands, and I consider it very prob- able that a natural enemy is in no slight degree terrified by this sudden appear- ance of the brilliantly banded fore part of the body. “Tt is, in fact, a very surprising sight when the snake, which before was scarcely to be distinguished from a liana, lifts up the fore part of its body and shows among the foliage its inflated and brilliantly colored neck. The strange- ness of the sight is enhanced by the color- ing and the peculiar movement of the tongue. The tongue is a glistening vermilion with shiny black points; the tongue points are capable of spreading apart until they form an angle of almost 180°, and then in turn may approach another until they merge completely. When excited, the tongue, with adpressed points, is stretched far forward. In this position it is held for a long time motion- less; then the snake bends the tongue 1Fitzsimons, F, W. 1912. The Snakes of South Africa, p. 511. 2Miller, L. toro. Abh. Bayer. Akad. Wiss. Miinchen, Vol. XXIV, pp. 545-626, Pl NATURAL HISTORY sections of South Africa, of concealing | slowly upward and backward, while the points spread far apart. . . . Suddenly the excited animal lunges f ee ward to strike the disturber of its peace, As long as the object of its anger is pres- ent, the snake retains its warning pt - tude.” as Thelotornis, like most of the opist 10 glyphs, is harmless. There is in Afric: one species of inflating snake that hasa bite “‘invariably fatal.”’* This snake a is the black mamba, Dendraspis angus- _ liceps. It is not at all related to any of | the other snakes that inflate, but is closely allied to the cobras. The Black mamba attains a length of twelve feet. It has the disagreeable habit, in certain — itself in the foliage of trees overhanging _ the trails. The black mamba readily i swells up when surprised in the open. — Inflation, in this case, can scarcely said to be a very useful habit, at familiar with the black mamba ( not attempt to molest it without taki unusual precautions. The mechanism by which snakes able to inflate themselves does not to have aroused the interest of the ous observers, who have contented selves in the main with a description the external appearance of the swoll snakes. Certain chameleons are a! to inflate their heads and necks and assume a very droll, if not terrif attitude. The extraordinarily con mechanism of air sacks and \ valves in these reptiles has been fu described in recent years. Inflation. the snakes is as simple as it is comp in the chameleons. In all snakes the trachea is very long and is provided throughout its whole length with carti- — laginous rings which are incomplete — dorsally. The membrane which covers the dorsal portion of the trachea, con- — necting the free ends of the : rings on each side, is very much thinner _ than the sheath of ‘tissue forming the — 3Fizsimons, F. W. 1912. The Snakes of South Aria, a 206. When the cage was approached, this chicken snake would draw in a deep breath and in an- other moment would balloon out the neck region to twice its normal size. Such an inflation was not mere bluff, for if one approached too close, the snake would lunge forward viciously. Fer another picture of the same snake see p. 166 NATURAL HISTORY the same inflating propensities as the Central American chicken snake. above instance is only partly distended body of the trachea and binding the successive tracheal rings into a continu- ous tube. The dorsal membrane of the trachea in most snakes is narrow, not wider than a tracheal ring. In Spilotes pullatus mexicanus, Dispholidus typus, Thelotornis kirtlandi, and, by inference, in all snakes having the power of inflation, this dorsal membrane becomes an enormously expanded sheet capable of great distention. Inflation is accomplished in S‘pilotes by a series of movements. Air is apparently first taken into the lungs; the glottis is then closed and the powerful body muscles contract, forcing the air into the trachea, which balloons out, distending the whole neck region into a great zeppelin-shaped structure. The fact that the distention is limited to the tracheal region explains why the whole body is not inflated but only the anterior portion. In Coluber radiatus and Thelotornis kirtlandii the behavior seems to be much as in Spilotes pullatus mexicanus. .The boomslang, however, is apparently able to inflate its trachea and lungs, at the same time distending the whole body unti) it appears like an elongate toy balloon. Phetograph by H. Lang This snake, an African “‘back-fanged” known to science as Thelotornis kirtlandii, has acquired The neck region in the The dorsal membranous portion of the trachea seems to have undergone parallel modification in these unrelated groups of inflating snakes. This is not the only type of tracheal modification found in the snakes. In a number of unrelated families, the lung sends a diverticulum, or tracheal lung, forward along the dorsal membrane, which usually becomes split into two halves for nearly its entire length, as in the case of the rattlesnake and the copperhead. The presence or absence of such a diverticulum has been used as a basis of classification. But the whole subject is much in want of further study. Cope!’ states that all the solenoglyphs,—Fer-de-Lance, copper- head, etc., possess a tracheal lung. The bushmaster, Lachesis mutus, has been placed until recently in the same genus as the Fer-de-Lance. I can confirm Cope’s statement that the Fer-de-Lanceand most of the solenoglyphs possess a well devel- oped tracheal lung. ° The bushmaster, however, has no vestige of such a struc- ture. Trimeresurus gramineus, Agkis- trodon mokasen, Crotalus atrox, C. terrifi- 1Cope, E. D. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. Vol. XXXIITI, p. 222. 1894. SNAKES THAT INFLATE cus, etc., generally recognized as relatives of the bushmaster, possess a large diver- ticulum from the lung opening into the trachea for nearly its entire length. This discrepancy will probably be accounted for when the anatomy of the bushmaster is well known. It may be that the bush- master has no close affinity to the other solenoglyphs. _ It seems obvious that the tracheal lung and the expansible trachea have each arisen independently a.number of times in unrelated groups of snakes. The _boomslang and the Central American chicken snake have no close affinity to each other or to the black mamba. The dorsal membrane of the primitive trachea was susceptible to change, and parallel modifications have occurred. Other reptiles besides the snakes exhibit many impressive examples of parallelism in adaptation. It has been mentioned that the warn- ing attitude of Spilotes consisted in part of a vibration of the tail. This habit crops out in many unrelated groups of snakes. The case of the rattlesnake needs no further comment. Many snakes, however, devoid of a rattle, agitate their tails when annoyed. Our common king snake, Lampropellis getulus, is an 171 excellent example. Several of our Colu- bers, such as the black snake, have the same propensity. Other neotropical snakes besides Spiloles vibrate a rattle- less tail. Oxyrhopus coronatus and Dry- mobius boddaertii, two common and harmless forms, whip their tails against leaves or other vegetation. These mani- festations suggest that the rattlesnake may have vibrated its tail long before it acquired the habit of leaving the tip of its shed skin attached to its posterior end to form withthe tipsof previous molts thefamiliarrattle. There isnodoubt that the rattlesnake is a very nervous creature, delicately adjusted to its environment. Its vibrating tail seems to be an outward sign of its inward discomfiture over the intruder’s presence. The Central Ameri- can chicken snake vibrates its tail, too, and probably for the same reason. The inflation of the body and the agi- tation of the tail are both indications of uneasiness. Both phenomena may be called warning attitudes but it still re- mains to be shown that such actions are not simply manifestations of an uncom- fortable nervous state produced by the presence of some disturbing factor. 1Mole & Urich. 499-518. 1894. Proc. Zodl. Soc. London, pp. Photograph by H. Lang _ _ An African cobra, N aja melanoleuca, in attitude assumed before striking. The cobra does not inflate; its hood_is spread by means of elongate and moveable ribs SUOISUIWIP PI} BOTPU! 94} ITA} ULY} IIOUI SBM JSETIIA IepNoTIed sty, “ABMOSNeS B Jo Suva Aq JOYS 9Y} YA p9}IoUUOD ATTeENSN sem soy ay} pue ‘pazdaI9 a1aM ISeIIIA 94} Sulsoduiod sasnoy ay} sazid asay} Aq pazioddns wuo0;je]d 243 UG ‘uoNTsod yySidn ue UT Wey} UreyUTeW djay 0} Ul UMOIY} 219M Sau0}ys ‘daap AI9A sazid ay} VALIP 0} PAY 00} SEM W0F}OQ BY} AIABIIYAA = “9YL] 94} JO UlSIVW MoOT]eYS ‘peorq v ‘AJoureu ‘TeoIdA} SI UISOYD IHS VYJ, “}Ysnorp. pesuojoid 03 onp ‘s19}eA\ BY} JO SUIpaoaI 9y} Aq aieq pre] Useq A]JUIDeI AIBA ATUO SLY IBRIIIA TYWWYOEN sIyT GNVTYAZLIMS ‘LVAOW ANVI ‘AOVTITIA AATIAMG-ATId LNAIONV JO SNIVNAY uiqsog “pw fo Xsazinory SWISS LAKE-DWELLER DISCOVERIES B FEW weeks ago the American 7h Museum of Natural History : received from a European friend, Monsieur L. Forbin, of Paris, two photo- sraphs of a newly exposed pile-dweller tation on the shore of Lake Morat, Wwitzerland. It appears that the water n the Swiss lakes is unusually low this year, owing to “the absence of rain in Vestern Europe for several months” ast. As is well known, it was a similar be ecident which led to the original scovery of these remarkable repositor- es of antiquities in 1854, and it is to 9e hoped that the present circumstance fill lead to new and precise investiga- tions. One of the photographs is here re- produced and the facts of the case with | peerations, M. Forbin writes, will ap- pear shortly i in L’ Illustration. _ Lake Morat, it may be explained, is a comparatively small body of water ituated between the cantons of Vaud ind Fribourg, a short distance east of the lower end of Lake Neuchatel. I. Forbin writes that the existence of bout twenty Neolithic villages in that ake was known previously, but that his is the first time in modern history hat their remains have been visible. several of these sites, it may be added, lave already been worked in a_ sub- ierged state, and the collections in the imerican Museum contain specimens om the station known as Greng. As matter of fact, the American Museum’s ke-Dweller collections, totaling more 1300 catalogue entries, represent he arts and industries of no less than wenty-three stations, some from each of the principal lakes. The material anges over both the Neolithic and the Bronze ages, the Iron Age alone being unrepresented. When this Iron Age material shall have been procured, the exhibits in the Old World section of the archeological hall will furnish Pw of BY N. C. NELSON* a complete demonstration of all the principal steps in the evolution of human culture, in so far as this can be demonstrated by material evidence. In a general way the Swiss Lake Dwell- ings are to the Neolithic and Bronze _ ages what the French and Spanish caves are to the Paleolithic Age. That is to say, the more or less stratified Lake-Dweller remains furnish almost our only indisputable proof of the order of development of the various arts and industries for the culture periods covered. When man at the end of the Paleolithic stage left his cave habita- tions he became a roamer once more, or at least he ceased to live on the same spot for any really long period of time. The shell-heaps along the shores are in some degree exceptions to this state- ment, although in reality they cover only the introductory phase of the Neolithic. In Denmark, for example, where the nature of the shell-heaps was first discovered and where the chronological arrangement of antiquities is an old story, the ordering had to be done ultimately not on the basis of stratigraphy but on the basis of what is called a typological study of the ini- plements. To give an illustration, there are found in Denmark no less than five types of axes of widely different forms and finish and obviously not of the same age. By an intensive study of these different forms it was determined that they could be derived by modifica- tion the one from the other only in a certain definite order. This order fur- nished the key to the relative antiquity of the various monumental remains like dolmens, passage-graves, Cist-graves, and so on. It was investigation of this general character also which enabled the Scandinavian archeologists to an- nounce, long before it was actually proved, that man at first made his *Associate Curator of North American Archeology, American Museum. 173 174 implements of stone, later on of bronze, and finally of iron. Modifications, or rather expansions, of this so-called three-period scheme have been made, but the general order still holds. — In Switzerland, as has been stated, the various successive stages of art or of implement manufacture were actually laid down in the lake mud in stratified order. There are instances in which the pile dwelling burned down and was replaced several times, silt meanwhile collecting to keep the remains from each successive village somewhat apart. A finer arrangement between man and nature for telling his story to his suc- cessors could hardly be imagined. And yet much of this valuable stratigraphy has doubtless been. destroyed, owing to the roughshod methods that have been used at times in dredging under water for the relics. When, therefore, as has now happened, a station is raised above the water level in such a way that the deposit can be worked by hand, it is an event of real importance. The difference between collecting with grap- pling hooks and collecting by hand makes all the difference between antiquarianism and archeology. The first recorded discoveries of Lake- Dweller antiquities took place at Ober- Meilen on Lake Ziirich as long ago as 1829, but it was not until 1854, at a time of extremely low water, that implements and upright piles were found in sufficient quantities to impress their significance upon the finders, who were workmen and lake-front property holders trying to reclaim some of the dry beach. By 1855, finally, the anti- quarians, among them Dr. Ferdinand Keller, of Ziirich, took hold, and the results obtained since that day have been little short of marvelous. More than two hundred stations have been discovered in the Swiss lakes alone and the quantity of relics found in them is almost unbelievable, as is also the state of their preservation. The re- mains include not only objects of such NATURAL HISTORY comparatively imperishable material as — stone, pottery, bronze, and iron, but also objects of destructible material — like bone, horn, and wood. Artifacts — of wood are almost unknown except — when hidden away in dry caves or — buried in desert sands; but here they — have been preserved in the silt of the — lake bottom for all of 6000 years. q The impetus that these discoveries — gave to archeology cannot be estimated — at this time. The preceding half cen- — tury had been one long struggle to gain acceptance for the bare facts of the science. Danish antiquarians, hav- ing to make no extraordinary claims — for the antiquity of man, won the first — battle of the series. In England various — workers from 1797 on had announced ~ the discovery of implements made at a “remote period” and by “‘people who — had not the use of metals” but it was not until 1858 when Charles Lyell, Prestwich, Owen, Hugh Falconer, and other authorities became convinced of — the facts that the turning point came. — In that year also Boucher de Perthes, of Amiens across the channel in France, — through the support of these same Englishmen, won his fight, which had — lasted for more than a quarter of a cen-— tury. a Altogether, the decade just preceding the publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species is the. most interesting in the whole history of science, and it was during this decade that the Swiss Lake-— Dweller remains were discovered. To one more than ordinarily interested in archeology the most valuable result — of it all has been the fact that classical scholars have let up somewhat on parsing and scanning as well as on the art of spinning theories of civilization” out of their own inner consciousness and instead have gone to work with the spade to find out what the cul- ture of classic lands really was like. — We are in a fair way now to pre-— sent the unbroken story of human — progress, S PHOTOGRAPHING GREAT HORNED OWLS* FRANK OVERTON, M.D. ARLY in March, to15, I found k a nest of the great horned owl in an old crow’s nest fifty feet from the ground in the top of a pitch- pine tree about two miles from Patch- ogue, Long Island. Unique experiences with the birds shed light on their methods of attack, and tend to confirm their reputation for wisdom. Three young birds were hatched— one large, one medium-sized, and one runt. Their food for the first week or two was rabbits, and at every visit which I made I observed half a rabbit in the nest. After that time, the food was principally perch, which could easily be obtained from a pond near by. A hatful of fins and scales soon ac- cumulated in the nest. The old birds demonstrated their parental devotion at almost my first visit. As I was balancing myself with uncertain footing, on the topmost limbs of the tree, trying to take a picture of the young with a Graflex camera, one old bird suddenly struck a heavy blow upon my head which nearly knocked me out of the tree. My scalp was torn, and my head ached for the rest of the day. I can readily imagine what hap- pens to a rabbit which is struck as I was. I then turned up my coat collar and took the bird’s repeated attacks upon my head and shoulders, and succeeded in obtaining photographs of the bird, both coming and going. At the end of an hour my thick canvas coat was pretty well torn, and my shoulders were bleeding from the effects of the attacks. I next stationed an eager boy, protected with a thick canvas helmet, beside the nest, while I climbed the next tree, about forty feet distant, and photo- graphed the bird as it attacked the boy repeatedly. The shutter was set at go second and blurred the picture just enough to give the impression of motion. A-.study of the photograph will show that the bird attacks with its feet and not with its bill or wings. When the young were about three weeks old, a heavy storm of wind and rain one night destroyed the nest and killed the smallest young bird, but the other two were found on the ground uninjured, and were being fed by their parents. I made a burlap hammock *Article and illustrations copyrighted by Frank Overton, ro2tr. 175 176 NATURAL HISTORY nest beside the original site and placed the young birds in it, and the old birds accepted it as if nothing had happened. The old birds usually sat in some tree within a radius of about two hundred feet of the nest; but a few times they sat for their photographs within fifteen feet of the camera. Their attacking flight was absolutely silent, but they often preceded the attack by a few. hoots and a brief pose with the head and body horizontal. As the birds sat in the top of an ad- joining tree, I frequently observed them ejecting the undigested parts of their meals. The ejecta were not formed pellets, but were semi-liquid. The birds afforded no end of fun. The old ones were good for a fight on any afternoon, and it was my favorite amusement -for weeks to photograph the attacking birds two or three after- noons each week. I banded the two young birds when they were ready to i Fad 7 "* 4 : : ? € ‘&P + , + £ wes 3 ~ fly, and during the following Christmas holidays I received word that one of them had been caught in a steel trap at a duck ranch at Moriches, twelve miles from its home nest. The proprie- tor of the ranch was so interested in the bird that he kindly set it free. The old birds, or their doubles, nested again the following spring in another crow’s nest about a mile from the first nesting site, and again they showed the same willingness to fight for the defense of their one offspring. After my first visit, a bad boy tore the nest to pieces and took the young bird home, and I was a week in locating it. I then took the young bird and made a ham- mock nest for it in a tree about a quarter of a mile distant across the swamp from its first nest site. The old birds soon found the young one and fed it as if it had never been disturbed. It is doubtful if any other species of birds would have had sense enough to do that. The great horned owl, savage and unsocial by nature, is as a rule irreconcilable in captivity . If there is stoical passivity in the attitude here assumed, the glint in the bird’s eye suggests its readiness for combat if opportunity offers. Moriches and subsequently released. old This is the owl that was caught at a duck ranch in At the time the picture was taken the owl was nine months — THE GREAT HORNED OWL* REMARKABLE CLOSE-RANGE PICTURES OF THIS EXCLUSIVE BIRD THAT IS SO RESENTFUL OF HUMAN INTRUSION AND, WHEN DISTURBED, PROVES ONE OF THE PLUCKIEST OF FEATHERED ANTAGONISTS BY FRANK OVERTON, M.D. i: * wh S % p - GB oP . Ai 4 , hf 4 ‘By a ae aneey a “Gi a- a aN Zo Gigs Sy Me ke = SEM Ce wes as r) aay’ fat Rak ~ v iz ae >» eS In its search for a nesting site the great horned owl is not indifferent to the shelter offered by hollows in trées. As these, however, are rarely spacious enough to give entrance to the large adults, the deserted nésts of other birds, such as those of the crow or of the hawk, are often used instead. Even the nests.of squirrels are occupied. In the top of the pitch-pine tree here reproduced, an old crow’s nest is housing as new tenants.the family of owls depicted in the illustrations that follow *Text and illustrations copyrighted by Frank Overton, 1921. Three young birds—one large, one medium-sized, and one runt—were the zealous care of their parents, who never hesitated vindictively to attack any one threatening the security of the brood Numerous rodents fall victims to the onslaughts of the great horned owl, but birds too and even fish succumb to its voracity. In this picture the substantial carcass of a rabbit would seem to offer a rather formidable feast for the downy banqueters, yet such is the food given the newly hatched A sanctimonious attitude that belies the young bird’s real nature The real nature of the bird asserts itself ySeu 94} episeq UOTISOd ueye} pey OYA “JOYARIFOJOYA VY} YOV}W OF JNO si parq ay, YALNAOONA NV OL AVM SII DONISNIM IMO GHL puryeq woul toydeisoyoyd ay} poyorzjze pey parq ey], LIVaAXLAA NI LHOIT V ZQI PoaIAT[ap SI }SN.AY} 9Y} FLY} “[[Iq ey} WRIA Jou pue ‘asaq} Y}IM St yt pue AJOSUI] PABMIOJ PIYJoI}S 918 sZa]_S}I ‘}sou S}I o>:seq Surpurjys AQ YYVIM S}T poLMoUl Sey OYA URUT B Vsvo SITY} UI IO “WIJOIA [BUIIU Ss} Sayovoidde patq 94} SY IMO GHNUOH LVIAID AHL AO MOVILV AHL NI SHOVIS Jadu S}I posnore sey 7ey} uosiod otf} JSUIeSR SBo] payojer}s}NO YIM Jpas}! SSulpy ulese pue urese ynq Jopea Jo uoTeAsuOMap a[FuIs B Y}LM J[as} }U9}U0D You seop yuUR}equIOD JURYsISJod sTyT, “URUL 9} SULYLIYS Jo}Fe A[o}VIPSUIUA! YSNAUO $}I UT [MO VY} S}UaSoIdad PYSII €gr 94} uo ydeasojoyd oy, “sapnajur ayy Aq worjooz0Ad Joy UO JoUaY SVAUBO Yoryy ay} UOdN MOTG SPI Sutsaatjap UAMOYS st pal oY} YP] ey) Ye oanqord oy) UT LTAVSSV AYONV NI A young bird sitting for its portrait The same bird snapped in action NOTES ON THE SCIENTIFIC MUSEUMS OF EUROPE BY W. D. MATTHEW* OW do the European museums H compare with ours? What are they like? And especially what happened to them during the war? These are questions that everyone interested in museums must have asked. It has been very difficult to answer them. During the war, and since, we had various contradictory reports in newspapers and letters. One hardly knew what to believe. It seemed likely enough that museums would be utterly neglected in the stress of war and after- war conditions, as they had been pic- tured to us, and fortunate indeed if their treasures were not stolen or openly looted. Yet, after all, if we stopped to think, we were considerably absorbed in the war ourselves, and still our museums hadn’t been disrupted or even seriously neglected. Granting that conditions were much worse over there, it seemed likely that the alarmist rumors we had heard were a bit exaggerated. The following notes were made during a visit to various European museums in the autumn of 1920. I was com- missioned by the American Museum to - arrange exchanges of publications, speci- mens, etc., and to renew as far as possible the old relations of codperation in scienti- fic work which had been interrupted by the war. Mostly the notes are extracts from letters and reports sent home in the course of my visit and are to be understood as random impressions from what I actually saw, chiefly the palzon- tological collections, and not the results of a systematic study of the museums as a whole. During the three months I visited thirty museums in Sweden, Germany, Austria, Italy, Switzerland, France, Belgium, and England, and the time was taken up mainly with study and notes on the fossil collections and conferences regarding exchanges and related subjects. Most of these institutions I had seen twenty years ago, and the changes noted reflect the great scientific progress in the years preceding the war, as well as the effects of war and of post-war conditions. Generally speaking it was a great relief to find so much scientific activity and progress in spite of the heavy handi- caps under which the museums have suffered in recent years. It speaks well for the energy and devotion of our scientific colleagues across the Atlantic that, although often lacking support and hampered by the enormous rise in wages, living expenses, and the cost of materials, they have contrived to guard and maintain the collections in their charge, to continue their researches, and with varying success to keep the muse- ums open to the public. The best con- ditions are to be found in the neutral countries, Sweden and Switzerland. Vienna has been hardest hit, yet even there less irreparable injury or loss has been suffered than one might expect. One may well hope that, with a return to normal economic conditions, the old. activities of the museums, in Western Europe at least, will be resumed before many years have passed. There can be no question that such aid and encourage- -ment as we can give on this side will go far to quicken their recovery. In science even more obviously than in commerce the prosperity of each institution works to the advantage of all. Each has its special field of research and discovery and contributes its quota to the ad- vancement of science as a whole. Stockholm, Sept. 17, 1920. The new Natural History Museum is a very fine building about three miles north of the central railroad station and outside the built-up city. (Stockholm is peculiar in having no suburbs; *Curator, Vertebrate Paleontology, American Museum. 185 186 it is all large, solidly built business and apart- ment buildings to a certain line and beyond that open fields. There are no small private houses). The museum has three great divisions of which the geological-palzontological depart- ment occupies the center. Professor Gerhard Holm is in charge of this division. The install- ment, completed within the last five years, is in every respect an admirable one. The hall is well lighted; the cases are well placed and spaced, so that»everything in them has good light and no reflections. Table cases are used very largely, and in these fit, three to a side, shallow trays about two feet square with narrow wooden sides one inch deep. These trays also fit in the closed racks beneath the cases, so that it is very easy to shift and retire or remove material. Trays are lined with cartridge paper of suitable color for the exhibit. This last detail is to be compared with our method of painting the bottoms of cases. It seems a much cheaper and more flexible method. The finish of the cases is plain varnished wood. Ours is much handsomer—worth the extra cost, I think. Glass shelves are used throughout on the high cases. Descriptive labels are very freely used—even more than has yet been done in our department (Vertebrate Paleontology). The style and the scope are very like ours. Those in charge have made admirable use of the casts and models purchased from us, giving full and prominent credit to the museum. In comparison with other exhibits they have made a very large use of casts and models among the vertebrates, as well as of photo- enlargements and large, simply drawn dia- grammatic wall charts, all of them well filled out with explanations, etc. The most important original collection is the South American Pampean material brought by Nordenskjéld from the classic Tarija valley in Bolivia, somewhat different from the Pampean of Buenos Aires. The most interest- ing specimens are two fine skulls of Mastodon andium, with the tusks in position . . . _ At Upsala I had a very friendly reception from Dr. Wiman and his colleagues, and saw the first consignment of the Chinese fossils re- ceived from Dr. Andersson at Peking. Dr. Wiman is not the usual Swedish type. He is small, dark, quick, and active, very French in type. He reminds me very much of Zittel but is a more vivid personality. They have wonderful material from Spitzbergen at the Upsala Institute: Devonian fish and Triassic fish and amphibians. Dr. Erik Stensjé is work- ing up the fish in a very admirable manner. The amphibians Wiman has done. The third member of the group whom I met was Dr. Zdansky, an Austrian-Pole, a pupil of Abel’s. He is really a specialist on fossil mammals but is not allowed by the Chinese government to study these Chinese fossils because he is an enemy alien! At Stockholm I met Dr. Leche, a very polished, courteous, and rather aristocratic old gentleman, with whom I had a very profitable talk. He is still working actively on the Insectivora. He is a great admirer of the American Museum, NATURAL HISTORY especially of Gregory, whose contributions on — the ‘‘Orders of Mammals,” etc., he regards as — of a very high order. Prices of every- — thing in Stockholm are quite as high as in New © York, even allowing for the exchange. Trans-— portation charges are fearfully high. Railroad rates are from four to five and a half cents a mile, second class, but third class is very good in Sweden: . 2): ai Berlin, Sept. 26, 1920. The Natural | History Museum is greatly changed in its con- tents since I saw it twenty years ago, but not improved in its installation, which is mostly quite out of date, and at present very dingy and dirty owing to lack of care. A large number of limb bones of the Tendaguru collection have simply been laid out on the floor behind the cases and roped off. "The most complete speci- men is the Dicreosaurus, a nearly complete series of vertebrae from cervicals to caudals inclusive. Among the mammals they have some interesting Proboscidea. . This whole town looks miserably dingy and dirty; very much down-at-heel compared with the Berlin of twenty years ago, when I saw it before. The people look very much run down; a large part of the population, I think, is much under- fed. The bread is of wretched quality, heavy, soggy, and full of grit. Prices of everything in the stores, allowing for the present value of the mark (about 1? cents), are a third toa half lower than in New York; everything, however, is of the very cheapest and most inferior quality. a a Branca is no longer in charge at the Museum fiir Naturkunde, but Pompectki is the head of the Geological-paleontological Insti- — tute, with Janensch as curator, and Reck and Dietrich as assistants. I missed seeing Janensch, — who, as they explained to me, was away getting married, but the others were very cordial. Pom- — pectki in particular gave me an entire day and showed me all through the great Tendaguru collection and various other interesting material. I was, he told me, the first foreigner who had seen this collection. It is a magnificent collec- tion, far larger and more varied than I had any expectation of finding, and in preservation equal to the best of our Morrison material. Of their great “ Brachiosaurus”’ skeleton I saw the skull and jaws, the entire cervical series with some dorsals and some ribs, as well as the entire fore limb; of the Dicreosaurus an entire vertebral column of one individual from the axis nearl to the end of the tail; pelves, vertebra, and lim bones of various other great and medium-sized — Sauropoda; a huge series of bones of their Ken- trurosaurus, representing dozens of individuals and practically every part of the skeleton, but no association; a large number of partial skeletons and parts of skeletons of a small new Iguanodont dinosaur; and various ‘“oddments” representing other types. ‘Theropoda were scarce: two or three series of vertebre of, I think, doubtful pertinence, and numerous teeth, large and small. — I have grave doubts whether the Brachiosaurus is really congeneric with our Colorado species. The little that is available for comparison in- dicates similar general proportions, but the humerus and the dorsals do not seem to me very —! NOTES ON THE SCIENTIFIC MUSEUMS OF EUROPE like the same bones in the Colorado beast.. The rest of the fauna is widely different from any- thing in the American Morrison, although often paralleling it in one way or another. I feel certain from examining this fauna that it is not at all nearly related in any part to our Morrison, but is a separate parallel evolution from some common stock of perhaps Lower Jurassic age. How far the Jurassic dinosaurs of the English Lias, etc., represent this ancestral stock I do not know. The Berlin museum will have a fine series of duplicates available for exchange, and Pompetki has promised to reserve a first-class set for us and to supplement the originals with casts of certain important parts not duplicated, such as the skull of Brachiosaurus (the biggest Sauropod skull ever found, and, I am inclined to add, the best). Of the Kentrurosaurus they will have duplicates of practically every bone. : Pompetki is very anxious to resume the inter- change of publications. Neither his Geological- palzontological Institute nor the general library of the Museum fiir Naturkunde has any papers from us later thani1g16. . . . At Frankfurt I saw the new Trachodon with skin. It isas fine as ours, and supplements ours! admirably, showing the skin of the back very nearly complete. I was surprised to see how thin and delicate is the skin of the back and how small the pattern.2. I had expected it to show the coarse pattern of the tail, but it does not. Drevermann . . .. is working tremen- dously hard to put the museum on its feet and keep it going, and to set an example to the city of plain living and hard work as the one and only cure for their troubles. Frankfurt is very different in appearance from Berlin, and I can well believe that he strikes the chief reason in saying that the people here are beginning to get to work again while in Berlin they are still listless and despairing. Drevermann impresses me as a most remarkable man, and what he has ac- complished is an inspiration and a lesson to all - He has received nothing from us since 1916, and is very desirous of having our palzontologica] papers and also NaturAL History. He has a very high opinion of the latter, which he regards as the most valuable publication of its kind. He desired me to convey to Miss Dickerson his highest appreciation of the importance and success of her work, which he said he used a great deal and kept alwaysathand. .. . I had the pleasure of meeting Dr. Lotichius, who desired to be especially remembered to friends in New York. He and Dr. von Strasse showed me through the modern mammals, an extraordinarily fine and well selected series. An 1The reference is to the “‘mummy dinosaur”’ on the fourth floor of the American Museum. It is most unusual to secure fossils with skin attached. The preservation of the skin is due, it has been surmised, to the exposure of the car- cass on a dry sand bank until thoroughly baked and hard- ened by the sun and to its subsequently being carried off by a sudden flood and buried quickly and deeply in sediment before the skin had time to soften and decay. 2Unlike modern lizards, these dinosaurs were devoid of scales. Instead they were covered by a tessellated surface of little mosaic plates, arranged in patterns of small spots, which, it is believed, corresponded with a color pattern of some sort. 187 Arctic habitat group just finished is wonder- fully well done, an artistic piece. Sone Munich, Oct. 8, 1920. : At Bonn I met Professor Pohlig, and saw the most im- portant specimens of his collection, and enough of the others to get an idea of their size and quality. I found him a rather mild old gen- tleman, speaking fair English, but our discus- sion was mainly in German. He was very courteous and pleasant. The University col- lections, which he personally showed me as well as those of Dr. Krantz, include one important Pterodactyl type; nothing else worthy of special ae but the usual fine series of marine rep- tiles. sore Stuttgart: Director Schmidt was away, and so also was Dr. Pfitzenmeyer, whom I wanted to meet. Dr. Graeff showed me over all the col- lections, both those on exhibition and the ma- terial temporarily withdrawn. A magnificent Plateosaurus skeleton is the prize of the collec- tion, the most perfect dinosaur skeleton that I have ever seen. With trifling exceptions it is complete and uncrushed, the surface of the bone everywhere beautifully preserved. It is from the red and green variegated Knollenmer- gel (Rhaetic) of southern Wiirttemberg. I visited the quarry later with von Huene. They have casts of the skull and fore-foot, which we can obtain, and I have been urging them to get the whole skeleton cast. From the same quarry came the smaller and much less perfect skeleton of Sellosaurus, which is very closely related, and from a lower level in the Trias a skeleton of the quite small Teratosaurus, about five feet long, a good deal like the others in construction though placed by von Huene as a pro-Megalosaurus while the larger ones he regards as pro-Sauropoda. The mounting of these three skeletons is eccen- tric, the pose based upon the Iguana, involving some very obvious disjointing of the articula- tions. Besides the Triassic dinosaurs, there is a fine series of Phytosaur skulls, etc., from the Stuben- sandstein quarries, and a splendid series of ich- thyosaurs, crocodiles, plesiosaurs, etc. from Holz- maden,but perhaps the best thing, if one except the dinosaurs, is the fine Steinheim mammoth skeleton,—nearly as large as the Elephas meri- dionalis in the Paris Museum and very com- plete. Tusks were in place in the skull, the points turned inward as in the Texas mammoth skull we mounted in 1899. The Fayaim collection was rather disappointing. A beauti- ful Arsinoitherium skull and a very fine Pal- comastodon (both better than ours) in addition to what has been described. ans At Tiibingen I met von Huene, who has been extraordinarily kind, giving up practically the whole of three days to museum and field excur- sions with me. His collection is exceedingly fine in marine Reptilia—the best series in that line that I have seen, although not such choice selections nor so beautifully mounted as in Frankfurt. I visited the quarries from which the Stuttgart dinosaurs and other Triassic reptiles came, also many in Tiibingen. The Plateosaurus quarry would be well worth further excavations. . . . In Munich I found the collections vastly in- 188 NATURAL HISTORY creased from the old Zittel days. I think one can say without question that it is the finest museum for fossil Vertebrata in Germany. There is a very fine series of reptiles, and there are far more mammals than elsewhere. . . . The most interesting things to me were Strémer’s new fauna from the late Cretaceous of the Baharijeh oasis in Egypt. Only a part is on exhibition as yet, but Dr. Strémer showed me all he had in Munich. A part, it appears, was still in Egypt when the war broke out, and has been detained temporarily by the Egyptian government. . . . It is a more peculiar fauna, decidedly, than the Tendaguru. It is just what one might expect if Africa was isolated during the Cretaceous and the fauna developed independently of the rest of the world. Strémer thinks there is every reason to expect that much more will be found by systematic collect- ing. Specimens are difficult to secure, being far from water and involving very expensive trans- port, and his own material is very crudely and roughly collected, although the preparation at Munichis good. . . . I have hardly ever seen a more keenly intel- lectual face than Schlosser’s. It is interesting simply to watch him talk. Broili was, of course, the same fine, genial chap that he always was; and in observing his methods I understand his appointment to so high a responsibility as the leadership of the Munich collections, Vienna: I spent three days here, of which the first was mostly devoted to going through the formalities incident to getting away from the city. I have not made much note of this, but the passport and ticket business has been made excessively difficult,—I am told in order to dis- courage travel, which the various governments do not want on account of the universal scarcity of coal and consequent difficulty in running enough trains to take care of the traffic. For example, to get a ticket from Vienna to Venice I had to apply first at the ticket office in the city, was referred thence to another ticket office, thence to the Italian consulate, thence to an Italian military mission, where I obtained authority to buy a ticket, thence to a third ticket office, where I bought it. All these were in different parts of the city, all involved waiting in line, and none had anything to do with the vis¢, which I had already obtained after a similar series of delays. No one knows much about these regulations; you have to go from place to place to find out; and they are not always consistent. But all this is aside, as indication of my reasons for not getting through as much as I had hoped to accomplish. Dr. Schaffer at the Museum and Dr. Abel at the University of Vienna were most cordial. The museum building is a magnificent one. I never saw fossils so luxuriously installed before; and although Schaffer is rather resentful of so much being expended on building that they had no money for specimens, yet it seemed to me that to install the collections in such dignified and grandiose surroundings gave to the visitor an exalted impression of their importance and value. At present the museum is in a very bad way. . . . They have succeeded after great efforts in getting salaries raised to equal $500 a year each for himself and his assistants, and on that he says they can get along. But they must have aid to meet the necessary main- tenance charges. He thinks that with $480 per annum for this purpose his department can keep up its work and keep the collections in order, setting aside for the present, of course, all thought of purchasing any new material. . . . I saw a melancholy example of the results of — lack of funds in the present condition of the magnificent meteorite collection (which they regard as the finest in existence). Owing to the lack of coal for heating the museum buildings last winter, the protective varnish covering all their sectioned surfaces was badly checked, and the damp got in at the iron and has rusted it very badly. All these sections will have to be re- ground and polished at a heavy expense. Other damage by the cold to alcoholic and other pre- parations is irreparable. They have a new collection from Samos at the museum, pur- chased shortly before the war, and none of it as yet on exhibition. It is beyond comparison the finest Samos collection. The collec- tions on exhibition include some fine things from the later Tertiary, of which I have notes; the first good Maragha collection, some fine Din- otherium jaws, a fine Tapirus skull from the Hungarian Pliocene, etc. r Dr. Abel is one of the most attractive and brilliant personalities I have met. He is very busy with his new department and very anxious to obtain photographs, casts, or specimens of study material for his courses. We can do a good deal in that way for him, and although we have sent considerable material to the museum, the university is so completely separate that he needs all he can get, especially in Equide and other evolution series. His assistant, Dr. Antonius, has specialized on Equide, and in my judgment knows more about the later Tertiary and Pleistocene Equide than anyone in Europe. Abel, also, has had almost nothing since 1914, and had not even heard of our Diairyma. He does not want large and bulky or showy casts or originals, for he has no room for them, but he would use a study series very effectively. At Padua I made acquaintance with Professor Giorgio Dal Piaz, head of the department of geology and a very fine chap. He is doing active work in collecting Tertiary mammals, etc., has published a number of excellent memoirs on the geology and paleontology of Venetia, and has brought together a small but valuable series of fossil vertebrates, mostly Venetian, the best of them Cetacea, except for an important new fauna that he has secured from the late Oligocene of Belluno, . From Padua I came to Bologna, where T met Professor Capellini. He is now a very old gentleman, eighty-seven years old, but still ac- tive. He continues by especial dispensation rd give his lectures, though far beyond the age imit. officially dedicated in his honor as the Capellini Museum, and he is naturally proud of it. He speaks very fair English, an unusual thing here— I have had mostly to depend on French—and The museum has been named and — NOTES ON THE SCIENTIFIC MUSEUMS OF EUROPE is greatly interested in American science. The most important specimen in the museum is the skeleton of Mastodon arvernensis. . . . There is also a considerable series of Tertiary Cetacea and Sirenia, including a fine Halitherium skull and jaws. There are no other vertebrates calling for special notice. From Bologna I went to Florence, where I failed to find the director of the museum but persuaded the “technician”? to let me see the collections. Considerable material from the Val d’Arno is there, including an especially fine Mastodon arvernensis, of which I took notes; they may be able to make casts of certain important types, in return for casts of some of our fossils. From Florence I went to Rome, where I found nothing of paleontologic interest, although the historic and prehistoric remains are extraordin- arily impressive. Thence I traveled to Naples, where also the interest is history and archeology rather than paleontology. I took an excursion to Pompeii, thence to Amalfi, Sorrento, and Capri, and then to Vesuvius.—all very wonderful in themselves but of somewhat remote relations to vertebrate paleontology. Thence I went to Genoa, Turin, and Milan. At Genoa there is a museum, a fine little building, beautifully sit- uated, but offering nothing special to report upon. Turin was more interesting. There they have a large collection from the Pliocene of Asti and other localities in the neighborhood, includ- ing a fine series of mastodon and of the southern mammoth. There is also one of the best Mega- therium skeletons I have seen. Among the Asti specimens is the M. arvernensis which Sismondi restored many years ago (1850). This restoration gives a very good idea of the amount of “‘constructive imagination” possessed by our predecessors. One does not so much wonder on seeing it that Balzac credited Cuvier with restoring an extinct animal from a tooth. The Sismondi specimen is very incomplete, not at all comparable to the specimen at Bologna later restored by Capellini. At Milan I found an active, energetic staff, a comparatively new museum, which they are anxious to build up by exchange of originals or of casts, and a considerable amount of interest- ing material. Included in the collection are some very fine Tertiary Cetacea, some fair Pro- boscidea, a fine Megatherium skeleton, etc. TI searched carefully in the Genoa museum for the cast on which Rhyncotherium is based. It was not there; and as everything is placed on exhibition, I am pretty sure that it is not in the Genoa museum. [ shall make careful inquiry for it at Geneva. At Ziirich the National Museum is at present shut up tight for alterations, and in the limited time at my disposal I did not succeed in obtain- ing entry. In the natural history collections I found yet another Megatherium skeleton—not a very good one—and a considerable Pampean col- lection made by Santiago Roth, and fairly well exhibited; also the original Andrias scheuchzeri,! of which we ought to have a’ good photograph. 189 I spent two days at Basle, and got some idea of Dr. Stehlin’s collection, which is one of the most important study collections in Europe, second only to Munich among those I have seen in its Tertiary mammals. It is very greatly improved from the old days. There is a magni- ficent collection from Quercy. Then there is a very interesting series of collections from various horizons of later Oligocene and Mio- cene, and a Pliocene collection from Senéze that equals the Val d’Arno fauna or the Asti fauna in richness. Proboscideans are scarce, but all the smaller forms far better represented. Dr. Stehlin has already several fine skeletons mounted from this horizon —Cervus, Mach- erodus, etc. Among the antelopes is one quite near to Oreamnus (our mountain. goat). This is certainly one of the great faunas, and it is fine to see itinsuchcompetent hands. . . . From Basle I traveled to Geneva, where the old Pictet collection has slumbered for nearly half a century, but is now likely to be made the nucleus of an active center of work and of expansion if Dr. Revilliod stays there. He is one of Stehlin’s pupils, a comparatively young man, full of enthusiasm for the development of the collection, and I hope he will accomplish a great deal. He is an authority on Chiroptera, the only man who knows much about the Tertiary genera. A skull of Elasmotherium in the Geneva col- lection is interesting because the so-called horn base is very perfectly preserved, and there are five of the upper teeth on one side, two on the other. I do not think this is a real horn base. It is much more the type of a cal'us-covered boss, and quite unlike the structure in any of the horn- bearing rhinoceroses. There is a considerable collection from the Pampean here, made by Santiago Roth (who was a Swiss by birth). I examined carefully all the mastodon material and casts in a vain search for the classic Rhyn- cotherium cast. One cast, curiously enough, had been labelled as from an original in Mexico City, but Dr. Revilliod had recently discovered that this was an error, and that it was from an original in Lyons, and of much later date than Falconer’s time. It was equally obvious to me when I saw the cast that it was not from any American species of mastodon. The existence of this curious mislabelling leads me to suspect that the ‘‘Rhyncotherium” cast was once here but has disappeared and that its label has been transferred by accident to another cast. At all events it is not here now. At Lyons, Professor Depéret was most cordial and friendly and spent all his spare minutes during the day and a half that I was at the university, in showing me his material and talking over interesting points. He has ac- cumulated a magnificent collection, without doubt I should say the best Eocene collection in Europe. He has a fine, articulated, complete skeleton of the big Paleotherium from Mor- moiron. There is also considerable good Oligocene and Miocene material and a fine !This is the specimen which old Jacob Scheuchzer described in very moving and pathetic terms as “Homo diluvii testis ’—the remains of one of our antediluvian forebears, destroyed and buried by the Deluge. giant salamander. It is really a fossil 190 series from Senéze. Altogether it is a very splendid collection and I wish I could spend a couple of months studying it. I.could give only half a day to the Lyons City Museum, and spent most of that in discussing with Dr. Gaillard his situation and researches. He also was most cordial and desired me to express his best wishes to President Osborn and to the American Museum, and to assure the president that the museum could count upon him for any photographs, measurements, or casts of specimens in his collection in which we are especially interested. He has many of the old types, especially from Grive St. Alban. At the Muséum de Palzontologie in Paris Dr. Boule received me very cordially and wished to be remembered to President Osborn in the most friendly terms. Pére Teilhard de Chardin is engaged at pres- ent upon a revision of the famous Cernaysian fauna. He is a very able scientist, keen, judi- cious, and very strongly interested in the fauna in question and its correlation with ours. He showed me all of the material, and there is much to confirm our provisional correlations. 5 They have here a choice series of Eocene Primates, especially of small fronts of skulls and complete dentitions, some new, others described from the Phosphorites, beautifully preserved, and the most Tarsius-like skull that I have seen... Boule showed me also his Chapelle-aux-Saints skeleton, and also two, male and female, from La Ferrassie, equally complete and important. The feet in both the Ferrassie skeletons are wonderfully fine. The male skull, originally much crushed, has been carefully taken apart and reconstructed. It is more complete than the Chapelle-aux-Saints; the teeth are present though worn to the roots. The reconstruction of the skull is a marvelously skillful piece of work. Boule said it took him and his assistants six years to complete it; in any event it is mighty well done. It duplicates the characters of the Chapelle-aux-Saints skull very exactly; so, too, those of the skeleton. These are partly figured in Boule’s forthcoming book on fossil man’. The mounted skeleton of Mastodon angusti- dens is incomplete as to the skull, and more or less of the skeleton is restored. With Paris the series of letters from which I have been quoting comes to an end, and for the remainder of the trip I write from memory, as my notebooks contain details and figures but no general impressions. The Natural History Museum of Brussels is especially noted for the unique series of Iguanodont skeletons—no less than twenty- eight of them, found at Bernissart near the French border. It has, however, other new and unusual features no less remarkable than these huge dinosaurs. The fossil vertebrates are all Belgian and arranged to illustrate the geological history of Belgium. The great hall, 300 x 100 feet, is divided into four stages, each representing a 1These three skeletons are the most perfect specimens of the extinct Neanderthal man. NATURAL HISTORY distinct geologic epoch. The skeletons have bee) mounted without any plaster restoration, ve! skilfully and artistically; the cases are handsome; locks and keys have been done ¢ with; and ‘the labels are recognized everywhe: as a model of style for popular natural Professor Dollo, who has created this splendid ; exhibit in thirty years of active work, is still busied in improving and extending it. The German occupation during the war brought the activities of the museum practically to a stand- still, but the collections did not suffer through any loss or neglect. 1 After two months on the continent, England seemed like home, and our confréres in London — welcomed us not as visiting strangers but as old friends. The Natural History Museum in South Kensington still maintains the general arrangements of twenty or thirty years ago, but in every alcove one sees changes and improye- ments keeping it in touch with recent discoveries and ideas. The halls of fossil vertebrates com- prise probably the most broadly representative collection in existence; every important fossil fauna from every country of the world is repre- sented by collections more or less admirable. The finest features are the marine reptiles and the fossil proboscideans. The great extinct moas of New Zealand, the fossil mammals of Australia, and the ancient reptiles of South Africa, the classic fossils of the Siwalik hills of India, and the rare and tiny Jurassic mammals are other important items of this great collec- — tion. Here, too, is the famous Piltdown skull, which I studied with due reverence, and discussed earnestly—and to me very profitably—with Dr. Smith Woodward and Professor Elliot Smith. I hope to give the results of this discussion in another article. There is probably no other city in the world where so large a number of leading scientific men can meet together and exchange ideas in the various formal and informal gatherings of the scientific societies. Washington has much of this stimulating atmosphere, and so no doubt have Paris and Berlin and other great continental cities, but it was in London, for several reasons, that it impressed me most. After spending nearly three weeks in Louies mostly at the South Kensington Museum, I h but a few days for Cambridge and Oxford, whined the natural history collections, admirably selected for university teaching, are complemen tary rather than comparable to the exhibition and the research development seen in the South Kensington Museum. It is the men and the atmosphere of culture and learning and of old- world dignity pervading the university life, that chiefly color one’s recollections here. Our old friend Forster Cooper, the magnetic pe q of Dr. Haddon, the brilliant and many-sid ed Sollas, the quiet thoroughness and insane of Professor Goodrich—these are the remembre on which one would like to enlarge. But the: random notes have already reached the limit - of the space here allotted to them and upon these pleasant memories I must close. INSECTS AS FOOD HOW THEY HAVE AUGMENTED THE FOOD SUPPLY OF MANKIND IN EARLY AND RECENT TIMES © BY J. BEQUAERT* HEN the turmoil of the World War threatened to imperil the food resources of civilized na- tions, the question of “substitutes” became a serious one, and, among other suggestions, experiments were urged by the eminent entomologist, Dr. L. O. Howard, to ascertain the food value of insects. Favorable as the results may have proved, one can well imagine the storm of protest that would have resulted had the adoption of such a program by the general public been advocated. Yet to many it is surprising and can be attributed only to prejudice, that civil- ized man of today shows such a decided aversion to including any six-legged creatures in his diet. The ancient Greeks, so circumspect in all that pertained to their personal wel- fare, rated as a great delicacy the grass- hoppers which, as we learn from one of Aristophanes’ comedies, were brought by the Boeotians to the market place at Athens. In another of his plays the same author jocosely remarks: “Are locusts superior in flavor to thrushes? Why! do you want to fool me? Every- body knows that locusts taste much better!” And his compatriot, Alexis, mentions the locust among the provi- sions of a poor Athenian family: “For our best and daintiest cheer, Through the bright half of the year, Is but acorns, onions, peas, Ochros, lupines, radishes, Vetches, wild pears nine and ten, With a locust now and then.” The Cossus of the Greeks and Romans, so highly prized even at the tables of the rich, was the grub of a beetle living in the trunks of trees, perhaps that of the stag- beetle (Lucanus cervus). Pliny tells us that the epicures of his time considered these insects on a par with the daintiest meats and even fed them on meal in order to fatten them and heighten their flavor. Both the Old and the New Testament contain a number of allusions to insects as food, and among eastern peoples it is still customary so to regard.them. In Leviticus, XI: 21-22, Moses describes four kinds of locusts which the Hebrews were permitted to eat: “Yet then may ye eat of all winged creeping things that go upon all four, which have legs above their feet, to leap withal upon the earth; even these of them ye may eat; the locust after its kind, and the bald locust after its kind, and the cricket after its kind, and the grasshopper after its kind.”’ The locusts upon which St. John the Baptist (Mark, 1:6) lived in the desert have been the subject of much discussion, some authors seeing in them the fruit of the carob tree, while others maintain they were true Orthoptera and to prove this refer to the practice of the Arabs in Syria at the present day. ‘‘Those who deny that insects were the food of this holy man,” says Hasselquist (Travels, p. 41g) “urge that the locust is an unac- customed and unnatural food; but they would soon be convinced to the contrary, if they would travel hither to Egypt, Arabia, or Syria, and take a meal. with the Arabs. Roasted locusts are at this time eaten by the Arabs, in the proper season, when they can procure them; so that in all probability this dish was used in the time of St. John. Ancient customs are not here subject to many changes, and the victuals of St. John are not believed unnatural here; and I was assured by a judicious Greek priest that his Church had never taken the word in any other sense, and he even *Assistant in Congo Zodlogy, American Museum. 191 192 laughed at the idea of its being a bird or a plant.’’ In fact, locusts have been highly prized as food in the Orient from remotest antiquity, and Layard in his Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon figures a sculptured Assyrian slab on which, among the attendants carrying fruit, flowers, and game to a_ banquet, several appear bearing dried locusts fastened to rods. Nowadays the use of insects as a diet is practically restricted to wild or half- civilized peoples, but even so they form an important item in the food supply of mankind. Although many of those con- sidered edible are too scarce to furnish more than an occasional dainty morsel, or because of their rarity are reserved for some special purpose, other kinds are gathered in great quantities, dried, and preserved for a time as part of the staple food supply of the tribe. A common beetle of the Orient, Blaps sulcata, is put up in a preparation which the women of Egypt, Turkey, and Arabia consume for the purpose of ac- quiring a degree of plumpness corres- ponding with their notion of beauty. The large, fleshy grubs of certain wood- boring beetles—curculios, longicornes, NATURAL HISTORY and the like—are greedily sought by many native tribes of tropical regions. Thus we are informed some planters in the West Indies used to keep negroes whose sole duty it was to go into the woods in quest of the large larve of Prionus damicornis, chiefly found in the plum and silk-cotton trees. These when opened, washed, and carefully broiled over a charcoal fire, were said to be tempting even to a jaded appetite. Aélian speaks of an Indian king who for dessert set before his Grecian guests, instead of the usual fruit, a roasted worm taken froma plant. This worm, he says, the Indians pronounced very delicious —a verdict confirmed by the privileged few who tasted it. In western Australia the decaying trunks of the grass tree house large colonies of a grub with a flavor very much like marrow, and these larve, either uncooked or roasted, form a favorite dish of the aborigines. It is, perhaps, among African negroes that insects are most extensively used as food—a practice undoubtedly due more to necessity than choice. Owing to peculiar climatic conditions and the ravages made by animal diseases, but few goats, sheep, and cattle are kept The “grub” or larva of the goliath beetle, one of the largest among the Coleoptera, lives in the swelling near the roots of the banana tree. Frequently it is five and one half inches long. Itis said that when roasted on a stick this larva is a gastronomic treat among the natives of the African forest, as much for its tempting size as for its rare flavor. The specimen figured was obtained by Mr. Herbert Lang, leader of the American Museum Congo Expedition, at Medje, Belgian Congo INSECTS AS FOOD by the natives and these are too highly prized to enter very frequently into the diet, serving rather as signs of wealth; chickens and occasionally dogs are the only domestic animals freely eaten. The meat supply of the various tribes is, therefore, limited, necessarily consisting mainly of fish and game, the capture of which involves not a little trouble and is dependent on too many contingencies. To this scarcity is attributable the perpetual craving for animal food from which the black race has been suffering for centuries and which is undoubtedly to a large extent responsible for canni- balism. Although at least in the forest regions bananas, cassava, sweet potatoes, and corn offer a steady and regular sustenance obtained with comparatively little labor, in many other sections the soil is so poor or the drought so frequent and severe that the crops often fail. Considering that some of the most im- portant products grown at present by the African blacks, such as cassava and corn, are of comparatively recent intro- duction, one cannot fail to see that formerly famine must have been a very frequent scourge. Is it strange, then, that the natives, facing starvation, tried to sustain life with whatever was handiest and so came to include insects in their regular diet? From Doctor Livingstone comes the story that in the valley of the Quango River, Angola, the natives dig large, white larve out of the damp soil adjacent to the streams, and use them as a relish with their vegetable food. In many regions of South Africa where the produce is barely sufficient for the few scattered inhabitants, flights of locusts are looked on as such a blessing that the medicine man sometimes promises tc bring them, instead of rain, by his in- cantations. Doctor Sparrman relates that the Hottentots rejoice greatly at the arrival of the locusts, about whose origin they have a most curious notion. They ascribe them to the good will of a mighty spirit a great distance to the north, who, 193 At certain seasons great numbers of these slender grasshoppers (Homocoryphus) are col- lected for their food value by the Logo of the northeastern Belgian Congo. Whole villages turn out into the surrounding savannah coun- try to gather thousands of these insects by sweeping the high grass with fish nets having removed the stone from the mouth of a certain deep pit, releases the locusts in order to furnish the tribe with food. The grateful natives collect and consume this provision so appreciatively that in the space of a few days they grow visibly fatter and appear in a much better state of health. It is the female insects principally that are eaten, especially just before their migratory flight, at a time when their wings are short and their bodies heavy and distended with eggs. . To Diodorus Siculus, who lived in the time of Julius Cesar, is due the credit for first describing the ‘Acridophagi”’ or locust eaters of Ethiopia, who, he says, are smaller than other men, of lean and meager bodies and _ exceedingly black. According to his account the south winds rise high in the spring and drive out of the desert an infinite number of locusts of an extraordinary size, furnished with very dirty, unsightly wings (probably the common migratory 194 NATURAL HISTORY Photograph by H. Lang In Africa termite nests often attain huge proportions, sometimes giving the landscape the ef- fect of hillformation. This structure of Termes natalensis was photographed at Kwamouth, Belgian Congo. Built of clay carried up to the surface by worker termites, it was a labyrinth of galleries and chambers, which housed numberless tiny inhabitants. Although the outer walls of such termi- taria are extremely hard, they are often demolished by the natives in search of these insects, which form a welcome addition to their diet locust, Pachytylus migratorius). These gather that in the northeastern corner locusts furnish a plentiful food supply. of the Belgian Congo the Logo enjoy From information kindly given me by — especially a grasshopper, apparently of Mr. Herbert Lang, leader of the Amer- the genus Homocoryphus, shown in the ican Museum Congo Expedition, I accompanying photograph. Photograph by H. Lang The royal chamber of Termes natalensis is located toward the center of the termite nest, often a foot or more below the surface of the earth. It is shared by one or more queens, huge, helpless creatures about three inches long. Niangara, Belgian Congo Photograph by H. Lang Termitarium of Acanthotermes spiniger at Stanleyville, Belgian Congo, showing how the natives envelop the structure in broad leaves to prevent the escape of the winged individuals. The cap of leaves over the top of the nest, and the side pocket from which the termites are scooped out by the natives, were removed before the photograph was taken 195 196 Throughout practically the whole of Africa termites or “white ants” are such an important addition to the regular diet of the natives that most travelers in their accounts comment upon the fact. So anxious are the Azande and Mangbetu of the Uele district to secure these so- called ants that termite hills are con- sidered by them private property, and during the harvest of the insects, fights, often resulting fatally, occur between rival claimants. From Mr. Lang I learned also of an ingenious automatic device by means of which the natives of certain regions he visited collect the winged, sexual forms of the white ants at the season of their marriage flight. They tightly enfold the termite mound in several layers of the broad leaves of a . marantaceous wood reed, the interstices soon being closed with earth by the ter- mites, which usually join the inner leaves to the nest. A projecting pocket, built on one side of the leaf cover, serves as a trap, for when the winged termites begin to swarm, they find no egress and finally drop in masses into the pocket from which they are scooped out by the watching negroes. In other in- stances the nests themselves are dug up to obtain the workers, soldiers, and huge, fat queens, which form a dainty titbit when broiled over the fire. At Banalia along the Aruwimi River in December, 1913, I was rather surprised to find, among many strange articles of food offered for sale by the natives at the weekly market, baskets of dried soldier termites. Junker, one of the first white men to reach the Azande country, relates how Chief Ndoruma sought to win his favor by sending him twenty large baskets of termites, each load so heavy that it was all a porter could carry. In this instance the contents made such an excellent oil that a chicken cooked in it tasted as delicious as if fried in butter. Notwithstanding the odor of the for- mic acid, true ants, too, are frequently collected and eaten by natives of various NATURAL HISTORY continents. According to Bingham, in Kanara and other parts of India, and throughout Burma and Siam, a paste of the green weaver ant (Gicophylla smaragdina) is served as a condiment with curry. Beccari records that the Dayaks of Borneo mix this ant with their rice, to which it lends a pungent, acetic flavor. Concerning the same _ insect, Saville Kent, in his fascinating Nat uralist in Australia has this to say: “‘Beauty, in the case of the Green Ant, is more than skin-deep. Their attrac- tive, almost sweetmeat-like translucency possibly invited the first essays at their consumption by the human species. Mashed up in water, after the manner of lemon squash, these ants form a pleasant acid drink which is held in high favor by the natives of North Queensland, and is even appreciated by many European palates.” -It is generally known that certain American Indians are at times myrme- cophagous. John Muir, in his First Summer in the Sierra tells how the Dig- ger Indians of California eat the tickly acid gasters of the large jet-black car- penter ants. The Mexican Indians and those of our Southwest make a practise of eating the replete workers, or living honey-pots, of the celebrated honey ant (Myrmecocystus) and regard them as a delicacy with which to honor their guests. In some cases the insects are pressed and the honey thus extracted enjoyed with meals, in others they are put aside to ferment into a highly flavored wine. Certain African tribes collect the huge queens of Carebara at the time of their nuptial flight, when these ants emerge in large numbers from the termitaria in which their nests are concealed. In this case the gasters only are eaten, either uncooked or roasted, and are considered a great delicacy. Many of the South American Indians treat in a like manner the queens of the leaf-cutting ants (Atta cephalotes and Atta sexdens). Caterpillars are often appreciated as INSECTS AS FOOD 197 food in direct proportion to the ease with which large-sized species and those that occur in great numbers are collected. There appeared in the Journal of the New York Entomological Society for 1912 an interesting article by Mr. J. M. Aldrich regarding the use as food of the larve of a saturnid moth (Colorado pandora) by certain Indians of the Nevada- California border. Quite recently the same entomologist has published further notes on this strange Indian food, describing, among other points, the manner in which the caterpillars are collected from their food plant, the Jef- frey pine. Richard Schomburgh re- cords how the Indians in British Guiana actively gather for culinary purposes a caterpillar and its pupe which appear at the rainy season. Many African tribes, especially those of the forest country, con- sider these insects choice morsels. The Pangwe of southern Cameroon, according to Tessmann, eat no less than twenty-one different kinds. Not only do the natives distinguish by name a number of edible species, but they also know the particular food plants on which they are to be found. The caterpillars of the silk- weaving Anaphe, a genus of notodontid moths of equatorial Africa that have the peculiar habit of congregating when full-grown, sometimes to the number of a dozen or more, to spin a common silk nest in which they make their cocoon and pupate, are eaten and their silky nests offered for sale. In mentioning that the Anaphe larve are relished by the natives of Gazaland, Swynnerton writes: “This is hardly of special interest in itself, for many other moth-larve are also eaten by them, but what is perhaps of some slight inter- est is their alleged differential effect on particular individuals eating them. I was first informed of this by a native skinner and collector in my employ, whose statements I have in general found to be reliable; and he specially remarked that even brothers, eating from the same dish larve that had been Photograph by H. Lang Communal silk cocoon made by caterpillars of a species of Anaphe in the Ituri Forest, at Medje, Belgian Congo. The larve of this and other members of the genus are eaten with great delight by many Central African tribes NATURAL HISTORY Dried, and preserved, these ebbo caterpillars form part of the staple food supply of the Medje, who live in the Ituri Forest. When the heavy spines have been scraped off, the caterpillars, properly boiled and seasoned, are a dish of which the natives are exceedingly fond captured and prepared together, differed thus in their reaction: one brother suffer- ing no ill effects whatever, the other being always completely prostrated for as much as two or three days in the more serious cases. The statement has been completely corroborated by such natives as I have since spoken to on the subject. All have further agreed in saying that the larve are much liked, and that their inability to eat them is felt as a misfor- tune by those whom they affect un- pleasantly.” In addition to the nests of Anaphe, the Medje diligently collect in the proper season various other caterpillars. Those called ebbo are especially sought; dried and smoked they can be pre- served for many months. The most common species collected by Mr. Lang and reproduced here is evidently the larva of a ceratocampid moth of the genus Micragone, agreeing almost ex- actly with the description and figure given by Packard for M. herilla. Heavy spines cover the body. but are scraped off before cooking. Two other species of caterpillars in the same collection also belong to the Ceratocampide. Another delicacy among the Medje is the grub of a curious psychid moth (Clania moddermanni) which lives in a tightly woven bag of its own making covered on the outside with stalks and reaching a length of two and one half inches and a diameter of three quarters of an inch. According to Tessmann, the Pangwe even hunt for the aquatic larve of dragon flies, to which they attribute diuretic properties. It is said that cicadas are a common article of food among the natives of Lower Siam, and the peculiar manner in which they are caught is in itself an interesting chapter as described by W. W. Skeat: “Two or three natives gather together at night round a brightly burning wood fire, one of them holding a lighted torch. The others clap their hands at regular in- tervals, and the Cicada, attracted by the noise and guided by the light, fly down and settle upon the people as they stand by the fire.” In the region of Garamba, Belgian Congo, I am told, the natives not only eat the honey ac- cumulated in the nests of wild bees, but even gather the larve and pupe, which they roast over the fire before consum- INSECTS AS FOOD 199 ing. Moreover, the nests of certain social wasps are also sought for the same purpose. It is impossible to mention here more than a few of the many insects used for culinary purposes, for members of nearly all orders enter into the diet of one peo- ple or another. A few words may be added, however, about the two-winged insects, which are seldom used, probably because in most cases they are difficult to gather in great quantities. Williston Photograph by H. Lang This caterpillar of a psychid moth (Clania moddermanni) from the Ituri Forest, Belgian Congo, lives in a baglike house which it weaves of silk and covers with small sticks. The worm never leaves its envelop but has been removed here to be photographed and Aldrich have called attention to the case of certain small flies of the genus Ephydra, the adults of which are found by the thousands along the shores of Mono Lake, California. In the latter part of the summer the puparia are washed up on the beach where they accumulate in heaps and can be col- lected by the bushel. In days gone by Indians came from far and near to gather them for food and a few still continue to do so. The worms are 200 NATURAL HISTORY dried in the sun and the shell is rubbed off by hand. A yellowish kernel remains, very similar to a small grain of rice. This is oily, very nutritious, and under the name koo-chah-bee or koo-tsabe used to form a very important item of food. Its flavor is described as not altogether unpleasant and according to an in- formant: “If one were ignorant of its origin, it would make nice soup. It tastes more like patent ‘meat biscuit’ than anything else I can compare it with.”’ There are also a few instances recorded of the adult flies themselves having been eaten. A leptid fly of the genus Atherix at certain seasons appears in astonishing numbers along brooks in northeastern California. Trees, bushes, and rocks are covered with them to a depth of five or six inches. The Indians scrape them off and collect them in great heaps, cooking them between hot stones in an oven-like pit. The resulting reddish brown mass of about the consistency of headcheese, is made into loaves like bread, and can be counted on as a mainstay during the winter. On some of the Central African lakes in the dry season a minute midge, one of the Chironomide, rises from the water in clouds so dense that from a distance the effect is that of smoke. Near Lake Nyasa the midges are known as kungu and round out the larder of many of the shore tribes. When great hosts of them are driven landward by the wind, they are swept off the bushes and rocks by the natives or caught against mats hung up for the purpose; they are then compressed into oily cakes, roasted, and eaten. Ac- cording to Koch, the Sesse Islanders col- lect and prepare in a similar manner the may flies which swarm in dense columns over Lake Victoria. In spite of the weight of evidence from the historical point of view, it is not the purpose of the present article to furnish arguments regarding the value of insects as food or for including them in our own diet. What we eat and what we do not eat is, after all, more a matter of custom and fashion than anything else. Many years ago a learned French physician, J. J. Virey, made an exhaustive study of the question ‘“‘ Whether man may eat insects and whether he should eat them,” with this conclusion: ““Man may eat insects: nothing in his anatomical or- ganization or his physiological functions is opposed to it. He.should eat insects: in the first place, because his cousins the monkeys and his ancestors the bats, or to be brief the primates, eat them; in the second place, because insectivor- ous animals are superior to the other species of their order, as well in their more perfect organization as in the superiority of their intelligence.” Still, it must be admitted that this line of reasoning will have but slight appeal to the average white man. In my opinion the habitual consumption of insects may not be without danger. The greater number of them have such a heavy, indigestible skeleton of chitin that their continued use might well lead to dyspep- sia. In addition, the small size of most of them makes it impossible to eliminate from their bodies all organs in which the waste products are accumulated, and which, because of their recognized poi- sonous properties, are as a rule carefully removed in the case of our meat and fish. Be this as it may, those inclined toward reforming our food habits may be inter- ested in a booklet published by Vincent M. Holt under the title Why not eat insects? They will find there an array of recipes for the preparation of various insects and also a number of menus for entomophagous dinners. If the time ever comes when insects are universally used as food, Mr. Holt’s book will undoubtedly be greatly treasured by all gastronomes. Perhaps some day he may be regarded as one of the benefactors of human- ity, for did not Brillat-Savarin write: “He who invents a new dish does more for the happiness of his fellowmen than all the philosophers, writers, scientists, and politicians together.” CQ — eee ee ee ee NOTES A RESOLUTION was unanimously adopted by the Executive Committee of the American Mu- seum, electing Mrs. Olivia Sage, Mr. A. D. Juilliard, and Mrs. Helen C. Juilliard, benefac- _ tors, in recognition of their generous bequests to the Permanent Endowment Fund. StncE the last issue of NaturAL History the following persons have been elected mem- bers of the American Museum: _ Honorary Fellow: MADAME M ARTE SKLODOWSKA CurRIE. Life Members: Messrs. F. Witi1AM GERTZEN, WALTER ALFRED HAFNER, O’DONNELL IsE- LIN, A. VAN Horne Stuyvesant, Jr., H. N. THURSTON, AND Huco WEIGERT. Sustaining Members: Messrs. EuGENE S. La BAR AND ISRAEL UNTERBERG. Annual Members: MrespamEs JoHN LEE Con- NABLE, E. F. Dwicut, Irvinc R. FIsHER, Josrpn Appison Gorrz, Lucy W. Hewtrt, R. G. McGrecor, CHARLES MINER, RICHARD O’GorMAN, ArTHUR W. Pacer, CHARLES G. PETERS, GEORGE TAYLor, JoHN H. Tuomas; THE Misses ALMA LIssBERGER, G. LUNDQUIST, Louise E. von BERNUTH; Dr. FREDERICK TILNEY; THE Rev. F. S. IpLeMAN; Messrs. GrEoRGE W. ALGER, Copley Amory, THORN- TON W. BurceEss, Harorp T. Crark, Harry Coins, Cyrus S. Eaton, Howe tt FIsHEr, Artuur G. Fry, GEorRGE WILBERT GRAND- IN, WALTER T. HatTHaway, Warren S. Haypen, Lours Jersawit, M. F. LoEwen- STEIN, CHARLES CAPRON MArsH, GEORGE T. MAxweE Lt, JosH. W. Maver, Rosert H. MONTGOMERY, JOHN BALLANTINE NIVEN, D. Raymond Noyes, Grorce S. OLxps, Martin Press, H. A. Pomroy, Henry H. Reep, Victor F. Riper, Ricwarp P. Rost- son, Gro. M. Rocrers, ARMAND SCHMOLL, L. E. Scuwas, Puitrrn ScHwArz, JosEPH H. SEAMAN, RICHARD SECKELS, GEORGE A. SELIGMANN, CARL SuHarr, FRANK G. SHat- TUCK, HERBERT PRESCOTT SHREEVE, JOSHUA SILVERSTEIN, W. W. Skippy, Tuomas W. Stocum, Henry G. Suiru, STANLEY SMITH, JosepH Spector, Emit Stern, Isaac E. STERNBERG, JuLES P. Storm, Raymonp E. STREIT, CHARLES WILLIAM Taussic, HERBERT C. Tayior, HerBert L. THowLess, WALLIS S. Turner, Grorce B. Vert, GrorRGE WATHEN, ALEX. WEINBERG, C. H. Wtcox, Ernest J. WILE, IRwIN WILE, Oscar J. Witz, Matraew A. WILks, SicMuND WIMEL- BACHER, W. E. WINCHESTER, AND GEORGE M. Yorke. Associate Members: Mrs. B. C. MApEIRA; THE MissesJEAN H.Hart,KATHLEEN MARGUERITE HempPeEL; Doctors F. A. DRAKE, BERNAYS KENNEDY, ErNeEsT C. Levy, L. B. MANCHEs- TER, ARNOLD PESKIND, F. X. POMAINVILLE, CHARLES RAYEvSKy, RUSSELL RICHARDSON, Daviw RresMAN, WitttAmM J. Ross, G. C. SABICHI, FLORENCE R. SABIN, ADOLPH SACHS, JosEpH SAILER, EpwArp C. SHERMAN, D. LAuRENCE SmitH, Harry A. SPANGLER, Cortn C. STEWART, GEORGE A. STILL, CARL G. Swenson, ALFRED H. TIcKELL, A. E. TuRMAN, J. VAN DER LAAN, RALPH W. WEBSTER, Lewis H. WEED, HARRY M. WEGE- FORTH, JOSEPH D. WeEiIs, WANDA WENIGER, Wo. B. WHerRRY, HENRY A. WHITING, WILLIS R. Watney, Otis B. Wicut, Ernest L. Wittetts, J. PEARSON WILLITs; Major Henry J. Nicnors, M. C., U. S. A.; THE Rev. WALLACE Rocers; Professors A. R. SAWYER, DaAvip H. TENNENT; Messrs. F. W. Apams, NatHAn A. Bowers, P. Burns, D. S. Cutver, Otto DEGENER, ELWyn H. Dor, Harry C. DuDLEY, JOHN W. Fut- TON, J. W. LyTLE, W. C. MATTHEWws, W. R. Morris, Lestig W. NEWBERRY, CHARLES P. Noyes, - Prescott OAKES, ANDREW _ J. O’REILLY, STANLEY PARTRIDGE, J. F. Max Patirz, W. E. PEASE, WIN PROEBSTEL, BUELL H. Quarn, Ivar L. SyOsTROM, HARRISON STIDHAM, JuLtus F. STONE, Epwarp B. Tay- Lor, C. H. THomas, H. S. Tuttockx, SAMUEL TospraAs WAGNER, Epwarp H. Watpo, B.C. WOLVERTON, SAMUEL S. WYER; THE SWARTH- MORE COLLEGE LIBRARY; AND THE DEPART- MENT OF MINING GEOLOGY, SCHOOL OF MINEs, UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH. “Tue Evolution, Phylogeny, and Classifica- tion of the Proboscidea,”’ was the subject of an address delivered by President Henry Fairfield Osborn, of the American Museum, at the annual meeting of the National Academy of Sciences, held in Washington, D. C., on April 25-27. The address was illustrated by lantern slides. Pror. Henry E. Crampton, honorary curator of lower invertebrates in the American Museum, recently returned from his third tour in the Polynesian Islands. Through his industrious collecting the Museum is enriched by a large number of specimens representative of the fauna of the Mariana Islands, Manila, China, Siam, the Malay Peninsula, the Dutch East Indies, and Australia. He reports (April 8, 1921) that of snails of the genus Pariula he was able to secure, for purposes of research, upward of 10,000 specimens from more than forty localities in Guam and Saipan of the Mariana Islands. Herpetological material, collected by Doctor Crampton at various places, consisted of thirty- four lizards, snakes, and frogs, in twenty-two 201 202 vials and bottles. In addition to these he brought back with him three bottles containing five snakes, which were presented to the American Museum by Lieut. Gen. E. W. Trotter, adviser to the King on military affairs, Bangkok, Siam. Three thousand dried insect specimens of the orders Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Odonata, Hymenoptera, etc., and thirty-five vials con- taining ants and other insects, as well as spiders, preserved in alcohol, were delivered to the department of entomology. For the department of lower invertebrates Doctor Crampton secured sixty vials of Myria- pods, miscellaneous land shells, worms, and Isopods. In addition he brought back numerous marine shells, which have not yet been definitely estimated. Certain items of ethnological interest were ob- tained for the department of: anthropology. Doctor Crampton was able, also, to make pre- liminary arrangements for the purchase by this department of a complete and classified series of baskets from the northern Siamese territory occupied by the Lao people. A few geological specimens from Australia were secured for the department of geology. Nearly four hundred and fifty photographs, some of which are used as illustrations for the article in the present issue entitled, “A Journey to the Mariana Islands—Guam and Saipan,” were taken by Dr. Crampton, and in addition there were purchased a representative series of photographs in the Philippine Islands, in Siam, in Java, and in Australia. Dr. FRANK M. CHAPMAN, curator of orni- thology in the American Museum, recently re- turned from a trip to England made for the purpose of studying the types of Ecuador birds in the British Museum, work which is a pre- liminary part of his studies for the second volume of the faunal monographs on the South American birds. The volume relating to Ecuador will be of the same nature as the Columbian book published in 1917. In addi- tion to his study of specimens in the British Museum and the Zodlogical Museum at Tring, Doctor Chapman arranged, while abroad, an important exchange of ornithological specimens. PRESIDENT HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN and Mr. George N. Pindar, of the American Museum, who are respectively chairman and secretary of the New York State Roosevelt Memorial Com- mission, attended a meeting of that organization held in Albany on March 31. Among the pro- posals considered was that the memorial take the form of a building for the American Museum, to be known as the Roosevelt Memorial Hall. Dr. L. C. SANrorD, who some weeks ago was elected to the Board of Trustees of the American of the present issue. NATURAL HISTORY Museum, has quite recovered from his recent illness and is once again in close touch with the work of the department of ornithology and of the Whitney South Sea Expedition, of which he is chairman. Dr. CHARLES-EDWARD A. WINSLOW, curator of public health in the American Museum, and professor of public health in Yale University, is still in Europe, discharging his important duties as general medical director of the League of Red Cross Societies. Dr. Winslow writes that in Poland things are progressing well and that the antityphus work in particular, which he went to inspect as a representative of the League of Nations, is being handled with remarkable -efficiency. Notwithstanding his heavy responsibilities in connection with the work of the Red Cross, Dr. Winslow has been visiting certain of the European museums. On page tor of the January-February issue of NATURAL History, his impressions are given of the different museums in London having health exhibits. In a more recent letter he comments upon the Natural History Museum of Vienna, to which Dr. W. D. Matthewgivesextended consideration on page 188 The collections of that museum impressed Dr. Winslow as being very tastefully arranged, effective use being made of dark backgrounds. ‘‘At the Natural History Museum and everywhere else,’ he writes, “I heard tales of desperate privations.” He adds that the situation in Vienna seems almost hope- less and that he is “deeply impressed with the need for making every possible effort to save the rich and artistic culture of that city from destruction.” Dr. RoBert CusHMAN MurpuHy, associate curator of marine birds, American Museum, has been,delivering lectures before a number of dif- ferent institutions and societies in the United States and Canada. On March 12 he ad- dressed an audience of 3600 in Boston; on March 19 he spoke in Chicago, and on March 26 again in Boston. His addresses have been chiefly on the Peruvian guano industry and bird con- servation in South America. On April 16 Dr. Murphy lectured at the University of Toronto regarding ‘‘Explorations among the Islands of Peru.” On April 21 he delivered an address in Philadelphia at the opening session of the convention of the American Philosophical Society, on “The Influence of the Humboldt Current on the Distribution and Abundance of Marine Life.” Mr. Louis R. SULLIVAN, assistant curator of physical anthropology in the American Museum, who has been making a study of mixed-blood children and adults in the Hawaiian Islands, has been asked by the Bishop Museum of Hono- eee eae ae yee eo NOTES 203 lulu to act as joint representative of that institu- tion and of the American Museum in presenting the results of their codperative work to the Second International Congress of Eugenics that will be held in New York in September of this year. The Hawaiian Islands—a meeting ground of East and West—constitute a laboratory for the study of the amalgamation of different races and the resulting physical and mental character- istics. The data which Mr. Sullivan has gath- ered during his sojourn in the Islands should prove of distinct value to the congress. Tue Heckscher Museum, at Huntington, Long Island, which was opened to the public Jast summer, is nearing the completion of its installations. While primarily a museum of fine arts, containing a number of exceedingly valuable canvases, it will house also several choice collections of minerals and of archzologi- cal objects. Mr. N. C. Nelson, associate curator of North American archeology in the American Museum, has just completed the installation of the archeological material, which at present consists of a fine series of specimens from Long Island and another equally fine series from Egypt. The Egyptian exhibit includes Palzo- lithic, Neolithic, and Post-Neolithic types of flint implements, and is the pick of a large ’ collection made a number of years ago by Robert de Rustafjaell. The remainder of this collection, for which there was no room at Huntington, was generously given to the American Museum some months ago. The builder and patron ‘of the museum at Huntington is Mr. August Heckscher, of New York City. Tue hall of prehistoric man, which is to re- place the old general archeology hall in the southwest pavilion on the second floor of the American Museum, is slowly taking shape. To make the place more attractive, Mr. Albert Operti, of the Museum staff, has been engaged for several weeks in the reproduction of some of the famous palzolithic cave paintings of western Europe, several of which are already in place on the walls. Formerly the hall was devoted entirely to the archeology of North America north of Mexico— exclusive of the Pueblo and Eskimo culture areas. This exhibit was arranged by states, and as such was very useful for the student of comparative archeology. A somewhat similar but much condensed exhibit will remain in the new hall, one half of which, however, is to be devoted to the archeology of the Old World. The remaining half of the hall will be divided between the two portions of the New World. In other words, the old exhibit will be reduced by about three fourths, and the new hall is to show in succinct form the complexion of human cul- ture throughout the prehistoric world. The main idea underlying the whole exhibition scheme is to be evolution or development. To demonstrate this fact of development, the material will be arranged as far as possible on a chronological basis. _ The demonstration of cultural evolution is to be reinforced in the adjoining tower room by an exhibit showing the physical development of man. This will include casts and restorations of all the remarkable skeletal finds of ancient date, as well as reproductions showing the surviving racial types. Some of this material is already in place. Tue old saying, ‘There is nothing new under the sun,”’ may apply in human history and life but certainly does not apply in many branches of science, perhaps least of all in paleontology. In the year 1913 a gigantic and wholly un- expected type of mammal turned up in southwest India and was named Baluchitherium osborni by its discoverer, C. Forster Cooper, who is now head of the University Museum of Zodlogy in Cambridge, England. The relationships of this animal were as mysterious as its size was astonishing. Little clew was afforded by the parts preserved except that the ankle bone was that of an odd-toed ungulate and that a portion of the tooth remotely resembled that of a rhinoceros. The second vertebra of the neck was found by Mr. Cooper to be totally different from that of the rhinoceros, and indicated an animal with a very long neck rather like that of the horse, but even longer; the vertebra itself, however, was not horselike. The same animal has now turned up in Turkestan, and the Russian paleontologist Borissyak, has described it under the name Indricoiherium quite independently of the description of Cooper. Borissyak’s published account, curiously enough, is almost the same as Cooper’s in extent, and although his paper will diminish the novelty of Cooper’s material, it is not less important and interesting. Cooper is now preparing to publish a separate account, rather fully illustrated, in which will appear a translation of Borissyak’s paper. The Russian paleontologist agrees with the Cam- bridge savant in noting a tendency to mono- dactylism—that is, concentration of the weight of the body on one digit, with a consequent analogy in the wrist toward that of the horse, while it still retains the rhinoceros features in part. Work on Volume III of Dr. Bashford Dean’s Bibliography of Fishes is making good progress. All the various addenda to this volume, which has been extended and edited by Dr. E. W. Gudger and indexed by Mr. Arthur Henn, of the department of ichthyology of the American Museum, are completed, and but for the printers’ strike at Cambridge, the University Press more than a month ago would have printed the first 338 pages. Doctor Gudger, Mr. Henn, and Miss 204 NATURAL HISTORY Francesca La Monte are all at work on the index. A good part of this has been completed and is in galley proof. A companion undertaking to the Bibliography of Fishes is a Bibliography of- Arms and Armor, which Dr. Bashford Dean is planning and which will be issued by the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Mr. H. E. Antony, associate curator of mammals of the Western Hemisphere in the American Museum, and Mr. Herbert Lang, assistant curator of African mammals in the same institution, attended the third annual meeting of the American Society of Mammalo- gists, which was held at Washington, D. C., on May 2,3,and4. On the afternoon of the second day of the meeting Mr. Lang delivered an il- lustrated address entitled “Life Histories of African Squirrels and Related Groups.’ On the morning of the third day Mr. Anthony spoke on ‘Life Zones of Southern Ecuador,” accom- panying his address with lantern slides. At the business meeting Mr. Anthony was elected a director of the society. Dr. E. W. GupGER, associate in ichthyology, American Museum, recently gave a lecture before the Biology Club of Princeton University on “The Structures and Habits of Some of the Sharks of Southern Florida.” Visitors to the American Museum are in- variably impressed by the remarkable picture of the “Total Eclipse of the Sun as Seen in Baker, Oregon,. June, 8, 1918,” which was painted by Mr. Howard Russell Butler and presented to the Museum by Mr. Edward D. Adams. This painting has recently been revarnished and re- touched so as to enhance the brilliancy ot the prominences and of the corona. The same artist has deposited with the Museum for six months his ‘‘Northern Lights, Maine Coast, August, 1919.”’ The picture has been placed in the room on the first floor that has been set apart for Mr. Butler’s paintings. “Northern Lights” was given the place of honor in the center of the north wall of Vanderbilt Gallery at the National Academy of Design during the winter exhibit, ro19. The aurora of August 11, 1919, was perhaps the finest for color and brilliancy ever seen in the vicinity of Ogunquit, Maine. It occurred on the night of the full moon. “Thave painted Bald Head Cliff, which appears in the picture, in ‘moonlight several times,” writes Mr. Butler. “One of these won the Carnegie Prize in 1916. I was at work on still another on the night of August 11. The Cliff was to the north of my view point. I had just finished my sketch of the Cliff when (about quarter to ten) this wonderful display suddenly appeared, flooding the heavens with light. Vertical shafts soon rose near the horizon in almost every direction and reached to the zenith, where they united in a complicated weaving. The view northward over the Cliff was particularly fine. which additional shafts ascended. The colors varied from pale greens to rose. The intense illumination lasted for about twenty minutes. “‘T was most fortunate in being in such an excellent position for observation and in having my sketching materials with me; also in having my foreground already completed “T was working on dark gray paper with black and white, with no light but that of the moon and the aurora itself. While this enabled me to record the values—lights and shades—for colors I had to rely on formulas, as when paint- ing the eclipse. The following day I painted a first picture on which the final picture is based. “Prof. Frederick Ehrenfeld, of the University of Pennsylvania, was on the Cliff and wrote an article describing this aurora, which appeared in Science, August 22, 1919. He did not know of my picture and I did not know of his article till long afterwards.” In addition to its astronomical pictures the American Museum is fortunate in possess- ing eight paintings of Mt. Pelé of Martinique during the great eruptions of 1902-3, which are excellent examples of the skill of the painter— the famous geographer and intrepid explorer— Angelo Heilprin, of Philadelphia. Some of the sketches for these paintings were made by Pro- fessor Heilprin at the imminent risk of his life, for they were done at close range, while the volcano was in action. Perhaps the most beautiful of them all is that of the Tower of Pelé, showing that remarkable feature at almost the extreme of its develop- ment. Professor Heilprin’s reputation rests upon his work as a scientist but these paintings, from their delicacy of touch, accuracy of drawing, and feeling for color, reveal him as an artist of talent. Professor Heilprin died in 1907 and the paintings came to the Museum as a memo- rial gift from his family. In the Academy Room is a beautiful painting of Mt. Pelé, as it was in March, 1903, at the time of the greatest development of the new cone, which was built up within the crater by the eruptive activity of 1902-3. The spine, which is so prominent in this painting, was the feature left by continued explosions, as the lava welled up from the conduit. The painting was made by Mr. Charles R. Knight, after photographs taken by Dr. E. O. Hovey, when on an expedition sent by the American Museum for the purpose of studying the phenomena of the great eruptions on the islands of Martinique and St. Vincent, 1902-3. For purposes of comparison, it would be very desirable to secure a painting showing Mt. Pelé Arches appeared from Se Courtesy of the American eration of Arts NORTHERN LIGHTS, MAINE COAST, AUGUST, I9I19 A painting by Howard Russell Butler 206 as it is now, with the famous spine gone and with the slopes of the mountain partly restored to their former beauty by the advancing tropical vegetation. : In connection with the article (p. 191 of this issue) on “Insects as Food” by Dr. Joseph Bequaert, assistant in Congo zoélogy in the American Museum, the reader will recall that J. Henri Fabre, whose zeal for science sometimes led him to make quaint experiments, once sampled a dish of cicada nymphs. Aristotle had been quoted as extolling their delicious ‘taste and Fabre wanted to see how well justified were -his praises. Accompanied by his family he set forth to scour the region about his dwell- ing. Two hours’ search yielded but four nymphs—sufficient, however, to determine whether the dish deserved to be revived for the benefit of the modern epicure. The insects were cooked according to the simplest recipe lest too elaborate preparation spoil their flavor: “*a few drops of oil, a pinch of salt, a little onion, | and that is all.” Everyone had a taste of the titbit, but instead of the toothsome delicacy promised, Fabre and his family found the insects ‘‘tough as the devil and anything but succulent.” The experiments of Fabre are paralleled in this country by those of Prof. Charles V. Riley and Dr. L. O. Howard, who in the eighties tested the palatability of the periodical cicada or seventeen-year locust. This insect seemed to give promise of an abundant, even if intermit- tent, addition to our food supply. A stew was prepared to which the cicada contributed “a distinct and not unpleasant flavor” but the insects themselves were reduced in the process to bits of flabby skin and were not at all palat- able. Fried in butter, they remind one, it is said, of shrimps but, adds the account in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington for 1885, ‘‘They will never prove a delicacy.”” In this conclusion the average individual will doubtless concur without feeling impelled to put his conviction to the test. Yet it should be remarked that the Indians ate cicada both before and«after the coming of the white man, and that the inherent repulsion which most of us feel toward sampling such an insect is hard to reconcile with our partiality for a scavenger like the lobster, which belongs to the same subkingdom as the insects, or for the ooze-reared oyster, their remoter cousin. THROUGH the voluntary assistance of several members of the staff, the American Museum has been able to codperate with the American Red Cross in conducting a recreational and educational experiment this spring at the United States Public Health Hospital at Fox Hills, Staten Island. Between eleven and twelve hundred men, NATURAL HISTORY whose disabilities have been caused directly or indirectly by their services during the Great War, are receiving treatment at the Fox Hills Hospital and the problem of their entertainment is a difficult one. The suggestion that the Museum lecturers attempt its solution was first made in February by Mr. Ralph W. Hees, the Special Representative for Civilian Relief of the Atlantic Division of the Red Cross, who con- sidered it advisable to modify the usual program of vaudeville and motion pictures by introducing something of an instructive nature. Although some doubt was expressed as to the success of Mr. Hees’ plan, the codperation of several mem- bers of the Museum staff was secured for a course of five weekly lectures. Dr. G. Clyde Fisher opened the series on March 16 with the motion picture lecture, “ How Life Begins.” — Effective posters and cartoons were drawn at the Hospital and used to advertise the lectures with the result that five hundred patients, in hospital robes and in uniforms, on crutches and in wheel chairs, came out to hear Doctor Fisher. Attendance has varied at the different lectures, but the representatives from the Museum have always been well received by an audience which would not hesitate to express its real feelings. When the degree of mental receptivity, the restlessness and despondency of these men are taken into consideration, the experiment appears surprisingly successful. The members of the staff who have assisted Mr. Hees in this under- taking are Dr. G. Clyde Fisher, Mr. James P. Chapin, who gave his lecture, “In Central Africa,” Miss Ruth E. Crosby, who talked on ‘Hiawatha,’ Dr. Robert C. Murphy, dis- cussing ‘‘Sea Elephants and Penguins of South Georgia,” Mr. George H. Sherwood, who de- scribed ‘Neighbors of the Sea and Land,” and Mr. Carl E. Akeley, who entertained the boys with tales of “ Roosevelt’s Africa.” All of these lectures were made graphic by the use of slides and motion pictures. In connection with the Second International Congress of Eugenics, a eugenics exhibition will be held September 22 to October 22, in the forestry hall of the American Museum of Natural History. Charts, maps, pictures, models, and scientific apparatus are considered — proper means for displaying and demonstrating eugenical facts and principles, but any other kind of display material which any particular exhibitor desires to offer will be most carefully — considered. The exhibits should be of such a nature that the man of ordinary intelligence and education, but without special scientific training, may readily comprehend and appreciate them. Allexhibits should be started in time to reach the American Museum on or before July 15, 1921. They are to be labeled: Dr. H. H. Laugh- lin, Eugenics Congress, American Museum of Natural History, New York City. 4 NOTES 207 Wuen Narurat History was considering the replacement of its former cover by a new one, it suggested “to the authorities at the Washing- ton Irving High School, 40 Irving Place, New York City, the desirability of having a contest among the students in the industrial art division of that school. The demonstrated ability of these art students gave assurance that an un- usually attractive series of cover designs would be forthcoming. A first prize, a second prize, and seven general prizes were offered. The school took up the suggestion with enthusiasm and the splendid series of sixty-two designs that were submitted for adjudication justified the highest hopes that Narurat History had entertained. The competition revealed not only talent of a high degree but unusual skill in treating decoratively natural subjects without sacrifice of, on the contrary with emphasis upon, their essential character. Three classes—those of the Misses Marie E. Gurnee, Florence Newcomb, and Bertha S. Shepard—participated in this contest, under the general direction of Mrs. Samuel T. R. Cheney, chairman of the art department of Washington Irving High School. The ages of the girls taking part in this contest ranged from fifteen to eighteen years. Certain recommendations or guiding princi- ples were adopted: the designs, including figures, were to be relevant to the title, NATURAL His- TORY; a specified wording was to appear on the caver; the stock for the cover might be any color but must be readily obtainable in the market. Preference was expressed for one color ink but provision was made for an additional color if the artist found it desirable. Above all things the designers were urged to express their own ideas. A number of visits were made by the con- testants to the Museum, independently as well as under the supervision of their teachers, for the purpose of studying subject and composi- tion, of correcting the drawings made in the class room, and of adding the necessary details. The full series of designs has been placed on exhibition in the hall of forestry, on the ground floor of the Museum. For the third successive time an ornithologist has been awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Gold Medal. The two earlier recipients of this distinction, which is bestowed upon the author of such paper, essay, or other work on some branch of zodlogy or paleontology published during the year, as is in the opinion of the judges most meritorious and worthy of honor, were Dr. Frank M. Chapman for his “Distribution of Bird-Life in Columbia,” which appeared in 1917, and Dr. William Beebe, for the first volume of his “Monograph of Pheasants,’’ published in 1918. The present recipient is Mr. Robert Ridgway, curator of the Division of Birds in the United NATURAL] HISTORY NO. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY | To this cover design by Bertha N. Jaffe was awarded the first prize in the competition recently instituted by NaturAL History. Other prize winning designs are shown on the two pages following States National Museum, and the award is made in recognition of the eighth volume of The Birds of Middle and North America, which appeared in 1919. This monumental work, which will be complete in ten volumes, already totals 6800 pages, defines nearly goo genera, and describes more than 3000 species and subspecies. Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, in his address as chairman of the Elliot Medal Committee, referred to Mr. Ridgway’s work as one which “in method, comprehensivéness, and accuracy, as well as in volume, has never been surpassed in the annals of ornithology.” On April 9 there gathered at the American Museum the representatives of three societies— the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the National Academy of Sciences, and the National Research Council. The pur- pose of the meeting was to form a joint com- mittee on conservation. One of the aims will be to educate the public to the importance of safeguarding our resources, in many cases al- ready depleted too greatly by their prodigal use inthe past. All natural resources—forests, coal, oil, fisheries, and wild animals—will claim the attention of the committee. Preliminary steps to effect organization were taken and methods discussed for the raising of the necessary funds. By Frances Gessner HISTORY. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN © MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 1921 NO . + “ ia B att sy EK, De Takacs & re) co NATURAL HISTORY SN, _ JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY» By Florence Breiner NATURAL HISTORY JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY ¢ By Elsie Willheim —— @, - —— ee ~~ y MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY VOL. 1924 = a NO. NATURAL HISTORY By By Anne Bailey M. Isaacs hes] NATURAL HISTORY y . = = = = = yo neg a eet NO. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN =| _ JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY : MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY i By By Ideme E. McAleese Miss Tonjes 210 Among those present were Messrs. John C. Mer- riam, Isaiah Bowman, J. McKeen Cattell, John ~ M. Clarke, H. S. Graves, Vernon Kellogg, C. E. McClung, Barrington Moore, and V. E. Shelford. Few deaths have stirred scientific circles more profoundly than did that of John Daniel, the little gorilla, late of Ringling Brothers Circus, who departed this life on the morning of April 18, and the old-time conundrum as to who was to have the skates of the little boy who was drowned while skating sunk into insignificance before the query—who was to have the body of the gorilla. One anatomist desired his brain, another his skull, another the feet, and still another the vis- cera, and an absent member of the American Museum staff was interested in the structure of the hair. The public was eager to see him mounted and so naturally were Ringling Brothers, to whom the American Museum was already under- obligations for importantanimals that, reposing in the study series, made no show. Fortunately, due to the foresight of Dr. Wil- liam K. Gregory, curator of comparative anat- omy, the American Museum had put in a plea for John, should’ any unforeseen misfortune befall him, little thinking that calamity was so near. By the mutual exercise of a little self- denial, everybody was made more or less happy and the remains of poor John are being carefully studied by the group of experts referred to in the note that follows. Later it is hoped that he may, phoenix-like, rise from his (metaphorical) ashes and take his place in the hall of primates at the American Museum with his fellow great apes. We are under obligations to Ringling Brothers for so courteously and promptly turning John over to the Museum with “no strings attached,” so that he might be cared for without delay, and it may be said that already very interesting results have been obtained from the examination of details of his structure regarding the relation- ship of the gorilla to his more or less distant rela- tive, man. It is small compensation for the loss of so rare and costly an animal that he is of great interest from a scientific standpoint, but it is at least a satisfaction to know that the utmost use was made of the opportunity offered to study a fresh gorilla in New York City. Arter the removal of the hide of the gorilla, which will be mounted by Mr. Frederick A. Blaschke, of the staff of the American Mu- seum, the body was dissected by Dr. George S. Huntington, professor of anatomy at the Col- lege of Physicians and Surgeons, and by his assistants. The brain was handed over to Dr. Frederick Tilney, professor of neurology and neuro-anatomy at the College of Physicians and NATURAL HISTORY Surgeons, who is already well known for his’ researches on the anatomy of the brains of the great apes and of man. Dr. Dudley J. Morton, an orthopedist, and Dr. William K. Gregory, curator of comparative anatomy in the American Museum, are studying the bones, muscles, ten- dons, and ligaments of the feet. Dr. Milo S. Hellman, an authority on the dentition and den- tal arches of primates and of men, will report on the dentition. Small strips of the skin and hair are being preserved for Mr. Louis R. Sullivan, assistant curator of physical anthropology in the American Museum. Casts of the head and face were made for Prof. J. Howard Mc-. Gregor, research associate in human anatomy in the American Museum, well known for his restorations of primitive races of man. Several other anatomists will also take part in the in- vestigation. Preliminary reports indicate a number of interesting new or little known features of the anatomy. The appendix is curiously human in type, and the same is true of the kidneys, brain, and other organs. Impressions of the sole _ of the foot will be studied by Prof. H. H. — Wilder, the Galton Society expert on palms and ~ soles. The general appearance of the footprint, although more human than that of the other great apes, has the great toe set off from the other four toes instead of being parallel with them asin man. The delicate ridges of the sole and of the toes differ in many details from those of the ordinary human types, but Doctor Wilder has recorded a single case of a human footprint which has many characteristics of the chim- panzee, and his examination of this gorilla foot- print will be awaited with interest. Pror. J. Howarp McGrecor, of Columbia — University, research associate in human anatomy in the American Museum, left the Museum on May 12 on a special mission for the American Museum of Natural History and — the Galton Society for the Study of the Evolu- — tion of Man. The trustees of the Museum have appropriated a sum toward the expenses of his — tour of research among the museums and private collections of England, France, Belgium, Ger- many, Austria, and Bohemia, which contain all — that has thus far been discovered of our human and prehuman ancestors. Professor McGregor carries letters to Doctor Duckworth of Cam- bridge, to Professor Sollas of Oxford, to Prof. G, Elliot Smith of the University of London, to Dr. Arthur Smith Woodward of the British — Museum (Natural History), and to Dr. Arthur — Keith of the Royal College of Surgeons in London. The most interesting early remains in Great Britain are those of the Piltdown man, — which are preserved with great sanctity in the — British Museum, and the Gibraltar skull in the Royal College of Surgeons. In Belgium Pro-— fessor McGregor expects to study the famous NOTES Neanderthal skeletons of Spy. He carries letters to Professors Max L’Hoest, Charles Fraipont, and J. Sérvais, of the University of Liége. In Germany he will visit Prof. Hans Lehner, director of the Provinzial Museum in Bonn, where is preserved the original Neander- thal skeleton; in Heidelberg he hopes to examine the Mauer jaw, now in the custodianship of Dr. Wilhelm Salomon of the University of Heidelberg. The chief center of Paleolithic remains is in the various museums and institutions of France. Here Professor McGregor looks to the friendly aid of Prof. Marcellin Boule of the Museum of Natural History, who is also director of the Institut de Paléontologie Humaine; to Dr. René Verneau, monographer of the skeletons of the Cré-Magnon and Grimaldi races; to Dr. Henri Martin; and to the distinguished arche- ologists, L’Abbé Henri Breuil and Professor Doctor Capitan, of Paris, and Professor Cartail- hac of the University of Toulouse. In Holland Professor McGregor will visit Prof. E. Du- bois, director of the Laboratory of Mineralogy and Geology of the University of Amsterdam, and examine the remains of Pithecanthropus. If time permits, he will visit Bohemia, where, be- sides studying materials in the University of Prague, he will examine the remarkable collec- tions of skeletons from Predmost brought to- gether by the late Professor Maska. The main object of Professor McGregor’s tour is to examine and compare the remains of the Neanderthal race in various museums with a view to making complete restorations of the skeletons and models of the Neanderthal figure for the hall of the Age of Man in the American Museum. For this purpose he will secure as many casts and reproductions of these precious remains as possible, supplementing these port- able materials by very careful observations and measurements so as to distinguish as far as possible the true racial characters of the Neanderthal skeleton from the characters due to age, to sex, to different environmental and geographic conditions. These studies will supplement and continue those of Prof. Marcellin Boule in his masterly monograph on the skeletal characters of the neanderthaloids of France. In connection with this tour President Henry Fairfield Osborn of the American Museum is addressing a circular letter to the heads of the above and other similar institutions on the continent of Europe, announcing that the re- search materials in the American Museum collections are now open to the freest exami- nation and study by accredited students of paleontology, anthropology, and comparative anatomy from all parts of the world, and that the Museum desires to secure equal facilities in the museums of other countries. The best means of reéstablishing helpful relations among 211 the nations of the world is by opening these international treasures to all duly accredited students and investigators. It is understood that every investigator comes with a guarantee of his personal character and integrity and also of scientific attainment sufficient to enable him to make proper use of the materials extended to him. It is further understood that material which has not been monographed or described is made available by courtesy and that no advan- tage will be taken by the prior description of un- published material. It is also understood that all materials that have been monographed and described are freely open to the students of the world. This is what our great national and international museums are created for. A series of five lectures arranged by the American Museum for the Boy Scouts of the metropolis and delivered by members of the staff was completed on May 14. Dr. G. Clyde Fisher opened the series on March 19 with an account of “Wild Animals Near Home.” On April 2 Mr. Herbert P. Whitlock spoke on “Water in the Atmosphere,’”’ which was followed on April 16 by Mr. James P. Chapin’s “Bird Study for Scouts.” “Scouting for Insects” was the subject of Dr. Frank E. Lutz’ address on April 30. The completing lecture was given by Dr. Chester A. Reeds on “Geology in and about New York City.” Tue Reverend Harry R. Caldwell, who rendered such practical assistance to Mr. An- drews on the First and Second Asiatic Expedi- tions of the American Museum, has sent to that institution from China a collection of three hundred and fifty mammals, including an exceptionally fine tiger skin. Mr. Caldwell recently returned to his duties at the Methodist Episcopal Church Mission in Yenping, Fukien, China. In February Mr. Caldwell started on a five weeks’ itinerary through his conference, expecting to walk nearly three hundred and fifty miles. Traveling in Yenping is necessarily done on foot except for an occasional boat trip and such long walking expeditions afford splen- did opportunities for collecting. Mr. Caldwell, who is a remarkably successful trapper and ac- curate marksman, always carries his butterfly net and rifle with him. His avocation and his profession supplement each other still further inasmuch as the missionary’s ability to rid a neighborhood of the tigers lurking in its ravines has won for him the gratitude of the villagers. It is Mr. Caldwell’s hope to secure for ‘the American Museum this summer one of the large badgers to be found on the rolling uplands of Yenping. AN interesting series of posters devoted to the red man and his arts has recently been on exhibi- tion in the hall of the Southwest Indians on the 212 NATURAL HISTORY A representation of a katcina, or supernatural being, revered by the Hopi Indians of the Southwest. To children are given wooden figures of this kind, which are both playtoy and means of instruction, familiarizing the little ones in time with the many gods of the Hopi pantheon 7 @ ms. * 5) ° @aar* AWB The serpent, often represented with a human head projecting from its mouth, is a favorite theme of Mayan art. At first of totemic significance, the snake became in time a sign or attribute of divinity in general ground floor of the American Museum. These posters, made by students in the second year advertising class at the New York School of Fine and Applied Art, and based to a large extent on material in the collections of the American Museum, represent a variety of different subjects including designs borrowed from Mayan art, Hopi katcinas, masks of the false-face society of the Iroquois, and the implements and arts of the West Coast Indians and of the Plains In- dians. The artistic effect of these posters is as fine as the purpose is commendable of familiariz- ing the public in this way with the customs and achievements of the aborigines. Some of the competing students are ex-service men, work- ing under the direction of the Federal Vocational Board. A CORRESPONDENT, Major J. R. Whitaker, writing from Grand Lake, Newfoundland, calls attention to a fact which some of the zodlogists of the American Museum have overlooked, namely, that the great mural in the hall of the Age of Man representing the migration of the reindeer and the mammoth cannot be described as of early spring, because the reindeer are still carrying their antlers. In response to an inquiry as to what time the Labrador and Newfoundland reindeer drop their antlers Major Whitaker writes (April 26, 1921) as follows: “The fully mature bulls shed their antlers usually between November 5 and 15 and the younger ones a little later. A three-year-old stag will sometimes carry his until about Dec.15, but that is late. A pricket will often not drop his until towards the end of December, and the cows carry theirs until well on in April. I once saw a cow with an 18-point head on April 20. This, of course, was an exceptional head for a female; however, I have heard of one being killed here with thirty-six points. “About fifteen years ago there were quite a lot of caribou in this country. The main migra- tion passes close to my place and I used to see large numbers go by every fall. We used to think it a very poor day if we did not see from-one hundred to four or five hundred moving over some large tundra. The spring migration is a much more leisurely affair. The stags and does with no fawns go north directly the snow melts. Many does remain on the high barrens south of the lake until they have their young, then move north. These you see passing up to about July 20. There are quite a number of caribou which live in the southern part of the island and never come north at all.” It will be necessary, therefore, to change the legend on this mural to “‘A Late Autumn Migra- tion of the Reindeer and Mammoth along the River Somme,” because there is no question that the reindeer in Pleistocene times shed their an- tlers exactly at the same season of the year as they do now. This error, now corrected by Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn, is an NOTES 213 instance of how easy it'is to slip into a seasonal ‘anachronism and how difficult it is to assemble all the facts for the restoration of conditions in the remote past. Each of these murals is to be regarded as a trial hypothesis subject to develop- ment and correction from time to time as fresh discoveries are made and learned criticism and suggestions like those of Major Whitaker are received. The mural representing the early Neolithic stag hunters, at the western end of the hall, has by way of encouragement, received some recent confirmation in one very important particular, namely, the racial characters of the men of the Campignian Age. In designing this mural Professor Osborn ventured to assign the Campig- nian culture of northern France to early mem- bers of the fair-haired northern race arriving in northern Europe. Marcellin Boule, in his recent work, Les Hommes Fossiles, partly assents to this opinion. The veteran Swedish archzologist, Montelius, writing in the Antiquarian, traces the Campignian culture into Denmark and possibly into Sweden and expresses the very positive opinion that these people were the direct ances- tors of modern Scandinavians and, consequently, of the Nordic race. These murals not only have been seen by thousands of visitors since they were begun four years ago, but they are now sending their information all over the world through the pages of L’Iilustration, London Illustrated News, New York Times, Midweek Pictorial, and Na- ture. In the issue of the last mentioned weekly for April 21, 1921, Professor Osborn has re- described the hall of the Age of Man as it now appears. Director F. A. Lucas is issuing a special Guide Leaflet descriptive of this hall, based on the article which appeared in the May-June, 1920, number of NATuRAL History. In the meantime the Neanderthal group has been completed by Mr. Charles R. Knight and is placed over the east doorway. To the right of this are four spaces for murals, which will be devoted entirely to the fauna of the Rancho- la-Brea, the famous tar pools of southern Cali- fornia, including especially the sloths, the im- perial mammoths, the saber-toothed tigers, and the wolf of the period in the first large mural of the eastern wall. In studying the mammals for this composition the Museum is greatly aided by the personal direction of Prof. John C. Merriam, to whom the world is principally in- debted for our knowledge of this wonderful fauna. It is planned to complete this mural during the present year. Mr. Rotto H. Beck, leader of the Whitney South Sea Expedition, has recently sent to the American Museum two shipments of specimens from the field. One of these, comprising the birds collected at Tahiti, has not yet arrived, but the other, representing about 340 skins and a series of nests and eggs from Christmas Island and the Marquesas Archipelago, reached the Museum in April, together with a set of photo- graphs from the same localities. This material proves to be of high scientific value and for the most part the species are new to museum col- lections in the United States. The land birds number several species which are rapidly being exterminated by the mon- goose and by other agencies in Polynesia, and which, therefore, it might not be possible to obtain a few years hence. Among them are two species of fruit pigeons, several kinds of Old World flycatchers, including the, warbler which is peculiar to Christmas Island, as well as kingfishers, swifts, etc. The water birds include three species of boobies, two of tropic birds, one of the man-o’- war bird, seven of terns, five of petrels, and many more. Among them are several quite new to the collections of the American Museum of Natural History. Particularly noteworthy are the series of a rare white-breasted petrel, known as Fregetta albigularis, splendid series of the ghost tern (Gygis), the extremely rare blue ternlet (Procelsterna), and four breeding exam- ples of a species of man-o’-war bird described by Gmelin in the eighteenth century but not previously represented in America except by one or two immature examples. All these, as well as the specimens of the red-tailed tropic bird—one of the most beautiful of all sea birds— include examples in all stages of growth from newly hatched chicks to fully mature birds, and it is almost needless to add that in quality and exactness of the accompanying scientific data, the specimens are of the usual standard of the material collected by Mr. Beck. They should form the basis of important work in both or- nithological classification and zodgeography. The latest word from Mr. Beck is contained in two letters dated March 17, the day before he was to start for the Austral Islands and Rapa, to be gone about a month. This phase of his work ought to prove especially worth while, for it will take him south of the region of South Equatorial Drift into a zone where winds, ocean currents, and the temperature of the waters are all different from those of the region in which he has been. working. The fauna should also show a corresponding difference, and we may confidently expect a shipment of specimens of equal excellence after his return. THE sixth annual meeting of the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists was held Tuesday, March 8, 1921, at the Acad- emy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, Penn- sylyania. Dr. E. W. Gudger and Mr. Henn of the department of ichthyology, and Mr. G. K. Noble and Mr. Camp, of the department of herpetology represented the American Museum of Natural History. Among the interesting 214 é papers presented were: “Snakes Swallowing Their Young in Ancient Fable,” by F. G. Peck; “Notes on the Habits and Morphology of the Nurse Shark,’”’ by Dr. E. W. Gudger; ‘‘Some Notes on Amphibians Collected in China in 1920,” by H. H. Wilder (presented by Miss L. Smith); ‘‘Some Remarks on a New Method in the Study of Bone and Cartilage as Applied to Herpetology,” by. G. K. Noble; “Some Observa- tions on Local Amphibians and Reptiles,” by J. F. Street; and “The Fishes of Butler County, _ Pennsylvania,” by H. W. Fowler. The next meeting of the Society is to be held in conjunction with the American Society of Mammalogists, which meets with the American Society of Ornithologists. It will be the first occasion on which all groups of vertebrate zodlogists will meet together. THE Irwin Expedition of Indiana Univer- sity, consisting of Dr. C. H. Eigenmann, Miss Adele Eigenmann, and Dr. William Ray Allen, devoted the period from June, 1918, to June, 1919, in part to the collecting of fishes in the highlands of Peru. In May, 1920, Doctor Allen started, without English-speaking associates, on the Centennial Expedition of Indiana Univer- sity for the purpose of extending the survey of the fish fauna to the lower levels of the rivers of eastern Peru. The plan pursued by the latter’ expedition was to collect exhaustively from a few representative localities in the river basins, for the most part within the great Department of Loreto. In addition to shorter sojourns and trips, ten days were spent at Puerto Bermudez, and a month in the vicinity of Contamana on the lower Ucayali; a fortnight was devoted to the Puinahua and Pacaya, and another two weeks to the region of the Iquitos. A cruise a month in duration was made along the upper Marafion from Iquitos to the Pongo de Manseriche, and along the tributaries, Tigre and Morona. An examination of the lower Huallaga was made possible by a sojourn of three weeks in the region of Yurimaguas. A large number of families of fishes and of aquatic mammals are represented in the waters of this region, many species of fish from the lower Amazon becoming distributed to the very foot of the Andes and throughout oriental Peru. INTERESTING news has been received in con- nection with the excavations that are being made at Aztec, New Mexico, by Mr. Earl H. Morris with the aid of the Archer M. Hunting- ton Fund. It has been known for a long time that the interior court of this ruin contained a great kiva, more than forty feet in diameter. This kiva has now been excavated and proves to be a very interesting structure indeed. It has a tier of rooms around it in circular forma- tion, thus resembling a wheel. The most in- NATURAL HISTORY teresting point, however, is that underneath this kiva was an old structure apparently belonging to the first building at Aztec. From this were taken about 200 pounds of pottery fragments, from which it will be possible to reconstruct thirty or more complete vessels. The impres- sive thing about this pottery is that it is pre- cisely of Pueblo Bonito type. Not only is the common run of pottery found at Pueblo Bonito represented in this collection, but from the débris were taken two effigy vessels, one repre- senting a deer and the other a seated hunch- ~ backed figure similar to those found at Pueblo Bonito by Mr. George H. Pepper. The dis- covery of this pottery, therefore, quite clears up the chronology of this ruin, showing without a doubt that it was established by people from Pueblo Bonito or the neighboring ruins and is, accordingly, of later origin than the ruins in the Chaco Cafion. 5 Mr. Earl H. Morris has under preparation a _ full report on this most recent find, which will be ready for publication shortly. The large collection of pottery obtained last year from the neighboring site on the Navajo Reservation is now on its way to the American Museum and arrangements. have been made for the excavation of the same site. There are good reasons for expecting a very large collection. THE Founder’s Medal of the Royal Geo- graphical Society has been awarded to Mr. Vilh- jalmur Stefansson “for his distinguished services to the Dominion of Canada in the ex- ploration of the Arctic Ocean,” and the Patron’s Medal to General Bourgeois, Senator for Alsace “for his long and eminent services to geography and geodesy.” At the foundation of the Royal Geographical Society, William IV granted an annual donation of fifty guineas as a premium for the encouragment and promotion of geo- graphical science and discovery. From 1832— 35 those honored with the award received the sum in money; since 1836, however, gold medals have usually, though not invariably, been bestowed instead. The Founder’s Medal bears on the obverse side the portrait of the Founder, King William IV; the Patron’s Medal has impressed upon it the portrait of the reigning monarch. Other awards made at the same time were as follows: the Murchison grant to Commandant Maury, for his surveys in the Belgian Congo; the Bach grant to Miss Marian Newbigin, in recognition of her contributions to geography, especially to the geography of the Balkans; the. Cuthbert Peek grant to Captain J. B. L. Noel, for his reconnaissance of the eastern approaches of Mount Everest and other geographical ac- complishments; and the Gill Memorial to Lieu- tenant Colonel M. N. MacLeod, R.E., for his contribution to the theory of survey from air photographs. \ titan —\ as 1 Y NOTES 215 On the third floor of the American Museum there has recently been on exhibition a series of posters urging humane treatment of animals. The posters are the work of pupils of the ele- mentary schools of Greater New York and were submitted in the Humane Education Poster Contest held under the auspices of the New York Woman’s League for Animals, in which the late Mrs. James Speyer took a keen interest. The prize-winning drawings and many, too, which failed to achieve that distinction, are interesting not only from the standpoint of execution but also from that of their concep- tion, which has a freshness often lacking in the more labored efforts of adult draftsmen. All of the posters express that love for dumb brutes which is such a pleasing trait in chil- dren. The poster by Fred Fountain, grade 4 B, Public School 94, Queens, to which was awarded the first prize in class I, is an original assemblage of colored cut-outs pasted ona paper background. It represents a horse and a turkey separatedfrom each other by a fence, with a fringe of grass in the foreground. The first prize in class II was won by a pupil named Aventiniglio, in grade 8 A, Public School 40, Manhattan. The Subject is “Willing Workers” and represents three horses pulling abreast. A pleasing fancy is revealed in the sketch by Ethel Plate ‘Love All Pets,’ which depicts a rabbit and a bird seated at opposite ends of a neatly spread table, the one with a carrot before him, the other with a bowl. A drawing of a caged rhinoceros by David Cohen, Public School 175, Brooklyn, car- ries the caption. ‘How would you like to be caged far away from home?” Joun Burrovucus’ son, Julian Burroughs, and Dr. Clara Barrus, literary executor of the John Burroughs estate, have given their endorse- ment to a plan for a Memorial Association to take over and care for Slabsides, Riverby, and Woodchuck Lodge (the three places most closely associated with the life and writings of the poet- naturalist) and the Memorial Field, where the mortal remains of Burroughs lie buried. A call for a meeting of Burroughs’ friends, for the purpose of selecting a Memorial Committee, was sent out by Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn, Dr. Frank M. Chapman, Dr. G. Clyde Fisher, Mr. Carl E. Akeley—all of the American Museum —and Mr. Hamlin Garland, Dr. Clara Barrus, Mr. Kermit Roosevelt, Mr. Irving Bacheller, Mr. W. Ormiston Roy, and Mr. Edwin Mark- ham. The meeting was held at the American Mu- seum on April 15, and was attended by a large number of Burroughs’ friends. On resolution of Mr. Garland, a committee of nine was chosen to have the organization incorporated as a Memorial Association, devoted to the purpose of acquiring and preserving the places associated NEVER STINE TREAT THEN VELL An effective poster, with a striking caption, that arrested the attention of visitors to the recent exhibit. DONT OVER-BURDEN YOUR HORSES To this poster was awarded the first prize in class II of the Humane Education Poster Contest. Design by.a pupil named Aventiniglio with the memory of Burroughs and of promoting and extending his spirit and teachings. The members of the committee are: Doctor Chapman, chairman; Dr. G. Clyde Fisher, Mr. Hamlin Garland, Mrs. Henry Ford, Mrs. Thomas A. Edison, Judge A. T. Clearwater, Mr. Kermit Roosevelt, Mr. Carl E. Akeley, and Interior of a natural history museum established through the codperative effort of boys enrolled in the summer camp in the Interstate Park. On the table to the left are specimens of their taxidermy "POISONOUS 2225 ite £ aot OF THE RAIL An inte resting sec tion of the museum was that devoted to live snakes, including not a few that had to be labeled “handle with care’ 216 NOTES 217 Mr. W. Ormiston Roy. The organization, now incorporated, is ready to begin active work. Tue memory of John Burroughs can be honored in no more fitting way than by assuring to posterity the kind of influences that were so deep an inspiration to him. Of happy signi- ficance, therefore, is the memorial offered the great naturalist by the Conservation Com- mission of New York State in codperation with the Raymond Riordan School, located at High- land, Ulster County, New York. By the boys of this school there will be planted this year on state lands near Big Indian in the Catskills, not far from the place where Burroughs was born, no less than ten thousand trees, which will constitute the nucleus of a forest that will be enlarged by additional plantings year after year. The work was begun by the boys on April 17. How a museum may be built up through the coéperative effort, wisely directed, of a group of youngsters is illustrated by the Boy Scout Museum established at Kanohwahke Lakes, Interstate Park, New York. On the three lakes with contiguous shore line that constitute this group are located eighteen camps, each on an average composed of one hundred boys. The problem of interesting the boys, whose stay in many cases is limited to two weeks, in natural history, early presented itself to the directors in charge. They hit upon the happy plan of building up a natural history museum by en- listing the boys to collect the specimens for the exhibits. Such a suggestion was a great incen- tive and served the double purpose of creating a center for the study of nature and at the same time of teaching natural history in the course of its establishment. Real zest developed when the boys realized that they were building a museum which actually belonged to them and which was expanding due to their individual and united effort. The leaders in this movement were selected from boys whose stay in camp was to extend throughout the summer. These in turn brought into the group the boys who were to do the field collecting. A small library was acquired and the end of the season witnessed an exhibit of which the boys had every reason to be proud. With such good results was the experiment attended that those arriving late in the summer, when the museum was in full development, were constantly asking for leave to visit it, and many earned points for their camp emblem by study of the specimens in the museum as well as by field observations. A very creditable mineral collection was made, the dumps of the old iron mines providing a valuable source of supply. The American Museum interested itself in the undertaking and loaned a collection of the birds of the park and other nature exhibits in cases. The New York Zodlogical Society loaned a good collection of snakes. With these acquisitions the central pavilion took on a real museum atmosphere. The coming season at Kanohwahke Lakes promises to be one of great activity, supported financially by the Interstate Park Commission and by the Boy Scout camps. The sum’secured from these sources will make possible a per- manent scientific staff of at least four experts in the natural sciences. On the evenings of Wednesday and Saturday of each week visiting scientists will give the boys informal talks. Special hikes will also be organized under these auspices. In addition six young naturalists and certain Boy Scouts who have shown special proficiency in nature study and in the instruction of others will help in the work. THE period of May 22-28 was set apart by proclamation of the President of the United States as Forest Protection Week, during which citizens were requested to do their utmost to bring before the people at large the serious effects of the present unnecessary waste by forest fires, and the need of individual and collec- tive efforts in conserving the natural resources of America. Thirty-three thousand -or~more forest fires occur each year, involving a loss of approximately $20,000,000 and about 12,500,000 acres of timberland. A large percentage of these fires can be prevented through the exercise of greater care and vigilance. THE National Academy of Arts and Letters, of which John Burroughs was an_ honored member, will hold a John Burroughs memorial meeting on the afternoon of Tuesday, November twenty-second. This meeting will be similar to those held in honor of William Dean Howells and other members of the Academy who have recently passed away. Professor William M. Sloane, president of the Academy, has invited President Henry Fairfield Osborn of the Ameri- can Museum, to deliver one of the addresses on the occasion. The other speakers selected are Dr. Frank M. Chapman, curator of ornithology, and Messrs. Bliss Perry and Hamlin Garland. Mr. Davm Cuartes Davies succeeds the late Dr. Frederick Skiff as director of the Field Museum, Chicago. Mr. Davies has been connected with the museum for no less than twenty-seven years and has worked in close association with Doctor Skiff, whose assistant he was. He superintended the removal of the museum exhibits from the building in Jackson Park to their imposing new quarters in Grant Park. Mr. J. Rem Mor, of Ipswich, England, has recently made a collection in book form of his 218 NATURAL HISTORY writings on pre-Paleolithic man, to which he has added some new material. He takes up the much discussed question of the evidence of human handiwork on the pre-Paleolithic flints— the so-called eoliths—which have been dug up in great numbers in England. Mr. Moir en- deavors to show by chipping experiments of his own that these flints could not have received their present form through accidental fracture or pressure. : Mr. Moir, it will be recalled, has been active for more than a decade in the discovery and discussion of evidence bearing on the “ Eolithic problem” or, in other words, on the question of the existence and activity of man during Tertiary times. His name is especially linked with the supposedly intentional type of flint implement known as the rostro-carinate or “eagle beak,” found at the base of the Red Crag formation of Pliocene date, in Suffolk. The authenticity of this implement is championed by no less a personage than Sir Ray Lankester, and if this opinion should prove correct, the find is the oldest surviving evidence we have of the in- telligent expression of the human mind. Mr. Moir has also discovered in and about Ipswich a human skeleton beneath the chalky bowlder clay, as well as several open Aurignacian and Magdalenian floors with hearths and worked flints. He was one of the authorities to pass judgment on the supposed implements found with the Piltdown man. These he distinguished as Eolithic and pre-Chellean.—N. C. N. THE disastrous famine that is today deci- mating the Chinese provinces of Honan, Shensi, and Chihli, is due, according to foresters of the United States Department of Agriculture, to the wanton destruction of the forests and ‘the failure to take any steps toward reforestation. Where formerly tree-covered mountains ab- sorbed much of the annual rainfall and regulated the stream flow, so that there was throughout the year a steady supply of clear water, today a treeless, shrubless, and even grassless soil offers no resistance to the roaring torrents which in times of rain replace the shrunken streams of muddy water that trickle down through the rest of the year. Crops cannot grow under condi- tions such as these and people starve. Once upon a time the Hwang or Yellow River, which drains a large part of the famine-stricken region, flowed through a fertile valley, the hills adjacent to which were well wooded. Today the river is for most of the year a moving quick- sand, its water reduced to a minimum. When the floods come, the aspect of the land is com- pletely changed. In 1886 this river, which is known as “China’s Sorrow,” flooded about 20,000 square miles of territory, sweeping away thousands of villages and towns and iss. a toll of 2,000,000 lives. The plight of China may serve as a warning to the rest of the world. A country that squan- ders its natural resources is ultimately doomed to decadence. Tue Hon. Herbert Hoover, Secretary of Commerce, invited investigators, administra- tive officers, and all other interested persons to meet June 8-10 at the Fisheries Biological Sta- tion, Fairport, Iowa, for a conference regarding the conservation of resources of interior waters and the ways and means of applying science more effectively to their preservation and in- crease. With the growth of population and the development of industrial communities along the rivers and lakes of our country, the public waters have become increasingly unfit as places of abode for the fish and other forms of life to which in the past they offered sanctuary. To ascertain whether such a condition of things is avoidable and, if so, what steps can be taken to effect improvement, was the purpose of the con- ference. The gathering provided for full and general discussion, which might be from the points of view of codperation in scientific research, the training of men to prosecute investigations, the education of the public, the reconciliation of conflicting group interests, the union of effort to secure adoption of appropriate conservation measures, and the possibility of periodic gather- ings for promotion of harmonious action. ; “NATURAL HISTORY” THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT Narurat History, entering its twenty-first year, is coming of age. During 1921 it will appear as a bimonthly, beginning with the issue of January-February. It will continue to represent exploration, all branches of natural history, anthropology, nature education, and the ever vital cause of the conservation of the beauty of the world’s forests, flowers, and animal life. Among the articles in train for early publica- tion are “Rancho-la-Brea” and “The Restora- tion of Extinct Animals” by Henry Fairfield Osborn; “ Experiences in a Volcano Observatory” by T. A. Jaggar, Jr., of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory and ‘“‘ The Great Extinct Volcano, Haleakala,” by E. O. Hovey, curator of geology and invertebrate paleontology, American Mu- seum, both articles accompanied by impressive illustrations; “The Cordilleran Ice Sheet” by L. C. Read, whose splendid pictures of Llewellyn Glacier will be recalled by readers of the maga- zine; “ Wind and Rain as Influences on the De- velopment of Life in Southern Ecuador” by H. E. Anthony, associate curator of mammals of the Western Hemisphere, American Museum; “Some Little Known Songs of Common Birds” by Fran- cis H. Allen; “Phosphorescent Animals and _ Plants’ by Ulric Dahlgren, director of the Harps- well Laboratory; ‘“‘ Nature Study with the Micro- scope” by Phillip O. Gravelle; “The Part Played by Fish in the Control of Yellow Fever” by Dr. Michael E. Connor, of the International Health Board of the Rockefeller Foundation; “Nature Study in a Summer Camp” by G. Clyde Fisher, associate curator, department of public education, American Museum; “The Artistic Anatomy of Trees” by John W. Harshberger, professor of botany, University of Pennsylvania; “Pitcher Plants and Their Moths” by Frank M. Jones; “ Pictures of Miocene Fish” by David Starr Jordan; “‘The Staten Island Museum”’ by Charles W. Leng, its director; ‘““A Women’s Ceremony among the Hopi” by Robert H. Lowie, associate curator of ethnology, American Museum; “ Urus and Bison” by W. D. Matthew, curator of vertebrate paleontology in the Amer- ican Museum; “The Geology of New York City and Its Environment” by Chester A. Reeds, associate curator of invertebrate paleontology, American Museum; articles on Indian Corn by Charles W. Mead and Henry M. Steece; “‘ Mak- ing Naturalists in Norfolk Street” by Mrs. John I. Northrop; “The Miami Aquarium” and “What Sharks Really Eat” by John T. Nichols, associate curator of fishes, American Museum; “The Search for the Marsupial Frog” by G. K. Noble, assistant curator (in charge) of herpeto- logy, American Museum; “How Diamonds are Polished” by Herbert P. Whitlock, curator of mineralogy, American Museum. Several of our most distinguished contribu- tors during the last twenty years, like Peary and Roosevelt, have passed away, but their memory and inspiration will be kept alive through the work and writings of the younger men whom they have inspired. Among those whose articles have appeared in NATURAL History in the past are numbered the following: EXPLORERS AND NATURALISTS Carl E. Akeley Malcolm P. Anderson Roy C. Andrews H. E. Anthony Rollo H. Beck William Beebe Herbert L. Bridgman Leo E. Miller Barnum Brown Robert Cushman Mur- James P. Chapin phy Frank M. Chapman = Henry Fairfield Osborn George K. Cherrie Robert E. Peary James L. Clark Knud Rasmussen Henry E. Crampton Theodore Roosevelt Vilhjalmur Stefansson W. Elmer Ekblaw Adolphus W. Greeley William T. Hornaday Ellsworth Huntington Herbert Lang Donald B. MacMillan ZOOLOGISTS AND ANATOMISTS (Mammals, birds, fishes, reptiles) Joel A. Allen Alfred M. Bailey Thomas Barbour Ernest Harold Baynes John Burroughs Eric Dahlgren Raymond L. Ditmars Charles E. Eastman | David Starr Jordan Frederic A. Lucas C. Hart Merriam Thomas S. Palmer Bashford Dean Hugh M. Smith Ned Dearborn R. W. Tower Mary Cynthia Dicker- Charles H. Townsend son Walter Winans ANTHROPOLOGISTS (Evolution of Man) Franz Boas J. Howard McGregor M. D. C. Crawford George T. Emmons William K. Gregory Pliny E. Goddard Alfred L. Kroeber Berthold Laufer Louis R. Sullivan Robert H. Lowie Clark Wissler George Grant McCurdy Robert M. Yerkes N. C. Nelson Frederick W. Putnam Marshall H. Saville G. Elliot Smith Harlan I. Smith Herbert J. Spinden 219 220 BIOLOGISTS (Marine and Insect Life) Frank E. Lutz Alfred G. Mayor Roy W. Miner John K. Small William Morton Wheeler T. D. A. Cockerell Edwin G. Conklin G. Clyde Fisher Frank R. Lillie Leo Loeb FOREST LIFE AND CONSERVATION, BOTANY Mary Cynthia Dickerson Henry S. Graves Barrington Moore William A. Murrill Charles C. Adams William F. Badé Edward W. Berry Mrs, N. L. Britton John B. Burnham T. Gilbert Pearson John M. Coulter George W. Perkins George D. Pratt EDUCATION, HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, SOCIOLOGY, AND PUBLIC HEALTH Walter B. James Douglas W. Johnson Maurice A. Bigelow L. H. Bailey Allan Brooks Robert Underwood Joseph H. Choate Johnson Frank S. Dellenbaugh William W. Keene John M. Finley Graham Lusk Hamlin Garland William H. Maxwell NATURAL HISTORY George Bird Grinnell Mrs. John I. Northrop Hermann Hagedorn William E. Ritter Walter G. Holmes George H. Sherwood Charles-Edward A. Winslow GEOLOGY, GEMS, MINERALS Charles R. Berkey John M. Clark L. P. Gratacap R. A. Harris Edmund Otis Hovey Charles R. Van Hise George Frederick Kunz Herbert P. Whitlock PAST HISTORY OF THE EARTH—PALZONTOLOGY Robert Brown William Diller Matthew Amadeus W. Grabau. Henry Fairfield Os- Walter Granger born ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS Howard Russell Butler | Sylvanus G. Morley S. A. Mitchell Michael I. Pupin Elihu Thomson ART AND ARCHITECTURE L. A. Fuertes Sigurd Neandross Charles R. Knight Will S. Taylor Howard McCormick _ S. Breck Trowbridge i i i i et NATURAL ~ HISTORY ~THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM * DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGH THE: MUSEUM MAY—JUNE, 1921 [Published August ] VoLtuME XXI, NumBER 3 NATURAL HISTORY VotumE XXI CONTENTS FOR MAY-JUNE NUMBER 3 Frontispiece, Portrait of Carl Lumholtz . 2.00. ..i 020042. fae 224 From a copyrighted photograph taken October 20, 1929 : My Life:of- Exploration (<2 2 cc Sy Russ oe ee CARL LUMHOLTZ 225 A narrative of scientific accomplishment and adventure in unknown parts of Australia, Mexico, and Borneo, with brief allusion to the author’s prospective trip through unexplored portions of New Guinea With numerous illustrations Heads: of African: Elephants... 5 svc asec eee: HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN 244 Disparity in size between that of the male and that of the female With a full page illustration The Second International Congress of Eugenics.......................++. 246 Aims and scope of this Congress, composed of scientists from all parts :s Pe wend et will canna at dae American Museum, September 22-28 With a portrait of Major Leonard Darwin The Cordilleran Ice Sheet. . ait perwwi A graphic description of the glaciers near aie ike! British Columbia With a copyrighted series of hitherto unpublished photographs Recent Movements of Swiss and Alaskan Glaciers......CHESTER A. REEDS 269 An explanation of the advance in some years and of the retreat in others of the glaciers of the two regions indicated What Sharks: Reatly: Bats ccs oon te ae ae eee Joun T. NICHOLS 272 — An account based on an examination of the stomach contents of several species of sharks, tending to refute the pre- vailing notion that all sharks are habitually man-eaters With copyrighted illustrations supplied by Dr. E. W. Gudger Fish as Mosquito Destroyers........ Bee ey MIcHAEL EDWARD CONNOR 279 The part they played in the control of yellow fever at Guayaquil, Ecuador Floods in the Pueblo District... veveeeteveet se vtys «CHESTER Allee The causes of the recent disastrous ‘shistlakdeea in Tiaioadc With a map of the region about Pueblo The Golden Age of Peru..........0.......0:.5.50....,. HAMERTORG eee An account of the treasures of the Inca period How Diamonds Are Polished . eee beget -H. P. Wurttock 201 An illustrated description of the technical processes ike are saueall to LE eg a dlawanelt in the rough into the exquisite brilliant of commerce Pitcher Plants and Their Moths................... FRANK MorTON JONES 296 The influence of insect-trapping plants on their insect associates Tobacco as a Cure for Ailments......... Deb bee Read ete) «ede Therapeutic uses of ‘‘the weed” in the New World and the Old Mr. Walter Granger and the Third Asiatic Expedition ....... Srna area ala A survey of this paleontologist’s previous accomplishments and a forecast of his work in the rites East Notes 505.2) aie y dpa! b wiv h anak bon don. ge be pig hve Bical eh tote WOR cling gr 322 Published bimonthly, by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Sub- scription price $3.00 a year; foreign $3.50. Subscriptions should be addressed to Henry P. Davison, Treasurer, American Museum of Nat- ural History, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. NaturAL History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges of membership. Entered as second-class matter April 3, 1919, at the Post Office at New York, New York, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. es ee a ee ee 7 Copyrighted photograph by Underwood & Underwood, October 20, 1920 NATURAL HISTORY MAY-JUNE, 1921 NUMBER 3 VOLUME XXI MY LIFE OF EXPLORATION BY CARL LUMHOLTZ ForEworp.—In the accompanying pages we have a unique contribution from a man who is a charming writer and above all a great explorer. This autobiographical sketch was prepared at the request ot NaTuRAL History and with a deal of modest embarrassment on the part of the author. Its charm lies in that in the writing of it Dr. Lumholtz took the same objective, discriminating view that characterizes his travel narratives. Later explorers following in his footsteps have often testi- fied enthusiastically to the skill and exactness of Dr. Lumholtz in hitting upon the outstanding features of each new environment encountered and his ability to convey these snapshots to the reader with few words. One thus gets the feel of the country from the printed pages. So when one reads the following narrative he obtains in retrospect characteristic glimpses of a career occupied above all with five major expeditions, each of which has added greatly to our knowledge of the re- mote corners of the earth. The collections and data from two of these great expeditions were de- ited in the American Museum. It has often been said that one of the greatest gifts and the rarest is the genius for exploration; however that may be, there can be no doubt as to the genius of Dr. Lumholtz.—CLark WISSLER. -T school as a ten-year-old boy, A I found the lessons about beasts . and birds of the most absorbing interest. At that time not much atten- tion was given to natural history in the schools of Norway and I was sorry after a short time to have to give up the study of animals for that of Latin and Greek. However, I later received some instruc- tion in botany and learned how to collect plants, and during the last years of my school days I devoted almost every afternoon in the season to such collect- ing. In that way I made a fairly repre- sentative herbarium of the phanerogam flora of inland Norway, which some years later was presented to the Kew Gardens near London. In taking my second degree at the University of Christiania I naturally chose the branches of natural science. I was particularly interested in zodlogy, which attracted me more than botany everhad. It was the desire of my father, who was a captain in the Norwegian army, to make a clergyman of me and, being of the old school, he did not see much value in the study of zodlogy. As theology did not appeal to me nor the position of clergyman in a state church barring the attractiveness of the farm with which he is provided, and as under such circumstances I could not make up my mind what course to pursue, I ac- cepted a position as teacher in a private family in the country and continued in that capacity for over a year and a half. Finally I decided to meet my father’s wishes. and study theology. The great naturalist, Michael Sars, father of the present Prof. G. O. Sars, of the University of Christiania, was a country parson at the time he made his startling discoveries of animal life in the deep fjords of Norway and at times I thought perhaps there might be a similar opening for me, through the gates of theology, to cultivate what was according to my inclination. I took my degree in theology but it had already become perfectly clear to my mind that I should never be a clergy- man. ‘To secure my degree I had had to work sixteen hours a day for several months; this strain brought on a nervous breakdown, which, however, unexpect- edly turned to my benefit. To regain the stability of my nerves I now de- 225 226 voted. myself exclusively to the collect- ing of birds and animals and to a study of their modes of life. The specimens secured I sent to the zodlogical museum of the University of Christiania and I always felt happy when Professor R. Collett’s letters of acceptance arrived with some remarks about the specimens sent. In the summer I made tours, always alone, up to the mountains in the central part of Norway, and how wonderful it seemed to be in touch with nature again! Never shall I forget how beautiful some clumps of small mountain willows looked one early morning as I passed through them in the enchanting summer light of the northern countries. After a rainy night, newly formed pools reflected the brilliant sunlight in which the leaves of the willows fairly seemed to sparkle. There was enrapturing freshness in the landscape, which was high above the usual abode of man. The beauty of nature took hold of me and I felt my freedom from the confinements of meta- physics and scholasticism. I was over- come by emotion and wept from joy. The winter was no obstacle to my en- thusiasm for zodlogy. The skiis, in themselves a wonderful stimulant to a love of nature, carried me far away into the hills and ranges surrounding Lille- hammer, my native town in central Norway, famous for the natural beauty of its environment. Love of nature took stronger and stronger hold of me and one day it oc- curred to me what a misfortune it would be to die without having seen the whole earth. I could hardly endure the thought which haunted me. There seemed very small prospect of my being able to realize my ambition because we were a large family and, although we were all very well brought up, my father had no fortune to speak of. One day, however, Prof. R. Collett pro- posed to me that I should go to Aus- tralia to collect animals and birds for the zoological museum of the university. NATURAL HISTORY I was elated at this suggestion. It was arranged also that the various museums of the university make contributions toward the expenses of my proposed ex- pedition. One of the best Norwegian sailing vessels, bound for South Australia with a lumber cargo, took me aboard as a guest, and after a hundred days of sailing we came to Adelaide. From here in due time I arrived at Gracemere, a cattle station near Rockhampton, Queensland, where the owners, Messrs. Archer, who were Norwegians of Scot- tish descent, had invited me to make my headquarters as long as I liked. After I had collected at this station for a few months, an opportunity came to accompany a wagon driver who was going to take provisions four hundred miles inland to Minnie Downs Station, which my friends also owned, on the Barcoo River. Here I spent some time collecting. Not far from the house, in the dry creek, a certain fossil shell was found in abundance; it was a gigantic Inoceramus from the Cretaceous period and turned out to be a new species (g7- ganteous). Riding one horse and leading my pack horse I continued my journey alone ‘westward to the Diamentina River, usually staying for a night at some sheep or cattle station, where hospitality is always extended to the traveler. I had a burning desire to continue the trip right to the Gulf of Carpentaria, but on the Diamentina River I contracted disagreeable wounds on the lower part of my legs, the result of bites inflicted by fleas living on the ground. This in- fection troubled me for several weeks, affecting my whole body, and finally obliged me to return to the coast. Mr. Walter J. Scott, a great “squat- ter’? whom I met in Brisbane, had been kind enough to invite me to stay at Herbert Vale, an abandoned cattle sta- tion which he owned on the Herbert River in Northeast Queensland, about 18 degrees south latitude. He had moved his station up to the highland & 7 old man in charge. _ of that lonely range. MY LIFE OF EXPLORATION about a hundred miles westward, but good buildings had been erected at the original place and he had left an Here I might make my headquarters as long as I desired. It was a very tempting offer and, as soon as circumstances permitted, I found myself at the deserted cattle station on the Herbert River. I at once sought the natives, who were prowling about in the neighborhood and who would come to the station every time we killed a bullock in order to se- cure the offal. These were so-called “civilized” blacks, that is to say, they. had picked up a few words of English and had learned to smoke tobacco, of which these aborigines are inordinately fond; they were ambitious to secure such ornaments as a cast-off shirt or, better still, a hat,—to their mind the principal distinction between a white man and a black. These savages, with very few exceptions absolutely nude, who seemed to fit so well with their surroundings, at once attracted me, and on my daily excursions into the neighborhood, proved to be good companions. The coast range not far away, at an elevation of four thousand feet, seemed always to beckon to me so invitingly; there ought to be rare, probably new, species of animal life in the dense jungle But how to get there when the blacks of that region were reputed to be “‘bad’”? After a while I decided on a bold undertaking, to camp and travel with these aborigines alone. I felt that surely they would help me to find animals hitherto unknown to science. As far as I know, no white man has ever attempted to camp alone with the wild natives of Australia; the first warning the colonists give you is, “Never have a black fellow behind you.” My daring was, however, richly rewarded by the finding of new species of mammals, by the insight gained into the life of primitive man, and by the intense in- terest derived from real touch with na- ture. 227 Courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons. Native Australians from Northeast Queens- land with their characteristic wooden clubs and shield. A wooden sword is on the ground This sojourn for the better part of a year in the coast range near Herbert River became, in fact, the opening chap- ter of my lifeasanexplorer. Thus far I had been a zodlogist. My life, how- ever, among the blacks of Northeast Queensland awakened my interest in primitive man, and since then native races have been my life study. From my headquarters I usually took along a dozen or more pieces of mildly salted and dried beef, some flour, and a small quantity of sugar, but as these provisions were quickly consumed be- cause I was obliged to share them with my men, who were very fond of them, I also secured from my men the food that the natives use. There is a vine growing in that jungle that has a comparatively large root, which is excellent eating when roasted, but unfortunately it is rather rare. As for the rest of the vege- tables that the blacks in those parts of the country use, they are very unat- tractive. Some of them in their natural state are actually poisonous, and have to undergo a process of heating and soak- ing in water before they may be eaten. 23m NATURAL HISTORY An Australian black fellow climbing a gum tree by the aid of a vine cut from the jungle. With the left hand he holds on to a notch in the vine and, after looping the tree with the free end, winds that end around his right arm. By flipping upward his rope-like support, he skil- fully ascends In respect to meat I was somewhat. better off. The large lizards should not be despised, but the flesh of snakes was dry and practically unfit as food, though the liver is as pleasing to the taste as that of chicken. I often ate the ani- mals and birds I skinned, but most of them were unpalatable. The meat of the tree kangaroo (Dendrolagus lumholtzit), which I had the pleasure of discovering, was, however, really attractive in taste, reminding one of game; this is very far from being the case with the meat of the ordinary kangaroo or of the wallaby. My favorite dish was the larva, eaten toasted, of a large brown beetle; the larva is found in decaying acacia trees. Contrary to what one expects the Australian native cooks his food well, and if there is the slightest indication of the meat smelling, he throws it away. He does not know the use of salt. The curious “incubating” habit of the “‘brush turkey” (talegalla), which deposits its eggs in large mounds, there to be hatched by themselves, now and then offered us a chance of sitting down to a really good meal, for the eggs are large and very tasty. From the natives I learned the use of honey, which since then never has been missing on any of my expeditions. It makes a wholesome and pleasant drink and is rich in vitamines. Every evening the blacks at my re- quest made a hut of branches, which was rather low but long enough to en- able me to stretch out at full length, an opportunity for relaxation which the natives are never particular about. If it looked like fine weather, my men did not even trouble to make any hut for themselves. Their one preparation for a comfortable rest was, by the aid of a stick and their fingers, to make a hole in the ground big enough to fit the hip. To keep warm in the night three or four would sometimes huddle together, abso- lutely nude’ and without any cover whatsoever. A very important part of my outfit was tobacco, which served me instead a tes MY LIFE OF EXPLORATION 229 of money; for tobacco they would do anything. In Australia the “weed”. imported from ‘America could be pur- chased as plates of the strong “nigger- head” variety and, ‘when about to be used, was broken up in sticks of the size of a finger. Clay pipes were also taken along, for the tobacco is never chewed by these natives. They were well satis- fied with a small bit but had to be paid for any services, however trivial, that they did. Next to tobacco my gun exercised great powers over them though I always had to bear in mind that missing my aim even once would mean a dangerous reac- tion in their estimate of the white man’s superiority. During the latter part of _ my stay, whenever I found the behavior of my men less satisfactory, in the eve- ning just before going to bed I would fire a shot from my revolver, which they called “the gun’s baby” and for which they had a wholesome fear. It reminded them of my superiority. Not one word more was said. It was like my “good night” to them. We naturally slept around the same fire, which at first they insisted upon making small in order that their enemies should not discover their whereabouts. It was a very fortunate circumstance for me that in the winter time when I be- _ gan this camping life I used to feel cold at night in spite of the fact that I had brought along a blanket. I had to rouse my lazy black fellows and induce them to secure more wood for the fire. By being disturbed in this way they got it into their heads, as I later discovered, that the white man slept but little and always had the “ baby” ready. I had one friend among the savages, a young black fellow called Yokai, who took a singular interest in the white man, helped me to gather men for my expe- ditions, and evidenced a certain attach- ment to me. He loved tobacco and all the things I had seemed to interest him; nothing made him as happy as to be al- lowed to make damper, the bread of those who rough ‘it in ‘Australia,’ con- sisting of flour and water and cooked in the hot ashes. _To him no doubt I owed my life, as he on one occasion said to me ‘it was.no good killing the white. man.” He was remarkably naive and_ often blurted out information about the other blacks which was of. the greatest’ value to me. Nevertheless, I felt that if mat- ters were brought to a crisis, I could not depend even upon him, for the Austral- ian blacks are like big children. I never knew when he might be persuaded by his elders to allow them to kill me, which they most likely would have done by smashing my head with a stone during the night. My little supply of tobacco, my shirts, and above all my white blanket were objects of envy to my men, and in con- sequence there was a constant tempta- tion to kill their possessor. One reason why the blacks became very dangerous was that one of my own blacks had killed a lone white man who was attempting to reach the highland by walking. I exerted myself to have the murderer punished and the blacks all turned against me. I always treated them justly and I did not feel called upon to shoot any of them; in fact, I have not as yet shot any man. My friend Yokai reproached me for being too kind. “You are not angry enough,” he once said. “Shoot them, shoot plenty,” he added. There was nothing else to do but to return to civilization and I was truly glad when I arrived with all my collections at the sugar plantation on the lower part of the Herbert River. I had discovered, in addition to the tree kangaroo above mentioned, three other mammals. I was close on the track also of another animal, a large, carnivorous marsupial which the natives called yarri. This animal still awaits discovery. That it really exists I do not doubt, because in such matters the natives are to be de- pended upon. The first three months of my camping 230 NATURAL HISTORY life with the natives of Australia are the most interesting, I might almost say fascinating, time I have had. I was then at the zenith of my power and it is, of course, pleasant to be the first, even among admiring savages. My whole sojourn, covering many months, with the men of the Stone Age was, however, an experience I am glad to have had. The senses of the Australian blacks are superior to ours, their eyesight extra- ordinarily so. As he walks through the jungle, this savage man will constantly, without stopping, scoop up a handful of the soil and smell it, to ascertain whether some animal has passed that way or not. On the trunks of the trees there is always seen a bewildering num- ber of claw marks left by different ani- mals, for most of the animals of that region live in trees. He reads, as in an open book, what kind of animal ascended that tree the night before, and whether it is now up in the hollow of the trunk. The most interesting scene I have witnessed during the many years spent with natives of different countries was the annual settlement of disputes, in use among the blacks of Herbert River. It is called bérbobi and is, in fact, dueling conducted on a large scale, several pairs fighting at the same time by throwing boomerangs and clubs, then spears, and ending by pounding each other with the heavy wooden swords used in North- east Queensland. Huge shields are used for protection. On the occasion I at- tended one man was mortally wounded by a spear which actually went through the shield and into his stomach. After having written a book on Aus- tralia’ I went to the United States to lecture on my unusual experience and also with the hope of being given an op- ‘An account of my Australian travels of four years was published in several languages,—the English edition Among Cannibals, by John Murray, London, 1889, followed a little later by the American edition, under the imprint of Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York. The French edition, Au Pays des Cannibals, was published by Hachette et Cie, Paris. portunity to make researches among the primitive men of the American contin- ent. My lectures created considerable interest and as early as the autumn of 1890 I was able to realize my project of exploring the northern part of the Sierra Madre, Mexico, conducting an expedition under the auspices of the American Museum of Natural History and the American Geographical So- ciety. Professor W. Libbey of Prince- ton University joined the party and as we were about to enter a little-known region, I thought it advisable to take along a few collectors in the dorian of natural. history. Starting from Bisbee, Ateprae in September, I entered Mexico through San Pedro, traveling in a southerly di- rection through Sonora and then turn- ing eastward up into the Sierra Madre at Nacori. From here on to Casas Grandes in Chihuahua we had to make our own trail, which was done successfully in spite of the fact that it was winter and the size of my party considerable. With nearly a hundred animals—mules, don- keys, and horses—we crossed the Sierra Madre, at times camping in the snow. To this day our trail has remained the commercial road between the States of Sonora and Chihuahua. Arriving at the Mormon colony, Pa- checo, on the eastern slopes of the Si- erra, we found some very interesting old cave dwellings to explore. Later on we settled on the lowlands of San Diego, where for many months excava- tions were made of several large mounds that covered house groups. We un- earthed about five hundred pieces of beautiful pottery. Among the fifty-five mammals se- cured on this first expedition to Mexico was a superb-looking red squirrel of the high Sierra, which received the name of Sciurus apache. Our botanical collectors, Messrs. C. V. Hartman and F. E. Lloyd, found themselves in a hitherto neglected field and their labors were rewarded with the finding of twenty-seven new MY LIFE OF EXPLORATION 231 a coert ast Courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons Although the majority of the Tarahumare Indians live in simple shelters, usually made of rough pine boards leaning against each other, they all love caves. for a change of domicile, others live in them permanently. Many families go to the caves In fact, these Indians may properly be called the cave dwellers of the America of today species of plants, some of them of much importance. After an absence of some months in the United States I returned toward the end of the year to my camp at San Diego, and in January, 1892, with a much re- duced force began my second expedition to Mexico, ascending again the Sierra Madre and following it southward. At Tutuhuaca we met with a new spe- cies of pine (Pinus lumholtzii), which is very ornate on account of its slender, whiplike branches and its long, hanging needles. Later we often saw it growing in groups at high altitudes on decom- posed volcanic tuff. For one and one-half years I traveled in the extensive and picturesque coun- try of the Tarahumare Indians, the great tribe of the State of Chihuahua. In order to save expense and to concentrate my efforts on ethnological research in the interesting region in which we found our- selves, I dispensed after a few months with my assistants, Mr. C. H. Taylor, civil engineer and photographer, and Mr. A. E. Meade, mineralogist. Mr. Hart- man remained a few months longer as assistant in ethnology. Finally, how- ever, I conducted my investigations alone, following the wild (so-called gen- tiles) Indians into the distant retreats in the deep cafions for which the States of Chihuahua and Durango are famous. The Tarahumares are timid, honest, and bashful people, their habits and customs often being singularly inter- esting. Their dances, a kind of religious exercise, have been minutely described by me. A dancing place is found near all dwellings and on it is raised a small wooden cross to which to dance, and which represents a man with arms outstretched, Father Sun, the perfect man. By selling most of my animals and a large part of my outfit and through the untiring efforts of two American ladies whose friendship I highly esteemed, I was enabled to continue these researches until August, 1893, when I took my Tara- humare and Tepehuane collections to Chicago and exhibited them at the World’s Fair. Extensive vocabularies of the Tarahumare and Tepehuane languages as well as a vocabulary of the now almost extinct Tubares were among the results of this expedition, besides Courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons BARRANCA DE SAN CARLOS IN CHIHUAHUA It may be compared with the Grand Cafion of the Colorado so far as depth is concerned, and the sides are steeper, but the latter excels in extensive and picturesque views. The present picture, showing one of the author’s carriers, a Tarahumare Indian, in the foreground, was taken’in the upper part of the cafion, which is not as deep as the lower part MY LIFE OF EXPLORATION anthropological measurements, samples of hair, and osseous remains. The great possibilities Mexico offers to ethnology proved an irresistible in- centive to new researches, and seeing the results of my previous expeditions, the American Museum of Natural History of New York again sent me out on what was to be my third and most extensive Mexi- can expedition, lasting from March, 1894 to March, 1897. During these three years I again traveled alone, that is, without any scientific assistants. I had with me at first two or three Mexicans; soon, however, I found that my best compan- ions were the so-called civilized Indians, or even Indians in their aboriginal state, who not only helped me by their mere presence to win the confidence of their tribesmen but also served me as subjects of observation. As before, I stopped for months with a tribe, discharging all alien attendants, and roughing it with the Indians. In this way I spent ten months among the Coras and Huichols. At first the natives persistently opposed 233 me; for Indians are very distrustful of the white man, and no wonder, since he has left them little enough and they are therefore forced to guard that little the more vigilantly. I managed, however, to make my entry into their midst and gradually to gain their confidence and friendship, mainly through my ability to sing their native songs and by always treating them justly. . All along my route I gathered highly valuable material from the Tarahumares, the Northern and the Southern Tepe- huanes, the Coras, the Huichols, and the Tepecanos,—all of which tribes except the last-named dwell within the Sierra Madre del Norte; also from the Nahuas on the western slopes of the Sierra, as well as from those in the States of Ja- lisco and Mexico; and, finally, from the Tarascos in the State of Michoacan. Of most of these tribes little more than their name was known, and I brought back large collections illustrating their ethni- cal and anthropological status, besides extensive information in regard to their Huichols of the author’s party crossing a swollen torrent on a bridge of their own construction HUICHOL BOY Raising maize and hunting the deer, as well as trequent participation in religious ceremonials, occupy the time of youths as well as men among this mountain people 234 loa MY LIFE OF EXPLORATION customs, religion, traditions, and myths. - Talso completed my collection of vocab- ularies and aboriginal melodies. Especially fruitful in results was my stay with the Huichol Indians. These Indians had been known mainly to a small number of Mexican _half-breed traders and I was the first white man to visit them. The country was difficult of access and Mezquitic, the little town from which the tribe is reached, is distant three or four days’ journey on muleback. The isolation of these In- dians on a tall spur of the Sierra Madre had been their salvation and I found them living practically in the same state of culture as when Cortez put foot on American soil. They had their temples and sacred caves, which were filled with symbolical objects of singular interest, thus throwing light not only on the cultural status of a barbarous tribe but even on that of their far more advanced kinsmen, the Aztecs. When my friend, that great ethnological ~ genius, the late Frank Hamilton Cushing, saw the exhibition of my Huichol collec- tion at the American Museum of Nat- ural History, he exclaimed, as he let his eyes pass over the richly laden tables of the room: “This is like seeing a new species of man.” Of the ethnological results gained dur- ingmy travels in Mexico I consider the in- formation which was collected about the anciently well-known peyote (lopho- phora) among the most important. It is a well established fact that this little cactus when partaken of exhilarates the human system, allays all feeling of hunger and thirst, and produces color visions. In the Huichol tribe this highly interesting plant cult reached its greatest development. The Tarahumares also worship this plant. In order to collect hikuli, as the cactus is called, a pilgrimage lasting forty-three days is annually undertaken into the State of San Luis Potosi. Of late years the hikuli cult has, strangely enough, been adopted by 235 Si Courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons A flower (Gnothera trichocalyx) of the desert. It usually makes its appearance along the courses of the dried-up creeks certain tribes in the United States and well meaning people are trying to stop this on the ground that it is a kind of -debauche. Nothing could be farther from the truth. By all manner of means prevent the Indians from getting the white man’s brandy, which ultimately and surely ruins them, but hékuli, or peyote, is an entirely different matter. As far as my experience goes, the par- taking of peyote is not injurious to health; besides, the cult is observed only during a limited season of the year. The ef- fect of the plant on the nervous system is very different from that of alcohol; the balance of the body is,even better than 236 NATURAL HISTORY The author’s pack train wending its way through the Sonora desert. their graceful outlines to the shaping force of the winds under normal conditions. There is noth- ing vicious about the hikuli cult. Ab- stinence from sexual intercourse is im- posed on its devotees and a marked ef- fect of the plant is temporarily to take away all sexual desire. - On my journey through the Tierra Caliente of the Territory of Tepic, and the States of Jalisco and Michoacan, I obtained a number of archeological ob- jects of great historical value and im- portance. Among the antiquities se- cured may be mentioned a beautiful jar in the shape of a turkey, strikingly or- namented with thin gold plates. Fur- thermore, a number of large terra cotta figures were found in a subterranean chamber near Iztlan representing ancient Tarascan culture. About three hundred skulls of Mexican Indians were collected in the course of my first expeditions to the republic. These were all described years ago in a scholarly work by Dr. A. Hrdlicka. The publication of this im- portant work has thus far been impos- sible through lack of funds but it is to be hoped that such funds may be pro- vided for the purpose in a not distant future. In 1898, accompanied by Dr. Hrdlicka, I revisited the Tarahumares and the The sand dunes owe Huichols. In 1905, I alone visited the Huichol and Tepecano Indians. My observations of the latter tribe have not yet been published. In 1909-10 I made my last expedition to Mexico, traveling in.the Sonora Des- ert and the southern part of Arizona, a fascinating country in spite of the arid conditions prevailing there.. The won- derful colors of the late afternoon, the glorious sunshine, the peace and calm of night, and the thrills that accompany early dawn are sources of constant de- light to the traveler. The extraordinary adaptations of plant and animal life, even the domestic animals of Indians and Mexicans subsisting without difficulty for months without water, cannot fail to interest the observer. With the excep- tion of the Seri and the Pima Indians, the natives of the desert had so far re- ceived little attention from those engaged in the study of primitive races. The Papago are the great desert people of America and are remarkably stable in their racial characteristics, still preserv- ing the traditions and habits of the past, which soon will disappear. I was fortunate in being able to de- scribe their harvest festival and in other ways to give an insight into their MY LIFE OF EXPLORATION 237 A drinking pool in the Sonora desert. lava formations, water is also obtained tribal life. It is well authenticated that the tribe knows a cure for hydrophobia and, in order that the secret shall not die with the tribe, I may take this occa- sion to state that the main ingredients of the medicine. are certain excrescences, of wonderful antiseptic quality, found on the greasewood (Covillea tridentata), the humble but very attractive bush of the desert. My researches in Mexico and the Southwest, extending from Casa Grande, ‘Arizona, down to west of the City of ~ Mexico, thus covered a period of nearly eight years, six and a half of which -were peent among the Indians of those regions." Ever since my adventurous life among the blacks of Northeast Queensland it had been my desire to explore New Sam the largest island on the globe, .1My publications on Mexico are, Satins minor articles: Unknown Mexico, in 2 -2 vols, illustrated, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1902. New Trails in. Mexico, illustrated, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1912... s, Symbolism of the Huichol Indians, Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, Ig00. - y Dasative Art of the Huichol Indians, Mem- oirs of the American Museum of Natural History, 1904. In the cavernous depressions, known as tinajas, of the and among the least known regions thereof. In 1914 it really seemed that I was on the point of realizing the dream of my youth. I found myself in Batavia, Java, about ready for the start east- ward to New Guinea. It was a Nor- wegian Expedition, which had the sup- port of their Majesties, the King and the Queen of Norway; the Norwegian Geo- graphical Society, the Royal Geographi- cal Society of London, and the Royal Netherlands Geographical Society, each made a contribution to my funds, which, besides, were increased by American and English friends. With the outbreak of ° the great. war, however, my plans suddenly had to be changed. His Ex- cellency, the Governor General of the Dutch Indies, Mr. A. W. F. Idenburg, regretted his inability to give me a mili- tary escort and other assistance for car- rying out my plans, and advised me to await a more favorable opportunity. As I had never been in British India, I decided to go there while awaiting de- velopments. In India I studied Hindu religions, a fascinating occupation, but after eight months spent there I decided ‘to return to the Dutch Indies and under- take an expedition to Central Borneo, parts of which are unexplored and un- 238 NATURAL HISTORY known to the outside world. The © Governor General with the greatest courtesy assisted me in furthering my project, and gave me a small escort of six Javanese soldiers under the command of a Dutch lieutenant. An _ excellent ‘native surveyor was attached to the expedition and for part of the time one of the government’s photographers. The journey through central Borneo, which ‘consumed nine months, was suc- cessfully made. There are no roads in Borneo, all communications being by water, the large rivers enabling the traveler to ascend far inland. Numer- ous rapids, often very difficult to con- quer, have to be passed. In the cen- tral part of the great island, the absence of life—in other parts abundant—was very striking. The only birds that you might hear or see were the great hornbill, the sandpiper, and a kind of kingfisher. No more fish were caught in the rivers; there were not even mos- quitoes, hence there is no malaria in the interior. As for human beings, large tracts of the inland country are unin- habited. ' There was no change, however, in the exuberant richness of the tropical vegeta- tion. As we ascended the Upper Busang River, the scenery was often beautiful beyond words; silence reigned supreme. It was like having a pleasant dream. Courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons The floor of the desert sometimes rivals the “ribbed sea sand” in its minute sculpturing. Such wavy lines owe their origin to the action of the wind. The scene is of the desert northwest of Pozo del Caballo, Sonora I extended my travels to other parts of the great island and thus spent the better part of two years among its very inter- esting natives. They form many differ- ent tribes, which, however, present many similarities and are therefore included under the general name of Dayaks. Some of the tribes I met with had never been studied before. I may, perhaps, not be accused of being immodest in claiming the credit for having been able to put the head hunters of Borneo in the right light before the civilized world. My researches prove that this very repulsive and extraordinary custom of taking heads is not due to particular viciousness on the part of those who practise it, but has its foundation in their vivid realization of a life after this; in fact, to the Dayaks, as to many Oriental people, there is no essential difference between this life and the next. At the very moment that a Dayak cuts off the head of a man belonging to an- other tribe, his soul conquers that of the departed, who becomes his slave. If that head, or in other words the soul residing in it, is treated well, it becomes a friend and guardian of the tribe. Such a head protects against the evil — spirits and even insures material bene- fit. This is in a few words the idea un derlying head hunting. F 6£z UdU VULDIPSu pue s[etoygo aduraq se yons ‘aqui ay} Josroquiow yuvzIodu 94} IO} poaArosel sip PUL dINJOVJNULUL BAT}LU JO SI pozeas SI 9Y YITYM Ul Ireyo-Asva snorNd ay], ‘a[doad sty} Jo satuowiera9 oy} Jo AuvW ut Jed yuRII0dUT Ue shed UNIpP oy JE ‘UNIP Pe9A0I-ULYs-Ja9p STY Sut}eaq s[oyIIN}T oy} JO uevw oulipou y Trey 94} Surpurq 10; pesn Uoqd! - WaAOM B ynq ded B }OU SI URUT dq] Jo pyvg 94} UO Joalqo ay, ‘asn oj Jou “JusUeUIO Io} are sayonod cYyy, ‘oNsHAe A[ZuTYstUo}se Buteq uazjo SUSISIP 94} ‘UsUIOM oY} Aq UPAOM aie UvUT dy} Aq UIOM dsoy} o¥I] sayonod _ , PUB SPI “al sty pu sfoysInyy 94} JO uv ouoIpew yurjodun uy a” Be Fg yiriha mile — § om Farther up_the‘river men_of the Kenyah tribe of Borneo have been beating the roots of the twba vine to free.the poisonous ‘uices therein contained. These j juices, mingling with the waters, stu- pify the fish and thus make possible their capture. In the picture women of the tribe are seen with hand nets held in readiness to scoop up the fish that are being carried along helpless in the current gl 1 hah Sections of bamboo stalks are used as containers for;rice or for pork, important ‘tems in the diet of the Dayaks. A little water is added but no salt. "As long as the stalks are green, they resist burning. Rice cooked in this way has a sweet, delicious flavor 240 MY LIFE OF EXPLORATION The long-nosed monkey (nasalis larvatus) is peculiar to Borneo. These creatures are some- times found in groups of a hundred or more travelling through the forest by swinging from branch to branch These ‘‘ wild men of Borneo” neither tell lies nor steal. To appropriate the property of another is a thing they take good care not to do, for a thief in the next life will be seen carrying around on his back all the stolen goods, thus ex- posing himself to ridicule and contempt. The Dayaks are hospitable, generous, and loyal. During the two years I traveled among them I never once ob- served children quarreling or fighting. The results of my journey were very satisfactory. Vocabularies of many tribes were studied and collected; an- thropometric measurements were taken and much new information gatheredabout the habits and customs of the natives. I brought back material for several treatises, especially in regard to the decorative art of the Dayaks and also concerning a much developed protective system which certain tribes possess in carved wooden figures called kapatongs. Skins of mammals and birds were se- cured, as well as specimens of fishes and reptiles in alcohol. So far only the mammals have been examined; these yielded one new species and two new subspecies. It is a curious fact that both among the Chinese and the Malays individuals 24t are met with who are thoroughly con- vinced of the existence of brown men with short tails. Many will tell you that they themselves have seen them. I was able to collect from the Dayaks the legend of the tailed men, which may be found in my book on Borneo.' The Great Archipelago in which I found such a remunerative field for my efforts appeals to me more than any other part of the earth which I have visited. In its humid and warm cli- mate I thrived, feeling, in fact, better there than here. The great possibili- ties of discovery in those distant islands fascinate me now as they did when I Courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Sons The Manx cat is not the only one witha rudimentary tail. In Borneo there is a do- mestic feline that is either stub-tailed or with a ball at the end of its exceptionally short caudal appendage was in Australia. I have decided to devote the rest of my life to science, to visit little known or unknown parts of the earth with the hope of increasing our knowledge from a geographical and anthropological point 1An account of my exploration of Borneo is given in Through Central Borneo—Two Years’ Travel in the Land of the Head Hunters, Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1920. 242 NATURAL HISTORY ea sak Page G 1. IS Oe eek * Mb a glece> Me tet From a cinematographshowing a Penyahbong of Central Borneo gracefully executing a war dance practised by many Dayak tribes. Be- fore seizing his sword and shield and indulging in the more violent movements of the dance, he went through the preliminary of exercising all his flexible muscles. His motions were lithe as those of a serpent of view and also with the expectation of making further contributions in the field of natural history. I am more than ever interested in carrying out my New Guinea project, which was so unexpectedly thwarted by the outbreak of the war. No country offers such rewards to the intrepid ex- plorer as New Guinea, the largest island on the globe, lying just to the north of Australia with which it was once con- nected. In 1920 I went abroad in the hope of securing in Norway the necessary funds for -this the greatest of all my undertak- ings. If I had come one year earlier, I should have gotten all the money needed, and more, my friends assured me, but the great financial depression which had then begun to manifest itself in Norway made it impossible to secure more than a small part of what was needed. It must be said that my coun- trymen did all that they could to further my purpose in which they are intensely interested, but “ Ultra posse nemo ob- ligatur.”’ I am now trying to get the necessary support in the United States for an enter- prise that cannot fail to give the valuable results desired and which may prove of direct benefit to civilization by the dis- coveries I expect to make. This is not the place for a detailed account of my plans, which I shall always be most happy to furnish to anyone interested in the matter, but may I not be allowed in a few words to state the object of my proposed expedition? I intend to cross New Guinea from south to north at its broadest point, having chosen a route where no white man has ever been before me. We shall have to cross at an elevation of 10,000 feet the great Snowy Range, whose high- est measured peak is 18,000 feet. From the time when I shall have established my headquarters at the foot of the range until I am able to emerge on the north coast of the island, one year will have elapsed. The backbone of MY LIFE OF EXPLORATION The artistic ability of the Dayaks expresses itself in carving rather than in music. Never- theless, they have musical instruments, the chief of which is here represented. Its notes are rather pleasant my expedition will be 175 Dayaks, who will be brought to New Guinea from Borneo. They are to be our carriers, builders of boats and of houses. I shall have two taxidermists and a botanical collector; an experienced geologist, whom I hope to secure in the United States, will be an important member, for this great island is of particular interest to geology, which here will find the solu- tion of many of its most important prob- lems. For many years I have studied the food question, and there need be no fear that beri beri or kindred diseases will attack the expedition. Among people who know, it is the uni- versal verdict that no region offers such inducements for exploration as New Guinea. We expect to meet natives 243 that have never seen a white man. Whenever a collector has gone up a hitherto unvisited river in New Guinea, he has invariably brought back new spe- cies of birds of paradise, and without any doubt we, too, will discover new species of these most gorgeous creatures. We are confident, too, of coming upon new species of mammals, some, maybe, of considerable size. Superb. butterflies and interesting land shells may be ex- pected. Botany will naturally gain much that is novel. In geology, speci- ally valuable results may be antici- pated, and we are likely to find new minerals. Thus we may hope to make a valuable contribution to the history of the earth, as well as to our present knowledge of the mineral, plant, and animal king- doms. Some of our discoveries may even prove of great economic value. A tame horn-bill that often came to roost on the author’s tent. The Dayaks refrained from laughter, no matter how ridiculous were the antics of this bird, for they hold the belief that those who laugh at animals will be stricken with illness HEADS OF AFRICAN ELEPHANTS DISPARITY IN SIZE BETWEEN THAT OF THE MALE AND THAT OF THE FEMALE BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN N recent studies of the Probos- | cidea, living and extinct, I have been very much impressed with the marked contrast between the males and the females throughout the whole period of their evolution. This, in fact, has attracted the attention of observers from early times. The disparity in size between the sexes appears to be even greater than among other ungulates. For. purposes of comparing the head in the two sexes, I have recently had pho- tographed from above two superb heads in the American Museum. The male belongs to the subspecies Loxodonta afri- cana peeli. It was obtained in northern Uganda in the year 1911 by Mr. Carl E. Akeley, and was chosen as the typical bull for his African Elephant Group, which is nearing completion. It is shown in the accompanying photograph, >> natural size. Photographed to the same scale is the head of afemale. This speci- men belongs to Mr. Paul J. Rainey, who collected it north of Mt. Kenia, and is re- garded as a record female in weight and in length of tusks. It will be observed that the tusks of the female, while ex- tremely slender, are almost as long as those of the male. The spread of the ears is almost equally great, but there is a marked disparity in the size of the head, also of the proboscis. The exact proportions have not been established, but it would appear that the head of the female .is not two-thirds the mass of that of the male. Closely similar disparity is found in the Amer- ican mastodon, of which the Amer- ican Museum collection contains fine 244 examples of both sexes. The tusks of the female of the mastodon are equally slender. In commenting on the relative size of the tusks of these two heads Mr. Carl E. Akeley reminds us that the cow is very old and the tusks have reached prac- tically their limit of size, whereas the bull is young, under thirty-five years, and, barring accidents, had he lived to the age of the cow, his tusks would have been at least twice as long as they now . are—that is, the exposed portion of the tusk. The proportionate size of the ears varies greatly’ in individual ele- phants. These remarks apply in less degree to the relative size of the skull in male and female African elephants, which is probably fairly shown in a these photographs. Apropos of the condition of the ars in the female, Mr. Haagner writes from South Africa that many of the females in the Addo herd, which has recently been nearly exterminated, are without tusks. The deliberate decimating of this herd in South Africa is the latest episode’ in the long history of crimes committed by man in the world of mammalian life. In a single shoot, under pretense of protecting the crops and of keeping down’ the nagana disease, the herd was reduced from one hundred to sixteen. While the government has stepped in to prevent further killing, it is doubtful whether this small herd of sixteen, which is all that remains of the vast numbers that roamed over southern Africa in former times, will be of sufficient size to preserve this southern species from extinction. yysuez 4yuesoid 94} 991M} Ysva_T ye poulezj}E aAey p[nom sysnq sty Jo zed pasodxa oy} ‘ays se BuO] SB IAT] 07 poz} fuied useq ay pry pue ajvuroy ay} ueYy} JosUNOA SI aJVU AY, «= pa} BSuoTa s10UL yuni} sity pure Joryynd st ayeur sy} Jo pray sy} ‘suaumtoeds 03 94} ut yenba Ajayeurxoidde st siv9 ay} jo ueds oy} oTTYM 7eY} 9I0N “299d YUDIIAID DUopoxoT saredsqns 94} Jo SI syeW ay, *9ZIs jeanzeu 1194} yo §* 0} psonpei yueydaja UBoLTY 77 OUa] a wes Say een 2 ee | owe | ——= = “IN TW MAJOR LEONARD DARWIN Because of his untiring devotion to the cause of eugenics and his eminent accomplishments in furthering that cause Major Darwin’s selection for the delivery of the opening address at the Congress of Eugenics, to be held at the American Museum, September 22-28, is one that cannot fail to command wide approval 246 THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS F transcendent importance will be the Second International Congress of Eugenics, which is to be held in the American Museum of Natural History, September 22-28, nine years after the First Eugenics Con- gress, which assembled in~ London. There is no subject so vital to human wel- fare and to the ultimate destiny of man- kind. The great war has taken an ap- palling toll of the best stock of each na- tion; it has spared many less desirable types. Those whom the draft found unfit and who, through the immunity thus enjoyed, are relatively a larger element in the population than be- fore, will have their part, a dispropor- _ tionate part, in fixing the physical and mental types of the generations that are to succeed. All important, therefore, is a congress such as the one that will gather, for only through the inter- change of thought among those who have given intensive study to the sub- ject can light be thrown on the question of racial improvement. The Congress will open in the new Hall of the Age of Man on Thursday eve- ning, September 22. President Os- born of the American Museum will pre- side and give the address of welcome. Major Leonard Darwin, President of the Eugenics Education Society of Great Britain and Presiding Officer at the First Eugenics Congress, will deliver the opening address on the ‘history of the eugenic movement from its institu- tion by Francis Galton. Dr. Charles P. Davenport, the present leader of the eugenics movement in America, will review the progress which has been made in America and will outline the program of the Second Congress. The comprehensiveness of the pro- posed program is indicated by the fact that it is divided, according to subject matter, into four sections. The leading address of Section I will be given by Dr. Lucien Cuénot, of Nancy, France, one of the great students of heredity, whose researches among the lower organisms have enriched science. This section will occupy itself with the results, on the one hand, of investigations in the do- main of pure genetics in animals and plants and, on the other, of studies in, human heredity. The application to man of the laws of heredity and the physiology of reproduction, as worked out in the case of some of the lower ani- mals, will be presented. Dr. Herman B. Lundborg, of the Uni- versity of Uppsala, Sweden, an author- . ity on psychiatry and neurology and widely known for his painstaking study of disease as a factor in’ heredity, will deliver the leading address in Section II.. Dr. Lundborg, conducting an investiga- tion similar to that made by Dugdale of “The Jukes,” examined the records of several thousand individuals of a Swedish family of unfortunate heredity extending over a period of some two hundred years. The investigation has been character- ized as “the most comprehensive and thorough examination of a family that has ever been made.” Section II will weigh the factors which influence the human family. First among the agen- cies for the improvement of the race is a proper understanding of the significance of marriage. Those who enter into such a union should appreciate the fact that it involves in most cases the destiny of other lives, in addition to those of the contracting parties. A knowledge of the significant family traits of which each of the parties to the proposed mar- riage is the bearer and the method of inheritance of these traits should, no less than natural sentiment, govern those who would wed. In this connec- tion will be brought forward data bear- ing upon improved and unimproved families and showing the persistence, generation after generation, of the best as well as the worst characteristics. The fecundity of different strains and 247 248 the application of social and legal con- trols in the case of strains that are un- desirable is a subject deserving the pains- taking consideration it will receive. Phases of this question are the undue postponement of marriage and the re- striction of the birth-rate among those often best fitted to transmit their char- acteristics to the next generation, and the unrestrained assumption of parenthood by inferior stocks. The effect of war, epidemics, and endemic diseases upon different elements of the population, resulting in a differential mortality among the eugenically superior and in- ferior will receive due emphasis. Dr. V. de Lapouge, of Poitiers, France, author of The Fundamental Laws of Anthropo-sociology, The Social Réle of the Aryan, and other noteworthy vol- umes, whose race studies have yielded important results, will present the lead- ing address in Section III. This sec- tion will concern itself with the topic of racial differences and their significance. It is the popular tendency to confuse race with nationality. Political bound- aries and differences of language do not constitute differences of race. Indeed, within a single nation there may be several racial strains;—France, for in- stance, furnishing Nordic, Alpine, and Mediterranean types as one travels from north to south. The migration of races, the influence of racial characteristics on human history, the teachings of the past in their bearings on the policies of the future will receive attention in this section. Certain prejudices directed toward existing races will be dispelled when allowance is made for the influ- ence of their social and educational en- vironment, and their fundamentally sound and strong racial characteristics are brought to light. On the other hand, it will be shown that the develop- ment of certain races has limits that cannot be passed and that it is futile, therefore, to try through education and environment to change their funda- mental characteristics. Consideration NATURAL HISTORY of the advantages and disadvantages in- volved in the mingling of races and of unions that have proved fateful to social progress, falls within the sphere of this section. Differences in racial resistance to disease will also be dis- cussed. Section IV, dealing with applied eu- genics, is of culminating importance. The leading address in this section will be delivered by Major Leonard Darwin, one of the sons of Charles Darwin, and himself distinguished for notable achieve- ments in more fields than one. Born in 1850, he was educated at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and in his subsequent career in the Army served for five years on the Staff, Intelligence Department, War Office. He was a member of several scientific expeditions; he has served in Parliament. Among the offices which at one time or another he has held are: President of the Royal Geographical Society; Chairman of the Professional Classes, War Relief Council. Since 1913 he has been Chairman of the Bedford College for Women, University of London. He is President of the Eu- genics Education Society and presided at the First Eugenics Congress in 1912. Section IV will discuss eugenics in rela- tion to the state, to society, and to edu- cation, and will bring the subject to bear on the various social problems and movements of the day. “Eugenics in International Affairs,” “Some Eugenic Aspects of the Problem of Population,” “Educability and Inheritance’”—titles which appear among the announced addresses for this section—indicate to some extent its scope and purpose. About sixty scientists from all parts of the world have already arranged to give addresses on different phases of eugenics. It is anticipated that the number of papers will far exceed the op- portunity of their presentation. A large number of scientific bodies and institu- tions, some as remotely situated as the University of Punjab, India, have sig- nified their intention to send delegates. — ” | ~ Congress. THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS — 249 Efforts are being made to raise funds to bring from Europe and remote parts of the Americas the most representative workers in the field of Eugenics. An opportunity is offered for those inter- ested to become patrons of the-Congress by subscribing $500 each, to be ex- pended for this purpose. The Carnegie Institution has made a grant of $2,000 toward the entertainment of the dele- gates to the Congress and toward the expenses of certain European scientists. The following organization and_ indi- viduals are already enrolled as patrons: Race Betterment Foundation (through Dr. John H. Kellogg), Charles K. Gould, Archer M. Huntington, Cleveland H. Dodge, Mrs. Worthan James. For the purpose of the Eugenics Exhibition, allusion to which was made in the March-April issue of NATURAL History (p. 206), Mrs. E. H. Harriman has contributed $2,500. There are two classes of members, sustaining members and active members. Sustaining members will have the privi- lege of attending all sessions and gather- ings of the Congress and they will re- ceive bound copies of the Proceedings of the Congress. Their names will appear as sustaining members on programs and in all permanent publications of the Dues for this membership are $100. Active members will have the privilege of attending all sessions of the Congress. They will be enrolled as Active Members and will receive a certificate of membership. Dues, $5.00. For any information concerning the Congress, address Dr. C. C. Little, Secretary-General, American Museum of Natural History, 77 Street and Central Park West, New York City. Though the American Museum will be the center of activity of the Congress, visits are planned also to other places. On September 25 an excursion will be made to Castle Rock, the residence of President Henry Fairfield Osborn of the American Museum. On September 28 a trip is planned to Cold Spring Har- bor, Long Island, where the Congress will be welcomed by the department of genetics of the Station for Experimental Evolution, Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington. As a result of the views interchanged during its sessions, the Congress will un- doubtedly on disbanding disseminate a great many constructive suggestions, the adoption of which should tend to ele- vate humanity and bring into the range of vision the goal toward which it is striving. When one thinks of the stag- gering public burden that is being car- ried because of the existence in the pop- ulace of elements that on account of inherent incapacity or depravity can never be other than a drag upon their fellows and a source of irritation to them- selves, it would seem that any gathering looking seriously to the ultimate correc- tion of such evils and to the establish- ment of better ideals of life could not fail to win the support of all thinking men. : Onc $$z aBed uo uoljeI}sn]]I ay} UT pouTeyzqo si YIM JO MATA JoIvaU v ‘ST[R] YSIFT SI JaZUI }J9T BY} prVMOT, ‘oINJoId ay} Jo FYSII 9y} Satdns00 yng Plog Jo pus Yynos ay, “WMOYS o104 SI— WWIUINS S$} WI; afqeure}zqo MarA pIpua|ds 94} Aq papiVMal SI OYM ‘JaquIT[D dy} 0} uorj}e}duI9} e—uTeyUNOUI aAIssaiduII sty} Jo uoNIod y ~ NIVINOOW Nassow ‘> i a Tint ln hk Aika eal THE CORDILLERAN ICE SHEET* BY L. C. READ HE Cascadian region cannot fail : to inspire with enthusiasm’ the student of glaciers and glacial ac- tion, for it was the seat of the great Cor- dilleran ice sheet of Pleistocene times. There is abundant evidence that the region was covered, over an extent of hundreds of. miles, by superincumbent ieethousands of feet in‘thickness. ‘The ice must necessarily have been of great depth to flow to termini as distant as those which the evidence postulates. | ‘On the east, the Cordilleran coalesced with the Keewatin ice sheet in the region of the Rocky Mountains. In the north, it evidently flowed far toward the Arctic via the Yukon River, but in a much thinner sheet than to the west and south. The evidence seems to be conclusive that the ice flow extended south into the state of Washington some eight hun- dred miles distant and even reached .S Idaho and Montana. Given a grade of but twenty feet to the mile, the ice must have been sixteen thousand feet above sea level to have arrived at its termini. To the west— where one is filled with wonder at the mighty work accomplished—the ice had to traverse less than one hundred miles to reach the sea. Even if the grade was much greater in that direction, the ice must have been thousands of feet deep as it shoved its way far out into the Pacific to the point where the bergs tore themselves free from the parent field. These stupendous bergs may have circled for a time in an eddy of the great Gulf of Alaska, swinging in a mighty or- bit to the diapason of Old Ocean, before starting south to tropical waters, there to be dissipated. Grinding, jostling, pushing oneanother, turning somersaults, scintillating prismatic colors of great beauty and mammoth design, slicing off protruding promontories here and there from the shore, sometimes grounding and massing the whole parade, ploughing the succession of great fiords that constitute the famous “Inside Passage” to Alaska, reshaping the whole Pacific coast line for a thousand miles;—such must have been the stupendous scene that was enacted where the opposing forces of the Japan Current met the cold air and waters of the North Pacific, unfortunately for us before man had a written Janguage. If we take Surprise Lake, twelve miles east of Atlin Lake, as the névé or dome of alimentation (which seems but rea- sonable as it is the highest lake of any size in the region), we shall find a reces- sion of altitudes in every direction for many miles; but as we arrive at the peri- phery, we notice a very marked increase in elevations. This leads one to suspect that before glaciation the head waters of the Yukon were much higher than at present. The study of the rivers and mountain ranges discloses the mighty struggle Mother Earth had with this great pro- tuberance of ice upon her breast. De- pression must have occurred; then after the ice receded, an effort at readjust- ment came into play, which may be, probably is, proceeding at the present time. The rivers and creeks seem to be searching, almost in vain, for a feasible route to the sea,—they evidence a lack of decision that is quite noticeable. Sloko Lake is but two and one half miles from Atlin Lake to the south, but is some two hundred and fifty feet higher. At one time it drained into Atlin Lake; later the outlet was filled with morainic de- position and its course changed in con- sequence. The outlet at present fol- lows an erratic course, first moving to the east, then bending to the south and west, finally joining Taku River and emptying into the Pacific, thus in its later stage reversing the direction it had originally taken. *Article and illustrations copyrighted by L.C. Read, 1921 251 252 The present front of Llewellyn Glacier is about two miles from the shore of Lake Atlin and near its southern end. The average rate of recession seems to be about twenty feet per annum. If this has been constant, the ice left the shore of the lake more than five huncred years ago, and the north end of the lake, some twenty-three thousand years ago,— a calculation. which corresponds. very well with estimates as to the beginning of the post-glacial. period. If condi- tions remain the same, recession should be’ completed in about ten thousand years,- when there. will be discoverable hardly a remnant of the present glacia- tion. There are few real glaciers of good size more easily accessible than these of the Cascadian region, if one knows the routes to pursue. And yet, probably the most readily attainable one of all, Llewellyn, is coyly hidden amidst the wilds of northern British Columbia, in a practi- cally new and wild region. To visit Llewellyn Glacier, we disem- bark from the boat at Glacier Bay, and an easy walk of two and a half miles by wooded trail and terminal moraine takes us to the face of the ice. A few minutes’ climb over morainic débris lands the aspirant on the ice. Women, and sometimes men, hesitate at this point, thinking of crevasse, moulin, bergschrund, and other dangers that may confront the climber, as the Buide assists in adjusting ‘‘ice creepers” and runs out the long rope that all may have something to hang on to, while traversing the first two hundred yards to the more nearly level ice field above. When this is attained, the rope is coiled up and every one is at liberty to traverse at will, the nearly level ice plait, which is many miles in extent. On the right is the wreck of the great ice arch of 1919, illustrated on page 617 of the December, 1919, issue of NATURAL History. Only the abutments are left now, covered with gravel. No. one would suspect the structure had ever NATURAL HISTORY existed except for the photograph and background. High above the remains of the arch, in all their majesty, rise the ‘ snow-covered peaks of Mussen Mountain, which is a long range extend- ing south well into the ice field. It was from the southern peak of this mountain that the panorama photograph of the northeastern portion of the névé (p. 614, NATURAL History, December, 1919) was taken, August ro; 1918.’ In a southern direction the seracs (ice. pinnacles) are several miles away; nevertheless, many people make a start for them, not realizing the distance. The thirsty climber eagerly drinks the clear, cold ice water found running in pretty, ice-blue rivulets on the surface and disappearing in crevasses Or mou- lins of great depth and loveliness. On the left, about a mile distant, the wide, fan-shaped medial moraine is slowly coasting along on top of—and quite a bit above—the otherwise smooth surface, to its destiny as an addition to the ground moraine, thence to be scat- tered, sooner or later, by the streams flowing into Glacier Bay, silt-coloring that body of water for miles before sink- ing. Beyond the medial moraine towers the precipitous. face of Tsatia (an Indian name meaning rocky mountain), with Sloko Range beyond, ten to twenty miles away. To the right of Tsatia and several miles away, Llewellyn Moun- tain, a giant nunatak, with its sharp peaks, cirques, and beautiful, cascading glaciers, is bound to bring into requisi- tion one’s binoculars, with a sigh over the fact that it is too far away for a climb unless one is prepared to camp out a aight or two. You look down into a crevasse or moulin and discover that you not only cannot see the bottom, but that you cannot even hear the chunks of ice you throw down strike the bottom. Then you realize that the ice is several hundred feet deep where you are standing; and then, perhaps, you may feel a slight jar THE CORDILLERAN ICE SHEET under foot, coupled with uncanny grind- ing and creaking, and horrible demon groans sounding up from dungeon depths below,—and you take.a more or less hur- ried leave for terra firma. ° But you want to go to those seracs. If you are a good walker, take a lunch with you and make an early start. south peak of Mussen for the view of the névé, which is hidden by the seracs al- though it is about six thousand feet above sea level. With creepers . you can descend safely to the bergschrund, taking care to find a solid carapace on which to leave the ice and ascend the mountain. The higher you go, the more vast and grand is the view, and'you feel well repaid even if it is late in the Evening when camp is reached. After visiting the seracs you may climb the = * 253 older species, the Cascadian Revolution, when these very mountains were newly born, the slow progress of Palzeolithic and Neolithic man, the too short span of human life, our puny physical strength on the one hand, our wonderful anatomy and intellectual achievements on the ‘other, and finally the great future. We view with the eye of retrospection this vast work of glaciation, this mighty accumulation of snowflakes, this master- ful work of frost and snow and rain. - visualize the majestic moving of the -tremendous ice mass as a whole, slowly, ‘surely, unintermittently grinding away We the mountain slopes through the ages, carving valleys, making depressions for ‘a most wonderful chain of lakes;—Lin- derman,: Bennet, Tagish, Marsh, Atlin, Surprise, and Teslin, with many smaller Atlin Harbor offers sanctuary to not a few ships Sitting in the gloaming by the cheery camp fire after the evening meal,—the silent, sentinel pines dimly lighted, the black wall of night beyond, the vast, unpeopled, primitive wilderness — sur- rounding,—our thoughts revert to the long ago. We think of the Archean world, the Paleozoic Era, with epochs of volcanic activity and mountain build- ing, the Mesozoic Era with its giant reptiles, the Cenozoic Era, with its progress of mammals and extinction of ones,—to be the fountainhead of the mighty Yukon River. With the mind’s eye we see the ice mass carrying loam and clay for miles, transporting great blocks of granite and porphyry, leaving these as monuments for man to ponder over and thus to learn to read the mighty works of nature. Wonderful ranges of mountains, cut in the most fantastic shapes of slope, of crest, of minareted peaks, almost unbelievable in their architecture and design, add their beauty 254 NATURAL HISTORY to the picture. Such impressions we are _ that is beautiful and divine in the world, permitted to enjoy free from the hand of without regret for the few golden mo- nature, if we only take the time and the ments that have been devoted to the pains to look——and, once we look, we unfolding, developing, and ennobling experience a deeper tfnderstanding of all of the soul within. Up where Auroras flash’on high, And snowy mountains pierce the sky, And wintry blasts go charging by, There the Great High North begins. Up where the huskies pull and strain At loaded sled o’er snowy plain, And glorious sunsets glow and flame, There the Great High North begins. In the Great High North, ’neath the tundra’s glare, Hidden for eons, the Gold King’s lair Its millions brought forth in the cold gray air, Where the Great High North begins. There summer sings a softer rhyme, In trembling aspen, groves of pine, And wandering glaciers gleam and shine, Where the Great High North begins. There warm the prospectors’ camp fire shines, ’Midst balsam boughs and soughing pines; There the gray wolf howls and the great loon cries, As the bright moon glows in the eastern skies; «< iw > 2 Sle geek LA PAZ WITH ILLIMANI IN THE BACKGROUND ACROSS THE ANDES TO THE YUNGAS* BY EDWARD W. BERRY! who follow rail routes, get little of the fine flavor of foreign lands, and this is especially true in the Andes, although the trip from Lima over the Western Range on the Oroya Railroad is well worth the time and expense from New York to Callao. Similarly the circuit from Mollendo across Titicaca to La Paz and down to the coast at Arica or Antofagasta takes one through a strange world. Even though Lake Titi- caca be traversed at night one sees the Cyclopean ruins of Tiahuanaco, or Tihua- macu, as the Indians of the region call it, and the highest and strangest capital in the world, where trolley cars jog llama trains and where one passes figura- tively “from Greenland’s icy mountains to India’s coral strands” every twenty- four hours the year through. The trip over the trans-Andino from Santiago to Buenos Aires carries one comfortably through marvelous scenic wonders, past the highest peak in South America, and, to add to its attractiveness, has at each end of the line a beautiful Pari- sian metropolis. Really to appreciate the vast piles upon piles of peaks that overhang the Pacific in unbroken ranges for a distance of 4500 miles from the Spanish Main to the Strait of Magellan, one must travel, however, ‘‘a lomo de mula” and put up in the tambos or posadas, which, in their lack of comforts, are much like Oriental khans. I find little appreciation of the strange climatic conditions that were brought about when, some few thousands of years ago, the rugged backbone of South America lifted its gigantic mass across the equatorial zone in the path of the trade winds. All of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia are in the equatorial , ‘OURISTS, meaning thereby those *George Huntington Williams Memorial Publication No. 8. taken by the author’s colleague, Prof. Joseph T. Singewald, Jr. zone. Why, then, someone questions, should there not be perpetual warmth? You mention the marrow-chilling nights of the Peruvian or Bolivian mountains, and are asked why the traveler does not build a wood fire. Simply because there are no forests in these arid uplands. There are compensations, however, for water vapor does not dim the vision, either of man or of the most ordinary of cameras, and throughout the winter season, extending from May to October, one may count on the brightness and warmth of the god of the Incas. To be sure, above 16,000 feet one may expect some clouds and snow squalls, particu- larly along the eastern mountain rim that separates the high plateau from the Amazon plain. I had but four experiences in passing from everlasting snow to tropical lowland. Each was entirely unlike the others, and I can enthusiastically imagine spend- ing several years in winding down each of the valleys that open out into the basin of the Amazon. Perhaps one’s judgment is colored by weeks of so- journ in the uplands, with their Tibetan climate and environment, and possibly each neophyte should be obliged to pass his vigil on the heights before entering the paradise of the eastern valleys, and this he will certainly do, no matter which way he comes. Travelers’ itineraries, with a record of miles made, of towns with strange names passed, and similar notes taken along the trail, are unmitigatedly boresome and not to be compared with the mar- velous adventures of Sir John Mande- ville or other works of fiction. Nor is the impressionistic style applied to an exotic land entirely satisfying. I should like, however, to take my readers on a_ short journey from The photographs, except where stated otherwise, were 1Professor of Paleontology, Johns Hopkins University 495 gov GIOINVIdVLTV AHL WOUd ISOLOd VWNAVOH ACROSS THE ANDES TO THE YUNGAS La Paz across the Eastern Andes to the wonderland but one Martian stride away —an airplane could make it in an hour or two—and this is especially interesting since it leads to the most attractive part of Bolivia, and to a region which ere another decade has passed, will be ac- cessible by rail. Think not, however, of twentieth century fliers—railroading in the Andes multiplies the mule’s speed of a league-an-hour by three. La Paz—the present seat of the government, in the words of “La Capital” of Sucre—has a charm that it is difficult to explain. Its plaza is small, the cathedral is unfinished, the government buildings are not imposing, and the legislative hall has a most dis- proportionate metal tower; there are none of the Moorish architectural bits that make Potosi so notable, and the museum is small and crowded. La Paz offers none of the usual sights that guide books like to emphasize, nor has it special attraction for the artist or the historian. Nevertheless, time cannot erase or dim the deep impression that La Paz makes. I suspect that this lies largely in its unusual situation and the sudden and unexpected first sight of the city, backed by the most magnificent peak in the world. If one’s first view were obtained from the back of a mule coming up the La Paz valley, or even from the train that runs from Arica, the impression would not be so startling. Seen, how- ever, from the old trail and carriage road leading from Huaqui on Lake Titicaca, which is practically the route of the recently constructed Huaqui-La Paz Railroad, nothing can compare with it. Many have commented on this. A score and a half of miles from Huaqui the railroad reaches Viacha, a cold, bleak, windswept place 12,605 feet above sea level, now marked by the imposing antenne of the powerful Bolivian wire- less station. Here converge the re- cently opened railroad from Arica on the Pacific, some one hundred miles to the 497 west, and the railroad from Antofagasta, some four hundred miles to the south. The station swarms with Indians and Cholas, half-breeds of various degrees, selling empanadas, or meat pies, and other unappetizing things, as well as oranges and rather fine, yellow, native bread. From Viacha the train winds slowly to the northeast, ascending through a stony, moderately hilly coun- try directly toward the Cordillera Real, or royal mountain chain, and no range is more appropriately named. All of the peaks are glacier-covered, the most prominent being Huayna Potosi, or young Potosi, in its conformation recall- ing the Matterhorn but of more imposing height. To the right of Huayna Potosi is the magnificent mass of Illimani, somewhat suggestive of a grown-up Mont Blanc, for it towers more than 21,000 feet as against Mont Blanc’s height of 15,782 feet. Noonday approaches with no sign of La Paz and we are heading directly for the very broken and bare foothills of the range when we come to a halt at the Alto at considerably more than 13,000 feet. Nearly 1500 feet below us lies La Paz, straggling along the narrow stream of that name, and looking very petite when viewed from above—like a museum model, with its plazas and mellow adobe coloring and warm red-tiled roofs. Un- fortunately, corrugated iron is rapidly replacing the Spanish tile, and although doubtless the former withstands the frost far better, it is infinitely less picturesque; and there has been much building in La Paz in the last few years. The motive power down into the cuenca, barranca, or hollow in which La Paz lies is electric and the way very devious. The unwary stranger who would walk finds the impres- sion from above misleading, for the only level streets are those paralleling the narrow stream, all the others are fright- fully steep, and slippery because of the small cobbles, and very difficult to those unaccustomed to the altitude. One wonders what accident led to the a A BEGGAR IN LA PAZ 498 ‘ é ii i pe iy, THE LA PAZ MARKET IN A CHOLA 499 500 growing-up of a large town at this partic- ular spot. It is true the winds are less sharp than on the Alto, where a young gale usually starts about noon and blows until nightfall, but why live in this region at all, for the city itself at the bottom of the hollow is still the highest capital in the world—z2o000 feet higher than Quito, 3330 feet higher than Bogota, a mile higher than Mexico City, and even 300 feet higher than Lhasa in Tibet. Most Andean towns have their origin, when not purely Indian, in early colonial avariciousness. The stream, Chuquia- guillo, which comes down from Aillaico to the north contained placer deposits of gold, long since unprofitable; then there was the stream itself—an unfailing stream is always a desideratum in an arid re- gion; and then, too, the age-old Indian trails converged here and passed over the range tothe fertileeastern valleys, one go- ing up, the other down the River La Paz. With three railroads, the seat of the government, and the best trails to the tropics, La Paz has become, in modern times, the most important business center as well as the largest town in Bolivia. It was founded, at least on paper, by Mendoza in 1548 because of the gold of the stream bed, and was called the Pueblo Nuevo de Nuestra Sefiora de la Paz in commemoration of the recon- ciliation between Pizarro and Almagro. At the close of the war of independence in 1825 it was rechristened La Paz de Ayacucho in honor of the last decisive battle of that protracted struggle. It was a most unimportant place during colonial days, being entirely eclipsed by Oruro, Colquechaca, and Potosi—the three main sources of Spain’s wealth. In fact, Potosi, the most important of these, was in 1595 probably ten times the size of any other city in the New World. At the present time La Paz has be- tween 80,000 and 100,000 inhabitants and much commerce. At least. three- fourths of the population is, however, 1A small Aymar4 hamlet by the name of Chuquiapu was here before the Spaniard. NATURAL HISTORY * of Indian or of mixed blood—no other large city in the Americas contains such a large proportion of aborigines. It has been the seat of government since 1898, the old Spanish capital of Sucre, a far finer place in every way, being hidden away in the eastern mountains. Because of this there is much jealous feeling in the older and more purely Spanish towns — of the south and east. Although the see of a bishopric since 1605, the cathe- dral, started a few years later on the main plaza, is still unfinished. It has some fine stone carving, but at the rate of progress of the past ten years, it will be another three hundred years before it is finished. La Paz has little of the air of antiquity that is so captivating in Potosi or Sucre; in fact, charming bits of architecture are entirely lacking. Some exceedingly pre- tentious modern dwellings are to be seen along the Alameda, or Prado, that stretches down the river for a mile or more and is lined with Eucalyptus trees, those Australian immigrants which have thrived better in Latin America than have the immigrants from Spain. In fact, the finer residential part of the town is drifting rapidly down the valley,—every hundred feet nearer sea level being ap- preciably more comfortable,—and the whole way to Obrajes, three miles to the southeast, is practically built up. When the sun shines, La Paz is com- fortable, but one is wretched after night- fall and becomes a sun worshipper, fol- lowing the example of the Incas. There is no artificial heat, there being no fuel except taquia, or llama droppings, which are used only for cooking or the limited industrial purposes. The traveler in the Andes becomes greatly impressed with the relativity of time. After the day’s work one kills time waiting for the belated unlocking of the hotel dining- room, and after having eaten comida, if one has no social engagements, tries to read or write by the dim electric lights; at last, on consulting one’s watch, fully expecting it to be midnight, one is ACROSS THE ANDES TO THE YUNGAS astounded to find it is only half past eight. — Indian boys meet arriving trains, swarm into the cars, and, seizing every available piece of luggage, make off with it unless forcibly prevented. The trans- fer agencies are Indian cargadores— animated bundles of rags, singularly weak at carrying even the smallest article except on their backs. There they can manage anything up to two hundred pounds or more and of any bulk. They squat on the ground and tie themselves to a heavy wardrobe trunk by means of the omnipresent rope of llama wool, knotting it over their chest. Assisted to their feet, they will carry such a load indefinitely over the roughest sort of road. While riding a handcar near Cochabamba I once narrowly missed running over an Indian with a load of cornstalks, as big as an American load of hay, tied on his back. He was trudging along the railroad embankment and saw us in time to get off the track but not soon enough for us to clear the load which was sent, with its carrier attached, rolling to the bottom of the embankment. It was one of the funniest sights imaginable, for each time the Indian came up on the crest of a rota- tion, he flung his arms and legs about in a manner suggestive of a fly stuck on a pin. La Paz is dominated by Ilimani, which raises its huge, granitic, ice-covered bulk to the southeast, and in the clear air appears to overhang the city although really twenty-four miles away. No peak that I have ever seen is so impres- sive unless it be Sorata, on Lake Titicaca. El Misti at Arequipa is perhaps more graceful, but grand is the only adjective properly descriptive of Illimani. Mont Blanc from Geneva is faintly suggestive of it but dwarfish in comparison and farther away in a less clear atmosphere. The name Illimani, we are told, comes from Hila umani, he who has much water, and the Achachila, or spirit of the moun- tain, is still worshipped by the out- 501 wardly catholicized Aymards as well as by the discerning traveler. Your native loves to bargain in true Oriental style and it takes several days to arrange for mules for a trip over the range. Although all travel has been on foot or mule back since the Spanish con- quest, one would suppose that mules had never before been hired by anyone. Your arriero knows the country “like the palm of his hand,” he tells you, and you contract at so much a day for each mule, he to furnish fodder. Later you discover that he is a brother-in-law or second cousin of a native and comes per- haps from southern Peru and has never been over the trail. Likewise you dis- cover that he is without funds for the purchase of fodder. Some bright morning you make a start—if you are lucky, it will be within an hour or two of the appointed time. Our arriero we christened “penny ante,” which was the phonetic rendering of his Indian name. He walked during the trip and could easily out-distance his antediluvian, pack-sore mules. Thetrail, or camino real—real, meaning royal, is in this case official and not descriptive, although the road was really not bad— wound its way northeasterly up the valley through a stern and harsh, vast and gloomy, broken country toward the storehouse of the God of the East Wind. By noon we had reached the divide (la cumbre), where some day a railroad will cross the pass to the eastern tropical lowlands. Already the rails are laid to this point and grading is going on beyond. Your arriero or Indian cargador always erects a cross at the pass if material is available, or scratches one on a rock nearby. In the absence of material he goes through the magical rite of adding a stone or two to the huge cairns that testify to the passing of the aborigine to and fro for centuries. The cross, like the mounds of stones, is to appease the spirits of the mountains and not, as one might innocently sup- pose, the result of the conversion of the AATIVA IAVOGNA AHL 10 GVaH AHL ACROSS THE ANDES TO THE YUNGAS natives. In fact, as nearly as one may fathom the inner thoughts of the Indian, the god and the saints that the early Church brought him are of the same breed as those of his own pantheon, only possibly more powerful, and all the deities are considered in the plowing or harvest festivals, or in house building. Almost invariably the gable of the Indian house will have a row of small wooden crosses interspersed with representations of the native gods rudely cut out of some packing tin or gasoline can. The mountains here are of the usual forbidding appearance, but on so vast a scale that one gets no glimpse of the higher, glacier-covered peaks to the north and south. The pass is low for this part of the Andes, being only 15,275 feet—the Zongo Pass, next to the north beyond Chalcaltaya, is 17,139 feet. The usual association of granitic cores with high mountains makes the Paleozoic slates of the Unduavi Pass seem strange, and although it is a commonplace of geology, I could never get quite used to finding sedimentary rocks with marine fossils 16,000 or 17,000 feet above sea level, All of the eastern valleys get much rain from the moisture-laden trade winds that sweep over the Amazon basin. These valleys are narrow and deep, for the gigantic mountains that flank them are geologically very young and there has not been time for the carving out of mature valleys in Nature’s workshop. The trail descends to the eastward rapidly, zigzagging down the shale slopes to the Rio Unduavi, so steeply that by the mid-afternoon you reach the posada, or inn, of Pongo. “Pongo” is the Quichua for rapids and every river along the eastern Andes from Colombia to Bolivia has its Pongo; hence there are more Indian towns of that name than there are Washingtons in the United States. The tambo of Unduavi, which we reached toward dusk, would not receive us, for, coupled with their native lack of hospi- tality, the proprietors were quartering 593 many of the better grade of workers on the right of way of the prospective rail- road. We rode on to the custom station a few miles beyond, where the Aduana del Coca, grudgingly and after much argu- ment, assigned us to a dark and dirt- floored room. We had made the fatal mistake of leaving La Paz without the miracle-working letters of recommenda- tion from the Minister of Fomento, consequently we could neither beg, buy, nor steal any food. We played dummy bridge till midnight and then tried to sleep in the chill, rare, night air, but this was impossible and we were compelled to walk the floor until dawn to keep from freezing. The cold is vouched for by the fact that a single candle of ordinary size lasted from nightfall to dawn. The Aduana, or custom house, is conveniently located in a narrow defile at the head of a switchback, and as the indispensable coca of the highland In-: dians comes up this way the government derives considerable revenue from im- post duties. As many as five hundred cargo mules pass up in a single day. Coca is raised in vast quantities in the moist, moderately low, mountain valleys to the east. The tree is.a low evergreen and the leaves, the source of cocaine, are dried and baled or packed loose. No Indian is ever without an enormous cheek-bulging cud, added leaf by leaf with an occasional bit from a banana- like object made of potato meal and wood ashes. Whether the effects of coca- chewing are deleterious or not it is diffi- cult to say. It may havea slightly dull- ing effect. Its use is not extensive among Spaniards if mestizos, or half-breeds, are excepted, and I tried it without appreci- able effect other than a very slight ward- ing off of the pangs of hunger or fatigue. After our frosty night and unsuccessful attempt to get a breakfast and after the arriero had gone through his usual antics of tossing a poncho over the head of each antediluvian mule and fussing an hour or more in adjusting the saddles so as to THE UNDUAVI VALLEY LOWER DOWN “A ACROSS THE ANDES TO THE YUNGAS conceal the pack sores, we were off. The trail simply plunged headlong downward. In an hour’s riding the Indian habita- tions changed to airy bamboo structures surrounded by banana thickets. The air assumed a humid, earthy smell, a smell such as can be encountered in our northern latitude only in the orchid house of a botanical garden. The moun- tains became densely wooded to their tops. Warm mists hung in the air and made photography difficult. The trail blossomed magically. Wild begonias and fuchsias ran riot, for this is their original home, and myriads of ferns clothed every bit of rock—elk horns, drynarias, gleichenias, and a hundred other kinds. In the valley bottom, where the rushing river left them room, were thickets of Canna twenty feet tall, and great numbers of the most graceful plant that grows, the tree fern, reaching to heights of from thirty to forty feet. We were in the country that I suppose physical geographies call selvas—the eastern rain-forest slopes of the Andes. More correctly it is known as the Mon- tana, all the way from Colombia to where 595 it ceases south of the Tropic of Capri- corn. The precise call it Ceja dela Mon- tava, or eyebrow of the mountains. In northeastern Bolivia it is called the Yungas; it is especially widened here to a breadth of upward of two hundred fifty miles and is a veritable naturalists’ fairyland. Elsewhere in the mountains one descends from glaciers and _ passes through a zone of cacti and bromeliads— this is the succession south of Cocha- bamba. In the Yungas you drop at once from ice into subtropical luxuriance. All of the valleys are incredibly narrow and tortuous—the average gradient for the first fifteen miles was 485 feet to the mile. Ever and anon a slender waterfall comes down sheer from a height of several hundred feet. You fill your lungs with air containing real oxygen and renew your youth. However miserable and filthy the Indian towns of the low coun- try, life is bearable in warmth and air, and the easier conditions of life are con- spicuously reflected in the character of trails and dwellings. Before noon we arrive at the Finca El ate * gio eae a 4 = ww os Courtesy of the Pan American Union A typical Yungas scene 506 Chaco, which is also a posada where guests can obtain accommodations. Doz- ing on the veranda, one seems to have been transported back to the Garden of Eden. A clear mountain brook, in which ducks disport, runs close to the house, and pigeons loiter about to pick up any chance crumbs from our outdoor meal. Sleek pigs waddle about. It isa striking anomaly that in the mountains, where fats would seemingly be indispensable, you never see pork even in cured form; all the meats are lean mutton, llama, or goat, and not even butter is to be had except in tins and is very old and corres- pondingly strong. The garden of El Chaco abounded in magnificent roses and poinsettia growing among oranges, coffee, papaw, and pepper trees. The charm and romance of the uplands emerge only through the haze of memory, but one is eager again to face the hard- ships and cold of the trail in order to sit on the porch at El Chaco and wash down the Indian bread and soft-boiled eggs with a good quality of native beer. ‘ Our journey did not end here, but it may well be concluded at the pueblo reached toward dusk—Yanacachi. Here NATURAL HISTORY in the river bottom, which is several hundred feet below the town, may be seen troops of monkeys as well as toucans of the ridiculous beak. Scorpions lurk under the stones and vampire bats are the nightly pest of the pack mules. Small palms are scattered among the wild peppers, lianas, and tree ferns, and all of the insect pests of the tropics along with the most magnificent palms of the world are only a long day’s ride down thevalley. Here the climate is delightful, and it is always summer, and yet if one had a large naval gun, one could point it up the valley of the Rio Chojlla, which joins the Rio Unduavi at Yanacachi, and splinter the ice on the summit of Mur- urata, which towers to 18,980 feet at the head of the former valley. On down, the Rio Unduavi becomes the Rio Tamanpaya and joins the Rio La Paz and eventually the Beni in the rubber country, finally reaching the Atlantic by way of the Amazon. The trail winds down past Coripata to the head of navigation on the Beni, through potentially the most productive region, as well as the most delightful, in all Bo- livia. The_stable7at El Chaco BIRD LIFE IN THE URUBAMBA VALLEY: A REVIEW* | BY ROBERT CUSHMAN MURPHY! R. FRANK M. CHAPMAN’S recent paper on the bird life of the Urubamba Valley represents the fulfillment of a request with which he was honored by the authorities .of the Yale University—National Geographic Society’s Expeditions in the Urubamba region of Peru. The field work of these expeditions, under the direction of Pro- fessor Hiram Bingham, included not only archeological investigations but also a survey of the physical conditions and bio- logical resources of the area, the task of making collections in vertebrate zodlogy being entrusted to the well-known natu- ralist, Mr. Edmund Heller. Since it is the policy of Dr. Chapman (and one which he holds equally for his associates in the department of ornithol- ogy) to undertake no faunal work without personal reconnaissance in the region con- cerned, the two institutions which had conducted the Urubamba explorations generously provided for an additional journey through the valley of the river during July, 1916. On this short expedi- tion Dr. Chapman was accompanied by his son and by Messrs. George K. Cherrie and Harry Watkins. The specimens collected by both the Heller and the Chapman parties, together with subse- quent collections by Watkins alone, numbered 1833. Upon this material, as well as upon the observations of Dr. Chapman, the admirable field journal of Mr. Heller, and the publications relating to earlier ornithological collecting by Whitely, Kalinowski, and others, the present paper is based. Mr. Heller’s geographic notes, of which fourteen sections are quoted in the paper, deserve particular mention. Rarely is an author undertaking a faunal report fortunate enough to have at his disposal *The Distribution of Bird Life in the Urubamba Valley of Peru. By Frank M. Chapman. Museum, 10921. such an illuminating record of topogra- phy, geology, climate, vegetation, and general biotic environment from his precursor in the field as was Dr. Chap- man in this instance. It is difficult to choose from Mr. Heller’s contributions, but the following brief description of life conditions in the Occobamba Valley, which is confluent with the Urubamba, may serve as an example: Well down in the Occobamba Valley, at a point where the forested country meets the grassy up- lands, we established our camp, at a spot called Tocopoqueyu The camp was pitched in one of the terraced fields on the west bank of the creek, at an altitude of 9,100 feet. During our sojourn here in July the weather was bright and warm during the day and cool at night, but sel- dom bitter or windy. The country has a pecu- liar physical aspect, owing to one side of the valley, the eastern, being clothed by a dense for- est, and the opposite, or western, being the very antithesis; that is, grass-covered and dry in character. The forest edge is definitely bound by the stream margin, which is lined by a growth of alder and willow trees. The alders here form a considerable part of the forest, and such as are found growing at a distance from the stream have widespread crowns and a grayish appearance seldom seen in riverside trees. Other forest trees are Eugenias, or cloves, Escallonias, and a large bay tree of the genus Myrica. Bamboo, as usual, forms a dense undergrowth in the forest. The direction and constancy of the prevailing winds here seem to offer an explanation for the extraordinary difference in vegetation on opposite sides of the valley. The moist breezes coming up the valley from the hot lower montafia coun- try are mist-laden and confined to the eastern side, along which the mist hangs, leaving the western side open, sunny, and dry. The fauna partakes of this divided character also, the for- ested side being the haunts of such marsupials as Oriolestes, Peramys, the pygmy opossum, Didelphis, and many species of forest rodents. On the west side we find white-tailed deer, coyotes, skunks, and rodents peculiar to the grassy Andean Zone. The country rock is gran- ite, cliffs of which are exposed for several miles on the western side. The aim of the. Urubamba paper is to extend our knowledge of the distribution of bird life in the complex Andean region. The plan is therefore similar to that fol- Bulletin 117, U. S. National 1Associate Curator of Marine Birds, American Museum 507 NATURAL HISTORY This photograph of the Occobamba Pass, taken at an elevation of 13,800 feet by Mr. Edmund Heller, shows the character of the puna zone, the name applied to the high, treeless area of this region of South America. In the foreground are two representatives of an animal that has been associated time out of memory with Peru lowed in Dr. Chapman’s Colombian monograph, although the treatment is necessarily more provisional. The an- notations in the list of 380 known species, which represent probably less than eighty per cent of the avifauna of the area, are mostly brief and conservative, emphasis being placed primarily upon (1), exact determination of each species or race; (2), precise location of the collect- ing station; (3), distributional status of each form. A distributional summary reveals that the Urubamba region is in- habited by a nearly equal number of species characteristic of the tropical and subtropical zones (115 and 105 respec- tively), while 63 belong to the temperate zone, 74 are representative of the puna or paramo, above timber line, 15 are of general distribution on the continent, and 8 are migrants from North America. Dr. Chapman finds that the life zones and their bird fauna agree substantially with those determined by him in Colom- bia, the only notable discrepancy being shown by the puna zone. -In Peru this uppermost stratum of life occupies a much more extensive surface than in Colombia; it lies, moreover, nearer the low south temperate and subantarctic, pampean stretches from which it pre- sumably derives its fauna. For these reasons the puna bird life is more varied than that of corresponding altitudes in Colombia. Other factors also serve to make life conditions of the puna zone more subtle and involved than those of the north Andean paramo. Dr. Chap- man writes: The Puna of Peru corresponds to the Paramo of Colombia. Both regions lie between the up- per limit of arborescent vegetation and the lower limit of snow. On the eastern Andes in the Uru- bamba region, this is approximately between the altitudes of 12,500 and 15,000 feet, limits which agree with those we found to exist in the Central Andes of Colombia. Faunally, however, where insufficient rainfall prohibits forest growth, the Puna Zone reaches a much lower level. At Ttica-Ttica (al- titude 11,900 feet), near Cuzco, it completely in- osculates with the upper border of the arid Tem- perate Zone. The two zones are here distin- guished by the presence or absence of bushy vegetation, a difference controlled wholly by wa- ter supply. Much additional field work is re- quired to determine the interrelations of these zones. Since the bird life of the Puna has been derived largely from the South Temperate] Zone in Patagonia it may prove to be desirable to char- acterize the Puna as an Andean Temperate and apply a new name for the forested and bush- BIRD LIFE IN THE URUBAMBA VALLEY: A REVIEW 5°09 Santa Ana Valley on the lower Urubamba, the altitude of which is 3500 feet, is repre- sentative of the arid tropical zone. grown Zone which I have here termed Temper- ate. This problem, however, can not be treated from a local standpoint nor indeed do data as yet exist for its solution. In Colombia the flora of the Paramo with its frailejons and other striking species, is so charac- teristic that no difficulty is experienced in dis- tinguishing Temperate Zone savanna from the Paramo above it. But the uniformly grass- covered plains and slopes and the marshes of the Puna afford no such obvious boundaries. No doubt, however, can exist as to the origin of the Puna avifauna. Suited only for the needs of plain, marsh, and water-inhabiting species, Puna bird life has been largely derived from the vast area of plains, marsh, and lakes which, with- out topographic barrier, bounds it on the south and extends nearly to the southern limits of the continent. The South Temperate Zone ducks and grebes find a suitable home on the Puna lakes, where they are represented by permanently resident races, while the oven-birds (Furnariidae) and finches of Patagonia find congenial haunts and soe conditions on the high Andean table- and. Both the importance and the difficul- ties of zodlogical work in the rich, pro- ductive, wet temperate forests are con- cisely stated by the author in his intro- duction: This photograph was taken by Frank M. Chapman, Jr. Heller’s work in the forests of the humid Tem- perate Zone at timberline (approximate altitude 12,500 feet) is of special importance. This zone has been previously explored in Peru only in the district about Maraynioc in the Eastern Cordille- ra somewhat north of the latitude of Lima, where von Tschudi, Jelski, and Kalinowski secured a surprising number of distinct new forms. The rainfall which produces the forest characterizing the humid Temperate Zone is also, in a measure, responsible for our ignorance of its life. The rain creates not only forests, but also rivers, and the river valleys form the natural sites for the trails which connect the highlands and lowlands. When the collector, in following these trails, reaches the region of Temperate Zone forests, his path is far below them and he thus passes under a zone of exceptional interest. I had this expe- rience in the Eastern Andes of Colombia between Bogota and Villavicencio; while Kalinowski, who collected during several years in the Urubamba region, appears not to have worked in the forests of the humid Temperate Zone, though he lived within a few miles of them. The avifauna of the tropical zone proves, as might be expected, to have its affinities with that of Amazonia and trop- ical South America in general, but the penetration of the subtropical zone into the mountain chain, by way of the Uru- bamba Valley, is highly significant, and ° weysuig wep jorg Aq usye} sea ydeisojoyd ayy, “19UI09 puey-3J2] 19M0] dy} UL UMOYS JUIOd 9y} MOTIq 9dURYSIP JOYS B IOATY VquIeqnigQ 24} sesso1d ‘suoTjIpedxe ueudeYyD 24} pue IIz[9H 243 Y70q JO dSeq & 4aaq COOg Jo apN}yie UB Je OBplg jensipy UeG “sasnoy o$1 ynoqe pur ‘syzeq ‘sajduia} ‘seoeyed epnjour surmi prpueyds asay, “seouy 94} papaceid yey} doer STYI[eSoW,, 942 Aq 3][Mq Ajqeqoid sem yt yey} uoruTdo 9y} Jo st OYM “UeYSUIG WIT “Jorg Aq p]iOM Uapour ay} 0} UMOUY Ipeur 4sIy ‘NYG Nye St “TIarY Vqureqniy 9Y} dAoqe 4aaj COO? ‘puNOIZIIO} BY} UI ISP VY} UC _ ,NONVO VdWvdnan AHL NI ANOZ TVOIdOdLdOS AHL dO SLSaXod BIRD LIFE IN THE URUBAMBA VALLEY: A REVIEW lends itself well to comparison with con- ditions elsewhere: The remarkable stratum of life which lies ap- proximately between the elevations of 5,000 and 9,000 feet on the eastern slope of the Andes and extends from Bolivia to Venezuela makes a fold or loop up the Urubamba Valley. In the lower valley its inferior limits merge with the upper border of the humid Tropical Zone in one un- broken sweep of forest; at Santa Ana they are coextensive with the cloud belt below which grassy, treeless slopes reach to the floor of the tropical valley, while from a short distance above San Miguel Bridge (altitude 6,000 feet), at the foot of Machu Picchu, almost to Torontoy, the forests of the Subtropical Zone reach the shores of the river, whence, in places, they extend up- ward to merge with those of the humid Temper- ate Zone. Above Santa Ana the Subtropical Zone is first encountered on the western side of the valley at Idma, and from this point forest extends into the Temperate Zone. Birds have been collected in the Subtropical Zone of the Urubamba Valley only at Idma and in the Machu Picchu district. From these local- ities 105 species have been secured which may be considered as zonally representative. Com- parison of the results of our work with those of Kalinowski’s indicates that this number fairly represents the fauna. It does not, however, fairly represent the fauna of the Subtropical Zone of Peru, since in Colombia we obtained 230 species which were distinctively subtropical. - The data at hand, therefore, do not warrant a comparison of the bird life of the Subtropical Zone in Peru and Colombia, but they do show the remarkable uniformity of the life of that zone, a fact to which I have previously called attention. Thus, of 77 genera secured by us in the Subtropi- cal Zone of the Urubamba Valley, no less than 74 also occur in this zone in Colombia; the genera Knipolegus,' Phylloscartes,' and Thlypopsis? being the only ones absent from Colombia. Of the 104 Urubamba species contained in these genera, 57 are common both to Peru and Colombia. No less interesting are conditions in the temperate zone, with its two sharp climatic aspects—the arid and the moist —and its interdigitation with the life zones both above and below: The Temperate Zone has both a humid and an arid section. The former is found on the more easterly ranges of the Andes. on which are con- densed the moisture-bearing winds from the Atlantic. Here well-developed forest reaches an average altitude of 12,500 feet. Above this alti- tude lies the Puna. The line between the two may be abrupt or the two may merge by an upward extension of bushy-grown areas, the latter forming the arid portion of the Temperate Zone. Heller writes that the forest at Cedro- bamba (altitude 12,500 feet) “stops as abruptly 1Flycatchers. 2Tanager. 511 as if cut by a knife” and is succeeded by the grassland of thé Puna. At other localities, notably inner valleys with comparatively low rainfall, the Temperate Zone is characterized by a scrubby vegetation re- stricted largely to the borders of streams, up which the arid portion of the zone extends finger- like projections well into the Puna Zone. Conditions of this kind can be understood only by one who has observed them in the field. They can not be expressed by the most care- ful labelling’ of specimens. A collection from Ttica-Ttica (altitude 11,900 feet), for example, contains a mixture of forms apparently not sus- ceptible of zonal interpretation. With such characteristic species of the Puna as U pucerthia pallida’ Geositta tenuirostris,! Agriornis solitaria insolens,? Muscisaxicola rufivertex,? etc., there are presumably associated Anaeretes flavirostris,? Serpophaga cinerea, Elaenia albiceps,? Saltator albociliaris,’ Diglossa brunneiventris,’ etc., but in the field it was found that the first group was largely restricted to the grassy slopes, while the second was found only in the narrow fringe of bushes at the borders of streams. The collection from Cedrobamba contains a similarly confusing assemblage of Temperate and Puna Zone forms, the occurrence of which within a restricted area is explained by Heller’s descrip- tion of the striking conditions which exist at that locality. The upper limit of the Temperate Zone, therefore, coincides with the upper limit of tree or bush growth, and this may often be at a higher altitude than the lower limit of the suc- ceeding or Puna Zone. On the eastern slopes of the Andes the lower limits of the Temperate Zone correspond with the upper limits of the Subtropical Zone, and although forest may stretch continuously from timberline to the Amazonian plains, the limit between the two zones is here uniformly about 9,000 feet. Where, however, lack of rain pre- vents the development of the forest which so strongly distinguishes the Subtropical Zone, the Temperate Zone in its arid phase may descend much lower. In the Urubamba Valley it reaches Torontoy at 8,000 feet and on the treeless Pacific slope of the Andes it actually descends to sea level. The influence exerted by the Humboldt current must, however, be taken into considera- tion here, an. inquiry which would lead us far beyond the scope of this paper. The assemblage of species character.zing the Temperate Zone is intensely interesting. Being either tree or bush-inhabiting, it is clear that they must have had their geographic origin in tree or bush-grown regions. The humid South Temper- ate Zone is separated from the district under consideration by 1,500 miles of treeless country, which has proved aneffective barrier to the north- ward extension of the forest-inhabiting species of southern Chile. It seems evident, therefore, that the avifauna of the Temperate Zone can have originated only in the forested regions lying below it, and in its parrots, humming birds, toucans, trogons, fly- 1Ovenbirds. 2Flycatchers. 3Finch, ‘Honey creeper. 512 catchers, tanagers, and honey creepers it is evi- dent that we have the highly differentiated de- scendants of tropical forms. The area occupied by the Temperate Zone is by no means so large as that of the Subtropical Zone and the number of species inhabiting it is correspondingly small. But analysis shows that the bird life of the Temperate Zone is more dis- tinct than that of any other zone. Of especial significance is the com- parison of the bird life of the temperate with that of the puna zone. Although these lie side by side, it is shown that the birds of the temperate zone have de- scended from tropical ancestors while those of the puna find their geographical origin in the plains of Argentina and Patagonia. The former have therefore been subjected to the influences of the wide climatic differences existing between the tropical and temperate zones while the latter have found in the puna a climate not radically different from that in which it is assumed they originated. As a result of these contrasted conditions it is shown that 55 per cent of the genera and 80 per cent of the species of the temperate zone are endemic, that is, have evolved into new forms since enter- ing the temperate, while only 7 per cent of the genera and 55 per cent of the puna zone species are peculiar to that zone. Dr. Chapman therefore concludes that the evolution of a species is determined less by the time and distance by which it is separated from the ancestral stock NATURAL HISTORY than by the degree of environmental change to which it is subjected. The form of Dr. Chapman’s paper is a model for articles relating to the fauna of imperfectly explored fields. Follow- ing the introductory remarks are a re- view of previous work, a synopsis of the collections, and a well-illustrated account of the numerous stations at which speci- mens were obtained, the data for altitude and for topographic and zonal position being cited with all possible precision. This may be considered as the geographic section of the paper, of fundamental in- terest to workers in many branches of science, and, indeed, to all who are con- cerned with transportation in Peru. The next seventeen pages are devoted to a discussion of the life zones, in which maps and tabulated analyses of species and genera support conclusions of much importance to all students of geographi- cal distribution, whether of birds or of other forms of life. Then eighty or more pages are given up to the list of birds known to inhabit the Urubamba region; and in this section the taxonomic orni- thologist finds data of a fellow specialist to be confirmed, revised, or extended. Finally there is the index, which, accord- ing to the editorial custom of the United States National Museum, is limited to names of localities and the technical nomenclature of animals and plants. JOEL ASAPH ALLEN, 1838-1921 AN APPRECIATION BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN President of the American Museum of Natural History , \HE first fifty years of our history as a scientific institution has the personality of Dr. Joel Asaph Allen as its central figure, in the same sense in which the foundation of the American Museum centers around the personality of Professor Albert S. Bick- more. The two men supplemented each other perfectly. Both enjoyed the inspi- ration of Louis Agassiz. Bickmore had the gift of inspiring a high-minded group of citizens to plan a museum unprece- dented in scale and to make it thoroughly American in name and character. Allen had the gift of instilling the scientific spirit throughout the institution and of giving it scientific rank. When he came to the American Museum in 1885 as curator of mammals and birds, the day of pure scientific research in mammalogy and ornithology had hardly dawned. Not only was he inspired with Agassiz’ spirit of research, but the story of his boyhood years, between 1838 and 1858,! shows that he was born a naturalist and field observer, and was full of ambition as a writer. As early as 1858 he aspired to write a story of the “Birds of New England.” It was this triple character of field collector, of observer, of inde- fatigable note-taker and writer, together with an invincible determination to publish, guided by unerring judgment and untiring energy, that placed him at the early age of twenty-four in the forefront of the younger zodlogists of America. He rounded out his field work with readings from Humboldt, Lyell, Dana, and Gray, thus broadening the base of his pyramid of life work to include geology, mineralogy, and botany. Agassiz was charmed with his genial 14 utobiographical Notes and a Bibliography of the Scientific Public.tions of Joel Asaph Allen, written at the urgent re- quest of the President of the American Museum and published in 1916. nature and selected him as companion on his expedition to Brazil (1865-66), which laid the practical foundation for his direct observations and subsequent re- searches on South American mammals and birds. The Middle West, Florida, the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains, the Yellowstone, opened before him in successive years (1867-82), and the phys- ical courage needed in the Wild West of those early days was an important factor in the development of his innate moral and intellectual courage and fearlessness. Spencer F. Baird was the second great personal influence in his life. At the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cam- bridge (1871-85), he became thoroughly grounded in museum technique, which qualified him for his thirty-six years of service in the American Museum, where his most distinguished senior colleague was Dr. Daniel Giraud Elliot, his most distinguished junior colleague—a man of his own training—Dr. Frank M. Chap- man. From 14,300 birds and mammals all told in 1885, the collections rose to approximately 246,700 birds and mam- mals as enumerated at the close of the year 1920. But this numerical monu- ment, great as it is, is less exceptional than the intellectual monument of thirty- seven volumes of the Bulletin and four volumes of the Memoirs of the Museum, with a total of 21,368 pages, all of which passed through the editorial hands of Doctor Allen between the years 1885 and 1917 inclusive. To speak of his genius as an editor means that in all this time hardly a single error escaped his un- erring eye and that while firm as ada- mant both for principle and accuracy, never an author, young or old, came under his editorial influence without feeling a deepened sense both of respect 513 IZOI-g¢ gi NATIV Hadvsv Taol JOEL ASAPH ALLEN, 1838-1921 and of affection. Allen’s own contribu- tions to the Bulletin and Memoirs numbered hundreds of pages, devoted to hundreds of new species and genera; but above all this, the superlative standard maintained by him at the greatest personal sacrifice enabled us to place our publications beside those of any institu- tion in this or any other country without fear that the American Museum’s reputa- tion would suffer in comparison. That is why we are justified in saying that Doctor Allen was the central figure of our first fifty years of scientific develop- ment. There have been, perhaps, other men 515 of equal erudition and equal productive power, but- we doubt if in the whole history of zodlogical science there has ever been a man with such warmth and generosity of character, such simplicity of nature, such quiet enthusiasm, who so endeared himself to all his colleagues, young and old, and who so lived as to inspire universal affection as well as reverence. Would that such a person- ality might have remained immortal in our midst. But such immortality is denied. May his host of students and successors erect a monument of work carried out in his spirit of accuracy and with his kindly and generous attitude. “To think like Man, and yet like Nature to abide— This double boon to Man and Nature is denied— The Gods alone enjoy.” A LIFE OF ABUNDANT ACCOMPLISHMENT BY FRANK M. CHAPMAN Curator of Ornithology, American Museum R. JOEL ASAPH ALLEN, dean 1) of the American Museum’s scientific staff, departed this life at Cornwall-on-Hudson on August 20, 1921, in the eighty-fourth year of his age. For thirty-six years he had served the Museum with a devotion and singleness of purpose which made his duties as curator of the department of mammals and birds, and editor of the Museum publications, labors of the heart as well as of the mind. Physically far from strong, he ever made demands upon his powers to the limit of their ability to respond. How many times at the end of the day I have seen him lean back in his chair on the verge of complete exhaustion! But if the flesh was weak, the spirit was ever willing; and stimulated by never-failing love of study, which acted like some elixir of life, he has left behind him a marvelous record of achievement. Dr. Allen was born at Springfield, Massachusetts, July 19, 1838; and he came into this world endowed with that - inherent interest in nature which is the priceless heritage of the true naturalist. His immediate ancestry affords no clue to the origin of his distinctive tastes; they were not exhibited by either of his two brothers, but with him, in spite of far from favorable conditions, they were not to be denied. Without ever having seen a book on natural history, or ever having met a naturalist, he showed an instinctive impulse to collect and pre- serve specimens of birds and, in proof that such collecting was not merely the gratification of a desire to acquire, he weighed, measured, described, and named his specimens. The boy of thirteen gave evidence of the breadth of his interests by collecting and studying in addition to birds, also mammals, reptiles, fishes, shells, insects, plants, 516 and minerals; and this was done in the spare time left after the conscientious discharge of duties on his father’s farm. The sale of his collections to the Wil- braham Academy supplied him with sufficient funds not only to complete his studies at that institution but, in 1862, to enter the Lawrence Scientific School as a special student under Louis Agassiz. There he formed one of a remarkable group of young naturalists, including Alpheus Hyatt; Edward S. Morse, A. S. Packard, F. W. Putnam, and A. H. Verrill, who afterward were to exert wide influence upon biological research in this country. This formed the begin- ning of an association with Agassiz and the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, which lasted, with some lapses oc- casioned by ill health, for the succeeding twenty years. In April, 1865, he sailed for Rio Janeiro with Agassiz and a group of assistants, including Charles Frederick Hartt, the geologist, and William James, later the eminent psychologist. After collecting for some weeks in the region about that city, Dr. Allen became one of a small party detailed to visit the northern provinces of Brazil. The jour- ney was made by mule and canoe and involved greater’ hardships than Dr. Allen’s physique could endure. After about three months, during which he secured many specimens of birds, mam- mals, and fishes, he left the expedition and started for the coast at Bahia, a journey which required nearly two months. With some difficulty he secured pas- sage for Boston on a 300-ton brigantine and on December 15, sailed from Bahia with several cases of birds, mammals, mollusks, and geological specimens, and six or eight barrels of fishes, reptiles, and other vertebrates in alcohol. After a favorable voyage the latitude of Cape Hatteras was reached January 21; but here a storm was encountered which eventually forced the ship to take refuge in St. Thomas, east of Porto Rico. When NATURAL HISTORY it finally anchored off Woods Hole, Massachusetts, ninety days had elapsed since the departure from Bahia. A short period of recuperation on his father’s farm restored Dr. Allen’s health sufficiently to permit him again to take the field and, in 1867, he collected in various branches of natural history in the upper Mississippi Valley. In October of that year he returned to the Museum - of Comparative Zodlogy where, in 1871, he was made curator of the departments of birds and mammals. In the winter of 1868-69, an expedition was made to the St. John’s River in Florida, where material was gathered which formed the basis of the classic memoir “On the Mammals and Winter Birds of East Florida, with an Exami- nation of certain assumed Specific Characters in Birds and a Sketch of the Bird-Faune of Eastern North America,” a paper which at once stamped its author as one of the leading zodélogists of this country. In April, 1871, Dr. Allen extended the field of his labors as a collecting zodlogist to the Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains, returning to Cambridge the following January with 200 skins of mammals, 60 skeletons, 240 additional skulls (mostly of large species), 1500 bird skins, more than too birds in alcohol, a large number of nests and eggs, together with fishes both recent and fossil, mollusks, insects, and crus- taceans. Among the mammals was a large series of buffalo, collected, at the risk of attack by hostile Indians, near Fort Hays, Kansas, where, Dr. Allen writes, buffaloes were so numerous that on one occasion “they darkened the plains to the west of us as far as the eye could reach.” A little more than a year after returning from this arduous and success- ful expedition, Dr. Allen was invited by Professor Baird, on behalf of the Smith- sonian Institution, to assume charge of the work in vertebrate zodlogy of a party of naturalists which was to be attached to the military expedition acting as JOEL ASAPH ALLEN, 1838-1921 escort to the surveyors of a proposed line of the Northern Pacific Railroad. The escort of 1400 troops under General Custer had several conflicts with Indians who followed the expedition so closely that opportunities for zoé- logical collecting were seriously curtailed. Only a small part of the region traversed, however, had previously been visited by a naturalist, and much information was gained concerning the general character and faunal affinities of the region. This information was subse- quently included in Dr. Allen’s published reports. This was Dr. Allen’s last important expedition, his field work being concluded so long before that of most naturalists now living was begun, that few, even of his colleagues, realized the extent of his experience as a collect- ing naturalist, the difficulties he en- countered, or the success he achieved. From 1876 to 1882, Dr. Allen devoted himself largely to laboratory research, working in part for the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, in part for the United States Geological and Geographical Survey. During this period he produced his monograph on The American Bisons, Living and Extinct, and also an 800-page history of the North American walruses, sea lions, and seals. Asa result of overwork, his health failed, and in 1882 he was obliged to dis- continue his studies. A return to the field was not, however, followed by the expected recuperation, and several years elapsed before he could do a full day’s work in the study. Dr. Allen was now recognized as one of the world’s leading zodlogists and, when the Trustees of the American Museum decided to make this institution an organization for research as well as exhibition, it was fitting that they should offer him the important post of curator of mammals and birds. With the acceptance of this position by Dr. Allen in May, 1885, the Museum entered upon a new phase of its history. Prior to this time the small scientific staff had 517 devoted its efforts largely to the ex- hibition halls; not one volume of the Bulletin containing the results of original investigation had been completed, the research collections of birds consisted of — about 3000 specimens, and there was no study collection of mammals. While Dr. Allen fully appreciated the great importance of properly prepared exhibits, by nature and by training he was more deeply interested in original investigation than in the more popular phases of natural history, and he never failed to urge upon the Museum authori- ties the necessity of building up the Museum’s research collections. Even on his deathbed this was often, in periods of delirium, the foremost thought in his mind. It followed, therefore, that shortly after he became connected with the Museum the great Lawrence collection was purchased. To this were soon added the Elliot humming birds, the Scott collection from Arizona, and the Herbert Smith collections from Brazil. These formed the foundation of the present study series of about 150,000 specimens, which, with the Dwight and Sanford collections, make the Museum’s department of ornithology one of the best equipped in the world. Meanwhile, the study collection of mammals was growing steadily until today it numbers approximately 50,000 specimens, every one of which has been acquired since Dr. Allen came to the Museum. The increase in the departmental staff kept pace with its material growth and at present the personnel of the departments of mammals and birds is doubtless larger than that of the corresponding departments ‘in any other museum. Every moment not required for execu- tive or editorial duties Dr. Allen devoted to the study of the collections acquired by the Museum, and to the preparation of papers on them. This work was prosecuted not only at the Museum but, when ill health prevented him from coming to his office, also at home. The 518 NATURAL HISTORY results of these researches, published chiefly in the Bulletin of the Museum, are contained in some 23 papers on birds and 168 on mammals, and _ include descriptions of 49 species and subspecies of the former, and approximately 675 of the latter. The service rendered to the Museum by Dr. Allen was, however, not re- stricted to his office as curator. From 1885 to 1918 he acted as editor of the Museum publications, a post which he was especially qualified to fill. To an inborn editorial sense he added excellent taste in questions of typography, and to his supervision is due in no small measure the high standard set by the Museum publications. When Dr. Allen came to the Museum, the first volume of the Bulletin, as pre- viously stated, had not been completed and not one of the Memoirs had appeared; when he resigned his editorship, the Bulletin was in its thirty-seventh volume and the Memoirs on zodlogical and paleontological subjects numbered twenty-two. Practically all this material and much besides, passed through Dr. Allen’s hands, and only one with ex- perience in work of this character can appreciate the demands it made upon his time and strength. Often for days together he devoted himself to the revision of manuscript and the reading of proofs, with the thoroughness which characterized all that he did. Dr. Allen was the virtual author of The Code of Nomenclature Adopted by the American Ornithologists’ Union, a document which-has had wide influence on nomenclatural procedure, and _ his experience in this special field won him a place on the Commission for Zoé6- logical Nomenclature of the Inter- national Congress of Zodlogy, which he held from the formation of the Com- mission in 1910 to the time of his death. His deep insight and logical, fair-minded consideration of involved questions aris- ing in this science of names will be missed by his confréres on this com- mission, as well as by his associates in the Museum. Dr. Allen’s retiring nature, his absorp- tion in his studies, and his lack of strength, combined to prevent him from taking an active part in the life of the scientific world beyond the Museum ~ walls. But second only to his duties at the Museum was -his interest in the affairs of the American Ornithologists’ Union. He played a leading part in the organization of this society, acted as its president for the first eight years of its existence, and was a member of its Council at the time of his death. For thirty years he was editor of its official organ, The Auk, wrote, as has been said, a large part of its Code of Nomenclature, and saw three editions of its Check-List of North American Birds through the press. Dr. Allen was also a founder of the original Audubon Society, and took an active part in the conduct of this organi- zation and of its successor, the National Association of Audubon Societies, from the inauguration of the movement for bird protection in 1885 to the end of his life. For a number of years Dr. Allen was a member of the Council and vice- president of the New York Academy of Sciences, as well as president of the Linnean Society, but the demands .on his strength by each day’s labors and the attractions of an exceptionally happy home life, combined to prevent him from attending evening functions. This brief epitome of the activities of Dr. Allen’is in large part based on an autobiography which, at the urgent solicitation of President Osborn, Dr. Allen reluctantly prepared in 1916." But although he tried to write of himself with the fairness and conscientious regard for truth that marked all his studies, he was too modest to realize the importance of the place he occupied in science, and particularly in the life of the Publicotine of Hoel Asoph Allen, Published by the Ameri can Museum of Natural History, 1916. 8vo. 215 pages, 1 plate. JOEL ASAPH ALLEN, 1838-1921 Museum. Possessed of an exceptionally well-balanced mind and sound judgment, he brought these qualifications to bear on any question with so total a disre- gard for self-interest that the personal equation was largely eliminated and one could be certain of receiving from him an opinion in which the various factors involved were considered solely on their merits. His counsel therefore was sought not alone by his immediate associates but also by members of other depart- ments of the Museum, and in conferences and committee meetings his advocacy of a cause generally assured its success. This entire lack of anything approach- ing egotism was the fundamental trait of Dr. Allen’s nature. As a student he was distinguished by his ability to concentrate and, so long as his strength lasted, to apply himself persistently to the task before him, wholly oblivious of his surroundings. Possessed of a calm, equable disposition, he was never irri- tated, and with endless patience followed the clues of a nomenclatural problem or the systematic relationships of a speci- men. His interest in his own work was never too great, however, to prevent him from having an interest in that of others; one could go to him for light on some problem with the assurance of receiving his whole attention; and a novice was treated with the same generous con- sideration he extended to his colleagues. To the writer Dr. Allen was a friend and teacher rather than superior officer. To work under his direction was an invaluable privilege. ; When specialists in research happen to enter the same field simultaneously, there is apt to develop competition born of intensity of interest, which does not always result in harmonious relations, but although Dr. Allen had a number of what to others would have been aggravating experiences of this kind, I do not recall ever hearing him say one unkind word of a fellow-scientist. Slovenly, inaccurate, or unwarrantably speculative work he never hesitated to 519 criticize vigorously and unsparingly, and when need arose, he wielded a pointed pen, but with the author of the work , itself he might reason with fatherly kindness. Few men have lived a happier life than Dr. Allen, or one more removed from the turmoil of the world. In 1874 he married Mary Manning Cleveland, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, who died in 1879, leaving a son, Cleveland Allen, now in business in New York City. Within a year after coming to the Museum he married Susan Augusta Taft, to whose devoted care he largely owed the measure of health which enabled him so continuously and effectively to pursue his museum duties. From boyhood to within a few weeks of his death, Dr. Allen was enabled to gratify and develop his inherent interest in the study of nature, and far from diminishing, his love for his profession increased. In the last month of his life, as he was eagerly discussing the prospects of receiving valuable additions to our collections, he remarked, “I’m just as enthusiastic over my work as I ever was.” Many honors came to him. His name was on the membership roll of the lead- ing scientific societies of the world; he was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, an honorary member of the New York Zodlogical Society, the Zoolog- ical Society of London, and the British Ornithologists’ Union. He was awarded the Walker Prize by the Boston Society of Natural History and a medal by the Linnean Society of New York. His true reward, however, was the joy of achievement, the knowledge of work well done, the approbation of his col- leagues, and the opportunity unremit- tingly to continue his labors. The vital spark which was his heritage from an unknown past, and which lighted his way from boyhood to man- hood, remains inextinguishable in the example of a life of pure, unselfish devotion to the cause of science. Courtesy of the Standard Chemical Company of Pittsburgh A DISTRIBUTING CENTER FOR RADIUM ORE Many are the modes of transportation employed in bringing to the refining plant the hundreds of tons of ore required for the production of a single gram of radium. First the ore is gathered in the mountains and borne on the backs of burros and mules over the rough trails to the mill. Thence the concentrated ore is carried in wagons and motor truck trains to the railroad, and finally there is the long transcontinental journey from Colorado to the refining plant in Pennsylvania RADIUM—THE SUPREME MARVEL OF NATURE’S STOREHOUSE AN ACCOUNT OF THE RECENT EXHIBIT AT THE AMERICAN MUSEUM, OF THIS ENIGMATICAL SUBSTANCE AND ITS USES BY G. F. KUNZ ann G. FAILLA try of Madame Curie there was on view for several months at the Amer- ican Museum a comprehensive radium exhibit, which in a graphic way made clear to the layman the ores from which fadium is obtained, the methods applied in extracting and testing it, and the uses made of this most wonderful of sub- stances. The collection of minerals containing radium and thorium was the most complete that has ever been shown at one time. Many specimens were taken from the splendid Morgan collec- tion belonging to the American Museum, and others were loaned by members of the New York Mineralogical Club. The minerals occupied two large cases and were carefully arranged. There were some very rare and even unique speci- mens. The beautiful large crystals es- pecially attracted Madame Curie’s at- tention when she visited the Museum.' In the collection there were several specimens of pitchblende from Joachims- thal, Bohemia, the ore from which ra- dium was first extracted. The ore, how- ever, which today supplies most of the radium produced is carnotite, named after Marie Adolph Carnot, Director of the Ecole des Mines of Paris, and brother of the late President of the French Re- public. It was he who first analyzed carnotite in 1899.” The chief sources of supply of carnotite ore are found in [: HONOR of the visit to this coun- 1[t is worthy of remark that Madame Curie has expressed herself to be very anxious to obtain radium minerals which contain no thorium, and thorium minerals which contain no radium, so that she may carry still further her studies in radioactivity. 2Marie Adolph Carnot (born January 27, 1839; died in Paris, June 21, 1920) was an Académicien Libre of the Aca- démie des Sciences, elected in 1895. He was a commander of the Légion d’Honneur. Carnotite was first described by C. Friedel and E. Cumenge in the Comptes Rendus de VAcadémie des Sciences Vol. 128, p. 532 (1899), and in the eg de la Société Minéralogique francaise, Vol. 22, p. 26 1899). southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah. The ore occurs rather plentifully, but its radium content is much lower than that of pitchblende. Ores rich in carnotite have a canary-yellow color. In general the carnotite forms part of the cementing substance between sand grains, so that a very large quantity of material has to be handled in the process of con- centration. A very interesting specimen of carno- tite was kindly loaned by the Radium Company of Colorado. It is probably the humerus of one of the Sauropoda or amphibious dinosaurs, of the genus Morosaurus from the Morrison Forma- tion or an equivalent, which would bring it at the dividing line between the Juras- » sic and Cretaceous periods. The infil- tration of carnotite can be seen clearly at one end of the bone from which a small piece has been broken off. The other end still shows the bone structure. The dinosaur bone was found in the Paradox Valley, Colorado. It has been estimated that since 1911, when the first uranium radium-bearing minerals were mined in this country for radium, ore carrying 186.5 grams has been mined and shipped to reduction plants. From this ore about 125 grams of radium have been extracted in this country. Some of the ore was sent abroad before the World War and from this probably not more than to grams were extracted. The remainder of the radium which the ore contained may be regarded as lost because of the imperfect methods of extraction that at first pre- vailed, some plants not being able to secure more than 50 per cent of the radium in the ore. It is further estimated that about 25 per cent of the radium so 521 Up the rocky trails, into the mountain fast- nesses of Colorado, climb trains of patient burros, to return laden with carnotite, the principal ore from which radium is derived far extracted in the United States has been used on watch faces, or on signs, etc., principally during the war, and that only from 80 to 90 grams have been available for physicians and in hospitals. In Europe the depletion of the radium sup- ply was proportionately as great as in the United States. In view of this it is regarded as probable that the world’s stock of radium does not exceed 100 grams. Although in weight this is equiva- lent to only 3.53 ounces, the value of this quantity of radium is $10,000,000. By way of contrast, gold worth $10,000,000 would weigh 14.8 tons. The ratio of value is, therefore, as 1 to 150,426. Dr. Hamilton Phillips, Professor of Mineralogy, Princeton University, ob- tained the first American carnotite ore in 1902, separating the first radium of strength in December, 1902. ‘This ore was then sent to Stephen T. Lockwood, of Buffalo, who formed the Welch-Lofftur Uranium and Rare Metals Company, and this company separated radium in 1903. NATURAL HISTORY The quantities of radium thus obtained are now in the United States National Museum. Radium was first produced in this country from carnotite ore on a commer- cial scale in 1913 by the Standard Chem- ical Company of Pittsburgh. Since then several other companies have been formed to extract the precious metal. The gram of radium presented to Madame Curie by the women of America was supplied by the above-named com- pany,’ which had produced up to June, 1921, 74 grams of radium element. The exhibit included photographs and explanatory labels supplied by the com- pany, describing the process required to produce Madame Curie’s gram of radium - from the time the ore was taken out of the mines to the delivery of the finished product. Briefly, the process is as fol- lows: the carnotite ore is mined together with a great deal of worthless rock. It is sorted by hand, sacked, and hauled down to the roads by burros. Then it is taken to the concentration mill and is considerably reduced in bulk before being shipped to the extraction plant. Here the carnotite ore is treated with chemicals to remove all barium and radium salts. The ore concentrate contains about ten parts per billion of radium and about one- half per cent of barium salt. The solu- tion of radium and barium is treated with sulphates to precipitate an insoluble raw sulphate of radium, one ton of the material containing about one gram of radium. From this about one thousand pounds of pure barium-radium chloride are obtained. No single chemical opera- tion is capable of removing the tiny quantity of radium from the huge amount of accompanying barium salt. From this point on, the purification process consists of fractional crystallization as first used by Madame Curie. Finally, a tiny pinch of nearly pure radium 1The mahogany box containing the gram of radium was * designed by this company. It is one inch thick, and the case within has a lead lining 14 inches thick, nevertheless 5 ber cent of the gamma ays penetrate the walls. he radium was hermetically sealed in ten glass tubes of one- tenth gram each. RADIUM—THE SUPREME MARVEL OF NATURE'S STOREHOUSE 523 bromide is obtained which at first resem- bles powdered sugar. On standing in a sealed tube the salt acquires a brownish color and loses some of the bluish phos- phorescent glow. It is rather remarkable that the pro- cess of purifying radium today is essen- tially the same as the one used by Ma- dame Curie when she discovered this new element. But the additional difficulties overcome in the commercial extraction of radium from carnotite ore are not to be minimized. An idea of the magnitude of the process can be formed from the follow- ing figures: to produce the barium- radium chloride containing one gram of radium it takes 500 tons of milling ore, 500 tons of chemicals, the power from 1000 tons of coal, 10,000 tons of purified and distilled water, and the labor of 150 men for one month. In addition, the process of fractional crystallization, which is carried out by expert chemists, requires five weeks’ time. The final measure- ments of the amount of radium extracted are made about four weeks after it has been sealed in glass tubes, for it takes thirty days for the activity of the sealed radium to reach its maximum value. Before the radium is sold it is shipped to the United States Bureau of Stand- ards, Washington, D. C., where it is re- measured and a certificate of its activity is issued. From the time that the ore is mined to the final measurement of the radium more than six months elapse. On account of the laborious process of extraction, radium is the most expensive substance known. One gram of radium costs $100,000, one gram of diamond $3,000, one gram of platinum $2.41, and one gram of gold $0.663. By reason of its scarcity and its high cost, the practical applications of radium at the present time are limited. During the war it was used rather extensively in the manufac- ture of luminous materials for gun sights, dials of nautical instruments, etc. Now only a small part of the total production is used in luminous materials. The em- ployment of radium for this purpose is in deference to its property of causing some substances to emit fluorescent light. Phosphorescent zinc sulphide, when mixed with a tiny quantity of radium, will emit a characteristic greenish yellow light for many years. This is the sub- stance used on watch dials. Radium has also the property of changing the color of many substances when allowed to re- main in proximity to them for some time. In the exhibit were included many minerals which had been affected by radium, showing the change of color produced by irradiation for a longer or shorter period. This subject has been studied very carefully by Dr. Cornelius Doelter, of Vienna, and he has found that minerals of the same species, but from different localities, acted differently in relation to the change of color. In his opinion a change of color by the radia- tion is only caused in such minerals as owe their natural color to the presence of a pigment, and among these it is neces- sary to establish a distinction between those which are colored by isomorphic admixtures and those which are colored by colloid pigments. In the former case the coloring is stable, and therefore, whether by heating or irradiation there is little change in color; those of the latter class, however, which owe their coloring to an unstable pigment, are easily changed in color by radium rays, and also by the Roentgen rays and ultra-violet light. As to the rapidity of the color change, Dr. Doelter found, as might be assumed, that this depended upon the strength of the radium preparation employed. In his own work he used the exceptionally large quantity of 13 grams of radium chloride. With smaller quantities a similar color change took place, but some- what more slowly. ‘To establish a series illustrating the rapidity of change, he took as a standard the intensity of the coloration after a definite period of ex- posure, and this gave him the series: Kunzite, halite, sapphire, fluorite, topaz, jacinth, quartz. Employing a different test, that of the first appearance of a sXe }yS1] op se AvM oures 94} ur 93R]d orydeiZ0j0yd vB JOoyR sUOIeIPel WINIpel ayy, *a}TUNjNe Aq saMoy oy} ‘a}1U19qI10} Aq duo ajpprut ayy ‘ayTouIeD Aq jsourdo} 9y3—‘peonpoid aram yory ‘aLIND suTeU 94} Jo SeAT}eSou Ydeisorpes 2143 dy} div 4Sa19JUT IejNIVIVd JQ “JIGIYXA [eAOUTU dy} JO UOT}eS B SMOYsS dINJOId SIU, “9UNT} UO 3¥ Pazuasaid JaAa 939;duI0D Ysou 9yY}—‘WINLIOY} WINIPel ZUTUTL}UOD STRIDUTU JO UOT}IITJOO VY} SEM WhosNyY UBLIOULY 94} 7e JIGIYXe UINIpeL JUIIeI BY} Jo aInyeoy aatssaidunt uy SIV4UHNIN WOIGVa pure SzS 9[9T}IV 9} JO sased juonbesqns 94} Ul JUIWESIE[US UT Uses O18 ‘AINLIUTULLUT e194 UMOYS “FIGIYXa Sty} Jo S}UIWITa 9Y} JO dUIOg ‘asBaSIP Jo JUSWI}vAI} OYWYUT aTquortdde UINIpel syVUL 0} pornbar saotaep snoLva oy} urTepdxa 0} AVI YOR MAN Jo [eydsoy [eLowasypy ay} Aq payjeysur yrqryxo ay} Jo UoTJOas eB SMOYS SIT, STVIIdSOH NI WOIdVa JO aso FHL 526 change of color, the experimenter found that, in the examples he tried, halite from Wieliczka was the mineral which exhib- ited the earliest change of color; then came fluorite from Cumberland, followed Henri Becquerel, who, as the discoverer in 1896 of radioactivity, paved the way for the discovery two years later of radium itself. In recognition of his eminent service to science he was in 1903 awarded the Nobel Prize jointly with Pierre Curie successively by a Brazilian topaz, a barite from Cumberland, a sapphire from Ceylon, a Kunzite, and lastly a quartz from Maderanertal. The first radium the Museum of Nat- ural History owned was presented in 1903 by Dr. Edward Dean Adams, who sub- sequently also presented to that institu- tion the splendid series of pictures show- ing phases in the eclipse of the sun; this radium was utilized by Dr. G. F. Kunz, in collaboration with Dr. Charles Basker- ville, for the study of phenomena of phos- phorescence in minerals.! The largest and most valuable con- signment of radium that has ever been moved at one time was lately brought to London from the Joachimsthal region in Czechoslovakia by Professor Soddy, of 1G. F. Kunz and Charles Baskerville, Science, 1903, p. 769. NATURAL HISTORY Oxford University. This consignment consists of two grams of the precious sub- stance, and is the first shipment made under the business arrangement recently arrived at between the Imperial and Foreign Corporation of London and the government of Czechoslovakia. It was deposited for safe-keeping at the Foreign Office. This radium, valued at £70,000 (about $260,000 at the present rate of ex- change) is loaned to England for fifteen years by Czechoslovakia for purposes of scientific research. The most important application of radium is in medicine. At the present time nearly all the radium produced is devoted to therapeutic purposes. It is of happy augury that this wonderful new element should be dedicated to the alle- viation of human suffering—the highest purpose for which it could possibly be used. It is a remarkable coincidence that Henri Becquerel, who discovered the property of radioactivity acciden- tally, should have found out also by chance that radium affects living tissue. Soon after the discovery of radium by the Curies, Becquerel carried about with him in his vest pocket a small amount of the precious salt enclosed in a glass tube, so that he might show the new substance to his friends. Some time later a burn developed in the skin directly under the pocket in which the radium had been. This, taken in conjunction with similar effects which had been observed, led to the use of radium radiations for the treat- ment of cancer. Photograph taken through 15 cm. of lead by means of radium, showing the great penetra- bility of the gamma rays of this wonderful substance RADIUM—THE SUPREME MARVEL OF NATURE’S STOREHOUSE 527 The remarkable properties of radium are due to its radioactivity. In all other respects it behaves like a chemical ele- ment and is closely related to the metal barium. While, however, it may be said to be an element, it has the property of transmuting itself into an entirely differ- ent element, which in turn also disinte- grates. The complete transformation series is shown in the following table: RADIATION HALF VALUE paca EMITTED PERIOD Radium ae alpha 1730 years Radium emanation alpha 3.85 days Radium A alpha 3 minutes Radium B .| beta+ gamma] 26.7 minutes Radium C . .| beta-+ gamma] 19.5 minutes LOTS a re alpha 0.000001 second Radium D (Radio-lead)}_ —_ slow beta 15.83 years Radium E . . .| beta+ gamma] 48.5 days — F (Polonium) alpha 136 days a Each change is accompanied by the emission of energy in the form of radia- tion, of which there are three distinct types designated alpha, beta, gamma. The alpha rays are positive particles of electricity traveling at very high speed, which become helium atoms when they collect two negative particles of electric- ity, or electrons, each. The beta rays are electrons traveling at still higher speeds than the alpha particles. Some beta particles have nearly the velocity of light, which is 186,000 miles a second. The gamma rays, like X-rays, consist of electromagnetic waves, in which they are identical with light, but their wave length is very much shorter than that of light and even shorter than that of X- rays. The alpha rays are very easily absorbed by matter, = mm. of glass being sufficient to stop them. The beta rays are much more penetrating, some being capable of traversing 2 mm. of lead. Finally, the gamma rays are extremely penetrating, for their presence can be detected even through 25 cm. of lead. The radiant energy emitted by radium has been measured: it is 133 calories an hour. Therefore a given amount of radium can melt its own weight of ice in less than three-quarters of an hour, and it is capable of doing this indefinitely. Courtesy of the “‘Scientific American” Monsieur and Madame Curie, to whose gen- jus and devoted labors the world is indebted for one of the greatest discoveries of all time The energy which one gram of radium liberates during its life is 2,900,000,000 calories, while the energy produced by burning 1 gram of coal is 8000 calories. It is very important to remember, how- ever, that radium gives off its energy at a very slow rate, which cannot be altered by any means at our disposal, while coal can be burned rapidly or slowly at will. Furthermore, the burning of coal is a chemical reaction in which carbon and oxygen combine to form carbon dioxide, while the emission of energy by radium results from the transformation of the radium atoms themselves into different atoms. The process of disintegration of radium proceeds at such a slowrate that it has been calculated that after nearly 2000 years there will still remain half of the ini- tialamount. Yet the radiation emitted is so powerful that it is able to bring about marked changes in many substances. When radium is employed for thera- peutic purposes, it is not used as a drug. The physiological effect whichit is capable of producing is due to its radiation and therefore it is not even necessary to bring it into intimate contact with the dis- eased tissue. Radium produces its effect at a distance by means of the invisible NATURAL HISTORY Radium applicator used for the treatment of deep-seated tumors. It is always applied at a distance of several centimeters from the skin. in such cases. rays which it emits. Of course, the closer it is to the tissue, the greater will be the effect, just as the closer we are to a lamp, the more light we receive. Of the three types of radiation which radium sends out, ordinarily only the beta and gamma rays are available for treatments. The alpha rays, being very easily absorbed by matter, cannot force their way through the walls of the radium containers and in any case they could not affect an ap- preciable thickness of tissue. Both beta and gamma rays can be resorted to when the diseased tissue extends to the surface, but only the very penetrating gamma rays can be used to influence a deep-seated growth without irreparable injury to the skin. In this case the radium is enclosed in a metal container of sufficient wall- thickness to absorb the beta rays. The metal acts as a “filter”? through which the penetrating gamma rays pass substan- tially without loss, while the beta rays are completely absorbed. There are two ways in which radium is employed for the treatment of patients: (1) the radium salt—usually the sulphate —is kept in sealed containers (tubes, hollow needles, etc.,) which are applied Only the very penetrating gamma rays are utilized They pass through 2 mm. of brass before reaching the patient to the patients; (2) the radium, in the form of bromide or chloride, is dissolved in water and the gas emanation, which results from its disintegration, is col- lected in small glass tubes, which are then used for treatments. On account of the complicated apparatus necessary for the collection and measurement of the emanation, this method is used only when relatively large quantities of ra- dium are available. It has, however, many advantages, as it is inherently more flexible and has a wider range of applica- tion. All large institutions using radium have adopted this method. | In the exhibit at the American Museum both methods were represented. Dr. Robert Abbe, of New York, who was one of the first physicians to use radium in this country, contributed to the exhibi- tion some applicators in which the ra- dium tubes are placed for different treat- ments. He supplied also a number of casts showing different cancerous growths in their natural sizes and colors before radium treatment and the subsequent results. These casts indicated very strik- ingly the healing power of radium. In some cases the growth had disappeared Box used for carrying radium applicators from one art of the Memorial Hospital to another. Note the long handle, a protective device to keep the holder out of proximity with the radium RADIUM—THE SUPREME MARVEL OF NATURE’S STOREHOUSE 529 without leaving even a scar. In Dr. Abbe’s collection there were also many objects of historical interest, such as a tube containing some of the first radium brought to this country, a spinthariscope, an electroscope used by the Curies, and the first quartz piezo-electric measuring instrument made by Professor Curie. This was later bestowed upon the College of Physicians of Philadelphia by Dr. Abbe, the formal presentation being made by Madame Curie on the occasion of her visit to that city. The Memorial Hospital of the City of New York prepared a large exhibit illus- When the work was first started at the Memorial Hospital in 1914 with a small amount of radium, the available knowl- edge of the effect of radiation on cancer was very limited. It was necessary, therefore, to develop a rational technique and the concomitant armamentarium. Steady progress was made in the methods of application at the same time that the supply of radium increased at the rate of 100 milligrams a month. Today the Memorial Hospital stands as the leading institution for radium therapy. The four grams of radium are kept in a lead-lined steel safe, within a fireproof Applicators for irregular growths. emanation tubes are distributed evenly over the surface to be treated trating all phases of the radium work from the collection of the emanation to its use for therapeutic purposes. This institution is devoted solely to the treat- ment of cancer and allied diseases and has made an extensive study of the cancer problem. Radium is one of the most successful agents which the Memorial Hospital staff has adopted to combat cancer. It is gratifying to know that through the enthusiasm and generosity of the late Dr. James Douglas, a former Trustee of the American Museum, the Memorial Hospital has in its possession the largest quantity of radium of any public institution, namely, four grams. They are made of dental modeling compound, and the vault. Four small glass flasks containing the radium in solution are joined to one glass tube, which in turn is connected with the intricate glass apparatus used for the collection of the gas emanation produced by radium. The apparatus is exhausted thoroughly by means of a vacuum pump and is kept as free of air as possible. On account of the decom- position of water under the influence of the radium rays, a very large amount of ‘gas is mixed with the minute quantity of emanation which is to be collected in tiny capillary glass tubes. It is necessary, therefore, to separate the emanation from the “impurities.” This is accomplished ge This intricate apparatus is used at the Memorial Hospital for the purification and collection of radium emanation. Note that the operator stands in front of a lead screen which protects her from the rays emitted by the (invisible) radioactive material at the other end of the apparatus. The remote control attachment here shown is necessary only when the emanation from a large amount of radium is to be collected. During 1920, there were collected with this apparatus, 200,000 millicuries of emanation This machine’ was made at the Memorial Hospital to divide along glass capillary tube con- taining radium emanation into a large number of tiny tubes. By turning the crank, the tubes are sealed off one by one. During 1920, this machine made 20,000 of these tiny tubes 53° RADIUM—THE SUPREME MARVEL OF NATURE’S STOREHOUSE by chemical means, the gases being trans- ferred from one part of the apparatus to another by means of suitable mercury pumps. Finally the emanation is forced into a capillary tube about the size of an ordinary pin and is sealed off by fusing the glass tube with a tiny gas flame. This tube is then divided into two or three parts and each is placed in a silver container. The latter can be used in the same manner that tubes containing ra- dium salts are used. The beta and gamma rays, needed for treatments, be- ing emitted only by Radium B and C, are identical in the two cases. The only difference is that the radiation from radium tubes remains practically con- stant in value while that from emanation tubes decreases in intensity at a fairly rapid rate. The amount of emanation in a tube is expressed in millicuries, a unit adopted in honor of Madame Curie. The gamma radiation from one milli- curie of emanation is the same as that emitted by one milligram of radium element. If we have a tube containing too millicuries of emanation, the amount will have decreased to 83.5 me. in 24 hours, to 69 mc. in two days, to 50 mc. 531 Technician at the: Memorial Hospital pre- paring a radium applicator. Note the thick lead-lined, cast-iron protector, and the long forceps used for handling the tubes in 3.85 days, to 25 me. in 7.7 days, and so on. In other words, the amount of emanation decreases at the rate of 16.5 per cent in 24 hours. For this reason, when the emanation method is used, The tiny glass tubes containing radium emanation are inserted into cancerous growths by means of a hollow steel needle and plunger. i The tube is placed into the needle by means of the forceps shown and is then discharged into the diseased tissue. No attempt is made to recover the glass tubes, for they become “extinct”’ after two or three weeks Un WwW NO NATURAL HISTORY This instrument, a gold leaf electroscope, is used at the Memorial Hospital for the accurate measurement of radium. The image of the gold leaf is projected on a screen at a distance of three feet and the rapidity of its motion is determined with a stop watch. The radium or emanation to be measured is placed on the shelf or in the v-shaped support on the iron rail. The rays go through three-fourths of an inch of lead before reaching the electroscope proper and discharging the leaf. Other conditions being the same, the faster the leaf is discharged the larger the quantity of radium present there is always available a supply of tubes of various strengths. Further- more, the tubes can be made of different values initially. A method of application which is not possible when radium salts are used, con- sists in the insertion in a tumor of tiny glass tubes containing about one milli- curie of emanation. The tubes are bur- ied in the tissue by means of a hollow needle with a plunger and are left in place indefinitely. After two or three weeks their activity is practically negli- gible and as foreign bodies they are harm- less. By this time, however, the tumor has been affected by the radiation. This method of treatment, which has been found to be very effective, has been developed to its present efficient state at the Memorial Hospital. A large num- ber of tubes is used in this manner every day. Their preparation made necessary the construction of a special machine which cuts the tubes rapidly, thus de- creasing to a negligible amount the exposure of the workers. The success of a treatment depends to a considerable extent on the administra- tion of a proper dose of radiation. There- fore it is necessary, in the first place, to know the strength of each tube of emana- tion. The weight and the volume of the gas are extremely small and it would be impracticable to base the measurements oneither. Advantage is taken, however, of the electrical properties of the radia- tion and electrical measuring instruments are used. A golcl leaf electroscope is very RADIUM—THE SUPREME MARVEL OF NATURE’S STOREHOUSE 533 convenient for this purpose. The leaf is charged so that it stands out from its support. The radioactive material placed at a distance from the electroscope “Jonizes”’ the air, that is, makes it a conductor of electricity, and conse- quently the charge from the leaf is car- ried away. The leaf then falls back to its initial position at a rate depending on the amount of radium or emanation in the specimen being tested. By measur- ing with a stop watch the time it takes the leaf to travel between two fixed points, it is possible to calculate the amount of radioactive material in the specimen. In practice the motion of the leaf is observed either with a micro- scope or by projecting it on a ground- glass screen. Ordinarily, the rays used to affect the air in the instrument pass through two centimeters of lead. Spe- cial electroscopes have been constructed capable of measuring s0;000t0w0,000 gram OF 1,300,000,000,000 OUNCE of radium. When a great many tubes have to be measured in one day, it is impracticable to use an electroscope. A convenient measuring instrument for more rapid determinations consists of a very sensi- tive galvanometer which measures the electrical current produced by the emana- tion in a suitable ionization chamber. This is the method used in measuring the tiny tubes which are later inserted in tumors. These tubes are so small that it is quite difficult to handle them. The apparatus, therefore, is so constructed that each tube is picked up with long forceps only once in the process of measurement. An idea of their size can be obtained from the fact that 30,000 of them weigh only one ounce. The total amount of radioactive emanation they would ordinarily contain weighs only 0.00018 of a gram or 0.000006 of an ounce. Of great importance is the protection of radium workers from the radiations. This problem has been considered care- fully at the Memorial Hospital, where it is particularly important on account of the large amount of emanation to be handled, and safety measures have been adopted from the inception of the work. The tubes are handled always with 30- cm. forceps. Applicators are prepared behind lead-lined, cast-iron blocks, es- pecially designed to protect the most vulnerable parts of the body. The emanation apparatus is so constructed that the operator stands behind a lead plate at a considerable distance from the active part. Measuring instruments have been designed with the same end in view. It should be remembered that it is not dangerous to be in proximity to Instrument used to measure the radioactivity of ‘‘bare tubes.’ A very sensitive galvanometer Mf g measures the electric current produced:in'the ionization chamber by the rays. The tube to be measured is dropped through the serves as the pointer for the galvanometer. The beam of light upper funnel into a small box on a silk ribbon which carries it in the chamber when the crank is turned. The beam of light then is'deflected according to the’strength of the tube 534 NATURAL HISTORY Radium emanation containers. ‘The small- est one is the glass tube in which the emanation is sealed. It can be placed into any one of the metal tubes shown. The latter serve the pur- pose of “filters,” allowing some of the rays to go through and absorbing the others. They are made of platinum, lead, silver, or aluminum, according to the exigencies of the treatment The receptacle in which Madame Curie’s radium was handled just before it was ready for the glass tubes in which it was delivered to her. (The photograph shows exact size of receptacle.) After 500 men had worked more than six months with over 500 tons of ore and 10,000 tons of distilled water, 1000 tons of coal and 500 tons of chemicals, they had a quantity of radium that just thinly covered the bottom of this dish even a large amount of radium for a short time, or to be near a sufficiently weak source for a long time. Also the emana- tion, as soon as it is collected, is inactive, for the penetrating rays are emitted by Radium B and C, which accumulate gradually for three hours. These facts form the basis of the protective meas- ures taken. The effect of a strong source can be decreased as much as we please by | surrounding it with a sufficient thickness of matter, usually lead. The greatest trouble is experienced in making new technicians avail themselves of the pro- tective devices provided. This is due to the fact that no immediate effect results from overexposure to radium rays. It takes usually more than a week for a visible effect to develop and sometimes even four or five weeks. If radium burned like an incandescent body, the problem of protection would be very simple. A word should be said about the diffi- culties of radium therapy. In spite of the large amount of work done in this field, the present knowledge of the effects of radiation on cancer is more or less rudi- mentary. The main difficulty is that very little is known about the biological action of radiation. The necessary in- formation cannot be obtained from the treatment of patients but must come from careful experimentation with the aid of the physical and biological sciences. Even now, however, radium is known to be of unquestionable benefit to several definite groups of patients for whom there was practically no hope of recovery or even improvement before the advent of radium. It is certain that through the efforts of such institutions as the Memorial Hospital of New York City, the Huntington Hospital of Boston, and others, the field of usefulness of radium in the treatment of this terrible disease will be greatly enlarged. The late Dr. James Douglas fully realized the impor- tance of the experjmental research in the development of radium therapy, for, in addition to the radium previously ee RADIUM—THE SUPREME MARVEL OF NATURE’S STOREHOUSE 535 mentioned, he donated to the Mem- orial Hospital a well-equipped laboratory building. Space does not permit the description of the many pieces of apparatus and the instruments of the Memorial Hospital exhibit. An idea of the amount of work this institution is doing in the field of radium therapy may be gathered from the following figures: In 1920, 1656 new patients were treated, 2224 new and old patients were admitted to hospital beds, 28,525 days of treatment were given to these patients, 23,400 visits were made to the hospital by old patients for exam- ination and advice, about 35 per cent of the above days of treatment were given without cost to the patient. From the radium in solution 200,000 millicuries of emanation were collected, 20,000 capillary tubes were made and measured, and 2672 radium applicators were pre- pared for the treatment of patients. In conclusion, a few words may be said oS: pn Wuseun oF Naruna, ‘ ane <8 ee | oral) sand seactiaryrny He stay of Maduro ‘his is to coulify that Matame Marie Sklosowska Curie has been Duly elected aw onorarp Fellow of Che’ merican Museum of Matural History Givew ander oar Rando and the seal’ ofthe Society in the City Ns of Mew Mork the twentieth day of Apsil wet ee a ee oe ee : Voctin?, exetaiy about the place of radium in the treat- ment of cancer. The following state- ment is taken from the Memorial Hospi- tal exhibit: it has been proved that radium is a reliable agent for the cure of accessible cancers in their early stages. It is of great value as a palliative agent in advanced forms of the disease. At present it cannot control widely extensive cancers. Therefore, the importance of the early recognition of this disease is emphasized more than ever. During October a week was named “Cancer Week.” A convention of sur- geons and others held meetings in the course of which cancer and the applica- tion of radium were discussed. .Some surgeons claim that no cures have been made with radium; others, that there have been cures. The general consensus of opinion seems to be that radium should be used only by physicians who themselves are thoroughly conversant with its properties and application. THE NEW YORK MINERALOGICAL CLUB- be, ae BY UNANIMOUS VOTE OF ITS MEMBERS AT — : THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ORGANIZATION. = ff ON THE EVENING OF WEDNESDAY, APRIL THE TWENTIETH, 1921, AT THE AMERICAN MUSEUM | OF NATURAL HISTORY, DESIRING TO EXPRESS ITS FULLEST APPRECIATION OF THE EMINENCE ATTAINED BY HER IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE, AND HER TRANSCENDENT SERVICE TO HUMANITY THROUGH THE DISCOVERY OF RADIUM IN THE 4 YEAR 1898, AND HER MANY AND GREAT CONTRI- BUTIONS TO THE SCIENCE OF RADIO-ACTIVITY — HEREBY CONFERS UPON -MADAME MARIE SKLODOWSKA CURIE HONORARY MEMBERSHIP, WITH LIFE TENURE OF ALL THE RIGHTS AND PRIVILEGES PERTAINING THERETO & f CORRESPONDING SECRETARY * RECORDING SECRETARY Mati Sitanaie ie During her recent visit to America, Madame Curie was the recipient of distinctions from the fore- most institutions of learning in the land. The American Museum conferred Honorary F ellowship upon her and the New York Mineralogical Club made her an Honorary Member THE MADAME CURIE RADIUM FUND WHAT IT REPRESENTS AND HOW IT WILL BE APPLIED GEORGE , NHE Marie Curie Radium Fund represents a splendid accom- plishment on the part of the women of the United States, among whom was collected in large part the sum devoted to the purchase of the gram of radium recently presented through President Harding to the discoverer of that miracle-working substance. Mrs. William Brown Melony,’ to whom so large a measure of credit is due for the success attending the collection of this fund, has just communicated full details of the result of the campaign organized for the purpose. Mrs. Melony reports that through the concerted efforts of those interested in the matter, Madame Curie was able to return to France with her gram of radium and with $22,000 worth of mesothorium as well as other valuable ores; the total value of her precious package was $162,000. In addition to this she had in cash from awards of sci- entific societies the amount of $6884.51. There is now left in the Equitable Trust Company the sum of $60,000. Re- cently a prominent American undertook the collection of an independent fund of $50,000 to be applied to the purchase of equipment for Madame Curie’s labora- tory and, in case this amount is raised, the $60,000 on deposit will be released for the establishment of a trust fund, the income of which is to be given to Madame Curie as long as she lives. It has been proposed that at the termina- tion of her life, the income from the trust be used to pay the expenses of two Amer- ican students in chemistry and physics at the Sorbonne. A legitimate source of pride is the fact that from this radium fund in the Equitable Trust Company, raised BY F. KUNZ largely by women, not a cent was de- ducted for the expense of collection; — what small expense there was has been defrayed by two American women. On July 15, 1921, Mrs. Edward Dwight Pomeroy, Treasurer of the American Association of University Women, Chi- cago, forwarded to the Equitable Trust Company a check for $1529.19, thereby completing the contribution of this Association to the Marie Curie Radium Fund. Under date of September 22, 1921, Madame Curie applied to Herbert C. Hoover, Secretary of Commerce, for advice as to the disposal of $8000 sent to her by Americans as a contribution to the fund for the purchase of the gram of radium. As these contribu- tors appeared unaware that the radium had already been purchased and do- nated to Madame Curie, she wished to know what should be done with the money. Possibly it could be added to the special fund proposed. The radium presented to Madame Curie was bought from the Standard Chemical Company of Pittsburgh which made the lowest price in a closed bid. The fairness of this offer made possible a larger residuum of money for purposes kindred to that for which the fund was originally raised. It was a brilliant thought of Mrs. Wil- liam Brown Melony to induce Madame Curie to come to America and to arrange on her behalf and in so splendid a man- ner the public testimonials, in the form of receptions, lectures, and visits to our great institutions, that signalized Ma- dame Curie’s sojourn in America. Mrs. Melony was aided in her work by a very efficient committee which coéperated with her in every way. 10n November 12 Mrs. William Brown Melony was informed through the Prince de Béarn et de Chalais, Counselor of the French Embassy, that the French Government had conferred upon her the decoration of the Chevalier de Legion d’Honneur, in recognition of her work in connection with the Marie Curie Radium Fund and her services on behalf of France during the war. The decoration was bestowed upon her by the Honorable Aristide Briand at the home of the Honorable Gaston Liebert, Consul General of France, on Thanksgiving Day, November 24, 1921 536 ———————————— SO RECENT ACTIVITIES OF EUROPEAN ARCHAOLOGISTS BY N. C. NELSON* HE Great War, one would sup- pose, might have put an end for a time, at least in Europe, to anything so apparently unimportant as the pursuit of archeological studies. Many of the younger investigators sacrificed their ambitions on the field of honor; and economic and _ political stress since the guns became silent would seem to call for activity along strictly ‘practical’? lines. Neverthe- less, only a few months ago the Prince of Monaco assured us that the young men of France were rallying to the cause of archeology, were making all sorts of personal sacrifices and suffering real privations in order to prepare themselves to continue the work. Indeed, some of the nations of Europe, perhaps partly as a result of the war, are looking more closely than ever into the questions of their racial constituencies, and some are basing their appeal for progress and nationalism directly on the facts developed by prehistoric archeology. “Behold the splendid accomplishments of your ancestors,” say the Scandinavian educators, “and be proud enough not to let your cultural heritage suffer.” Archeology also appears to serve mankind in a still broader capacity. Everywhere of late years familiar voices have talked despairingly of the whole future of human progress. Wallace, the great naturalist, strange to say, was one of the first to express these gloomy forebodings. But during and since the war several books have been published, one in Spain, one in France, one in England, and two in America, all reviewing the long story of man’s ancient achievements. It is_ possible that some of these writers themselves did not find the future sufficiently prom- ising and for satisfaction turned in- stead to a contemplation of the glorious past. Whatever the motive, there can be no doubt that such recent books as Mr. Wells’s Outlines of History and Pro- fessor Tylor’s New Stone Age in Europe are excellent antidotes for the depressing influence of times like the present, for they serve to show that human pre- history has been one long succession of crises and that, nevertheless, general progress has been fairly continuous. And if this has been so throughout the uncounted centuries of the past, why despair of the future? It is not, however, to justify prehis- toric archeology by showing the prac- tical application of its results that these lines are written. It is rather to call attention to the fact that archeological research is actually going on in Europe, the evidence being two interesting papers that have recently appeared. One of these papers deals with a racial question, the other is concerned with a question of culture, and both are deemed sufficiently important for brief exposition. THE CRO-MAGNON MAN IN SWEDEN That the tall, narrow-skulled people of present-day Sweden are direct de- scendants of the highly gifted, narrow- skulled Cré-Magnon men of Paleolithic France and central Europe is the opinion expressed by Oscar Montelius of the National Museum, Stockholm. His views on this and related topics are set forth in the April number of the Anti- quarian Journal of London and were called to the attention of President Henry Fairfield Osborn by Mr. Randall Maclver. The article, unfortunately, is too brief to be convincing; but a statement of such importance coming from one of Europe’s foremost veteran archeologists compels attention. *Associate Curator of North American Archeology, American Museum 537 538 NATURAL HISTORY Montelius, accepting as his starting point the recent scientific determinations of Baron De Geer with respect to the duration of Post-Glacial times, con- cludes that 20,000 years have elapsed since the last great ice cap, covering northwestern Europe, began to retreat northward. In its wake followed the flora and fauna typical of central Europe during the height of the Glacial period; and the Cré-Magnon man, dependent for thousands of years upon this fauna, very naturally followed in pursuit. It is estimated that he arrived in south- ern Sweden about 15,000 years ago. The evidence in support of this view consists of a number of typical Solutrean flint implements found not only in Sweden but in Norway and Denmark as well. Other implements of flint and bone resembling those of the Azilian- Tardenoisian period of France are also described and illustrated as coming from Sweden; and the Maglemose and Brabant cultures of Denmark, though somewhat local in character, are gen- erally regarded as belonging on the same French horizon. Finally, the culture of the shell-mound people of Denmark, and also of some of the early coast dwellers of Sweden, is, as has long been known, identical with the Campignian period of France, the stage which marks for us the true beginning of the Neo- lithic Age in western Europe. In brief, there would seem to be in the Baltic countries, as in France, an. uninter- rupted cultural development from Solu- trean times to the present. No direct proof is offered by Montelius that it was, in fact, the Cré-Magnon man who brought these cultural traits to the Baltic shores. It is pointed out merely that the stature and skull form of the Cré-Magnon man—said to be the only inhabitant of central Europe during the Upper Palzolithic— were much like those of the present Nordic stock, typical especially of the central inland districts of the Scan- dinavian peninsula. The connection between these two peoples receives further confirmation through the fact — that archeologic and linguistic studies in Sweden both indicate, it is said, that no other people ever inhabited the southern and central portions of the region mentioned. Thus the oldest — skulls discovered are held to be dolicho- cephalic, and the geographic place names are considered to be of Swedish deri- vation. All this is extremely interesting, even if open to some criticism. Different national groups seem ever more ready to claim relationship with the wonderful prehistoric cave-artists of France, even the French themselves. And some- thing of an artistic inheritance doubtless did pass northward, to flare up in a unique manner during the early Bronze Age. But to the writer it does not appear clearly established that central Europe during the Upper Paleolithic was inhabited exclusively by tall, narrow- skulled people. Moreover, the oldest skulls recovered from the tumuli of Scandinavian countries distinctly in- dicate, according to Retzius and others, the presence of at least a small per- centage of the broad-skulled type. It has been shown that this type, or race, has been steadily increasing in numbers but its origin has never been cleared up. This does not, to be sure, seriously militate against the essential correctness of Montelius’ view—a view which, it may be recalled, was advanced by the late Professor Steensby of the University of Copenhagen more than ten years ago. Steensby at that time recognized in the composite Danish populations not only Nordic, Alpine, and Mediter- ranean types, in accordance with Ripley’s classification of European races, but he announced the presence of two other types which he declared were none other than modified descendants, the one of the Cré-Magnon race and the other of the Neanderthal race! We may well wait for further details in confirmation of these conclusions. RECENT ACTIVITIES OF EUROPEAN ARCHAOLOGISTS Meanwhile, one of the anomalies that for years confronted the visitor to the national museums of Stockholm and Copenhagen has been cleared up. So- phus Miiller and the other conservative archeologists of Denmark, in their labels and guidebooks have assigned a possible date of 6000 years to their oldest antiquities. Montelius, on the other hand, has boldly claimed 15,000 years or more for the Scandinavian antiquities on exhibit in Stockholm. The explanation of the difference, though possibly stated somewhere in print, was never made evident to the visitor of the respective museums. As the argument is not closed, we may still hesitate to accept either extreme of date; but in view of the archeological evidence now pre- sented, and in view also of the contin- ually widening perspective of archzo- logical time, we run little risk in leaning heavily toward the opinion of Montelius. THE LOWER PALZOLITHIC INDUSTRY OF NORTHERN FRANCE Complementary, as it were, to the above brief paper by Montelius on the Upper Paleolithic, there has come to hand another equally important and more lengthy article on the Lower Paleolithic, which originally appeared in L’Anthropologie for 1920, under the title ‘“The Most Ancient Industry of St. Acheul.” It is a study based pri- marily upon the notes and collections of the late Monsieur V. Commont, the well-known student of the arche- ology of the Somme Valley. The paper, however, besides being in part minutely descriptive, advances a number of novel theoretical and speculative considera- tions of great interest. The writer, Monsieur André Vayson, is a new entrant into anthropological circles with new and positive ideas. His viewpoint or mental background appears to be geological, a fact that should insure him a hearty welcome. He knew Commont before the war; and during its progress, while stationed 539 with his regiment at Amiens, we may suppose that he was inspired by Com- mont’s inordinate zeal, as well as by his sad fate. At any rate, Monsieur Vayson has since acquired Commont’s collections and he lately wrote Presi- dent Henry Fairfield Osborn, of the American Museum, that he was planning to devote his entire time to the study of geology and prehistory. The circum- stance seems most fortunate. The story of the Somme Valley, which is the story also of a large part of northern France and much of Belgium, as well as of southern England, has been told many times since the days of Boucher de Perthes and Sir Charles Lyell. Vayson tells it again and with notable modifications. Briefly sum- marized, he writes that the Somme River during late geological times has carved in the solid chalk formation composing the region a broad U-shaped valley measuring about fifty-five meters in depth. The orginal chalk slopes of this valley are today covered with a heavy alluvial mantle of clay, sand, and gravel—ancient stream ballast which from time to time has been left stranded on the high banks as the river cut its channel deeper and deeper. Thus re- garded, the portion of the mantle nearest the top edge of the valley, or, in other words, nearest the plateau level, is the oldest. The time required for this cutting process mounts into thousands of years—no one can tell how many. Our particular interest in the time element arises from the fact that nearly forty meters of this valley-cutting pro- cess was effected in the presence of man. This is certain because flint objects of human production are found in the old stream detritus covering the chalk slopes up to that height. In the same al- luvium, together with the implements, are found also the fossil bones of animals, in part of Pliocene affinities. These animals are now either totally extinct or their representatives have migrated to other lands where a warmer climate 540 NATURAL HISTORY prevails. In the gravels and débris above the forty-meter level, on the other hand, there are no signs of human in- dustry and no fossil fauna (p. 447.) This much perhaps is already familiar to the reader. But the author next proceeds to question the origin of the barren mantle material above the forty- meter level. Whereas hitherto this mix- ture of débris has been regarded as ancient river ballast, Monsieur Vayson believes it should be considered as wash directly from the plateau above. More startling still is his denial of the old idea that the alluvial mantle mounts the valley slopes by a succession of terraces and that these terraces are in some way to be correlated with the suc- cessive advances and retreats of the glaciers. His view is that there are no true terraces. This must seem disap- pointing to those who would infer from the relation of the flint implements and the supposed terraces that man was pres- ent in western Europe during the sec- ond, if not also during. the first, in- terglacial period. Coming to the cultural aspect of the Somme Valley problem, Monsieur Vay- son contributes equally novel and revo- lutionary ideas. First of all, he con- cludes from the occurrence and the generally uninjured condition of the worked flint objects found in the al- luvium that they lie for the most part exactly where they were left by human agencies. In other words, he believes that early man has had his camps and his workshops directly on the river bank from the time when the river flowed thirty or more meters above its present level. This seems reasonable enough, though it is not easy to imagine how im- plements left on the river bank could have been buried under more than seven meters of river ballast without them- selves being shifted about. The whole inventory of worked flint objects found associated with the warm fauna in the alluvial mantle covering the lower valley slopes the author labels with the broad designation “Chellean.” He specifically denies the alleged occur- rence of a Mousterian industrial phase accompanied by a warm fauna (p. 449). In the same manner he disposes of the lately much talked of ‘“Pre-Chellean” stage. In brief, Monsieur Vayson, while giving due credit to Commont for his painstaking labors, is not disposed to accept his detailed stratigraphic de- terminations. All this may be correct in the main, but certainly it leaves the beginnings of culture for the Somme Valley hanging, as it were, in the air. This last statement is emphasized also by the author himself, who takes the position that the Chellean industrial stage is a comparatively advanced one. It is so far advanced technically and eesthetically that we must necessarily assume a Pre-Chellean stage of more primitive character. We seem, in short, to know much less about the real be- ginnings of human culture than for some time we have been in the habit of thinking we knew. The remainder of the paper is taken up with an intensive study of the worked flints as such. The author divides these morphologically into two great groups: (1) those chipped on one face, and (2) those chipped on both faces. He pro- poses in this way to get rid of the non- committal term coup-de-poing. From the functional point of view he divides all the “instruments” proper into a shar p-edged and a sharp-pointed series. By close examination of the edge or the point of the numerous Somme Valley specimens, he finds that many of them show wear and polish due to usage. This wear in many cases in- dicates what portion of the tool was used, the angle at which it was held, and to some extent suggests the general pur- pose which it served. Monsieur Vay- son concludes, for example, that the enigmatical coup-de-poing was employed not with a striking movement, but with a pressure movement such as is used in cutting and scraping. This would ap- srs a ie RECENT ACTIVITIES OF EUROPEAN ARCH AOLOGISTS pear to settle the long-standing dispute as to whether these instruments were tools or weapons. In general, the author regards the Chellean inventory of im- plements as having been used largely in wood-working. The paper concludes with a more or less theoretical . discussion of man’s primordial needs, the possible methods of producing implements, the various possible forms, and the possible modes of hafting the forms devised. The reasoning is partly a priori and partly from analogy with practices of modern aborigines. Altogether, viewed from this side of the Atlantic, it seems the sort of paper that ought to start some lively discussion. PROFESSOR V. COMMONT In concluding these notes on the re- cent archeological activities in Europe, it seems hardly proper to take leave of the Somme Valley problem without paying our respects to Professor V. Commont. This gentleman was_ to France what Dr. Charles C. Abbott or Mr. Ernest Volk was to America, the zealous yet patient investigator, giving all his leisure hours for many years to one specific locality. Stated in other terms, Commont was France’s Boucher de Perthes of the present century. It was he who, after the brilliant de Mor- tillet had abandoned the St. Acheul station as “impure” or impossible to straighten out scientifically, reéstablished its reputation by prolonged systematic investigation. A busy teacher in the Ecole Normale of Amiens and with little or no financial support from outside sources, he set out to accumulate sound data from all the gravel pits within 541 his reach and he kept up the task for all of fifteen years. Doubtless but for the war he would still be collecting. With him, as with Piette and several other French archeologists, collecting was the labor that made life most worth while. It is not for the writer to tell Pro- fessor Commont’s complete story. A pilgrimage was made to St. Acheul with great expectations the year before the war, but unfortunately the master was away from home at the time. What happened to him since is not entirely clear. Monsieur Vayson writes that he succumbed a victim of the German in- vasion; but this statement appears to be true only in a limited sense. Amiens and its suburb St. Acheul, as we know, were subject to bombardment at least twice, and apparently during the first advance Commont fled to Abbeville. His valuable collections, through some special governmental dispensation, were later rescued practically intact. Prob- ably, however, the shock and privations incidental to such an experience took off many a brave worker. Commont increased our knowledge by large, carefully made collections. He made a series of sequence determina- tions which, whether right in all respects or wrong, reéstablished the scientific value of the gravel deposit studies. He did more than anyone else to stimulate English archeologists to a study of the Thames Valley gravels, which have yielded results in many points identical with those of the Somme. Lastly, Commont wrote and published not a few of his discriminating observations. The work he accomplished will live after him and has already borne fruit. 542 PERSONNEL OF THE SECOND INTER- NATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS r | “SHE Second International Congress of Eugenics, which assembled at the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History, Septem- ber 22-28, was exceptionally well attended by scientists from all parts of the world. Many for- eign societies and universities were represented by delegates especially designated and, in addi- tion, no less than sixteen governments ap- pointed representatives. These governments in- cluded those of far-off Siam and near-by Canada; Belgium, Czecho-Slovakia, Denmark, and Nor- way, among European Powers; and in South and Central America: Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Peru, Salvador, Uruguay, and Venezuela. Four delegates were sent by the United States Public Health Service and eleven of our states had present delegates who had been appointed for the purpose by the respective governors of those states. On the day before the opening of the Congress President Henry Fairfield Osborn, of the American Mu- seum, and Mrs. Osborn returned from their Euro- pean trip, the one to preside over the Congress, the other to preside over the Ladies’ Committee of Reception and Entertainment, in the absence JON ALFRED MJOEN Director of the Winderen Laboratorium of Christiania and delegate of the Norwegian government to the Congress of Mrs. E. H. Harriman, who was detained in the West. As the result of two years’ preparation, in which many forces were united and all worked together with the best of good will, the Congress was an astounding success. Major Leonard Darwin and all the other delegates who took the long and expensive journey from the other side of the ocean, as well as those who had come a shorter distance, were impressed with the arrangements, and one and all declared that the Second Con- gress marked a new period in the eugenics movement. From the opening session of the Congress in the great auditorium of the Museum, through the opening of each of the four sections in the Hall of the Age of Man, to the closing session on the afternoon of September 28, interest was not only sustained but kept increasing. At first inclined to regard the Congress with levity, the press of the city took it more and more seriously, until finally the chief and most striking passages in the more important addresses by men like Major Darwin, Dr. Lucien Cuénot, Dr. G. V. de Lapouge, Dr. Jon Alfred Mjéen, Dr. Lucien March, among the foreign speakers, and the outstanding statements in the addresses of American speakers such as Dr. Raymond Pearl, Dr. Ales Hrdli¢ka, President Osborn, and others were widely spread through the press of the country. Dr. Jon Alfred Mjéen, director of the Win- deren Laboratorium of Christiania, whoattended the Congress as the delegate of the government of Norway, is devoting his life to the eugenics movement. He is the author of the volume Race Hygiene, published in 1914, which sums up the movement in the Scandinavian countries, and is also editor of the new journal, Den Nord- iske Race, Tidsskrift for racebiologi og folkefor- skning, which will publish full popular accounts of the recent Congress. The fact that the dis- tinguished Swedish sociologist, Pontus Fahlbeck, has shown that there is a perceptible racial de- cadence in Scandinavia, lends moral earnestness to Dr. Mjéen’s life mission. To the forth- coming volume of the Proceedings of the Congress he will contribute two papers, one on the causes of racial decadence in Sweden and Norway, the other on the inheritance of musical ability. During the coming winter he will continue his studies on the determination of musical ability with confréres in Freiburg, in Vienna, and per- haps in Budapest. A matter of special interest to biologists is that the son of August Weis- mann, the author of the dictum of the conti- nuity of the germ plasm, is a man of extraordi- nary musical ability. The Norwegian government is contemplating a survey of racial hygiene,\as the eugenics move- THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS ment is termed in Norway, and in connection with the proposed undertaking Doctor Mjéen will journey during the three summer months of 1922 in northern Norway, continuing his studies of race crossings between the Swedes, the Lapps, and the Finns. The Lapps are sup- posed to be inured to a northern climate and were selected by Nansen as helpers in his fa- mous journey across Greenland. They proved, however, to be far inferior to the Norwegians in endurance, and before the journey was over the Norwegians were obliged to do all the sledge- pulling, in which Otto Sverdrup proved to have an endurance even surpassing that of Fridtjof Nansen himself. It will be interesting to read- ers of NATURAL History to recall in this connec- tion that Roald Amundsen, another great Nor- wegian explorer and an Honorary Fellow of the American Museum, presented that institution with one of the three sledges which attained the South Pole. One of the most delightful of the addresses before the Congress of Eugenics was that de- livered by Dr. Lucien Cuénot, delegate to the Congress from the University of Nancy, France. Dr. Cuénot is distinguished as one of the natural- ists who immediately after the re-discovery of the principle now known as the “ Mendelian law of heredity,” commenced original research to prove its correctness. Doctor Cuénot ex- pressed himself as especially pleased with the Darwin hall of zodlogy and with the three halls of vertebrate paleontology. He also admired the restorations of extinct animals made by Mr. Charles R. Knight under the direction of Honorary Curator Osborn of the department of vertebrate paleontology. On the advice of Curator Matthew, a full set of bromide enlarge- ments of these restorations is being prepared and will be presented by the American Museum to Dr. Cuénot for the Museum of Nancy. When leaving America on the S. S. Paris, Doctor Cuénot wrote President Henry Fairfield Os- born:. I deeply appreciate your kind words and the gift that you are proposing to make to Nancy, of photographs of your restorations, which are ad- mirable in all respects. I leave America with deep regret on October 5, and I shall not have the opportunity, I fear, of seeing Dr. Matthew; I am fairly conversant with your paleontological liter- ature, but I shall be very happy if you will send me in the future your publications and those of Dr. Matthew on this subject. I have always derived much profit from a reading of them. Dr. G. Vacher de Lapouge, the delegate from Poitiers and leading authority on racial anthro- pology, also sailed on the Paris October 5. He leaves a complete set of his writings to enrich the section devoted to anthropology in the library of the American Museum. Of the three French speakers, Doctor de Lapouge took the most 543 despondent view as to the future racial prospects of France, inasmuch as he feels more keenly than his confréres the loss which France has sustained through the World War and through the previous wars and persecutions which have so altered the original racial balance of the French as discovered and commented upon by Cesar. Perhaps the fact that Doctor de Lapouge himself is of the fair-haired, blue-eyed Nordic race, which has suffered the greatest depletion, may influence his opinion somewhat. Dr. Lucien March, honorary director of the Statis- tique Générale de la France, who delivered the opening address in the section of the Congress devoted to Eugenics and the Human Family, sailed on the same steamer with his French confréres. Major Leonard Darwin and Mrs. Darwin also left this country October 5, sailing on the Adri- atic. Major Darwin’s address on the opening night of the Congress, as well as the addresses of President Henry Fairfield Osborn and Dr. Charles B. Davenport, delivered on the same occasion, will long be remembered by those who attended the gathering. Subsequently Major Darwin gave a thoughtful address on “ The Field for Eugenic Reform” before that section of the Congress devoted to the consideration of Eugen- ics and the State. Mr. Albert Govaerts, repre- senting the Belgian government, remains for several months of study in the Department of Genetics, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, before return- ing to Belgium. Among the honored guests of the Eugenics Congress was Dr. Robert. S. Woodward, ex- President of the Carnegie Institution of Wash- ington, who wrote to President Osborn under date of October 8: It was my intention to write you before this time to congratulate you, and through you, the staffs of the Museum, on the admirable staging of the Second Eugenics Congress in your estab- lishment. It was a warm place on the first eve- ning for high and hard thinking, but the fine series of addresses and the subsequent reception made attendance, even of an old farmer, well worth while. To one who finds it difficult in these times to discover the brighter tints of the dawn of the immediate future of our race, the cheerful optimism of the younger mem- bers of the Congress was quite inspiring. And the Congress as a whole afforded a manifesta- tion of altruism in all respects remarkable, though it is probable that few members ade- quately appreciate the time essential to work out the reforms and improvements now so clearly visualized. Perhaps we shall be able to note the progress of these and other terrestrial interests, 500 to. 1000 years hence, while spend- ing the summer on the Companion of Sirius, or some hotter star in accord with our deserts. Steps have already been taken to secure the 544 NATURAL HISTORY Courtesy of the ‘‘Journal of Heredity’ LUCIEN MARCH Honorary Director of the Statistique Générale de la France, who delivered the leading address in Section II, devoted to Eugenics and the Human Family prompt publication of the addresses and scien- tific papers presented before the Congress, as a companion volume to Problems in Eugenics, the title given to the Proceedings of the First Inter- national Congress of Eugenics, held in London in 1912 and published by the Eugenics Education Society. A publication committee has been ap- pointed consisting of the following individuals: Charles B. Davenport, chairman; C. C. Little, who served as secretary of the Congress; Clark Wissler, curator of anthropology in the Amer- ican Museum; President Henry Fairfield Osborn, Courtesy of the ‘‘Journal of Heredity” MAJOR LEONARD DARWIN President of the Eugenics Education Society of Great Britain and the leading exponent of the eugenics movement in the United Kingdom ex officio. The volume will contain, first, the gen- eral addresses of the opening session, followed by the opening address of each section and by the scientific papers, in their entirety or in abstract, of each section. It will conclude with an appen- dix setting forth the principal features of the exhibition, which was regarded by all as of great importance. Authors of papers who have not already sent in their manuscripts, or abstracts, should address them to Dr. C. C. Little, Car- negie Institution of Washington, Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York. NOTES SOUTH AMERICA THE AMERICAN MusEvM is primarily indebted to the liberal provision of its late Trustee, Mr. A.D. Juilliard, for the collection of Peruvian gold objects described in the leading article of this issue. During his trusteeship Mr. Juilliard took a special interest in South American anthro- pology, asa result of which the Museum received some rare Peruvian collections. The Nazca collection, purchased from Dr. Gaffron and presented by Mr. Juilliard in 1914, consisted of 693 pieces, including textiles, featherwork, and valuable examples of Nazca pottery. It is believed that this is the largest Nazca collection in the world. A second noteworthy collection presented by Mr. Juilliard was made in Ica by Sefior Manuel Montero. One hundred twenty pieces—textiles, silver ornaments, musical in- struments, and pottery—were embraced in the Ica collection. Of these the Peruvian textiles, among which were ten large, shawl-like gar- ments, now worth $1000 apiece, are probably the most remarkable. In view of the fact that Mr. Juilliard during his lifetime was so steadfast a patron of South American anthropology, it is especially fitting that the ancient gold objects from Peru, a striking addition to the anthro- pological treasures deposited in the Museum, should have been purchased through the income of the A. D. Juilliard and Helen C. Juilliard bequests. THroucH the generosity of Mr. and Mrs. William M. Baldwin, the American Museum has come into possession of various interesting ceremonial garments of the Indians of Paraguay. The most gorgeous of these is an article of ap- parel resembling the war bonnet of our north- ern Indians. Its foundation is of cloth, but the cloth is well-nigh concealed by a dense covering of parrot, rhea, and hawk feathers, in which the brilliant greens of the parrots’ plumage pre- dominate. A bunch of scarlet feathers tipped with iridescent green and blue surmounts this striking garment, which, in addition to covering the head, mantles the shoulders and extends well down the torso. Another article hardly less interesting is an apron made of the skin of a wolf (Canis jubatus), reinforced with cloth at one end. To this end are attached feathers of dif- ferent hue, some of which, hung by braided cords of vegetable fiber, dangle like tassels. Among the objects presented are six cords tied together at one end. Each of these cords is solidly encased for the greater part of its length in a thick, smooth, cylindrical layer of plumage and terminates at the. free end in a slightly fanlike grouping of feathers. Among the Karaja Indians of North Central Brazil similar feathered strings are worn pendent from the ear, over which they are looped. It is prob- able that in Paraguay a like custom prevails. A short, straight, slender stick to which have been firmly bound by means of a spiral of cord numerous small, curling green feathers placed at intervals, may have been used as a hair ornament. A headband of rhea feathers and a gray cloth belt, ornamented with a double row of short, brown lines, complete the objects em- braced by this gift. Mr. GrorcE K. CHERRIE, who has recently been collecting in southern Ecuador, on behalf of the American Museum’s department of birds, has had in the course of his eventful life ad- ventures ranging from guerrilla warfare, when he was a participant in an insurgent movement against the Venezuelan dictator, Castro, to the hunger and hardship experienced when pene- trating untrodden regions of South America with Colonel Roosevelt. He has so often come through the perils of the wilderness scatheless that Providence seemed to be especially vigilant in warding off the dangers that again and again threatened him. It was a distinct shock, there- fore, to receive word that he had been wounded in the right arm through the accidental dis- charge of a shotgun, and that the wound was so serious as to necessitate his return to America. He sailed for Colon, bound for these shores, on October 27. ASIA Tue Third Asiatic Expedition of the American Museum, under the able leadership of Mr.Roy Chapman Andrews, is beginning its important work in China with every promise of success. Cordial interest in the undertakings of the expedition has been manifested by Dr. Yen, Minister of Foreign Affairs, and by other mem- bers of the cabinet in Pekin. Dr. V. K. Ting, director of the National Geological Survey of China, and Dr. J. G. Andersson, mining adviser to the Chinese government and curator of the Museum of the Geological Survey of China, have given invaluable aid. Mr. Andrews’ plans for his own work and for that of his associates represent painstaking thought and should result in valuable achievements. According to word recently received from him, he had returned from a short collecting trip into the Eastern Tombs forest and beyond. This forest is being cut down so rapidly that in a year there will be little left standing and at least a dozen species of mammals and birds which live in it will become entirely extinct. Mr. Andrews’ timely trip has preserved, for the purposes of scientific study, specimens of this doomed fauna. The fish, reptiles, and amphibians collected by Mr. Clifford H. Pope, who ac- companied Mr. Andrews on this trip, have already reached this country. In a letter 545 546 written September 7, after his return to Pekin from this expedition, Mr. Andrews gives a more detailed description of his own work and that of Mr. Pope. “Pope and I had a trip to the Eastern Tombs forest. It was cut short by unprecedented rain; in fact, in three weeks, we had only four days of dry weather. Although the trip netted only about roo mammals, we obtained something over 1400 fish, reptiles, and batrachians. These have already been dispatched to the Museum by American Express, for Mr. Pope was es- pecially anxious to have a critical report from the Museum in regard to their preparation. The trip was designed particularly to give Pope and three of my new Chinese assistants training in the work that is to come. I am now sending Pope into a very interesting region of the Yangtze Valley on a trip by himself. He should make a large collection of fish and reptiles. I have employed a Chinese artist, who will go with him and will make colored paintings and draw- ings of the specimens while they are fresh. This is something that has never been done in China before, and I believe will be of great value.” This letter was written as Mr. Andrews was on the point of penetrating southern Shensi, a province lying westward of Chihli in which Pekin is situated. Political disturbances in Shensi had prevented an earlier visit to this interesting region, which holds out special promise to the collector. Here Mr. Andrews expects to obtain a group of takin (Budorcas), a genus of remarkable hollow-horned ruminants, the closest relatives of which appear to be the serows of the Himalaya region. A picture of a takin was shown in Natura History for September-October, 1920, in connection with the article “The Discovery of the Chinese Takin,” by Malcolm Playfair Anderson. Upon the com- pletion of the trip to Shensi Province, Mr. Andrews plans a trip to the Saigon regions of Indo-China, where game is particularly abun- dant. This trip should yield many prospective groups for the proposed Asiatic hall of the American Museum: the gaur (gigantic jungle cattle that are among the most characteristic and spectacular of Asiatic mammals), tiger, sambur (a large deer), thamin (a deer the antlers of which have long, curved brow tines), as well as a variety of monkeys. With regard to the expedition into Shensi, Mr. Andrews wrote on September 7: “T expect to have a rather hard trip after takin, for the country is extremely rough and it will be very cold at an altitude of 12,000 feet where we have to hunt. Iam taking with me on this trip a mining engineer, by the name of Collins, who is a famous hunter in China and knows Shensi well. It would have been rather foolhardy to have gone alone, for there has recently been a local war in that region and the mountains are full of Chinese soldiers who have NATURAL HISTORY deserted and become brigands.. We are very likely to have a brush with them, but still I don’t think our real danger is as great as when one crosses Fifth Avenue at 42nd Street. I hope to get a complete group of takin and to make a reconnaissance of the mountains in which they are found in preparation for a rather extensive zodlogical campaign there. The National Geological Survey of China has come to the conclusion that these mountains form a divide in the paleontological fauna and we are ~ anxious to know how far that same faunal divi- sion extends in regard to the living mammals, birds, and reptiles.” i A cable from Pekin, dated November 4, indicated that Mr. Andrews was once more safe at headquarters. - “his The paleontological work of the Third Asiatic Expedition has made good progress under the leadership of Mr. Walter Granger, who has had the heartiest codperation from the National Geological Survey of China. A visit has been undertaken to two sites in eastern Szechuen, which the Survey believes will yield rich results. Mr. Granger will also explore the numerous caves known to exist along the banks of the Yangtze Kiang. This river was undoubtedly a great highway of travel in early times, as it is today, and there is reason to believe that in these caves will be discovered human remains of great scientific interest. Mr. Granger has as his companion Mr, James V. T. Wong, an able young Chinaman, who speaks English fluently and who has demonstrated his ability in field work. Of this party Mr. Andrews says, ‘ Wal- ter Granger is well on his way to Szechuen and should be arriving at his collecting locality within a very few days. He has the finest personnel that it is possible to secure in China, He went off full of enthusiasm, and will, I be- lieve, get some valuable material.” . Another accomplishment of the expedition is the establishment. of ideal headquarters in Pekin. An equipment room and laboratories, well adapted to the requirements, had been completely fitted out by September 1 and will enable the expedition to conduct its work on a big scale. The most recent word from Mongolia indicates that conditions will be favorable for the expedition into that territory next year. Mempers of the American Museum will be glad to know that after two years of geological work in the field in connection with the discovery of oil, Mr. Barnum Brown rejoined the Museum’s staff on August 1 and soon thereafter reported to President Osborn in Paris for duty. He has never, in fact, been out of touch with Museum interests, because while in Cuba he made splen- did collections in invertebrate paleontology, which are now being worked up by Miss Marjorie O’Connell, and in Africa he collected and sent NOTES to the Museum invertebrate paleontological, zoblogical, and ethnological material. At pres- ent Mr. Brown is bound for southern Asia to visit all the great localities where remains of Primates, especially man, have been found or are likely to be found; namely, in Burma and in the Siwalik and the Bugti Hills of India. He takes with him the good wishes of all his British friends who have worked in these fields and he hopes to enjoy the codperation of the Geological Survey of India, and particularly that of Doctor Pilgrim. His journey is made possible by the generosity of Mrs. H. C. Frick, who has placed at the dis- posal of the Trustees of the American Museum a fund to be devoted especially to exploration in southern Asia. Mr. Brown is one of the most enterprising and courageous of all our explorers, and both of these qualities are needed to over- come the difficulties that he is sure to encounter when he comes in contact with the natives on the frontier lines of British rule in India. A TIBETAN SHRINE NOTWITHSTANDING the fact that Colonel Younghusband and his army crossed the Hima- layas and marched into the sacred precincts of Lhasa well-nigh twenty years ago, Tibet still remains a land penetrated but little and filled, therefore, for the average man with the en- chantment of the unknown. When one realizes how dominant is the influence of the lamas in this land and how strong the religious emphasis, it would seem that no single object from Tibet A Tibetan shrine recently installed in the American Museum through the courtesy of Mr. Alexander Scott. 547 Peete Le A CACC AUR RE SPN Second only to the interest which these objects have as an embodiment of the religious beliefs of the seclusive Tibetans is that of their intricate and delicate workmanship could be more representative or of greater in- terest than one of its shrines. Visitors to the American Museum are afforded the rare oppor- tunity of viewing such a shrine, with all the sacred objects associated with it, which has been placed on temporary exhibition in the tower of the hall of the living tribes of Asia. Flanked by sacred banners, guarded by lion- or dog-like metal figures that defiantly occupy the steps leading to the altar, with a prayer mat spread invitingly for the worshiper, and the figure of Padma Sambhava, “The Lotus-born one,”’? dominating all, this shrine is indeed a thing to arrest the eye. The sacred objects exhibited represent a part of the collecting of Mr. Alexander Scott, a British artist, who for twenty-six years made his home in Darjeeling, India, which is on the high- way to Tibet. To his kindness the American Museum is indebted for permission temporarily to install the shrine. Mr. Scott, whose interest in Tibetan and Indian archeology is of long standing, had won his way into Tibet even be- fore the expedition of Younghusband took place in 1903-04. Mr. Scott was particularly fortu- nate in gaining the friendship of the lamas, or priests, and one of these, named Dousand Up, took the unusually enlightened attitude that the Tibetan religion should be known to foreigners, in order that they might see and understand its beauties and philosophical significance. Through this priest, who to his other accomplish- ments added a knowledge of English, Mr. Scott gained valuable information. As an indication’ of the confidence reposed by 548 NATURAL HISTORY the lamas in the judgment of Mr. Scott, he was on one occasion asked to rearrange an altar which he had criticized as being too over- crowded. He promptly introduced the changes which he thought desirable and not only escaped censure for so doing but actually won the lamas’ grateful approval, which manifested itself in the bestowal of gifts. The first object to arrest one’s attention when viewing the shrine is the finely wrought bronze image of Padma Sambhava, the face of which is completely coated with pure gold, highly burnished. Padma Sambhava is a familiar image in Tibetan shrines for, according to Lieutenant-Colonel L. Austine Waddell in his volume Lhasa and Its Mysteries, there is given to this religious teacher by the generality of lamas a place higher than Buddha himself. This distinction he enjoys doubtless as the founder of the lamas. When visiting the monastery of Chatsa on the flank of Chumolhari, which had harbored only one white man other than himself since the days of Warren Hastings, Lieutenant-Colonel Waddell noticed that in the most popular temple first place was given to a gaudily painted image of Padma Sambhava. It is worthy of mention that the picture of the saint which he reproduces in this connection, has associated with it the symbols that find place also in the image of Padma Sambhava that occupies the shrine at the American Museum. To begin with, there projects from the headdress of the saint an up- ward-pointing vulture’s feather, signifying that as the bird from whose body it was plucked is the most aspiring of fliers, so the doctrine of this “guru,” or religious teacher, is the loftiest and most spiritual. In his slightly raised right hand he holds the thunderbolt, symbol of divine pro- tection and the life eternal. Reposing in his left hand is a skull used as a bowl. Into this bowl was poured blood or ‘“amita” (“sweet dew,’ the beverage of supernatural beings), signifying blessings, and recalling the fact that, horrible as is this conception, our European forefathers, at least in the person of Alboin, the Lombard king, did not scruple to quaff from drinking vessels as repulsive, even though the content was wine instead of blood. Against the left shoulder of Padma Sambhava leans a trident, the prongs of which represent Lust, Anger, and Sloth, which the saint has overcome. At each end of the shrine stands a large, elab- orately ornamented brass lamp of sacred char- acter and on a ledge lower than that which sup- ports the central figure are many little images, some of gold inlaid with turquoise and lapis lazuli. Some of these are images of Krishna, probably left by Hindus, who reverence him and are disposed to make gifts to his temples. Over the steps guarded by the brass dog- or lion-like figures is stretched a Ming prayer mat at least four hundred years old. A low, carved stool, studded with turquoise and coral, stands in the foreground and bears a sacred book wherein, in letters of gold on dark blue parch- ment, are recited the praises of Buddha. The most precious object of all is a native carpet,—one of the three Tibetan carpets known to exist and all of which are today owned by Mr. Scott. These carpets have had an interesting history. Sent originally from Tibet as tribute to the first Sikh Maharajah, Golab Singh, when he was installed over Kashmir, they were in time placed in the palace Tosha Khana, or storehouse, in Kashmir, where they lay for nearly one hun- dred years. At length they were placed on public auction, in Sringagar, where one of them was bought by Mr. Scott. The other two he later obtained from two Indian noblemen, who. had purchased them on that occasion. Most of the other objects assembled in the shrine were also obtained in India, having been brought there by members of a Chinese expedi- tion which had been sent into Tibet after the British army under Colonel Younghusband had evacuated Lhasa. AFRICA A CABLE dated October 4 announced the safe arrival at Kigoma on Lake Tanganyika of Mr. Carl E. Akeley and his party, consisting of Mr. and Mrs. Herbert Bradley, of Chicago, their six-year-old daughter, Alice, and Mr. Akeley’s secretary, Miss Martha Akeley Miller. All members of the party are well and the date of the cablegram would indicate that their progress will enable them to reach the gorilla country, the mountainous region north of Lake Kivu, on schedule time. General Smuts, Prime Minister of the South Africa Union, who with Mr. Akeley’s party ar- rived in Capetown on August 30 aboard the Kenilworth Castle, evinced great interest in the expedition and in view of its scientific char- acter, assisted them greatly, putting their equip- ment and luggage through the customs without the payment of duties. After four days in Capetown, Mr. Akeley and his companions de- parted northward on the Cape to Cairo Rail- road, making brief sojourns at Kimberley on September 4, at Bulawayo on September 6, and at Victoria Falls from September 7-9. Their plan, according to letters received from Victoria Falls, was to proceed to Elizabethville by rail. There they were to take river boats or canoes for several hundred miles up the Lualabo River, and then travel once more by rail to Albertville, where they were to board a lake steamer for the northern end of Lake Tanganyika. The arrival of the party at Kigoma on the eastern shore of Tanganyika on October 4 in- dicates that the expedition probably began its real work among the Kivu hills about the middle of October. 4 q NOTES AUSTRALIA Dr. WiLt1AM K. GreEGoRY, curator of com- parative anatomy, American Museum, has returned from his recent trip to Australia, where through purchase of specimens, arranged ex- changes, and work in the field, he laid the foundation for a fine collection representative of Australia’s past and present fauna and of its aboriginal life, that will ultimately find place in the contemplated Australian Hall. Mr. Ellis F. Joseph, of Sydney, who is well known to the staff of the New York Zodlogical Society for the many rare and interesting mammals he has brought to the Park from Australia, was of great service to the members of the expedition. Through his efforts, Mr. Harry Burrell, also of Sydney, and known for his field studies of the life habits of marsupials, accompanied Dr. Gregory and Mr. Raven on their first collecting trip in the mountains of “New England” in New South Wales. Through Mr. Burrell’s influence, they also were enter- tained as the guests of Mr. Clifford Moseley, upon whose station (ranch), eight miles east of Ebor, they had the opportunity of collecting a fine series of kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) and numerous flying phalangers and small insectivorous marsupials. Mr. Jim Wilson, another friend of Mr. Burrell, placed his re- markably detailed knowledge of the habits of the marsupials at the disposal of the Museum representatives. The party were thus enabled to secure in this region not only splendid ex- hibition material but also a series of skins and skeletons for the department of mammalogy, and many preserved specimens for dissection of the muscles, etc., by the department of comparative anatomy. Incidentally, the collectors found it a thrilling sight to see the kangaroos making their enormous leaps on the sunny hillsides, and the flying phalangers skimming from tree to tree in the moonlight. Birds were very numerous and abundant, but very few were collected during the early part of the trip, as it was felt to be more important to secure the mammals first. Specimens have been secured from this region for a kangaroo group, showing four or five kangaroos in full flight with a pack of dingoes, or native wild dogs, in pursuit. The latter will be shown in the act of separating one of the kangaroos from its fellows. They will be represented as leaping from the side at the hips of their victim in an endeavor to upset it. The prospects of Mr. Raven’s securing during the coming year a large and representative series of Australian marsupials are excellent, and arrangements have already been made for him to collect in various localities in Queensland, New South Wales, and Tasmania. Through the courtesy of Dr. Gerrit S. Miller, curator of mam- mals in the United States National Museum, 549 Mr. Charles Hoy, who has been collecting in Australia for that museum during the past two years, placed all his hard-won knowledge and experience unreservedly at the service of his American Museum colleagues. As the available time was very limited, Dr. Gregory left Mr. Raven after a three weeks’ stay in camp, and went on a tour of the principal cities of southeastern and southern Australia, and Tasmania, where he established personal contact with the leading museums and museum officials, and gave a series of lectures entitled “Australian Marsupials and Why They Are Worth Protecting,” “Glimpses of Evolution,” and “A Review of the Evolution of Human Dentition.” The last named lecture was de- livered at the Fourth Australian Dental Con- gress, at Adelaide, of which Dr. Gregory was made an Honorary Member. It would be difficult to acknowledge in detail the very numerous and important courtesies received by the members of the expedition from Australian . colleagues and friends. Among those who codperated most actively, however, may be especially mentioned Mr. Charles Hed- ley, and Dr. Charles Anderson, of the Australian Museum; Professor Lancelot Harrison, of the University of Sydney; Mr. Ellis S. Joseph and Mr. Harry Burrell, of Sydney; Mr. E. C. An- drews, government geologist of New South Wales; Mr. Heber A. Longman, director of the museum at Queensland; Sir Baldwin Spencer, Mr. Kershaw, and Mr. F. Chapman, of the National Museum at Melbourne; Mr. Edgar Waite, director of the South Australia Museum at Adelaide; Mr. H. H. Scott, curator of the Victoria Museum and Art Gallery at Launceston, Tasmania; Mr. Clive E. Lord, curator of the museum at Hobart; and Professor T. T. Flynn, of the University of Tasmania, Hobart. Worp has recently been received from Mr. H. C. Raven, the field assistant of Dr. William K. Gregory in Australia, regarding the progress of the work in that continent. Mr. Raven writes that a little while ago a large gum tree was cut down and in a hole in the trunk was found a little female Acrobates, a genus of arboreal marsupials. She had four very small young in her pouch. Later a male Acrobates was also secured. The collection of specimens of the kangaroo, Macropus giganteus, of which several were secured during Dr. Gregory’s so- journ in Australia, has been enriched through the addition of two adult females, each with young in the pouch. Additional Petauroides, flying phalangers, have also been taken. The paucity of the animal life, even in places where normally one would expect an abundance, is well indicated by the meager results obtained on a trip which Mr. Raven made into the region beyond Point Lookout, a place only a few miles distant from Ebor. The most prized creature 55° taken on this trip was a fine specimen of Hy- dromys, an interesting rodent, the stomach of which contained the flesh and parts of the chewed-up fin rays of a fish that had probably measured four or five inches in length. In addition there were taken a couple of Phascolo- gale swainsoni and the skulls of a species of Bettongia and of a species of Potorous. The detachment of the skulls of these marsupials from the bodies, which apparently had been devoured, is probably another evidence of the destructive activity of the dingo, which, in- troduced into Australia by man, has wrought havoc among the native fauna by its murderous attacks, thus supplementing as an agent of destruction, the ubiquitous rabbit, whose pene- tration of the feeding grounds has seriously curtailed the food supply of the native animals. Mr. Raven adds: ‘‘ Down in the gorge there are traces of dingoes everywhere and I think that in a comparatively short time they will wipe out everything else down there except the rats that live under the roots and the birds that live in the trees.” Mr. Raven contemplates shifting his collecting ground to a place near Hernani and Tyringham, where, it is reported, opossums, two or three species of wallabies, and dingoes are common. ANTHROPOLOGY Mr. Ear H. Morris, in charge of the work on the Aztec Ruin in New Mexico, writes under date of October 24, that while clearing away the surface débris in the vicinity of the “painted room,” which was found in June, 1920, a new chamber with ceiling intact came to light. Though beautifully preserved, the chamber seemed upon entrance utterly barren. To test the depth of the débris, Mr. Morris thrust a shovelintoit. The blade struck a piece of wood, which upon investigation proved to be a digging stick. It developed that beneath the floor just south of the blocked door that once gave access to the painted room, had been buried a man of unusually large stature, whose skeleton measured 6 feet 1 inch as it lay in the earth. The skeleton, which is two-thirds extended, was covered from the thighs to the crown of the head with a coiled basket plaque about three feet in diameter. About the body were found six pot- tery vessels, two knives, half a dozen bone awls, an implement of antler, and two planting sticks. It is probable that further search will reveal additional relics. The Archer M. Hunt- ington Survey of the Southwest, organized in 1909, has made possible investigations of great scientific value in that region. It is through Mr. Huntington’s generosity that the work of Mr. Morris is being carried on. In ADDITION to the work accomplished on the Aztec Ruin, Mr. Earl H. Morris has been study- NATURAL HISTORY ing other sites within access. A week late in August, was spent in the upper La Plata Valley, in a search for graves of the early pre-Pueblo aborigines. Twenty-eight burial spots were found, containing in addition to skeletons no less than forty-two pottery vessels. The crania recovered from these graves were all pronounc- edly dolichocephalic and showed no deforma- tions. The pottery, among which corrugated ware was wholly lacking, was, generally speaking, crude and sparsely decorated. From September 12 to October 21 inclusive, Mr. Morris carried on excavations in the Navajo. Reservation. Four extensive groups of ruins were visited and the locations of two others were ascertained from the Indians. In addition, between twenty and thirty isolated sites were noted. Most of the digging undertaken was in refuse mounds, which with few exceptions were richin yield. Skeletal material and pottery to the extent of approximately 475 catalogue entries were recovered. From the time ofthe first pottery makers to the abandonment of the San Juan drainage by Pueblo peoples, occupation of the territory within a mile of the A. J. Newcomb trading post, where Mr. Morris made his camp, was nearly, if not completely, continuous. Consequently here, in a limited area, the ceramic chronology of the — San Juan territory is more thoroughly epitomized than in any other known locality. Not only will a thorough examination of the ruins within this circumference confirm the stratigraphic order of the principal ceramic periods previously recognized, but it will make possible the localiza- tion of certain transitional types, the chronolog- ical position of which Mr. Morris has not as yet been able to establish. In the mounds partially excavated three classes of crania were found: undeformed, ~ dolichocephalic, scaphoid skulls, superficially identical with those of the Basket Makers, and those of the early pre-Pueblo peoples exhumed in the La Plata Valley; undeformed specimens, shorter than the preceding and unlike anything Mr. Morris had previously seen; and deformed crania, strongly flattened in the occipital region, © or in occasional instances obliquely distorted, these being the cranial forms for all periods sub- sequent to the pre-Pueblo. The possibility, then, is revealed of determining the nature and significance of the change in head form which came about between the time of the Basket Makers and that of the Pueblo. About eight miles eastward from the site where this year’s digging was done, there are unusually extensive slab houses dating from early pre-Pueblo time. They are situated on low hill tops or in little valleys on the outskirts of a cluster of ragged sandstone mesas, in the cliffs of which there are shelters favorable for human occupation. It is the belief of Mr. Morris that Basket Maker remains are to be found in NOTES these shelters and also remains that will bridge the gap between Basket Maker and pre-Pueblo, thus settling the now oper question as to whether or not the Basket Maker culture was parent to that of the true Pueblo. So interesting has been the preliminary ex- amination made by Mr. Morris that it is to be hoped the continuation of these investigations may be made possible at an early date. Monsieur V. Forstn, of the French periodi- cals La Nature and L’Illustration, has kindly supplied the following notes, drawn from his experiences among the Indians of Central and South America, by way of comment upon cer- tain articles that recently appeared in NATURAL History: While reading the interesting article of Mr. Hamilton Bell on the ‘‘Golden Age of Peru,”’ mem- ory took me back to the years of my youth, passed in the interior of Colombia. I used to “rough it” with gwaqueros, individuals who make a living at hunting in the mountains for guacas, or Indian graves of the pre-Columbian period. Several times they happened to dig up, in my presence, among the usual pottery, small balls of pure gold (granos de rosario), finely striated. ll the Indios bravos (non-civilized) of Co- lombia have kept in memory their ancestors slaughtered by the Spaniards for the sake of gold, and they consider the yellow metal as a cursed thing. Twenty-five years ago, I had the good luck to pass a few monthsamong the Cuna-Cunas, a tribe living in the virgin forests of the interior of Darien, and to be the first white man wel- comed in their beautiful villages. Having been adopted as a member of the tribe, I discovered that the children were taught to look upon gold as the worst enemy of their race. On pain of death, they were forbidden to pick up nuggets in the creeks. When any member of the tribe saw such a nugget, his duty was to roll a big stone over it. Apropos of “Tobacco as a Cure for Ailments,” the following experiences may be of interest: When sojourning among the Cuna-Cunas, mentioned in the paragraph above, I noted that they had no idea of pipe, cigarette, or cigar, and, for a time, I thought they did not know even the existence of tobacco. Later on, I was invited to a “chicha,” a féte held in honor of the puberty of the high chief’s daughter. About two hundred guests of both sexes were seated along the walls of a huge hall. Before the dancers started, two Indians walked solemnly around the hall, one offering to each person a tiny cup of corn-wine, the other holding in his hand a bundle of dry tobacco leaves burning slowly. Stopping in front of a guest, the man carrying the tobacco leaves filled his mouth with smoke, which he blew gently into the guest’s face. I was told that this was a kind of religious ceremony the aim of which was to purify the guests. Among a neighboring tribe, the Chocoes, who are very fond of strong, black, American 554 tobacco, I witnessed a strange custom, some- what akin to that H. F. S., the author of ‘“To- bacco as a Cure for Ailments,” records about the Indians of Guiana. When a Choco has lost something valuable, he tries to enlist the aid of a young man by promising him a suitable reward. He induces him to drink a very small quantity of wild (native) tobacco juice mixed with that of another plant. The man soon falls soundly asleep. After about fifteen min- utes, he awakes suddenly, jumps up, shouting fearfully, and rushes through the jungle. Dur- ing his sleep, pieces of strong rope had been tied to his elbows. Two men grasp these ropes to prevent him from falling into cafions or creeks, and accompany him on his mad run, At last he stops, panting, on the spot where the lost articles have been hidden or buried, and an anti- dote is forced into his mouth. He falls asleep again for half an hour or so; when he awakes, he is still dizzy, and unable to remember what has passed. In the case alluded to, I saw the young Indian starting on his wild run, drawing along with him the two strong men who held the ropes, but I could not follow them, and verify whether he did really recover the lost things, though I was told later on that he did. Tobacco juice from a wild species is used also among the Indians of the Cordillera in Chir- iqui, not far from the Costa Rica border, for “magic”? purposes. The men who drink it fall into a trance, and relate loudly their visions of monsters, devils, and enanas (female pygmies). I have witnessed very strange scenes of that kind. ARCHAZOLOGY PRESIDENT HENRY FAIRFIELD OsBorN, of the American Museum, calls his recent journey to Europe a Neolithic tour because in under- taking it he desired to study the New Stone Age in the same way in which he studied the Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age, during his tour of 1913. Accompanied by Mrs. Osborn, he sailed on the Olympic on July 16, with a passport viséd by six governments, and successively visited England, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Belgium, and France. A week in England included a day at the site of the discovery of the Piltdown man in Sussex: and two days on the east coast, where Pliocene: man has at last been found in England, a truly epoch-making discovery. In Norway Professor Osborn was delightfully received and entertained by Dr. Jon Alfred Mjéen, who was prevailed upon to attend the Second International Con- gress of Eugenics that recently assembled at the American Museum. In Sweden the principal host was Baron De Geer, who was received in the American Museum with such distinction last year. Baron De Geer has fixed the date of the arrival of man in Scandinavia with great preci- sion. In pursuit of data bearing upon the his- tory of man in Europe during the New Stone Age, Professor Osborn visited the museums and 552 NATURAL HISTORY collections in Stockholm, Copenhagen, Liége, Brussels, and Paris. Much in need of recreation, Professor Osborn accepted the invitation of the Prince of Monaco to visit his camp in the high Pyrenees, not far from the Spanish frontier, where the Prince is making a national game preserve, which is al- ready full of chamois and to which he hopes to add the ibex. This respite was followed by the resumption of New Stone Age interests in the central Pyrenees region, including a visit to the wonderful caverns, Les Trois Freres, discovered by the Comte de Begouen two years ago and named for his three sons. A visit was paid also to the cave of the Tuc d’Audoubert, discovered in 1913, which more recently has revealed the famous pair of bisons sculptured in clay. Then a trip was made northward to Toulouse and westward to Bordeaux to see the remarkable ancient sculptures of the man and woman from Laussel, believed to be 25,000 years old, in the collections of Monsieur Lalanne, who has just presented beautifully executed casts thereof to the American Museum. Four days were given to the museums of Paris, especially to the an- cient museum of paleontology in the Jardin des Plantes, where the newly discovered skeletons - belonging to the Neanderthal race were objects of particular interest. From Paris Professor Osborn went to the Megalithic region on the southern coast of Brittany centering around the little coast town of Carnac and the neigh- boring Gulf of Morbihan, to see the most won- derful collection of monuments of the New Stone Age. Here the hosts were M. Louis Mar- sille, of the charming little museum of Vannes, and Monsieur Rousic, of the museum of Carnac. Fortunately a Brittany pardon (a religious and agricultural féte) was in progress, and the win- dows of the inn at Carnac overlooked the little town square and ancient village church where the peasants flocked to early service. After three memorable days in this attractive region Professor and Mrs. Osborn took a small, American-made motor car, a Dodge, directly north across Brittany to the old fortified town of St. Malo, on the northern coast of Brittany, thence to Mont St. Michel on the border between Brittany. and Normandy, which is the most remarkable monument of medieval times in the world, and on through Avranches to join the Olympic at Cherbourg September 14 for the homeward journey. Professor Osborn’s object in undertaking the Neolithic tour was not only to study the ancient Neolithic territory, which is chiefly in Northern France, Denmark, and Scandinavia, but also with a view to enlarging and enriching the American Museum’s collection of European archeology, which is now under the able care of Mr. N. C. Nelson. A few materials were actually brought back and there is promised a great deal more, which in the end will enable the American Museum to present the complete prehistory of the early cultures of our ancestors of Western Europe. The Old Stone Age, as the readers of NATURAL History know, is left out of American history almost entirely because Amer- ican archeology begins, or is generally believed to begin, with the early Neolithic, or New Stone Age; hence the importance for the history of early man of the data supplied by Europe. ASTRONOMY A HIGH scientific honor was accorded Miss. Annie G. Cannon, of the Harvard College Observatory, this spring when the famous old University of Groningen, Holland, awarded her the honorary degree of doctor of science. This degree was granted to Miss Cannon in recognition of her work in astronomy, espe- cially the preparation and publication of the Henry Draper Catalogue, a catalogue of stellar spectra in nine massive volumes. An earlier work, dealing chiefly with the stars that vary in light, had already brought her recognition as one of the world’s authorities on variable stars. Her more recent work has been the study of the spectra of stellar bodies, and the Harvard system of stellar classification which she uses has now become the international standard. The Henry Draper Catalogue, which classifies according to their spectra all the stars in the sky brighter than the eighth magnitude, was begun in rorz in collaboration with the late Professor E. C. Pickering. Six volumes have been published, but the last three, although com- plete and available to scientists in manuscript form, have not been printed, due to lack of funds. Miss Cannon is a native of Delaware and a graduate of Wellesley College. She received the honorary degree of master of arts from Wellesley and that of doctor of science from Delaware College. For a number of, years she was the treasurer of the American Astronomical Society and she is now an honorary member and one of the councillors of the American Association of Variable Star Observers. The Royal Astronomical Society of England made her an honorary member a few years ago. BIOGRAPHIC CHARLES Darwtn’s birthplace, according to the London Times, has been sold. It has been known in the family as the Mount House of Shrewsbury. The purchase includes the famous Darwin Walk, a wooded, terraced promenade ~ high up above the Severn River. It is said that its future use is to be for the Office of Works to house a body of clerks. It seems a pity that this birthplace of birthplaces could not have been acquired as a national monument. NOTES EDUCATION “AMERICA’S Making,” the great festival and exhibit which was presented at the 71st Regi- ment Armory from October 29—-November 12, to illustrate immigrant contributions to our national life during three centuries, afforded yet another opportunity for the American Museum of Natural History to codperate with the state and city departments of education. Under the leadership of Dr. John H. Finley, Superintendent William L. Ettinger, and Associate Superintend- ent William McAndrew, 900,000 adults and children from every branch of the public school system of New York took part in this pageant designed to bring about “‘an abatement of racial animosity and a promotion of actual good will among citizens of all races.” President Henry Fairfield Osborn was a member of the advisory council and later of the general committee. Dr. G. Clyde Fisher, associate curator of the department of education, American Museum, who represented the president during the latter’s absence abroad, has also been serving since last January on the English section of the general committee. All of the public schools of Greater New York prepared patriotic demonstrations of their own, the best of which were repeated at the Armory. In this connection frequent appeals were made to the Museum for the loan of materials and for ad- vice. So far as was possible these requests were complied with. Where costumes and othermater- ial were not replaceable and therefore could not be loaned, they were made available for copy or reproduction. The department of anthropology was able to be of especial assistance in the loan- ing of ethnological specimens, while Dr. Fisher has advised with teachers regarding the carrying out of their pageants. The Museum has also loaned motion picture films, lantern slides, exhibition cases, and natural history material. ENTOMOLOGY THE origin of the many strikingly beautiful colors of flowers has been explained on the ground that they enable bees and other insects the more easily to find the flowers, in order that, from the standpoint of the insects, nectar may be obtained and, from the standpoint of flowers, pollen may be carried from one flower to another, thus enabl- ing the second flower to set fertile seed. Certain recent experiments, however, tend to show that insects are color blind. In that case why and how did the colors of flowers originate? This question is one of several that is being considered by The National Research Council’s Committee on the Biological Relations Between Flowers and Insects. This Committee, which consists of a botanist, Dr. J. Arthur Harris, of the Carnegie Institution; an entomologist, Dr. F. E. Lutz, of the American Museum; and a physicist, Prof. 553 F. K. Richtmyer, of Cornell University, a specialist in color vision, held a meeting at the American Museum extending over two days, November 3 and 4. This Committee contem- plates a searching investigation of this interesting subject, which will involve field work and experi- ments extending over a period of years. THE thrill of discovering new species is ex- perienced far more often by the entomologist than by his co-workers in other branches of zodlogy, for though there are 500,000 recorded species of insects, vast numbers scattered over the surface of the earth still remain to be cap- tured and described, and what the final formida- ble total of distinct species may prove to be, we cannot venture at present to predict—indeed, it is even rash to assume that a field seemingly so inexhaustible can ever be recorded completely. Making due allowance, therefore, for the fact that the collector in a region worked over only to a limited extent may legitimately expect the capture of new species, results that are little short of amazing are sometimes attained. The Epeoline bees collected by the American Museum’s entomological expeditions to the Rocky Mountain region, under the leadership of Curator Frank E. Lutz, were recently sent for identification to Prof. T. D. A. Cockerell, of the University of Colorado, who has made so many notable contributions to our knowledge of the bees. Of the Epeolines, which are inquiline bees, there had previously been known from Colorado only twelve species. Thanks to the captures made by the American Museum’s expeditions there are now thirty-four species recorded for the state. In other words, the known Epeoline bees of Colorado have been nearly trebled through the efforts of Dr. Lutz and those who from time to time have collected in association with him. Of the twenty-two species new to Colorado that were captured by the expeditions of the Museum, about 70 per cent are also new to science. Professor Cockerell writes: “the Epeolines constitute the most remarkable series of these bees which has ever reached my hands in a single consignment,’’—a tribute the full value of which may be appreciated when consideration is given to the fact that for the purpose of identifying bees few are called upon to the same extent as is Professor Cockerell. Twat devices similar to the gas mask have their peace-time uses is indicated in a series of moving pictures recently shown at the American Museum, based on films supplied by the United States Department of Agriculture. The series illustrated the most effective methods of con- trolling the cotton-boll weevil. Predominant among these methods is that of driving a horse-drawn dusting machine, laden with poison, through the infected fields. As the vehicle moves along, clouds of the powdery 554 NATURAL HISTORY exterminator are puffed out from pipes with which the machine is provided. To make certain that only those creatures marked for destruction shall suffer injury, the drivers of the team wear protective masks. The horses have bags over their mouths so that they may be prevented from chewing the poison- dusted leaves. This method of coping with a ruinous insect pest is very efficacious, as is indicated by the contrasted yield of acres so treated as against the scant crops from fields that have not had the benefit of such protective measures. HERPETOLOGY A LITTLE more than a year ago Mr. Raymond L. Ditmars, curator of reptiles, New York Zodlogical Society, while climbing Black Rock Mountain in the Berkshires, Massachusetts, came upon one of the most startling sights of his career as an assiduous collector and student of snakes. There, sunning itself at the base of a ledge, was an albino rattlesnake—for all the world as though sculptured in marble. Before Mr. Ditmars could recover from his surprise and capture the reptile, it had glided from view. A year later, however, the specimen was taken and when it arrived at Bronx Park a red letter day was blazoned on the calendar of zodlogical hap- penings. Not long, unfortunately, was the snake destined to enthrall visitors to the reptile house. Whether from constitutional weakness or because it languished for the wild freedom of which it had been deprived, the snake showed signs of failing and all the expedients resorted to in order to restore it proved vain. The dead snake has been sent to the American Museum and will be preserved as an acquisition of unique interest, for there is on record no other instance of an albino specimen of the timber, or banded, rattlesnake, although albino specimens of the milk snake, garter snake, and palm viper have been exhibited, in addition to the rattle- snake mentioned, at the New York Zodlogical Park. Albino specimens of Typhlopidz, a family of burrowing snakes, have been reported. In cer- tain cases, at least, theinterpretation placed upon their lack of color would appear, however, to have been erroneous, forthe skin of these snakes seems to be opaque and accordingly, if a specimen is captured at a time when it is about to shed its skin, it has a whitish appearance that is the result merely of a transitory and not an innate condition, the underlying skin, as distinguished from the loose epidermis, still retaining the nor- mal coloration. Among certain mammals albinism is not un- common. A deliberate breeding of albino spec- imens has, at least in the case of the rabbit, the mouse, and the rat, produced white- furred and pink-eyed individuals. On Grand Island, off the southern shore of Lake Superior, Mr. George Shiras, 3d, has established the nucleus of what may ultimately grow into a herd of white deer rich enough in numbers to justify . transplanting to other areas. In the American Museum there are on exhibition several albino mammals, notably two specimens of Virginia. deer, a doe and a buck. The former, from Balls Island, South Carolina, the gift of Mr. Archibald. Harrison, is pure white and illustrates complete albinism. The latter, from Nova Scotia, is in- teresting because it shows traces of the usual coloring, especially on the head. In a neighbor- ing case on the third floor of the American Mu- seum are shown albino specimens of the Canada. porcupine, the gray squirrel, the red squirrel, and the European mole. AFTER relating an instance of a toad hopping its way back to its home at Saugus, Massachu- setts, from Sommerville, Massachusetts, where: it had been taken, Mr. F. H. Sidney, in an article entitled ““The Homing Instincts of the Hoptoad” in The American Angler for October, 1921, tells of a tame toad which has lived in his. garden at Wakefield, Massachusetts, for ten years. Recently Mr. Sidney tagged this toad with his initials and placing it in a box, took it with him to Boston on the 10:30 P. M. train from Wakefield and then to Charlestown, one mile out from Boston, where at the foot of the Perkins Street footbridge, he set it free. The toad, Mr. Sidney says, blinked at the glare of the arc lights for a few seconds, darted out his tongue and caught a mosquito or two, then turned sharply about and headed for Wakefield, taking long jumps on the homeward way. Mr. Sidney followed him for about a hundred yards, the toad going straight ahead without hesitation. Mr. Sidney left Boston the next morning at seven and arrived at his home in Wakefield at about eight. At half-past eight a dusty little toad appeared, dragging a tag behind him. Without any apparent ill effects, the toad had hopped ten miles from Charlestown to Wake- field. The rate of progress reported is indeed astonishing, almost to the point of incredibility, and the total distance traversed would seem to establish a record for toads. In the American Naturalist, Volume XXIII, November, 1890, Edward Tatnall, of Wilmington, Delaware, gives evidence regarding the homing instinct of toads. He introduced a few into his cellar for the purpose of having them kill slugs. In a few years the toads became more of a nuisance than the slugs had been, so he had a number of them, probably a hundred, sent to his greenhouses. They were taken there in covered receptacles. ‘The first day they were to be seen almost everywhere, but were restless and excited. The second day very few were to be found. On the third day none was in evidence. Mr. Tatnall was convinced they found their way tet a NOTES back. No toads, except a single one at a time had before been seen in the yard adjoining the cellar, and the appearance of a large number simultaneously with the disappearance of a similar number from the greenhouses points to that explanation. The bee line traversed was about a third of a mile. He writes, “We have proof of a similar instinct in the cat, carrier pigeon, four-weeks-old pig, land tortoise, and almost every bird; why not the toad?” ICHTHYOLOGY Tue Reverend Harry R. Caldwell, who only recently sent to the American Museum a large collection of mammals, as reported in the March- April issue of NatuRAL History, page 211, has just completed an expedition in the interests of the department of ichthyology among the mountain streams of the lower Min River Basin. With a following during a part of the time of as many as thirty helpers, he worked over four streams in widely separated regions, taking speci- mens of practically everything obtainable in their waters. The work was done at elevations considerably above the Min River Basin and in some instances above series of falls. About five hundred specimens were secured as a result of these efforts, which, it would seem, are the first ever made to secure anything approaching a complete series of specimens from these waters. THROUGH the good offices of Mr. George H. Sherwood, curator of public education, the American Museum has recently secured a set of jaws and numerous teeth of the sand shark, Carcharias taurus. The shark, a female, from which these jaws were taken, measured no less than 8 feet, 10 inches, and weighed, it is esti- mated, 250 pounds. In the coastal waters of the Carolinas sand sharks frequently reach this size but in northern waters such a length is unprecedented. Previous captures near New York have rarely exceeded 5 feet. The shark was captured on August 25, 1921, by Capt. Charles Hurd, of Clinton, Connecticut. Captain Hurd had set his gill net at the mouth of Clinton Harbor, expecting to secure menhaden to be used as bait for lobsters. Instead, the shark became entangled in the gill net and was subsequently drawn up to the gunwale of the boat. Still alive at that time, it put up a vigor- ous fight but was finally despatched by two or three blows from a large hickory club, which Captain Hurd carries in his boat for just such emergencies. The teeth of this species deserve a-word in passing. They are slender and of a glistening white, rather suggestive in these respects of the teeth of a cat. Each tooth has two small cusps at its base. In this combination of char- acters, the teeth of the sand shark differ from 555 those of all other sharks. The creature is probably exclusively, certainly preponderantly, a fish eater. Dr. Wii11am K. Grecory and Mr. Harry C. Raven, of the American Museum Expedition to Australia, had opportunity on their trip to that far-off continent to stop at Honolulu, where in company with Mr. Louis R. Sullivan, of the department of anthropology, they visited the Aquarium, which is famous for its reef fishes. The wrasses, parrot-wrasses, triggers, and but- terfly fishes which are exhibited there in great profusion recalled the related forms from Ber- muda but were even more brilliantly colored, and seemed, on the whole, more lively. They in- cluded many freakish forms, such as the Moorish Idol (Zanclus canescens), the long-snouted ‘“Hinalea”’ fish (a wrasse), and the “Akilolo” (Julis pulcherrima), another wrasse with very numerous intensely opalescent blue spots on the dark background of the body. There were a number of these “Akilolos” in one tank swim- ming about very actively. “As we approached,” relates Dr. Gregory, “one of them suddenly emerged from thesandy bottom where he had been lying buried, and immediately another made a dash at him but missed him. Then began a chase of dazzling quickness and intricacy. The two fishes flashed back and forth, up and down, dodging and turning like a couple of brilliantly colored flies, and it seemed a marvel how they steered clear both of the rocks in the center and of the sides and bottom of the tank. After some seconds the pursuer succeeded in nipping and breaking off parts of the dorsal fin of his victim, evidently damaging the latter’s steering gear and causing him to tilt and wabble in his course. The pursued then dived into the sand, covering himself completely. The aggressor hung around awhile, nosing about and evidently waiting for another chance to attack, but after returning to the spot several times, finally gave it up. “From the viewpoint of comparative anatomy this incident is instructive, because it affords an example of very complex actions, having the appearance of being guided by intelligence, but controlled by a brain which entirely lacks the highly developed ‘cerebral hemispheres’ of mammals and birds.” In THE September issue of Copeia, “published to advance the science of cold-blooded verte- brates,” appear an article on “Species of North- west and Atlantic Caranx,’” by Mr. John T. Nichols, associate curator of recent fishes, American Museum, and “Notes on the Mor- phology and Habits of the Nurse Shark, Gingly- mostoma cirratum,” by Dr. E. W. Gudger, asso- ciate in ichthyology, American Museum. Mr. Nichols states that seven species of the genus Caranx have long been recognized as 556 “occurring on our Atlantic seaboard and in the West Indian region.” He then gives in detail the technical differences, the range, and the colors in life. Dr. Gudger in an entertaining article tells us of the first known use of the term “nurse,” or “nurse shark,” in Dampier, who in a narra- tive under dateof 1675 refers to them. Dr. Gudger writes, “the nurse is a short-snouted shark, broad in the shoulder parts, but tapering rapidly to a lanky tail region,”’ etc. He further tells us, “the mouth of the nurse shark is small, in an 8-foot specimen, with a gape (either vertical or horizontal) of 4 or 5 inches, and the jaws are filled with small teeth.” In the 8-foot specimen be- fore him the teeth were in ranks of 33, 7 or 8 rows deep in the upper jaw and 8 or g in the lower. The food of the nurse shark, in keeping with its tooth-structure, is mainly confined to invertebrates, squid, shrimps, “craw fish,” short-spined sea urchins, and “probably the more thick-bodied and succulent alge.” The article contains other interesting matter in re- gard to the structure and habits of the nurse shark. MAMMALOGY LateLy the American Museum has come into possession by gift and purchase of some ex- ceptionally fine specimens of rare African antelopes. Mr. George A. Chamberlain has been most liberal in presenting one of the finest trophies he secured in Portuguese East Africa in 1920. It is a specimen of the most beautiful of all ante- lopes, the inyala (Tragelaphus angasi), and came from. the Panda Circumscription in the In- hambane District, Mozambique. The _ facts that the inyala is known to be extremely wary, and that such an exceptional specimen is proverbially difficult to secure testify to the fine sportsmanship of Mr. Chamberlain. Fortu- nately the inyala was killed in October when the animal’s coat is at its best. The gift was doubly welcome because it represents an ante- lope entirely new to the Museum collection and because this buck, the length of whose horns is twenty-one and a half inches, rates with the best records known. By rare good luck, just a month after Mr. Chamberlain’s gift was made, the Museum secured four other specimens (two pairs) of these rare antelopes through the kindness of Mr. A. K. Haagner, so that now only a fawn is needed to make possible the installation of an exhibition group. Particularly handsome are the horns of the greater koodoo (another African antelope) presented to the American Museum of Natural History by Mrs. Josephine B. Cook, on behalf of her late husband, Mr. DeWitt D. Cook. The curves and other characteristics are well pro- NATURAL HISTORY nounced. The horns are the finest in the Museum collection. Regions with dense woods, interrupted by many glades and scattered thickets never too far from the water, are the real habitat of the inyala. Of course, being nocturnal in habits, they have a natural dislike for sunshine, and the dense vegetation furnishes plenty of shade, ideal concealment, and, if necessary, a safe refuge. When disturbed during the daytime they, like the bush bucks, utter a series of hoarse barks as they cautiously shift from place to place. Similar grunts are also common in the mating season. During the night, all observers agree, they wander and frolic about in the open, their real sporting ground, along the edges of which they leisurely browse until dawn puts them to rout. As with most nocturnal antelopes, solitary bucks are not uncommon, although pairs, some- times with a fawn, are usual. No more than five have been observed together. The range of the inyala extends in suitable places from Zululand north, through Portuguese East Africa, to Nyasaland and Rhodesia. It is said that it reaches westward even to Angola. A fine buck stands about 3 feet 8 inches high at the shoulders-and is crowned with beautiful, lyrate horns the tips of which are light colored. The inyala has a delicately modeled head, with white on chin, muzzle, forehead, cheeks, and ears. The dark gray and brown body, marked by a few light, transverse stripes, rests upon slender, pale ochraceous-buff limbs having dark fetlocks and hoofs. A dark mane reaches from the throat to the breast and along the belly to near the hindlimbs. A partly erectile, dark and white crest runs from behind the ears along the back into the handsome, long-haired tail. A wisp of hair decorates the elbows and a heavy fringe the front of the thighs down almost as far as the hock. Most unusual is the shaggy mane on the buttocks. This extravagant ornamen- tation of white and dark, long-haired fringes is unique among antelopes. A charming sight is an inyala buck suddenly bounding across a wind-swept, open place with all his shaggy hair gracefully floating and his bushy tail in air. The hornless female is much smaller and much lighter in color than the male, with a brilliant, bright chestnut body marked with a dozen or more white, transverse stripes from shoulder to buttocks. Great dissimilarity in appearance of the sexes is also found in bush bucks and sita- tungas, The koodoo belongs to the group of tragela- phine antelopes that includes also the bush bucks, sitatungas, bongos, and elands. Nearly all of these antelopes are browsers, avoiding the open plains; the elands alone contain true graz- ing types. The koodoos are divided into two groups: the greater and the lesser koodoos. The latter occur only from Abyssinia through NOTES Somaliland, southward in some of the drier regions to near Tabora, a station on the Dares- salaam-Tanganyika Railway. On the other hand, the greater koodoo .(Strepsiceros strepsiceros)—represented by Mrs. Josephine B. Cook’s gift—ranges in eastern Africa south of the Sahara from Abyssinia to the Cape, and occurs to the westward in Angola. Considering the relatively great uniformity of the African savannah region, the greatly scat- tered distribution of the greater koodoo in this wide area shows well what a very distinctive and peculiar type it is among antelopes. Hilly, often stony, places, generally in the neighbor- hood of water, where trees are more abundant and heavy thickets or scattered clumps of bushes offer ample opportunity for concealment, are its favorite haunts. Under such conditions it even occurs in regions otherwise known as arid, a fact which has strengthened the belief that it thrives only in certain localities. The occurrence of these koodoos in regions far distant from each other and their great elusive- ness have proved strong protective agencies, not only during such disastrous visitations as the rinderpest in the early nineties, but also as regards the inroads made by hunters. Small groups of from five to eight members might be considered a herd; the greatest number ever recorded together was a band of about thirty, seen by that careful observer, the late F, C. Selous, near the Upper Umfuli River, in Rhodesia. The adult male koodoo is one of the largest of African antelopes, attaining a height of five feet at the withers. From the standpoint of size, a mule furnishes a good comparison. In majestic appearance and graceful elegance the bull, with its immense, spiral horns, flowing throat-mane, and handsomely striped sides, surpasses all other antelopes. The horns are among the most coveted trophies, and those measuring more than forty inches in a straight line from tip to base—the horns presented by Mrs. Cook to the American Museum measure 41% inches—are considered exceptionally fine. The Ngami Lake region north of the Kalahari holds the record with a pair 483 inches long in a straight line. Many of the record horns were un- doubtedly secured from solitary old bulls, which had been forced to give up their gregarious life. The female koodoo is much smaller than the male, and is without mane or horns, the few records to the contrary with regard to the latter only prove the rule. In color the female is more conspicuous than the bull with his generally brownish gray coat bearing from four to eight white transverse stripes. ORNITHOLOGY VALUABLE educational work is being done by the National Association of Audubon Societies 557 among the children of the country, upon whom in years to come will devolve the responsibility of vigilantly upholding all that this association has achieved for the protection of bird life. Since the inauguration of the Junior Audubon Clubs no less than 1,674,743 sets of bird-study material have been supplied to children enrolled in these clubs. As the children pay nearly half the expenses incurred in this distribution, it is evident that the bird-study material is reaching groups that are eager to have it. Large as is the total of recipients, however, it would have been larger except for the fact that nearly 15,000 children had their fees returned to them during the past two years because the funds of the association were not sufficient to meet this additional demand. PALZONTOLOGY Mr. ALBERT THOMSON, who has been exploring the Snake Creek beds of western Nebraska in the interests of the American Museum, reports the finding of many specimens of the late Ter- tiary. These include five skulls of the three-toed horse, six skulls of Carnivora, and the skull of a deer, of an alligator, and of a giant snapping turtle respectively. In addition, great numbers of palates and jaws, and about “‘a million” teeth have been recovered. A fuller account will ap- pear in the next issue, Tue large group of ground sloths and glypto- donts has been reinstalled on the fourth floor of the American Museum. The group has been placed behind glass and artificial lights have been so arranged as to show it to best advantage. It now occupies the center of the south side of the Age of Man Hall, and makes a very attrac- tive exhibit, not only illustrating a marvelous extinct fauna, but also showing how much can be done with fossil skeletons by proper posing, grouping, and lighting, to make them tell an interesting story. There are eight skeletons in the group as it stands. Five of them are ground sloths, gigan- tic extinct animals related to the modern tree sloth of Brazil. Three are glyptodonts, great, mail-clad creatures related to the modern armadillos. All of these belong, in spite of their very different appearance, to a single order of mammals, the Edentata, which had its head- quarters in the South American continent. All the edentates, living and extinct, have powerful claws well adapted for digging, and it has been supposed that the gigantic ground sloths used their claws to dig around the roots of trees in order to drag them down and feed upon the tender foliage of their tops. The group embodies this concept: the largest of the skeletons, the great Lestoden, is reaching up on the trunk; of the three skeletons of Mylodon, the common ground sloth, one is actively digging at the root, another is standing on its hind legs NATURAL HISTORY 5 nae OT Ground sloth and glyptodont group at the American Museum.—When prehistoric man first reached South America, he found it inhabited by a number of strange animals, among which some of the most remarkable are included.in this group, which has recently been reinstalled on the fourth floor of the Museum. The eight skeletons belong, notwithstanding the differences of their appearance, — to a single order of mammals, the Edentata. The five skeletons encircling the tree trunk are those of ground sloths, extinct South erican animals related to the modern tree sloth of Brazil. They are posed in the act of laying low a tree so that they may feed on its foliage. The animals represented on the right of the group are glyptodonts, huge extinct relatives of the existing armadillos — of Central and South America. The modern armadillo has a carapace with moveable plates so that he can roll into a ball for pro- tection against enemies. The glyptodonts had a solid bony carapace and could draw the head and neck within it after the manner of eke the tortoises. States ready to grasp at one of the branches, a third is coming around to aid in the digging. The fifth skeleton, standing to the left at the back, is the Scelidotherium, or long-headed ground sloth. Of the three glyptodonts the largest and most complete is the Panochtus of Argentina, one of the largest and most characteristic kinds of these massively armored beasts. Near it are the carapace of a Mexican glyptodont, Brachyostra- con, and a partial skeleton of Glyptotherium, a smaller form from Texas. Except for the two last, all these skeletons are from the Pampean formation of Argentina and are part of the Cope Pampean collection, purchased in 1902 for the American Museum by a number of the Trustees. Various other specimens of this fine collection are exhibited in adjacent cases, notably the skeleton of the Smilodon, or saber-tooth tiger, and that of the Pampean deer. PUBLIC HEALTH A RECENT book on The Eugenic Prospect by the eminent English publicist, Dr. C. W. Salee- by, contains a striking tribute to the anti- tuberculosis campaign in the city of New York. Dr. Saleeby, in reviewing the statistics prepared by Health Commissioner Copeland in regard to the reduction of tuberculosis, states that no other city in the world can show comparable results during the present century or any previous The edentates evolved in South America during the Tertiary and invaded North America as far as southern United period. It is of special interest to those asso- ciated with the American Museum to remember that one of the principal features in the cam- paign for the prevention of tuberculosis, which has brought such brilliant results, was the ex- hibit held twelve years ago in the halls of the American Museum, an exhibit which attracted more than a million visitors and was the inspira- tion for the development of a permanent depart- ment of public health in the Museum itself. CONSERVATION READERS of NATURAL History will recall the beautiful article ‘‘Sequoia—the Auld Lang Syne of Trees” that appeared in the issue for December, 1919» This article, together with that by Madison Grant, entitled “Saving the Redwoods,” published as a Bulletin of the New York Zodlogical Society in the same year, was spread br-adcast over the state of Cali- fornia, a copy being sent to every member of the State Legislature, to the heads of all the lumber- ing corporations of California, and to the lead- ers of the conservation movement in all parts of the United States. This propaganda, however, was only part of a movement which originated in 1917, leading to the formation in 1918 of the Save the Redwoods League. The League has grown rapidly, completing the year 1920 with more than four thousand members from all parts of this country. It is now under the en- NOTES ergetic direction of a group of Californians, headed by John C. Merriam as president and Joseph D. Grant as chairman of the executive committee, with J. C. Sperry as councilor of the League, Robert G. Sproul as secretary- treasurer, and Newton B. Drury as executive secretary. The central office is The Library, University of California, Berkeley, California. This summer one of the Trustees of the Amer- ican Museum, Mr. Madison Grant, made his fourth tour through California, Oregon, and Washington, in the interests of the League, and addressed large and enthusiastic meetings in all three states. Extensive reserves of the redwoods have already been made through gifts of mem- bers of the League and appropriations of $300,000 by the Legislature of the state of California. Many tracts are still threatened ‘ with destruction, but one of the most obvious signs of the movement is the lull in the demand for redwood lumber and the willingness of the owners of redwood forests to consider reason- able offers for their property. Experts believe that the surpassingly beautiful grove of trees on Bull Creek Flat, Humboldt County, Cali- fornia, is not only the most marvelous group in California, but in all probability the most marvelous group which has ever existed in the whole history of the forests of the world. These giant redwoods of Bull Creek Flat are colossal in diameter and vigorous in their foliage be- cause of the depth and character of the soil in which they have been imbedded for thousands of years. Mr. Grant is quoted as saying to the owner of this lumber tract: “ You cannot destroy these trees; public opinion will not allow you to do so. You must accept a reasonable offer. The people of the country are determined that this, the finest grove which has ever existed, shall not be destroyed.” 559 On Avucust 6, a grove of redwoods in Hum- boldt County, California, was dedicated to the memory of Col. Raynal Cawthorne Bolling, who died in the performance of duty not long after America’s entry into the Great War. No fitter symbol of perennial energy and lofty endeavor could have been chosen than these green-clad, aspiring trees that rise to such magnificent heights,—rooted in earth yet of the fellowship of the stars. Among the oldest of living things, time-defying, of immemorial antiquity and destined to outlast generations yet unborn, what could better ‘symbolize immortality? Bolling Memorial Grove will bring peace as well as inspiration to those who repair to it as to a shrine. The Save the. Redwoods. League has bought forty. acres of timber land adjoining it, thus throwing a protecting cordon of. trees around a spot that will be forever sacred. IN A recent issue of Science Dr. F. B. Sumner, joint chairman of the Committee on the Pres- ervation of Natural Conditions, of the Ecological Society of America, makes a forceful plea, in the first place for the establishment of one or more national organizations whose duty it shall be to codrdinate the activities of those groups and organizations that are devoting themselves to the protection of wild life and of natural scenery, in the second place for a larger participation on the part of scientific men, and particularly biolo- gists, in the movement to preserve our fauna and flora in their natural condition. The com- mittee of which Dr. Sumner is joint chairman solicits the codperation of scientific societies, mu- seums, universities, and research institutions, and requests that their officers, to. expedite matters, indicate to the committee what assistance they or their organizations are. prepared to render. Among the forms that such assistance might take Dr. Sumner instances: moral support of the Ecological Society’s conservation activities, the inclusion in the programs of scientific so- cieties of occasional papers, lectures, or even symposia on conservation, advice as to lines of activity which the committee might profitably undertake, and financial assistance. Dr. F. B. Sumner’s address is Scripps Institute, La Jolla, California. OTHER MUSEUMS THE Bernice P. Bishop Museum of Honolulu, Hawaii, has just issued among its Occasional Papers the “Report of the Director for 1920,” in which a survey is given of the multiple activi- ties and the many accomplishments of that institution during the year in question. The American Museum is keenly interested in the work of its sister institution far off in the Pacific, as is evidenced by the fact that it has been codperating with the Bishop Museum in several important fields of investigation, and that no 560 less than three members of its scientific staff have been honored with appointments also on the staff of the Bishop Museum,—Dr. Clark Wissler as consulting anthropologist, Dr.Henry E. Crampton as research associate in zodlogy, and Mr. Louis R. Sullivan as research associate in anthropology. Dr. Wissler’s counsel has been of great value in the organization of the Bayard Dominick Ex- pedition, one of the major undertakings of the Bishop Museum. To make possible the continuation of the studies pursued by Dr. Crampton during five previous expeditions made to the Society Islands, Cook Islands, Tonga, and Samoa, the Bishop Museum generously supported Dr. Crampton’s recent expedition to the Western Pacific and in the Report expresses the convic- tion that the survey “‘is likely to result in collec- tions and publications that will significantly increase existing knowledge of the distribution, ecology, and evolution of Pacific island fauna.” To the March-April issue of NATuRAL History Dr. Crampton contributed a _ particularly interesting account of his “Journey to the Mariana Islands—Guam and Saipan,” a group visited in the course of his expedition. In the October issue of Asia additional photographs taken by Dr. Crampton in this region appear under the heading “Native Factors in Pacific Problems.” A systematic study of the Hawaiian race, involving on the part of Mr. Sullivan, who undertook the investigation, the examination, and in a number of-instances also the photo- graphing, of many thousands of individuals, has yielded weighty results for somatology. The Whitney South Pacific Expedition, in which the American Museum and the Bishop Museum are jointly interested, is still actively gathering data that will form the basis of extended re- search in the bird life of that area of the world. Tue largest habitat group in the world is that of the Biologiska Museet of Stockholm, com- pleted in 1908—a panoramic building designed to show the entire fauna and flora of Scandinavia. There is a basement, a main floor, and a gallery. Visitors enter by a winding stairway leading to dark central platforms looking out upon a cir- cular painted background which extends around the interior wall of the building on the three levels, Every aspect of the Scandinavian fauna is shown—arctic, boreal, and temperate, as well as the various habitats—terrestrial, aquatic, arboreal, and fossorial. The Museum is ex- tremely popular, and as the admission fees are low, it affords an admirable model for museums in small cities, which could be imitated to great advantage. NATURAL HISTORY SINCE the last issue of NATURAL History the following persons have been elected members of the American Museum: Fellow: Mr. ABRAM G, NESBITT. Life Members: Mesdames CiirForRD V. Bro- KAW, LAWRENCE L. TWEEDY, JENNIE E. B. WEBSTER; the Misses ELIZABETH VERNON Bronson, Ipa T. L. Schwarz; Messrs. J. V. AGUILERA, EDGAR B. BRONSON, JR., WILLIAM M. Savin, AND J. H. Towne. Sustaining Member: Mr. Lyman P. HAMMOND. Annual Members: Mesdames F. MAtcotm FArR- MER, HENRY Hopxins, LoweEtt LINCOLN, JR., Francis G. Lioyp, A. R. Morrir, GEORGE L. NaAucut, CrarE E,. PRENTICE, H. SCHWEITZER, ALBERT STERN, T. D. THACHER, Wittis D. Woop; the Misses Cora BALpwin, Extvor A. BOoLies, ELIZABETH 'G. Cuapin, EstHer J. Lewis, GLapys A. REICHARD; Doctors JoHn L. CARVER, Maurice Lenz, Heren C. Putnam; Messrs. ANCELL H. Batt, F. K. BAarsour, JOHN Epwarps Barsour, EpwArD LyMAN BILL, L. W. Bowmatt, James P. CAHEN, Howarp R. Crark, R. C. Conxiin, W. PALEN Conway, Wm. EpwaArp DETJEN, F. N. Dowttne, A. W. Eaton, M. W. FEIN- GOLD, Henry Frierp, Frep. F. FRENc#H, KeErRMODE F. Gitt, Frank W. Gratz, H. D. Hatsey, James H. Heroy, Morris KEtver, T. T. McCase, Howarp S. Morr, CHARLES K. Ovincton, Rospert InsAtt RAMAN, Epcar C. Rust, Ceci F. SHALLCROSS, Ernest L. Smita, Maurice Switzer, OWEN - Winston, and the ACADEMY OF THE SACRED HEarr. Associate Members: Mesdames B. DE BALAN, Epwarp A Havuss, RecmInALD MCKENNA, the Misses Erner J. Ancus, Louise P. Forp, CarotyN Wampack, Murret E. WHALLEY; Doctors Henry S. Conarp, F. C. GRANGER, FRANK G. Hartman, R. C. Petrir, F. W. Sewarp, Jr.; the Reverend Joun H. AppLEBEE, the Reverend MANFRED P. WetcHerR; Professor Paut M. Rea; the Honorable Rottanp H. Spautptnc; Messrs. Harry ASHBROOK, FREDERICK D. BARSTOW, Ratpw C. Bean, Harotp B.:- BENDER, WIL- LIAM RAWLE Brown, ARTHUR HEMING, RicHArp E. Kwentr, Ernest KNAEBEL, RicHARD Merritt MARBLE, W. ORMISTON Roy, Cyrus A. Russett, Benjamin F. SmirH, J. Darrett SmirH, GERAD B. Wess, Jr., and the CAMBRIDGE-HASKELL SCHOOL. NATURAL HISTORY THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM DEVOTED TO NATURAL HISTORY, EXPLORATION, AND THE DEVELOP- MENT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION THROUGH THE MUSEUM NOVEM BER—DECEMBER, 1921 [Published February, 1922] VoLtumE XXI, NumBer 6 Copyright, 1922, by The American Museuis of Natural History, New York, N. Y, NATURAL HISTORY VotuME XXI CONTENTS FOR NOVEMBER-DECEMBER NUMBER 6 Frontispiece, Portraits of J. Reid Moir and E. Ray Lankester.............. 564 The Pliocene Man of Foxhall in East Anglia. ..... HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN 565 Evidences of the existence of Tertiary man in southeast Britain With illustrations and diagrams The Dawn Man of Piltdown, Sussex............. HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN 577 A genus of man distinct from the genus Homo With illustrations and diagrams Did the Indian Know the Mastodon?..................Jay L. B. TAYLoR 591 The discovery in a cave in Missouri of a bone bearing an incised elephant-like figure With pictures of the cave and of the find Urus and Bison. ....... Lac ebb egies anes bag eee y can We Dy vA The extinct wild ox aud the Pleistocene bison of Europe With photographs of specimens in the American Museum Rains of Fishes. .......... lb veteen seve nes dy Wi Gi A compilation of the eas that fishes eons fall ect the sky Erwin: Christman, 1888-1020. os aes. os ete WILLIAM K. GREGORY 620 Draughtsman, artist, sculptor , : With photographs of Christman’s restorations of extinct animals Glimpses of the Home Life of the Saw-whet Owl RosBert B. ROCKWELL AND CLARK BLICKENSDERFER 626 A search for an elusive bird r With pictures of the young and their parents Why Paleontology? 0. ioc es oo Gann te one ce se WD. MA A vindication of an important science Junior Horticulturists of Greater New York:.........RuTH CrosBy NOBLE 642 3 flower show at the American Museum in which pupils of the city were interested competitors Illustrated The Gypsy Moth in New Jersey. ..i..0.....0c00+ sees costes oan» 00 ese How an insect menace has been checked Notess 05.00 oe ou a wk a ne le Oe False ee ee Published bimonthly, by the American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y. Sub- scription price $3.00 a year; foreign $3.50. Subscriptions should be addressed to Henry P. Davieon: Treasurer, American Museum of Nat- ural History, 77th St..and Central Park West New York City. NATURAL History is sent to all members of the American Museum as one of the privileges of membership. Entered as second-class matter April 3, 1919, at the Post Office at New York, New York, under the Act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized on July 15, 1918. ee syuly euad0lg 19addgQ 94} jo S]UIp WOr UISIIO ULUINY 94} 0} A}LIOYINe sly }UI] puv OPT JO YOM oY} pase ~Ysvj 0} AjIqe 94} pue sig fo asN ay} Jo asparmouy & YIM uvUE Jo -Inoous sey OYA ‘VOUTOS YST}LIg JO 98¥ UPIIOJIA }eII3 94} WOIT 90U9}SIX9 94} JO IUaprAa aAIsod a8v 9uad0I[q JO Speq UT paiaA0od SUIAIAINS }SIS0[QOZ UvIIJIA ‘Io}JsayuvyT AVY “Y JO yWesj0g -SIp sey OYA “YOLMSC] Jo yslsopoxyore ‘MOPy play ‘[ Jo wer0g NATURAL HISTORY VOLUME XXI NOVEMBER-DECEMBER, 1921 NUMBER 6 THE PLIOCENE MAN OF FOXHALLIN EAST ANGLIA BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN Tue progress of prehistorical studies has been very marked since Professor Osborn ‘: “ Paleolithic tour” of 1913, when materials were gathered for Men of the Old Stone Age. Consequently, as a vaca- tion tour in the summer of 1921 he planned to visit many of the prehistoric centers in western Europe which were not visited during the tour of 1913: first, East Anglia, the scene of the most remarkable ea. discovery of recent times, namely, of Pliocene man in Britain; second, the Sussex ome of Piltdown man; third, the New Stone Age region of Scandinavia—Norway, Sweden, and Den- mark—the home of our ancestors of 12,000 B. c. Thence Professor Osborn traveled across the early: Neolithic region of Belgium and France to the Pyrenees to see two newly explored caverns on the estate of the Count de Bégouen; thence to Bordeaux to view the most ancient sculptures of Laussel; thence northward to Brittany to examine the comparatively recent Neolithic and bronze culture of four thousand years ago. The impressions made by this tour will be written down in six successive articles in NATURAL History beginning with the articles in the present issue. , | \NHE discoveries by J. Reid Moir of evidences of the existence of Pliocene man in East Anglia open a new epoch in archzology in which the southeastern corner of Great Britain is destined to play a very important part. In their bearing on human evolution these discoveries are no less revolution- ary, because they bring indubitable evidence of the existence of man in south- east Britain, man of sufficient intelligence to fashion flints and to build a fire, before the close of Pliocene time and before the advent of the First Glaciation, which opens the Pleistocene or Quaternary history of man. That is, we have at last in the Foxhall flints found proofs of the existence of real Tertiary man. Other discoveries, made both before and since that of Foxhall, will form, if fully authenticated, an unbroken chain of evidence. The geologic order of occur- rence of these vestiges of man as shown in the geologic table (p. 566) is as follows: i Mae ‘y (3) Giant Flints of Cromer,- Lower Pleistocene, found in 1920. (2) Foxhall Flints of Ipswich, Upper Pliocene, found in 19109. (1) Pre-Crag Detritus of Ipswich, Rostro-carinates, etc., reported in 1909. THE ALLEGED PRE-CRAG HUMAN INDUSTRY UPPER PLIOCENE As evidence of the most ancient in- dustry in the so-called ‘“detritus-bed”’ below the Pliocene Red Crag of Suffolk, there were first found by Moir in 1909 a number of beak-keeled implements called “‘rostro-carinates”’ (from rostrum = beak and carina = keel). These Lankester and Moir believe to represent artifacts of a still earlier stage than either those of Foxhall or of Cromer. Of the men that produced the flints Moir writes:' “The pre-Crag people , had an abundance of flint of very fine quality, in the form of nodules, with which to work, but the more or less rounded sur- faces of nodules did not afford a satisfac- tory striking-platform, and so they had to learn to provide themselves, by flak- ing, with a flat surface upon which blows could be struck with precision. . . . The ventral surface of the rostro-carinate formed by the removal of a large flake from the original flint nodule, represents the natural flat surface of tabular flint, and in both cases blows were delivered on each side of this flat surface - . ‘ in the rostro-carinate the keel or gable seems to have been the desired object.” 1Moir, J. Reid, Pre-Paleolithic Man, 1920, pp. 1-67, Pls. I-XXIX. 565 566 NATURAL HISTORY ADVANCES OF THE GREAT SCANDINAVIAN SUCCESSION OF FLINT INDUSTRIES AND GLACIERS INTO NORTHERN EUROPE HuMAN RACES Postglacial Time Aurignacian-Magdalenian Industry, Cro- Magnon Race 2 IV. FOURTH GLACIAL TIME Mousterian Industry, Neanderthal Race By 3 3rd Interglacial Time Acheulean Industry, (1) warm and (2) cold wn = Ill. THIRD GLACIAL TIME Cheliean, warm mammal fauna of northern a France and England. The Chellean In- and Interglacial Time dustry, announced in 1846, is now regarded as beginning (pre-Chellean phase) in and Inter glacial Time II. SECOND GLACIAL TIME No trace of human industry thus far dis- covered in France in this very long period > tst Interglacial Time of geologic time. The Heidelberg (Ger- a many) and Piltdown (England) races Ps and associated primitive industrial flake sl flints are referred to this period < & I. FIRST GLACIAL TIME (3) Flint Industry of Cromer, Norfolk, England ra UPPER PLIOCENE TIME (2) Flint Industry of Foxhall, Ipswich, < Suffolk, England = ff (1) Pre-Crag Industry, Ipswich, Suffolk, zr: England According to Moir the rostro-carinate of the sub-Red Crag has evolved from two antecedent stages, followed by four suc- ceeding stages in the last of which the rostro-carinate pattern almost disap- pears. In his valuable treatise on Pre- Paleolithic Man, just cited, Moir de- scribes his theory of the early evolution of the flint industry. Moir herein main- tains that the Piltdown man—the Eoan- thropus of Smith Woodward—was of Upper Pliocene age and possibly the maker of the éarliest types of flints thus far discovered, namely, those of Foxhall. This opinion will serve to introduce the second article of this series, namely, on the Piltdown man. THE UNDISPUTED FOXHALL INDUSTRY OF RED CRAG TIME Proofs which have rested hitherto on the doubtful testimony of irregular eoliths generally considered by archeolo- gists as not of human manufacture, now rest on the firm foundation of the Foxhall flints in which human handiwork cannot ~ be challenged; these proofs have con- vinced the most learned and most con- servative expert in flint industry in Eu- rope today, namely, Abbé Henri Breuil of the Institut de Paléontologie Humaine. This discovery of man in Pliocene time delights the present writer for a personal reason, namely, because it tends to ren- der somewhat more probable his proph- ecy made in April, 1921, before the National Academy of Sciences at Wash- ington that one of the great surprises in» store for us in science is the future discovery of Pliocene man with a large brain. At present, however, we know nothing of the brain weight and little of the degree of intelligence of the man who fashioned the flints of Foxhall near Ips- wich. In this connection may now be narrated another of the remarkable inci- dents in the prehistory of man, namely, the story of the “human jaw of Foxhall,” -‘FHE PLIOCENE MAN OF FOXHALL IN EAST ANGLIA The possibility that there may exist a human jaw of the same geologic age as the Foxhall flints has recently been pointed out by the Ipswich archeologist, J. Reid Moir.' He calls attention to a paper, long forgottenand almost lost sight of, which appeared in the Anthropological Review of 1867, entitled, “The Fossil Human Jaw from Suffolk,” by R. H. Collyer, M.D.,” on page 221 of which occurs the following statement: “At the instigation of Vice-Admiral Sir Edward Belcher, C.B., I was induced to exhibit to the Ethnological Society of London in April 1863, a fossil or coprolite human jaw, which was found by the workers employed in excavating copro- lites near Ipswich, Suffolk. The jaw was purchased from the finder by Mr. John Taylor, druggist, of Ipswich, for the sum of 2s. 6d., who called my attention to it at the time, 1855. . . The specific gravity [of the jaw bone] is much greater than that of a recent bone of the like size, it being infiltrated throughout its entirety with oxide of iron, and the surface pre- sents peculiar metalliclustre. . . I have now every reason to believe that this ‘coprolite jaw’ is the oldest relic of the human animal in existence, as its condition corresponds in every respect with the coprolites in whose contact it was found.” The history of this jaw, as narrated by Moir from Doctor Collyer’s original paper, reads like a romance. Collyer was an American physician resident for many years in London. A man of ex- ceptional intelligence, he became con- vinced that the jaw was a true fossil and that its geologic antiquity could be estab- lished beyond question. Like the Pilt- down skull of torr the Foxhall jaw of 1855 had been found by workmen. In their search of fertilizing material, the jaw was recovered in a roadside dump; it was presented to Collyer in 1857. Collyer 1Moir, J. Reid. “Further Discoveries of Humanly- Fashioned Flints in and beneath the Red Crag of Suffolk.’’ Reprint Prehist. Soc. East Anglia for 1920-1921, pp. 1-42, Pls. I-III, V, Figs. 1-45A. 2Collyer, Robert H. “The Fossil Human Jawfrom Suffolk.”’ Anthropological Review, Vol. V, No. XVII, April, 1867, pp. 221-220. 567 visited the quarry where the material was procured and noted that the quarry was sixteen feet below the surface. Dur- LEFT EATERAL SURFACE, Left—J. Reid Moir’s interpretation of the most primitive stage in the flint industry, with seven small flakes struck off the left lateral sur- face. One third natural size. ‘After Moir, 1920, Pl. V Right—J. Reid Moir’s imterpretation (1920) of beak-keeled rostro-carinate implement of Lankester. One third natural size. After Moir, 1920, Pl. IV ing the succeeding decade he took the very steps we should take today by submitting the jaw for examination to the leading experts of England and France. In 1857 he showed it to Que- kett, curator of the Royal College of Surgeons, and on Quekett’s suggestion, to Richard Owen, the leading compara- tive anatomist of Great Britain, who kept it two years without expressing any opinion. In 1859 Collyer submitted it to the geologist, Prestwich, the first British authority to support Boucher de Perthes’ discovery of Chellean man in France. Four years elapsed, during which appeared Sir Charles Lyell’s work on The Antiquity of Man (1863), which led Collyer to take the jaw to Huxley, at the time foremost advocate of evolu- tion and subsequent author of Man’s Place in Nature. Later, at a meeting of the Ethnological Society (April, 1863), at which were present the great geologists Charles Lyell and Roderick Murchison, and the paleontologist, George Busk, the latter stated that Collyer’s specimen was “ the jaw of some old woman, perhaps from some Roman burial ground,” a statement he withdrew subsequently. Huxley, who was present, called on Coll- 568 NATURAL yer the following morning and pro- nounced the jaw to be a “most extraor- dinary specimen ”’; finally, however, Hux- ley wrote (May, 1863) to Collyer that the jaw bone showed “some peculiar characters,” which, however, did not appear to him to be in themselves ade- quate to lead him to ascribe the bone “to an extinct or aberrant race of man- kind, and the condition of the bone is not such as I should expect a crag fossil to be.” Undiscouraged by Huxley’s adverse opinion, Collyer submitted the HISTORY rs primitive and the degree of mineraliza- tion was not such as positively to prove it a fossil. He had a chemical analysis made which showed that the jaw was largely mineralized, but retained 8 per — cent of animal matter; as to the degree of fossilization, Busk, agreeing with Huxley, wrote “ of course, with- out any relation as regards age with the fossil bones of the coprolite beds; it is of very great antiquity.” With our present knowledge and ex- perience, it is difficult to understand The alleged “coprolite jaw” attributed to the sixteen-foot level of the Red Crag deposits near Foxhall as figured by Collyer in 1867. Reproduced same size. The best record of the alleged find is in a letter dated November 13, 1866, to Dr. R. H. Collyer from Mr. John Taylor, the original purchaser of the specimen from the workman in 1855: “From what I could learn at the time, from the agricultural labourer of whom I bought it, it came from the coprolite pit on the farm of Mr. Laws at Foxhall, about four miles from Ipswich, and was thrown out at Mr. Packard’s manure factory with the coprolite from a cart or tumbril, and from thence was brought to me to secure a glass of beer. depth jaw to the paleontologists, Hugh Fal- coner and Busk, who took it to Paris for submittal to Quatrefages and other French anatomists. Busk modified his original opinion and wrote (July, 1863) that he regarded the jaw as of “very great antiquity.” In brief, Collyer submitted his “ copro- lite jaw” to every great geologist and comparative anatomist of the time, but the results were mainly negative, proba- bly because the shape of the jaw was not There is no doubt the bone was obtained at some as I know the pit had been open for a considerable time when it was found.” why these great geologists and com- parative anatomists did not immediately visit the spot from which the jaw was recorded, establish or disprove its geo- logic age, and endeavor to ascertain whether there was any reasonable doubt as to its actually having been found at the spot indicated. But Collyer was left alone with his discovery. He dis- 1On this question Moir reports that, on chemical analysis, it is found that some of the Red Crag bones contain as much as 6} per cent of organic matter as compared with the per cent reported in the Foxhall jaw. ESE a a, | a a THE PLIOCENE MAN OF FOXHALL IN EAST ANGLIA appeared from scientific meetings and at the present writing we have no further record of either the enterprising doctor or the alleged Foxhall jaw. From in- quiries instituted by Moir, it appears that Collyer was a graduate of the Berk- shire School of Medicine, formerly at Pittsfield, Massachusetts, and a personal friend of the American craniologist, Doctor Morton, of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, with whom he corresponded about the jaw. It is hoped that, following up these clues, it may be possible to trace the history of Doctor Collyer after 1867, and furthermore that there may be a possibility of our recovering the lost Foxhall jaw. It would be hazardous for the writer even to express an opinion as to whether this jaw is of Pliocene age. The imper- fect figure reproduced on the opposite page shows it to be different from the two most ancient jaws we know, namely, those of the Piltdown and Heidelberg men, for it apparently had a prominent chin. It is possible that the mineralization of the jaw was due to deep intrusive burial. To settle these questions the jaw must be traced and found. Even if the jaw proves to belong to Homo sapiens, Doctor Coll- yer’s paper has suddenly become a classic because it has led to the long awaited discovery of Tertiary man, which may now be described. THE SIXTEEN-FOOT FOXHALL LEVEL It remained for Moir, half a century later, to unearth Collyer’s paper of 1867, to vindicate his entire procedure, and above all to rediscover the actual sixteen- foot level at Foxhall in which Doctor Collyer’ believed the jaw was located. “T found to my surprise,” writes Moir, 2s the occurrence of a nodule-bed lying in the [Red] Crag itself and that this nodule-bed rested at a depth of sixteen feet below the surface.” The exact correspondence, so far as depth from the surface is concerned, between the nodule-bed mentioned by Collyer 569 and that described in a Survey Memoir,’ enabled Moir to trace the quarry to Mr. Laws’ farm, mentioned by Collyer as in the parish of Foxhall. Moir continues: “T decided to investigate the nodule-bed. ee My investigations have resulted in the discovery of a definite occupation level at this horizon, containing cores, flakes, flint implements, and a number of stones exhibiting crackling and other evi- dences of having been subjected to the action of fire.”” It thus appears that Collyer’s notes on the sixteen-foot level of the quarry, by attracting the intelligent and energetic archeologist of Ipswich, led to what we have described as the opening of a new epoch in archeology. To sup- port this strong statement, let us com- pare the geologic age of the Foxhall flints with that of the flints discovered in 1846 by Boucher de Perthes at Chelles on the Marne River, France, at a geo- graphic point approximately 230 miles southeast of Foxhall, England, the two localities in Stone Age time being united by a broad and fertile land connec- tion. The most ancient of the Chellean flints are of much more recent time than those of Foxhall, because the greatest antiquity assigned to them by geolo- gists is that of mid-Pleistocene time, whereas the Foxhall flints occur in the Upper Pliocene before the beginning of Pleistocene time. Thus the long interval of Lower Pleistocene time separates the Foxhall from the Chellean, during which the upper and middle river terraces of France and England were formed and important changes in the mammalian life occurred. The makers of the Foxhall flints had their ‘floor’ or ‘atelier’ very near the shore of the North Sea in Pliocene time. The ‘floor’ is not in the base of the Red Crag but in the center of Red Crag sand deposits partly of river and partly of marine origin, which mark a very long 1“The Geology of the Country around Ipswich, Har- leigh, and Felixstowe.”” Mem. Geol. Surv. United Kingdom (explanation quarter-sheets), 1885. 2The italics are supplied by the author of the present article. NATURAL HISTORY 57° LJ WTITIZIULLLILLALLMLLLLLLLLALLL L712 SSRFACE SOIL 7% hh = 2 8 te & ud © © . ” uJ a co 2D coo ao is UE Mao AS he 7°08 Zevel to which B23 f= SavoosszO00 000 Fed A, Li S1: aL layers x SS ee Nodule bed = y Foxhall yaw Beebebottmtes /pwor brown flint layer zs attribu ted Li —— ‘ : “3 ue == & /wo floors | © bal —— oe Sous ra 8 8 upper and lower" = ~ SS gS SS | we es! eae us ee 8 Sh 5 Voxhell Industry SSCS Soo Cee 6 eT OS Po% ZS SSS. S< S 2S. 2 ef MAIN phase yeoS Hi iNTTTHTIATVNUATUNGOIATHNA LONDON LAY ~ TL Diagrammatic section of the pit where the Foxhall Industry and “Jaw” were discovered. Modi- fied from Moir, 1920-1921, p. 12, fig. 3. period of time and a very gradual change of climate in this part of England from warmer to cooler conditions. In the lowest levels of the Red Crag is found the warm Pliocene fauna of the three- toed Hipparion horse, the tapir, the short- jawed mastodon, the hippopotamus, and the roe deer, while in the upper levels occur the remains of a newer temperate fauna of true horses (Equus stenonis) and of the southern mammoth (Elephas merid- ionalis). Mr. Moir writes, August 11, 1921, apropos of a visit to the locality by Professor J. E. Marr, the geologist of Oxford University: ‘There is no ques- tion as to the Pliocene age of the Foxhall levels—so long as you continue to regard the Red Crag as Pliocene. But the ‘floors’ at Foxhall occur im the Crag, not at the base as in the case of the ordi- nary detritus bed.” From the ground (See photograph on opposite page) level at the Foxhall Quarry occur the following beds: A. Surface soil, 6 inches to 1 foot in depth. Stratified ‘‘middle” glacial gravel 10-12 feet in thickness. RECENT QUATERNARY B. TERTIARY C. Fossiliferous iron- stone bed, 6-9 inches in thickness. Pliocene D. Red Crag sand, hor- Red Crag _izontally stratified, 2-3 feet in thickness. E. Sixteen-foot layer of Collyer. Black band with many casts of shells and flint implements, flint flakes, also “ coproli- tes’? and fossilized [Red Crag] bones, 2-3 inches in thick- THE PLIOCENE MAN OF FOXHALL IN EAST ANGLIA 571 Western face of the pit at Foxhall Hall in which the Foxhall industrial flint layers E and G were discovered, with the most ancient evidence of the use of fire by man. Red Crag (continued) ness. [See handle of shovel shown in the illustration.] F. Nodule-bed or gravel pit, horizontally stratified, containing coprolites, but al- most devoid of flints, and 2-3 feet in thick- ness. [This is the bed quarried for fertiliz- ing purposes, in which it is alleged that the ‘“‘ Foxhall jaw”’ was found.| G. Lower black band, not quite so well de- fined as “E,”’ con- taining dark-colored, worked flints. [See bottom of measuring rod shown in the illustration. | It is the level ““E” which Moir de- scribes as ‘‘a definite occupation level . . . containing cores, flakes, flint implements, and a number of stones exhibiting crackling and other evidences of having been subjected to the action of fire.’ It is these flints, discovered by Moir and identified as of human origin by Abbé Breuil, which firmly establish the existence of Pliocene man in Britain. That this was a working ‘floor’ is indicated by the presence of the flint cores and flint flakes with the flint implements themselves. The débris of this flint-working site appears to point to a time during the laying down of the Red Crag deposits, when for a short period, geologically speaking, a land sur- face in the form of a shore line existed at this site. The majority of the hu- manly flaked flints from both the upper and the lower levels, namely, “E” and “F,”? appear to belong to the same in- dustrial stage. It may be, also, that after a more or less prolonged occupation of level “F,”’ the incursion of the waters of the North Sea in late “Red Crag” 1The italics are supplied by the author of the present article. S72 time caused the ancient flint workers to abandon their working site. Later, how- ever, they returned to the same spot and worked on the upper surface of the nodule- bed, two or three feet in thickness. Finally, the upper floor was in its turn sunk below sea level and covered by a further deposi- tion of marine sand and shells. CHARACTER OF THE FOXHALLIAN FLINTS These flints are unlike those of the NATURAL HISTORY Chellean or pre-Chellean of France— they are chiefly fashioned from flakes and not from the “cores.” Moir sup- poses that the almost pure white color is due to prolonged surface exposure of — the ‘floor,’ because the flints lack the dark mahogany-brown coloration charac- teristic of the detritus layers beneath the Crag; only a few flaked flints of this dark color have been found. The known typical implements of the sixteen-foot ; | oe AN Fee tk “\ WN Z i 6 ; Nin (" |) «Cae by > \ * i \\ \,\ A Five kinds of flint implements from the sixteen-foot ‘floor’ at Foxhall and one from the sub- Crag of Bramford. After Moir, 1920-1921. 12, 12A.—Two views of pointed flint implement flaked on the upper and iower surfaces and with constricted base, from sixteen-foot level of Foxhall pit. been used in the chase. Primitive arrowhead type, which may have 13, 13A.—Primitive (?) coup de poing, flaked on both sides, from Foxhall. 17, 17A, 17B.—Three views of an implement of the scraper type, known as the racloir, from six- teen-foot level of Foxhall. An implement which may have been used in preparing skins. 19, 19A.—T wo views of a primitive pointe from the sixteen-foot level of Foxhall. 21, 21A.—Borer (pergoir) from sixteen-foot level of Foxhall. 45, 45A.—From sub-Crag, Bramford pit. Primitive (?) coup de poing or ‘hand stone.’ THE PLIOCENE MAN OF FOXHALL IN EAST ANGLIA level (p. 572) are not unlike those of much less antiquity than the Red Crag. Moir describes the flint tools and weapons as less coarse than the mahogany-brown specimens in the lower level. They in- clude hafted specimens, side scrapers resembling the racloirs of early Mous- terian time, a number of arrowhead-like pointes, also borers and scrapers of the ordinary type. A number of calcined flints are alsofound. Only one specimen of a “rostro-carinate” implement, of in- different manufacture, was found dur- ing the excavations at Foxhall. Moir’s praise of this industry is relative, but how shall we explain what the author terms “workmanship of a high order” in Upper Pliocene time, so long before what has always been regarded as the primitive 573 GIANT FLINTS BELOW THE FOREST BED OF CROMER Fifty miles east of Foxhall is the an- cient city of Cromer, now a popular sea- shore resort with a long and beautiful beach, stretching below high bluffs of sand and gravel surmounted by rolling downs, where at low tide is exposed one of the most famous mammal deposits in the world, long known to paleontolo- gists as the Forest Bed of Cromer. The writer had the privilege of examining the fossils collected by Mr. A. C. Savin, of Cromer, who for years past has hurried to the seashore at every period of ex- ceptionally low tide in order. to collect from the rich harvest left by the erosion of the sweeping tides. The rich mammal- Seetion A-3. An implement geologically older than any from Foxhall, found in the sub-Red Crag deposits of Bramford, which J. Reid Moir (November 21, 1921) considers very similar in appearance and tech- nique to the flint implements found with the Piltdown skull. After pen drawing by E. T. Lingwood One third natural size industry of Chelles? Only, it appears to the writer, by reforming our ideas of the antiquity of man; by preparing our minds for the discovery of still more ancient man and for a very early separa- tion of human races as well as of indus- tries. Such openness of mind is rendered necessary by Moir’s discovery of the giant flints of Cromer, of more recent geologic age than those of Foxhall, products of anj{industry of very different character and possibly the work of a different race. ian life of the ‘Forest Bed” is more recent than that of the Red Crag: the short-jawed mastodons (M. arvernensis) and other south temperate forms are extinct; the two great elephants of Lower Pleistocene time, the “southern” and the ‘“straight-tusked,” have arrived in East Anglia; the Etruscan rhinoceros lingers. It is perhaps to hunt these monsters that a giant flint industry is developed of which ‘floors’ are discov- ered at Cromer and at Sheringham five miles to the northeast. These flints were first mentioned by 574 NATURAL Sir Ray Lankester,’ who has in recent years described the large “‘ beak-keeled”’ implements which he terms _ rostro- carinates. The human origin of these rostro-carinates is disputed by some archeologists; it is denied by others such as Abbé Breuil. What Lankester terms his fest rostro-carinate was seen by the writer in the British Museum and more- has been figured. Lankester, HISTORY among a great number of very large worked flints, recently discovered by Mr. Reid Moir below the forest-bed at Cromer in such a position as to indicate a workshop or flint-workers’ ‘floor’— of an age anterior to that of our river- terrace gravels. The largest of the worked flints from this newly- discovered ‘floor’ weighs 7 lb. 6 oz., is to inches in length, 54 inches broad and at the ‘butt’ end is 4 inches thick. It Two views of one of the giant flint implements found at low water at Cromer, resembling a giant Chellean coup de poing. One third natural size. After a wash drawing by E. T. Lingwood kindly forwarded by J. Reid Moir (November 21, 1921) for reproduction in NATURAL History over, has given the strongest backing to Reid Moir’s excavations and researches, culminating in his advocacy of the hu- man origin of the “Forest Bed” giant flint implements, of which he writes? (1921, p. 166): “The second is the most remarkable ‘Lankester, E. Ray, “On the Discovery of a Novel Type of Flint Implement Below the Base of the Red Crag of Suffolk,” . . . Phil. Trans., B, April, 1912. Vol. 202, Pp. 332. 2Lankester, E. Ray. “‘A Remarkable Flint Implement from Selsey Bill,” Proc. Roy. Soc., B, Vol. 92, 1921, pp. 162-168, Pls. VILI-X1. has a rostrate form, a relatively flattened ventral surface and is richly worked all over by large coarse flaking of indubita- ble human origin. It presents a marked resemblance—both in general form and in the character of the flaking of its sur- face—to the Selsey rostrate as well as in its great size and weight. The point to which I wish to draw attention in regard to these three unusually large and heavy flint implements, is that they be- long to a very early period, antecedent to that of the familiar tongue-shaped and ee Salle Vie iit it THE PLIOCENE MAN OF FOXHALL IN EAST ANGLIA meR. on THE CLIFFS Cliffs of Cromer. The Forest Bed deposits are found at low tide all along this beach. 575 The ‘floor’ where the Cromerian industry occurs is just beyond the pier, near the horizon (upper picture). Since the ‘floor’ is below the Forest Bed, it is best shown at extremely low tide ovate implements of Chellean and Acheulzan age. . The early age of these big implements is consistent with the hypothesis that they were made and used by an early race of men of heavier build than that which succeeded them and produced the abundant ovates and tongue-shaped implements of our terrace gravels. Whether made by an exceptionally big race or by men of the modern size, the use of heavy big flint implements, such as the two which I have here cited, presents a problem. If used merely as hammers or as club- 576 heads they would be unwieldy and would not require any special shaping—such as would give precision to a smaller imple- ment. The only suggestion I can offer as to their use besides that of ‘pounding’ or breaking into the cavities of the bones of large animals in order to extract mar- row, brain, etc.—is that they were em- ployed either affixed to a handle or held by the two handsfor thepurpose of break- ing a hole in the ice on the surface of a lake or marsh pool. Fish come to such openings in the ice and are then readily speared or captured.”’ While at Cromer, the writer examined these flints, which have been collected at low tide in very large numbers and un- NATURAL HISTORY fortunately are being somewhat scat- tered among amateur collectors. This supposed sub-Forest Bed ‘floor’ should be .guarded as a national monument, because 7f the human origin of these flints is incontestably proved, the ‘floor’ will at once become one of the most famous spots in the early history of Great Britain. Only the most expert archeologist and student of flint mechanics and lines of fracture is competent to express an opin- ion. If proven authentic beyond dis- pute, these ancient stations will rank like Chelles and Le Moustier as types of two ‘new human cultures—which may be known respectively as Cromerian and Foxhallian. The large “Selsey rostro-carinate,” right lateral surface. After Lankester, 1921, Pl. 10. This is a sub-Red Crag implement, more ancient in age than Foxhall. _ 4 : Lankester defines the ideal rostro-carinate as an implement with broad posterior region, nar- d anteriorly to a quasi-vertical cutting edge. This anterior narrow edge is strongly curved and teed the Socleaeal the form of the beak of an accipitrine bird. The form of this region of the im- plement may also be compared to that of the prow of a boat (the boat being turned keel upwards). If the implement is held with the prow or beak to the front, there are observed an upper or dorsal plane, a lower or ventral plane, a right lateral and left lateral surface, a posterior surface or stern, and an anterior surface. a Cort.—An area of cortex or original bark of the nodule. ; 2, 3, 4.—Scars whence ribbon-like flakes have been struck; scars 3 and 4 are noticeable for the -onchoidal transverse rippling of the flint. pede oct s<'The pera of a conadee flake, parallel to 2, 3, 4, which is truncated by the well-marked con- choidal scar, 6 of another shaping-flake THE DAWN MAN OF PILTDOWN, SUSSEX BY HENRY FAIRFIELD OSBORN of Piltdown, has had a battle royal for recognition by the sci- entific world. Since the first fragments of his skull were reported in 1911 by the geologist, Charles Dawson, and first made known to the scientific world in 1913' by Dawson and Arthur Smith Woodward, the latter Keeper of Fossils in the British Museum, the contest of opinion has been long and heated and at times acrimonious. Over a few frag- ments of skull bone, three teeth, and a portion of the jaw, the wise anatomists of Great Britain, of western Europe, and of the North American continent have expressed opinions of every variety. The writer’s peace-loving friend, Smith Woodward, started the fracas by giving these fragments the name Eoanthropus, signifying ‘dawn man,’ and thereby com- mitted himself to the idea that here was a new genus of man quite distinct from the genus Homo and the antipode of the species Homo sapiens to which we belong. To the ideas of the other extreme, Marcellin Boule, the French paleontologist, resolutely adhered, namely, that the fragments do not rep- resent a ‘dawn man’ at all, that they belong to the same genus Homo as ourselves, that the species may be known as Homo dawsoni, that it is of relatively recent geologic age, namely, of the Third Interglacial period and Acheulean cul- ture phase. Moreover, Boule joined a chorus of American and German opinion that the jaw does not belong with the skull, but is that of a chimpanzee, and that the skull itself in brain capacity is that of a relatively recent type. This opinion has been reaffirmed by Boule in his great work of 1921, Les Hommes Fossiles,” in which all the discoveries of of Ptdown, bi the ‘dawn man’ 1Dawson, Charles, and Woodward, A. S. pp. 82-99. fossil human remains are reviewed from beginning to end in the most searching manner, and in which the chronologic succession of the human fossil types is clearly set forth on the forty-ninth page. Thus the ‘dawn man’ has shared a fate similar to that of Neanderthal man, first discovered by some workmen in 1856 and described by Schaaffhausen in 1858—especially through the skull- cap, thigh bones, and other skeletal fragments—and received with almost universal scepticism. The Neanderthal man was regarded as a feeble-minded modern by the high German authority, Virchow, and was treated very lightly even by Darwin in his great work, The Descent of Man, published in 1871, al- though the geologist Lyell (1863) had recognized him as an intermediate form between man and the apes. Huxley, however, (1863, 1864) did not recognize the Neanderthal man as the missing link, his opinion being as follows (1864, p. 588): “. there is no ground for separating its possessor specifically, still less generically, from Homo sapiens. At present, we have no sufficient war- ranty for declaring it to be either the type of a distinct race, or a member of any existing one; nor do the anatomical characters of the skull justify any con- clusion as to the age to which it belongs.” When we recall the fact that the ‘Gi- -braltar skull’ of a female Neanderthaloid had been known since 1848, we may say that the Neanderthal man was under a cloud of suspicion for nearly forty years, that is, until 1887, when the discovery was made of two Neanderthal skeletons and skulls in a grotto near Spy, not far from Dinant, Belgium. It was these Spy relics, which seem to agree exactly with the Neanderthal skull top_and with ) n “On the Discovery of a Paleolithic Human Skull and Mandible in a Flint- bearing Gravel overlying the Wealden (Hastings Beds) at Piltdown, Fletching (Sussex).” G. Elliot Smith. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., London, Vol. LXIX, 1913, pp. 117-151, Pls. r5-2r. With an Appendix by Prof Tbid., Vol. LXX, 1914, 2Boule, Marcellin. Les Hommes Fossiles. Eléments de Paléontologie Humaine. Paris, 1921, pp. i-xi, 1-491, figs. 1-239. 577 578 NATURAL HISTORY Fig. 1. All that was found of the fractured Piltdown skull, during the years 1911-13, from which the complete skull was restored as shown in Figs. 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b, 14. A, B, C, D, skull fragments found by Dawson and Smith Woodward in t1o11, 1912. F, canine tooth found by Father Teilhard de Chardin in fragment found by Dawson in 1912. 1913. G, nasal bones found by Dawson in 19713. E, jaw H, single worked flint found near origina! skull fragments by Smith Woodward. Jaw one third natural size; other fragments a bit larger than one third (distorted somewhat by camera.) subsequent discoveries in other localities, that firmly established the Neander- thal race as one of the most important, and now by, far the best known, of all fossil men. Trinil man, the Pithecanthropus erec- tus or ‘erect ape-man’ of Java, is still suffering under the same uncertainty. The original discovery, singularly par- allel to that of Neanderthal man, con- sisting of the skull top, a thigh bone, and two grinding teeth, has remained unique evidence for the past thirty years. Strenuous efforts to discover more material on the banks of the Benga- wan River, where the original remains were recovered by the Dutch army sur- geon, Eugen Dubois, in 1891, have been unavailing. A singular misfortune has attended the Trinil man in that for some mysterious reason Dubois, the discoverer and possessor of the remains, has never made them fully known to science. There are riches of knowledge and information locked up in those four fossils which could be released through the application of the most modern methods of research, but which are held back. The anatomists of the world have implored Doctor Dubois to pub- lish all the information in his possession, or to subject these precious documents to the examination of other men—but in vain. In the meantime, renewed ef- Fig. 2a. Original restoration of Piltdown skull (lower) made by Smith Woodward in 1913; one fifth life size. Skull of South African Bushman (up- per), exhibiting the contrast between Eoanthropus and Homo type in the forehead region, also in the angula- tion of the jaw. After Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age, Fig. 67 Fig. 2b. Three views of the Piltdown skull as re- constructed by J. H. McGregor, 1914; one fifth life size. This restoration includes the nasal bones discovered in ;1913 and the canine tooth also discovered in 1913, (which were not known at the time of Smith Wood- ward’s reconstruction of the same year. (Upper) pro- [file view; (lower left) front view; (lower right) view of the top of the cranium. After Osborn, Men of the Old Stone A ge,'Fig. 68 Fig. 3a. Piltdown skull with left half re- Fig. 3b. Restoration of the head of Piltdown moved to display the extreme thickness of the man; in profile, based on the reconstructions bones and the shape of the brain. As restored shown in the above figures. After a model of by J. H. McGregor, 1914; one fifth life size. 1914 by J. H. McGregor; one fifth life size. After After Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age, Fig. 69 | Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age, Fig. 71 ' $79 580 NATURAL HISTORY forts will be made to discover in Asia additional remains of the same geologic age, especially by the expeditions that are being sent out by the American Museum of Natural History through the funds of the Third Asiatic Expedi- tion. May these efforts be crowned with success! May Dubois reveal the secrets in his possession! If so, we shall prob- ably confirm his original opinion that the Pithecanthropus is of Upper Pliocene age; that it possessed the straight femur of a biped-walking type and not of a tree- climbing type—thus corroborating the specific appellation erectus; that the brain is far larger than that of any kind of anthropoid ape, and that the skull pos- sesses distinct resemblances to that of the Neanderthal race of men—in brief, that Pithecanthropus is related, even if indirectly, to one of the great lines which gave rise to the true human species. The history of anthropology does not include any story of exploration, dis- covery, and research more worthy of recognition and praise than that con- nected with the ‘dawn man.’ Arthur Smith Woodward, who took a very bold step in originally proposing the Piltdown man as belonging to the new genus Eoanthropus, has not stopped to reply to any of his critics; he has left this to some of his colleagues, who have replied with considerable warmth, while he himself has been unremittingly engaged for the past seven years in endeavoring to secure material to confirm his original description and estimate of the char- acters of the ‘dawn man.’ The locality, which the writer will describe presently from his own recent visit, July 26, 1921, presents exceptional difficulties, chiefly because the Piltdown gravels are almost exactly of the same color as the fossils which they contain; the fossils are thus extremely inconspicuous. From_ pro- longed experience in fossil hunting during the past forty years in various parts of the world, the writer can truthfully say that he knows of no locality where fossil remains are so indistinguishable from the matrix in which they are found. Under these conditions the discovery of the original fragments of the skull was all the more creditable; the sub- sequent finding of the jaw fragment by Dawson marked the turning point in the whole history of the discovery; the finding of the canine or eye tooth by Father P. Teilhard de Chardin indicated an almost hawklike vision; finally, the unearthing of the two minute black-colored nasal bones of the ‘dawn man’ was almost a miracle. Alongside the roadway leading to the Manor House, where the original find was made, the workings, 150 feet in length and to feet in width, have been carried on at intervals for ten years. Every pound of Piltdown gravel has been gone over minutely, or sifted, under Dr. Smith Woodward’s immediate super- vision. Openings have been made on the other side of the hedge, revealing the same Piltdown gravel and the same superposed layers as shown in our sec- tion (Fig. 7) without the discovery of another fragment of bone. Only during the season of 1921 was there a cut made beneath the adjacent roadway within a short radius of the very spot where the bones of the skull and jaw lay. The re- wards of this exhaustive and exhausting work, which throughout has required in- finite patience and persistence, have been few and far between, but sparse as the new evidence is, it has all been in the direction of gradual confirmation and strengthening of the original Dawson- Smith Woodward discovery—a discovery of transcendent importance to the prehis- tory of man. Scepticism as to the association of the chimpanzee-like jaw with the skull was very widespread. In the original descrip- tion Smith Woodward himself proclaimed the resemblance of the jaw to that of a chimpanzee. The present writer was one of the American school of sceptics who finally reached the opinion that this i tl a al THE DAWN MAN OF was an instance of the accidental associa- tion of two wholly unrelated fossils. It would have heen difficult to dislodge this opinion, so widely entertained in Europe and America, but for the overwhelming confirmation afforded to Smith Wood- ward by the discovery, announced in 1917,' of the remains of a second Piltdown PILTDOWN, SUSSEX 581 is not a shadow of difference. As shown in the accompanying photograph published by permission of Dr. Smith Woodward, the two grinding teeth differ only in respect to age. The first Piltdown man was more advanced in years and the teeth were more worn; the second Piltdown man was younger and the teeth Fig. 4. teeth in place. three fourths life size man, not in the original quarry but at an- other exposure of the Piltdown gravels about two miles distant,a discovery made by the original finder, Dawson. If there is a Providence hanging over the af- fairs of prehistoric men, it certainly manifested itself in this case, because the three minute fragments of this sec- ond Piltdown man found by Dawson are exactly those which we should have se- lected to confirm the comparison with the original type, namely: (1) a first lower molar tooth, (2) a bit of bone of the forehead near the right eyebrow, (3) the middle part of an occipital bone of the skull. Both the grinding tooth and the eyebrow region are absolutely distinctive. Placed side by side with the corresponding fossils of the first Piltdown man they agree precisely; there 1Woodward, A.S. ‘‘Fourth Note on the Piltdown Gravel with Evidence of a Second Skull of Eoanthropus dawsoni.” With an Appendix by Prof. G. Elliot Smith. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., London, Vol. LXXIIT, 1917, pp. 1-10, Pl. I, figs. 1, 2. A—-side and top views of jaw of first Piltdown man, with first and second lower molar B—side and top views of first lower molar tooth of second Piltdown man. About were unworn; but they present precisely the same characters. Smith Woodward very quietly pub- lished this confirmatory evidence with- out, however, alluding in any way to his critics or yielding to the natural temp- tation of writing, “I told you so,” a phrase which would certainly have ap- peared from a less patient and dignified pen. Seeing is believing, and the writer eagerly looked forward to a return to the British Museum after so many years of absence and to the opportunity of examining these precious documents, an opportunity which was most cordially extended to him by Doctor Woodward. After attending on Sunday morning, July 24, 1921, a most memorable ser- vice in Westminster Abbey, a building which enshrines many of the great of all time, the writer repaired to the British Museum in the afternoon to see the remains of the now thoroughly vindi- 582 -* . NATURAL HISTORY 5 0 5 ably be thus guarded from thieves for all . future time, were taken out and placed kan A on. the table by Doctor Woodward, so vomer ii that full and free opportunity was given Gray’s )Fo.chalt| for the closest comparison and study. dees > Toantal _ At the end of two hours, in which also ez "Q S ) worked flints and a large implement ego Helin )? of cut. Mastodon thigh bone were ex- 50 ae eS @ ae 5o| amined, the writer was reminded of an OMaeraN opening prayer of college days, attrib- e Montieres : eae : oS C Hangourt\' uted to his professor of logic in Prince- = slombe ® eG EES ton University: “Paradoxical as it may Bows Colombes Sine appear, O Lord, it is nevertheless true, Ve Loi, etc.” So the writer felt. Paradoxical as it appears to the comparative anatom- ists, the chinless Piltdown jaw, shaped Fig. 5. Most Ancient Stone Age Sites of exactly like that of a chimpanzee and pegendand Foose gom eat uneiptoChelle, with its relatively long, narrow teeth, Sussex—with the chief localities, Piltdown, Fox- does belong with the Piltdown skull, with hall, and Cromer, in which the most ancient _ its relatively flat, well formed forehead Sincere man‘ on the earth has recently been and relatively capacious brain case! | First, however, let us look over the ground of the original Piltdown dis- cated “dawn man’ of Great Britain. covery, as the writer was privileged to From a steel fireproof safe, these few do in company with Doctor Smith precious fragments of one of the original Woodward and Dr. H. M. Ami, Cana- Britons, which had been preserved in dian geologist, to whom he is indebted this manner from the bombs thrown by for certain of the accompanying photo- German aviators, and which will prob- graphs. N % é 3 z : 2s = J > Wy = ES § v v » ¢ : gt g ~ = tr : RY WEST 07 aisha ies eernk cok tase key Bue es BOP Pat cfr toto. 02 po saseats ell STN, = ARLES OSES LOSE Oh , Pr et ts VEU Gi NN pts 7 ; 100. YY ay L100 50: he Wealden, Lower == Cretaceous, sand and clays 79g ad Sea Level c | Sea Leve/ / r4 Smiles Geologic Section of the Ouse Fiver Valley at Filtdown England Fig. 6. Piltdown Common lies between two branches of the River Ouse, about 35 miles south and slightly to the east of Gray’s Thurrock, the Chellean station of the Thames. To the east is the plateau of Kent, in which the flints described as ‘eoliths’ were discovered by Benjamin Harrison about 1870. The Piltdown gravel containing the Piltdown skull underlies the Piltdown Common, a well-defined plateau of large area lying about 80 feet above the present level of the main stream of the Ouse. Kennard believes that the Piltdown gravels are of the same age as those of the ‘high terrace’ of the lower valley of the Thames, namely, the 90-100 foot terrace; this would make the Piltdown industry much more ancient than the Chellean, which belongs on the 30 foot terrace. Clement Reid also holds that the Piltdown gravels are of First Interglacial age, equivalent to the go-100 foot terrace, long prior to the arrival of the Scandinavian glacier in Great Britain. Dawson in his original description also broadly assigns the Piltdown skull and jaw to the first half of the Pleistocene epoch. »—Piltdown on (1) the former level of the River Ouse, which has since descended to (2) lower : levels and (3) its present level THE DAWN MAN OF PILTDOWN, SUSSEX Piltdown on the Ouse is not very far from the famous Chellean stations of the ancient Somme and Marne rivers of France and not many miles south of Gray’s Thurrock on the Thames. To the north, in ancient East Anglia, were the stations of the Foxhallian and Cro- merian industries, described in the pre- vious article, and the site of the discov- ery of the alleged Foxhall jaw. It is, therefore, altogether natural from the geologic standpoint to compare the three or four true flints which have been found with the Piltdown man with those of the earliest Chellean station on the Somme and of the Champ de Mars near Abbeville, described by d’Ault du Mesnil, and of those of Foxhall, to the north, recently described by J. Reid Moir.’ While this article is in press, the latter comparison is actually being made. The Anderida forest of Roman inva- sion times, formerly covering the Pilt- down Common, is thus described by Elton:? “The great marshes were still un- banked and open to the flowing of the tide and several hundreds of square miles were covered by the dense forest of Anderida. This forest must _ at one time have covered most of south- eastern Britain. .’ This is other- wise known as the forest of “ Andredes- weald,” the name Weald being given to the Wealden clay. Many thousand years earlier, flowing through a warm temperate forest, was the ancestral River Ouse, transporting the Piltdown gravels, which, although of very moderate thickness (20 inches to 2 feet) at the widest part, spread out like a fan or river delta beneath the Common over a considerable area and are instantly recognized by the dark brown, compact sands and_ pebbles, which are sought by road-makers for their excellent road-building qualities. 'Moir, J. Reid. ‘‘Further Discoyeries of Humanly- Fashioned Flints In and Beneath the Red Crag of Suffolk:” Prehist. Sec. East Anglia, 1920-1921, pp. 1-42 (reprint), Pls. I, II, III, V, Figs. 1-45A. 2Elton, Charles, Origins of English History. t London, Quaritch, 1882, pp. 106 583 In approaching the famous site one passes over a rolling open plain covered with patches of heather, now serving as a golf course. On the horizon are the elevated North Down and South Down overlying bluffs of flint-bearing chalk, which; in turn, are superposed on beds of Wealden age, as shown in the accompanying sketch (Fig. 8). At Pilt- down meandered the ancient Ouse, and the gravels were subsequently cov- ered with four layers, as shown in the sketches made by the writer. It is necessary, however, to take a bird’s-eye view of the ground from above in order accurately to locate the very spot where 2 i) 1 LA VY ) 6 . 72) ag reat : stents ¥ aNestad ry “, Fig. 7 t. Recent humus and surface soil, with scat- tered flints, 12-20 inches. 2. Pale yellow sandy loam with gravel and Neolithic flints and pottery, 2 feet 6 inches. . Piltdown gravel containing remains of the skull (A), jaw (B), and teeth from the lower level, also worked flints and rolled water-worn fossils, probably of Pliocene age. 18-20 inches. 4. Pale yellow clay and sand with scattered potato-shaped flints unworked. The bone tool implement was found at the bottom of this layer, to inches. 5. Undisturbed strata of Lower Cretaceous (Wealden age), over the surface of which flowed the stream bearing the clays and Piltdown gravels 584 NATURAL HISTORY South Down eli i ee EN Golf course, heather ele. Piltdown eee The Wealden Fledge ke Worked-over dump 150 f£.—> site of skulé i ite Be pd ‘ Roadwa V Bey C (Oye (hammer stone g) COIs = (A) nasal Cones ,193 sore - implement A ippopotamus tooth-(9) (B\worked flints <=> (5) rhinoceros tooth(70) Roadway |-*- Fig. 8. Sketches by the writer (1921) showing the Piltdown workings. A—General relations of the “Downs” to the Piltdown find. B—The Piltdown gravel workings from 1912 to 1921. -C—Relative location of some of the principal finds. Skull and jaw parts found near together. _ (1) Skull fragments in the workman’s dump, (2) jaw, (3) canine, and (4) nasal bones, picked out of the skull was found and to appreciate the immense amount: of work that has been done since 1911 in searching for addi- tional evidence. |’ Even during the past summer, with- out any subvention or state aid, Dr. Smith Woodward has been quietly con- tinuing his work and he wrote October 24, 1921: “I did a little more digging last month, but without result.’ It will be recalled that the working of this Piltdown gravel pit has. been going on for many years. The successive or- der of discovery is approximately as follows: 1911 (reported) Unusually thick human parietal bone was found by Dawson. 1911 (autumn) Dawson picked up another and larger the undisturbed gravel near by, (5)—(zo) flints and fossil bones scattered ul piece of bone belonging to the forehead region of the same skull and including a portion of the ridge extending over the left eyebrow. 1911-1912 At various times there were found by Dawson and Smith Woodward rolled or abraded flints, known as ‘eoliths,’ also rolled or abraded remains of the hip- popotamus, the rhinoceros, and of a stegodont proboscidean, claimed to be of greater age than the Piltdown gravels, possibly of Pliocene Red Crag age. At various times also there were ‘un- earthed (1) a Paleolithic hammer-stone (see Fig. 8, No. 8) found in the undis- turbed gravel, (2) freshly worked flints, discovered by Dawson in the Piltdown gravel dump (Fig. 12), and (3) the flint found by Ray Lankester. These flints are extremely important, because they are of the same geologic age as Piltdown ~~ en THE DAWN MAN OF PILTDOWN, SUSSEX 585 Fig. 9. and Mr. Charles Dawson washing gravel in search for more fragments and teeth; a workman stand- ing on the exact spot of the original discovery, where a monument will be placed. Type of locality where the Piltdown skull fragments were found. Dr.Smith Woodward Enlarged from a film made in the year 1912, under the direction of Dr. J. Leon Williams, who presented to the Amer- ican Museum the Williams collection of prehistoric crania man and can be compared with those of Foxhall and of the pre-Chellean of the Somme. 1912 Dawson and Smith Woodward began systematic search. All material was looked over and carefully sifted; it ap- peared that the whole or greater part of the human skull mentioned above had been scattered by the workmen, who had thrown away the pieces unnoticed. One Sunday evening the blow of a pick caused the right half of a jaw to fly out of the undisturbed bottom of the gravel bed. The fore part of the jaw had ap- parently been cut off by the long previous blow of a workman’s pick. A yard from the jaw an important piece of the occipi- tal bone of the skull was found. 1913 A single right lower canine tooth, ape- like, was unearthed by Father P. Teilhard de Chardin, the French anthropologist. A pair of minute nasal bones were found, also the turbinal bones of the nasal region. 1914 A bone implement, partly shaped at one end out of a proboscidean thigh bone, was discovered in the clay layer beneath the gravel. 1915 Discovery by Charles Dawson of frag- ments of second Piltdown man, two miles distant from original pit. 1915-1921 Annual visits and continued explora- tion, excavations, and sifting of materials, not rewarded by any further discovery, by Smith Woodward. It is now generally agreed that Osborn and McGregor were mistaken in placing in the upper jaw the canine tooth, discov- ered by Father P. Teilhard de Chardin in 586 1913; that the canine belongs with the right lower jaw and in so far is confirma- tory of the union of the jaw with the Fig. 10. Partly shaped bone tool cut from the thigh bone of a mastodon or mammoth, dis- covered in the clays underlying the Piltdown gravels by Smith Woodward in the year 1914,— a partly finished tool which may have been designed for purposes of hide dressing. One twelfth natural size. After Smith Woodward NATURAL HISTORY skull. Consequently the photograph (Fig. 14) of the right side of the skull, with the canine in place, represents the latest opinion’ as to the reconstruction of the skull. This reconstruction involves es- pecially the size and weight of the brain through the determination of the median line of the top of the skull or the location of the so-called sagittal suture, as clearly — shown in Fig. 2b. Brain size is one of the points about which has raged the greatest controversy. It is interesting now brieflyeto recall: ne 1913 i Smith Woodward estimated the brain size as 1070 cubic centimeters. : Arthur Keith, the distinguished com- parative anatomist, maintained that when the skull was properly recon- structed, the brain capacity would be found to equal 1500 cubic centimeters. _ Elliot Smith and Smith Woodward maintained that the brain measured nearly 1300 cubic centimeters, equaling the size of the smaller human brains of — Fig. 11. Rolled flints termed ‘eoliths’ found by Dawson in or near the Piltdown gravel pit. After Dawson. After Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age, Fig. 66. One half actual size. Borer type (above) Curved scraper (below) ‘A recent comparison of the single canine tooth has convinced Doctor Gregory, Doctor Hellman, and the writer that it most nearly resembles the right lower canine of a female ge form and proportion. The doctors still disagree, for Doctor rilla of relatively small size. It is very unlike a human canine in cGregor, another expert, feels strongly (December 15, t92t) that the identification of the Piltdown canine is a very uncertain matter. Fig. 12. Three freshly chipped triangular and oval flints found by Dawson, in the Piltdown gravel, fashioned out of flint nodules split in two and flaked on one side only with very coarse mar- ginal retouch, similar to that of Foxhall flints. Nos. 1, 1a, rb, 1c and 2, 2a, 2b are nearly one half actual size; Nos. 3, 3a, 3b nearly one quarter actual size. Reproduced after Dawson. After Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age, Fig. 60 Fig. 13. A single worked flint of very primitive type found by Dawson in the same layer with the original parietal and frontal fragments of the Piltdown skull. Reproduced after Dawson. After Osborn, Men of the Old Stone A ge, Fig. 65 587 588 NATURAL HISTORY today and surpassing that of the Aus- tralians, which rarely exceeds 1310 cubic centimeters in the male and 1154 .cubic centimeters in the female. 1914 J. H. McGregor reconstructed the skull with a cranial capacity of. 1300 cubic centimeters, a figure exactly similar to that arrived at by Elliot Smith and Smith Woodward. Although we await a memoir on the characters of the Piltdown brain by Dr. Fig. 14. The second and most recent restora- tion of the Piltdown skull by Dr. Smith Wood- ward, in which the nasal bones appear in place and the canine is inserted in the right half of the lower jaw, the position to which Dr. Gregory is inclined to assign it. One fifth natural size Elliot Smith, the greatest British au- thority on the primitive brain of man, it is not probable that the final estimates of the brain weight will be materially altered, nor may we expect in the near future any great additions to our knowl- edge of either the skull or the teeth of the ‘dawn man.’ Inasmuch as a cen- tury of exploration in what may be called the pre-burial period of man has yielded the remains of only five individ- ual specimens nearly or remotely re- lated to man, the probability of finding additional fossils is rather remote. This greatly intensifies the interest of the important discovery of the Foxhall man described in the preceding article and renders the more pressing the loca- tion of the lost jaw which is attributed to the Foxhallian stage of industry. IS THE PILTDOWN INDUSTRY RELATED TO THAT OF FOXHALL? The first archeologist to make this suggestion was J. Reid Moir in his ex- tremely interesting memoir, Pre-Palgo- lithic Man, published in 1920,' wherein he remarks: “If the author, as a prac- tical flaker of flint, had been shown Dr. Smith Woodward’s reconstruction of the Piltdown skull and jaw, and had been asked what sort of flint implements in his opinion such a very primitive semi-human creature would be capable of producing, his answer would have been ‘the very primitive edge-trimmed flints generally known as _ eoliths.’ The ill-defined cones of percussion, and rough, heavily-truncated flake-scars of the Piltdown specimens stamp them indelibly as the work of pre-paleolithic man. . . For the only implements found i in the ‘human’ stratum and in intimate association with the Piltdown individual were the primitive edge- trimmed flints generally described as eoliths. This particular type of implement represents, as has been shown in a former chapter, the earliest efforts of man to deliberately shape flints to his needs.” He further points out that there would not appear to be any valid geological reason why the lower stratum of the gravel at Piltdown should not be a Pliocene deposit over- lain by gravelly strata of more recent date, inasmuch as the Piltdown bones were found at about 120 feet above the present sea level and approximately 80 feet above the present level of the River Ouse, Sussex. To test this significant statement, let us place side by side the published figures of the four flints actually found in the Piltdown gravels which hitherto have 1Moir, es gone Pre-Paleotithic Man, 1920, pp. 1-67. Pls. I-XX THE DAWN MAN OF PILTDOWN, SUSSEX 589 Fig. 15. is the Piltdown gravel pit where the Piltdown skull was discovered. B—Roadway leading to Manor House, beside which the discovery was made. C—Manor House, at the end of the gravel road, the owner of which is deeply interested in further explorations beneath the roadway. D—Arthur Smith Woodward (right) and the present writer (left) standing on the heap of Piltdown gravel immedi- ately above the spot where the skull was found. ment in memory of Piltdown Man been broadly described as of pre-Chel- lean type (that is, earliest Chellean type), and four flints selected from those recently figured by Moir in his Foxhall collection, and see how they compare in the state of workmanship which they represent. In the writer’s opinion, which is not that of a professional archeologist, the resemblance is very close indeed. It will be observed, even by the amateur, that both the Piltdown and the Foxhall flint implements are (1) fashioned from large flakes struck off from the side of the flint nodule, (2) that the outer or convex side of the flake is roughly worked with a varying number of blows, and (3) that there are a few solid core im- plements. The five-fold purpose of the industry A—View of Piltdown Common showing at the right the hedge, at the side of which At this point it is proposed to erect a monu- in the Foxhall mind seems to have been (as shown in the foregoing article page 572): First, to fashion pointed flake implements, which could be fast- ened to wood and used in the chase, for example, rough spearheads (page 572, numbers 12-19); second, somewhat larger pointed core implements, which could be used in the chase or in combat— crude anticipations of the coup de poing (page 572, numbers 13~—45); third, flaked implements dressed on one side, with cutting edges, which could be used in bone or wood carving; fourth, oval con- vex implements suggesting the rostrocar- inate as well as grattoirs, flat on one side, which could be used in the dressing of hides for clothing (page 572, number 17); fifth, a borer (page 572, number 21) for use 59° in making holes in wood or bone. Ham- mer-stones used in the flint-flaking industry have been found at Piltdown only. All five of these types have been found at Foxhall, but only three in Piltdown, namely, the rough spearhead, the hide-dresser, and the hammer-stone. The coup de poing of pre-Chellean and Chellean times, namely, the ‘hand stone,’ fashioned from the flint nodule core itself, is foreshadowed in the Fox- hall cores (page 572). Thus Moir’s contention that the Foxhall Pliocene industry is prophetic of the Pleistocene industry of much more recent Chellean times appears to be well sustained. It follows that the identification of the Piltdown flints with the Foxhall flints, if it can be made by placing the imple- ments side by side, may enable us to settle one of the remaining points of doubt about the ‘dawn man,’ namely, his geologic antiquity. Anatomists now agree that Eoanthropus is of a very ancient type, altogether such as we should expect to find at the very begin- ning of the Quaternary age of man or even in the Tertiary. The present writer came to the following conclusion in 1914': “It seems reasonable, there- fore, to interpret the Piltdown skull as 1Osborn, H. F. Men of the Old Stone Age, Their En- vironment, Life, and Art. New York, Scribner’s, 8vo., Noy, 24, 1915, 545 pp., Pls. I-VIII, 268 text figs. Third Edition, 1918, pp. i-xxviii, 1-559, Pls. I-VIII, Figs. 1-275, map. NATURAL HISTORY exhibiting a closer resemblance to the skulls of our human ancestors in mid- Tertiary times than any fossil skull hitherto found.” It was only the Pilt- down flints, at that time mistakenly compared with those of pre-Chellean time, which led the writer to believe that the Piltdown man belonged in the Middle Quaternary, an opinion which he is now prepared to abandon. In conclusion, the writer desires not only to recant his former doubts as to the association of the jaw with the skull, but to express his admiration of the great achievement of his life-long friend, Arthur Smith Woodward, in making the discovery and in finally establishing beyond question the authenticity of the ‘Dawn Man’ of Piltdown. We have to be reminded over and over again that Nature is full of paradoxes and that the order of the universe is not the human order: that we should always expect the unexpected and be prepared to dis- cover new paradoxes. The confirmation of the reality of the Piltdown man as a veritable ‘dawn man’ must be fol- lowed by renewed and determined effort to fix more precisely his geologic an- ~- tiquity, about which there has also been —__ a great difference of opinion and on ~ which the discovery of Foxhall man, described in the preceding article of this series, may have some bearing. DID THE INDIAN KNOW THE MASTODON?P AN ACCOUNT OF THE DISCOVERY IN MISSOURI OF A BONE BEARING AN INCISED ELEPHANT-LIKE FIGURE BY JAY L. B. TAYLOR Mr. Jay L. B. Taylor, a civil engineer of Pineville, Missouri, recently announced in Science the discovery of a number of decorated bones in a rock shelter, known locally as Jacobs’ Cavern, situated on land that Mr. Taylor acquired not long ago in the extreme southwestern part of the state. One of these pieces of worked bone is of unusual interest because, as shown in the photographs accom- panying this article, it bears a figure resembling a mastodon or a mammoth. In order to make this discovery known, Mr. Taylor has contributed the following brief narrative of his find. Last August, Dr. Clark Wissler, curator of the department of anthropology of the American Museum, visited Mr. Taylor and examined his collection and the cavern from which it came. At Mr. Taylor’s re- quest he has commented upon the cavern and the significance of the find. Although the bone bearing what is presumably a mastodon or mammoth was found in April, 1921, the cavern containing it has been a site of interest to anthropologists for nearly two decades. In 1903 this cavern, which is only one of many rock shelters in the Ozark Mountains offering traces of prehistoric man, was excavated in part by Dr. Charles Peabody and Mr. Warren K. Moorehead of Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts, who thereby directed attention to the archeological treasures of this region. In this excavation Mr. Taylor, then a young man, assisted and thus laid the foundations of an interest in prehistoric archeology that was later streygthened by the studies he pursued at Phillips Academy and that has been turned to such fortunate account in connection with the find below recorded. The photographs accompanying this article, as distinguished from the line cuts, were supplied through the courtesy of Dr. V. C. Allison. in Science a brief notice of the discovery of engraved bones in the Ozark country near Pineville, Mis- souri. This announcement has brought many inquiries from interested readers, which I have thought could best be an- swered by a statement of the circum- stances and conditions attending the discovery and by the reproduction of photographs and drawings showing the nature of the finds. The discoveries were made in con- junction with my friend, Mr. Vance Ran- dolph. Shortly after he became a resi- dent of Pineville, I found that we hada common interest in prehistoric remains and I accordingly invited him to call at my ranch and examine Jacobs’ Cavern and the collection 1 had taken out of it. On April 17, 1921, he visited me for the purpose and after he had inspected my collection, I took him down to the cav- ern. As we had in mind only a vague plan of casual and general inspection, with no intention whatever of conducting an extended exploration, we carried no digging implements. Upon entering the cavern Randolph’s attention was im- AST October the writer published mediately attracted by the numerous bone fragments strewn over the floor and we spent considerable time passing our fingers through the débris, bringing to the surface other bone fragments and occasional flint chips, and in discussing such points of interest as occurred to us. Thus it was that prodding around in the floor at random, we at last proceeded to examine a heap of débris at the rear of the cavern. [The reader is referred to the diagram accompanying this article. The region examined is below the upward- extending, finger-like fissure]. The dirt, ashes, and small stones here deposited in considerable quantity had originally reposed beneath the overhang of the rear wall of the cavern [the section on the diagram that resembles somewhat a bent thumb thrust into the solid area.] This débris had only recently been thrown out—some of it by hunters, tour- ists, and the like, I suppose, who dug through mere curiosity, and some by myself in an unsuccessful attempt to reach the extremity of the overhang. Flung out at random, this débris had piled up until it covered the stump of a stalagmite, the top of which had been 591 592 an operation that-had been performed without my knowledge or consent. aN CREEK SK SS |\ AaAc y NATURAL HISTORY lated stalagmite as No. 4 on the above mentioned map. An extremely wet season last spring wis wi CW SUNNG Z Oi IN oe Q Vi Gh NZ Zeal, Wax AENIS IC = ZA Ge “Sc x NES Ay | . GG : SAWN co WZ Ua = WAV ASIII ALE XS Se EVN AAC 300F*. > Diagram of Jacobs’ Cavern In the absence of markings established in the exploration of the cavern in 1903, I rely wholly upon my memory of that exploration, in which I participated, and upon my familiarity with the cavern and with the map shown in Bulletin No. 1, “‘Exploration of Jacobs’ Cavern,” Department of Archeology, Phillips Academy, Andover, Massachusetts, 1904, by Charles Peabody and Warren K. Moorehead, when I identify this muti- resulted in the precipitation of consider- able moisture through the fissure. In fact, on the day when Randolph and I were making our investigations there was a miniature stream of water dripping from the stalactite which hung directly over the stalagmite stump, while from other points along either side of the fissure other small streams dripped or trickled down upon the accumulation which had come from beneath the A glimpse of thé interior of Jacobs’ Cavern.— The stalagmite stump, from the pothole of which engraved bones were recovered, is not shown but lies directly back, and to the right, of the large light- colored stone on the extreme right of the picture. The large stone, in a corresponding position on the left of the picture, is a To the left of this slab, in an area not visible in the was sunk the shaft to which Dr. Clark Wissler makes reference in his letter at the close of dynamited stalagmite. slab that has fallen from the roof of the cave. picture, the article This stone is itself one of the fragments of the OBJECTS OF HUMAN WORKMANSHIP FOUND IN JACOBS’ CAVERN These line drawings were made by Mr. Vance Randolph, the co-discoverer, on the evening of the day that the objects were unearthed. This pictorial record is a valuable piece of evidence, for dis- integration of the bones speedily set in and ultimately all were thus destroyed except the topmost bone, which, however, is most prized of all, for this is the [bone that bears upon it the engraved elephant-like figure 593 594 NATURAL HISTORY On the walls of some of the European caverns, like that of Combarelles and of Font-de-Gaume, are representations of mammoths, proving that these creatures were known to early man in the Old World. What seems to be evidence that in the New World, too, early man knew the mammoth or the mastodon is furnished by the incised figure on the recently unearthed bone represented above over-hang, until in most places there was more or less mud and muck. Having finished groping around in this mud, I turned to wash my hands in the stream of water falling toward the stalagmite. The volume of water was, however, in- sufficient to remove the mud and I started, accordingly, to scoop out a small basin that would impound enough water for my use. But in doing this I un- covered the calcaneum bone [represented by Fig. 5, p. 593] of a ruminant, and hav- ing casually wiped away the mud, as we had been doing with the bones taken from the muddy area, I was surprised to find that the lower end had been perfo- rated. Having assured myself that the perforation was apparently of human ori- gin, I called Randolph’s attention to it and to the fact that I had never before found such a specimen in the cavern. Digging farther we found that the top of the stalagmite had been shot out in the form of a pothole of possibly two gal- lons’ capacity, and from the mud and water in this we soon took three other perforated calcanea, a perforated and notched spinous process of a dorsal vertebra, a perforated metatarsus, a portion of a perforated and engraved humerus (bearing the ‘‘mastodon’’), of ruminants; a small slotted and notched scapula, evidently of a rodent. In addi- tion to these bones our collection included a mussel shell with two perforations. Naturally our chief interest centered about the “‘mastodon,” for we straight- way concluded the carving was supposed to represent this creature, and after we had somewhat recovered from our ex- citement we took the bones down to the creek and gave them a thorough wash in clean water. Every specimen was apparently sound and at that time there was not the least evidence, so far as we could ascertain, of disintegration. Feeling, however, that we had made a discovery of more than ordinary importance, and that the bone bearing the “‘mastodon” must necessa- rily be of great age, we discussed the advisability of making drawings and photographs of the specimens and fi- nally concluded to adopt such measures in order to have a record of our findings in the event that they might through some unforeseen chance be lost or destroyed. Accordingly, late that same evening, Randolph made line drawings, natural size, of each piece. I regret that I neg- lected to have photographs made im- mediately but can excuse such neglect to a slight extent by explaining that further examination of the bones did not create in me much apprehension as to their con- dition. DID THE INDIAN KNOW THE MASTODON? glare Another view of the bone showing additional carvings. disintegration by being boiled in hot paraffin. 595 This bone was rescued from threatened It was subsequently incased in a block of paraffin and kept thus until it could be inspected by Dr. Clark Wissler, of the American Museum. The finding of this bone should be a stimulus to further systematic investigation of the floor of Jacobs’ Cavern Subsequent desultory exploration failed to result in further similar dis- coveries if one except that of another perforated metatarsus, which I picked up a day or two later, probably some three feet from where the other bones had been found. In the interim it had occurred to me that possibly I had been made the victim of a hoax. Amateur archzologists— professionals, too, for that matter—are regarded in this locality as legitimate prey upon whom to foist all sorts of fakes and “relics.” The bones were appar- ently as sound as could be when I placed them in my cabinet. This puzzled me because I knew that if a prehistoric artist had actually made the carvings with the idea in view of depicting a ‘‘mastodon,”’ at least that particular bone must neces- sarily be of great age and should, there- fore, be quite fragile. Furthermore, as these bones had come from such a re- stricted area, having probably all been thrown out together from under the over- hang, I was not long in concluding that they had probably at one time formed a necklace and were, therefore, practically of the same age. Both Randolph and myself communi- cated with various institutions in at- tempts to secure professional opinions concerning our find. The officials of several such institutions replied by sug- gesting that the bones be donated to their own museum and some requested permission to publish an account of the discovery. However, I declined all re- quests for permission to publish and in- sisted that nothing be given to the press at that time. I had no desire to be se- verely ridiculed if the “relics” proved to be fakes, nor did I wish to foist any frauds on the public. I felt, however, that the scientific world was entitled to a full account of the discovery in the event that competent authorities pro- nounced the handiwork as of genuine prehistoric origin, and I anxiously awaited the arrival of Doctor Wissler, who, I had been advised, would try to examine both the cavern and the bones about the middle of August. Meanwhile, professional duties had prevented me from making frequent examination of my collection and when T did at last find time to re-inspect it, I was dumfounded to observe that dis- integration was rapidly destroying my latest acquisitions. I immediately coated them with hard oil—the only thing at hand which in my opinion would ex- clude the air—but this failed to harden as it does on lumber, and disintegration progressed apparently unchecked. Hav- ing been advised by professional author- 596 ity to use hot paraffin, I telephoned Randolph to hurry out to the ranch and to bring with him some paraffin. That afternoon he gave the remaining bone a thorough boiling in that preservative. A short time afterward I encased the bone in a block of paraffin, where it remained until melted out for Doctor Wissler’s inspection on August 18. When this bone was freed of its paraffin en- velope, a few small fragments broke off around the perforation but in the main this bone appeared to be fairly well pre- served. Along with the bones the mussel shell also completely disintegrated, so that at this time, of the nine objects mentioned, only the perforated and engraved hu- merus remains. My loss of these specimens was, how- ever, compensated for in a manner by the relief I felt concerning the origin of the handiwork displayed on the humerus. It seemed, and so appears to me yet, that recent carving would be impossible ona bone so old that disintegration would result soon after exposure to the air. Personally I feel that up to this time developments justify my faith in the genuineness of the handiwork. How- ever, I do notpretend to be more than the veriest amateur and if competent scien- tific examination disproves my conclu- sions, I shall be only too glad to admit my error in judgment. In corroboration of the above I quote a statement prepared at my request by Mr. Vance Randolph in November, 1921, and mailed from the University of Kansas: “On April 17, 1921, I was a guest at the Taylor ranch, and Mr. Taylor showed me the collection in his den. I expressed a desire to see the cavern itself, and we went down and began to scratch about with sticks along the northeast wall. Mr. Taylor soon dug up a mussel shell with two round holes in it, and a few minutes later, fumbling about in a little wet spot under a roof-drip, I unearthed a piece of bone about 44 inches long, NATURAL HISTORY notched, pierced, engraved, and polished [represented by Fig. 2 p.593.] Mr. Taylor then sat down beside me, and we clawed with our fingers in the ice-cold mud and water until we had altogether 8 pierced, polished bones, one of which bore the engraving which we thought resembled a mammoth or mastodon. These bits of bone were all found very close together (a 15-inch circle would have enclosed them all, I think) and between 4 and 12 inches below the surface. A few inches lower we struck a solid rock, | which Mr. Taylor said was the stump of a stalagmite that had been blasted off some years before. We washed the specimens in a little creek, and that eve- ning measured them and made several sketches of each. ““Some three weeks later Mr. Taylor told me that 7 of the bones had com- pletely disintegrated, and that he had coated the one bearing the mastodon carving with varnish. On June 13, 1921, Mr. Taylor had the specimen photo- graphed, and immediately afterward we boiled it for two hours in hard paraffin, Later on Mr. Taylor embedded it in a solid block of this material, in which it remained until Dr. Clark Wissler visited the cavern Aug. 17, 1921.” I have the privilege of submitting the following memorandum from Dr. Clark Wissler who visited the cavern in re- sponse to my invitation: “The opportunity afforded me by your hospitality to examine the carved bone found by you and the privilege of explor- ing further in the cave, in the company of Mr. Randolph, Dr. Vernon C. Allison, and yourself, is greatly appreciated. Jacobs’ Cavern has long been known to us through the report of Peabody and Moorehead and has frequently been cited as one of the possible type stations for early man in America. It is, therefore, of unusual interest to know that this site is by no means exhausted, but still rich in data. The question your find raises is whether the person who made the sketch on, the bone that has been pre- DID THE INDIAN KNOW THE MASTODON? served saw a mastodon or mammoth. This cannot be answered positively, but the probabilities of the case can be esti- mated. In the first place, the work is of the primitive stamp and such as we might expect from the hand of an Amer- ican native. It so happens that upon these bones at least three attempts were made to represent living forms, ap ar- ently by the same artist. Two of these forms have the distinctive lines of elk and deer, while the lines of the third characterize elephant kind. This favors the interpretation that an elephant, ' mastodon, or mammoth was intended. “At once the objection will be raised that the bone is recent. Though the mastodon and the mammoth are charac- teristic of Pleistocene time, it is not known when they became extinct; for all that is known to the contrary, these great mammals may have held out to within three thousand years ago. Thus, the artist could have seen one of these animals and still have lived under mod- ern conditions. No one in authority seems now prepared to deny that man was in America three thousand years ago. In other words, there is nothing zoélogi- cal that makes your interpretation im- probable. We must, therefore, turn to the cavern itself. “Tt appears that this bone was found in the present surface of the cave, but ap- proximately five feet of der osit were taken out by Moorehead in 1903; hence, this bone is older than anything found by him. When we recall that both Peabody and Moorehead were impressed with the great age of what they removed, the evidence is again favorable to your in- terpretation. Also, there are still in the cavern almost five feet of deposit, in the main clay, through which you were so kind as to sink a shaft in my presence. This excavation indicated the presence of man’s handiwork in all parts of this deposit, one piece of worked stone being found at the very bottom of the shaft, 597 A fragment of the dynamited stalagmite found in the cavern with an implement of early man imbedded init. From time to time stalag- mites have in this way carried down to the pres- ent the records of the past. A stalagmite con- taining the preserved impressions of moths’ wings was some months ago discovered in the Cheddar district in England. Each layer of the stalagmite showed a number of these fossils, and it has been assumed that the wings were rejected by bats while feeding upon the insects lying flat upon the original stone floor of the cavern. One must conclude, therefore, that there are remains in the cavern that are of even greater age than the bone in question. “In general, then, I regard this site as one of the most important yet dis- covered and one demanding further in- vestigation. Regardless of what may ultimately prove to be the significance of this carved bone, you have made a dis- covery of great promise. I assure you of my appreciation of your confidence, in extending an invitation to make further excavations in this deposit and its sur- roundings. ““So, pending the examination of the site, as indicated above, no further com- ments seem necessary. The writer will do everything he can to further this in- vestigation to the end that the complete story of Jacobs’ Cavern may be revealed. It is to be hoped that at last we are on the trail of early man in America.” a URUS AND BISON BY W. D. MATTHEW* HE American Museum has re- cently acquired a fine skull and jaws of the urus, or extinct wild ox of Europe, and. an incomplete fossil skull of the almost extinct European bison. These valuable fossils were ob- tained from the Cambridge Museum of Zodlogy in an exchange arranged through the good offices of the curator, Mr. C. Forster Cooper, who was one of Dr. William K. Gregory’s paleontological students, and who since his return to England has been a very good friend of this Museum. The remains of the gigantic wild oxen are not uncommon in Europe. The finest specimens have been found in England, in the draining of old marshes or fens, especially in the eastern counties, in clay pits and bogs, less often in caves. The skull acquired by the Museum is from Burwell Fen, near Cambridge. A fine series was found in the Ilford brick clays in Essex, of which the largest skull now in the British Museum, is 914 mm., or about three feet in length. Other fine skulls and skeletons have been found in Germany, the Netherlands, France, and Italy, as far north as Scandinavia, as far east as central Russia.! The name, Bos primigenius, was given to the fossil species of wild ox many years ago by Bojanus. This animal has been commonly regarded as a sub- INEHRING. 1896. Landwirtsch. Jahrbuch, Vol. XXV, p. 915 (1896). : WILcKENS. 1885. “Die Rinder des Diluviums und der Pfahlbauten.” Biol. Centralbt, V. 79-05, 109-123. LyDEKKER. 1898. Wild Oxen, Sheep and Goats of All Lands. LYDEKKER. 1903. Mostly Mammals. WINGE. 1904. “Om jordfundne pattedyr fra Danmark.” Vidensk. Meddel. naturh. Foren. Kjob., pp. 286, 299, pls. xii, xiii. WINGE. 1906. ‘Om Uroxen fra Vig.” (with N. Hartz). Aarb. Nord. Oldkynd. og Hist., 1906. pp. 225-236, pl. iand 2 text figures. Duerst. 1904. “Die Tierwelt der Ansiedelungen am Schlossberge.” Archiv. f. Anthrop., N. F., Bd ii, s. 241- 257 u. Tafeln. BOULE, 1910. 234-230. PavLow. 1906. “Etudes sur 1’Hist. Pal. des Ungulés, pt. ix, Sélénodonts Post-tertiaires de la Russie.’’ Mémoires de VAcadémie Impériale des Sciences de St. Pétersbourg, Viiie Série, Vol. xx. Les Grottes de Grimaldi, t. I, fasc. iii, pp. species or race of the domesticated cat- tle, representing in a general way, at least, the primitive stock from which our domestic cattle are descended, and as being the urus or aurochs of Roman and medieval writers. The earliest his- torical account of the urus is given by Cesar in his Commentaries on the Gallic War. He found them, or more likely heard of them, in the great Hercynian forest, which in his day stretched from Switzerland to the east and north across central Europe. As Cesar’s account appears to be the basis of most of the later references to this animal, and as it is an interesting example of the natural history of his time, it is worth while to give a translation of the entire passage,” which reads as follows: “This Hercynian forest, mentioned above, extends for a width of nine days’ journey made with light equipment, for in no other way is it possible to reach the end of it or to know the distance traveled. It begins at the territory of the Helvetii, Nemeti, and Rauraci, and stretches along the Danube valley to the country of the Dacians and Anarti; thence it swings to the left away from the river country and on account of its vastness reaches to the confines of many nations; nor is there anyone in this part of Germany who claims either to have attained the borders of this forest even in a sixty days’ journey, or knows where it ends. Many kinds of wild beasts exist in it which are not seen elsewhere; among which those that differ most from others and appear most worthy of note are the following: “There is an animal that looks like a deer, and bears a single horn on the middle of its forehead, between the ears, longer and straighter than the horns which we know. From the top of this horn branches like palm leaves spread out widely. The male and female 2Commentaries on the Gallic War. Book VI, chapters 25-28. *Curator of Vertebrate Paleontology, American Museum. 598 URUS Jackson, Rev. Sheldon, 668 JAGGAR, T. A., JR., Experiences in 1 a Volcano Observa- tory, 337-356 Jewels, 291-295, 656, 657 JIVARO INDIANS OF EASTERN Ecuapor, 146-159 JOEL ASAPH ALLEN, 513-519 JONES, FRANK Morton, Pitcher Plants and Their Moths, 296-316, 441 JOURNEY TO THE MARIANA ~~ ISLANDS—GUAM AND SAIPAN, 126-145 JUNIOR HORTICULTURISTS OF GREATER. NEW YORK, 642-646 oe J aoe F., Baron Gerard De Geer and His Work, 1- Klamath Lake, 667 KuNz, GEORGE F., Marie Sklodowska Curie, 34-35 KUNZ, GEORGE F., The Marie Curie Radium Fund, 536 Kunz, G. F. AND FAILLA, G., Radium, the Supreme Marvel of Nature’s Storehouse, 520-535 Lang, Herbert, 204 Lapouge, G. V. de, 248, 542, 543 Loco WEEDS, 85-91 Logs, LEo, The Venom of Heloderma, 92-95 Lowie, Robert H., 10: LuCcAS, FREDERIC A., Glimpses of Early Museums, 74— 77 Lucas, Frederic A., coe 105, 107, 324 LUMHOLTz, CARL, M fry Life of Exploration, 224-243 Lundborg, Herman Lutz, Frank E., 553, 652 vy PS ee ats INDEX OF VOLUME XXI iil McGregor, J. Howard, 210-211, 658 MADAME CURIE RADIUM FUND, THE, 536 Mammoth, 660-661, 591-597 March, Lucien, 542, 544 MARIE SKLODOWSKA CURIE, 34-35 Marshall, Mrs. Charles C., 667 Marsupials, 436, 549, 550, 650 Mastodon, 323, 328, 591-597 Matsumoto, Hiko, 328, 440 MATTHEW, W. D., Why Paleontology? 639-641 MATTHEW, W. D., Urus and Bison, 598-606 Matthew, W. D., 107, 660-661 Maxwell Training School for Teachers, 322-323 MEasD, CHARLES W., Indian Corn or Maize, 408-413 MEeEapD, CHARLES W., Shrunken Human Heads and How They Are Made, 160-161 Mead, Charles ae ax Members, A. M. N , 99, 201, 322, 432, 560, 669-670 MIAMI AQUARIUM, THe, 356-366 “Microscopy with Ultra-violet Light,’’ 108 Migrations of Butterflies, 438-439 Miller, W. De W., Miner, Roy W., 100, 435, 653 Minnow, 280, 382 Mijoéen, Jon Alfred, 542, 543 Moir, J. Reid, ae 564-576 Mook, cc. Morgan Hall ar Minerals, 326 Morris, Earl H., Mosquitoes, 270-S81, 3 Moths, 103-104, 306,316. 647-648 Motor TRUCK IN CENTRAL Asia, 69-70 Mount Desert Island, 330, MUCH-DESPISED SPIDER, tue, 367-380 “Mummies,” 437, 453 “Mummy Wheat,’ 36. Murphy, R. C., 100, 202, 206, 443, 657 Museo de Ethnolo ogia * Anthropologia, 663 Museum, Bernice ishop, 106, 559 Museum, British, 105, 106, 1 Museum, Field, 317 Museum, Heckscher, 203 Museum of Natural History, Brussels, 664 Museum of Stockholm, 560 Museums Association, 664 Museums for nature study in camps, 331 My LIFE OF EXPLORATION, 224-243 National Association of Audubon Societies, 557 NATIONAL GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF CHINA, 4—12 NATURAL History, 219-220, 443-444, 670-672 NELSON, N. C., Recent Activities of European Archzol- ogists, 537-541 NELSON, N. C., Swiss Lake-Dweller Discoveries, 172-— 174 7 Nelson, N. C., 203, 322, 329 (2 items), 651 Neolithic Tour of President Henry Fairfield Osborn, , 565 New England group, 662-663 New York Aquarium, 651, 664 New York School of Fine and Applied Art, 211-212 New York Training School for Teachers, 322 New York ZoG6logical Park, 106, 554, 651 NICHOLS, JOHN T., The Miami Aquarium, 356-366 NICHOLS, JOHN T., What Sharks Really Eat, 272-278 Nichols, John T., 555, 658 NoBLeE, G. KINGSLEY, A Search for the Marsupial Frog, 474—485 NoBLE, G. KINGSLEY, Pages from the Photographic age of the Harvard-Peruvian Expedition, 486-— A NOBLE, G. KINGSLEY, Snakes that Inflate, 166-171 Noble, G. Kingsley, 213, 433 NosBLeE, RuTH CrosBy, Junior Horticulturists of Greater New York, 642-646 Noble, Ruth Crosby, 206, 435 Nolan, Edward James, 106 oe Lights, Maine Coast, August, 1919,’’ 204— NOTES ON THE SCIENTIFIC MUSEUMS OF EUROPE, 185-— 1 Notes, 99-108; 201-218; 322-331; 432-443; 545-560; 649-672 Novitates, American Museum, 101 O’Connell, Marjorie, 658 Operti, Albert A., 203 OSBORN, HENRY FAIRFIELD, The Dawn Man of Pilt- down, Sussex, 577-590 OSBORN, HENRY FAIRFIELD, Heads of African Ele- phants, 244-246 OSBORN, HENRY FAIRFIELD, Joel Asaph Allen, An Appreciation, 513-515 OSBORN, HENRY FAIRFIELD, The Pliocene Man of Foxhall in East en a 564-576 Osborn, Henry Fairfield, 99, 100, 102-103, 104, 201, 202, 207, 211, 247, bao, ” 321, 322.42 items), 324, 432, 542, 543, 544, , 546, 551, 552, 553, 564, 577, 620, Osborn, Mrs. Henry Fairfield, 542, 551, 651 Ostrich dinosaur, 658 OVERTON, FRANK, Photographing Great Horned Owls, OVERTON, FRANK, The Great Horned Owl, 177-184 PAGES FROM THE PHOTOGRAPHIC JOURNAL OF THE HARVARD-PERUVIAN EXPEDITION, 486—493 Pearl, Fs agi 542 Pelé, 2 Perch, 280 PERSONNEL OF THE SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS, 542-544 Peru, 286-290, 447-452 PERUVIAN GOLD OF THE CHIMU KINGDOM, 447-452 PETRUNKEVITCH, ALEXANDER, Spider Silk and Its Uses, PHOTOGRAPHING GREAT HORNED OWLS, 175-176 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TWO PREHISTORIC CHILEAN MINERS, 456-457 Piltdown Man, 329 Pindar, George, 202 PITCHER PLANTS AND THEIR MOTHS, 296-317 hata er oe OF FOXHALL IN EAST ANGLIA, THE ’ Pliohippus (one-toed horse), 323 Popcorn, 437 Pope, Clifford, 326, 545-546 Posters, 207-209, 211-212, 215 PREHISTORIC MINING IN WESTERN SOUTH AMERICA, 453-456 Proboscidea, 201, 244-245, a 328, 440, 591-597, 661 Pronghorn, 667 (2 items), 66 Public Education, Patateneat of, A.M.N.H., 435 RADIUM—THE SUPREME MARVEL OF NATURE’S STORE- HOUSE, 520-535 RAINS OF FISHES, 607-619 Ramsey, Grace Fisher, 435 Raven, H. C., 549, 555, 650 Reap, L. C., The Cordilleran Ice Sheet, 250-254 READ, L. C., Scenes from the Atlin Lake Region of British Columbia, 255-268 eae > | Sah Sa OF EUROPEAN ARCHAOLOGISTS, RECENT MOVEMENTS OF SWISS AND ALASKAN GLACIERS, 269-271 REEDS, CHESTER A., Floods in the Pueblo District, 282-285 REEDS, CHESTER A., Recent Movements of Swiss and Alaskan Glaciers, 269-271 Reeds, Chester A., 107 Reichenberger, Mrs. Elsie M. B., 658 REMINISCENCES OF JOHN BURROUGHS, 112-125 Rhodesian skull, 661 Ridgeway, Robert, 207, 658 Rock CRYSTAL BALLS, 96-98 ROCKWELL, R. B., AND BLICKENSDERFER, CLARK, Glimpses of the Home Life of the Saw-whet Owl Royal Geographical Society awards, 214 Sanford, L. C., 202 Sargent, Charles Sprague, 662 SAVIN, WILLIAM M., The Much-despised Spider, 367— 380 Schmidt, Karl P., 662 Schrabisch, Max, 651 SCIENCE HONORS MADAM CURIE AT THE AMERICAN Museum, 162-165 SEARCH FOR THE MARSUPIAL FROG, THE, 474—485 SECOND INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF EUGENICS, 246- 249 Sharks, 204, 214, 272-278, 555, 556, 654 Sherwood, George H., 206, 323, 555 Se eae Spider Myths of the American Indians, 382— S., H. F., Tobacco as a Cure for Ailments, 317-319 SHRUNKEN HUMAN HEADS AND How THEY ARE MADE, 160-161 Sloth, 557-558, 654, 656 Smith, George F. Herbert, 107 Snake Creek quarries, 323, 557, 661 SNAKES THAT INFLATE, 166-171 Snakes that Inflate, 433 Société Géologique de Belgique, 668 Société Nationale d’Acclimatation, 668 om 5 at: r ‘ —_ ai Twit Hh iv INDEX OF VOLUME XXI Soulsby, Basil H., 107 Spencer, Sir dwin, SPIDER MYTHS OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS, 382-385 SPIDER SILK AND Its USEs, 381 Spiders, 367-380, 381, 382-385, 433-434 SPINDEN, Tt Jo The Great Friar of the Paramo _(Poem) 71-73 Squid, 434-435, Squirrel, 330 Pehla: 3: HENRY M., Corn Culture among the Indians of the Southwest, 414-424 Stefansson, Vilhj almur, 214 _ Stoll, Frederick H., 662-663 Storage cases, , 654 Sullivan, Louis R., 106, 202, 442, 555, 560 SULLIVAN, LOUIS R., The Phys ical Characteristics of the Two Prehistoric Chilean age 456-457 Swiss LAKE-DWELLER DISCOVERIES, 172-174 Takin, 546, 649 Tarija, 661 Sradey od dh B., Did the Indian Know the Mastodon? Taylor, W. R., 441 TERRITORY IN Birp LirE—A REVIEW, 431 Thomson, Albert, 557, 661 Tibetan Shrine, 547 oats del Fuego, 50-68, 663-664 ‘oad, ‘ Tobacco, 228-229, 317-319, 551 TOBACCO AS A CURE FOR AILMENTS, 317-319 Teal, Y. B., 322 652° Torres, Luis Maria, 105 Se ees Sia Triassic beds, 658 E a 2 Ti cpl Reig Station 104, 98 65 4 “~ Turtle, Ft oe ae URUS AND BISON, 598-606 95, ae ies THE Nests OF SEABIRDS BY Av WALTER Boer AND THE THIRD Asin High School, 207 Wuat SHARKS REALLY Eat, 272-278 Wheeler, Wm. M., WHITLOCK, H. Ps Winslow, Charles-Edward, 101, 202 Wuy ser yess aes 639-641 Yamana, 664 Yellowstone Park, 104 Zoblogical Society of St. Louis, 328 hath Ny ") 0 (ene } : jue) (i Ae QH Natural history 1 N3 veel Biological & Medical Serials PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY oa ae pepper aca ae gah ny et eng: 1 OT PLD Spey 0B ASSO ty 0? 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