THE NATURAL HISTORY OF
SOUTH DEVON.
He who is disposed to view the natural objects and
phenomena amidst which he lives with a mind void of
preconception, will inevitably discover that while all things
do indeed conspire to the fulfilment of certain general laws
which pervade Creation, they likewise in themselves exhibit
those laws which are attached to them by the circumstances
of their respective localities.—It is only in the present day
that this truth is becoming sufficiently evident, and conse-
quently it now especially *pehoves each naturalist to make
known the productions and phenomena of his own neigh-
bourhood ; for it is only by allowing knowledge to be drawn
to one great centre that we shall be competent to decide
what are general, and what are local or partial laws.
Men boast too commonly of their acquaintance with laws
and principles, but, as these are so all-important to be ac-
quired, it will be needful for them to determine on those
which apply only to localities before they can arrive at
those which regulate nature as awhole——The earth, forming
a part of the system of the universe, and governed by the
general laws which regulate the revolutions of the heavenly
bodies, does also perform within its own economy, move-
ments and actions peculiar to itself; let it now further be
resolved how far, and by what precise means, the different
portions of our Creation in their respective situations are
governed by local ordinances, whilst at the same time they
respond harmoniously to those decrees which preside over
the world of matter.
THE
NATURAL HISTORY
OF
SOUTH DEVON.
IA) i
FIVE MAPS, EIGHTY ENGRAVINGS, AND NINE LITHOGRAPHS.
iy
. 0
By J. C. BELLAMY, Svurexon.
ONE OF THE CURATORS TO THE DEVON AND CORNWALL
NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.
* Vere scire, est per causas scire.”
Naturam intelligere, est eam in omnibus que gignit operibus
intelligere locis in omnibus, et formis.
PLYMOUTH:
PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY JENKIN THOMAS,
9, CORNWALL-STREET.
LONDON:
SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. STATIONERS’ HALL COURT.
MDCCCXXXIxX.,
TO
EEE UE COL € . H SMLERH,
| KH. KW. F.R.& LS. &ce. &e. &e.
PRESIDENT OF THE DEVON AND CORNWALL NATURAL HISTORY
SOCIETY.
Sir,
Whilst the world of Science and of Letters has tis
attention directed to the great resources of your mind for
constant assistance in matters wrapped in doubt, or in the
intricacies of history,—whilst men appreciate the rare
and happy conjoint knowledge of those two departments of
learning which im you so conspicuously shines forth, the
Naturalists of South Devon feel that you are directly
associated with their researches on the more circumscribed
scale.
In laying before your accomplished criticism the labours
of a humble journalist of local Nature, I desire to convey
fo you my individual admiration of the amazing industry
with which you have so skilfully turned to account your
mental powers, and for the application of which to scien-
tific and philosophic subjects you may hold the world
largely in your debt. ! :
Sir, in framing this dedication, I labour under no self-
accusation of exceeding my real sentiments, and whilst I
do it on my own responsibility, I have an assurance that
in connecting your name with our local Science I but speak
the united feelings of all those who prosecute an acquain-
tance with it.
ie Ce EE Ee Ave
a
wars -
WY Oe
yLateg Ofer
TO THE
MEMBERS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY
OF DEVON AND CORNWALL.
in originating the Society we conjointly form, I had in
view our common interests as students of the natural
beauties which in these counties so abundantly surround
us,—convinced, as every one must be who deliberates on
the question, that combination ?s the shortest and best way
of attaining to extensive knowledge, and of securing us
individually from those narrowed and selfish views which
solitude in research engenders. I was not unmindful also
that by promoting this union the best advantages might
accrue to us as citizens of the world,—bound to cultivate
the social virtues by interchange of thought, and to sow
the seeds of a future harvest in the soil of things temporal.
I cannot hesitate to believe that these prospects will
gradually receive their realizations in proportion as we
continue in the path which tends to the only real and
useful learning, and to the promotion of our moral benefits.
Since the period of the institution of our Society, I have
been occupied, so far as circumstances the most inimical
to thought and judicious composition suffered me, in the
compilation of the present work, which, with a distrust of
myself far greater than the kindest critic will give me
credit for, I yet presume—through a hope that it may be
in some measure useful—to dedicate to you, together with
my best wishes for a continued appreciation of-those un-
equalled opportunities around us, which has been already
so strongly and so happil y evinced.
Jie, Carats:
ee
ee oS
ba sek any i baz ol
..
PRE ENCE
|
When the present race of Devonshire Naturalists looks
back, as it occasionally must, into past time, it finds reason
to lament over the loss which their science has sustained in
the vacuities occasioned by the death of many a bright
example ofindustry, penetration, and research :—a Montagu,
a Leach, a Turton has been called away from this field of
eminence and usefulness, and all have long since passed
into the deep and still repose of mortals. After that re-
flection,—full of melancholy as it is,—the mind next
enquires whether Nature, still prodigal of her charms, has
been left unprovided with men of similar capacity and
industry to prosecute in a connected manner the investiga-
tion of our natural riches, and to proclaim from time to
time that if their number is indeed exhaustible, the know-
ledge of their varied histories is certainly infinite. If the
former reflection were melancholy, this must be more so,
for the memory wanders to and fro in search of substitutes
and returns to us void,—none have arisen! :—we ourselves
continue on in the old beaten track, departing sometimes
b
X. PREFACE.
from it for the purpose of slight improvement beyond a
customary doctrine, or for some numerical discovery in
the productions of Nature, sometimes also going astray
from it through error or prejudice.
But so invidious has been the character of Devonshire
in respect of natural productions, more particularly in the
eyes of botanists, conchologists, and geologists, that we
have been visited systematically by literati in these depart-
ments, resident in very distant counties or kingdoms.
Amongst a large number of these worthies may be named
Hooker, Buckland, De la Beche, Sedgwick, Coldstream,
De Luc, and Macculloch.—These visits, I am sorry to
say, shew in their results that it is high time for us to be
stirred up to greater activity, lest we be subjected to the
imputation of treading upon grass whilst it perceptibly
grows under us. If we turn our attention to the several
departments of Nature, we see equally in all these directions
that the productions of this district with their attendant
phenomena contribute by their number, their peculiarities,
and their general importance, to throw the most satisfactory
light on the general philosophy of our science, and to aid
most sensibly a determination of the numerous questions
now so commonly proposed and discussed in this enquiring
age. The number and peculiarities of the genera of our
birds, fish, shells, &c..their geographic ranges, the various
influences on the economy and actions of our animals,
above all, the number of interesting geological phenomena _
presented by the county,—enabling the student to deduce
the laws and general conclusions which constitute the
usefulness of this science,—these, and a vast number of
other considerations derived from our Natural History,
tend to advance our locality to a point of eminence and
PREFACE. XI.
distinction in which other counties and spots however
celebrated for the profusion and importance of their
products, participate much less. The larger the number
of productions coming simultaneously and connectedly
under the eye of an observer, and the greater the range of
associations and relative conditions under which each
separate object and circumstance is viewed, the more
considerable must be the amount of philosophic knowledge
he acquires. On this account therefore the attention of
scientific men is for ever directed to this county for the
advancement of those interests they cultivate.
As for myself, as a student in this very field, the public,
ever justly jealous of intrusions on its liberal feelings, are
about to judge of me. Those who estimate temperately
will no doubt give me as much credit for the labour I have
gone through as I can rationally expect, whilst those who
would judge me harshly may require to have one hint here
given them ;—that the discoveries made, and points of
doctrine cleared up might be reasonably allowed to weigh
favorably against other parts of the book where deficiency
or error may no doubt be obvious. From the supercilious
critic, who is well pleased with no one but himself, I of
course expect no quarter, though here I comfort myself
with the persuasion that zeal cannot be denied me, and
with the assurance that it is amost wise maxim which says
“‘ Happy are they who expect little, for they shall not be
disappointed.” May I also be permitted to observe, since
the errors and deficiencies of this book will be the first and
the easiest detected by the competent portion of readers,
that there is somewhat to be allowed in extenuation as a
balance in the other scale :—I have bestowed very con-
siderable attention in collating and reducing the vast bulk
b 2
Xil. PREFACE.
of facts connected with ourmostinteresting Natural History
into inclusive theory or generalized speculative statement
of its philosophy,—a task surrounded with no ordinary
difficulties, considering the wide field of doubt, probability
and supposition laid forth rather than contracted by pro-
gressive science. A “Natural History” ofadistrict pretending
to no more than an enumeration of its objects, or a simple
statement of facts and phenomena is an undertaking totally
different from one which essays to systematize those occur-
rences and facts in the various departments of the study,
and to offer to local students, as here attempted, a theoretic
statement respecting them at once consistent with itself in
its own details, and with the main body of existing science.
Conversations relative to local facts and the theoretic
philosophy appertaining to them almost invariably shew that
in the public mind the utmost discrepancy and differences
exist,—every fact is recognised in its isolated character,
seldom im its true relative position to others, seldom
conceded a place in any system, or located im an original
comprehensive theory,—it is placed at the mercy of
the adventitious and spurious character accidentally lent it
by any other circumstance happening to be simultaneously
contemplated. But whereas many opposite and very erro-
neous, not to say trivial and peremptory conclusions are
thus pointed to as belonging to one solitary fact or
occurrence, it must appear on rational reflection that a
circumstance or phenomenon considered in a single ca-
pacity can have but one place in the natural theory or
system of events and existences. To what extent I have
been successful in giving a locality to each of the multitu-
dinous facts I had to encounter,—how far I have succeeded
in connecting the varied sized links methodically and con-
PREFACE. Xiil.
sistently together,—with what propriety I have added this
portion of the great chain of beings and of truths to its
major part as it now exists, I leave the critical reader to
determine. Theoretic knowledge is the great end of
science, and while a number of its followers are loud in
their denunciations of“ theory and speculation,’ and in their
commendation of the acquisition of facts, they are mean-
while insensibly cultivating the former in the accustomed
manner. A man cannot well regard a fact without con-
sidering it in its relative character to some other, and with
respect to its influence on some theory or deduction however
vague, limited, and unscientific ; theory is the pivot or
centre on which the utility of all scientific knowledge,
more or less revolves, itis the fruit borne on the branches
of the tree formed by the aggregate of facts. Is a man
actually substantially wiser because he knows the number,
the names, the qualities of all the rocks which occur in our
district ? Is a man really wiser if he know the names of
our migrating birds, and can discriminate one from another ?
I greatly question it ; the knowledge which these things
convey rests in their philosophy, and that embraces in the
one case a theoretic consideration of the origins, the ages,
the order of deposition, the probable intermixtures and
chemical actions of the formations of the ancient epochs,
the probable condition of the beings which resided on the
earth or in its seas in those zeras, and the mode in which
they were destroyed and impacted in their present sites,
and so forth, while in the other, its philosophy includes a
whole train of enquiries equally congenial to the minds of
rational creatures, and honorable to those who systemati-
cally pursue them,—such are the physical powers of birds,
their contrivances to shorten their migratory routes, the
XIV. PREFACE.
reasons in the economy of Nature for such actions imposed
on creatures apparently inadequate to the task, the secondary
causes inducing birds to undertake their appointed flights,
the means by which the extreme punctuality of these
migrations is attained to, the nature and amount of the
instinct by which they are impelled, the variations of that
instinct or guiding agent according to locality, and so
forth ;—all, questions of intricacy, of deep interest separately
considered, and still more so when embodied into, and
made to tell in the commonwealth of science. No man
really ,sensible of the manner in which the data and
maxims of philosophy are arrived at, will for a moment
doubt the importance of local facts and their concomitant
theories as assistant in the construction of general or in-
clusive theories, any more than he will hesitate to admit
the effect of one part or department of science on another
in the attainment of truth. Theory moreover may be shewn
to be useful in another way, namely that by entertaining
a preconception a man is naturally induced to search for
corroborative facts in a greater variety of directions and to
a greater extent than he would do if not prepossessed.
But still itis abundantly manifest that a theory of too in-
clusive a nature or what is termed a “ leading theory” is a
prepossession which acts most prejudicially on future in-
vestigations and discoveries.
My plan has been to avoid those departments in which
I possessed trifling knowledge, namely Mineralogy and
Entomology, and since the Botany of South Devon has
fallen into very able hands* I thought it would amount
* Flora Devoniensis.—Banks’s Flora of Plymouth and Deyon-
port.—Dr, Jacob’s West Devon and Cornwall Flora.
PREFACE. XV.
to arrogance if I presumed to write that much respecting
it which I happened to know. I have on the same ground
of objection avoided meddling with the Natural History
of the south-eastern district, a work having been given to
the public on the productions of that neighbourhood,+ and
being disinclined to an invasion of other men’s territories
to pilfer their properties; where however it was essential
to my plan to complete the list of a series of animals,
or to judge of a circumstance through the analogy of
adjoining localities I have with due acknowledgment drawn
my information from that source, in the same manner as
I have found it expedient to consult the contents of those
books which treat of the productions of neighbouring
counties. {
My further object has been, besides giving the work
chiefly as the result of my own experience and research,
to make the bulk of my remarks act not simply as local
information but as the means of connecting local informa-
tion to the great body of existing science, so that local
and general science may at once be conjointly benefitted
by reflecting on each other mutual lights. General science
is indeed made up of scattered fragments of local knowledge,
and as I have kept in view the interests of the former, it
is my hope that this book will be suitable to general
reading, besides interesting those who have local attach-
ments.—It will but seldom be found, that where it was
practicable to connect a fact to present systematized or
si A DN
+Turton’s and Kingston’s Natural History of Torquay, Dawlish,
and Teignmouth,—a volume of “ Guide to the Watering Places.”
+ Dorset Catalogue of Birds, Shells &c. Couch’s Cornish
Fauna, &c.
XV. PREFACE.
generalized knowledge, I have omitted doing so; but in
the execution of my task, surrounded and impeded by the
cares, and toils, and trammels of the most irksome profes-
sion under heaven, I have laboured under difficulties to
an appreciation of which I will admit none but those who
have been similarly circumstanced.
To him who has no sufficient occupation or study to
pass off the tedium of ennui I would most earnestly say,—
take a lesson out of the great book of Nature, search our
hedges or our shores for shells, gather the variety of plants
which adorn our fields,—
“ ____ Ca]l the vales and bid them hither cast
Their bells and flourets of a thousand hues.”
watch the habits of our birds in their woods,—try either
of these pursuits, and you will not fail to be enamoured :
without such occupations, man in vain looks abroad
in search of happiness—real happiness, “he goes in and
out, but without the feeling that can give attachment
to any one spot’; but when the mind becomes habituated
to these refreshing and healthful relaxations from business
it gains consolation, security, and strength, and moves a
contented spirit through the illimitable fields of Nature.—
Happy indeed is that man who has within him in even its
unawakened form that taste and inclination for natural
pursuits which he can light up and appeal to in the hour
of affliction or despair, or resort to as if it were a
“ministering spirit” in the intervals of tedious attention
to his needful calling, at the periods of its daily, and still
more at its final close. Greatly in fault also are those
parents who in the education of their children fail to sow
within their bosoms those seeds which shall eventually
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION—Shewing the necessity of local investigation before
rules and first principles can be instituted, or Natural History be
satisfactorily pursued as a science.—Notice of the rules followed in
the framing of the zoological maps.
PART I.
CHAPTER I.—Remarks on the general aspect of the district—Its
threefold character.—Description of the scenery of Dartmoor.—
Description of the scenery of the South Hams.—Scenery of the
Coast. - - - - - Page 1 to 12.
CuaptER II.—Ancient Geology.—Granite and its modifications
form the bed on which our other rocks are supported,—Dartmoor a
mountain range.—Bovey Heathfield formations,—supposition re-
specting them.—Granite of Dartmoor characterised.—Climate,
herbage, and products of the Moor,—its waters.— Dartmoor former-
ly being wooded, had a different climate to that it at present has.—
Proposed measures to ameliorateits climate,—further considerations.
Planting.—Micaschist, Serpentine and Schorl around the Granite.—
Trapp; its intrusions in slate and action on limestone.—Granite
and its modifications, together with Serpentine and Trapp are igneous
and upthrust rocks, and have made their appearance in their present
positions since the deposit of others,—some of these were however
in their present sites at the time of the deposit of the secondary
rocks,—proof afforded from a granite pebble in slate rock.— Boul-
ders on Roborough Down, and between the Tamar and Tavy; also at
St. Anne’s Beacon.—Observations connected with the new theory of
intruded rocks,—action of granite and trapp on other rocks by in-
trusion.— Discrimination of igneous rocks from others.—Subterra-
nean movements of granite and trapp exhibit their consequences
on Slate, &c.—Contrariety of circumstances under which granite
makes its appearance.—Igneous action evinced in Trapp.—Some
tors of Dartmoor are ancient craters ?>—Period of these igneous
disturbances.—Blendings of the primitive series.—Blendings of the
grauwacké series.—Blendings of our rocks from the coast onwards
to the Moor.—Inclusion of some of the igneous rocks among the
grauwacke series.—Only one legitimate way of theorizing in
Geology.— Slate of South Dey on; its different kinds are in connection,
Coe
XX. CONTENTS.
qualities of the different sorts—Bent and waved slate.—Junction
and mixture of slate and limestone.—Insulation of lime in slate, and
vice versa of slate in lime,—their alternations.—Our slate taken ag-
gregately is fossiliferous——Considerations relative to our slate fos-
sils ;—their order of frequency and characters.—These primitive
animals have the nearly common character of consisting of parallel
lines.— Description of the Grauwacke tock,—its soil,—depth of soil
always a desideratum to prevent scorching,—power of trees in fixing
themselves on any kind of rock.—Limerocks of South Devon, their
characters, positions and connexions.—Fossils.—Magnesian lime-
stone of Yealmpton, &c.—Spar, &c.—Veins of iron in limerock.—
Table of the genera of fossils in our strata,—general remarks on
the same,—their distribution in the strata,—order of frequency of
occurrence of the various classes of fossils.—Sandstones of South
Devon, their positions, relations, uses and characters,—their fossils
similar to those of the lime and slate,—the three strata were contem-
poraneously deposited,—their blendings,—impropriety ofclassifying
rocks according as they are fossiliferous and non-fossiliferous.—
Theories of local geology though separate, may be conformed in
some measure to general results obtained as regards the whole
earth.—Conjectures as to the mode in which our three fossiliferous
rocks were deposited.—Connected statement of reasons for consider-
ing the three fossiliferous rocks of coetaneous deposition.—Reasons
why our limerocks were not formed by coral insects.—This district did
not take part in geological actions for some space of time after the
occurrence of these rocks.—Conglomerate pebbles.— Theory of pro-
gression.—The Deluge did not form or alter materially our hills.—
Peculiar construction of some of our slate hills—Occurrence of the
Mosaic flood.—Different sorts of Clay found with us.—Consequences
of the Deluge depicted.— Vallies of denudation.—* Diluvium”
described and separated from ancient beach.—Facts which might
be used to support the theory of consecutive deposition of our grau-
wacke rocks.—Classification offossilsin lime and slate.-—Consecutive
steps in the precipitation of these rocks extended to the beds of each
sort respectively.—Table of the chief strata of South Devon.—The
Flood destroyed aseries of plants and animals of high endowments.
Notice of their remains in caves.—Stalagmitic covering.—Oreston
caves.—Snakes’ eggs.—Caves at Yealmpton.—Notice of the habits
of antediluvian Hyenas. Yealm Bridge cave not only an Hyena’s
den.—Relations of the antediluvian creatures to each other in regard
of food.—Particular notice of the cave discovered by the author.—
Chemical composition of these fossil bones.—Conjecture relative to
the bones of mice found in the cave.—Cavern at Berry Head.—
Cavern at Torquay,—human bones, &c. found there, but not cotem-
porary in their deposit with the animal remains.—Communication
from Mr. Mc’Enery.--Notwithstanding Dr. Buckland’s authority
ovine remains did occur at Yealm Bridge, as also at Berry Head.—
Communication from Dr. Buckland.—A new proof adduced against
Dr. Fleming's doctrine.—Affinity between antediluvian and post-
diluvian creations.—Theory of altered climate not supported by the
CONTENTS. XXI.
facts here disclosed.—Rule of increased size in the postdiluvian
species not preserved throughout,—proofs given.—Table of Cave
animals, and remarks on their habits.—Geology connected with
other studies.—Importance of investigating the geology ofa locality
free from preconceptions. - - - Page 13 to 105.
CuHapTerR [I 1.—Alluvial Geology of, and recent Geological alterations
in South Devon.—Method of elucidating the subject.— Difficulties
which embarrass the investigation.—Height of the sea immediately
after the flood.—Animals, and Vegetables of greater number in the
time just following the Deluge, than in the preceding epoch,—the
number of the former now reduced by human means.—Forests
existed around the coast in former years,—discovery of these at
low-water mark in the present day,—situation of these relics of
present species prove that the sea has risen from its original level,—
remains of the same kind inland,—which were cut down, or removed
by the ancient inhabitants.—Old Buildings discovered submerged
at Land’s End.—lIslets off Great Britain formerly connected to
main land.—Torbay originally a marshy tract The Bovey Heath-
field formations are distinct in age from the submerged forests.—
Assertion of William of Worcester, &c.—is incorrect.— More
plausible notion relative to the period of the irruption,—supports
to.—Nature of the elevation.—Raised beaches of the three south-
western counties.—Particulars of the ancient beach on Plymouth
Hoe.—Roman Galley found in excavating at Newnham Park.—
Opinions of De la Beche relative to the raised beach on Plymouth
Hoe &c.—Remarks thereon.—Nature of the sea’s retreat to its
subsequent level.—Its precise height after retiring,as compared to
its present level, cannot be rssolved,—reasons for this found in the
uncertain effects of existing agencies,—influence of the pressure
of the Atlantic on our neighbouring sea, weighed.—Floods or
irruptions in modern centuries ;—one in 1099.— Probable situation
of our maritime churches when built.— Goodwyn sands. —Churches
of Perranzabuloe &c.—Possible way of reconciling discrepancy of
views relative to the period of the great encroachment of the sea.—
Effect of some modern encroachment, (that of 1099?) on Plympton
St. Mary Church —Minor floods of our own day.—FEffects of marine
encroachments on our coast.—Geological influences on the neigh-
bourhood of Plymouth by diminished volume of our rivers, and
filling up of estuaries.— Dartmoor formerly contributed considerably
more river water than now.—Conjoined influence of this diminished
bulk of rivers, and general retreating of the sea, (as recently proved
on the coast round Plymouth;)—one particular proof gathered
from former site of Plympton St. Mary Church in regard of the
Lara ;—reason why the sea would retreat more slowly from such a
position, than from the generality of the coast.—Quotations to shew
proceedings of a like kind in other neighbourhoods, Excter,
Totnes, &c.— Alluvial lands increasing ;—possible mistake on this
head.—Plymouth once peninsulated.—General conclusions named
summarily.—Pebbles of our rivers and coast,—great power exerted
XXil. CONTENTS.
in their formation and propulsion.— Peculiar kind of force exerted
by the sea.—* Tin pebbles” in accumulations of river pebbles and
gravel.—Pasage of the river Lyd at the bridge.—* Degradation of
land.”—KEstimate of recent agencies ;—ferruginous and other con-
glomerates, &c.—Peat.—China clay.—Disintegrating trapp.—Dis-
integrating and decomposing slates——Coincidence in respect of
fossils.—Magnetic iron-stone.—Meteorolite—Petrifying spring.—
“ Weathering” of rocks, - - - Page 106 to 142.
Cuapter IV.— Rivers, Lakes, and Springs.—The South of Devon
remarkable for its number of rivers and streams; their rise.—Rain,
dews, &c. affect their currents greatly.—Our hills, their importance
as attractors of clouds, &c.—Springs, their frequency in the slate dis-
tricts, and rarity in the limestone tracts.—* Hot and cold springs.” —
Lakes of South Devon.—Upland vallies.—Craumere Pool describ-
ed.— Bovey Heathfield, its height as regards the sea.—Slapton Ley
described.—Analysis of “ Victoria Spa” water. - Page 143 to 150.
CuHarteER V.—Climate and Blight.—Climate, general character
of——humid and uniform in heat ;—causes influencing these
conditions;—proofs of its general mildness and genial effects derived
from plants, birds, and insects.— Dartmoor, climate of.— Extremes
of heat and cold not considerable-—Commencement of the winter’s
cold.—Summers, character of our.—Springs, character of the.—
Autumns, character of the.—Prevailing character of each month in
the average of years.—Supposed alteration in our seasons.—Blight,
common causes of with us,—south-west winds,—electric influences,—
east winds,—south-east winds,—imsect blights generated by
electricity,—other insect blights, (caterpillars, “ fern webs,” “ oak
webs,” aphides);—partial blights——Late frosts,—susceptibility of
vallies to.—Orchards, sites suited for.—Dry May, disasters
attendant on.—Destructive insects, (red ant, cabbage butterfly,
aphis, “ black army,’ “ American bug,” “ wire worm,” &c.)—
Effects of the climate on the growth of timber, &c.—Wet summers,
consequences of.— Power of electricity in the production of blight.—
Table shewing the difference of temperature in the various months
at a situation on the borders of the Moor, and at a spot on the coast ;
illustrating also a remarkable uniformity in the mean annual heat
in the latter case.—Effects of our climate on the health,—prevailing
ailments,—low sites, their productiveness of Typhus Fever,—
probable reasons of this,—“ colds” their origin,—S crofula.—East
winds in winter, phenomena attendant on.—Refraction, cases of.—
Westerly winds, their blighting effects Disposition to sudden
changes in the wind whereby extremes of temperature are greatly
obyiated.—Storms, uses of.— Thunder storms.—South-west gales
blighting.—Floods, uses of.—Snow, uses of.—Thaw, nature of.—
Terrestrial exhalations.—Fogs, or floating vapour from the sea.—
Ice, results of its formation.—Grasses, their resistance to great cold
and heat.— Instance of the earth conducting sound.—Exemplification
of the power and prevalence of south-west winds.—Omen of an
approaching storm.—Cases of severe south-west gales.—Carrington
cited. x : - - = Page 151 to 190.
CONTENTS. XX111.
PART II.
CuaptER I.—Catalogue of the Mammalia of South Devon.—
Remarks on the list.—Catalogue of the Birds.—Remarks on the
varied migrations of those non-stationary ;—movements are executed
by many birds besides absolute migrants.—Influences of various
kinds on our ornithological Fauna.—We derive birds from very
distant countries.—Acts of volition on the part of birds erroneously
called instinctive-—Peculiarities of localities ought to be justly ap-
preciated.— Notice of many peculiarities in the phenomena presented
by our ornithology.—New kind of table of our migrating birds,
adapted for receiving notes of observers,—remarks on this classifi-
cation.—Observations on the effects of our springs on the vernal
migrators.—Catalogue of our Amphibia.—Catalogue of the Fishes.—
Remarks on the list.—Catalogue of the land and fresh water shells.—
Catalogue of the Marine shells, &¢.—Remarks on the list.—Cata-
logue of the Radiata and some other marine tribes, with remarks on
the list. - - - - - Page 191 to 273.
CuaprER Il.—On the geographical distribution of animals in
general, and particularly on the zoological geography of South Devon.
Primary and secondary laws considered.—The primary causes of
geographical situation and distribution of animals are quite un-
known.—Two sets of laws in operation on the geography of animals
primary and secondary.—Primary law of dispersion of the animal
kingdom from the equator to the poles,—this influence of heat elu-
cidated by the distribution of animals on continental mountains.—
The whole earth inhabited.—The law of arrangement of the indi-
~ viduals of species around their principal seat.—Secondary causes
or influences, or partial laws enumerated and contrasted with pri-
mary laws. The last primary law applicable to tribes as well as
species.—Statement of facts not referrible to any known law,—ex-
amples of these.—Climate considered as a secondary influence on
animal dispersion.—Geographical position and arrangement of
a country considered as a secondary law,—connected influences of
these two laws on our Fauna.—General assertions relative to our
climate,—its effects on migration of birds,—further considerations re-
relative to our climate.—Influences of human operations on animal
geography.—Food considered as an influence on habitats,—“ polity
of nature,’—relative effects of food and weather on the migration of
birds,—other effects of food.—Anomalous circumstance of habitats
in some animals.—Hostility of man considered, the advantages and
disadvantages ofhis attacks on animals.— Plans intended to be pur-
sued in the subsequent investigation of South Devon.
Zoology of Dartmoor.—Physical incapacity of the Moor to sup-
port an extensive Fauna.—Ancient Fauna of this spot when a
forest.—Considerations relative to the quadrupeds of the Moor, and
its adjacent woods.—C onsiderations regarding the Birds of Dartmoor
and its adjoining woods,—rarer birds of the Moor,—but few species
peculiar to the Moor,
XXIV. CONTENTS.
Zoology of the central cultivated districts, or South Hams of Devon.
Physical capacity of this division of Devon to support a Fauna,—
The Mammalia,—those which assume the white fur.—The Birds,—
preponderance of the Passerine tribe,—proportions cf each tribe
stated.—The ornithology of the South Hams particularly exten-
sive,—a comparison instituted between the South Hams and Oxford-
shire to prove this,—those birds in which we are deficient noticed in
the course of the remarks,—also ‘the peculiar and remarkable
features in our ornithological list.—Diversified nature of the geogra-
phical range of species,—t he phenomena not referrible to secondary
laws ;—the occurrence of our numerous rarities depends on these
diversifications.—Our deficiencies classified.—Statements relative
to our irregular visitors, and some birds having peculiar stations and
movements.—Roaming habits and extensive geographical ranges
consigned to the generality of rapacious birds,—this rule extends
to the rapacious species of passerine birds.—Comparative distribu-
tions of the tribes of birds and other animals.—Wading birds,—
their various situations and movements,—those species belonging
to the South Hams separated.--Slapton Ley.--difficulty of separating
the inland and fluviatile Gralle from the marine Gralle.—Web-
footed birds of the South Hams.—Conclusions relative to the
extent and importance of our ornithology,—the reasons of this
unusual extent defined.—Land and fluviatile shells correspond in
some degree with the physical characters of our county,—but the
exceptions to this rule important.—The limits of some species so
accurately defined as to excite a suspicion of accordance with soil
or vegetable products.—Comparisons between the limits of animals,
vegetables, and minerals of a district useful,—the kingdoms of
Nature not only associated but connected.
Littoral and marine zoology of South Devon.—This portion of our
Fauna more isolatedthan the others.—These divisions useful though
arbitrary — Mammals of the coast,—the bats.—Variations of abode
of animals according to situations and circumstances.—Instinct
not so limited a mental power as usually thought.—Natural resi-
dence of some kinds of birds on the coast; their adoption of
buildings, &c. as substitutes for rocks,—partiality of the hirundines
for the neighbourhood of man,—the philosophy of zoology depen-
dent on such detail in the history of species.—The Otter.—Our
Cetaceous Mammalia.—Birds of the coast.—The Kingfisher instan-
ced to prove dispersion in individuals of a species in the time of
scarcity of food.—Visitants of the coast.—Gralle of the coast
separated from those species referred to other localities,—the tribe
analysed,—their propensity to roam and affect various localities,
as well as their general dispersion an obstacle to such separation.—
Rarer marine gralle—What reason can be assigned for our
possessing so many of the rarer gralle?—The Web-footed Birds,—
the occurrence of rarities in this tribe more readily explained than
those of the gralle ;—rarer Palmipedes.—The Fishes.—Irregular
appearances of the Pilchard.—Molluscs ; possible influence of
CONTENTS. XXV,
situation in determining their geography;number found in Devon,—
want of attention in other neighbourhoods even greater than here.—
Radiata,—number found in Devon.—Some species represented by
similar forms in distant localities in one country.—Our physical
situation and conditions determine the extent of our Fauna.—
Suggestions for the better framing of provincial lists of animals.
Page 274 to 328.
PART III.
Remarks on numerous subjects of Natural History, but more
particularly on Birds.—Description of a new kind of Mouse.—The
Caryophyllea of South Devon, separated from Ellis’s Caryophyllea
cyathus.—Observations on the nature of Sponges.—Notice of a
peculiar faculty in Man and certain Animals, enabling us and them
to take any required course as regards the cardinal points.—
Accidental economy in nature, distinguished from intentional
economy ;—those animals which exercise this directing faculty.—
The Cirl Bunting, its habits—The Laws of dependance in Nature;
uses of the Molluscs in the economy of nature; other instances.—
The Hirundines as noticed in South Devon,—Swallows, migrations
of ;—Martins, migrations of ;—Sand Martins ; torpidity —Natural
abodes of the Hirundines, — Cornish and Devon Ornithology, its
peculiarities.—Concord and discord as observed in the tribe of
birds,— aggressions, attachments, associations, congregating —
Songs of birds: general expressions : sources of these,—phenome-
na of song dependent on the peculiarities of our climate ;—
autumnal and brumal songsters in South Devon illustrate by the
times they select for singing how greatly weather operates on their
spirits in occasioning the uiterance of their notes;—this rule
however notinvariable ;—winter notes of other birds not songsters ;—
premature nestling,—on what dependani;—very late nestling.—
Description of a new kind of Vole,—its marks of distinction from
others,—the Meadow-mouse characterized.—The Motacille in
South Deyon.—Grey Wagtail,—its movements,—its food,—occasi-
onally stays the summer ;—Yellow Wagiail,—its movements, &c.—
Pied Wagtail,—its movements, &c.—Remarks on the Long-eared
Bat, and on Bats generally.—The Crossbill, its visits to us, and
habits—The Woodlark, its habits, notes, &c.—Honey made from
heath and thyme.— The Hedgehog, its habits, hybernation, &c.—
the means of escape from danger and observation resorted to by
animals.—The Squirrel, its habits, habits of a tame individual,—
skeleton of.—The Dormouse, its resorts, habits, hybernation, &c.—
Butterflies, temporary torpor of some kinds.—Newt, hybernation
of, &c.—House-flies, torpor and reanimations of,—Bats, revivis-
cence of in winter.—LEarthworms, their torpor.—Slugs, their
torpor.—Blackcap, its migration, food, &c.—Oysters killed by
frost.—The Crow, its habits.—Destruction of animals, remarks
on ;—the Sea Urchin, the SlowWorm &c.—Frogs and Toads, notes
on.—Tortoise, facts relating to its hybernation.—Moles, their
d
XXV1. CONTENTS.
torpor.—Kingfisher, its habits.—Vegetables assume a hybernating
state.—Insects, their winter state and consumption,—Banded
Helix, its winter retreat.—Night songsters.— Field Mouse, its winter
sleep.—New species of Helix.—Cuckow.—Honey-dew.—Terns,
their visits, &c.—Blue Titmouse, its habits, &c.—Nuthatch, its
notes.—Return of spring.— Hedgehog, its winter retreats.—Migra-
tion as observed with us.—Snake, food of. - Page 329 to 428.
Notes on, and references to the plates of the fossils of the strata
Page 429 to 437.
Notes on, and references to the plates of the fossil benes
Page 438 to 439.
Addenda on ditto - - - Page 439 to end.
Index.
MAPS, ENGRAVINGS, AND LITHOGRAPHS.
Engraving of slate, bent and disturbed into numerous angulari-
ties ; facing p. 27.
Engraving of slate in a contorted condition ; at p. 38.
Engraving shewing the relative elevations of our slate and lime- .
stone tracts ; at p. dl.
Engraving shewing the peculiar consolidation of the strata of the
ancient beach of Plymouth Hoe ; at p. 115.
Map of Plymouth and its adjacent inlets, &c. as they existed in
1643, shewing that since that period they have greatly diminished
in size; facing p. 124.
Map of Plymouth and adjacent inlets, &c. as they appeared in the
time of Henry VIII, shewing their greater bulk than at the date of
1643 ; facing the back of the last map.
Engraving of the situation and relations of Slapton Ley; at p. 148.
Map of the Zoology of Dartmoor ; facing p. 297.
Map of the Zoology of the South Hams, facing p. 307.
Map of the Zoology of the South Devon coast facing p. 324.
Engravings of two fossils, at p. 437.
The following are arranged consevutively at the end of the work.
TasLe 1.—Series of four slate fossils, in lithography,
2,—Series of eight slate fossils, engraved.
3.—Series of five slate and sandstone fossils, engraved.
4,—Series of five slate fossils, engraved.
53.—Series of three fossils from the slate and red conglo-
merate, in lithography,
6.—Series of five slate fossils, engraved.
7.—Series of eight slate fossils, engraved.
8.—An KEchinite, in lithography.
9.—An Echinite, in lithography.
10.—Series of five sandstone fossils, engraved.
11.—Series of three fossil teeth, engraved.
12.—Series of five fossil teeth, engraved.
13.—Series of six fossil teeth, engraved.
14.—Series of nine fossil teeth, engraved.
15.—Series of seven fossil teeth, &e, engraved.
16.—Engravings of two fossil jaws.
17, Engrayings of two new kinds of mice.
18.—Engravings of a new kind of Shell, and of two other
animals.
CORRIGENDA.
The Reader will be pleased to correct with his pen as under. —
At p. 6, 10th line, for was, write were.
At p. 21, 5th line, for of, write off.
At p. 32, 15th line, for management, write arrangement.
At p. 46, 11th line, for zrea, write area.
At p. 48, 10th line, for Cann slate quarry, write Mary Tavy.
At p. 54, 23rd line, for vein, write deposit.
At p. 66, 3lst line, place a semicolon after slate.
At p. 75, 19th line, for If, write It.
At p. 77, 15th line, for affinity, write infinity.
At p. 79, 24th line, for respectfully, write respectively.
At p. 94, 8th line, for mustelo, write mustela.
At p. 126, 30th line, for Le Luc, write De Luc.
At p. 150, 7th line, expunge the word to.
At p. 192, 11th line, for Runner, write Ranner.
In the paragraphs preceding the lists of Mammals, Birds, and
Marine Molluscs, add after the word found, the parenthesis thus,
(as regards Britain.)
At p. 206 and 207, for Cliff Chaff, write Chiff Chaff.
At p. 273, 24th line, after the word same, write size.
At p. 291, 14th line, for loose, write lime.
At p. 296, last line, for a peat bed, write silt of a valley.
At p. 329, the dash in the quotation should be shorter, so as to make
the two lines of nearly equal length.
At p. 358, line 30th, for contracting write contradicting.
At p. 371, expunge lines 22nd, 23rd, 24th, and 25th, as far as
the semi-colon.
At p. 373, expunge from the word “ toes” in the 12th line, to the
semicolon in the next line:
iad
I regret to express my belief, that, owing to want of sufficient leisure
on the part of the Author, a number of errors in punctuation may meet
the eye of the critic. I likewise feel obliged to apologise, however
reluctantly, for two or three irregularities in the execution of the
lettering of the Maps belonging to the chapter on Geography of
Animals ; these faults are due to the ill humour with. which the
Lithographer was at the time afflicted, and over which I could have no
controul.
INTRODUCTION.
|
From the fount of science are perpetually poured
forth pleasures, and advantages of the purest kind. The
depraved appetite of man, glutted through a series of ages
with the intoxicating draughts of depravity, fashion and
adulation is at length beginning to long for that stream
of knowledge which Nature in her depth of wisdom and
condescension, has directed to flow by us in all our
situations and abodes,—even in our most flagrant depart-
ures from that path wherein it has pleased her we should
walk. Under the influence of a somewhat improved
mode of education, the ameliorated condition of the public
mind makes it superfluous for me here to set forth, or
eulogize the immense importance of receiving at the
hands of Nature those species of refreshments which our
mental constitutions have been adapted to digest. But,
although it may in some degree be unnecessary to insist
on this in a general point of view, Naturalists may now
A
seize the occasion to follow up the advantage gained, by
exhibiting the intrinsic value, merits and characters of
the several subjects embraced in this delightful study.
Amongst other things which are required in the
present day to be set forth, there is one, not merely of
importance, but absolutely essential to the vital interests
of science—one moreover which a great number of men,
passing under ¢he name of naturalists, yet need to be
brought to the contemplation of; this is, that variation
in the face of Nature, and those forms of difference in
natural objects, and in their actions and economies, in
which localities and different situations are ever rife.
Certain authors, forgetful of these truths, have too long
held out to the multitude whom they guidedand deceived,
a vast variety of axioms applicable only to their own cir-
cumscribed knowledge. But, since nothing can be an
axiom or a law, which does not apply to every subject of
that class which it was intended to embrace; every one
of these rules, so proved to be partial, must be condemned
as utopian and worthless.
It is a most important and pleasing department of
the human intellect, to employ itself in seeking out the
laws and designs of nature relative to her productions, and
to solace itself moreover in framing generalizations of a
more or less artificial kind, relating to such portions of
Creation as may from time to time be examined by it.
Indeed this power of concentration and generalization is
applied extensively in all kinds of human learning ; the
mind greatly delights in it, and it is so fara natural mental
process, that our most common thoughts and speculations
are oftentimes found to have been insensibly directed to
lil.
thisend. But in the study of Nature is it more especially
applied, and it brings with it satisfaction of the purest
and most refined description. Most happily then are we
thus endowed with this nobie power, and most reasonable
is it that we should make our enquiries centre in this
object of grand importance.
In our search however after these great truths, we
speedily discover that to arrive at them we must apply
ourselves to the whole range of our knowledge ;—we learn
that to secure these desiderata firmly in our grasp, we
- Inust first engage in inquiries both intricate and abstruse,
and devote as large a portion of attention to the lower
portions of Creation as to its higher members ;—we find
at intervals, to our astonishment, that subjects which had
been but little noticed by us, or been quite neglected,
suddenly contribute most influential matter to our deliber-
ations whilst occupied in the absorbing scrutiny. Amongst
this latter class of collateral aids, rank those portions of
knowledge gathered from localities before imagined to
yield nothing different from what had been already re-
cognised and learnt. One circumstance alone cheers the
path, and diminishes the labour of the investigators ; in
our examination of the structure and functions of living
beings, we necessarily find the operations of several natural
laws extended to each of them ; by attention and careful
consideration we ascertain the phenomena induced by
each separate law, and note the connexions in the charact-
ers of these results; carrying these data and conclusions
with us, we finally learn to anticipate and expect laws in
any new subjects of examination from an observation of
their structures and functions ; the functions of living
‘Aun
iv.
beings being themselves in great measure united, the
laws under which they act must be also in greater or less
unison—mutually dependant and reciprocally illustrative
of each other, wherever found. In this way is it shewn
how the laws of life in one series of beings, illustrate and
imply those of others, and accordingly how essential is
the study of every department of organic life to the perfect
knowledge of the physiology of one.
With these explanations I hope it will in the first
instance be seen that the knowledge of principles and laws
is the legitimate aim of the philosophy of our Science ;
secondly, that to acquire these, we must premise a thorough
acquaintance with Nature, anatomically and physiologi-
cally ; thirdly, that amongst other preparatory information,
an extended and extending knowledge of the variations
discoverable in localities is absolutely essential. Let us
proceed to remind the reader of the truth of this last obser-
vation, by exemplifying the way in which an acquaintance
with the Natural History of our locality conduces to the
development of laws.
From certain differences in the geography and
physical condition of localities, the meteorological in-
fluences on living beings as to structure, function, and
economy, are variable in amount and character in different
situations ; a county exposed as ours is to the effects of
gales, must needs exhibit differences in its Fauna from
that ofa spot not so affected ; a glance at the list of our
pelagic birds, will place this truth before the student.
A locality enjoying a tolerable equality in the temperature
through the. year, will needs shew differences with regard
both to its plants and animals, from sites where the ex-
ae ale
tremes of temperature are greater ; an instance of this will
appear in the tendency of some migrants to remain with
us through the winter in years favourable to such an act ;
equality of temperature also influences the geography of
some plants, and may be suspected as the cause of the
occurrence of some species in Devon, or in the south-
western counties of England. Geography of localities
is now better appreciated than formerly in affecting the
precise habitats of species in both kingdoms of Nature ;
they are found to enjoy ranges and situations very differ-
ent, according to the circumstances of their positions, as
will appear in cases which I shall adduce in the body of
the work. The conditions ofthe climate, and geography
of localities and districts, are now understood to influence
the periods and characters of the migrations executed by
their animals ; many peculiarities of this kind, discovered
to occur with our animals, I shall set before the reader
likewise in the body of the following account of our
Natural History. Constant experience enables naturalists,
in proportion to the examination of districts, to add to
the list of species, and, not unfrequently it happens, from
the discovered animals or plants being far different from the
species already known, alterations are occasioned in the
genera, and ultimately in orders and other divisions, so as
to affect classification generally. It will appear in the
sequel that I have been able, through attention to the sub-
ject, toadd to the general catalogue, from the natural
productions of this district. The varying characters of
climate, food, &c. in localities, conjointly produce structu-
ral differences in species exhibiting either the general
amount of variation allotted to them, or those forms of
Vi.
alteration termed “accidental varieties,” the precise causes
of which however are as yet unknown. These variations
serve at times to illustrate the nature of those laws which
affect organization ; again, the same, and all other local
circumstances are apt to produce variations of habit, which
tends forcibly to shew that considerable latitude has been
given to animals in the exercise of what are termed their
instinctive actions. I shall endeavour to shew this in the
portions of the work which treat respectively of these
subjects. The alterations effected in the face of a given
locality by the ameliorating powers of agriculture, horti-
culture, planting, &c. together with the hostile operations
of man on the original state of Nature, conspire to produce
differences in the geography, numbers, habits and struc-
ture of plants and animals ; and thus these interferences
serve to derange the general polity of nature, or the mutual
dependance of the three natural kingdoms, and, by shewing
us the detrimental consequences to organic nature, enable
us in some degree to comprehend the laws, which kept
the members of the series in their just and natural
connexions.
These then are a few instances taken quite at random,
to prove that a knowledge of the phenomena displayed by
the Natural History of localities, is essential to a due
acquaintance with the laws which control the existences,
the ceconomies, the instincts, the structures, the geographi-
cal positions, the natural classifications, and the mutual
relations, and connexions of plants, and animals.
In the last place I observe, that the geologies of
localities generally present differences worthy of note,
and render it highly probable that though some few
ne % 20 of ena’
V1.
general rules may obtain as regards the whole earth, each
district may itself also furnish rules not applicable beyond
it ; that in short there are localities to the phenomena of
the deposition and characters of strata, as I shall illustrate
further under the proper head.
It is necessary to remark here relatively to the
MAPS which illustrate the zoology of the district, that
they are assumed to have merely a limited utility. Unlike
the tribes of the vegetable kingdom, nearly the whole of
animals enjoy free locomotive powers, and a large
proportion moreover do not limit themselves to one
description of abode, but roam at will over a variety of
situations. Again it must be confessed that the number
of naturalists is at present so few, that in the best cases
we can boast only of partial zoological knowledge of
localities; and again with respect to the notice of rare
animals, or visitors, the situations in which they have
been observed may have been only casual and momentary.
Accordingly, this novel kind of map will necessarily be
of less use than those employed in the illustration of
botanical geography. But, though the present maps will
be of contracted service in gaining information on the
laws and rules of anima! distribution, they will serve to
display at one view the main features in the catalogue of
which we boast, and the principal residences of many
species. With respect indeed to many kinds, somewhat
of risk has been incurred in the situations assigned to
them from the rarity of their occurrence, or the slight
notice bestowed upon their range; but as above intimated,
aS hs
their insertion will provide a sort of mechanical assistance
to enquirers. Where some fact in the geography of even
a common animal, struck me as important, I have not
hesitated to introduce the name in the situation considered
as uncommon or interesting; and where an animal
habitually occupies, or has been observed at the times of
its detection to resort to opposite kinds of habitats, I
have (if the species be rare, remarkable, or interesting —
in its economy,) noticed it twice or oftener in the maps.
With some species this occupation of opposite kinds of
residence is determined by change of season, a fact
particularly noticed among the Waders, some of which,
as I shall shew, remove at stated periods to temporary
new abodes, and are again found after awhile, either in
an intermediate situation, or in the quarter whence they
had first set out. Inimportant cases of this description,
I have judged it useful to give the double, or triple
insertion of the species.
NATURAL HISTORY OF
SOUTH DEVON.
PPD III I
eo Ie i Ole eee
art L.—Chap. Ff.
I eae ers kT see eke _c__CC CO OTC
RBEMARES OW CAS GENSRAL
ASPSCE OF LVS OISTRECT,
No portion of the world has enjoyed greater
celebrity for a happy union of all that delights the
eye, than England, and no part of our Island has
received more invidious distinction on account of
this peculiar junction of every sort of scenery, than
Devonshire. It is here purposed to take a hasty
glance at these scenic characters of its southern
districts, prior to our contemplation of its natural
products and phenomena. Comprchending Dart-
moor towards the centre of the county, and the
coasts which occupy the southern limits, our pro-
posed examination, extends to three opposite kinds
of scenery ; the first, mountainous, bold, romantic,
desolate and bald ; the second, wooded, greatly
B
3G
2 DARTMOOR SCENERY.
intersected by rivers, hilly, rich in pasturage, and
highly fruitful ; the third, bold, but sometimes, soft
and gentle, and at others, grand and terrible ;
generally precipitous and barren. In consequence
of considerable irregularity in the shape of the
county, and a partial participation by each of these
divisions in the qualities of the others, their limits
are far from being accurately defined, and in this
way the threefold aspect of the Shire may be en-
joyed by an observer, within a range by no means
considerable. By such a combination of scenic
beauties,—the mountainous, the sober, the tranquil,
the bold, and the maritime,—does Devon outvie
Scotland, and even the more interesting and de-
lightful of the midland English counties ; and
whether therefore the lover of Nature gives prefer-
ence to the one sort or the other, or whether he
delight in a conjunction of scenic qualities, he here
finds the feast on which his mind may continually
be regaled.
The feeling of enjoyment derived from scenery
is of course relative—it has relation to previous
experience, and to prior considerations—it depends
on comparison, on associations, on the production
of ideas congenial to the individual mind. Dart-
moor indeed, the first portion of our district, to be
here glanced on “ with a bird’s eye,”—has in years
long since numbered, had its inhabitants who felt
local attachment, loved the soil that maintained
them, looked with satisfaction on its mighty hills,
its forests, and its fastnessess, and gloried in its
remoteness from softer scenes ; but then these
originals of the soil of Dartmoor were prompted in
such sentiments, either by religious superstitions,
the materials of which were presented to them in
the majestic and fantastic “ tors ;” by the friendly
protection from bitter enemies afforded by these
wilds ; or lastly, in a third case of which history
DARTMOOR SCENERY. 3
gives record, by the “aure sacra fames,” the victims
of which desire left no spot uninvestigated from
the time of their acquaintance with the localities
and strata calculated to external view to be metal-
liferous, and might well indeed look cheerfully on
the superficial unproductiveness of the Moor and
regard complacently the frowning and bleak hills,
out of the bowels of which the precious object of
their care proceeded. How differently does eivilized
man view this region !| How differently do the
thoughts of the Naturalist turn, as he paces con-
siderately these barren heights! Contrast is the
grand prevailing sentiment as he bends his steps
northward, from the beautiful South Iams, and
views the immense eranite hills which are his des-
tination, and where austerity, sterility, and death-
like stillness, hold their reign! It is the especial
attribute of intellect to find
e tongues in trees, books in the running brooks, -
Sermons in stones, and good in every thing.”
moreover, the well-ordered mind continually reflects
that in external “ Nature there is nothing melan-
choly,”—that every thing may conduce to a
satisfactory increase of knowledge, and render the
head and heart conjointly benefitted, otherwise
indeed, the lines of Wordsworth might be cited as
appropriately descriptive of the tract of country to
which we are now supposing ourselves on a visit,
“* T looked upon the scene both far and near,
More doleful place did never eye survey,
It seemed as if the spring time came not here,
Or nature here was willing to decay.”
Change of scenery has one extraordinary and
most usefully exciting effect upon our minds, since
fresh associations and fresh ideas are at once
B 2
4 DARTMOOR SCENERY.
generated on each new variation of position, and
thus the mind is carried by successive steps of
reason, on the road of human learning, by this
occupation of external sense. The great improve-
ment experienced by invalids, through “ change of
air” is not so much due to difference of atmospheric
qualities, (extreme cases excepted) as to the revul-
sions of feelings and sentiments arising in their
minds, and thence salutary alterations on their
bodily systems, by the ceaseless intercourse and
mutual influence of the physical and moral portions
of the constitution.
As the visitor advances he finds a change >
in the strata or rocks, over which he is passing ;
the soil becomes shallow, but dark and rich; the
herbage scanty, but fine-bladed and sweet; the wild
plants are wholly different,—the ling and furze are
spread in all directions, beneath them are thick
tufts of thyme, visited by the wandering bee; in
the dry open spots is the splendid foxglove ;
creeping between the stones, in some favored
elevated spot, is seen the delicate ivy-leaved
campanula ; the tormentil is spread profusely ; the
marsh louse-wort occurs in numerous damp spots ;
on the margin of the stream grows the water violet ;
in the stream itself the lesser water plantain ; on
the wastes generally is spread an abundance of rushes
and other similar moorish plants; on the tors
above, Nature has bestowed a many-coloured mantle
of lichens and other parasites, which depend for
subsistence on the vapours and heavy rains which
ever and anon are poured out upon them. ‘The
titlark, the stonechat, the raven, the curlew, dis-
cover themselves at intervals of the journey, and
prove that even Dartmoor is not deserted by the
feathered tribes. Neither have we told the tithe
of its natural possessions ; on the contrary, the
scrutinizing search of naturalists has displayed
~
DARTMOOR SCENERY. a)
treasures from these regions, both numerous and
precious, and without question, more may still be
derived from them. Yet still, contrast is the
powerful sentiment that fills the mind, and who
could pass from the well clothed land on the
southern side to this naked region, and not exercise
the faculty of comparison ? —not a tree tends to
diversify the scene, no hedges restrain the keen
blast, no rich expanse of pasturage to ease the
sight, no carols to enchant the ear ; but uncouth
nudity, uncompromising exposure, stern barrenness
of soil, and a silence relieved merely by the breeze,
the roar of some distant river, or the cry of some
solitary bird. One spot indeed during summer
betrays foliage ; it is where the “ lonely wood of
Wistman” spreads its twisted trunks between the
rude blocks of granite, and derives its nourishment
from unseen sources ; but then, this oasis of the
unreclaimed desert merely serves to indicate the
comparative fertility of gone-by times, the verdure
of an ancient forest which once spread its befriend-
ing branches over the devoted land, and permitted
man to lay the soil under useful contribution.
“That the moor was once cultivated is evident
from the traces of furrows or ridges, and stone en-
closures still remaining upon, and around it, and
from the lower layer of thatch in the roofs of its old
buildings, being rye straw, which probably was the
grain then raised.”* This is to the point, and
the man of leisure, science and philanthropy, could
render no greater service to his country than by
proposing some plan by which this, and such-like
wastes could again be rendered available to
agriculture.
He who traverses the moor for the sake of
mental recreation and advantage, can hardly fail to
* Burt in Notes to Carrington’s Dartmoor. p. 114.
Pie.
6 DARTMOOR SCENERY.
feel some touch of the sublime and grand; the hills
with their awe-begetting tors, the sterile plains
bestrewed with granite blocks, the mountain vallies,
the ravines, the mountain torrents, the cascades, the
morasses, the never-failing springs, all eminently
incline the heart toward the great and good. Let
the visitor ascend one of the hills amongst which
his course his bent, and he will then discover that
the majesty and sublimity of the scenery he had
travelled to witness, was only to be fully attained
by that labour ; should he have climbed to one of
the tors in the central part of the moor, he will
behold around him a multiplicity of elevations
assuming at their summits every curious and fan-
tastic form ; the eye is relieved by nothing but the
beautiful lichens which clothe the rocks amidst
which he is then situated, but the mind may be led
to grand conceptions of the earth he inhabits, and
to a due appreciation of himself as a moral being,
peculiar in respect of his relation to the Divine
Architect of all earthly scenery and productions ;
should he have gone to the summit of one of the
hills on the border of the moor, his eye will be
refreshed towards the south by scenes incomparable
for loveliness,—woods, rivers, meadows, corn-fields,
and even the sea are perchance presented to his
view at one and the same time ; at the western
limit he may gain a sight of the Tamar in its tor-
tuous course, with its green banks of quiet pasture,
its bordermg woods and its over-topping hills ; at
Dewerstone, at the south-west of the granite district,
he looks down immediately on a moorland river in
its tumultuous and hurried course over and amidst
the intercepting rocks, an ameliorated vegetation, a
dense wood, aromantic bridge and adjacent dwelling,
distant hamlets and their surrounding agricultural
operations; lastly, an unique and unparalleled scene
may be witnessed at the southernmost hill of the
SCENERY OF THE SOUTH HAMS. 7
tract we have been thus glancing at,—from this
elevation termed the Western Beacon, or rather
“from Three Barrow Tor near it, there is a most
surprising view from Portland in Dorsetshire, to
the Lizard in Cornwall, and from the skirts of
Dartmoor, to Blackdown Hills in Somersetshire ;
in front, nearer the eye, the South Hams of Devon,
from the Teign, to the Tamar, the estuary of the
Yealm, Plymouth Sound, Mount EKdgecumbe, and
the British Channel.” Having attempted this ge-
neral description of the scenery of Dartmoor which
to those unacquainted with it, may convey someidea
of the reality, we shall for the present quit this
portion of our district, bidding it farewell in the
language of immortal Carrington—
sé Ye forms sublime,
Adieu, that people the great Moor ;—the tor,
The hallowed cairn, the everlasting rocks,
Moulded by time into a million shapes
Of beauty and of grandeur ;—and adieu
Ye voices that upon the wanderer’s ear
Ever refreshing come ;—the flow of rill,
And music of the cataract, and leap
Of mountain-stream, and sigh of mountain breeze,
And, scared by the intruder man, the rush
Of the wild bird.”
In truth, here in the very wilds of Dartmoor, the
Philosopher adds to his speculations new impulses
and new ideas ;—here the mind of the Poet has been
invigorated and incited to new strains ;—here the
mind of the Religionzst been elevated to fresh awe
and a fresh spirit of devotion.
Having now examined the wild scenery of Dart-
moor, it is our next design to make a transit into
a district different in every way—the South Hams
of Devon, styled from their beauty, and by common
> ee
~T até
Varta”
‘ ¥ J. .
CO
SCENERY OF THE SOUTH HAMS.
consent, the Garden of England, wherein the grand
requisites of soft, and delicate scenery are nicely
blended. Fora short distance of a mile, or two
after quitting Dartmoor, the coarseness and sterility
of that tract are not entirely lost, there is yet a
wildness about us, still a violence and tumult in the
rivers, which indicate adjacency to an elevated
and barren region.
“
The Moor resigns
”
Not suddenly its sternness ;
Soon however, the scene subsides, the hills seem
nicely smoothened as if by art, they are devoid of
crags, steep sides and foaming rivers in the inter-
spaces, agriculture now predominates, and the
rivers move on in comparative serenity of course,
dispensing incalculable benefits on all the lower
lands. ‘The slate hills themselves are originators
of springs, which deal out rivulets on their sides,
and these passing by the combes toward the larger
streams, form a system of connexion by water,
between the hill tops and the vallies. These schist
hills are disposed of most irregularly, and though
vallies of tolerable length and good breadth do in
some places occur, such instances are not numerous,
and zn general therefore the views are not very
extensive ; in the vicinity of the coast however and
elsewhere in the neighbourhood of lime-rock, the
tops of the slate hills afford grand and interesting
prospects. On the whole, the views occurring in
the South Hams, in which the sea forms no part,
may be accounted unique for the richness of the
pastoral effect which the mind receives. The South
Hams, also besides the qualifications of river, and
pastoral scenery above named, are especially co-
pious in wood, and though the hill tops from being
usually too devoid of soil to furnish pasture, are
planted much with fir and other timber ; the river
Su dee tae
SCENERY OF THE SOUTH HAMS. g
sides are more especially clothed with woods ;—
these of course constitute a peculiar embellishment
in the Devon scenery.
“ Gay spreads the prospect. From the stream-fed banks
Loose floats the willow-foliage ; alders bend
Their leafy locks, and pliant poplars wave.
* From the brown steep, the graceful ash o’erhangs
In quivering, light luxuriance. Wide the lime
Amassy shadeexpands. With silvery trunks
Thin airy birch, and swelling maples rise.
Coy aspers shiver all their twinkling leaves
To every frolic wind. Fantastic oaks
Immense, their knotty boughs entwisting, throw
Solidity of deep, incumbent gloom.”
Howarp’s BIckiEicH VALE. p. 8
Suchespecialendowmentsin this highly favoured
district, could hardly be devoid of those very neces-
sary concomitants of all scenery, an attractive
Botany and Ornithology,—and such indeed are we
in the actual possession of ;—in these two respects
the neighbourhoods of Kingsbridge and Yealmpton
are peculiarly rich, though, the county altogether
enjoys celebrity for all that is beautiful and inter-
esting in Nature, and our native Poet celebrates
this fact in his opening line
** Lovely Devonia ! land of flowers and songs !”
But the pastoral and soft scenery of SouthDevon,
involves one more important qualification, namely
cultivation, so that nature may receive embellish-
ment from art. Exclusively natural scenery is one
thing, nature and art interwoven, constitute another,
the one we found in the granitic tract of Dartmoor,
here, in the South Hams we have the other. Here,
the beauties of Nature are thrown into relief, aud
receive aid in their pleasing effects upon the mind,
C
10 SCENERY OF THE SOUTH HAMS.
by the operations of agriculture and horticulture ;
not indeed that these arts are pursued cleverly, or
with much reference to science amongst us, but
that the natural powers of the soil and climate are
so great, that lwuxuriance seems the almost inevit-
able result of these proceedings however conducted.
Certain it is, that our hills derive additional beauty
by being crowned with waving corn crops ; our
vallies derive additional sweetness, by the vivid
green of their pastures nourished by artificial water
courses ; our fields have a relief afforded them by
their tall, green, bushy hedges ; beyond all, our
noble rivers acquire a ten-fold interest by being
diversified in their passage through the county, by
orchards, plantations, copses, parks, gardens and
various other minor proceedings of man, whose his-
tory from the first ages attests a natural inclination
to adopt residences by the sides of rivers, and pursue
his natural peaceable occupations on the soil, in
the neighbourhood of waters. ‘The Dart, the Exe,
the Tamar and the Yealm are severally famous
for the splendour and beauty of their sceneries. The
Dart is principally a mountain river, but it gradually
expands in bulk, passes through the scenery just
spoken of, and ultimately becomes navigable. The
Exe is unsurpassed for the quietude and softness
of its banks after leaving its parent hills. ‘The
Tamar is unequalled for the variety of scenery it
embraces, and in particular for the height of its
sides towards its weir. The Yealm, which Car-
rington sings as the “ pride of our austral vales” is
the “ cedo nulh” in respect of ae choiceness of the
scenes which it visits, in the course of its meander-
ings through the cultivated seirbil
In 1810, it was computed that the whole county
included 1, 5,200,000 acres of cultivated land, and
400,009 acres "of waste land, waters, &c.* this
* Vancouver's Survey of Devon.
SCENERY OF THE COAS7. lA
latter proportion has in the interval become greatly
reduced.
The scenery of the South Devon coasts, comes
next to be spoken of, and that briefly. Taken
generally, it is bold and much exposed, because the
land slopes very suddenly and abruptly to the sea.
In some spots however long runs of beach, or sand
form the approach. ‘The land itself, is most com-
monly devoid of the characteristic pasturage of the
county, being thin and poor; the perpetual beat of
the sea wind likewise prevents the growth of tim-
ber, so that the immediate coast wears a barren
and dry aspect, and no foliage, or pasture of any
richness appears, till we pass the barrier of one
range of hills, which offers as it were a befriending
shelter against these blasts, and even there,
symptoms of enervation are betrayed in vegetation
generally, making it manifest how necessary
distance from maritime localities is, to the full
development of most trees and plants. The coasts
therefore, must not be sought, for any satisfaction
they will render in respect of vegetation : on the
contrary, the admirer of scenery will here feast
on the wild and the majestic, more especially
during seasons of great disturbance of the ocean,
on which occasions the mind is more particularly
engaged in reflecting on the incalculable power of
the elements, and on the imbecility of every thing
connected with this earth when submitted to their
influence.* But still, there are times and spots in
which different ideas are generated : our estuaries,
* Unless we question ourselves narrowly as tu the springs of
our thoughts on various opportunities, we are apt to entirely
overlook the chief and prevailing sentiment from which those
thoughts emanate. Few perhaps have discovered that sea views
induce on them a feeling of depression and the sentiment of
melancholic ideality.
C 2
Bal.
12 SCENERY OF THE COAST.
more especially in summer are quiet, and interesting
scenes; grand woods, green fields, and even the
bleak moor itself may here be viewed connectedly
with the vast ocean, and the sight of some islet off
the shore may lead some to indulge in romantic
visions too pleasurable to last long. ‘The sober
thinking admirer of scenery, however may look
down on the little harbour of Dartmouth, or sail up
the entrance of the Exe, and find realities of beauty
too remarkable, to be placed collaterally with fairy
regions, but rather fit to be stored up, together with
the impressions, and associations then awakened,
and made to assume a place in the useful portion
ofhis mind. The intellect of man is perpetually
engaged on good or evil; the admiration of scenery
need not be vacant, or empty, but far from it, what-
ever contemplation leads us to aregard of external
nature, or of the springs of action which lie hidden
in the deep recesses, of the intricate mechanisms of
our hearts, must of necessity be useful, since, as re-
sponsible agents, these mental pursuits are especially
suited to our case, and are found to be in strict
accordance with what is good.
ke
IGNEOUS ROCKS. 13
Chapter LL.
ANCLENE SGEBOLOGT.
It is to be understood that the basis, or internal
structure of that portion of the earth about to be
described in a geological point of view, consists of
that “ primitive” rock called Granite with a modi-
fication thereof in two situations called Gneiss, and
with Porphyritic characters in cther spots, the
whole passing ordinarily in the county under the
term Moorstone, from its principal locality. Several
geological reasons which | shall not be called upon
to state here, induce the idea of this rock being al-
most universally the nucleus of our globe, though
we derive our chief acquaintance with it, from those
elevations termed “ primitive mountains,” in which
class rank the heights of Dartmoor, situated near
the centre of our county, and constituting the in-
cluded northern limit of the district, concerning
which this work treats. But, not staying to adduce
the variety of reasons for thinking that it exists
generally beneath us in this county, I may, for the
sake of perspicuity observe, that Dartmoor is not
the only spot exhibiting granitic rock, or its modi-
fications, but that on the contrary, it betrays itself
to us in the Channel, as the Eddystone and at the
Bolt Head,* in an opposite direction re-appears in
the hills near the northern coast, while, to the west-
ward of the moor, granite has been found under the
schist rock on the eastern bank of the Tamar, and
in Cornwall formally exhibits itselfin the character
of hills, traversing the county toits south. Besides
+ The Channel Isles likewise, are in great measure-granitic,
ape ube 4
ei
14 BOVEY HH#ATHFIELD BASIN.
which, Porphyry, and some other rocks probably
equally entitled to be viewed as modifications of
granite, have been detected in their appearances at
the surface, at several points southward of the great
granitic tract.
Around Dartmoor then, or rather between it and
the other points of its appearance, repose various
strata, or deposits occupying a lap, or hollow, de-
signed as it were for their reception, and from even
this one circumstance ofits several re-appearances,
it seems easy to gather the idea of granite consti-
tuting the inferior member of our rocks, whereon
the other kinds are received.
Viewing the county therefore as a whole, its
eranitic district is its most elevated portion, and as
geologists have already remarked, may be regarded
in some respects as a “table land,” different
however from those properly so named, in being
composed of a vast assemblage of hills, or
“undulations gradually overtopping each other.”
Thisundulating appearance of its surface, geologists
of experience have also pronounced to be the
characteristic of “ primitive chains” throughout
the world. Added to this one geological evidence,
the appearance ofits surface bestrewed with granite
blocks, the number, impetuosity and sudden risings
ofits currents, its springs, issuing often on the very
summits of the highest hills, the character of its
Fauna and its alpine botany, conspire to place this
portion of Devonshire in the same light as other
mountainous tracts of country of which granite is
the base.
Notwithstanding however its generally elevated
position, one inconsiderable space is below the sea
level; this is at Bovey Heathfield, in the eastern
quarter, where a sort of hollow occurs between an
uregular circle of granite hills, and occupied by ‘a
deposit of a peculiar and anomalous description—
GRANITE GEOLOGICALLY’ NOTICED. 15
concerning the character of which indeed, the most
accomplished geologists are at variance of opinion.
One thing however, it seems rational to conclude,
both from the relative elevation and direction of
one part of this curious formation, or deposit, and
which it may not be amiss to introduce here merely
by the way (as the precise description of the “ Bovey
coal and clay formation” will form no part of the
present work,) namely, that the basin thus occurring
amid the granite hills, was filled at some time, or
epoch, by the waters of the neighbouring Channel,
or by a lake, whose contents were continually being
supplied to it, from the adjoining elevated country.
Perhaps the former supposition is the more
consistent, involving likewise the conclusion, that
the retreat of the sea consequent on the presumed
geological disturbance, overwhelmed some forest
of dicotyledonous trees, and drew them bodily to
the occupancy of the said basin, conjointly with
other matters, which apparently give evidence to
this species of catastrophe.
The region of Dartmoor is considered to extend
in length about twenty miles from north to south,
and in breadth to an average of ten miles. The
chain of hills stretches from east north east to west
south west in order to join its continuation as seen
in Cornwall. Its centre may be said to be distant
about twenty miles from the southern limits of the
county. The hills rise to a considerable height,
those on the borders being highest, the elevation
of these above the sea reaching to nearly 2000 feet.
The summits of these hilis present irregular, massive
accumulations assuming extraordinary and fantastic
forms, and called “ tors,” the blocks composing
which are found to be arranged with some appear-
ance of stratification ; the dip however is various.
This assemblage of granite hills is almost generally
bald, the rock exhibiting itself to view, and being
16 - CLIMATE OF DARTMOOR.
strewed over with an immense assemblage of blocks
Fr of varying size. The stone itself, assumes every
y shade and combination of colour which it is ever
known to put on; it varies also much by a change
in the component parts ; again, it differs much in
density, some spots being considerably softened,
probably through some chemical alteration proceed-
ing In it, and porcelain earth occurs abundantly in
some sites where the decomposition has proceeded
to its greatest limit. The granite of the two south-
west counties however is far famed for durability,
and supports a part of our commerce. A certain
proportion of the white Cornish stone also, is
shipped for the porcelain manufactories, it being
convertible into a fine enamel.
The climate of the moor is proverbially bleak
and chilly, and highly conducive to health and
longevity.* Its bleak winds however, can only be
accounted agreeable, during the great heats of
summer, when, 7n this tract of country, a fire be-
comes a ’ pleasant companion towards evening. Hay
and corn harvests are considerably later than in
the South Hams, and snow invariably clothes the
moor hills + long before the cultivated districts re-
ceive its visits ; it also continues on Cosson Hill,
its highest part, after it has left all other spots. The
close texture of the rock causes rain, and the va-
* A woman who resided at the foot of Brent Tor, attained to
more than one hundred years.
+ As examples, I may instance the beginning of the winter,
1838 ; on October 10th the moor was coated with snow, frosts
occurred with us soon after, but we had no decidedly cold weather
or snow, till the end of January succeeding. Again snow ap-
peared on the moor about February 12th, 1839, and lay for
several days, but we had neither frost or snow in the South Hams,
only a cold, bleak air. On Aprii 4th snow again appeared on
the moor, but in the South Hams, the weather was not particu-
larly cold,
Ba: , "se ual Rica a
OTHER FEATURES OF THE MOOR. 17
pours which the hills attract, to run over their sides,
and these sources of moisture, together with the
abundant springs which rise through the seams of
the granite, keep the scanty herbage of the country
well watered, whilst, the low temperature originat-
ing in the bleak winds, helps likewise to’ keep this
vegetation from the scorching, to which that in the
cultivated lands is most usually subjected in the
height of summer. The moorland grass therefore,
wherever it occurs in tolerable plenty, feeds quan-
tities of cattle at that season. Extensive beds of
sedge are also produced in some spots, and are
annually gathered for making mattrasses, while
lastly, vast and valuable accumulations of peat are
found in various parts where perpetual moisture en-
courages the constant growth of the aquatic plants
from which it is derived. This substance, besides
obtaining a sale as fuel, is used by the gardeners in
Plymouth and elsewhere, for the rearing of peculiar
shrubs requiring a highly nutritious earth, such as
this substance extensively assumes the character of
_ throughout the moor. One other beautiful, but
inferior subject of commerce afforded by the moor
is the common heath or ling covering the commons
surrounding this tract ; it is used for the purpose
of making brooms, which are really neat and pretty
objects. j
From the circumstances of the accumulation of so
much vapour by the Dartmoor hills, and of their
originating such abundance of subterranean, and
superficial springs, bogs and morasses are numer-.
ous, as also small streams, which soon unite and
constitute the splendid and romantic rivers for
which our county is so celebrated.
This granitic tract of Dartmoor, has been computed
to contain 130,000 acres, but the quantity of sterile
land is yearly diminishing by the grants of inclo-
sures in various directions. From the exposure of
D
18 THE MOOR ORIGINALLY BARREN ?
the county, the violence of its winds and the
bleakness of its air, great difficulties are encountered
in raising timber in any but sheltered situations ;
but, though the climate is thus unfriendly in its
present state, and seemingly refuses to give support
to vegetable life, it is to be considered whether
there be any plausible objection to the proposition,
of Dartmoor, having in a former period supported
a very different aspect, and been under the influence
of a different kind of climate—an atmosphere, not
deteriorated by great barrenness anduselesshumidi-
ty. Ifthe climate ofa district depended simply on its
situation, geographically and altitudinally, there
could be no room left for this surmise, but it being
notorious that its condition in respect of cultivation
and wood, has considerable influence, and it being
further ascertained, that the remnants of a forest
are from time to time disclosed within the precincts
of the moor, sunk deep in its bogs and peat; it
being also shewn, that beasts of chace once held
dominion in this tract, and must in consequence,
have had woods to shelter them; there being in
the centre of the moor, a small patch of oaks called
“ Wistman’s Wood;” lastly, there being no prima
facie obstacle in the soil, or rather rock of Dartmoor,
and nothing to render the lowness of the temper-
ature insuperable to modification when once the
operation of planting has been fairly begun, the
principles of the above proposition may be
considered established on the ground of extreme
probability. It may be added, that as the Druids
formerly inhabited Dartmoor, it is hardly possible
to conceive that the country was devoid of timber,
and of vegetation for the purpose of building, and
for the support of cattle.* So far from any objection
* Diodorus Siculus describes the dwellings of the ancient
¢
Britons of his time as “ poor cottages constructed of wood, and ~
? 4 Ae
SUPERSTRATUM OF THE MOOR. 19
against granite as a soil for trees, resting on the
mind, it cannot be overlooked how many tracts of
country of the same kind, are now overspread by
fine forests, (the Alps, Norway, &c.) ; young trees
are known to spring up yearly on the moor, and, if
the compactness of the rock be thought an
hindrance to the maintenance of roots, it may be
answered that oaks of superior size have never-
theless been grown, and in some spots are still
growing on this very tract, and that on greenstone,
equally dense as granite, trees of splendid growth
may be noticed; witness the beeches at Lyneham
and elsewhere.
With regard to superstratum it is probable that
Dartmoor never boasted of much, the hardness of
the stone and its upland situation being unfavorable
to the accumulation of loose soil: Some have sup-
posed that the moor is a denuded district, a tract
washed of its clay or other earth, at the period of
the Deluge ; the clay however seems to be limited
to the schistlands, and those in its direct neighbour-
hood, and if ever it had existed on Dartmoor it
would certainly have left some slight traces there,
to attest the event of a denudation, and which have
not, so far as I know, been detected. As to the
soil induced from the presence of a forest, this
would assuredly diminish, when by the removal of
the trees, the rock generally acquired a perpetual
moisture, and a continued draining towards the
vallies, took place over its whole surface.
It is to be understood that the wooded, watered,
and cultivated state of-a country, act largely on
its climate, while a climate being thus formed, 2zé
re-acts back again on those very conditions to which
covered with straw,’ and Strabo mentions them as “ wooden
houses, circular in form with lofty conical roofs.” From Trans.
of Plymouth Inst. p. 193.
D 2
4
i
ae ee ee a ‘
Oy ile aoe :
" he, ae ‘ Va
e
e
é
4 ?
PLANTING .OF THE MOOR.
it is imdebted. Now, the former character of
Dartmoor as a tract of country being subtracted, it
assumed the climate before alluded to, and it is
consequently presumable, that if its original cha-
racter could be restored to it, an amelioration in
the latter circumstance would be effected. But, it
is manifest that partial proceedings of agriculture
and planting will always be marked either by
limited success, or by discouraging failures, because
the surrounding atmosphere and unqualified steril-
ity, preponderate against it. The marked success
of these undertakings so ardently wished for, will
probably follow only on measures pursued generally
and semultaneously on this tract. *
Picturing to ourselves Dartmoor in its former garb
of wood and verdure, it will immediately occur, that
its elevated site would then be equally productive
of cold, as now, and that the greater amount of
moisture, which the trees would naturally accumu-
late, might even render the cold greater, did not
* The Duke of Athol has been most successful in his planta-
tions of Larch in the Highlands of Scotland. Timber of unusual
size, and quality has been grown in vast abundance on tracts of
ground previously of extremely slight profit, and quite as expo-
sed, barren and rocky as Dartmoor, the reputed * Nazareth.”
I understand that the very rich pasturage of Guernsey is”
situated on granitie sand, or debris.
It is always desirable that plantations of timber should be
protected during the first few years of growth by an interspersion
of fir trees, which help greatly To sHELTER and protect the rest
from the beating and blighting influences of wind. These should
not be suffered to remain after the trees principally designed to
be grown have acquired some height, .for then the firs by the
closeness of the plantation will assist in accumulating wet, so
injurious when abundant, to the qualities of most trees. Larch
certainly does not prosper in the South Hams, and probably from |
this very cause, but on the plan recommended in the text I should
conclude it might answer well on Dartmoor.
Pi
IGNEOUS ROCKS. 21
one other circumstance, that of shelter, powerfully
act on the climate, and restrain the other influences,
which would tend to depression of the average heat.
Again the foliage and wood of a forest, naturally
keep of much ‘of the sun’s rays, and so allow the
atmosphere within and about it, to remain unin-
fluenced by its power; but, in opposition to that,
the presence of a soil connected with a wooded
state of a country, serves as a reservoir of solar heat,
to be furnished to the air, in seasons when the sun’s
power is lessened or withdrawn. Climate being
deteriorated by moisture, that is to say, by the
power of moisture in diminishing atmospheric heat,
it cannot be surprising that the presence of much
vegetation, is a powerful auxiliary in the ameliora-
tion of the thermometric heat of a district, since
this kind of carpet has the effect of appropriating
a large proportion of water for continued sustenance.
Impinging almost generally on the Dartmoor
granite, and often closely joined to it,—and in one
case (Black Aller Tor,) lying on it as a thin bed,
or covering,—is Schzst of different kinds, a propor-
tion of which puts on the mitcaceous character,
and retains it for a short distance from the former
rock, though mica slate is to be met with in one
other spot, namely at the Bolt-head. ‘This mzca
schist‘has favorable qualities for agriculture, es-
pecially grain crops.
A Serpentinous Rock has been noticed by Mr.
Prideaux, extending through slate in the immediate
vicinity of Dartmoor.
_Shorl Rock in varying characters occurs also
abundantly in contact with granite. Syenite near
the Race House above Ivy Bridge. Trapp Rock
in its several varieties pervades the county in the
form of dykes, chiefly in connexion with lime, slate
and sandstone, and conforming much to the direct-
ion of their respective runs, where occurring. It is
¥
x]
;
A
4
a
99 IGNEOUS ACTIONS.
however not a plentiful rock, but forms in a few
instances, high hills. Mr. Prideaux has noticed a
most interesting connexion of greenstone with slate,
in the case of the trapp constituting Rock and
Estover estates, and the slate surrounding it. The
slate takes on the colour and partial qualities of the
greenstone for some extent.* Prior to noticing this
in Mr. P’s. paper, I had observed that a portion of
lime-rock in my neighbourhood, where coming into
contact with the trapp, had a fine green tinge, and.
though, I then hesitated to believe it to have been
due to the intrusion and action of this latter rock, I
now feel emboldened to class the two circumstances,
as of similar character. I also believe that some
other phenomena in this county, may hereafter be
allowed to be ascribable to similar causes, of the
action of one stratum on another
« 4
. as < i
oa BD gates *
he es, SP =
IG IS
DT hae
f pa
<1
\
\Y
TT
AK
M
Ul)
EPOCHS OF THESE INTRUSIONS, 29
action of the deluge, cannot be determined) into
the adjacent beds of diluvial clay. It will perhaps
astonish many, to be informed that greenstone re-
sembles greatly, certain kinds of lava, poured forth
in volcanic countries in modern times, and, as that
substance, while fluid, would naturally insert itself.
between masses of adjacent strata, or being driven
up bodily from below, would be impacted into the
very structure of incumbent rocks, so here, instances
are not deficient, where greenstone occupies crevices
in other beds, and has evidently effected, at the
period of its introduction, considerable alteration in
the aspect and character of the stone into which it
has been thus insinuated. I observe lastly, that in
so far as this county is concerned, this theory may
possibl¥ after mature examination be supported by
the palpable resemblance to extinct volcanoes, af-
forded by many ofthe “tors” of Dartmoor, particularly
North Brent Tor.
On the whole however, the application of this,
like all other geological theories, involves consider-
able risk and doubt, and it ought at least to be
remembered, that we are by no means called on to
compress all the circumstances consistently referri-
ble to igneous origin, into one occurrence of volcanic
action, but on the contrary it will not only be con-
venient, but even consistent, to refer the various
phenomena of this order to consecutive Plutonic
disturbances.
But still, it may with reason be inferred from the
phenomena of igneous action, being so universally
of the same order, that these events were not scat-
tered through a serzes of epochs, but confined to one;
and in the midst of ouranxiety as geologists, to throw
together as many events as possible, that might be
deemed due to one cause, it may be questioned,
whether at the times of these eruptions, the entire
surface of the country were not convulsed, and
|
pe ae
30 EXTENT OF DISTURBANCE.
thrown into those undulations presented by the hills
of our “ transition series” of rocks ; it might also at
the same moment be asked, whether the same intru-
sions did not induce a bodily sinking of the land,
and thereby, those evidences of oceanic ingress ex-
hibited by our coast. Now, we are enabled by mere
reference to the granitic and trappean pebbles which
occur amidst the osseous reliques of our caves, to
show at once that the granite and trapp had been
upheaved, prior to that great convulsion (whether
the Mosaic flood, or any subsequent deluge) which
annihilated the creation of animals and vegetables
as they then existed with us; and, if so many ages
have elapsed, and subsequent catastrophes occurred
to us, there will not only be a great difficulty in tra-
cing what were the precise results of this igneous
disturbance, but even, a probability amounting to
indirect proof, that those appearances of raised
beaches and submerged land on the coast, were pro-
duced by Jater events. Having thus paved the way
to a more consistent theory, I may remark, that I
have devoted a separate portion of this work to an
ample consideration of the zra to which these phe-
nomenaareto beascribed, and confining my attention
here, to the igneous class of rocks, I must confess
that notwithstanding the reasonableness of the con-
jecture of general superficial disturbance, there is
no evidence of such, beyond the limits of these pre-
sumed agents, or beyond that, of which I have given
an illustration in our slate deposit. If therefore, we
are to measure consequences by actual phenomena
I may entertain a suspicionthatthe granite confined
its dislocating influences to those regions or spots
where it appeared, and, that the other Plutonic
agents conformed on their part, to the sweep of those
hills of which they were to become component
portions.
““ IGNEOUS ROCKS.” 27
UPHEAVING OF
discrimination of those rocks of igneous origin,
(speaking of their superficial appearance) from those
which are not igneous, and of those connexions de-
pendent on the application of fire, from those not
so derived, would depend on evidences of rupture,
or upheaving, or tilting, apparent in the vicinity ;—
on analogy of the structures and appearances to
those of igneous derivation in the present day ;—on
the absence of organic relics, and on any traces of
former volcanic condition. If our granitic tract be
visited, it will be seen that oftentimes slate is at-
tached to granite with considerable irregularity, it
does not merely repose on it, but is even connected
to it on its slopes by firm cementation, as if indeed,
the slate, in its original position underground, had
been blended into the spongy substance of the
granite during its liquefaction, and then, when the
latter rose into its mountain forms, it conveyed
the slate so cemented with it, beyond the level of the
bed through which it had been projected. Through-
out the South of Devon, instances may be repeatedly
seen, where slate has been contorted, and disturbed
into repeated angles, where its texture was suffici-
ently loose to admit of ready and extensive fracture;
towards the top, good solid slate often becomes
looser, and bent off at an angle, and possibly these
facts are dependent on some upheaving force of the
volcanic order. The accompanying engraving re-
presents a remarkable case of this kind occurring in
my neighbourhood.
Appearances of the same kind seem to occur in
sandstone quarries. ‘There are likewise reasons to
believe, from phenomena presented by some local-
ities, that trapp has upheaved and dislocated lime
beds, and lime and slate connectedly, and in some
places it has even gained a superior position to them.
Prior to my belief in the Plutonic theory, I had con-
EK 2
,
298 UPHEAVING OF “ IGNEOUS ROCKs.”
cluded that some upheaving force had caused these
disturbances in our rocks.
The new theory respecting granite, &c. I may
observe, if a correct one, serves to explain the con-
trariety of circumstances, under which that rock
makes its appearance,—sometimes near, or connect-
ed to fossiliferous slate,—sometimes in connection
with non-fossiliferous slate, or other rocks of that
order. It may explain, why on Morweldown (and
perhaps in other spots also) a lode of copper, passes
from schist to granite in an uninterrupted manner.*
It may perhaps originate a reasonable inference, that
during the elevation of this mass, it had dislocated
certain upper beds of slate, &c. and altered, or re-
versed their dip. Duringa visit to the Eddystone,
(gneiss, with granite near it) I was astonished to
observe that a bed of slate at the nearest point of
land in Cornwall, (Penlee Point) had a vertical po-
sition, and even partly dipped northwardly, contrary
to every other instance I had witnessed. At the
Start it dips northerly. Near Turnchapel it dips
northeast, and at Mount Batten the limestone is
nearly vertical, the whole country in that direction
south of Plymouth, seeming to have been dislocated
by an upheaving force. At Deadman’s Bay, the lime
is nearly horizontal in one spot.
Some varieties of our trapp bear singular resem-
blance to substances which have been submitted to
the action of fierce fire, being cellular, spongy, and
variously coloured ; one sort, is prone to turn out in-
oblong, rounded, scaly nodules, and it is worthy of
note, (because possibly the two facts are similarly
derived) that greenstone likewise assumes at some
spots, large reniform, or ovoid forms, and being
sometimes superficial, these blocks are seen to have
escaped (whether by mere gravity, or during the
* See Risdon’s Survey of Devon, Preface.
JUNCTIONS OF OUR ROCKS. 31
It may here be noted with regard to the primitive
series of rocks, that they are nearly all observed to
amalgamate with, or pass into one another, as well
as into rocks of a more recent date, thus granite and
slate are found sometimes blended, gneiss and gran-
ite, mica-slate (allowing it to be primitive) and clay
Slate, mica-slate and gneiss, trapp and slate, while
porphyry is seen imbedded in slate, or in sandstone
in some situations.
Again, prior to entering on the subject of the
next series, it may be as well to note, that the same
kind of admixture prevails there also,—the various
varieties of slate graduate one into another, as well
as into the true greywacké rock, slate also, passes
into lime, lime into dolomite, and sandstone into
slate.
But, it must be observed that while igneous
causes might induce some of those amalgamations
in the first class, contemporaneous precipitation,
most probably induced the reciprocal series of ad-
mixtures in the second, as I shall endeavour to
shew in the sequel. Setting however all theory
aside, the practical geologist will bear in mind, that,
tracing the series of our rocks from the coast on-
wards to the moor, he will encounter a consecutive
admixture of various collateral strata in his course:
thus,—slate and sandstone, slate and greywackeé,
greywacké and sandstone, porphyry and sandstone,
lime and sandstone, lime and dolomite, lime and
slate, trapp and slate, porphyry and slate, clay-slate
and mica-slate, granite and slate, besides some
other combinations of minor consequence. In the
rocks surrounding the E.ddystone, a combination of
granite and gneiss occurs. ‘The Eddystone itself,
iS gneiss.
I desire to be understood, as speaking provision-
ally on the general question of classification and
eras, and as leaving it open at all points for ma-
. . “e
82 GEOLOGICAL THEORIES.
tured consideration. With respect indeed to the
trappean rocks, notwithstanding I might have found
authority and arguments, (as will subsequently be
seen) for giving them a place among the transition
series, and although their identity with these might
be thought fixed, by even the solitary fact of that
form of junction with slate called “ribbon jasper”
occurring here, yet, it happens that porphyry also,
does itself in some places, run in veins through
slate, or exhibit itself imbedded in fossiliferous
sandstone ; mica-slate (by some ranked in the
“ primitive” order) joins itself to the common mass
of schistose rock, and even granite, as just said, has
been seen much blended with slate in some situa-
tions. Order therefore, and systematic management
in the positions and connexions of rocks, seem to
be set at defiance, and perhaps geological thecries
will witness many more revolutions before such
discrepancies will be reconciled. Continued accu-
mulation of facts, with provisional theoretic state-
ments seem to be the more eligible occupation of
the geologist whilst surrounded with such perplex-
ing phenomena. ‘The kind of facts principally
required are those affecting the natural connexions
of strata in respect of mechanical union and chemical
similarity, and the provisional theories in which it
may be allowable to indulge, should invariably re-
gard these data as their sole rational supports. With
respect to chemistry applied to geological specula-
tions however, it is but recently introduced as a
means of investigation, and it is hardly known how
far it may be carried into the detail of our science.
In the perusal of the following remarks on the
geology of our district, I trust the reader will perceive
that though I have not called chemistry to my aid,
I have framed my theories on such facts only, as I
had it in my power to adduce.
+
GRAUWACKE SERIES.—SLATE ROCKS. 33
SLATE,
in its varied appearances, occupies the generality
of South Devon, southward of Dartmoor, being as it
were diffused in all directions ; the other strata,
lime, trapp, &c. being intruded between its courses
and hills. Under the term slate, I here include every
kind of rock popularly so called, andin consequence, -
for the sake of convenience confound together, rocks
considered by some both “ primitive” and “ tran-
sition.” However perfect, systems and tables as set
forth in books may seem to be, and however desira-
ble it might be, for me to present definite terms and
divisions of the strata under examination, I am so
clearly satisfied of the immatured*condition of this
science, simply from the fact, that local phenomena
have not yet been narrowly investigated and com-
pared, that I think it highly probable a few years
will once more remodify existing opinions and
classifications, and that, consequently, it can be no
_ great outrage, to consider provisionally all our rocks
of a slaty nature under one head, though, I do not
mean to exclude conjecture and classification alto-
gether. Thus, while under the term slate, | comprise
mica-slate,* clay-slate, roofing slate, grey dunstone,
greywacke-slate, flinty-slate, and greywacké, with
perhaps some other minor kinds, I believe it would
be unphilosophical, to disregard the principle of
arrangement, derived from the occasionalalternation
and intimate blendings of certain strata, together
with the truly natural association of deposits; by
the occurrence of the same description of animal
remains and other structures in their substance.
* [have endeavoured to justify myself in considering mica-slate
as a portion of the general body of slate rock, altered in character
by its connexion with granite ; but, I incline to think, that some
kinds of mica-slate are indisputably of the same order as igneous
strata.
KF
34 CLAY-SLATE.
But who, in the midst of conflicting statements of
authors, will undertake to explain what is clay-slate,
and what is not, particularly as, this is generally
ranked amongst the primitive (non-fossiliferous)
rocks, and with us contains indubitable proofs of
being fossiliferous, besides being apparently in union
with a mass of other slate containing no such de-
monstrations? In a popular work now before me,
(Weekly Visitor) giving a succinct statement of
strata, primitive formations are described as being
destitute of petrifactions ; then, the rocks so classed
under this head are briefly described, and amongst
them stands “ clay-slate.” It is added, “ the clay-
slates of Switzerland are celebrated for their impres-
sions of fishes. Mont Pilot consists of thin lamie,
and in almost every plate is impressed a fish”! Thus,
it would be gratuitous and presumptuous in me, to
draw a line of demarcation between the clay-slate
and the other kinds of slate, (supposing a natural
distinction to exist, which I am not sure is the case)
for, as respects a distinction founded on the occur-
rence of fossils, the “ grey dunstone” and greywackeé
contain no fossils, and are, it is well known, in im-
mediate connection with patches of fossiliferous
slate, and consequently, the hills of slate connected
with the fossiliferous slate above named, may, for
aught I see, be equally regarded as coeval in their
deposition. If therefore, it were demanded of me
to state what I regarded as clay-slate, and to draw a
linesof demarcation between it and other kinds, I
should say, either that the separation must be de-
pendent on the presence or absence of organic relics,
presuming on the possibility of making a separation
by that means, or, that the entire mass of our slate
not evincing the characters of mica-slate on the one
hand, and betraying none of the characters of flinty-
slate or of greywacké-slate on the other—in short,
all that rock which amongst amateurs and persons
VARIED ASPECTS OF SLATE, 39
lousely informed on the matter is termed clay-slate,
and which I have above recognised in a general way
as being fossiliferous, must receive this appellation.
From what I have just stated, it might be gathered
that the interruptions to the courses of the different
varieties Of slate are not sudden, but rather the re-
verse. ‘This circumstance indeed, is remarkable
amongst the features of this rock considered as a
whole. Mica-slate, clay-slate, (used in a limited
sense) roofing-slate, grey-dunstone and greywacke
slate, are observed to pass gradually into one another,
and to reciprocate each other’s qualities. Again,
greywackeé-slate, flinty-slate and greywacké gradu-
ate into one another. Roofing-slate is found spa-
ringly, and in small patches. It obviously passes
into the general mass of clay-slate, of which, not-
withstanding its containing organic remains, | have
above surmised that it may in propriety be ranked
apart. ‘The general body of clay-slate assumes a
great variety of aspects, which are manifestly gradu-
ated, sometimes approximating the typical roofing
slate and sometimes degenerating into a loose, brown
rubble, or becoming indurated or closely impacted
constituting “grey dunstone;” notunfrequently also
running into decided greywacké, either in small
patches or even in extensive beds. Altogether,
these last named rocks form the generality of our
hills, which are round-backed. In situations where
the slate is in tolerable sized fragments, fossils are
found in plenty. Although I have mentioned certain
kinds of slate as being fossiliferous, I believe that
no fixed rule can be laid down on this subject, for
the same kind of slate will in one place exhibit these
remains, and*in another be destitute of them.
Greywacké-slate is most constant in this respect.
The rubbly and loose kinds of clay-slate, and the
best kinds of roofing-slate, but seldom contain them.
The generality of our slate, that namely, to which I
F2
36 CHARACTERS OF SLATE.
presume the term clay-slate may be applied,is found
assuming for the most part the appearance of small ©
and loosely joined fragments of a light grey colour,
sometimes blueish-grey, much tinged with iron, and.
frequently intersected by seams of quartz, also brown,
whitish yellow, red, greenish, &c. At intervals, these
hills of clay-slate give good quarries of roofing ma-
terial, of a bright lead colour, in which, fossils are
distributed. These quarries are in general soon
worked out, the stone soon becoming coarse, or
degenerating into arubbly state, ora “ grey dunstone”
which is an indurated form of clay-slate. The course
and dip of our slate vary greatly, even at times
within a small space. I have understood, that near
Exeter is a bed of slate horizontal in its course.
This, it was thought was a rare circumstance, but
in this neighbourhood it is far from being an uncom-
mon appearance, though only observed in small
patches. From a level, it varies to a close approx-
imation to verticality. It faces usually from about
south-west to about south-east, but likewise, at times,
looks southwardly, eastwardly, and westwardly or
thereabouts; but, though it is thus prone to variation,
even repeatedly within a small distance, I am not
aware that it ever faces northwardly of east and
west, save through intrusion of other rocks. Its
solidity varies sometimes within very confined limits,
and this often depends on the sudden presence of
quartz, which is seen to pervade the slate with great
freedom in some spots. At times, there is reason to
believe that access of air determines the decompo-
sition of slate, though, in some cases where this is
supposed to have happened, I should consider from
its brown and powdery appearance that some pe-
culiarity of chemical composition had existed
previously. Generally in fact, the loose, rubbly
condition in which we observe a deal of our slate
to exist, cannot have been owing, at least in the
Bs Wie a
~ BENT AND WAVED SLATE. 37
first instance and principally, to atmospheric in-
fluences ; for, in some places, as at the slate quarries,
this presumed decomposition shews itself throughout
the whole depth to which the rock has been work-
ed—at one spot, the rubbly and loose state of the
rock gradually disappearing, and the substance by
degrees getting closer, until it is fairly of the cha-
racter of “ dunstone,” or at the least of ordinary
slate, Indeed, this transition from loose to indurated
slateis exemplified mostfreely in thisneighbourhood,
and seems to be inconsistent with a supposition of
decay from the agency of air. The oxide of iron
occasionally stains our slate in fantastic shapes. It
seems also, to occur in greatest plenty in the imme-
diate neighbourhood of fossils, and in their compo-
sition. 1 occasionally find fragments of slate in the
quarries on which are marked, dark, broad, concen-
tric lines, in the manner of the layers of wood in
the boles of trees, of which appearances I can offer
no explanation.
There is one fact in the history of our slate
worthy of notice, and worthy of being further inves-
tigated with a view to some explanation. ‘This is
the bendings or reflections in the slope of the rock,
observed in very many places. In one spot in par-
ticular, I have observed it to be bent four times
in the depth of as many feet, so as to assume a per-
fectly zig-zag appearance. It must be recollected,
that this occurrence is not limited to loose and
disconnected kinds of slate, but may be seen on
larger scales in good solid sorts also, though the re-
peated reflexions may not be here so remarkable or
perfect.* At Crabtree, near Plymouth, there is a
* Ata spotcalled Meadow-foot, at the mouth of the Erme how-
ever, this convoluted and zig-zag condition of slate is assumed in
good solid rock on a very extensive scale, the whole shore being
composed of arenaceous schist, putting on the same undulated
38 ANOMALOUS CONDITIONS.
hill of slate, which, towards its-summit turns off at
an obtuse angle, which gives this rock a peculiar
aspect. Mr. Hennah records an instance, where the
slate seems as if thrust up by some violent impulse
from below, between two beds of lime. I am of
opinion that several similar instances as regards
this appearance of the deposit of the rock, can be
appearance as is displayed by sand on a very flat beach, on the
retreat of the tide. This condition indeed, must have been taken
on during the precipitation of the rock, and not by any force ex-
erted from below.
GRAUWACKE SLATE. 39
shewn in our neighbourhood, though, as to the exact
cause of this, as well as of the reflections above
specified, I can offer no satisfactory notion further
than I have elsewhere mentioned.
Greywacke-slate assumes a very different appear-
ance from all others. It is harder, and not so ex-
tensively tabular, is of a dark lead colour, and passes
very freely and very suddenly into greywacke at
numerous points. Viewing it as it appears on the
coasts, it displays itself in large flat cakes having
thin and rounded edges, between which, other cakes
are in their turns inserted. In the greywacké slate, .
are found the turbinolias -elsewhere alluded to.
Beneath the water, these are dislodged by the action
of that element from their bed, and thrown up in
more or less perfection of form on the beach, a fact
corroborative of the general rule, of fossils exceeding
in density the matrices in which they occur. Dr.
Leach reports that at Buckfastleigh in this county,
the lime is seen covering the indurated slate, and
that, they both at this spot contain a quantity of
flinty matter. Now, it is singular, that close to the
place where I reside, there is seen a small quantity
of lime overlaid by the slate, and both containing
flinty matter !*—a fact, seemingly confirming,
amongst others to be named, the contemporaneous
deposition of these strata, or at least their close re-
lationship with respect to the convulsions which
have disturbed the crust of our globe. The circum-
stance, of strata at their points of junction being more
*It is very worthy of remark, that flint is by no means limited
to what is termed the “ cretaceous epoch,” but was prone to form
even at the early period of slate and limestone deposits. Mr. Bart-
lett noticed at Berry Head, masses of flint imbedded in the latter
rock, and some lying on its surface, having been separated by the
action of the atmosphere. Are their origins due to the remains of
animals ?
oe
be.
6
40 JUNCTIONS WITH OTHER ROCKS.
ar less cemented, blended together and intermixed,
appears to me to have attracted too little notice, for
though, in some cases their admixture seems ration-
ally accounted for, by the previous well-founded
conjecture, that their deposition was coeval, there
are other instances, in which we have no ground for
- imagining that their depositions eere coetaneous.
Lime and slate are most freely intermixed at their
points of junction, and we see the same thing occur-
ring between the slate and sandstone in spots where
these meet, the latter frequently being wedged into
the other ; in some places also, there being alterna-
tions and union of qualities (arenaceous schist)
for a considerable area, there are other reasons for
imagining the contemporaneousness in the deposit
of these strata. On the other hand, where slate
abuts against granite or trapp, we find, that in some
spots the former is cemented freely to the latter.
This is seen in numerous blocks scattered profusely
through the valley at Ivybridge, and I am sensible
of cases where there is as thorough intermixture, as
between slate and limestone.
Amongst the varied relations assumed by slate in
its beforenamed general diffusion, there is one which
seems to indicate, that even the oldest (allowing for
argument that they are of different ages) kinds were
not contemporary with granite, for this rock not only
extends into contact with granite at our north, but
even spreads between the hills of that primitive
formation, assuming perhaps in its run, a lengthened
three-sided figure. Whatever be the actual relations
between lime and slate, (or at least certain sorts of
the latter,) and whatever may be the depth to which
the lime as a whole, or in some parts descends, I
must not omit to furnish an additional proof of the
intimate connexion subsisting between these two
strata, namely, that “ Lime appears in masses on
the north,south, and west sides of the Dart,insulated
GREYWACKE SLATE. Al
in schistus,” (Carrington’s Dartmoor, Preface) also
at Boveysand, side of the Yealm, &c. just as, schistus
. may be seen, placed similarly in lime, independently
of any suspicions of these insulated patches having
been thrust up in the manner supposed by Mr. Hen-
nah, or occurring thus through Plutonic agencies.
This kind of insulation of slate may be noticed on
the hill leading from Stonehouse to Devonport.
Striking alternations of these strata are also not
uncommonly observed, as at Prince Rock and Kitley
Hill, both near Plymouth, east bank of the Tamar
(where greywacké, slate, and lime are found to alter-
nate), and in several instances also, I have observed
lime and slate at their point of junction, forming an
intermediate kind of stone, a fact likewise noticed
in the-case of the lime and slate of Westmoreland,
where lime mostly rests on slate, and in approaching
it, gradually gets slaty. Schistose lime occurs at
St. Mary Tavy, close to Dartmoor.’
The greywacké slate of the coast, besides the
ordinary lead colour, presents several others, some
particularly pleasing to the eye—green (with minute
fossils,) drab, purple, purplish drab, golden yellow
in small patches, olive, and silvery drab. A deal
of this schist is employed for coarse flooring in cot-
tages, and some for mantel pieces. Its fracture
being conchoidal, itis used with great facility in the
formation of very strong and solid masonries.*
Argillaceous schist not unfrequently exists in small
beds, the fracture of which is prismatic, this may
* The generality of slate forms a remarkably durable building
stone. Its appearance is greatly against a belief of such a fact,
and if laid horizontally it would probably endure but a very
limited time; when laid vertically however, so as to allow water
to run off, its durability is astonishing ;—a piece of the “ old wall
of Plymouth,” now nearly two hundred years old, which I have
seen, and is built of common grey slate, seems to have suffered
little from the action of time.
G
492 IRON
be seen on the road to Goosewell near Plymstock,
and in other spots. Occasionally also, ordinary
slate assumes a very indurated aspect, without al-
tering its colour or general qualities, this may be
observed on the Exeter road just beyond Elburton.
Ivon is found in some parts of our slate in loads,
and also is scattered in mere traces, through the
substance of nearly all our rocks of this formation,
appearing in Slight indications in the schist adjoin-
ing those few beds of this metal which occur in
limestone ; it occasionally betrays itself in small
insignificant masses of sulphuret. Quartz pervades
it most freely in some places, and these narrow veins
seem invariably to end in points. At Comptonis a
pretty large vem of jasper, much mixed with ordi-
nary quartz ; I have seen many small blocks from
thence. Jasper is also often found on Roborough
Down, among heaps of ordinary stone used for
repair of roads. »
The prejudices and prepossessions of geologists,
appear far more hastily formed and more deeply
rooted than those of any other kind of philosophers,
and because involving so long a train of consequen-
ces, far more prejudicial, and far more inexcusable.
Until the recent set of geologists turned their atten-
tion to the science, it consisted of theory, now it
mostly consists of facts. The slate of South Devon
had all along been condemned as non-fossiliferous,
and though the limestone has for some time been
admitted to. contain reliques, it is only lately, that
slate has been characterised by a lecturer at the
PlymouthInstitution, as destitute ofanimalremains.*
* See Mr. Walker’s “ Lecture on Geology.” Also Mr. Prideaux
on “ Geology of South Devon,’ who considers the Cann slate
“ primitive.” Also“ Guide to the Watering Places,’ by Turton
and Kingston, where the slate of that district is said to be devoid
of fossils, though at Brixham they are found in vast abundance—
Turbinoliz, Encrinites, &c. . .
3
OUR SLATE FOSSILIFEROUS. 45
Notwithstanding the irreconcileableness of the fact
to preconceived views, and the hesitation and
chagrin with which many men receive it, our slate
formation zs fossiliferous, and even abundantly so
in some places. Without doubt, a vast quantity of
our slate—the loose and highly separable material
of a large number of our hills, is devoid of fossils,
but, in a deal also, of the same kind of rock where
it would not be expected to exist, fossils are spar-
ingly distributed. In nearly all the quarries of roofing
slate-they are readily distinguishable, and in the
ereywacke slate of the coast, a variety of interesting
specimens attract notice. It may be argued, that
there is evidence of a gradual increase of organic life,
of gradual passage from the period when the earth
was devoid of living beings, to that time when they
were tolerably numerous, as exhibited in the forma-
tion of our limestone. This gradual kind of change
is allowed to be a maxim in our science ; but, what-
ever partial symptoms of this rule are to be detected
or fancied in the present case, lamclearly of opinion,
that the decided connexions of the whole body of
our fossiliferous rocks, will far outweigh any con-
siderations gatherered from the remains themselves
calculated to engender a persuasion that intervals
occurred between their depositions. Whether the
arrangement which is perceptible, occurred through
mere accident, or by some law of nature during the
process of the nearly simultaneous deposit of these
rocks, must for the present be matter of speculation.
If we were to calculate the probable amount of
those relics which are with difficulty recognised, or
of those ‘appearances prubably referrible to forme:
beings, it is possible that it would surpass the
quantity of otherremains in this rock. These obscure
indications of animal (and vegetable ?) life, are
seemingly the remains of soft gelatinous bodies,
such as are the Actinie of the present day, and
G 2
44 SLATE FOSSILS.
many like creatures. Some of these fossils I have
had represented for their better identification by the
collector, but, many through obscurity of character
would defy the efforts of the graphic art in exhibit-
ing their actual appearance. But, so far from the
fossils of the slate being limited to these kinds of
animals, we discover the remains of conchifers, and
perhaps of fish in it, and, should doubt exist on this
important point—important, if only identifying the
slate rock as of equal consequence in its contents,
with the limestone,—it may be here mentioned, that
slate in other parts contains fish and shells. The
Tintagel and Snowdon slates for instance, contain
the latter fossils. (see De la Beche’s Manual.)
It is usual, to find fossils much accumulated to-.
gether in certain spots, as is the case also in lime
and sandstone, and this rule even extends to each
kind of fossil, to a limited extent. Thus, I have
found a kind of zoophyte very numerous within a
small compass of about a foot square, and occurring
but rarely elsewhere ; in general also, each fossil
seems to have its own special locality, whether
numerous or sparing in quantity. Greywacké slate
may be known from roofing slate by its fossils, and
roofing slate, from ordinary clay-slate by the same
means, though less decidedly.
Excluding the consideration of indistinct fossils
before spoken of, encrinetal remains are most com-
mon, and there seem to be several species, all
different from those in limestone. Remains of a
zoophyte, or something similar in growth to a coral-
line, are perhaps next in the order of frequency.
Turbinolias, of which there are apparently three,
or more kinds, rank next; one sort is plentiful
in a hard slate on the shore at Boveysand. The
calamopores in slate, seem almost always to occur
at the line of junction with lime, and are probably
of the same species as occurs in the latter rock so
SLATE FOSSILS. 49
profusely. ‘The same circumstance of identity in the
fossils of the two rocks, seems to occur with respect
to some other kinds. Between Elburton and Brixton
in particular. | have observed that at the junction of
lime and slate the two strata intermix, and alter-
nate in narrow layers of two, or three inches thick,
the encrinites here, being common to both kinds of
matrix. Herns are reported to have been found in
our slate, but I think the fact questionable.
It has been laid down as an axiom, that the fossils
of laminated rocks, suchas slate, are situated parallel
to those laminz ; this however is not invariably the
case; I have a fossil from my neighbourhod, a repre-
sentation of which appears among the engravings,
_- which was found to be placed in the stratum, without
regard to its lamination, and the same observation
’ may apply to thee yathophylla, and some other relics
of the slate.
There is yet one other remark belonging to this -
portion of the subject, and which requires to be
taken into account, by those who would advance
our present acquaintance with the slate fossils to a
higher standing than it now assumes. A large pro-
portion of these remains consist in their present
form, of lines arranged in a parallel manner, being
in fact the impressions of animals, whose organiza-
tions like those in the same class now living,
involved that parallelism of their component parts.
This fact is important, because it prepares us to
admit specific, and even generic (perhaps I might
be safe in adding ordinal) differences between the
specimens, which otherwise the mind through over-
caution, might reject. Certain it is, that a great
variety of our specimens, from assuming this almost
universal aspect of parallel lines, might seem to
have had one common specific origin, whilst, on
more deliberate inspection, they may more correctly
be referred to several species, belonging even to
more than one genus.
46 COMPACT GRAUWACKE.
GRAUWACKE ROCK.
The true greywacké rock, or compact greywackeé,
(“blue dun” of quarrymen) from which our fossili-
ferous series of rocks has in later times been named,
is found in intimate connexion with sandstones,
slates, and limestone. It consists in almost every
case, of inconsiderable accumulations of, for the
most part, dense material, used for building and re-
pair of roads, is of a light blue colour, and very fine
grained ; its hills are usually low, and with one or
two exceptions, its tracts small in zrea. It passes
freely into slates and sandstones, and the interme-
diate kinds of rock are of difficult determination ;
saving however these cases, greywacké may be dis-
tinguished from sandstone by its melting before the
blowpipe. So manifestly is it a component of our
fossiliferous series, that in one spot I have found it
reposing in a lap of limestone, and connected on
one hand to slate, and on the other to a fine grained
sandstone ; both of which strata are themselves also
closely joined to the lime, the former indeed being
like the grauwacke rock a superficial bed, and rest-
ing on and running into the limestone. Grauwacké
is also found to run in veins through slate, and
eraduating with it at the same time. It is thought
probable, that its highly comminuted texture obvi-
ated the display of the same animal remains which
its collateral strata are often found to envelope, and
yet, this rule is hardly worthy of regard, for, the
slate rocks themselves, considered by some as formed
of a highly comminuted detritus of other strata,
includes fossils in a perfect state, and the sandstone
of South Devon, obtiously constituted of aggregated.
particles, incloses perfect specimens of alcyonia,
turbinolie, corals, &c. which in all. probability were
in existence, at the time the turbid mass consolida-
ted around them. ‘
SOIL OF THE GRAUWACKE ROCK. 47
The soil of the greywacke rock, is highly fertile,
perhaps as much so as slate and sandstone, for the
productiveness of which, there would seemingly be
so good a reason, im their far looser texture, and
fissility, giving transit. to evaporations during the
droughts of the summer months. The depth ofa
superstratum ought never to be lost sight of how-
ever, in searching for the causes of the fertility of a
given rock. Many farmers complain that slate lands
scorch sooner than limestone tracts, a complaint
contrary to all rule, as well as to reason, and will be
found dependent on, the soil of thezr estates being
shallower even than that, usually known to cover
lime-rock. It is perfectly astonishing to observe,
that. though soil gives a manifest advantage to
the growth of all timber by its accumulation of
carbon, water, &c. for their support, yet, that the
nature of the rock below, interferes but in a trifling
way with their development, so far as respects their
taking root and fixation. Most wonderfully do trees
contrive to bore and insinuate their roots into even
such strata as the grauwacké and greenstone; on
examining attentively where their roots happen to
be exposed in such rocks, a sort of mouldering and
decay of the stone appears, and the conclusion thence
drawn, is that though by their contortions, these
members. were probably long resisted in their efforts
to descend, a slow, but continued erosion and dis-
solution of the components of the dense material
was effected, and thus, greater and greater scope
given by this extraordinary operation of vitality,
for the enlargement of these portions of the tree,
and the introduction of soil and other supplies
from above.
LIMESTONE.
Guided by prevalence in quantity, limestone
comes next under consideration after slate and
48 LIMESTONE.
those rocks which are its modifications. The
principal locality of the South Devon limestone is
at the coast, where it appears in connexion with
slate and sandstone in varying manners, but, it also
occurs in several other spots, likewise much in union
with other strata, as at Ashburton and Buckfastleigh
which are considerably removed from the coast;
and further, it appears in small and inconsiderable
quantities at less distances from the main line, such
as at Cann slate quarry, and at some other sites
between that and the neighbourhood of Plymouth,
closely connected to the slate rock. According to
general belief, it passes from the south-western ex-
tremity of Devon without much interruption east-
wardly ; there divaricating ; but, after proceeding
about nine miles eastwardly from the Dock Yard at
Devonport, its western point, it is temporarily hid-
den from view if not discontinued, and is traced
subsequently, rather by glimpses ‘and indications
than by direct continuity. Its course, even for the
above-named distance is occasionally lost, and it
seems certainly throughout, to have a decided dis-
position to occur in isolated forms, both in that
immediate course,and at small distances therefrom,
thus, while it is traced in the neighbourhoods of
Plymstock, Brixton, and Yealmpton passing east-
wardly, an indication betrays itself at Boveysand,
and a small patch is detected bordering the river
below Coffleet, a narrow seam of lime may also be
seen in the slate of Bigbury Bay, which possibly
may pass to a more considerable body of that rock
in a subaqueous position,—all these isolations
being invariably intimately joined to the body of
adjacent schist. But, though it is thus so greatly
connected to the slate rock, it is likewise very much
blended with sandstone in some few situations, as
at the Devil’s Point, and Mount Wise, and, while
an intermediate kind of rock between the lime and
LIMEROCK. 49
slate is far froma uncommon, the sandstone does also
as I have reason to think, form with it an anomal-
ous or bastard compound in one or two cases,
besides alternating together distinctly.
Although the general or prevailing order of oc-
eurrence of our “ transition rocks,” counting from
the granite and other igneous formations towards
the coast, be such, that the limestone tract is inter-
mediate to the slate northwards, and the sandstone
on the south, yet, this rule laid down by many ex-
perienced geologists, is reduced to an unscientific
dogma by examination of the relations assumed by
limestone, in its progress eastward, in which it will
appear that this order is oftentimes reversed, and
that limestone may have both other rocks north-
wards, and both southwards of it ; that in short this
stratum considered in the mass, is to be regarded as
mingled up in every possible way, with its associ-
ated formations.
The direction assumed by the limerock about
Plymouth, and so far as Yealmbridge, is east and
west, or rather, as observed by Mr. Hennah, it points
a little towards north-west and south-east.* As
regards its dip, it is about south-west, but this
differs much, and in some spots, but little of this
characteristic of stratified rocks, can be discerned ;
oftentimes it is very steep, while at others, the rock
is nearly horizontal in its bed, some of the lime at
Deadman’s Bay, near Plymouth for instance. In
general however, where uncertainty exists as to a
block of limestone being artificially or naturally
placed in the ground, the conjunction of these two
characteristics in it, will for the most part enable a
person to decide. The colours of the South Devon
limestone are numerous, and though it is very ge-
nerally grey with certain admixtures, it occurs often
* Account of the Limerocks of Plymouth” by Rey, R. Hennah,F.e.s.
H
a
—
#2
;
¢
2
50 LIMEROCK.
black, white, and pink, often alsd veined and
blotched with these conjointly, and in one solitary
instance I have found it green. It is suspected
greatly that to a large amount, these colours may be
due to organic remains imbedded in the stone, but
though, these forms are abundantly coloured in this
manner as if painted artificially, the very same
colours are spread profusely through certain locali-
ties of the limestone seemingly devoid of fossils.
The ordinary breadth of the limestone tract from
Devonport, onwards to Yealm Bridge may be esti-
mated at about a half mile, and its height does not
often exceed one hundred feet, hereby offering a
contrast to the elevation of the slate hills, which is
perhaps on an average three or four hundred feet.
In connexion however with this latter circumstance,
it must be noted, that saving the slate and sandstone
hills directly bordering the coast at some parts, the
land of South Devon apparently rises from the lime-
stone to a low range of slate hills at its immediate
back, and thence by gradual steps to the schist
hills bordering the moor, which are often seven,
eight, or nine hundred feet high, and lastly to the
moor itself, whose prevailing elevation is still
greater. In respect of depth, nothing decisive is of
course known, save where it overlies other strata,
and where it is prone to put on a.very tabular con-
dition ; it may with great propriety be inferred, that
this rock passes to a very great depth, and rests
ultimately on the general supporting bed of our
grauwacké strata, namely granite. The top of the
limestone range is for the most part quite level, but
in some places, the rock assumes the “ round-back”
form. Ifa geologist stand on an elevated part of
of our limestone in the immediate vicinity of Ply-
mouth, he can distinctly see, that this rock joins
itself by a gradual rise to the slate hills, which
back it in every direction ; he will see also, that
RELATIVE HEIGHTS OF THE HILLS. 51
with slight deviations, the whole body ofthis stratum
is flat and horizontal, scooped out however, in some
spots, to afford passage and space to rivers and
creeks, but still generally presenting to the view a
horizontal plane, or plateau about a half mile in
breadth, including the spaces overspread by water
The accompanying cut shews a cluster of slate hills
rising gradually in the back ground, and joining in
the fore ground to a lime ridge, distinguished at
once by its horizontality.
—_—-———$ —$
H 2
Y
42 DOLOMITE.
The fossils of the limerock, which aresubsequently .
to be spoken of generically, are distributed pretty
generally through out; many spots however, exhibit
them very sparingly, if at all, while others on the
contrary, are richly bedecked with these forms. ‘The
most ordinary sort which the collector encounters,
is the zoophytic, to which in fact, many spots are
altogether limited in respect of animal reliques,
whilst again some sites abound in shells, deyond
which they are not noticed, and again, in regard of
these shells, univalves are limited to some spots,
and bivalves to others. Certain other places, abound
so greatly with crinoidal relics, as to cause the
rock containing them, to be as it were encrinital
limestone, that beyond Millbay towards Stonehouse,
being an example. The looser kinds of stone, are
usually the most fossiliferous, and@both in lime and »
slate those parts of the rock which approach the
surface.*
At Yealmpton the limestone is surmounted in one
direction by dolomite, or limestone impregnated
with magnesia ; it forms on the surface, crags, (there
termed “ tors”) which are extensively subject to
erosion by weather ; it is thicker towards the centres
of the small hills which it covers, than towards their
borders ; at the centre also, it mixes greatly with
the common body of the marble, rendering the rock
partly dolomitic, while, towards the borders, it is
pure, highly crystalline, and so beautifully coloured
as to have been used by statuaries. So far as I have
yet experienced it is not fossiliferous. It appears
in small patches in some few other spots of the
neighbourhood, also at one part of the rock at Cat-
* It is presumable, that prior to the solidification of our rocks,
the animals occupying the fluids, accumulated greatly towards
the surfaces, and thence, are now found as fossils in the loose
rubbly head-stone.
IRON IN THE LIME. 535
down near Deadman’s Bay, and in one instance in
the vicinity of Torquay, besides which limestone
has magnesian qualities in a less degree in many
other places.* Although, it is most usually con-
founded with the substance of the lime which it
joins, yet, it likewise is found connected at an abso-
lute line of junction perfectly distinct ; is rarely
slaty. ‘The South Devon limestone is greatly per-
vaded by seams of calcareous spar 1m numerous
situations, and this substance (used much for garden
paths) is likewise found much in the narrow fissures
of the rock, adhering firmly to the surfaces where
the beds are approximating. It is also rarely dis-
covered in masses of several tons weight towards
the surface. Caverns and fissures} are common in
this rock, and are most generally lined on their roofs
and floors respectively by stalactitic and stalagmitic
concretions. Jasper is found sparingly in small
patches and veins in the limestone. Calaminaris
is also a reputed production of the Yealmpton rock.
Although, from defective knowledge of mineral-
ogy, I am not able to say any thing generally on
the subject, I must yet beg to introduce a trivial
notice of an uregular vein of iron, lately discovered
in the hme of Yealm Bridge. It consists of discon-
nected blocks of ore lying loose in clay, or joined
to the bed of lime ; the fissure wherein they are
found, is lined with soft slaty matter, and pursues
a course nearly due east and west, but as yet has
not been much examined ; the largest block taken
out weighs about 30lbs. Several proofs of the con-
temporaneousness of this metallic deposit with the
lime bed, here presented themselves ; Ist. a block
* See “ Guide to the Watering Places.” Part II.
+ With regard to the origin of these caves,—may they possibly
have been due to the escape of gaseous matter at the period of
deposition of the rock ?
54 VEINS OF IRON IN LIME.
was found projecting from the substance of lime,
and perfectly and originally joined"to it ; 2nd. some
of the blocks of ore, loose in clay, contain a pro-
portion of lime; 3rd. the lime generally close to the
fissure (and in other spots about this neighbourhood,
as [ can testify) contains small portions of iron ore ;
Ath. a block of ore was found having at one part, a
mark passing all round it, indicating a former divi-
sion into two parts, but subsequent consolidation,
and, on inspecting a block of lime projecting into
the fissure, and under which, the block of iron lay,
it was seen that the same kind of mark existed also
here, and passed around it, precisely opposite to
that in the iron ore ; 5th. the blocks generally le
loosely imbedded in clay, the whole of which as
well above as below them contains particles, and
is stained abundantly with the metal. This notice
will I trust be deemed satisfactory by those inter-
ested in the question of the age of these deposits.
A few solitary masses of iron have at times been seen
in the lime at Hooe, also lying loose on the surface
near Langdon, and near Brixham in Torbay a con-
siderable vein lies in connexion with the same rock.
Again, at Mount Batten another vein has lately
been brought to light in working the lime rock, and
probably it might yet be found still further metalli-
ferous In many directions, contrary to original
expectation. This bed of metal at Mount Batten
has impressions of fossils on many parts of it, shew-
ing clearly the connexion of it with the deposit of
the rock, I believe however these impressions belong
exclusively to the surfaces in direct contact with
the stone. Although, the metal is stated to be inv
limerock, and certainly doesin some measure mingle
with it, yet the substance of the lode, which consists
of irregular blocks, is actually situated in the body
of a vein of shale, (or deposit intermediate between
slate and clay) impacted between certain masses of
FOSSILS OF SOUTH DEVON. 55
lime at the junction of that rock with slate in the
hill behind, and it is suspected the lode may stretch
into its interior. Should the result be so, it will
open a somewhat new fact in mining affairs, and
may encourage the owner of the lime quarry at
Yealm Bridge, to ascertain if the vein there observes
a similar rule and direction.
ees
RA
FOSSILS OF THE GRAUWACKE SERIES IN SOUTH DEVON.
The following are some of the genera found in the LIME.
STONE of South Devyon—those which are most generally
recognised, and most important.
_ Sertularia
Flustra (Brixton, J. C. B.)
Spongia
Fungia
Cyathophyllum
Turbinolia (Catdown, &c. J. C. B.)
- Caryophyllea (Brixton, J. C. B.) see woodcut
Alcyonium
Anthophyllum
Favosites
Porites
Gorgonia
Astrea
Rhodocrinites
Encrinus
Pentacrinus
Stromotopora
Syringopora ? (Yealmpton and Catdown, J. C. B.)
Madrepora
Retepora (Mr. Hennah)
Calamopora
Ananchytes (Plymouth and Oreston, J. C. B.)
(see lithograph)
Spatangus (Ashburton, Mr. Bartlett,) see lithograph
DAS. a ee
56 FOSSILS.
Serpula (Brixton, &c. J. C. B.)
Trilobus*
Amplexus (Yealmpton, J. C. B.)
Scyphia
Spirifer
Cerithium
Pileopsis
tica
rrus
Pleurotomaria
Euomphalus (Ordnance Quarries, Mr. T. Colley.)
Turbo
Turritella
Pleurotoma
Murex
Buccinum
Bellerophon (Stonehouse, Mr. Hennah)
Orthocera ,
Terebra
Nautilus
Terebratula
Pecten
Megalodon
Cardium
Anomia
Mytilus
Mya
Ostrea
The following are the genera chiefly recognised in the SLATE,—
those which can with tolerable certainty be named.
Astrea (Yealmpton and Elburton, J. C. B.)
(see woodcut)
Spongia (J. C. B.) see woodcut
* Trilobites are found in the limestone of the South of Ireland. -
The genus is among the earliest of articulated animals, andis at
the same time characteristic of the grauwacké series of rocks.
FOSSILS. 57
Sertularia, or some allied genus (J. C. B.)
Flustra (Coffleet, J. C. B.) see woodcut
- Cyathophyllum (J. C. B.) see woodcut
Strombodes ? (see woodcuts)
Calamopora
Turbinolia (see lithographs and woodcuts)
Encrinus (see woodcuts)
Pentacrinus (see woodcuts)
Trilobus (Crabtree, P. F. Bellamy—Boveysand,
Miss Hook) |
Turbo, (Boveysand, Miss Hook) see lithograph
Orthocera (Boveysand, Miss Hook)
Fish, entrails of ? (see woodcut)
Two doubtful species ofshells (MountBatten, J.C.B.)
(see woodcuts)
The following are those genera found in SANDSTONE—those
which can be distinctly recognised.
Spongia
Alcyonium (Whitsand, Rev. Mr. Hore) see woodcuts
Turbinolia (see woodcuts)
Calamopora, (or some solid coral) Whitsand, Rev.Mr.
Hore, Mount Wise, Mr. Hennah (see woodcut)
Encrinus, (Boveysand and Holbeton, J. C. B.)
(see woodcuts)
Shells, (bivalve) Mount Wise, Mr. Hennah
The extent of this list of fossils,—which, owing
to their highly impacted manner of inclusion, their
altered shapes, their frequent dissimilarity to known
species, the great resemblance of the lower animals
to the class of vegetables, their occurrence fre-
quently in fragments, and so forth, is not near so
ample, as it may at a future day be rendered,—ought
to be considered as remarkable, more because of the
low situation of the grauwacké series in the scale
of rocks, than because of the contrast it presents to
I
;
|
58 RULES RESPECTING THE FOSSILS.
the doctrine of those, who could see zo animal re-
mains in it. But, surprising as its amplitude may
seem, this fact is of trifling interest when compared —
to the much more astonishing circumstance, that it
contains genera preserved through all the changes
of the earth, up to the present period. Indeed, a
mere glance at it will shew, that the type of structure
has been preserved nine cases in ten, and, though
many species are peculiar to these rocks, very few of
the genera (save of course certain modern names
adopted for the classification of fossils) are so,—
they are continued into more recent groups.* That
some of those kinds which from their obscurity
cannot as yet be spoken of with confidence, are
peculiar genera in the grauwacké rocks, is indeed
far from improbable. Some of these anomalous
fossils I have had represented ; they occur princi-
pally in the slate rock, but in all likelihood, many
of those unintelligible forms observed in the lime,
are likewise the remains or fragments of beings
equally strange and peculiar. There are some
also in the sandstone to which the same remarks
apply.
The limestone obviously includes the largest
amount and variety of fossils, and the sandstone, a
much less quantity than the slate, but, though the
general prevalence of some genera, (and same species
probably in some cases) through these three incon-
gruous depositions cannot be overlooked, it is to be
apprehended as above said, that the slate and sand-
stone, and more especially the former, contain animal
remains, not discoverable in the lime,—some which
are ipso facto characteristic of those strata.
* The fossils which I collected in Oxfordshire from a soil
totally different in age from our rocks, are yet in great measure,
similar to those in the limestone of South Devon.—Many fossils
of the chalk are also very similar to those of our limestone.
RULES RESPECTING THE FOSSILS. 59
I have in another place expressed my conviction
of the impropriety, if not impossibility of making
geological separations between our three’ fossilife-
rous rocks. How far this view is supported by the
similarity of their fossil contents in general ap-
pearance, and in some cases by absolute identity,
I have there shewn, and it remains for those of a
contrary persuasion, to say if a gradual increase,
and improved development do really exist in this
series, —whether, progressing from the slate, proto-
types can be detected.* Meanwhile however, till
more accurate information regarding these reliques
* An experienced colléetor at Plymouth, besides many other
persons, are of opinion, that the fossils of the slate and sand-
stone,—those at least in the immediate neighbourhood of the
limestone, are properly speaking fossils of the latter rock,
escaped as it were into adjoining strata from their own beds, but,
this is admitting a statement fatal to their own doctrine of the
separate ages of these rocks, since, the whole must have been
fluid at one time to have allowed of this escape. It has appeared
to me that, though the contemporiety of these three rocks is not
supported by an universal identity of their fossils, it is far better
in regard of their illustration to act as if separate investigations
were altogether needed, since, nearly the whole may possibly be
distinct from the others in each case.—That some few of those
in slate and sandstone, in close connexion however to the lime,
may be identical with the species occurring in the latter stratum,
might I think be most safely allowed, and should geologists see
no objection to the coeval existence of three distinct fluids, and
these separately inhabited by beings different in each case, then,
the escape of some few sorts from the lime into the slate and
sandstone at the time of solidification, may in fact be a rational
conclusion. The calamopores in slate might perhaps belong to
the lime by this mode of reasoning.
While however in addition to the fact, of fossils accumulating
much towards the surfaces of beds and strata, it seems with us to
be in great measure a rule that fossils of the slate and sandstone
occur most abundantly where lime happens to be in the neigh-
12
NT nhc aN Ps
ws ~
60 “© OLD RED SANDSTONE.”
be attained to, I would caution myself and all others
against prepossession, and endeavour to keep the
question alive, rather than hurry it to a fancied
settlement. Our ignorance as to the occurrence
of piscine remains, &c. in the lime, whilst they occur
probably in the other rocks, is sufficient proof of our
present incapacity to decide this point.
Taking the catalogue in the mass, there is as
might be imagined, a preponderance as to quantity,
in favour of the radiated animals, and especially
the crinoidee and solid zoophytes or corals, but
there is a much greater variety of forms to be found
among the conchifera and mollusca. Zoophytes
predominate largely in the lime, crinotdee in the
slate, and probably in the sandstone also.
SANDSTONE.
Notwithstanding that the prevailing rock of our
district is so generally found to belong to the class
of slates, there are a few other kinds of strata con-
stituting a part of the general mass, and of these,
the “old red sandstone” occupies a considerable
bulk taken aggregately. Its masses are usually seen
to exist as beds and hills of inconsiderable area and
magnitude, and found I believe to extend to no great
distance from the coast. They present a variety of
aspects in consequence of difference in colour, and
manner in which the fragments are conjoined. A
common colour of our sandstones is a pink, or flesh
colour, a great deal also is grey, or bluish grey, so
as to wear the appearance of common limestone in
bourhood, the species themselves do not in such cases appear
much affected by the proximity, but are in nearly all cases dis-
tinct. Those in the slate at Berry Head seem all of distinct
kinds from the species found in limestone, which is just at hand.
Those in the slate at Sandy Cove, perhaps are not all separate
from the limestone fossils.
“ oD RED SANDSTONE.” §1
the quarry when viewed hastily ; some are of a very
light blue, or lavender colour, whilst others are of
a dark aspect, being different shades of drab, and
even ash; lastly, at some spots, we have what is
generally termed red sandstone, which varies indeed
from pale, to dark brick-colour. Our sandstones are
most generally of a fissile and sectile character, the
mass consisting of flat plates placed like the laminz
of slate, and wearing on this account when super-
ficially viewed, very much the appearance of a
quarry of that substance; whilst, other sorts consist
of flattened oblong blocks, placed slantingly, or
horizontally, and some, of indeterminate shaped
blocks variously connected, and difficulty separated.
On examining the‘intimate structure of these several
kinds, further variations are discoverable ; such
as exist in the form of slabs of tolerable thickness,
are usually of a close texture, and are advantage-
ously used for flooring kitchens, &c. being regarded
as little inferior to Purbeck stone in durability ; the
generality of the quarries supply the means for
general building purposes, the refuse serving for re-
pairs of roads ; such as is of a fine grain, and free
from admixture of quartz, &c. is often employed
when cut into proper shape, for sharpening scythes
and other instruments ; the hardest and closest
grained, and which is accumulated in squared and
other shaped masses is worked into the blocks used
for paving the carriage part of streets, and it is em-
ployed thus on account of its great density and
resistance. It is cut likewise into mullars. It is
but rarely that this rock presents a really sandy
structure. Where sandstone protrudes to the sea,
it suffers disintegration readily. Very often, sand-
stone exhibits in its fracture scales which wear the
appearance of mica. Occasionally, blocks are seen
which have in the direction of their grain, dark lines
quite parallel to each other, like pencil marks on
62 8 JUNCTIONS OF SANDSTONE,
white paper ; the same colour occurs in fanciful
marks at different parts of the same light-coloured
stone. ‘Thin seams of quartz traverse these rocks
in some situations plentifully. Their dip is various,
seeming to depend on the general course of the
hills and elevations they form, but as in the slate,
they usually look southernly, or with an inclination
to the east or west.
The connexions of the sandstones form of course
the more important features of their history. When
investigated in their course, we cannot fail to notice
their strict conjunction with the fossiliferous strata,
for, besides being insulated in distinct patches
among the slates and lime rocks, alternating with
them, and presenting hills of similar height, they
are in themselves slightly fossiliferous in some parts,
and so far-as I have seen, only where they approach
or are connected to, those fossiliferous rocks,—the
fossils themselves too, being of the same class, and
perhaps sometimes indentically the same in each
instance. Moreover, the sandstones may be traced
into intimate connection and union with slates, the
diverging blocks and masses of sandstone hills,
and plains passing freely into the substance of the
other rock, and this, in its turn by reason of its foli-
ated and more subtle nature occupies the crevices,
and fissures of the sandstones at their points of
junction in beds. Occasionally, where sandstone
protrudes into slate an appearance of alternation is
observable, as occurs also, where lime protrudes
into slate, and many blocks are composed of united
sandstone, slate and quartz ; while finally, it not
infrequently occurs, that some fragments at these
spots where the strata are intermixed wear a doubt-
ful or intermediate character, an opinion of their
nature being as it were arbitrary. Precisely the
same thing I have noticed as occurring to the lime
and slate, their qualities are apt to become blended,
CLASSIFICATION OF OUR ROCKS. 63
the fragments putting on a decided slaty texture
and feel, but still displaying the presence of lime
on application of the test—these facts conjointly
pointing out the coeval deposition of the whole. 1t
is however requisite to state, that sandstone is not
only blended with fossiliferous slate, but also at
times with blue dunstone, (indurated slate) which
is not fossiliferous, and I have seen fossiliferous
lime situated between beds of “ grey dunstone” also;
so that, it will be necessary in theorizing on the
question of the deposit of these several strata, to
admit that dunstones are coeval with the other
rocks notwithstanding their deficiency of organic
remains,* or, for the sake of apparent consistency
towards the doctrine of separation of fossiliferous
from non-fossiliferous rocks, to admit the perplex-
ing and inconsistent idea of different ages of
dunstones, according to the positions they assume
with respect to other rocks, as also, to allow similar
separations of other non-fossiliferous slates from
such as do contain fossils. In fact, if we are to
apply this classification of rocks according as they
contain petrifactions or not, some sandstones will
be classed with the fossiliferous slates and lime,
and some with non-fossiliferous slates, trappean
rocks, &c. ; the true greywacké rock will be separ-
ated from the greywacké slates ; some beds of lime
must be separated from others, and even some parts
of a given bed from the rest ; the dolomite blended
as it is with true limestone will not be coeval with
that formation ; in some instances, the general mass
of a hill, or bed of slate must be ranked differently
from that part which is fossiliferous though seem-
* T have lately found, that there is an exception to the rule of
grey dunstone being devoid of fossils, in the case of a portion on
the shore at Mount Batten apparently connected to the metalife-
rous shale before spoken of.
64 DEPOSIT OF THE GRAUWACKE ROCKS.
ingly a mere continuation or portion of the same,—
and this arrangement made too in defiance of mani-
fest and great obstacles.
When we take a general and connected survey
of the facts presented by the geology of this district
with the view to frame a systematic notion of the
respective ages of our rocks, and of their mode of
deposition, the mind is inevitably perplexed by
contending problems suggested by the want of uni-
formity in the phenomena they exhibit. To select
that theory most congenial to our apprehensions
and judgments, we must draw that picture the parts
of which are the most consistent together, and the
most in unison with the results attained by exami-
nation of the phenomena of other localities ; and if
the statements of this sketch shall be found capable
of supporting, or at least not in contradiction to
the popular views of the general geology of the
globe, no useless opposition, or multiplication of
theories will be committed.
We are first to remember, that the principal basis
of the whole fabric is in all probability granite ; it
is elevated by igneous agency into hills of vast size
in the region of Dartmoor, and sweeping as I con-
ceive southwardly passes to a submarine position,
appearing however in the channel as the Eddystone
and at the Bolt Head. Besides the granite, our
gneiss, and the porphyritic and serpentinous for-
mations and some other rocks belong to the same
series. We are to consider, that the mountainous
nature of the granite is in all probability preserved
throughout its whole extent, and that this chraac-
ter would in some degree at least, influence the
appearance as regards elevation, of the strata re-
posing onit. Reflecting on the number and variety
DEPOSIT OF THE GRAUWACKE ROCKS. 65
of the remaining rocks, and still more on the partial
symptoms of gradation of animal forms observed in
the fossiliferous part of these, we might be tempted
to indulge in the notion of repeated catastrophes,
but, as I have previously intimated, the facts related
in support of the absolute connexion of the lime
and slate,—lime and sandstone,—sandstone and
slate, &c. together with the absolute inclusion of
small patches of these deposits in their beds, forbid
this supposition. We must then regard these rocks
as one series, as coeval deposits—the results of one
agency. But, though consecutive epochs have not
been employed for their depesition, it is highly
probable that the action was not altogether simul-
taneous ; non-fossiliferous slate or schist may have
been first precipitated, partly filling the interspaces
of the granite, and connectedly therewith the fossili-
ferous greywacké, siliceous and clay-slates; portions
of schistose dunstone and compact greywacké also
would occur ; while these were yet in a somewhat
fluid state, and had not as yet assumed their final
position, sandstones and limestones would be de-
posited at intervals amidst these rocks, and their
approximating fragments become blended, diffused
and projected respectively one sort into another ;
the sandstones might now acquire animal forms
from their neighbours at the points of junction, and
the limestone precipitate or fluid already charged
with the forms of primeval creation nearly through
its whole course would impart certain of those
animals to the slates, and thus account for the
similarity of these remains in the members of this
series of rocks. ‘Those who consider trapp a
“ transition rock” might say, that together with the
sandstones and limestones, our trapp rocks (never
however containing fossils) would assume their
place in the general mass, and though the usual
character of this formation and its freedom from
J
66 CONDENSED STATEMENT ON THE POINT.
organic remains are facts unfavorable to that ar-
rangement, we might indeed remember its position
among these, and, that its immunity from fossils is
nearly as reconcileable with such a classification, as
the non-fossiliferous portions of sandstone, lime and
slate, or the greywacke rock itself. In regarding this
formula of deposition,it must be recollected thatlime
and sandstone are accumulated mostly on the coast,
and that among the irregularities which occurred,
slate is often superior to them both.
I feel perfectly sensible of the want of perspicuity
in the present theory, but console myself by reflect-
ing that with our present means of theorizing, it
would be difficult to frame one more consistent than
that which supposes the simultaneous existence of
several distinct kinds of fluid occupying separate
limits in one common sea,—each also for the most
part containing its own peculiar beings, and these
turbid fluids precipitating their solid particles and
contents so nearly at the same time as to be in some
degree blended.
It may now be useful at this stage of our inquiry,
to present a succinct and connected statement of
those facts which seemingly point out the propriety
of regarding our fossiliferous rocks and their modi-
fications as coeval,—deposited with small intervals
of time, insufficient to render their separation perfect.
To commence with that rock constituting the bulk
of the series, and in some measure the basis as it
were of the fabric—
1. Slate—its various kinds are decidedly in con-
nexion, graduating into each other, and apparently
forming one mass. Greywacké rock is much con-
nected with them, and even runs through them in
veins, at the same time graduating on either side.
2. Further, it is joined intimately to, and gra-
duates most conspicuously into sandstone and lime,
forming therewith intermediate rocks, such as
CONDENSED STATEMENT ON THE POINT. 67
calcareous slate and arenaceous schist. Numerous
blendings and alternations of the three deposits
also attesting the reciprocal junctions of each kind
with the others.
8. The changeableness of the relative positions
of the three rocks likewise greatly favours the idea.
Lime is often received in small beds into the lap of
the slate, and vice versa slate occurs resting on the
lap of the lime in large or in very small patehes, or
even running through it in narrow veins. ‘The
respective relations of sandstone and lime, are
prone to vary ; and the slate intermixes greatly with
the sandstone ; 1 have also even seen the former
resting on the latter as a mere shallow bed.
4. ‘The course and dip of the three strata may in
some measure be said to be similar.
5. Lime and slate are both traversed by veins of
jasper, and slate and sandstone are greatly loaded
by veins of ordinary quartz.
6. Lime and slate at points of approximation
have been found impregnated by flinty matter. At
one spot the lime assumes a siliceous character de-
rived from the adjoining sandstone which contains
a great proportion of that matter.
7. ‘The contained fossils are often generically —
and specificially identical. ‘They are also congre-
gated greatly at the points of union of the strata.
8. ‘There is no tenable indication of progressive
improvement from a presumed lowest member of the
series of animals (or beings generally) upwards.
9. ‘The strata appear to have been connectedly
simultaneously and similarly affected by Plutonic
disturbances ; the lime (except when very solid)
and slate are both often bent towards their surfaces
and margins where the consequences of igneous
ruption might be looked for. ‘They are both also
(rarely) found bent in their very interiors.
68 OUR LIMEROCKS NOT CORAL FORMATIONS.
10. Notonly do the strata occur often in discon-
nected beds, but these beds themselves in the
instance of each of the three rocks, are also com-
pounded of assembled smallet ones aggregated
without palpable separation.
11. Thesurface of the country altogether presents
an uniform rule in respect of the arrangement of the
hills, and in general of thei heights,—the slopes
and curvatures of these whatever their compositions
are not abrupt or. broken ; towards the lime tract
also the slate hills become lower, as if to accommo-
date themselves to the elevation of the former rock,
and are gradually interwoven with it in the general
surface of the country.
A lecturer at the Plymouth Institution, as also a
writer in the Geolog. Trans. have endeavoured to
shew that our limestones are the formation of coral
insects residing in a supposed ancient sea or basin,
having the slates and sandstones for its bottom.*
Now, allowing the above statements to act as nega-
tive proofs against this notion, the following may
be here introduced as positive proofs of its fallacy.
Coral rocks such as are now forming, are of a loose
and cavernous texture, of an uniform colour, exhibit
clearly the habitations of the architects, are without
stratification, dip, or absolute course. Our lime
rocks are dense in structure, variable in colour,
rarely present the traces of polypifers, have gener-
ally decided stratification, dip, and course, conform
* This idea was not novel, for even Buffon argued against the
supposition—adducing the fact of stratification as decisive on
the point. (see De Luc’s Travels in England) So far as respects
the identity of the deposit of lime and slate, my own notion of
coeval precipitation is not new, (see Moore’s Devon) but I am
not sensible that any one has hitherto conceived the probable
eoeval deposit of the three fossiliferous rocks.
OUR LIMESTONE NOT CORAL ROCK. 69
able indeed for the most part in these respects to
connected rocks, they are remarkably uniform in
height, they contain also veins of jasper, veins of
iron, and patches or veins of slate, they have large
cay ities with generally smooth sides, they include
shells and other animal remains (quite solid through-
out) not found in the other rocks, they are blended
much with the substance of the other rocks, and,
those isolated beds in slate, or grey dunstone are in
nearly every case so affected by that circumstance
as to be of a bastard or intermediate nature.*
We are now to picture to ourselves a new con-
dition of the earth after this deposit of “ transition”
strata, and destruction of primeval creatures and
vegetables ; the surface now produced for the pre-
sent in the district now being considered, none of
those demonstrations of creative power which had
just passed into the mineral condition but of which
nevertheless, brighter and more complex instances
‘were at a future period toappear. But, though the
passage from simple to complicated creation was
here abrupt, the interspace of time was filled up by
a gradual and consecutive development of inte:me-
diate forms in other situations. Sandstones and
conglomeratest referrible it is supposed to some
following convulsion or convulsions, are found
towards the south-eastern portion of the county,
and the Bovey coal field in the eastern quarter is
* At Brixham blocks of lime occur in the body of the slate rock.
t+ Conglomerate pebbles have indeed been found here, generally
lying on the shore, or in the shingle of estuaries, (Yealm, Mount
Edgecumbe, Bigbury Bay, Boveysand, &c.) but, 1 am far from
convinced of their having been originally formed in this district,
though I confess they have great resemblance to our own sand-
stones. Have they not been loosely transported hither? Beds
of conglomerate occur however as above said to our north-east,
and likewise in Cornwall. See de la Beche’s Manual, and Boase’s
Primary Geology.
og ET
70 PROGRESSIVE DEVELOPMENT.
in itself a proof with some geologists, that an inter-
val fraught with a creation more advanced in
physical endowments had succeeded to that evinced
by the contents of our own rocks.*
The limestone, sandstone, and slaty precipitates,
which we traced as the coeval (though not precisely
simultaneous) deposits of one flood or aqueous
catastrophe, were not imposed on the granitic bed
with reference to equality of surface or method of
arrangement ; no farther rules can be detected than
such as I have pointed out ; with the few exceptions
related, no order of occurrence is observable, and
+ A late writer of eminence opposes the doctrine of progressive
development, in the various “ zoological epochs” because, contrary
to supposed rule remains of a quadruped have been found in
slate which is low in the scale ofrocks geognostically, and because
in some solitary instance the order of progression is reversed, and
so forth. I had never understood that the rule was more than
generally preseryed,—that it excluded sparing productions of the
higher classes of animals from the original eras ofthe world, or that
it prevented the superaddition of the lower tribes during the more
advanced epochs. Can the facts of a generally preserved scale of
advancement, and very often of a decided numerical predominance
of the fresh addition in the scale of improvement during each
succeeding creation,—or in short, a general rule of advancement
among those animals and tribes respectively peculiar par excel-
lence, to each geological epoch, be denied ? That every geological
change, disturbance, or revolution was attended by some change,
or advancement in the order of being as has been hitherto taught,
may however be greatly questioned. Many of these appearances
are much too local or circumscribed to admit of such a theory, in-
dependently of the positive evidence of facts, which are decidedly
averse tothe belief in numerous cases. In the present instance
of conglomerates and sandstones to our east, no proof whatever
is furnished by them or by any concomitant circumstances, that a
coincident improvement of creation attended the formation, on
the contrary, I believe they are even said to be devoid of fossils,
but whether fossiliferous or not, the influence of local Plutonic
action must never be lost sight of, as an agency of very general,
as well as irregular occurrence.
CONSTRUCTION OF OUR HILLS. 71
in lieu of a level surface the greatest irregularities
occur, and the utmost latitude of variation from
equality is universally presented. ‘The heights
however of the tallest hills, whether slate, sandstone,
trapp, or other rock, are tolerably uniform, and the
predominating stratum—slate, seems to accommo-
date in a remarkable manner, the other rocks ; for,
though the hills and ridges of the schistose formation
are so irregular in size and deviousin course, insulated
depositions of the others seem nicely blended with
it in the construction of sweeps, vallies, ridges and
simple elevations,—the outline never appears abrupt
or broken, however complex the arrangement or
numerous the component parts. The main line of
limestone pursues its eastward direction unbroken
for a great space, and throughout this course but
little appears of interrupted surfaces, broken outline,
or interference by other strata.
All this is at variance with what might be ex-
pected from the nonconformity on the part of the
slate hills to regularity or rule of course, and there-
fore strongly evinces the contemporaneous origin
of the series.
That these hills existed anteriorly to the Mosaic
deluge there is the strongest evidence ; no deluge
I apprehend would leave such a multiplicity of
simple ranges and elevations, and these having
(speaking of course independently of soil since de-
posited) such well rounded sides, protruding ends,
and intervening vallies ; no flood I conceive would
excavate a valley such as I have here seen, where,
at one spot, limestone rises into a hill on one side
and sweeping across the vale, reappears opposite,
lying in connexion with slate ; nothing but original
deposition is equal to an explanation of the tortu-
osity of the slate hills, in the arrangement of the
component fragments of which, there is found such
an evident tendency to turn, or round off in order
We Mae oP ls
72 NEW ERA.
to pursue some other direction after passing the
angles they so abundantly form,—a circumstance
quite irreconcileable with the notions of an original
general level, the lamine and fibres of the slate
having had an uniformly disposed course, and the
unlimited capacity of the deluge to excavate vallies
from the hardest as well as from the more readily
disintegrated rocks.
These roundings, contortions, and sudden pro-
jections of our slate hills may be the sufficient
reason why the dip of this stratum varies somewhat
as before mentioned. They are also the selfevident
causes of the many horse-shoe vallies or ‘‘ combes”
with which Devonshire abounds. Hills of slate
are usually formed by an uniformly directed series
of lamine, or at least by laminz varying but little
in their dip ; some few hills however are formed by
lamine dipping in opposite directions and gradually
getting vertical towards the centre. In such cases,
one of the halves will dip as do the slate hills of
the South Hams generally.
Having admitted the succession of certain geo-
logical epochs, after that wherein the lowest tribes
of beings foundimbedded in the fossiliferous portions
of our strata existed, we oncemore find our district
contributing animal remains to attest the visit of
some great revolution and catastrophe to this
immediate spot. Looking to the subjects of this
demonstrative deposit we are instantly informed
through inductive argument, that the era in which
these creatures lived must have presented compli-
cations of economy, or in other words, series of
plants and animals the former subservient to the
latter, and more than this, we gather also that the
agents in this economy must have been resident in
the very district where their exuviz are now found.
MOSAIC FLOOD. 73
Again, through the knowledge of geology in general,
and through the inference set forth by the principle
of gradation of beings from primeval creation up to
existing tribes, we are informed that the means of
destruction employed in the present case was the
Mosaic Flood.* In the epoch then antecedent to
the Great Deluge, our district was peopled by tribes
of animals and plants having a close affinity in
organization to existing races, and these, a portion
of which are hereafter to be named, were, as we
shall now proceed to shew, destroyed and swept
away by the waters of this stupendous and destruc-
tive engine.
The origin of the various structures constituting
the crust and superstrata of the globe is well known
to be wrapped in obscurity, each new deposit
counting from below, is thought to have been the
absolute formation of each succeeding flood, or de-
structive agent ; I find however, that the clay termed
diluvial, or at least some kind of clay, was in exist-
* I have here and in other places used or implied the express-
ion Mosaic flood, but without a full conviction of its propriety.
That a flood of some date occurred here in a remote epoch of the
world, and wreught the effects about to be described, I cannot
however doubt. It may be that the Mosaic flood was partial—
limited to that part inhabited by man, and that the other portions
of the earth were consecutively submitted to the same circum-
stance. This question is of so great subtlety that it cannot be
said to be decided in the works of those who have had the most
extensive opportunities of inference, and therefore for me to pre-
tend to decide the point by mere local geology, would amount to
a kind of arrogance, of which I should be sorry ta be found
guilty. Forthe sake of method, I have however chosen to adopt
a name with which none but the new theorists can find fault, and
let no one suppose that in the present caveat, I detract in any way
from Scripture.—To question the general authority of the Bible,
is to deduct from the authority of God, but, to question the signi-
fication given to certain words of Scripture by mere men, is to
deduct from their anthority alone.
K
74 ANTEDILUVIAL CLAY.
ence before this destroying element wrought its
effects upon us, since, clay of a dark red colour,
and even another sort,—white, with intervening
river gravel, and at one spot an addition of sand,
from a bed on which the “ diluvium” and its
animal contents repose, in the Yealm Bridge cave,
besides other kinds existing inmany crevices of lime
rock apparently inaccessible to diluvial matter, but
in probable connexion with the shale existing in
the rock.
There can be no necessity for searching out
evidences of extravagantly stupendous force exerted
by the Flood, when its actual character and extent
of power appear in the following indications. It
swept over the lands and carried with it the diluvial
clay, which it eventually deposited on a great
proportion of the surface as for the most part a
shallow stratum. Although it appears on the gener-
ality of hills and elevations, it necessarily subsided
and accumulated in the vallies and lower portions
of the country, and, since the vallies are deepest, and
the ground altogether lowest towards the coast, the
clay and debris driven by this flood chiefly occur
at these parts. We are to bear in mind, that this
flood was not a mere inundation, or simple power
of mixing the fluid element with the softer and finer
particles it would encounter, but, that it was ina
highly agitated state, and capable of acting on the
erosser and larger bodies lying in a free condition
on the earth ; accordingly, it rolled trappean, dolo-
mitic, granitic, and other blocks, after dislocating
them from their more or less trivial connexion with
their parent beds down into vallies, and in some
instances, even in contrary directions to their gra-
vitation. There are spots, where large masses of
these rocks appear imbedded in sand or diluvial
clay, separated as it seems from their original site
at a higher elevation.
DILUVIAL OCCURRENCES. 79
It removed the pebbles constituting beaches, and
the beds ofrivers, and conveyed them even to eleva-
ted spots ; besides the occurrence of these in caves
nearly on a level with the general subjacent soil,
they are discovered not infrequently in the smaller
cavities towards the top of limerocks, and usually
in the substance of a clay deposit. It removed
loosened fragments of limestone, and scattered them
in the vicinity of, and on the bed to which they be-
longed, as seen plentifully in the vicinity of Plymouth,
especially in the caves and fissures of the limestone,
whither the substances whirled by the fluid would
naturally tend ; itis not uncommon to find consoli-
dated masses of bone, clay, pebbles, stalagmite, and '
irregular pieces of limestone in these hollows; and I
lately saw a mass of firmly united rough fragments
of limestone of several tons weight which had
fallen from the brink of a lime quarry, where it
had rested in a natural excavation of the rock. If
acted on, and lossened the smaller and superficial
fragments of slate and sandstone, carrying them
with the general body of clay, in all the irregula-
rities of its course. This mass of commixed clay,
schist, sand, pebbles, and other uncertain frag-
ments proceeded to fill up caves, fissures, and all
the small crevices in the several kinds of strata ;
some caves however are filled exclusively by sand,
and some solely by clay, whilst the ordinary mixture
is noticed in the spaces between certain parts of
strata, as between trapp and slate, trapp and lime, &c.
This mixed diluvial deposition is moreover seen in
various places where natural hollows and pits had
originally existed, and sometimes distinct stratifi-
cation and alternation of the substances may be
noticed. With respect also to the clay separately,
it in some measure so acted on its harder portions
as to roll it into balls like small boulders ; specimens
of which occur in some of the caves of limestone.
K 2
76 DILUVIAL OCCURRENCES.
It carried bones of animals, with clay, stones, &c.
into caves, or conducted those already there, deeper
into their recesses. It conveyed quantities of sand
towards the mouths of caves, and there left it to
close up their apertures as now seen. Finally,
though it did not disintegrate and excavate rocks
into the form of vallies, it unquestionably swept
before it the substances already spoken of, and
therewith would generally round off and smoothen
the inequalities presented by the rocks by choking
up the hollows of a smaller kind, and depositing
debris as a covering to projecting asperities ; while
in its retreat it would by its tide-like undulations
effectually heighten the cireularity of the sides of
the hills, by depositing matter in all the slight pits
and excavations; and, evacuating these abodes for
the last time, would draw within its power the va-
rious loose bodies deforming the evenness of the
sweeps, and fix them in more requiring situations.
A great deal also would no doubt be carried onward
to the subsequent marine beds; and the vallies just
left by this devastating though in one respect
ameliorating flood constitute a kind of vallies of
denudation, aterm, which though itchiefly expresses
the act of carrying away the looser fragments of the
rocks constituting their sides and bottoms, must
be understood to imply also, the act of depositing
in lieu a covering of diluvium, by which the surfa-
ces were rendered smooth and fruitful.
It is a very common circumstance to find in the
neighbourhood of our sea, and estuaries, large depo-
sits of diluvium accumulated in the small natural
hollows and depressions of the rocks, where, secure
from demolition by the elements, or by agricultural
proceedings it has lain as_ originally deposited
through the long series of post-diluvial years. These
accumulations consist most generally of clay, with
impacted pebbles of sandstone, quartz, granite,
DILUVIUM. 77
schorl, and several sorts of trapp. Diluvium is seen
to the greatest advantage on our cliffs, where,
through the ceaseless destruction committed by the
waves, sections both of the rocks, and superincum-
bent soil are exhibited to the geologist. At Bovey-
sand, in addition to the diluvial bodies just named,
pebbles of calcedony, chalk flints, and agates (the
two last having occasional impressions of polypifers,
and being no doubt similar to those in the direction
of Haldon) are far from uncommon ; these were no
doubt carried by the waters from their native beds
at some distance. ‘The general body however is
composed of clay, with an affinity ofminute fragments
of schist crammed or compressed together with
wonderful consolidation as the effect of its own
gravity through a long period; here and there
scattered through the mass, appears a pebble of flint,
trapp, schorl, or granite, similar to those accumula-
ted in other spots with aless quantity of clay. In
one part, this diluvium is composed only of sand,
and a few pebbles firmly consolidated. In another
spot the clay 1s wanting, having perhaps in the
lapse of time escaped from between the large peb-
bles by their weight and by its own tendency to be
dislodged from impending positions. ‘To some, this
last kind of accumulation might wearthe appearance
of an ancient beach, but, its connexion with the
whole range of diluvium just spoken of should be
borne in mind, and the following are sufficient
reasons for considering the entire mass as of that
nature, and not the remnants of an ancient beach—
the presence of clay in abundance,—the presence of
the transported pebbles, (not only agates and flints,
but, such as granite, &c.) above named,—the com-
mixture of the various components,—the situation of
the mass in small hollows of the rock,—the presence
of a preponderance of small bits of schist,—the ex-
istence of exactly the same accumulations in-land,
and lastly, their various elevations.
78 CONSECUTIVE DEPOSITIONS.
I have said that a strict classification of rocks
according as they contain animal remains or not,
is inadmissible, and, that to recognise this principle
in drawing out a theory of the deposition and age
of our own strata we must lose sight of plain indi-
cations of a contrary tendency. Iam not however
saying that “ zoological epochs” as set forth on the
large scale are factitious or arbitrary, and I here
revert to this opinion in order to state with candour
that if one were inclined to favour the idea of con-
secutive depositions of our strata, it would receive
support from these facts : 1st—some of our strata,
or parts of strata are devoid of fossils ; 2nd—some
parts of the strata contain a very sparing quantity
of the lowest tribes of animals ; 3rd—some parts of
the slate contain a profusion of fossils, some of which
are of a higher grade than those sparingly scattered
in other parts of it; 4th—the limestone contains
petrifactions of far- greater variety and generally
higher order than those found in the slate; 5th—the
slate contains some organic remains not found in
the lime; 6th—I must add also, that though the rule
is far from being universally observed, lime and
sandstone which contain the highest organised
remains, for the most part preserve the highest or
most superficial position in the series of our rocks.
Our lime is said to repose between slate on the
north, and sandstone south, but, as I have elsewhere
shewn, this rule is valueless.
Whatever may have caused this curious arrange-
ment, I am of opinion that the equally curious
classification of bivalves, univalves, zoophytes, &c.
one sort apart from another, as observed by the
Rev. Mr. Hennah in the limerocks, belongs to the
same series of phcenomena ; besides which, I am
now enabled to add, that a partial order of this same
nature may be noticed in our slate fossils, though,
through ignorance of their specific names, I cannot
here venture on an accurate account in proof.
THE DEPOSIT, COETANEOUS. 79
Upon the whole, I think | may with confidence
refer the reader to various observations I have been
able to introduce in refutation of the plausibility of
this separation of our rocks in respect of the fossils
they contain, or on the other hand, in respect of their
fossiliferous and non-fossiliferous condition. I en-
treat the naturalist to dismiss the speciousness of
this doctrine from his mind in favour of more solid
and convincing arguments, and, in concluding this
part of the subject, I wish to draw his attention to
one other fact illustrating as I conceive the novel
conception here indulged in, of a complicated and
gradual, though coetaneous deposition ; this is, that
in numerous quarries of the three fossiliferous strata,
but more especially in lime, itis seen that distinct
and separate beds of the substance have been laid,
so that, while on sure data we have contended for
consecutive steps in the nearly simultaneous pre-
cipitation of the several materials, as also for a
deficiency of precision in their mode of occurrence
and for their intermixture, there is here ground for
supposing that the same rule of quickly-succeeding
precipitations extended even to the separate kinds
of rocks respectfully, and it is worthy of being con-
sidered, whether this fact may offer any explanation
of the local occurrence of the majority of our fossil
specimens.
80
Table of the moreimportant Igneous Rocks, Strata, and
other Deposits of South Devon.
NS Igneous Rocks, upheaved at different
GRANITE, |periods. They existed probably in a some-
SERPENTINE, earth prior to their elevation, and it is also
SCHORL ROCK, | |rational to think, that some portion of them
HORNBLENDE,) oF their modifications, have had their pre-
sent elevation from some more ancient era,
jor even ab initio. This class of rocks is
termed by many geologists “ Primitive
Formations.”
what similar form in the interior of the
AND OTHER
TRAPP ROCKS.
Rocks of the Transition or Greywacke
group, and so far as the south-west of Devon
is concerned, apparently coevally deposited.
The source of the substances of which they
SLATE, are constituted is very problematical, but,
though the immediate derivation from prior
SANDSTONE. | existing rocks is questionable in respect of
the lime and slate, it is hardly so in regard
of the sandstones.
LIME,
> Substances formed or removed to their
CLAY. present sites apparently by the passage of
a vast current of water over the land, but,
haying no solidifying power on the disin-
OF FRAGMENTS tegrated particles, orsevered and transported
ACCUMULATIONS \ |
OF ROCK, jportions of rock, The clay may possibly
PEBBLES, shave been derived from the argillaceous
SAND, &C. formations previously existing. Aggregately
these substances are called “ Diluvium.”
I have omitted the mention of gneiss, porphyry,
greywacké rock, and various other modifications of
the above characteristic or typical strata, these
being considered elsewhere. In the above table
also, I have not included the sandstones and con-
glomerates of the south-east of Devon, respecting
the formation of which, there appears some peculi-
arity, and to which perhaps the above remarks do
not apply.
’ '
:
‘ 5 i Mh
fy Oy, cs; :
, woe
ANTEDILUVIAN BEINGS. op |
We pass on to notice the other series of animal
remains afforded by this district, with a view to
positive discrimination of species. We said that
our district must at one period have presented com-
plications of economy among living beings, that,
series of plants and animals had their existence
here anteriorly to the “ Deluge” which we imagine
overspread the ground and annihilated them. Itis
surprising however, that of this chain of beings
some only of the connected links are now found.
There are four spots where relics of this era now
spoken of have been recognised, and they consist
so far as I have learned and experienced, of the
highest tribes of animals alone.* _ It is still more
curious, that even these have been found solely in
caves,—they have not been met with in the diluvium
of this district external to these cavernous deposi-
tories. But, that the stratum in which they repose
is diluvial matter no one can doubt, since it is so
thoroughly analogous to the same deposit without,
in its several characteristics before recited.
The caves wherein these antediluvian reliques are
deposited being in each case of limestone, stalag-
mitic incrustations are formed on their floors, and
on the substances from time to time introduced ;
accordingly, confused collections of clay (of antedi-
luvyian date, as I suppose) and stalagmite, occur
*Very lately however, Mr. T. Colley found a nerita in soil just
over a bed of lime, many feet below the surface, and it may pro-
bably be a question, whether the Bovey coal formation may not
be hereafter classed with diluvial deposits. It has hitherto been
ranked among later depositions, and its circumscribed occurrence
is indeed somewhat unfavorable to its arrangement among depo-
sitions so general as are those attributable to the diluvial epoch.
Besides consisting of the remains of trees and grasses, a few shells
have been found in this coal. Fine specimens of jet have occurred
there, as I am informed.
L
er RN
se
. oa
Mr
82 BONES IN THE ORESTON CAVES.
over their stalagmitic floors, and after the diluvial
clay and its contained exuvie were superposed, we
naturally see afresh deposition ofthe same calcareous
mass, and again, on any new substances overlaying
this, they also will receive a similar envelope. In
consideration of this continued filtering from the
rock, it will be possible generally to determine the
relative ages of the contained bodies. It must how-
ever be recollected, that the capacity of furnishing
these limy particles varies in different portions of
the rock, and in some spots no percolation whatever
takes place, so that, bodies lately introduced may
be invested by a large amount of stalagmite, and
vice versa, substances deposited for a very consider-
able space of time may be covered by a shallow
envelope of the same. Instances to this effect may
be noticed around Plymouth.
The four stations at which our fossiliferous caverns
occur, are Oreston, Yealmpton, Berry Head and
Torquay. The Oreston caves investigated by Mr.
Whidby who published their description in the
Philosophical Transactions, are thought by Dr.
Buckland to contain the remains of antediluvial
animals which had perished by falling over the
precipice of the caverns, whilst hunted in the case
of the ox, horse, &c. and whilst hunting, as in the
instance of the tiger, or hyena; he thinks their
carcasses were deposited on the projecting ledges
of rock, and were afterwards carried by the Flood,
together with various diluvial matters, deeper into
the recesses. Dr. Buckland and Mr. Hennah in
their respective works affirm or imply that no bones
of the larger mammals occurred in these caves.
They are however both in error, as I have bones of
the elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus from
this locality, in my possession. I conceive these
fragments were washed down amidst the diluvial
matters. De la Beche observed that the remains
’
OSSIFEROUS CAVES AT YEALMPTON. 83
were always collected at the bottom, and beneath
large accumulations of fragments of rock. As I had
no opportunity of examining the Oreston caves, I
can offer no decisive judgment on the somewhat
contrasted opinions of Buckland and De la Beche,
in respect of the phenomena they presented.
I have lately received from Oreston a curious
tooth, which I am not able to assign to any species
of animal; it was taken out of a small fissure of the
rock, unconnected with those caves in which the
great assemblage of bones just alluded to was
found. This tooth is represented in a woodcut.
The animals to which the bones in these caves at
Oreston, as also those in the cave at Torquay be-
longed, being the same as those found at Yealm
Bridge of which particular notice is taken, I have
not thought it requisite to repeat the names.
The second spot where this class of ‘remains
occurs is Yealmpton, my own residence. Here a
series of caves has at various times been brought to
light ; one very similar to that at Yealm Bridge (of
which I shall presently give a precise account) was
found by the quarrymen a few years since, and its
contents thoroughly destroyed ; near this, a small
cave has since the discovery at Yealm Bridge, been
investigated by a gentleman on whose property it
occurs ; its contents were quite similar, save in
variety and quantity, and the bones of the hyena
and deer were those principally noticed; again,
among the pebbles and rubbish of Kitley cave
which adjoins the village, I found an hyzna’s
tooth, and a fragment of the head of a hare, or
rabbit, there is also a bone of some quadruped
firmly fixed among the diluvial pebbles in that
part of the cavern which seems to have been
choked up with those bodies :—facts which are at
variance with the account of this subject given by
Colonel Mudge in his paper read before the Geologi-
L 2
84 HY-ENAS.
cal Society, though I am not prepared to say any
more than he, that this cave had been employed
like that at Yealm Bridge as an hyzna’s den, on the
contrary, | conclude that these solitary specimens
were washed in with the diluvial matters ; near
Yealm Bridge is a cavity of small dimensions, and
here,among the pebbles, brecciz and mould, I found
after a long search, a single tooth of a pig cemented
to a portion of indurated clay ; the chief instance
however, is the cave at Yealm Bridge* which 1
found to contain a set of relics not inferior as to
number of species to that examined by Professor
Buckland at Kirkdale, the cavity itself also pre-
sented superior accommodation, in regard of height,
though its length was much less. Before proceeding
to the precise description of this, it must here be
understood, that among the several species ofanimals
inhabiting our lands in the antediluvian era, there
were some which had the habit of appropriating
caves and fissures of rocks as dens, to which they
habitually resorted to repose, or to devour their
* On September Ist, 1835, I published the account of this cavern
in the “ South Devon Monthly Museum,” with a feigned signature,
and on March 23rd, 1836, Colonel Mudge, who had in the interim
heard of, and examined into the facts, read a memoir on the
subject before the Geological Society, in which however, the dis-
covery is ascribed tome. In the Penny Cyclopedia, Colonel M.
is implied as the discoverer! This circumstance should serve as
a caution to persons who fortunately possess any information
worthy of public record, not to sacrifice the sole reward of scien-
tific research which is to be reaped in this country, by choosing
a work and a method of publication which necessarily prevent the
world from placing credit in the right quarter. By reference to
Nos. 23 and 37 of the “ Edinburgh Journal of Natural History” ©
it will be seen that I have acknowledged two extracts from the
Colonel’s account in a new report of my discovery, and have in
return, set Colonel Mudge right on some important particulars
which 1 had superior opportunities of becoming aware of.
DR. BUCKLAND’S VIEWS. 83
prey, and of these, there was one remarkable for fe-
rocity and strength,—the hyena. Hyzenas of the
present day are known to be unsparing in their
habits, their physical powers are prodigious, they
drag huge carcasses to their dens, attack success-
fully the largest quadrupeds, and even at times
sactifice the aged and young of their own species.
The acuteness of Dr. Buckland has opened to the
world a new and most interesting view of the
generality of fossiliferous caverns,—he discovered
convincing evidence that they were employed by
hyenas as their domiciles, and that the majority
of exuvie found in them had been submitted to
the action of their terrific jaws after being drag-
ged to these abodes. In the Kirkdale cave he
discovered proofs that their predatory powers had
not been limited moreover to the destruction of
herbivorous creatures, but, that like hyznas of
our own times, they had not spared their own
kind. I have found it a most interesting circum-
stance to trace the resemblance of the facts
displayed by my newly discovered cave, to those
offered by the cave of Kirkdale, and must here
observe, that they are strangely correspondent.
Perhaps however one difference should be noted,
namely, the probability that more than one preda-
tory animal appropriated our cave as a place of
habitual resort. The circumstance of a double or
triple entrance leaves room to admit this, and, as one
proof of the employment of the cave as an hyzna’s
den is gathered from the vast quantity of their bones
and teeth which was collected there, (as though a
generation of the tribe had in process of time been
consigned to a common grave) there is a similar
indication in respect of the fox, since the remains of
this beast are next in abundance to those of the
hyena, and were congregated in one chamber of
the cavern.
86 YEALM BRIDGE CAVE.
As therefore I have once before said, Southern
Devonshire in the immediately preceding epoch to
the “ Great Deluge,” harboured a race of ravenous
quadrupeds which preyed on another race of the
harmless or herbivorous kind. Besides which,
there existed with these, other creatures of a some-
what intermediate character, or less decidedly pre-
daceous, and again, others whose exact relation to
the series cannot be determmed ; these however,
were mingled with the general mass, and there
occurred in the last place, solitary teeth of the large
mammals, which I rather conclude were driven in
amidst the diluvial clay, &c. at the time of the de-
luge, than conveyed thither by the hyznas whilst
connected with the carcasses.
OSSIFEROUS CAVERN AT YEALM BRIDGE.
In the summer of 1835, having casually heard of
certain bones, met with in the progress of working
a limestone quarry at Yealm Bridge, I undertook
to investigate their. value, and the circumstances
under which they occurred, the present account
regarding only the bare facts which obtruded them-
selves to view.
Lime-rock abounds at Yealm Bridge, and caverns
and fissures are not unfrequently disclosed to view -
during its removal for economical purposes. That,
on the southern side of the river at this spot, rises
to a great height; and before its consumption com-
menced, its bed projected to the banks of the river.
It was in the upright surface of the rock, that the
opening or openings of the cave probably formerly
existed ; but the memory of man can render no
account concerning these original entrances. I say
a
DEPOSITS OF THIS CAVE. 87
entrances, for as there were certain chambers to the
cave, each pursuing different directions to the
surface, it is reasonable to suppose there were an
equal number of apertures ; besides which, the fact
of the remains of the predatory beasts here dis-
covered being disposed so that each kind was
generally speaking separate from the others, seems
to point out independent and unconnected move-
ments of these creatures.
- A great part of the cavern had been destroyed,
and a large quantity of the bones removed, and
irrecoverable, at the time we commenced the inves-
tigation. The relative positions, directions, and
measurements of the remaining cavities, are stated
by Colonel Mudge as follows :—“ Portions of only
the eastern and western chambers remained. 'The
former consisted of a descending shaft to the depth
of ten feet, which turned at right angles, and again
ascended to the surface, both the descent and ascent
being at an angle of 45°. Of the western chamber,
a portion remained uninjured. From the present
opening, it takes a northerly direction for forty-three
feet, the height varying from five to six feet, and
the breadth from four to five. It then turns westerly
for twenty-five feet, the height varying from five to
twelve feet, and the breadth from three and a half,
to five.”
Several deposits arranged as superimposed strata,
occurred in this cavern. 'The lowest stratum con-
sisted of compact red clay, three feet six inches
deep. Above this was found a layer of argillaceous
sand in the eastern chamber, and of coarse gravel
in the western chamber, the former varying in depth
from six to eighteen inches, and becoming broader
towards its limit ; the latter not exceeding six in-
ches in depth. Over these respectively, a bed of
stiff white clay (since become red) presented itself,
being in depth about two feet six inches. Lastly,
88 RECENT EXUVIA.
above the whole was an accumulation of diluvial
clay, three feet six inches deep, containing pebbles,
and the osseous remains. A stalagmitic crust of
variable thickness formed an almost general co-
vering to these strata and animal remains., Such
were the appearances, and number of deposits,
where the space was sufficient and circumstances
favorable.
In one direction, where the cave had communi-
cation with the surface by means of numerous, small,
circular, lengthened apertures, an alternation of thin
beds of clay and stalagmite was observable; and,
contained in the substance of this stalagmite, we
discovered the bones of three or four species of mus,
which however, we have not been able to identify
as the remains of existing kinds. One of them is
certainly allied to the water-rat, and another to the
common field-mouse. Besides these, there were
some recent exuvize found in connection with the
diluvial clay, namely, certain snail shells, and the
bones of a bat, both of which creatures are known
to hybernate, and not unfrequently to experience
death in such places. ‘There were likewise other
relics, of the antiquity of which we are not clearly
satisfied, since it is the habit of very many animals
to appropriate such cavities for dwellings, to betake
themselves during night, during sickness, during
winter, or as a resource when pursued, to the hol-
lows and crevices of rocks ; and since, by a variety
of causes, their bodies after death are liable to be
found blended with such as are the genuine pro-
ductions of a former epoch.
The pebbles found in the uppermost stratum are
certainly granitic and trappean, derived in all like-
lihood from Dartmoor, or the adjoining river, which
continually washes fragments of those substances
from their beds, in the course of its passage from
its source, to this place. Brecciz, (or conglomerates
ANIMALS OF THE CAVE. 89
of clay, fragments of rock, bones, pebbles, and
stalagmite,) coprolitic masses, bodies resembling
indurated adipocere, portions of rich spongy fibrous
clay, and patches of black mould, were also dis-
tributed through the same bed. No hair was found.
The bones were in great number and variety, and
for the most part it appeared, that besides the se-
parate occurrence of those species which are pre-
daceous, such as the fox and hyena, there was
moreover, a separation of the herbivorous from the
other kinds ; but this may have been accidental, and
it must be recollected that this account refers only
to such portions of the cavern as remained for our
examination. Itis forthe same reason difficult, or
impossible to state the proportions borne by the
different kinds to each other ; but, if the facts pre-
sented by these remaining portions of the cave could
be allowed to furnish such a statement, it would be,
that the rapacious exceeded in number the other
creatures. Very many dozens of hyenas’ teeth were
collected ; and in one small spot having an area
not greater than four feet, 1 extracted seven dozens
of canine teeth of this animal. Next in frequency
of occurrence to the bones of the hyena and fox
were those of the horse, ox, deer, sheep, and rabbit.
After these, ranks the rhinoceros, whilst the bones
of the elephant, wolf, pig, glutton, bear, and duck,
were extremely rare. Phalangeal bones and a very
few others were all that I found perfect, the rest
being in a broken state. The long bones had gener-
ally lost their epiphyses, and very many, not
excepting those of the hyzna, were marked by teeth
of some predatory beast, and evidently show that
they had been chipped and gnawed. One or two
fragments display on their surfaces, scratches re-
sembling those made by the teeth of a weasel, or
animal of that kind. ‘Teeth of very aged animals
M
90 ANIMALS OF THE CAVE.
were found, and there were also bones of young in-
dividuals belonging, with the exception of a few of
the hyzna, to the herbivorous kinds. The remains
of the elephant are indeed confined to two teeth of
a young animal. Some of the bones have been at-
tacked by inflammatory disease, and this occurs
among the larger kinds of teeth which also in
some instances are fractured, as if they had been
submitted to great violence. Some pieces of bone
are on one side highly polished, as if they had been
subjected to great friction ; and Colonel Mudge
observed a part of the roof of the cavern which is
lower than usual, perfectly smooth and glossy, as
though it had been rendered so by the frequent
transits of the tenants of the cave.
It is very difficult to determine on the precise
number of species of animals found in this cave,
since, besides that a very great quantity of the
bones had been originally destroyed, our knowledge
of*fossil osteology is as yet very imperfect, and the
broken condition they were found in, precludes
the possibility of identifying a great many of them,
even with the greatest facilities of comparison with
other specimens. Add to this also, that not un-
frequently fragments, and even teeth, are met with,
which baffle the keenest discrimination, that a
degree of uncertainty with respect to date often
attaches to some of the animal remains deposited
in ossiferous caverns, and that sometimes from a
disparity in size, conjoined with a similarity in
shape and figure of some series of teeth, a doubt
arises whether there may not have existed several
analogous species of such animals. This kind of
doubt has unavoidably arisen in the present inves-
tigation ; but it seems most reasonable to conclude,
that there were two or even three species both of
deer and horse, since there are series of teeth of
these genera greatly differing in size.
CHEMISTRY OF THESE BONES. 91
Notwithstanding that the bones from this cave I
so fortunately discovered, betrayed no symptoms of
altered character so far as external aspect and
superficial examination go, being to appearance in
no way different from bones which have been ex-
humed after a few years’ interment, it is natural to
inquire whether in their intimate composition,
alterations cannot be detected, whereby some in-
formation may be added to the chemistry of bone,
and to the inquiry concerning the operation of those
circumstances under which these bodies were so
placed, as well as concerning the period during
which they have lain entombed. So far as respects
the hard earthy portion of bones, it seems that when
excluded from the action of air, they will remain for
ages unaltered ; though when I exposed some of my
specimens for two or three days and nights to the
action of the weather in a rainy season, they soon
split ahd cracked, showing proofs of incipient dis-
integration. Even without this exposure to the
weather, the whole of my specimens suffered so
much from contact of the air, as to oblige me to use
a kind of varnish* for their protection. But, this
decomposition must be regarded as the effect of
unusually lengthened age ; for in general we see
that bones of ancient date do not suffer in this way
on being brought to light. Besides the durability
of their external figure, these bones had lost much
of their moisture, and had imbibed in lieu the drop-
pings from the cavern, which convey much of the
calcareous matter oftherock, this latter circumstance
in particular, determining their very absorbient
quality. Ifthe lips be applied to them they are
found to adhere tenaciously. With respect to the
animal part of their composition, I shall have
* Gum arabic and brown sugar dissolved in water, and diluted
to the consistence of very thin gruel.
M 2
92 CHEMISTRY OF THESE BONES.
to offer a modified opinion. That it is somewhat
lessened in quantity in all bones of this class and
date, I have no doubt ; but, I also think that there
are differences dependent on the bone selected for
examination, on its being entire or fractured, on its
situation in the cave, and so forth. If you experi-
ment on a small fragment, the result will seem to
bevery different from what it is when experimenting
on an entire bone, at least so far as regards the
ordinary method.of employing muriatic acid to dis-
solve the earths and exhibit the remaining animal
portion. Thus, when by experiment I endeavoured
to determine the comparative difference between
these, and bones of ordinary occurrence, I found
that after selecting a fragment of fossil bone and a
piece that had lain exposed on the high-road for
some months, each weighing a half drachm, and
putting them in maceration in glass vessels, violent
and rapid escape of carbonic acid gas, due nd doubt
to the imbibed calcareous matter, proceeded directly
on the fossil piece being immersed ; gradual corro-
sion, or rather gradual removal of the earthy
portions was soon evident, and in the space of
seven hours, nothing remained of the original frag-
ment but a small spongy, flocculent mass, or pellicle,
weighing eleven grains. On the contrary, the other
fragment gave off slowly and deliberately gaseous
matter; the process of removal of the earths was
not finished for a very long time, and in the end,
the original form ofthe immersed piece was retained ;
it was soft, fibrous, flexible, and elastic, and weighed
eighteen grains. But again, my brother finds that
in exhibiting the animal form of bones, no external
difference is observable between specimens of this
kind, derived on the one hand from a phalangeal
bone of the fossil hyzna, and on the other from
any common bone. The first seems to exhibit the
fact as well as the other; but I decidedly think
BONES OF MICE, 93
there is a diminished quantity of the albuminous
substance, thoughit may not appear so. Mr. Martyn,
in his“Treatise on Fossils,” speaks cautiously on the
subject of the chemistry of fossil bones by saying,
through Professor Playfair, that they often contain
a portion of gelatin (or rather, by recent examina-
tion, albumen) in their composition, particularly in
their interior, the surface only having undergone a
change. In other instances, he adds, the gelatin
(albumen) is wholly displaced, while a greater pro-
portion of carbonic acid than that which existed in
it originally is found united with the calcareous
matter. Those in the Rock of Gibraltar seem to
have been so circumstanced. It seems from Professor
Buckland, that the bones at Oreston contained less
of albumen than those at Kirkdale. The question,
therefore, respecting the composition of fossil bones
must be answered in a cautious and qualified
manner, and with reference to the conditions of
each particular case.
The occurrence of the bones of mice in the sub-
stance of some of the stalagmite, is a circumstance
to which too much attention cannot be directed in
framing a theoretic statement of the age of the con-
tents of this cavern, because, as before mentioned,
they are not identically the same species with those
now in existence, and from their peculiar position
might seem not to have been contemporary with
the other animals. Yet, in consideration that other
specimens of these remains were discovered in the
diluvial clay, it may not be unfair to suppose that
these found in stalagmite were so impacted pre-
viously to the catastrophe which effaced the whole
series of antediluvian creatures, during indeed that
period in which the hyenas and other predatory
beasts employed this cavern, or its compartments,
as their dens. There is the same analogy or re-
semblance of these mice to the present kinds, as
ES
;
94 CAVES AT BERRY HEAD AND TORQUAY.
subsists between the other antediluvian creatures
and their representatives of this day,—the same
remarkable affinity. Looking also to the wise pro-
visions of Nature in regard of food, we see that
these small creatures would hold a decided relation
to the predaceous habits of the animal I have ven-
tured to designate glutton, from its evident similarity
to our mustelo gulo.
Very recently, a set of bones similar to those met
with in our other caverns, have been found in a
cavity of the limerock at Berry Head, on the south-
west side of Torbay, by the Rev. F. Lyte, but no
particulars have as yet been received. I am informed
however, that over the fossil accumulation, there
occurred human remains, and works of human art.
Still more recently, another deposit has been found
near by, the bones of the elephant predominating.
Near Torquay is a considerable cavern called
Kent’s Hole, which has in its day drawn great
attention from the novelty of certain facts in con-
nexion with it, and which were laid forth to the
public by the Rev. J. Mc. Enery. The fossil bones
there discovered, were of the same class and cha-
racter with those before enumerated, but it seems
also, that in this cave were found the remains of
man, and a variety of articles of chace and warfare,
referrible to an ancient race of people.
In that long period of the occupancy of this
lsland by its primitive tribes, preceding its invasion
by foreign nations, and before indeed, history
recited anything concerning it, caves were adopted
as human abodes, as places of shelter from enemies,
and moreover, for the purpose of the burial of the
dead; and hence, though in the immediate neigh-
BONES OF MEN IN FOSSILIFEROUS CAVES. 99
bourhood of which I have a more particular
knowledge, no instance of this adopted residence
has occurred to me by which I might speak on the
subject from personal investigation, I am here
enabled to afford the reader some information on
this curious inquiry, illustrated by the contents of
the above named cavern at ‘Torquay.
A dispute has been long in vogue, and still
lingers among the learned in antiquity, as to the
equality or disparity in age, of the ordinary fossil
bones of caverns, and of the human remains and
works of art occasionally found in the same spots,
and more or less associated with the former. For
my own part, I am wholly unable to judge in this
matter by the aid of history or antiquarian know-
ledge, but, after a perusal of the “ Reliquie
Diluviane,” I came to the persuasion, that no theory
could be more rational than Dr. Buckland’s, or
would at all bear comparison therewith. Subsequent
and frequent consideration of the question has
always tended to confirm me in my first impression,
save that I am not thoroughly convinced that our
fossil bones belong to the period preceding theMosaic
Flood, or that this deluge was universal. Not long
since, I was informed by a very celebrated and
learned antiquary, who himself supports the idea
of the coevality of the animal and human remains,
that Mr. Mc. Enery willing and anxious to support
Dr. Buckland’s ideas, when asked—* Did you, or
did you_not find human bones in this cave?”
reluctantly and hesitatingly replied inthe affirmative.
In Natural History, not only is the mode of argu-
ment in great measure peculiar by its rigidity, but
the autoptical examination of subjects is, (or ought
to be,) by its extreme scrutiny and discrimination,
peculiar also. The present case is one decidedly
illustrative of this assertion, and will serve to shew
the necessity of a full inquiry into facts before
96 MR. Mc. ENERY ON THIS SUBJECT.
conclusions are deduced. It was imagined from
Mr. Mc. Enery’s mode of answering, that his theory
had been shaken by the evidence afforded by his
own eyesight, whereas, in point of fact the question
had been put without reference to circumstantial
detail, and the perfect answer to it which I shall
here furnish out of a letter from that gentleman to
me on the subject, will rather shew, that a blow
has been levelled against the opponents of the
Buckland doctrine, which they will find it difficult
to parry. To Mr. Mc. Enery, I am under great
obligation for the kindness and unreservedness of
the communication which here follows, and I doubt
not, that the public will duly estimate its scientific
import.
“‘T have found human bones, and works of art,
“such as pottery and articles of flint, such as
“arrows, knives, and axes, fabricated of silex,
“* beneath the stalagmitic crust, and in association
“‘ with the relics of fossil mammalia, but decidedly
“‘ under such circumstances as left no doubt on my
“ mind of their having been introduced subsequently
** to the fossil bones. My opinion is, that the ground
“ or crust; has been in several places broken up for
“‘ the admission of human bodies belonging to the
* aborigines, who made this cavern their dwelling,
“(in the absence of better accommodation) or
“hiding place from which they sallied forth with
“the rude weapons in their hands (that they had
“fabricated there, of flint, stone, and bone, the
“ sreat laboratory of which was near the principal
“‘ mouth) in pursuit of game. In some cases, their
“‘ dead were covered up with the materials thrown
“up from the pit, (namely, red loam charged with
“fossil bones, rounded and angular stones, &c.)
“‘ mixed with fragments of a rude pottery, and their
“ primitive weapons. In other places the bodies
““had been burnt and the ashes enclosed in ums,
HUMAN BONES, &c. IN THESE CAVES. 97
“into which were thrown minute arrow-heads, and
“ slender pins of bone. The cinerary urns were in
“course of time crushed, and overlaid by masses
* that loosened by changes of temperature, separated
“from the vault. Both descriptions of sepulture
“were slowly glazed over, and in many places
“ deeply encrusted by the calcareous matter which
“unceasingly distils from the roof and sides. An
“ artificial covering was thus formed over the recent
“as well as ancient deposits, which were thus as
“if confounded by a common seal. Hence all the
“mistakes of superficial observers respecting the
** presence of human relics in the same bed with
“* fossil.”
To say that the bones of men and their works
occurred in the cave, is to say nothing more than
that some ancient race of people had at some period
used this cavity as their domicile, or sepulchral
ground. To say even that their bones, &c. lay
under a considerable coating of stalagmite, separated
moreover from the antediluvian reliques by a less
considerable layer of this crust, would be to express
nothing more than that the filtering from the rock
had continued subsequently to the period when
the bodies or bones of these men had been con-
signed to, or laid in this grave, as I have before
shewn when alluding especially to stalagmzte ; and
if the separate beds of this crust should exist in a
ratio of thickness of the inverse order, it might
simply indicate that the power of transmitting cal-
careous particles varied at different periods, though
I only insist on this as a possibility. But, waving
this kind of argument, it seems that in respect of
the present case, the mode of occurrence of human
bones and works of art is explained very differently.
In the same way, I have had the question put to
me, “ Did you not find human bones, or any relics
of ancient human art?” I answer,—not the least
trace of one or the other shewed itself.
N
98 DR. BUCKLAND ON FOSSIL OVINE BONES.
I have a letter by me from the pen of Dr. Buck- —
land, wherein he warns me I had perhaps been
hasty in ascribing certain of the bones of the Yealm
Bridge cave, to the sheep. A careful comparison
however of these with bones of our present existing
species, and due reflection on their actual position in
the cave,issufficientto warrant the name assigned to
them, and Messrs. Clift and Owen, of the Royal
College of Surgeons have on examination confirmed
my opinion. Dr. Buckland imagined their absence
from the ossiferous caves with which he was ac-
quainted, tended to prove that no tribe of men
were contemporaneous inhabitants of our island
with the hyenas, elephants, rhinoceroses, &c. &c.
whose remains occurred in the caves of Kirkdale,
Oreston, Hatton-Hill, Torquay, &c. But, I must
be allowed to remark, that nothing can forbid our
allowing the existence of a species of sheep in the
epoch now alluded to, though the absence of ovine
remains would indeed strengthen Dr. Buckland’s
position. Itis quite as likely that a kind of sheep
existed, as the species of ox or horse. Ovine bones
occurred under the stalagmite in the cavern at
Berry Head.*
*In a subsequent ietter, the learned and obliging Professor
shews how a fallacy similar to that mentioned by Mr. Mc. Enery
might occur, relative to the age of ovine bones found in caverns,
though, his remarks which I here give, do not apply in either of
the above named cases. “ Nothing is more common than to find
“ the remains of sheep and lambs in the same cave with bones of
“hyenas laid irregularly over the surface of the floor, and the
“accumulation of these is due to foxes that in modern times
“have frequented these caves, and dragged into them their prey,
“ as they sometimes also, dig deep holes in the diluvium within the
“ cave, which holes, in the course of time get filled up again ; it is
“ very possible that a sheep's bone falling into one of these holes whilst
“ open, may subsequently be found at agreat depth in the diluvial clay
“ thus disturbed, and may seem to be of the same age with the bones of
« extinct species by the side of which they lie buried.” In the cayern
THEORIES OF LYELL AND FLEMING. 99
It is now very much the fashion to adopt the
notions of Mr. Lyell and others, in considering
present agencies as the powers which have in lapse
of time caused the several stratified deposits of the
earth, and brought fossilized animals into their im-
pacted or other positions. Again, Dr. Fleming
expresses his opinion that our cave-animals were
not destroyed by the (a) Flood, but, were extermi-
nated by the influence of man their cotemporary.
With regard to the first idea, [ think it the most
untenable of all modern doctrines, and with respect
to the latter, it has its refutation in the absence of
all remains of human bodies and human art, from
the same stratum and same condition wherein the
bones of the animals themselves are laid. To which,
and the other proofs usually adduced against this
fallacious argument I will here add, that if the
sheep, ox, and horse were at this said era subjected
to man, a large portion of what would constitute
the quarry of the hyznas, wolves, and foxes is
withdrawn, and the series which seems so perfect
in regard of proportion between the rapacious and
the herbivorous tribes, is broken up. It seems also
very unlikely, that these aboriginals unversed in
the arts of altering through domestication the sizes
of their retained animals, should have had horses
of such varying stature as the teeth from the Yealm
Bridge cave indicate there existed as distinct
species at the period of the occupation of our coun-
try by this series of quadrupeds.
Whenever it can be shewn that human bones are
actually at times fairly associated with animal
adjoining Yealmpton Village, a bone seemingly of an ox is fixed
partly in the stalagmite, and is no doubt due, as Dr. Buckland
above says, to the habit of foxes which habitually convey their
food to the recesses of caves (where such are conveniently situa-
ted) for the purpose of secret consumption.
N 2
eer
bakit
iy . 7
=
100 CAVE ANIMALS ALLIED TO PRESENT KINDS.
remains of the tribe found in our caves, I acknow-
ledge that the ideas I have here advanced must as
a consequence be relinquished; but I firmly believe
it never will be shewn, and so far as the doctrine of
the identity of the cave-animals with the animals of
the same names now in existence may derive
support from the apparent great similarity generally
found, those who side with me need be under no
apprehension, for besides that in some instances
ereat differences in size can be detected, minor
disagreements (superior however to those betwen
existing individuals of a species) may be found in
the majority of the remaining cases.
The naturalist, versed in an actual knowledge of
the law of affinities and disagreements as exhibited
amongst living tribes of creatures, is prepared to
understand and argue that the very considerable
affinity which subsists between these antediluvian
and existing animals is not greater, or rather it is
generally speaking less than is exhibited between
nearly related species of the genera now resident on
_theearth. And, if the rule of gradual elevation of
living beings through the various epochs up to the
typical perfection of the present zra be accredited
as sound, we havein the history ofthese cave-animals
evidence of their age, and relation to*the postdilu-
vial epoch by the point of perfection displayed in
the organization to which they reached, while,
in their similarities to the creatures which they
prototyped, we trace trivial though positive lines
of demarcation, pointing to the natural separation
between the creatures of the respective periods.
The assumption that the large mammals of this
antediluvian race were inferior in size to those of
the present day of the same names, in consequence
of difference of climate from that experienced by |
the latter, is not worthy of credit until this difference
be further shewn as probable, and it is to be obsery-
CAVE ANIMALS ALLIED TO PRESENT KINDS. 101
ed, that other animals obey a contrary rule ; some
teeth of a species of horse are gigantic as compared
to the generality of living instances, the fragment
of hare’s skull which I found at Kitley cavern must
have belonged to a much larger animal than our
lepus timidus, and the parts of the hyzena’s skull
contrasted with a cast of our Cape hyzna’s im-
presses the mind with the terrific force the former
species must have possessed in its masticatory
apparatus beyond that of the latter,* so that alto-
gether the rule of diminutives is far from being
inviolate.
* M. Cuvier, says the hyena fossilis was one third larger than
our present species allied to it, but so far as my own comparison
of these species goes, I should imagine the difference had been
rather over-estimated by him.—The elephantine teeth from the
Yealm Bridge Cave on the other hand, due perhaps to nearly
full-grown animals, are absolutely diminutive in comparison with
those of recent species. (see woodcuts.)
102 THE SERIES OF CAVE ANIMALS.
CALALOGUS
Of those animals whose remains. have been
| discovered in caves of limestone in South Devon,
i. shewing at one view the proportions which subsisted
Se between the different kinds of these original
occupants of the country. /
Hiver ~~}
Hyena
bas ‘ * Carnivora.”
Fax Animals subsisting on living quarry
Glutton |
Weasel J
Pig
Horse, (2 or 3 species of ) | “ Pachydermata.”
Elephant - Animals living on plants,
Rhinoceros branches of trees, &e.
Hippopotamus
Ox “ Ruminantia.”
Sheep Animals living almost
Deer, (2 or 3 species of ) wholly on grass.
“ Rodentia.”
Water Rat Animals subsisting
Mouse, (perhaps 2 species of) eT :
Hare, or Rabbit On pan) Bia
“ fruits, &c.
.
probably herbivorous and _ insectivorous,
Duck | conjointly.
HABITS OF THE CAVE ANIMALS. 103
~The whole of these remains except the tiger and
hippopotamus, were found in the cavern at Yealm
Bridge, but only a part in the other caves of the
district. Their perfect similarity to those of other
caves in different parts of England, and the
Continent, establishes their identification with the
series,—a series exhibiting a probability that at
the period when these animals inhabited Europe,
circumstances were in great measure different to
those now present, since they seem to have been
unsuited to the existence of avast variety of beings
‘now constituting the natural products of the
continent of Europe and its Islands. Regarding
the foregoing catalogue only so far as the mammals
are concerned, the ~ series may appear tolerably
perfect, because the rapacious creatures hold a
strict relationship to the herbivorous, but then
insectivorous quadrupeds are deficient, such as the
mole, shrews, and hedgehog; and though there are
a few granivorous animals, and such as subsist on
wild fruits and the bark of trees, we have no positive
data for affirming that remains of trees and plants
have as yet been found, which can undeniably be
stated as belonging to the same era, and as having
furnished the provender which the greater part of
the above named creatures naturally required, and
doubtlessly had provided them.—It may indeed
hereafter be ascertained, that the Bovey coal and
clay deposit represents as to its own extent, the
remains of that vast abundance of forest and other
productions belonging to the period we are now
speaking of; but at all events we are certain, that
a condition of the country different from that now
seen, was essential to the maintenance of the crea-
tures which then possessed it. The elephants would
need forest tracts, inasmuch as they seek shelter,
and feed principally on the branches of trees ; the
rhinoceroses would require marshy lands of some
104 CONSIDERATIONS AS TO THEIR CONDITION.
extent; and the hippopotami large lakes, or deep
and capacious rivers ;—morasses, jungles, and ex-
tensive shelter would be required for the accommo-
dation of tigers, hyzenas, boars, wolves, &c.—plains
for the horse, and peaceful ruminants. Whether
this condition of the land were antediluvian, and
whether the climate to which these animals were
subjected, were different from the present, are
questions still sub judice, but there can be no
rational doubt that the state of the country was
ereatly, though perhaps notessentzally different from
what might now obtain independently of cultivation.
As in the examination of an animal or plant, the
mind inevitably traces out its connexions to others,
its internal economy, or its uses in the scheme of
creation, or to ourselves ; so here, when by the ex-
amination of petrifactions and fossil bones, we are
enabled to look back to former ages of the world,
and to call up to our view by the magic aid of
science the former aspect and condition of this por-
tion of the earth, we find the subject blended with
and inseparable from the theories and arguments
concerning the epochs of the globe, the changes
which it and its inhabitants have undergone, and
the immutability of the laws of nature.
In quitting this subject I cannot forbear from
one remark on the theory of geological deposits,
that, since different situations afford such varying
phenomena and features of connexion and deposi-
tion, and such differences in their fossils, we
might hence gather an important lesson on the
‘propriety of allowing peculiarities to local geology,—
that, although some few general rules may be arrived
at in a review of the general geology of the globe,
especial rules may be detected in the geology of an
island or continent and again others in the geolo-
gical appearances of mere localities, and that,
notwithstanding authors have been industrious in
7
4
Pe ‘tae
ar) a an
ame 7 at. Pn oe? ee a
CONCLUDING REMARKS. 105
the framing of such rules it will most likely become
more and more obvious that they have been set
down hastily, and under the guidance of only par-
tial knowledge, that, in short, certain of these
presumed laws of deposition and connexion are
not unfrequently reversed by unqualified evidence
in local investigations. ‘To carry with us precon-
ceptions in investigating the geology of districts,
implies error of the worst kind and greatest amount
as their consequence. There can be no difficulty in
admitting that Nature may have chosen to vary the
detail of her plan of action in an infinity of ways
during the gradual process of the construction of
our earth in its different parts, and it should ever
be remembered, that in proportion to existing
complications of arrangement and number of
substances in the first instance, will be the ratio
of ee complications induced by succeeding
revolutions. Experience of every passing day
clearly shews us how greatly naturalists have been,
-and still are stupified by preconceptions, and
prepossessions of book learning.
ee RY TI SENT Oe De
POSTDILUVIAL RA.
Chapter WH,
ALLUVIAL GEOLOGY OF, & RECENT GEOLOGICAL
ALTERATIONS IN SOUTH DEVON.
It comes within the province of Geology, to examine
next in order those deposits, and those alterations
that have taken place on the surface of ougland
since the time it was visited by the flood last re-
ferred to, and though this inquiry involves somewhat
of antiquarian research, itis included more especially
under the present head and is elucidated by internal
evidences, just as fossils dug from an ancient deposit
in the interior of the earth bespeak its characters,
history and age.
It might be imagined that as the subjects and
events to be examined, occurred nearer to our own
times, and some perhaps, even under the eye, or
during the time of the ancient inhabitants of the
Island, they would admit of clearer demonstration
and less equivocal language than have been em-
ployed in the foregoing consideration of diluvial
and antediluvial strata and remains. But, unfortu-
nately our anticipations of perspicuous evidence in
these matters receive disappointment at the very —
outset of our speculations, and the main features of
our collected thoughts and aggregated accounts con-
sist of unresolved questions relative to the diluvial
or postdiluvial origin of certain soils, and certain:
RETREAT OF THE FLOOD. 107
remains of organized creation,*—undetermined
queries as to the powers of existing agencies,—un-
satisfactory acquaintance with the more abstruse
departments of physical science as applied to the
condition of the earth’s nucleus, the motions and
powers of the tides, &c.,—uncertainties as to the
change of river courses as one of the results of
the Deluge, besides various other doubts of minor
importance.
In pursuing this enquiry, I shall as in the ex-
amination of our more ancient geology contrive to
enumerate circumstances consecutively in the order
of their occurrence, commencing with the era im-
mediately following the Flood whose devastations
and effects I have been endeavouring to depict.
That the waters of the Deluge on their subsidence
retreated to an elevation not far different from that
now presented by our sea, we have proof in the
circumstance of “diluvium” occurring not much
above the present tide on the cliffs round Plymouth.
Such accumulations of travelled pebbles, and
debris, would, I apprehend, appear chiefly where
the power of the waves was finally exhausted and
their action spent. ‘There is also proof which I
* Polwhele records the remains of the moose deer as having been
found in Devonshire (bogs of Bovey Heathfield I believe) ; also
the “ debris of numerous hogs.” Borlase mentions the discovery of
“ part of a fossil horn” in slate rock, in Comwall. Vancouver says
that in the parish of Cruwys Mortchard was discovered the cele-
brated “ fossil bacon,” (p. 24.) It is necessary to ask, what were
the particulars of these discoveries, and how far they are authen-
ticated, before bestowing confidence on such reports, or assigning
them to any era. There may be some doubt as to the age of the
nerita before alluded to. The Rey. Mr. Hennah obtained from
the Oreston caves, bodies having all appearance of snake’s eggs ;
they were imbedded in stalagmite, and are therefore probably
modern. I procured from the Yealm Bridge cave, some bits of a
root of a tree ina small crevice, in a semi-fossil state.
O 2
108 ANCIENT FORESTS OF THE COAST.
shall presently adduce, shewing that at some remote
period, the level of the sea was even far below what
it now is, but it is not material to decide whether
that state was assumed immediately on the retreat-
ing of the diluvial waters, or by gradual or sudden
subsidence in Some period afterwards.
Subsequently to the occurrence of the Deluge,
animal and vegetable existence again attained to
its ordained condition in the prescribed series of
improved developments of organic forms, and in
additions to the catalogue of species. Not only
the present race of animals, but many also now
exterminated by human means, had undisputed
dominion on our lands. Forests of wonderful
extent afforded them the needful shelter ; these ex-
tended to the very limits of the land seawards,
and not only sheltered the wild creatures of that
period, but gave protection to the aboriginal occu-
pants of the soil. Around the entire coast of Great
Britain, submerged forests have been detected in
the sand and shingle immediately within the limits
of the water on the full ebb of spring tides,—attest-
ing that at an ancient period the Island had a
greater elevation than now, above the sea. ‘These
relics, consisting of species now growing with us,—
the oak, beech, hazel, Sc. have been noticed in a
variety of situations on the northern, eastern, and
western coasts, but still more so on the southern ;
they have been found on the shores of the Isle of
Wight, on the shores of several southern counties,
on the shores of the Channel Isles, and withus have
been noticedin Mount’s Bay, in Torbay, at Polperro,
at Boveysand, at Sandy-cove adjoining Plymouth,
in the bed of the Lara, and in some other spots.
Neither are there deficient evidences of a like kind
inland ;—the roots, branches, and even leaves of
trees (Jir, beech, oak, hazel, and alder) have been
exposed to light at considerable depths in the peat
DESTRUCTION OF THESE. 109
and marshes of Dartmoor, and it is probable from
the occurrence of the marks of the axe on some
specimens, and the discovery of ancient weapons
in soils and beds of the same age with these re-
liques, that the remnants of these original woods,—
those portions not engulphed by the ocean, or oc-
curring more decidedly in-land, were felled and in
great measure obliterated during the strife for
supremacy between those tribes who occupied the
Island at the commencement of the first period of
history.* Again, additional proof presents itself to
a like purpose at Mount’s Bay, and at the Land’s
End in Cornwall, where, setting aside probable
exaggerations, remains of buildings have been
discovered of very ancient construction, and at
great depths beyond the shore. (Carew’s Survey of
Cornwall.) The geological connection of the strata
of the Scilly Isles and Land’s End, the occurrence of
clay on the former, (?) and the mconsiderable depth
of the intervening sea, give great reason to appre-
hend an original junction by an intervening tract
of country. Moreover, ancient historians (charac-
terized indeed by want of accuracy, deficiency in
solid proof, and a singular disposition to perpetuate
mere tradition, equalled by a credulity in popular
reports and falsehoods) are in every instance agreed
in a general assertion as to former connections of
the islets off the coasts of Great Britain, with the
main land ; there are likewise among them a number
of coincident remarks constituting in a general way
historical evidence of a considerable invasion of the
* A roman cuirass was dug up at East Brent a few years ago.
A Roman implement of warfare or chace has been found deeply
imbedded in the Dartmoor peat. Another of the same class was
discovered in shallow soil at Yealm Bridge. Some celts were dis-
covered at Ingsdon some few years ago. (Jones Guide to Scenery
of Ashburton, p. 22.)
110 TORBAY ONCE A WOODED TRACT.
ocean either just prior to the possession of this
country by man, or during the first era of his
residence.* Warner in his “ Cornish Tour” places
implicit belief in the assertion of William of Wor-
cester, that St. Michael’s Mount was situated six
miles from the sea previously to the tenth century.
But. however this may be, the connected evidence
of geological enquiry on the one hand, which points
out not only vegetable remains of existing species
at present within the grasp and territory of the
ocean, but even the remains of an ancient beach
still further out within its precincts, and of histori-
cal record (in great measure vague and equivocal,
yet coincident as to general report) on the other,
fully attest that at one time our sea stood mutch
further out than now, and suffered communication
over dry land, between certain elevated points at
this day severed by intervening ocean.
Torbay undoubtedly presented at one period,—
namely, contemporaneously with Mount’s Bay and
the tract of land above spoken of,—a low, swampy,
forest tract. Submerged trees of the kinds before
named have been recognised on its shores, and the
alder an accompaniment of rivers, has been drawn
up, as I am informed, from the very centre of this bay,
the depth of which is inconsiderable, and which is
* Nennius, who wrote twelve centuries ago, reports that there
subsisted then, a tradition of the Isle of Wight haying formerly
been united to the British Coast, he adds, that the name of the
Isle is derived from an old British word signifying a rent or
separation. Still however, the disjunction could have been but
partial, as appears from this last fact, and the report of Diodorus
in the first century, that the Romans at the ebb of the sea, con-
veyed their tin in carts from Hampshire to the “Isle of Vectis”
or Isle of Wight. It would appear that in the time of Ptolemy
the great Geographer, namely shortly after Diodorus, the number
of small Isles was much greater than at present.
PERIOD OF INVASION BY THE SEA. 111
furnished at its entrance with an imperfect bar, or
bridge of rocks formerly perhaps protecting this
area of country from the sea. Had the ocean
tenanted this basin a greater number of years, no
doubt this barrier would ere this time ne dis-
appeared.
It might be conceived, that since tite, Bovey
Heathfield formations consist of dicotyledonous
trees, &c. in an imperfectly mineralized state, and
associated with clay, gravel, &c. they were con-
temporaneous with the submerged forests of the
coast, which are moreover, likewise accompanied
by clay. There are however no indications of a
beach so far removed from the present sea-mark as
is the site above mentioned ; the elevations of the
sea subsequently to the last great geological catas-
trophe do not seem to have devastated the land so
extensively as to have reached that far. Had the
ocean risen to such an extent, and continued long ©
enough in that position to have partially mineralized
vegetation, unequivocal proofs would have been
bequeathed to us in regard of the exact line of its
innovation. Besides which, the relative positions
of the trees and clay are in the two cases opposite ;—
in the one, the clay was carried over the country
_ by the powerful undulations of the devastating and
outspread element, and finally deposited wpon the
vegetation which had been sacrificed by its ravages;
in the other, the sudden and limited rise of the sea
overwhelmed the forests of the coast, whose found-
ation consisted of clay the proceeds of the very
flood which had preceded. Could it be shewn,
that besides the mineral state of the trees of the
Bovey basin, specific differences exist between
them and those submerged on the coast, the ques-
tion would be settled beyond doubt.
What that period was in which the sea rose
upon the land (or land sunk into the sea) to such
rT? SURMISE AS -TO THE TIME.
an extent we must ever remain ignorant. Warner
indeed, gathering his notions from William of Wor-
cester would make it appear that the irruption
happened in the tenth century, but unfortunately,
this latter author is not content to speak of forests
and wild beasts on the land occurring between St.
Michael’s Mount and the sea, but adds that there
were 140 parish churches* in the tract of country
which had intervened between the Mount and the
Scilly Isles, an assertion so remarkably wild as to
deduct at once from theimportance of his evidence.t
It would rather appear, that this elevation (sinking)
had occurred prior to the visit of the Romans, for
it is well established that the small vessels used by
these people in the exportation of their metal from
the mines of Dartmoor, came up the Plym as far as
Plympton Castle, at the foot of which was situated
the Roman camp. Now,if so remarkablean elevation
of the sea (sinking of the land) had happened during
the Roman settlement, there can be little reason to
suppose it would have escaped the notice of their
historians, and had it occurred after their time, it
would surely have received still more decisive
record. Pytheas of Marseilles, whose narrative
dates back before the time of the Roman invasion,
* Churches were not generally built till the time of restoration
of peace after William the Conqueror was crowned, say about the
year 1070.
+ A passage in Virgil refers to a similar oceanic irruption
affecting the Italian coast,—severing a portion of land and so
forming the Isle of Sicily and the Straits of Messina.
“ Hec loca vi quondam, et vasta convulsa ruina
(Tantum evi longinqua valet mutare vetustas) ;
Dissiluisse ferunt cum protinus utiaque tellus
Una foret ; venit medio vi pontus, et undis
Hesperium Siculo latus absidit, arvaque et urbes
Litore diductos angusto interluit estu.
Eneid 3rd, line 414 ete,
CC See ee
NATURE OF THIS INGRESS OF THE SEA 113
mentions the sea around Britain rising eighty cubits
on the land. In a question however of this kind
which involves so much obscurity, the object must
necessarily be, to assort together as many geological
phenomena as can be consistently made referrible
to, and accordant with some acknowledged points
of history, or historical epochs, where these seem to
lend assistance in the investigation.
It certainly appears that this primitive disturb-
ance of the ocean after the period of the Flood was
not of a violent description, for it has been ascer-
tained that the submerged trees at Mount’s Bay,
as also those discovered by Dr. Fleming in Scotland,
and in other situations by other observers, are in
an erect posture, a circumstance incompatible with
the exertion of great force.
In this tdea of a gradual though in great measure
quiet mode of ingress to the sea, I am supported by
the fact of the absence of marine remains from
these deposits, proving, that during the event no
forcible irruption of the ocean, such as would trans-
fer and mix its own contents with the productions
of the adjoining land, took place. It has been found
also, that the fresh water plants and shells, such
as were the products of the swamps and low lands
wherein these forests were situated, are in some
instances still preserved, and the leaves of the
trees have, in I believe all cases, been found to have
accumulated among and over the timber of these
submarine beds, shewmg clearly, how little the sea
interfered with them at the time the usurpation was
effected. ‘The clay moreover, or soil in which the
trees grew, is in many cases still found around
their roots and the fallen trunks and limbs, and the
occurrence of this stratum certainly gives these
submarine deposits a relative age with regard to
what are termed our “ diluvial reliques.”
114 ANCIENT BEACH ON PLYMOUTH HOE.
From evidences afforded by this neighbourhood,
or rather by the elevated beaches (which contain
specimens of shells of existing species) presented
to view in the cliffs of both south-western counties,
it would seem that the rise must have been con-
siderable and temporarily fixed.* The usual height
* The height of raised beaches referrible to a modern epoch
varies greatly ; at Coquimbo they are said to be raised above the
sea 400 or 500 feet : recent shells were found by Mr. Lyell from
30 to 90 feet above the Baltic. The average elevation in Devon,
Cornwall, and Somerset, is found by De la Beche to be 40 feet,
Ancient beach on Plymouth Hoe. Owing to the recent alterations
on the Plymouth Hoe this object of curiosity has been nearly
removed. Going however lately (May, 1839) to look for any —
remnants, I found that at the “ Western Hoe” at an elevation of
about fifty feet above the present sea, the quarrymen had laid open
to view a most interesting section of a remaining portion about
twenty feet in depth ; the circumstances I noted to be as follows :—
the entire body of the beach rested on smoothened rock ; it sloped
very gently seawards, that is to say southwards, and had no in-
clination to dip east or west, as if the upheaving force had tilted it
to one of those points ; the mass consisted of thin beds or layers,
from one to four or five inches thick, regularly superposed or stra-
tified, and varying most systematically from extremely jine sand to
tolerable-sized pebbles, the several sorts never appearing to exchange
position, but keeping uniformly to those beds to which they
belonged in regard ofsize ; each layer formed a solid cake, in-
creasing in compactness towards the centre of its depth ; the
layers also were greatly cemented together, but not so firmly as were,
the components of each distinctive stratum ; the top differed from
the rest in being several feet thick, and in being composed of sand
of uniform size, and in great measure loose or incoherent. My
idea is, that such phenomena different as they are from those of
present beaches, imply a gradual elevation of the sea—(sinking
of the land)—a continued series of trifling impulses, whereby
fresh and varying deposits were with short intervals superposed ;
that-no tilting to the east or west occurred during this upheaving
as supposed by some, but that all the elevations betrayed along _
the Hoe east and west, are consistently referrible either to one —
BEACH ON PLYMOUTH HOE. 115
of the ancient beach on Plymouth Hoe (now nearly
destroyed) is about 30 feet above present high
water mark. The rock on which it rests is often
smoothened, and specimens of pholas dactylus are
slope of beach, (as some may think, though I incline to think not)
or to the graduated mode of elevation, so especially indicated in
that one spot just particularized.
With regard to the accurate assortment of the pebbles consti-
tuting the various lamine of this ancient beach, it appears to be
occasioned by tbe different power which the sea employs at the
times of its agitation, since, the degree of force which it has will
occasion a difference in the size of the bodies which it throws
up,—when the momentum is considerable, the rush of fluid dis-
dains the smaller substances, but selects those presenting more
considerable surfaces, and vice versa. Where extensive areas of
beach occur, this fact is apparent in the different sizes of the
pebbles found assorted as it were over its whole extent. Near
Portland in Dorset is a beach of this kind, and so regularly are
the pebbles disposed over it, that at night, fishermen or those
frequenting it, by merely examining with the hand the size of
the pebbles on which they are standing, can tell with tolerable
accuracy on what part of this extensive line of shingle they are
situated.
S ge ZEDe DD Is OF:
a5 Gu DID POU E
BSS ES
2g — uly
S FM EEE :
Sw og IIL EEA
= Ss > Ls, << 2 ———
———S A 7
= "Ip Sr Sey
= a. eg WW
~ q
Piece of the ancient beach, shewing the consolidation of its strata
towards their interiors.
P2
Rie eT NS ee en ee Spt ae eer
116 DE LA BECHE ON THIS SUBJECT.
found in it ; and the roundness of the pebbles, and
existence of these shells in the smoothened rock,
sufficiently shew that the sea rested there awhile,
ere it again sank towards its future bed. A few
years ago a portion of a Roman Galley was brought
to light in excavating at Newnham Park, which
again shews how high the sea was situated at that
time on our coasts, or at least to what extent the
river was there navigable on occasion of high tides,
and throws some light also of a negative description
on the period of the elevation.*
That its action was not violent may also be fur-
ther gathered from the very partial dislodgment
effected on the “ Diluvium” of our neighbourhood.
It indeed may have washed away from their beds a
vast number of pebbles, and scattered them on what
would subsequently be, the shingles and beaches of
the present day, but it had not sufficient power to
obliterate what we may now rank as the traces of
diluvial accumulations.
Mr. De la Beche has as [ think on too trivial
grounds endeavoured to shew, that the beach on
the Hoe was raised prior to the time of the en-
croachment of the sea above mentioned, and during
the residence of the hyzenas, rhinoceroses &c. whose
bones are found deposited in caves of limerock,
and of which I have already made record. Now, I
submit to the readers of that extremely useful book
the “ Geological Manual,” that the circumstance of
the occurrence of “ angular fragments of limestone”
on the old beach is not sufficient evidence that it
was raised during the period of those. creatures
above whose remains at Oreston ever so large a
quantity of these fragments have been heaped, I see
* See an acccunt tending to a similar conclusion in respect of
Scotland, in Lyell, vol iii. p. 267. A Roman Galley has also been
dug out in Romney Marsh very lately.
DE LA BECHE ON THIS SUBJECT. 117
no reason why these pieces could not have been
derived from the cliff at the time the sea rested
there, or why in very modern days they could not
slip “‘ by the force of gravity, assisted by meteoric
causes” over the ancient beach. But, allowing
even that this circumstance occurred at the time of
the “ great weathering,” or that it affords a relative
date for the origin of the beach, which it certainly
does not, I feel emboldened to observe that accord-
ing to Mr. De la Beche’s own most cautious method
of induction, the vast assemblage of fragments of
limerock at Oreston caves, on the Hoe, and else-
where, could not have received those positions by
a cause less considerable than a body of agitated
water, such indeed as would annihilate existing’
tribes of beings, and per force hurl them, together
with fragments of rock which the element had se-
vered or dislodged, into caves and hollows of the
earth. I therefore entirely differ from this learned
author in his inference “ that the beach was raised
during (he should have added by mere logic—or
prior to) the existence of these animals—hyezenas,
rhinoceroses, &c.”—and there is not only in this
portion of his work deficient proof of his own
shewing, to this effect, but likewise deficient proba-
bility from other reasonings,—for, if he would wish to
connect together the elevation of this beach with
the existence of the above named animals on our
land, I remind those who have faith implicit on the
entire contents of his book, that while the shells in
this said beach are admitted to be identically the
same species as those now in our sea, the cave
animals of our district are not (neither does Mr.
De la Beche think they are) related to existing
Species further than through analogy ; and it is well
known, that this difference alone would be sufficient
with many geologists to excite a strong suspicion,
if not a confirmed opinion of the latter animals
118 ANCIENT BEACH AND DILUVIUM.
being referrible to an zra more ancient than that to
which the former can be ascribed ; and in short, it
leaves with other reasons, grounds for consigning
the beach to the same epoch as that wherein the
forests now submerged and containing proofs (as
Mr. De la Beche acknowledges) of belonging to the
present zra, flourished. In truth, admirable as is
the “ Geological Manual” as a book devoted to a
consideration of facts, and the more valuable as
being destitute of a leading theory, its author has
overlooked the necessity of making local facts
accord together in respect of time, and making
them harmonize so far as possible and to the
needful extent with the general geology both of
this country and of the whole world. Accordingly,
superior as Mr. De la Beche’s reasonings are to the
generality ofmens’, he appears to me from this anxiety
to provide a special theory for every case and to
the exclusion of general considerations to have de-
parted occasionally from his rule of careful induction.
It must be confessed however, that the discrimina-
tion of ancient beach from those deposits referrible
to sudden oceanic ingress, or to the action of waters
overspreading and devastating the land, is far from
easy,—their characters so often approximate, they
are so often situated near together without pre-
senting defined characteristics, they would both
for instance be accumulated greatly in hollows, clay
might perchance escape into the substance of the
former structure, and as previously intimated, not
only would diluvium-occur at alvariety of elevations,
but likewise ancient beach might in the progressive
rise of the tide to which it is ascribable, be accu-
mulated at a variety of heights above the present
sea-mark. So complex are Nature’s operations in.
the department of geology, so approximating and
interchangeably associated the features of the
various substances and phenomena she presents.
NATURE OF THE SEA’S RETREAT. 119
Yet notwithstanding these difficulties it certainly
seems that the appearances of the ancient beach
of Plymouth Hoe, and the identity of the animals
connected with it with those now existing, provide
for it a relative date,—an age separate from, and
indeed posterior to, that of the cave-animals.
To resume :—With respect to the retreat of this
tide, Lconceive that if it had been by successive steps,
these beaches around the cliffs of Devon and Corn-
wall would certainly be traceable downwards to
the present ones, which they cannot; and it is
accordingly probable, that as the movement of the
land in its retreat must have been dependent on a
similar cause to that which produced its ingress,
both actions were accomplished in one manner,
namely by quiet, continuous subsidence, and quiet
and continuous elevation.
To trace this retreating tide to its ultimate level
is a matter of no small difficulty, because it appears
that during the last centuries, the sea throughout
the whole of the northern countries has been con-
tinuedly falling from the land, besides which, an
effect of no mean magnitude is exerted on the bulk
of our neighbouring sea by the great diminution in
the size of our estuaries and inlets,and athird power
of an opposite character to the two former consists
in the vast bulk of the Atlantic waves which are
perpetually driven towards the south-western parts
of England,—tending to increase somewhat the pro-
portion of sea by which they are encompassed. So
that, whilst the accumulations of alluvial matters in
our estuaries, and the diminished bulk of our
rivers as compared to their ancient condition, and
the gradual sinking of the ocean from the coasts of
northern countries, would inevitably tend to reduce
the height of our tide very greatly, a partial coun-
terpose to this reduction is afforded by the pressure
of the Atlantic wave which especially in more
ti
320 FLOOD OF 1099.
modern times has committed devastations and en-
croachments to no small amount. In consideration
of these contending circumstances, I repeat it is
impossible to say whether the sea subsequently to
the great elevation above referred to, retreated to an
intermediate position, or to a level very near that
at which it now stands: to decide such a point, it
would be requisite to ascertain the comparative
power of the above circumstances throughout the
intervening time.
Before going further, it is requisite to observe
that we are not of necessity limited to the suppo-
sition of only one marine elevation and depression.
In modern centuries—it is well ascertained from
chroniclers,—this country has been visited by nu-
merous floods and earthquakes, which are indeed
synonimous expressions for convulsions or move-
ments conducted in the interior of the globe. The
“Saxon Chronicle” records a flood of great extent
occurring in 1099, and affecting the southern
counties in a remarkable degree. There is a tradition
among the inhabitants ofthe parish, thatthe Church
of Revelstoke, now situated on the very cliff, was
originally three miles inland, and as the Churches
generally around the coast of South Devon are
considered by antiquarians as among the oldest of
the kind, and as it is particularly unlikely that a
fabric of this description should have been built in
such a precarious position, I think we may infer,
that it together with some other of our Churches
in similar localities, were reduced to their littoral
situations during the flood above named, when also
it has been conjectur ed, a part of the estate of Earl
Godwyn (now “ Godwyn Sands”) was swallowed
up. Certain it is, that in Bigbury Bay off the spot
where Revelstoke Church occurs, no anchorage can
be obtained, the ground being shallow and rocky.
It is a coincidence, that the second Church of
&
v 7
FLOOD OF 1099. 121
Perranzabuloe, now in 2¢s turn enveloped by sand
through the violence of the Atlantic exerted on a
low and exposed coast, is considered to have been
built about the year 1100. Still further, I would
observe that the occurrence of this flood so de-
structive in its consequences in other spots,—and
- as I have shewn, probably here likewise,—may have
originated the idea among some, that it was in this
comparatively modern epoch the sea enveloped the
land between St. Michael’s Mount and the Land’s
End, and overwhelmed the forests before spoken
of. But, surely an invasion so remarkable in effect
would have been preserved to us in circumstantial
record had it happened in that era. It would ap-
pear, that prior to the latest centuries the Church
of Plympton St. Mary built in low ground, suffered
very greatly by encroachment of the water of the
neighbouring marshes, so much so indeed as to
cause the erection of an elevated aisle on that side
chiefly affected. For the same reason, the ancient
Church of St. Budeaux on the banks of the Tamar
was removed, and the present one built in its lieu.
On the whole therefore it may be allowable to infer,
that conjointly the flood above recorded, and the
perpetual violence of the Atlantic, have succeeded
in the more modern eras in restraining somewhat
the tendency of the ocean to recede, and in effecting
invasions on our coasts which have been preserved
with some exaggeration in the hereditary traditions
of succeeding ages.
With regard indeed to the invasions committed
on our coast, the appearance of our cliffs will at
once testify to their amount. When itis considered,
that, consistently with geology and even with com-
mon reason, we are bound to admit that the hills
and land generally on the shore originally presented
the same smooth outline, and perfect and continued
slopes and curvatures offered to the view by the
Q
122 PRESENT MARINE ENCROACHMENTS.
land more northwardly or in the South Hams,—in
short, that the land was formerly continued outwards
to the sea in the manner of a gradual descent,
(considered in the mass)—we see at once, how
great an usurpation has been effected. In surveying
the coast, it seems often as if as much as half of a
hill had thus been gradually sacrificed to the do-
mains of the ocean. The whole coast presents a
continued series of small coves, and isolated, irre-
gular rocks, produced by the constant ferment of
the sea. We see also, instances of points of land
being severed and becoming insulated masses, the
structure of these being denser and more resisting
than the removed material, such is the Shag Rock
in Plymouth Sound. In another spot, the yielding
of the rock has left a more considerable islet called
the Mewstone, between which and the land adja-
cent, a very trifling depth of water remains at low
tides, and perhaps not 100 years since, it might
have been accessible on the retreat of the sea. A
similar remark applies to St. Michael’s Mount in
Cornwall, though here, the marine action has occa-
sioned but a narrow intervening strait.* Burrow
Island seems to come but partially under the same
rule with the two last cases, it appears originally to
have been a hill belonging to the adjacent series,
and slopes immediately to the land side, the wear
therefore occasioned by the sea must have been.
but little in the intermediate space. The invasions
of the sea are evinced differently on the northern
coast of Cornwall, where, on some of the low
grounds between the hills, vast hillocks of sand
have been deposited, and are gradually being aug-
mented, whereby, considerable tracts of pasturage
have been lost to the agriculturist.
*Roman Coins have been found at the base of St. Michael’s Mount.
Alas ee
7 “p Ne,
c a) y rors
wie: z
rama a fice | Peay ®
Jai} ll ce WY am Wee Ee! =>
4
P : ; : A z DS FG PA thy (
we lf : — HT |
NE ee ais ey
if oY |
{2 ri —
a
AN
Pia
a dl,
“ sp
mh Ui |
Ue
Ltrs! .
| Um fi
a Te
tafe l “h
7, ‘ |
; pp on tg f ; .
é. qibitgnt coma ;
a |
PSR
= ge
UTA | oy COMA ‘eS
az
>
> 5 7
AM TATA of
Be
oi”
BZ)
a
Z ; Soon ae
VID Genie Ge ‘Chart of Plymouth Haver) dacar oe LD OD pe Fs) ae
Wen Vis , LE i PL, EP IE OT EF! EEL LTE ieee fa? Pee Me GN. =
42evérs tnlElGle. toe Za Aus, 071 ce ficect frersel: Cees? CoFHes
., Ly einer |
ALTERATIONS ROUND PLYMOUTH. 125
the fall of the ocean after its very great elevation,
there seems in modern centuries to have been a
eradual retreat occasioned by the two causes above
named. |
One instance deserves especial record ; by turn-
ing to the map of Charles Ist’s time, the distance to
which the Lara extends up, is seen to be consider-
able. The Church of Plympton St. Mary is there
shewn to be on its south-eastern side, and perhaps
at the distance of less then a mile from it. The
Lara, now extends up no further than Long Bridge,
(or would reach that far if not restrained by an em-
bankment) which is situated to the west of the
Church at the distance of more than a mile and
half. The stream from thence onward to the Church
is very small, but the ground generally in the
neighbourhood is swampy, and it is not a little
strange that such a site should have been selected
for sucha fabric. The intervening streets between
Plymouth and Stonehouse were a space in former
years occupied by an ample creek, wherein vessels
rode at anchor as our maps shew, and in fact, very
lately in excavating, anchors have been dug up from
that spot, and the original debris or mud of the
creek encountered. The creek it is said was still
employed in this way no longer than 100 years ago.*
I here quote from a judicious compiler, certain
additional facts corroborative of my own argument.
“From ancient records (Palkian MSS.) it appears
“that an arm of the sea extended to the very walls
“of Exeter; and the place where vessels lay at
“ anchor for the loading and unloading of all kinds
“ of merchandize, is still called the Water Gate.
* There are certain small spots of the Town and its vicinity
not included in the Borough, and not rateable, which is explained
by the fact of the Borough having been defined prior to the retreat
or exclusion of the sea towards its present site and boundaries.
126 ALTERATIONS IN OTHER SPOTs.
“The best lands in the valley beneath the city
“appear to have been once overflowed, and the
“ancient boundaries of the stream may even now
“be traced up and down the river.”*
The following passage points to similar geological
proceedings in another neighbourhood. “ At Tiver-
“ton, the alterations in the bed and course of the
“river Exe are remarkable. In 1771, St. Peter’s
“‘ Church and Tower were declared to be in danger
“from the encroachments of this river, and that it
““ was navigable much higher than at present, there
“is no doubt. Anchors have been found at Cowley
“* Bridge, far above the present navigation. Formerly,
“mills were at work on the banks of the river a
“little under the road towards this bridge, from
“which spot, the water has now retired to a con-
“ siderable distance. In the suburbs of Exeter,
** some of the lands now dry were once overflowed.
“ Half a century ago, a man digging for a well in
“his garden in the parish of St. Thomas, found
“first a stratum of sand, after this, several other
“‘ strata of different kinds; and under the whole
“ about fifteen feet deep, a bed of hazel leaves five
“‘ or six inches thick, on the removal of which, nuts
“* swam about on the surface of the water. Hither
“therefore it should seem they must have been
“ drifted, and afterwards covered.”+ Did not other
causes conspire, the mere “ filling up of estuaries”
would tend greatly to a retreat of the sea from
those spots, and accordingly, Le Lucf{ on this sole
account argues that our estuaries were at one time
much larger. Many centuries ago, there was a
harbour at Seaton of considerable importance. Le-
- land who wrote about the year 1538, takes notice
of this fact in the following terms. “ Ther hath
* Moore’s “ Devon,” p. 37. + Ibid. p. 29.
t Travels in England. :
A RETROSPECT. 193
We see within our own time, devastations and
ravages of considerable amount committed on the
occurrence of even minor floods originating in all
likelihood merely in the force of a sea wind exerted
during the menacing elevation of a spring tide. Al-
together indeed, our exposed position relatively to
the sea causes disintegration to be conducted on our
cliffs with great rapidity, and there can be no doubt,
the destruction would be still greater if it did not
fortunately happen that our slate dips so generally
towards the channel, and thereby lessens the bat-
tering influence of the waves.
Modern authors with great propriety agree in
attributing considerable geological effects to the
discontinuanee of river courses, the filling up of
estuaries, and still more, to the general subsidence
of the ocean in the northern portions of the world ;
they have traced the results of these proceedings in
the occurrence of marie matter inland, and in the
gain of considerable tracts of land, especially of
course, where the country is generally flat. I pur-
pose now to examine how far these natural causes
have extended themselves into operation in this
immediate neighbourhood. At the time when the
sea stood so far out as to admit of forests growing
where now is deep water, the rivers were naturally
continued outwards considerably beyond their pre-
sent terminations ; that spot now occupied by the
Lara or estuary of the Plym may therefore have
originally been the site of a sylvan district, with
the river or its yet parent branches passing towards
its ultimate abode, and flowing probably over the
very surface of the slate rock which it has been -
found constitutes the substratum of this river bed
ata great depth. On the rise of the sea in the
manner which I have recorded, these woods would
be overwhelmed, and deposited amid the shingle
and debris naturally conveyed there by the ocean
Q 2
Bere io
* ” it
ba
124 FILLING UP OF ESTUARIES.
on the one hand, and by the rivers on the other.
During this period it should be remembered, Dart-
moor boasted of its forest, and since, the size or
number of rivers materially depends on the quantity
of wood in their vicinity, it is reasonable to con-
clude, that at that date, it yielded to the sea a far
greater bulk of water than it now contributes. Old
river courses are not unfrequently met with on the
moor, and, in meadows through which our rivers in
the South of Devon pass, an abundance of gravel
and pebbles can be discovered for the depth of two
or three feet ;—proving, that at one time the size of
the currents was far greater. I may add also to these
last statements, that a large number of our vallies
excite by their appearance strong suspicions that
in the place of the little brooks which now traverse
them, they were at the time above named, occupied
by branches of those large rivers which Devonshire
then contributed to the sea.
Still however, the quantity of matter deposited
in our estuaries and inlets is wonderfully great,*
and this circumstance, connectedly with the bodily
retreating of the sea, has produced changes in the
immediate vicinity of Plymouth very worthy of
remark. On referring to the map here given, it will
be seen that at the date of 1643, the proportion of
water around the town was perhaps double what it
now is,—and again further back about one hun-
dred years, namely in the reign of Henry VIII. the
proportion was still greater, as the reader will per-
ceive by reference to the second map accompanying
this description (which though it serves our present
purpose, is from its age less satisfactory in outline
than could be desired) ; so that, independently of
* A piece of oak bearing marks of the axe was taken up some
years ago in sinking a shaft in the bed of the Lara, at a consider-
able depth. It may be seen in my brother’s Museum, Plymouth, ~
3s GRIN DOCED SCALE OF
CFs}
APP AND DESCRIPTION OFTHE
LF lym outh and the Fortificati/
@) with the workes and. appro?
a7 pemy atthelast Seige 4p” J
=< »t at that period the size ofthe /|
eee 'eeks &. around the Town has ff
| ter than at present.
a?
i]
!
{
tesore weell.
=.
o
“Sao
Lire lore
Marie
\e
: REDOCED SCALE OF
A TRVE MAPP AND DESCRIPTION OF THE
Towne of Plymouth and the Fortificat-
+ ons thereof with the workes and. approfch-
es of the Bnemy at the last Seige 4704 57
shewing that at that period the size ofthe
Tivers, creeks % around the Town Was ,
greater than at present- / 6G
ivsore HexlZ,
SSS
é Pivmton
Marve
+ La:
ALTERATIONS IN OTHER SPOTS. 127
“been a very notable haven at Seton, but now ther
“lyith between the two pointes of the whole haven,
“4 mighty rigge and barre of pible stones in the
“ mouth of it, and the river of Ax is driven to the
“very est point of the haven caullid Whitcliff, and
“ there at a very smaul gut, goith into the sea. The
“ town of Seton is now but a meane thing inhabited
“by fisharmen. It hath been far larger when the
“haven was good.”* “Less than an hundred”
(now nearly five hundred) “ y2res since, shippes
“usid the haven of Budleigh or Ottermouth, but
* it is now clene barrid”+ De Luc affirms that the
valley of the Otter has every appearance of having
originally been a gulph. There are strong suspicions,
that Bovey Heathfield has within comparatively
recent times, been accessible to the sea,—the min-
eralized vegetation and clay formations constituting
the bed of the estuary. Recent trees &c. have been
exposed to view in the bogs, conveyed as it is sup-
posed during storms and heavy rains. I have
further been informed, that in late years, anchors
have been taken up, a circumstance, which if true
would at once put the question at rest. It is
generally believed, that the Dart in former years
was of considerably greater bulk beyond Totnes
Bridge,—the tide reaching far up the valley, and
constituting according to tradition, a large expanse
of water immediately under Berry Castle. The
meadows are now traversed by only a small stream
in the spot so supposed to have been overflowed.
It would be natural to ask, whether similar re-
markable changes are not evident in the other rivers
of the neighbourhood. I am not aware of any
other cases which so strongly evidence the change
I have been endeavouring to depict, but the natural
—<3—— eee
* Leland Itin. vol, iii, p. 38—47, quoted in Moore’s “ Devon” p. 36.
+ Ibid. vol. iii. p. 46.
128 ALLUVIAL LANDS.
lowness of the ground from Catwater onwards to
the bottom in which the above named Church oc-
curs, is the very manifest reason why so large a
volume of water reposed there in former years. St.
Germains was a cotemporary small emporium of
the Romans together with Plympton, and their
vessels were enabled to penetrate as far up as the
Castle ;—this circumstance is consistent with the
flatness of the country from Hamoaze upwards to
the town, and at this day, like the former case of the
Lara, the river St. Germains is reduced to a much
less considerable size. In other directions how-
ever where no such extensive flats occur, evidences
are yet found of retreat on the part of estuaries pass-
ing up between closely approximating hills. The
Rey. J. Yonge has kindly written me the information
that he bored close tohis house in Puslinch meadow
to the depth of 40 feet, “‘ and brought up black mud
anevidentdeposit.” Thismeadow is some little way
from the limits of the estuary as it now stands, (or
would stand if not restrained by an embankment)
and the circumstance brought to light by Mr. Y.
marks the retreat which has been progressively
taking place in modern times. |
Alluviallands indeed, are altogether greatly on the
increase, and the Erme river seems to me to indicate
this fact conspicuously both by accumulation of mud
inthe smaller branches, and by the bulk of sand cast
up by the sea towards its mouth. Its possession
of a “ bar” or bridge of rocks at the entrance greatly
favors this collection, since, the quantity which the
tide in ordinary cases conveys with it on its
retreat, is here at once retained after its first in-
troduction. The Exe furnishes an example of the
same kind, owing to the existence of a “ bar” there
also, while the Dart having none, is enabled to
cleanse its bottom on each egress of the tide, and
the river altogether affords excellent ground for |
CONCLUSIONS ON PARTIAL EVIDENCE. 129
anchorage even of the largest vessels. On the
other hand, the Avon offers a decided case of con-
tracted dimensions by the accumulation principally
of sand-banks, which are here of large size. ‘T’o all
appearance, this river in former years was of con-
siderable breadth, but owing to general oceanic
retreat, deposit of mud, and the occurrence of a
partial ridge of rock at his mouth, it has now given
place to a broad expanse of sand overspread with
maritime vegetation. On the short but very high
bar of rock which stretches into it, there is a large
and in some spots very deep deposit of fine sand,
accumulated either at the period of the general ele-
vation of the sea before spoken of, or during some
violent storm and tidal elevation ; once only in the
memory of man has it been covered, viz. in the great
storm of November, 1824, when also, the sea had
free access to Slapton Ley.
The observer of such matters affecting the ques-
tion of oceanic usurpation and retreat need to be
particularly careful to frame his conclusions upon
the aggregate of collected evidence, since it not un-
commonly occurs, that partial evidence indicates
opposite results to that which might accrue from a
consideration of conjoint facts. In the promotion
of a general result Nature may effect circumstances
which if separately considered would point to a
conclusion exactly opposite to that which is going
forward on the larger scale, thus, the successful
attacks made by the ocean on the coast in exposed
positions furnishes no argument against general
oceanic retrocession and the filling up of estuaries
&c. by alluvium, and so likewise, the information
which thetraveller obtains at the mouth of the Avon
of the encroachments which the sea is now effectu-
ating on the sand-banks, proves nothing against
the general deduction that the sea is in the mass
retiring and heaving up more and more of this very
R
180 SITE OF PLYMOUTH ONCE A PENINSULA.
material, whilst in the back ground also, the river
gains every facility for alluvial deposition.
When the lowness of the slate tract which passes
to a junction with the limerock of the coast from
the higher hills of the South Hams, and which con-
stitutes the chief site of Plymouth is considered, it
must naturally be inferred, that not only was that
spot submitted to submersion at those periods of
sudden ingress of the ocean which I have before
spoken of,—the sea occupying the bays and creeks
of the slate hills at our back,—but that even in very
modern times anterior to the building of the town,
and before the filling up of estuaries and the general
retreat of the northern seas had sufficient influence
to keep the tide to somewhere near its present bound-
ary, it has been gradually retiring from this tract,
and at the first building of any settlement had re-
treated towards the space between Plymouth and
Stonehouse, and which as above said, constituted
for some time and no longer than a century ago (?) a
creek for anchorage of small vessels ; according to
which supposition, the lime hills or ridge between
the sea and the town would have been insulated,
as also perhaps that range fronting Stonehouse and
Devonport, and the sea moreover occupying as just
said the deep and graceful sinuosities and defiles
between the slate hills, would stretch up behind the
land directly north of Plymouth at Lipson on the
one hand and at Stonehouse Mills on the other,
and these two creeks approximating towards the
rather low tract (Mutley Plain) intervening between
those points, would occasion a near insulation of a
small series of elevations whose actual separation
from the surrounding districts by vallies nearly on
a level with the estuaries, and by portions of water
still existent, remains also particularly apparent in
our own day.
SUMMARY OF DEDUCTIONS. 131
But in connexion with a presumed generally
ereater size of our rivers in former years, and the
conclusion more particularly of a bodily rising of
the tide at one period, we are brought to the neces-
sary inference that the vallies and combes opening
to the sea and having their floors but little above
its present level, were once parts of its domains, or
at least the victims of its occasional intrusions ; the
romantic combes on the coast between the rivers
Erme and Avon seem to me good cases in point,
though I feel bound to say that in these and all
such instances there is a lack of decisive evidence
in the accumulation of * Alluvium.”
I conclude therefore in regard of the foregoing
contents of this chapter, that in the lapse of recent
centuries the sea around us has been gradually
diminishing in bulk, and that it still continues to
retreat. And with respect to the main question here
discussed, I am of opinion that at the termination
or soon after the occurrence of the great Deluge the
sea, stood much further out ;—that forests of great
extent existed in former years where now are estu-
aries and the sea itself ;—that by some inward
convulsion of the earth, the sea rose and usurped
the lower lands, and imbedded the forest tracts in
alluvial detritus and soil ;—that when by some re-
curring inward movement of the globe this
elevation ceased, the waters retired towards their
present abode, somewhere intermediate indeed
between the post-diluvial sea-level and the height
attained to during that disturbance which dislodged
them and heaved them to their transient exaltation.
ee
Very much in connexion with the present subject
of alluvial occurrences and substances, is the enu-
meration of the pebbles which are so abundantly
R 2
132 PEBBLES OF THE SEA AND RIVERS.
accumulated in our rivers and on the sea coasts,
because, although circumstances were in operation
anterior to the Deluge which would occasion the
formation of the same pebbles as we now find, yet,
they are unequivocally illustrative of the power
exerted on stone by the violence of river water in its
rapid descent over mountainous tracts, and of the
still greater violence with which the waves smooth-
en the masses of rock which through them have been
severed from the beds to which they respectively
belong. No kind of rock seems proof against the
disintergating agency of propelled water ; the beds
of our rivers and the beaches of our neighbouring
sea are Strewed with a profusion of rounded frag-
ments of every species of stratum of which the
county boasts. Pebbles of granite, schorl, and
various sorts of trapp are carried from the central
districts of the county onwards by slow movements
to the estuaries, huge granitic blocks are slowly
undermined as they repose in their beds, and are
eventually during some winter flood conducted into
the body of the stream, where they serve greatly to
restrain the impetuosity of the current, and in con-
sequence its devastating influences on exposed
land. During those periods when such extraordi-
nary elevations of our rivers occur from heavy falls
of rain or overflowing of springs in the moorland
districts, the pebbles may be heard striking against
each other in their progress with the torrent, the
larger blocks of moorstone, limestone, and trapp
are also gradually hurled forwards, and in the hurry
of the streams on these occasions they not unfre-
quently force new passages in soils readily removed.
In the moor itself, the stones and blocks lying in
the beds of the streams are greatly rounded, proving
the rapidity and violence of the descent of their
waters during heavy rains and sudden risings of
GREAT VARIETY OF THESE. 133
the springs.* A large assortment of various kinds
of slate, lime, and sandstone may be collected from
the beds of our rivers at those spots where in con-
sequence of aneddy, accumulations of their products
are heaped up. On the shores in some spots are
found numerous pebbles fallen from the “ diluvium”
on the incumbent cliffs, to which I have before
alluded, but in addition to these, fragments are
washed up from the depths far out and lodged
amid the immediate products of the shore ;—red
sandstone of various degrees of hardness, greywackeé
slate, clay-iron stone, basalt, trapp, occasional
blocks of conglomerate, porphyry, limestone, &c.
are therefore the pebbles most commonly met with
on the strands, and besides those masses coming
under the denomination of pebbles, there are in
some spots a number of blocks of considerable
bulk piled up as it were in rude aggregation, the
consequence of storms of a power and violence
incalculable. The mere accumulation of these is
not however so remarkable as the fact of their being
usually so jamed in and locked together as to be
quite fixed, and it is well known that where they
are thus confined, it would be requisite to break them
* In respect of the force of rivers at their junctions with the sea,
few perhaps are aware of the immense power which they exercise
throughout their entire depth and even more at the bottom than
at the surface; the swiftness and force are also augmented when
the passage is narrow. The power of the tide at “ Cremill
Passage” is well known, and owing to the constant scouring which
it effects, there is greater depth of water there, than in any part
of Hamoaze or of the Sound, The matter however which the
tide was wont to bear outwards to the body of the sea is now by
the erection of the Breakwater intercepted, and whereas Plymouth
Sound had once a gravelly and sandy bottom in all directions,
the channel is now gradually being choked up towards the
middle by a bank of mud corresponding to the breadth of the
structure which now crosses it.
os on
a) ee
ae
ees g, ©
ep
134 REPUTED GORGE OF THE LYD.
with asledge hammer in order to remove them. A very
similar illustration of the same kind of peculiar
force which the sea thus exerts may be derived
from the most diminutive sea shells situated in
“shell sand.” In these we continually notice
grains of matter blocking up their mouths much
to the obscurity of their characters about that part,
and on application of a penknife or pin to the
intruding body it is found to be so impacted as to
resist the greatest exertions at dislodgement short
of fracture of their peristomes.
In a valley not far from my residence, among the
pebbles which had accumulated there in the course
of time when the river which traverses it was of
greater size, were found some few years ago, “ tin
pebbles” or small rounded blocks of tin ore tolerably
pure, and it is further reported that the men occu-
pied in the discovery of these, occasionally detected
bits of gold. The remains of ancient stream-works
occur at several spots along the course of the Yealm,
two of them near the village of Yealmpton.
—
Those geologists who are proselytes to the new
doctrine of Lyell, will doubtlessly look for illustra-
tions in our district of the supposed power of rivers
to cut extensive gorges in rocks, and will perhaps
point to the passage of the river Lyd at Lydford
Bridge as a beautiful instance of the force of river
currents. I feel persuaded that our county can
produce but very limited proofs of the cutting power
of streams even where the land would apparently
suffer it without great opposition, and certainly,
we can shew no instances indicative of the ability
of rivers to effect emportant geological alterations—
in short none but secondary geological results.
With regard to the passage of the Lyd, I have no
question but that the force of the torrent more
\
os f; . = ; :. i ee ; h. 4
“© DEGRADATION OF LAND.” 135
especially of course in winter, has produced some
erosion of the rock, and a deepening of that most
romantic and beautiful chasm across which the
bridge is thrown, but I can by no means admit as
some have, and will, that the entire gorge is the
production of the river, for besides being opposed
to my conception of the utmost power of a mountain
torrent, such an idea involves the anomalous con-
clusion of the stream having undergone a general
sinking from its source onwards, an idea indeed
which likewise involves the conclusion of a general
alteration, or sinking in the surrounding tract of
country, since, the depth of the river’s bed in its
course, save at this one spot, is not unusually great.
In my own mind I entertain no doubt that this
fearful cleft is a disruption of the schistose stratum
produced during some subterranean igneous action
on the “ primitive” and internal rocks.
With greater success however, will the inquirers
after the influences of modern causes of geological
change on the very surface of rock appeal to our
district for corroborative proof. Like the effects
which the sea produces on every sort of rock, but
more especially on the schistose strata, there is a
testimony set up in all directions of the superficial
destruction of rock which time in his unwearied
efforts at devastation has ever committed through
the medium of the disintegrating properties of air
and water. ‘This lessening or “ degradation of
land” may be apparent to a close observer every
where, but to those who desire decisive evidence
on the large scale, must be shewn those dennded
or as it were insulated masses of quartz rock
appearing through the midst of slate in certain
spots towards the coast; these doubtlessly were once
concealed by the same material as they are now
supported by, but owing to the loosening qualities
of the elements, bit by bit, atom by atom of the
136 ANCIENT AND MODERN CHANGES.
softer rock has in the lapse of ages been abstracted,
and disclosed the denser substance to view.
Not to dispute the efficacy of existing physical
operations on the superficial portions of the globe,
one axiom with me is—in direct difference from
the new theory of the identity ofancient and modern
causes of change—to draw the line of demarcation
between the two, feeling satisfied of their perfect
incongruity, and of the absence of those superior
agencies which apparently operated in the former.
Doubtlessly, the commoner properties attached to
matter and motion have ever been the same from
the first ages, but, to account for the introduction
of new principles, new combinations, and new and
stupendous influences, we need allow the introduc-
tion also of a power which in latter eras has not
interfered. Can the chemical affinity and cohesion
of particles as they exist in our ancient strata,—can
the combinations of heterogeneous rocks, as evinced
among a great number of formations,—can the ap-
pearance of new materials on the earth, carbonate
of lime forinstance,—can the uplifting of our ancient
rocks,—can these, and other original changes of the
earth be really ranged as collateral actions with
those now witnessed? If however we disregard
the modern changes of our globe we assuredly shut
our eyes on phenomena intrinsically important, and
may probably confound with primeval conditions,
modern circumstances and substances incongruous
therewith, so far at least as system and theory are
concerned. It has accordingly been my endeavour
to give due weight to those recent changes discover-
able with us, during the preceding pages devoted to
the second part of the geological department of this
work. To theorize consistently with respect to our
grauwackeé rocks, I found it requisite to withdraw
all confidence in the system which forces present
agencies to play a part in causing their production
MODERN CONGLOMERATES. 137
and the phenomena of their deposit; I view the
matter in connexion with a supernatural cause
acting on the earth and infused into the materials
employed.*
Amongst alluvial deposits is reckoned peat, a
substance composed of decayed plants peculiar to
damp soils. Of this alluvium we have an abundance
on Dartmoor and its vicinity ; where it has attained
to some considerable thickness it is cut into turf,
which when dried is used in the parishes of, and
* In Mantell’s“ Wonders of Geology” a plate is given of some
ancient coins imbedded in iron-stone, shewing of course the action
of causes now existing, equal in that instance to what has also
occurred in very ancient periods. Acase ofthe same kind though
far less decisive has come under my notice, and may be here
introduced as illustrative of the geological changes actually pro-
ceeding in our own day. A mass of stone of curious shape was
picked up on one of our beaches, and it being uncertain in character
was afterwards broken in order to view the interior. Its centre
was a horse-shoe greatly eroded, around which had gradually
congregated the sand of the shore to a considerable thickness, and
with so great solidity and compactness as to wear the appearance
of the commoner and less dense sandstones of the Devon coast.
This fact therefore even alone will justify a belief in the limited
geological operations now proceeding, though they are for the
most part different even in quality and character, not to say
amount, from those which were conducted under especial auspices
in ages past.
If the reader will refer to p. 58 of the above work, he will find
what I was unaware of till after I had written the preceding para-
graph,namely, that aprecisely analogous specimen was in possession
of the author, and that he attributes the consolidation to the
ferruginous matter distributed through the mass,—it is termed
indeed “ ferruginous conglomerate.” I may here also add, that in
the sister county of Cornwall a most remarkable proof is afforded
of recent operations in nature, by which a rock is at the present
time in an actual state of formation, and similar in its compositien
S
138 DISINTEGRATION &c. OF ROCKS.
around the moor for fuel. Where this peat, or the
old soil of furze-brakes constitutes the land of en-
closures, a free admixture of lime seems not only
advisable but requisite for the procurance of crops,
as I have noticed elsewhere. These peat beds when
cut or disturbed are reported to vegetate anew.
In this class of formations, also may be ranked
the soils and deposits formed from the solution,
disintegration, decomposition and separation of the
looser fragments of rocks by existing causes, chiefly
atmospheric. ‘The granite of Dartmoor where it
contains a superabundance of felspar, gradually
decomposes, and varies in softness down to “ porce-
lain earth” which may be cut with a spade. Many
parts of the moor present extensive beds of this
substance, and one found of late years near Shaugh
employs at present a great number of men in the
process of casking it for exportation.
Dolomite is susceptible of a similar description of
decomposition or softening, as I have noticed at
Yealmpton both in large quantities and in mere
superficial alteration of the stone by the action I
believe of the water of the soil and air.
The variegated sort of trapp is from its compara-
tively loose texture liable to disintegration from the
to the above mass which has a horse-shoe for its nucleus. On the
northern coast of Cornwall so greatly exposed to the fury of the
winds, vast quantities of calcareous sand are continually carried
to the land, and form districts of hillocks of this material. In
some spots it becomes consolidated by the infiltration of ferrugi-
nous particles derived it is presumed from the adjacent ancient
rocks, and so great is its density as to be even used as a building
stone. “The infiltration of water thus impregnated, Dr. Paris
“ observes, is a common and extensive cause of lapidification ; at
«“ Pendean Cove, granitic sand is gradually hardening into a breccia
“by this process ; and in the Island of St. Mary, Dr. Boase has
“noticed granitic sand becoming indurated by the slow action of
“ water impregnated with iron.” see p. 71, Mantell ut supra.
DISINTEGRATION, &c. OF ROCKS. 139
air, and is readily broken at its surface nto small
fragments by implements of husbandry coming into
collision with it. ‘These fragments are peculiar in
being of a somewhat rounded figure, and on striking
them, they are found to consist of continued coatings
like an onion ; these concave pieces gradually
moulder down into soil, and the remaining nuclei
or centres not broken down into the same hollow
fragments remain in the ground, and by atmosphe-
ric influences as well as by the blows received in
the operations of husbandry soon acquire a very
rounded figure, and may excite surprise and specu-
lations of various kinds in the minds of persons
who have not proved the great susceptibility of this
rock to decomposition and rounding. ‘The soil it
constitutes must be of very indifferent quality.
The schistose rocks are especially liable to disin-
tegration, decomposition, and fracture, or loosening
of parts at their surfaces. Compact slate or grey
dunstone, loosens most readily at its surface on
every fresh exposure, or disturbance by the plough
or pick, and falls into dust, or small pieces in pro-
portion as it is moved about and exposed to the
action of the elements, forming eventually a good soil
for general purposes, called “ Dun-soil” or “ Dun-
land.” Several varieties of slate also are prone to
dissolution and softening; some of it, where exposed
to continued damp, gets as soft as cheese, and if
decayed wood be at hand, the rock moreover acquires
a black colour by infiltration of carbonaceous par-
ticles. A great deal at the surface becomes light
brown and hoary, through removal of original colour
by exposure to the sun and air, and there is one
coincidence with this worthy of note, that as fossils
are ordinarily found towards the exterior of our rocks,
or the surfaces of their beds, so they are not uncom-
monly seen in the substance of decomposing or
decomposed slate. The generality of slaterock suffers
S$ 2
146 A METEOROLITE.
disintegration, and especially such as consists of
conjoined small pieces, and the whole of the soil thus
formedis of considerable value in general agricultural
affairs ; the practice however of mixing lime with
it, must not be understood to have any useful chem-
ical effect, though in the first instance of this soil
being brought into use for for farming purposes, a
smalladmixture of that substance may be accounted
necessary to Supply that proportion required by all
plants, but especially corn and vegetable crops.
A little while ago, a flattened oblong stone was
handed to me for examination, which had been dug
out of clay with many fragments of limestone, the
whole resting on a bed of limerock in the parish of
Plymstock. From its great weight, its having a
crust or envelope, and from bearing a strange im-
pression in one part of it, I hoped I had found a
meteorolite, and took it accordingly to be examined
by Mr. Prideaux of Plymouth ; though at first dis-
posed to favor my idea, he at length, after due in-
vestigation, decided on its being “‘ magnetic tron
stone,” and the only curious portions of its history
were its having the impression or regular shaped
pit, and its being found in such a situation far
removed from any bed of this kind. I. named
to Mr. Prideaux at the same time, that near the
spot where this stone was discovered, another,
equally curious in appearance, had been taken up
from a depth of several feet in the clay some few
years ago, and upon giving him the following ac-
count of it, he pronounced his opinion that it cer-
certainly was a.meteorolite. Unfortunately the
description was afforded from memory, the specimen
having been most provokingly lost; it was of the size
of the head of a child a year old, and might have
PETRIFYING SPRING, &c. 14}
weighed eight or ten pounds, the surface was
cavernous, or excavated into pits of irregular shape
and size, a powdery, though somewhat unctuous,
substance covered the exterior, it had I believe,
an external coating, and the general mass was dark
grey colour within, but not shining. Allowing this
to have been a meteorolite, it is the first that has
been found in our neighbourhood, or perhaps in the
the county, and though there is a want of natural
evidence of a decisive kind to support Polwhele’s
assertion, that volcanoes have been numerous in
Devon, and that there have “ been a few (though
not very destructive) earthquakes in former years,
this meteorolite certainly takes its station as an
indication of one of the more terrific agencies of
Nature with which our county has been visited.
There is yet one other illustration of recent
geological operations to be included in this chapter,
this consists of a petrifying spring at Hooe near
Plymouth. Calcareous matter is so abundantly
deposited from the water of this stream as to incrust
most liberally substances which fall into it ; they
acquire after a short time a beautiful white crystal-
line envelope, and eventually become dense and
stony. A great proportion of our springs appear
to contain a large amount of calcareous matter,
which thus renders the water “ hard” as it is termed,
and which accumulates as every one knows, on the
sides and bottoms of tea-kettles. | Although these
springs are so often found to rise in slate rock, as
indeed happens with that at Hooe, the water pro-
bably in its rise encounters lime-rock, from whence
_ these limy particles are derived.
Throughout the whole series of epochs of the
earth, atmospheric and other natural agencies have
uninterruptedly exercised their powers in decompos-
ing and converting into fragments the exposed
surfaces of every description of rock. This has
le
~t
142 WEATHERING OF ROCKS.
been called the “‘ weathering of strata,” and there —
are examples of it very evident to the most casual
view throughout our district. In several of these
strata however, and more especially in limestone, a
vast aggregation of small blocks (not seldom fossili-
ferous) rests on the main body of the rock in so
regularly disposed a manner as to lead to the pre-
sumption that they were originally so placed, and
that the rock has not been “‘ weathered” into this
condition. In some spots, limerock at its surface
appears cracked into numberless small rhomboidal
fragments, owing I believe to the access of damp,
air, and heat, and perhaps owing also to a less
degree of density than belongs to the interior of the
stratum. At the period when our strata were dis-
turbed by subterranean Plutonic convulsions, these
fragments originally deposited on the solid beds or
severed by disintegrating causes, were further re-
moved, and perhaps launched into lower situations. °
Again, at the period when a body of waters over-
spread and swept through the country, many of
these fragments were carried from the beds to which
they belonged, and lodged together with clay in
other positions. Among the fragments which sur-
mount lime hills, may be discerned portions of rock
totally different, so that to some extent these
accumulations are not distinct from those collections
of debris termed ‘* Diluvium.” But in modern and
in present times, the original and previous amount
of dissolution of rocks at their superficies is con-
tinually being augmented, and in some parts of a
bed it is carried on much more speedily than in
others.
RIVERS OF SOUTH DEVON. 143
Chapter LW.
REVERS, SPRINGS, AND LAKES.
“In Britain’s matchless Isle
Unnumbered floods meander, and she wears
A verdurous robe that seldom cheers the lawns
Of softer, brighter climes. But Albion rich
In rivers sweetly gliding o’er her map,
Nor streams so fresh—so fair,—nor fields so gay,
May boast, as thine Devonia. Ever falls
Upon the well pleased ear the melody
Of thy soft-flowing waters,”
CARRINGTON.
The South of Devon is remarkable for the great
number of rivers and streams by which it is
intersected, nearly the whole of which take rise in
the central and highest part of the county.* This
central district is Dartmoor, a wild, and for the
most part granitic tract, a vast assemblage of
primitive hills gradually sloping away to the South
Hams, where this nucleus disappears beneath the
schists, limestones, and other rocks, but again rises
to view in the Channel as the Eddystone, &c. so
* For some other remarks on this head, see chapter on
“ Geography of Animals.”
144 RIVERS OF SOUTH DEVON.
that it forms a sort of basin or cavity wherein our
other strata are contained. Whatever be the nature
and extent of the connexion maintained between
the sea and rivers at the sources of the latter, we
see most evident proofs of the influence of rain,
dews, snow, &c. on their currents ; in the protracted
droughts of June and July their fountains are no
longer productive of due supplies to many of them,
the fish resort to the few shallow pools that remain
here and there in the beds of the streams, nearly
all our springs are exhausted, vegetation altogether
languishes, and is seemingly alone sustained by the
dews of night ; in the fine dry weather of May when
our rivers are at a medium of size, they will in the
space of two or three hours swell prodigiously with
foul water, rain having then fallen to great extent
somewhere near their sources; the size and num-
ber of tributary streams controuling of course the
volume and rapidity of these torrents; the dark
brown colour given to the rivers on these occasions
(due in part to carbon held in solution, and derived
from decomposed vegetable matter,—the result of
previous hot weather, and in part to the vast
abundance of dirt, which the increased volume
and power of the rivers hurries forward with them)
is by their great rapidity then acquired, often con-
veyed out to the very mouths a considerable distance
into the salt water; in October and November,
which may be termed rainy months, we are again
inundated, springs overflow, and fresh ones discover
themselves in various directions, even breaking
forth in hard turnpikes; in frosty weather the
rivers are low, exhalations being in great measure
suspended, and the hardened ground at the sources
of the parent streamlets not suffering the vapours
and snow to penetrate and commit themselves to
the currents. Mountains and hills are known to be
SPRINGS. 145
great attractors of clouds and vapour,* and the more
so in proportion to their size and height, so that we
reasonably regard our central, primitive, rocky dis-
trict as the great source of the river water which
descends to us, independently of the connexion
which may subsist sub terra between it and the
ocean.
Springs are very abundant with us, except in
limestone tracts; in slate they break forth with
great freedom on account of the frequency of river
currents, and the ease with which water traverses
the substance of this rock, but limestone being
cavernous, the water penetrates by the cracks and
separations of its beds to the caves as far down as
the level of any adjacent river, where it meets in all
probability some spring of water from the stream,
or to some other hollow which by its freedom from
joints may act as a natural reservoir. In this way,
the inhabitants of limestone districts not near any
river, are greatly distressed for water, but should a
mass of slate project into this tract as is extremely
common, water may in all cases be readily obtained
at a slight depth, particularly if a stream be adja-
cent. The contrast between lime and slate with
regard to the power of retaining moisture near the
surface of the earth is readily seen in our lengthened
droughts of summer, the limestone lands speedily
displaying a burnt herbage, and the slate lands
retaining a great proportion of their fresh green, a
clear proof of the extent and utility of terrestrial
exhalations.
* Tavistock is situated at the foot of the junction of two ranges
of hills, and is accounted one of the most rainy places in the
kingdom. The moor altogether is under the baneful influence
of a very humid air through all the months but the hottest. ©
¥
146 HOT SPRINGS.
At intervals we have springs of superior and un-
varied temperature, and which from their exposed
surfaces in summer being cooler than our skins when
applied, and in winter being never frozen and never
so cold as we expect to find water on applying the
skin to it at that season, have acquired the name of
“hot and cold springs,” but the surface is not the
part to judge by with respect to their temperatures,
for by the natural process, their superior heat is soon
parted with to the air, and in favorable states of the
atmosphere, as in clear, frosty, moonlight nights, if
we look steadily against the stream proceeding
from one of these fountains, or over a well of such
water, we see evidence that the heat of the fluid as
it escaped from the ground must have been pretty
great, for there is a continued emission of very
subtle steam, quickly borne off into the dense air
and re-deposited. Some of these springs are in evi-
dent connexion with rivers, and to have attained
their elevated temperature, must have descended
through some passages of the river-bed to a great
depth of the earth before reappearing at the surface.
One near my residence rises and falls with the river
close to which it is, and pours forth muddy water
at the time of our summer floods. Very often how-
ever in rainy periods this spring yields but little,
shewing, that its source is far up beyond the reach
of the immediate maritime climate of the South
Hams. Fice’s well on the moor is a spring of the
above named kind.
With respect to Jakes, those of which the South
of Devon boasts are but few, and very inconsiderable
in dimensions. In the forest of Dartmoor the
streams occasionally expand in width and consti-
tute shallow sedgy pools, hardly deserving the
epithet of lakes ; certain spots also where springs
originate, give place to expanses of water which
: le
CRAUMERE POOL. 147
fall rather under the denomination of morasses or
bogs in the generality of cases. Craumere Pool the
largest of these collections of water, 1s the celebra-
ted fount whence many of the Devonshire rivers are
derived, but still offers to the view more the cha-
racter of a swamp or bog than that of a lake.*
The schist tracts broken as they are into number-
less hills, and presenting numerous specimens of
upland vallies, are yet so disposed as to afford no
sites for the accumulation of stationary waters by
broad expanses of hollowed land between the ele-
vations. On the contrary, the eminences closely
approximate, and furnish steep and narrowed
passages for the rivulets.
With respect to Bovey Heathfield, some diffe-
rence of opinion exists as to its actual elevation
comparatively with the sea, for, according to some
* “ We missed Crauwmere Pool, and it is not to be wondered at
“that we did so ; the precise situation is found with difficulty
“even by those who are well acquainted with the topography of
“ Dartmoor. We must at one time have been very near it. Several
* of the Devonshire rivers are said to have their rise from this
“pool ;—strictly speaking, that is not however the case, the
“ rivers rise from various parts of the morass around the pool:
* the bogs encircle it for miles. This curious pool, from its ob-
“scure situation, has been but seldom visited by travellers ;—a
“ friend who saw it a few years ago has favoured me with the
“ following particulars :—‘ Craumere Pool is of an oblong form,
“ about 150 feet in length and 80 feet in breadth ; it was not full
“ of water, which gushes from a bed of gravel beneath the stratum
“of peat bog. I descended about ten feet to the edge of the
“water. It cannot be approached with horses on account of
“the quaking bogs, and although provided with a guide, I should
“ have missed the spot if a labourer had not pointed it out to me.’”
Jones’ Obs. on Scenery, &c. of Moreton Hampstead and Dartmoor.p. 54.
Tr
148 BOVEY HEATHFIELD.
a situation below the sea-mark implies the existence —
ofa lake, and it has been asserted on the best
authority, thata part of this spotis so cireumstanced.
It would also seem however, that a position on a
level with the sea argues some accumulation of
lacustrine water, and consequently it may be infer-
red that the said tract of alluvial ground having the
character of a bog or morass in one direction, suffers
the escape of the river water from the adjacent hills
by means of subterranean egress. It is asserted in
Moore’s Devon that the Heathfield is 50 feet
above the sea!! How is this contradiction to be
reconciled ?
\\ \
\\
G
wv
ey
Delights to glance, inspiring oft the bird
To burst into a gush of song. Thy vales—
Thy Austral vales—beneath that quickening beam
Exult ; and there, in liveliest green attir’d, OSs
Smiling like hope, and cheering the glad eye,
~The meek, unshelter’d myrtle sweetly blooms.
art L.—Chap. i.
LIST OF THE ANIMALS OF SOUTH DEVON, WITH
THEIR HABITATS AND OTHER REMARKS.
/
|
“ Historiam Naturalem, quam vocant, judicabat (Erxleben)
animalium, plantarum, fossilium, non catalogum esse, sed phy-
sicam. Itaque horum corporum structuram,analysim, proprietates,
usus docuit, non neglectis tamen notis quarum ope velut in
indices possent referri. Quos indices solos qui memorie mandant
aut ad evolvendos illos manus habent exercitatas, frustra sibi
persuadent, librum ipsum Nature se tenere.”
In note to Spallanzani’s Dissertations. vol. ii. p. 344.
192 | MAMMALS.
CATALOGUE OF THE MAMMALS
RECOGNIZED BY THE AUTHOR OR OTHERS AS INHABITING SOUTH
DEVON AND THE ADJACENT SEA.
Those species marked with an asterisk have been found as yet
only in South Devon, or off its coasts.
PRIMATES.—Linvn.
Vespertilo auritus.—Long-eared bat. Not un-
common, but scarcer here than in many other parts
of England.
Vespertilio murinus.—Common bat, “ Shary,
Runner or Shady mouse.” Very common in old
buildings, hollow trees, caves, &c. This species is
now the vespertilio pipistrellus of modern authors.
I have reason to think a black variety sometimes
occurs; one of this kind is in possession of Pincombe
of Devonport.
Vespertilio noctula— Great bat. Frequents the
lime quarries near Plymouth, but is scarce. On
July 25th I received from Richard Julian, esq. of
Kstover House, two male specimens of this kind shot
on his estate. Mr. J. states they were so rare that
excepting one he saw about ten years since, they
are the only specimens he has ever known. He
thinks with Mr. White of Selbourne, they are the
males of the common species ;—he has never seen
a female specimen, while on the contrary, all those
specimens of the common kind which he has seen
were invariably of that very sex. Many were found
in August some years ago amongst a large number
MAMMALS. 193
of the common sort, huddled together in an old
building near Plymouth. They have been said
however to quit this country in July. Judging by
the contents of the stomachs of those two presented
to me by Mr. Julian, they seem to feed exclusively
on moths, beetles, and such like insects. Mr. White's
statements respecting the species were quite corro-
borated by the appearance and dissection of these
specimens.
Vespertilio Barbastellus.— Bar basiclic bat. Taken
at Milton and Kingsbridge. (Montagu)
Vespertilio ferrum-equinum.—Greater horse-shoe
bat. In caverns at Torbay ; has also been taken
at Hooe near Plymouth.
Vespertilio hipposideros.— Lesser horse-shoe bat.
In caverns at Torbay.
* Vespertilio pygmeus.—Pigmy bat. Spitch-
wick, (Dr. Leach) Ilsington. (Dr. Turton) Confined
so faras known to the neighbourhood of Dartmoor;
seems however according to Mr. -Gray to be only
the young of the Pipistrelle. (Mag. of Zoology and
Botany, vol. 11.)
* Vespertilio discolor (Kuhl)—Party-coloured
bat. Plymouth (Dr. Leach)
? Vespertilio emarginatus (Fleming) —Notch-
eared bat.
FERA..—LINN.
Canis vulpes—Fox. Reduced much by the
hunt. A variety or smaller species is imported
hither from France in large numbers to supply
sport to the fox-hunter.
Erinaceus europceus.—Hedge-hog. Common,
but notwithstanding its great usefulness, much per-
secuted by gamekeepers and others.
Sorex araneus.—Common shrew, “ Shrew mouse
or Shrove mouse.” Common in old walls, hedges,
and banks ; affected by epizooty in autumn.
Z
194 MAMMALS.
Sorex fodiens.— Water shrew. Not uncommon,
but somewhat local and very shy. G. Leach, esq.
of Stoke has one from Launceston, and I think they
occur near Yealmpton.
Talpa europceus.—Mole or Want. Very common
in loose ground. ‘The white variety has been
taken at Knighton, Slade, Ermington, &c. and at
Polperro in Cornwall. The cream-coloured mole
also occurs, though more rarely.
Ursus meles.—Badger or “ Greypate.” Greatly
reduced by gamekeepers. Is readily tamed.
Mustela foina.—Marten vr Martern cat. Woods
at Lydford, and at Buckland-in-the-Moor.
? Mustela martes—P2ne marten. Buckland-in-
the-Moor.
Mustela vulgaris.— Weasel or Whitred. The
young are termed by gamekeepers “ Ferries” and
are what White suspected to be a distinct kind.
Common but much reduced by gamekeepers. White
specimens and others in the progress of change to
the white garb are occasionally found.
Mustela putorius,—Polecat, Foumart, or Fitchet.
Rare, but much reduced by gamekeepers. A white
variety is in possession of G. Leach, esq. taken at
Marley.
Mustela erminea.—Stoat. Much reduced, but
still not scarce, occasionally found white, or pied,
or blotched with white.
Mustela lutra.—Otter. Much reduced, but not
scarce. Rivers, sea shores, and fish ponds ; pied
otters are found on the Dart. Often appear at the
Devil’s Point, and Dock Yard, near Plymouth.
GLIRES.—Linn.
Mus decumanus.— Common rat. Abundant;
white specimens have been shot. Infests rabbit
walTens.
MAMMALS. 195
Mus rattus.—Black rat. Seldom noticed. One
in the cabinet of G. Leach, esq. was taken at New
Passage.
Mus musculus.—Common mouse. Abundant.
Sometimes found white. A black variety is in the
cabinet of G. Leach, esq.
Mus sylvaticus.— Long-tailed field mouse. Com-
mon. A pied one has been obtained at Yealmpton.
“ Ground mouse” or “ Grass mouse”
* Mus intermedius.—(J.C. B.) For an account
of this new species see the subsequent part of this
book and woodcut.
> Mus messorius Harvest mouse. Corn lands.
Common in Cornwall. (Couch.)
Arvicola aquatica. (Fleming)—Water vole or
Water rat. In banks of streams ; local, but not
rare. Is found on the Plymouth leat; also near
Launceston.
Arvicola agrestis.—Field vole or Field mouse.
Common in corn fields, grass lands, &c. Very nu-
merous in some years. See other remarks further on.
* Arvicola hirta. (J.C. B.)—Shaggy vole. For
account of this newly discovered animal see another
part of the work and woodcut.
Sciurus vulgaris.—-Squirrel. Common in all
our woods. I have seen a white tailed specimen at
Yealmpton.
Myoxus muscardinus.—Dormouse or “ Derry-
mouse.” Not uncommon, perhaps commoner than
in most counties. In the unique collection of
G. Leach, esq. comprising a nearly perfect cabinet
of British mammals, there is a white variety taken
in Devon.
Lepus timidus.—Hare. Common, but greatly
reduced. White ones occur.
Lepus cuniculus.— Rabbit. Abundant. White
ones occur. Warrens are numerous with us.
Z 2
196 MAMMALS.
PECORA.—Linvn.
Cervus dama.—Fallow deer. Only in parks.
? Cervus elaphus—Stag or Red deer. Deep woods
near the moor ; one was killed near Oakhampton
in 1838. It is however now principally located to
Exmoor and the north of Devon, though 50 years
ago they were tolerably numerous in South Devon.
The progress of cultivation induces the belief that
those occasionally occurring here are stragiers from
Exmoor.
CETE.—Linn. (Marine Mammals.)
Balena boops.—Razor-back whale. Found dead
off the Eddystone, October, 1831. A variety
of sea birds were perched on it and continued to
infest it for a long time after it was towed into
Plymouth Sound.
Balena physalus.—fin-jish. In the channel
Physeter microps.—Smermacetz whale. Cast
ashore some years since at the mouth of the Erme.
* Delphinus tursio.—Captured in Duncannon
Pool, five miles up the Dart, in July, 1814.
Delphinus phoccena.—Porpoise or “ Sea-hog.”
Very common in small parties at the mouths of
rivers in pursuit of fish, where in their haste they
are often stranded.
Delphinus melas.—Ca’ing whale. Captured off
Plymouth, Apmil, 1839.
Delphinus orca.—Grampus. Not rare in the
channel.
Delphinus delphis.—Dolphin. Captured off
Plymouth, March, 1839.
Total, 43, of which however three or four may be
accounted doubtful. Five of the species are peculiar
to Devon.
MAMMALS. 197
Among the terrestrial species, I am not sensible
of any important movements taking place requiring
especial notice. The species of Mus, or some of
them, are liable at times through want to shift their
quarters, but this actis veryrare. In the reported
migration of the noctule bat to and from Italy, I
place no confidence. The advance of man in the
work of cultivation of the soil and other operations
connected with his civilized condition, has restrict-
ed the number of several offensive and destructive
kinds, such as the otter, the weasels, the fox, &c.
and has done much towards the greatly-to-be-de-
plored extermination of others, particularly the
badger, and red deer. The same circumstances
however, are congenial to the unnatural increase of
some sorts, such as the rat, and mouse, and perhaps
the squirrel, and nearly all the species of land
mammals are influenced in greater or less degree,
by human operations in respect of their numbers
and distribution. The extent of the catalogue is
probably due to the varied kinds of aspect present-
ed by the country, and the general mildness of the
climate ; it probably exceeds that of any other dis-
trict of the same size in England. The migrations
of our cetacea have not yet been sufficiently deter-
mined to admit of any observations. About 13
species of this tribe have been recognised by Couch
as occurring in Cornwall. Delphinus deductor has
recently been captured in Ireland, a herd having
appeared on the coast.
*
ey
ac*
- Rs
+
198 BIRDS.
CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF SOUTH DEVON
INCLUDING THE RARE & ACCIDENTAL VISITANTS, WITH OCGASIONAL
REMARKS ON THEIR GEOGRAPHY.
I have refrained much from mentioning the places where
specimens of the rarer birds have been procured, because the
maps will in great measure give that information.
Those marked with an asterisk have been observed only in South
Devon, or at most in Devon and Cornwall.
ACCIPITRES. (Turton’s British Fauna.)
Falco chrysaetos.— Golden eagle. Has been seen
in the county, but not in late years. Avoiding the
vicinity of man, they seem to visit but rarely dis-
tricts gradually yielding to cultivation.
Falco albicilla.—Sea eagle. Observed occasion-
ally. Affects the land as well as the sea. |
Falco haliztus.—Osprey. Chiefly in estuaries
and at the mouths of rivers, but though oftener pro-
cured here than in most parts of England, is but
rarely noticed. ® I believe three have been obtained
here within the last five or six years.
Falco palumbarius.—Goshawk. Has been seen
on Dartmoor. Probably breeds on the coast, as a
young bird was shot near Falmouth in August, 1838.
BIRDS. 199
Falco peregrinus.—Peregrine falcon, or “ Cliff
hawk.” Affects the cliffs.and is the commonest of the
large kinds of falcons. Is seen occasionally on the
Erme and at Whitsand Bay; visits the moor also.
Falco milvus.—Kzte. Very rare, and seems
limited to uncultivated spots.
Falco islandicus.—Gyrfalcon. A specimen pro-
cured from the Morwell rocks on the Tamar,
Feb. 7th, 1834.
Falco rufipes.—Red-legged falcon. Obtained
once in the Channel, and is a very rare British
species.
Falco cinerarius.—Ash coloured falcon. Rare.
Falco lagopus.—Rough-legged falcon. Rare.
Falco apivorus.—Honey buzzard. Has been
obtained on Slapton Ley.
Falco eruginosus.—Moor buzzard. Commoner
than the other kinds of buzzard, and chiefly found
in rabbit grounds.
Falco Buteo.— Buzzard (“ Kite” vulgo) Not so
common as the last; roams to woods and cultivated
grounds in winter.
Falco cyaneus.—Hen harrier. Uncommon.
Falco tinnunculus.—Kestrel. On the coast ;
generally distributed.
Falco nisus.—Sparrow hawk. Not uncommon ;
observed principally during their wanderings after
the breeding time.
Falco subbuteo.—Hobby. In deep woods, but .
rare. Summer. |
Falco esalon.— Merlin, “ Little blue hawk.”
In winter, and rare. I have seen them in October
and March. ‘They fly low and very swiftly.
Strix bubo.—Great-eared owl. Observed by
Dr. Moore near Honiton, in 1820.
Strix otus—Long-eared owl. Not rare ; they
have been occasionally procured in the neighbour-
hood of Yealmpton.
200 BIRDS.
Strix brachyotus.—Short-eared owl. Rare.
Strix flammea.—Barn owl. Not uncommon.
Is often abroad in day time.
Strix stridula.—Brown owl. Would be as often
found as the last if not unnecessarily persecuted by
gamekeepers. A pair of the very dark coloured
variety has been lately procured from Plympton ;
the difference is recorded accurately in Yarrel’s
* British Birds.” Mr. Gosling however, who met
with the same variety at Leigham, imagines from
its habit of roosting on the ground that it is speci-
fically distinct from stridula.
Strix passerina.—Litile owl. Rarely procured.
It has been shot not far from Yealmpton.
Strix nyctea.—Snowy owl. A specimen was
found at St. Germains in December, 1838, and
knocked down with a stick. Though not occurring
exactly in this county, I have presumed to add so
interesting a bird to our list. Its visit to us can
hardly be accounted for.
The Canada owl has been taken in Cornwall, the
only instance of its occurrence in Britain.
Lanius excubitor.—Great shrike. Rare, and
frequenting wild spots; has been seen towards
Ashburton (Dr. Tucker in “‘ Guide to scenery of
Ashburton,) and has been known to build in Corn-
wall.
Lanius collurio.—Flusher. Common, and much
in hedges at the sides of road; arrives about May
8th.
Lanius rutilus. (Bewick p. 377.)—Woodchat.
Shot at Mutley by Pincombe, of Devonport.
PICA.
Corvus corax.—Raven. Scarce from persecution ;
seen mostly in autumn and winter when it traver-
ses the country in a desultory manner. Builds
BIRDS 201
chiefly in the cliffs. On the 10th April in this year
a man removed five full fledged young from a nest
at Wembury cliffs.
Corvus corone.—Crow. Scarce from persecution.
Mr. Comyns has a white specimen.
Corvus frugilegus.—Rook. White specimens
have been at times shot round Plymouth, and it is
rumoured that a red rook was seen repeatedly this
year at Ivybridge. |
Corvus pica.—Magpie. Not uncommon, but
much reduced by persecution. Is occasionally seen
in flocks of 20 or more in severe winters ; at most
other times individuals frequent one locality only ;
feeds occasionally with rooks in winter. Mr. Comyns
has a white one.
Corvus cornix.—Hooded crow. Winter; but
rare.
Corvus monedula.—Jackdaw. Common about
towers and sea cliffs. Mr. Comyns has a white
one.
Corvus glandarius.—Jay. Uncommon, but re-
duced greatly by persecution.
Corvus graculus.—Cornish chough. Visits the
coast of Devon from the westward about September
and October, and then in small numbers.
The Nutcracker has been killed in Cornwall
and in North Devon, and I believe also on Dart-
moor.
Oriolus galbula.—-Oviole. Obtained occasionally
in wooded districts, as at Gnaton and Mount
Edgecumbe. Summer.
Cuculus canorus.—Cuckow. In summer. Not
equally common in all years.
Yunx torquilla.w—Wryneck. Scarce generally,
but at Dawlish are said to be not uncommon.
Summer.
Picus viridis.— Green woodpecker, or “ Woodwall.”
Not uncommon.
AA
202 BIRDS.
Picus major.—-Greater spotted woodpecker.
Uncommon.
Picus minor.— Little spotted woodpecker. Rare.
Alcedo ispida.—Kingfisher. Not uncommon
~ about rivers, and during autumn and winter on the
sea coast, besides being on rivers, ponds, and
swampy spots.
Sitta europea.—Nuthatch. Not uncommon in
woods, and towards autumn and winter in orchards.
Merops apiaster.—Bee-eater. Rarely visits us,
and chiefly in small flocks. Summer. It is pro-
bably oftener seen in Cornwall than Devon, as
I am informed it has not unfrequently been ob-
served on the borders of the Helford river. Twelve
were seen at Helston, in May, 1828. Neighbourhood
of Ashburton. (Dr. Tucker.)
Upupa epops.—Hoopoe. Rarely obtained. Summer.
Is probably more frequent in Cornwall, but has
been known to breed in Devon. See “ Natural
History of Torquay, Dawlish, and Teignmouth.”
Has been shot lately at Mamhead.
Certhia familiaris.—Creeper, or “ Tree climber.”
Common. Partial to woods, but frequents orchards
much towards autumn and through winter.
PASSERES.
Sturnus vulgaris.—Starling. In great flocks
through the winter. Breeds in some few spots in
Devon. A white one has been procured.
Turdus viscivorus.—Wissel thrush or “ Holm-
screech.” Notuncommon. White individuals have
been seen.
Turdus musicus.—TZhrush. Common. White
ones have been seen.
Turdus merula.— Blackbird, or “ Greybird.”
Common. White specimens, and also two of a
cream colour have been shot.
BIRDS. 203
Turdus iliacus.—Redwing, or “ Windle.” Com-
mon. In winter.
Turdus pilaris.—Fveldfare. Common. Winter.
Turdus roseus.—Roze Ouzel. Rarely procured.
Summer.
Turdus torquatus.—Ring Ouzel. Breeds on
many of the rivers on the skirts of Dartmoor.
Summer.
Turdus cinclus.— Water Ouzel. Chiefly on the
moorland rivers, but also at times builds about
streams and rivers in cultivated districts, as at
Yealmpton, where two pairs nestle yearly, one on
the Yealm, and the other on a brook running to
Kitley pond; they also stay with us through the
winter in the vicinity of this place.
Ampelis garrulus.— Waxwing. Rarely procured.
Winter. I have reason to think I saw one in a
plantation at Yealmpton in the spring of the year
1838. Ashburton. (Dr. Tucker.)
Loxia curvirostra.—Crossbill. An uncertain
visitor; arriving in flocksin summer, and frequenting
orchards.
Loxia coccothraustes.—Havwyinch or Grosbeak.
A very rare visitor. Winter.
Loxia chloris.—Greenjinch or Green lnnet.
Very common. Breeds in large gardens in the
centre of towns.
Loxia pyrrhula.—Bulljinch or “Hoop.” Common.
In woods and thickets. In winter in small parties
living on groundsel seed. Mr. Comyns has a black,
and a white specimen.
Emberiza nivalis.—Snow bunting. Winter.
On Dartmoor, and often shot amongst other
small birds, as the Tawny bunting or young ; it is
also rarely seen in open fields during winter in its
rae garb, and called by countrymen a “ white
ark.”
Pre ic
204 BIRDS.
Emberiza citrinella.— Yellow bunting, “ Yellow
hammer, or Gladdy.” Common.
Emberiza cirlus.—C?rl bunting. Not uncommon.
Emberiza miliaria—Great bunting, or “ Horse
lark.” Common, but not so plentiful as the last ;
frequents fields close to Plymouth and Devonport.
Emberiza scheeniculus.—Reed bunting. Some-
what local.
Fringilla domestica.—House sparrow. Abund-
ant. White specimens have been procured.
Fringilla ceelebs.—Chaffinch, or “ Mazefinch,”
or “ Copperfinch.” Common. White specimens
have been seen.
Fringilla montifringilla.
Winter.
Fringilla carduelis.—Goldfinch. Common. Con-
gregates in winter.
Fringilla spinus.— Siskin, or “ Aberdevine.”
A rare visitor. Sometimes in small flocks in winter
feeding on seeds of the alder. Has been known to
build in Cornwall. (Couch)
Fringilla linota._Zinnet. Common. Congregates
in winter. I have seen a linnet with a white ring
round the neck.
Fringilla canescens.—Mealy redpole. Very rare.
Fringilla linaria.— Lesser redpole. Rare. Winter.
Fringilla montium.—Tvwite. Rare.
Fringilla montana. — Tree sparrow. Devon.
(Turton and Kingston.)
Muscicapa grisola.— Spotted fly-catcher. Com-
mon. I have seen it in a garden in Plymouth.
Summer.
Muscicapa atricapilla— Pied fly-caicher. Very
rare. One shot in March, 1838, at Mount Edge-
cumbe. Ashburton. (Dr. Tucker.)
Alauda arvensis.—Sky-lark. Common. Con-
oregates in winter. White ones have been obtained.
Alauda arborea.— Wood-lark. Not uncommon.
Brambling. Rare.
BIRDS. 205
Alauda pratensis —7%t-lark. Common.
Alauda campestris.—Rock-lark, or “ Sand-lark.”
Very common on the coast.
Alauda trivialis—Tree-lark. Not so common
as the other species, and less so than in some other
counties. Summer. |
Motacilla alba.—Pied wagtail or “ Dishwasher.”
Common the yearthrough. Joes not shiftits quarters
either in Devon or Cornwall.
Motacilla boarula.—Grey wagtail. Common in
autumn and winter. Rarely stays the summer to
breed.
Motacilla flava.— Yellow wagtail. Notuncom-
mon. Summer.
Sylvia luscinia.—Nightingale. Summer. Once
heard near Kingsbridge by Montagu, and by my
friend Mr. Bartlett, once at Brixham ; according to
Turton and Kingston, also near Dawlish, Ringmore,
and Lindridge.
Sylvia hortensis.—Pettychaps, or Garden War-
bler. Not uncommon, and in some spots frequent.
Summer.
* Sylvia erithacus. Linn.—Red-tailed warbler.
I am indebted to Mr. 'T. E. Gosling for making me
acquainted with the fact of this species having been
shot at Devonport. Six of these birds the only
British specimens known, were shot in the Lines
of that place at one time. This species is described
correctly in Latham, excepting that the sides, under
wing and tail coverts are in the present cases un-
mixed with rufous, and are purely of a whitish grey.
It is remarkable that whilst in Burgundy and Lo-
raine they arrive in May and depart in October,
these few specimens were secured in the end of
November.
Sylvia phenicurus.—Redstart. Its occurrence
with us is rare as compared to many other counties ;
in Cornwall it has not I believe been ever known
206 BIRDS. ne . e
to stay. Summer. In 1839 I heard it near
Totnes. tae
Sylvia modularis. —Hedge warbler. Common,
but not numerous as we might 4nticipate from the
number of its eggs.
Sylvia atricapilla.—Black cap. Common. Sum-
mer. Ihave heard it in a garden in Park-Street,
Plymouth, June 10th and subsequently.
Sylvia passerina.—Passerine warbler. (Bewick)
Shot by Pincombe of Devonport, in a garden at
Stoke Damerel.
Sylvia tithys—Black redstart. Shot at Stoke
Damerel, and has also been known to breed at
Exeter. ‘
_ Sylvia rubecula.—Redbreast, or “ Robin.” Com-
mon. A white one has been killed in Devon.
Sylvia cinerea.— White-throat. Common. Sum-
mer.
Sylvia sylviella—Lesser white-throat. Rare.
Summer.
Sylvia rubicolla.—Stonechat. Common, especi-
ally on Dartmoor.
Sylvia rubetra—Whinchat, or “ Furzechat.”
Summer. Not uncommon.
Sylvia enanthe.— Wheatear. Common in some
parts of the sea coast, and about the estuaries.
Summer.
Sylvia hippolais. Cliff chaff. Common.
Summer. It and the Yellow wren occasionally
stay the winter. Arrives about March 23rd, as at
Selborne.
Sylvia troglodytes—Wren. Common. I un-
derstand two white wrens and their three white
young ones were procured at Langdon last year.
Sylvia regulus— Gold crest. Common. A white
specimen has been shot in Devon.
Mr. Gosling informs me he has reason to think
the Fire crested wren may be added to the list.
i, BIRDS. 207
Sylvia provincialis.—Dartford warbler. Said
v to have been common near Plymouth in former
years ; now scarce and local. First observed here
by Richard Julian, esq. of Estover. Ashburton.
(Dr. Tucker.)
Sylvia locustella.— Grasshopper warbler. Rare.
Summer.
Sylvia salicaria—Sedge warbler, Not uncommon.
Summer. In great plenty atSlapton Ley.
Sylvia arundinacea.— Reed warbler. Rare. Sum-
mer.
Sylvia sibillatrix.— Wood wren. Not uncommon.
Summer.
Sylvia trochilus.—Yellow wren. Common ;
arrives towards the middle of April, but I once
heard it inthe end of March. Is sometimes heard
im the gardens of Plymouth during the breeding
time, and on to August.
Recently a bird has been shot by Pincombe,
Taxidermist of Devonport, at Whiteford in the
neighbourhood, which bears great resemblance to
the Cliff Chaff in colour, and is but a trifle longer ;
the differences worthy of note being first and prin-
cipally, a greater width of the base of the upper
mandible ; secondly, a want of correspondence be-
tween certain quill feathers ;—the 2nd and 7th being
the same length in the Cliff Chaff, the 2nd and 6th
in the Yellow wren, while in this new species each
feather differs in length from the rest ; thirdly, that
the alula spuria is of a brighter yellow, and some-
what larger. The note is unknown to the person
who procured it. With such similarities and un-
certainties regarding it, there is great difficulty in
proposing a name anyway scientific, but since
names must be adopted to curtail the means of
identification in conversation, it may pro tempore
be styled Sylvia neglecta.
208 BIRDS.
Parus caudatus.— Long tailed tit. Not u
common.
Parus ceruleus.— Blue tit, or “ Hickmall.” Very
common. Breeds often in town gardens.
Parus ater.—Cole tit. Not uncommon.
Parus palustris—WMarsh tit. Not uncommon.
Parus major.—Geat tit. Common.
Parus biarmicus.—BSearded tit. Found only in
one or two spots towards Exeter.
Hirundo rustica.—Szallow. Common. White
specimens of this and the next species have been
seen with us. Summer.
Hirundo urbica.—Marten. Common in some
localities, but shift their abode much from year to
year. Summer. Stays later than the Swallow, and
a few are seen yearly between 10th and 13th Noy-
ember, at Plympton; Breeds with the Jackdaws
in the cliffs of Bigbury Bay, and elsewhere along
the coast.
Hirundo apus.—Swift. Common in some situa-
tions. Summer.
Hirundo riparia.—Sand marten. Common in
some spots, but vary their residence much from
year to year. Summer.
Caprimulgus europceus.—Night jar, or “ Night
crow.” Notuncommon. A pied one is in possession
of Mr. Comyns of Mount Pleasant. Summer.
The Carolina cuckow and Roller have occurred
in Cornwall, and it is believed that the Alpine swift
and Blue-throated warbler might safely be added
to the Cornish list, if not to ours also.
COLUMB.
Columba palumbus.— Wood dove. Common.
Columba zenas.—Stock dove. In large flocks in
winter.
Columba turtur.—Turtle dove. Rare. Summer.
BIRDS. 209
Columba livia —Rock dove. On the southern
coast of Devon, and I am informedalso builds on
the coasts of Cornwall. I saw one in June, 1839,
on the rocks in a small cove at Dartmouth.
GALLIN.
Phasianus colchicus. Pheasant. Common.
White ones, and “ Ring pheasants,” have occurred.
This bird is not a native, and hardly deserves a
place in this list.
Tetrao tetrix._Black grouse. Preserved in some
few spots, and rarely seen on the skirts of the moor ;
has been shot at Estover ; in the cold season roams
over the South Hams, and is not unfrequently sold
in the markets at that time. Is Cornwall the
southern limit of Tetrao tetrix ?*
Perdix cinerea.—Partridge. Common.
Perdix coturnix.—Quail. Uncommon. Usually
found here towards winter at the time of its migra-
tion, but some few stay the winter in Devon. Has
been shot at Estover in winter.
Otis tarda.— Great bustard. Formerly not un-
frequent on Dartmoor, but is nowa questionable
resident.
Otis tetrax.— Little bustard. Rare.
Otis cedicnemus.—Thick-knee, Great plover, or
** Stone curlew.” Uncommon. Summer. Chiefly
on Dartmoor. I have seen this bird brought to
* In White’s Selborne mention is made of a hybrid bird between
the Pheasant and Black grouse. Three cases of the same kind
have occurred with us, one on Haldon, one on Shaugh Moor, and
one at Whidey ; in two of these cases the parent birds were seen
or secured, and the Pheasant proved to be the male, the young
moreover which have been shot seem to resemble most that
species.
Bs
210 BIRDS.
market during winter, proving Montagu’s remark
that they occasionally stay with us through that
season. Has been shot at Estover, and in the
parishes of Kingston and Kingsbridge.
GRALLA.
Platalea leucorodia. Spoonbill. In severe
winters has been procured here on the sides of
rivers and on the mud at low tides, but is very rare
in its visits. One shot in 1835, on the Tamar, and
one in 1838, both in December.
Ardea Grus.—Crane. Formerly resident on
Dartmoor, but 1s now never seen here; one was
killed however near Tavistock, in September, 1826.
Has been killed in Cornwall.
Ardea ciconia.— White stork. Rarely, at Slapton
Ley. (Mr. Gosling.)
Ardea nycticorax.— Night heron. Shot at Leig-
ham. (Mr. Gosling.) Ashburton. (Dr. Tucker.)
Ardea stellaris.— Bittern. Not very uncommen.
Procured chiefly in winter. They have been no-
ticed frequenting small rivers and streams, as well
as the larger waters. Have been shot at Yealmpton.
The Bittern seems to be in some measure a bird of
passage, one having been caught on its arrival on
the Irish coast, March, 1839.
Ardea minuta.—JLittle bittern. Obtained at
Crediton and in the North of Devon.
Ardea cinerea.—Gommon heron. A heronry at
Warleigh onthe Tamar, atSharpham on the Dart, &c.
Herons during winter extend themselves generally
over the country, frequenting rivers, ponds and
swamps.
<< Ardea purpurea.—Purple heron. Rare. Has
been procured from the Tamar.
Ardea alba.—Great white heron. Has been seen
once on the Avon.
*
ot
a
a
;
7
ee
S
‘
BIRDS. PAD |
Ardea nigra.—Black stork. Shot on the Tamar,
November, 1831.
Ardea lentiginosus.—Freckled heron. Shot at
Mothecombe, 1829.
* Ardea russata.—Little white heron. Shot near
Kingsbridge in 1805.
Tantalus igneus.—Idis. Rarely obtained. One
shot in October, 1835, at Bridestow ; has also been
shot near Exeter and Dartmouth. Winter visitor.
Numenius arquata.—Curlew. Breeds on the
moor. Found on the shores in winter.
Numenius pheopus.—Whimbrel. Uncommon.
This and the Curlew are said to be resident the
year through at the Scilly Isles.
Numenius pygmeus.—Pigmy curlew. Rare.
Scolopax rusticola.— Woodcock. Common. Has
been known to breed here. White species have
been obtained in Devon.
Scolopax major.—Great snipe. Rare. Has
been shot near Plymouth, and near Ashburton.
Scolopax gallinago.— Snipe or“ Heather bleater.”
Common. Has been known to breed here. Arrives
first about the end of October, but is not plentiful
till severe weather in November.
Scolopax gallinula.—Jack snipe. Uncommon.
Winter.
Scolopax lapponica.—Red godwit. Rare.
Scolopax zgocephala——Common godwit. Not
uncommonly seen in small flocks in our estuaries
in spring and summer. On May 10th, 1831, I ob-
tained two in full and beautiful plumage, from a
flock which were parading the sand-banks of the
Lara at low tide. I had also specimens in the pre-
vious winter.
* Scolopax grisea.— Brown snipe. Rare. Two
specimens known.
Scolopax glottis——Greenshank. Rare. Small
parties have been seen at Mount Batten, near
Plymouth.
BB 2
212 BIRDS.
Scolopax calidris.— Redshank. Uncommon.
Scolopax totanus.—Spotted redshank. Rare.
Ashburton. (Dr. Tucker.) Pincombe, of Devonport,
has a fine pair. (See Bewick vol. ii. p. 69.)
Tringa pugnax.—Ruff. Rare.
Tringa vanellus.—Peewit, or Lapwing. Breeds
on Dartmoor, and descendstothe cultivated grounds
and shores in winter.
Tringa squatarola.—Grey plover. Visits us in
winter from northern counties, frequenting fields
and the sea coast ; also on the moor in summer.
Tringa nigricans.— Purple sandpiper. Said by
Dr. Moore to be common among Purres in winter,
and to be also seen in summer.
Tringa ochropus.— Green sandpiper. Rare.
There is a specimen shot at North Buckland,
in the Museum of the Natural History Society.
Winter.
Tringa glareola.— Wood sandpiper. Rare.
Tringa canutus.—Knot, or Ash-coloured sand-
piper. Not uncommon, but chiefly in winter.
Tringa hypoleucos.—Common sandpiper. Com-
mon. Summer.
Tringa cinclus.—Purre, or “ Sanderling” vulgo.
In great abundance. Breeds on the moor.
Tringa interpres.—Turnstone. Uncommon.
Tringa Temminckii.— Temminck’s sandpiper.
Shot at Stonehouse.
Tringa pusilla.—TZittle stint. Rare. Has been
shot on the Tamar and Lara, and from its appear-
ance with us ata stated time, namely in August or
September is probably migrative. (Mr. Gosling.)
Ashburton. (Dr. Tucker.)
Charadrius pluvialis.—Golden plover. Breeds,
on the moor, and descends towards winter to the
lower lands and shores.
Charadrius calidris.—Sanderling. Rare.
Charadrius hiaticula— Ringed plover, or “ Sea-
lark.” Common.
4
BIRDS. 213
Charadrius morinellus.—Dottrel. Rare. Proba-
bly breeds on the moors.
Cursorius himantopus.— Long legged plover. Rare.
Ashburton. (Dr. Tucker.)
Hematopus ostralegus.—Sea pie, or “ Oyster
catcher.” Visits our shores in small flocks (con-
taining young birds,) in autumn, and remains the
winter. Dr. Moore has one with a white ring round
the neck.
Rallus aquaticus.— Water rail, “ Skip cock,” or
“ Gutter cock.” Common. This bird and the Moor
hen frequent inundated spots during winter for the
sake of drowned snails, worms, &c.
Gallinula crex.—LZandrail. Common. Summer.
Gallinula chloropus.—Moor hen, or “ Water
hen.” A common resident through the year. Can
perch. Visits the shores of rivers at times.
Gallinula porzana.—Spotted gallinule. Rare.
Gallinula Foljambei—Olivaceous gallinule.
Rare. A specimen procured at Devonport; in a
very languid state when found.
Gallinula pusilla.—Little gallinule. Very rare.
Only two specimens are known.
PINNATIPEDES.
Phalaropus lobatus.—Grey phalarope. Obtained
towards winter, but mostly after storms, when, to-
gether with other marine birds, they enter our
harbours to recruit their exhausted strength. On
their arrival they are usually so weak as to be
secured alive.
Fulica atra.—Coot, or “Baldcoot.” Breeds here.
In winter visits the estuaries. Common at Slapton
Ley in summer.
Podiceps cristatus.—Crested grebe. Uncommon.
Winter chiefly.
214 BIRDS.
Podiceps cornutus.—Horned grebe. Not un-
common. Winter.
Podiceps rubricollis.—Red-necked grebe. Rare.
Winter chiefly.
Podiceps minor.—Little grebe, or Dabchick.
Common. Breeds here, and frequents the estuaries
much during winter.
PALMIPEDES.
Recurvirostra Avocetta. Avocet. Obtained
occasionally.
Alca arctica.—Puffin, or Sea parrot. Rare.
Visits the Channel in winter. Breeds on Lundy
Island in North Devon. Perhaps also breeds in
South Devon, as a very young bird has been cap-
tured here.
Alca torda.—Razor-bill, or “ Murre.” Rather
common in winter. Rare in spring and summer.
I procured one on February 7th, 1834, and several
were shot in May, 1834.
Alca alle.—Lvttle auk. Very rare. Has been
seen on the Lara. Teignmouth. (Turton and
Kingston.)
Uria Troile-—Foolish guillemot, or “ Murre.”
Common. I obtained a young bird July 23rd, 1830,
from Oreston.
Uria Grylle— Black guillemot. Rare. Has been
shot in the Sound in winter...
Colymbus glacialis—Northern diver. Obtained
mostly in the immature state during winter, but a
mature one was shot on the Exe in May, 1829.
(Moore’s Catalogue.) One was captured in Cornwall
in February, and one was taken in Bigbury Bay in
June, 1838, in full plumage. It was chased a
long time by two watermen, and at last became so
stupified by such incessant diving as to suffer itself
to be secured alive, after a blow from a paddle. On
z= _ *, ice sh,
BIRDS. STD
September 17th, 1832, I observed five off Rame
Head.
Colymbus arcticus.— Black-throated diver. Very
rare.
Colymbus septentrionalis.— Red-throated diver.
Not uncommon. Chiefly in winter, but on August
Ist, 1833, I received a fine one shot off Turn-
chapel.
Sterna Boysiii—Sandwich tern. Very rare.
Sterna hirundo.—Common tern, or “Sea swallow.”
Common towards winter, and in greatest plenty
after storms, when they arrive in our estuaries in an
exhausted state, and stay many days eating offal
on the shores, and plunging on small fry from a
great height.
Sterna minuta.— Lesser tern. Uncommon.
Sterna fissipes.—Black tern. Rare.
Sterna arctica.—Arctic tern. Very rare.
Larus cataractes.—Skua gull. Obtained occa-
sionally in winter. Six were shot in the harbour
in September and October, 183]. (Mr. Gosling.)
' Larus parasiticus.—Arctic jgager. One shot at
the Mewstone, in October, 1833.
Larus ridibundus.—Black-headed gull. Rare in
summer, but common in winter. One was shot at
Oreston in March, 1835. “ Maddrick gull,” vulgo.
Larus marinus.—Greater black-backed gull, or
* Saddle back.” Obtained in winter, but are not
-common. In severe weather they will approach
close to the houses of sea-side villages. In 1832 one
was shot in the Sound, which measured across the
wings 6 feet 8 inches.
Larus fuscus.—Zesser saddle-back gull. Com-
mon, and particularly in winter.
_ Larus tridactylus.—Kittiwake. Very common
in winter, rarer in summer.
Larus canus.—Sea mew. Common in large
flocks about sea-side fields, and often miles inland.
216 BIRDS.
Larus argentatus.—Herring gull. Common.
Breeds here on the cliffs, as at the mouth of the
Erme and elsewhere.
Larus glaucus.—Burgomaster. Very rare.
Larus Richardsonii.— Arctic gull, or Black-toed
gull. Very rare.
Larus minutus.— Tittle gull. Very rare. Shot
on the rivers.
Procellaria puffinus.—Shearwater. Breeds on
Lundy Island. Obtained in winter in the Channel,
but rarely.
Procellaria cinerea.—Cinereous shearwater. Re-
cognized in the Museums of this neighbourhood by
Dr. Moore. It is rare.
Procellaria pelagica.— Stormy petrel, or “ Mother
Cary’s chicken.” Common after storms in a lan-
guid state. Breeds in Cornwall.
Procellaria Leachii.—Fork-tailed petrel. _Ob-
tained after storms, but is a rare species.
Procellaria glacialis—Fulmar. Devon. (‘Turton
and Kingston.)
Mergus merganser.— Goosander. Fare, but
generally obtained every winter.
Mergus serrator._Red-breasted merganser. Rare,
but generally procured every winter.
Mergus albellus.—Smevw, or “‘ White nun.” Not
very rare in winter, especially if severe weather.
If the Lough diver be distinct, a specimen can be
claimed as Devonian.
Anas cygnus.— Wild swan. Not uncommon in
severe winters.
Anas ruficollis—Red-breasted goose. Very rare.
Winter.
Anas anser.— Wild goose. Common in severe
winters.
Anas albifrons.— White fronted goose. Occasion-
ally in flocks in severe winters.
BIRDS. 217
Anas segetum.—Bean goose.—Scarce, and only
in severe weather.
Anas erythropus—Bernacle goose. Very rare.
Winter.
Anas bernicla.—Brent goose. Rare. Winter.
Anas mollissima.—lHider duck. Very rare.
Winter.
Anas nigra.—Scoter, or Black diver.—Not rare.
Chiefly in winter.
Anas fusca.— Velvet duck. Very rare. Winter.
Anas boschas.— Wild duck. Common in winter ;
they begin to arrive here occasionally as early as
the end of September. Some are bred here.
Anas marila.—Scaup duck. In winter, but rare.
Anas tadorna.—Shieldrake. Uncommon. Breeds
in- North Devon, and visits us in winter.
Anas clypeata.—Shoveller. Very rare. Winter.
Anas strepera.—Gadwall. Rare.
Anas querquedula.—Garganey. Rare. Occa-
sionally in summer, but more usually in winter.
Anas penelope.— Widgeon.* Common. Winter.
Anas ferina.—Pochard. Obtained in severe
winters.
Anas acuta.—Pintail duck. Sometimes com-
mon in hard winters.
Anas glacialis. — Long-tailed duck. Several
specimens have been captured on the Tamar.
+ A bird intermediate between the Mallard and Wigeon has been
procured by Pincombe of Devonport ; the brilliant wing spot
being very distinct. It is rather astonishing how prone some
animals are to unnatural alliances even when surrounding cir-
cumstances are but a degree removed from a state of nature.
Montagu relates that in a pond appropriated to wild fowl, Widgeons
have been known to form matrimonial connexions with the Pin-
tail, although there was no lack of other Widgeons of both sexes
in the same pond.
Cre
: eed - 4 ee
4 a é \,
4 ‘
“ig -_* s
‘ 7
|
218 BIRDS.
Anas ferruginea.—Ferruginous duck. Only one
specimen.
Anas clangula.—Golden eye. Rare, and gener-
ally in hard winters.
Anas fuligula—Tufted duck. Not uncommon
in winter. .
Anas crecca.—Teal. Common in winter.
Pelecanus carbo.—Cormorant. Not uncommon.
Pelecanus graculus.—Shag. Common. Explores
in-land during winter.
Pelecanus bassanus.—Gannet. Breed in North
Devon, and appear off the southern coast in winter,
and usually arrive both in Devon and Cornwall in
the track of the shoals of Pilchards, on which they
voraciously feed. I procured a young bird (trian-
cular spots on a ground of dark brown) on October
20th, 1831, from Hooe Lake, which is mentioned in
Moore’s catalogue. :
The Spur-ewinged goose, Surf duck, (of Eyton)
Cravat goose, Roseate tern, Jackson’s gull, and
Grey petrel, have been taken in Cornwall.
Total, 247 South Devon Birds, three or probably
four of which have as yet been noticed only in this
district, and considering the highly mobile character
of the race, and the great and very general atten-
tion paid to Ornithology beyond most other depart-
ments of Natural History, this small number is not
very remarkable, while the very great extent of the
entire list, beyond in fact that of perhaps any other
spot of similar size in England, sufficiently attests
the remarkable adaption of it in all points to main-
tain an unusually large number of the tribe. The
migrations of birds are so various as to require an
investigation in almost every one of those species
which do change their places of abode, and on sur-
veying the list it is astonishing what a large pro-
portion of them act in this manner, some kinds,
such as the Swallow spending the summer with us,
Roe wal
BIRDS. 219
and retirmg subsequently to warmer latitudes ;
some passing to our shores at the commencement
of winter, staying till spring, and then again wing-
ing their way to northern abodes, such as the
Wigeon ; some performing a migration to us only
from more northern counties on the approach of
winter, such as the Black-headed gull; some merely
passing from the northern to the southern shores of
the county on the occurrence of severe weather,
such as the Gannet ; some simply from the recesses
of Dartmoor or other breeding spots, to the culti-
vated grounds and shores, such as the Lapwing ;
some only shifting their positions still more incon-
siderably,—individuals of each kind occupying
stations during winter where they were not found
in summer, as is seen in the Water-hen ; while the
Robin is said to visit the sea coasts in autumn ;
some species are known to appear here in summer
only in certain years according to caprice, or some
unknown determining impulse, this is witnessed in
the Crossbill, which comes usually about the end
of that season, and departs before winter; some
cross over from the continent on the occurrence of
particularly warm summers,—the Oriole, Bee-eater,
Hoopoe, and Roze ouzeé are the birds more especi-
ally alluded to, though no doubt many others might
be similarly classed. The more frequent occurrence
of this kind of migrants in Cornwall than in Devon
is a Clear indication of the circumstances inducing
their movement, and of the direction whence they
come. A great many birds seem to lead a wander-
ing and uncertain life, though this remark chiefly
belongs to the brds of prey, and some of the Pies ;
the Nutcracker is a good instance of continued
propensity to wander, and the Raven seems to be
incessantly shifting situation at all but the breed-
ing season. Unusually severe winters, like very fine
summers, produce great effects on our ornithological
Cc-2
220 BIRDS.
Fauna; it is for instance under this impulse that
the Wild swan migrates in winter so far south as
Devon, and the same cause sets in motion the
generality of aquatic birds which usually are limited
at that time to more northern stations in the Island,
and compels them to seek food by roaming over
the southern shores. Some unknown causes induce
them however rarely to visit us at other seasons,
both in the case of the inhabitants of high latitudes,
and of our own English birds, witness the Northern
diver and Crested grebe. The young only of some
species of water fowl stay with us in winter, as
happens with the Guillemot. On land, many kinds
congregate during the cold season, and roam in-
differently over the fields to procure food, as occurs
with the Lark. The Chaffinch makes a more
direct emigration southwards. The Missel thrush
after the breeding time keeps its family together,
and is seen in autumn traversing the orchards
and gardens every where, feeding on ripened ber-
ries and similar provender ; Gold-crests crowd
much into orchards towards winter. The individu-
als ofsome species influenced by some inappreciable
cause remove from their more proper abodes, and
are found with us under the title of straggling
visitants, of which class the Black stork is an
example. On the whole therefore as before said,
the movements and migrations of birds are so
manifold as to require an investigation of the habits
of each species of bird respectively. The manner
in which the question of migration is ordinarily
treated is far too summary, and instead of ranging
our migrants into three classes or kinds, we ought
rather to reflect that each species is endowed with
a separate instinct for its guidance and well-being
in this respect, and that irregularities of action occur
among even the individuals, of certain kinds.
TF ie
BIRDS. 221
Violent squalls of wind drive to our coasts several
sea birds which otherwise would hardly occur to
us. South-westerly winds in particular are fruit-
ful in this point of view,—the species of Terns, the
two Petrels, the Little awk, the Phalarope, the
Black-toed and some other kinds of Gulls are
instances to illustrate the fact. Again, several kinds
of birds in passing over sea from northern countries
to France, Italy, the African shores of the Mediter-
ranean, &c. are driven at times it is presumed by
the fury of sea winds out of their due course, and
obligated to seek temporary domiciles in this
country, the Haw/finch is stated to be an instance
of this kind, being assailed in its transit by northerly
or easterly winds, or at least by the veolence of
gales during the autumnal equinox. The same
thing happens to the Jdzs, also an autumnal or
winter visitor as before spoken of.
In investigating the Fauna of a locality, attention
should be paid to the influences of man in his ad-
vances as a, civilized being on the natural domains
of the creatures around him. In agriculture es-
pecially he affects the geographical range of a great
numberof the feathered race, generally by infringing
on the space and situations assigned them, but
occasionally also, by inducing them to enlarge the
boundaries of their habitats. The restrictions on
the species of rapacious birds, far more useful than
generally thought, is a deplorable example of this
merciless persecution on our parts, while the pro-
tections and food supplied to the granivorous birds
by the operations of tillage, &c. is an instance of
increased numbers, and increased range excited
also by ourselves. The great extent to which
planting is carried, affords shelter, and food (both of
the vegetable and insect kind) to an increased
number (perhaps) of species, and certainly of indi-
viduals of kinds of birds originally indigenous.
299 BIRDS.
Orchards in particular require notice as giving
resort to several species, and plentiful supply of food
to them in autumn and winter from that large stock
of scarabei and other insects congregated in the
bark, leaves, and flower-buds. ‘The differences of
habitations and food of the same species in different
localities is a subject which has yet attracted too
little attention, and without doubt, due consider-
ation of this point would lead to the solution of
many apparent discrepancies and contradictions
attached at present to the study of ornithology. If
we reflect on the extent to which orchards are
employed by birds as spots of concealment, and for
gathering food, and then recollect how many
counties in England are devoid of them, this truth
may at once appear. But notwithstanding these
influences of man which are so very evident in our
ornithological pursuits, there are some facts in the
history of our birds which appear contradictory to
the above statements, or anomalous,—the sudden
withdrawal of the Kzte, so common a few years
since, the entire removal of the Crane and Egret,
in former years plentiful, the lessened numbers of
the Dartford warbler and some other birds, the
smaller migrating parties of Crossbills, &c. are
cases illustrative of the necessity of being prepared
to admit certain changes in a Fauna which are
independent of human operations.
In conclusion, I observe that besides possessing
nearly all the kinds of birds found at any period in
most other parts of this country, we are able to
enumerate species from Africa, the Continental
States from south to north, and even from the
Polar Regions; and that in consequence, our
aggregate list stands unrivalled among the English
local Faunas, in regard of size and interest. In
another part of this book I have analyzed our
Fauna in such a manner as to determine pretty
wile
BIRDS. 223
exactly the causes of its extent in the ornithological
department, and it is here only requisite to remark,
that our eligible position towards several portions
of the ocean, and several islands, and our proximity
to the Continental States, ought to be taken greatly
into account from the advantages these circum-
stances afford in augmenting the variety of the
pelagic birds.
From the study of birds may be derived a most
useful lesson to the naturalist. | Animals so high
in the scale of intellect can hardly execute so many
subtle actions and so many deviations from what
we regard as their more positive instinctive tenden-
cies, without furnishing information regarding the
sources whence these actions spring. We find
some birds penetrating southwardly in the winter,
in proportion to the severity of the season, the
Wild goose for instance ; we find some kinds in-
cited to migration from their summer abodes only
if the weather be very severe as seenin the Wild
swan ; we find numerous cases where individuals
alone choose in some years to emigrate, the main
body of the species remaining stationary in its own
proper country, instanced in the Red-tailed warbler,
a native of southern Europe; we find cases of an
opposite kind where the main body invariably
migrates, some few individuals choosing to remain
stationary, witnessed by the Gray wagtail, which
occasionally stays in Devon to nestle, and rear its
young; we find instances of birds which ordinarily
appear here in summer, arriving at times in winter,
(though this is a very rare fact) and vice versa of
birds which generally come in winter, arriving in
the height of summer, (an extremely common fact)
Seas Pre ey ee
r s —5 ¥
224 BIRDS.
the Siskin for instance has in some years been
noticed with us only in winter, and the Black-
headed gull has on rare occasions been observed
off our coast in summer, and the Common godwit
been found at the mouths of our rivers in some
years at the same season; again, we find cases of
birds suddenly appearing in countries and localities
where before they had not been noticed, and vice
versa of birds entirely withdrawing from neigh-
bourhoods and countries where previously they
had maintained citizenship, examples of which
have been already given. In all which instances
I maintain, we gain the information that birds
(and indeed all the higher animals,) are capable of
_ being actuated by volition, and that instead of
being solely the blind creatures of a supposed over-
ruling agent—Instinct, they have the power of
drawing from us a far greater surprise than that
elicited through the results of the operations of that
principle by demonstrating to us their combined
Jaculties of Reason and Instinct, the oneprompting
them to act in great degree through choice and
caprice, the other conducting them securely on the
path their volition pointed out.
But, unfortunately for science, naturalists have
been hitherto greatly insensible of one direct way
in which this doubted truth might all along have
been made apparent. It is but recently that they
have been any way prepared to admit that the
economy and actions of animals vary greatly within
small compasses,—a fact however daily being made
manifest, and since furnishing a most important key
to many of the mysteries of animal life, should hence-
forth excite observers to put aside prepossession,
and endeavour to illustrate the truth still further
within the limits of their own fields of observation.
Perhaps there is no more opposite case in proof
of the necessity of this species of attention to local
eae SK i
BIRDS. y
Ww
25
phenomena, than that of the Rock dovein Devon,—
it is migratory in the south-east of the county ac-
cording to Turton and Kingston, and stationary in
the south-west. The fact of the migrations of birds
being so devious and uncertain explains at once
why so much doubt appertains to the statements
involved in the following “ methodus” or table,
the use of which in regard of its arrangement is
merely to meet the demands of tyros and superficial
inquirers. ‘The history of every species is ever open
to exceptions and deviations, and it must be in-
quired into in every portion of its range ere this
can be said to be wrought out.—Historia locum,
historia specieum est.
In addition to the above instance of the Rock
dove, there are certain others of the same class
which it will be here desirable to present as especi-
ally illustrative of the peculiarities detected during
our inquiries into local natural phenomena. Thick-
kneed bustards are occasionally found to stay the
winter with us, though usually migrative, and it is
even probable that certain individuals winter with
us yearly, and are not detained merely from mzld-
ness of our brumal seasons, since I have known
them procured during very inclement winters.
Quails have occasionally also been shot in South
Devon in winter, contrary ‘to their usual habit of
departing in October, and it is likely that this
species also habitually remains with us in sparing
numbers. A few Yellow wrens and Chiff chaffs
seem yearly to winter with us, but from their quiet
habits at that season and from the fact never having
been suspected they are but rarely noticed. Whin-
chats which are habitual migrators, undoubtedly
stay with us during winter in rare cases. White
possibly may have been correct in stating that
Yellow wagtails occasionally staid the year with
him, though the fact has never since been confirmed
Dob
226 BIRDS.
by any one except Mr. Bartlett, who has in
some winters noticed a few on the shores at Tor-
bay. Mr. Couch affirms that they appear in
Cornwall only in autumn and winter! Hoopoes
have been known to arrive here soon enough to
build and rear a brood. With regard to Szeallows,
White’s suspicion of their torpidity in his county
may receive partial verification probably with us,
for it seems strange that those few which remain
with us so late in the year should appear abroad
only on certain fine days, and again retire, unless
they really possessed the power of remaining in a
dormant state in some warm hybernacula. This
remark however I am aware does not belong ex-
clusively to the southern parts of England, though
T incline to think from observations made several
years on their late appearances here in November,
that this wintering may occur more commonly in
our county than in others. I am informed by a
gentleman near here, that he has noticed Swallows
in the depth of winter, and he suspects that some pass
their intervals of quiescence in the wooden canopy
of a large bell connected with his house. Martins
are said to appear yearly at Plympton between
10th and 13th November. It is not in my power
to say whether any Wheatears stay with us in
winter, but it has been so reported,and White speaks
positively on the point in respect of Hampshire; a
few winter in Cornwall. The Stormy petrel breeds
on the Cornish coast, and is not known to be resident
the year through I believe in any other part of
Britain, Zetland and other Scottish isles probably
excepted.
I am informed by Mr. Bartlett that he has no-
ticed the Babillard in the South of Devon as late
as November.
FY : 4 ; ee.
ee don uepsueile .
MELEODUS
OF UES MIGRATORT BIRDS
OF SOUGTH ODSVON, *
* Those who are interested in these kinds of observations, can
by inserting a few blank leaves, continue the registration of their
dates of the arrival and departure of birds through very many
years. The dates which are set down in print will form a sort
of commencement of such remarks, and are extracted from a few
notes made by the Author.
Dp2
228 BIRDS.
From the South, being summer birds of passage—Vernal
or equatorial migration.
Arrival. |Departure.| Arrival. | Departure
Nightingale
Reed Wren
Swallow Apl. Sept.
Swift May
Martin Apl. Sept.
Sand-Martin Apl.
Nightjar Apl. Sept.
Spotted Rail Mch. Oct.
Blackcap Apl.
Whitethroat Apl. Sept.
Chiff-chaff Mch. Sept.
Yellow Wren Apl. Sept.
Wood Wren Apl. Oct.
Wheatear - Apl.
Whinchat
Yellow Wagtail Apl. Sept.
Redstart May
Cuckow Apl.
Sedge Warbler
Fauvette Apl. Oct.
Corncrake Apl. Oct.
Spotted Flycatcher |May Sept.
Hobby Oct.
Turtle Dove |
Ring Ouzel Apl. Oct.
Tree Lark
Woodchat* (Bewick
p- 377)
Passerine Warbler
Sandpiper
Grasshopr. Warbler
Flusher May
Babillard
Wryneck
Quail Oct.
Great Plover Oct.
Redtail* (Mot.erith.)
Pied Flycatcher *
Black Redstart *
Foolish Guillemott
* Occasional summer visitor.
+ The young stay here the winter.
BIRDS. 229
Occasional summer visitors from the south, but not
arriving soon enough to breed here, or if before the
breeding time, never with the pre-existing design of breed-
ing in this country as in the above.
Arrival. | Departure.| Arrival. | Departure.
Hoopoe
Crossbill
Oriole
Bee-eater
Rose Ouzel
From the north, being “autumnal and winter birds of
passage, —brumal and autumnal, or polar migration.
Arrival. |Departure.| Arrival. | Departure.
Fieldfare Oct. Mch.
Redwing
Starling Oct.
Woodcock Nov.
Snipe Oct.
Jacksnipe
Merlin Oct.
Tufted Duck
Snow Bunting
Greenshank
Green Sandpiper
Widgeon
Knot
Teal
230 BIRDS.
Polar, or autumnal and hyemal migration continued.
Occasional winter and autumnal visitors from the more
northern countries, and those which are not to be regarded
as INVARIABLE visitants.
| Arrival. |Departure.| Arrival. | Departure
Brambling
Golden Eye
Harlequin Duck
Long-tailed Duck
| Shoveller
Scaup Duck
Wood Sandpiper
Little Stint Aug.
Pintail
Eider Duck
Gadwall
Velvet Duck
Ferruginous Duck
Brent Goose
Red-breasted Goose
Bernacle Goose
Bean Goose
Pochard
Laughing Goose
Short-eared Owl
Smew
Black Guillemot
Little Gull
Pigmy Curlew
Arctic Tern
Arctic Gull
Black-throtd. Diver
Little Auk
Great Snipe
Ibis
Red Godwit
Purple Sandpiper
Phalarope
Hawfinch Apl.
Spotted Sandpiper
Nutcracker
Brown Snipe
Waxwing
BIRDS. . 231
Invariable winter visitors from more northern parts
of England.
Arrival. |Departure.| Arrival. |Departure.
Gray Wagtail Sep. Apl.
Razor Bill
Whimbrel
Kittiwake
Wild Goose
Wild Duck Sep.
Red-legged Gull
Grey Plover
Common Tern
Occasional winter visitors from more northern parts
of England.
Arrival. |Departure.| Arrival. | Departure.
Bittern
Redshank
Lesser Tern
Black-backed Gull
Arctic Skua
Hooded Crow Oct. Apl.
Avocet
Stock Dove
Black Tern
Sandwich Tern
Eared Grebe
Fulmar
Fork-tailed Petrel
Goosander
Lesser Redpole
Merganser
Wild Swan
Skua
SE a EE LIE OE IAT TT OSE TEE LOE IE TEE SLI EEDA
a
AEN
932 BIRDS.
Birds whose periods of arrival are in great measure
uncertain, and are not to be met with during ANY PART of
some years.
{
Arrival. |Departure.| Arrival. |Departure.
Great Shrike
Little Owl
Glaucous Gull
Spoonbill
Sanderling
Freckled Heron
Black Stork
Great White Heron
Purple Heron
Night Heron |
White Stork
Crane
Mealy Redpole
Crested Grebe
Little Bustard
Great-eared Owl
Stilt
Ruff
Temminck’s Sandp.
Olivac. Gallinule
Garganey
Siskin
Little Bittern
Red-billed Heron
Little Gallinule
Red-necked Grebe
Northern Diver
Red-throated Diver
Lesser blk-bkd.Gull
Stormy Petrel
Scoter
Snowy Owl
Turnstone
Common Godwit |
BIRDS. 233
Birds which migrate within, to, or from the district in
autumn or winter, merely on very short journies.
Arrival. |Departure.| Arrival. | Departure:
Cornish Chough
Robin
Kingfisher
| Lapwing
¥ Purre
Golden Plover
i Sea Pie
' Curlew
# Coot
# Water Hen
)} Puffin
i Shearwater
# Gannet
Shieldrake
§ Black Grouse
¢ Dottrel
SE I SITS EE IE TE IS EL IIT
There are certain other species which on account
of the slight acquaintance which has hitherto been
gained with their habits and economy, it would’ be
hazardous to assign to either of the foregoing mi-
erating classes, and indeed I have some fears that
a few now occupying places in those lists are rather
too obscure and uncertain in regard of their move-
ments generally, to have warranted my judging of
them by those migrating actions which happened
to have been noticed in them in the South of Devon
when accidentally met with. But, it is to be hoped
that those who rank as field-observers will not be
entirely influenced by the statements andrules which
I have laid down upon a novel method, and chiefly
through individual knowledge and experience.
1 have more than once in the course of this
work taken occasion to remark how separate is the
history of one animal from another, and that not-
withstanding closeness of alliance, differences
of no small amount may always be detected, even
EE
234 BIRDS.
in those notorious for similarity in certain points of
structure and economy. In regard of migration
this is especially evident, and this contrariety of
action may at once be found illustrated in the in-
congtuity of the above assemblages, and still more,
by comparing them with the remaining birds of the
Devon list which are stationary, or nearly so. Some
of the Warblers for instance are stationary, while
the bulk are migratory, and the same remark applies
to the Gull tribe. Again, individuals of some
species are resident the year through, while the
main body passes for a season to some other country,
instanced in the Snipe and Chiff-chaff.
In aformer chapter I had occasion to observe in
illustration of the effects of climate, that in 1837
our spring birds of passage arrived late, apparently
in consequence of a very backward season, or pro-
tracted winter. In 1838, which was likewise
remarkable for backwardness of its spring, I made
the same observation on the vernal migrators, and
have since found, that Mr. White in his Natural
History of Selborne, in Hampshire, has recorded the
same fact. See Part 11. Letters iu. and t. It did not
appear however that all species were affected alike,
for I noticed this late arrival only in the Szeallow,
Whitethroat, Fauvette and Cuckow, though had
circumstances allowed me to have been more
abroad I might have found that other kinds came
under the same rule, at least in part. Weather is
decidedly the most controuling influence on migra-
tion, it not only affects the arrival of birds with us,
but also their departures, since notwithstanding
abundance of food, a summer bird of passage will
quit us abruptly on the accession of inclement
weather, and while early severity of winter weather
obligates the polar migrators to leave their residences
in the north abruptly, they likewise quit us late
should the weather remain severe through a pro-
BIRDS. 235
tracted winter with great paucity of food. Food
however is not without its power also, though cer-
tainly of a secondary order. Plenty of provision
conjoined with mildness and serenity of climate
will induce a summer visitant to stay with us be-
yondits usual period, and again, scarcity of provender
with mildness of season will cause a winter visitor
to hasten its northward flight. ‘These remarks on
migration are supported by those of Mr. White, who
apparently however had not adopted this very theory
except in part. In Letter vii. Part 2nd, he says,
“ Swallowsand House-martins abound yet,(Oct. 8th)
“induced to prolong their stay by this soft, still, dry
“ season ;” and again in Letter viii. he says, “ From
“hence it appears, that it is not food alone which
“‘ determines some species of birds with regard to
“ their stay or departure. Fieldfares and Redwings
“ disappear sooner or later according as the warm
““ weather comes on earlier or later, for I well re-
““ member after that dreadful winter 1739—40, that
“ coldnorth-east winds continued to blow on through
“¢ April and May, and that these kinds of birds (what
“few remained of them) did not depart as usual,
“put were seen lingering about till the beginning
“of June.” —See also Journal of a Naturalist,
p. 395, 396.
E 5 2
weg : ORE OCT Ia rr
rhs . (
i . \ J
7+ hg =
=
236 AMPHIBIA.
LIST OF THE AMPHIBIA OF SOUTH DEVON.
Lacerta agilis—Nimble lizard. A common
animal on heaths and commons, and occasionally
even in gardens.
Lacerta palustris.— Water newt. In ponds and
marshes.
Lacerta vulgaris.—E/t or “ Effet.”. Common in
heaps of stones in damp spots.
Rana temporaria.—frog. Not common; in
marshes.
Rana esculenta.—Edible frog. Devon. (Turton
and Kingston.)
Rana bufo.—Toad. Abundant in damp a
and in ponds.
Anguis fragilis.—Slow-worm. Very common in
dry fields, and under stones on heaths.
Coluber natrix.— Snake or “ Long-cripple.”
Common in damp fields ; frequently has its hole by
the side of a brook in woods.
Coluber berus.— Viper or Adder. Not common ;
in dry hedges, &c. Specimens of a very dark colour
or totally black have been seen.
In 1756, two specimens of the Leathern tortoise
were captured in Cornwall, and a Hawk's bill
tortoise was captured in the Severn in 1774;
these were straggling visitants, influenced probably
by unusually warm summers in these trips to un-
genial quarters.
FISHES. 237
CATALOGUE OF FISHES RECOCNIZED
BY THE AUTHOR OR OTHERS AS FORMING PART OF THE
FAUNA OF SOUTH DEVON.
Those marked with an Asterisk have hithertc been noticed
(as regards Britain) only off South Devon, or at most off the
coasts of the two south-western counties of England.
——<—$—$——————
CHONDROPTERYGIOUS FISHES.
(FLEMING’S BRITISH ANIMALS.)
Petromyzon fluviatilis.—River lamprey, or “ Nine
eyes.” Found in our rivers rather commonly, and in
the sea from midsummer to the beginning of the next
year. On December 5th, 1835, one was brought me
which had been taken off Oreston while adhering
to the neck of a Mullet. They are often taken in
the sand-pits of the Yealm.
Pet. marinus.—In the sea in deep water, not very
common.
Scyllium Catulus.— Cat fish.” Common.
Spinax acanthias.—Dog fish. Common off the
coast. '
Mustelus levis.—Smooth-hound. (Turton and
Kingston.)
Carcharias vulgaris.— White shark.
238 FISHES.
Carcharias glaucus.—Blue shark. With the
pulchards and mackarel. A half grown specimen
taken in June, 1839, is in the museum of the Natural
History Society.
Carcharias vulpes.—Thresher. Rare.
Sqalus maximus.—Sail fish or “ Sun fish.”
Lamna cornubica.—Porbeagle. Rare. On April
27th, 1836, I examined a specimen taken in a sean
off the mouth of the Yealm; it measured eight feet
in length, and contained five young.
Squatina vulgaris.—* Monk fish.” Rare.
Trygon pastinaca.—Called in Cornwall “ Cardi-
nal trilost.” Scarce.
Torpedo vulgaris.—Cramp-jish. (Turton and
Kingston.)
Raia clavata.—Ray, or Thirnback. Common.
* Raia microcellata——Devon. (Montagu.) Corn-
wall. (Couch.)
Raia batis.— Skate. Common.
Accipenser sturio.—Sturgeon. Not uncommon.
* Squalus Rashleighanus, (Couch) * Zygena
malleus, Petromyzon Planeri, The Mud lamprey,
Myxina glutinosa, Amphioxus lanceolatus, * Seylli-
um melanostomum, Squatina Lewis, Raia chagrinea,
aquila, chardon, circularis, and oxyrhinchus are
found in Cornwall. (Couch.)
OSSEOUS FISHES.
Syngnathus acus.—“ Pipe fish.” Common.
Syngnathus ophidion.—“Sea adder.” Not common:
Found mostly at Salcombe. |
Syngnathus cequoreus.—Salcombe. (Montagu)
* Hippocampus vulgaris.—“ Sea horse.” Rare.
Syngnathus lumbriciformis, Tetraodon stellatus,
Orthagoriscus mola and truncatus (“ Sunfish”)
have been captured in Cornwall.
FISHES. 239
MALACOPTERYGIOUS FISHES.
Salmo salar.—The movements of Salmon are
found to vary somewhat in different rivers. In the
Yealm, they are reported to spawn in winter, and
the young are found to descend towards the sea in
April. In the Plym also they descend in April, it
occupying about three weeks for the entire fry to
disappear. In one of the little streams leading to the
Meavy above Shaugh bridge, a farmer once caught
during night a large number; where the stream is
intercepted by a few blocks of stone placed across
it he immersed a deep basket for two successive
evenings ; into this the fish fell in great quantity,
and were unable it seems to extricate themselves,
as the man on each following morning took home
his basket well filled. In the Avon they are re-
ported to spawn later, and descend later ; they are
considered to be in season at the time they are in-
fested by lice. Are not equally numerous in all
seasons.
Salmo hucho.— Bull trout or Sea trout. (Turton
and Kingston.)
Salmo trutta.— Salmon peal.” Migrations like
the Salmon. They are often caught in the rivers by
means of “ tickling.”
Salmo fario.—Tyrout or Shot. In all our rivers,
common.
Coregonus thymallus.—Grayling. (Turton and
Kingston.)
Clupea harengus.—Herring. Off the coast in
July, and the young are chiefly taken about
November and December, at the mouths of rivers.
Clupea pilcardus.— Pilchard. Abundant, except
im an occasional year. In the years 1786—7, nota
fish appeared off the Cornish coasts. For other
particulars see observations in another part of this
work.
re
oy
ae
oe
240 FISHES.
Belone vulgaris.—“ Gar pike.” Not uncommon.
Abramis Brama.—-bream. Common
* Exoceetus exiliens.—Greater flying jish.—
A specimen threw itself on Plymouth Quay. Also
thought to have occurred in Cornwall. (Couch’s
Fauna, p. 40.)
Scomberesox saurus.—Saury. Uncommon.
Lepadogaster cornubiensis.—Cornish sucker.
Lepadogaster bimaculatus. —Torrcross, &c.—
(Montagu.)
* Liparis Montagui—At Milton, (Montagu.)
Cornwall. (Couch.)
Cyclopterus lumpus. Lump fish. Not un-
common. Has been taken in the Sound.
Esox lucius.—Pike. In Slapton Ley.
Echineis remora.—Sucking jish. Rare.
Morhua vulgaris.—Cod. Common.
Morhua eglefinus.— Haddock. Common.
Morhua lusca.— Bz.
Morhua barbata.—Pouting. Common.
Physcis furcatus.—Fork-beard.
Gadus Mustela.—I have taken these at the
mouth of the Yealm in March.
Gadus tricirratus—Common.
* Gadus argenteolus.—Devon. (Montagu.)
Molva vulgaris.—Ling. Not uncommon.
Merlangus carbonarius.—Coal fish or “ Rauning
Pollack.” Common.
Merlangus vulgaris— Whiting. Common.
Merlangus Pollachius.—Pollack. Common.
Ammodytes tobianus.—Zaunce. Common.
Merlucius vulgaris—Hake. Abundant, but
more so formerly.
Pleuronectes maximus.—Turbot. Not uncommon.
Pleuronectes megastoma.— Whiff, or “ Mary
sole.” Common.
Pleuronectes rhombus.— Brill, or “ Hollibut.”
Common.
FISHES. 241
Pleuronectes punctatus.—Top-knot. Not un-
common.
* Pleuronectes arnglossus.—* Scald fish.” Said
to have been found only as yet at Plymouth. Mr.
Couch however recognizes it as Cornish.
Solea vulgaris.— Sole. Common.
~* Solea variegata——At Plymouth. (Hanmer.)
Cornwall. (Mr Couch.)
* Monochirus minutus. (Parnell.)—Zittle sole.
Brixham.
Platessa vulgaris.—Plaise. Common.
Platessa Flesus. —Flounder. Common. Has
through the effects of floods obtained a locality i in
Slapton Ley.
Platessa Limanda.—-Dab. Common.
Hippoglossus vulgaris.—Aolibul. Common.
Anguilla vulgaris. “Eel. Eels devour the fry of
their own kind.
Anguilla Conger.—Conger eel. Abundant.
* Ophidium imberbe.—Devon. (Montagu.)
Leuciscus rutilus—Roach. In Slapton Ley.
Leuciscus phoxinus.—Minnow. Common in
small streams.
Leuciscus vulgaris— Dace. Found in the Tamar.
Leuciscus cephalus.—Chubb. In the Exe.
(Turton and Kingston.)
* Cyclopterus coronatus, (Couch) * Raniceps
Jago, * Murena Helena, Little gorefish, and * Mor-
hua minuta have been taken in Cornwall.
The little Cyprinus auratus, or Golden carp, a
naturalized species, is found as Mr. Bartlett informs
me, in the stream at Brixham.
ACANTHOPTERYGIOUS FISHES.
Cepola rubescens.— Redband jish. Two speci-
mens recorded by Montagu as found off Devon.
Found off Cornwall not uncommonly. (Couch) Since
FF
242 FISHES.
Montagu’s time, it has been noticed with us on
several occasions.
* Lepidopus tetradens.—Devon. (Montagu)
* Blennius ocellaris.—Devon. (Montagu)
* Blennius Gattorugine. —Devon. (Montagu)
Cornwall. (Couch)
* Blennius Montagui.—Devon. (Montagu) Corn-
wall. (Couch)
Pholis leevis.—“. Shan.” Common.
Gunnellus vulgaris.—Gumnnel or “ Nine eyes.”
Common.
Gunnellus viviparus.—* Greenbone.” Not un-
common.
Callionymus Lyra.
Gurnard.”
Crenilabrus Tinca.— Wrasse. Not scarce.
Labrus Balanus.—Ballan Wrasse. Not scarce.
* Labrus Coquus. “ Cuckoo fish.” Scarce.
Cornwall. (Jago.)
* Pagrus lineatus.—Devon. (Montagu)
Pagrus vulgaris.—Braize. Common.
Perca Labrax._—Basse. Common in some
seasons.
Perca fluviatilis—Perch. In Slapton Ley.
Trachinus Draco.— Weaver. Not common. On
June 4th, 1836, several were taken off the Yealm.
Persons incautiously handling them, receivedsevere
and disagreeable wounds from their foremost dorsal
fins.
Lophius piscatorius.—Angler, or “ Monk” of
fishermen. Not rare.
Trigla Lyra.— Piper. Not uncommon.
* Trigla levis—Devon. (Montagu.)
* Trigla lineata.—Devon. (Montagu.) Cornwall.
(Couch.)
Trigla hirundo.—Tub. Common.
Trigla Gurnardus.—Grey gurnard. Not un-
common.
Dragonet or “ Yellow
i
ia
FISHES. 243
* Trigla lucerna. High finned gurnard.
(Dr. Parnell.)
* Trigla Cuculus.—Red gurnard. Common.
(Devon and Cornwall.)
* Peristedion Malarmat (Cuvier.)
gurnard. (See further on.)
Cottus gobio.—“‘ Miller’s thumb.” Common in
rivers.
Cottus scorpius.—* Father lasher.” (Turton and
Kingston.)
Mullus surmuletus.—Surmullet. Not common.
Mugil cephalus.—Mullet. In great abundance.
Congregate in the estuaries in autumn.
Atherina Hepsetus.—Atherine, Smelt, or Mullet.
Common in estuaries.
Scomber vulgaris.—_Mackarel. Common. Caught
for the market principally in autumn.
Trachurus vulgaris—AHorse mackarel. Rare.
Zeus Faber.—Doree. Not common.
Gasterosteus aculeatus.—Steckleback. In ditch-
es and rivulets. This fish is infested by a small
parasite, capable if dislodged of swimming, and
again fixing itself on the stickleback.
Gobius niger.—Groundling. (Turton and King-
ston.)
Gobius minutus.—Spotted goby. (Turton and
Kingston.)
* Centriscus Scolopax.—Trumpet fish. Very
rare. (Couch.)
* Serranus gigas, and * Couchii, Zeus Aper,
* Hemulon formosum, Lampris Luna, Lepidopus
argyreus, * Crenilabrus microstoma (Couch) * Cu-
vier’s gurnard, Scizna aquila, Brama Rail, Scomber
Pelamis, * Pelamis Sarda, * Labrus Comber,
* Labrus lineatus, * Julis vulgaris, * Choetodon—
(Couch) Trigla adriatica, * Gymnetrus Hawkenii,
* Trachurus glaucus, and Centronotus ductor, P2lot
Jish have been taken in Cornwall. The * Peristedion
Fr 2.
Mailed
244 FISHES.
Malarmat, (Cuvier) or Mailed gurnard has been
captured near the Eddystone, and the specimen is
described and figured by Dr. Moore in the Magazine
of Natural History. This is the only instance known
of its visits to the British coast, and probably our
southern shores constitute its northern limit. A
specimen of * Sciurus Lusitanicus taken in Corn-
wall, is in the Museum of the Plymouth Institution.
Xiphias gladius, or Sveord fish, has been known to
occur somewhere in the Channel near us.
110, total of the fishes here recognized as forming
part of our Fauna, but certainly not comprising all
that have yet been noticed. ‘Total of those limited
to Devon, or to Cornwall, or to Devon and
Cornwall conjointly, 41, so far as can well be
gathered. ‘Total of the whole of the species here
stated as occurring in Devon and Cornwall, 153,
but by no means comprising all mentioned in
Couch’s Fauna.
The above catalogue includes a variety of rare
species, of which however I must regret my in-
ability to say much in regard of their physical
distribution or chief habitats, and indeed much in-
formation has not as yet been obtained in regard
of this department of Ichthyology, but I may at all
events affirm that we derive much from our situation
at the meeting of several large portions of the ocean,
and our approximating position to climates and
their productions which differ not a little from our
own. But on the whole, want of attention to the
tribe of fishes prevents us from making any but
very cautious and provisional assertions. Owing to
the great exertions of Mr. Couch a larger number
of species of fish have been recognized in Cornwall
than have been enumerated as occurring with us,
but probably the same sort of exertion is alone re-
quired in Devonshire to extend the list to an equal
size. I do not pretend however that the above
LAND AND FRESH WATER SHELLS. QAd
species are those only which have as yet been no-
ticed as belonging to South Devon, but they are
those of which I could procure authentic inform-
ation, not doubting at the same time that we claim
many of those kinds with Cornwall which are now
ranked pro tempore as peculiar to that county, and
according to this view of the subject it is but a
provisional and arbitrary proceeding to mark any
species as limited to the one county or the other,
though perhaps many kinds are confined to the
south-western shores aggregately considered.
MOLLUSCA.
CATALOGUE OF THE LAND & FRESH WATER SHELLS OF SOUTH
DEVON, WITH REMARKS ON THEIR HABITATS, &C.
The species marked with an asterisk have been found (as regards
Britain) only in this district, or at most in the county as a
whole. The nomenclature of Turton’s Manual is adopted.
(BIVALVE.)
Cyclas pusilla.— In stagnant pools, running
water, and spots flooded by rivers. We have a shell
here, found in the same situations, of a rust colour,
but differing so little in shape as to be entitled to
consideration only as a variety of the above.
Unio margaritiferus._In rapid rivers. Dead, and
occasionally living specimens are found in the sand-
pits dug in the banks. These specimens are
always numerous in proportion to the quantity of
rain which falls in the autumn and winter ; the
violence of the stream being thereby increased,
the shells are driven into these catch-pits. A person
246 LAND AND FRESH WATER SHELLS.
assured me that Crows watch on the banks of rivers
for these shell-fish, fly with them into the air, then
drop them on some rock in order to break the ‘shell,
and descend to devour the contents. Crows are
reported to destroy and feed on the Swan-mussel
in the same manner.
(UNIVALVE.)
Limacellus parma.—Found in Limax maximus.
Limacellus obliquus.—In the common Field-slug.
Possibly Limacellus variegatus is to be found here,
but it has not come under my notice as yet.
Limacellus unguiculus.—In Limax carinatus
of Leach. Common in gardens.
* 'Testacellus haliotideus.—I have one specimen
of this shell, and it seems as yet to have been found
only here and at Bideford.
Testacellus Maugei.—_I found the slug to which
this shell belongs in my garden in Park-street,
where it does not seem likely it had been intro-
duced with any exotic plants. It occupied damp
and shady ground, and apparently in consequence
of the plenty of earth worms in that spot. (See
woodcut.)
Vitrina pellucida—Among damp moss. Dead
shells are very frequent under stones. I think I
have found V. elongata, or at least elongated spe-
cimens of pellucida.
Cyclostoma elegans.—I found this species on
Berry Head, but not plentifully.
Helix aspersa.—Common in hedges and fields.
Helix hortensis.—In hedges and gardens. Not
common.
Helix nemoralis.—Common in hedges and gar-
dens. In winter I find this and the two foregoing
species either lying loose in warm hedges with
their apertures sealed up, or cemented firmly to
stones or old trees. A few remain quiestent with-
LAND AND FRESH WATER SHELLS. Q47
out any epiphragm, and stir out for food when the
weather is tolerably mild. ‘These species also will
on receiving an injury to the mouth secrete a thin
lid of the same description, and continue quiescent
in this state until the fracture has been repaired.
Helix rufescens. Common in heaps of stones
and among rubbish, and generally where there is
much moisture and shade. Its colour varies.
Helix sericea—Common in damp and shaded
situations, and especially where dead leaves abound.
Helix virgata.—Very common in dry situations.
In some places, and particularly elevated fields, they
are So numerous as to be a pest to the agriculturist.
This shell and bulimus fasciatus are liable from
exposure to become denuded of the outer layer,
and bleached. At the approach of winter they re-
tire into warm hedges, and do not appear abroad
again till spring has fairly set in.
Helix caperata.—Common in dry situations. In
old limestone quarries large and beautiful speci-
mens are found crawling on the rock facing south-
wardly.
Helix spinulosa.—In woods among leaves, and
in heaps of stones. ‘They seem to retire in winter
into mould formed by decayed moss on rocks, or
into other sheltered situations. Not common.
Helix fusca.—In woods among moss. Rare. My
oWn specimen is greenish amber colour, Mr. Colley’s
is of a dull brown.
Helix nitens.—Very common among wet moss
and under stones. Large specimens are usually
found dead. The finest I ever collected, and which
were fully three-fourths of an inch in breadth were
lying on bare rock sloping down to the sea, a re-
markable habitat. They get much into caves of
limestone.
Helix alliaria.—In the same situations as the last,
but not socommon. Full grown shells would cer-
248 LAND AND FRESH WATER SHELLS.
tainly be with difficulty distinguished from Helix
nitens were it not for their odour ; but the fry have
a remarkably glossy aspect, they look like little
gems in the hedges; these have also a consider-
able depth at the aperture, while the young of
Helix nitens possess the characteristic bend and
narrowness of mouth observable in older shells.
Some specimens seem not to emit the scent until
immersed in hot water.
Helix hispida.—Not common. In old walls and
under stones. Some occur without hairs.
Helix crystallina.— Common in wet hedges
among moss.
Helix radiata. —Common under stones, wood, &e.
generally selecting damp places. I have found the
white variety.
Helix rupestris.—Common in dry walls and old
buildings. I have noticed them on the walls of
churches, and on rocks plentifully. In summer
when a shower falls they will come out in numbers
from their recesses, and appear greatly refreshed
and enlivened.
Helix fulva.—This rare species is found with us
among leaves, and under stones, especially where
there is a little moisture. Specimens vary in shape.
Helix pulchellan—Rare. ‘The smooth variety
only has come under my notice. I have found it
under stones. Mr. T. Colley found a colony of
the rough sort in avery dry wall at Trematon Castle
in Cornwall. According to Dr. 'Turton’s experience
this last variety is found only in damp places.
Helix pura.—Found by Dr. Turton.
Clausilia rugosa.—Abundant in old walls.
Clausilia parvulan—A specimen found by Dr.
Turton at Torquay.
Bulimus obscurus.—Rather rare. Chiefly found
in old dry hedges. I lately ascertained that many
of this kind retire in winter to the crevices of rocks,
LAND AND FRESH WATER SHELLS. 2QAY
and in spring come forth besmeared with dirt
derived from their hybernacula.
Bulimus lubricus.— Found pretty commonly
under stones, and in wet hedges among moss.
Bulimus fasciatus.—In fields bordering on the
sea.
Bulimus lineatus.—Mr. Colley states that he has
found this species, but I have not yet noticed it.
*Bulimus decollatus._F ound formerly at Watton
Court in this county.
Balza fragilis—Not common. In moss attached
to the trunks of trees, in old walls, and on rocks.
I have occasionally found it in the cylindrical
holes bored by insects in rotten stumps of trees.
Succinea oblonga.—In poolsandstreams attached
to stones and aquatic plants. In corroboration of
Dr. Turton’s view of the difference of this species
from Succinea amphibia, 1 may mention that it
is found here without any admixture of the last
named.
Carychium minimum. Common among wet
mosses, leaves and stones. I have found great
numbers of dead shells in summer among the moss |
attached to rocks on hills ; the heat of summer
destroying the moss, the shells are in their turn
sacrificed.
Pupa umbilicata.—Found with Clausilia rugosa,
and equally common. It gets also amongst rubbish
in wet situations.
Pupa marginata.—Chiefly in spots near the sea,
under stones. Not common.
Pupa edentula.—four specimens of this shell
have occurred to me under stones in woods, two of
them belong to the “ more elongated and cylindri-
cal” variety.
* Vertigo pygmxa.—Found by Mr. T. Colley
under stones in a damp situation at Bovisand.
Hills about Torquay. (Dr. Turton.)
G é
°
ee Ae as
; 7
250 LAND AND FRESH WATER SHELLS.
Vertigo sexdentata.—F ound by Mr. Colley with
the last, and also by him in a similar situation a
very short distance from Plymouth.
Planorbis vortex.—Common in pools and
streams.
Planorbis albus.—Common in pools attached to
plants and stones.
Planorbis imbricatus.——Rather local. In a
standing pool near my residence I find them in
plenty attached to plants.
Planorbis spirorbis. Found by Mr. Colley in
pools. Rare.
Planorbis complanatus. In slow rivers. Con-
fined according to Dr. Turton, to Suffolk and
Devon.
* Planorbis rhombeus.—In slow streams near
Torquay.
Limneus pereger.— Very common in pools,
streams, and rivers.
Limneus fossarius.—Rather common in streams,
and pools.
Physa fontinalis. Not common in ponds,
streams, and rivers, attached to stones, sticks, and
other objects.
Paludina stagnorum.—Very rare in pools and
streams. I have never procured more than two
specimens.
Ancylus fluviatilis—Common on stones and
plants, in pools, streams, and rivers.
Ancylus lacustris——Found rarely on aquatic
plants. :
4 species of this division of the Molluscs seem to
be limited to this district. Observations on their
geography, &c. occur in the next chapter.
MARINE MOLLUSCS. 251
CATALOGUE OF THE MARINE MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS
USUALLY TERMED SHELL=FISH, &C. RECOCNIZED BY THE AUTHOR
OR OTHERS AS OCCURRING ON THE SHORES
OF SOUTH DEVON.
Those species marked with an Asterisk have been found as
yet only in Devon, or at most in Devon and Cornwall. The
nomenclature from Fleming.
——$$>=—_+_—
BRANCHIFERA.
NUDIBRANCHIA.
Patella vulgatax—Common Limpet. Abundant.
Patella intortaa—Devon. (Montagu.)
Patella pellucida.—Not uncommon at the roots
of fuci; thrown up in great numbers on sandy
beaches.
Patella levis.—On stalks of fuci. Not uncommon.
Patella virginea. On fuci. Thrown up in
numbers on sandy beaches.
Chiton fascicularis. Not uncommon under
stones at low water, but found also in deep water.
Chiton ruber.—In deep water, Plymouth sound.
Chiton marginatus.—Very common under stones.
Chiton cinereus.—Not uncommon on stones.
Chiton levis.—— Uncommon.
Aplysia depilans
Aplysia punctata
* Aplysia viridis
* Pleurobranchus plumula.—Devon. (Montagu.)
Pleurobranchus membranaceus. — (Turton and
Kingston.)
“Sea slugs.” Devon.
(Montagu.)
Gren?
+ gale he ir 7 - . ") Se to! See ee eee
ft en TAL wane
ig 4 . rl
Res
i,
252 MARINE MOLLUSCS. >
Bulla lignaria.—Not uncommon. Common at
Falmouth. (J.C. B.)
Bulla umbilicata.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Bulla akera.—Uncommon.
Bulla hydatis.—(Turton and Kingston.)
* BullaCranchiit—PlymouthSound. (Mr. Prideaux)
Bulla-punctata
Bulla truncata ¢ Turton and Kingston.
Bulla alba
Bulla cylindracea.—Sandy bays, not common.
Bulla aperta.—Not common.
Bulla obtusa.—Common.
Doris argo
Doris verrucosa
* Doris marginata
Doris nodosa. . f
* Doris quadricornis#
* Doris flava
* Doris pennigera
* Doris maculata
* Doris pinnatifida 4
* Doris biffda \
* Doris longicornis
* Doris cerulea
* Doris pedata
Bulla_-ampulla.—Falmouth (Montagu)
Coast of Devon (Mon-
tagu) and others.
BECTINIBRANCHIA.
Turbo littoreus.—Periwinkle. Abundant. I have
found the “ Sea cup” said by Ellis to be the proba-
ble nidus of the young.
Turbo petrzeus.— Very common on the rocks, and
often beyond the reach of the tide.
Turbo rudis.—Very common.
+ Named after Cranch who so successfully examined the pro-
ductions of our coast, living as Iam informed under a boat at
Bovisand.
MARINE MOLLUSCS. DR
Turbo crassior—Deep water.
Turbo quadrifasciatus. Common among sea
weed.
Turbo margarita.—Common.
* Turbo nivosus.—Devon (Montagn.)
Phasianella subulata.—(Turton and Kingston.)
* Phasianella pallida.—Salcombe. (Montagu.)
Phasianella polita.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Turritella terebra.—Very common. ‘Thrown up
invariably after storms.
Turritella truncata.—Rare.
Turritella exoleta.—Rare.
Turritella nitidissima.—Fine sand. Not rare,
especially at Penzance. (J.C. B.) |
Turritella elegantissima.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Cingula cimex.—Rare.
Cingula costata.—Obtained by Mr. T. Colley.
Cingula parva.—Common on fuci at low water ;
I have also found the young attached much to
stones from deep water, and to zoophytes, &c.
Cingula denticulata—(Turton and Kingston.)
Cingula semicostata— Uncommon.
Cingula ventricosa.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Cingula striata.—Common.
Cingula pulla.—-On fuci, and the young much on
Lobularia digitata.
Cingula ulve.—On stones in the mud of estuaries.
Cingula subumbilicata.—Common.
Cingula interrupta—Common.
Cingula auricularis——(Turton and Kingston.)
Cingula calethisca.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Cingula rubra.—Not uncommon.
Cingula vitrea.—Not rare in fine sand, common
at Penzance. (J.C. B.)
Cingula cingillai—Roots of fuci. Common.
Cingula alba.—Common.
* Cingula semistriata.—Not uncommon.
Cingula labiosa.—(Turton and Kingston.)
ee see ee eS
oe ieee eae a tet
mee : :
‘, “oe
i)
DA MARINE MOLLUSCS.
Odostomia spiralis.—Salcombe. (Montagu.)
* Odostomia interstinctaa—Devon. (Montagu.)
* Odostomia insculpta.—Devon. (Montagu.)
Odostomia unidentata.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Scalaria clathrus——Thrown up. after storms.
Uncommon. “ Wentle-trapp.” Taken alive in
Torbay, by the Rev. H. F. Lyte.
Scalaria 'Turtoni.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Skenea depressa.—Shell sand.
Skenea serpuloides.—Shell sand.
Nerita littoralis—Abundant.
Natica glaucina.—Not commmon. Sandy bays.
Natica nitida.—Not common.
Natica pallidula.—Common on sea-weeds at low
water mark.
Natica intricata.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Trochus majus.—Common in deep water.
Trochus Montacuti.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Trochus umbilicatus.—Common on the coast,
and in deep water.
Trochus cinerarius.—Common on the coast.
Trochus crassus.— Very common on rocks at low
water.
Trochus papillosus.—Rare.
Trochus ziziphinus.—Common.
Trochus. exasperatus.—Rare. I have not obtain-
ed above a half dozen specimens of this shell.
? Trochus striatus
Trochus tumidus.—(Turton and Kingston.
Tanthina communis.—* Storm shell.” Procured
after storms. Found also on the north-west coast of
Cornwall. (J. C. B.)
Velutina levigata.—Deep water.
* Velutina otis——Not uncommon on rocks at
high water. May be procured on the rocks under
Plymouth Hoe. (J. C. B.)
* Velutina stylifera.—Torbay. (Turton.)
Turbo mammillatus.—Scilly rocks.
nr
MARINE MOLLUSCS. 25
SOLENOSTOMATA.
Marginella voluta.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Cyprea europea. Common in sandy bays.
Cowrie or “ Black mens’ teeth.”
Voluta catenata——Rare. (Mr. Swainson.)
Volyaria alba.—-Not rare in the spot where
observed by me.
Volva patula.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Tornatella tornatilis.—Procured by Mr. T. Colley.
Rare.
Acteon triplicatus.—(Turton.) Guernsey. (Mon-
tagu.)
* Acteon bidentatus.—Devon. (Montagu.)
* Acteon fusiformis. Exmouth. (Mrs. W.
Luscombe.)
Acteon denticulatus.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Cassis bilineataa—Plymouth Sound. (Rev. J.
Lambert.)
Nasa reticulata.—Common in bays.
Nasa incrassata.—Common in bays.
* Nasa tuberculata.—Exmouth. (Mrs. Luscombe)
Purpura lapillus—Very common. I find a
variety with black circular bands, common at
Boveysand, and elsewhere. This I understand has
lately been erected into a separate species by some
French author.
? Dolium perdix
Buccinum undatum.—* Whilk.” Common. The
young occur in deep water in summer, and the nidi
of the fry are very common on all shores.
Buccinum pictum.—(Turton and Kingston.)
* Buccinum ovum.—Plymouth Sound.
om glaciale b Turton and Kingston.
uccinum carinatum
Fusus septangularis.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Fusus antiquus.—Not uncommon.
Fusus costatus.—Not common.
w©
56 MARINE MOLLUSCS.
Fusus corneus.—Not uncommon.
Fusus rufus.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Fusus turricola.—Not uncommon.
Fusus nebula..—Not uncommon.
Fusus glaciale
Fusus purpureus ; Turton and Kingston.
Fusus attenuatus
Fusus linearis.—Plymouth Sound. (J. C. B.)
Pleurotoma gracilis.—Not uncommon.
Terebra reticulata.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Terebra perversa.
Terebra tubercularis
Triton erinaceus.—Rocky shores and also in
deep water.
Cerithium costatum.—Common in shell sand.
Rostellaria pes-pelecani.—Among rocks beyond
low-water mark, not uncommon.
Sigaretus haliotoideus.— Uncommon.
* Sigaretus tentaculatus——Devon. (Montagu.)
Haliotis tuberculata—Common on the shores of
the Channel Isles, and thrown ashore at times on
our coast.
Calyptrea chinensis.—Not common. “ Chinese
bonnett.” On oysters, and on dead shells in deep
water.
Capulus hungaricus.—* Torbay bonnett.” Not
uncommon in deep water.
Capulus antiquatus.—Not common.
Capulus militaris.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Fissurella greeca.— Not uncommon in deep water
on old shells.
Emarginula fissura.—Not uncommon on Pecten
maximus.
MOLLUSCA ACEPHALA.
BRACHIOPODA.
}Turton and Kingston.
* Terebratula psittacea—Teignmouth. (Turton.)
MARINE MOLLUSCS. 257
BIVALVIA.
Pecten maximus. — Common in deep water.
Excellent food.
Pecten opercularis.—_Very common in deep water,
Sold in the markets to the poor. “ Scallop,” or
** Queen.”
Pecten sinuosus.—In crevices of rocks, and in
Eschara retiformis, but uncommon.
* Pecten tumidus.—Torbay. (Turton.)
Pecten lineatus.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Pecten varius.—Common, and chiefly from deep
water.
* Pecten pusio.—Torbay. (Turton.)
Pecten jacobeus.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Pecten obsoletus—— Common on sand banks.
Consumed in great quantities by the Flounder, and
perhaps other fish.
ae ale urton and Kingston.
ecten levis —
Lima fragilis-— Obtained by Mr. T. Colley.
Very rare. ;
Lima subauriculata.—Rare.
Ostrea edulis.—Common oyster.
Ostrea parasitica—On crabs and shellfish.
Common.
Anomia electrica.—Rare.
Anomia ephippium.—Very common.
* Anomia cepa.—Torbay and other parts.
Anomia squamula.—Abundant.
Anomia undulata.—Common.
Anomia punctata.—Not uncommon.
Anomia cylindrica.—Common.
Anomia aculeata——On fuci and shells. Not
uncommon.
* Anomia fornicata.—Torbay. (Turton.)
Arca Noz.—Rare. |
Arca fusca.—Not uncommon in crevices of rocks
at low water.
Hf
258 MARINE MOLLUSCS.
Arca lactea.—Numerous on the beaches. Found
alive in the interior of stones from deep water.
Pectunculus pilosus.—Deep water. Rare.
Pectunculus decussatus.—Not rare. Plymouth,
(J.C. B.) Torbay, (Rev. H. F. Lyte.)
Pectunculus nummarius.—Uncommon.
Nucula nuclea.—Uncommon in deep water.
Nucula minuta.—Rare.
Avicula hirundo.—Not very rare on Gorgonia
verrucosa, &c.
Pinna ingens.—Only in small beds at certain
parts. Falmouth harbour not uncommon, (J.C. B.)
* Pinna papyracea.—Devon. (‘Turton.)
Pinna fragilis.—(Turton.)
Mytilus edulis._Mussel. Abundant on all shores,
and also obtained in the young state from deep
water. Are not the reputed pellucid young, separate
species?
Modiola vulgaris.—Rare. Deep water. Torbay,
(Rev. Mr. Lyte.)
Modiola discrepans.—Not uncommon in deep
water.
Modiola discors—Common at the roots of fuci,
and in various marine substances.
Modiola Gibsii.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Tsocardia cor.—Rare.
Lithodomus lithophagus.—(Turton & Kingston. )
Cardium aculeatum.—Not uncommon in bays,
and at the mouths of rivers, and thrown up after
storms.
Cardium tuberculatum.—Common in deep water.
Often dredged up in Plymouth Sound. Torbay,
common.
Cardium elongatum.—Devon. (Montagu.)
Cardium exiguum.—Plymouth Sound. (J. C. B.)
Cardium edule.—Common cockle. Collected in —
April.
Cardium fasciatum.—Common in deep water.
tee
MARINE MOLLUSCS. ps:
Or
wen)
Cardium medium.—Torquay. (Turton. )
Cardium levigatum.—Sandy bays ; not uncom-
mon. Performs considerable leaps of many inches
at a time by means of its very long foot.
Cardium echinatum
? Cardium spinosum > Turton and Kingston.
Cardium muricatum
Corbula striata.—Not uncommon.
Mactra solida.—Common in rather deep water.
Mactra subtruncta.—Goodrington sands, Torbay,
common.
* Mactra deaurata.—Exmouth. (Turton.)
Mactra dealbata.—(‘Turton and Kingston. )
Mactra truncata.—Plymouth. Deep water.
Mactra stultorum.—Common in sandy bays.
* Mactra cinerea.—Paignton, and Weymouth in
Dorset.
* Mactra glauca.—Shores of Cornwall. Devon,
(Mr. T. Colley.)
* Goodallia minutissima.— Devon and Cornwall,
Goodalliatriangularis. (‘Turton and Kingston.)
* Lepton nitidum.—Torbay. (‘Turton.)
* Lepton squamosum.—(‘Turton and Kingston.)
Kellia rubra.—In great abundance in crevices of
rocks, below high water mark. Whitsand bay,
common.
Kellia suborbicularis._Numerous in stones from
deep water.
Loripes Jacteus.— (Turton and Kingston.)
Amphidesma, pretenue.
Amphidesma distortum.
Amphidesma pubescens.——Rather rare.
* Amphidesma truncatum.—Torbay. (‘Turton.)
Amphidesma compressum.—Hstuaries ; common.
Abundant at Mothecombe.
Amphidesma tenue.—(Turton and Kingston.)
* Amphidesma declive.-—Torbay. (‘Turton.)
Amphidesma album.—Sandy shores.
Een 2.
260 MARINE MOLLUSCS.
Amphidesma convexum.
(J AoE.)
Donax complanata.—(Turton and hingston.)
Donax trunculus.—Common. .
Donax denticulata.——Very rare. Bigbury bay,
(J..C.-B.)
Donax rubra. On corallines. Rather rare.
Boveysand, (J.C. B.)
* Tellina lineata——Teignmouth. (Turton.)
Tellina fabula.— Common.
Tellina squalida.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Tellina donacina.—Not uncommon.
Tellina tenuis.—Common.
Tellina crassa.—Not uncommon.
* Psammobia costulata.—Torbay. (Turton.)
Psammobia solidula.—Not uncommon.
* Psammobia strigillatus.—Torbay and Cornwall.
* Psammobia scopula——Exmouth. (Turton.)
Psammobia ferroensis.—Common in Torbay.
Psammobia florida ;
Psammobia rotundata Turton and Kingston
Astarte Danmoniz.—Not common.
Astarte Scotica.—Not uncommon.
Lucina flexuosa.—Obtained by Mr. T. Colley.
* Lucina pisiformis.— Falmouth and Teignmouth.
Lucina radula.—(Turton and Kingston.)
* Lucina arcuata.—Falmouth and Teignmouth.
(Turton and Montagu.)
ie apentiera - }Turton and Kingston.
yprina triangularis
Cyprina islandica.—In the mud of inlets. Rare.
Cyprina minima.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Cytherea chione.—Common; frequently polished
for ornaments. “ Queens.”
Cytherea ovata.—Not uncommon in deep water
attached to stones and corallines.
Cytherea exoleta.—Sandy bays.
Venus verrucosa.—Common in estuaries.
Rare. Falmouth,
MARINE MOLLUSCS. 261
Venus subcordata.—Falmouth. (Montagu. )
Venus cassina.—Rather rare.
Venus reflexa.—Not uncommon in estuaries, &c.
Venus fasciataA—Not uncommon. Falmouth,
common. (J.C. B.)
Venus granulata—Devon and Cornwall.
Venus rugosa. —Not uncommon.
Venus gallina.—Rather common.
* Venus pallida.— Dawlish.
Venus undata.—Common.
Venus aurea.—Rather rare. |
Venerupis perforans.—Rather rare. Usually in
lime-stone, but I have also found it in sandstone.
Does the solvent therefore vary in individuals ?
Venerupis irus.—Rare. Thrown up at Bovisand,
(Miss Hook.)
Venerupis pullastra.—Extremely common in the
mud of inlets, also in deep water. “* Hens” vulgo.
Venerupis decussata.—Not uncommon in inlets.
Venerupis virginea.—Rather rare. Falmouth,
not uncommon. (J. C. B.)
* 'Teredo bipinnatax—Exmouth. (Turton.)
* 'Teredo malleolus.—Torbay. (Turton.)
Teredo navalis.—“ Ship worm.” Common. The
operations of this animal on the piles of Teignmouth
Bridge have caused most serious injury, and in one
part the fabric has broken down.
* 'Teredo nana.—Torbay. (Turton.)
* Xylophaga dorsalis.——Torbay. (Turton.)
Pholas lamellatanx—Not uncommon. Plymouth.
(J. C. B.)
* Pholas tuberculatus.—Torbay. (Turton.)
Pholas dactylus.—‘* Perce stone.” Common.
A deal of the Breakwater in Plymouth Sound is
pierced by this animal, and in many parts so exten-
sively as to render the stone like net-work.
Pholas crispata——Plymouth. (J.C. B.)
Pholas candidus.—Torbay, &c.
262 MARINE MOLLUSCS.
Pholas parvus.—Torbay, &c. (Turton.) Plymouth
(Fos B:)
Gastrochena hians.—Torbay, &c.
Solen vagina.—Very common in inlets, “ Hacks”
or “ Razor fish.’ Collected by the poor during
low tides in August. Extracted by an arrow-shaped
iron instrument, passed suddenly through the body
of the animal from above.
Solen siliquax—Not common. Found at Whit-
sand bay.
Solen ensis.—Not common.
* Solen purpureus.—Torbay. (Turton.)
Solen pellucidus
Solen antiquatus
Sanguinolaria vespertina.—Not rare. Falmouth,
(J.C. B.)
Hiatella rugosa.— Very common in rocks, and at
the roots of sea weed. In a small block of sand-
stone I lately found the following species lodged
in close approximation ; Pholas crisp. lamel. and
parva; Hiat. rugosa, Ven. perforans, Kellia suborb.
and five other kinds not borers.
Hiatella arctica.—Common on stones, &c.
Panopea Aldrovandi.—Teignmouth. (‘Turton.)
Mya truncata.—Rather rare.
Mya arenaria.—Rare.
Lutraria vulgaris.—Rather rare. I have it from
the mouth of the Erme, and from Torbay.
Lutraria hians.—(‘Turton and Kingston.)
i Sphenia Binghami | Torbay. (Turton.)
* Sphenia Swainsoni
Pandora inequivalvis. (Turton and Kingston.)
Plymouth. (Mr. Colley.)
* Galeoma Turtonii—(Turton and Kingston.)
Turton and Kingston
Mactra/fragilis—Guernsey. Venus calcellata.—
Guernsey. Venus dysera.—Guernsey. Solen de-
clivis.—Scilly Isles.
sotipoady a
MARINE MOLLUSCS. 263
Total of the Molluscs of South Devon here enu-
merated 304. Total of those species peculiar to the
South Devon shores, or in some few cases common
to the shores of Devon and Cornwall, 55. 'Those
found in Cornwall and not in Devon are too few to
deserve separate notice.
The following sea shells not belonging in strict
propriety to the foregoimg lists, may here however
be noticed.
Nautilus spirula, “ Crozier nautilus.” Teign-
mouth. (Turton.) Dentalium trachea. Milton.
(Montagu. ) Dentalium Gadus. (Turton & Kingston.)
Dentalium glabrum. (Turton and Kingston.) Den-
talium imperforatum. Falmouth and South Devon.
(Turton and Kingston.) * Dentalium politum.
Torbay. (Turton.) * Dentalium labiatum. Torbay.
(Turton.) * Dentalium striatulum. Devon and
Cornwall. (Turton.) Dentalium dentalis. Not un-
common. Dentalium entalis. Plymouth Sound.
(Mr. Colley.)
Serpula spirorbis, (abundant) spirillum, minuta,
eranulata, heterostropha, carinata, and vitrea, are
all Devon shells, as recorded by Turton and
Montagu. Serpula vermicularis, I have found
fixed to shells, and on Eschara retiformis. Serpula
triquetra, on Eschara retiformis, &c. (J.C. B.)
Serpula complexa, Serpula tubularia on Eschara
retiformis. * Serpula rugosa, Teignmouth, (Turton)
and * Serpula arundo, are likewise found on our
shores.
As in the case of the fishes of South Devon so it
is with our marine Molluscs, we rank species in our
list which by some are considered to belong in
strict propriety to foreign climes, and by others are
thought to have the extremes of their geographic
range actually on our shores. ‘There can be no
question that the Devon and Cornish coasts are
actually the extreme limit of several kinds of mol-
~ “Jos
a ian *
eat 4 -
te -
Set tere
264 MARINE MOLLUSCS.
luscs belonging to no other parts of Great Britain,
and at the same time it is highly probable that our
exposed position to the Channels and the Atlantic,
enables us to collect on the more exposed beaches
the absolute products of other countries accidentally
cast up by the fury of the waves during storms from
very considerable depths. The “ Crozier nautilus”
(Nautilus spirula) was found some years since on
the beach of Ballyskelligs Bay, Ireland, and Mr.
O’Kelly the finder, conjectures with propriety that
it was washed thither by the Atlantic waves
from the shores of America. Dr. Turton has since
found specimens on the beach at Teignmouth, so
that probably it may hereafter be determined that
this species 1s capable of supporting existence
sparingly in our climate. The violence of squalls
affecting the Atlantic drives to the coast of Ireland,
and more sparingly the western coasts of England
the delicate “* Storm shell” ; (Ianthina vulgaris)
it has been captured not unfrequently on the north-
west coast of Cornwall, and has been also taken at ©
Teignmouth. Gales of wind drive to the southern
shores of England specimens of the “ Sea ear”
(Haliotis tuberculata) which belong properly to
the Channel Isles. The north-eastern limit of
Buccinum lineatum is probably the southern
English coasts. Panopea Aldrovandi, found in
France and Spain extends sparingly to the southern
coasts of England.
Presuming that the intermediate coasts have
been well examined it ought to be deemed sur-
prising that the coast of Devon participates so
strongly in the marine molluscous productions of
very distant spots, thus a variety of shells are
found solely at Dublin and on the Devon shores,
and though it is not very astonishing that so many
have been found common only to Devon and Guern-
sey, and—seeing the more exposed position and
RADIATA. 265
sreater eligibilities of our county—that we should
possess so many more of these animals than Dorset,
(about 132 marine shells are enumerated by the
author of the Dorset catalogue) itis certainly cu-
rious to find some of the shells of Zetland and of
the Orkneys generally, identified among the pro-
ductions of South Devon, and so far as is known
recognized no where else, witness the Buccinum
glactale, Cingula vitrea, Cardium elongatum, §c. ;
various species also have been found only in Scot-
land and Devon, such as Venus granulata, Tellina
punicea, &c., and again in the branchiferous mol-
lusca, Aplysia punctata occurs only on the shores
of Devon and Orkney. There is however no fact so
worthy of observation and in great measure so in-
explicable as the number of mulluscs exclusively
found on the coasts of South Devon, or at most on
the coasts of the two south-western counties of
Great Britain, and on which IJ have above remarked.
CATALOCUE OF ANIMALS BELONCINC TO VARIOUS
MARINE TRIBES RECOGNIZED BY THE AUTHOR OR OTHERS AS
FORMING PART OF THE FAUNA OF SOUTH DEVON.
Those marked with an Asterisk have been found (as regards
Britain) only off South Devon, or at most off Deyon and Cornwall.
The nomenclature from Fleming.
eS SSE
RADIATA.
ECHINIDE.
Echinus esculentus.—Sea egg. Very common
at the mouths of rivers, and generally along the
coast. Young specimens occur in deep water in
1
266 | RADIATA.
summer. Purple specimens are rare. A small
zoophite (?) is often found at the anal aperture.
Spatangus cordatus.—Sea heart. In sandy bays,
as at Whitsand, and several situations along the
eastern part of the Devon coast. I have it from
the neighbourhood of the Erme. Not common.
Spatangus purpureus.—Very rare.
Echinocyamus pusillus.—Thrown up in shallow
bays. Dead specimens are very commonly found
_ in sand towards the Land’s End. I have found it
alive in crevices of stone taken up in Plymouth
Sound.
The Echinus subangularis though said to be
common on the English coast has not occurred to
me, but is included in Turton’s and Kingston’s list.
ASTERIAD.
Asterias cartilaginea.—From deep water. Very
rare.
Asterias papposa.
Kingston.)
Asterias gibbosa.—Common in pools left by the
tide at low water all round the coast, and frequently
found hanging by a single sucker from pieces of
sea-weed, &c. under rocks at low tides.
Asterias equestris—Found at Teignmouth. (See
Magazine of Natural History.)
Asterias rubens.—Rare. I have had but two
specimens.
Asterias glacialis—Very common off the rocks.
Caught much by crabbers and called Star-jish.
Feeds on shell-fish, such as rostellaria, &c.
Ophiura granulata.—In vast quantities in Ply-
mouth Sound in deep water, also at Teignmouth.
Extremely fragile, very quick in its progressive
motion, which it executes in a wriggling manner.
Ophiura neglecta.—(Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. 8, p.467)
Mixed up with Corallina officinalis all round the
Devon. (Turton and
RADIATA. 267
coast. In great plenty under the Hoe. Occurs
also in deep water.
Ophiura bracteata.—Common in deep water.
* Ophiura brachiata.—In sand at Salcombe.
Ophiura bellis—Found at Teignmouth. (See
Magazine of Natural History. )
Ophiura rosula.n—Common on marine bodies in
deep water.
* Sipunculus saccatus._Teignmouth. (Martin.)
* Sipunculus strombus.—In the old shells of
Rostellaria pes pelecani.
Sipunculus nudus.—Devon. (Turton and King-
ston.)
Pennatula phosphorea. — Devon. (Turton and
Kingston.)
Astrophyton scutatum has been found in Corn-
wall by Dr. Borlase, also Asterias spinosa and
oculata, and Comatula rosacea.
LAMELLIFERZ.
* Caryophyllea sessilis Not uncommon, at-
tached to stones and shells in deep water. (See
description of this late addittion to the British
Fauna. )
GORGONIADZ.
Gorgonia verrucosa.— Sea-tree.” Common in
deep water.
Gorgonia placomus and jflabellum have been
found in Cornwall by Dr. Borlase.
CORALLINAD.
Jania rubens.—Not common. On rocks at low
water.
Jania corniculata.—Uncommon.
Corallina officinalis. —Extremely common on
rocks.
Lobularia digitata. ““ Dead mens’ hands.”
Common, chiefly in deep water on shells and rocks.
Liz
268 RADIATA.
Alcyonium hirsutum.—Common on fuci.
Alcyonium echinatum.—Common on shells in
estuaries.
Alcyonium gelatinosum.—Not uncommon on
Shells, &c.
SPONGIADZ.
* Tethya spherica.—Coast of Devon (Montagu.)
Bovisand. (J. C. B.)
Halichondria papillaris. Crumb of bread
sponge. Common at various depths.
? Halichondria panicea.—Encrusting rocks at
low water, Bovisand.
Halichondria parasitica.—Rare.
Halichondria hirsuta.—Rare. Mount Batten.
* Halichondria suberica.—Common. Encrusting
dead univalves, especially Nasa reticulata, and
these shells being themselves the habitations of the
Hermit crab at the same time. I have found it also
enveloping stems of sea-weed.
Halichondria fruticosa.—On stones from deep
water, Plymouth Sound.
Halichondria coalita. oot uncommon on ex-
posed beaches.
* Halichondria Montagu: —Kingsbridge. (Mon-
tagu.) Plymouth Sound ? (J. C. B.)
* Halichondria hispida.—Devon. (Montagu.)
Halichondria ramosa.—Rare.
Halichondria palmata.—Deep water.
Halichondria ventilabra.—Bovisand.(Miss Hook)
Halichondria plumosa.—Common on oysters,
stones, &c. at various depths.
I have in hand a number of yet undetermined, or undescribed
species of this genus.
Spongia pulchella.—A specimen from the beach
under the Hoe.
Grantia compressa.—Deep water, not uncommon.
Grantia botryoides.—Rarer than compressa.
%
}
a
ia
a at
y
) ae
RADIATA. 269
Grantia ciliata.—On fuci, stones, &c. in rather
deep water.
Grantia pulverulenta.— Not uncommon.
I have several new species of this genus for future
examination and publication.
MILLEPORADZ.
Millepora lichenoides.—Not uncommon on all
the coast ; is occasionally pink or purple.
Millepora polymorpha. Common on some
beaches.
Tubulipora serpens. Not common. Found
growing on stones, escharee, &c.
Discopora verrucaria~—Common on stones from
deep water.
Discopora hispida.—Devon. (Coldstream.)
ESCHARAD.
Eschara rectiformis.— Entire specimens from
deep water are not common.
Cellepora pumicosa.—Pumice- stone coralline.
Very common. I have specimens of a purple
colour.
Cellepora cervicornis.—Devon. (Dr. Coldstream.)
Berenicea hyalina.— Plymouth Sound, not scarce.
Berenicea utriculata.— On shells and stones,
common.
Berenicea immersa.
Frequent.
Eischara fascialis and Retepora reticulata, have
been found in Cornwall by Dr. Borlase.
Cellepora ramulosa.—Cornwall. (Pallas.)
On stones and shells.
FLUSTRAD&.
Farcimia fistulosa.
uncommon in deep water.
Flustra foliacea.—Rare. In deep water.
Bugle coralline. Not
(270 RADIATA.
Flustra papyracea.—Devon. (Montagu.)
Flustra avicularis—Uncommon. In deep water
on stones.
Flustra membranacea.—Common on fuci.
Flustra unicornis.—Not common on stones.
Flustra pilosa.—Common on fuci.
Flustra hispida——Common on fuci.
CELLARIADZ.
* Cellularia Hookeri. —Torquay. (Dr. Hooker.)
Cellularia ciliataa—Common. Occasionally red.
Anguinaria anguina.—Snake coralline. Rare.
Crisia eburnea.—LIvory coralline. Common in
deep water on stones.
Cellularia fastigiata, scruposa, and reptans.
(Turton and Kingston.)
SERTULARIADE.
Sertularia polyzonias. — Great tooth coralline.
Common.
Sertularia halecina. —Herring-bone coralline.
Not uncommon.
Dynamena abietina.—Sea jir. Very common,
especially on oyster banks.
Dynamena cupressina.—Sea cypress. Common
on oyster banks.
Dynamena operculata.—Sea hair. Rather rare.
Bovisand, (Miss H.)
Dynamena argentea.—Squirrel’s tail. (Turton
and Kingston.)
Dynamena pumila.—Sea oak coralline. Not
uncommon.
Dynamena rosacea.— Pomegranite coralline.
Not uncommon. Bovisand, (Miss H.)
Antennulariaantennina. Lobster’s horn coralline.
Common on oyster beds.
Plumularia myriophyllum.—Pheasant’s tail. Ply-
mouth Sound. (J. C. B.) Devon, (Dr. Coldstream.)
RADIATA. ir
Plumularia pluma.—Podded coralline. Rare.
Bovisand, (Miss H.)
* Plumularia pennatula.—Devon. (Montagu. )
Plumularia falcata.x— Sickle coralline. Common
on oyster beds.
Plumularia setacea.—Not uncommon on stones
and shells from deep water.
Serialaria lendigera.
Bovisand, (Miss H.)
Campanularia geniculata.—Knotted-thread co-
ralline. Common.
Campanularia dumosa.— Devon. (Montagu. )
Campanularia gelatinosa.—Common on sea weed.
Campanularia dichotoma.—Devon. (Lllis.)
* Cymodocia comata.—Devon. (Dr. Leach.)
Dynamena nigra and pinnata, Cornwall. (Pal-
las.) Thucaria thuia. Devon. (‘Turton & Kingston.)
Nit coralline. Rare.
TUBULARIADZ,
Tubularia indivisa.—Tubular coralline. Not
common. |
Tubularia muscoides.—_Windpipe coralline. Not
common.
Hydra viridis.—Devon. (Turton & Kingston.)
BALANUS. (Turton’s British Fauna.) “ ANNULOS A.”
Balanus communis.—_Common towards low water
mark.
Balanus balanoides. — Common on shells in
deep water.
Balanus punctatus.—Devon. (Montagu.)
Balanus rugosus.—Rare. I have seen but two
or three specimens.
Balanus elongatus.—Very common on rocks.
Balanus costatus.—Not common in deep water ;
found chiefly on Caryophyllea sessilis.
972 RADIATA.
Balanus conoides.—Common.
Balanus tintinnabulum.—On the bottoms of
ships.
Balanus aleyonii.—(Conch. Dictionary.) Devon,
(Dr. Leach.)
Balanus intertextus.—Not so common as the
communis, balanoides, and elongatus ; often found
imbedded in sponges.
Balanus spongiosus. —-—(Conch. Dictionary.)
Devon, (Dr. Turton.)
LEPAS. (Turton’s British Fauna.) “ANNULOS A.”
Lepas anatifera.—Not common.
Lepas anserifera.—(Turton and Kingston.)
* Lepas fascicularis.—Bovisand, (Miss H.)
* Lepas membranacea. Exmouth. (Mrs.
Luscombe.)
Lepas sulcata.—(Turton and Kingston.)
Lepas scalpellum.—Not uncommon. Plymouth
sound, attached to Plumularia falcata, Antennu-
laria, &c.
Limnoria terebrans, or “Gribble,” occurs in great
quantities in timber exposed to the sea, at Plymouth
and Torbay. ‘The Tubularia arenosa anglica of
Ellis, is found commonly at Whitsand Bay, and
some other spots. Gordius marinus has been found
on our coast. Sea anemone, (Actinea equina)
common on all rocky shores. Alpidium ficus,
common. Aphrodita aculeata, or “ Sea mouse,”
rare. Cuttle jish. (Sepia officinalis,) common.
Calamary (Sepia loligo,) rare. Cuvieria phanta-
pus, * Mulleria digitata, * Velella pocillum,
Holothuria pentactes, and Montagui. I might add
a copious list of species belonging to the Actinia,
Medusa and other tribes, observed by Dr. Borlase
on the Cornish coasts and which therefore might
probably be found also with us, but as my objectis
to keep nearly to my own observations without
RADIATA. We
much reference to authors I shall refer to books for
this catalogue.
As might be conceived the same remarks made
relative to the marine molluscs apply equally to the
above animals, being themselves situated under
similar conditions of existence ; many are peculiar
to our coast, some common only to Devon and
Cormwall, some found only in Scotland, and off
our shores, witness Halichondria ventilabra,
coalita and hirsuta, Ophiura granulata, and bellis,
Asterias equestris, §c.; one instance occurs in
which the shores of America yield somewhat to us,
the Gorgonia flabellum ; doubtless also the coasts
of France have an influence on our marine Fauna
through proximity, though I am not prepared with
instances to that purpose. By inference there may
be but little reason to doubt that a similarity in
the Irish and Devon productions might be estab-
lished if greater attention were paid to such subjects
in that country so very similarly situated to the
south-western parts of England. But it is still
probable that with the best conducted researches
there or elsewhere in the same latitude, no catalogue
of the marine radiata of a locality of the same
will ever be drawn up, capable of vying with
ours in regard of extent, variety and interest.
“ Hail bounteous Nature ! hail Eternal Source
Of loveliness and harmony divine ;
Still ever mingling, ever yet unchanged !
Though various, pure ; simple, though multiform ;
As more admired, more admirable art thou !
More sought, still ever to be sought the more,
And newer as more known. So vast thy works!”
BIDLAKE.
aT ya)
274 LAWS OF ANIMAL DISPERSION.
Chapter LL,
ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS IN GENERAL,
AND PARTICULARLY THE CEOGRAPHY OF THE
ANIMALS OF SOUTH DEVON.
Great exertions have been made in every de-
partment of science to determine principles and
ascertain laws. The successful prosecution of this
subject must depend in a great measure upon
acquaintance with detail ; and since this species of
knowledge has recently received great accessions,
philosophers have been guided by a reasonable
hope that a renewed inquiry after principles would
be attended with proportionably important results.
It is to be feared however, that the difficulties of
the investigation have been very often insuperable,
and have hitherto prevented us from acquiring any
satisfactory knowledge, particularly as concerns the
geographical distribution of animals. Indeed, as to
primary or first causes, the reasons of the institution
of laws, or of the occurrence of facts in connexion
with this interesting subject, we know absolutely
nothing. It has been customary until very lately,
to confound together primary or general laws and
secondary or partial laws. By primary laws, I un-
derstand those ordinances constituting the plan,
system, or method, according to which the whole
LAWS OF ANIMAL DISPERSION. 2795
animal kingdom is arranged or distributed over the
surface of the globe; it being opposed to reason
and at variance with all scientific considerations,
to suppose that living beings have been placed on
the earth promiscuously, indiscriminately, and with-
out regard of order and adaptation.
Since the greatest benefits and most important
uses of natural science depend upon the determina-
tion of principles and of general conclusions, the
labour bestowed on the study should centre on this
great object ; and in the enumeration of facts we
should be careful to inquire as we proceed, what
effect that detail has on admitted doctrines, or
what influence it might have in establishing or dis-
closing new views and theories. In accordance
with this idea I shall combine a recognition of laws
with a statement of facts in the present chapter ;
first mentioning the primary and secondary laws
by which the distribution of animals is governed
and then entering upon the detail of zoological
geography as observed in the south of Devon,
availing myself in this second part of the subject,
of every occasion to advance the knowledge of the
higher department of principles and general results.
It will be needful to remember that this subject of
the Geography of Animals is intimately associated
with several others of great interest, and more par-
ticularly with migration and the “ polity of nature,”
and these have, equally with the present question,
laws and general considerations connected with
them, which are by no means to be confounded
with those we are now about to state.
On enquiring how far the dispersion of animals
is affected by, or connected with the relative tem-
perature of the earth according to distance from
the extreme points of heat and cold, we find that the
animal creation is greatly accumulated within the
tropics and that it gradually diminishes in extent
Jae
276 LAWS OF ANIMAL DISPERSION.
as we recede toward the poles. Throughout these
vast spaces however, numberless exceptions and
deviations from this general ordination occur in
consequence of the influence of secondary or partial
laws, as will be shown in the sequel ; but the fact
of the tropical countries being the great seat of.
animal creation, the temperate regions possessing
fewer, and the polar districts the least number, is
‘incontrovertible.
But not only do the intertropical regions contain
the largest proportion of animals both as regards
species, and as regards the number of individuals,
but they are characterized also by giving place to
the most highly organized creatures of the whole
series ; while the temperate climates, and polar
regions, are respectively characterized by animals
having less and less of this endowment. Corres-
ponding latitudes will therefore be found to agree
in their animal productions in so far as they will
ptesent to view creatures possessing similar de-
grees of organic endowment. ‘These statements
however, although defensible in a general way,
are greatly qualified by secondary influences, as
will subsequently appear.
The laws which we have here stated, will receive
elucidation by reference to the Fauna of continental
mountains, where, on a small but similar scale as
regards temperature, we see the progressive ad-
vancement of numbers, and of organization, from
the summit to the base, though the occurrence of
highly and of lowly organized beings in both ex-
tremes forms a partial exception to the principle.
it would almost appear that we had arrived at the
knowledge of one of the primary causes of natural
phenomena, in finding such definite results in con-
nexion with heat and cold; but there are too many
and too palpable exceptions to this rule to allow of
such a conclusion., If animals were governed in
LAWS OF ANIMAL DISPERSION. Da 37 |
their dispersion, by heat and cold, except in a se-
condary and partial way, quadrupeds and birds
belonging to the same tribes as are found within
the tropics. would not be present in polar or alpine
situations.
There is no portion of our globe, even the most
desolate, which is not at times visited by certain of
the higher animals, and also permanently inhabited
by certain kinds of insects and inferior creatures.
It thus appears, that besides the lower orders of
animals being more numerous than the higher
classes, they are likewise more generally dispersed.
The resources of the lowest tribes are in all proba-
bility so obscure and occult as to be not only
unknown, but even inconceivable by our minds ;
on the other hand, wherever vegetation attains to
any tolerable degree of perfection in its various
forms, there a whole series of animal productions
presents itself. Ifthe extent of the Flora and Fauna
of any given country be examined into the above
result will infallibly be arrived at.
We may suspect that one primary law on which
the distribution of animals depends, having a pretty
general influence and which seems indeed alto-
getherin unison with the aggregate of our zoological
knowledge, is the gradual failure in number of in-
dividuals of a given species as we recede from the
point which from their comparative plenty there,
we presume to be their principal seat. ‘Together
with this numerical failure, we see likewise as
might easily be conceived, a failure or deterioration
in size, in qualities, in colour, and in all other
endowments. To so great an extent is this
occasionally carried, that naturalists are frequently
at variance in their decisions on the species, some.
considering such specimens as deteriorations, others
viewing them as separate species, or at least as
formal varieties. It is seen that independently of
278 LAWS OF ANIMAL DISPERSION.
distance from the seat of luxuriant growth and
great numerical increase, specimens having all the
appearance of such as are found at the very verge
of the geographical range of a species are constantly
detected within short distances of, or absolutely with-
in the metropolis itself. There are unquestionably two
sets of causes in operative influence on animals in
regard of distribution, and it is of great moment to
refer the phenomena connected therewith to the
right sources. The primary causes are quite un-
known to us and are likely to continue so, though
it would appear that the various parts of the organ-
ized creation being ordained to counterbalance
each other, that, as the laws of dependence pervade
the world of living beings in all its parts, any
determination or regulation such as the one men-
tioned,—the diminution of numbers and deter-
ioration in size and qualities of individuals—
providedit were general and observed in all classes
and species, need not excite surprise.
The secondary causes appear to be temperature,
food, situation, and the hostility of other species.
The influence of these appears to be very consider-
able, and though we cannot be altogether warranted
in attributing the above-named circumstance of
diminution of number and deterioration in size, &e.
to these causes, however plausible it might seem
to do so, they are undoubtedly the agents that
cause deteriorations generally. These secondary
causes become indeed of the greatest moment in
investigating the zoology of a given district. Pri-
mary laws can be seen and estimated only by
reference to zoology as a whole, by taking into our
view the phenomena exhibited by the entire series
of animals ; secondary causes must be appreciated
by examining the phenomena of animal geography
on smaller scales. It is then we see temperature,
food, situation, and other circumstances, operating
LAWS OF ANIMAL DISPERSION. 279
to the production of certain modifications in the
distribution of animals within a comparatively
small compass, while the primary laws influencing
their situation on the earth are uninterrupted, and,
as it were, overrule the others. In confirmation of
the supposition that the gradual lessening of num-
bers, and gradual deterioration in size and other
qualities of individuals of a species as we recede
from their metropolis, depend ona primary law, we
see the same rule applied to entire tribes and
classes of animals in numerous instances. If
secondary causes, such as food, or climate, deter-
mined the limits of species, it would not be found
that the verge of the range of one species was the
principal seat of another possessing similar endow-
ments and organization, and feeding for the most
part similarly. ‘The reasons or causes then of this
peculiar law or ordinance of Nature are hidden
from us. The great seat of the feline tribe is in the
tropical regions, and we see the species there found
gradually diminishing in number of individuals as
we advance northward. We see also that the in-
dividuals situated at the outskirts of this great
metropolis of rapacious creatures are diminished
in their size and bodily vigour, and that their
ferocity has suffered decrease. ‘The place of this
tropical series is now supplied by a new set, and a
third still more northwardly may without exagger-
ation or difficulty be detected, each undergoing
within its own limits the same gradual diminution
and deterioration. Eventually, if we compare the
contents of the two opposite points with regard to
this tribe, the difference becomes remarkable; we
find the species few, the individuals also few, their
size small, and thei vigour and ferocity greatly
reduced at their northern limit, while at the point
where we commenced, these features are totally
reversed. The principal seat of the cetaceous
280 LAWS OF ANIMAL DISPERSION.
‘animals is in the arctic and antarctic seas, different
species occurring at these two extremes; they
gradually diminish in number as we enter the tem-
perate regions, and are at their minimum in the
equatorial seas. The Turtles and Tortoises are
chiefly inhabitants of the warm latitudes, yet they
extend sparingly northwards, and even in England
a few stray individuals have been captured—the
Hawk’s bill Turtle in the Severn, in Orkney, and
in Zetland, and the Leathern Tortoise in Cornwall.
Peron says, “ the seat of the Phasianelle is at Maria
Island ; all traces of them are lost at King George’s
Sound, after passing through insensible degrada-
tions.” ‘The corals and other zoophites so plentiful
and luxuriant in tropical seas, are replaced in tem-
perate climes by (for the most part) a new series
of less sizeand less luxuriantaspect; yet the tropical
genera and species still follow us in sparing quan-
tities. In England, the madrepores are reduced
to two or three species of rare occurrence and di-
minutive size; the Gorgoniz are also comparatively
small; but the Gorgonia flabellum of the tropics
has been two or three times found on the Cornish
and Leith shores. Instances of this kind might
readily be multiplied.
It appears from the foregoing remarks that how-
ever desirable it might be in all inquiries like the
present, to determine general or primary laws, and
that however obvious it may be that such deter-
minations should be the principal aim of naturalists,
yet the subject we are enquiring into will scarcely
allow us to proceed farther than the discovery of
secondary influences. And since these are liable
to have an undue importance ascribed to them and
to be viewed as primary laws, it would be right as
far as possible to ascertain their absolute weight,
and to see how far they modify those more general
influences.
ANOMALIES. 28 1
It remains to be observed, that there are a certain
number of facts in the Geography of Animals which
do not appear to come under any law, nor are they
explainable by, or referable to any cause of which
we have knowledge. No species of animal is cos-
mopolitan, but the extent of geographic range of
species varies very largely. The greatness of this
extent however, is, except in a comparatively few
cases, so ordered, that there are certain divisions of
the globe inhabited by races of animals peculiar to
them, these races defining as it were by their
limits, the zoological divisions of the earth. Thus,
with a few exceptions (not considering those cases
in the northerm parts, where the two continents
join or approximate,) the Fauna of America is pe-
culiar to it, and the same may be said of Australia,
with the difference only of still fewer exceptions
being present. Now, besides the exceptions to this
rule of exclusive Faunas, the ranges of animals
within their zoological divisions is frequently very
extensive ; whilst on the other hand, the limits of
very many are extremely circumscribed, sometimes
a small spot of land, or a single river being the
extent of the habitat; in all of which cases, no clue
to the cause of such peculiarities can be discovered.
Indeed, unless we at once confess that animals oc-
cupy stations on the earth assigned to them by the
will of the Creator and determined only by a
Providence and an Omnipotence perfectly inscru-
table by us, we must be content to believe that
animal distribution depends on circumstances con- .
nected with the constitution of the species of the
nature of which we are ignorant, and are likely to
continue so. Itis not enough to point out instances
of evident adaptation of animals to the circum-
stances which surround them, or to show that their
peculiar food is found around them ; for it might
easily be demonstrated, that in numerous cases the
K kK
282 ANOMALIES.
same circumstances and the same food abound where
the animals never come, and where if brought by
man, they readily become naturalized. It is not
enough to say, that in the instances where no
adaptation is manifest it nevertheless must exist,
because we see that these animals are invariably
found in one particular kind of situation, for, al-
though some do certainly confine themselves as
thus stated, yet they are frequently peculiar to one
region or spot and denied to others equally suited
to their existence ; besides which, there are kinds
which in seeming opposition to the whole analogy
of zoological science, occupy a range of country or
of abode including opposite kinds of circumstances
and situations, and these instances occurring too
in the same tribe or family where, as above stated,
adaptation was ip some species proved by the uni-
form character of the abode. With respect to mi-
gration also, the causes are not always obvious, for,
birds of precisely similar endowments and character
observe different habits, some migrating, and some
being fixed ; whilst at times the migrating species
will for the winter remain with us, and seem to live
as well as our common residents, so that the reason
of migration is not always clear. ‘The Llama and
Vicugna, and the Sapajous, are peculiar to America,
the Ornithorhyncus, Kangaroo, and Wombat, to
New Holland. The Jay inhabits equally almost
every country of Europe, and the immediately
adjoining Asiatic countries, but extends no farther.
The Barn Owl inhabits Europe, America, and part
of Asia, as well as some of the South Sea Islands.
The Peregrine Falcon inhabits Europe, America,
and Australia. The Blue Jay is confined to North
America, the Asterias irregularis to the southern
shores of England ; the Physa alba to the River
Towyn of North Wales. The Sapajous, or prehen-
sile-tailed monkeys, are certainly well adapted to
INFLUENCES OF CLIMATE. 283
the forests of America, but are they less suited to
the forests of other countries? The Nightingale
certainly finds its peculiar insect food in those
countries, and counties of England to which it now
resorts, the climate also being congenial to its
feelings and habits, yet, though it is found in
Sweden and Germany, it is absent from Scotland
and Northumberland, and though it is found in the
middle and some southern counties of England,
it is hardly known in Devonshire. The Great
Bustard is found enjoying a distribution latitu-
dinally, whereas the same climate, situation, and
food, could be obtained to the north and south of
this zone. ‘The Achatina acicula, though found in
some limstone districts of England has never been
seen in the south of Devon, where lime abounds.
The Swallow never migrates to America or China,
though the food and climate there would suit its
constitution. The Hedge Warbler is stationary,
while the Blackcap migrates. Lastly, the Yellow
Wren which ordinarily migrates, will yet at times
remain with us through the winter.
The first of those secondary causes or influences
ranking as laws of geographic distribution of
animals which we shall mention, is Climate, a term
which includes a consideration of temperature, of
seasons, of winds usually prevalent, of the dryness
or humidity of the air, of rains, drought, continued
cold or heat, &c. It deserves notice, that the
presence of mountains, rivers, seas, barren spots,
the quality of soil, the degree of cultivation, and
the clearness or cloudiness of the sky have all some
influence in forming the climate, and in consequence
the Fauna of a country. Secondary laws seem to
act and re-act largely on each other, so that no one
of them appears to have a separate or unmixed
influence on animal distribution. The influence
of climate on the distribution of animals may at
K kK 2
284 INFLUENCES OF GEOGRAPHY.
once be seen by considering the vast increase of
living beings as we approach the equatorial regions
from the poles; but then it must be clearly under-
stood, that this effect of climate, or rather of heat,
is observed only in a very general way, and that
owing tO a great variety of causes, some quite
incomprehensible, others connected with food,
situation, &c. the interruptions to this rule of
increase are both numerous and important ; still,
on the whole, heat may be considered one of the
secondary causes that influence the geography of
animals. The alterations of the seasons, which
besides bringing an alteration of temperature, in-
duce considerable difference on the food of animals,
have a decided influence on their situations, caus-
ing a variety of movements termed Migrations.
These changes of place are more immediately de-
pendent on temperature and the state of the atmos-
phere, than on food, or other causes. Winds
frequently affect the Fauna of a country by driving
aquatic animals to land, or by putting migrating
animals from their destined courses. The state of
the atmosphere as regards dryness or humidity,
together with a continuanee of rains or drought
will affect the general nature of the climate, and
thereby the vegetable produce and animals of the
country in which such conditions occur. Unusually
hot or fine summers are most likely the causes of
our receiving certain birds from the southern parts
of Europe at that season. Long continuance of wet
and cold at the time of the autumnal migration, will
influence the period of departure of perhaps all our
summer visitants.
Geographical situation, relations, and arrange-
ment of a country, have considerable power over the
extent and nature of a Fauna. The adjacency of
an ocean, or large river in connexion with the sea,
implies of course the presence of marine produc-
INFLUENCES OF GEOGRAPHY, 285
tions ; the intersection of a country by smaller
rivers and inland waters will afford fluviatile and
lacustrine animals ; mountains and hills are the re-
sorts of a variety of creatures ; heaths and unculti-
vated spots have their peculiar animals ; cultivated
land, by originating a large proportion and variety
of plants and trees, invite thither a great variety of
passerine and other birds either in search of insects
in connexion with the vegetation, or for the purpose
of feeding on the various seeds ; together with the
passerine birds are found the climbers they being
insectivorous, and lastly, certain of the hawks or
other predatory birds allured thither by the presence
of smaller species.
Such is the usual ornithology of many of our
wooded districts in Devon, and notwithstanding
that we owe much to our hills and heaths, perhaps
our geographical position and our relations to other
countries, and above all, the extent of our woods
and cultivated ground, may be considered as more
generally influential in determining our species of
birds than any other secondary cause. Certainly
Devon and Cornwall are two of the mildest counties
in England, and in conformity with that character,
the Stone Curlew has been known, according to
Montagu, to remain all winter with us at the Start
the most southern point of land in England, except
the Lizard in Cornwall. So also the Chiff-chaff was
observed by the same eminent naturalist to stay
the winter with us near his house at Kingsbridge.
Storms and other phenomena of weather referable
to the head Climate, are as above said, and as will
in the sequel be illustrated, of considerable conse-
quence in forming and influencing a Fauna; but
Climate is very much dependent on situation,
arrangement, and other local circumstances of a
country, especially adjacency of sea which renders
the temperature of all countries bordering on it mild
286 INFLUENCES OF GEOGRAPHY.
and agreeable, provided the prevalent winds are in
a direction from it. If Devon were not situated in
connexion with the sea, of course no mildness of
climate, or storms, or phenomena of that kind,
could confer on us those marine products so con-
spicuous in our Fauna; and if our situation were
not at the southern limits of the island and opposite
to the southern states of Europe, we should neces-
sarily have none of those animals which by accident
or the invitations of unusually fine weather cross
over to experience the gentle warmth of our sum-
mers, or else are driven by the violence of equinoc-
tial storms on our coasts, or lastly in the case of
autumnal migrants, are enticed to stay the winter
with us by reason of our southernmost locality to-
gether with agreeably genial warmth.
The Flying-fish has occurred here, and to ournorth
in the Bristol Channel, possibly under the influence
of equinoctial gales, yet our situation must be
taken into account rather than this phenomenon of
our climate. The Hippocampus vulgaris and
Echineis remora have both been captured on our
shores, yet, situation equally with, or probably
more than climate, should be regarded as the cause.
Many of our birds are influenced in their visits
hither, and in their stay with us in winter, as well
as in many peculiarities of movements exhibited in
them, by our climate, but the abundance of wood
and shelter, and the diversification of the surface of
our country will alone supply some explanation
of the vast number of terrestrial birds found with us.
Consequently, not only must we be compelled on
most occasions to consider these two causes of
distribution,—climate, and geographic position
with the other physical conditions of a country—in
connexion, but to reflect that the Jatter influence
is of the two the more powerful and extensive in
operation.
OUR CLIMATE CHARACTERIZED. 287
If it were demanded of us to state the general
nature and qualities of the climate of South Devon,
we should say it was characterized by equality of
temperature and humidity ofatmosphere. Our sum-
mers are short, often fervent and attended with
long droughts; our autumns are usually rainy ;
our winters stormy, and sometimes very cold and
lengthened; our springs chilly, unsettled, deceptive,
and on the whole characterized by frequent inter-
vals of gentle warmth of short continuance between
the long-continued rains, the protracted blasts and
blighting winds ordinarily prevalent. Vegetation
having made several unavailing efforts in these in-
tervals, and having received frequent checks and
blights, is at length permitted to put forth its ener-
giesin May. Occasionally this month is with us
unusually dry and fine, so as to be productive of
calamitous consequences both as regards the feed-
ing of cattle, and the crops of grass and corn; for
at this period vegetation makes its greatest efforts
and requires a supply of moisture to proceed with,
in defect of which the harvests are rendered late
and scanty, and cabbages and other garden produce
are greatly injured. All this happened to us in 18386.
Occasionally also, (and such was our lot in 1837) May
is uncommonly unpropitious, and vegetation makes
no decided advances till June. On 24th March, 1837,
snow fell, and lay three or four inches deep, and ice
formed in the estuary of the Yealm half an inch in
thickness. On the 2nd April, snow again fell ; on
the 11th and 22nd, fresh deposits took place, and
in some spots remained two weeks. There were no
leaves on the trees till after the first week in May !
In the end of March, frosts even entered our hot-
houses and destroyed the young grapes.
According to my remarks, the arrival of spring
birds of passage is deferred in accordance with the
weather experienced in that season. ‘They arrived
988 SOURCES OF THESE CHARACTERS.
late in the last mentioned year, or at all events were
not seen or heard till after their usual periods. It is
much easier to state facts than to assign reasons for
facts, and so in the present case it will be found
rather speculative to trace out the sources of these
characters of our climate, and which it is requisite
to do, because these sources will be found in the
other physical conditions of the country, themselves
also influential on the geography of animals,
proving as before said that these secondary causes
do not act independently of each other.
The great source of the general equability and
mildness of our climate is certainly our connexion
with the sea. The humidity of the air is referable
also to the adjacency of the ocean, the sea winds
conveying with them the continued exhalations
from its surface; but it depends likewise on the
presence of our hills, which are great accumulators
of vapour and attractors of the lower clouds. A
great influence is also exerted by our inland waters
which exhale considerable quantities of moisture.
Lastly, the great abundance of trees, and of vege-
tation generally must have the effect of condensing
a large quantity of vapour, and of collecting a great
quantity of rain, and subsequently yielding it to the
atmosphere. But the great alterations effected in
the appearance of our country by such extensive
plantations and culture of various kinds of vegetable
produce, influence not only indirectly our Fauna
through the medium of climate, but also act directly
on animals by accommodating a larger number
than could otherwise find subsistence with us. This
adoption of new residences by animals is a fact so
generally allowed that I need not here insist on it.
I have stated that equability and mildness of
climate influence our Fauna; but does humidity
also? I am not aware that it does. The two prin-
cipal seasons in which our Fauna is rendered
EFFECTS OF HUMAN OPERATIONS, 289
extensive, are on the one hand winter, when cold
and storms cause a great variety of waders and
and water-fowl to seek our shores, and on the other,
summer, when the sun approaches us for a short
space of time, and when humidity is in a great
measure obviated by sea winds being of less fre-
quency. At all other seasons but summer, our
climate is rendered colder than it would otherwise
be by the great abundance of our wood, which
forming considerable shelter keeps off the benign
influence of the sun’s rays. Perhaps also when
our summers are not very hot, the earth does not
imbibe so much caloric as to allow of its giving
off any subsequently to temper the severity of the
winter’s cold. ‘This is in some measure borne out
by our experience of the year 1836. On the other
hand, a compact soil such as ours is, generally
has the quality of imbibing the fervour of the
summers sun without restoring it to the air so
readily as do loose sandy soils, so that a scorching
atmosphere is to a great extent prevented. On
the whole, our summers may be stated as being
generally moderately hot, thereby preserving the
character of uniformity to our climate, other cir-
cumstances above named having only minor degrees
of power. Other alterations in the surface of a
country besides planting and culture affect the
number, condition, and situation of animals,—many
are exterminated by man’s interference, some are
thereby excited to unusual multiplication, many
are restricted in their numbers, or in their range,
or in both, and some are encouraged to disperse
locally or generally. The alterations here referred
to comprise tillage, draining, irrigation, fencing,
building, &c. As regards Devonshire, we find the
number of quadrupeds diminished by the advances
of agriculture and civilization. Many kinds of birds
also have been thereby lost to us, though possibly
1b) ae
290 INFLUENCES OF FOOD.
some species have been gained, and certainly the
number of individuals has in many cases been in-
creased, and a great variety of alterations effected
in geographic position. The number of our insects
and molluscs has certainly been increased, and
their geographic limits and positions considerably
interfered with, contracted, or enlarged. Many
instances in point will be afforded in the sequel.
Very little need be said on the subject of food
as affecting the geography of animals. By the
polity of nature the vegetable world and the series
of animals are intimately blended and connected:
an extensive Flora will for the most part imply a
large proportion of animals, and so likewise the
weaker creatures draw to them the carnivorous
tribes. In our county we find an extensive Flora,
and our woods are numerous and deep ; the series
of animals also is found very perfect, and the parts
of it would, if not subjected to our interferences
and persecutions, be relatively proportionate. Food
influences the migration of animals to and from
this country, subject however to the higher in-
fluence of weather. In order to comprehend the
relative proportions of influence exerted by these
two causes, we must suppose adverse and propit-
ious cases in point. If food is plentiful and the ©
weather intemperate a summer bird of passage will
forthwith undertake its journey if it be near the
usual period for migrating ; if food is scarce and the
weather fine, it will also depart; if both circum-
stances are adverse, it will hasten its departure still
more decidedly ; and if provision be in plenty and
the weather fine, its stay will be prolonged. Similar
remarks might be made relatively to winter migrants.
Food has considerable influence in determining the
other kinds of migration besides the vernal and
autumnal. It also causes a variety of unusual
movements in animals, as will appear in detail.
—_
DIRECT INTERFERENCE BY MAN. 291
Food is known to determine with precision the
habitats of many kinds, though as shown under
the head of Primary Laws it has not that amount
of power supposed by some, and many situations
producing the required pabulum do not produce
the animals so dependent, and where, if removed,
they thrive well. Our Bulimus fasciatus and
Helix virgata which seemingly need maritime
localities from some preference of food, do not oc-
cur universally all along the coast though the
vegetation is seemingly uniform in character, but
are collected together in parties at certain spots.
Cyclostoma elegans occurs at Berry Head, but is
absent from the loose tracts round Plymouth.
Man conducts a warfare against certain animals
which he finds or supposes to be prejudicial to his
interests. In some cases, as where by our agricul-
tural operations, &c. animals have been permitted
to multiply more than their natural enemies would
have allowed, our destruction of their superfluous
number is justifiable ; and likewise in the case of
such creatures whose lives and actions are incom-
patible with our security and operations, extirpation
is demanded. Many of those animals however,
consigned to unlimited destruction, form important
links in the chain of creation, and in consequence
their deficiency will cause alterations of various
kinds in the proceedings of those other creatures
with whom they were associated in the general
scheme and polity of nature. ‘The merciless destruc-
tion of our rapacious birds by gamekeepers and
others must permit a vast accumulation of those
species of smaller animals on which they feed, and
in consequence, a more general and unnatural dis-
persion. A consideration therefore of the operations
of man, whether as respects his agricultural or his
other improvements and refinements, or whether as
regards his hostilities to the animal creation, is
Lu 2
292 NATURE OF SUBSEQUENT ENQUIRY.
worthy of some regard in framing an estimate of
the causes in active influence on the positions,
ranges, and migrations of our native animals of
Devon.
Itis fairly to be presumed that our acquaintance
wth secondary causes is as yet very imperfect ; at
least we are still unaware of the reasons of a very
great nnmber of phenomena which from being pe-
culiar to certain tribes or to certain species cannot
possibly be referable to general laws; and until
some light has been thrown on these circumstances,
our knowledge on this head must be deemed in-
complete.
Upon the whole it will be found difficult to
render an inquiry into circumstances and detail
interesting, though the chief objects and questions
we shall have in view will be—firstly, to determine
or illustrate general laws if the limits of such an
investigation should by possibility admit of it ;
secondly, to determine and illustrate secondary
laws or causes of geographic distribution by atten-
tion to the following circumstances,—comparisons
of the phenomena of this district with others of
similar extent and similar or dissimilar aspect
and contingencies, irregular distributions, the oc-
currence of varieties and other modifications as
provisions to suit local circumstances, the times se-
lected for migration, (of the various kinds) with an
aitention to the causes possibly influencing these
movements, modifications of habits, peculiarities
in the Zoology of the whole of the spot selected, or
in any of its parts, remarkable deficiencies in its
Zoology, general, numerical, and other results.
Lastly, it will be right to make mention of a variety
of other circumstances, though no explanation of
their occurrence can be given, since records of un-
explained facts may serve toinvite notice and
inquiry into causes.
THE ENQUIRY DEFINED. 293
There are two methods of considering the Natural
History of a given spot, each having its peculiar
advantages. We may investigate it with regard
only to those phenomena and circumstances pro-
perly and peculiarly its own, irrespectively of all
interferences and additions by the inroads of agri-
culture, planting, &c. ; or we may consider it in its
present state under allits alterations. The first mode
has the advantage of being the more natural, and
it is also calculated to display a great number of
remarkable features of the spot. The second plan
has the advantage of setting things in their present
light, and serves also to show to what extent
animals are influenced by our proceedings, how
far their distributions are modified by our advances
and operations, the instincts guiding them in their
defences against our intrusions, and lastly, it serves
to demonstrate an tmportant principle in the eco-
nomy of a great proportion of creatures, that namely
of adaptation to variety in surrounding conditions,
a quality almost unrestricted in the human species
but enjoyed in a more limited degree by the lower
animals, without which however their lives would
be dependent upon the slightest alterations in sur-
rounding circumstances, and without which we
should not have been enabled to subject any of
them to our uses and pleasures. I believe it will
be expedient to examine the Zoology of this dis-
trict with reference both to original and to existing
features, giving to each its respective value and
peculiar considerations.
We include in our local survey that portion
of Devonshire which extends from the heart of
Dartmoor to the southern coast, and which is
included between the rivers Exe and Tamar re-
spectively on the east and west. There is thus
presented to the view an extent of country having
in its northern part the character of sterility, and
294 DARTMOOR.
in its southern that of fertility. Now, as we have
already had occasion to observe, the animal part
of the creation is almost entirely dependent on the
vegetable world, whilst the vegetable kingdom in
its turn is dependent on inorganic matter. Accord-
ingly, if it appears that the northern division of our
limits is incalculated from the nature of its super-
ficial soil to maintain vegetable life except in a
limited degree; so also it is obvious that the
animal productions of this spot must be likewise
restricted. ‘The central districts of Dartmoor pre-
sent to the eye a series of hills of great size covered
with detached blocks of granite. On the summits
of many of these hills are found swamps, and even
pools of great depth, and between them streams
pass on for future coalescence, and where the sur-
face is level for a sufficient space, the drainings of
the country rest and form morasses and lakes.
Altogether, Dartmoor and its vicinity presents a
large proportion of water, since it appears that five
principal rivers, twenty-four secondary streams,
fifteen brooks, two lakes, and seven heads are
found on it.
The Flora of this wild district consists with but
few exceptions of the lower tribes, such as mosses,
ferns, lichens, &c., and of such plants as are pe-
culiar to marshes and other collections of water.
The soil cannot possibly support many of the higher
orders, but the beauty, variety, and luxuriance of
those vegetable forms which mantle the rude blocks
of granite, spring from the spongy soil of the bogs
and marshes, raise themselves into notice above the
stream, or maintaining their existence in the body
of the current attached to some fixed point, move
in conformity with its undulations, are sufficient to
attract the notice of even the incurious. In this
sterile spot the most common creature excites re-
EXTIRPATED QUADRUPEDS. 295
gard, and those which are peculiarly its own cannot
fail to be contemplated with much interest.
The Quadrupeds of Dartmoor, though now re-
duced to a small number, were formerly pretty
numerous. The following are recorded as its ancient
inhabitants,—the Wolf, the Brown Bear, the Boar,
the Wild Ox, the Red Deer, the Elk and the Wild Cat.
The Wolf appears to have become extinct on Dart-
moor about the close of the reign of Elizabeth. It
was a pure native of our country and required great
exertions for its removal. The Bear seems to have
been extirpated in the eleventh century, and unless
its food consisted chiefly of vegetable productions
it is difficult to understand how its existence could
have been maintained. ‘The Boar and Wild Ox
have been taken under the protection of man, and
the date of extirpation of the wild stock is not re-
corded. That noble animal the Red Deer was until
within the last fifty years pretty common in the
remote wooded districts of the county ; its race too
has undergone extirpation in a very gradual manner.
“Sometimes, but rarely, one has been perceived
near Ashburton,” and it is not more than three
years since that I saw an account in a paper of the
chase of one near that town, it having unfortunately
been espied in some coppice. It is quite reason-
able to suppose that the Goat was a native or
rather a frequenter of this district so perfectly
congenial in aspect to its nature. All these
were most likely found in a less degree throughout
the woods and wilds that lie to the south of
Dartmoor, but by increase of population and ag-
culture they were no doubt soon removed from
these spots and eventually their limits restric-
ted to the Moor itself.* But here also they
* One such spot where these wild animals abided was Berry
Head, as appears by the discovery of numerous teeth of the Boar
296 QUADRUPEDS OF THE MOOR.
suffered extermination soon after the king took
part in the more noble field amusements, and when
punishments were inflicted for interference with the
game.
(For the existing quadrupeds of South Devon
inclusive Of the Moor, see catalogue in the last
chapter, and the map accompanying this text.)
The present state of Dartmoor would by no
means lead to the belief of its supporting more
than two or three quadrupeds of the smaller kind,
and indeed upon inquiry into facts we find that the
barren open portions are frequented only by the
Rabbit, Mole, Weasel, and perhaps the Stoat.
How then can this region have maintained those
other large animals recorded as extirpated ? There is
undeniable evidence that the central department of
what we ordinarily term Dartmoor was in former
years a forest, and that it was set apart for the king’s
use as aroyal chase. With this explanation diffi-
culties vanish. At the present period the woods
and plantations in the immediate vicinity of the
Moor harbour the same quadrupeds as those found
in the southern districts. The Martin and Polecat
however, are now more peculiarly frequenters of
the deep woods remote from cultivated parts. The
Otter is said to confine itself (as respect the Moor)
to the river Dart, probably from its superior size and
depth, and from its being better supplied with fish.
and Red Deer in the soil ofa field adjoining the sea. Berry Head
is known to have been the resort in ancient times of those who
devoted themselves to the chase of such animals.
As for the bones of the E/k, of the occurrence of which in
alluvial or diluvial deposits so much doubt exists, Moore’s asser-
tion of their discovery with us, and in circumstances not diluvial
in their character, has been lately supported by their disclosure
in a peat bed at Meyagissey.
= Short cared
Lion Mead S Ont.
Lid ford. \ 7,
2 Great Bustard Little Brostard
4
i oe
Fa iS
; Moreron Hamstead.
\
Lhick-enueel ) BB stalen Plov ]
Plover ate : \
Colden tagle '
Com” Martin
Pine Martin «
Whinchat
Maver
MAP OF
DARTMOOR,
Mlustrative of its
ZOOUWOGY.
Vight
Tax
a
pelel:
Lrdford. a 4+ cared
ie Drv? fl
br ren. é
‘ fe
= ae 2
: i 15 ¥
amstead.
SL
a
KUvigf,:
ee
sone
Woodcock.
~
roots,
ae \Danlin.
o ‘ z
{ 4
a ere
gcRITMO OR ,
ative of its
OLOGY.
ORNITHOLOGY OF THE MOOR. 297
The Mole is a creature by no means limited to
cultivated districts, as appears by its occurrence
on a barren hill of very considerable height in
the immediate neighbourhood of the Moor. The
most numerous and characteristic species however,
is the Rabbit, which as will subsequently be seen,
draws thither a variety of rapacious birds that other-
wise would not find food in such a district.
The Ornithology of Dartmoor is in many respects
interesting. The Rabbits which abound there draw
numerous species of rapacious birds to it, and the
Raven, Carrion Crow and Hooded Crow likewise
traverse in their wanderings this wild spot. ‘The
Ring Ouzel frequents many of the rocky and rapid
streams in parties, nestling to my knowledge in
hollows of the rocks. The Water Ouzel is a fre-
quenter of similar situations being a great lover of
solitude, and I am not aware that either of these
birds has been traced, except sparingly, beyond
the barren portions of the Moor. The Titlark,
Stonechat, Whinchat, and Grasshopper Warbler
are found occupying their respective stations on the
heaths and stony fields; and the Wheatear and
Reed Warbler are reported to make their abode
within the limits of the more barren parts of the
district. It has been told me that Cuckoos are at
times seen haunting rocky spots on the borders of
Dartmoor, and this may be true enough, although it
is possible that my informant may have mistaken
the Nightjar for it,as they are not very dissimilar
in appearance, and since I well know that Nightjars
are found on the borders of the Moor in large wooded
inclosures, but particularly at Buckland-in-the-
Moor, where the oaks have attained a great size.
From these woods they usually select positions in
the adjoining commons or brakes for nestling. The
Great Bustard which formerly frequented the Moor
has I fear been extirpated. In times past also, ne
Mm
298 ORNITHOLOGY OF THE MOOR.
doubt, the Crane frequented Dartmoor. One was
shot in 1826 on the borders, and there is a hill in
the heart of the Moor having on its summit a pool
of great size called Cranmere Pool, a name signify-
ing the abode of Cranes, as though these birds had
been in the habit of resorting thither, as is the
practice of some other birds at present. The Thick-
kneed Plover frequents the downs and wastes ; and
it would seem that some wintered with us and were
driven to inclosed lands, as in severe winters they
have been brought to Plymouth Market, where I
have myself seen them, though rarely. In the
summer months I have seen Curlews on the marshy
grounds, where indeed they breed, but I presume
the numbers killed on the coast in severe winters
must be derived principally from the northern
counties. It has been proved that many individuals
of the Snipe family breed on Dartmoor, but it is only
of late years that this fact has been observed. The
same observation applies to the Duck, Wigeon, and
Teal according to report, though I can answer
only for the Wild Duck, which unquestionably
breeds in several spots on the Moor, besides in
those situations in our cultivated grounds where
care has been taken to protect it. ‘The swamps of
the Moor are also the breeding-places of many in-
dividuals of several species of wading. birds found
in the autumnal and winter months on our cultivated
lands and shores.* The Lapwing descends in flocks
* This rule of the limitation of the waders to such spots during
the breeding time, like most other rules of our formation on natural
subjects, is arbitrary and open to exception. Curlews have been
known to breed on the shores of Falmouth and Plymouth Har-
bours. Parties of Purres (a half dozen or more) are seen on our
coast at times as late asthe middle of May. Lapwings some times
breed in our large open fields, and I believe also on the coast.
RARER BIRDS OF THE MOOR. 299
in winter ; I have noticed them arriving in vast
quantities in December yearly on the high grounds
bordering Bigbury Bay. It has been found also
that the Golden Plover, Grey Plover, and Dunlin
breed there, and there is great reason to suppose
that very many other similar birds do likewise.
The Coot, Water Hen, and Water Rail are well
known to breed not only in the marshes of Dart-
moor, but also plentifully in very many swampy
woods, and other secluded watery spots not far from
Plymouth, dispersing from these retreats as soon
as the cold sets in. The Black Grouse is sparingly
dispersed over the moors, and in winter roams with
its progeny over the woods and cultivated parts of
the country, being occasionally shot and brought
to market in the severer months.
Besides the above named birds there are others
recorded to have been observed sparingly on or in
the vicinity of the Moor. The Honey Buzzard,
Sea or Cinereous Eagle, Golden Kagle, Goshawk,
Kite, Little Owl, Short-eared Owl, Nutcracker,
Greater spotted Woodpecker, Lesser spotted Wood-
pecker, Roze Ouzel, Wryneck, Cross-bill, Havefinch,
Hoopoe, Snow Bunting, Turtle Dove, Quail, Little
Bustard, Great Snipe, Barker, Spotted Rail, and
Tittle Rail are some deserving notice. But it is to
the deep and unfrequented woods before named as
bordering the Moor that we are principally indebted
for these rarities, and it cannot be altogether sur-
prising that these spots so secluded and so generally
calculated to be the abodes of the feathered tribes
should contain within them objects so precious to
the naturalist. ‘They who have read Vaillant’s
“Travels in Africa,” will I think agree with me in
the remark, that the transition from these woods to
the contiguous sterile tracts of the Moor, where
_ even in summer little else can be seen save the
Curlew flying from the summit of one tor to another
M m 2
300 BIRDS PECULIAR TO THE MOOR.
and by its harsh note adding to the dreariness of
the scene, the Stonechat and the Ring Ouzel, or per-
chance a Buzzard hovering aloft, is not very unlike
the sudden changes experienced by that adventurer
and which he so touchingly describes,—-at one time
surrounded by hundreds of beautiful birds, enliven-
ing by their actions and notes the thick groves,
then situated in a trackless desert, and guided only
on his way by the harsh note of a duck flying at a
great height in quest of some rock which might
happily contain water in its basins.
The arid and remote portions of the Moor are
frequented by only a few birds, never found (or but
rarely and at certain times) in the southern and
cultivated districts. The Eagles and birds of that
kind are generally however partial to remote spots,
or restricted to them by our interference. The
Golden Eagle, if stilla Devon bird, must be account-
ed as in some measure peculiar to Dartmoor, though
most of this kind roam to immense distances at
certain periods. The Sea Eagle has been seen
both on Dartmoor and frequenting cultivated land,
and has likewise been captured at the Eddystone.
The Goshawk, Kite, and Honey Buzzard may be
considered almost confined to Dartmoor; the first
however has been met with on the coast, and the
last at Slapton Ley. The Short-eared Owl has
been killed both on Dartmoor and Exmoor, but
seems to be very rare and to confine itself to open
audremote spots. The Black Grouse, LittleBustard,
Thick-kneed Plover, and the various waders before
named as most likely breeding on the moors, to-
gether with the Great Bustard and Crane (if they
be still resident in the county) must be considered
in some degree peculiar to Dartmoor, though they
are all constrained on the occasion of severe
weather to seek shelter and food in the cultivated
parts.
FAUNA OF THE SOUTH HAMS. 301
The woods bordering Dartmoor are well adapted
to shelter a variety of birds of the rarer kinds, but
yet none that I know of are limited to them ; the
Turtle Dove however is more frequent in these
situations than in the southern parts, and several
species of the rarer Hawks are mostly obtained from
thence.
Iam not aware that anything need be said re-
lative tothe amphibia of Dartmoor, excepting that
the Lizard and Viper are both found pretty com-
monly on the downs and other dry situations, as
indeed they are throughout the whole county.
Nothing can be said relative to the Icthyology, nor
any thing on the Conchology, unless it be that
Helix trochilus has been noticed close to the Moor.
Having but slight acquaintance with Entomology
I can only say that the lists of the Dartmoor insects
are very extenSive.*
When we conie to examine the Fauna of the
central districts of South Devon we find considerable
alterations in its character, besides its extent being
greatly increased. ‘The diversification in the sur-
face of the country, together with every variety of
soil and vegetable produce are no doubt great
reasons of this circumstance, while another cause
is our being situated at the southern limits of the
Island, by means of which we are more likely than
* Vide Carrington’s “ Dartmoor,” in which the catalogues of
animals are supplied by Dr. Tucker of Ashburton, and by Dr.
Leach, formerly of Spitchwick. The former gentleman also con-
tributed a list of rarer birds to Jones’ “ Guide” befere quoted, and
commenced a periodical entitled “ Ornithologia Danmoniensis.”
The labours of the latter naturalist are chiefly to be found in the
transactions of learned societies.
302 MAMMALS.—WHITE VARIETIES.
other counties to partake of the ornithology of the
continent, and likewise to receive a variety of birds
which migrate from northern counties or kingdoms.
Reverting to the mammalia we have still a few
remarks to make. Our woods and thickets are so
numerous and sometimes so little frequented that.
the Hedgehog, Badger, Fox, Hare, Squirrel and
Dormouse are all found pretty abundantly, and the
Shrew, Weasel, and various kinds of Mice frequent
in plenty our fields and hedges. I am not quite sure
respecting the Water Shrew, but I believe I have
taken it while a boy in the stagnant waters of the
entrenchment round Devonport, and it is generally
believed to be an animal not rare, though very shy
in its nature. In the space of ten years I have
not seen above three or four specimens of Polecat
in this neighbourhood though I have been much in
the habit of inquiring on such subjects among
gamekeepers. On the other hand the Stoat and
Weasel are plentiful throughout the county. ‘The
Harvest Mouse is found in Cornwall, and from re-
ports there is great reason to believe it is tolerably
common in Devon. I very lately captured the new
species of mouse described and figured further on,
and designated Shaggy Vole. The Black Rat is
scarce with us.
The assumption of the white fur in quadrupeds
has been ordinarily supposed peculiar to northern
latitudes, or at most to our northern counties and to
depend on great cold, but a white Hare was seen in
a wood near my house one winter and though that
season was unusually severe it is certainly difficult
to understand why certain individuals of this animal
and of the Stoat and Weasel should assume this garb
in not very cold seasons. White Rats have been cap-
tured at times in warrens, where this species is
known to resort for the sake of the young rabbits.
White and cream-coloured Moles are also found
ORNITHOLOGY OF THE SOUTH HAMS. 303
here, and particoloured specimens of all the above
named.
In all cultivated districts abounding in wood and
productive of an extensive Flora, as is the south of
Devon, we necessarily meet with a great variety of
birds belonging to the Passerine order. In the
central portions of South Devon, now under con-
sideration, there are but few birds besides the
Passeres (Cuvierian system) observed, and these
excepting a very few species, may be regarded as
in great measure peculiar to this central part.
The Ring Ouzel and Water Ouzel may to a cer-
_ tain extent, be considered as Dartmoor birds, but
some no doubt have been seen beyond those pre-
cincts, and a pair of the latter build yearly in a
fish-house not far from me, and very close to a flour
mill, a saw-mill, and several other houses, being
also within fifty yards of the main road. The Raven,
Hooded Crow and Nutcracker likewise, are birds |
which can scarcely be claimed for the ornithology
of a cultivated tract, though the first two roam at
times over every variety of country.
The entire number of birds wholly or partially in-
habiting the cultivated, wooded, and well watered
part of Devon we are now speaking of may be
estimated at about 141,—allowing about 13 to be
Accipitres, 5 Scansores, 5 Galline, 8 Palmipides,
about 22 Gralle, and 88 Passeres,—the total being
more than one-half of the whole South Devon
list, computed at 247, the remainder being made
up by those few birds more peculiarly belonging
to the Moors, and by the great variety of those
waders and web-footed birds furnished by our
coasts and hereafter to be noticed. But, giving
all due weight to these last-named sources in
swelling our ornithological list, that part of it
which we are now more especially examining is
found by comparison with ornithological lists of
i a eee
504 ORNITHOLOGY OF THE SOUTH HAMS.
well wooded and well cultivated counties, to be un-
usually extensive. The number of birds in Oxford-
shire does not exceed 120, inclusive of several kinds
of web-footed birds (besides the more common sorts «
of Ducks, &c., which we may presume would form
part of most ornithological lists) which occasionally
roam inland, or are driven thither by stress of
weather, such as the Herring Gull and Leach’s
Petrel, and three kinds of Waders which are at times
detected in inland localities, the Ibis, Phalarope,
and Greenshank, so that more properly not above
106 land and fresh water birds are found in Oxford-
shire, making a difference of 35 species between
the two counties. This difference we shall examine
into, as it will serve to illustrate in some measure
the peculiarities and more remarkable features of the
ornithology of the cultivated parts of Devon.
First with regard to the Accipitres, the de-
ficiencies consist of these birds, (not taking into
account certain species which I shall have to men-
tion in considering the third portion of the south
of Devon)—the Rough-legged Falcon, Ash-coloured
Falcon, Moor Buzzard, Great eared Owl, Snowy
Owl, and Little Owl. In examining into such sub-
: jects we may perceive, that with respect to some
species the reasons of absence are evident enough,
while with respect to others, the causes of restriction
of limits and occasional or vacillating appearance
are quite unknown. Speaking generally, the cause
of our possessing so many species of this tribe, in-
deed all the British species except the Scops Aldro-
vandi and Egyptian Vulture, stragglers, seems to be
the rocky and mountainous character of our county
together with so great an abundance of uncultivated
land interspersed and a vast number of woods of
great depth removed from the neighbourhood of man.
The only species of the Accipitres however which
may be accounted at all common in Devon, are
ip
Se
4
e)
oll
RARER BIRDS OF THE SOUTH HAMS. 305
the Kestrel, Sparrowhawk, Common Buzzard, Moor:
Buzzard, White Owl, and Brown Owl. In former
years the Kzte was a common bird in this country,
but at the present day it is particularly scarce,
furnishing an illustration of the uncertainty of the
geographical position of rapacious birds, and a
proof likewise that we are inadequate to fathom
very many of the phenomena of animal dispersion,
for we know no reasons why that species should
abandon us. According to Dr. Pulteney, it is very
frequent in Dorset, and by an authority of my
acquaintance it is not very uncommon in Oxford-
shire. But this uncertainty of position is not
confined to rapacious birds.
When we turn to the Passeres of Oxfordshire we
do not find more than 17 deficiencies, allowing 88
to be the number observed in the cultivated parts
of Devon, so that it is not in this department that
the chief part of the difference is found. They are
the Red-tailed Warbler, Woodchat, Mot. neglecta.*
(Yarrel’s British Birds,) Passerine Warbler, Black
Redstart, Sylvia neglecta, Mealy Redpole, Golden
Oriole, Pied Fly-catcher, Dartford Warbler, Cirl
Bunting, Bearded Titmouse, Twite, Bee-eaier,
Siskin, Lesser Red-pole, and Reed Warbler, (the last
two being doubtful) the whole of which are rarities in
the British Isles. I have considered the Ring Ouzel
and Water Ouzel to be almost wholly moorland
birds in Devon, but although the latter is not met
with so far as I know in Oxfordshire, the former
has been sparingly observed. I have likewise noticed
the following birds as common in that county
* After my Catalogue of Birds had passed through the press,
I learnt from Mr. Gosling that in the month of November, he
saw a bird of this species accompanying a small flock of the
pied sort between Plymouth and Stoke.
306 DEFICIENCIES IN OUR LIST.
which with us are scarce,—the Redstart, Grasshop-
per Warbler, Lesser Whitethroat, and Pettychaps.
The Nightingale is common in Oxfordshire but in
Devon has not been noticed far west, though in
Dorset it is plentiful, hereby defining very accu-
rately its south-western limits in England. Now
in all these instances of remarkable dissimilarity
between the two counties, no explanation what-
ever can be given of the preference for localities
so observed. The distribution of some animals is
latitudinal, that of others longitudinal, some species
inhabit a district of a rounded or irregular form,
some are found regularly dispersed through the
whole of a natural geographical division of the
globe, some are found inhabiting one division and
only partly one or more of the others, some inhabit
one or more countries, omitting or refusing to dwell
in certain spots in that range, whether large or
small, some are uncertain in their stations, are
continually changing their position, or remain an
indefinite period and then disappear in toto, or
return after the lapse of some time; in all which
phenomena little can be detected of secondary
causes exercising a decided influence, and yet I
cannot but think we are largely indebted to these
causes for the great variety of natural productions
of which we boast, allowing all necessary weight
to those unknown primary laws of dispersion under
which very many species appear with us, and many
are denied to us. But depending upon all these
causes combined, we are enabled to rank as Devon
birds a very large number of rarities, perhaps more
than any other county in Great Britain. Perhaps
the whole number of British birds may be considered
as 302, and upon inquiry where our deficiencies of
53 chiefly occur, it is found that they consist in
part of stragglers and rarities, and in part of birds
whose limits of distribution are confined to the
{
Ae We ry
Mitel ae Ahee
ZOOLOGY OF THH
Celleratid foottions
OF SOUTH DEVON.
wait ae
Ch fet ie
rare
oy Ter.
Cr ofspatl
lrosbeak,
y
mK Da ‘
’ ]
| : 3
| FY |
( \
| Ls
S
,
Da }
i
yA ¥e
f Nightingale ES
|
&
d
ron
Ns
*
>
a)
i ne
y)
* VPA Uc
= SF, a
ie ane ~ “Ve :
ave MI hie
Tee. cs
3 MA eg
ZOOLOGY OF THE
Celtevated foortiond
OF SOUTH DEVON.
RARER VISITORS, &c. 307
Northern Isles, to Scotland, or to certain counties to
the north of us, or lastly whose geographical po-
sition may with greater propriety be referred to the
north than to the south of Devon.
There are certain passerine birds which are
uregular visitors of Great Britain, such as the
Bee-eater, Oriole, Rose Ouzel, and Hoopoe, which
have several times been found with us, and which
properly speaking have their station in Africa but
migrate into Europe yearly, and at times pass over
to the British Isles, so that this offers some ex-
planation of the fact of so many of the British
specimens having been captured in the south, and
especially in Devon. Another class of Hee
visitants seem to arrive from opposite sources; the
Nutcracker is in our list an instance of this, as
the northern countries appear to be its true station,
the cause of its coming hither not being evident.
A third series of irregular emigrants, consisting of
the Pied Hlycatcher, Red tatl, Bohemian Chatterer,
Crossbili and Grosbeak, are in all probability de-
rived from the Continental states. The Bearded
Titmouse, has been noticed only near Thorverton
and Dawlish, and the Tree Sparrow only in the
east of Devon. The Reed Warbler is found
sparingly with us, though it has not been noticed
in Wilts, Somerset, and Dorset. The Brambling
and Snow Bunting are chiefly observed in winter.
Our other rarities are noticed only sparingly and
casually.
(For the localities of our rarer and more inter esting
birds of the South Hams, see the catalogue in the
last chapter and the second of the maps accom-
panying the present text.)
The remark which we made relative to the Ac-
cipitres being prone to roam, of individuals of one
species being stationed in localities of very different
natures, of their partaking of a variety of food, and
: Nwe2
308 REMARKS ON DISTRIBUTION.
of the same species being found in various quarters
of the globe, applies, though less forcibly, to the
family of the Pies and to the Shrikes. The appetite
of the Raven extends to every sort of animal food :
it has of necessity a roaming disposition and it is
spread over the globe from the northern countries
to the Cape of Good Hope. The Crow and Magpie
also enjoy a very extensive range and the latter is
found in America. Those Pies however which are
in some degree granivorous, or less decidedly car-
nivorous, are not so widely dispersed or of so
roaming a disposition,—the Rook, the Jackdaw, the
Jay, the Hooded Crow, and the Chough. ‘The
Great Shrike has a range almost equal to that of
the Raven, while the Flusher, which is chiefly in-
sectivorous, is confined to Europe or extends at
most to Egypt. Among land birds therefore, the
Accipitres, and rapacious or carnivorous Passeres
enjoy the most extensive distribution. ‘The King-
fisher, a piscivorous bird, is also very widely dis-
persed, being common to Europe, Asia and Africa.
The Waders and Web-footed birds are however
more extensively distributed than land birds, more
especially the former, as we may have occasion
to observe hereafter. Fish enjoy avery wide range,
but quadrupeds seem to characterize the natural
divisions of the earth, at least in a great measure.
The other tribes are likewise in some degree cha-
racteristic of different quarters of the world.
Proceeding in our comparison of the cultivated
parts of Devon with Oxfordshire we come next to
the Scansores, in which division we do not possess
more species than are met with in Oxfordshire, or
most other counties.
In the Galline we have the advantage of Oxford-
shire in possessing the Stock Dove, a bird which
appears here in large flocks in winter, but is not
noticed at other times. |
RARER GRALLZ OF THE SOUTH HAMS. 309
The order of Waders (Cuvierian system is still fol-
lowed,) comprehends some which reside in swampy
situations, or in connexion with inland rivers and
lakes, besides being principally composed of those
usually termed shore birds, (which likewise at times
resort to rivers and lakes, and for the most part
breed in fens or retired swampy spots) and a few
other species which are by no means water birds,
and are found in very different situations from the
other Gralle. Accordingly, some birds of this
order find a place in the Oxfordshire list, and may
with propriety be enumerated amongst our own
birds of the South Hams. Of these some breed on
Dartmoor and appear in autumn and winter on the
cultivated lands, as before noticed with respect to
the Golden Plover, the Grey Plover, and the Lap-
wing. Some individuals of the Woodcock and
Snipe also breed in retired moorland situations,
and appear with the main body of those migrators
in the cultivated parts on the occurrence of the first
cold. The Curlew and Dunlin (or some of them)
breed on the moors, and pass over to the shores and
rocks in winter, while very many species may be
regarded as common to the cultivated parts and to
the coasts, rendering it in some degree questionable
-which situation should claim them. 'The Gralle
however generally are shore birds. I enumerate
about twenty-two Waders as frequenters of the
cultivated districts of South Devon, and of these
thirteen are found in Oxfordshire, the remainder
consisting of the Grey Plover, the Great Snipe,
Olivaceous Gallinule, Spotted Gallinule, Dottrel,
Little Bustard, Little Gallinule, Ruff, and Green
Sandpiper, all of which are as in the preceding in-
stances of birds found here and not in Oxfordshire
rarities, or at least uncommon birds. Nor does that
county claim any species not found with us, as may
readily be imagined from the fact that there are but
310 DISPOSAL OF OUR GRALLS.
two other British Birds belonging to that division of
the Grallz which we may term inland and fluviatile
Waders,—Sabine’s Snipe and the Courser which
have been seen in England but twice or thrice. The
Thick-kneed Plover however, which in our culti-
vated districts is scarce, is in Oxfordshire common,
though probably this depends on that county pos-
sessing such a noble and extensive forest and other
uncultivated tracts. In Oxfordshire the Golden
Plover appears only in winter, whereas here it
breeds on cur moors and appears in the southern
parts afterwards. Considering the very confined
limits usually observed by the Auf, it is surprising
that any of them should have been noticed in Devon
however rarely. One Devon specimen was shot in
December, 1808, on that fertile source of aquatic
birds, Slapton Ley, which may serve perhaps in
some degree to illustrate the eligibility of our county
for such birds ; and species from every class of birds
are known occasionally to remain in England
through the winter, whilst the main body observe
the accustomed migration ; on the other hand
some also remain to breed if the position 1s found
eligible, whilst the bulk of such species retire to
other counties or other countries, where the rearing
of young is conducted with certain concealment.
These may possibly be cases of altered character of
species, but in respect of the rarity of the Ruff in
this county, it should be taken into consideration
that though it is now restricted to certain of the
eastern counties, it may possibly in former years
when cultivation had made no great advances, have
extended generally over a much greater number, our
own included. Slapton Ley is a lake of rather large
size, situated towards the verge of the southern
coast of Devon. By a wise ordination of Nature, |
the birds peculiarly termed marine, or rather some
of the species, upon the occasion of want in the
A
€
paar, aa
Vo wee WT
DISPOSAL OF OUR GRALL&. ola
winter months, divide their search after food between
the ocean, and inland waters, besides which, some
individuals of these species betake themselves
wholly to the waves, or wholly to inland water,
roaming for the entire season from spot to spot, or
keeping constant to one locality,—conclusive proofs
against the notion of instinct being a defined, con-
strained, and very limited mental operation in brutes,
a doctrine adverse also to the history of most species
in which instinct is detected. Upon the occurrence
then of cold, Slapton Ley adds to its visitors a great
variety of shore birds and pelagic fowls, so that
this piece of water alone sufficiently shows the
abitrary nature of making the coast a geographical
limit forthe marine birds. In consequence of our
maritime situation, and the freedom with which
marine birds pass the limits of the coast, it becomes
difficult to state precisely which of the Grallee should
be enumerated as belonging to the cultivated dis-
tricts, and 1. have allowed myself to: be guided in
some measure by the Oxfordshire list, because that
county is not maritime, but it is very likely that
many birds of the Heron kind which I shall rank
as shore birds are equally entitled to be considered
asinland Waders. It should be mentioned that not
only do the shore and marine birds pass the limits
of the coast and obtain food inland, but the land
and fresh-water Gralle are very often in winter,
especially if it be severe, found exploring the shores
for provender. The Heron, Coot, Gallinule, Lap-
wing, Golden Plover, Grey Plover, and I believe
some other kinds act thus. I am not aware of any
species of the Waders we are now speaking of quite
peculiar to South Devon, but the Little Gallinule
deserves notice, as having been first discovered
here ; only three specimens are known, two of these
being Devon birds, and the other obtained from
the river Ware.
342 PALMIPEDES OF THE SOUTH HAMS.
The last tribe of birds belonging to Oxfordshire
and to the cultivated districts of South Devon con-
sists of those few web-footed birds which roam to
inland waters, meadows, stubbles, &c. from our
own coasts, or which breed and abide wholly or
partially in such situations. In order to state the
case as near the truth as possible, I have allowed
the same number of these birds to South Devon as’
are found to occur in Oxfordshire, though from our
adjacency to the sea, those species which in an in-
land locality would be stationary, with us change
their situation, and again some marine birds of our
coast at times repair inland, which in counties re-
mote from the coast are never seen. The following
are the species referred to,—The Little Grebe, the
Wild Duck, Teal, Widgeon, Grey Lag Goose, Com-
mon Gull, Great Black-backed Gull and Golden-
eye. The Little Grebe breeds in all the fish-ponds
and small lakes in the county, and in winter, very
many are seen busy diving in all our inlets. ‘The
several kinds of Ducks frequent the marshes and
large ponds during winter, some of the Wild Duck
as before stated breeding with us. The Wild Goose
is a frequenter of meadows, marshes, and stubbles,
besides the sea coast during the winter. And lastly,
the two Gulls, and perhaps other birds also, particu-
larly the Red-legged Gull, make excursions in
winter to inland waters and marshes after food, and
some of them are known to abide during the breed-
ing season at certain ponds and other collections of
water in the south of this county. We here bring
to a close our comparison between the ornithology
of Oxfordshire and that of the South Hams of Devon,
finding a difference of 35 species preponderating in
the latter district. It is of course always desirable
to trace out the principal features in such deficien-
cies, and upon examination it is seen that the
proportion of deficiencies in the Accipitres and
GEOGRAPHICAL ADVANTAGES. ao
Gralle is equal. It is here then that our county
excels in the ornithological department, at least
such is the fair conclusion by comparison with
the products of this other county possessing a
tolerably extensive ornithological Fauna, and con-
sidering the respective histories of the species in
which Oxfordshire is deficient our advantage can-
not be set down to maritime position. On the
contrary, I believe the true reasons may be stated
as follows :—Ist, There are certain European birds
whose chief situation is in France, Italy, Holland,
and other adjoining countries, but whose range ex-
tends to the southern portions of Great Britain, just
as therange of others is found to extend from Europe
to the northern shores of Africa. 'There are other
species also whose principal station is in Africa, and
which migrate yearly into Europe, reaching in small
numbers the British Isles ; and since the number of
animals generally diminishes northward, the pro-
portion of birds resident in, or migrating to the
southern shores of Britain will be greater than that
of the northern parts. 2dly, Montagu states as his
opinion, that in the autumnal migration of the long,
soft-billed Waders (and I suppose other kinds also)
from their northern haunts to the southern portions
of Europe, they experience in their transit across
the north sea, equinoctial gales which gradually
drive them to the southern parts of England, so that
hence we are more likely than northern counties to
have rarities conferred on us. 3dly, This county
contains almost every kind of retreat for the various
sorts of birds : it is mountainous, well-wooded, and
well watered. 4thly, In the retreat of those birds
which visit this country from southern latitudes
to their winter residences, the southern coasts of
England offer them a resting place previous to their
departure, so that here we see a larger number both
of individuals and of species than the generality of
Oo
m ae
314 GEOGRAPHICAL ADVANTAGES.
other counties, besides which, many upon finding
suitable abodes and mild climate, are induced to
abide with us through the winter. Lastly, the
occurrence of some species in this county, which
have never been noted or but sparingly in others,
must be set down either to accidental causes or to
influences of which we are ignorant. And since there
are such various reasons for our ornithology being
so extensive the species of which we boast as super-
numeraries or as being found here whilst they are
very sparingly scattered over the rest of England,
cannot be exclusively Gralle or Accipitres, although
as before hinted it is in these classes that the great-
est preponderance is observed ; neither must we be
altogether guided by the ornithology of any one
county such as that selected for comparison, in
arriving at conclusions respecting the peculiarities
of our own, or respecting the ornithology of the
southern counties of England generally. As we
proceeded we pointed out instances which illustrate
the various reasons here given for the extent of our
ornithological list. Other cases might be cited,
but as our knowledge of their geographical ranges
is imperfect they could be mentioned only with
great hesitation.
A few words on the remaining tribes of animals
will close our consideration of this division of our
subject. With respect to the Reptiles of South
Devon but little can be said, as they do not differ
materially either in number or in geographical po-
sition from those of most other counties. The
Nimble Lizard is found in plenty on our heaths and
commons, but is not confined to these spots, as I
have taken it in gardens, and I have likewise once
seen it on the stump of an old tree in a willow-
ground. The Dumfries-shire Snake and Natter Jack
Toad do not occur in Devon so far as my knowledge
extends.
LAND AND FRESH WATER SHELLS. 315
Lists of the Fresh-water Fishes and of the Land
and Fresh-water Shells of the county appear in
another place, and it is here only needful to observe
in regard of the molluscs, that there are two chief
peculiarities in the physical character of our South
Hams, namely vast abundance of wood, and great
number of rivers and streams. The land and
fluviatile shells certainly-correspond in great mea-
sure to these circumstances, but I believe no instance
can be adduced where the Fauna of a locality
accords so precisely with its physical conditions,
as to include all those creatures generally found in
such spots, and to exclude those generally absent
from the same. Perhaps indeed our woods being
particularly damp and shaded, a number of Land
Shells may on that account be denied us, such as
Carocolla lapicida and Clausilia biplicata, and
again, our deficiency in large ponds, pools, and other
standing or slow running water, may cause us to
be deprived of the genera Anodon and Mysca, but
then Succinea amphibia is denied us, while the
Succinea oblonga is granted us, and yet they are
in some counties found in the same marsh. Paludina
stagnorum occurs here, but its congeners do not.
It is to be remarked how singularly well defined
are the limits of some species of these tribes, so
much so as to induce the belief that these limits in
some cases correspond with the boundaries of soils,
or with the geographical distribution of certain
vegetable and other productions on which they feed,
though possibly the facts of these cases may after
all be quite as inexplicable as the limits of dis-
persion observed by the Nightingale, and some
other birds. At the least however, it will be allowed
that comparisons between the geographical limits
of the various productions, mineral, vegetable, and
animal, of a given district, would in all probability
lend considerable assistance in the determination
002
316 GEOGRAPHICAL LIMITATIONS.—COAST.
of the causes of a great number of now unexplained
facts; for the three kingdoms of nature are not merely
associated, but intimately connected, and since
secondary causes have so great influence on animal
and vegetable dispersion, we may not unfrequently
discover the cause of distribution of these to rest
with the qualities of the soil on which they are
maintained,and still more frequently the phenomena
of animal distribution to depend on the nature of
certain vegetable products occurring on the spot,
or diffused over those tracts to which certain animal
forms are peculiar. Again, the selection of par-
ticular food by certain of the carnivorous animals
will in a great number of instances determine with
exactness the limits of such species.
We now pass on to consider the third division of
the subject, the shore and marine productions of
South Devon, subjects in a great measure apart from
those first discussed ; and although we found it con-
venient to consider the Fauna of Dartmoor, and
that of the cultivated districts separately, the
productions of those spots are not so distinct or
peculiar as we shall find those of the shores and sea.
Divisions of this kind arbitrary as they are, will
nevertheless be found useful, because as the qualli-
ties of the elements and constitution of the climate
in each may be expected to differ, it might be also
ascertained that the tribes of creatures inhabiting
or frequenting them were more or less classified or
brought together by reason of those influences. It is
farther convenient for the purpose of comparison
with other spots of similar or dissimilar natures.
We must in the first place say a few words on the
Mammalia.
BATS.—ADOPTED RESIDENCES. at ¥/
The chief abode of our Bats is toward the coast,
because they principally reside during their daily
and brumal quiescence in the caves and fissures of
our limestone rocks, and these occur for the most
part toward and on the shores. ‘The two common
sorts seem (perhaps because more plentiful) to re-
sort as freely to old buildings, hollow trees, &c., as
to cavities of rocks, but I believe there is no decided
preference shown by these animals for natural
cavities of the earth, hollow trees &c. being the
appointed substitutes where and when caves cannot
be obtained. It is the same precisely with the Barn
Owl, to which hollow trees form a natural resort,
and caves a natural succedaneum ; but both with
Bats and the Barn Owl, old buildings, such as barns
and sheds are to be considered in some respects as
unnatural habitations, because the creation of ani-
mals was anterior not only to the erection of such
buildings, but to the adoption of this island as a
residence by our race. It has however been most
wisely directed that the instinctive faculties of
brutes should not be so definite and so limited in
their operation as to preclude all departure from
their more peculiar habits and actions, and hence it
has been found that the construction and situation
of the nests of birds have at times varied remark-
ably from ordinary rule ; hence birds have been
enabled to sustain themselves on novel food, when
driven by stress of weather or other adverse circum-
stances, to countries which they have never before
seen ; hence, when detained by weakness or the
allurement of climate and supply of food, from
making their accustomed migration, they can sup-
port themselves against unaccustomed impressions;
and hence amongst a great variety of other instances
not only with birds, but with other kinds of crea-
tures, we are enabled to domesticate them, and to
cause by our interference extraordinary alterations
318 ADOPTED RESIDENCES.
in character, and variations or rather improvements
in instinctive powers. With respect however to the
adoption of our buildings as places of resort and
situations for nestling by birds and other animals,
I believe too little has been said by writers, because
such irregularities have been made to pass current
in their mode of expression, and doubtlessly in the
minds of many readers, as the natural habits of such
species, whereas an useful lesson might be thence
drawn relative to the faculties and mental opera-
tions of the beings around us. With us the natural
nestling places of the Jackdaw are on the sea-cliffs,
and rocky eminences in general are its natural
abodes wherever found. In defect of these however,
Nature has prompted it to make use of hollow trees
and rabbit holes in some instances ; but towers
and ruined buildings are such faithful imitations of
its native cliffs, that this bird is diffused very gener-
ally through our county. With the Wheatear, old
walls and heaps of stones answer the purpose of
rocks, both for obtaining food and for nestling. This
bird chiefly resides during the breeding time on our
coasts, and though it frequents quarries and old
walls, these situations are never far removed from
the sea-side. At other seasons it either quits us, or
frequents fallows, &c., for food. The natural breed-
ing-places of the Martin with us are the cliffs, but
owing to similarity of position, and that extraordi-
nary dependence on man observed in this and other
species, it usually builds against houses and fre-
quents their neighbourhood. Itis remarkable how-
ever that in the Szez/t and Swallow so few instances
should be on record of their building in other situ-
ations besides houses, out-buildings and churches.
It would be easy to cite other cases of adopted
nestling-places of the same class, but these are here
named because the birds in question seem to belong
almost wholly to that portion of South Devon into
MARINE MAMMALS. 319
the productions of which we are now inquiring.
The whole character and history of species, and
consequently the philosophy of Zoology in general
can only be arrived at by tracing the habits, physical
endowments, &c. of animals in each different locality
they inhabit, and hence this is one cogent reason
for prosecuting the natural history of districts, and
comparing and combining the same.
Now the Ofter is an illustration of this. It is
usually thought to be a fluviatile animal only, but
in Devonshire it is both fluviatile and marine, quite
as many residing on the coast and fishing to a short
distance off the land, as on the banks of our rivers.
In the former case they take possession of small
hollows in the rocks, and are yearly hunted in these
situations near Plymouth. It might be expected
that the Seal would find a place among our Devon
animals, but I know of no instance of its capture
here, though from its occurrence in Cornwall we
might reasonably expect that it would be found
with us also.
The Cetaceous Mammalia of our coast deserve
more than usual notice in this place, because these
animals have never been properly examined by
British naturalists, and because those which have
been seen on our coasts have as yet received very
limited notice, at least in respect to the number of
species. In the first place it is highly probable that
the distribution of this class has never yet been
completely understood, and that so far from their
being scarce in the British seas as usually supposed,
they are tolerably common even now, and were
doubtlessly more so formerly. I have a most re-
spectable authority for stating that in the middle
of July, 1836, several Whales were seen between
the Azores and the Land’s End. The crew of the
ship in which he took his passage indeed captured
one, and one was noticed by him immediately off
320 BIRDS OF THE COAST.
the Land’s End. The species however he could not
tell. A Whale was found dead off Penzance not
long since. Amongst the “ rarer fish of Cornwall”
is mentioned the Blower or Fin Fish, Balena
Physalus, Linn. | Now besides these notices, our
catalogue (p. 196) will shew that at the least our sea
produces eight species, and that the “ Cornish
Fauna” records many more.
We have now to conclude the subject of the
Birds of Devon by speaking of those on the shore
and sea. With regard to the Accipitres we enume-
rate the following as more or less peculiar to the
coasts:—The Peregrine Falcon, Red-legged Falcon,»
Osprey, Sea Eagle, and Kestrel. In this tribe of
birds we perceive that besides their disposition to
roam and change residence, there are remarkable
examples of diversity of habit in the same species.
Thus, while the Kestrel is found pretty commonly
in inland counties, with us it is almost wholly con-
fined to the coasts. The Peregrine Falcon and
Osprey are not very uncommon, but the Sea Eagle is
decidedly rare. The Gyrfalcon and Goshawk have
both been taken on our coast but once. A few pas-
serine birds must be mentioned in connexion with
the coasts. The Rock Pipitis stationary, its food
seeming to consist of the smaller marine insects.
The Chough is likewise a coast bird, but is not
stationary on the Devon shores, visiting us only in
small numbers towards winter. Thesetwo seem to me
to be the only true passerine birds of our coast, at
least, alterations have taken place in the geographi-
cal situation of the Wheatear, Jackdaw and Martin,
+ T have derived my knowledge of the occurrence of many of
our rarer birds from Dr. Moore’s catalogue in Loudon’s Maga-
zine of Natural History. Dr. M. enumerates 243 Devon species.
I find also from the same author that the Sussex list amounts
only to 175, and that of Norfolk and Suffolk conjointly to 217.
VISITANTS, &¢c. OF THE COAST. 321
as before named ; in addition to which, these do not
confine themselves to one abode, and are moreover
observed to affect znland rocks equally with shores,
their appetites are not limited to shore productions;
and though the Chough is in some other countries
an inland bird, it is not so in England, save
through accident or necessity. The Raven at times
builds on our cliffs. The Crow is noticed very fre-
quently in autumn and winter, examining the
rejectamenta of the tide. The King-fisher migrates
partially to the sea-side in October, and those
which are found there remain till spring. This is
another instance of diversity of action in individuals
of one species according to situation. Itis certainly
an ordination of Nature, to allow of more extensive
dispersion of the whole of the species during the
season of greatest want, for by this arrangement
of their appetites the removal of some portion of
the species to the estuaries and coasts permits a
very general though very slight change in the posi-
tion of all the members of the kind, giving to each a
more extensive range for capture of prey during the
time of necessity. Mr. Knapp observes that the
universality of the Robin, that is to say its general
dispersion, is remarkable. This is confirmed by my
notice of it, though rarely, on the furze of our cliffs,
and in copses at our embouchures. How remarkably
does the history of one species differ from that of
another when thoroughly investigated, and how
evident is it that the completion of these histories
is essential to the unravelling of those various plans
instituted by the Creator for the perfection of his
wondrous scheme of nature! There is one of the
Gallinaceous birds an occupant of the shores,
namely the Rock Dove, which builds sparingly in
the caves.
We calculate that there are fifty-six Waders be-
longing to South Devon, and since twenty-two of
ay
322 ANALYSIS OF THE GRALLZE.
these may be regarded as belonging to the terrestrial
and fluviatile portion of this class there is a pre-
ponderance in favour of the marine portion. With
respect to very many of this class, it is quite im-
possible as before remarked, to assign to them un-
equivocally an inland or marine station. ‘They are
either so imperfectly known that their preference is
merely suspected by their accidental occurrence in
one of these situations on the occasions when seen,
or they have been found to resort equally to both
kinds of habitats ; even in the case of those species
which breed on our moors, and appear in autumn
and winter on the coasts, allowing that they do not
at those seasons visit lakes and rivers also, it must
cause a doubt on the mind whether it would be
natural to refer them to the inland or to the marine
class exclusively. In fixing the numbers however
as above, at twenty-two for the cultivated districts,
and the remainder thirty-four for the uncultivated
parts and the shores I have been guided thus:
I first selected those respecting whose station no
doubt could be felt, and then classified the rest by
ascertaining as far as possible which parts of South
Devon they evinced the most preference for, or in
the case of the rarer birds by considering that to be
their station where each had by good accident been
observed, unless it seemed to me that this station
was at variance with the general character of the
bird and assumed only by mere casualty. Of the
thirty-four then, I have reckoned two as belonging
to Dartmoor, and thirty-two as shore birds. ‘Then,
besides the two which are peculiar to the moor,
namely the Great Bustard and Crane, more than
two dozen other species have been noticed on that
spot, very many of which breed there. Some of
these I have considered as belonging to the culti-
vated parts and some to the shores, according to
the bias they betrayed. Again, of the twenty-two
RARER MARINE GRALLA. 323
Grallse of the cultivated parts, seventeen are also at
times visitors of the coast. And lastly, of the thirty-
two shore birds about to benamed more particularly,
only one-half have exclusively been seen on the
coasts and at the mouths of rivers.
Devonshire boasts of nearly all the English
marine Gralle, the deficiencies in our list being
either stragglers, or such as have only a northern
range. Among the rarer Grallz of our shores, the
following deserve enumeration, the Great White
Heron,Purple Heron, Little White Heron, Freckled
Heron, Night Heron, White Stork, Black Stork,
Mittle Bittern, Spoonbill, Ibis, Brown Snipe, Pigmy
Curlew, Temminck’s Sandpiper, Wood Sandpiper,
Inttle Stunt, Sanderling, Phalarope, Greenshank,
Stilt, Avocet, Spotted Redshank, and Pectoral
Sandpiper ; * and if the records of the occurrence
of these birds in England be consulted, it will be
seen that not only are they of extreme rarity, but
that some of them have occurred more frequently
in Devon than elsewhere. Some of our other
Grallz also are tolerably common, while in other
parts they are scarce. What then are the reasons
of our possessing so very many rarities, and of
having so many individuals of the less rare birds
of this division of the Gralle? Is it because our
climate is so genial and uniform; because our shores
and harbours are so suitable for their sustenance
and retreat; on account of our southern station;
or from all these causes combined? The Oyster
* While superintending the press at this portion of the Work
I learn that specimens of this bird were shot on the Tamar, and
preserved by Pincombe of Devonport. Fora description of this
and nearly all other rarities, see Eyton’s “ Rarer British Birds,”
a book containing also the most perfect catalogue of the feathered
tribes of our Island.
Pir
324 RARER PALMIPEDES.
catcher seems partial to the rocks and portions of
the coast far out towards the open sea, where it
occurs in small parties in autumn and winter.
The Ringed Plover has been supposed to repair
to other countries on the occurrence of the winter’s
cold, but in Devon I am quite sure it resides on the
coasts of our estuaries through the winter.
(Forthe localities of our rarer and more interesting
birds of the South Devon shores, see the catalogue
in the last chapter and the 3rd of the maps accom-
panying the present text.)
The web-footed birds of Devon are very numerous,
compared with those of other maritime counties ;
and yet if we regard Devon relatively to its marine
ornithology alone, the greatest number of deficien-
cies will be found amongst the present tribe.
These deficient species are either rarities, or such
as are limited to the northern isles, so that we
may fairly state that we possess all the English
birds any way common and which are not by
the laws of their physical distribution confined to
more northern abodes, and further, that we have
a very large proportion of those rare birds which
occur however sparingly, in nearly all parts of
our island, or on the other hand which have been no-
ticed a very few times in the whole of the country.
The following are the rarer birds of this class ob-
served with us,—Crested and Red-necked Grebes,
Black-throated Diver, Black Guillemot, Little Auk,
Puffin, Cinereous and Common Shearwaters,
Fork-tailed Petrel, Skua, Fulmar, Arctic Jager,
Burgomaster, Arctic, and Little Gulls ; Sandwich,
Arctic, Lesser, and black Terns; Goosander ;
Merganser; Ferruginous, Eider, Scoter, Velvet,
Gadwall, Long-tailed, Garganey, Pintail, Scaup,
Shieldrake, Golden-eye, and Shoveller Ducks ;
Bean, White-fronted, Red-breasted, Bernacle, and
Brent Geese, and Wild Swan. 'The occurrence of
e4stroph. Seutate.
; W3lercas SHCA SX.
“we! One pe vsali
—
a py rn ON
Dawizish-.
+
Le Toe Ald ovarde
Ee bchles.
( Cp. greitiate.
Isl. CG ESTES.
(Lalli ra Uneéarn,
6. band Les,
Soler Pur pur es,
alias lubercuzala,
Clie
MAP
— WE cedP ove 229 the
aX wich ~
atte ZO OLOGY OF THE
6X (GGT 8 CUovL tekwe
peck po pt sim ‘
|
ds crophe. mee ate Sasi
Anes creer w s Scald Fish.
‘
v ‘
Prrbenglet onargenit “ee pO pee aee users
Barges CH, 4 a en es farses, \
Garereat.
StormyFatred.
ec a Eales rufipes.
Bulona phir: 5
pIxsalec
Op Skoarwmeer.
GZ
"LOOM LY EP
Ape
Ze
f
Lash eguastres,
(Lalli Era arn.
gu yer Wie
ass: Costulamm
Solon wurpuraces
es bre elarrt
Stare foe = ete
BO MicsPea 4eseg he
zo oLoey or THE
Ses Dy, EnroPL Coast
APPRARANCES OF THE PILCHARD. 325
so many of the rarer pelagic birds on our coasts
seems to allow of readier explanation than that of
rarities from amongst other tribes, because we find
that the former are bestowed on us in most profusion
and very frequently only on the occasion of storms,
or of very severe cold. The object of nestling has
likewise influence with some, but winter is the
season in which by far the greater number of the
web-footed species appear here, and not only do
many of those reared in more northern countries
migrate thus far south, but others come from their
breeding places in our own island, A great many
of the water birds however occur on our coasts
without our being able to assign any cause for their
appearance, as they have arrived independently of
storms or severe cold. The Lzttle Gull has been
obtained in England seven times, and five of the
birds were from Devon. ‘The rarer kinds of Tern
mentioned above have occurred without assignable
causes, besides many other birds, but possibly the
security of our bays and harbours together with
the mildness of climate, may be the attractions to
such of them as lead a wandering life.
The geographical distribution of fishes is so very
imperfectly known that but very little can be
offered respecting it. About 150 species have been
recorded as British, and of these about 120 are
found on the south-west coasts. Many approach
our shores at fixed periods, and of these none is
more interesting than the Pilchard on account of
its numbers, and its importance as an article of
winter food to the poorer inhabitants. It appears
in August, and generally remains till the end of
September. Its comparative scarcity with us for
the last few years is remarkable. There is a pre-
vailing opinion that it arrives later and later every
year, and indeed about forty years ago it did not
ever appear until November. In 1837 it came off
326 MOLLUSCA.—RADIATA.
the coasts of Cornwall in October after it had
quitted us ; but again in 1838 great numbers ap-
peared on the same coasts in March and afterwards
in July, before coming to usin Devon. These facts
added to others continually heard of or read in
newspapers, shewing the irregular or uncertain
appearance of this fish on the coasts it frequents,
strongly announces the incorrectness of the idea of
its multiplying within the Arctic circle and passing
bodily at a certain time from thence to the tempe-
rate regions.
Our subject gradually loses interest as we descend
to the lower tribes. Of the Mollusca we possess a
considerable number. ‘They seem to predominate
however in those portions of the class which cha-
racterize bold rocky shores, and possibly the same
remark holds good relatively to other tribes of
marine animals. It is likely that this will account
for the same animal being frequently found on shores
of the same character, though far distant. Thus,
we very often meet with shells stated to have been
taken on the coasts of Devon and of Shetland, so that
although the geography of shells is so very intricate
it may yet be detected that situation has much
control over it. More than 300 marine molluscs
have been recognised with us.
Since the time of Montagu but little has been
done in illustration of the remaining marine tribes
of Devon, the Radiata, of which however at the
present time we can boast of nearly 120 species
found on the Devon shores, and I have certainly
no doubt that this number might be greatly in-
creased by diligent and keen research. The sponges
of our coast in particular require illustration, and
I am of opinion that not more than three-fourths
of them have been named. We see frequent in-
stances among the lower tribes, of species peculiar
to the southern shores of England representing by
CONSTRUCTION OF CATALOGUES. 327
their general similarity species peculiar to more
northern stations. But altogether these facts re-
quire elucidation and careful consideration, and no
naturalist should deem such matters unworthy of
his attention upon finding that detail of this kind
is not merely essential to the development of the
laws of animal geography, but that it is requisite to
complete the history of species, and to become
acquainted with many of the laws regulating their
existence and their actions and in general operation
upon the entire series of living beings.
We have shewn that our county yields to none
in the importance of its Fauna, and this chiefly
because of the peculiar eligibilities of its physical
conditions. I do not know therefore that it would
be of use to inquire into the relative proportions
borne between the various tribes, or to institute
further comparisons between the animals of the
south of Devon and those of any given spot of
the same extent. An answer to the former question
will be found only by tracing the dependence
observed in nature from the inorganic kingdom to
the highest conditions of organization. A competent
reply indeed cannot be given till our knowledge
of the laws of life shall be greatly increased, and
till we recognize as the denizens of our country,
hundreds of creatures which have as yet escaped
notice. A comparison of our animals with those
of any other district would avail little, since an
enumeration of species does not imply a knowledge
of the conditions which influence their situation or
control their limits. In framing a list of animals
inhabiting a given spot or country it would be
very right to apply the principles of zoological
geography. ‘To speak of the frequency or scarcity
of animals independently of these is to betray igno-
rance to those who can judge, and to perpetuate
error to those who would learn. It is not question-
328 CONSTRUCTION OF CATALOGUES.
able but that one half of the lists published have
been formed without regard to the circumstances
causing the residence or visits of animals; nor is it
doubtful, but thatin asserting that an animal is scarce
or frequent, the authors of these lists have over-
looked the fact that it is one scarce or frequent in
the country as a whole, or scarce or frequent in
many countries conjointly. Supposing a bird stated
in books, and known to be found generally as a
common inhabitant of England to be recognised
as such in any provincial list, it is clear that no
knowledge is this communicated; and supposing
that in any other district it was found not quite so
common, and yet reported as common in the orni-
thological catalogue of that district, it is obvious
that the truth is kept back. In short, the manner
of these communications is altogether far too general,
and deficient in the necessary precision. If such
terms as “ common,” “ scarce,” and the like, be not
used relatively, and if there be not precision used
in referring to the occurrence of animals, but little
information is imparted by these lists, and I think
also that their value would be doubled,if to the bare
intimation of the frequency or scarcity of occur-
rence relatively to the aggregate of each animal
respectively, there were added the causes in oper-
tion, and a reference to the conditions by which
the number ts controlled.
NEW KIND GF MOUSE. 329
fBart TI,
PPPOE OOOO Ol
—
REMARKS ON NUMEROUS SUBJECTS OF NATURAL HISTORY
BUT MORE PARTICULARLY ON BIRDS.
be —_—__————-all things speak of God; but im the smail
Men trace out Him ; in great he seizes Man!”
YOuNG.
New kind of Mouse.—Not long since a large
sort of Mouse seemingly differing from all other
kinds, was captured by Pincombe of Devonport in
the stables at Whiteford, the seat of Sir W. Call.
Entire length 77 inches, the head being 1 inch, the
body 3 inches, and the tail 34 inches. ‘The fur is
remarkably fine ; close to the body it is of a deep
dove colour, but it terminates in a tawny tinged
with ferruginous ; the muzzle and under parts shade
into ash, owing to the presence of dull-white hairs,
and to the colour of the under fur or dubbing be-
coming still greyer and silvery on the belly and
feet. The tail is but small, and scarcely larger at its
root than at its termination, hairy; the ears pro-
trude considerably beyond the fur ; the whiskers
are very long; the head flat on top ; thumbs rudi-
mentary. Mr. 'T. E. Gosling to whom I am indebted
for the beautiful drawings from which the engra-
Qa
a
330 CARYOPHYLLEA OF SOUTH DEVON.
vings of this and the other new species were executed,
assures me he has every reason to feel convinced
that he has more than once seen the present kind
in the stables at Leigham. From its intermediate
appearance as regards the Rat and Mouse, and the
absence of other decisive peculiarities or character-
istics, I have named it Mus inlermedius.
Caryophyllea sessilis.—There is a kind of coral
found pretty commonly off our coast, and apparently
coming into the division of Madrepores, which is
taken up generally from deep water attached to
stones and old shells. Those which I have yet seen
had their animals of a bright red, but it seems they
are also found “ white, yellowish, orange-brown,
and green.” ‘This Madrepore first came under my
observation in the end of the year 1836. Examin-
ation led me to suspect that it ought to be separated
from Caryophyllea cyathus of Fleming’s British
Animals (Madrepora cyathus, Ellis’s Zoophytes.)
My largest specimens are half an inch high, of a
compressed figure, and measuring at the star four
tenths in the largest diameter and three tenths in
the shortest. ‘They are generally inversely conical
though the smallest are of nearly the same size at
their bases as at the stars. One specimen has the
star oval, and presents a curved figure from its base
to the smaller end of the star. ‘Two small specimens
have the star nearly round. ‘They are generally
rough on their exteriors from the attachment of
Serpule, Flustre, and in two instances, of Lepas
costata. All of them present longitudinal strize on
the outside, derived undoubtedly from the three
different kinds of lamelle of the interior. The
margin of the star is observed to project in every
instance, and the lamelle are devoid of the ex-
ternal crust for a short extent of their depth. The
depth of the disk varies greatly, the centre of this
spot consisting of small convolutions, or twisted
NATURE OF SPONGES. 331
plaits situate on or rising from the basis of the
fabric. The smallest kind of lamellz are sometimes
deficient, but the second sized invariably occur
between the primary ones. ‘The only circumstance
in the history of the species calculated to afford a
specific name of any value, seems to be its great
deficiency of stem, and I therefore propose to name
it accordingly. Caryophyllea sessilis.—Primary
lamelle of the star usually thirteen ; three lamellee
of less size occupying the intervals, and the middle
one of these predominating slightly in height and
breadth and sending off from its base a thin flex-
uous, and erect plate or process; all the lamelle
rough with small tubercles, and more or less plaited
on their edges.
The engraving of this species of madrepore to
which I would here refer the reader, is copied from
a specimen which had only 10 primary lamellae,
but the prevailing number is as above stated. I
have lately had an opportunity of examining
“ Johnston’s British Zoophytes,” (1838,) where 1
perceive that this species had been observed by
_ others on the southern coast prior to my own
notice of it. It is the Caryophyllea Smithii of that
work, though judging from the description of Dr.
Fleming’s Caryophyllea cyathus found in Zetland, -
I cannot agree with Dr. Johnston in making the
twosynonymous. Surely a specific difference must
subsist between specimens with 40, and those with
13 or 14 primary lamelle. I refer the reader to
Dr. Fleming’s account, and to the plate of Cary-
ophyllea cyathus in “ Ellis’s Zoophytes.”
Sponges.—In this tribe we manifestly trace what
in the gradations of creation must be regarded as
an intervening step between animals and vegetables.
The evident animal forms termed “ polypi” observed
in the other zoophytes—above the sponges in the
scale of endowment—are here lost, together with
Qe2
!
~
332 NATURE OF SPONGES.
all motion ; the external form, and in some measure
the appearance of the texture approximate most
closely to vegetation, but still the substance and
integral composition is animal. These animals
therefore are the last grade in creation before we
pass over to the class of vegetables. Still it must
be remembered that no tribe can in propriety be
termed intermediate physiologically—not combi-
ning the qualities ofboth classes, except to superficial
appearance, and as it were by simulation of charac-
ters not actually possessed.—It would seem therefore
by the above statements that animality is not
constituted by forms which we habitually call
animals, the polypi or architects of corals for
instance, but by the production of substance which
is chemically animal, and yet not assuming forms
recognisable as animals. It may now be asked
however, and with the utmost propriety, how the
substance of these productions is derived and
assimulated, and yet no absolute animal, or creature,
or direct agent, be discernible? It must be con-
fessed that this question cannot be answered by
the means of occular or of physiological enquiry,
but that on the contrary we are obligated to look
to the analogy of plants, likewise destitute of
ostensible and circumscribed beings, and to reflect -
that there a power exists of abstracting nourishment
from the earth and air and of assimilating the
particles, and so in like manner it must be con-
eluded, that the tribe of sponges are empowered
with the capacity of drawing atoms for the
sustenance of their peculiar structure from the
medium wherein they live.—As in vegetables, so
in the sponges, the mere vital property operates
without the aid of any demonstrable agent, and ~—
probably only on chemical principles. _
Notice of a peculiar faculty in Man and certain
animals.—There is an extraordinary power pos-
PECULIAR FACULTY IN MAN. 333
sessed by man, (at least by those individuals whose
faculties are in due development) of directing his
course in any required direction of the compass.
Having once acquired a knowledge of the position
of one point, the minds of such persons ever after
retain a continued impression of the same, and in
consequence, of the rest. Let such persons be where
they may, or have their countenances directed
anywhere, they can with the rapidity of thought,
intimate or recognise the actual position of the four
points. My own experience informs me that this
power is retained after a long succession of turnings
and windings in all possible directions, and what
is more | have further noticed that the mind, or one
especial portion of it, continues engaged in ascer-
taining or observing the direction being pursued
through all these deviating courses, without our
consciousness of the activity of this'sense, and in
short it operates while the aggregate of the reflect-
ing powers are abstracted on some given question.
On reverting from the abstracted condition of the
mind, this ever-watchful faculty is ready to acquaint
us with our relative position as respects the cardinal
points. I acknowledge that this sense cannot be
purely instinctive ; we cannot fancy that if trans-
ported instantaneously to some desert we should
still have the advantage of this faculty, indeed
occasional disasters happening to us, and exposure
to unknown localities, inform us that since in these
cases we are utterly at a loss, this sense cannot be
of the instinctive order. Moreover we are peculiarly
liable to err when abroad in the dark, and it some-
times happens that under even ordinary circum-
stances we are occasionally subject to mistakes, and
again, particularly so when surrounding appearances
are found on moving situation to be similar, with at
the same time a contrary direction in the heavens.
Although therefore it is most probable that this is
334 PECULIAR FACULTY IN MAN.
a providential endowment for our greater security,
and though it certainly must be admitted that we
are allowed to argue on the presumption of no
accidents accruing to us calculated to disturb the
uniform operation of the power, of no possible
exposure to unknown spots without this retained
power on our passage thither, of no exposure in the
dark, and of no imperfect development or inefficient
state of the faculty, the question at length comes,—
what is its precise range of action? If we were
only in possession of the power of guiding ourselves
by appointing certain objects as waymarks, our
ability of investigating new tracts would be very
limited, because our memories would inevitably be
fatigued and become deceitful by keeping in re-
collection so many objects and their respective
relative bearings, we should also be liable to dis-
traction by the effect of multifarious other objects
continuedly crowding on the sight, precisely in-
deed as we are wont to be perplexed when
endeavouring to retrace our steps to some particular
spot by the aid of the memory of those things we
had noticed on our passage from it. To enable us
to disregard these minor subjects of direction, to
enable us to proceed at once to a distant locality
without consideration of relative bearings and
positions of objects by the way, above all to enable
us to gratify our propensity to enterprize, and to
suffer us to advance beyond our immediate range
of abode without hesitation or fear of being lost,—
these are the special operations of this power as
granted to us in our conjoined moral and physical
condition on the earth. But not only is this faculty
of enterprize an assistant of the more recognisable
faculty of the memory of localities and relative
positions of objects, but they seem actually blended
and to be portions of one indivisible power ; for it
is matter of fact that in taking cognizance of any
PECULIAR FACULTY IN MAN, 335
cardinal point for the purpose of first-knowledge,
_ or for refreshing the perceptive operations of it, we
instinctively notice and record on our memories
the relative bearings of objects connectedly and
simultaneously observed therewith ; we likewise
are apt at times and especially when somewhat
divided in opinion, to call to our aid the recollection
of those very connected objects which had formerly
impressed some cardinal point (or rather the four
points) on our mind, and then to compare our pre-
sent relative position as respects those connected
land-marks to deduce a conviction of the actual
spot in the horizon equivalent to one or other of
those points ; thus I bear in my memory the po-
sition and direction of Plymouth Sound, and I can
as I now sit stretch out my arm parallel with the
eastern coast of, and I have a conviction that in so
doing I point nearly south, again, in tracing our
course to some distant spot by the aid of this said
faculty, we instinctively take into account as assis-
tant directors, objects noticed on the way from it,
and since indeed we cannot make our way without
experiencing minor interruptions in our path, we
need the power of rectifying these errors of devi-
ation by considering relative positions of these
encountered bodies, moreover it appears that if
blindfolded, or if pursuing our course during the
dark, we are not capable of proceeding uniformly or
correctly to the desired point ; this sense therefore
is not simply internal or mental, it requires the sense
of sight to perceive the straight lines presented by
the natural bodies and subjects on the way, and
therewith to regulate our course conformably to
obstructing objects to compensate for deviations,
and to compare the various straight lines one with
another for a discretionary consideration of our
position from time to time. One of the commonest
errors among philosophers that I know of, is to
336 ACCIDENTAL ECONOMY IN NATURE.
mistake accidental benevolent results in nature for
intentional ends in the great schemes of economy
and providence ;* I will not however affirm that
* This accidental description of natural economy has not yet
been properly noticed,—it has been distinguished only in the
current reflections of naturalists, and never systematized.
In the process of reasoning there is a simple effort to connect
cause andeffect, and carrying this mental process into the observance
of nature we too often unite or link together circumstances having
no ordained connexion in the system of the world,—we find an
accidental meeting and agreement of facts having no intentional
relationship, in the same way as fortuitous disagreements and
departures from accustomed courses occur to us also occasionally,
in nature. On due enquiry and comparison of a suspicious
piece of economy with the ordinary situations and conditions
of the respective subjects, our error may in general be corrected.
Perfectly in unison with the sentiments entertained by myself
relative to the proper way of pursuing the study of Natural
History, I find thatSir G. Mackenzie (“ Illustrations of Phrenology,”
p- 193,) observes, “ while some naturalists pursue with avidity
the open ways that lead directly to the knowledge of the forms
and distinctions of external objects they add little to the expansion
of our minds, though much to the stock of our knowledge. Others
when they see an effect are not content with the mere fact, but
begin immediately an attempt to trace the chain which binds it to
a cause with the view to discover that cause; and they put all
their mental faculties into action.”
Instances of this accidental economy are witnessed not unfre-
quently in a truly natural state, but it is principally observed
with animals and plants removed from a _ wild condition to
domestication and cultivation. The reason of its frequent notice
under the latter circumstances must be obvious, since by their
removal from a state of nature they become exposed more abund-
antly and more effectually to promiscuous conditions around
which often are at discord with them, but which often also produce a
ACCIDENTAL ECONOMY IN NATURE. 337
one intention of this said faculty was not to keep
the perceptions awake during intervals of mental
false appearance of intentional agreement, similar to cause and
effect. Thus it is that in hasty moments of observation we ascribe
to Providence what is due to our interferences with his works, and
setting these remarks down as additions to our insight into the
secrets of nature, we preclude ourselves afterwards from giving
due weight to real cases of economy because they are not allied in
purpose to the suppositious one. Although however there is in
such instances frequently, or most commonly, an absolute accor-
dance of the subjects similar to designed economy, it often happens
that they only appear to agree, whilst closer inspection detects a
want of adaptation.
It is an accidental economy that the appetites of many birds
are so accommodating as to enable them to feed on substances
foreign to the country of which they are natives,—the Chaffinch
on the seeds of the sunflower of our gardens for instance.
It is a portion of the providence and economy with which our
earth has been formed, that mountains and hills occur over its
surface, by which the clouds are intercepted and contribute to the
fertilization of the lower lands, by which vast loads of snow are
accumulated and augment the bulk of rivers, by which springs
arising on their sides or summits pass down and onwards
through the lower tracts with a force commensurate to certain
objects required to be attained, and for the immediate purpose
of supplying this necessary to all living subjects of creation resi-
dent therein, by which the superficies of the globe is greatly
increased, and by which the winds are obstructed and divided into
currents, so as to dissipate occumulating noxious vapours, and act
in various ways favorably on the earth by directing their power
on it from different quarters. But it is an accidental piece of eco-
nomy and providence that mountains act as the resorts of man
under oppression and pursuit, or that by encircling any region
they render it more secure from invasion, or enable the sceptres of
adjacent kingdoms to be wielded the more effectually.
RR
338 PECULIAR FACULTY IN MAN.
abstraction in walking or moving to prevent the
mind from losing its cognizance of the position of
our persons from moment to moment during those
periods, but I incline to the belief that as physical
beings presumed to be in constant motion and in ~
continued enterprise we have had this sense given
us in its ever-careful capacity, and that since most
usually in contemplation, our eyesight notices
objects as we pass, relative position of these is as
a consequence remarked, and therewith also would
this very concomitant action of the same faculty of
perceiving localities and relations of objects be
drawn into operation as a fortunate though acci-
dental result. I deny positively that itis a modified
action of “the knowledge and memory of localities.”
Animals possess this alone,* to man is superadded
* Notwithstanding this assertion however, there are many
animals and indeed tribes of animals which in addition to the
knowledge and memory of especial localities around their imme-
diate dwellings, are in possession of this very faculty now traced
in mane The fox when pressed by the dogs often runs to a
lengthened distance from his home, and not unfrequently takes
a straight course in this flight. When the spot is subsequently ex-
amined he is again found at his old quarters, though perhaps the
hounds had left him at adistance of twelve miles from it. Migra-
tory birds which indeed take their passage mostly by night, no doubt
exercise this very power for their means of direction. Nay there
are instances of birds being detained at sea by tempests, and kept
on the rigging of sailing ships for very many hours, and yet re-
newing their flight in the very direction they were taking when
first obligated to recruit their strengths. The bee wanders from
home to great distances, and then having loaded himself with
honey, rises into the air and flies directly towards his hive.
Instances to the same purpose may be seen in “ Hancock on
Instinct,” and other books, and perhaps there are few persons
unacquainted with the conduct of dogs, horses, and cats, which
PECULIAR FACULTY IN MAN. 339
the faculty now spoken of ; to the former who have
prescribed theatres of action and high endowments
of external sense and instinct it would be super-
fluous, to the latter in whom the individuals exercise
for the most part, separate ranges of mental occupa-
tion and enjoyment, who lead individual existences,
acting apart from all other, and in whom there exists
the enterprising spirit of research,—it is indispen-
sable. ‘There is a fact which occurs to me at this
illustrates in a marked manner this directing faculty. A horse
bred at North Buckland, and taken into service at the age of three
years by a landowner close to Plymouth, happened some years
after to escape into the roads, when he directly made off for the
farm where he had been reared though at the distance of fourteen
miles and by aroad he had never travelled in the interval. A cat
reared and domiciled in Falmouth was taken in a bag to Penzance;
she soon became uneasy and disappeared, and within two days
was observed at her original abode. Dogs and horses in their
journeyings with us are very observant of all objects which they
pass, and thus on losing themselves, are often able to regain their
homes, but this is accomplished through ‘the faculty termed phre-
nologically “ Locality” whose sphere of action is the observation of
the relative positions and bearings of objects, and differs greatly
from the above-named, though I feel no reason to doubt that as
we exercise the two conjointly on many occasions, and find that
they are probably traceable to one and the same “ organ” of the
brain, so those animals endowed with the directing faculty often
exercise it in conjunction with the recognition of localities and
objects. A gentleman just returned from the Continent to London,
went directly on his arrival to Blackheath, through the City and
over London Bridge. After he had quiited his friend’s house on
Blackheath he found that his dog had been detained behind, but
yet on arriving home at the West End he observed the dog waiting
for him at the door. In such cases I presume the two faculties
operate connectedly.
RR 2
340 PECULIAR FACULTY IN MAN.
moment strongly indicating the truth of some portion
of the material here advanced, and with the re-
lation of which I close my remarks. A clergyman
travelling to a distant place of worship with the
road to which he was unacquainted, was thrown
from his horse and received a severe blow on the
head ; he got up stunned and stupified, and without
knowing his actual position ; fancying however he
might now proceed, he mounted his horse again
which however happened to have its head directed
in the contrary way to that it had been pursuing.
The gentleman hastened to make up for loss of time,
but did not discover his error till he actually en-
tered the town whence he had set out.
No mention is made of this sense or faculty in
any work to which I have referred. It must be
understood that though I have assumed the cardinal
points as those referred to by persons in the exer-
cise of this power, I have merely used those names
_and points because these would be acquired by
education in all civilized nations and communities,
not doubting at the same time but that other arbi-
trary points and names would be set up by men in
an uncivilized condition, as indeed the savage tribes
of Africa actually do; the argument applies similarly
in both instances, it contends that men innately
appoint for themselves certain spots of the horizon,
and unerringly remembering these they act as guides
for distant journeyings and directors in long-con-
tinued courses.
The Cirl Bunting (Emberiza cirlus) is a bird by
no means uncommon in the South Hams. It has
been said to be more frequent about this village,—
Yealmpton, than anywhere else, but I am quite sure
this is an error, as I have heard it in all the adjoin-
ing parishes,—Holbeton, NewtonFerrers,Plympton,
Plymstock, Wembury, Kingston, Revelstoke, Brix-
ton, &c. as also at Mount Edgcumbe, Mount Gould
CIRL BUNTING. 341
near Plymouth, and near Kingsbridge. Like its
congeners it keeps much to one spot, ranging only
to short distances from its favorite hedge. It seems
particularly partial to such fields and hedges as
have trees planted in them, and it passes repeatedly
from the shrubs and hazels in the hedgerows to
these, and back again, and so perpetually makes its
circuits throughout the day. In winter it forms
small associations, and should the weather be severe
it is induced to quit its summer haunt, and roam
over the fields in company with the yellow species,
but as soon as the severity of the cold abates it
again returns to its former quarters, so that there
are certain spots at which an ornithologist may be
sure of finding a Cirl Bunting all through the year,
save indeed during severe weather. Though some-
what shy in its movements, this bird like many
others has been known to build in a much exposed
situation, and to appear to a great extent uncon-
cerned at the presence of man during that period
alone, thus in this village a pair built yearly in
holes of the wall of a stable, or in the sides of a
hayrick, and though on one occasion one of them
was shot, the other presently mated and continued
on the spot. In Cornwall it is found nearly as
commonly as with us about the vicinity of Penryn
and Falmouth, and has there been shot during
winter in furzebrakes. Itcommences its note very
early in the year, as soon indeed as the slightest
indication of spring intervenes between the severi-
ties of winter, again however ceasing on each
renewed fall of snow, great cold, heavy rain, or
other severe wintry symptoms, but on the whole it
seems a bird of considerable hilarity, as well as a
species of robust and hardy nature. In fact its
habits in respect of winter song are similar to those
of the Missel Thrush, Blackbird, &c. In the year
1838 it began its song or reiterated note in the end
'
342 LAWS OF DEPENDANCE.
of January when the weather was tolerably severe,
and it ceased after this on occasion only of unusual
inclemencies, but it not only sings thus early and
on through spring and summer, but itis also an
autumnal songster on to the end of September
usually, its note however at this last period having
undergone some change, and being repeated with
longer intervals of silence. Individuals differ
somewhat in the intonations of the song, but in
general it may be compared to the following sylla-
bles repeated in quick succession and often witha
tinkling utterance—twit a, twit a, twit a, twit a, twit.
They seem to pair about the middle of April, and
do not object to rear their brood within pistol-shot
of houses. I have noticed the species resident in
fields overhanging the sea. The species seems
almost limited to the south-western parts of the
kingdom, where it enjoys a climate more in unison
with that experienced by the aggregate of the kind
on the continent, its chief station.
The Laws of dependance of one animal on
another, or others, are as yet but slightly compre-
hended, and of the uses of the lower subjects in the
economy of Creation we are particularly ignorant ;
yet at times a glimpse of some intention of nature
comes across the path of the naturalist, and ani-
mates his pursuit at least temporarily. Slugs and
worms find abundant consumption by the generality
of insectivorous birds especially during winter, and
in regard of land-shells respecting which a doubt
might be entertained by some as to whether they
were really of any use in the system of the world,
it occurs to me that they are the especial ene =
for the Thrush and Starling tribes during the period
of greatest want. Throstles from September on-
wards are greatly occupied in the consumption of
large helices,—-aspersa, nemoralis, hortensis, &c.
and Blackbirds and Missel Thrushes are also oceu-
LAWS OF DEPENDANCE. 343
pied much in the same useful work. Probably also
the H. virgata is sought out by those wanderers,
the Fieldfare and Redwing. Starlings during their
winter peregrinations consume the smaller sorts
indiscriminately ; in the stomach of one in January,
1838, I found H. nitida, costata, caperata, fusca,
virgata, and Bulimus lubricus. This shews they
search with diligence, and with a pre-existing in-
stinct relative to their resources in severe times, for
the whole of these testacea were at the period
mentioned lodged deeply in hedges and rubbish,
and under stones. I find also that the same time
of trying necessity obliges the Gold-crest and Tit-
lark to resort in some degree to this food. The
former will on these occasions seek out Balea per-
versa, Clausilia perversa, Pupa muscorum, &c., and
the Titlark finds under stones on his open pastures
a sufficiency of H. caperata to provide him a daily
meal in conjunction with the beetles his more favo-
rite diet. ‘The fresh-water shells are the favorite
dish of Water Rails; and LandRails, during summer
become fat on the snails which infest corn and grass
lands. As for the marine molluscs, they also appear
to be the pabulum of numerous species of fish, and
on our own shores no tribe seems more active in
this consumption than the genera of 'Trigla, Pleu-
ronectes, Solea and Platessa, judging by the contents
of their stomachs. I was much surprised some
short time since by finding in the stomach of a Tub a
miscellany of univalves, nearly the whole of which
were devoid of their animal contents, they were
indeed what collectors term “dead specimens ;”
so that either these fish must resort to this dead
matter from some peculiarity of service which it
bestows on their economy, or else in their rapacity
they seize indifferently on all that they meet with.
These specimens were derived from the genera
Natica, Nasa, Rostellaria, Fusus, and Turritella.
-
. ;
\
ote
344 HIRUNDINES IN SOUTH DEVON.
But there is no instance of such care and providen-
tial consideration for the well-being of animals so
clearly shewn and so demonstrative of adaptation
of means to ends, as the exclusion of such a profu-
sion of Coleopteraand lighterinsects towards autumn,
seemingly at an ungenial period of the year, and
to thoughtless persons serving no useful purpose,
but rather encumbering the air with pestilential
inhabitants. At this juncture it will be remembered,
the smaller birds which have to pass from us for a
season need to be well prepared for that great ex-
ertion as regards bodily powers, and the young more
especially require the most rapid and efficient
srowth during the few weeks preceding their
departure. To meet such a demand, Providence
has directed the coincidence of the generation of
that vast quantity of insect food above alluded to,
and which the insectivorous portion of these migrants
are found busily occupied in consuming, as if by
instinctive preparation for their flight. Thus do
we gradually gain acquaintance with the modes of
existence and with the relations ofthe creatures about
our paths, and learn to set bounds to our foolish de-
preciation of what we are apt to term the lowest
and meanest links in the chain of beings.
The Hirundines as noticed in South Devon.—It
is not in my power to add much to the present state
of knowledge with respect to the Swallow tribe,
and the little I can add is chiefly regarding their
periods of arrival and departure from us. Fortu-
nately this kind of information is that most desired,
because serving to decide the great question relative
to their torpidity, or at least tending to shed some
light on the mode of their quitting our Island.
Not that the few facts in my possession have any
intrinsic value, but if the point is to be settled by
reports from a variety of situations, it will then
appear that the least information on the subject
ti 4
« . d ‘ x Seare et,
SWALLOWS. 345
is of consequence towards bringing about a final
settlement, distant as that may be.
Our Swallows usually arrive from April 12th, to
17th or 19th, and in some years are not general till
May, I mean asregards the bulk of their kind, for they
have been sparingly noticed even on the Ist of April.
They seem to arrive by successive flocks, and to dis-
perse gradually, for they are found to appear later by
a day or two in situations towards the interior of the
county, than in the maritime localities. Yet this
remark applies only to such flocks as choose to
settle here, being in short in all likelihood the same
individuals which had previously resided with us,
or their progeny. I am not aware that Swallows
arrive later in proportion as the situation is removed
further to the north in regard of England generally.
Late springs appear to retard their arrival, as Mr.
White remarks with respect to the Swift, and I
believe also generally of the hirundines. In the
spring of 1837 which was unusually backward, I
saw none till April 23rd, and the bulk did not
discover themselves till many days after, and this
delay would appear to have influenced the species _
generally in their visit to the Island, for they arrived
on the 22nd in the vicinity of Falmouth, which also
it must be observed isa little to our south. Although
it may be a general rule for Swallows to arrive
sooner than Martins, yet in 1835 they came just a
week after, at least in the immediate vicinity -of
this village.
Swallows depart as they arrive, by successive
companies, though now they apparently congregate
in greater numbers to each body, because in addition
to their increase by the young broods, successive
flights from more northward positions would natu-
rally enough connect themselves to flocks just ready
to departin the southern counties and districts. This
rule however of the departure of the species earlier
Ss
346 SWALLOWS.
more northern parts than from the southern, is not
invariably abided by, and perhaps as temperature
and food both operate on them in determining the
time of their migrating, one of these (most likely*the
former) or both might be so far favorable in some
particular district or county, as to cause the Swal-
lows or Hirundines as a whole there resident to
protract their stay. At all events after the Swallows
of our own neighbourhood have disappeared, flocks
arrive hither and rest awhile previously to under-
taking their passage over the seas, thus on October
15th, 1831 an immense flock was collected on the
buoy of a reservoir adjoining the coast of Plymouth
Sound, another flock was seen departing Oct. 23rd ;
about October 28th, 1834 a large company was seen
approaching the coast ; on November Ist, 1835 a
flock settled at a village not far from Plymouth, and
after recruiting their powers mounted high in the
air and departed in a south-eastern direction. So
far as | am able to decide, our own Swallows quit
us at different periods and in different distinct com-
panies from the latter end of September to about
the 5th of October ; flights have more than once
been noticed on October 16th, but these most likely
came from more northward situations. Food has
great power in determining the time of their quitting
us, but no doubt temperature or weather generally
has still more, especially as this may itself greatly
influence the supply of the former. ‘The compa-
rative powers of these two circumstances, together
with other useful information might be gained, if
naturalists would take means of comparing the times
of departure and the circumstances attendant there-
on as regards food and weather in different situa-
tions. But if weather is granted to be of so much
consequence, the difficulty of explaining the long
protracted delays of some few individuals becomes
so much the more increased, unless we be content to
J
MARTINS. 347
admit the principle of torpidity. Yet even if this
phenomenon be granted as established, it seems
strange that these few stragglers should exhibit
themselves on some occasions on cold uncomfortable
days. On October 30th, 1837, we had at this village
cold showers with intervening gleams of sunshine,
and then, a pair of Swallows haunting a chimney of
my house came forth to feed ; on November 25th
and 30th, when the sun shone rather warmly for the
season, they again issued forth. On the other hand,
my brother-in-law writes me word, that on Novem-
ber 16th and 19th, 1837, when the weather was
decidedly cold he saw two Swallows hawking at a
spot near Falmouth. In 1838 two Swallows were
seen by me on November 14th and 19th, which
were rather fine days ; frosts however had been ex-
perienced before. I hadalsoseen several on Oct. 20th.
Mr. Lyte, jun. of Berry House informs me that on
Christmas eve, 1837, he saw a flock of Swallows
frequenting a field overhanging the sea at Berry
Head ; they remained several days, but disappeared
in a very abrupt manner.
In 1835, Martins were playing over a large fish
pond in this parish on April 17th, which was a clear,
sunny day ; stragglers had been noticed for a few
days before. On November 13th, 1837, a flock of
Martins appeared flying about in their usual manner
over a marsh near Falmouth, the weather warm and
sunny.* Martins are very prone to take up new
residences, and are particularly fickle and undeter-
* The wet spring, summer, and autumn, of 1839, proved
particularly unpropitious to the progress of the rearing of the
broods of all kinds of birds. The Hirundines in the bulk departed
early, but young Swallows were noticed by me in several spots
on to the end of September, and so late as October 4th, parties of
young Martins were noticed along the coast, feeding previously to
Ss 2
348 TORPIDITY OF HIRUNDINES.
mined. They have been often observed with us to
take up their abode in small parties in villages where
the inhabitants had never seen them before. I have
also noticed that they even resolve on new settle-
ments after rearing a first brood ; in the end of
July, 1835, a party suddenly arrived in this village
and examined minutely my windows and eaves, as
also those of a house opposite ; after continuing this
scrutiny and consultation a whole day, they again
quitted us. On July 19th, 1838, they acted in the
same manner at a house at Yealm Bridge. White
Martins bave been seen here at times.
Sand Martins also, are quite as uncertain in fix-
ing their abodes and they are soon scared from
their haunts by a gun; they used in former years
to affect the banks of the river about a mile from
my house, but have not been seen since. They
haunt in great numbers the river Exe at this time,
and are, as I am told, frequently noticed there at
periods through the winter on the recurrence of fine
days. A party also haunts the sand-banks near
Hoo Meavy. ‘The species occurs likewise at
Thurlestone.
Reverting to the question of torpidity I may re-
late the experience of a naturalist with whom I had
the happiness of being acquainted a few years ago.
A lady brought to him a Swift in a torpid state,
which she had just found clinging to her window
curtain; he held it to the fire and it revived, but
perhaps through excessive reaction it perished soon
after. This was in autnmn after the generality of
Swifts had departed. An elderly gentleman of my
own profession also relates that two or three Swifts
their departure, and in a Village, near Looe in Cornwall, one pair
still had young in their nest at the same date. Probably the wet
“and storms had more than once destroyed their hopes of progeny.
CORNISH AND DEVON ORNITHOLOGY. 349,
were once discovered in a torpid state in the rub-
bish of an old building in his neighbourhood. Other
narrations of this kind prove that birds of the above
species have certainly been found in a state of
torpor in this county.
A gentleman of.my acquaintance who is captain
in the Navy has favoured me with the following ex-
tract from his log “ March 17th, 1809, Latitude
“¢ 32°59” North; Longitude 10° 44” West; Salviges.
“ We this morning observed a very large flock of
“Swallows passing us from the coast of Africa
“ towards the north-east, and two which appeared
“more fatigued than the rest hung for some time
“ about the mainsail.” It would certainly seem by
the date of this observation, that Swallows consume
a longer time in their route hither than is usually
conceived. Probably they linger much on the
continent before passing the Channel.
Naturalists ought in the case of birds which
build much abont houses, and attach themselves
greatly to the dwellings of man, to consider what
may naturally be their mode and place of nidifica-
tion. In the case of the Swallow it is probable that
in the course of nature it would select hollows and
recesses of rocks,and at timesit has been ascertained
that they will build in holes of houses and bridges,
and as if they chose to descend in preference to other
methods of concealment, they have been known also
to have their nests down the shafts of wells and
mines. Swifts and Martins both build frequently
in our ivied sea cliffs and as above intimated we
actually find that a few of our Swallows select the
same places for nestling.
Cornish and Devon Ornithology.—Mr. White
observes that the probable reason why Nightingales
are not found in Devon and Cornwall is because
they cross at the narrowest part of the Channel and
do not stroll so far westward. Analogy does not
350 CONCORD AND DISCORD IN BIRDS.
support this idea, for though Nightingales and
Redstarts* are reported to be absent from Cornwall,
and the Yellow Wren to be very scarce, the Nuthatch
a stationary English bird, and some other species
of the same habit, are, though not deficient in the
Cornish Fauna, particularly local. Tree Sparrows,
Reed Wrens, and several other birds common in
many counties, are in Devon and Cornwall great
rarities, and besides these cases indicative of pe-
culiar likings, it should be observed that on a
principle long recognised of “ adopted residences”
by animals, these species above named would ere
this have become even plentiful inhabitants of ap-
parently so desirable districts as Devon and Cornwall,
did not some hidden circumstances interfere and
regulate the limits of their range. A further instance
of indisposition for, or incapacity to endure our
climate (or whatever may be the obstacle) is seen
in the Starling which breeds but sparingly in these
counties. It is also likely that it is only in date
years that this species has ever abided the summer
with us. The choice of localities by animals is a”
subject altogether of the utmost obscurity.
Concord and discord as observed in Birds.—In
the class of birds, actions and feelings of very
opposite characters are sometimes discovered, these
for the most part are referrible to the difference of
circumstances which present themselves at different
seasons, and also occasionally through accident or
unexpected emergencies, at the same season. I
allude to those actions derived from jealousy and
personal consideration on the one hand, and to those
derived from concord and combined interests on
* Redstarts have been seen in Cornwall, but only in their passage
during migration. See Couch’s “ Cornish Fauna,” a most elaborate
and for the most part scientific compendium.
‘ial
CONCORD AND DISCORD IN BIRDS. 351
the other. The causes productive of jealousies, are
rivalry among the males of a species in the time of
their amours ; among the individuals of both sexes
indiscriminately in some species, especially during
summer when each pair observes certain limits for
its range after provender ; among birds of the same
and of opposite species on account of aggressions ;
and among birds of one and of opposite kinds during
times of scarcity. The causes of union and com-
bination of interests are, first, the better resistance
of danger, observed chiefly among those of a species,
but also frequently among incongruous kinds;
secondly, a sort of friendship or desire of rendering
service, seen between individuals of one species,
and more rarely between different kinds ; the better
discernment of food by combined powers and senses;
the easier attainment of a given object, as that of
arriving at a destination by the shortest route in
the case of migrators ; and lastly and principally, a
desire of society, as men assemble to concert for
their common good for a variety of reasons.
The generality of birds separate in pairs at the
time of the alliance of sexes, when each couple
(save in some rare instances) observes a certain
range without interfering with the domains of others
of their kind, yet some species congregate at this
period, making a conjoint nursery at some one spot,
as the Rook, (which however is gregarious aé all
times,) and very many of the aquatic fowls.
Jealousies however, and bickerings commonly
disturb these harmonious combinations. It is
strange also that some instances occur, of pairs, in
species usually collective at this season, retiring to
some secluded spot apart from their kind, as seen
in the Cornish Chough and many other birds.
Besides the circumstance of rivalry among the
males of a species, keeping such birds apart, the
distribution and occurrence of food is ordinarily
352 CONCORD AND DISCORD IN BIRDS.
such, that it is natural birds should have been
endowed with jealous temperaments, by which each
is enabled to preserve to itself a sufficient space for
its procurance. ‘This feeling mostly obtains during
summer, for in winter a disposition to combination
of numbers is so general from that desire of society,
on the occurrence of want and danger, that former
envyings and quarrels are forgotten, so far as those
particular species are concerned in whom these
actions are remarked. Yet there are some species
of birds known, which hunt their prey in concert
irrespectively of season, besides which, Swallows
and other species habitually keep together and live
in harmony while collecting their food over the same -
meadow. On the contrary, some kinds retain their
quarrelsome temper during winter, or rather they
possess a larger share of it, this 1 have witnessed
in the Robin, which in that season is particularly
envious of intrusions on his territories, and drives
away with blows any new comers when food is
scattered for him. Moreover, strife is sometimes
conspicuous among the individuals constituting
associations apparently (except when food is the
cause of quarrel,) the most united, as we see in the
Sparrow during winter; one proof tomy mind, that
food is by no means a principal reason of the
“winter congregating” of birds.
Ageressions are not only the cause of contentions
among birds of one species, but also among species
noways related. A person on whom I place reliance,
assures me he saw a Swallow which had been
hawking after insects over the Lara, pursue and
punish most vehemently a Ringed Plover, which
made but slight resistance to this treatment, and
was eventually precipitated into the water by a
severe blow in the head inflicted by its opponent.
Rooks and Gulls when hunting after their common
prey in the ploughed and other lands, are perpetually
CONCORD AND DISCORD IN BIRDS. 353
harassing one another, the Rooks however usually
being victors. But that incongruous species can
abide together without quarrels or disputes, even
gathering the same food in conjunction, may be
easily shewn. Ina tree not twenty feet high, I have
seen the nests of three incongruous birds, the
Thrush, the Bullfinch, and the Creeper. ‘The Reed
Bunting, and the Cirl Bunting frequently congre-
gate with the Yellow species in hard weather.
Starlings frequently gather their food in harmony
with Rooks.
Birds of one species often resist danger in con-
junction, as we see with Sparrows and Swallows
on the approach of a Hawk or other bird of rapine,
and these will on such occasions call together birds
of various other species, to assist in the cause also.
Extraordinary instances of attachment between
individuals of one species, as also between animals
of even dissimilar natures, and particularly in a
domesticated state, when sefish considerations are
less called forth, are onrecord. ‘The contradiction
of these benevolent actions, to the selfishness of
such personal considerations as are commonly re-
marked in the brute creation, is greatly augmented
on reflecting that these demonstrations of pity and
kindness, are even observed in those species
ordinarily distinguished for contentious demeanour
towards their own fellows. Happening to capture
a Robin in my bedroom, I removed it by night in
a cage to a distance of four miles, here I exposed
it next day in its cage in a garden, when by its
querulous note it soon attracted the notice of one
of its species, which forthwith taking compassion
on its situation was its constant companion for the
several days I imprisoned it, and though I provided
it a plenty of food, it preferred receiving its supplies
from the bill of its affectionate associate and
friend.
rr
ym" by As a “in cole xf A) Of | ee eee aN Ce aye ne
eg ’ 7 he
-y ;
a!
ra ie he ‘
-) . -
" y* c:
vA . y
354 CONCORD AND DISCORD IN BIRDS.
By combination birds may perhaps discern food,
and eligible situations the readier; and it is not
unusual at these times for sentinels to be appointed
to warn of danger. During migration, a combination
of individuals may give more facility to their
transits, and leading birds are often observed to
be appointed. Yet as before said, many kinds do
not associate when food is scarce; many birds
also do not migrate in concert.—Upon the whole,
we should naturally think it would be more adyan-
tageous for birds to remain separate during times
of scarcity, and therefore, though we do not know
why they act oppositely in this respect, or why
many kinds migrate singly, seeing also that asso-
ciations of single birds take place when danger is
threatened by a rapacious animal or such like
causes, and that strife concerning food is common
among apparently very harmonious communities
in other respects it seems to follow that there is
some other principle at work inducing them to
congregate in the several emergencies of their lives.
This principle I take to be a desire of society, and
mutual commiseration of suffering. Itis worthy
of note that severity of cold has a most decided
influence on this propensity to associate. Magpies
collect in small parties only when the weather is
severe ; at other times they keep pretty much aloof,
and when thus combined their chances of finding
sufficient sustenance for the party must, one would
think, be greatly diminished. The Cirl Bunting
joins the flocks of Yellow Hammers only in those
seasons which are very severe; ordinarily they
keep together in winter in small assemblages, near
the seat of their summer abode, these little com-
panies being perhaps families. This propensity in
families to remain united is a very common obser-
vance among birds. I believe also it is more usual
for pairs to continue together during winter than is
"
Pa é _
ea. so peal
SONGS OF BIRDS. ' Soe
commonly supposed; certainly we see in that season
a great many couples, having an evident intimacy
and friendship, as also a great many collections of
of three, four, or five, formed to all appearance on
the score of friendly combination. With regard
therefore to the “ winter assembling” of birds, if
scarcity of food does not cause all birds to
congregate according to their kind; if migration does
not induce all species to unite in companies during
that eventful undertaking ; if the better discernment
of food and eligible situations for feeding be a very
questionable result of combinations; if danger and
want seem rather to be consequent on this act; if
quarrels respecting food occur in apparently united
companies; if combinations occur as well in the
season of plenty as in that of want; if birds
instinctively unite on the occurrence of sudden
danger ; if we find that they render mutual aid when
misfortune has assailed them ; if cold and necessity
ordinarily cause some kinds to unite and others
only when these are unusually severe ; 1f families
commonly remain associated through the winter ;
if small temporary associations are frequent occur-
rences at that. period; and if combinations of
incongruous kinds take place; then, notwithstanding
that combinations traceable to harmony of feeling,
and desire of society do not appear in all species,
and in many only at times, we are drawn to the
conclusion that these gatherings depend on the
sentiment of friendship, alliance, and mutual
commiseration.
Songs of Birds.—The sounds proceeding from
the tribe of birds, from the simplest monosyllabic
utterance to the protracted and highly executed
song, should be classed together ; and a pretended
separation of the latter from all other kinds of vocal
sounds be regarded as extremely arbitrary. There
is found every intermediate step between the harsh
8
ae
306 SONGS OF BIRDS.
discordant scream of the Peacock, or the simple,
though penetrating note (twee) of the Creeper, and
the plaintive melody of the Nightingale, or the
musical performance of the Song-thrush. But to
augment the beauty of the universe, Nature has
bestowed on certain species of this class the power
of emitting intonations agreeable to the ears of man-
kind, and these we term by way of pre-eminence,
songs.
Birds seem to me capable of expressing them-
selves with regard to their appetites, and with
reference to their feelings of enjoyment and pain.
It is not only accordant with reason, but in accord-
ance with observed facts for us to refer the genera-
lity of their songs to pleasurable sensations, but I
believe that some few of the less pretending vocal-
ists may utter sounds long denominated songs,
from associations connecting them with those of
better execution and with seasons of gladness to
the human heart, which are rather attributable
to hunger or to some feeling of necessity.
Yet naturalists have not been content to ascribe
these songs to agreeable emotions, but have incon-
siderately asserted that they were due to love, and
_ devotion of the one sex (male) to the other. Inde-
pendently of reasons hereafter to be stated, it seems
to me to be a violation of the natural barrier. of
separation between the minds of brutes and our own
mental constitutions and affections to allow those
kindly sentiments to the former, which are not
always to be found in man, and for deficiency in
which he is so frequently condemned. Butif songs
are indicative of love, and love only, how comes it
that all birds were not equally endowed? how is
it that the language of love is not at all uniform in
the different species, and that the individuals of
some species, as the Thrush, differ continually in the
wordings of their suit, and that occasionally re-
say ad
Up Sanaa
SONGS OF BIRDS. 357
markable deviations occur in species otherwise
pretty uniform in their “ love-notes” ? how also can
we account for these same pretended invitations
and devotions occurring in some species at other
seasons besides in that of love, and that these notes
also are greatly influenced by weather, as I intend
presently to shew? ‘That song-birds possess the
faculty of music in various degrees according to the
species, is shewn by the superior ability displayed by
some caged birds over othersin the acquisition of new
notes better even than those of their kindred ; fin
the wild state, the Linnet is an instance of this.
But the organic apparatuses subservient to mental!
faculties, ever display in greater or less degree,
conformity of structure to differences of actual
power. The larynges and trachee of song-birds
and of those not musical exhibit according disagree-
ments and minor differences have even been pointed
out. Now such elaborations of mechanism and
structure would hardly have been ordained as the
instruments for conveying amorous and temporary
intelligences. Hen birds which through altered
food and modes of life acquire male characters,
have been known to sing, which is a reversion of
presumed order in the matter of love.
By some few naturalists, songs of birds were
thought to be dependant on imitation, the young
invariably deriving their notes from their parents,
a notion scarcely deserving serious refutation. By
others these sounds have been ascribed to rivalry,
and though it is ridiculous to consider them as
solely dependant on this feeling, there is no doubt
that some variations of their songs are thus excited.
Some persons consider that food has considerable
power in the production of song, and though I feel
no hesitation in assenting to this from observing
the effects of plenty of food in producing extraor-
dinary aptitude for singing in caged birds, and from
: oF Pee wage BO eh Oe td hee of Si a cy Py) heey
\ ¥ ane
358 SONGS OF BIRDS.
remarking the suspension of song in wild birds
when snow or other obstacles preclude the procu-
rance of food, I yet think that this is no further an
influence than by its power of controuling the
animal spirits, for many song-birds are silent during
seasons of abundance. Although therefore by this
very same argument it would seem that excitation
of their spirits was not the absolute or precise cause
of song, yet this is of all others the most plausible
source, and that one which will bear the most
scrutiny.
In support of this opinion that the songs of birds
are the result of flow of animal spirits, and indicate
feelings of hilarity and cheerfulness, prompted by
various agreeable stimuli, | proceed to observe
(without returning to reasons before given in oppo-
sition to the notion of love being the cause) that
song is suspended during the time of moulting,
that during the season of love, song is very generally
suspended when inclement or rainy weather sud-
denly comes on, that some species give vent to their
spirits beyond others, and seemingly exert more
energy in delivering their songs, they apparently
also are more easily acted on by stimuli than others,
instances of which will appear below, while lastly
I remark that the winter songs of birds which are
for the most part the same as those they deliver in
the spring and summer, are dependent on the
weather experienced through that season. Mr. Ren-
nie is right in contracting the statement of White,
that the Redbreast and Wren do not sing in hard
frost, but even if they do, it seems only to shew their ~
superior resistance to want, and greater fortitude
against suffering, and it would by no means subvert
facts I can relate respecting other species of winter
warblers. It is clear that Colonel Montagu had
observed the same facts I am about to state, but
from their manifest tendency to establish a doctrine
SONGS OF BIRDS. _ 359
contrary to the one he tries to advocate, he makes
them of no value whatever. Mr. Rennie on the
other hand does not appear to have been aware of
them, but altogether concludes that weather has
no effect except in so far as it influences the sup-
plies of food, whereas I am of opinion that weather
is of equal importance with food in stimulating the
animal spirits,—Mr. Rennie makes it subservient
to food, J wish to elevate it to the same rank in
exciting the animal spirits, for allowing all neces-
sary weight to the influence of food on song, it
would follow that if weather had no separate in-
fluence, and food a direct influence, song suspended
when snow and frost concealed supplies of food,
would be resumed during ordinary weather when
food was easily obtainable, whereas by the follow-
ing facts we shall see it is resumed only on the
occasional occurrence of unusually fine weather in
the brumal season, so far as regards those species
in which they were observed.
I take it, that if song is capable of being excited
through stimuli on the animal spirits, the circum-
stances attending on particularly fine weather are
as likely to act as excitants, as the circumstance
of the occurrence of food; and by analogy we see
that intervals of fine warm weather in the more
uncomfortable months act favourably on the vigour
of our own frames, and on the domestic creatures
about us.
By the geographical position of South Devon as
respects the poles and the equator, and by the
ordinations of nature for equalizing the general
temperature of the earth, besides a number of other
benefits obtained by cold, it has been directed that
we should experience severity of weather in the
course of the winter months, but owing to the
operation of some secondary influences on climate,
these cold periods consist only of temporary ces-
360 SONGS OF BIRDS.
sations of the ordinary heat, or rather we have an
extraordinary and general mildness of air at the
times when it should least be looked for. Whether
this is a peculiarity in the climate of South Devon,
or usually observed through the southern coasts of
England, I am not enabled to determine; but the
fact is certain that while some parts of our winter
are excessively inclement, other and the larger
portions are equally temperate, agreeable, and
inviting. The Christmas of 1837 was as mild as
many days of July are, but the middle of January
-1838 was intensely cold; frost killed plants in the
windows of houses, it did great damage to hedges
and old buildings, milk was frozen into solid masses,
and the inlet called Stonehouse Pool was frozen
over, and a fair held on it! With such extremities
in climate, it were rational to expect phenomena
of a remarkable nature in the animal world. By
remarks made by me for several winters, it appears
that brumal songsters, especially Blackbirds and
‘Thrushes, were called into song during those periods
only, when the air was genial, the sun shining, and
the whole face of nature for a while reanimated
under these transient and deceptive smiles. I am
not of course about to allude to the Robin, Wren,
or Hedge-chanter, because these are known to sing
at all times during winter, but the two above-
named, the Skylark, Titlark, Missel Thrush, and
Woodlark, (besides others not properly song birds)
were those species in whom I remarked songs
similar to those we are accustomed to hear delivered
during spring and summer.
Birds seem to me to be affected by stimuli very
differently, and to feel the effects of the same
stimuli very differently at different times. Black-
birds are more readily induced to sing by these
unseasonably fine days than Thrushes, they are
also steadier in their continuance of song. Missel-
AUTUMNAL AND BRUMAL SONGSTERS. 361
Thrushes are not known to sing before January,
and then only when fine. Skylarks frequently sing
in fine weather in autumn, Blackbirds and Thrushes
but seldom. Woodlarks select fine weather both
in autumn and winter for their carols. In the winter
of 1833—-4 Blackbirds and Thrushes were in very
good song during the end of December and some
parts of January, the weather being then particularly
fine, the ‘Thrushes however did not sing so often as
the Blackbirds. Titlarks also sang in the latter
month. In January, 1835 Thrushes and Blackbirds
were in good song through the month ; some other
species were also in imperfect song, and the Blue
Tit began his summer notes. On the 14th, Wood-
larks were in good but short song. On October 20th
1835, Skylarks sang delightfully, Woodlarks also
were in good song, but it was ofa different kind to
that above named. At intervals in January, 1836,
Blackbirds sang. The Blue Tit likewise commenced
his spring note, but the weather in this month was
never very inviting. Missel Thrushes were also
observed at times to sing at short intervals. When
the weather relapsed into its ordinary character
they all resumed their winter notes. On February
20th, 1836, Chaffinches were in pairs and in usual
summer song, but all these things were interfered
with and ceased on the recurrence of sharp and
stormy weather. This phenomenon of sudden
discontinuance of song in accordance with the
variableness of weather I remarked on to the mid-
dle of April of that year, when no doubt a great
many kinds had paired. Moreover on fine days
when a general concert was held, birds not usually
in song till after the above date, began their warbles.
In the previous December we had very mild
weather at times, and then Blackbirds commenced
singing. The commencement of the year 1837 was
U vu
362 AUTUMNAL AND BRUMAL SONGSTERS.
particularly inclement, the end of March brought
us snow and ice, and song which had occurred
during certain bright intervals, now ceased. In the
following month, the fact of this said alternation of
severe weather and ordinary spring weather with
the corresponding cessations of song, was well seen.
A day or two before April 2nd, we had song, . but
snow now descending and the weather being gloomy,
it ceased. On the 8th, 9th, and 10th, the weather
induced a return of song, but on the 11th it stopped
owing to a fresh descent. These alternations con-
tinued till May had fairly set in. In the autumn
Blackbirds began singing in the end of September
and continued on to October 3rd, they sang also at
intervals till the 20th, but their notes were not full
nor so melodious as in spring. That peculiar scream
of the Greenfinch which we hear first in April, was
resumed for a short time during the first week in
August, and I have known it continued through the
month, and to occur on fine days in warm sheltered
spots both in September and October. In the fine
weather of the middle of October, Skylarks sang
beautifully, together with some other of the com-
moner kinds of songsters. Chaffinches on fine
days in this month, often utter an imperfect ex-
ecution of their cheering song. I have often
noticed Skylarks in good song in November, January
and February, dependent on sudden returns of fine
and mild weather. At periods during the end of
November and through December Blackbirds broke
forth into short and desultory song, the weather
being then unusually fine and spring-like. During
the whole of January, 1838, the weather being
extremely severe we heard no more of their melody,
even the Missel Thrush was discouraged from song
till February 23rd, when he began his loud clear
whistle, the Thermometer standing at 44° Faht.;
WINTER SONGSTERS. 363
his song was resumed only on fine days after ;* in
fact the Thrush tribe are not the most readily acted on
by the approach of spring, being regardful as it were
of intervening discouragements and obstacles, for
besides the perpetual winter songs of the Robin,
Wren, and Hedge Sparrow, the Chaffinch and Ox-
eye (not exactly a song bird) are found in this
* In the “ Journal of a Naturalist” Mr. Knapp speaks confi-
dently of the Missel Thrush prognosticating storms and bad
weather generally, and Mr. White mentions a belief of the same
kind existing in Hampshire. Independently of the omission of a
stated duration of time between the prediction and the storm,
(which even in February might amount to a week or more !) it
will be seen that the Missel Bird and in general the other winter
songsters select fine enlivening days for their songs and omit them
on the recurrence of bad weather,so that by examining the argument
T have here adopted, a very different explanation of the selection
of occasions for singing by this bird may be drawn.
As the time approaches towards the breeding period, birds be-
come less particular of weather, but utter their various notes
coincident with incubation even on gloomy and uninviting days.
The early morning is more particularly the portion of the day
when their voices may be heard, and very often their songs or notes
are altogether suspended afterwards.
I take the opportunity of observing here that there is no little
fallacy and no slight error induced, by authors fixing on the date
at which certain birds commence their spring notes, seeing that
they are so greatly under the influence of weather, and not unfre-
quently of food, and thus often defer their songs or even anticipate
the stated time to which books would bind them, and (as every one
will confess) omit them subsequently to the announced period
should cold or yery rainy weather supervene; thus White says
that the Ox-eye begins his notes in February, whereas with us at
least he may be heard on fine cheering days in December and
January.
Uu2
864 WINTER SONGSTERS.
respect to excel them, thus on February 8th and on
to about the 16th, the Chaffinch sang not unfre-
quently, and the Ox-eye delivered his cheerful
spring notes, yet snow was lying on the ground,
and the only inducement seemed to be the clear
sunbeams in which they preened themselves, but
on the 14th and 15th it was even cloudy and snow
descending, and yet the Chaffinch was still in song !
After this the weather got sunny and the snow
melted, the Chaffinch assumed a merrier, more
perfect, and more frequent song, and Blackbirds for
the first time that year began on the 18th. These
illustrations ofthe almost exclusive power of weather
on the hilarity and animal vigour of birds, is still
further supported by the Yellow Hammer, which
though a very late breeder, began his song, (wanting
in however the concluding note) on February 21st,
when it was fine and rather warm. The Greenfinch
also began on February 25th, a tolerably warm day,
and the snow fast melting.
But be it here observed, that dependance cannot
always be placed on this rule of the re-assumption
of song under the circumstance of favorable weather,
nor vice versa will it always be found withheld
under the condition of unfavorable weather. Ihave
often speculated on the probability of hearing cer-
tain winter songsters when I perceived the air
genial and the sun shining clearly, and yet have not
seldom been disappointed, and again I have been
agreeably deceived in hearing their carols on occa-
sions when I least expected them. Itis however
somewhat consolatory to find that though these
facts apparently in some degree weaken the present
theory, they by no means assist in the establishment
or strength of any opposite conclusion or idea.
Besides which, it remains yet to be observed in con-
tradiction to the theory of food, as well as to that
of love being respectively the excitants to song
OTHER WINTER NOTES. 365
that there are some birds never classed with songsters
but yet having utterances indicative perhaps of the
same feelings with those which lead to harmonious
songs, which delivertheirnotes the year through, save
on occasions of stormy, rainy, and very inclement
weather; thus Owls hoot every night when fine, and
Woodpeckers continue to laugh through every month
of the year, having however a more imperfect kind
of note during autumn and winter than at other
seasons. Again many kinds of birds preserve their
songs or notes through spring, summer, and autumn,
and desist on the arrival of severe weather as no-
ticed in the Ox-eye ; some of these species observe
regular alterations in their note or song according
to season, as we find in the Nuthatch. Whether
these alterations and defective deliveries above
mentioned depend on some organic changes in the
larynx, or on altered feelings, cannot exactly be de-
termined, but the probability rests in a belief that
both circumstances operate and for the most part
separately in different kinds. Little doubt for
instance can exist as to the altered laugh of the
Green Woodpecker in winter being dependant on
_ diminished power of execution, and little doubt can
exist that the spring and autumnal songs of the
Robin depend for their difference on some altered
disposition or sentiment. Leaving however tem-
porary organic defect out of the question, it may be
suitable to the present argument, and be found
accordant with the general views of philosophy, to
remember here, that each species of bird has habits
ceconomy, temperament, and general constitution
in great measure isolated and separate from all
others, and that consequently that part of their
history which concerns expression of feeling, will
likewise be in each case different, and incapable to
some extent of being brought under the trammels
of given, arbitrary rules.
366 GENERAL INFERENCES.
On the whole therefore, we are called upon to
conclude that weather has a decided effect on the
animal spirits of birds ;* that while in summer
plenty of food, rivalry, animal desire and the smiling
face of nature conspire to produce melody as the
evidence of the excitation of these spirits, and
while in autumn, plenty of food and fine mild weather
call forth a diminished quantity of and less power-
ful kind of song in the generality of birds in whom
it is then observed, winter with all its sternness and
and want, does still in its intervals of unusually
fine weather present us with a return of song as if
in anticipation of the future incubating season. We
see also by the foregoing facts, that a forward spring
will call forth songs otherwise not heard till later
in the year, and that a backward spring on the
other hand seemingly defers or impedes the more
ordinary course of nature by preventing vernal
songs, whereby the effect of weather on this matter
is clearly indicated. Although some few birds as
the Lark and Snipe are reported to become very fat
in winter, yet in general, want prevails, and a sudden
re-appearance of scanty supplies seems very unlikely
to draw forth songs at this season. In the character
of our winters above named should be peculiar,
then there is still stronger evidence of the power of
weather in elevating the spirits. Col. Montagu
observes that the Missel Thrush “ begins to sing in
“‘ January if the weather is mild, but ceases so soon
“as the thermometer sinks below forty degrees.”
White says that the Linnet “ re-assumes its note
“when they begin to congregate in October, and
“again early before the flocks separate,’—state-
+ There appears to be some truth in the vulgar belief that the
crowing of the cock is louder and more frequent just prior to a
favorable change of weather, thus acting as a prognostic.
PREMATURE NESTLING. 367
ments which favour the opinion I have here advanced.
There are probably some species which sing under
the influence of amorous excitation of the spirits
more decidedly than the rest of birds, and the facts
(such as those recorded by Montagu) appearing to
support this have originated the hasty deduction
regarding the whole class, that love was the sole
reason of song ; but while the Nightingale exhibits
so strongly the result of this power on his spirits,
the Woodlark his competitor sings deliciously at
periods during all seasons. Although then a mys-
tery and degree of doubt prevent a ready inference on
the subject, there seems room to conclude that several
stimuli act on the animal spirits of the feathered
tribes and in the case of song-birds induce their
melodies,—that though in them there is no love
withont song, there may be song without love.
As connected with the above statements, I pro-
pose now to enquire whether a forward state of
spring can induce a disposition to pairing before
the usual time, besides inducing song at an unusual
early period. Food is known to induce amorous
feelings in domesticated birds at very early periods,
and it therefore remains to be seen whether weather
is of equal importance. It would seem at first par-
ticularly unlikely that the period of nestling should
be anyway interfered with, it appearing so rational
to conclude that an express time has been ordered
for every species, and that this is immutable; yet
there is ground to believe that the incubating period
may be both deferred and prematurely induced in
accordance with the character of weather at the
opening of the year. I have already expressed
a suspicion that such might be the case, but as
yet I have advanced no proofs on the subject lest
I might rather obscure the argument I have just
quitted by connecting together the exclusive ques-
tion of song with that of nestling accompanied
868 PREMATURE NESTLING.
by song, for though winter songs seem to be
continued into spring and at last appear to resolve
themselves into the pure vernal notes of exhilar-
ation and enjoyment, I trust it has been sufficiently
shewn that song is far from being any test of
the incubating processes; so that prematurely
induced song even in those species not accus-
tomed to chaunt during winter is not an evidence
of prematurely induced love, the two questions
of song and love being in short distinct and worthy
of separate investigation, though the two circum-
stances in song-birds are for awhile naturally
connected and coincident.
That food is capable of inducing precocity of love,
and consequent incubation in domesticated birds,
we have proofs in the common fowl and duck, which
are frequently known to lay through the winter. It
is also known that Canaries will even commence
building in cages so early (or rather date) as
November, but though there can be no question
that food is in these instances the main stimulus,
and furnishes sufficient bodily powers for these
offices, I believe it has been remarked that mild and
fine winters greatly influence the proceeding, con-
tributing as I think, to induce the irregularity.
That food is not the sole reason, would appear by
those exceptions to the rule of the fowl and duck
laying in winter, during severity of season, and by
the instances I shall presently name of wild birds
being influenced in their nestling-period by circum-
stances of weather. And by the same rule it appears
that weather cannot be the only influence, because
these same two species in their wild state are never
known to nestle and incubate before the usual vernal
season observed by the generality of birds; but it ©
will be noticed that Robins occasionally build at
Christmas on the occurrence of unusually fine mild
weather. I haye myself seen a nest with eggs of
NEW KIND OF VOLE. 369
this bird taken at that period in my neighbourhood,
as also one with two eggs taken the first week of
February, 1835. On the 3lst January, 1834, the
weather being very mild, Sparrows had young in a
spot near Plymouth. ‘The Wren, Rook, and a great
variety of other birds, are well known to build a few
days sooner than usual, on account of an early
spring. On the other hand it is equally well known
that inclement weather at the accustomed period of
nestling of the respective kinds of birds, will cause
them to defer their operations, and occasionally even
when there could be no reason to imagine any
deficiency of provender as the cause of this delay.
Witness the late springs of 1837 and 1838, though
no doubt scarcity was felt on these two occasions.
It is further well worthy of note, that as song is
capable of being induced in many species at late
and early periods of the year from the influence of
weather, so it has happened that birds have from
probably the same cause, bred at a very late season.
In 1837, a pair of Sparrows in my garden had eggs
in the middle of September.
New species of Vole-——A suspicion has long ex-
isted in the minds of naturalists that other species
of mice than those now described in books, would
in process of time be discovered not only in those
parts of the world generally inhabited by species of
this race, but even in this country, better explored
perhaps than any other. Discoveries of this kind
however prove in a remarkable and decisive manner
how deficient even English naturalists are in a
knowledge of the productions of their island, and
how requisite are local scientific institutions to
concentrate the knowledge to be gained in each
particular district.
The specimen of Vole, of which a representation
is given, appears tobe a male;it measures altogether
4 inches, or 3 inches from the nose to the root of
Less
370 NEW KIND OF VOLE.
the tail, and 1 inch in the tail itself; the broadest
part of the animal is at the back of the head, where
it measures inclusive of the hair 1 inch; the highest
part also is the occiput, which indeed rises slightly
above the vertebre of the neck and back, and renders
this part of the animal (when standing,) 13 inches
in height. It has four toes in front, and five behind,
the whole furnished with claws; the front feet are
hairy down to the toes, th® hinder are similarly
clothed, but the hair is very short. The tail is
covered with short bristly hairs, and the tip is
provided with a slight pencil. The length of the
head is nine tenths of an inch, it is broad and deep,
with bristles nearly an inch long. The ears are
nearly concealed by the fur, are margined by some
short hairs, are broad and capacious, and have a
valvular projection at their bottoms. Incisors, light
yellow and with very keen edges. The whole head
and body are covered by a fur peculiarly rough in
appearance because long and scanty ; the hairs
measure generally as much as four tenths of an inch
in length ; on the lower parts however the fur is
shorter ; its colour on the upper parts is ash termi- —
nated by brown towards the ends of the hairs ; on
the lower parts and sides the hairs are ash colour
at their bases, and whitish brown at their ends.
Altogether, the creature has a very rough aspect
and bears a strange resemblance to the rough breed
of terrier dog. It was captured by myself about
June, 28th, 1837, in a hay field in a very dry situ-
ation near my residence at Yealmpton, and I am
tolerably sure that other specimens of the same
kind occurred the next year in the very same spot
where the first was killed, but I was not fortunate
enough to obtain them from the man who mowed
the grass and killed them.
There might be some ground to suspect that this
animal was no more than a variety of the Meadow
;
ik ae
“yb ea
oat
nn
ITS DISTINCTION FROM OTHERS. 371
Mouse, or Field Vole (Arvicola agrestis, Fleming)
especially as there is arough haired Mouse figured
in Shaw’s Miscellany as a variety of that species.
It is also well known that the Meadow Mouse is said
tovary muchin size and colour in differentsituations.
It must however be observed that although an
occasional case does occur among the higher ver-
tebrata of animals suffering not a little extent of
variation, yet there are some marks which ought to
be regarded as decisive of specific difference, and
perhaps there are but few instances in which it is
proper to rank the cases as “varieties” when the
differences amount to more than latitude in size
and colour. Accordingly I suspect that the animal
figured by Shaw whether in reality similar to mine
or not, is aspecies by itself, and with regard to the
present specimen I proceed to enumerate those
points of difference between it and the Meadow
Mouse which | regard as establishing it a distinct
kind. In the Meadow Mouse the legs are much
shorter, and the bulk of the body more considerable ;
in the Meadow Mouse there are on the fore feet
three toes with claws and the thumb without a claw,
while in this animal the thumb itself has a claw,
and quite as large as the others; in the Meadow
Mouse the bristles are shorter, and the muzzle blunter
than in this species ; in the Meadow Mouse the fur
is compact and short, while in this kind it is
curiously lengthened, scanty, and lax, and makes it
appear in some measure shaggy. With regard to
dimensions of the head, body, and tail, and colour
of the fur, nothing distinctive can be mentioned,
from the liability on the part of the Meadow Mouse
to vary in these respects. It is not improbable
however that at some future time authors may agree
to elevate these reputed varieties in size in that
species to another rank, and so far as regards those
found on the Continent, it is to be observed that
Viv2
372 ITS DISTINCTION FROM OTHERS.
recent comparisons between certain species of ani-
mals generally imagined as common to England
and the Continent, have shown that sufficient
differences exist to warrant a separation into
species. But until this sort of enquiry has been
applied to the Meadow Mouse, it is manifestly in-
correct in writers to rest their specific characters of
that animal on its dimensions, thus Fleming charac-
terizes the Water Vole and the Field Vole or
Meadow Mouse on the dichotomous method in this
way ;— Water Vole, body 7 inches long, tail 3 inches.
Field Vole, body 3 inches and ahalflong, tail 13inch.
Now, if the reputed varieties of this latter animal
are not distinct species, the dimensions here given
are not descriptive of the animal! In his account
of the latter, he says also that “ zt never exceeds
half the size of the former.” Bingley says that “in
England it usually measures to the root of the tail
six inches, while in France it seldom measures more
than three”; authors generally agree in the tail being
no more than 13 inch long. Some writers so far
from agreeing with Fleming in making dimensions
of primary importance in the description, have from
its great uncertainty, omitted it altogether. In this
neighbourhood [have found that the Meadow Mouse
usually measures from nose to tail about 33 inches,
but a specimen I obtained from Whitney in Oxford-
shire measured from nose to tail 42 inches; tail
13 inch ; a specimen also belonging to G. Leach, esq.
of Stoke, and taken in Devon, measures in the
head 1} in., in the body 3 in., and in the tail 2 in.
excluding the little pencil. ‘There are some other
respectsin which the reputed varieties of this animal
differ, but they are not so very important or suffi-
ciently clear to be noticed here. When variableness
of size does not obscure the characters of animals,
the size and shape of the cranium form excellent
distinctive marks.
GREY WAGTAIL. 373
Notwithstanding the differences shewn to exist
between the present animal and the species just
alluded to, it is certainly more allied to that, than to
any other kind. Its place among the Voles is clearly
established by the hairiness of the tail and its
shortness compared to the body, by the great size
of the head, and the coarse appearance of the fur.
Its specific and distinctive characters may for the
present be concisely enumerated thus ;—Shaggy
Vole; head, body, and legs covered with a very long
shaggy, and scanty fur ; whiskers long, snout rather
produced, toes and thumb of the fore feet all pro-
vided with claws; tail covered with short, and
rather bristly hairs. I propose the name Arvicola
hirta for this species. | When possible to provide
a specific. name from some peculiarity of outward,
or superficial appearance, | think it right to do so,
and the word “ hirta” here implies at_once that the
animal is covered by long, weak hairs, or by a
shaggy fur.
Movements of the Motacille in South Devon.—
The Grey Wagtail, (Motacilla boarula,) visits us
without deviation yearly in the month of September,
and remains until the end of March or the first week
of April, frequenting rivers, brooks, spring-heads,
and the sea-coast. Some circumstance determines
a slight irregularity of a few days, both in their
arrival and departure,—most probably it is their
food; but in respect of number there is apparently
little difference. ‘hey seem to come in a body, and
attract immediate attention by their tameness, and
the briskness of their motions. ‘Their retreat
however, is accomplished in a straggling manner:
suddenly we lose the bulk of the party, and hear
only the twit of a solitary bird or so on the bank
of a river, or at a spring-head ; in a few days these
also are gone, and we see no more of them for a
season. But, this species has been known to
374 ITS MOVEMENTS.
remain all summer and breed. One was shot May
28th, 1839, by Pincombe, and I saw one myself
subsequently on the 25th, apparently engaged in
breeding. In 1831 I saw one frequenting a pond
near Tavistock on the second of September; this
may have been an unusually early arrival, or one
of a pair that had stayed through the season. Their
chief resorts are rivers and streams, but some repair
to the sea-coast, and fare with the Pied Wagtail.
In hard weather they seem all to frequent the roads,
and seek support from the droppings of cattle, frost
seeming to cause a general retirement of the insects
on which they feed, or sealing down the soil and
stones beneath which they harbour. I believe that
if any precise dates for their arrival and departure
could be ventured on, they would be September 15th
and April 8th; yet in 1835 I saw a flock arrive at
a small village on the sea-coast on August 13th. In
their retreat also in the spring preceding, I observed
an unusual tardiness, and they disappeared gradu-
ally. No phenomena that we know of, can enlighten
us respecting these irregularities, any more than
concerning the cause of their migrations : we see
that the Pied Wagtail haunts the same situations
feeds similarly, and is content to remain with us the
year through ; but some impulse carries the Grey sort
hundreds of miles northward to rear its young. It
is now clearly made out, that in the spring our
flocks retire to the northern counties, it being there
a stationary bird also ; but, independently of Selby’s
authority for this, a paper which I possess, written
by a naturalist living at Kendal, tallies so well in
its account of the/transits of this bird there, with its
movements in this county, as to have led me to
suspect the nature of their retreat before I read
Selby’s statement. This gentleman, Mr. Gough,
thus writes :—“’The Grey Wagtail is a partial mi-
grator ; a few remain about the town through the
ITS FOOD. 375
winter, and these are joined by great numbers from
the southin March, when they all retire to the rugged
banks of the river Mint to spend the season of in-
cubation.” A remarkable feature in the habits and
economy of birds is their adaptation of appetite to
a variety of food, both as regards one season or
time, and as regards various seasons, in which we
frequently notice a change in theirfood. But few
of the class confine themselves to one particular
species of food, whereas a very large proportion
partake of a variety, but still not similar in charac-
ter. Thus, the Grey Wagtail searches out various
insects, and is content to feed on such as are found
on the shore, which necessarily must differ widely
from those inhabiting the sides of rivers or of
streamlets. Very many birds again, have appetites
still more accommodating, and will devour food
quite incongruous. ‘This portion of the economy of
the Grey Wagtail permits the extension of the
species much more than would otherwise be effect-
ed, and we see also that it even protects the species
to a great extent from death, for ifit could not on
emergency betake itself to the food afforded by the
roads when frost deprives it of more genial sup-
plies, it must necessarily be the victim of want. We
conclude also, that it is this principle of accommo-
dation in the appetites and digestive powers of birds
and other creatures, which fits and enables them to
live in the midst of alterations in their ordinary
provender effected by the operations of man, and
which permits us to avail ourselves of their ser-
vices in a domesticated or reclaimed state without
much trouble or inconvenience, their appetites
shortly becoming adapted to an unaccustomed diet.
And so, in their habits and actions we must not fail
to note a principle of accommodation of the same
description. _A little reflection must bring to our
minds a thousand alterations in the face of Nature
376 ITS REMAINING THE SUMMER.
wherever man has fixed his abode, or extended
his domains; and though prima facie we might
imagine the actions and habits of animals to
be as undeviating and determinate on all points
as are the fundamental laws of their organizations
and constitutions, we find on the contrary a
corresponding alteration and conformity of action
in them to suit our intrusions on their _ ter-
ritories, our planting, our tillage, our building,
and all our various operations on and perversions
of Nature. In civilized and cultivated territories
scarce an animal moves but it encounters alterations
of our making; and though the lower tribes can
experience but slight impediments, and can have
to adapt themselves thereto only in a very minor
degree, yet the higher tribes must certainly employ
some portion of thought at times to overcome these
hinderances ; and as before said, if instinct were so
confined and restrained a power as usually con-
ceived, these alterations in Nature would infallibly
disarrange all their proceedings. Judging by the
analogy ofa vast number of instances of departure
from accustomed actions, and by the anomalies of
individual cases as contrasted with the species
taken in the aggregate, we conclude that the in-
stances of the Grey Wagtail’s breeding in Devon
are determined purely by choice, and are not de-
pendent on any human causes or interferences, and
that these are also cases showing that instinct is not
so very constrained a faculty, but involves a certain
portion of thought and volition. If the instincts
implanted in the Grey Wagtail were of a definite,
precise, constrained, and unalterable nature, they
would necessarily pervade every member of the
species ; and so far from any pair of birds choosing
to stay the summer with us, while all their fellows
were preparing to migrate, no inducement of food
ever so great, nor even any accidents or ailments
YELLOW WAGTAIL. 377
impairing their bodily power, would prevent their
essaying a flight ever so short and feeble; in fact
they would be compelled to exert themselves to the
very utmost, and to sacrifice every feeling to this
one object.
~ The Yellow Wagtail ( Motacilla flava of Ray and
other English writers) offers an illustration of the
same diversity of operations among individuals of
one species. ‘This summer Wagtail arrives here
about the very time the Grey Wagtail leaves us,
and it also quits us about the period the winter
species comes. Still, stragglers are seen on to No-
vember (according to some remarks I made in 1831)
frequenting both the coast and inland stations, and
in October, 1833 and other years, they have been
noticed haunting the beaches near Plymouth, so
that without contending for their stay through the
_ whole winter, | have reason to infer that like the
Grey sort, they are occasionally induced to act
differently from the aggregate oftheir kind. Facts
of the same nature as those I have recorded relative
to these two birds, are also named by Mr. Markwich
in Linnean Transactions. I. 126. The Yellow
Wagtails congregate in August and September, and
abide for several days on our sheltered beaches,
feeding among the sea weed, likewise affecting
open fields. The number collected at these times
is disproportioned to our summer stock, so that pro-
bably this species approaches the southern parts of
the kingdom previously to departure. Some no
doubt have been seen here in winter, and Mr. Couch
affirms they reside in Cornwall at that season alone.
But, without presuming to contradict the authorities
for these statements, I would ask whether the newly
discovered Motacilla neglecta may not have been
sometimes mistaken for it?
The Pied Wagtail (Motacilla alba of most
English writers) appears to be a bird of more en-
Ww
378 PIED WAGTAIL.
during constitution than the other kinds, because
it suffers the alternations of our seasons without
removing to other situations. It is resident with us
all the year. Its actions however clearly indicate
the possession of powers of accommodating itself
to circumstances of necessity ; not that the species
acts.in concert, or that the movements and ope-
rations of the individuals are simultaneous and
uniformly similar, on the contrary, each bird seems
intent on its own peculiar interests, and it having
been ordained that the appetite of this species of
bird should not be restricted or very limited in ca-
pacity, some individuals are found to diet on the
sea-shore, whereby greater space is allowed to other
individuals to procure food. In summer however,
when the supply of food is so ample for the gene-
rality of creatures, the number of Wagtails haunting
the beaches is very small, whereas towards winter
they augment greatly. Although I have said that
the individuals appear to have separate and exclu-
sive interests, yet it seems that some portion of the
kind congregate, shifting their residence and their
search for food from spot to spot, moving in small
societies. During summer they may be found dis-
tributed by the sides of rivers and ponds, on roads,
and in gardens, besides being also on the shores
and inlets, as before said. In June, I have seen
them both in that situation, and in my own garden,
and before the house on the road searching for insects.
The young are seen much on commons, feeding
on the flies, &c. disturbed by the tread of sheep
and other grazing animals. About September, they
are more particularly noticed arriving in the vicinity
of houses and stable-yards. From that time on
through the winter, they obtrude themselves greatly
in gardens, where they pick up the insects disturbed _
by the spade of the gardener, which had secreted
themselves and been wrapt in their winter’s sleep,
LONG-EARED BAT. 379
or in temporary torpor. This species has a slight
tremulous note hardly amounting to a song, as-
sumed in April.
The Long-eared Bat.—Having had opportunities
of keeping specimens of the Long-eared Bat in
confinement, I am enabled to present a few particu-
lars regarding its habits and economy. ‘This species
is not near as common with us as the other generally
known kind. It seems partial to holes of walls and
caves for its retreats, and is not unfrequently found
amongst parties of the common sort. The animals
I have possessed would all take food from the hand
freely as soon as taken under care, and altogether
exhibited not only freedom, but considerable tenacity
and resentment. The food I have always given has
been flies and raw meat chopped small, which last
was eaten as greedily as though it had been natural
food. These bits of flesh were swallowed with a
gulping movement, no doubt in a similar way to
that in which bats capture and swallow insects,
but owing I presume to the want of force which
they would naturally obtain by being on the wing,
these individuals secured the generality of the flies
loffered them by a method which I conceive evinced
an apprehension of their escape; the manceuvre was
this, the fly was seized by the mouth though some-
what insecurely, the bat then in a moment bent
its head under its body, drew forward its caudal
membrane and approximated its wings in a semi-
expanded state towards its body ; whilst this took
place the bat was seen intently securing its
prey, which perhaps had escaped its jaws, but
owing to the envelope formed by its enemy became
a ready victim. The moment the bat obtains firm
hold on the fly with his mouth, he gulps it down
after I believe crushing it once or twice between
his teeth. Not uncommonly the bat through haste
and agitation in fastening on his prey, turns com-
Wwe2
880 LONG-EARED BAT.
pletely over on his back, but still by keeping his
membranes closed, he never fails to attain his end.
At those times indeed when I presented these bats
with large blue flies, they found greater difficulty
in getting effectual hold on them, and before this
could be done, the captive insect would on some
occasions escape into the space between the bat’s
wings and tail, but here after a slight scuffle, and
after the bats had drawn their membranes still
closer together, the victims would be seized on and
devoured. This provision for securing their prey
Mr. White describes as a “ hovering,” a term quite
objectionable. Whether this act occurs at times
while bats are feeding on the wing I know not.
Mr. Bingley remarked the same action here described
in the Common Bat, but his explanation and re-
marks on it somewhat differ from the above.
Mr. Whitein speaking of atame bat says, it clipped
off the wings of insects offered to it, but I really
believe this must have been fortuitous. I have not
seen this act performed more than three orfour times,
and I am persuaded there was no positive dislike
to these parts, for as often as I presented my bats
with these members, which I had myself removed
from flies, they were seized and swallowed. Indeed
I see no reason why bats should reject wings, since
they arefound in plenty in birds which feed similarly
to the genus vespertilio.
My bats would lap water from the palm of my
hand, and I remarked they threw back the head to
swallow their draughts in a manner like birds.
While feeding them in the day-time they seldom
opened their eyes, but they were instantly apprised
of the proximity of substances by their simple, and
slightest contact with any of the long, stiff hairs
around the mouth, and about the ears. In this way,
by touching these bristles, the bats would make
sudden springs, and seize the substance which had
LONG-EARED BAT. 381
irritated them, so that there seems little reason to
doubt that the use of this highly sensitive apparatus
is to apprize the animals of the presence of insects,
and partly also to entangle and detain them. Those
hairs also situated on the interior of the ears, will
be of use in preventing the ingress of offending
bodies, and may possibly possess that exquisite
sensibility which informs the creatures of the adja-
cency of passing insects and bodies in general not
perceived through the eye-sight. When these bats
slept, they provided against intrusion of. foreign
bodies, and_ the disturbance which would result
to them in their repose if the large sensitive surface
of these ears continued expanded, by folding them
neatly down over the orifice of the ear, and confining
them in that place by bringing forward and over
them, their folded anterior members. Occasionally
they would withdraw but one ear, as if desirous of
exercising some caution during sleep, and if the
still expanded ear were now touched, the bat would
either fold it down like the other, or else start up
and prepare to seize the offending substance.
-The eyesight of bats is doubtlessly extremely
perfect during night. One of my captives found
his way into the air by going up a chimney at night,
and another I lost by its going out through a hole
in a broken pane of glass. According to Mr. Bingley,
there is something very remarkable in their eyes,
for they might be touched with a pen, and yet no
notice be taken of it. We might reasonably ima-
gine that daylight should ill suit them, though many
nocturnal creatures do manage at some certain
times to venture forth during day. The White Owl
I have several times seen abroad in daylight, and
is often out in evenings long before the bats come
forth. But strong lights by their dazzling power,
distract both Owls and Bats, and the latter are
commonly captured in summer evenings in bedrooms
382 LONG-EARED BAT.
where there are lighted candles, and the windows
open. Several species of birds of the aquatic kind,
when driven towards our shore by severe weather,
and kept from retreating to land for security, when
within the sphere of light emanating from the
Eddystone lantern, become confounded, and are thus
dashed by the waves against the edifice, and killed.
The Stormy Petrel in particular, suffers thus during
our severer storms. On the same principle also,
a neighbour who rears great numbers of chicken,
and is greatly troubled by the visits of Hawks, has
now adopted the expedient of fastening a bottle on
the top of a very long pole planted in the earth of
his poultry-yard, and the Hawks now visit hin,
and hover aloft over the spot without being able to
fix their eyesight on any object below them; so
effectually does this bottle interfere with distinct
vision that they cannot fix on their prey,—the
dazzling and radiation paining and distressing
them, they retire.
Bats seem rather quarrelsome and resentful,
they bite keenly when interfered with, and utter at
the same time a squeaking noise occasionally rather
loud and vehement.
My captives would run or straddle rather swiftly
on a table, and I have seen them on the ground run ~
as quickly when pursued as the greater part of small
quadrupeds. I likewise think I have seen them
move by a succession of springs performed by the
hind legs. The scythe-like claws of their anterior
limbs are employed only to cling momentarily to-
buildings, &c. as is their usual habit. I have seen
a, party of bats playing about an old outhouse, and
each clinging repeatedly and for an instant to one
particular spot of the building by these claws, as if
to rest itself ; but as Mr. Bingley observes, if they
are placed hanging by these claws, they directly re-
verse their position and suspend themselves by the
THE CROSSBILL. 383
opposite members. When seen attached to the
ceilings of caverns, itis surprising to observe by
what very small eminences or points of the stone
they hang ; the least breath of air also causing
their bodies to swing to and fro. When disturbed
during summer in these retreats by noise or the
light of a candle, a tremulous movement is seen to
agitate their whole frames, and I have moreover
seen the same tremor on other occasions.
Bats do not often come forth from their retreats
during rainy weather in summer, and in winter the
amount of cold regulates their torpor. In November
I have seen them quite torpid, in severe weather in
January, active, 11 September only lethargic, but
much depends on the place selected for retirement ;
I have known numbers removed from holes in lime
kilns, and from crevices over bakers’ ovens, where
warmth would keep them in a semi-torpid state,—
susceptible of impressions made by slight increase
of atmospheric temperature.
The Crossbill._We are, at uncertain periods with
usually very long intervals, visited by flocks of
Crossbills. I am informed that a flock of about 60
or 70 visited the estate of Leigham one year, and it
does generally appear that they arrive in very con-
siderable parties and subsequently separate into
smaller communities. A small flock visited this
village the beginning of October, 1835, and I find
on enquiry another was here about seven years
since, and one about twenty-five years before that.
They commonly abide in orchards, busied in
splitting up small apples for the sake of the con-
tained pips, and seem very partial to the sort here
termed “ majets.” They are dexterous operators,
and continue intent on their work notwithstanding
the presence of inspectors and even the explosion
of firearms, so that there is little question they
come to us from some wild and uninhabited district.
984 THE WOODLARK.
Those which frequented an orchard opposite to my
house on the date abovenamed, fed most voraciously,
and crammed their stomachs quite full, indeed they
filled their gullets also, and the man who shot
specimens for me expressed himself that “their
stomachs seemed to be in their throats and above
rather than below their necks.” On proceeding to
dissection I really found that the gullet was not only
capacious, but crossed and recrossed the vertebre
to allow greater space for the food taken by them.
It crosses the spine once within the body, proceeds
loosely along the side of the neck, so that it may
not press against the trachea, and is capable when
filled as before said of rising superior to the ver-
tebre. ‘The trachea itself rests directly against
the bodies of the bones of the neck. The direction
taken by the lower jaw varied in different cases.
I know not how long they continue to abide with
us, but four were seen here on November 13th of
the same year. They have been seen to feed on the
seeds of fir cones besides on the pips of apples as
above spoken of.
The Woodlark. is tolerably common with us,
though less generally dispersed than other kinds.
It seems to adhere to one locality pretty much
through the year and yearly, though in severe
weather it is obligated to quit its quiet abode and
seek sustenance where it may be found in company
with others of its congeners. It delights much in
meadows and pastures adjoining woods, frequently
passing from the one situation to the other. In
the milder portions of winter it continues solitary,
and gathers its subsistence from the same fields,
stubbles, and turnip plots day after day. In summer
it is either much concealed in woods and utters its
delicious notes from the top of some tall tree, or is
seen aloft suspended in the air, with unremitting
song. But it is not confined to the vicinity of woods
THE WOODLARK. 385
for I have noticed it frequenting a neighbourhood
almost destitute of trees. On approaching a Wood-
lark on the ground, it suffers you to come very uear,
but suddenly rises and flies off to a short distance
with an undulating movement in the air. In winter
it observes the ordinary rule, and is silent during
cold and inclement weather, but being like some
few other birds, particularly its congeners the Sky-
lark and Titlark, habitually a winter songster, it
breaks forth into its melodious intonations immedi-
ately on the recurrence of finer and milderintervening
days. During the latter part of autumn and through
the winter months it ordinarily preserves a short
but highly enlivening and pleasing strain, which
greatly resembles the song of the Treelark; yet
what may be the rule for its congregating, its rule
for night-singing, and the occasions it selects for
pouring forth its completer song I am by no means
sure, for being abroad at 11 P. M. on January 14th,
1835, when the air was frosty and clear, and the
weather generally fine, I heard three Woodlarks
singing deliciously and continuously while perched
on trees within about a gunshot of each other. It
occurred to me at the time that these songsters were
rivals in courtship, but the early date of this com-
plete strain is somewhat against this idea. I have
oftener heard this lark while perched on trees, than
while mounted in the air, and I have never heard its
incomplete and simpler song during night. It would
almost seem that these little birds were more in-
fluenced by love of society than by love of compe-
tition andrivalry in their associations when occupied
in the delivery of their night songs, for I have heard
a small party engaged in singing during May (and
I believe also June) when in all likelihood there
were young in the nests. But besides a desire of
congregating on these occasions to within short
distances, I haye known Woodlarks chaunt within
xX x
3886 HONEY.—HEDGEHOG.
hearing of one another, and seemingly taking pride
in responding ; on these nights I found that each
continued its warble a certain space of time, and
then ceased to allow another the same duration of
song. I have heard a small party of these birds
during summer within a gunshot of the eastern end
of Plymouth, and I have also heard an individual
in a garden in the town itself. Setting their winter
songs out of the question, they seem to commence
their vernal notes indicative of nidification in the
beginning of April should the weather be suitable.
Honey.—Hancock (“ On Instinct”) says that the
honey made in different localities of England and
Ireland varies in quality and flavour. With regard
to Devon and Cornwall this is found to be true, as
the honey made in the vicinity of our heaths, where
little but that flower and wild thyme is obtainable
by bees, is very rich and singular in taste.
The Hedgehog notwithstanding the persecutions
to which it is subjected, is tolerably plentiful with
us, living chiefly in thickets and hedges producing
much shelter. It is a night feeder, and by standing
quite still on moonlight evenings of summer in spots
where urchins occur, you may see them issue forth
and run actively over the turf to secure worms, &c.
On opening a hedgehog November 4th, 1830, I
found in its stomach a great quantity of earth worms,
and an eqnal number of beetles, besides which there
were fragments of the blades and roots of grass ; the
worms had been swallowed after having been bitten
through at one spot of the middle of the animals.
When I kept a hedgehog in confinement, I placed
some worms enveloped in very thick paper in its
cage, and I saw the animal presently advance and
tear open the parcel to devour the contents, so that
it appears likely they capture this portion of their
food by the means of scent. When seized by a dog |
the hedgehog emits a cry very similar to that of an
THE HEDGEHOG. 387
infant. In winter, we find them very frequently
laid up in hybernacula underneath woodstacks
and such like warm situations. I am not aware that
during the cold season they stir out at any time,
but it seems by a date above mentioned that their
retirement does not commence till the inclement
season has fairly set in; at what time they again
usually come forth [ am not aware, but perhaps as
they do not provide a store they do so early in
spring, and I have reasons to think in March.
When hedgehogs are engaged in searching for their
food,—that is worms, beetles, snails, &c. they glide
along the ground with tolerable swiftness, directing
their noses all the while toward the earth, and fre-
quently inclining them laterally, just in the manner
of aspaniel. I have known cruel persons throw
urchins into ponds with the view of drowning them,
but if not greatly injured by previous maltreatment
they never fail to swim readily towards the sides for
escape. Whilst nature has provided ample means
for speedy flight from danger in a vast number of
her creatures, others have been curiously endowed
with mechanisms and instinctive actions to preclude
injury or to elude the cognisance of enemies. The
present animal when it perceives the movement of
a dog or man, or any suspicious object, stops sud-
derly and remains motionless, then, if its enemy
approach it slightly contracts itself, and finally
when touched it withdraws its head and limbs
closely under its body, and presents altogether an
oblong and rounded figure. One species of Armadillo
rolls itself up similarly when molested. The Slow-
worm (anguis fragilis) though generally inert and
almost motionless when discovered in its lurking
places, seems to have the property of stiffening its
body when touched and interfered with, and may thus
be knocked about without its altering this assumed
appearance of a bit of crooked stick. Something of
D.@P.caP-
388 MEANS OF ESCAPE FROM DANGER.
the same kind is noticed in the Snake and Viper,
though they also frequently glide away from obser-
vation on the approach of man. The common Lizard
contrives to prevent notice by remaining perfectly
still when suspicious of intrusion, and will even
keep a limb elevated from the ground some time,
but when about to be seized, he removes with the
rapidity of light. The Slug when disturbed and
touched, contracts itself into 4 small compass and
remains quiescent for some time. Several species
of Spiders when handled or touched, contract their
limbs under their bodies, and so allow themselves
to be rolled about or dropped on the ground, as if
inanimate substances. The English Centepede
when touched, assumes the shape of a corkscrew,
and thus rolls about with the earth that has been
disturbed with it, as though it were a lifeless mass.
it is remarkable that although nature has devised a
variety of methods of this kind of escape from
danger, yet occasionally there appears a great ex-
ternal similarity in these contrivances as they are
displayed by creatures of very different stations in
the scale of creation and very different general en-
dowments. While the Hedgehog and Armadillo
contract themselves as above stated, how strange
is the similarity of arrangement observed by the
Millepede when touched. While the Lizard re-
mains as devoid of motion as a stone, we trace the
same contrivance in the common Blackworm as it
stays its course across the parlour on hearing our
footsteps. While the Slow-worm appears like a
fragment of crooked stick, how curiously does the
Earthworm simulate itself dead by appearing like
a bit of bent and shrivelled twig as it is knocked
by the spade in our gardens.
The Squirrel is common with us, haunting prin-
cipally tall trees in the more wooded parts, but is
found likewise in plantations of fir trees before they
THE SQUIRREL. 389
have attained a height of twelve feet, but possibly
they are drawn here only at certain periods in search
of the cone seeds. During the summer they are all
activity, but in October they prepare their winter’s
stock of provision. and their warm bed of leaves in
the hollow of some tree at a good distance from the
eround ; after this they become lethargic in pro-
portion to the severity of the season, but in all
probability, notwithstanding they sleep a great deal,
they awake daily for a longer or shorter period to
partake of the food they have set apart to support
them in these months. I have seen them descend
to drink in the middle of winter, so that they cer-
tainly are not perfectly torpid creatures at that
period, save perhaps in the severest winter days.
It is a highly endowed animal both as regards its
mind and its body, as I had an opportunity of dis-
covering by one I had in confinement in the
commencement of the year 1834. This individual
was young, and had been captured a short time
before it came into my hands ; after remaining in
a gloomy and disconsolate mood a few hours, he
stirred out of his box and examined the room with
great attention, and partook of some food I set
before him. I then put a piece of woollen into his
box, and this he presently appropriated, and on
retiring to sleep he coiled himself up between its
folds, and drew in by means of his paws the edges
and ends of it, to exclude all draught and cold. He
slept much and at intervals, being awake about six
hours per diem, but as the summer advanced he
became less and less sleepy, and considerably more
active. He became playful, familiar and affectionate,
but if interrupted at his repasts, displayed tenacity
and anger, frequently snarling and biting if irritated ;
he had also a grunting noise when annoyed, and
would stamp and hiss if disappointed. He was very
timid, being apparently conscious of his powerless
“OG
Mit
390 THE SQUIRREL.
state, but when excited by repeated annoyances,
would display some degree of effrontery, and when
a cat appeared in view, though his heart palpitated
from misgivings, he would stamp and twist his
body about in a sudden manner, feigning real
bravery. Sheep act very similarly when molested
by a dog, this fictitious courage being as it were a
resource previous to flight in many of the harmless
tribes. He frequently retreated precipitately to his
box on the slightest alarm, but more particularly
when [I surprised him at any mischief for which
I had previously corrected him. He would some-
times run away with his food between his teeth as
if suspicious of interruption, and would usually pre-
fer solitude for devouring his morsel, though he did
not object to receiving food from the hand. He
avoided strangers, retiring on their entrance, to his
domicile, of which he was very fond. IL believe he
at times secreted a few nuts in a corner of his box,
asa reserve. He was a cleanly animal, frequently
licking and washing himself after exercise or meals,
he also kept his bed-place clean, with the exception
of leaving the remnants of his repasts strewed about
on the woollen which formed it. He ate heartily of
bread and milk, sugar, nuts, and potatoe, he also
liked greasy substances, and even bits of raw and
tainted meat, which he would steal from me while
I was dissecting animals. When about to eat, he
took the substance between his teeth, then threw
himself into an erect posture, balanced by his tail,
and seized the food between his paws, the “rudi-
mental toes” of which, were those more immediately
in use to feel and support the contained body, and
are for this end more extensively endowed with
nerves and vessels. For some time after I had him,
he was not able to nibble holes in the nuts to arrive
at their contents, but was glad enough to eat the
kernel after I had broken the shell. May we con-
THE SQUIRREL. 391
clude the teeth had not acquired sufficient density,
or that the muscular power was not yet sufficiently
developed, and that naturally their food while young
consists of tender vegetable substance ? ‘The jaws
of a Squirrel do not separate beyond a half inch,
and the lower incisors are used to scoop out the
kernels of nuts, and such like fruits, or to scrape
other food towards the mouth in minute morsels.
He rejected portions of the skin covering the kernels
of nuts. Some persons suppose Squirrels capable
of discovering by the exterior of nuts whether the
kernels are edible or not, but after repeated experi-
ments [ could not detect this faculty ; he opened
both good and bad. His hearing, eyesight, and
smell were extremely perfect, particularly the last,
for by this means he discovered where I kept my
supply of nuts, and I often caught him nibbling at
the drawer, which was so situated that he had first
to make several leaps upward, and then to suspend
himself by his hind legs, a feat which disclosed to —
me an arrangement of his hinder extremities not a
little extraordinary and wonderful ; for the toes of
the hind legs are pointed directly forwards, and to
hang by them the thigh-bone must have the power
of revolving most completely onits axis. The under
eyelid of the Squirrel has very limited motion, the
upper one being almost entirely concerned in closing
the organ. Besides his cries already mentioned, he
once only delivered his peculiar call note. He had
moreover a peculiar noise, proceeding as I found
from his habit of rubbing his upper and under
incisors against one another, to cleanse them or
remove superfluous sharpness. During the confine-
ment of young animals, we see the most inoffensive
portions of their lives, and though the Squirrel on
the whole may be characterized as a gentle and
timid being, yet when this favorite of mine came
to the enjoyment of his faculties and bodily en-
392 SQUIRREL, SKELETON OF.
dowments in their perfection in the first and last
summer of his existence, he betrayed so much
proneness to mischief, in spite of corrections, so
much activity and energtic defiance of controul,
that I resolved on putting a finish to his life, and
making the last use of him as an osteological pre-
paration ; wherein the beautiful adaptations of his
frame to the objects and conditions of his existence
and whole economy are evident and remarkable.
The whole skeleton is light, being compounded of
bones small in themselves, and having thin parietes
as in the generality of birds, and thus superfluous
weight is avoided in an animal destined to move
by a series of springs, and to execute light, grace-
ful, and varied movements. To perform their bounds
from branch to branch, they are provided with
lengthened hinder limbs, the feet of which are ca-
pable of efficient prehension on alighting on a
bough, the claws being also at this time brought
downwards and employed to steady their hold,
these last organs being further useful in climbing.
The anterior limbs imitate the human arms,—they
are widely separated, powerful, extensively move-
able, the lower arms capable of rotation, and the
feet at once adapted for clinging when climbing or
alighting after a spring, and for holding food, in
which latter operation the two feet, or rather hands,
are brought together, and form a hollow inverted
cone for the reception of the substance, which is
more especially steadied and felt by the “rudimental
toes” or more properly, thumbs. The tail, by its
length and great freedom of movement, assists
ereatly in balancing the body in their springs and
while sitting up to eat. The cranium is capacious,
and the head altogether large, and were it not that
the neck is found to be short, and that there are
such powerful muscles, and such a large tail by
which the body of the creature is sustained most
THE DORMOUSE. 393
admirably, we should rather suppose it an incon-
venient weight to a being performing such aerial
actions.
Towards winter Squirrels turn to a sober grey
colour. On August 10th, 1838, I saw in a wood near
my house, aSquirrel of a bright chesnut colour on its
head, limbs, and body, and having its tail milk
white. This is the only specimen I have ever seen
having such colours, but in Hampshire and some
northern counties they are said to have the ordinary
colours on their bodies, and their tails white.
The Dormouse which from small size and unob-
trusive character so much escapes notice,is however
found on due enquiry, to be tolerably common in our
woods, thickets, plantations, and copses. The time
when they are usually found, is the rinding season,
February, March, &c. when the workmen in moving
the timber and examining the hedges and woods,
detect the nests of this animal usually placed in
small depressions or pits in the ground in sheltered
positions, but frequently also in the decayed tops
of pollards, in the hollows of trees, in the warm
parts of hedges, and also, though rarely, loosely
fixed in thorns. These nests are generally much
larger than cricket balls, of a close texture, and at
one part have a strange, twisted appearance, the
substances employed being turned or produced into
a point or conical shape, and this proves on in-
spection to be for the formation of a tube passing
to the chamber where the dormouse lies ; the use
of this passage I conceive to be the admission of
air. ‘The nest itself 1s usually constructed of in-
geniously or rather laboriously woven dry blades
of grass, to which in some instances is added a
profusion of dry oak leaves and fern. I have often
been surprised at the very considerable difference
in size among these beautiful little creatures, some
being nearly half as large again as the others I have
Yous
394 THE DORMOUSE.
examined. It is curious to observe how accurately
they fill their abodes, lying in a coiled posture,
their tails passing over the head, neck, and pretty
much of the back, the fore legs being brought into
apposition with the pelvis, and the hind feet with
the shoulders. My specimens have generally seemed
to me in tolerable plight, but how they can have
fed through the winter is not clear, for 1 havenever
heard of, or seen any store adjoining their dormitory.
It seems moreover that very slight warmth restores
them to activity and pursuit of food in their natural
life, while in confinement if they are kept from
cold, they will remain active through the greater
part of the winter. On the whole therefore though
it is quite certain that they are very impatient of
cold, and do not come forth from their hybernacula
permanently till the milder days of April, yet their
sleep is not profound, and they are readily kept
active by continuing them in a genial temperature.
When I have had them brought to me in winter en-
veloped in their nests, 1 have always found that
by holding them (nests and contents) in my hand a
minute, the animals would wake, and presently a
squeaking note would follow, especially if I grasped
rather tightly. Moreover on removing them from
their bed, they very soon give signs of animation —
and allow themselves to be aroused with little
trouble ; besides warmth also, noise and movement
near them will affect the soundness of their slumber,
and then it is common to hear the same squeaking
noise, which from being plaintive resembles greatly
the ordinary note of the Creeper. I have further
some suspicion that a plentiful provision of food
may independently render their sleep unsound and
light, for besides that domesticated dormice well
fed are wakeful whether through food or warmth,
or both, I remarked that three brought to me
March 12th, 1835 were not equally drowsy, and
ITS HYBERNATING HABITS. 395
that those which ate most were least so. But since
in the domesticated state they experience both
unacustomed warmth, and are usually supplied
with a plenty of provender, it would not be possible
save by experiment to determine the relative effects
of these powers. Inthe autumn of 1835 I hada
Dormouse given me which fed sumptuously every
night on oats, apples, bread, grapes, &c. until
November 12th, when after an uncommonly warm
season the cold of winter was first felt; after this
however we had intervals of rather mild weather,
and though his sleep so far as I could observe did
not depend on, or was regulated by the temperature
of the air, he would frequently come forth and feed
largely, and again retire. Again towards the com-
mencement of the following year, the weather
became decidedly cold, and he now lay lethargic a
whole month ; in February he roused and fed abun-
dantly every night, and though he never after became
thoroughly lethargic as before, he continued torepose
however unsoundly through the greater part of April
during the day time.
One would naturally think therefore that if they
are thus wakeful, generally light in their sleep, for
the most part readily rendered active when awaken,
and so susceptible to shght warmth during their
hybernating season, they would not be found very
impatient of cold ; such however is not the case.
They do not quit their nests (except perhaps at
times for the procurance of food) until the warmer
days of April ; one was brought to me on April 27th
of 1837 in a lethargic state, though the spring of
that year was certainly unusually backward; it came
out to feed on May 3rd, but was still impatient of
cold, and habitually betook itself to the corner of the
box huddling close up to two others in the same
torpid condition. Mild intervals in the preceding
Yr 2
396 ITS HYBERNATING HABITS.
months do not seem to draw them forth to continu-
ed active life, however much the soundness of their
sleep may be influenced, and when aroused by
handling or noise they never fail to seek some warm
position, or to envelope themselves in any warm
materials at hand. I have always found them fond
of getting together in order to secure heat, but when
straw was put to them they would nibble it into.
shreds for a nest, or appropriate tow, wool, flan-
nel, &c. for that purpose, and all this susceptibility
at the period when all other dormant creatures had
fully awakened ; and however strange it may seem
that in their natural state they should not be awa-
kened occasionally so late as April 27th as seen
above, I found in 1835 that those I possessed and
kept in a tolerably warm spot relapsed into torpor
so late as April 29th, owing to a return of cold
weather. Notwithstanding also, that they are gene-
rally so readily roused from sleep, should they be dis-
turbed when the weather is very cold they appear
in a drowsy state with their eyes half open, and
crawl away slowly when touched, just like persons
overcome by fatigue; I have seen them also shake
and quiver with the cold, and I once remember a
captive dormouse upsetting his cup of water and
lying on a wet bed of tow, the consequence of which
was that after a few hours I found him to all ap-
pearance expiring, and I had the greatest difficulty
in restoring him by holding him near the fire; the
weather was however decidedly cold at the time.
I am afraid that without some very precise expe-
riments, the mere circumstance of keeping dormice
in confinement will not throw light on their econo-
mies, and natural habits. The exact influence of
food on their hybernation requires to be ascertained
separately, and in conjunction with heat of various
degrecs. Should temperature be regarded as the
sole cause in operation, it is evident that the com-
DORMICE, THEIR HYBERNATION. 397
bined experiments of Naturalists will not solve the
point, presenting as they do, such inconclusive re-
sults, and so many anomalies. How, for instance,
can we account for dormice becoming torpid in
confinement at a temperature which at other times
would not have affected them, and at which perhaps
they would have been active in their wild state?
How also is it to be explained that dormice in
confinement during winter, so habitually wake up
to eat at night, and fall profoundly asleep each day!
Spallanzani thought it might depend on the return-
ing periodical calls of hunger, but yet he himself
reports that his dormice became thoroughly lethar-
gic in the month of March on the return of cold,
which however could not have been greater, if as
ereat, as during winter, and I have myself had them
brought to me in the end of February in their tor-
pid state, when the weather has been particularly
mild, and on which occasions they have not re-
mained awake after being roused.
So far indeed from experiments such as have
been made, being useful to throw light on this sub-
ject of causes, we mayrather consider it premature to
enter on that question while it yet remains unsettled
whether these animals ever venture forth to feed
during winter from the time they first retire, to the
period of their permanent re-appearance. I have
taken the authority of Bingley for stating that they
come forth to feed on sunny days during winter,
but there are several Naturalists who hold a diffe-
rent opinion, and though the general tendency of
the experiments and observations that have been
made, would seem to shew that naturally they are
wholly under the influence of weather as regards
their torpidity, I have never been able to get any
account of their being seen abroad from autumn
till the milder parts of April. Possibly we may
conclude that after the warmth of spring has been
398 DORMICE.—BUTTEREFLIES.
first felt, they stir out for food, and again assume
a torpid, or partially torpid state during any unex-
pected relapse of cold after that time. Three which
I possessed tried to escape from their box in the
beginning of April, by incessantly gnawing the
cover at one spot, and I did eventually find them
at large in the room, examining all its parts ; these
became torpid afterwards, as I have above stated,
from return of cold.
Dormice eat amazing quantities of food, but
acorns they principally delight in. In summer
they get extremely fat, at least in confinment, and
after eating they will retire to a corner of their box,
and either lie rolled up as during their hybernation,
or ina reclining posture. They are shy and timid,
and occasionally repose with one eye open to pre-
vent surprise in some suspicious quarter. They are
able to carry great weights by their mouths but
when the substance is too bulky they will rest it,
and steady it by their fore paws while eating it.—
They have the extraordinary habit in common with
swine, ferrets &c. of befouling their vessels contain-
ing food or drink. Are affected with ticks.
Butterflies.—A curious fact connected with tor-
pidity deserves record, this is, that two or three kinds
of butterflies appear abroad as early in the year as
February, and though they probably had not been
dormant through the winter, they become so on
inclement days, and occasionally lay up for a week
or more at a time, like other kinds of insects in whom
torpidity is observed.
Warty Eft or Newt.—This animal appears to
undergo some great constitutional change during
the time of hybernation, since like Tortoises and
probably other kinds of reptiles, it refuses food on
its first reviviscence, and only gradually attains its
appetite; by the time the spring has fairly set in
however it is both active and possessed of a good
NEWT.—HOUSE FLIES. 399
digestion. When these newts steal from their ponds
they invariably, I think, keep to damp places, as
those which I have kept, always lingered away
their existence when I suffered them to crawl over
. the floor of the room, and as a last resource instinct
would direct them to draw close together, so that
they might retain all the moisture of their skins yet
remaining, and thus confer mutual benefit on one
another. Unless left too long, a damp cloth would
reanimate their enfeebled and stiffened bodies.
Newts feed much on earthworms, and perhaps this
food is what causes their rambles on the land.
House flies linger on till very late in the year,
when frosts destroy all that have not laid them-
selves up in a hybernating state. Warm days
greatly reanimate the species and recal many that
had become torpid in hedges, to activity ; on warm
banks we may see them in numbers enjoying the
short noon-day gleams of sunshine, and regaling
on some favorite liquid, or other substance which
they find on the berries of the ivy. About October,
the first symptoms of declining strength are mani-
fested with them, a few days of cold enervate their
constitutions and call them to their winter’s sleep,
or to the consummation of their lives. Numbers
now crawl feebly on the floors and windows, and
are touched and captured without tokens of alarm ;
some prompted by the hybernating instinct seek in
the most extraordinary way to conceal themselves
in crevices and inaccessible crannies where the tem-
perature is favorable to protracted life, but as they
commonly seek very dark recesses, the difficulty of
emerging on the return of spring one would think
must be particularly great. Many at once betake
themselves to beds and creep between the coverings,
conscious no doubt of the advantageous warmth.
In short, the instincts of all hybernating creatures at
the period of taking on their torpid condition is
400 HOUSE FLIES, TORPOR OF.
highly curious and pleasing. When a fire has been
lighted in my bed room I have always found that
this artificial heat calls flies out even during the
severest weather, and when, as often happens, a few
warm days occur at Christmas, they are also re-
suscitated, though in fewer numbers, and seemingly
in possession of less vigour. March seems to be the
first period of the emergence of flies and other dor-
mant insects ; on March 7th, 1838, I found a beetle
just issuing forth, but this happened to be an un-
usually warm day ; the generality in my opinion are
not revived till warm days in April, and even then
are susceptible of semi-torpidity on the intervention
of cold inclement days ; on April 10th, 1838 which
was a cold day, a fire in: my bed room called forth
many flies, and none were to be seen in other rooms
without fire, or out of doors. On April 11th I re-
marked a kind of bee in a semi-torpid state in a hole
ofa wall, so that it is with insects as with reptiles,
temperature is the grand agent on their constitu-
tions, and sets in action those instincts which pro-
mote their welfare at this juncture in their lives.
Bats appear abroad during every month of the
year, and in winter principally select fine and warm
evenings, though I have also noticed them on keen
frosty nights ; once particularly, I remember seeing
one crawling or running on the snow during a very
cold night, January, 19th, 1838; I attempted to
seize it, and it eluded me with great dexterity and
finally escaped into the hedge. I should suppose
however that this anomalous kind of reviviscence
is attributable, as Mr. Rennie remarks, to that wise
ordination of Nature which causes great cold to
revive some torpid creatures and thus saves them
from becoming its victims. Query—Does the de-
pending posture of the head in torpid bats, contribute
to their lethargic state.
EARTHWORMS.—SLUGS. 401
Earth-worms for the most part retreat deeper
into the ground in winter to avoid the cold, but
though not torpid are very lethargic and inert, and
when touched do not display their usual fear; these
and slugs seem when disturbed, as if half awaken
out of a profound sleep. Their torpor is not of
that perfect kind which suffers the application of
heat and other stimuli a long time before resuscita-
tion is effected,—vital operations are but partially
suspended,—the state may be termed semi-torpidity.
Slugs mostly are semitorpid, but some few con-
tinue active or sparingly so. Their winter habits
seem to yary in different species, for the field slug is
tolerably active, whilst the Limacellus unguiculus
is laid up in decayed vegetable matter, &c. and
admits of being squeezed between the fingers be-
fore animation is restored. This kind moreover lays
itself up early in October. Some sorts retire deep
into the soil like worms, and when disturbed shew
slight motion, some are concealed in rubbish, and
some coutent themselves with a domicile under a
loose stone. Intervening mild weather in winter
probably restores all the kinds of torpid slugs as
also the earth-worm to their usual habits of life.
The Blackcap arrives here with tolerable regula-
rity about the last week in April, and often earlier,
though itis evidently retarded in its transit by un-
usually cold or inclement and wintry weather, and
then is not seen till the first week in May, but I do
not say that it may not actually arrive before that
time, and remain perhaps unobtrusive till milder and
sunny weather invites it forth ; and yet I see by a
catalogue of summer and winter birds of passage
furnished me by an intelligent naturalist of Kendal
in Westmoreland that in that neighbourhood it
does not arrive till May 4th, besides which, Ll am
certainly of opinion that birds intuitively put off
their migration on the occurrence of unusually
Zz
402 THE BLACKCAP.
severe or wintry weather; thus, the spring of the
year 1837 was extraordinarily late, or rather the
winter preceding extraordinarily long ; accounts
appeared in the newspapers of the effects of these
inclemencies all over Europe, and with us the
summer birds of passage were in each case late
in their arrivals, the Blackcap not appearing
till May 2nd, whilst in 1836 it was heard on April
20th. Even on its arrival in that year the country
wore a desolate aspect, not a tree was in leaf, and
T believe insects must have been scarce. Mr.
Blyth in a paper in the “ Field Naturalist” observes
they not unfrequently arrive in the end of March,
and I find also that Montagu says they feed on their
first arrival on ivy berries, so that I presume in the
event of their early arrival they partake of this
food in common with some of our resident birds,
until insects become revived by milder weather ; but
that they live entirely on ivy berries during the first
part of their stay with us is I know incorrect, they
may combine this food with insects and indeed I
have seen them haunting an ivied wall some parts
of the day and returning again to trees in the in-
tervals, but small scarabei, aphides, and aureliz
form I am convinced the staple portion of their
support for along time. ‘The berries of the ivy
seem to be a provision for many of our resident
birds, which indeed but for this stock might stand
muchin want, and not unfrequently it has been found
so far needful that every berry has been devoured
before the arrival of the Blackcap, so that here
again there appears reason to doubt if this food is
ereatly depended on by this bird. On the contrary,
as soon as it arrives it is a frequenter of apple, pear,
and other fruit trees, amongst the branches of which
it moves in a desultory manner, searching all the
while for its food; at intervals it utters its sweet
note or flies off for a while to some adjoining tree.
THE BLACKCAP.—OYSTERS. 403
As the summer advances it eats caterpillars as I
have found by opening them in June, and I believe
it feeds now on a variety of insects also ; after that
it betakes itself with a rapacious appetite to ripe
fruits, and continues on this diet till the time of its
departure. ‘This bird seems to pair very soon after
its arrival in this country ; they build so far as I
have seen, on low trees or shrubs, and frequently
near houses, but they are however very suspicious
of intruders, the female will, if she fancy her brood
in danger from the approach of any one, feign herself
lame and disabled, hobbling before him and uttering
notes of distress. Blackcaps are tolerably common,
but they are detected for the most part through an
acquaintance with their song, for they secrete
themselves in trees, and are difficultly seen. They
keep to the neighbourhood of man, and frequent
yearly the same trees, never quitting the locality
to which they have annually resorted except when
they wing their way to the continental states, or
wherever their resort may be upon the failure of our
supplies of food. During the first part of its stay
with us it does not frequently pour forth a con-
tinued or very powerful song, seeming to be too
deeply engaged in search of food, but about mid-
summer we hear a more protracted and impressive
strain. But with its best efforts this bird as found
in my neighbourhood fails to give me the idea which
White and other authors entertain concerning its
song, and I am reluctantly led to infer that as the
Nightingale is known to differ in vocal powers in
different districts, so does the Blackcap, and that
here, circumstances do not suit its constitution to
this end.
Oysters.—There was one effect of the severe
weather of 1838 deserving notice. It was found
that a very large number of Oysters had perished
at the period of the great cold in January, and this
42z2
bat
s t Ue.
~ "s
404 THE CROW.
circumstance was quite new to the most experienced
and oldest persons. It was never supposed that
frost could have had this influence on animals
resident in such a medium.
The Crow is found in South Devon in about the
same numbers as the Raven. Having gone through
the great offices of nestling and rearing its brood in
some deep unfrequented woodland, it is ever after
a wanderer, and is seen with us at a variety
of seasons examining the country in compary
with its mate. It is especially a prying, inves-
tigating bird; in the cold parts of winter it is
often noticed on the shores turning over what the
tide has cast up, and is occasionally noticed there
in pairs in summer also; as we walk the roads at
other times, our atfention is drawn to the hoarse
note of this bird, watching on some tall tree in the
midst of an adjoining wood, whence however,
having assured himself that nothing is there to be
obtained, he sails off in his strange circling flight
to join his partner, uttering as he goes, discordant
cries, and now and then stooping from aloft to
inspect somewhat behind a hedge; then away go
the pair bound for yon distant wood-crowned hill;
as we walk by the side of some river during summer,
we suddenly disturb on rare occasions, a solitary
Crow, which had with patience and scrutiny, been
looking out the Alasmodon margaritiferum from the
bed of the stream. When the crow secures one he
flies upward, and seeking a convenient rock, sus- -
pends himself directly over it, and lets fall the
precious shell to be shivered into pieces below,
and thence the animal itself be readily available
to this cunning finder. The Crow is said to treat
similarly the Swan-mussel and Common-mussel.
The species is more common about the south-
east of Devon than elsewhere in the county. The
squires of that part, I conclude are more merciful
DESTRUCTION OF ANIMALS. 405
and liberal to the brute creation, than those with us
in the south-west.
Destruction of Animals.—The inconsiderate
manner in which we destroy animals is deserving
of great condemnation in the present boasted day
of enlightened and philosophical refinement. In
proportion as we enjoy this advantage of extended
learning, shall we be expected to act with a becom-
ing dignity and liberality towards God’s creatures,—
equally worthy of life and the subjects of His
consideration with ourselves as physical beings.
Next in importance to the study of ourselves as
moral agents, is the study of created matter and of
the intentions of God relative to our conduct in the
world as physical beings endowed with dominion
over all others. Exercising this power hitherto to
its utmost, and without discretion or judgment,
temporary convenience has been at best the only
result in many cases, and in others a permanent
evil, the origin of which remaining hidden through
prepossession and obstinate caprice. Many kinds
of creatures ought by their natures to give place to
the advancement of civilized man on his assumption
of any new territories, and a great many also are
destined to become his prey and continued suste-
nance; but itis mere wanton caprice and cruelty in
us, to take the lives of creatures which act not
in the main inimical to our interests, and some-
times even favourably towards them. ‘Thus, in
my neighbourhood gamekeepers are suffered to
kill Woodpeckers, Hedgehogs, Squirrels, Nightjars,
Owls, &c. and there are persons sufficiently unmanly
and cruel to shoot every sort of bird haunting their
gardens during summer,—Flycatchers, Blackcaps,
&c. &c. besides destroying every Toad, Slow-worm,
and Snake, which crosses their paths. If due
consideration were had, a great many kinds which
at periods do us slight damage, would yet receive
406 DESTRUCTION OF ANIMALS.
protection for the counter-balance of good which
they ordinarily render us, such as the Titmice,
Hawks, Sparrows, Thrushes, Blackbirds, &c. using
however some necessary precautions against their
plunder at the stated seasons. Further also, there are
several kinds of predatory birds whose injuries are
so trivial as to make it matter of astonishment
how it should first have been deemed worth while
systematically to pursue and destroy them, especi-
ally as their lives and persons are so interesting
and elegant, witness the Jay, Magpie, Raven, and
Brown Owl, and among quadrupeds the Badger.
The lower class of persons who by want of edu-
cation have not been fortified against ignorance
and error, may to some extent be excusable for
such acts; fishermen for instance are from their
boyhood taught to consider Starfish as great de-
stroyers of Oysters, and as therefore fit only to be
condemned to extermination, but when persons of
liberal education treat such matters with indifference,
and inconsiderately kill every animal against which
some capricious verdict has been issued by the
multitude, they certainly break the laws of the
Creator by frustrating His designs, and usurping a
power they were not destined to possess.
Of late years, branch Societies for the “ Prevention
of cruelty to Animals” have been instituted in most
neighbourhoods, and whilst the philanthropy of
its chief members is exercised and developed in the
trial of various expedients to lessen the sufferings
of several kinds of domesticated creatures, and in
the due punishment of offenders against present
laws, it is matter of astonishment that no one has
yet thought of extending the original intentions of
the Parent Institution beyond the sphere of domes-
ticated animals to those in a wild state, for it is
undeniable, that great enormities are day by day
committed on the large scale against these unpro-
DESTRUCTION OF ANIMALS. 407
tected victims, and more especially by those
nuisances called Gamekeepers, who absolutely
Seem bent on exterminating Creation by terming
every thing “ vermin,” which is not “ game.”—
Surely it is time for the benevolent and thinking
members of these institutions to extend a befriend-
ing hand to those animals so continually experien-
cing pain and death, and to reflect that even
66,
the poor begtle which we tread upon,
In corporal sufferance feels a pang as great
As when a giant dies.”
The Sea urchin through some faculty, (probably
scent) is enabled to detect the bait set by fishermen
in their crab-pots, and of which by its constant
capture in these traps, it seems to be remarkably
fond. It appears to climb the wickerwork and
arrive gradually at the summit, perceiving there the
entrance, and so tenaciously does it adhere to the
rods that the creature is not uncommonly dragged
up towards the surface of the water on the crab-pots
being examined. Fishermen affirm that they effect
this hold by their mouths. By the contents of the
stomach of a Lobster examined in the end of May
it appeared that this animal feeds on the young of
Echinus esculentus, wrinkles, young crabs &c.; hard
parts of these species remained in the cavity and con-
stituted the ingesta as I conclude, the softer portions
having been withdrawn. Judging by these facts
does it not seem unwise in fishermen to destroy the
sea urchin as they are accustomed todo? This
echinus contains spawn in April.
The poor Slow-worm though so great an object of
hatred and so habitually destroyed, so far from
being a fit subject for extirmination, is not only
innoccuous, but by its pursuit and consumption of
earthworms is extensively useful. Gardeners also
408 TOADS.
act both cruelly and improvidently by endeavouring
to kill worms by dividing them into parts with their
spades. I find that nearly all these portions
survive and become perfect individuals in a short
time. It would be a great saving to such persons
if they were to fling the worms they meet with,
into a tub of water or of quick lime placed at hand
whilst they proceed in their operations.
Frogs and Toads.—Sound philosophy and public
opinion are ever at variance ; and when the deduc-
tions of science are but matters of common sense,
and appreciable by ordinary minds, and yet are
opposed by the public voice, how can it be said
that the march of intellect has been rapid ? Men are
ready enough to profit by the advice and assistance
of science in matters of economy, and commerce;
but in abstract and abstruse questions there is no
thirst of enquiry, and they are as bigotted in the
sentiments of their progenitors, and as averse to
conviction of their errors on such points, as are the
inhabitants of any uncivilized country in the world.
From this cause the destruction of harmless animals
is conducted in ourtime with almost as much avidity
as ever ; thus the toad, an animal not only inno-
cuous but useful, is destroyed in the most disgusting
manner because it 1s accounted venomous and
unseemly. From this cause also, toads are very
generally thought to remain for an indefinite time
(ages I suppose) enveloped in the cavities and cre-
vices of hard rocks, and sometimes to be similarly
situated in the substance of trees. Not long ago
a respectable person assured me he had seen a
toad taken from the substance of a piece of oak,
which was being sawed; upon enquiry respecting
some aperture or entrance, he persisted that none
existed. That toads are found in crevices of rocks
is a fact which I have witnessed, and since these
crevices are frequently deep and intricate, the
TOADS. 409
animals may be found at times far removed from the
surface, and lead quarrymen to the notion of their
being actually imbedded. Toads are great lovers of se-
clusion from light, and after their night rambles in
search of provenderthey seek hollows and other retir-
ed abodes, and amongst other dark and gloomy
recesses which they invariably select, are not unfre-
quently discerned as before said, in the crevices of
rocks in quarry pits; to account for their being found
here, we need only recollect that their jumps are in
great measure desultory and precipitate, and may
therefore bring them at times into these places. They
are not however incapable of removing from hence;
two which I once kept could climb the sides of a
box in which I confined them. ‘The respiration of _
toads and of other reptiles is not incommoded by
their position in such circumscribed retreats ; I car-
ried one a distance of four miles, wrapped in three
papers, and these again covered by a handkerchief.
Their capacity for abstinence is very considerable ;
in June 1830, I placed one on a plate and covered
it over with a cup fitting accurately ; it sustained a
fast for three months. Their food, so far as I have
seen, consists of various sorts of beetles and the
common earth-worm. I cannot say if they drink,
but it is understood by naturalists that they do not,
absorbing in lieu fluids by their skin, which is ex-
tremely well supplied with pores for the purpose.
I have remarked that if 1 kept a toad for some time
from water, and then put in ona plate holding
water, it would expand itself to its utmost width
and squat on the plate, as.if conscious of thereby
presenting its utmost extent of surface for absorp-
tion to the fluid. The quantity of water was also —
found to be diminished after this. Some persons
_ suppose that toads and frogs differ in colour accord-
ing to the nature and colour of the medium wherein
they exist. This is certainly an error, for frogs and
3A
410 TORTOISE.
toads of all colours are found in one and the same
pool ; they are permanent differences having some
other cause, and no doubt some particular use.
Toads are troubled with intestinal worms according
to my observations, but I am not aware that any
author has hitherto remarked this. Early in spring
the females produce their spawn, and subsequently
to this, or about the middle of April the species is
engaged in shedding the cuticle of the previous
year. ‘The “ Bull Frog” of countrymen is I believe
an enlarged specimen of the common sort of toad;
these bull frogs are reported to be of great size and
as living under foundation stones of hedges &c. Mr.
White in his History of Selborne shews that by
plentiful and highly nutritive food, toads will attain
to a great size.
Toads come forth from hybernation in March,
should the weather be propitious.
Tortoise.—A. curious fact in connexion with the
torpor of this kind of animal, I became aware of
whilst resident in London. An individual of aspecies
with which I am not acquainted, was kept in the
botanical garden of Guy’s hospital, and at the time
I first noticed it, its tail was considerably bent
sideways under the shell, and so firmly as to resist
being drawn out again. As it was towards the
hybernating season I suspected that the two cir-
cumstances might be connected, and that probably
this was a provision for the more perfect preserva-
tion of every part of the creature during its subter-
ranean repose, in the same way as the eyes are
provided with a dense horny coverlid. On enquiring
of the gardener, a respectable and intelligent indi-
vidual, he assured me that this gradual and powerful
retraction of the tail took place with regularity every
autumn towards the time of its retreat into the
earth. [subsequently noticed the same circumstance
in other species. Another fact also somewhat
MOLES.—KINGFISHER. All
strange deserves notice, namely that at the Zoologi-
cal Gardens in Regent’s Park, a fine tortoise was
to be seen in the winter of the same year, in a
state of torpor, while a number of its young be-
side it were all life and animation. But notwith-
standing this seemingly somewhat contradictory
occurrence, the whole history of our imported
tortoises shews in the clearest way, that arrange-
ments are naturally made in their constitutions for
the same hybernation which they assume in their
own countries.
Moles probably sleep much during the cold of
winter, but on occurrence of the slightest thaw
they are to be found active in repairing their un-
derground roads. It is likely that frosts by causing
expansion of the water of the soil might be the
means of forcing into their galleries large quantities
of mould, and of thus obstructing these adits, making
work for the moles each time of its occurrence.
Since moles repair their galleries during any inter-
missions of frost, are they torpid at a certain degree
of cold?
The Kingfisher is not very numerous here ; it is
noticed mostly during winter, when, owing to dimi-
nished resources, some of the species appear on the
coasts of our harbours, inlets, and estuaries, as also
on the margins of large ponds and other collections
of water; by this migration, on the part of these
individuals, greater space is allowed for the main
body living throughout the year on the banks of
rivers to capture their prey in a season of compara-
tive scarcity to the race. ‘This removal to the coast
takes place about October. It is here, as before
noticed, that the bird attracts most notice, its splen-
did plumage coutrasting strongly with the rock on
which it is perched, waiting an opportunity to dive
at some passing fish. Several of the species were
3 A 2
412 - TORPOR OF VEGETABLES.
seen collected together on a small piece of water
near Plymouth, which could have contained no
suitable prey, but minnows, and sticklebacks ; this
party kept up an incessant noisy harangue. I have
been informed that a nest of this species was found
on the side of the river Yealm, placed in a hollow of
an ash stump, the entrance to the cavity being just
wide enough to admit the birds. Other kinds of
birds, besides the present, are known to shift their
quarters in the same way as above described, giving
opportunities for dispersion of their species taken
as a whole; but I recollect no instance so remark-
able as the Kingfisher. Although the Kingfisher
is nearly always a breeder in the banks of rivers,
it does occasionally nestle on the coasts. They
are almost invariably seen in summer at Berry
Head.
Vegetables.—The torpid state of the vital powers
so often noticed in the animal kingdom, 1s manifestly
extended to a large proportion of the vegetable
world indigenous to cold countries. The Potatoe
which with us is placed in a climate not very diffe-
rent from that of which it was a native, is an instance.
Its vital powers continue through the winter resident
though dormant in its tubers, and as with animals,
exposure to the sun and air awakens its vitality at
that season and induces a deteriorated quality im
its farina. After being “ caved” they ought not to be
disturbed till wanted for use.
Insects.—Towards October, greatnumbers of bees,
flies, centipedes, slugs, and a profusion of other
kinds of insects lay themselves up in a semi-torpid
state under the warm covering of the moss on trees
in plantations and on rocks, and though this in-
stinct may be admired in the economy of these
animals themselves, we may perhaps be more
struck with the Providence thus shewn towards
TORPIDITY. 413
the insectivorous birds which reside with us through
the winter, and which would in the absence of this
stock become the victims probably of famine.
The Banded Helix (H. virgata) shews by its great
numbers in some particular spots, the habit of hy-
bernation in a decisive way. During winter, and on
to the first week of April not one can be seen, they
having retired most likely into hedges, but after
that time on through the summer they swarm in
those places to such a degree that as one steps
they are crushed in numbers under the feet.
The Common Fly which infests beaches in such
numbers lays itself up in a torpid or semi-torpid
state in crevices of the rocks on the coast, in order
to pass the severer parts of winter.
Torpidity as exemplified in this climate seems
to be a provision against cold, or want, or both,
appointed for certain kinds of animals, and in some
kinds of Helix a provision against drought. It in-
volves no peculiarity of structure, but on the
contrary is capable of being assumed by many in
a voluntary manner, and as the constitution, eco-
nomies, and habits of life differ so widely in the
generality of animals we have no ground left to
expect an uniformity in the appearances or charac-
ters it presents. Being therefore extended in so
unequal and changeable a manner to.the animal
world, instead of expecting to discover @ great
number of laws directing its effects, we should rather
expect that some singularity or slight difference at-
tends each subject of it. Itis a condition variable in
its nature and phenomena in many different subjects
of it. It appertains to no division or tribe of creatures
exclusively, but on the contrary may probably be
found exemplified in some manner in every order
of beings, frequently also affecting one or more
species of a genus, but not influencing the rest.
Many species are not invariably torpid at the hy-
os ,
.*
414 TORPIDITY.
bernating period, some of them possessing the power
of voluntarily resisting it, and others waiting the
arrival of a cerlain amount or measure of that
influence which in them induces it. It is not caused
in all hybernating animals by only one, or even
perhaps by only two circumstances external to
them. Is perhaps invariably preceded by some
remarkable instincts and reasoning processes, se-
curing the subjects of it from many inconveniences,
and ledentia which might else obtain during the
torpid state. Does not of necessity affect every in-
dividual of a hybernating species. Its duration in
different animals (and its interruptions when such
occur) is apparently always determined by the
state or amount of that influence which caused it.
May be suspended by artificial means,—but does
not seem conformable in all times and cases to the
presence or absence ofits very exciting cause. Is
in many instances capable of being induced by ar-
tificial means at unnatural seasons, and by accumu-
lation of the amount of its probable cause may be
brought about in the individuals of many species
which happened not to have been affected by it at
the natural time. Is perhaps capable of being
induced in species never habitually its subjects by
great concentration of some exciting cause. Its
intensity varies greatly in species, in individuals of
a species, and is not uniform in all seasons in any
kind.
Tortoises.—Decidedly the most instructive exam-
ple of the tendency to torpidity occurs in tortoises
as we see them in this climate, several degrees colder
than their natural homes. All the individuals whose
habits I have received information of, shew a degree
of sensitiveness to the amount of cold deciding
their torpidity and revival which is altogether be-
yond our comprehension, and may be termed in truth
exquisite. In the first place, the period when they
HYBERNATION OF TORTOISES, 415
disappear is the end of October, seemingly without
fail. Next, they select asunny sttuation for their
inhumation. One which my brother possessed, first
buried itself for the depth of two feet against a wall
facing S. E. and under a myrtle tree; dissatisfied
with this place it came forth again, and disappeared
under a wall facing S. W. Again it came up and
retired to its first spot, but quitted abruptly, and
betook itself to the angle between two walls facing
respectively S. and W. and a situation also which
happened to be damp. Perfect seclusion from the
air seemed to be the animal’s intent in the choice
of this spot, having also an instinctive perception
of the warmest place ofretreat; and itis remarkable
that some poultry occupying the same garden in-
variably withdrew all the winter to the same spot
to sun themselves at noon,—no bad instance of
similarity of animal feeling in creatures totally
separate in form, but one only out of a vast number
which Naturalists discover continually ; Mr. White
for instance Observes that his tortoise came forth
simultaneously with snails from their respective
winter sleeps. Again, the nice discrimination of
heat is evinced by the fact that while my brother’s
tortoise disappeared on October 31st, 1837, with
the temperature of the air at 56° Faht., it rose on
March 27th, with the temperature of the soil around
it at 57°! Again in 1836, this tortoise issued forth
April 15th, and one kept by a gentleman in this
village, nearly simultaneously, that is to say on the
16th. In the very backward and inclement spring
of 1837,they both kept in their quarters till May 2nd
or 3rd. Lastly, it seems that tortoises are in their
way excellent barometers, displaying an exquisite
sensitiveness to change of air, and.retiring to shel-
ter a long while before the descent of rain or other
_ atmospheric alterations inducing depressed heat.
I conclude therefore, in consideration of our winters
416 NIGHT SONGSTERS.
being unnatural to their constitutions, and that
food would be easily obtainable, that temperature
is the immediate cause of their hybernation, and
that they possess a high susceptibility of that
exact heat determining their torpid condition. If
there were an instinct implanted in them causing
them to disappear for a season merely from the
absence of proper or sufficient food, it would not
be found that they abstained from food for several
days after their revival, or that when kept from
burying themselves till the beginning of the year,
they immediately resorted to that act on the
first occasion, though food were obtainable, thus
one given me in February, 1837, on being put
into the garden, directly thrust itself into the
ash-heap, and subsequently found a convenient
spot for the remainder of the hybernating period.
Artificial heat keeps them from positive torpidity,
but never induces them to feed, and fails to rouse
them from a permanent sleeping state. My brother
finds that his tortoise which weighed four pounds
on its disappearance, lost in the five months six
ounces.
Night Songsters—There are a greater number of
birds which sing by night than Ornithologists
usually conceive, and in fact a complete list has
never yet been drawn up, the entire number of facts
having been gradually ascertained and by Natu-
ralists whose localities are far apart and who have
communicated their observations to the world with
considerable intervals of time. Some of these
nocturnal songsters perhaps pour forth their notes
at that time by mere accident or whim, having
been disturbed in their repose and excited to song
bythe cheerful moonlight, by the pleasant warmth of
the nights of midsummer, or on the contrary by the
sharp piercing cold of a winter night, rendered in
some measure cheering however by the stillness of
NIGHT SONGSTERS. 417
the air and the freedom of the sky from clouds.
Others on the contrary are habitual night songsters,
or at least, though not quite constant or in some
measure capricious in the matter, it may be con-
sidered as a characteristic of the species taken as a
whole. First on the list naturally ranks the Night-
ingale, notorious the world through for the exceeding
sweetness and plaintiveness of his notes. He is
frequently however silent on the choicest and most
serene nights, but sings much by day also, and thus
apparently divides his time betwixt sleeping and
activity, allowing short periods in general to each.
Next ranks the melodious Woodlark, often mis-
taken for the Nightingale. In summer nights he is
suspended in the welkin, or perched on some tall
tree pouring out his rich notes. He sings also at
night occasionally in the midst of winter. Like the
Nightingale he is not constant to night singing, but
often omits it on the most inviting nights of sum-
mer. ‘The Sedge Bird next claims notice, not from
sweetness of voice but from his night song being so
commonly noticed. It amounts more to a gabble
resembling the notes of various small birds than to
a true song, or melodious effusion. It is only for a
short portion ofits stay with us, namely the height
of the breeding season, that this night warble oc-
curs. The Reed Wren, Dipper, Reed Bunting, and
Whinchat are likewise habitual night songsters,
though decidedly less attractive than the afore-
mentioned, and from their several localities less
generally noticed. On March 12th, 1836, I heard
the Whinchat sing very blithly late in the evening,
and when quite dark. The Redbreast, Skylark, and
Redstart are only occasionally known to sing at
night, induced probably by such causes as I have
above named. The Wren, Grasshopper Warbler,
Hedge Sparrow, Thrush, Blackbird, and I believe
one or two other sorts have also been detected
3B
418 FIELD MOUSE.
though very rarely in this act, and doubtlessly in-
duced by caprice or adventitious circumstances.
In the height of summer these birds seem reluctant
to desist from song at the close of day, and once in
particular [ remarked the Song-thrush in full de-
livery at half-past nine on June 7th. But besides
these birds arbitrarily designated song birds, a
great variety of other species are active during
darkness, and consequently then principally emit
their respective notes, such as the Owl, Goatsucker,
Plovers, Landrail, Quail, many kinds of water fowl,
and a host of others recognised by naturalists ; and
again there is one instance known to me in which
the bird is no songster, but was through some ac-
cident set on the cui vive in the depth of a moonlight
night. This instance was in a Magpie which was
chattering in high glee on the night of October
Ist, 1838.
The long-tailed field Mouse stores up grain and
roots for its winter provision, and sleeps during the
severe part of that season. Often however it takes
up its abode in “ potatoe caves,” where a store and
comfortable habitation are at once provided. On
January 11th, 1839, I opened a “ potatoe cave” in
my garden, and found three mice, which had formed
nests for themselves of the reed which covered the
roots. The thermometer stood at 48°, and they were
then so active as to make an immediate escape ;
hence the habits of this species in regard of torpi-
dity are sui generis, it obeys the instinctive call to a
quiescent state at a precise degree of cold, and
which according to Fleming is that of eleven degrees
above the freezing point.
New species of Helix.—In my somewhat suc-
cessful searches after the beautiful series of our
land molluscs, I fortunately in October, 1839,—
subsequently to my catalogue being printed, met
with a specimen different from all others I had seen,
Watner s
NEW HELIX. 419
and perhaps distinct from all known to our concho-
logical authors. Its habitat was near Mevagissey
in Cornwall, and when taken, was crawling on a
stump ofa dead tree adjacent to a wood ; the locality
altogether is very similar to our own woodlands, as
indeed are numerous other portions of that inte-
resting county,—so much the rival and counterpart
of our own in appearance and productions.
This elegant little helix when measured across
its base, proves to be circular, being three tenths of
an inch broad in all directions, and reaches to two
tenths in its depth. ‘There are in the extreme, five
whorls ; three and a half of these are very small,
but from that point they are seen to increase in size
remarkably, and are protuberant and round ; the
increase is not however continued to the mouth, so
that it leaves the diameter of the shell, as before said,
the same in any measurement across its base. The
minor whorls are strangely depressed, so much so,
that when the shell is tilted on its edge and looked
down upon, none are apparent beyond the margin
of the last and large one, the whole however are
divided by a distinct separating line. The base is
rounded, the lip is found slightly reflected over the
pillar cavity, by means of a narrow triangular or
spear shaped fold, the umblicus itself small, but
yet admitting a moderate sized pin, and a partial
view of one whorl. The mouth is ample, scarcely
thickened at its margin, nearly as deep as the body
of the shell, and occupies one half of the diameter,
but becomes contracted at the body whorl, the
upper part of the lip here rather sloping downwards;
the entrance is hardly narrowed by the body whorl,
so that it isthus nearly circular. The animal was
of a dark colour, and could withdraw itself far
into its chamber. The shell is diaphanous, and
of a greenish horn colour, crossed by distinct
rounded striz, delicately thin, and covered some-
3B2
420 NEW HELIX.—CUCKOW.
what sparingly with hairs, which are short, lax,
silvery, and very fine. |
On referring this species to Mr. T. Colley, I found
that he already possessed two dead specimens, and
whichhe had referred to the swbrufescens of Fleming.
With this shell, so far as description can be trusted,
it certainly greatly accords, but then Mr. Miller the
discoverer, saysin hisaccount (Annals of Philosophy
vol. xix. p. 679) that his shell is “ swbhumbzlicated,
very slightly carinated,” and “ not hispid,” so that
independently of the high probability of the present
specimens being new, it would seem that if syno-
nimous with subrufescens, Mr. Miller has failed to
discriminate some of its most conspicuous features.
No size is named for subrufescens by Mr. Miller.
Dr. Turton has no notice of that shell, or of ours.
I suggest the trivial name subvirescens for the
present supposed novelty in British Conchology.
I am indebted to Mr. Colley for drawings of my
specimen, and by his suggestion, the engravings
have been limited to correct outline and proportions,
not attempting the finer markings, the pubescence
or elaborate shading, lest wrong appearances should
be given.
Cuckows apparently enter into a compact with
those birds on whom the nurture of their young is
to devolve; frequently the Titlark is seen flying in
company with a Cuckow, a fact I once witnessed
quite close to the town of Plymouth. Young Cuc-
kows stay with us long after the old birds, in order
to gain enough strength for their migration, for
whilst the latter quit us in July, the young are often
found straggling with us in September, and I am
told one was shot in October 1838, by Mr. Han-
naford of Plymouth. On the authority of R. Julian,
esq. of Estover, I am here enabled to add a curious
feature in the history of this bird: he observed one
for several successive evenings, to keep on the alert
HONEY-DEW.—TERNS. 431
late, and to pass frequently from the spot it had
chosen to an adjoining piece of meadow, as if in the
act of pouncing ; having shot the bird on the ground,
he found in the stomach a field mouse. ‘This ex-
plains why such a similarity exists between the
bill and claws of the Cuckow and Kestrel, and shews
though the chief diet of the former may be insects,
and such like, yet that it stillis furnished with the
means of being in some degree “rapacious ” or
carnivorous. Is it because of their short stay with
us, namely about three months, that Cuckows en-
trust the nurture of their young to one of our stati-
onary species of birds?
The Cuckow usually arrives in the end of April,
but its note is seldom heard till May 1st or 2nd, on
account of cold or inclement weather. I have heard
it as early as April 12th near London. In the be-
ginning of June the male birds attend small flocks
of the females, which seem to be more numerous
than the former sex, these amours however lasting
but afew days. The note of the male at this period,
is not much unlike that of the Kestrel.
Honey-dew.—I never remember seeing honey-
dew but once in Devon, and that was many years
ago, during a hot summer, when it was collected in
profusion on the leaves of the underwood that over-
hangs one part of the River Yealm.
Terns.—Towards September, we frequently re-
ceive visits from flocks of Terns, being I presume
migrating parties of birds passing from cold coun-
tries to more genial situations for the winter.—
Though greatly disturbed in our harbours by the
sportsman, and on dissection shewing by their
condition that they had undergone great " privations
through hunger, they yet stay with us, and pass the
occasionally fine month of September in recruiting
their strengths 1 in our creeks, and at the mouths of
our rivers ; in these spots it is amusing to watch
422 BLUE TIT.
their mode of securing food ; they rise deliberately
into the air for the space of 30 or 40 feet, and then
plunge headlong into the water, but with what kind
of success I could never ascertain. Later in the
year, parties driven by storms make their appearance
with us, sadly overcome by hunger and fatigue, and
will in this pressing condition come close up to
houses by the water side, to seize on offal. In 1831
a party entered Plymouth Harbour on October 6th,
the precursors of a coming storm. By the middle
of the month they had all quitted us.
Blue Tit.—During spring and summer this little
bird has an abundance of food supplied to it in the
insects then so generally abundant, and in parti-
cular in those small beetles, and other insect races
so profusely accumulated on apple trees. It is re-
remarkably serviceable to us, in consuming the
“¢ American,” or “ white blight,” in our orchards
and gardens, and in ridding fruit trees generally
from infesting insects. Towards winter, the Blue
Tit seems to have more scanty fare, and.is very
industrious in searching for the eggs, and aureliz of
insects in the crevices of all kinds of trees, and
even vines, and current bushes, and I have also
noticed this bird clinging to walls, and extracting
the same food from the minute crannies. Being
thus worse supplied than in summer, it becomes
in some degree carnivorous, for it will haunt in
small parties the neighbourhood of chandlers’ shops
in the country villages, and feed on the tallow in
some cask or vessel outside the buildings. I have
several times amused myself in winter by suspend-
ing bones at the end ofa string hung up in my
garden, for the purpose of observing the interesting
actions of the Blue Tit, which would presently —
cling to the bones and peck the bits of meat in
apparent enjoyment, and by its notes give notice
to its comrades, and thus every atom of eatable
BLUE TIT. 423
matter would soon disappear. The Blue Tit (or
“*ickmall” as it it is termed generally in the
country) is even entrapped by boys by the means
of suet as a bait, but it will by no means regard this
food in summer. In the beginning and milder parts
of the winter months “‘hymenopterous and dipterous
insects swarm on ivybushes” (White), and seizing
these occasions, the Blue Tit resorts in parties to
such spots and consumes quantities of its favorite
food. The spring notes of this species of Titmouse
are various, so different, and oftentimes so quickly
succeeding each other, as to lead one to think
that two or more individuals were engaged in con-
versation. Though very familiar in its habits, it is
wary and suspicious when watched, or near to an
observer. It occupies gardens in towns, even the
smoky atmosphere of “the garden plots of the
Borough of Southwark, where they will approach
close to the windows, and examine the vines or
other trees growing within reach of the hand. The
Blue Bonnet builds invariably in holes of trees, or
of walls, generally very secure from remark, the
nest formed in bulk of moss and lined with hair,
wool, and feathers. I well remember an instance of
this bird exhibiting its strong attachment to its
young ; some idle masons loitering in a farm-yard,
perceived the spot where a pair “had their brood
concealed, and one of the fellows, perhaps esteem-
ing these poor birds as no other than vermin, scaled
the wall, and insinuating his fingers into a hole
just below the thatch, drew forth both nest and the
7 young, the parents vociferating and shewing great
distress, and now descending from an adjoining
apple tree, and fluttermg immediately over the
head of this vagabond intruder; he however
appeared to be not at all discouraged, but even
accustomed to such actions. Contrary to the asser-
tion of Bewick, the Blue Tits suffer eggs to be with-
424 NUTHATCH.
drawn from their nest without quitting it, but will
continue to lay, one egg being taken daily from
them.
In some years this bird does not visit certain
trees in gardens, and if these be examined, they will
be found free of insects, a clear proof of the nature
of the food generally consumed by this species.
Nuthatch.—That amusing bird the Nuthatch is
far from scarce in the district, but save at such
times as it is busily occupied in the consumption
of the little scarabs so abundant at the chief season
of necessity to our smaller winter birds under the
bark of apple trees, it is but rarely under the imme-
diate inspection of naturalists, but is rather known
to us by its peculiar utterances, emitted from situa-
tions not easily discerned. Its trilling or rattling
note delivered whilst it ascends the bole of some
tall elm, and often as early in the year as the begin-
ning of March, is by far the most remarkable from
loudness, clearness of delivery, and even penetrating
effect. ‘This note is not taken up in real earnest till
April, for cold intervening weather of the former
month keeps it to its winter intonations. The Nut-
hatch during spring is very constant to one locality,
and day by day a certain spot may be visited with
the surety of finding the bird somewhere near.
Tall trees are his greatest delight ; pursuing his
avocation along the bare boughs of the oak, ash,
beech, or elm, he repeatedly calls the notice of
passers-by to his importunate notes, so remarkably
disproportioned in their loudness to the bulk of the
creature they proceed from. Nidification, &c. being
completed, the Nuthatch takes up a somewhat
similar rattling modulation at the end of July, or
beginning of August, when first entering orchards.
His visit there being ended, he becomes through
the winter a woodland bird, haunting the tops of
trees, flying hurriedly from one site to another, and
ee,
RETURN OF SPRING. 425
delivering a clicking note, each “ click” separated
from the other by a short interval. Towards spring,
I have also remarked one other kind of utterance,
single, and resembling, except in being much louder,
the call of a young chicken.
Return of Spring.—Not only do animals general-
ly by their actions give intimation of the approach
of spring, but the very earth contributes symptoms
also, indicative of the same circumstance. In the
few fine days of February, which so often cheer us
in that month, relieving the gloom otherwise so
prevalent, we notice during our walks a peculiar,
and not unpleasant vdowr proceeding from the sow
of the hedges ; this appears partly earthy, and partly
herby, and may be derived from the minute parti-
cles of soil conveyed into the air in company with
the moisture which the sun now draws up by these
temporary gleams, and from the buds and shoots of
expanding vegetation. In March, the power of the
sun is reduced by the low temperature of the winds,
but in April the succession of rain and sunshine
highly favours the elimination of this scent so
characteristic of the season, and so associated with
rural things. The hazel now—in February,—puts
forth its catkins ; on the sheltered bank blooms the
snow-drop, and in some favorable years the sweet
scented violet, and often the daisy, primrose, furze,
{scentless however at this time) pelewort, and
dandelion, besides that hardiest of plants, the
groundsel. On the same fine days of this first but
partial spring month, we are reminded of all the
former pleasures of that season by the loud, clear
whistle of the Missel Thrush, the nearly per-
fect songs of the Chaffinch, Yellow Hammer, and
Cirl Bunting, the quaint notes of the Ox-eye, the
cheerful notes of the Blue Tit, the melody of the
Woodlark, the simple modulations of the Gold-crest,
and the invariable but always welcome songs of
3.C
=
426 RETURN OF SPRING.
the homestead birds,—the Robin, Wren, and
Hedge-sparrow, and to these are at times added
those of the Blackbird and Thrush. When evening
approaches, the hedge scent is more obvious, for
now the evaporations of the day which had lain in
a medium above us, begin to descend by their
condensation and weight, and bring with them the
odoriferous particles previously carried up by the
evaporated or steamed wet so abundantly accumu-
lated every where. These things are among the
first proofs of returning spring.
The month of March brings us acquainted with
other developments of vegetation still more pleasing
from their varied characters. The Lentlily blooms
abundantly in orchards and sheltered hedges, the
coltsfoot expands its yellow petals amid the sods
of the ploughed lands, the alder is decorated with
its pretty catkins, the elder puts forth its terminal
leaves, the sallow its decorations of yellow heads, and
all the plants which opened their flowers in February
(save the snow-drop) are now in still gaudier trim,—
these in connexion with certain additional cheerful
notes of birds which the woods afford us, render a
walk inthe meadows and plantations very agreeable,
and productive of pleasing meditations. In wooded
districts, a survey of the country from the summit of
some hill, displays to us the first efforts at budding
by the oak, lime, and elm, their tops having acquired
a beautiful brown tint from the vast number of little
bulbs at the extremities of the branches. The plane
trees afford now a curious sight from the shedding
of their barks in small flakes ; the inner bark is of
a fine yellow colour, so that the boles of these trees
wear a blotched appearance. Rooks commence
their noisy operation of nest-building. Goldfinches
still in flock, join in a low song while congregated
on some tree or hedge. Missel Thrushes pair. Bull-
Jinches attack the buds of the gooseberry, pear, &c.
RETURN OF SPRING. 427
Flies and certain coleoptera are revived from their
hybernations. In some years however, the month
of February brings us acquainted with the greater
number of these things, though on the other hand
they are not seldom deferred by protracted incle-
mencies till April, or even May, and the cold winds
and frosts of March, in years even generally fa-
vorable, interfere temporarily both with animal and
vegetable creation, suspending the songs, nestling,
and resuscitations of the one, and the blossomings
of the other. The spring of the year 1839 was
particularly forward, but in March, severe frosts
occurring with the sharp winds, punished most
unusually the Laurels, Laurustinuses, &c. which
had put forth very early shoots, and though the
sun shone out brightly, put a stop to nearly all the
music of the groves, the Chaffinch and Blackbird
alone remaining undaunted. ‘These frosts however
must be regarded as in one sense salutary to vege-
tation since they restrain the blossoms which must
otherwise be too greatly in advance of summer heat.
Notwithstanding March winds and asperities how-
ever, those hardy hedge shrubs,—-the «weld rose, the
thorn and honeysuckle are found to be putting out
their first buds in preparation for leafing. To the
above named plants may be added the following
which disclose themselves to us in our varied walks,
eradually expanding their blossoms to put to shame
the simpler beauties of the previous month,—the
hairy cardamine, the barren strawberry, the wood
sorrel, the chick-weed, the bearsfoot, the ground ivy,
the whitlow-grass, the golden saxifrage, the lesser
perrywinkle.
Hedgehogs.—As a labourer was engaged in re-
moving an old heap of straw in an orchard in the
beginning of March, 1839, he observed several runs
in the grass as if rats had frequented the spot, but
when he got to the bottom of the rubbish, he found
3€ 2
428 MIGRATION.—SNAKE.
a community of three or four Hedgehogs revived at
that early period of the year, and which absconded
with due speed. This assembling of Hedgehogs is
1 think unnoticed by authors.
Migration.—Under the head of “ Hirundines”
} remarked that Swallows seemed to arrive late on
occasion of backward springs, and gave instances
to thateffeet. Still however though our backward
Springs may be connected with similar conditions
of the season in those countries through which
they pass, or rather linger, and though backward
seasons may cause them to conceal themselves in
spots unexposed to cold till warmer weather invite
them forth to general observation, there can be no
doubt their arrival hither is determined as to time
by the state of weather in those countries which
are their abodes during our winter. A general per-
suasion has crept into vogue that the Hirundines
are affected in their transit to us by a condition of
the season similar to what we are experiencing
whatever that may be, but in reality nothing as a
general rule is more unlikely ; storms for instance
may atrest their progress at sea. In 1839 we had
an uncommonly fine April, and yet Swallows were
very late ; I saw none till April 26th, and they
were not general till May, and some cause indeed,
external to this country had a similar effect on other
migrants as appeared by the late arrival of the
Whitethroat, Blackcap, &c.
Snake.—There seems some explanation of the
fact of Snakes being at times seen swimming over
small streams, in the food of which they occasionally
partake. G. Leach, esq. of Stoke, informs me that
at a farm which he manages near Launceston, he
has a pond with a small island in its centre; on
this he once found a large Snake, and it being very
big in the body, he killed it, and by squeezing it
from the tail towards the mouth he forced out seven
young eater rats recently swallowed.
REFERENCES TO THE PLATES. 429
References to the Plates of the animal remains of
the grauwacké series.
It is my object to conclude the present work by refe-
rences to and some additional notes on our interesting series
of fossils, which the reader will find very faithfully delineated
in the accompanying tables. I am unwilling to trespass
longer on my reader’s attention, feeling that I may have
alr eady written more than the public will choose to read,
but as many naturalists are looking eagerly for information
on the above subject, I am induced to intrude two or three
additional pages devoted to a classification of those notes
which I have from time to time made in reference to the
various specimens which I have collected.
The whole of the engravings and lithographs in the
following tables represent the specimens in their natural
size, and the same remark applies to those of the fossil
bones, and to those of the animals which follow.
TABLE | represents a series of Turbinolites in slate.
Figs. 1, 2, 3, are of specimens collected in a roofing-slate
quarry on the new road near Brixton, though all three
sorts are to be found in other localities also. * Fig. 4 is of
a large specimen of the Turbinolia which was found to be
so common in the dense slate at Boveysand by Miss Dixon,
and afterwards by Miss Hook ; this species likewise is not
limited to this particular spot, but occurs as I have lately
discovered at Mudstone near Brixham, in a slate to which
I can give no other title than clay slate; it is far more
sectile and frangible than that which is the matrix of the
specimens at Boveysand. Of this genus there are besides
the present, many other species, but as yet I have met with
no specimens of these in a sufficient state of perfection to
admit of their being engraved for their indentification by
430 REFERENCES TO THE PLATES.
collectors. Turbinolites occur both in limestone and in
sandstone. TaBLE 2.—Figs. 1 and 3 represent two kinds
of Cyathophyllum from the slate at Mudstone, the first
being of an ivory whiteness. Fg. 2 appears to be of an
Astrea which I procured from the same locality ; the spe-
cimen itself is not more than 4 inch deep, is of a pink
colour, and is surrounded by a space of pure white, as the
engraving well exhibits. Caryophyllites probably occur in
our slate, as they undoubtedly do in our sandstone and
limestone, and I believe I may affirm that the sandstone
participates in the genus Cyathophyllum, of which speci-
mens are found in our slate as above mentioned. Fig. 4 is
an excellent engraving of a very rare description of Astrea
found by me in the roofing quarry at Yeo near Yealmpton,
and which I have seen only twice since in a quarry at
Elburton ; the figure itself gives but the impression made
by the end of the creature, there being a cylindrical and
long tube of the same diameter in the slate and leading
down to it, occupied of course in the first instance before
dissolution occurred, by the body of this zoophyte ; lymg
on the centre of this impression or cast and fitting exactly
its markings, there is a thin and loose fragment of hard
-material probably part of the remains of the animal sub-
stance. Astreas are I believe present in our sandstone, as
they are in the slate and lime ; something of the sort I found
plentiful in sandstone at Newton Ferrers. Fig. 5. presents
a view of I believe a Berenicea, several specimens of which
I collected in a roofing-slate quarry at Coffleet, and once
or twice since, elsewhere. The engraving I am sorry to
say is hardly satisfactory, (a remark I shall not have occa-
sion to repeat) the specimen being in fact an aggregation
of small, inclined cells rather pitcher-shaped, imitating
indeed very remarkably the modern B. utriculata. Fig. 6
is a small fragment of Coral, (but from what genus I do
not pretend to determine) taken from the slate at Mud-
stone. There are altogether several kinds of Coral to be
discriminated in the slate of Devon and Cornwall, and one
in particular which is very common in that same locality and
less so in some other spots, is somewhat analagous mm
its’ fan-shaped expansions and perforations to the Gorgonia
flabellum. We see commonly, only the impressions which
REFERENCES TO THE PLATES. 43]
its flat surfaces leave on the rock, and the bits of its sub-
stance which I have yet procured are so insignificant that
I have given no engraving of the species. Mr. Peach
however, of Goran in Cornwall, has some satisfactory spe-
cimens derived from his neighbourhood, and he has seen
one in the rock about a foot long. The bare impress of
the branches of this coral might most readily be mistaken
for specimens similar to those at Figs. 1 and 2. Table 4.—
Fig. 7 delineates a curious relique which I procured at
Noss Mayo from the arenaceous schist, a coarse material,
and which predominates on all the coast. I take tnis to be
either some obscure zoophyte or a vegetable production ;
the slate directly surrounding it and forming it, is a
delicate pink; I have once or twice seen it in other spots
and seemingly always presenting a squared or oblong figure.
Fig. 8 (left hand fossil) is a representation of a beautiful
and most delicate as well as curious remain, which I have
several times noticed in the quarry towards Brixton ; it in-
variably offers a defined outline, and is raised and rounded.
I have some idea from its markings it may be a Spongia.
TABLE 3.—Fig. 1 is I apprehend an impression of a
Cyathophyllum, or at least of some cup-shaped zoophyte.
It is from the slate near Kitley. Were it not cup-shaped, it
would not be distinct so far as the markings indicate, from
the group just underneath,—Fvg. 2 ; these have been esti-
mated by some as ithpressions of bivalves, but from an
observation of the same description of fossil in other spots,
I believe them to be zoophytes having the shape and outline
of expanded leaves. The specimen is from Cann quarry,
a short distance from the confines of Dartmoor ; the slate is
particularly solid, though on the other hand I met with a
collection of the same fossils in the highly frangible
brown slate or schist at Kitley Point. Figs. 3, 4, and 5 are
interesting fossils of the old red, or rather grey sandstone of
Whitsand near Plymouth, but on the Cornish side. I did
not originally design to extend myself to that locality, but
owing to the interest which these and other beautiful spe-
cimens convey in exhibiting the identity of our fossils,
generically speaking, in the three rocks of the grauwacké
series, I thought the reader would excuse the trifling fault
of going beyond the precincts of the districts for illustrations
7?
+432 REFERENCES TO THE PLATES.
of the animal remains of the above named rocks, hitherto
so little known. Fig.3 seems to be an Alcyonium. Fig.4is
is apparently allied to that in slate at Fig. 2. Fig. disa
fragment of that beautiful and rare corallite the Pocillipora
which I believe occurs likewise in our slate, and undoubtedly
in the lime, as at the Thatcher rock in Torbay for instance,
where [ collected specimens. TaBLE 4.—Fig. 1 presents
us with a view of a most singular and rare fossil from the
slate at Cann quarry ; it appears to have a little circle for
its centre, the other ovoid shapes being arranged around it.
I presume it may be the impression of some zoophyte, and
probably of the Alcyonium tribe. I do not recollect that
it has occurred to me elsewhere. Fg. 2 is perhaps some-
thing of the same description, though here to each of
the circular marks, is a central dot; the specimen is from
Boveysand. Both have been designated Strombodes by
some who have inspected these specimens. Figs. 3 and 5
represent a univalve similar in shape to the Haliotis, and
one valve of a bivalve perhaps similar to the Arca, which
were found by me in the “ grey dunstone” (a schist not dis-
tinctly laminating, and having a different texture from our
slates properly so called) at Mount Batten. I had been
induced, prior to this discovery, to consign this modified
form of slate to the series devoid of fossils, though properly
speaking I know of no reason why it should be wanting in
those reliques found in the rocks into which it graduates.
These and other fossils of this spot are greatly marked and
stained by iron, but fossils do by no means occur in the
iron itself, nor do they even impress their shapes on its free
surfaces as I have unfortunately been induced to state at
p- 54 from the representations made to me by several
geologists. Fig. 4 shews a somewhat indifferent specimen
of an Orthoceratite from Boveysand, obtained by Master
T. Jones. I might have given a view of a larger one,
(not so perfect however as the present, ) and indeed I suspect
from the forms which I occasionally see in large blocks of
slate, that this description of fossil shell is not very rare with
us, and that moreover there are several kinds. Mr. Peach
of Goran lately shew me a most beautiful and satisfactory
specimen of a sort different from the present, and I then
immediately perceived that the specimen, which, following
REFERENCES TO THE PLATES. 433
up Professor Sedgewick’s estimate of it, I had, with some
precaution, named the entrails or coprolite of a fish,
(TaBLE 7, Fig. 3) was in fact a specimen of the same
description. It gives a view of three of the chambers, the
central dot corresponding indeed to the syphon. This mul-
tilocular shell belonging to the nautilite cephalopods is
nearly characteristic of the grauwacké series. Professor
Buckland it seems found a Nautilus at Filleigh,—N orth of
Devon, and Mr. Johns, as recorded by De la Beche, found
a Trilobus at Whitsand Bay in the sandstone, an animal
purely characteristic of the series. TaBLE 5.—The upper-
most figure represents a Turritella procured from the
new red sandstone conglomerate by Mr. R. Hunt of
Paington, and lent to this work by Mr. G. Bartlett. It has
been here introduced because the conglomerate of this
county has been all along considered as devoid of fossils,
whereas the present specimen occurred between the different
fragments of which the stratum is composed, and was further
so distinctly a relique of that zra to which it is ascribable,
that its structure actually consists of particles gained from
the surrounding bits of rock which compose its matrix.
It is assuredly the only animal remain which has ever been
found in the new red sandstone. The middle figure is a
Turbo from the slate at Boveysand, discovered by and lent to
this work by Miss Hook ; specimens from the same genus
have I believe been procured from roofing slate in Corn-
wall. The lowest figure seems also to be a shell, (bivalve)
found likewise by Miss Hook at Boveysand, but there is a
degree of obscurity attached to its character.* Mr. Peach
has discovered a Spirifer in slate near Goran, and similar
to such as I have found in the slaty lime close to Plymouth.
He is also the discoverer of a cluster of Terebratulites in
a quartzose rock associated with slate and limestone in his
neighbourhood. This gentleman in bringing to light these
and other novelties in the Cornish series of organic reliques,
has with great industry traced their presence in the rocks
of the coast—sandstone, slate, quartzose rock, and lime
* This and the Turbo were painted in preparation for the
lithographer by Miss C. Jones, her name as the artist having been
accidentally omitted in the Table.
3D
434 REFERENCES TO THE PLATES.
(sparingly )—from East Looe to Gerran Bay, and finds
that they take a course across the county to the north-west
coast, appearing in theslateat St. Anne’s, so that, conformably
with the transition strata, they pursue a direction east and
west. TABLE 6.—Fig. 1 is an Encrinital head and piece
of the stem attached, taken from the slate rock where it
closely joins to limestone under Mount Edgcumbe, by the
Rev. R. Hennah, who has kindly allowed it to be employed
for the benefit of this work. . The stem seems to have a
twisted appearance like a bit of coarse cord, and has its
counterpart at Fig. 5, which pourtrays a specimen taken
by me from the slate rock at Staddon Heights on the op-
posite side of the harbour. F%g. 2 represents the largest
of a great number of Encrinital heads of varying shapes
which I found in one small spot under Puslinch on the
Yealm. The rock seems to be of that kind intermediate
between slate and sandstone, these being on either hand,
while the structure of the fossil itself—which is always
curiously enclosed in a sort of rude case or shell, allowing
the relique itself to be withdrawn and replaced at pleasure,
in the same way as a cast fits into its mould—is of a some-
what cheesy texture, greasy as it were to the feel, and
having on its surface very often curious small markings of
organic remains. The present specimen is different from
all others I have procured in possessing a joint of the stem
of the animal apparently peculiar in its character. I have
observed the same fossil in one particular spot at Boveysand,
as also in a part of the rock—arenaceous schist—at the
mouth of the Erme. The scarcity of encrinital heads has
been noticed as observable in the lime, but it is equally
so in the slate, indeed the present are nearly all the kinds
which I have seen, though encrinital columns of several
species are noticed in all directions, more indeed than the
present series of engravings exhibits. Fig. 4 gives a view
of a sort of encrinital column from Boveysand, which bears
on its surface in regular order a number of tubercles, dis-
tinct in fact from all other kinds. Procured by Master Jones.
Fig. 3 is a beautiful specimen from the slate at Mudstone ;
it has a groove running along its whole length, and is ofa
compressed or flattened figure. TABLE 7.—Fig.'1 is a view
of an encrinital column from the coarse grauwacké slate
REFERENCES TO THE PLATES 435
of Jenny Cliff near Plymouth, where fragments of the
same species are not unfrequently perceived; but I have
seen this kind no where else. 2g. 2 is a representation
of a fine description of enerinital column which I pro-
cured at Mudstone, and where it seems to be not very
rare, but I have never noticed the same species in any
other locality. Fig. 3 (already noticed) fig. 4 are
encrinital joints of a particular kind, from the loose and
poor clay-slate at Kitley Point, where I have never obtained
above three specimens in the same perfection, though the
impression of the surfaces of these joints is to be observed
in several quarries and other spots around Plymouth, as at
Staddiscombe, a specimen from the roofing-slate of which
is represented at Fig. 7, but besides this common kind of
impression of encrinital joints, there are others very similar
to it, but yet apparently specifically distinct. Fig. 5 pre-
sents a view of a beautiful sort of encrinital vertebree which
I found in Hangers quarry near Newhouse; the rim of
each joint is marked with oblique lines similar to those we
see on the rims of penny-pieces. Fg. 6 is given because
in connexion with Fig. 7, it will afford the collector a
knowledge of the two commonest fossils presented by our
slate, and which indeed appear in the generality of quarries,
and in the generality of the common clay-slate of the county;
it presents very thin lamine for its joints, and the present
figure gives only the pillar traversing through their centres,
with the remains only of the plates at their attachment round
the little stem ; the impression made by these plates is very
frequently discerned, but the occurrence of the vertebral
column in mass is rare ; three of the joints somewhat per-
fect are engraved at Fig. 8, Table 2, (right hand fossil) and
it often occurs to us to find the same remain or one similar
presenting many partitions or transverse plates, and the
central pillar removed by decomposition, the case being the
reverse of Fig. 6 in the present Table. Fig. 8 is an en-
graving of a small series of encrinital joints, possessing
distinctive characters from all others, which I found in clay
slate at Elburton. But besides the present, there are other
varieties of encrinital reliques to be detected in our slate,
though not admitting of being engraved, or of being defined
by mere words. Indeed nothing but very considerable ex-
3D 2
A36 REFERENCES TO THE PLATES.
perience can enable a collector to pronounce on distinctive
separations between specimens approximating so closely as
do the present series, and possessing at best, characters
both obscure and equivocal for specific limitations. One
other species I will however venture to name beyond the
present, and that is a sort whose stem seems to be quite
simple and whose head resembles greatly in figure the
Lepas anatifera. Mr. Peach has a specimen also from
the Van in his neighbourhood, which is probably a Penta-
crinite. TABLE 8 presents a view of a Spatangus from the
limestone of Ashburton, procured by Mr. G. Bartlett, and
here introduced because it is the only one that has been
obtained from our limestone. TaBLE 9 is a species of
Ananchytes from the walls of one of the celebrated ossife-
rous limestone fissures of Oreston, but which I have also
had from the limestone of Plymouth Hoe ; it is introduced
from being as yet unknown to geologists. TaBLxE 10 recurs
to the encrinital remains of the grauwacké series, and is
devoted to the more conspicuous and evidently distinct
species from Whitsand Bay grey sandstone, and from that
which is similar at Boveysand on the opposite side of the
harbour. fig. 1 is a jot having a very flat surface, cu-
riously divided by white lines passing from the centre. Fg. 2
is a series of joints from Boveysand, and these like a sort
before named have oblique lines on their rims. Figs.3 & 4
are series of joints apparently different from al! others, and
finally, Fig. 5 is an elegant fossil vertebra of the same order,
distinct in general shape, and by its surface sloping to the
central opening, with fine lines arranged as radii.
I have only to note in conclusion that the slate fossils both
from the south-east and north of Devon and from Cornwall
are very analogous to those in South Devon, and altogether
indicate that the same series extends itself aroundus. The
old red sandstone also of the coast is continued from the
south of Devon most regularly onwards into Cornwall
taking a westerly direction, and betrays along its course
the presence of those genera of animal remains which con-
firm it as a member of the grauwacké order.
REFERENCES TO THE PLATES. 437
Piece of limestone from under Plymouth Hoe, having on its surfaces
strange, circular, raised markings, evidently the remains
of former organized matter.
Echinite from the neighbourhood of Exeter.
438 REFERENCES TO THE PLATES.
References to the Plates of Fossil Bones.
In the subsequent series of engravings, I have presented
the geological student with specimens of the teeth of the
various sorts of animal reliques found in the cavern which
I discovered at Yealm Bridge, not indeed embracing every
one of the species there found, but still exhibiting those
which characterize more particularly the habits and natures
of this ancient race. The series includes also two or three
specimens from other spots.
TaBLE 1]1.—Fig. 1 represents the molar of a small
species of Elephant ;* Fig. 2 the back molar of the same
animal ; Fig. 3 one of the large molars of a Rhinoceros.
TaBLe 12.—Figs. 1 and 2 represent molars of the same
Rhinoceros ; figs. 3 and 4 the two largest molars of the
Horse in my possession (the “ erusta petrosa” is here as
in all the other cases deficient, having disappeared through
decay); Fig. 5 one of the lower molars of an Oz.
TaBLe 13.—Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 delineate different molars of
the same animal ; Fig. 5 is either a young back molar of the
same, or of the Elk, and I think the latter; Fig. 6 seems
to be an incipient grinder of that last named species.
TaBLE 14.—Figs..1 and 2 are grinders from both jaws of
the Deer tribe, Fig. 2 being of a species the size of our
C.dama ; Fig. 3 is a front grinder of a species whose under
jaw is nearly a foot long ; Figs. 4,5, and 6 are grinders
from a species of Sheep or Goat ; Figs. 7, 8, and 9 are
teeth of a Boar, the first of the three being one of the
lower incisors, and is the specimen respecting which I was
originally in doubt as named at p. 83. TaBLE 15.—Fig. 1
is the fore part of the upper jaw of a Hare or Rabbit ;
* The drawing of this tooth, now at Kitley, was obligingly lent
to this work by the Rey. J. Yonge of Puslinch, together with many
specimens.
ADDENDA. 439
Figs. 2,3, and 4 are halves of the lower jaws of three distinct
species of Mice ; Fig. 5 presents a view of a fragment of
the under jaw of a Wolf; Fig. 6 isa grinder of the Hyena.
(H. fossilis, Cuv.) Taste 16.—Fig. 1 gives a view of the
fragment of an under jaw found very lately amongst the
ancient beach under Plymouth Hoe; it seems in the esti-
mation of Col. Smith to belong tothe Pachydermatous tribe ;
the teeth are greatly worn, and present dubious characters ;
respecting this discovery see below. Fig. 2 is a tusk of a
Bear (Ursus speleus of Buckland’s Reliq. Diluv. p. 17)
Fig. 3 represents a large portion of the half of a lower jaw
of H. fossilis.
To these somewhat explanatory references, I will here
add a few other scraps of information mostly obtained since
the body of the work was printed, and belonging exclusively
to the subject of fossil bones.
Solitary fossil teeth occur in nearly all the caves of the
district ; one such instance I have already recorded ; Mr.
Hearder of Plymouth very lately informed me that at the
entrance of the cave under the Hoe, he once found a
Rhinoceros’ tooth, rounded by its exposure to the tide
which now flows into it. The discovery of this tooth in a
locality of this kind, and with the assumption of the cave
having been the habitation of Hyzenas, strongly indicates
the proposition of the sea, at the period of the existence of
the Hyznas, Elephants, &c. having had a less elevation
than is now presented by it, or on the contrary should it not
have been such a domicile, it shows the boundary of the
sea as assumed on its diluvial retreat ; (see p. 107) whilst
the occurrence of bones of the same class,— Rhinoceros, (?)
Elephant, Horse, &c. in the ancient beach above, tends to
confirm the ideas which I set forth at p. 112 and 119 to the
effect that the rise of the sea causing the formation of that
beach took place subsequently to the zera of the cave animals,
since, without doubt the tide in its elevation to that point
would wash out the contents of intervening cavities, and
throw up the more durable and resisting substances in
common with the pebbles which indicate its precincts. To-
gether with the bones of the above named animals are
some of a large description of Whale, respecting the age
of which a doubt may rationally exist ;—they may have
hd
440 ADDENDA.
been portions of carcasses partaken of by the carnivorous
creatures of the antediluvian era, or they may be fragments
only of individuals of more modern times, washed up by the
tide in the common way, and accidentally associated with
the former specimens.
I learn from Col. Smith that a tusk of an Elephant has
been found in soil towards Exeter, it was of that kind
which presents the double curve.
It has occasionally happened that molars of the Elephant
have been found thrown up on our beaches ; these may be
either from caves now submerged, or due only to such as
may have been thrown overboard from ships lying off the
shore ; exact enquiry as to the markings these specimens
present would alone determine the question.
We learn only from time to time the natural and antiquarian
riches which this county has presented to us, and often with-
out any use having been made of them. An ossiferous cavern
presented itself to view at Stonehouse a few years since.
Another, as I learn, was disclosed not long since at Anstess
cove in Torbay. Other spots have also been similarl
productive, and a small accumulation was detected (a few
weeks after the geological portion of this work was printed)
in a cave at Pomphlet Lake near us, and which I saw ; it
consisted almost wholly of the teeth of the Horse, but
the bulk was undoubtedly lost in blowing away the rock.
Besides the occurrence of ovine bones at Yealm Bridge and
at Berry Head, they were found amongst the accumulation
at Oreston ; ovine teeth from thence are in my possession.
Their presence among our fossil bones constitutes a pecu-
liarity in the geology of this district.
The cave at Berry Head known under the name of Ash
Hole, presented us with many singularities. We discrim-
inated 3 or 4 species of Mus, (Arvicola Fleming) and as the
cave at Yealm Bridge did not seem to furnish this number
so unequivocally, the engravings here given are from spe-
cimens from the former locality. Fish bones, belonging to
several species, fragments of the head of a Fringilla,
and of a Corvus were amongst its products. The horn of
a Deer analagous to the C. capreolus, and the skull of a
very small Ox have also very lately been dug out. The Rev.
H. Lyte in his researches found the stump of a shed horn
ADDENDA. 44]
of the E/k in a small fissure near Ash Hole, and reposing
in clay, and some few years previously, a single Elephant’s
femur was removed from a similar and adjacent locality,—
facts which shew the influence of a flood in carrying this
class of fossils into their present situations. It would now
seem that the number of species of Deer belonging to the
ossiferous caves is even greater than was first thought,
there is first the Elk, which I would here observe by the
way, seems to me possessed of specific characters which
separate it from the creature of the same name recognized
amongst alluvial deposits, as also equally from the existing
Elk of the northern countries (see Annals of Phil. vol. xix.
p- 305) ; 2dly, one of the size of C. dama ; 3dly, one whose
skull is about the same size, but differently shaped from that
of the Fallow Deer, and perhaps having the horns above
described as somewhat like those of the Roe ; 4thly, a very
small species ; and perhaps to these might be added a 5th,
whose lower jaw is a foot long.
I cannot avoid expressing my conviction in conclusion
of these desultory remarks, that much is capable of being
yet added to our knowledge of fossil bones, and that con-
sequently the opinions of any author on this important
subject should be read with great reserve of private judgment,
and not with the impression that nought remained to be
added to them, or to be subtracted. The folly of adopting
any definite theory of the sizes of these extinct beings
relatively to those now existing, (and which furnish names
to the former merely from the circumstance of similarity
in appearance of their bones,) as well as the folly of
prospectively precluding the discovery of new species in
this department, will be seen by reference to the.2nd Vol.
of Menageries, p. 377, et seq.
Que minimo quidem naturalia in spatio inveniuntur
terrarum, ea omnia ad pernoscenda, hujusmodi rerum
indagatorum perscrutantium, summi, et non-intermissi
conatus vere postulantur.
(J)
e3]
« rs (ea re he 43
\ieamene
A ‘. he
> is
-
as
Lee. \
\ ¥ r <
e %
“ “
Peo. o ¥
nmferrTs
P oo Leta
a * . ,
j re teh =:
actly
a
aa a
‘ ;
q
: ~~
= s +35.
.
Pocee
<.
,
4
ByE Db”
A M Bellamy, ay
Peal 6 th
: TI.
i
€
>
a Burgos In they
“4
if | SS S
4 WN | \ = Z
~
[7 Zz
T,
GZLZALG:
j WARBYE >
/fi iN » 3
——.
wr
ee ~~~
~
4
Vy,
; GISELLE
Y 4s tj Y Hf Y
a Z 724 Y (: Wj
YT wick:
_/
Lf ///
. /
f /
’ “
A AS ¢
4 " N Wr. \ f
SS i \ \ ~ i }
~ Wl SS 4 1 if} }
“Ws. ra mak 4 ]
>) eI ~ Wii }
» =
~ AN = >= > =
N
'
‘
SN SON. ~S i
\ ~ S e
SS S S
~
\ SO .
ISH ~ S
MPN SSS RS S
«yy!
i v4 m Ss un
yy hee Z 7s Mis
(et Zz a Ka
Aap
WWE FA
I
LYjF EZ
Zy
LZ
FA
LYZZ
(FLZZZ
=<.
= ee,
——— Sa
A. M. B., del. : Hearder, se.
TABLE 2.
ess pl
teen es yen
cae
= eS =
= SEES a os
= : —S——-. ee
——- 2. ——_—_ ea — — roe aS oe a Ss
pe ae Sa
—s — Os
nee —————— — =
TABLE, 3
A. M. B. Del.
reo ty SSS
Saas
—== &=
} Miss C. Jones, del.
TABLE 4.
A. M. B,, del,
Elearder, sc.
ena re HGR TRS PRA eA tN RY RIP SOARS NRA FOP FTN PENRYN MCT HEARS NN NIA RARE NRRL SAT aR EL RRC SR AP WMI EER PAPAS 7 LI TAI 6 MAIS NORE AA AY REN! 8 ETERS OO
Beane ae ee a ee eS NAT FS EON ee ee ETN MOET NE Gh SNR AE ALE AT ST FRA SO A OAS A AIT AN SAT SARA ES SARTRE a FR ReNeD ars tk
Sort RAO I ee NI NN eR AN EAN NER PR NO ER tt oT
TABLE,°o
ee. nO Tae
i
‘ i
ea ene ee ey mae nS ERE gem ee e NN P m remem TUN ach RC PALE Am hr ror tN man
i
{
ip
/;
= HM
TABLE. 10
Hearder, se.
at
ae
aa
: fhe
ELEPHAS.
——————
——.
—
——__——-
———=—
(
|
|
!
\\
am
|
7
nc
=a
i
\
Wh)
”
}
/
Bi
Vath
i
N\
ql
y
KK \
NTS
Wiis
hh '
————
hs
——-
—
==
RHINOCEROS.
Hearder, se.
LA
wy bY
eS
¥ SY
"se
RHINOCEROS.
BOS. A, M. B., del.
7 ,
a ee ee ea
»
ME at ae Leiter eee aman,
ry
Seat oe ieee
ss 7 “ . “3+? ie i a er
1b
A. M. B., del.
Hearder, sc.
TABLE 153.
CERVUS.
OVIS.
A. M. B. del.
TABLE
14,
Hearder, se
te /4)
My yall vs
\
4 1\\ watt | |
\ NM
\ }
\ ‘
Hs a
4 i ;
} " avi bll Welly a.
| | 1 Warten!
oy HA, Ooty : bil
| re TAA i
a pH Hh ih
| : | ne fe
4 Ni HWA
x i i} } | ; |
( | ' if if | iy i By
Waa TA LAR alle
\ Wy he
hy // » ANE
u f 7 ‘. i
ohh \ i f
A\\\\\\ | Gil? eal HH
Hi) ea
\\ Boa ie |)!
iN Wil ie
ay) WeeceN
Aa
=
S
a
HY AINA.
CANIS.
Hearder, se.
TABLE 15.
SS
[ Unascertained. |
A. M, B., del.
TABLE 16,
Hearder, sc.
fNat. Size.]
ARVICOLA HIRTA, (J. ©. 8.)
T, BE, GOSLING, DEL,
TABLE 17.
Cg'o'r) “SQIGUWUTLNI saw
[ ezig “en |
*"TId ‘ONIISO9 "dT “1
‘os “NAGUVIH
TESTACELLA MauGIl. (Fleming.) vide p. 246.
—
fl = (a ef t
ard \
WA Kal af
T. Colley, del.
HELIX suBvirescens. (J.C. B.) wide p. 418.
1)
A
|
P. F. B., etched.
CARYOPHYLLEA sessizis. (J.C. B.) vilep. 330.
TABLE ls.
443
INDEX.
Accidental economy, 336
Accipitres of the coast, 320
Adopted residences, 317
Alcyonite in slate, 432
Alluvial changes, 13]
Alluvial geology, 106
Alluvial lands, 128
American blight, 168, 422
American bug consumed by the
Blue Tit, 422
Amphibia, 236
Ananchytes in lime, 436
Ancient beach, 118
Ancient beach of Plymouth Hoe
114, 439
Ancient beach of Plymouth Hoe,
time of its elevation, 112,
116, 119
Ancient Britons, dwellings of,
18, 94
Ancient Geology, 13
Animal dispersion, laws of, 274
Annulosa, 272
Anomalous jaw (fossil) 439
Antediluvian beings, restricted
occurrence of, 81
Antediluvian creatures, their re-
lations, 86
Antediluvian sea level, 439
Aphis, 168
Arrangement of country, effect
of on Faunas, 284
Arvicola hirta, 373
Ash Hole, 94, 440
Astrea in slate, 430
Autumnal songs, 361
Autumns, 158
Avon, its dimensions, 129
Babillard, 226
Banded Helix, 413
Bastard rocks, 41, 48, 62, 66,
67, 69.
Bats, abode of our, 317
Bats, their winter sleep, 400
Bear, tooth of, (fossil) 459
Bearded Tit, 307
Beds of lime and slate, 63, 79
Bee-eater, 219, 307
Berenicea in slate, 430
Berry Head, ancient quadrupeds
of, 295
Birds, commencement of spring
notes, 363
Birds, list of, 198
Birds (not songsters) with winter
notes, 365
Birds of Dartmoor, 297
Birds of the South Hams, 302
Birds, rarer, of Cornwall, 200,
201, 208, 209, 218, 219, 349
Birds which visit the coast, 321
Birds, white “ varieties” of, 201,
202, 203, 204, 206, 208, 209,
2il
Birds, other “ varieties” in, 200,
201, 202, 203, 204, 208
Bivalves in slate, 433
Black army, 168
Blackcap, its migration, habits,
&e. 401
Blights, partial, 163
Blue dun, 46
Blue Tit, 422
Boar, bones of, (fossil) 438
Borough of Plymouth, 125
Boulders, porphyritic, 24
3 E 2
444 INDEX.
Boulders of primitive granite
in slate, 23
Boulders of primitive rocks in
slate, 25
Boulders of St. Anne’s beacon,
24
Boulders, quartz, 24
Bovey coal formation, 81
Bovey Heathfield formations,
111
Bovey Heathfield, height of, 147
Bovey Heathfield, its situation,
&e. 14
Bovey Heathfield lately acces-
sible to the sea, 127
Brown Owl, * variety” of, 200
Buckland on ossiferous caves,
85
Buckland on the occurrence of
ovine bones, (fossil) 98
Budding of trees, 426
Bulimus fasciatus, 291
Bull Frog, 410
Burrow Island, 122
Butterflies, temporary torpor
of, 398
Cabbage butterfly, larva of, 168
Calaminaris, 42, 53
Calamopores Of slate, 44
Calcareous spar, 42,53
Caryophyllea sessilis, 330
Caryophyllites, 430
Catalogues, construction of, 327
Cave animals, affinities to pre-
sent species, 100
Cave animals, catalogue of, 102
Cave animals, Fleming on, 99
Caveanimals,habits and habitats
103
Caveanimals, sizes of, 100
Cave at Anstess Cove, 440
Cave at Kitley, fossil bones of,
83
Cave at Pomphlet, 440
Cave at Stonehouse, 440
Cave at Torquay, 94
Cave at Yealm Bridge, 86
Cave at Yealm Bridge, animals
of, 90
Cave under Plymouth Hoe, 439
Caves as human abodes, 94
Cave at Berry Head, 94, 440
Caves at Oreston, large mam-
mals of, 82, 440
Caves in limestone, 42, 53
Caves, pebbles of, 75, 88
Cetaceans, 196, 319
Change of scene, effect of, 3
Chesnut, 169
Chiff Chaff, 225, 285
Churches, when built, 112
Cirl Bunting, habits of, 340
Classification of rocks, 63
Clay-slate, 34
Clays of South Devon, 73
Climate, anomalies in, 157, 158
Climate, described by Carring-
ton, 189
Climate, effect of on timber, 169
Climate, humidity of, 151
Climate, influencing animal dis-
persion, 283, 285
Climate, Italian ? 153
Climate, mild and genial, 153
Climate of forests, 21
Climate of South Devon charae-
terized, 287
.Climate, proofs of its mildness,
153
Climate,reasons ofits uniformity
in heat, 151
Climate, sources of its characters
288, 289
Climate, uncertainty of, 156
Climate, uniform in heat, 151
156, 171
Coast, invasions on, 121
Colds, their cause, 176
Concord in birds, 350
Conglomerate pebbles, 69
Consecutive depositions of the
strata refuted, 78
Coombes, 72
Coombes, sea-side, once inlets?
131
Corallinites of slate, 44
Corallites in slate, 430
Cornwall, rarer birds of, 200,
201, 208, 209, 218, 219, 349
INDEX.
Cornwall, rarer fishes of, 238,
241, 243
Cornwall,rarer marine shells of,
252, 254, 259, 261, 262
Corvus, bones of, (fossil) 440
Crabb-tree, slate of, 37
Craumere Pool, 147
Creek between Plymouth and
Stonehouse, 125
Crossbill, 307, 383
Crow, its habits, 404
Cuckow, 420
Cuckow, food of, 421
Cultivated land, proportion of,
10
Curlew, 298, 309
Cyathophyllites, 430
Cyclostoma elegans, 291
Dart, harbour of, 128
Dart, retreat of, 127
Dartmoor, aspect of, 4
Dartmoor described, 294
Dartmoor, effect of on the mind,7
Dartmoor, geological character
of, 13
Dartmoor, its climate, 16, 145,
155, 173
Dartmoor, its extent, 15, 17
Dartmoor, its flora, 4, 294
Dartmoor, its products, 17
Dartmoor, its waters, 17
Dartmoor, its winds, 155
Dartmoor once cultivated, 5
Dartmoor, once wooded, 18
Dartmoor, ornithology of, 297
Dartmoor, quadrupeds of, 296
Dartmoor, rarer birds of, 299
Dartmoor, superstratum of, 19
Debris of hogs, 107
Debris of inlets, 124
Deer, bones of, (fossil) 438, 441
Degradation of land, 135
De la Beche on primitive Plu-
tonic rocks, 22
De la Beche on the beach on
Plymouth Hoe, 116
De la Beche on the Oreston
caves, 82
Destruction of animals, 405
445
Dependance of animals, mutual,
342
Diluvium, 76, 80, 115
Directing faculty , 332
Directing faculty in animals, 338
Discord in birds, 350
Distribution, remarks on, 306
Divisions of the district, 316
Dolomite, 52
Dolomite, softening of, 138
Dormouse, habits of, &c. 393
Doubtful remains, 107
Droughts, 144
Dry rot, 169
Dry May, results of, 167
Early vegetation, 154
Earth conveys sound, 186
Earthquakes, 141
Earthworms, winter sleep of, 401
East winds blighting, 161
East winds, their phenomena,
177
Echineis, 256
Eddystone, 3i
Electric atmosphere, liability to,
163
Electricity as a blight, 160, 162
Electricity, effect of on blight,
170
Elephantine teeth, 101,438, 439,
440
Elk bones in alluvium, 107, 296
Elk, bones of (fossil) 438, 441
Encrinital heads, scarcity of, 434
Encrinites of slate, 44, 52, 434
English Montpelier, 174
Erme, state of its mouth, 128
Escape of animals from danger,
388
Estuaries, filling up of, 124
Exe, filling up of the valley, 125
Exe, its emboucheur, 128
Exhalations, 175, 184
Extirpated quadrupeds, 295
Fauna, human influences on,
289, 291
Fauna, mode of examining a,
292, 293
446
February, flowers of, 425
February, songs of, 425
Ferruginous conglomerate, 137
Fice’s well, 146
Field mouse, 418
Fishes, 237
Fishes, rarer of Cornwall, 238,
241, 243
Fish, (fossil) 44, 433
Fish, remains of,(fossil) 44, 440, |
433
Flea of Turnips, 167
Fleming’s doctrine, 99
Flint in lime, 39, 67
Flint in slate, 39
Flood of 1099, 120
Floods, uses of, 182
Flying-fish, 240, 286
Fly of beaches, 413
Food, effects of on habitats, 291
Food, effects of on migration,290
Food of birds, 375
Forests, their remains inland,
108
Fossil bacon, 107
Fossil bones, condition and com-
position of, 91
Fossil bones of Ash Hole, 440
Fossil bones of Yealm Bridge,
89, 438
Fossil bones, varnish for, 91
Fossiliferous rocks, coeval, 59
Fossils, all belong to the lime?
59
Fossils, common character of, 45
Fossils, congregation of, 44
Fossils, curious arrangement of,
78
Fossils,identity ofin grauwacke
series, 67, 436
Fossils of Brixham, 42
Fossils of limestone, 52, 55, 437
Fossils ofsandstone,57 , 430,452,
436
Fossils of slate, 44, 56, 429
Fossils, order of their occurrence
60
Fossils, situation of in slate, 45
Fossils, their relative frequency
INDEX.
Fossils, those peculiar to our
rocks, 58, 433
Foxes, quarry of in caves, 99
Fresh-water shells, 245, 249,
250, 315
Fringilla, bones of, (fossil) 440
Frosts of March, 427
Gales, effect of on our Ornitho-
logy, 221
Garden of England, 8
Garlic snail, 247
General aspect of the district, 1
ghee = advantages, our,
| Geography of animals, 274
Geological changes (recent) 106
_ Geological theories, 32
Gneiss, 13, 22, 31
Golden Plover, 309
Gorgonia flabellum, 280
Goshawk, 300
Gralle, disposal of, 310, 322
Gralle, rarer, 309
Gralle, rarer marine, 323
Granite, its character and uses,
15
Granite, its mountainous nature
64
Granite, localities of, 13
Grasses, hardihood of, 185
Grauwacke group, 80
Grauwacke rocks, changes in
their relative situations, 67
_ Grauwackeé rocks, consolidation
of, 66
Grauwacké rocks, deposit of, 64
Great Bat, food of, 193
Grey dunstone, 35, 63
Grey dunstone, fossiliferous, 63,
432
Grey Plover, 309
Greywacke rock, 46
Greywacke series, 33
Greywacke series, junctions of
its members, 31
Greywacke slate, 39, 41
Greywacke, soil of, 47
Grey wagtail, migrations of, 373
*
Grey wagtail, staying summer,
;
376
&
INDEX.
Grosbeak, 307
Hare, bones of (fossil) 101, 488
Health, effects of our climate on
172
Hedge-hogs, their habits, &c. 386
Hedge-hogs, their winter sleep,
427
Hedge scent, 425
Helix subvirescens, 420
Helix trochilus, 301
Helix virgata, 291, 413
Hills, relative heights of, 51
Hills round the Moor, 26 ;
Hills, their effect on climate, 144
Hippocampus, 286
Hirundines, their natural abodes
318, 349
Honey Buzzard, 300
Honey-dew, 421
Honey made from heaths, 386
Hoopoe, 219, 226, 307
Horse, bones of (fossil) 89, 90
438
Horse shoe vallies, 72
House flies, their hybernation,
399
Human bones in caves, 97, 99
Human bones in caves, age of,
95
Hyena fossilis, 84, 89, 10], 439
Hybrid birds, 209, 217
Ice, formation of, 184
Igneous rocks, 13, 21, 80
Igneous rocks, characters of, 27
Igneous rocks, origins of, 25
Igneous rocks, their junctions
with the grauwacke series, 31,
Indistinct relics, 43, 58
Ingress, of the sea, 113
Insect blight conveyed by wind,
161
Insects laid up in winter, 412
Instinct, its nature, 317
Insulated depositions, 71
Intermediate strata, 41, 62, 66,
67, 69
Invasion of the sea, 111, 121
Tron in lime, 54
447
Iron in slate, 42, 54
Iron, vein of at Mount Batten,
34, 452
Tron, vein of at Yealm Bridge, 53
Islets of Great Britain, 109
Italy of the west, 153
Jackdaw, habitats of, 318
Jasper, 42, 53
June, variableness of, 157
Kent’s hole, 94
Kingfisher, 321, 411
Kite, 300, 305
Lakes, 146
Land-shells, 246,315
Lapwing, 298, 309
Lara, alterations in its size, 116,
125
Lara, amount of deposit in, 124
Lara once a sylvan district, 123
Larch, plantations of in Scot-
land, 20
Late frosts, 165
Late nestling, 369
Lepas costata, 330
Light, artificial, effects of on
birds and bats, 381
Limestone, its characters, &c.49
Limestone, its fossils, 52, 55
Limestone, its localities, &c. 47
Limestone, not a coral rock, 68
Local geologies, 64, 104
Long-eared Bat, habits of, 379
Low spots, their effects on health
174 ae
Lyell’s doctrine of present agen-
cies, 99
Lyd, reputed gorge of, 134
Magnetic iron.stone
Mammals, 192
Mammals, migration of, 197
March, flowers of, 426, 427
March, frosts in, 427
March. ornithology in, 426
Marine molluscs, 251, 263, 326
Marine molluscs, rarer of Corn-
wall, 252, 254, 259, 261, 262
448
Maritime spots resorted to, 173
Martin, its habitats, 318
Martin, its migration, 347, 226
Mc’Enery, Rev. J. on human
remains in caves, 96
Meadow mouse, variations of its
size, 371
Meteorolite, 140
Mewstone, 122
Mica Slate, 21, 26,33
Mice, bones of, (fossil) 88, 93,
439
Migrants, autumnal, 229, 230
Migrants, brumal, 229, 230, 231
Migrants, effects of weather on,
234, 284, 287, 313, 347
Migrants, summer, 229
Migrants, uncertain, 232
Migrants, variety of, 219, 220
Migrants, vernal, 228
Migration, 428
Missel-thrush, song of, 361, 362
363, 364
Modern changes, 136
Modern conglomerates, 137
Moles. their winter sleep, 411
Molluscs, their natute, 3542,
343
Months, their characters, 158
Moose deer, 107, 296
Morasses, 147
Mosaic Flood, 72
Mosaic Flood, its results, 74
Motacilla neglecta, 305, 377
Mountains, Fauna of, 276
Mounts Bay, 109
Mus intermedius, 329
Nautilite, 433
Nerita (fossil ?) 81, 107
New Mouse, 329
New Shell, 418
New Sylvia, 207
New Vole, 369
Newt, torpidity of, 398
Nightingale, 205, 283
Night songsters, 416
Nimble lizard, 314
Nutcracker, 307
Nuthatch, its notes, &c, 424
INDEX.
Old red sandstone, characters
of, 60
Old red sandstone, connexions
of, 62
Old red sandstone, fossils of, 57,
62, 431
Orchards, sites proper for, 166
Oreston fissures, 82
Oriole, 219, 307
Ornithology,anomalous changes
in our, 222
Ornithology, extent of our, 222,
313
Ornithology, influences of Man
on, 221
Ornithology of Devon & Corn-
wall, 349
Ornithology, peculiarities in our
224
Orthoceratite in slate, 432
Otter, its abodes, 319
Otter, valley of, 127
Ox, bones of, (fossil) 98, 440
Oyster-catcher, 324
Oysters killed by frost, 403
Palmipedes, 312
Palmipedes, causes of having so
many, 320
Palmipedes, rarer, 324
Passeres of the coast, 320
Peat, 137
Pebbles of the coast and rivers,
131
Pectoral sandpiper, 323
Pentacrinite in slate, 436
Peristedion Malarmat, 244
Petrifying spring, 141
Pied fly-catcher, 307
Pied wagtail, migrations of, 377
Pilchard, migrations of, 239,325
Plane tree, 426
Planting of the Moor, 20
Plutonic disturbances, 30
27, 28, 29
Plymouth, alterations in its in-
lets, &c. 124
Plymouth once peninsulated |
130
Plymouth Sound, its condition,
*
INDEX.
Plutonic intrusions, effects of,
27, 28, 29
Pocilliporite in sandstone, 23
Porcelain earth, 138
Porphyry, 13, 22
Postdiluvial sea level, 107, 110.
439
Premature nestling, 367
Prevailing winds, 152
Progressive development, 70
Purre, 298, 309
Quadrupeds, black varieties, 192,
195
Quadrupeds, white varieties,194,
195, 302
Quail, 225
Quartz, 42
Rabbit, bones of, (fossil) 89,
438
Radiata, 265
Radiata, rarer of Cornwall, 267.
269, 271
Raised beaches, 114
Red ant, 168
Red-tailed warbler, 205, 307
Reed Warbler, 307
References to the Plates, 429
Refraction, cases of, 197
Return of Spring, 425
Rhinoceros, bones of, (fossil)
89, 438, 439
Ribbon jasper, 26, 32
Ringed Plover, 324
Ring Ouzel, 297
Rivers, 143, 294
Rivers, beauty of, 10
Rivers, dark colour of, 144
Rivers, force of at their mouths,
133
Rivers, once larger, 124
Rivers, their retreat in modern
times, 128
Rivers, their sudden swelling,
144
Rocks, junctions of the various
kinds, 31
Roman Galley discovered, 116
Roman remains, 109
449
Roze ouzel, 219, 307
Ruff, 310
Salmon, migrations of, 239
Salt spray, a blight? 161
Sand-martins, 348
Scenery, enjoyment of, 2
Scenery, threefold, 1
Schist rocks, disintegration of,
139
Schist tracts, character of, 147
Schorl, 21
Scrofula, 176
Sea coast, scenery of, 11
Sea Eagle, 300
Sea, great force of, 134
Sea, ingress of, 113
Sea, its level once much below
the present, 110
Seasons altered ? 159
Sea urchin, destruction of, 407
Sea views, effects of on the mind,
ll
Serpentine, 21, 22
Shag rock, 122
Sheep, bones of, (fossil) 438
Shells in raised beaches, 114
Shells, limits observed by, 315
Shells of slate rock, (fossil) 44,
432
Shelter, advised in planting, 20
Short-eared Owl, 300
Situation, advantages of our,285
Slapton Ley, 148
Slapton Ley, visitors of, 310
Slate, altered dip of, 28
Slate as a building stone, 41
Slate at Crabtree, 37
Slate, bent and waved, 37
Slate described, 33
Slate, fossiliferous, 42
Slate, fossils of, 42, 429
Slate hills, direction of their
lamine, 36, 72
Slate, junctions of its kinds, 35
Slate of Cann Quarry, 42
Slow-worm, destruction of, 407
Slugs, winter sleep of, 401
smut, 168
Smut, method of cure, 168
3
+
450
Snake, its food, 428
Snake’s eggs in stalagmite, 107
Snipe, 309
Snow, uses of, 183
Songs, autumnal, 361
Songs of birds, 355
Song, on what dependant, 357
Songs, suspension of, 360
Songs, winter, 361
South Hams, birds of, 303
South Hams, quadrupeds of 302
South Hams, rarer Accipitres of,
304
South Hams, rarer Passeres of,
305
South Hams, scenery of, 7
South-west gales, cases of, 188,
189
South-west wind as a blight,
160, 182
South-west winds, effects of, 153
South-west winds, power of, 187
South-west winds, prevalence of,
152
South-west winds, tendency to
their occurrence, 152
Spatangus in lime-stone, 436
Spirifer in slate, 433
Sponges, 268
Sponges, their nature, 331
Spongia? (fossil) in slate, 431
Spring, 158
Springs, 145
Springs, chalybeate, 149
Springs, “ hot and cold”, 146
Springs, rising of, 144
Squirrel, actions of, 388
Squirrel, skeleton of, 392
Squirrel, tame individual, 389
Squirrel, “ variety” of, 393
Stalagmite, variable thickness
of, 81
State of the country, advantages
of the, 285, 286
St. Germans river, 128
St. Michael’s Mount, 110, 122
Stone curlew, 285
Storm at Widdecombe, 181
Storm, omen of, 187
Storms, uses of, 180
INDEX.
Stormy Petrel, 226
Strata, bent at top, 67
Strata, conformable, 68, 71
Strata, their consolidation, 66
Strombodes ? 432
Submerged forests, 108
Summer droughts, 145
Summers, 157
Superstrata, depths of, 47
Surface of the country irregular,
70
Surprising view, 7
Swallows, their habitats, 318
Swallows, their migrations, 345
428
Swanpool, 149
Swifts, their habitats, 315
Syenite, 2]
Sylvia neglecta, 207
Tavistock, climate of, 145
Terebratulites in quartzoser ock
433
Terns, 421
Testacellus, Maugei, 246
Thaw, nature of, 183
Thick-kneed Bustard, 225, 285
Thunder storms, 181
“ Tin pebbles,” 134
Toads, notes on, 408
Torbay, once a forest tract, 110
Tortoises, hybernation of, 414
Tortoises, visits of, 236
Tortoise, notes on, 410
Torpidity, 413
Torpidity of hirundines, 226,
348 :
Tors of Dartmoor, 15
Transition rocks, their ordinary
relations, 49
Trapp, action of on slate and
lime, 21
Trapp, disintegration of, 138
Trapp rocks, 22, 28, 32
Tree sparrow, 307
Trees, their fixture in rocks, 47
Trilobites, 56, 433
Turbinolites in slate, 39, 44,429
Turbo in slate, 433
Turtle Dove, 301
INDEX.
Turritella, in new redsandstone,
433
Typhus Fever, cause of, 175
Typhus Fever, prevalence of,
174
Upland vallies, 147
Vallies, obnoxious to blight,165
Vallies of denudation, 76
Vallies, our, are of antediluvial
date, 71
Vegetables, torpor of, 412
Vegetation, influence of on cli-
mate, 21
Victoria Spa, 149
Victoria spa, analysis of its
water, 150
Vines, out-door, 164
Volcanoes, 141
Vole, new species of, 369
Voles, (Mus, Lin. Arvicola, Fle-
ming) bones of fossil, 439,
440
Volition in birds, 223
Water ouzel, 303
Waxwing, 307
Weather, influence of on song,
360,361, 362,364
“ Weathering of strata,” 142
Westerly winds, effects of, 179
Wet summers, 170
A451
Whale, bones of, in ancient
beach, 439
Wheatear, 226
Whinchat, 225
William of Worcester, his opini-
ons, 112
Wind, as a blight, 160
Winds, order of frequency, 152
Winters, character of, 157
Wire worm, 168
Wolf, bones of, (fossil) 439
Woodcock, 309
Woodlark, habits of, &c. 384
Yealm-Bridge cave, admeasure-
ments of, 87
Yealm-Bridge cave, deposits in,
87
Yealm-Bridge cave, fossil bones
of, 89
Yealm-Bridge cave, recent ex-
uvie of, 88
Yealm, retreat of its estuary,
128
Yealmpton, caves at, 83
* Yellows,” 170
Yellow wagtail, 225
Yellow wagtail, its migrations,
377
Yellow wren, 225
Zoological epochs, 70
Zoophyte in slate, (fossil) 431
©
he
re)
453
SUBSCRIBERS’ NAMES.
AVIBT IS (CEI eae A OS O GOI COOOL IO RD nt oO IO Ot sietolelers j
Avent, Esq: N: Surgeon’... 22%. .% pala "s "ots tole le ot ote sfotetetoelele's
VAEUC bie TIS. |r. eS: Ae olsisls ele = alee aisle a levelsie wo ole d'otelwlcler ols
Bayly, Esq. J..... SoeneUdtoscoous wee cececeesd cee SE SCALE
Bedford, His Grace the Duke of SeGeo¢ Soocomebooed sobede
Beer, Esq: SE SOLICILOT: “oretestetetc'e'als)> ote toler alelete) oclcterat ofeibte level
Bellamy, R.N. Lieut. J. H. eee ewe eee e eee eess were bets eos
Bienceli> Ro Ne Capes face ce eo o' cece oclsu se velcd ace vlee/swels
Blanckley, rR. nN. Capt. ....%% siete clots erntno le elatet= aleleln\ohetote wiets
BS lewetin tl Srl aE rater. "le 'o1e7eralerelo'e statcisinlelctclictetotatetetetel slobel aalel ¢ :
orwell: ‘Rey. J: Hi: C.-Plymotth 7.22. 22 ~~ we seca we
FOS WEVA VET ota clotete clcie’ cies icles o oiclp) eels o\ cl o'e'elelsieic idierere) distal ote’
ries WEISS, CRATES 1 ICE “slo's teleretoole ote ates SSeS Ace soketa
Browar, Weve Vo TvyUrdge 1o.<'<'tcie'a o'e'e'e 01s! oc eleete onle d\n) esl ere
EP ERECE Te PE ISUfer oS ol CoB IUCEL Nar cvelcin’ ot ler on wiciche) olel= slolersiatcieiet ste ster
pL CED Eo itetciate ciaicictelcisloleler ciate sieiors atetalofale oterel(ore/aistsleraietaretete
Codd; Esq. E.'S. Norley House vccccccscccscccscccesvcvee
@olesn nu: Nir, ECU GIS BOER ODDO COOOOUOULOD VOD OOOO GUS
CalleyacHsqerd ONE. close sins cls e's 'sle'¢'s oe ose os oinlele ctelste' orci
Co lleye NS Ge Mote crcl aretctalotstclorersiofete nichole lores o! serdlctenolers Bia taldiel
Collier, "Esq. William’ 26 26 foes cscs cece s cca recesiowe vee
Collis Se OW et toatetavelatet ore! oteretel tek tote shoreta oMelole\obelelarvalasdee ate
Cooban, Sq.) Gi SULSCOM “7.1 ate tel cletelcl div co'c'e owcrelete Sue 4 ee
Coppard, Rev. William J. Plympton St. Mary.....s+sssse0.
Conch, Jess a cece cele dace dele cd osisieics cideiee cviclsiaas fo
Creyke, R. M. Capt. Be cle 5 cieisie'viaete'es cue sis ele viereid ala diate Sialetcte
Cummrings; Mr. Charles: 22 sss sss Ses Geeeieiedle'e ovo ok ee-e'e's/ere
Wausey,- Mire George <2. sis es oss ssst = + ulsis evel stores ceive
Desbrisay, Miss, Vealmpton ...sccccecceseccscecess sees
Devon and Cornwall Natural History Society ............
Wornvillte, Rev. —KingstoM «65 ccs s ccc ce wcloes See eee cele
Drake, Bart. Sir PE. T:-F.-E. Wutwellss <5 0 cass ieee sts deca
Eliot, The Right Honourable Lord Viscount ............6.
Hillices Mayor! Greneralc's o ccicicie cc <\olelcrs ste, eee die sets Mietete) tele
BWOrt ys BISG.' Ue Pots eciele sc cae cisc sale cis cio ouaticlo aioe tees
Molds Hsq: We Surgeow, i IN. ss cicia cele s cls o% sic cetewie Uwe ee
Ford, Lieut. Yeo, Vealinpton 1... ceseccesceccceccscvccess
Fortesque, Esq: J. Fo 352.52 s cece seacsse sete ecseceeeees
Frazer, Esq. Alexander, Hoe-Street . aaleltielsiele'e's ofe-s Bareterctaieis
alu Pelosi, Toh SOGOU OO Siaeisieicieisleteye id etateleleretere
Gipson; Myr: Ress vss bse bbe 0.c8 bs se ceeds see we ook eeewae
Pomel found Pomme fms od faced fed eed jd
Cl ee ee ce el en ee ll el ee ne ee ee)
454 SUBSCRIBERS’ NAMES.
Giles, Mr. George, Jump..... A545 02 TIvererrrirri tk
Glasson, Dr. Devonport ........seeee: owas we siee's as etsante 1
Gosling, Esq. T...... 45a a st Je oc ccces cele @ oni sle nn
Granville) Mr.) Menry.. 0. 62. en's occ ccc vce see deduswe sine
Hallett, Mr. John ....... ciujels uw cisiee a gs siclsetsln eee ae on ee
Harris, Capt. Yealmpton .......... seen csiowde ace osieeieiet “tee
Harris, Esq. H. Devonshire-Place .......... sss enw eee ate eee
Harris, Esq. John J. Hayne ....... Sete oi diets aa aie eter oe tas ee
Harris, Esq. William Snow, ........ ole eaves wis'm aleete <= e
twhker, SiG. WW 44. occu weitere joe oe ee Se > - 1
fearder, MruG. Ps) >...’ seeees sey 4 - cae sine sine nie eo ete 1
earnier Ma .c) cc co cele tie occ ie cae eee pe in okeietn) nt
Hennah, Rey. #. Citadel—. isis. os ose coos bone cnn eee cine
a PSG eule. Oresiony cosine == cake pip eke leis ie\vie = stolekt aia
Holberton, Hag. J Por Pouse. oon cone consi wle\eis clas opp eee
Holberton, Esq. Willam= = 3. isos). 0 dase Soe uo 0. sicwietoie oie
Holman, Mr. George-Sirect .....000.00s00 a is/p niet =iele ayia 1
Hooke, Miss Bovisand....... eisuete: Bisvoetarerele tnekomene Peper 5 A Ae |
liek ie a ee A Se Wah a tate ws Sicle w clurdialers rages amie che eee
Blrastts Waa oie ste stains sitleleiee-ove SiS b Staiods Ciele eeeenete eae
Isbell, Dr. Stonehouse ..-.......20-. sfeia@iw ese ale coth Semen
SECU. i a, We eee No SEs on wiaatenite eres SBS 5 0.0’ it oiche Rae
Spire; Bis. Bee ses i. SNES rh Soe cee f= So 1
BC) cis P et Eo) Gia. RSS Se eich ee sic Sasa se. cae BMG ns: - 1
Jones, Esq. D. Surgeon, Plymstock aul b cle oldie ie) alctalyietelaie ean
TESTS C1 INSTT Ele SU ee eee Se wtehotn| = oisiehefaimisiosets tole etter
Julian, Esq. Richard, Estover ...... Yee e sje = wisi ets
Kingsale, Right Han. Lord, Ring-Rone House, ‘Salcombe sinh I
Lampen, Rev. John, Wien peels s eee SO see es 1
Leach, Esq. George, Stoke ........... dj0,0 0 = winte (otetsivia\si oho etc ie
MOCO g Wirth ie one miele wm oe anne oie a Sa eee 1
Lopes, Sir Walp cr o8 on wicjesiele Sapgue. 22: 1
Luney, Rev. R.. ....... ;. eee Bet cick sisters sista loiciete eave oe
Lyte, Rev. F. Berry-Head ......... ASibone acosc = sie ais 1
In Baie Iker (OO. Ato (Gellttns Sad ot edoon dadoooeocos eyes eee
MGTIO ICE Lipred ELM og Vir samtot” nto oioxoisioxeiexey stereiecsielereis eielereieielchenereie eieicl © ]
BITES pe VUE VV ey Ex cuiinoienelalaloraieleia| sictel icici eierelecerecslcvelete scebdogcs OL
Tripe, Esq. Cornelius, Mayor of Devonport ....... Josecco
Witt aclespEve Vom tyeticisiens cv olavevescire(erevstersicnerstaleyeneVeir ete Homo cae: a!
Wauehins Fey.) Wer. /c\