BIOLOGY LIBRARY UCB

BIOLOGY LIBRARY UCB

SUBSCRIBERS' EDITION

SPEC I ALLY PREPARED FOR WILLIAM PATT1SON.

THE

NATURAL HISTORY

OF

ANIMALS

(CLASS MAMMALIA-ANIMALS WHICH SUCKLE THEIR YOUNG),

IN WORD AND PICTURE.
BY CARL VOGT, — AND FRIEDRICH SPECHT,

PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA. OF STUTTGART, THE DISTINGUISHED DELINEATOR OF ANIMAL LIFE.

TRANSLATED AND EDITED WITH ADDITIONS

BY GEO. G. CHISHOLM, M.A., B.SC., F.R.G.S.,

AUTHOR OP "THE WORLD AS IT is;"

TRANSLATOR OF "SWITZERLAND; ITS SCENERY AND ITS PEOPLE " ETC.

ILLUSTRATED BY ABOVE THREE HUNDRED FINE ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.

THE SCOPE OF THE WORK. — The present
Work is devoted to the natural history of the
animals that suckle their young, and in the ac-
count of them here given the pen of an eminent
naturalist co-operates with the pencil of an equally
eminent delineator of animal life to produce a
view of the subject more satisfactory than what
will be found in any previous publication. In
this treatise the reader will find — along with
admirable pictorial illustrations — a description of
all the principal species, from such ponderous
creatures as the elephant, the whale, and the hip-
popotamus, to the tiny mouse; from the bat that
wings its way through the air, to the mole that
burrows through the earth; from the apes and
monkeys that have their four limbs furnished with
hands, to the seal and walrus that have theirs in
the shape of paddles, or the dolphin and por-
poise that have no hind limbs at all; from the
lion, tiger, wolf, and all their savage tribe, to the
timid sheep and rabbit; from the many Mammals
that bring forth their young differing but little in
appearance from their parents, to the kangaroo
that carries its immature young ones in a pouch,
and the duckmole and echidna that hatch their
young from eggs — all being portrayed in the
most vivid manner, and their habits, appearance,
and place in nature being set forth in sufficient
detail.

THE INTEREST OF THE SUBJECT.— As to the

inherent attractiveness of the subject thus dealt with
little need be said, more especially in these days,
when all branches of natural history are studied with
the keenest enthusiasm ; still, we may remark, that
as the Mammalia comprise all those animals that
are most useful to, and most closely associated with
man, the department of Zoology here treated is,
for readers in general, one that is invested with
features of interest beyond all others.

THE AUTHOR AND THE TEXT. — The name of
the distinguished naturalist Carl Vogt, who has
long been recognized as one of the leaders of
scientific thought and one of the masters of
scientific exposition on the continent of Europe, is
sufficient to stamp the work as one of high
character, more especially when we know that it
is a product of its author's mature years and
extended studies. These studies have ranged
over almost the entire field of natural science, and
have embraced every department that is likely to
shed light on the subject which he here discusses.
Moreover, the author has not been a mere student
of books and of museum specimens, but has him-
self visited the haunts of many of those animals
which he describes, and consequently much of his
information regarding their homes and their habits
is given from personal observation. As a writer he
has long been one of that brilliant band, so emi-
nently characteristic of the present day, who seek
to bring science to the knowledge of all, recognizing

that it becomes most fruitful of good when it is most
widely disseminated among the people.

THE POPULAR CHARACTER OF THE WORK.—
The present account of the animals comprised in
the class Mammalia will be found accordingly to
possess a decidedly popular character, not popular,
however, through lack of scientific value, but because
the author presents the facts in an attractive form,
and studies to smooth the path of those who can
give only their leisure hours to learning the results
of scientific research. The author's style is above
all things clear, simple, and direct, and where
occasion offers, lively and animated. The descrip-
tions of the animals, though necessarily concise, are
always adequate and interesting, and the matter
of a more strictly scientific kind is adapted with
great skill to the needs of those who have had no
scientific training. The fact that this work has
already appeared in a French and an Italian version,
as well as in the original German, attests its popular
character and the high esteem in which it is held.
This, the only English version, has been prepared
by a writer who has already manifested his ability
as a translator and author.

ITS SCIENTIFIC VALUE. — As a description of
the Mammalia — animals which suckle their young-
written in the light of the most recent research, the
work is of the highest value from a scientific point
of view. While carefully refraining from burdening
the text with details, the author selects from the
stores of his knowledge those facts which are most
significant and best suited to throw light on every
topic that successively falls to be treated of. The
methods of research and comparison followed by
men of science are clearly and concisely brought
out; and one who has really studied these volumes
will have gained a scientific training of genuine
value, besides having acquired a just idea of the
place in nature of the Mammals as a class, and of
the various orders and families of which, that class
is made up. The geographical distribution of the
various animals receives due attention, and the
relations of living species to others now only
known from fossil remains are frequently adduced.

THE TRANSLATOR'S ADDITIONS. — A number
of additions, clearly distinguished from the author's
text, have been made by the translator, consisting
of graphic and interesting extracts from the works
of some of the most observant travellers and others
who have written on natural history. They have

been selected with the view of imparting greater
completeness to the mental picture which the
reader may form of the animals described. In
them adventures of travellers and sportsmen, and
entertaining anecdotes, serve to exhibit a few of
the best-known mammals in situations in which
their native character is brought into relief.

THE ARTIST AND THE ILLUSTRATIONS. — The
Illustrations (above 300 in number) are from the
pencil of Friedrich Specht, the most eminent natural
history painter at the present day. His success in
the delineation of animal life arises not merely
from long study and skill as an artist, but also
from the fact that he is by education a naturalist.
This qualification ensures two things which are so
frequently wanting in the works of animal painters
who are not naturalists. It enables us to rely on
the accuracy of character and detail, so essential
to scientific truth in pictorial representations of
members of the animal kingdom ; and it is a
voucher for the fidelity with which the action and
behaviour of the animals have been depicted—
amidst surroundings appropriate to them in their
free life — in the woods and forests, on mountains
or plains, on land or in water. The artist has
portrayed — and that in the most spirited manner
—the animals as they appear in the varied cir-
cumstances of real life, in quest of their prey,
caressing their young ones, or sporting with their
fellows. The engravings have been executed in
the most careful and finished manner, under Mr.
Specht's own direction.

INDEX AND GLOSSARY. — A copious Index will
be furnished, by the use of which the details re-
garding any animal may be ascertained by referring
either to its scientific or its vernacular name. A
pictorially illustrated Glossary will likewise be sup-
plied, explaining the scientific words employed,
though most of these are briefly defined in the
text, and that generally the first time they are used.

CONDITIONS. — The book will be printed in the finest
manner, on highly finished paper, made expressly for
it, and will form two handsome quarto volumes. It
will be illustrated by forty full-page separate engravings,
and two hundred and sixty-four printed in the text.
The Work will he issued in two handsome volumes,
cloth extra, gilt edges, 48^.; and also in full morocco,
gilt extra, 5 guineas.

BLACKIE & SON, LIMITED; LONDON, GLASGOW, EDINBURGH, AND DUBLIN.

J'UJU. !SJll-\ (, EXCLUSIVELY 1', Y .s r/.'.VCVi'/y Tl (>.\.

THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS

[CLASS MAMMALIA].

ESKIMO !)()(. • : in.j'iaris borealis.)

Frontis. i'

THE

NATURAL HISTORY

OF

ANIMALS

(CLASS MAMMALIA— ANIMALS WHICH SUCKLE THEIR YOUNG),

IN WORD AND PICTURE.

BY CARL VOGT, AND FRIEDRICH SPECHT,

PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA,

OF STUTTGART, TUB DISTINGUISHED DELINEATOR OF ANIMAL LIFE.

TRANSLATED AND EDITED WITH ADDITIONS

BY

GEORGE G. CHISHOLM, M.A., B.SC., F.R.G.S.

AUTHOR OF "THE WORLD AS IT is;"'

TRANSLATOR OF "SWITZERLAND: ITS SCENERY AND ITS PEOPLE;" ETC.

VOL. I.

LONDON:

BLACKIE & SON, LIMITED, 49 & 50 OLD BAILEY, E.G.
GLASGOW AND EDINBURGH.

BIOLOGY

LIBRARY

G

P R E F A C E.

The work here submitted to the English
public is a translation of one that has already
appeared in three languages, German, French,
and Italian. The intrinsic interest of the
subject, the character of the text, which is
from the pen of a distinguished naturalist
long recognized as a master in scientific ex-
position, and the character of the illustrations,
which are the work of the most eminent
natural -history painter now living, quite ac-
count for its having earned this distinction,
and will no doubt make the work welcome
in an English dress.

With regard to the English edition a few
words of explanation are necessary. While
the English text is in the main a transla-
tion from the German, it is the duty of the
translator to explain a few differences that
will be found between it and the original
from which the translation was made.

In the first place it ought to be stated that
the French, as well as the Italian version, is
from the hand of the author himself, and
both of these are hence entitled to be re-
garded as original works. Occasionally,
therefore, the translator, while following the
German as a rule, has felt himself at liberty
to adopt modifications introduced by the
author into the French version.

VOL. I.

Another difference will be found in the
naming of the animals described. While,
as in duty bound, the translator has always
given the scientific names used by the author
himself, he has in many cases added other
scientific names which are more commonly
applied to the same animals by English
naturalists, and by which accordingly the
animals spoken of are likely to be more
easily identified by English readers. These
additional names are distinguished by being
inclosed in subordinate parentheses after the
names used by the author. Where a different
name is added only for the genus or the
species, that name is given after the generic
or specific name used by Vogt. For example,
" Rhyzcena (Suricata) tetradactyla" means that
the animal referred to by Vogt as Rhyzcena
tetradactyla is the Suricata tetradactyla of
other naturalists, and " Ursusferox (korribilis)"
means that the animal called Ursus ferox by
Vogt is the same as that known to others as
Ursus horribilis. Where both generic and
specific names are different the entire alterna-
tive name of the animal is given after that used
by the author, thus "Lefitonyx monachus (Mon-
achus albiventer}" means that the Leptonyx
monachus of Vogt is the Monachus albiventcr

of other writers. In furnishing an alternative

i

VI

PREFACE.

scientific name the translator has chiefly had
in view the practical aim of enabling readers
to identify the animal described with animals
exhibited in the gardens of the Zoological
Society of London; and accordingly, where
an animal is to be found in the catalogue
printed for the Society under the title of
" List of the Vertebrated Animals now or
lately living in the Gardens of the Zoological
Society of London" (eighth edition, 1883),
he has added the scientific name used in that
list, except where the animal can easily be
found in it by means of the popular name. In
other cases the names used in well-known
English works have been added; and ad-
ditional vernacular names have sometimes
been given from Sterndale's " Mammals of
India and Ceylon," Gould's "Mammals of
Australia," Elliott Coues' " Report upon the
Collections of the Mammals of the United
States," and other works.

The account of the recent observations on
the development of the Monotremes, made

since the writing of the German and French
versions of the work, has been translated from
manuscript corrections kindly furnished by
the author.

A more serious divergence from the ori-
ginal will be found in the Introduction, in
which a few paragraphs have been inter-
polated by the translator, for the purpose of
making the context more easily understood
by readers who may be wholly unacquainted
with natural history. In making these addi-
tions, however, the translator has carefully
adhered to the sense of the writer of the
original work.

The translator is likewise responsible for
the compilation of the Glossary, and for the
selection of the extracts from the works of
travellers and naturalists, containing narra-
tives of adventure and additional particulars
relating to the habits of the animals described.
These insertions are distinguished from the
other matter by being inclosed in brackets
and printed in smaller type.

GEO. G. CHISHOLM.

THE PICTURES.

FULL-PAGE PICTURES.

PLATE To face page

I. THE CHIMPANZEE (Troglodytes nigcr), 32

II. THE GORILLA (Troglodytes gorilla), 34

III. THE ORANG-UTANG OR MIAS (Simla satyrus), . 36

IV. GREEN GUENONS (Cercopithecus sabasus) plundering a Maize-field, 48

V. GROUP OF JAVA MONKEYS (Macacus cynomolgus), . 50

VI. WOLVES (Canis lupus) in pursuit of Prey, . . 136

VII. STRIPED HYAENAS (Hyaena striata) AND JACKALS (Canis aureus), 154

VIII. THE BARBARY LION (Felis leo); - . 162

IX. THE SENEGAL LION (Felis leo), 164

X. THE LEOPARD (Felis leopardus), 168

XI. THE JAGUAR (Felis onca) „ 176

XII. THE POLAR BEAR (Ursus maritimus), 204

XIII. THE COMMON OR BROWN BEAR (Ursus arctos), 206

XIV. A WOLVERENE OR GLUTTON (Gulo borealis) attacking a Reindeer, 218

XV. THE WALRUS OR MORSE (Trichechus rosmarus), 252

PICTURES IN THE TEXT.

1. The Hoolock (Hylobates leuciscus),

2. The White-handed Gibbon (Hylobates lar), .

3. Entellus Monkeys (Semnopithecus entellus),

4. The Proboscis Monkey 01 Kahau (Semnopithecus

nasica),

5. The Guereza (Colobus guereza), ....

6. The Diana Monkey (Cercopithecus diana), .

7. Group of Rhesus Monkeys (Macacus rhesus),

8. The Wanderoo (Macacus silenus), ....

9. The Barbary Ape (Inuus ecaudatus),

10. The Black Ape (Cynocephalus niger), .

1 1. The Gelada (Cynocephalus gelada),

12. The Common Baboon (Cynocephalus Babuin),

13. The Mandrill (Cynocephalus Maimon), .

14. Red Howling Monkeys (Mycetes seniculus), .

15. The Barrigudo (Lagothrix Humboldti), .

16. The Miriki Spider-monkey (Ateles eriodes), .

17. The Weeper Capuchin or Sai (Cebus capucinus), .

1 8. The Couxio or Black Saki (Pithecia Satanas),

19. The Ouakari (Brachyurus calvus), ....

20. The Masked Callithrix (Callithrix personata),

21. Saimiri or Squirrel-monkey (Chrysothrix sciurea), .

PAGE

FIG.

41

22.

43

45

23.

24.

46

25.

47

26.

49

27.

5°

28.

5'

52

29.

55

30-

56

31-

58

32.

59

33-

63

34.

64

65

35-

66

36.

67

37-

68

38.

68

39-

69

The Mirikina or Three-banded Douroucouli (Nyc-

tipithecus trivirgatus), 70

The Silky Marmoset (Hapale rosalia), . . .71

The Ouistiti or Marmoset (Hapale Jacchus), . . 72
Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta), . . . .81

The Dwarf Lemur (Microcebus myoxinus), . . 81

The Gray Lemur (Hapalemur griscus), ... 82
The Waluvi or Forked -crowned Mouse Lemur

(Chirogaleus furcifer), 83

The Indris or Babakoto (Lichanotus Indris), . . 84

The Aye-aye (Chiromys madagascariensis), . . 85

The Potto (Pterodicticus Potto), .... 87

The Angwantibo (Arctocebus calabarensis), . . 88

The Common Galago (Otolicnus Galago), . • 89
The Slow-paced Lemur or Slender Loris (Stenops

gracilis), 90

The Spectre-tarsier (Tarsius spectrum), . . -91

The Colugo or Flying-cat (Galeopithecus volitans), 93

The Kalong (Pteropus edulis), .... 102

The Long-eared Bat (Plecotus auritus), . . . 104
The Barbastelle or Pug-nose Bat (Synotus barbas-

tellus), 104

viii

THE PICTURES.

ric.

40. The Water-bat (Vespertilio Daubentoni),

41. The Noctule (Vesperugo noctula), ....

42. The Pipistrelle or Dwarf Bat (Vesperugo pipis-

trellus),

43. The Flap-nosed Bat (Rhinopoma microphyllum), .

44. The Vampire Bat (Phyllostoma spectrum),

45. The Greater Horse-shoe Bat (Rhinolophus ferrum-

equinum),

46. The Banxring or Tana (Cladobates Tana),

47. The Elephant-shrew (Macroscelides typicus),

48. The Wuychuchol (Myogale moschata), .

49. The Garden-shrew (Crocidura aranea), .

50. The Water-shrew (Crossopus fodiens), ,

51. The Agouta or Almiqui (Solenodon paradoxum), .

52. The Tanrec (Centetes ecaudatus), ....

53. A Family of Hedgehogs (Erinaceus europaeus),

54. The Common Mole (Talpa europaea),

55. The Star-nosed Mole (Condylura cristata),

56. The Cape Golden Mole (Chrysochloris capensis), .

57. The African Wolf (Canis lupaster),

58. The Maned Wolf (Canis jubatus), ....

59. The Coyote or Prairie-wolf (Canis latrans),

60. The Slender Jackal (Canis anthus),

61. The Dingo (Canis dingo),

62. The Black -backed Jackal (Canis mesomelas),

63. The Aguarachay (Canis Azaras), ....

64. The Fox (Canis vulpes),

65. The Corsac (Canis corsac)

66. The White or Arctic Fox (Canis lagopus),

67. The Sahara Fox or Fennek (Canis zerda),

68. Viverra Dog or Tanuki (Nyctercutes viverrinus), .

69. The Long-eared Fox (Otocyon caffer), .

70. The Cape Hunting-dog (Lycaon pictus),

71. The Spotted Hyaena (Hyasna crocuta),

72. The Earth-wolf or Aardwolf (Proteles Lalandii),

73. Fahhad or Maneless Hunting-leopard (Cynailurus

guttatus),

74. The Tiger (Felis tigris),

75. The Clouded Tiger (Felis macroscelis), .

76. The Marbled Cat (Felis marmorata),

77. The Gloved or Fallow Cat (Felis maniculata),

78. The Wild Cat (Felis catus),

79. The Viverrine Cat (Felis viverrina),

80. The Serval (Felis Serval)

8 1. The Puma or Cougar (Felis concolor), .

82. The Ocelot (Felis pardalis),

83. The Pampas Cat (Felis pajeros), ....

84. The Eyra (Felis eyra) 180

PAGE

FIG.

105

85.

106

86.

87.

107

88.

1 08

89.

109

90.

91.

no

92.

"5

93-

H5

94-

116

95-

118

"9

96.

120

121

97-

I23

98.

124

99-

125

IOO.

126

IOI.

•38

102.

139

I03.

I4O

IO4.

141

105.

143

1 06.

'45

107.

146

108.

147

109.

148

I 10.

149

III.

150

112.

IS'

I'3-

152

114.

'S3

"5-

156

116.

157

"7-

118.

161

119.

167

1 20.

169

121.

171

122.

172

123-

173

124.

174

125.

175

126.

'77

127.

178

128.

'79

I29.

1 80

'3°-

The Caracal (Lynx Caracal), . . . . . 182
The Polar Lynx (Lynx vulgaris), .... 183
The Spanish Lynx (Lynx pardinus), . . . 184
The Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox), . . . .185
The Common Genet (Genetta vulgaris), . .187
The African Civet-cat (Viverra Civetta), . .188
The Asiatic or Indian Civet (Viverra Zibetha), . 189
The Delundung or Linsang (Prionodon gracilis), . 190
The Paradoxure or Palm-cat (Paradoxurus typus), 191
The Mampalon (Cynogale Bennettii), . . .192
The Egyptian Ichneumon or Pharaoh's Rat (Her-

pestes Ichneumon), 193'

The Mongoose or Gray Ichneumon (Herpestes

griseus), 194

The Suricate (Rhyzasna tetradactyla), . . . 195
The Cacamizli (Bassaris astuta), . . . .198
The Common Raccoon (Procyon lotor), . -199
The Social Coati (Nasua socialis), . . . 200
The Kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus), . . 201
The Binturong (Arctictis binturong), . . . 202
The Panda (Ailurus fulgens), .... 203

Ailuropus melanoleucus, 204

The Black Bear (Ursus americanus), . . . 208
The Malayan Bear (Ursus malayanus), . . 209
The Indian Black Bear (Ursus labiatus), . . 210
The Common Badger (Meles taxus), . . . 214
The Telagon (Mydaus Telagon), . . . -215
The Cape Ratel (Ratelus capensis), . . . 216
The Brazilian Skunk (Mephitis suffocans), . . 217
The Bush-dog (Icticyon venaticus), . . .219
The Tayra (Galictis barbara), .... 220
The Pine-Marten (Mustela martes), . . .221
The Beech-Marten (Mustela foina), . . . 222
The Sable (Mustela zobellina), .... 223
The Polecat (Putorius tetidus), .... 224

The Ferret (Putorius furo), 225

The Common Stoat (Putorius erminea), . . 226
The Weasel (Putorius vulgaris), .... 227
The European Vison (Putorius lutrcola), . . 228
The Lynx-tooth (Lyncodon patagonicus), . . 229

The Otter (Lutra vulgaris), 231

The Sea-otter (Enhydris marina), .... 232
Steller's Sea-lion (Otaria Stelleri), . . . .243
The Sea-bear (Otaria ursina), .... 245
The Sea-elephant (Cystophora proboscidea), . 247
The Bladder-nosed Seal (Cystophora cristata), . 248
The Sea-leopard (Leptonyx leopardinus), . . 249
The Greenland Seal (Phoca grcenlandica), . . 250

THE CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

General Characters of the Vertebrata, ....
Different Types of the Vertebrata, ....

Comparison of Vertebrate Types,

Position of the Mammalia in the Sub-kingdom Verte-
brata,

The Mammalian Structure,

General Characters, .......

Special Characters :

The Skin and its Modifications, Hair, Nails, Super-
ficial Glands, Milk Glands, ....

The Skeleton: Skull, Limbs, Shoulder-girdle, Fore-
and Hind-limbs, the Hand; Position of the

Limbs in Walking,

The Teeth: their Structure, Milk and Permanent
Teeth, Dental Formulas, Perfecting of the
Dental Systems during the Evolution of the
Ancestry of the present Mammals, .

Reproduction in the Mammalia,

Distribution in Space of the Mammalia,

Subdivision of the Mammals based on the presumed

order of Evolution,

Presumable Relations of existing Placental Orders to
a Marsupial Ancestry as shown by the Dental
Characters, . .

PACE
I

I
2

2
2
2

6
ii

12
14

16

Table of the Orders, Families, and Tribes of the

Mammalia, 18

Note on Geological Points referred to in this Work, . 22
Geological Table of the Main Rock-systems into which

the Crust of the Earth is divided, .... 23

APES AND MONKEYS (SIMI/E).

Introduction,

Monkeys of the Old World (Catarrhinae),
ANTHROPOID APES (Anthropomorphas), .
Black Anthropoid Apes (Troglodytes), .

Chimpanzee (Troglodytes niger),
Chego (Troglodytes Tchego),
Gorilla (Troglodytes gorilla),

Red Anthropoid Apes (Sitnia),

Orang-utang or Mias (Simia satyrus),

25
32
32
32
33
35
35

36
36

Gibbons (Hylobates), 39

Siamang (Hylobates syndactylus), ... 40

Hoolock (Hylobates leuciscus (hoolock)), . . 41

White-handed Gibbon (Hylobates lar), . . 42

TAILED MONKEYS (Caudatas), 42

Semnopitheci, ........ 46

Entellus Monkey or Hunuman (Semnopithecus

entellus), 46

Proboscis Monkey or Kahau (Semnopithecus

nasica), 47

Colobi, 48

Guereza (Colobus guereza), 48

The Guenons (Cercopithecus), 48

Talapoin (Myiopithecus talapoin), ... 48

Diana Monkey (Cercopithecus diana), . . 48

Mona (Cercopithecus mona), .... 48

Mangabey or Moorish Monkey, .... 48
Hussar or Nisnas Monkey (Cercopithecus pyr-

rhonotus), 48

Green Guenon (Cercopithecus sabaeus), . . 49

Macaques (Macacus), ...... 49

Java Monkey (Macacus cynomolgus), . . 51
Boonder (Macacus rhesus), . . . -5'

Wanderoo (Macacus silenus), . . . 51

Magot (Inuus ecaudatus), 52

Baboons (Cynocephalus), . . . . -53

Black Ape (Cynocephalus niger), • • • S5

Gelada (Cynocephalus gelada), .... 55

Arabian Baboon (Cynocephalus hamadryas), . 55

Common Baboon (Cynocephalus Babuin), . . 57
Chacma or Pig-faced Baboon (Cynocephalus

porcarius), 57

Guinea Baboon (Cynocephalus sphinx), . . 57

Mandrill (Cynocephalus Maimon), ... 59

Drill (Cynocephalus leucophaeus), ... 59

Monkeys of the New World (Platyrrhinoe), ... 60

NAKED-TAILED MONKEYS (Gymnurae), ... 62

The Howlers (Mycetes), 62

Red Howling Monkey (Mycetes seniculus), . 63

The Woolly Monkeys (Lagothrix), .... 64

Barrigudo (Lagothrix Humboldti), ... 64

The Spider-monkeys (Ateles), .... 64

Miriki (Ateles criodes), 64

THE CONTENTS.

THE SAJOUS (Cebidae), 65

Weeper Capuchin (Cebus capucinus), . . 66

THE SAKIS (Aneturse), 66

Couxio or Black Saki (Pithecia Satanas), . . 67

Ouakari (Brachyurus calvus), .... 67

Masked Callithrix (Callithrix personata), . . 68

Saimiri or Squirrel-monkey (Chrysothrix sciurea), 69

Mirikina (Nyctipithecus trivirgatus), ... 70

Clawed Monkeys (Arctopitheci), 7°

Silky Marmoset (Hapale rosalia), ... 72

Ouistiti or Common Marmoset (Hapale Jacchus), 73

Geographical Distribution and Descent of the Apes and

Monkeys, 73

THE PROSIMIANS (PROSIMII).

Introduction, 77

THE PROSIMIANS OF MADAGASCAR,

The Lemurs (Lemurida),

Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta),

Dwarf Lemur (Microcebus myoxinus),

Gray or Broad-nosed Lemur (Hapalemurgriseus),

Waluvi (Chirogaleus furcifer), ....

The Indris Family (Indrisida), ....
Indris or Babakoto (Lichanotus Indris), .

The Aye-aye,

Aye-aye (Chiromys madagascariensis),

THE AFRICAN PROSIMIANS,

The Potto Family (Pterodictidd),

The Potto (Pterodicticus Potto), ....
Angwantibo (Arctocebus calabarensis),

The Galagos (Galagonida),

Grand or Thick-tailed Galago (Otolicnus crassi-

caudatus),

Komba (Otolicnus agisymbanus),
Galago proper (Otolicnus Galago),

THE EAST INDIAN PROSIMIANS, ....

The Lori's (Lorisida),

Plump Loris (Stenops tardigradus), .
Slow-paced Lemur (Stenops gracilis),

The Spectre-tarsier ( Tarsias spectruni),
The Colugos (Galeopithecida), ....
Colugo or Flying-cat (Galeopithecus volitans), .

Geographical Distribution and Descent of the Pro-
simians,

THE BATS (CHIROPTERA).

Introduction

FRUIT-EATING BATS (Carpophaga), .
Flying-foxes (Pteropida), . . . .

Kalong (Pteropus edulis), .
INSECT-EATING BATS (Entomophaga), .
True Bats or Vespertilionida (Gymnorhina),
Long-eared Bat (Plccotus auritus),

80
80

83

83
83
84

84
85
86
86
87
87

87
87

89
89
89

89
90
9°
92

93
94

94

96
101
101
1 02
103
103
104

Barbastelle or Pug-nose Bat (Synotus barbas-

tellus), 105

Common Mouse-coloured Bat (Vespertilio mur-

inus), 105

Water-bat (Vespertilio Daubentoni ), . . . 105

Noctule (Vesperugo noctula), .... 106

Pipistrelle or Dwarf Bat (Vesperugo pipistrellus), 106

Leaf -nosed Bats (Pity lias to mat a), . . . .107
Flap-nosed Bat (Rhinopoma microphyllum), . 107
True Vampire (Phyllostoma spectruni), . . 108
Horse-shoe Bats of the Old World, . . . 109
Lesser Horse-shoe Bat (Rhinolophus hippo-

sidcros), . 1 10

Greater Horse-shoe Bat (Rhinolophus ferrum-

equinum), ' . .no

Geographical Distribution and Descent of the Bats, . no

THE INSECT-EATERS (INSECTIVORA).

Introduction, 112

BANXRINGS OR CLIMBERS (Tupaias), . . .114

Tana or Banxring (Cladobates Tana), . .114

THE JUMPING-SHREWS (Macroscelida), . . .115

Elephant-shrew (Macroscelides typicus), . .116

Algerian Jumping-shrew (Macroscelides Rozeti), 116

THE DESMANS OR DIVERS (Myogalida), . .116
Wuychuchol (Myogale moschata), . . .116
Desman (Myogale pyrenaica), . . . .116

THE SHREWS OR RUNNERS (Soricida), . . .117

Garden-shrew (Crocidura aranea), . . .118

Water-shrew (Crossopus fodiens), . . .118

Agouta or Almiqui (Solenodon paradoxum), . 120

THE CRAWLERS, 120

The Tanrecs (Centetida), 1 20

Tanrec (Centetes ecaudatus), . . . .121
Gymnura Raffles!! , 121

The Hedgehogs (Erinacei), 121

Hedgehog (Erinaceus europxus), . . . 122

THE BORROWERS, 122

The Moles (Talpida), 123

Common Mole (Talpa europzca), . . .123
Star-nosed Mole (Condylura cristata), . .125
Scalops canadensis, 125

Group of the Golden Moles (Chrysochlorida), . 125
Geographical Distribution and Descent of the Insect-
eaters, 126

THE FLESH-EATERS (CARNIVORA).

Introduction,

The Dog Tribe (Canida)

THE DOGS PROPER (Canis), .

Group of the Wolves (sub-genus Lupus),
Common Wolf (Canis lupus),
African Wolf (Canis lupaster), .

129
134

'37

137
137
'39

THE CONTENTS.

XI

Maned Wolf (Canis jubatus), ....
Coyote or Prairie-wolf (Canis latrans),
Jackal or Dib (Canis aureus), ....
Slender Jackal (Canis anthus), ....

The Domestic Dog,

The Dingo (Canis dingo),

Group of the Foxes (sub-genus Viilpcs),.
Black-backed Jackal (Canis mesomelas), .
Aguarachay (Canis Azarae), ....

Fox (Canis vulpes),

Corsac (Canis corsac),

White or Arctic Fox (Canis lagopus),
Sahara Fox or Fennek (Canis zerda), .
Viverra Dog or Tanuki (Nyctereutes viverrinus),
Long-eared Fox (Otocyon caffer),
Cape Hunting-dog (Lycaon pictus), .

The Hyaenas (Hysenida),

Striped Hyaena (Hyasna striata),
Spotted Hyaena (Hyaena crocuta),
Brown Hya;na (Hyasna brunnea),
Earth-wolf or Aardwolf (Proteles Lalandii),

The Cat Tribe (Felida),

THE CHEETAHS OR HUNTING-LEOPARDS (Cynail-
urus,

Fahhad or Maneless Hunting-leopard (Cynail-

urus guttatus),

Cheetah (Cynailurus jubatus), ....

THE TRUE FELINES (Felis),

Felines of the Old World,

Lion (Felis leo),

Tiger (Felis tigris),

African Panther (Felis Leopardus),
Asiatic Panther (Felis Panthera),
Clouded Tiger (Felis macroscelis),
Marbled Cat (Felis marmorata),
Fallow or Gloved Cat (Felis maniculata), .

The Domestic Cat,

Wild Cat (Felis catus),

Viverrine Cat (Felis viverrina)

Serval (Felis Serval),

Felines of the New World, . . . .

Jaguar (Felis onca),

Cougar or Puma (Felis concolor),

Ocelot (Felis pardalis), ....

Pampas Cat (Felis pajeros),

Brazilian Eyra (Felis eyra),

Jaguarondi (Felis jaguarondi), .

THE LYNXES (Lynx),

Booted Lynx (Lynx caligatus), .
Caracal (Lynx Caracal), ....
Polar Lynx (Lynx vulgaris),
Spanish Lynx (Lynx pardinus), .

THE FOSSA (Cryptoprocta fcrox),
The Viverrines (Viverrida), ....
THE CIVETS (Ailuropoda), ....

Common Genet (Genetta vulgaris), .

Civet Cats (Viverra Civetta and Zibetha), .

Delundung or Linsang (Prionodon gracilis),

Paradoxures or Musangs (Paradoxurus), .

PAGE
139
I4O
141
141
142
144

144

H5
H5
146
148
149
150

IS'
152
IS2

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I56
157
'57
157

158
162

162
162

I63

163

I65

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1 68
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170
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172
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'74

'75

'75
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179
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1 80
1 80

1 80
181
182
182
183
184
1 86
1 88
1 88
189
190
190

211

Common Paradoxure (Paradoxurus typus),
Mampalon (Cynogale Bennettii),

THE MANGOUSTIS (Cynopoda), ....
True Mangoustis (Herpestes), ....
Egyptian Ichneumon (Herpestes Ichneumon), .
Gray Ichneumon or Mongoose(Herpestesgriseus),
Suricate (Rhyzsena tetradactyla),

The Bears (Ursida)

THE SMALL BEARS (Subursida

Cacamizli (Bassaris astuta), ....
Crab-eating Raccoon (Procyon cancrivorus),
Mexican Raccoon (Procyon Hernandezi), .
Common Raccoon (Procyon lotor),
Coatis or Proboscis-bears (Nasua),
Social Coati (Nasua socialis), ....
Kinkajou (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus),
Binturong (Arctictis binturong), ....

Panda (Ailurus fulgens),

Ailuropus melanoleucus, .....

THE LARGE BEARS (Ursida),

Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus), ....
Gray Bear or Grizzly (Ursus ferox), .
Brown Bear (Ursus arctos), ....
Black Bear (Ursus americanus), ....
Coco-nut Palm Bear (Ursus malayanus), .

The Badger and Weasel Family (Mustelida),

GROUP OF THE BADGERS (Mclida), . . . 213

Common Badger (Meles taxus), .... 213
American and Indian Badgers, . . . .216

Telagon or Stinking Badger (Mydaus Telagon), 216
Honey- badgers (Ratelus or Mellivora), . .217
Cape Ratel (Ratelus capensis), . . . .217

Skunks (Mephitis), 217

Brazilian Skunk (Mephitis suffocans), . .218

GROUP OF THE MARTENS (Martida), . . . 218

Glutton (Gulo borealis), 218

Bush-dog (Icticyon venaticus), . . . 219

Hyrares or Grisons (Galictis), . . . 219

Tayra (Galictis barbara), ..... 220

Grison (Galictis vittata), 220

Martens (Mustela), ...... 220

Pine Marten (Mustela martes), . . . .221

Beech or Stone Marten (Mustela foina), . . 222

Sable (Mustela zobellina), 223

American Marten (Mustela americana), . . 224

Pekan or Canadian Marten (Mustela Pennanti), 224

Polecats (Putorius), 224

Polecat (Putorius foetidus), 225

Ferret (Putorius furo), 225

Tiger Polecat (Putorius sarmaticus), . . . 226

Weasels (sub-genus Gale), 226

Common Stoat or Ermine (Putorius erminea), . 226

Weasel proper (Putorius vulgaris), . . . 227

Visons (sub-genus Lutreola), .... 227

Siberian Vison (Putorius sibiricus), . . . 228

European Vison (Putorius lutreola), . . . 228

American Vison or Mink (Putorius vison), . 228

Lynx-tooth (Lyncodon patagonicus), . . . 229

GROUP OF THE OTTERS (Lutrida) 229

European Otter (Lutra vulgaris), . . . 229

Sea-otter (Enhydris marina), .... 231

Xll

THE CONTENTS.

Geographical Distribution and Descent of the Flesh-
eaters, 234

THE SEALS (P1NNIPEDIA).

Introduction, 239

THE EARED SEALS (Otarida), ..... 241
Steller's Sea-lion (Otaria Stelleri), . . .243

Sea-bear (Otaria ursina), 244

PAGE

THE TRUE SEALS (Phocida), . . . . . 246

Sea-elephant (Cystophora proboscidea), . . 246

Bladder-nosed Seal (Cystophora cristata), . . 248

Monk-seal (Lcptonyx monachus), . . . 249

Sea-leopard (Leptonyx leopardinus), . . . 249

Common Seal or Sea-calf (Phoca vitulina), . 249

Greenland Seal (Phoca groenlandica), . . 249

THE WALRUS OR MORSE (Trichechus rosmarus), . 250

Geographical Distribution and Descent of the Seals, . 253

Young of the Brown Bear.

RSITY

OF
ORN\i

THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF ANIMALS

[CLASS MAMMALIA].

INTRODUCTION.

THE shortest definition of this important
class of the animal kingdom, to which man
himself belongs, is as follows: vertebrates
with hair and with milk-glands for the. first nour-
ishment of the young. It is likewise a definition
that gives the only absolutely exclusive charapters
of the class, for no other group of vertebrates has
hair or milk-glands.

General Characters of the Vertebrata — The
mammals are in the first place true vertebrates, for,
like all the other animals belonging to this sub-
kingdom, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and birds,
they have an internal skeleton which forms the axis
of the body, and which is composed of a column of
separate vertebrae. This vertebral column is crowned
by the skull, which contains the brain and the
principal organs of sense, and it has in addition
two pairs of lateral appendages, namely the fore-
and the hind-limbs. This skeleton, which in the
higher vertebrates is always formed of bones, is
enveloped by muscles which are attached to its
individual parts, and these parts thus perform the
function of levers on which the muscles act in con-
tracting. In most other animals the muscles are
attached to the more or less hard skin or external
covering. But the skeleton also forms the axis of
the body, which is so divided by it that we have on
the back (namely in a tube behind or above the
solid centres of the vertebrae) the central nervous
system, that is, the brain and the spinal column,
and on the abdominal side the other organs, those
serving for the development of the animal, namely
the alimentary system and the organs of respiration

and reproduction. Moreover, the skeleton also
forms a number of cavities, in which the organs are
sometimes so much embedded as to lie in perfectly
closed capsules, as is the case, for example, with
the brain.

None of the Vertebrata have more than two
pairs of limbs, a fore and a hind pair; and this
also is an essential point of distinction as compared
with other animals, for in every other sub-kingdom
the limbs or motor appendages, if present at all,
are always found in greater number. These limbs
may be only in a rudimentary condition or even
altogether absent, but their number can never be
increased.

Different Types of the Vertebrata. — If now we
take a glance at the different types of vertebrates
with the view of comparing them together, we
observe at once a sharp line of demarcation in the
terminations of the limbs. In the fishes the limb
ends in a considerable number of rays, while in all
other living vertebrates the terminal portion of the
limbs never has more than five fingers or toes, or,
to use the general term employed by men of science,
digits. The fishes accordingly are many-fingered ;
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals, on the
other hand, five-fingered (or five-toed). The num-
ber of these fingers or toes may be reduced in the
process of development, but every limb in all
members of the classes named has always five
digits to begin with. This is a fact of great im-
portance. We may deduce from it that vertebrates
with a smaller number of digits must be descended
from five-fingered or five-toed ancestors, and that

THE MAMMALIA.

those which have five digits on each limb have
undergone no modification, but have preserved
their original type.

Comparison of Vertebrate Types: Ichthyop-
sida and Sauropsida. — The five-toed vertebrates
when compared with one another show some very
remarkable points of resemblance and difference.
The amphibians (frogs, toads, &c.) have a number
of characters in common with the fishes. Types
may be found in regard to which, apart from the
structure of the limbs, doubt might be entertained
as to whether we should refer them to the one class
or the other. These two classes have accordingly
been rightly comprehended in one larger group —
the Ichthyopsida, a group the members of which
breathe, sometimes during their whole life, some-
times only in the larval condition, through true
gills, which are never developed in the other three
classes.

A number of common characters unite also the
reptiles and birds. As to the fact that the ancestors
of the birds were reptiles, that indeed birds are
only reptiles which in the course of geological
epochs have developed further in a particular
direction, probably no doubt can any longer be
entertained. The development of the embryos,
the structure of the envelopes of the ovum, the
peculiarities of the skeleton, which we cannot here
enumerate, agree to such an extent, that the uniting
of these two classes, at the present day apparently
so different, into the single large group of the
Sauropsida is fully justified. For the sake of
those readers who are not initiated into these
investigations, I mention here two facts of great
importance: all the Sauropsida have only a single
articulating surface (in scientific language a single
articular condyle) at the back of the head, with
the aid of which the head is rotated on the first
vertebra, and all the earliest birds have teeth
exactly like those of reptiles. Even yet these teeth
sometimes appear in embryonic life, as in the parrots
and certain other birds, but they never emerge
through the gum, and are re-absorbed soon after
their appearance.

Position of the Mammalia in the Sub-kingdom
Vertebrata. The Mammals accordingly form a
third large division, entirely distinct from the other
vertebrates. Formerly they were grouped along
with the birds as •' warm-blooded " animals, because
like these they have a uniform and tolerably high
temperature of the blood. Over against these two
classes were placed the reptiles, amphibians, and

fishes with cold blood, or rather with blood the
temperature of which depends on that of the sur-
rounding medium. But naturalists have been com-
pelled to recognize the fact that this physiological
agreement has only a subordinate value.

But if, on the one hand, the mammals form a
separate group, yet, on the other hand, it cannot
be gainsaid that in respect of certain characters
they present a surprising resemblance to the am-
phibians. Besides in the structure of the ovum
this resemblance is also shown in the fact that all
mammals have, like the amphibians, two lateral
condyles at the back of the head, and that the
movements of the head are altogether different
from those which are observed in reptiles and
birds. Let us take by way of illustration the
movements of the human head. When we raise
or depress the head, that is, whenever we move
it vertically, we allow the condyles to play upon
the corresponding articular surfaces of the first
neck vertebra; but when we rotate the head hori-
zontally, then we cause the first neck vertebra to
turn round an upright process of the second. The
joints for these two sorts of movements are accord-
ingly different. The birds, on the other hand,
execute their movements of the head in all direc-
tions by means of the single median condyle; they
have no second joint of the kind just spoken of.

Mammalian Structure — Having thusexplained
the position of the mammals with respect to the
other classes of vertebrates, we may now occupy
our attention with their peculiar structure of body,
which in the most highly developed types of this
class has attained the highest grade capable of
being reached by the bodily structure of animals.

General Characters. — In almost all mammals
the different parts of the body, such as the head,
neck, trunk, and its direct continuation the tail, are
strictly marked off from each other, and if these
demarcations are sometimes not very clearly seen
in the living animal, they are nevertheless always
plainly recognizable in the skeleton. The neck
may be shortened and so concealed by the flesh
that the head appears to be directly connected with
the trunk, as, for example, in the whales; but in
the skeleton one can always distinguish the neck
vertebra;, almost invariably seven in number what-
ever the length of the neck may be. This con-
stancy in the number of the neck vertebra;, a con-
stancy to which a few sloths and the manatee form
the sole exceptions, is all the more striking since
it is not found to hold good in the case of the other

INTRODUCTION.

parts of the vertebral column. The tail especially
exhibits all possible variations in the vertebrae
composing it, both with respect to their number
and their form. It may be excessively long, or,
as in the anthropoid apes, quite rudimentary.

Only in the mammals is the abdominal cavity,
which lies partly between the ribs, separated off by
a muscular partition, the diaphragm, from the cavity
of the chest containing the lungs and heart.

Special Characters: (a) The Skin and its
Modifications. — It must further be mentioned as
a specially noteworthy fact, that the two exclusive
mammalian characters, the hair and the milk-
glands, are both developed from the skin, which,
as in all vertebrates, is composed of two distinct
layers, the outer or scarf skin, and the inner or
true skin.

The scarf-skin or epidermis undergoes the most
various modifications. It consists primarily of
layers of contiguous cells forming a thin flexible
membrane; but it afterwards thickens in certain
places, becomes horny and stiff, acquires a further
and often very complicated structure, and forms
hard callosities, nails, hoofs, horns, and scales.
Among these structures belonging to the scarf-skin
the hairs, nails, and glands are the most widely
diffused.

Hair. — In no mammal is the hair altogether
wanting, and though in some, such as the whales,
it is only very scanty or apparently not present at
all, yet traces of it can always be found either in
the young animal or in hidden parts in folds of the
skin in the adult. Each hair is formed in a depres-
sion of the scarf-skin, and it may assume the most
diverse forms. We meet with all transitions from
the finest woolly or silky down to large coarse
bristles and even spines, which serve as weapons of
defence, and appear to consist, like the scales of the
scaly ant-eaters, of hairs that have grown together.
The horns of the rhinoceros, the horny sheaths of
animals with hollow horns, as well as nails and
hoofs, appear likewise to consist of agglutinated
fibres or small plates, often separated from each
other by a considerable amount of pulp.

In most cases the hairy covering of a mammal
is made up of two sorts of hair, soft downy hairs,
and a stronger kind, which in certain places de-
velops into manes, tufts, beards, and so forth.
The depressions or follicles in which the hairs are
set are always richly supplied with nerve-endings,
which convey impressions of touch. The tactile
sensibility conferred thereby is peculiarly well de-

veloped in the often very long and thick hairs
which form a moustache in many mammals. The
general character of the hair-covering, which is in
many cases splendidly coloured, forms an impor-
tant point in zoology.

Equal importance is attached to the nails, claws,
and hoofs, in short to all the horny structures,
which are almost always present on the toes of
mammals, being wanting only in certain types
living in the water, such as the whales.

Nails. — The nails, which in the apes and mon-
keys are flat, and in beasts of prey and many other
mammals curved and hook-like, cover only the
back of the last phalanx of the toes, while the
hoofs envelope it completely. This difference has
been employed to distinguish the hoofed mammals
(Ungulata) from the nailed mammals (Ungnicn-
latci); but this division, in consequence of the large
number of intermediate forms, has nothing like the
value which was at first attributed to it.

Superficial Glands. — Superficial glands, origi-
nally formed by an involution of the scarf-skin, are
almost universal. They are absent only in some
whales. Some of these, the sebaceous glands,
secrete an oily slime and are intimately connected
with the hair-covering; others, the sweat-glands,
appear rather to serve for the excretion of liquids
and gases. Those of the first kind may, in certain
situations, grow to a very considerable size. This
happens mostly in the neighbourhood of the anus
and the reproductive organs, but sometimes also on
the head, neck, back, feet, and other parts. In gen-
eral such large glands are connected with the repro-
ductive functions. The products excreted by them
are often of a disagreeable penetrating odour, and
these glands may therefore serve even as weapons
of defence, as in the polecats and skunks. Glands
of this nature yield musk, the castoreum of the
beaver, and similar products.

Milk-glands. — The most important of the skin-
glands finally are those which we call milk-glands.
They are never absent, but they act only in the
female after the birth of the young, and their
secretion, milk, which contains all the ingredients
necessary for the nourishment of the body, serves
to feed the new-born offspring for a longer or shorter
period. Like most of the skin-glands they are
made up of longer or shorter tubes opening into
each other at certain places, and finally opening to
the exterior by very delicate canals. It is only in
the monotremes that they are seen in their original
form, namely, as a bundle of tubes opening separately

THE MAMMALIA.

at a certain part of the abdominal surface without
forming any elevation. In all other mammals
there are formed mammary glands provided with
warty or even tongue-shaped teats or mamma;,
which the young animal can take into its mouth
in sucking. These teats may be situated at different
parts of the abdominal surface — in front of the chest,
in the middle of the abdomen, or even far back in
the folds of the groin ; but they are always arranged
symmetrically in pairs, and their number is related
to the number of young born at a birth. While
these teats in the whales are very short and hidden
in folds of the skin, they attain a very considerable
length in some marsupials, among which animals
they either lie in a well-formed pouch or at least
between two folds of the skin. In the teats are
united the secretory ducts of a number of gland-
tubes, and there they form a sort of reservoirs
opening to the exterior by one or several mouths.

(b) The Skeleton. — We should exceed the limits
assigned to our work if we were to go into the
details of the structure of the bony skeleton which
holds the parts of the body together. We can
only touch on certain points which cannot be passed
over in a zoological review of the group.

The Skull. — The skull forms, with the exception
of the lower jaw, a single piece composed of bones
immovably fastened together. Two separate parts
can be distinguished, the brain-case and the facial
region, the latter including the nose, the eyes in
part, and the commencement of the alimentary
canal, the mouth. To this firmly built skull with
immovable parts is articulated the lower jaw, which
is composed of two halves united at the chin, and
sometimes, as in the apes and monkeys, completely
fused together, sometimes separated by a distinct
suture, or connected only by ligaments. The im-
movable attachment of the bones of the upper jaw
and other bones of the skull to each other and to
the brain-case is not found in most other verte-
brates, in which it is rather the rule for the bones of
the facial region to be separate and movable. The
upper jaw always consists of two bones on each
side; the inter- or pre-maxillary bones in the
middle of the mouth, and the maxilla; forming the
sides. But these are not movable on each other,
but are connected by sutures, and often become
quite fused together at a more or less advanced
age. In all vertebrates, except the mammals, the
lower jaw is composed of several bones connected
by sutures. Only in this class does each half of
the lower jaw consist of but one bone.

We shall have occasion later on to speak of the
teeth, which are found only in the bones of the
jaws, and form in the upper as in the under jaw
only a single row,1 while in most other vertebrates
the teeth may be set in all the bones which go to
form the cavity of the mouth.

The relations between the brain-case and the
facial region of the skull vary considerably. The
former part is more fully developed the higher the
development of the brain, and with it the mental
qualities of the animal. The low types, such as the
marsupials, have very tiny brains and insignificant
brain-cases in comparison with their powerful jaws.
But many subsidiary structures may conceal these
marked contrasts, especially in the living animal.
The cavities known as the frontal sinuses, which are
continuations of the cavity of the nose, and are
found between the two plates of the frontal bone,
may be developed to such an extent that they take
up, as in the elephant, considerably greater space
than the brain itself. Longitudinal and transverse
ridges, which are required for the attachment of
the powerful muscles of mastication, may likewise
impart to the brain-case a more imposing appear-
ance than it would otherwise have. The length of
the jaws, which stands in relation to the action of
these parts as levers, may undergo considerable
variations in accordance with the greater or less
degree of savagencss in the instincts of the animal.
Yet in spite of these special circumstances affecting
the external appearance of the brain-case, it may
confidently be asserted that animals have a larger
or smaller brain according as they are distinguished
by high or low mental endowments, and that the
brain-case formed more or less strictly in accordance
with the size and shape of the brain enables us to
judge approximately of the development of the
organ inclosed within it.

The Limbs. — We do not intend now to con-
sider in detail the structure of the vertebral column,
the ribs and breast-bone, but we must make a closer
examination of the limbs, the structure of which
has often afforded the fundamental distinctions for
the subdivision of the mammals.

All mammals have originally had paired fore-
and hind-limbs, more or less closely connected
with the skeleton, in front by means of the bones
of the breast and the shoulder-girdle, behind by

1 There is only one partial exception to this statement, namely,
in the sub-division of the rodents known as the Duplicidentata
(including the hare and rabbit), in which, as stated in the proper
place in the body of the book, there are two small incisors behind
the two large incisors in the upper jaw. — TR.

INTRODUCTION.

5

means of the pelvis. The fore-limbs persist in all
members of the class, but the hind ones have dis-
appeared in the whales and sea-cows (Sirenia).
But this is only the result of a process of degen-
eration, and small bones, which are nothing else
than the rudiments of these undeveloped limbs,
can still be found hidden in the flesh of these
animals.

The Shoulder-girdle.— What is known as the
shoulder-girdle is composed originally of three
bones, the shoulder-blade or scapula, the collar-
bone, and the coracoid. These bones are still
found separate in the monotremes as in the lower
five-fingered vertebrates. But in all other mammals
the coracoid early becomes fused with the shoulder-
blade, of which it then forms a process. The
collar-bone is very variable in its development.
It might be called the bone of the specialized
function of the limb, the bone which enables the
limb to act in some particular way. It is, in fact,
present in all mammals in which the fore-limb
has to perform complicated functions, in which, for
example, it is employed as a hand for grasping, as
a spade for digging, or as a paddle in swimming;
but it becomes rudimentary or vanishes entirely
when the limb has merely to support the body in
walking and running.

The Fore- and Hind-limbs. — The fore- and
hind-limbs correspond with each other as regards the
composition of their bony framework. The bone
of the upper arm (the humerus) corresponds to the
thigh-bone or femur, the radius to the tibia, the
ulna to the fibula, the wrist to the ankle, the meta-
carpus (the bones of the palm of the hand) to the
metatarsus (those of the sole of the foot), the
fingers finally to the toes ; and in spite of the fact
that the elbow and the knee have contrary directions
these joints are also homologous.

Now nothing is subject to greater variations than
the structure of the limbs, which are primarily
affected by adaptation to the most diverse modes
of life. Is it possible, indeed, to imagine organs
more different than the foot of a horse, the paw of
a dog, the hand of an ape, the fin of a dolphin, and
the wing of a bat? And yet these limbs, so diverse
in respect of their structure and function, are all
constructed on one and the same ground-plan;
they are composed of the same elements, and the
filial result has been brought about only by
modifications and processes of reduction and sup-
pression originally not at all striking, but which
have gone on gradually accumulating.

In order to understand these transformations we
must go back to the primitive conditions which are
to be seen, on the one hand, in embryos, and, on
the other hand, in the oldest ancestral forms known
to us. What do we then see?

The limbs of the embryo scarcely differ at all
from one another. In the embryo the fore-limb of
a bat, which is destined in the adult to support a
flying membrane, is exactly like the hind-limb,
which ultimately develops into a sort of paw with
five toes and curved claws. The limb of a kangaroo
does not, in the first instance, differ in any way
from that of a monkey or a sheep. The initial
form is always the same: a small lobe attached to
the side of the body, and having developed on it
five rays, the future toes, which are connected
together down to their extremities by a membranous
continuation of the lobe. One of these rays, which
corresponds to the thumb or first digit (for we
always count the digits beginning with the thumb
or great toe) stands a little apart from the other
four, each of which has its axis corresponding to
that of the limb itself.

The original form of the mammalian limb is
accordingly in all cases that of a flipper, the thumb
of which stands a little apart, while the digits are
all connected together by the skin.

From these facts we deduce the conclusion that
the webbed feet of the beavers, otters, seals, in short
of all mammals living in the water have preserved
the original type, which has become specialized in
a particular direction, or, in simpler language, has
become adapted to a special use, in the fin of the
whales and sea-cows.

If we trace the development of the flying-mem-
brane step by step in the embryo of the bat, we
can easily be convinced that this member is only
an aerial paddle, the structure of which has re-
mained essentially the same as that of the aquatic
paddle of the seal. In the flying-membrane of the
bat the chief part of the supporting framework
consists of the greatly elongated bones of the fingers
or digits, but the motion of the membrane in the
act of flying is effected by means of the rest of the
fore-limb just as in the flipper of the seal, in which
the same bones are present, only not elongated
and not spread out. Apart from the elongation of
the digits and the extension of the membrane
necessitated by the gaseous element in which the
creature has to " swim," the wing of the bat is thus
exactly like the flipper of the seal. It is accor-
dingly only a swimming-paddle specially developed

THE MAMMALIA.

with respect to the surrounding medium, and one
that has undergone no other modifications than
those affecting the dimensions of the parts.

In the other terminal members of mammals the
connecting skin extends no further than the roots
of the fingers or toes ; but remains of this connect-
ing skin are still found in almost all mammals.

Then a second fact is likewise conspicuous.
The first digit, the thumb or great toe, takes from
the very first a different direction from the other
digits. This divergence is maintained in most
mammals, and in addition to that the fact that this
digit has only two instead of three small bones or
phalanges contributes to give to it a peculiar
position. From a thumb having this difference in
direction as compared with the other digits to a
true thumb capable of being opposed to the other
digits, as in the human hand, there is no very great
interval, and we have moreover numerous examples
of intermediate forms. Besides, all limbs with
opposable thumbs or great toes have five digits,
and have accordingly preserved the original number.

The Hand. — From these facts we infer that the
limbs with the first digit standing apart from the
others represent the original form, and that those
with an opposable first digit, in one word, hands,
are a very old type. We find, in fact, hands on
the hind-limbs in opossums and phalangers, lemurs
and monkeys; and in the two latter groups we
have in addition hands on the fore-limbs, which are
the only ones that persist in man. Although the
hand is indeed a wonderful instrument, it is never-
theless a very old pattern. How could the
marsupials just named, which are among the lowest
mammalian types, possess hands if these members
represented the last and highest stage of develop-
ment of the limbs?

If then a five-toed foot with the first toe standing
apart from the others is the primitive form, one
that we meet with in the oldest mammals known
to us, all the other forms of limb, often very much
modified, must necessarily have originated in this
fundamental type.

This modification has been brought about mainly
by the degeneration of separate parts beginning
with the digits and proceeding upwards, but is also
due in some degree to the excessive development
of other parts. For details regarding this matter
we refer the reader to what is said with reference
to the separate orders. One will be able to judge
of the enormous influence which has been exercised
by the processes of reduction and fusion (the entire

loss of certain bones, and the merging of two or
more into one) by comparing two extremes, for
example, the fore-foot of a porcupine ant-eater
(Echidna) and that of a horse. The former is five-
toed and has the full number of bones, namely
thirty-three; the latter is single-toed, has fused
and degraded bones, and the total number of the
bones is only seventeen, and two of these (two
bones belonging to the metacarpus) are functionless.

The process of reduction can in this case be
traced both in the embryo and in ancestral forms,
which lay buried in past geological strata; and
from all these facts we may draw the general
conclusion, that all mammals with reduced or
degraded digits must be descended from ancestors
with complete five-toed feet, and that these modified
feet are the result of a longer or shorter series of
successive variations.

The Position of the Limbs in Walking:
Digitigrada and Plantigrada — One last point
still remains to be explained. The limbs carry the
body, but they carry it in various ways. The
ruminants as well as the horses, the cat tribe as
well as dogs and their allies, place only the points
of their toes on the ground ; they are Digitigrada.
The apes and monkeys, the Prosimii (lemurs, &c.),
bears, most of the marsupials and the monotremes
touch the ground with the entire sole, including
even the wrist and ankle; they arc Plantigrada.
In certain orders we can follow the process of
raising the sole above the ground step by step, so
that the designations Semi-plantigrada and Semi-
digitigrada have been adopted for certain stages
in this process, although no great value can be
assigned to these sub-divisions. Yet the fact itself
does not thereby lose its importance, for all the
old Eocene mammals are plantigrade, whether
Carnivora or Ungulata, Perissodactyla or Artio-
dactyla, Insectivora or Rodentia. From this we
conclude that all the Digitigrada have had planti-
grade ancestors, and that the plantigrade mode of
progression, such as is found in man himself, must
be regarded as a primitive character which has
been retained.

The Teeth. — One of the most complicated
chapters in the natural history of the Mammalia is
that which relates to the teeth, and we readily con-
cede that it presents difficulties that might deter
more than one reader who did not wish to make
any special study of the subject. Although we are
far from wishing to disguise these difficulties, yet
we must take the subject resolutely in hand, for

INTRODUCTION.

not only does the division of the Mammalia into
subordinate groups depend in a great measure on
the dental system, but this system also possesses
the great value of being the essentially conservative
element of the whole skeleton. If all the variations
in the surroundings, in the nature of the food, and
the mode of life are reflected in the structure of
the teeth, there is, in fact, no other part of the
skeleton accessible to the palaeontologist which
preserves the essential characters of a type with
such certainty, and in this way enables him to
recognize the points of resemblance and affinity
that may obtain among the different forms. In
any case the study of the dental system forms the
foundation of a knowledge of the Mammalia
generally.

Only an infinitesimally small number of mammals
are actually without teeth. The porcupine ant-
eaters, the ant-bears, the scaly ant-eaters, and the
whalebone whales belong to the number. Yet
teeth have been found in great numbers in the
jaws of embryo whales, but these teeth are com-
pletely embedded in the gum, which they never
cut, and are afterwards re-absorbed when the
whalebone has formed in the mouth. It is likewise
highly probable that traces of teeth will yet be
found in the jaws of the embryos of the terrestrial
mammals mentioned. Analogy seems to prove
that the absence of teeth in mammals is always
the result of a process of reduction carried to the
last extreme.

Structure of the Teeth. — The teeth of mam-
mals are formed in closed sacs or depressions in
the jaw, and do not cut the gum till they have
reached an advanced stage of development. The
proper nucleus of a tooth is composed of the so-
called dentine. This peculiar bony substance is
characterized by the presence of numerous branch-
ing canals (tubuli) which run from the inner cavity
of the tooth (the pulp cavity) towards the surface.
Whatever the subsequent form of the tooth may
be, this dentine is always originally deposited as
a sort of cap round a fleshy protuberance rich in
vessels and nerves, and the hollow of this cap is
filled with dentine.

On the latter there rests in most cases a second
cap composed of very hard columns set close to-
gether, and forming what we call the enamel. This
shining brittle substance usually covers only what
is called the crown of the tooth, that is, the part
that rises above the gum. For the most part the
crown is protected on all sides by this covering;

but in many cases, as, for example, in the incisors
of rodents, we find it mainly on the front of the
crown, and only a very thin plate behind. The
enamel thus extends in general as far as the gum,
and thus serves to distinguish the crown from the
root, which is set in the gum. Besides these two
chief substances, there are frequently also other
tissues entering into the composition of a tooth —
true bone-tissue at the root and cement on the
crown, this last substance being peculiarly abun-
dantly developed in compound teeth, in which it
fills up the folds and other depressions.

In the structure of the roots or fangs considerable
diversities appear, in consequence of which we have
teeth that keep constantly growing and others
with a limited period of growth. Consider, for
instance, the incisor of a rodent. The pulp cavity
opens out wide at the lower end, where the dentine
gradually thins away, while the pulp nourishing
the tooth fills up the whole cavity. Teeth so
formed keep on growing through life, and this
constant growth is counteracted only by the fact
that the crown gets constantly worn away by use.
The tusks of the elephant and those of the wild
boar are both of this nature. In a number of other
teeth, however, the pulp cavity gets gradually
narrower towards the bottom, where it forms at
last only a minute opening. This condition is
brought about in the course of the development
of the tooth, for at first the root is always wide
open, and after this constriction of the pulp has
taken place the tooth ceases to grow, since the
vessels that ascend through it are only sufficient
for the nourishment of the tooth. Most of the
teeth of mammals have this structure. They may
be replaced by a later set pushing out the earlier
ones; but once formed they undergo no further
change in the way of growth.

Teeth with several fangs are found only in
mammals. A tooth with a double or treble fang
belongs unquestionably to a mammal; and, indeed,
most molars and premolars have compound fangs,
while incisors and canines, with very few exceptions,
have only single roots.

From our description it will be seen that the
more or less conical teeth with open roots, such as
we find, for example, in the dolphins, represent the
original form, a form which is also found in the
reptiles and amphibians. The closing of the root
and the cessation of growth mark a higher stage
of development, which leads to a phenomenon
occurring only in the Mammalia, namely, the

8

THE MAMMALIA.

appearance of two sets of teeth in succession — the
milk and the permanent teeth.

Milk and Permanent Teeth: Monophyodonts
and Diphyodonts — The jaws of embryos and
young animals are relatively very short; but after-
wards they often become immoderately long. The
consequence of this elongation is that the first
teeth, which sometimes appear before, but mostly
not till after, birth, cannot occupy the jaws through-
out their whole extent. A second set of teeth is
accordingly developed, altogether independently of
the first, and through the appearance of this second
set the number of the back teeth is in general
increased, while those in front are more or less
completely replaced by new and better arranged
teeth. Whatever be the mode in which this ex-
change is effected, and whatever processes nature
may resort to in attaining this end, we must before
all things keep in view the very considerable altera-
tions that are thereby brought about.

First, it is manifest that this exchange is neces-
sary only where the teeth have a limited period
of growth. The teeth which keep constantly grow-
ing have no need to be renewed, though their
number or their size may have to be increased in
proportion to the growth of the jaws. The Cetacea
and the Edentata, in which no exchange whatever
takes place, have been distinguished as Monophy-
odonts, the others, which have two sets of teeth
in succession, as Diphyodonts.

Yet here also there are essential differences.
The last stage of development, which is attained
by the apes and monkeys and the carnivores, is
very simple. All the front teeth, incisors, canines,
and premolars, which form the milk dentition of
a child of about seven years old, are deciduous, and
are replaced one by one by new teeth, while a few
molars are added in the back part of the jaws.
In such cases the distinction between the milk and
the permanent dentition will always be pretty easy.
More frequently, however, these relations are very
far from being so simple.

Certain teeth, both of the first and second set,
develop indeed to a certain stage, but never cut the
gum. They remain entirely embedded in the gum
and are afterwards absorbed. Others drop out
shortly after they have appeared, and if they belong
to the milk dentition are not replaced by permanent
teeth. Finally, the number of the teeth which are
exchanged is also very variable. Thus in the
marsupials only a single tooth, the last premolar,
is shed, while all the others remain in their original

places. The order in which the teeth are replaced
is just as variable as the time at which this phe-
nomenon occurs. Some bats, for instance, lose
their first teeth while still in the womb of the
mother. In many cases, moreover, the first set
of teeth is very different from the second, and,
indeed, often has a considerably different character.
The aye-aye is an insectivore in its milk dentition,
but in its permanent dentition a rodent. And if
the entire dentition does not often alter its character,
this is frequently the case with at least a certain
number of the teeth. The carnassial tooth of the
Carnivora alters its place. It travels, so to speak,
towards the back of the mouth in the permanent
dentition.

The general fact remains, however, that a certain
number of back teeth are never shed, and only
appear once for all, namely, at the time when the
shedding of the other teeth is in progress or nearly
completed. These teeth commonly have a more
complicated form than the others. They are those
which are called true molars.

But let us return to the teeth themselves, and
consider first their form and structure. If the form
of a simple cone, a cylinder, or a column is the
primitive one, the form which is still retained most
frequently in the front teeth, it cannot be asserted
nevertheless that it is the form universally retained.
It may be materially modified by the presence of
notches and folds, clothed with enamel, and situated
either on the grinding surface or on the sides of the
crown. If such folds are found on the grinding
surface, then there arise grooves and depressions,
between which higher parts remain standing in the
form of tubercles, ridges, and peaks. All these
structures may be reduced to three leading types.
In one the tubercles get worn down to a level
surface and remain low; they are broad and rounded,
the crown likewise becomes flat and more or less
quadrangular. This is the type of the omnivorous
tooth, such as we find in pigs, bears, and others.
Secondly, the tubercles may be pointed and get
worn away on the lateral surfaces by friction against
the teeth in the opposite jaw. In this manner are
formed the teeth with pointed cusps of the insect-
eaters. Thirdly, the tubercles may be elongated
in the direction of the jaw into sharp lobes, which
act like shears against the corresponding lobes of
the opposite teeth. Of this type the teeth of the
carnivores offer striking examples.

The lateral folds of the crown, which in the first
instance are mere vertical flutings, may become

INTRODUCTION.

more pronounced, and may be found on one side
only or on both at once. We then get teeth which,
like those of the rodents, exhibit folds or grooves
on the worn surfaces. These folds gradually become
in different animals more sinuous and deeper, till
at last they meet in the interior, and give the teeth
the appearance of being composed of two halves, or
of two columns set together on the grinding surface
of the tooth like half-moonshaped islets, and making
it appear as if the teeth had been subjected to a
certain amount of pressure. All these different and
variable forms are nevertheless deducible in the
end from a crown with sharp or blunted tubercles;
and the oldest placental mammals exhibit such
types with varying characters, types which we now
designate as insectivorous or omnivorous teeth, and
which may develop further in the one direction or
the other. Palaeontologists have made the observa-
tion that the folds of the teeth are originally re-
markably simple, but always become gradually
more complicated in their descendants. The series
of teeth observed in the development of horses and
ruminants afford excellent examples of this in-
creasing complicacy.

The forms with deep folds dividing up the .teeth
may be combined with others which appear to have
arisen from the fusion of several small teeth. The
molars of the elephants present the most complete
example of this type, in which tooth-fragments are
agglutinated together by cement into a single large
tooth. On the other hand, it would be possible to
maintain, if we traced the series of teeth from the
mastodons downwards through the extinct ele-
phants, that these tooth-fragments, each of which
has a separate root, have arisen from a continued
process of division.

But, however that may be, the structure of the
teeth and the arrangement of the different kinds
afford the surest marks for distinguishing affinities
between the different mammalian types.

Usually the teeth are divided in accordance with
their position in the jaws, but with reference also j
to their forms and the relations brought to light
when the milk-teeth give place to the permanent
set. We will now give the explanation of the terms
made use of in describing the dentition.

The upper teeth are set in two pairs of bones,
the premaxillae in front and the maxillae behind.
All the teeth set in the premaxillae, whatever be
their form, are called incisors. The tusk of the
elephant, as well as the curved, sharp-edged, chisel-
shaped tooth of the rodent, the pyramidal tooth

of the musquash or North American musk-rat
(Fiber zibctliinus), and the recurved hook-like tooth
of the shrews, are all incisors, for they are set in the
premaxilla, the separation of which from the maxilla
remains almost always visible in the mammals.
In the lower jaw, which is composed of a single
bone on each side, the mandible, there is not the
same valuable criterion for distinguishing the in-
cisors as in the upper jaw; and in it all those
front teeth which present a greater or less resem-
blance to the incisors of the upper jaw are generally
distinguished by the same name.

After the incisors there often comes a recurved
tooth which in most cases rises above the level of
the others. This, which is especially characteristic
of the carnivores, has been called the canine. But
it is found also in omnivorous animals and even in
certain herbivorous ones, for instance, in the musk-
deer, and is especially large and powerful in the
male, in which it is a weapon not to be despised.
In the rodents, in most of the ruminants, and in fact
in many mammals, it is wanting altogether, or is
found only in the upper jaw.

Behind the canine is developed the series of
molars, which are divided into premolars and
true molars. The only means which we have for
distinguishing these two groups from each other
is that afforded by the exchange of teeth. The
term premolars is applied to all those which are
shed and get replaced by others, while those which
belong solely to the permanent dentition are
designated true molars. But in practice it is often
difficult to carry out the distinction from this point
of view, since the milk dentition is not always
known. In that case the 'first four of the row of
teeth situated immediately behind the canines are
commonly known as premolars, being mostly
distinguished from the succeeding ones by their
simpler form.

In order to express the distinctions presented by
these teeth naturalists have devised certain formulae,
of which we have made use in this work also, and
which we must therefore explain. Different authors
have naturally adopted different formulas, but we
have employed those which appear to us the
simplest.

Dental F ormulae .— The teeth are always arranged
symmetrically; on the right side there is always the
same number of teeth as on the left. It is conse-
quently sufficient to give those on a single side.
On the other hand, the number of the teeth in the
upper jaw is often considerably different from that

2

IO

THE MAMMALIA.

in the lower. Accordingly two rows of figures are
adopted for the two jaws, and the numbers are
arranged in accordance with the terms explained
above. Suppose, then, the reader meet with the

following formula: — - = 44; how would

J " J * T"

he have to understand it? The row above the line
gives the teeth standing in one half of the upper
jaw; and the animal thus has in each half of that
jaw four incisors, one canine, four premolars, and
three molars, in all twelve teeth, or twenty-four in
the whole jaw. In the lower jaw, on the other
hand, there are only three incisors, no canine, three
premolars, but four molars, accordingly ten in all
in each half of the jaw, or twenty in the whole jaw.
For this animal consequently the total number
of teeth amounts to forty-four, and since all the
sorts of teeth are here represented the dentition is
called a complete one. If the premolars and
molars cannot be distinguished they are included

in a single figure, as thus: —

I . o . 4_

= 20. This is

1.0.4

the formula of a rodent, and intimates that the
animal has one incisor above and below in each
half of the jaw, and four molars which cannot be
more particularly discriminated, and that in both
jaws the canine is wanting.

But the dentition may be altered not merely by
the substitution of a permanent for a milk set, but
also by another process, namely by the premature
disappearance of certain teeth in the course of
years. At bottom this phenomenon is only a con-
tinuation, or the carrying out to a further stage of
that already mentioned, the non-development of
teeth the rudiments of which appear in the gum.
This premature disappearance is a very frequent
occurrence, and is observed especially in the more
recent mammals when compared with their im-
mediate predecessors, which retained throughout
life certain teeth which their descendants lose after
a short period.

Evolution. — These facts lead us into a higher
region, that of the gradual perfecting of the
dental systems during the evolution of the ances-
tors of the present mammals carried on through
past geological epochs. Now what is this pro-
cess of evolution, and by what facts is it recog-
nized?

The answer to this question is not by any means
easy to give. So far we know only a few large
general features of the picture which it will remain
for the future to complete. For the present we will

only briefly summarize a few of the most important
facts.

We are not acquainted with any mammals
belonging to a very early period with simple
conical teeth altogether unspecialized. We know,
however, some mammals now living, and among
these are included the dolphins and the giant
armadillo, which possess such teeth in almost un-
limited number — it may be a hundred or more.
Now these teeth, like those of the lower vertebrates,
are all similar, and are set so far apart from each
other that, when the mouth is closed, the teeth of
the one jaw fit into the gaps left between those of
the other.

As soon as the teeth begin to exhibit a more
specialized form, their number becomes limited.
Yet in the older mammals this number is still
considerable, and some of the marsupials now
living have retained this character, the possession
of a large number of teeth. We have only a few
lower jaws of marsupials belonging to Triassic and
Jurassic times, and these are equipped with an.
unusually large number of teeth. Dromatherium
from the Trias has fourteen, Amphitherium from
the Stonesfield Slates (Oolitic series of the Jurassic
strata) sixteen, Phascolotherium, from the same
slates, eleven teeth in a single half of the lower
jaw. Now, if we assume that the same number
was present in the upper jaw, then we get totals of
56, 64, and 44 teeth. The fauna of the present
day includes the banded ant-eater (Myrmecobius)
with 54, the opossums with 50, the bandicoots
(Peramelida) with 48, the Tasmanian wolf (Thyla-
cinus) and the genus Phascogale with 46 teeth.
The Monodelphia of the Tertiary period have all
44 teeth, and among the Monodelphia of the
present day there is only a single genus, Otocyon,
belonging to the Carnivora, in which this number
is exceeded. In it there are 46 teeth.

But all these teeth are specialized. Fully de-
veloped incisors, canines, premolars, and molars
can be distinguished even in the oldest mammal
of the Trias, the Dromatherium, and if the front
teeth stand more or less apart, the back ones begin
to press more and more closely on one another,
and show the characteristic double fangs. We can
trace these combined modifications in following
out the evolution of a particular series. As the
dentition becomes transformed from the general
omnivorous or insectivorous type to one of a more
special character we see the teeth reduced in
number, and at the same time more and more

INTRODUCTION.

ii

individualized with respect to form and complexity
of structure. Here, accordingly, we meet with a
course of development analogous to that observed
in the limbs: reduction of the number of the con-
stituent parts, and specialization of the functions
belonging to these parts. With reference to this
we must not forget that the oldest mammalian
dentitions known to us possess all sorts of teeth in
exceptionally great number and with closed roots,
and that accordingly every incomplete dentition
must be the result of a process of development,
and that development frequently retrograde, or
from a higher to a lower type.

Reproduction — We may pass over the other
features in the structure of the mammals in order
to dwell at somewhat greater length on the peculi-
arities pertaining to their reproduction. And here
what we have to concern ourselves with is not the
number of young ones produced, which varies re-
markably according as the struggle for existence
is more or less easy for an animal, but the pheno-
mena on which certain subdivisions of the Mam-
malia have been founded.

All mammals bring forth the young alive, and
the young are suckled by the mother for a certain
period after birth. Yet there are considerable
differences in the relations subsisting between
mother and young before birth.

In some, which are called Didelphia or aplacental
mammals, there is no intimate connection between
the ovum and the maternal organs in which the
earliest development of the embryo is accomplished.
The envelopes of the embryo, the amnion, and the
allantois, are indeed formed, but the latter mem-
brane does not enter into connection with the walls
of the uterus. The ovum remains entirely free, and
the embryo is ushered into the world in a compara-
tively backward stage of development, although,
indeed, provided with all the essential organs.
The monotremes and marsupials, which are thus
reproduced without a placenta, exhibit at the same
time all the marks of a strikingly low position in
the scale of being. Their brain is scarcely more
highly developed than that of reptiles, and as
regards the structure of the axial skeleton, as well
as that of the teeth and limbs, we have already
seen that it agrees in many points with that of
the oldest mammals.

Much more intimate is the connection which
subsists between the fruit of the body and the
mother in the great majority of mammals, which
are called Monodelphia or placenta! mammals.

In them the blood-vessels of the embryo, which are
brought through the allantois to the surface of
the ovum, form in combination with those of the
uterus a special organ known as the placenta. The
vessels belonging respectively to the allantois and
the uterus do not run into one another, or, in
technical language, anastomose, but return in
loops on each side, and the gaseous and liquid
substances contained in the blood that circulates in
them are exchanged solely by the process of osmosis,
that is, by filtering through the walls of adjoining
vessels. The embryo has its blood purified, and is
fed by means of the placenta. The blood of the
mother conveys to it the requisite supply of oxygen
and the other substances necessary for its life and
growth, and at the same time removes the carbonic
acid and other refuse products of its vital action.
The formation of the placenta is thus a fact of the
highest importance, and one can easily understand
why the first place has been assigned to it among
the characters on which a natural division of the
Mammalia is based.

May this also be the case now with respect to
the form of the placenta? I take the liberty of
doubting this, in spite of the authorities who lend
their support to the maintenance of this view.
When a division, based on the form of the placenta,
was first proposed I gave in my adhesion to it,
but now I believe, in view of more recent discoveries
and in consequence of certain more profound
investigations, that we are entitled to assign to the
form of the placenta only the value of a subordinate
character.

We can indeed trace the development of the
placenta step by step in our mammalian forms.
The ovum is from the first surrounded by an
external membrane, the chorion, and this gradually
becomes covered with cellular processes called
villi, into which the embryonic vessels penetrate.
These villi get inserted into simple pits or de-
pressions in the mucous membrane of the uterus,
known as crypts, from which they can easily be
detached. Therewith begins the formation of the
placenta proper, and in many animals the relations
between the mother and the fruit of the womb
are confined to these simple vascular villi. But
the latter become -more complicated; they give
off branches, penetrate further into the mucous
membrane, get aggregated into certain spots, which,
however, are distributed over the whole surface of
theovum.and in that way form so-called cotyledons,
each of which consists essentially of a bundle of

12

THE MAMMALIA.

vessels; and though all of them become detached
at birth from the mucous membrane, this happens
with greater difficulty than in the former case.
These forms, with the numerous intermediate
varieties, have all been comprehended under the
general designation of indeciduate placentas. In
other cases the cotyledons are all congregated to-
gether at certain parts, become intimately united
with the maternal organs into a single organ, and
at birth at least a portion of the mucous membrane
of the uterus, the so-called decidua, always becomes
detached and extruded. Mammals with such a form
of placenta have been called Deciduata, and among
these, two chief forms have been distinguished, one
in which the placenta is shaped like a belt sur-
rounding the ovum, the so-called zonary placenta,
and one in which it has the form of a cake, the
discoidal placenta. But these structures represent
only higher stages of development, and in many
cases approach one another so nearly that, for
example, investigators are not yet agreed whether
to ascribe to the Prosimii a bell-shaped deciduate
placenta, or simple chorionic villi congregated
together at one pole of the ovum.

The division of the mammalian orders according
to this principle would be somewhat as follows: —

(i.) Indeciduata. (a) With simple chorionic
villi (diffuse placenta). Cetacea, Sirenia, Perisso-
dactyla, Pigs, Hippopotamuses, part of the Rumi-
nants (Camels and the genus Tragulus), Scaly
Ant-eaters (Manis), Prosimii; (b) With branched
chorionic villi (scattered cotyledons) ; the rest of
the Ruminants. (2.) Deciduata. (a) With zonary
placenta: Carnivora, Pinnipedia (Seals), Proboscidea,
Hyrax; (b) With discoidal placenta: Rodentia,
Insectivora, Chiroptera, Simiae, Edentata (with the
exception of the scaly ant-eaters).

In whatever way we look at this arrangement
it must always be acknowledged that it involves
absurdities. It is impossible to deprive the hyrax
and the elephant of their affinities to the other
Ungulata, in order to rank them with the Carnivora,
or to place the scaly ant-eaters at the one end of the
series, while the common ant-eaters are found at the
other; and the group of the Artiodactyla, or even-
toed ungulates, shows us that one type may have
retained the primitive structure of the placenta,
while another very closly allied type (that of the
Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates) has attained
to a much higher degree of perfection in this organ.

Distribution in Space. — In treating of the indi-
vidual orders of the Mammalia we have always

added a concise survey of their geographical dis-
tribution, and have sought to combine the results
arrived at with the probable presumptions as to
the evolution of the stock. We therefore explain
in this general introduction the points of view from
which we have regarded this part of the subject.

Formerly it was attempted to explain the un-
deniable discrepancies in the distribution of animals
over the earth by the assumption that they were
ascribable to the surrounding conditions, and especi-
ally the climate, the supplies of food, and in short
all those influences which can make themselves felt
in particular regions. This supposition undoubtedly
rested on actual facts. The influences which the
surrounding media have exerted on the struggle for
existence cannot be denied. If the animals be-
longing to northern regions and lofty snow-clad
mountains were seen to become white in winter,
there was in that single fact manifest proof of the
adaptation of the organism to external conditions.

But such facts were far from exhausting the
problem. There remained too many doubts as to
a number of circumstances, particularly in view of
what had been effected on this field by man. The
horses, cattle, and sheep introduced by him into
America and Australia succeed there much better,
or at least quite as well as at home. Moreover,
these animals revert there to the wild condition, and
are not only adapted by their own powers for the
struggle for existence, but are even victorious in
that struggle over the native animals. How then
does it happen that such extraordinarily favourable
conditions of life have not brought into existence
these animals there as in other lands? South
America is just as rich in monkeys as the forests of
India and Africa. How then does it happen that
the apes and monkeys on both sides of the ocean
are so different from one another? And if monkeys
can live in all hot regions of both hemispheres, why
do we not find antelopes, elephants, rhinoceroses,
cattle, and insectivores, as well upon the one as
upon the other?

I could multiply these examples endlessly, but
they would all confirm the insufficiency of the
alleged grounds for the discrepancies in distribution.

The Darwinian theory of the origin of species
could not but introduce other points of view.
Since our animals of the present day are direct
more or less modified descendants of the extinct
ones, the geographical distribution of the present
day can manifestly be only the consequence of that
of the primitive stocks. These have formed, if I

INTRODUCTION.

may so express myself, the raw material which all
the various influences that can bring about more or
less well-defined variations, have worked up within
the limits assigned by the distribution of land and
water.

The present geographical distribution of mammals
is thus intimately related to their origin. Land
mammals descended from ancestors which were
restricted to a continent, forming an island sur-
rounded by the waters of the ocean, have not been
able to develop on another continent inaccessible
to them, however favourable the conditions of life
there might be. Broad rivers, high mountain chains,
deserts, and marshes could not but hinder the
advance of certain types, and have actually pre-
vented their introduction into regions which were
cut off by barriers of that nature.

Every species, however strong or weak its powers
of reproduction and organs of motion may be,
would actually be distributed over the whole earth
through its multiplication in geometrical progres-
sion and its consequent migrations, if it were not
confined by such barriers, and had not its ranks
thinned by enemies and by the absence of the con-
ditions of existence. The various causes have
acted in former times just as they are acting at the
present day, and their combined effects and mutual
action and reaction are expressed in the present
geographical distribution of animals.

In his admirable work on the Geographical Dis-
tribution of Animals Wallace adopts six great
regions l in which the animals are grouped in a
special manner. Three of these belong to the Old
World, two to America, and one to Australia.
Each of these regions has besides a certain number
of sub-regions. The great Palaearctic region
comprises the whole of the Eurasian continent,
except the south-east, together with the islands of
Japan, Iceland, Great Britain, the Azores, the Can-
ary Islands, and the islands of the Mediterranean.
It comprises the whole of Europe, Africa as far as
the Sahara and the Cataracts of the Nile, also Asia
Minor, Arabia, and the entire continent of Asia as
far as the large mountain chains of the Himalayas
— an enormous region, in which Wallace endeavours
to distinguish a European, a Mediterranean, a Sibe-
rian, and a Manchoorian sub-region. The great
/Ethiopian region comprises the African con-
tinent south of the Sahara, and in addition to that,
as a sub-region, the island of Madagascar. The

1 They are adopted with certain modifications from a division of the
earth originally proposed by Mr. P. L. Sclater for birds.— TR.

great Oriental region embraces Asia to the south
of the Himalayas, together with the Sunda Islands
and the Philippines. The Australian region is
not restricted by Wallace to the large island of
Australia with Tasmania, but extends also over all
the islands from Celebes to the Sandwich group.
South America, with Mexico, Guatemala, and the
Antilles, form the Neotropical region, and the
rest of North America finally constitutes the sixth,
the Nearctic region.

Of these regions, as of all others that have been
adopted, it may be said that none of them is limited
by precise boundaries, even if we leave out of ac-
count the more or less cosmopolitan animals, and
devote our attention only to forms confined within
narrow limits. If we would represent these regions
on maps, we must surround each of them with a
pretty extensive zone in which the forms have
intermingled or passed from one region into the
other. Besides there are in this scheme areas
which have been ranked as sub-regions, and which
yet deserve a separate independent position, at
least in respect of their mammalian forms.

Thus we must undoubtedly adopt a Circum-
polar region, embracing the north of Siberia,
Lapland, Greenland, the Hudson's Bay Territories,
and all the islands adjacent to these portions of the
mainland. In all parts of this region are found the
same, or at any rate very closely allied, species: to
it belongs the territory of the polar bear, the rein-
deer, the glutton, the lemming, and other charac-
teristic forms. The island of Madagascar is totally
different from the mainland of Africa in respect of
its mammalian fauna, and, in general, is one of the
best characterized regions. The Antilles also
have scarcely anything in common with the neigh-
bouring mainland. If these three regions are
separated off as of equal value with the great
leading regions above named, we then have nine
regions marked off for the geographical distribu-
tion of mammals, and each of these is distinguished
by a separate assemblage of animals, by its own
peculiar fauna.

In order to understand the partly strange partly
uncertain boundaries of these regions we must have
recourse to the indications furnished, on the one
hand, by geology as to the relations between land
and water in earlier epochs, and, on the other hand,
by palaeontology concerning the existence and dis-
tribution of mammals which lived in those epochs.
In many cases these indications are still very incom-
plete, in others more or less uncertain. In such

THE MAMMALIA.

cases we must be content to recognize the fact of
these gaps and uncertainties, while utilizing in our
investigations the assured results that have hitherto
been obtained.

We will speak in the first instance only of land
mammals. And here we are at the outset struck
by the fact that those boundaries, on the one hand,
separate territories that are manifestly continuous
at the present day, and, on the other hand, unite
others now distinctly separate; and that finally
among these last cases we meet with examples in
which the mammalian distribution in different
regions is strikingly diverse in spite of the apparent
correspondence in geographical relations. Such
examples are easy to find.

The channel between the island of Trinidad, the
most southerly of the Antilles, and the mainland,
at the mouth of the Orinoco, has almost the same
breadth as that which separates the British Isles
from the European continent. But what a differ-
ence is revealed in the mutual relations! The
mammalian fauna of England is in no respect
different from that of Brittany, while in the case of
Brazil and the Antilles almost everything is dif-
ferent. In Brazil monkeys, carnivores, and eden-
tates are uncommonly well represented, and of
these groups the Antilles show no trace. Brazil,
on the other hand, does not support a single
insectivore, while the Solenodons are confined to
the Antilles. Only a few rodents, bats, and pec-
caries are common to Brazil and the archipelago
named. These differences are explained when we
learn from geology that at a recent epoch England
was continuous with the mainland, that the animals
of the Quaternary period, the immediate ancestors
of our present mammals, walked dry-footed across
the English Channel, while the interval of sea
which presents such an insurmountable barrier
between Trinidad and Brazil is in process of being
filled up by the alluvial deposits of the Orinoco,
and formerly was much broader. We might think
it strange also that the whole circumference of the
Mediterranean is regarded as a continuous sub-
region, while the main body of the continent of
Africa, apparently directly connected with it, is
completely separated by the Atlas Mountains; but
for this also geological investigations have furnished
the explanation. The Strait of Gibraltar is due
to an irruption of the sea of comparatively recent
date; more than one isthmus ran from the northern
shores of the Mediterranean towards the southern,
and the Sahara has constituted, at least in the

more recent geological epochs, an insurmountable
barrier for most species.

Combining in this way the facts furnished by
geology on the one hand, and palaeontology on
the other, we can arrive at certain conclusions
regarding the origin of the mammals and their
geographical distribution, conclusions which must
be summed up in the subdivision of the class. Of
this we give a tentative sketch.

Subdivision of the Mammals based on the
presumed Order of Evolution. — Passing over in
the meantime the aplacental mammals, the mar-
supials and monotremes, reserving all that we have
to say on this lowest group for the chapters in
which we deal with the two orders named, we call
to mind by way of preface only these facts: that the
oldest mammalian remains are found in the upper
Trias; that the only complete jaw known from that
epoch, the jaw of the Dromatherium found in North
America, is incontestably that of a small insectivore;
that the remains derived from the Oolitic strata
of Stonesfield and the Purbeck limestones belonging
to the upper Jura in England, and from the United
States, likewise show in great part an insectivorous
dentition; that, however, genera are to be found
among them in which the dentition is allied to that
of the kangaroo-rats; and that, finally, the last
representatives of the marsupials from the Eocene
deposits in France exhibit striking affinities to the
opossums of America.

The history of the evolution of the placental
mammals, or, in technical language, their phyloge-
netic history, begins with the Tertiary formations.
With these a number of placental forms suddenly
make their appearance, and in the various sub-
divisions of the Tertiary epoch, the Eocene,
Miocene, and Pliocene, as well as in the sub-
sequent Quaternary epoch and the present age,
the number of these forms goes on increasing, and
the families and tribes still subsisting are gradually
developed.

But it must be remembered that beneath the
Tertiary formations there is a vast gap. The rocks
lying beneath the Tertiary in the geological scale
are the Cretaceous, and from them we know of no
mammalian remains whatever. Beneath the Cre-
taceous again are the Jurassic and Triassic strata,
in which we have indeed mammalian remains, but
these solely of aplacental forms. What, then, was
the history of the mammals during the intervening
period? When did the primitive stocks of the
present placental forms first make their appearance?

INTRODUCTION.

Can we fill up the gap by supposing that there
arose at some period within it a single placental
type from which all the present forms are descended?
Or must we assume more than one primitive
placental stock to account for the present diverg-
ences among the members of the class? The
answers to these questions must necessarily be
based largely on speculation, and though the facts
that have been ascertained may justify pretty
confident conclusions with regard to some of them,
we are inevitably restricted to hypothesis when we
attempt to trace the history or evolution of any
particular group.

So much, however, is certain. After the long
gap between Jurassic and Tertiary times there
appear with the Eocene both in the Old World
and the New the following still surviving orders:
Prosimii, Insectivora, Carnivora, Perissodactyla,
Artiodactyla, Rodentia, and in the Old World alone,
the Chiroptera. All these orders are represented
either by families which are now quite extinct, or
by equivocal types which cannot be referred to any
family, or, lastly, by forms still existing. Thus the
Prosimii in France have furnished a genus allied to
the Potto, while the other families are extinct.
Further, leaf-nosed and smooth-nosed forms are
found among the bats; tanrecs, moles, and shrews
among the Insectivora; Canida and Viverrida
among the Carnivora; tapirs and horses among
the Perissodactyla; pigs among the Artiodactyla;
squirrels, dormice, mice, degus (genus Octodon),
and spiny rats (Echimyida) among the rodents,
together with extinct families and indeterminate
types, from which families better characterized can
be derived.

This accordingly is the oldest nobility among
the placental mammals, whose family trees can be
traced back to the Eocene. The roots manifestly
reach much further back, but we have no certain
knowledge of them.

Let us now consider this fact in the light of the
present distribution of mammalian forms. Seeing
that all these orders in families already existed in
Eocene times, if there is any region of the globe
from which they are altogether absent, or in which
they are poorly represented, that deficiency must
be accounted for. It is universally found that when
a higher type appears it tends to displace the lower.
The latter becomes extinct, or gets reduced to a
few representatives enabled by special circumstances
or habits to survive. They may escape even amidst
the competition of higher forms through the fact of

their living on trees, and thus being out of the
reach of many enemies, or through being able to
hide in burrows, or being nocturnal in their mode
of life. But, apart from such special favouring
conditions, the doom of the lower type is to dis-
appear before the higher, and since the higher
placental forms were already largely represented
in Eocene times, we must ask how it is that any
region of the earth has escaped being overrun by
them.

Such a region does exist in Australia and some
of the neighbouring islands. The fauna of that
region comprises but few placental forms among
its mammals, but a great number and variety of
such as have no placenta. There is only one way
of accounting for such a fact as this. Before the
appearance of the chief representatives of the
placental type, that is to say, before the Eocene
epoch, the Australian region must have been cut
off from the other lands of the globe ; it must thus
have been saved from that struggle for existence
in which the higher forms of the Eocene epoch
took part.

Passing on now to the Miocene we find that in
that epoch the number of the orders is completed.
None of the orders of the present day is wanting
in Miocene formations. Monkeys, seals, whales,
sea-cows, elephants, and edentates all appear. The
families become specialized, the monkeys of the
Old and New World, hedgehogs, felines, hyaenas,
martensand bears, rhinocerosesand hippopotamuses,
as well as ruminants, can be more and more clearly
discriminated. In short we see how in the strata of
the Miocene the types follow one another in higher
and higher degrees of specialization.

It is clear, moreover, that those regions which
present to our view only the orders appearing
first in the Eocene, and which are without the
orders originating in the Miocene, were isolated
before the latter epoch, though not till after the
Eocene.

In this position are Madagascar and the Antilles.
The great African island is mainly inhabited by
prosimians; but there are found in addition bats,
insectivores, rodents, a species of pig, viverrines,
and the old type Cryptoprocta. No vestiges, how-
ever, have yet been found there of any order or
family belonging to the Miocene — neither monkeys,
nor ruminants, nor edentates, which are all so
abundant, nevertheless, both on the mainland of
Africa and in India. The Antilles present an
analogous case, differing only in the details. The

i6

THE MAMMALIA.

Miocene orders and families are there unknown;
the monkeys, edentates, ruminants, and carnivores,
so widely diffused on the neighbouring mainland,
are all alike absent here; the bats and rodents,
which are found on these islands, belong to an
ancient Eocene nobility, and so also do the insecti-
vores, which are wholly wanting on the mainland of
South America.

These two regions have followed a separate course
of development, at least since the Eocene period.

And here now we are met by another fact. If the
Eocene and Miocene genera found on the two
hemispheres and described by palaeontologists are
compared, we find with astonishment that, with the
exception of two genera belonging to the Perisso-
dactyla, the genera Coryphodon and Lophiotherium,
derived from the earliest Eocene strata, there are
none common to both hemispheres. What con-
clusion must be deduced from this fact? Assuredly
none but this, that the two great divisions of the
earth were already separate in those times. But
there are in both corresponding series in the
evolution of mammalian forms; monkeys, horses,
ruminants, and carnivores exhibit parallel series on
the two sides of the ocean.

In the Pliocene and Quaternary periods the two
hemispheres are not so sharply distinguished in the
north. In the Quaternary, in which the polar
species of the two hemispheres advanced in general
further to the south, there is not only, as at present,
similarity but entire agreement. These facts made
the adoption of a separate circumpolar region
necessary. We cannot associate this region with
those immediately to the south, when we find that
the latter are not only absolutely distinct on the
two sides of the ocean at the present day, but
were equally distinct to the northern shores of the
respective continents down to a period geologically
recent.

The two parts of the mainland of America are
connected by the Isthmus of Panama, by means of
which many an interchange has taken place. But
on the whole the two land-masses referred to
are astonishingly different. North America, the
Nearctic region, has neither monkeys, nor manatees,
nor tapirs, camels, agoutis, or edentates, like South
America, the Neotropical region, which again has
neither insectivores, nor hollow-horned ruminants
or pouched rats. These two regions are accord-
ingly sharply marked off from one another.

Quite different is it, however, with the three
regions of the Old World. The Palaearctic region has

neither edentates, prosimians, nor elephants, which
the other two regions possess; but for the most
part it is necessary to descend to families and even
to genera in order to make out general distinctions
between the three regions. We must also grant
that their boundaries become obliterated when we
go back from the present time to earlier periods.
The three regions finally merge entirely into one.
In the Miocene and Eocene periods the Palaearctic
region had edentates, giraffes, and prosimians, and
as late as the Quaternary period elephants, hippo-
potamuses, rhinoceroses, and hyaenas. The present
limits of the region have accordingly only gradually
been established.

If we now go on to consider the classification
which may be deduced from and ought to sum up
all the results of biological, developmental, and
geographical investigations, we must confess that
considerable impediments stand in the way. First
of all we recognize the perfectly clear and sharp
distinction between aplacental and placental mam-
mals, but after we have got so far we find the
principles of a further subdivision, especially of the
placental mammals, difficult to determine.

The Eocene orders furnish us with nailed and
hoofed forms, Deciduata and Indeciduata, forms
with diffuse, zonary, and discoidal placentas, with
complete and incomplete dentition. All these above-
named orders cannot be derived from one another.
If, as is very probable, they are all descended from
marsupial stocks, they must trace back their descent
along several lines of different origin. Let us take
for granted for an instant this descent from a
marsupial ancestry, and see what conclusions may
be deduced therefrom. Such conclusions can be
based only on the dental system, which is all that
is known to us in the case of the earliest mammals.

Presumable Relations of existing Placental
Orders to a Marsupial Ancestry as shown by
the Dental Characters — The insectivorous type
is the oldest. We have seen that the marsupials
of the Trias and Oolitic (Jura) periods are insecti-
vores. This is accordingly a very old, perhaps
even the primitive stock.

The bats are only flying insectivores. If we
unite the insectivores with webbed feet and those
with the toes free, we might also, without being
guilty of any great offence, add to the same group
those with flying membranes.

Some Prosimii are manifestly insectivores. They
are probably descended accordingly from insecti-
vorous marsupials. Others, however, likewise very

INTRODUCTION.

old forms, resemble hoofed mammals, especially
Artiodactyla, in dentition. Even the placenta
bespeaks a close affinity to the latter. Very
probably, therefore, our present mode of division
unites in a single order animals which are derived
from quite different ancestors, but which have
approached one another in respect of a number of
secondary characters.

The same holds good also of the apes and
monkeys, which cannot be derived from a single
ancestor. On their first appearance in the lower
Miocene the Simiae of the New World are as
different from those of the Old as they are at the
present day. Moreover, there are Simiae which are
rather insectivorous in their habits, while others
again approach more nearly the carnivorous and
omnivorous forms.

We should thus have a group of orders, the Chir-
optera, Prosimii, and Simiae, which might, at least
in part, be placed very near the old Insectivora.

Take now the Carnivora. We know even in
Jurassic strata marsupials whose dentition ap-
proaches the carnivorous type, and from more
recent strata, as well as the fauna of the present
era, we are acquainted with many, which, if we may
so express ourselves, are more carnivorous than
the placental carnivores. The Hyaenodons are an
unmistakable connecting link. The Carnivora are
accordingly descended without doubt from mar-
supials. The seals, as we have already mentioned,
are only a branch of this group adapted to an
aquatic mode of life.

The Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla belong to
the Eocene nobility. May we perhaps connect
them with the Jurassic genus Stereognathus?
However that may be, these two orders form, so
to speak, trees, whose original trunks, the tapirs
and pigs, have continued on to our own day.
Both stems have put forth many branches now
extinct, which we cannot here enumerate, but the
Solidungula and rhinoceroses form series which
have developed from the ancient Perissodactyla,
the former from those of Eocene, the latter
those of Miocene times. Very probably the Pro-
boscidea and Sirenia are also to be reckoned to this
group. Further, there is probably no doubt as to
the fact that the ruminants and hippopotamuses are

descended from the first Artiodactyla, the pigs. In
these two great orders, also, the marked distinction
between the primitive stocks of the Old and the
New World is plainly manifest.

The rodents of the Eocene nobility cannot be
traced with certainty from any marsupial form.
Only the genus Plagiaulax, from Jurassic times, ex-
hibits certain distant resemblances. The members
of this order have remained what they were at first;
they have not essentially altered throughout the
whole geological period in which they are known.

The same is the case with the edentates. This
group is manifestly made up of the descendants of
several ancestors; but we can only trace them
back to the Miocene, and in doing so we cannot
discover any unequivocal relations to older types.

From all this two main conclusions in our opinion
may be drawn. First, that it is a perfectly ground-
less hypothesis, that the mammals can all be traced
back to a single stock ; and, second, that the various
original stocks, which we feel compelled to assume,
have developed, in the regions to which they are
confined, independently of each other, and often in
such a manner that the ultimate forms which they
have attained have more resemblance to each other
than the types from which they have proceeded.

In the body of the present work we have sub-
divided the mammals in accordance with the points
of view which we have just explained. We follow
the series from the most perfect forms, those stand-
ing nearest to man, the Simiae, down to the types
with the lowest organization. The aplacental
forms, the marsupials and monotremes, were
obliged to take the last place; and among the
placental forms the edentates and rodents un-
doubtedly form the lowest steps in the ladder.
After the Simiae the orders standing next to the
stem-group of the Insectivora, namely the Prosimii
and Chiroptera, naturally range themselves in im-
mediate succession, and then follow the Carnivora,
among which the Pinnipedia (seals) form the
transition to the whales, with which again are con-
nected the Sirenia and Proboscidea as transitions to
the Even-toed Ungulates (Artiodactyla).

The table on page 18 exhibits these subdivisions,
with their general characters, in the order in which
they are treated in the body of the work.

18

THE MAMMALIA.

TABLE OF THE ORDERS, FAMILIES, AND TRIBES

OF THE MAMMALIA.

APES AND MONKEYS (Simice}.

Tropical mammals more or less like man, with complete
dentition, opposable thumb and great toe (Quad-
rumana), cup-shaped closed bony orbit, two pectoral
mammae, and discoidal placenta.

(A) MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD (Catarrhince). With
32 teeth and narrow septum between the nostrils,
which are directed somewhat forwards.
ANTHROPOID APES (Anthropomorplue). Tailless, with
naked face somewhat resembling that of man;
body covered with long hairs.

BLACK ANTHROPOID APES (Troglodytes). With fore-
limbs reaching no further than the ankles, and
thirteen pairs of ribs; natives of Africa.

RED ANTHROPOID APES (Simla). With very long
arms and twelve pairs of ribs ; natives of the East
Indies.

GIBBONS (Hylobates). Asiatic arboreal apes, with
extraordinarily long arms and hands, and small
naked spots on the buttocks.

TAILED MONKEYS (Caudata). With more or less
developed tail, ischial callosities, and mostly also
cheek-pouches.

SEMNOPITHECI. Arboreal monkeys of slender shape,
with well-developed thumbs, long tails, a com-
pound stomach of three parts, and sometimes with,
sometimes without, cheek-pouches.

COLOBI. African forms resembling the Semnopitheci,
but with more powerful jaws and much reduced
thumb, and without cheek-pouches.

GUENONS (Cercopithecus). African monkeys with
simple stomach, cheek-pouches, long tail, large
thumb, and moderately long limbs.

MACAQUES (Macacus). With a solitary exception
Asiatic monkeys, with a rather thickset frame, pro-
truding muzzle, tolerably powerful jaws, simple
stomach, cheek-pouches, and a tail which never
grows longer than the whole body.

BABOONS ( Cynocephalus). Large, chiefly African, ter-
restrial forms, with dog-like muzzle, powerful limbs,
and dentition like that of a carnivore.

(B) MONKEYS OF THE NEW WORLD (Platyrrhinte).

With 36 teeth and broad nasal septum; the
nostrils directed sidewards; ischial callosities
and cheek-pouches always absent.

NAKED-TAILED MONKEYS (Gymnurte). The long
and powerful tail has at least the last third
naked on the under surface, where it is covered
with rough skin; and the tail serves as an organ
of touch and prehension.
THE HOWLERS (Mycetes).
THE WOOLLY MONKEYS (Lagothrix).
THE SPIDER MONKEYS (Atcles).

THE SAJOUS (Cebida). Tail long and strong, com-
pletely covered with hair, and serving only as
an organ of prehension (not of touch).

THE SAKIS (Aneturce). Tail of various length, the
vertebras not increasing in size towards the ex-
tremity; never used for prehension.

(C) THE CLAWED MONKEYS {Arctopitheci). With 32

teeth, fore-paws without an opposable pollex
(thumb), all the digits except the hallux (great
toe) provided with claws.

THE PROSIMIANS (Prosimii).

Climbing animals with complete dentition, opposable
thumb and great toe (Quadrumana), bony orbit not
closed behind, mostly more than two teats, and with
a campanulate (diffuse) placenta.
THE PROSIMIANS OF MADAGASCAR.

THE LEMURS (Leimiridd). ) Distinguished by their
THE INDRIS (fndrisida). i dentition : see text.
THE AYE-AYE. A single species forming a family
by itself, with a peculiar dentition like that of
a rodent, and with a very long middle digit on
the fore-foot.
THE AFRICAN PROSIMIANS.

THE POTTO FAMILY (Pterodictida). A family with

small ears, short tail, and rudimentary index.
THE GALAGO FAMILY (Galagonida). Composed of
a single genus with long ears and tail, digits
complete, and all provided with flat nails, except
the second digit of the hind foot, which carries
a claw.

INTRODUCTION.

THE EAST INDIAN PROSIMIANS.

THE LORIS (Lorisidd). A family resembling the

Pottos, with rudimentary index and tail.
THE TARSIER. A single species forming a family

by itself; distinguished by its enormous eyes and

greatly elongated tarsus.
THE COLUGOS OR FLYING CATS (Galeopilheais).

A highly remarkable genus forming a separate

family distinguished by the possession of a pata-

gium, or parachute-like membrane, and a very

peculiar dentition.

THE BATS (Chiroptera).

Mammals distinguished by the possession of wings formed
by a membrane attached to the body and com-
monly also to the hind limbs and tail, and capable
of being extended by the remarkably elongated digits
of the fore-limbs; complete dentition; two pectoral
mammae; discoidal placenta.

THE FRUIT-EATING BATS (Carpophagd).

FLYING FOXES (Pteropidd). Bats with flattened
masticating molars and mostly with a clawed
index or second finger; snout long.
THE INSECT-EATING BATS (Entomophagd).

TRUE BATS OR VESPERTILIONIDA (Gymnorhina).
The simple nose at the extremity of the snout
without leaf-like appendages.

LEAF-NOSED BATS (PkyUostomatd). Bats with mem-
branous appendages to the nose, mostly sup-
ported by thin plates of cartilage.

THE INSECT-EATERS (Insectivord).

Small plantigrade mammals with a discoidal placenta
and all three kinds of teeth; mostly five-clawed toes
on all four feet.

THE BANXRINGS OR CLIMBERS (Tupaia), resembling
squirrels, with a sharp naked muzzle, and long
tufted tail.

THE JUMPING SHREWS (Macroscelida). Resembling
jerboas, but with a long snout or proboscis; natives
of Africa.

THE DESMANS OR DIVERS (Myogalidd). With swim-
ming feet, long proboscis, and flattened tail.

THE SHREWS OR RUNNERS (Soricida). The body
resembling that of a mouse, but with a pointed
muzzle and short, almost naked, tail.

THE CRAWLERS forming two groups: —

THE TANRECS (Centetida). Natives of Madagascar,

with the general appearance of our hedgehogs.
THE HEDGEHOGS (Erinacei). Natives of the conti-
nents of the Old World, with the body completely
covered with spines.

THE BURROWERS. Having the anterior extremities
modified into powerful delving instruments; also
forming two groups —

THE MOLES (Talpidd). The digging feet with
five digits.

THE GOLDEN MOLES (Chrysochloridd). Moles
belonging to the Cape, with a short thickset
body, only three digits on the digging feet, and
rainbow reflex colours on the fur.

THE FLESH-EATERS (Carnivord}.

Mammals with zonary placenta, free clawed toes, well-
developed canines and more or less cutting
molars.

THE DOG TRIBE (Canida). Digitigrade carnivores with

long running legs, five free toes on the fore-feet,

four on the hind-feet, and in most cases 42 teeth.

THE DOGS PROPER (Canis). With five toes in front,

four behind, and 42 teeth.
GROUP OF THE WOLVES. Round pupils.
GROUP OF THE FOXES. Vertical oval pupils.
THE HYAENAS (Hyanidd). Digitigrade carnivores with
powerful body decreasing in size from before back-
wards, mostly with four toes on all four feet, and
at most 34 teeth.

THE CAT TRIBE (Fdida). Digitigrade carnivores mostly
with retractile claws and never more than 30 teeth.
THE CHEETAHS (Cynailiirus).
THE TRUE FELINES (Felis).
FELINES OF THE OLD WORLD.
FELINES OF THE NEW WORLD.
THE LYNXES (Lynx).

FOSSA (Cryptoproctd).

THE VIVERRINES ( Viverridd). Carnivora of small or at
most of moderate size, with short legs, and two
permanent molars in each half of each jaw.
THE CIVETS (Ailnropoda). Digitigrade viverrines

with retractile claws.

THE MANGOUSTIS (Cynopedd), Viverrines with elon-
gated toes, large non-retractile claws, and naked
soles.

THE BEARS (Ursidd). Plantigrade carnivores often

with a clumsy thickset body, with a degraded

and often scarcely recognizable carnassial and

large tubercled teeth.

THE SMALL BEARS (Subursidd). With 36-40 teeth

and a long tail.

THE LARGE BEARS (Ursidd). With 42 teeth, in-
cluding four premolars above and below, two
molars in the upper jaw, three in the lower, all
with flat wrinkled crowns, furnished with low blunt
tubercles.

2O

THE MAMMALIA.

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY (Mustelida). Except
a single species all the Carnivora belonging to
this family have a single large tubercled tooth in
each half of the upper, and two molars in each
half of the lower jaw.

BADGERS (Mdida). Plantigrade carnivores with
thickset clumsy body, short feet, and highly
developed anal glands.

MARTENS (Martida). Mostly digitigrade, with long
and even worm-like body, frequently retractile
claws, and usually a long bushy tail; the upper
tubercled tooth small and transversely placed,
the upper carnassial sharp and with a horizontal
process in front.

OTTERS (Lutrida). Aquatic Mustelida with long but
stout cylindrical body, short webbed feet, and
flattened tail.

THE SEALS (Pinnipedid).

Aquatic carnivores with feet converted into flippers,
spindle-shaped body, complete dentition, and zonary
placenta.

THE EARED SEALS (Otarida). Provided with ex-
ternal ears.

THE TRUE SEALS (Phocida). Without external ears
and with short limbs.

THE WALRUS (Trichechus). Armed with tusks.

WHALES AND DOLPHINS (Cetacea).

Fish-like carnivores without hind-limbs, and having the
fore-limbs converted into flippers, the tail in the
form of a horizontal fin. The nostrils (blow-holes)
are situated on the summit of the forehead; the ill-
developed lips have no moustache hairs, the skin
is naked, the placenta diffuse, and the teats situated
far back in the abdominal region.

TOOTHED WHALES (Denticete).

DOLPHINS (Ddphinida). With a larger or smaller
number of uniform teeth in both jaws; feed ex-
clusively on fishes.
THE SPERM WHALE FAMILY (Physeteridd). With

fully developed teeth only in the lower jaw.
WHALE-BONE WHALES (Mysticete).
FIN-BACKED WHALES (Balcenoptei'ida).
RIGHT WHALES (Balceniila).

THE SEA-COWS (Sirenia).

Fish-like herbivora without dorsal or ventral fins, with a
small head and distinct neck, thick lips set with
tactile hairs, molars with broad crowns, nostrils at
the end of the muzzle, and pectoral teats.

THE ELEPHANTS (Proboscideti).
I^arge animals whose nose is prolonged into a proboscis
which serves as a prehensile and tactile organ, with

column-like legs, and feet with five toes united into
a mass and covered with flattened hoofs; the upper
incisors mostly in the form of tusks; no canines;
compound molars; placenta zonary.

THE ODD-TOED UNGULATES (Pcrissodactyla).

Hoofed animals mostly of large size, usually with an odd
number of toes on both pairs of feet, the middle
toe being the one that continues the axis of the
leg. The thigh-bone has a third trochanter; denti-
tion complete; stomach simple; teats abdominal or
inguinal; placenta usually diffuse and composed of
separate cotyledons distributed over the whole sur-
face of the ovum or embryo.

THE ROCK-BADGER FAMILY (Hyracida). With four
toes in front, three behind, and certain rodent-
like characters in the dentition.

THE TAPIR FAMILY (Tapirida). Composed of animals
somewhat resembling large pigs, but distinguished
by the possession of four hoofed toes in front,
three behind, and a short motile proboscis.

THE RHINOCEROS FAMILY (Nasicornia). Composed
of a single genus of huge clumsy animals, with
three toes both in front and behind, one or two
formidable horns composed solely of horny matter,
and a peculiar dentition.

THE HORSE FAMILY (Equitta). A family repre-
sented at the present day by only a single well-
marked genus, with shapely body, long slender
legs terminating in only a single digit (the middle
one), but comprising also a number of extinct
forms with a greater number of digits both on
the fore- and hind-feet.

THE EVEN-TOED UNGULATES (Artiodactyld).

Hoofed animals of very variable size, almost always with
an even number of toes, which are arranged about
two parallel axes running through the middle line
of the second and fourth digits. The thigh-bone
has no third trochanter. The stomach shows a
tendency to subdivision. The originally complete
dentition gets gradually specialized and reduced.
The teats are abdominal and inguinal; placenta
diffuse.

NON-RUMINANT ARTIODACTYLA (Polydactyla). With more
than two digits.

THE HIPPOPOTAMUS OR RIVER-HORSE FAMILY (Obesa).
Composed of the single genus Hippopotamus,
consisting of huge clumsy animals, with very thick
hides, four toes both on the fore- and hind-feet,
and a highly remarkable dentition.

THE PIG FAMILY (Sttida). With large and thick but
tapering head terminating in a snout, the end

INTRODUCTION.

21

of which is in the form of a tough round disk,
and in all cases, except the peccaries, having the
canines of the upper jaw directed upwards.
THE RUMINANTS (Didactyla or Ruminantia). With only
two digits, and with a complex stomach adapted
to the process of chewing the cud.
THE CHEVROTAIN FAMILY (Tragitlidd). With meta-
carpal and metatarsal bones not completely fused
into a cannon bone, with a low structure of
brain, and without a psalterium in the complex
stomach.

THE DEER FAMILY (Cervidd). The males (and in
the reindeer the females also) with horns in
the form of antlers.

THE HOLLOW- HORNED RUMINANTS (Cavicornia).
Horns composed of horny matter with a hollow
core in which rise bony processes from the skull.

THE ANTELOPES.

THE GOATS.

THE IBEX.

THE SHEEP.

THE Ox FAMILY.
THE BUFFALO.
THE BISON.
THE TRUE OXEN.

THE GIRAFFE FAMILY (Devexd). Composed of a
single species, with very long neck, high shoulders,
long flexible tongue, and hair-clad horns in the
form of bony out-growths from the front margin
of the occipital bone.

THE CAMEL FAMILY (Cameliila). With feet resting
on callous pads, and, unlike other ruminants,
with incisors in the upper jaw, besides other
peculiarities in the dentition.

THE CAMELS.

THE LLAMAS.

THE GNAWERS OR RODENTS (Rodentid).

Claw-bearing mammals with incomplete dentition, having
only two large rootless functional incisors in the
upper and lower jaw, no canines, and cheek-teeth
almost uniform, arranged in a continuous series
and separated from the incisors by a wide dia-
stema. Placenta discoidal.

THE SQUIRREL FAMILY (Scittrida). With a strong
clavicle, four free digits on the fore-feet and
three on the hind-feet, all armed with strong
claws, and with a peculiar dentition (usually five
molars in the upper jaw, and all the molars with
triangular crowns).
THE SQUIRRELS.
THE MARMOTS.

THE DORMOUSE FAMILY (Myoxidd). Distinguished
from the previous family chiefly by the dentition

(only four molars in the upper as well as in the
under jaw, and all the molars with transverse
plates of enamel).

THE BEAVER FAMILY. A family consisting only of a
single species (Castor fiber), of considerable size,
with five toes both on the fore and hind feet,
those on the hind feet united by a web.

THE MOUSE FAMILY (Muridd). A family composed
of a great variety of forms, presenting numerous
transition links, with clavicles, usually four digits
and the rudiment of a pollex on the fore-feet and
five digits on the hind-feet, and usually only three
molars.
MOLE-RATS.
HAMSTERS.
RATS AND MICE.
FIELD MICE.

THE JERBOA FAMILY (Dipodidd). Distinguished by
their very long hind-legs adapted for jumping,
the excessive length being due to the great
elongation both of the tibia and the metatarsus.

THE PORCUPINE FAMILY (Hystrieidd). Distinguished
by their covering of spines on the back, serving
as a defensive armour.

THE SPINY RAT FAMILY (Echimyidd). With four
molars with enamel folds, sometimes simple, some-
times complex, the fur generally coarse and some-
times interspersed with spines.

THE DEGU FAMILY (Octodontidd). With the enamel
folds on the grinding surface of the molars arranged
in the form of the figure 8.

THE CHINCHILLA FAMILY (Chinchillidd). Distin-
guished by the possession of four rootless molars
divided into two, or at most three, separate trans-
verse ridges by continuous folds of enamel.

THE AGOUTI FAMILY (Subungulatd). Distinguished
by the peculiar structure of the digits, which
carry a kind of hoof in place of claws or nails.

THE RABBIT FAMILY (Leporidd). Distinguished by
the possession of two small incisors in the upper
jaw, placed behind the two functional incisors.

THE EDENTATES (Edentata).

Placental mammals with incomplete dentition and root-
less teeth without enamel. The free digits carry
hoofs transformed into sickle-shaped claws.

THE SLOTHS (Bradypoda). With very long fore-limbs,
incomplete zygomatic arch, and descending process
from the cheek-bone.

THE ARMADILLOS (Dasypodd). With a very strong
bony framework, part of which is adapted to
support an outer skeleton or armour, composed
of small plates, usually hexagonal in form, placed
side by side.

22

THE MAMMALIA.

THE WORM-TONGUED EDENTATES (Vermilinguia). Dis-
tinguished by the possession of long worm-like
tongues, always coated with an adhesive saliva,
which enables them to be used as organs of pre-
hension.

THE ANT-EATERS.
THE PANGOLINS.

THE MARSUPIALS or POUCH-BEARING
MAMMALS (Marsupialia}.

Non-placental mammals with free digits bearing nails
or claws. The young are born in a very imperfect
condition, and complete their development attached
to teats situated in an external abdominal pouch
(marsupium) supported by two special bones (mar-
supial bones) attached to the pelvis. The dentition
is usually complete but permanent, except in the
case of a single premolar, which is shed and
renewed. The lower angle of the lower jaw behind
is turned inwards.

THE OPOSSUMS (Didelphyida). With five digits on
all four feet, and with a very long and strong
hallux, which is completely opposable as in
monkeys.
THE PREDACEOUS MARSUPIALS (Rapacia).

THE PERAMELES FAMILY (Peramelida). Long-eared
marsupials with tubercles on the molar teeth,
ada'pting them for crushing insects, the first digit
of the fore-feet represented only by a wart or

tubercle, that of the hind-feet entirely absent,
while the second and third digits in the hind-
feet are very thin and united together down to
the claws.

THE DASYURE FAMILY (Dasyurida). With a more
or less well-marked carnivorous dentition.

THE FRUIT-EATING MARSUPIALS (Carpophaga).

THE PHALANGER FAMILY (Phalangistida). With the
second and third digits of the hind-feet united,
a nailless opposable hallux, and well-developed
marsupial pouch.

THE HERBIVOROUS MARSUPIALS (Poephaga). Com-
posed of forms well adapted for leaping; always
with five digits, armed with strong claws on the
short fore-limbs, and very long hind-limbs fitted
to bear the whole weight of the body.

THE ROOT-EATING MARSUPIALS (Rhizophaga). Com-
posed only of a single genus, the wombats
(Phascolomys), with a dentition exactly like that of
a rodent.

THE MONOTREMES (Monotrematd).

Non-placental mammals without true teeth, with the
genital and urinary ducts opening along with the
rectum into a common chamber (cloaca). They
have neither marsupial pouch nor teats, but have
milk-glands and marsupial bones.

THE ORNITHORHYNCHUS.
THE ECHIDNA.

NOTE

ON POINTS CONNECTED WITH GEOLOGY REFERRED TO IN THIS WORK.

In the following pages a section under each
order of the Mammals is devoted to the question
of the presumed origin or descent of the group,
which involves the consideration of its distribution
in time. With the view of assisting the reader
in following the reasonings in the sections alluded
to, a geological table showing the sequence of
the rocks forming the crust of the earth is here
added. Where subordinate members of the systems
given in this table are mentioned in the text, such
sub-divisions, for example, as the Keuper or New
Red Marl, or local formations, like the Stonesfield
Slates, or the Purbeck Beds, an indication is always
given of the system to which they belong, so that

a reference to this table will enable the reader to
understand in a general way the relative order in
time of the extinct forms spoken of.

It may here be mentioned, however, that the
order of the strata, as shown in this table, must
not be understood as giving any indication of the
length of time separating forms belonging to differ-
ent systems. The thickness of the rocks composing
these systems varies greatly, and there is presum-
ably a corresponding variation in the length of
time that has elapsed during their formation. Thus,
though the first Mammalian remains are found in
the Trias, it may be inferred from the thickness of
the British strata, that the interval between their

INTRODUCTION.

first occurrence and the present epoch, is enor-
mously less than that which had previously elapsed
from the time of the oldest stratified rocks.

It need hardly be observed that in the following I

table, as in all similar tables, the oldest strata
are those which are placed at the bottom. The
Archaean or Eozoic rocks contain the earliest organic
remains known to exist, and such remains become
more and more numerous as we ascend the scale.
It is in accordance with the general character of
these remains that the rocks are subdivided into

the systems mentioned in the table, but it is not
till we come to the rocks classed as " Recent " that
we meet with any subdivision based on the char-
acter of the Mammalian remains. The rocks or
deposits so termed are distinguished from the
Pleistocene, or those forming the other member of
the Quaternary series, by the fact that in them all
the mammals belong to species still living, while
the latter contain the fossil remains of many ex-
tinct mammals, as well as others derived from
forms surviving at the present day.

GEOLOGICAL TABLE,

SHOWING IN ASCENDING ORDER THE MAIN ROCK-SYSTEMS INTO WHICH THE CRUST

OF THE EARTH IS DIVIDED.

POST-TERTIARY OR QUATERNARY

{

Recent — Alluvium, Peat, &c.

Pleistocene.
/ Pliocene.

TERTIARY OR KAINOZOIC, < Miocene.

\ Eocene.
, Cretaceous.

SECONDARY OR MESOZOIC

PRIMARY OR PAL/EOZOIC,
ARCHAEAN OR Eozoic,

I Oolitic.
, < Jurassic. > j • •

' Triassi

Triassic.

Permian.

Carboniferous.

Devonian and Old Red Sandstone.

Silurian.

Cambrian.

Fundamental Gneiss.

APES AND MONKEYS

(SIMI.E).

Tropical mammals more or less like man, with complete dentition, opposable thumb and great-toe (Quadrumana),
cup-shaped closed bony orbit, two pectoral mammae, and discoidal placenta.

TH E apes and monkeys must always have
struck men as being exceedingly human-
like in their general form and structure. So
much so, that the great medical writer Galen,
as was demonstrated by Vesalius, ascribed to
the human frame several details of structure
that he could only have observed in dissect-
ing the well-known magot or Barbary Ape:
Linnaeus, again, the founder of modern
zoology, placed the orang-utang in the same
genus with man, distinguishing them merely
as species. Modern science, however, renders
this error no longer possible.

There has been more controversy over the
question of the relation of man to the Simise
than would have been possible if the dis-
putants had limited themselves to purely
zoological characters, and had not drawn into
the discussion the whole sphere of man's
intellectual development and capacity for
development. If our object were to give a
complete account of the whole class of the
Mammalia, as that class must be understood
in the science of zoology, unquestionably we
should have been compelled to include man,
who is a mammal, neither more nor less, down
to the smallest feature of his internal and
external organization. That is a truth that
cannot be shaken. But since, even apart
from intellectual qualities and their develop-

ment, the study of man as a part of nature
has become the subject of a comprehensive
science, Anthropology, we have had to con-
fine ourselves to the other mammals. Here
now it is a matter of perfect indifference for
our present purpose what relative value one
would assign to the specific characters of the
bodily structure of man ; for even although
one must acknowledge the entire truth of the
well-known saying, that there is less difference
between man and the anthropoid apes than
between these and the lowest of the Simiae,
yet within these limits various views may be
maintained as to the value of the boundary
lines between the different groups.

The likeness of the Simise to man is un-
disputed, but it is not the same in all members
of that group. It grows gradually less from
the large anthropoid apes down to the baboons
and the Arctopitheci ; and if the members of
one group manifest a striking resemblance in
the general form of the body, in their bearing
and mode of using the limbs, those of the last
group approach so near the squirrels and
other climbing animals orCarnivora in external
appearance, demeanour, and mode of life, that
it requires a pretty close examination to
ascertain the differences between these groups.

Let us take a closer look at the bodily
resemblances and differences, for it is only

26

APES AND MONKEYS.

these that come under consideration here in
the first instance. The resemblances are more
prominent in the young, the differences in the
adult. I was drawing a mature embryo of the
black ape (Cynocephalus (Cynopithccus) niger),
when a lady, who had shortly before pre-
sented her husband with a son, stepped in.
"Good gracious!" she exclaimed, "exactly
the portrait of my little Jean Jacques."

The rounded head with generally flat nose
and nostrils placed very near each other, the
well-formed neck, the form of the trunk, and
above all the entire freedom of the limbs
mark the external resemblance to man, a
resemblance, however, which is, to be sure, a
good deal diminished in most of the Simiae
by the existence of a longer or shorter tail.
But we hasten to add that in the anthropoid
apes and some other species, as the Barbary
ape, this appendage is altogether wanting.
A less striking difference is presented by the
covering of hair, which in most of the Simiae
is complete, and in some even forms a kind
of woolly fur. This distinction cannot indeed
be called an absolute one, for between the
scanty hair-covering of some of the Simiae
and the abundant hair-covering of many
races of man it is just as impossible to draw
a sharp boundary line as it is to indicate any
such line of demarcation with respect to the
distribution and direction of the hair on
certain parts of the body. In man the front
of the body is much more hairy than the
back, which must probably be regarded as
a consequence of the usual attitude of man,
since it is always those parts which are most
in need of protection that are most abun-
dantly covered with hair. The ape or
monkey, which holds itself erect only in
exceptional cases, exposes the back parts to
the changes of the weather, and these accord-
ingly are the more plentifully covered with
hair; the naked savage, on the other hand,
standing erect exposes the crown of the head
and the front more than any other parts, and
hence has these parts most abundantly

supplied with hair. With respect to the
direction of the hair the anthropoid apes
agree with man in having the hair on the
fore-arm directed backwards towards the
elbow, while the other Simise and other mam-
mals generally have the hair on the corres-
ponding parts directed downwards.

Let us now consider more closely the
structure of the skeleton, and first that of
the skull.

The skull of the very young in all mam-
mals including man is characterized by the
predominance of the cranial over the facial
region, the latter of which has its form and
proportions determined chiefly by the de-
velopment of the jaws. In man as in the
Simiae the jaws grow gradually forwards with
advancing years in consequence of the growth
of the teeth ; but while even in those races of
man which have teeth slanting forwards (the
Prognathi) this protrusion is confined within
narrow limits, in the Simiae, and especially
in the low terrestrial forms, the Cynomorphae,
it is so considerable that we have here
similar relations to what we find in the
Carnivora, the cranial region lying for the
most part not above but behind the facial.
But in this as in many other cases the
gradual development of this feature can be
considered under three aspects, namely, as
affected by age, by sex, and by the position
in the scale of being. In the female sex the
jaws and the muscles moving them are less de-
veloped than in the male; in the higher Simiae
the jaws protrude less than in the lower.
With the development of the jaws and their
muscles is connected in the most intimate
manner that of the surfaces, crests, and
ridges of the skull to which the muscles are
attached; and considering the development
of these crests and ridges under the three
aspects just mentioned, we may observe that
in the young and in females they are often
scarcely more prominent than in man while
in the males of many species they are not less
developed than in the heavy-armed Carnivora.

STRUCTURE OF THE SKULL.

27

In all circumstances, however, the cranial
region in the Simise is, in consequence of the
smaller size of the brain, much smaller than
in man, and we are justified in saying that
the most essential distinction between the
two groups consists in peculiarities which
result from this predominant development
of the human brain.

While in man the osseous brain-case with
its contents arches over the facial region in
such a manner that the latter comes to lie
almost entirely under and not in front of the
former, the centre of gravity of the skull and
of the whole head is at the same time trans-
posed forwards, so as to have the effect
of making the upright position the normal
attitude of the body. In those Simiae which
most closely resemble the lower animals as
regards the structure of the jaws, namely, the
baboons, the head, as in all other four-footed
mammals, is attached by strong muscles and
nuchal ligaments, so that its support always
demands a considerable degree of muscular
exertion, in consequence of which the pro-
cesses of the neck vertebrae to which the
nuchal ligaments are attached are correspond-
ingly elongated and strengthened. In man,
on the other hand, the head is in a state of
equilibrium on the spinal column when he
stands erect, and no further muscular exertion
is required to keep it in that position. These
relations necessarily affect the position of the
occipital articulation, and the opening or
foramen between the two occipital condyles
through which the spinal column is prolonged
into the cranial cavity so as to become con-
tinuous with the brain-mass. From the
posterior surface of the skull, where this
foramen is found in the lower Simiae, it
moves gradually down in the higher species
till at last it comes to occupy in man the
middle of the base of the skull.

Anatomists are now agreed upon this, that
the brain of the Simiae is constructed exactly
on the same plan as that of man, that no part
is wanting to the former which is present in

the latter; that the fissures which intersect
the brain-mass and the lobes and convolutions
lying between them are absolutely identical,
and are distinguished only in this, that their
forms become in man all the more complicated
the larger the mass becomes, besides which
the greater or smaller relative importance of
individual lobes and fissures must also be
taken into account. But in this case also the
gradual development, both from infancy to
the adult condition, and also from race to race
or species to species, can be demonstrated,
and the observation that the structural dif-
ferences between the brain of the anthropoid
apes and that of the lowest races of man are
much less than those which we meet with
in descending from the higher to the lower
Simiae, can no longer be shaken.

The weight and volume of the brain of the
adult gorilla, the largest of the anthropoid apes,
only slightly exceed those of the brain of the
new-born (human) child. If only this circum-
stance be taken into consideration, other finer
specific differences being left out of account,
then we. may have some warrant for saying,
that the brain of the anthropoid apes only
when fully grown attains that degree of de-
velopment which the brain of the child pos-
sesses on its entrance into the world.

No doubt, however, the anthropoid type of
brain structure is shown also in this, that in
all the Simiee, even the lowest, the cerebral
hemispheres are sufficiently developed to
overarch all the other parts, corpora quadri-
gemina and cerebellum, in such a manner that
when the brain is seen from above these are
completely covered.

The three higher organs of sense, eye, nose,
and ear, are formed and situated exactly as in
the human child. The eyes are placed near
one another, separated only by a narrow nasal
ridge, and are set in completely closed capsu-
lar orbits in the front of the face. The nose
is flat as in the child, not prominent, the nos-
trils in some cases directed more sidewards
than forwards, more so than even in the

28

APES AND MONKEYS.

lowest races of man, but sometimes they are
placed closer together. The ears in the an-
thropoid apes exactly resemble those of man,
and in them too are similarly incapable of
motion, while in the lower Simise they become
somewhat more pointed and to a certain
degree capable of being moved. The outer
margin of the ear (the helix) is rolled in as
in man, and only the inferior lobe is less
developed and less clearly marked off.

The jaws and dentition demand a closer
examination. Since these are in general
more powerfully developed than in man, the
maxillae and gums are proportionally longer
and narrower, more elliptical than circular in
form, the lower jaw mostly higher than in
man, but its two halves always, as in man,
completely fused. I mention this character
here expressly because it forms an essential
distinction between the Simiae and the
Prosimii, in which latter the two halves of
the lower jaw are connected in such a manner
that they can easily be separated.

A projecting chin, what is called in more
technical language a mental process, is alto-
gether wanting in the Simise; but this
feature even in human jaws, and especially in
childhood, is often only slightly developed.

The premaxilla, which carries the upper
incisors, becomes fused in man very early,
even during embryonic existence, with the
adjoining bones, while in the Simiae, on the
other hand, the fusion takes place later,
mostly at the time of the emergence of the
permanent molars.

If we now consider the dentition itself, the
first thing that strikes us is that in all the
Simiae, but especially in males and in those
genera which incline to the carnivorous type,
the canines rise with their crowns above the
masticating surface of the other teeth and fit
into a more or less developed gap or diastema
in the opposite set of teeth. All the other
teeth lie close together with their crowns on
the same level. In man large canines occur
but seldom.

As already mentioned in the Introduction,
the milk dentition demands special consider-
ation, inasmuch as this represents the inheri-
tance which the creature has derived from its
ancestors.

With respect to the milk dentition the
Simiae are divided into two great groups.
All the Old World Simiae have twenty milk
teeth, like man, namely, two incisors, one
canine, and two premolars in each half of
each jaw. All the New World forms, on the
other hand, have twenty-four milk teeth,
there being in them an additional premolar
with the same incisors and canines. Through
the development of the permanent dentition
there arises a division among the New World
forms, for while in all except the Clawed
Monkeys, or Arctopitheci, three molars
emerge in each half of each jaw, in these
there are only two, the so-called wisdom-tooth,
the last in the series, never appearing in them.
We thus obtain the following dental formu-
las:—

MILK DENTITION.

Man
World

and Old I

d Simla;, j

INCISORS. CANINES. PREMOLARS. TOTAL.

New World
Simiae,

I ^

1 2

Arctopitheci, 4

2
2
J_

3

£

3

= 20

24
= 24

Man and Old
World Simla:,

PERMANENT DENTITION.

INCISORS. CAN NES. PREMOLARS. MOLARS. TOTAL.

2 3

32

New
Simla;,

1 1 2^. — — .1

, I 2 2 3

v World 1 _2_ _ _3_ _3_ 6

imia", ) 2 33

( 2

Arctopitheci, <

±.,

Although, then, the Arctopitheci have
exactly the same number of teeth as the Old
World Simiae and man, yet they belong to
the general American type in that they differ
from these, as all the other American forms
do, in the number of their premolars.

The fundamental structure of the teeth is
exactly the same as in man. The incisors

STRUCTURE OF THE TEETH.

are inserted somewhat obliquely as in the
prognathous races of man, are broad and
chisel-shaped, and have single roots. The
canines are conical, sometimes curved and
with sharp edges; the premolars with blunt
tubercles; the molars four-sided, with at least
four blunt tubercles separated by a trans-
verse furrow, and sometimes in addition a
fifth posterior unpaired tubercle. The dif-
ferences are due to greater or less variations
in the relative size of the individual teeth, as
well as in the structure of the different parts;
in particular to the exceptional development
of the canines and the somewhat sharper
cusps of the premolars in the baboons, to the
more pointed form assumed by the molar
tubercles in the Arctopitheci, which feed
chiefly on insects. The range of these varia-
tions is, however, only very small, and one
may say in general, that the dentition of the
Simiae, like that of man, exhibits a somewhat
indifferent character, but is most closely
allied to that of the tuberculate group of the
Ungulata, more especially that of many fossil
genera of this group, yet with indications of
an approximation to the insectivorous type
of dentition on the one side, and to that of
the carnivores on the other.

With respect to the structure of the vertebral
column, the chest, the shoulder-girdle, and
the pelvis, we only observe, without desiring
to go into too great detail, that a wide cleft
can be shown to exist between the anthropoid
apes, which nearly approach the human struc-
ture adapted for an upright position, and the
other Simiae, in which the arrangement of
parts characteristic of four-footed mammals
prevails, although with a gradual approach to
the type of the anthropoid apes. The verte-
bral column shows only approximations to
that double S-shaped curve, which is so char-
acteristic of man, and which in an upright posi-
tion distributes the weight of the body over
a greater area. The chest in the terrestrial
monkeys as in other four-footed mammals is
laterally compressed, and the sternum projects

to a certain extent in a wedge-form in the
middle line; and only gradually is the broad
flattened form of chest such as is seen in the
anthropoid apes and in man developed. The
shoulder-girdle is always composed of a broad
scapula or shoulder-blade and a powerful
collar-bone, such as is met with in all
mammals in which the fore-limbs serve not
only to support the body, but also to perform
other functions, such as digging, flying, swim-
ming, grasping, and so forth. The pelvis,
which is narrow and placed parallel to the
vertebral column in the lowest Simise, becomes
gradually broader and more basin-shaped, and
in the anthropoid apes closely approaches in
structure the human pelvis, which, in conse-
quence of the upright position, has to support
the whole weight of the abdominal viscera.

We now turn to the limbs, which indeed
are constructed entirely on the human type,
but yet exhibit many differences. First of all
it may be observed that the fore-limbs are in
every case longer and more muscular relatively
to the hind ones than in man, who has com-
paratively the strongest and longest legs of
all animals, as is only natural when we consider
that in him the upright position is normal, and
the legs consequently have to bear the whole
weight of the body. The relative proportions
of the two pairs of limbs exhibit a gradual
diminution in the amount of difference. From
the monstrously long arms of the gibbons and
the spider-monkeys a continuous process of
shortening can be observed, especially in the
anthropoid apes, until we come to man; yet
even the arms of the gorilla, the ape that
in this respect approaches most nearly to
man, are still considerably longer than in
the human species. The shorter legs of the
Simiae are less muscular; the thighs are flat,
the buttocks angular, and there are no calves.
But the number and relations of the bones are
the same as in man, and moreover the Simiae
have the same power of pronation in the fore-
arm as man, though not so highly developed.

The digits require a more thorough con-

APES AND MONKEYS.

sideration. With the exception of the Arcto-
pitheci the digits in all Simiae have flat nails,
which, however, in some species become more
arched, and so pass into claws.

We are justified in saying that the Simiae
have four hands, while man has only two.
In the former, as in all climbing animals, the
hind-limbs are developed chiefly as grasping
organs, in man only the fore-limbs. This
essential difference goes so far that the Colobi
in the Old World and the spider-monkeys
(Ateles) in the New have no thumbs at all,
accordingly no hands in the ordinary sense,
and the Arctopitheci have indeed a thumb
but not an opposable one.

All this is true enough, but when we go to
the bottom of the matter, these seemingly
far-reaching distinctions become shorn of much
of their importance. In relation to function,
indeed, they could not be greater than they
are. In man the hind-limbs are only organs
of support and locomotion, the fore-limbs
solely of prehension and touch. In the Simiae
these functions separated in man are distri-
buted among all the four limbs.

Nevertheless, except as regards the motions
of hallux and pollex, the structure of the two
extremities is the same in the Simiae as in
man. The hinder extremity of the former is a
foot adapted for grasping indeed, yet entirely
similar in its structure to the foot of man.

The human foot is distinguished from the
hand chiefly by the shortness of the toes, the
development of the heel and structure of the
ankle generally, and the position of the foot
with reference to the leg. The leg stands
perpendicularly over the ankle, which has
developed a posterior process, the heel. The
hand is continuous in direction with the fore-
arm, and has no heel; the articular surface
which connects it with the arm is not found
as in the foot on the back but at the end
turned towards the body.

In all these respects the hind-foot in the
Simiae resembles the human foot. There is
always a projecting heel, and therefore an

ape's or monkey's foot can no more be brought
into the same line with the leg than the
human foot can; the two must always form
an angle with one another.

The posterior "hand" of the Simiae can
never accordingly be compared anatomically
with the human hand, but only with the
human foot. Its ankle is identical in structure
with that of a man, so much so that in the
gorilla only very insignificant differences can
be detected. The hand proper in the Simiae,
on the contrary, is constructed exactly like
that of man, and even the absence of the
thumb in many forms constitutes no essential
difference.

And this nasty tail ! Much paper would
have remained unsoiled if the authors of
certain controversial writings had known that
the anthropoid apes have no tail, but on the
contrary have a vertebral column terminating
exactly as in man. But it would appear
that in many circles it is impossible even to
think of a monkey without a tail, and that
involuntarily Cercopitheci and Semnopitheci
are taken as the sole representatives of an
order in which this appendage to the vertebral
column undergoes all possible modifications,
from the prehensile and tactile organ of the
howling monkeys to the rudiment at the end
of the vertebral column of the anthropoid apes.

With respect to internal organs only a few
differences, and these not general, can be
pointed out, such, for example, as cheek-
pouches, bladder or drum-like organs for
increasing the loudness of the voice, the
constricted stomach in the Semnopitheci, and
similar peculiarities which are not of much
account. The human type is prominent
everywhere, and quite peculiarly so in what
belongs to the reproductive organs. The
Simiae never have more than two pectoral
mammae; the envelopes of the ovum are
exactly of the same nature as in man, and the
placenta, like the human one, is discoidal, in
many cases simple, but in others divided by
a fissure into two lobes.

THEIR FOOD AND HABITS.

All the anatomical facts may accordingly
be summed up thus, that the characters which
distinguish the Simise from man may indeed
be regarded as sufficient to found a separate
order, but that that is the utmost value they
have. The simian characters considered as
a whole present a curious mixture, inasmuch
as some of them correspond to those of the
human child and remain at this stage, while
others show a development of certain pecu-
liarities beyond the point arrived at in man.
The head of a male gorilla with its enormous
teeth, muscle-tendons, and ridges, on the one
hand, and the child's brain within it, on the
other hand, affords the best illustration of this
assertion.

All the Simise are originally arboreal, and
many of them never come to the ground in a
state of freedom. In climbing they are ex-
tremely adroit and powerful, the most expert
gymnasts, accomplishing the most astonishing
leaps with safety and rapidity. But some
come to the ground occasionally, others prefer
to spend a part of their life there, and others
again scarcely ever leave the ground, but
climb about among the rocks in the mountains.
These particulars are so far interesting in
that they represent a gradual transition to the
erect attitude of man. Except the anthropoid
apes all the Simiae set the soles of their hind-
feet flat upon the ground in walking, and most
of them also those of the fore-feet. On the
other hand, the long-armed spider-monkeys
(Ateles), when they do walk at all, which is
quite the exception, turn the hands in in such
a manner that the edge corresponding to the
little finger touches the ground. The anthro-
poid apes place their hind-feet on the ground
in an exactly similar manner, while they fold
up their hands so as to support themselves on
their knuckles. The members of the genus
Troglodytes (the chimpanzee and the gorilla),
however, frequently walk long distances
upright, placing the hind -feet flat on the
ground, and it is known regarding the gorilla
that in so doing he always keeps his arms

free for fighting. The very long-armed
gibbons, in the rare instances in which they
come to the ground, walk upright, rocking
from side to side, while they hold up their
long arms in the air so as to balance them-
selves. The upright position, always, how-
ever, with a bent back, can thus be assumed
by the anthropoid apes, but not for very long
distances, and in connection with that it is a
noteworthy fact that they give their hands and
feet that position which is seen in a new-born
child — the fingers bent in and the soles of the
feet turned in so that the outer edge would
touch the ground.

The food of the Simise is very varied, but
lor the most part mixed. Only very few of
them are pure vegetable feeders, these living
chiefly on fruits or even juicy leaves. Most
of them require a larger or smaller addition of
animal food — Articulata and their larvae, the
larger species even eating reptiles, birds, and
small mammals. Some, such as the Arcto-
pitheci, appear to be wholly insect-eaters. In
keeping these animals in captivity far too little
attention has been paid to this circumstance.

Still more manifold are their mode of life,
habits, temperament, and mental capacities.
Most species live in societies, often indeed in
large troops and herds subject to one of the
older animals as a leader; some, such as the
large anthropoid apes, have been met with
only in small families — male, female, and
child. Most of the Simiae of the Old World
are highly intelligent, extremely curious, given
to all sorts of tricks, and like children liable
to pass with extreme rapidity from a cheerful
to a dull or angry mood; while the American
forms, on the other hand, seem as a rule
more given to brooding, and are less sensitive
and slower in their movements. Even in
early years, for it is only young specimens on
which it has been possible so far to make
continued observations in Europe, the anthro-
poid apes exhibit a certain dignity in their
bearing, while the baboons are intractable,
sullen, and mostly ill-natured creatures. But

APES AND MONKEYS.

here also, as in the case of children, to whose
general behaviour that of the apes has at least
some resemblance, great individual differences
in capacity and temperament are observable,
so that the accounts of the behaviour of
individuals of the same species are often
diametrically opposite, one observer describing
a species as ill-natured and having vices of
all kinds, while another finds it amiable and
good-natured. And further, in reading all
these accounts we must take into consideration
the fact that most of the observations have
been made on captive specimens, which in
consequence of training, constant teasing, and
deprivation of their freedom, find themselves
in altogether abnormal states of mind and
feeling, states which often diverge greatly
from those manifested when they are living
in freedom.

This circumstance also is specially worthy
of note, that as in the bodily so also in the
mental development of the apes the period of
sexual maturity forms an important crisis.
It is only at this period that those changes
take place which lead to the characteristic
formation of jaws and teeth, and of the strong
muscle tendons and crests on the skull, and
with the appearance of these external features
is connected in the most intimate manner
the development of the evil instincts, savage-
ness, lasciviousness, and so forth, while at the
same time the intellectual qualities remain at
the same stage which they had hitherto
reached. From this period the appetite for
food and the sexual instinct govern the animal
almost exclusively. Similar conditions manifest
themselves in the lower races of man, though
not in so pronounced a manner.

(A) THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD

(CATARRHIN^E).
With 32 teeth, and narrow septum between the nostrils, which are directed somewhat forwards.

ANTHROPOID APES

(ANTH ROPOMORPI^E).

Tailless, with naked face somewhat resembling that of
man ; body covered with long hairs.

Black Anthropoid Apes (Troglodytes).

With fore-limbs reaching no further than the ankles, and
thirteen pairs of ribs; natives of Africa.

As early as the year 500 B.C. Hanno, the
Carthaginian admiral, who then sailed along
the west coast of Africa to beyond Sierra
Leone at the head of a fleet of sixty vessels,
became acquainted with large black anthropoid
apes. Three females were killed and their
skins brought to Carthage. The interpreters

he said, called these apes " Gorillas," a name
no longer met with in the negro dialects.
Later on people became better acquainted
with these apes through the settlements
formed on the Guinea coast, and as far back
as two hundred years ago living specimens
of the young were brought to Europe. But
it was not till 1846 or 1847 that it was
definitely ascertained that two species of these
apes could be distinguished, a smaller species
now known as the chimpanzee, and a larger
to which the name of gorilla is now restricted ;
and while it was formerly believed that only
the coast regions were inhabited by these
animals, the accounts brought by the more
recent explorers of Central Africa seem to
leave no doubt regarding the fact that the

To face fafe 32.

PLATE I. — THE CHIMPANZEE ( Troglodytes niger).

UNIVERSITY

OF

BLACK ANTHROPOID APES.

33

whole of the interior of the Dark Continent is
occupied by large apes of this description.
Whether a third species, the chego, must be
admitted or not is still doubtful. The
individual differences among these apes are
often very considerable, and hybrids are cer-
tainly not impossible, in fact according to the
accounts of hunters are even frequent.

It is a very difficult matter to obtain reliable
information concerning the distribution, spe-
cific characters, habits, and mode of life of
these remarkable apes, which unquestionably
approach nearest to man in their organization.
If even white hunters are notorious for their
magniloquent exaggerations, and the hunting
tales of Europe are held in light esteem as
regards the matter of truth, this is much more
the case with negroes and many travellers.
Competent trustworthy observers have made
the acquaintance of these animals only in the
young state, and in addition to that only in
captivity. All the anthropoid apes brought
to Europe have died in childhood. In no
case can we be sure that the creature had
attained the eighth year of its age. Like the
bodily structure so also must the qualities of
the animals alter considerably in the adult;
but of the adults we know nothing but the
dead bodies, together with a number of stories
distorted by all sorts of fables. In fact there
is only a single white man who has boasted
of having himself killed an ape of this kind,
and he has been convicted of so much exag-
geration and indulgence in the fabulous that
his whole narrative has come to be looked
upon as very improbable.

In the full-page illustration (Plate I.) the
Chimpanzee ( Troglodytes niger) is represented
in a pleasant homely family group. The
papa clings with his right hand and left foot
to shoots from a dependent branch, the
mamma sits on the outlook with her little
one on her lap. Papa is quenching his thirst,
and in doing so rests upon his left hand,
which is bent into the position which the habit
of walking on all-fours has caused the creature

to adopt. The bristly hair of the head, long
behind, and the short white beard leave the
characteristic features of the old male, the very
prominent orbits in which the eyes are deeply
sunk, and the longitudinal crest on the skull
(the sagittal crest), plainly recognizable ; traits
which in the female and the young are not
well developed. The large ears spread far
out from the head; the nose is broad and
flattened, the lower part of the face pro-
jecting and muzzle-like. The large lower
lip is specially characteristic in the chim-
panzee, who uses it as a pouch, while either
alone or in conjunction with the upper lip
it bears a most important part in the play
of feature with which the creature expresses
its feelings. The naked parts of the face
along with the ears are of a dirty flesh-colour
inclining to brown, the region of the eyes and
the bridge of the nose almost black, the edges
of the lips flesh-coloured, the naked hands
and feet of a rather dirty- looking black, the
long thin fur, which on the back of the head
is developed into a kind of tuft, and on the
sides of the face forms bristly whiskers, quite
black. On the fore-arms the hair, as in all
anthropoid apes, is directed towards the elbow ;
the tufts of white hair on the buttocks are
not seen in our drawing. Hands and feet are
quite human in their character; only on the
hands the thumb is weaker, while the great
toe is stronger than in man, and the latter
lies apart from the rest of the toes, causing the
foot to be relatively broader than the human
foot in front. The female, and still more the
young animal, are distinguished from the
adult male by the rounder form of the head,
which more resembles that of man in shape,
but even in the infant chimpanzee the muzzle
projects much further than in the lowest
human races. Old males of the chimpanzee
attain a height of nearly five feet, but com-
pared with man have a greater breadth across
the shoulders and more powerfully developed
muscles in the long fore-arms, which, when
the creature stands upright, nearly reach the

34

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

ankles, while the legs are shorter and less
fleshy than in man, the muscles of the buttocks
and the calves of the legs in particular being
very poorly developed.

Of the life of these creatures in a state of
freedom we know very little. In the Guinea
country the chimpanzee prefers the dry some-
what open woods, with patches of grass-land
here and there, to the dense primeval forest
which he inhabits in the interior of the con-
tinent. There families, consisting of father,
mother, and child, roam about in search of
their food, which consists of fruits, juicy leaves,
and roots. Sometimes the families unite in
troops, among which it is said a good deal of
merriment prevails, the members of the troops
amusing themselves with games and wrestling,
screaming, drumming on hollow trees, and
feasting on fruits. Beyond doubt young birds
and small mammals are also eaten at these
festivals; but all young chimpanzees, which
have been kept in great numbers in Europe,
exhibit a truly amusing dread of lizards, and
still more of serpents.

All observers are agreed upon this, that
the chimpanzee builds for itself a very simple
nest or rather seat in the fork of branches in
high trees, employing for the purpose small
branches and withered foliage. Sometimes
these seats or nests are even provided with
roofs as a protection against the rain. On
these he spends the night, and there the
female lies after having given birth to her
young. All are agreed further that the
creature displays great dexterity in climb-
ing, and that he flees before the face of man;
but when attacked, or when called upon to
defend his young, towards which he shows
the tenderest attachment, uses his teeth and
his arms vigorously. In such an encounter
his well-developed canines, and the length
and strength of his arms, with which he hugs
his antagonist in his embraces, stand him in
good stead. He will even on occasion lay
about him with spears wrested from his pur-
suers. At other times he is on the whole a

good-humoured creature, who but seldom
makes himself guilty of doing damage to
fruit-plantations, though bananas in particular
are a strong temptation to him. Since the
changes in his dentition are completed only
in the sixth year, we may estimate the length
of his life at about equal to that of man.

Our actual knowledge of the life of this
ape in a state of freedom may be said to be
confined to the particulars just given. The
young have been observed only in captivity.

Putting aside all individual differences,
which, it should be remembered, may be
partly due to the treatment and training to
which different specimens have been sub-
jected, we find that all the observations which
have been made on probably more than a
hundred young chimpanzees which have been
brought captive to Europe, combine to show
that they are very excitable, sanguine, in-
telligent creatures, whose qualities of mind
and temperament can scarcely be distin-
guished from those of similarly endowed
children of the human species. Satisfaction,
joy, which is manifested even by smiling,
depression, pain, despair, anger, and fury
succeed one another suddenly, like rain and
sunshine, and the great vivacity of their
temperament is shown in their almost un-
ceasing occupation with toys and gymnastic
apparatus, in their attentive observation of
their surroundings, and of all that goes on
about them. To all who show themselves
to be of a kindly and sympathetic nature
they exhibit the most touching and devoted
attachment, and their amiability in playing
with children is another conspicuous feature of
their disposition. Easy and rapid apprehen-
sion, careful observation, and the power of
drawing logical conclusions are qualities that
cannot be denied to him. Like the child the
young chimpanzee knows instantly whether
the visitor whom he sees for the first time
is kindly disposed to him or not. I have
myself observed a case in which a chim-
panzee, who had got himself a little scratched

To fact faff 34.

PLATE II. — THE GORILLA (Troglodytes gorilla).

BLACK ANTHROPOID APES.

35

by the point of a slightly projecting nail in
the wall of his cage, first carefully examined
the part, then sought to remove the projecting
point, and afterwards, when he was let out,
immediately proceeded to search for the head
of the nail on the outside of the wall, and then
on finding it began to use his teeth and fingers
in making efforts to pull out the nail. Ulti-
mately this was done for him with a pair of
pincers, whereupon he broke out into lively
demonstrations of joy. "He died like a
human being, not like a beast," said the
physician who attended the chimpanzee in
the garden at Hamburg during its last ill-
ness.

On the ground of very slight differences,
which may easily be only individual varia-
tions, French anatomists had distinguished
a second species of black African anthropoid
apes, the Chego (Troglodytes Tchego). To
this species was assigned a female of only five
or six years old, purchased for the Dresden
Zoological Gardens in 1873 and kept there
till her death, under the name of Mafoka.
This individual may have been a hybrid
between a gorilla and a chimpanzee. Of
the chimpanzee it had the large standing-
out ears, the lips and the muzzle, and the
narrow hands and feet; of the gorilla, the
savage appearance due to the very prominent
eyebrows and the broad nose, together with
the powerful arms; the legs, perhaps, were
somewhat longer and more powerful than in
the other two species. The animal had been
captured in South Guinea. In its behaviour
it was in no way different from a chimpanzee.

The largest and most powerful of the
anthropoid apes is the Gorilla ( Troglodytes
gorilla], which in the upright position may
attain a height of 5 feet 3 inches, and when
sitting appears larger than a human being
since its legs are shorter. The body is in
fact stronger, the shoulders are broader, the
arms shorter than in allied anthropoid apes,
the arms reaching only to about the knees.
The changes which the animal, especially

the male, undergoes with years are extra-
ordinary. The young gorilla, of which a
specimen was brought to Europe by Dr.
Falkenstein, so far the most important and
indeed almost the sole result of the German
expedition under Glissfeld, has a roundish
head with a pretty well arched brow, promi-
nent orbits, flat nose, large muzzle, very
small human-like ears, powerful breast and
limbs, and a fat projecting paunch. The
thick skin everywhere gathers into broad
folds, even on the forehead, so that the
expression of the face is somewhat like that
of an old meditative negro. In the male
much more than in the female, as is excel-
lently shown in Plate II., the jaws and the
ridges above the eyes are developed in a
fearful manner. A high sagittal crest, which
gives to the crown and back of the head
in the living animal the form of the ridge
of a house -roof, runs along the whole
length of the skull ; and from it highly
prominent lateral ridges run on each side
towards the ears. The orbits become enor-
mously thick and large, so that the rather
small eyes lie deeply sunk in their cavities.
The jaws are very prominent, and when
opened to the very slightest extent allow us
to see the large conical canines which rise
far above the summits of the other teeth.
The snout is not so round and muzzle-like
as in the case of the chimpanzee; the lips,
and especially the under lip, not so extensible
as in the latter, in which it takes the place of
a cheek-pouch. The nape of the neck of the
adult gorilla is a genuine bull -neck, the
breast is rounded, the belly, though not so
plump as in the young, is at least of con-
siderable size. The limbs are extremely
muscular, the hands and feet most like the
corresponding parts in man. The hand is
broad, the fingers in about the same propor-
tions as those of man, the fore and middle
finger united by skin to the first joint. With
the exception of the thumb, which is feebly
developed, the hand looks like the widely

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

spread out hand of a smith. The foot is
broad, not so much contracted and arched
at the instep as that of the white man, but
more like the flat foot of the negro; the toes
are short and broad, although somewhat
longer than those of man; the great toe is
strong and capable of being moved con-
siderably apart from, and of being opposed
to the other toes. In this and in the weak
thumb lie the chief differences of the extre-
mities of the gorilla as compared with those
of the human species. The front part of
the face is naked, the skin, like that of the
hands and feet, being blackish; the body is
covered with coarse hairs, which on the cheeks
form slight whiskers, and on the nape of the
neck a moderately large tuft. The young
have quite black hair; the fur of the adult
becomes matted, and in colour brownish-
black even sprinkled with gray. The up-
ward direction of the hair of the fore -arm
is very marked.

The gorilla lives a retired life with wife
and child in the thickest forests of the west
coast of Africa near the Gaboon river.
Usually it walks on all -fours, delights in
climbing trees, which it does with great
facility, and on the trees constructs resting-
places for itself with twigs and leaves. It
lives on fruits, leaves, and a peculiar kind of
grass growing amidst brushwood. Its usual
cry is plaintive, but its cry of rage resembles
the growl of a tiger.

Beyond doubt this animal, so strong and so
formidably armed, must be a highly dangerous
antagonist in a fury, an antagonist able to
withstand any ravager of the wilderness, and
accordingly also man. But the history of
the gorilla is interwoven with so many fables
that it is difficult to unravel the truth. The
stories which negroes and some white men
have told of him are in a great measure
hunting tales. So much we seem to be
able to gather from them, that the gorilla for
the most part does not trouble himself about
man unless he is suddenly and unawares

alarmed and attacked. The female then
uniformly takes to flight with her young
one, but the male prepares for defence,
rushes bellowing on all-fours upon his anta-
gonist, on approaching whom he stands up
like a bear and tries to strike him down with
his hands, and to tear him to pieces with
his teeth. The sport is no doubt a highly
dangerous one, but yet probably less danger-
ous than hunting the lion or the tiger.
Savage enough the creature seems, and
naturally inspires terror in proportion.

The young gorilla that lived for some time
in the Berlin aquarium was a very good-
humoured, but quiet and grave-looking crea-
ture, and in its calm and composed demean-
our presented a strong contrast to a much
more lively chimpanzee, which often vainly
sought to engage it in play. Reade, who
kept a young gorilla in its native land,
describes it as being quite as sensible and
docile as chimpanzees of the same age. In
place of the cheerful and even noisy disposi-
tion of the chimpanzee we have in the case
of the gorilla a quieter and graver tempera-
ment.

Red Anthropoid Apes (Simia).

With very long arms, and twelve pairs of ribs ; natives of
the East Indies.

In the depths of the marshy forests and
jungles of the island of Borneo, more rarely
on Sumatra, there is found an anthropoid ape,
which attains a height of 4 feet 7 inches at
the most, and is usually called Orang-utang,
though by the natives Mias (Simia satyrus),
Plate III. Many naturalists have admitted
several species; the distinctions which they
pointed out, however, seem to be more of an
individual or sexual character. As in all apes
the ridges above the eyes and the crests of
the skull, as well as the jaws, are in these
also only gradually developed with years and
more particularly in the male sex.

As the extraordinary length of the arms

To face fast 36.

PLATE III. — THE ORANG-UTANG OR MIAS (Simla satynts).

RED ANTHROPOID APES.

37

in itself indicates (a mias of 4 feet 5 inches
spanned with outstretched arms and hands a
length of 7 feet 10^ inches), this ape is an
arboreal climber in a much greater measure
than his African kindred, and in this respect,
as in many other anatomical characters, re-
sembles the gibbons, which like him belong
to the East Indies. The skull in the young
and the female is round, but at the same time
furnished with powerful jaws, which even in
the young protrude much more than in the
African apes, and with their covering of thin
but wide lips have almost the appearance of
a kettle-drum seen from below. The orbital
and cranial ridges even in old males are less
prominent than in the chimpanzee, and still
less so than in the gorilla. On the other
hand two half-moonshaped projecting cheek-
swellings (absent in the female) give to the
adult male a very hideous aspect, reminding
one of the baboons, and this hideousness is
intensified by the fact that the creature has a
pouch in the throat capable of being dilated
with air at pleasure, and when so dilated
resembling a crop. The arms, which are
thin, especially the lower parts, and covered
with long bristly hairs, are so long that when
the creature stands upright with bent fingers
the knuckles touch the ground. The hands
have rather long fingers and the feet long
toes, and both are narrow. The thumb is
pretty strong. The wrist has one bone more
than in man. The abdomen is thick and
protruding; the legs are short and thin. The
face, hands, and feet are naked, slate-gray in
colour, the long hair of a dark rusty red, but
brighter in the young. In old males the
canines are extremely prominent.

The adult orang-utang, when he has set
himself to rights on a tree with his young
one, which in Plate III. is represented as
doing the kindly office of hunting for insects
on his parent, is described in the most trust-
worthy accounts of travellers as a good-
humoured and well-disposed creature, gener-
ally to be seen swinging itself by means of its

long arms with much deliberation from branch
to branch, and after careful trial from tree to
tree, descending to the ground only when
forced to do so by the most urgent need of
water. It breaks off twigs and small branches
to make sleeping-places for itself on high
trees, and is said to employ large leaves to
protect itself against rain. It lives chiefly on
fruits, which it opens with great dexterity.
According to the reports of the natives the
orang has to fight against only crocodiles and
large serpents, and these contests mostly end
in leaving it victorious. It does not fear
man, but when attacked defends itself cour-
ageously with hands and teeth. An orang,
which had got its arm smashed by a shot,
climbed up a high tree with great agility, and
with its uninjured arm broke off a number of
branches with their leaves on, with which it
quickly made a scaffolding on which it
screened itself completely from the eyes of
its pursuers. An infant orang, still without
teeth, which Wallace found on the breast of
its mother, who had been killed, was quite as
helpless as a human child would have been,
eagerly clutched him in order to suck, and
cried like a child when it had dirtied itself.
At the end of a month it cut its first two in-
cisors, and made its first attempts at walking.
Young specimens of this ape have often been
brought to Europe and tamed. They are
easily trained to cleanliness, are obedient,
grave-looking, almost melancholy (partly per-
haps in consequence of the cold), cover them-
selves up in bed, climb with great facility, are
quite as expert in gymnastic exercises as their
African cousins and as much afraid of reptiles,
are fond of intoxicating drinks, extremely
attached to their keepers, but far less attentive
and less easily excited than the African apes.
That they are not wanting in reflection is
shown by the well vouched-for case in which
an ape of this kind, after it had seen the lock
of its chain opened with a key, carefully
examined the lock and tried to open it by
means of a piece of wood which it turned

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

about in all directions in the keyhole. As
against that of the highly excitable, always
active chimpanzee, ever inclined to fun and
frolic, the school-certificate of the orang would
run something like this: A quiet reflective
child, serious and meditative, even tedious.

The particulars regarding the young mias referred
to above as having been captured by Wallace will
be read with interest. A female mias having been
shot, the young one was found close by " face down-
wards in the bog. This little creature was only
about a foot long, and had evidently been hanging
to its mother when she first fell. Luckily it did
not appear to have been wounded, and after we had
cleaned the mud out of its mouth it began to cry
out, and seemed quite strong and active. While
carrying it home it got its hands in my beard and
grasped so tightly that I had great difficulty in
getting free, for the fingers are habitually bent
inwards at the last joint so as to form complete
hooks. At this time it had not a single tooth, but
a few days afterwards it cut its two lower front
teeth. Unfortunately I had no milk to give it, as
neither Malays, Chinese, nor Dyaks ever use the
article, and I in vain inquired for any female
animal that could suckle my little infant. I was
therefore obliged to give it rice-water from a bottle
with a quill in the cork, which after a few trials it
learned to suck very well. This was very meagre
diet, and the little creature did not thrive well on
it, although I added sugar and cocoa-nut milk occa-
sionally to make it more nourishing. When I put
my finger in its mouth it sucked with great vigour,
drawing in its cheeks with all its might in the vain
effort to extract some milk, and only after per-
severing a long time would it give up in disgust,
and set up a scream very like that of a baby in
similar circumstances.

When handled or nursed it was very quiet and
contented, but when laid down by itself would
invariably cry; and for the first few nights was very
restless and noisy. I fitted up a little box for a
cradle, with a soft mat for it to lie upon, which was
changed and washed every day; and I soon found
it necessary to wash the little mias as well. After
I had done so a few times it came to like the
operation, and as soon as it was dirty would begin
crying, and not leave off till I took it out and carried
it to the spout, when it immediately became quiet,
although it would wince a little at the first rush of

the cold water, and make ridiculously wry faces
while the stream was running over its head. It
enjoyed the wiping and rubbing dry amazingly, and
when I brushed its hair seemed to be perfectly
happy, lying quite still with its arms and legs
stretched out while I thoroughly brushed the long
hair of its back and arms. For the first few days
it clung desperately with all four hands to whatever
it could lay hold of, and I had to be careful to keep
my beard out of its way, as its fingers clutched
hold of hair more tenaciously than anything else,
and it was impossible to free myself without assis-
tance. When restless, it would struggle about with
its hands up in the air trying to find something to
take hold of, and, when it had got a bit of stick or
rag in two or three of its hands, seemed quite happy.
. . . Finding it so fond of hair I endeavoured
to make an artificial mother, by wrapping up a
piece of buffalo-skin into a bundle, and suspending
it about a foot from the floor. At first this seemed
to suit it admirably, as it could sprawl its legs about
and always find some hair, which it grasped with
the greatest tenacity. I was now in hopes that I
had made the little orphan quite happy; and so it
seemed for some time, till it began to remember
its lost parent, and try to suck. It would pull itself
up close to the skin, and try about everywhere
for a likely place; but, as it only succeeded in
getting mouthfuls of hair and wool, it would be
greatly disgusted, and scream violently, and, after
two or three attempts, let go altogether. One day
it got some wool into its throat and I thought it
would have choked, but after much gasping it
recovered, and I was obliged to take the imitation
mother to pieces again, and give up this last attempt
to exercise the little creature.

After the first week I found I could feed it better
with a spoon, and give it a little more varied and
more solid food. Well-soaked biscuit mixed with
a little egg and sugar, and sometimes sweet potatoes,
were readily eaten; and it was a never-failing
amusement to observe the curious changes of coun-
tenance by which it would express its approval or
dislike of what was given to it. The poor little
thing would lick its lips, draw in its cheeks, and
turn up its eyes with an expression of the most
supreme satisfaction when it had a mouthful par-
ticularly to its taste. On the other hand, when its
food was not sufficiently sweet or palatable, it
would turn the mouthful about with its tongue
for a moment as if trying to extract what flavour
there was, and then push it all out between its lips.

GIBBONS.

39

If the same food was continued, it would set up
a scream and kick about violently, exactly like a
baby in a passion.

After I had had the little mias about three
weeks, I fortunately obtained a young hare-lip
monkey (Macaais cynomolgus), which, though small,
was very active, and could feed itself. 1 placed it
in the same box with the mias, and they imme-
diately became excellent friends, neither exhibiting
the least fear of the other. The little monkey
would sit upon the other's stomach, or even on its
face, without the least regard to its feelings. While
I was feeding the mias the monkey would sit by,
picking up all that was spilt, and occasionally
putting out its hands to intercept the spoon; and
as soon as I had finished would pick off what was
left sticking to the mias' lips, and then pull open
its mouth and see if any still remained inside;
afterwards lying down on the poor creature's
stomach as on a comfortable cushion. The little
helpless mias would submit to all these insults with
the most exemplary patience, only too glad to
have something warm near it, which it could clasp
affectionately in its arms. It sometimes, however,
had its revenge; for when the monkey wante.d to
go away, the mias would hold on as long as it
could by the loose skin of its back or head, or by
its tail, and it was only after many vigorous jumps
that the monkey could make his escape.

It was curious to observe the different actions
of these two animals, which could not have differed
much in age. The mias, like a very young baby,
lying on its back quite helpless, rolling lazily from
side to side, stretching out all four hands into the
air, wishing to grasp something, but hardly able to
guide its fingers to any definite object ; and when
dissatisfied, opening wide its almost toothless
mouth, and expressing its wants by a most in-
fantine scream. The little monkey, on the other
hand, in constant motion; running and jumping
about wherever it pleased, examining everything
around it, seizing hold of the smallest objects with
the greatest precision, balancing itself on the edge
of the box or running up a post, and helping itself
to anything eatable that came in its way. There
could hardly be a greater contrast, and the baby
mias looked more baby-like by the comparison.

When I had had it about a month, it began to
exhibit some signs of learning to run alone. When
laid upon the floor it would push itself along by its
legs, or roll itself over, and thus make an unwieldy
progression. When lying in the box it would lift

itself up to the edge into almost an erect position,
and once or twice succeeded in tumbling out.
When left dirty, or hungry, or otherwise neglected,
it would scream violently till attended to, varied
by a kind of coughing or pumping noise, very
similar to that which is made by the adult animal.
If no one was in the house, or its cries were not
attended to, it would be quiet after a little while,
but the moment it heard a footstep would begin
again harder than ever.

After five weeks it cut its two upper front teeth,
but in all this time it had not grown the least bit,
remaining both in size and weight the same as
when I first procured it. This was no doubt owing
to the want of milk or other equally nourishing
food. Rice-water, rice, and biscuits were but a
poor substitute, and the expressed milk of the
cocoa-nut which I sometimes gave it did not quite
agree with its stomach. To this I imputed an attack
of diarrhoea, from which the poor little creature suf-
fered greatly, but a small dose of castor-oil operated
well, and cured it. A week or two afterwards it
was again taken ill, and this time more seriously.
The symptoms were exactly those of intermittent
fever, accompanied by watery swellings on the feet
and head. It lost all appetite for its food, and,
after lingering for a week a most pitiable object,
died, after being in my possession nearly three
months. I much regretted the loss of my little
pet, which I had at one time looked forward to
bringing up to years of maturity, and taking home
to England. For several months it had afforded
me daily amusement by its curious ways, and the
inimitably ludicrous expression of its little coun-
tenance. Its weight was three pounds nine ounces,
its height fourteen inches, and the spread of its
arms twenty-three inches." — Wallace, Malay Archi-
pelago, chap. iv.

Gibbons (Hylobates).

Tailless Asiatic arboreal apes, with extraordinarily long arms
and hands, and small naked spots on the buttocks.

These are the dwarfs among the anthropoid
apes, for they never exceed 3 feet 3 inches
in height. The arms are so long that even
in the upright position they must be bent
at the elbows in order that the wrists may
touch the ground.

The round well-formed head, the face with

4o

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

the small rounded human-like ears, orbits
and jaws scarcely at all protruding, and the
but slightly flattened nose, the rounded
breast, as well as the internal structure of
the head and the skeleton of the body, would
cause these apes to resemble man more
closely than any others, were it not for the
greatly contracted abdomen, the long pointed
canines in the upper jaw, the monstrously
long arms, hands, and feet, the dense woolly
covering of hair, and the naked patches on
the buttocks answering to the ischial callosities
of other monkeys. This last feature is, how-
ever, not very conspicuous, inasmuch as the
patches are often hidden by the surrounding
hair. Even the brain is much less rich in
folds and convolutions, and resembles that of
the Semnopitheci rather than the complicated
brain of the large anthropoid apes.

The presence of a pouch in the throat in
both sexes, of distinct though less noticeable
cheek-swellings in the old males, the structure
of the limbs, and the existence of a super-
numerary bone in the wrist, are all characters
in which this creature approaches the mias;
only one might say that the arms are
lengthened to the extent of caricature. They
are so long that the gibbons but seldom make
use of them in walking on the ground, which
indeed they touch only on exceptional occa-
sions when living in freedom. They then
waddle along upright with their great toes
widely spread out, with uplifted arms stretched
out sidewards as a balancing rod, the long
hands hanging down like goosewing-dusters,
the head hanging a little forwards, and the
back bent like a fiddle-bow.

On the trees of the lower forests of the
Great Sunda Islands and the neighbouring
mainland as far as Assam and Southern
China, and on the island of Hainan, dwell the
seven species of this genus, which are indeed
mostly distinguished by only very unimport-
ant differences. The only exception in this
respect is the largest species, the Siamang
(Hylobaies syndactylus), which is found only

on Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, and
has the second and third toes of the hind-feet
united.

All observers are unanimous in admiring
the facility, agility, and security with which
these apes, which mostly live socially in troops
of thirty or more, move about in their primeval
forests. They appear rather to fly than to
leap. In the act of leaping they can alter the
direction in which they are moving. The
smallest twig serves as something to catch
hold of with their long arms or to rest on with
their powerful feet, in order to give them-
selves a new impetus for darting across
intervals of thirteen or fourteen yards.
Captive specimens have been known to catch
fruits thrown to them while darting through
the air, without being thereby prevented from
reaching their goal. Gibbons are to be found
only in low-lying regions, for in spite of the
frequently dense woolly fur with which they
are covered, they are extremely sensitive to
cold. They feed chiefly on juicy leaves, but,
as observations on captive specimens show,
do not despise insects and eggs, a diet in
which probably we may read the significance
of the large canines. A tamed hoolock ate
most eagerly of rice and bananas, and drank
coffee, tea, and milk, usually merely licking
its hand after dipping it into the liquid, as we
see one of the white-handed gibbons doing
in the illustration on p 43, though when very
thirsty it would drink out of the cup. But
besides the articles of food mentioned it would
also take eggs or the wing of a fowl from a
plate, and sought for spiders, and showed
great dexterity in catching flies with its right
hand, eating them when caught.

With one exception all observers who have
seen gibbons in a state of nature or in
captivity describe them as good-humoured,
gentle, and even timid creatures, which live
at peace with other animals, readily accustom
themselves to the presence of well-disposed
men, have no bad habits, and afford much
entertainment by their astonishing feats of

GIBBONS.

gymnastics. While most of the gibbons only
scream and express their fear, excitement, or
anger in that way, the siamang is said actually
to sing and in fact to ascend the chromatic
scale through a whole octave; and of the
hoolock it is recorded, that it has a pleasant
melodious voice, although the sounds that
it emits cannot exactly be called singing.
That older individuals when caught be-
have violently, biting and scratching, and
that mothers, who are generally timid,
defend their young even at the sacrifice
of their own lives, are too common phe-
nomena to call for any special remark.

The Hoolock (Hylodates leuciscus (hoo-
lock}}, of which an illustration is given,
fig. i, is perfectly black with the excep-
tion of a white fillet on the forehead, and
even its teeth are dark coloured. It is a
harmless creature, which prefers figs to
any other kind of food, and is fond of
roaming about iri bamboo jungles. It
has no throat-pouch, but has a loud
voice. Unfortunately it does not live
long in captivity, since it is accustomed
to the moisture and heat of the low-
lying parts of Bengal and the Eastern
Peninsula.

A contributor to Land and Water (June 19,
1869) gives the following interesting account
of two hoolocks which he had kept while
resident in the north-east of India: —

" I was lucky enough to purchase a very
young hoolock, which the one in my possession
[an adult female] immediately adopted, and on
the appearance of any danger it called it to
itself, opened its arms to receive it, and springing
with it into the nearest tree placed it in safety.
One day a servant brought to me a large snake
which he had killed, the sight of which caused
the hoolock intense emotion. It called the young
one to its arms, sprang up a ladder which was near
at hand, and commenced a series of short howls,
arching its eyebrows, and apparently calling the
attention of the young one to the dangerous enemy
in its vicinity. It refused to descend as long as the
snake was in sight.

It played with the young one in the most inter-

esting manner, ran after it, and dragged it about
by its arms and legs, pinched it and pulled its ears,
and the two would tumble heels over head on the
grass together like two school-boys.

The young one was unfortunately strangled in
a tree by a string which was round its neck, and
the grief of its foster-mother was quite heart-rend-
ing. She examined it carefully, raised its lifeless
hands with her own, and dropped them in deep

Fig. i. — The Hoolock (Hylotates leuciscus).

despair. Again and again did she repeat the
action, and on the removal of the body from her
sight she sat disconsolately in the verandah, resting
her head on her hand, and never tasted food for
the remainder of the day. During the next morn-
ing she searched all the trees in the neighbourhood,
and crept in and out of the house in a dejected
manner, but in the evening she ate food and
returned to the ordinary pursuits of apish life."

The same writer states on the authority of M.
Barbe, a Roman Catholic priest whose general
accuracy is asserted to be well vouched for, that

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

a mother hoolock "on being shot has been seen
to take the young one from her neck, place it
on the bough beside her, and then drop down dead
at the feet of her destroyer."

The White-handed Gibbon (Hylobatcs lar),
a pair of which are represented in fig. 2, is
distinguished by having the whole of the face
bordered with white, and the hands and feet
white on the upper surface.

TAILED MONKEYS

(CAUDATVE).

With more or less developed tail, ischial callosities, and
mostly also cheek-pouches.

Anatomists have frequently drawn atten-
tion to the fact that the tail of these and the
American monkeys, even when quite rudi-
mentary, as in the Barbary ape, presents
essential differences in the structure of the
vertebrae when compared with the correspond-
ing part in man and the anthropoid apes.
But apart from these differences, to which we
can only allude, great variety is shown in
the development of this appendage, which, it
must be added, is used only to guide the
movements, especially in leaping, never as
an organ of touch or prehension, as by the
American apes. From the rudimentary stump
of the magot or Barbary Ape up to a tail
exceeding the body in length, as it does in
many Semnopitheci and Cercopitheci, all
possible transitions are met with.

Special attention is due to the ischial
callosities, naked and mostly warty patches
on the buttocks, frequently coloured by pig-
ments, or sometimes only by the blood show-
ing through. No doubt they are attributable
to the sitting or squatting attitude which most
of them adopt during the greater part of their
life, and especially in sleeping. In many cases
these spots are almost hidden by the hair, as
in the gibbons. They attain their highest
development among the baboons, and in the
mandrill the various feelings of the creature
are even expressed by variations in the colour

of these patches, in the same manner and with
the same clearness as in man they are ex-
pressed by blushing.

Cheek-pouches are very seldom wanting,
but in some are only slightly developed.
They are formed by an involution of the
inner skin of the cheek, and at first are
developed only below the opening of the
mouth in the skin belonging to the lower
jaw, and open inwards by a slit parallel to
the opening of the mouth. When further
developed they extend over the entire cheek.
The monkey, on occasion of his plunderings
of trees, gardens, and fields, when he must
be constantly on his guard against enemies,
whether beasts of prey or men, and constantly
ready for sudden flight, stuffs these pouches
with his hands and tongue as full as they will
hold, in order that he may afterwards be able
to consume the proceeds of his foray in quiet.

With respect to the general form of the
body and the prominence of characters
belonging to the lower animals, we see the
most manifold transitions from very slender
figures with small nearly round heads and
slightly protruding jaws, to extremely robust,
thickset, and even massive forms, with very
protruding muzzle and a savage and bestial
expression. Yet the limbs are mostly of
equal length; and when not climbing, the
usual mode of progression among these
animals is walking on all-fours with the spinal
column in a horizontal position, the head
slightly erected, and the whole sole of the
foot planted flat on the ground. A clear line
of demarcation cannot be drawn in this respect
between the separate groups. Among those
monkeys which have massive forms there is
a greater tendency to a terrestrial as distin-
guished from an arboreal mode of life.

Except on the face and the inner surface
of the hands and feet the body is covered
with hair, which is mostly, however, not very
thick. Tufts on the head and tail, beards
and whiskers, pencils and mantles of hair, are
frequently developed.

TAILED MONKEYS.

43

The chest is always flattened at the sides,
not broad as in the anthropoid apes.
Although the dental formula

/2 . I . 2 . T.

2.1.2.3

is the same in all tailed monkeys as in man
and the anthropoid apes, yet there are con-
siderable variations within this formula,
variations which, apart from the definite
form, are partly due to age partly to sex.
From the herbivorous Semnopitheci, whose
constricted stomach, almost adapted for ru-

Fig. 2. — The White-handed Gibbon (Hylobatcs lar}.

minants, plainly shows what they are
intended for in this respect, and whose
nearly square molars soon lose by friction
their blunt knobs or tubercles, there is a
long series of gradual modifications till
we rise to the Cynomorpha;, and more
particularly the Gelada, in whose frightful
jaws the long narrow laterally compressed
molars with four sharp tubercles when
seen from the side present exactly the
appearance of the dentition of a carnivore.
The last molar is sometimes larger, some-
times smaller, sometimes with four, sometimes
with five tubercles, but these differences do
not appear to have any influence on the rest
of the organization.

As regards the significance to be attached
to the canines it is necessary to be very
cautious. If the enormous, sharp, curved
canine with sharp cutting edge behind in the
upper jaw of the Cynomorpha;, and above all
in the gelada, can scarcely be matched even

44

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

in the cat tribe, it should not be forgotten
that this tooth is the last of all to attain
its full development, notwithstanding that
it cuts the gum sooner than others. It is,
moreover, a tooth greatly affected by sex.
All males among the monkeys have far larger
canines than the females, and this dispro-
portion, which is connected with the develop-
ment of the jaws generally, and that of the
ridges and borders of the skull, may become
so considerable that we might often believe
that we had before us skulls of two different
species instead of skulls belonging to different
sexes of the same species. Hence it follows
that in this case the character of the canines
as well as that of the whole dentition is
influenced not by the nature of the food but
by the duty of defence, which falls chiefly on
the male.

With the development of the canines is
connected that of the diastema or gap between
the teeth leaving room for the canines of the
opposite jaw. The teeth of the upper and
lower jaw always fit into one another when
the mouth is shut in such a manner that the
projecting canine of the lower jaw becomes
wedged into a gap behind the incisors of the
upper jaw, while the canine of the upper jaw,
usually considerably larger than that of the
lower, gets similarly wedged between the
canine of the lower jaw and the first premolar,
the form of which is essentially modified
thereby ; but the size and depth of these gaps
depends, as may easily be seen, on the size
of the canines.

The original milk dentition always consists,
as already remarked in the Introduction, of

(2.1.2.0 \

twenty teeth I = 201, and differs

from the final dentition, not merely in the
absence of the molars, but also in the greater
strength and breadth of the inner incisors, in
the smaller size of the canines, and the
sharper tubercles of the premolars.

All tailed monkeys are diurnal in their
habits, and most of them live together in

herds of thirty or more, under the leadership
of one of the older males, who is probably the
patriarch of the whole troop, and usually
maintains a strict rule. The monkey brings
up his young in much the same way as man,
often with excessive tenderness and great
care, shown especially in combing, currying,
and searching for parasites (a favourite occu-
pation, represented in several of our plates).
Males and females defend their young with
bravery and fearlessness; but at the same
time they punish them by boxing them on
the ears, or cudgelling them, if they have
committed any offence against the rules
of the herd or have failed to render due
obedience. They instruct them with the
utmost zeal in all the arts necessary for life,
they lead them about in their tender years,
afterwards guide them in climbing, running,
and leaping, and in seeking for food and
hiding-places; in short, they look after their
bodily and mental welfare like good parents.

Young monkeys are mostly ready for all
kinds of games and sports, and easily tamed.
In a troop of monkeys living in freedom
there nearly always prevails bustling activity,
continual commotion, and boundless game-
someness, which only seldom degenerates
into open quarrel and violence. In youth
they are all sly, tricky, easily excited, observ-
ant, imitative, and it is only at a later
stage, on reaching puberty, that the more
disagreeable qualities come out, cunning, ill-
nature, lasciviousness. Yet in these respects
the most extensive gradations are observ-
able, and between many Cercopitheci, good-
humoured to excess, even stupid, and the
savage ill-natured baboons, conscious of their
strength, there is a wide chasm.

All tailed monkeys enjoy vegetable food,
but perhaps the Semnopitheci are the only
ones that feed upon it almost exclusively.
Insects, eggs, birds, are readily eaten, and
many, such as the baboons, feed chiefly on
animal food, and do not even despise poison-
ous scorpions, millipedes, and large spiders.

TAILED MONKEYS.

45

In plundering plantations,
fields, and gardens they are
all masters, breaking in in
spite of all precautions, and
destroying more than they
devour. Where not pro-
tected by superstitions they
are in consequence relent-
lessly pursued by natives
and settlers. When wounded they seek to
quench the flow of blood by bandaging with
leaves and grass. Most of them flee from
man, but the large baboons make a stand
against him, and are stated even to attack
him at times. The flesh of most species is
regarded as savoury.

Fig. 3. — Family of Entellus Monkeys (Semaa-
pithccus entctlus}. page 46.

is not their only
The weaker sorts
are pursued by the smaller
four-footed carnivores and
by birds of prey, the larger
by the large climbing mem-
bers of the cat tribe. To
all, perhaps, serpents are
the most dangerous enemies,
and of these all monkeys show a great dread.
The members of a troop stand by one another
faithfully in danger, and we have reports
from eye-witnesses, which must inspire us
with genuine admiration of the high courage
displayed by individual monkeys on such
occasions.

46

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

That creatures so highly gifted and intel-
lectually awakened should be easily tamed
and trained in early years is just as little sur-
prising as that they should change their dis-
position, and become cunning, ill-tempered, ill-
behaved, ill-natured and ready to snap, when
they are placed in confinement, even though
they arecollected,as
is now customary,
into large monkey-
houses. This hap-
pens all the more
frequently since it
is the practice to
cage up in the
monkey-houses in-
dividuals of differ-
ent species, which
tease one another,
while in a state of
freedom only indi-
viduals of the same
species herd to-
gether, and individ-
uals which, more-
over, are closely
linked together by
ties of blood. Even
with the greatest
care most monkeys
in our climate be-
come ill; they suffer
from the want of

the sun, the warmth, the forests of their
homes. How can one then draw any inference
from the behaviour of these sickly creatures,
constantly teased and plagued by their fellows,
as to the qualities which they display in the
free life of their native woods?

Owing to the gradual nature of the transi-
tions between the different forms, separate
groups can with difficulty be distinguished.
From these groups we single out only a few
well-marked representatives. In most genera
there are many species but slightly different
from one another.

Fig. 4.— The Proboscis Monkey or Kahau (Semnopitheius nasica).

Semnopitheci.

The monkeys belonging to the genus Semnopithecus are
arboreal creatures of slender shape, with well-developed
thumbs, long tails, a compound stomach of three parts,
and sometimes with, sometimes without, cheek-pouches.

In the representation on p. 4$ of a family
of the sacred monkey of the Hindus, the

Entellus Monkey or
Hunuman (Sonno-
pithecus cntcllus),
a typical species
of the genus is
exhibited, engaged
in its favourite
occupations. The
mamma is search-
ing the fur of papa,
who remains pa-
tiently and com-
fortably still under
the operation. The
oldest son is teasing
some younger ones
who are playing to-
gether, and in the
background the
daughter-in-law is
nursing her off-
spring.

A round head
with slightly pro-
truding muzzle,
slender neck and

body, moderately long limbs with well-
formed thumbs and great toes, the tail fur-
nished with a terminal tuft of hair, and about
a yard long, much longer than the body,
which measures only some two feet; a rather
rough coat of fur with hair spreading out
in all directions and forming a stiff hood,
as it '"were, round its warty visage ; face,
ears, hands and feet black, beard yellow,
the rest of the fur whitish,— such are the
principal external characters of this species
of monkeys, which is distributed through-
out the more low-lying regions of the East

SEMNOPITHECI.

47

Indies, having in some parts been intro-
duced by man.

In India this monkey is held in great
reverence, is regularly fed, and is nursed
when ill. " Hunuman," says T. C. Jerdon
in his Mammals of India, " the meaning of
which is long-jaws,
was one of the
monkeys of the
monkey- kingdom
of Southern India,
who aided Rama
in his conquest of
Ceylon, by forming
a bridge of rocks
opposite Manar,
and greatly distin-
guished himself.
His figure is often
found in Hindoo
temples in the guise
of a man, with a
black monkey face
and a long tail : he
is not worshipped,
only greatly rever-
enced."

Flocks of it were
at one time allowed
to carry on their
ravages unpunish-
ed, and the mischief
which they wrought
became at last in

many places so intolerable, that the British
government was obliged to take measures
for the destruction of a number of them.
Among themselves they are peaceable, and
they are extremely lively, excellent jumpers
and climbers, roaming about mostly in the
tree-tops in great herds, under the leadership
of an old male, and feeding on leaves, fruits,
and even flowers. When young they are
said to be clever and graceful, easily tamed,
but always incorrigible thieves. When they
grow old, on the other hand, they become

Fig. 5. — The Guercza (Colobusgiiercza). page 48.

irritable and violent, so that the younger
monkeys generally separate themselves from
the old ones. They thrive only in the hot
plains, not in the mountains.

Among the many species of the genus
we single out one other very peculiar species,

which has even
been made the type
of an independent
genus, the Pro-
boscis Monkey or
Kahau (S. nasica),
fig. 4, which lives in
the hot lowlands of
Borneo. The body
is somewhat more
robust than in the
previous species;
the fur is of various
colours, very bright
brown, yellow, dark
brown, and white,
and these colours
are differently dis-
tributed in the fe-
male from what they
are in the more
brightly coloured
male. The cheek-
pouches are absent.
In youth the kahau
has an impudent-
looking, turned-up
pug-nose, which in

another allied species (S. roxellanus), a native
of Northern Tibet, is retained the whole
life through; but with advancing years the
nose, especially in the male, grows long
and hooked, and at the same time thick and
swollen, and this enlarged nose gets sup-
ported by plates of cartilage to which strong
muscles become attached, enabling the crea-
ture to open its nostrils to an unusual width
and close them again. The thin crooked
end of the nose hanging down below the
mouth is pointed and projects far beyond

48

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

the nostrils. The very large curved canines
of the male plainly show that the old monkey
cannot be a very agreeable character. The
kahau lives socially on trees by river banks,
and utters a disagreeable loud howl, which
the native name is intended to imitate.

Colobi.

African monkeys, resembling the Scmnopitheci, but with
more powerful jaws and much reduced thumb, and with-
out cheek-pouches.

From this very rich genus, which is dis-
tributed throughout tropical Africa, we select
for illustration the Guereza (Colobus guereza),
fig. 5, which Riippell discovered in Abyssinia,
where it inhabits the mountain forests at a
height of from 6500 lo 10,000 feet above the
sea. This slender long-tailed monkey is black,
with a narrow white band above the eyes,
white beard and whiskers, and a white tuft
at the end of its tail. As the animal grows
older long, fine, soft, white hairs grow out
in an elegant curve extending from the
shoulder-joint to the small of the back, and
these form a spreading mantle in the old
males. This monkey is social in its mode of
life, is extremely adroit and bold, and carries
on its pranks in the high tree -tops, where
only a rifle bullet can reach it. The Abys-
sinians formerly used its fine coat as a cover-
ing for their shields.

The Colobi represent on African soil the
Semnopitheci of Asia, with which they agree
in the form of the body and in the possession
of a long tail and compound stomach. But
the jaws are more powerful. In an old
guereza male the tendons of the muscles form
a ridge on the skull almost like that of a
carnivore, and the curved cutting canines
are weapons not to be despised. The molar
teeth get worn away by use in such a manner
that only an external plate of enamel remains
standing, which gives the teeth when seen
from the side the appearance of a saw. The
small size of the thumb is characteristic in all
Colobi, that member being sometimes repre-

sented only by a stump or a wart, and some-
times altogether absent. The great toe is
normal in structure.

The Guenons (Cmopitheais).

African monkeys with simple stomach, cheek-pouches, long
tail, large thumb, and moderately long limbs.

This is an arboreal genus, the more slender
species of which would scarcely- have been
separated from the Semnopitheci, were it not
that the jaws are more powerful and the
stomach simple. They inhabit the whole of
tropical Africa, as well as our zoological
gardens; and in general are good-humoured,
easily tamed, and readily bring forth young
in captivity. Most of the general character-
istics of these monkeys are sketched from
tame captive specimens.

Various sub-genera have been established
very unnecessarily, the distinctions being
founded on the number of tubercles on the
wisdom teeth in the lower jaw. Those with
three tubercles form the sub -genus Myio-
pithecus, to which belongs the Talapoin of
West Africa, which on account of its large
ears and broad nasal septum reminds us of the
American monkeys ; those with four tubercles
form the sub-genus Cercopithecus, the typical
and most numerous group, to which belongs
the Diana Monkey of our illustration, fig. 6,
as well as the Mona and the Green Guenon
(C. sabceus}; those with five tubercles, the sub-
genus Cercocebus, constituting the Mangabeys
of the traders, among which the snout is
rather longer than in the others, somewhat
baboon-like, as it is also in the C. fuliginosns
of West Africa.

The colour of the fur is very various.
The larger and somewhat sturdier species
are usually of a uniform colour, green; the
Talapoin and the common Green Guenon
which ascends high up among the mountains
and stands our climate best, grayish black;
the Mangabey or Moorish Monkey, yellow or
reddish-brown; the Hussar or Nisnas Monkey

Tofatt f

PLATE IV. — GREEN GUENONS (Ccrcopithtcus sabans} PLUNDERING A MAIZE-FIELD.

MACAQUES.

49

(C. pyrrhonotus), variegated with differently
distributed coloured spots, and mostly also
furnished with curious pencils of hair, beards,
and tufts like the Semnopitheci. These are
the chief typical species. The last-mentioned
species, a native of Nubia and Darfur, is
common in our zoological gardens, and is
agreeable in its ways when young, but sullen
and tiresome when old. The Diana monkey
(C. diana] is a pretty little creature of a slate-
gray colour, which becomes darker on the back
and inclines to brown ; its face has a triangular
white border, which ends in a long pointed
beard, and is continued clown the neck,
breast and arms to the fore-arm ; its legs
are white on the inside, and it is provided
with a long tail without a terminal tuft.
It belongs to West Africa, and is often
found along with the mona in our
zoological gardens and monkey-houses.
From the mona, which is similarly
marked, it is distinguished by the pos-
session of a long beard. In its behaviour '
it makes itself a favourite by its good-
nature.

The Green Guenon (C. sabczus) is a
creature of more powerful frame, ap-
proaching more nearly to the macaques;
olive-green on the back, with a blackish
cap on the crown. On Plate IV. a
troop of this species is represented
surprised in the plundering of a maize-
field. The alarmed animals are trying
to save their booty and their young by
a hasty flight, while their leader on
the fence keeps watch for the threaten-
ing danger.

All the guenons live in troops, often count-
ing more than a hundred head. They are
cunning thieves, and subordinate themselves
in all their movements to the old male which
acts as their leader. Like most other mon-
keys they have manifestly a means of com-
municating with one another through the
modulation of their throat-tones. On account
of their depredations they are thoroughly

detested by the natives, who catch them
chiefly with nets under which they place
fruits as bait. They are extremely fond of
eggs, but do not despise insects.

Macaques (Macaais).

With a solitary exception Asiatic monkeys, with a rather
thickset frame, protruding muzzle, tolerably powerful jaws,
simple stomach, cheek-pouches, and a tail which never
grows longer than the whole body.

According to the degree of development
of the tail several sub-genera have been estab-
lished under this genus also: first, those with

Fig. 6.— The Diana Monkey (Cercopithecus diana}. page 48.

long tail, to which belong the Java Monkey
(M. cynomolgtts) and the Malbruk or Bonnet-
monkey of Malabar ; next those with only
a moderately long tail, such as the Wanderoo
(M. silenus) and the Boonder (M. rhesus);
and lastly the Magot or Barbary Ape (Inuus
or M. ecaudatus}, with a short skinny stump,
found in Algeria, Morocco, and on the rock
of Gibraltar.

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

When the whole series of macaques is
carefully examined it is easy to perceive a
gradual transition from arboreal to terrestrial
forms, a transition still more marked in the
baboons.

The head is large, the muzzle protruding,
the crest and borders of the skull as well as

the supraorbital ridges are very prominent,
the body and the limbs powerful, the latter
almost equally long, the thumb and the great
toe highly developed. The canines are very
conspicuous, the tubercles on the molar teeth
are more pointed, the organs of generation
more prominent, and the ischial callosities

•"- ••

F'g- 7.— Group of Rhesus Monkeys (Afacacus rhesus), page 51.

larger than in the previous groups. Their
coat is mostly of a uniform colour. Some
species ascend high among the mountains,
even to elevations in which severe winters
prevail.

Without doubt these monkeys, which
always live in troops under the leadership of
an old male, exhibit a high degree of mental
development, and in this respect, and con-
sequently also in capability of being tamed,
they are far in advance of most of the other
groups. But if Semnopitheci and Cerco-
pitheci are rather shy and even cowardly, the
macaques show greater confidence in their
strength, and therefore exhibit more boldness
and we may say impudence in all their doings.

Although to be sure they are likewise expert
gymnasts and climbers, they are not to be
compared in respect of lightness and grace of
movement with the specifically arboreal forms.
If we may judge from the unseemly behaviour
of the captive specimens they appear to be of
a rather sensual nature, although in this
regard they do not equal the baboons, who
display an incredible degree of grossness, a
fact of which one has only too many oppor-
tunities of being convinced in monkey-houses.
In captivity they pair readily, and they are
fruitful not only among themselves but also
with other allied species. In respect of their
love for their offspring and their readiness to
defend them, as well as in all other habits and

PLATE V. - GROUP OF JAVA MONKEYS (Macacut cynomolgus).

MACAQUES.

qualities, they resemble other monkeys. The
species are numerous, and since many are
distributed over wide areas, it is often difficult
to decide whether one has to deal with species
or varieties.

The Java Monkey (/)/. cynomolgus) is fre-
quent in monkey- houses, but not much liked.
It is filthy, sensual, and intractable. An
olive-green colour with a black cap on the
crown for the most part characterizes this
. monkey, which, however, varies very much
in colour. It was originally distributed over
all the islands of the Eastern Archipelago and
over the Malay Peninsula, and has been carried
by man as far as the island of Bourbon, where
it has become wild. Plate V. shows a group
of these monkeys frightened away while in
the act of drinking by a crocodile emerging
from the water.

A family group of the Boonder (M. rhesus],
fig. 7, which is found almost throughout the
East Indies but especially on the Ganges, has
been figured for two reasons, first because
it represents an intermediate type of the
genus, and secondly because it plays in some
districts a similar role to the hunuman. This
tolerably large monkey, whose skin gathers
in folds on the neck, breast, and abdomen, is
greenish-gray on the back, and whitish on the
under surface, which is only sparingly covered
with hair; the naked parts, face, hands, and
feet, are of a bright copper colour, the large
ischial callosities bright red. An allied species,
the Macaciis erythrceus, is similarly coloured,
but much larger and slenderer. Both species
climb high up the Himalayas at Simla, and
even tumble about in the snows of the pine-
forests, but yet appear in large part to descend
in winter to the lower regions, where they
prefer the bamboo thickets on the borders of
the streams. They swim and dive admirably,
and even take refuge in the water when
pursued.

Through the reverence which is paid to
them by the Hindus these monkeys, conscious
of their immunity from punishment have

Si

become as intolerable devastators as the hunu-
man, and all that was said with reference to
that monkey applies also to the open-air life
of this one. When caught young they are
easily tamed, and they are favourite actors in
monkey- theatres. When old they become
irritable and malicious, and torment their

Fig. 8. — The Wanderoo (i\lacacus silcnus},

weaker companions in the monkey-houses in
all conceivable ways.

The long protruding muzzle with the large
curved canines, the thickset body, and the
relatively short limbs in the Wanderoo
(M. silemis], fig. 8, mark the transition to
the baboons. The dark-coloured face is sur-
rounded by long white beard and whiskers,
beginning above the eyes and leaving only a
narrow strip free above the root of the nose.
The long fine fur is black behind, brighter
in front; the naked parts, ears, hands, and
feet, black, the ischial callosities of a pale
red. The rather short tail has a tuft at the
end.

In spite of the devastations which he is

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

said to commit at times in cocoa-nut planta-
tions, but which cannot be very serious, seeing
that he lives mostly in the great forests, the
facility with which he is tamed causes him
to be much liked in his native country of
Malabar, as a domestic animal and "co-
median;" and he is frequently exported to

Ceylon, whence he is brought to European
zoological gardens and monkey-theatres.
His behaviour is good-natured, even "dig-
nified," as many observers declare; according
to the accounts given of him we might call
him the philosopher among the monkeys.
Some observers even maintain that his re-

Fig. 9. — The Barbary Ape (Inuus ecaudatus).

morse on account of faults of which he has
been guilty may cause him to shed tears, which
would certainly bring him very near man in
respect of the expression of his feelings.

And now for thee, last witness upon Euro-
pean ground of the climate of a bygone age,
still dwelling in a small troop on the rock of
Gibraltar, formerly almost the inseparable
companion of the European camel-drivers, the
tailless Magot or Barbary Ape (Inmis ecaudatus,
Macacus Inuus], fig. 9. The sparse woods on
the rocks of North Africa are now the chief
home left for this creature, but the destruction
of the woods and the advance of civilization,
leading to the rooting out of the alfa grass for
industrial purposes, have made this ape, which

was known even to the ancients, almost a
rare animal.

When the French, after the conquest of
Algiers, stormed the romantic defile of Shiffa,
hundreds of these creatures darted up the
rocky precipices amidst piercing cries; now
the tourist but seldom catches sight of one
with his telescope ; and the traveller may
entertain some doubt whether, after all, it is
not a half- wild ape which the speculative
host feeds, and thus keeps attached to some
almost inaccessible spot.

Although good climbers and gymnasts, the
magots are essentially terrestrial forms, with
long powerful legs, slightly protruding muzzle,
and good-natured eyes; and they can be

BABOONS.

53

recognized at the first glance by the want of
the tail, which is merely indicated by a small
tubercle of skin. The dense shaggy fur is
somewhat of a mouse-colour, inclining some-
times to brownish-red, sometimes to olive-
green, darker on the back, brighter in front
and at the sides of the face. The naked
parts are flesh-coloured.

On the whole good-natured, and inclined
to frolic and fun, they are, at the same time,
easily irritable and courageous creatures,
dwelling chiefly on the rocks, and feeding on
fruits, juicy leaves, and, in particular, also on
the roots of the dwarf-palm, and often turning
up stones to devour the insects, millipedes,
scorpions, and even small lizards which they
catch under them. They are expert in ex-
tracting the sting from scorpions, but of
serpents they have a great dread. Sensitive
to cold, although they inhabit places where
snow falls every year in winter, they change
their quarters according to the prevailing
wind, a fact which has been clearly observed,
particularly in Gibraltar. The troop which
lives there was originally beyond question
the last remains of numerous flocks which in
Pliocene and Post- Pliocene times were dis-
tributed throughout the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean on the north wherever
the dwarf-palm (Chanuerops kumiiis) was to
be found; but since that troop, notwithstand-
ing all the efforts of the English to preserve
it, has several times been on the point of
extinction, it has been replenished from time
to time by specimens brought from Tangiers.
The animals are, however, allowed to live on
the rock in perfect freedom.

Baboons (Cynocephalits).

Large, chiefly African terrestrial forms, with dog-like muzzle,
powerful limbs, and dentition like that of a carnivore.

The giants of this genus, the gelada and
the hamadryas, attain when sitting the full
height of man, and appear smaller only when
standing, on account of the relative shortness
of the legs. Though scarcely any smaller

than the gorilla they are inferior to it in
breadth of shoulders and chest, which latter
in the baboons is narrow and compressed.

While in the young the skull is rounder
than in mature animals, though the muzzle
is from the first very prominent, in the old
males, as in the case of the anthropoid apes,
there are developed very marked crests and
ridges on the top of the skull and in the
upper part of the orbits; and frequently the
middle riclge, to which the powerful muscles
for closing the mouth are attached, is so
highly developed that it forms a conspicuous
feature even in living animals. The muzzle
is not only very protruding, as already stated,
but also rapidly receding at the sides, and
the dentition is fearful. The canines with
their sharp hinder edge resemble curved
daggers, the molars are laterally compressed
so that they become longer than broad, and
their tubercles acquire a cutting edge. The
body is powerful, so also are the legs, and
the thumbs and great toes are well developed;
the tail is never as long as the body, and is
frequently provided with a terminal tuft ;
sometimes it is altogether rudimentary.
Founding on this character as well as upon
the position of the nostrils, which are some-
times at the end of the snout, sometimes
further back, some naturalists have divided
the genus into several sub-genera: Cynopi-
thecus, with nostrils far back and rudimentary
tail, comprising only the Black Ape (C. niger),
the sole Asiatic representative of the whole
genus; Theropithecus, with similarly situated
nostrils, but with moderately long tail, the
sub-genus to which, the Gelada (C. gelada] of
Abyssinia, is referred ; Cynocephalus, with
long tail and nostrils at the end of the
muzzle, the sub-genus to which the Arabian
and the Common Baboon belong; lastly, Mor-
mon, with nostrils in the same position, but
rudimentary tail, the sub-genus of which, the
Mandrill (C. Mormon], may be taken as the
representative. The more slender limbs and
body, and the somewhat arboreal habits of

54

THE MONKEYS OE THE OLD WORLD.

the Black Ape ally it more closely than any of
the others to the macaques, and in particular
to the wanderoo, and thereby indicate its
Asiatic home. The more powerful thickset
frame and the terrestrial habits of life are
more marked characteristics in the others.
In a state of freedom the baboons never walk
upright, but always on all-fours, their hinder
quarters waggling from side to side. Many
of them have never been seen on trees,
others only Very seldom, and especially when
bayed by dogs. Among the rocks on the
mountains, however, they show themselves
to be first-rate climbers, the smallest pro-
jection enabling them to take a firm foothold.
So far as our information goes, it would
seem that all baboons live mostly in con-
siderable troops, often numbering several
hundred, and in these there are always several
old males and females, so that the leadership
does not, as among most other monkeys, fall
to a single patriarch. This shows in itself,
beyond question, a great capacity for mutual
accommodation among the creatures, which
of course does not exclude the possibility of
sundry little quarrels and scrimmages. The
troop passes the night in caves in the rocks,
and in grottoes on inaccessible precipices, all
closely huddled together, and at sunrise they
slowly and deliberately quit their retreat in
search of food. Large stones are often over-
turned by their united efforts in order to seek
for any animals that may have crawled under
them, such animals forming, along with roots,
tubers, juicy leaves, and fruits, their chief
nourishment. After that the company bask
in the sun with their backs turned to the
wind, the older ones sitting on stones, while
the young tumble and play about. The old,
meanwhile, keep a careful watch all round;
the troop next go to some water to drink,
and after supper they betake themselves once
more to rest. For the most part a troop
sticks to the same feeding-ground, for some
time at least, but from time to time it changes
its ground.

On the approach of any danger warning
sounds are heard, and the females and the
young then crowd together, while the old
males, like the champions of the ancient
Greeks, advance into the foremost of the
fight uttering fearful cries, bellowing, and
gnashing their teeth. A bold and proud
spirit with contempt of death is beyond ques-
tion a characteristic trait of the baboons, and
when Brehm records a case in which an old
Arabian male baboon gradually managed to
extricate a young one, which had been left
behind on a rock surrounded by dogs, from
the midst of its assailants and before the
very eyes of the hunters, inspiring by its
determined bearing both dogs and hunters
with such respect for its powers that no
attack was ventured on, we may well agree
with Darwin in saying that here was a proof
of heroism of which only few men were
capable.

But the reverse side is not wanting. All
observers agree in describing the young
baboons as extremely docile, infinitely com-
ical, clever, sly, tricky creatures, while they
cannot find words enough to denounce the
abominations of all kinds that characterize
the old baboons. It is true that they are
all in the highest degree gross and sensual,
and probably it is not without good ground
that it is everywhere said by the natives that
the negresses are not safe from the attacks
of the large baboons. But if old baboons
in captivity are rightly depicted as treach-
erous, extremely ill-natured, intractable and
ready to bite, this development of character
may have its ground in the confinement,
which embitters the disposition of the in-
telligent creatures. For my own part it is
impossible for me to find in this defiant
reaction against unworthy treatment a proof
of natural depravity, and in the accounts
given of their habits in a state of freedom
I find no evidence of that, but only of their
social virtues and of their brotherly readiness
to stand by one another in presence of

BABOONS.

55

danger. That the consciousness of strength
will lead to many an act of insolent outrage
can be easily understood; but that the large
baboons do not give way even to the leopard
and do not flee before man himself when not
bearing firearms, can hardly be reckoned as
a fault.

The Black Ape (C. (Cynopithccus) nigcr),
fig. i o, with slender limbs, very dark woolly fur,
and rudimentary tail, we have felt compelled
to depict as representing the macaque type.
It inhabits the easternmost islands of the
Eastern Archipelago, Celebes, the Moluccas,
and the Philippines, is regarded as easily
tamed, but is not known in a state of
freedom.

Among the mountains of Eastern Central
Africa there lives a group of large baboons,
which have been denominated the mantled
baboons, because the males in particular
have a luxuriant covering of hair a foot long,
forming a perruque and a mantle for the
shoulders, reaching down to the elbow.
These large and powerful monkeys appear
to some extent to have the highlands of
Abyssinia as the central point of their distri-
bution. The larger species, the Gelada (C.
gelada), inhabits here only a zone of 6500
-10,000 feet above sea-level, while the
Arabian Baboon, which, among the ancient
Egyptians, played the same role as the
hunuman and the boonder still do among
the Hindus, is far more widely spread and
descends even to the valleys. Formerly
it was a native of Egypt, where it is now
quite extirpated, but it still extends to the
mountains of Arabia. Both species have
a terminal tuft on the tail, and otherwise
they show only slight divergences. The
Arabian baboon (C. hamadryas], which when
old is of a silver-gray colour, but in youth
is darker, has nostrils at the end of the snout
and large bright-red ischial callosities. Its
figure is frequently represented on the Egyp-
tian monuments, and it has lent its head to
some of the ancient Egyptian gods.

The larger Gelada, of which we furnish an
illustration, fig. n, is met with at more con-
siderable altitudes, has the nostrils situated
far back, two naked spots on the breast, and
small dark -gray ischial callosities. The naked
parts are blackish. There is a brown and
a black variety, the latter, which the Abys-
sinians distinguish by the name " tokur

_____ Vr"y?*2F£.-

i • ^^AiM»pgg" -s ._„ CTw^jx^*^- ^- -_^r

Fig. 10. — The Black Ape (Cyaoccpha.'tu niger).

sinjera," and which is characterized especially
by having claw-like nails on the fingers,
confined to the greatest elevations. In quite
recent times sixteen specimens of this variety
were brought alive to Europe by their cap-
turer, J. Essler of Hungary, and as many
perished during the journey. Even the old
captive animals were tolerably well tamed
at the end of half a year. They never
exhibited the bestial brutality and readiness
to bite which are displayed by the hama-
dryas. The male, which is considerably
larger than the female, defended the latter
and one young one against imprudent ap-
proaches by sound blows with the hand.
When they thought themselves alone the

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

members of this family amused themselves.
The tones of the voices of these animals,
says one observer, were so variously modu-
lated and accentuated that people were in-
voluntarily induced to believe themselves in
the presence of beings endowed with the gift

of speech. The mode of speaking of these
intelligent creatures reminded one of the
inarticulate sounds uttered by men whose
speech is impeded by an organic defect in
the frtenum lingua-.

In fig. 1 1 a herd of geladas is represented

Fig. ii. — The Gelada (Cynocephalus gelada}, page 55.

during a period of repose. A patriarch sits
on a rock in the foreground, accompanied by
a female and two young ones at play. In
the background the members of the troop are
employed in searching for food and in playing.
The mode of life of all these species is
the same, namely, as above described. The
gelada and Arabian baboon are said, how-
ever, to live at great enmity with each other,

and often to break out into open hostilities to
decide frontier disputes, on which occasions
the combatants occupying the higher positions
roll stones down upon their antagonists.

Accounts of this rolling and throwing of
stones against enemies ascending from the
valley are met with in all the narratives of
hunting expeditions and other invasions of
their domain, just as invariably as in the

BABOONS.

57

tales of the battles round Troy. The
hostilities between these monkeys, however,
are said to be confined to horrible grimaces,
bellowing, gnashing with the teeth, beating
the hands on the ground, and tearing the hair
from perruques and mantles, and only seldom
to lead to serious wounds with the teeth.

The Common Baboon (C. Babuiii) which
inhabits Central Africa from Abyssinia to
Mozambique, may be taken as representative
of the maneless smooth-haired baboons, which
in walking on all-fours always carry the tail
curved as depicted in fig. 1 2. The Chacma
or Pig-faced Baboon (C. porcariits) and the
Guinea Baboon (C. sphinx) are allied, though
somewhat larger and differently coloured
species. All three are frequently brought to
Europe, but most frequently the mouse-
coloured baboon with the dark back, which
on account of its docility and good-nature is
never wanting as an actor in the monkey-
theatres. The mode of life of these creatures
in a state of nature resembles that of the
mantled baboons, their food is the same;
their otherwise good qualities are frequently,
as in the case of the latter animals, thrown
into the shade by the violence of their sexual
instincts. At the Cape the chacma is hated
and eagerly pursued on account of its destruc-
tiveness, cunning, and savage disposition; but,
on the other hand, it is also frequently tamed
and employed in searching for water, for
which employment it is said, like most ba-
boons, to manifest a peculiar fitness, even
when the water lies at a considerable depth
below the surface. Water is a real necessity
for all baboons on account of the frequently
dry character of their food. Their halting-
places are always selected in the neighbour-
hood of water, and it is therefore all the more
singular that they cannot swim, but sink to the
bottom without being able to save themselves.

In South Africa baboons are often very destruc-
tive amongst the sheep and crops of the farmers.
Anxious to indulge in a little baboon hunting by
way of recreation on the borders of the Orange

River Free State, Dr. Emil Holub on one occasion
made inquiries of a farmer as to how to proceed in
order to gratify his wish. The farmer was at once
extremely communicative. So pitiable was his
account of the losses he had in various ways sus-
tained through the baboons, writes Dr. Holub, "we
could well understand the grin of satisfaction with
which he learnt our object. He became more and
more loquacious in his desire to render information ;
and when I further explained to him that we were
anxious to get some of their skins to stuff, and to
carry off some of their skulls, he was quite as-
tounded; he had never heard of such a thing, and
exclaiming, ' Allmachtag, wat will ye dun?' he
walked off, shaking his head, to tell his wife of the
doctor's 'wonderlijke' proposal to shoot a 'babouin,'
and to send its skull all the way to 'Duitsland.'"
It was resolved to lie in ambush for the baboons
at their drinking resort. "Only a few minutes
had elapsed when one of the farm-boys drew
our attention to what seemed little more than a
couple of dark specks on the slope of the hills to
the right; but we could soon see that they were
moving, and when they came within half a mile of
us, we could distinctly recognize them as a herd of
baboons. The boy said he was quite sure that they
were on their way to the water; but to our surprise
they did not make any further advance. A quarter
of an hour elapsed; half an hour; still no symptom
of their approach. All at once, as if they had
started from the earth by magic, at the open end
of the pond, not sixty yards from our place of
ambush, stood two huge males. When or how they
had got there no one could tell ; probably they had
come by a circuitous way through the valley, or it
might be that they had crept straight down through
the grass ; they had certainly eluded our observation.
Being anxious to watch the movements of the
animals, and to ascertain whether they belonged to
the herd playing under the mimosas, I refrained
from firing, and determined to see what would
follow next. Both baboons sprang towards the
water, and leaning down, drank till they were
satisfied ; then, having gravely stretched themselves,
they stalked away solemnly on all-fours in the
direction of the herd. There was little doubt,
therefore, that they belonged to them, and had been
sent forward to reconnoitre; for as soon as they
got back, the entire herd put itself in motion, and
made its way towards the pond. There were
mothers taking care of their little ones ; there were
the half-grown animals, the boys and girls of the

THE MONKEYS OF THE OLD WORLD.

company; but there did not seem to be more than
three or four full-grown males. At first only one
baboon at a time came to the water's edge, and
having taken its draught retired to the rest; but
when about ten of them had thus ventured sep-
arately, they began to come in small groups, leaving
the others rolling and jumping on the sand. .
It was not long before two males — the same, I

had no doubt, which we had noticed before, came
and squatted themselves one on each side of the
little creek, which certainly was not more than two
feet across. When they stooped to drink, their
heads could not have been four inches apart.
Here was my chance. Crack went my rifle. But
instead of either of them dropping, the two baboons
started up; by a mutual instinct they both clutched

- . :-

Fig. 12. — The Common Baboon (Cynoccphalus Babuiii). page 57.

their noses, gave a ringing bark and scampered off.
The whole herd took the alarm, and joining in the
shrieking clamour, were soon lost to sight. One or
two, however, of the larger animals seemed to lag
behind and to look inquiringly, as if to ascertain
the true condition of affairs.

We went down and examined the spot where the
baboons had been drinking, and could come to no
other conclusion than that the bullet had passed
exactly through the narrow interval that had parted
their heads; it had lodged just about three feet
behind them." — Holub, Sn<cn Years in South Africa,
vol. i. chap. iii.

The following account of the behaviour of baboons

among the upper tributaries of the Nile is given by
Sir S. Baker:—

"Troops of baboons are now exceedingly num-
erous, as, the country being entirely dried up, they
are forced to the river for water, and the shady
banks covered with berry-bearing shrubs induce
them to remain. It is very amusing to watch these
great male baboons stalking majestically along
followed by a large herd of all ages, the mothers
carrying their little ones upon their backs, the latter
with a regular jockey-seat riding most comfortably,
while at other times they relieve the monotony of
the position by sprawling at full length and holding
on by their mother's back hair. Suddenly a sharp-

BABOONS.

59

eyed young ape discovers a bush well covered with
berries, and his greedy munching being quickly
observed, a general rush of youngsters takes place,
and much squabbling for the best place ensues
among the boys; this ends in great uproar, when
down comes a great male, who cuffs one, pulls an-
other by the hair, bites another on the hind-quarters
just as he thinks he has escaped, drags back a would-
be deserter by his tail and shakes him thoroughly,

and thus he shortly restores order, preventing all
further disputes bysitting under the bush and quietly
enjoying the berries by himself." — Nile Tributaries
of Abyssinia, chap. x.

The sensual and ill-natured beast in its
most revolting aspect is chiefly exhibited to
us in those baboons which have only a short
erect stump in place of a tail, and among

Fig. 13. — The Mandrill (Cynocephalus Maimoti).

which the Mandrill (C. or Mormon Maimoti),
fig. 13, a native of the interior of Guinea, has
been frequently, and the Drill (M. (Cynoce-
p/iahis}leucop/iceus},a.n-a.\\v£. of the same region,
but seldom brought to Europe. Of their
family life we know nothing beyond this, that
they are very much dreaded by the negroes.
In youth the mandrill is a highly likable and
thoroughly comical fellow; when grown up
he becomes ill-natured and treacherous, yet
he has at times been completely tamed. He
is specially distinguished by the striking
colours of the naked parts and the singular
form of the face. Even in the drill we
can detect a slight swelling of the region

between the eyes and nose. In the mandrill
the cheek region is spongy and elevated, and
marked with oblique furrows even on the
young animal, and this form of feature becomes
more marked with age. The head is large, the
ridge on the crown covered with a stiff tuft
of hair; the coat is olive-brown' on the back,
brighter on the under side, the moustache
yellow, the ears black with a white spot be-
hind. The high, swollen, and furrowed cheeks
are sky-blue, the nose red, the large and
swollen ischial callosities blue and red, the seat
and the neighbouring parts bright red, and
these parts the mandrill is fond of exhibiting to
spectators as if he were proud of the colours.

6o

THE MONKEYS OF THE NEW WORLD.

(B) THE MONKEYS OF THE NEW WORLD

(PLATYRRHIN.E).

With 36 teeth and broad nasal septum; the nostrils directed sidewards; ischial callosities and

cheek-pouches always absent.

To the most essential distinguishing char-
acter of these monkeys, that which consists
in the number of the teeth, attention was
directed in the general account prefixed to
the present section (p. 28), where it was
pointed out that the New World monkeys
have in each jaw one premolar more than
those of the Old World, the number of the
other teeth remaining the same.

But the American division is distinguished
not only by the number but also by the
structure of the teeth as well as of the jaws
in general. While in the monkeys of the
Old World, more especially in the large
baboons, we could establish a decided ten-
dency to the carnivorous type of jaws and
dentition, we see here on the contrary a
development from the lower and small species
based on the type of the Insectivora, and that
in so marked a manner that the lower jaw of
a saimiri, for example, could scarcely be dis-
tinguished by the structure of its teeth from
that of an insectivore. Although the canines
are always more or less prominent and fit into
opposite gaps, yet they never exhibit a
dagger -like form and attain an excessive
length, as we find them to do, for example,
among the baboons. The tubercles of the
molar teeth, in most species blunt and soon
rubbed away by use, become indeed sharply
pointed in the insect -eating species, but
never acquire a cutting edge. The pre-
molars, instead of being close set, are often
far apart, and show the sharp conical form
of the insectivores.

The muzzle is always short and only
slightly protruding, never assuming that re-
semblance to the muzzle of a dog which is
so characteristic of the baboons. The head
appears far more rounded, the facial lies more
under the cranial region, and the latter never
has so well-marked crests and ridges as in
the allied Old World monkeys. The whole
form of the head is much more like that of
man or rather like that of the young monkeys
of the Old World. One might say with perfect
justice that the head of the American monkeys
is that of one of the Old World monkeys
remaining fixed at the stage of childhood.

It is often difficult to detect the character-
istic form of nose in the skull, since many
New World monkeys exhibit quite as narrow
a bony ridge in the nose as those of the Old
World do. But in living animals one cannot
fail to observe that the flat nose becomes
broader in its cartilaginous parts, and that the
nostrils are directed more sideways. Human-
like rounded naked ears are never met with ;
for the most part the ears are thickly covered
with hair and drawn out to a point above.

The form of the body varies. There are
very slender and likewise somewhat plump
figures among them, and the limbs are some-
times rather powerful, sometimes slim ; but
the limits of these variations are much
narrower than in the Old World monkeys,
and even if we leave out of account the much
greater size of the latter, we never find in
America such powerful frames as those of
the baboons and the anthropoid apes.

IK-

CHARACTERISTICS.

61

Hands and feet are similarly formed. The
fingers and toes always have flat nails. But
while the great toe is always powerful and
well-developed, the thumb is always weak,
often rudimentary, and in the spider-monkeys
it is altogether wanting as in the African
Colobi.

The tail is never absent, but it is adapted
by its structure to a considerable variety of
functions. In some it is a prehensile organ,
which is used exactly like a fifth hand for
catching hold of the branches and enabling
the monkeys to make their position secure,
or even to suspend themselves from the
trees; in others it is a sensitive tactile organ,
the skin of the under surface of the extremity
being in that case without hair. Among the
Old World monkeys the tail never acts as an
organ of prehension or touch, only as a
rudder; but in many American monkeys the
prehensile function is so highly developed,
that even after death they remain suspended
by the tail until the tension of the muscles
is destroyed by the setting in of decomposi-
tion.

In accordance with the structure of tail and
feet just described all American monkeys
without exception are arboreal animals, which
descend to the ground only occasionally for
water, or to plunder a plantation, or to pass
from one tree to another. Terrestrial mon-
keys in America there are none, and the
treeless crests of the mountains have always
constituted an impassable barrier limiting
their distribution.

The external habits of life are thus much
more uniform in America than in the Old
World, and with few variations in detail all
the monkeys of the New World live in a
similar manner, in large troops, seldom alone
or in small families; and their habitation is
the tops of the trees of the primeval forests,
where they move about with the same security
and rapidity as other animals on the ground,
and where they find abundance of food.

All observers agree in thinking that the

American monkeys are mentally much less
gifted than those of the Old World, and they
appear to stand on a lower level than these
also as regards the enjoyment of life. Their
endowments are, indeed, quite sufficient for
their requirements. They have cunning and
intelligence enough to be able to procure
their food, defend themselves against enemies,
and shelter themselves from the inclemency
of the weather; but the exuberant vivacity,
the disposition to tease, the liability to sudden
changes of mood which distinguish the Old
World monkeys, are all qualities in which
those of America are very deficient. Only a
few of the sajous approach the guenons in
the rapidity of their movements and constant
restlessness ; most of the others are extremely
slow and cautious in climbing. The young
play little ; the old often sit for hours together
with grave faces, as if sunk in melancholy
reflections, and only on the approach of
danger do they show by the rapidity of their
flight the energy of which they are capable.
Their disposition is peaceable, patient, con-
fiding. Quarrels and fights very rarely dis-
turb the harmony which prevails among the
members of a band. Even old animals are
easily tamed, although some only by the
adoption of singular methods contrived by
the Indians, among whom many species are
kept as domestic animals, and that all the
more readily since they become really affec-
tionate in their ways, and the tendency to
destroy is not very conspicuous in them.
Although they are just as sincerely attached
to their young, and tend them with the same
care as the monkeys of the Old World, even
(as is the rule with many species) dragging
about two young ones with them for months
after birth, yet one does not observe in them
that bestial sensuality which gets the entire
command of many of the Old World mon-
keys. Their inferior mental powers render
them little adapted for drill, and while people
are glad to see them in monkey-houses, and
even on account of their gentle disposition

62

THE MONKEYS OF THE NEW WORLD.

in their own private houses, the owners of
monkey-theatres can employ them at most
only as mutes, never in leading roles. They
are likewise wanting in the high courage,
the defiant bravery in defence and attack,
characteristic of some of the Old World
monkeys, such qualities being displayed only
occasionally on behalf of their young; they
either flee or submit to their fate with silent
patience. They have enemies enough in
beasts of prey of all sorts, mammals, birds, and
reptiles, especially serpents, and among their
enemies we must not forget man. They have,
indeed, nothing to fear from fire-arms; on the
other hand they frequently fall victims to the
arrows poisoned with curara blown from the
blow-pipes of the Indians, to whom they afford
!a valuable booty on account of their flesh and
fur. The slightest wound from a poisoned
arrow, which the Indians are able to shoot to
the height of a hundred feet, kills in a few
minutes, and so paralyses the muscles that the
monkey falls from the tree, while if he were
killed by slugs or bullets he would in most
eases remain hanging. The flesh of monkeys
killed in this way is quite fit for food. Since
the animal when wounded always draws the
arrow out, the arrows are so made that the
poisoned part breaks off and remains in the
wound. By reducing the strength of the
poison the Indians are able so to manage that
the monkeys which they wish to have alive
are momentarily paralysed, but after a time
recover.

The American monkeys have been divided
into several groups according to the structure
of the tail.

NAKED-TAILED MONKEYS

(GYMNURyE).

The long and powerful tail has at least the last third
naked on the under surface, covered with rough skin,
and serving as an organ of touch and prehension.

The uses of this tail, which has flattened
vertebra; in the naked part, are manifold.

Not only do these creatures suspend them-
selves by means of it, twisting it twice round
branches, and then hanging free in the air
swaying themselves backwards and forwards
so as to increase the impetus with which they
leap to rather distant branches, but they also
use it as a hand to carry leaves and fruits to
the mouth, and likewise as a highly sensitive
organ of touch, the impressions of which do
not require to be controlled by the other
senses. Without using his eyes the creature,
by means of his tail, acquires a knowledge of
his surroundings, of the strength of branches,
of the presence of eggs and other things, like
a man feeling with his hands. The structure
of the whole organ is of such a nature that it
grasps and holds fast even in death.

All these animals are essentially leaf- and
fruit-eaters, but do not despise eggs, young
birds, and insects. Their molar teeth become
so worn away with age, that the grinding
surfaces become nearly smooth. The canines
are short, triangular in section, and sharp at
the edges.

The Howlers (Mycetes).

The monkeys belonging to this genus are
the most persevering musicians of the prim-
eval forests of South America, which they fill
with the far-reaching sounds of their concerts,
especially in the morning and evening. The
larynx or upper part of the windpipe, where
the voice is formed, is very wide, and the
hyoid bone, which is usually a small bone
supporting the back of the tongue, is swollen
up into the form of a large resonant drum,
and it is to these structures that the extra-
ordinary music is due. The old males are the
leaders in the concert ; they sit opposite one
another, as represented in fig. 14, and after a
few beats the whole choir strikes in, but the
concert at once ceases as soon as any danger
approaches. They are ugly creatures, with
plump body, thick neck mostly surrounded
by a large beard, strong limbs, and well-
developed thumbs. Their movements are slow

THE HOWLERS.

and deliberate. In presence of danger they
retire to the topmost branches of the trees, or
into the recesses of the twining plants of the
forest. The large climbing members of the
cat tribe, the puma and ocelot, large serpents
such as the anaconda, and man are their chief
enemies; dogs pursue them with fury. On
taking to flight they often let fall their excre-

ments in their terror. The species shown in
fig. 14, the Red Howling Monkey (Mycctes
seniculus), has somewhat of the same colour
as our squirrels. Old males acquire a golden
yellow shimmer; the females and young are
darker in colour. The fur is mostly very
dense on the back. Several species are
known.

'ig. 14.— R

ng Monkeys (Mycetcs seniculus}.

Le Vaillant, the naturalist and traveller, in the
Introduction to his First Voyage tells the following
story of a young red howling monkey (M. seniculus),
such as is still called by the settlers in Guiana, as
we are informed by Im Thurn, a baboon. It will
be interesting to compare this account with that
given by Wallace of the young mias. Le Vaillant,
who was brought up in Dutch Guiana, where as a
boy he was an enthusiastic collector of insects, had
killed a mother. " As she carried on her back a
young one which had not been wounded, we took
them both along with us, and when we returned to

the plantation my baboon had not quitted the
shoulders of its mother. It clung so closely to her
that I was obliged to have the assistance of a negro
to disengage them, but scarcely was it separated
from her, when, like a bird, it darted upon a wooden
block that stood near covered with my father's wig,
which it embraced with its fore-paws so firmly that
I could not get it to quit its hold. Deceived by its
instinct, it still imagined itself to be on the back of
its mother, and under her protection. As it seemed
perfectly at ease on the wig, I suffered it to remain,
and fed it there from a sucking-bottle with goat's

64

THE MONKEYS OF THE NEW WORLD.

milk. It continued in its error for about three
weeks, but after that period quitted the fostering
wig, and by its amusing tricks became the friend
and favourite of the whole family."

The fate of this " baboon" was even more pitiable
than that of Wallace's young mias. Managing to

Fig. 15. — The Barrigudo (Lagothrix Humtwdti

get access to the young entomologist's collection
he began to devour the insects, pins and all, and
in consequence perished in agony.

The Woolly Monkeys (Lagothrix).

The Lagotkrix Humboldti, the Barrigudo
of the natives, fig. 15, approaches the howl-
ing monkeys in size (about 28 inches with-
out the tail) and the general shape of its

thickset body. But it lacks the well-developed
vocal apparatus of these creatures, merely
emitting a monotonous subdued howl, which
is not heard at any great distance. The
fur is very dense and woolly, especially on
the back. In a state of freedom
it is described by all as slow
and deliberate in its movements;
but as to its disposition, while
by some it is spoken of as good-
humoured and gentle, by others
it is denounced as ill-natured,
intrusive, and apt to bite. It is
even said to attack the Indians
by throwing branches of trees and
fruits at them. The observations
made on captive specimens agree
rather with the representations of
the former. When wounded they
fall from the trees, but defend
themselves, especially when they
can reach the trunk of a tree, in
the most determined manner with
their teeth and hands, all the fin-
gers on which (though not the
thumbs) are armed with curved
pointed nails. At the same time
they call their comrades to their
aid by a peculiar shrill cry, while
the more subdued cry of death
urges the latter to rapid flight.
The dense fur of the species in
our illustration, a covering absent,
however, from the abdomen and
loins, is slate-gray, but darker
on the back.

The Spider-monkeys (Ateles).

The members of this genus correspond in
the slenderness of their body, length and
thinness of the limbs, and the rudimentary
character or entire absence of the thumb, to
the African Colobi. The species shown in
fig. 1 6 is the Miriki (A. criodcs), which has a
dense woolly fawn-coloured fur, and a rudi-

THE SAJOUS.

mentary thumb without a nail. The above
described functions of the tail are developed
in the spider-monkeys, of which several
species are known, to the very highest degree:
the movements of these creatures and the posi-
tions which with the aid of their tail they can
assume are the most singular. They are
often hunted for their fur and flesh, and when
pursued they seek to make their escape
through the tree-tops with the utmost rapidity,
always sending out their tail in advance so
as to make sure of their hold. Gentle and
amiable in captivity they have an extremely
droll appearance, on account of the contrast
between their comical attitudes and the grimly
melancholy expression of their countenance.

THE SAJOUS

(CEBID^).

Tail long and strong, completely covered with hair, and
serving only as a prehensile organ, not as an organ
of touch.

The tail has flattened vertebrae at the end
as in the Gymnurae, but no naked parts. It
is used as a means of making the creature
secure in its position and as an aid in climb-
ing, but only seldom to hang by and never to
touch or seize food by. In form and be-
haviour these creatures have most resemblance
to the Cercopitheci. While awake they are
constantly in motion, capricious, intelligent,
sly and cunning, given to teasing, even some-
what malicious, very ready to associate not
only with man but also with other animals,
but as a rule capable of learning only what is
of use to themselves, not so easily taught to
perform tricks. The fur is short and thick,
and often peculiar adornments in the shape
of beard, whiskers, and tufts of hair are to be
seen about the head and face. The face is
naked, mostly also marked with wrinkles
and folds, which gives them a dismal appear-
ance, all the more apt to excite pity since they
have a childish whining voice, on which
account they are sometimes called the whining

monkeys. In terror and anger the voice
becomes extremely harsh, but besides the
notes of fear and rage they have a whole
register of notes at their command to summon
their comrades or mates, to warn, and to serve
other purposes. Their movements are dex-
terous, graceful, and rapid, although not so
lively as in the guenons. When fleeing they
regularly make their way through the tops of

Fig. 16. — The Miriki Spider-monkey (Aides eriodes).

the high trees, from which they descend only
to plunder fields or to drink. Their food is
indeed in great part vegetable, but they are
very expert in the catching of insects and
small birds, and do not let slip any opportunity
of regaling themselves with dainties of that
sort. These creatures also are frequently
hunted by the Indians for their flesh and fur,
but are extremely shy, and as a rule can only
be surprised with the blow-pipe from some
carefully contrived place of concealment.
The single genus Cebus forms the entire

66

THE MONKEYS OF THE NEW WORLD.

group, and one may perhaps say that there is
no other genus in the animal kingdom which
appears to be so much in a state of flux, in
which the species are marked off from one
another by characters so ill-defined, and the
varieties in colour, arrangement of the hair,
&c., are so numerous. Whether this variation
depends on frequent hybridization, or on the
fact that the species in a certain measure are

still in the process of being formed and are
not yet sufficiently well fixed, is still an un-
solved problem. The species represented in
fig. i 7 is the Weeper Capuchin or Sai (Ccbus
capucinns), above whose wrinkled, naked,
flesh-coloured forehead the short thick hair
forms a kind of cap. The fur is brown,
darker on the back.

The different species of sajous are almost

Kig. 17. — The Weejier Capuchin or Sai (Ccdus

always to be met with in the huts of the
Indians as domestic animals, and are brought
over to Europe in great numbers. Their
dirty habits are a still greater objection than
their disposition to tease other animals. They
usually discharge their urine into their hands
and then rub their bodies with it; and so also
when they get hold of snuff or any other
pungent-smelling article they at once proceed
to rub it all over their bodies. The shrewd
creatures probably do this principally in order
to rid themselves of the disagreeable parasites
that infest their coats. In the monkey-houses

they are mostly tyrannized over and ill-treated
by the Old World forms, unless they manage
by their pitiful whining and caressing to gain
the favour of a larger monkey who protects
them.

THE SAKIS

(ANETUR^E).

With tail of various length, with vertebrae becoming
thinner and thinner towards the end; the tail never
used for grasping.

A group rich in genera, in whose dentition
a regular descending transition towards the

THE SAKIS.

67

insectivorous type can be made out, a trans-
ition manifested by the canines becoming
thinner, the premolars further apart, and the
tubercles on the molars more pointed. This
character and the increasing curvature of the
finger-nails make these mostly small monkeys
a connecting link with the Clawed Monkeys,
from which, however, they all diverge in the
number of their teeth. Many of them are
almost entirely insect-eaters, and they are
able to catch in leaping the booty that may
have escaped from between their fingers.
The tail varies in length from a short stump
to one greatly exceeding the length of the
body; but this organ serves only as a rudder
or to wrap round the upper part of the body
and neck in sleep, or as a protection against
cold and wind.

The Sakis proper (Pithecia) agree with the
members of the last genus in the possession
of short triangular canines, with sharp cutting
edges before and behind, and blunt tubercled
molars, but present some resemblance to
certain prosimians in the form and mode of in-
sertion of the incisors (which, especially in the
lower jaw, are strongly inclined forwards), and
in the pointed conical form of the premolars.
The fur is not very thick, but is composed of
long hair, which gives the creatures a plump
appearance. The hair of the head is long,
and parted in the middle, and at the sides is
continuous with the whiskers and beard,
which are often very large. The hairy cover-
ing of the long tail becomes longer and longer
towards the end, so that it resembles that of
a fox. The movements of these creatures
are sluggish and sleepy, yet they can catch in-
sects and birds very well in leaping. Small
and timid, they mostly congregate in companies
hidden in the recesses of the trees apart from
the other monkeys, which ill-use them. They
inhabit especially the region of the Orinoco
and the Amazon, and when caught young
become very tame and much attached to their
owners; but they are only seldom brought to
Europe, where they clo not survive long.

The Couxio or Black Saki (Pithecia Satanas),
represented in fig. 18, is distinguished from
some allied species by its uniform black colour,
and the large and long beard.

Near these stand the short-tailed monkeys
(Brachyurus) with a dentition exactly similar,
but with a short stump-like tail, very wide
nostrils placed sidewards, and claw-like curved
nails on all the fingers and toes except the

Fig. 18.— The Couxio or Black Saki (Pithecia Satanas).

thumb and great toe. The hair on the body
is still longer than in the previous genus, and
is mostly of a colour resembling that of
withered grass; on the tail the hair is very
thick. The face is mostly scarlet in colour,
as is the case, for example, with the Ouakari
(Brackyuriis calvus (ouakari~) ), represented in
fig. 19, a species of monkey met with in a
few isolated areas of small extent on the
Parana and the Japura, especially in forests
that are inundated during the greater part of
the year. For that reason, as well as on
account of the rarity of its occurrence, the
capture of a monkey of this species is re-

68

THE MONKEYS OF THE NEW WORLD.

garded as exception-
ally difficult, and the
present of a living
specimen, obtained by
means of a slightly
poisoned arrow blown
from the blow-pipe, is
considered one of the
most valuable that
an Indian can make.
The fur is reddish -
yellow, darker on the
under side, the fillet
above the eyes bright
yellow. These crea-
tures are very silent,
are said to move about
among the branches
with great agility, sel-
dom leaping, however.
When caught young
they are easily tamed,
and become attached
to their owners, but
they do not survive
long.

The members of
another genus of
monkeys living only
in moist forests, and
soon perishing in drier
climates, are pursued
by the Indians with
the utmost eagerness,
partly for the sake of
their flesh, partly to
be kept as domestic
animals. These are
the Tee-tees, form-
ing the genus Cal-
lithrix. The chase is
greatly facilitated by
the loud voice of the
little animals, a voice
little inferior to that
of the howling mon-

. * __

5

Fig. 19. — The Ouakari (Brachyuriii

page 67.

Fig. 20.— The Masked Callithrix or Sasiiassu (Callithri:

keys, and which owes
its strength to an en-
larged drum -shaped
larynx. The fur is long
and coarse, the long
tail furnished with a
uniform covering of
hair. In the species
represented in fig. 20,
the Masked Callithrix,
the Sasnassu of the
Indians ( Callithrix
personata], the body
of which is about 16,
the tail 20 inches in
length, the colouring
is somewhat varie-
gated. Hands, head,
face, and throat are
black, the long hair
on the back reddish-
brown, the tail a rather
light gray, especially
on the under surface.
The male has a white
band on the back of
the neck. The den-
tition of the tee-tees
resembles that of the
Clawed Monkeys.The
canines are small, and
the tubercles of the
molars are connected
by transverse ridges.
The movements of
these creatures are
very lively and ele-
gant. Their food con-
sists essentially of in-
sects and other small
animals, which they
are very expert in
catching while leap-
ing. They live only
in small troops or
families, are always

THE SAKIS.

69

gentle and good-natured, and purr like cats
when they feel themselves comfortable, which,
however, is scarcely ever the case in Eu-
rope. About seven different species are
known.

The Saimiri or Squirrel-monkey (Ckryso-
tkrix sciurea or Pithesciurus sciureus), fig.
21, which is found
living in large herds
in Guiana, is distin-
guished from the
former by the pro-
minent, sharp, cur-
ved canines, the
large middle in-
cisors in the upper
jaw, and the pre-
molars and molars
of nearly the same
form. Elegant, slen-
der, active, graceful
in climbing, and
excellent at leap-
ing, the saimiri is at
the same time ex-
tremely shy and
timid, and very
sensitive to cold.
It is fond of low
bushes, but on the
approach of danger

at once seeks refuge with great celerity
in the high trees; and it spends the night
mostly amidst the crown of leaves at the top
of palms. It uses its long tail partly as a
rudder, but also for warming itself, wrapping
it for that purpose round its neck. When the
weather is rather cold for them, the members
of a company crouch together in a ball or in
several balls covering each other with their
tails; and the Indians generally take advan-
tage of the opportunity which this practice
affords to catch old animals for food and
young ones to tame. In a state of freedom
they often shiver, cry, and whine for cold and
rain, and their cry of terror in presence of

Fig. 21. — The Saimiri or Squirrel-monkey (Clirysothrix siiurcti).

beasts of prey serves as a warning to other
animals. They live chiefly on insects and
small birds, but also eat fruits and juicy
buds. The fur in young animals is of a dark
brownish -red; but in old males is often
orange-yellow on the back, rusty on the
limbs, while the muffle and tip of the tail

are black. Yet
there are many
varieties in colour.
The nails are
arched and claw-
like, the thumb only
slightly developed.
These extremely
amiable creatures,
which are often
kept as domestic
animals, and serve
to cleanse the huts
of the I nclians from
all kinds of minute
vermin, though
they appear to pre-
fer spiders, attain a
size of 1 5 inches at
most.

A peculiar type,
with which we close
our series of true

American mon-
keys, is represented by the genus Nyctipi-
thecus, of which several species are known.
The dentition, and the structure of the tail,
hands, and feet are like those of the saimiri,
but the body is more thickset. The ears
are very small, the eyes very large and so
close to one another that only a narrow
bridge of the nose remains between. The
legs are much longer than the arms.

Entirely nocturnal in their habits these
animals, whose range of distribution in South
America is tolerably wide, sleep during the
day in pairs, seldom in larger companies, in
holes in trees, which they line with moss
and feathers to keep them warm. But their

CLAWED MONKEYS.

sleep is not so profound that they are not | of cats. The species
awakened by noises,
their sense of hearing
being apparently very
highly developed in
spite of the fact that
they have only small
ears almost hidden in
the fur. In the light
of day they are, as it
were, oppressed with
drowsiness, and are
sulky, ready to bite,
and helpless; but by
night they become
cheerful and active,
climbing and jumping
about with great dex-
terity in search of their
prey, which consists
exclusively of insects
and birds. The favour-
ite parts in the latter

are the brain and the entrails. Their large
eyes shine more conspicuously than those

Fig. 22. — The Mirikina or Three-banded Douroucouli
(Nyi'tipitticcus irivirgatu:,}.

to its keepers, but
natured.

represented in fig. 22,
the Mirikina or Three-
banded Douroucouli
(N yctipitkccus trivir-
gahis), is gray above,
orange-yellow on the
under side, and is dis-
tinguished by three
black stripes on the
forehead, the middle
stripe running down
to the ridge of the
nose, the other two
to the outer angle of
the eyes. The fur is
thick and soft. This
monkey has been met
with from Paraguay
to Guiana. It is sel-
dom brought to Eu-
rope, has but little
intelligence, and ex-
hibits no attachment
appears to be good-

(c) CLAWED MONKEYS

(ARCTOPITHECI).

With 32 teeth, fore-paws without an opposable thumb, but hind-feet witli an opposable hallux, all the

digits except the hallux provided with claws.

The nature of the dentition has already
been explained in the general account of the
Simia:. The Arctopitheci have three pre-
molars like the other American monkeys,
but they have only two molars, the posterior
of which is besides always very small. Al-
though, accordingly, the number of the teeth
is the same as that of the Old World
monkeys and of man, yet the fundamental
type is essentially different, and when recent
authors assert that in respect of their den-

tition they approach the Old World monkeys
more nearly than their fellows belonging to
the same continent, they do so only on the
basis of a superficial comparison.

The dentition is a purely insectivorous
one, and has much resemblance to that of the
saimiri. The chisel-shaped incisors have a
marked inclination forwards, especially in the
upper jaw, in which, moreover, the inner
ones are the largest. A relatively large gap
separates them from the sharp prominent

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

a

recurved canines. The premolars in addition
to the sharp middle point have lateral cusps,
the molars are sharply indented and are pro-
vided with a narrow internal heel or process.
The forehead, as in the saimiri, is very flat,
and the brain-case is oval, the broad part
behind. The vertebral column is exactly
that of a mammalian quadruped. The tail
is always very long, and is carried in a
hanging position.

The fore-limbs are paws with sharp claws
on the digits ; the thumb is non-opposable.
In the hind-limbs, on the other hand, the
hallux, which, to be sure, is only slightly
developed and by no means a "great toe,"
is opposable, but has a flat nail, while the
other four toes, like all the digits of the fore-
limbs, have sharp curved claws.

The Arctopitheci comprise about twenty
known species, which, though differing from
each other sometimes rather strikingly in the
character of their hair-covering, present other-
wise such slight divergences that they are all
referred to one genus, Hapale.1 Their range
extends northwards into Mexico.

They live socially not only in the primeval
forests but also in sparse clumps containing
lofty trees, and their whole behaviour re-
sembles that of our squirrels. They pass the
night sometimes in pairs, but sometimes also
in companies in hollow trees, which they line
internally with moss and leaves, and they
always choose hollows with narrow entrances,
in order to protect themselves as far as
possible from the marten-like beasts of prey
which, as well as serpents and rapacious
birds, eagerly seek after them. Like our
squirrels they jump but seldom, and in hasty
flight from one tree-top to another prefer
to run down the stem of the one tree and
then, hastily crossing the interval between
the two on the ground, clamber up the other.
If they happen to be observed in climbing
a tree they know how to hide themselves

1 Sometimes they are divided into two genera, Hapale and
Midas.— TR.

dexterously behind the trunk of the tree or
behind its larger branches.

They are extremely shy, timid little crea-
tures. Their body is at most one foot in
length. Unlike other monkeys they produce
two or three young at a birth, and these the

Fig. 23. — The Silky Marmoset (Hapnle rosalia). page 72.

female drags about with her, or, when she
becomes tired, hangs on to the male, who
then behaves towards them in a quite mater-
nal manner. If it must be admitted that they
show great skill in moving about and pro-
viding for their own safety, that is about all
that can be said of their mental qualities.
Their food consists almost exclusively of
small animals, insects, spiders, &c., and sweet
vegetable substances are eaten only as a
relish.

Some species are very frequently brought
to Europe and tended as in their native land.
But it is only very slowly and with much
difficulty that they learn to know their

* v«v
UNIVERSITY

OF

CLAWED MONKEYS.

keepers and allow themselves to be caressed
and warmed by them; and they are very
disagreeable guests from their filthy habits
and on account of the putrid musky odour
which their urine, scattered all about, diffuses
round their cage. So far I have observed only

Kig. 24.— The Ouutiti or Common Marmoset (Hapale Jacchm).

in Russian ladies a sometimes excessive fond-
ness for these elegant and pretty stinkards.

The voice is a tremulous piping, which in
anger becomes a scream, almost like the
half -suppressed cry of a sucking infant.
Some species, perhaps all, sing in a state
of freedom when they think themselves quite
unobserved and secure, their notes, according
to the accounts of hearers, being like the
twittering of birds with flute tones inter-
mingled.

The fur on the body is mostly woolly, and
at various parts the hair is often lengthened
into tufts, manes, and thick brushes. The tail
is always very long, sometimes with a terminal
tuft, sometimes more uniformly bushy.

Among the Clawed Monkeys which have
been brought to us is the Silky Marmoset,
fig. 23 (Hapale (Midas] rosalia), with brown
back and brown stripe on the crown of the
head, reddish -yellow fur, and gray -brown
naked face. Head and neck are surrounded
by a mane like that of a lion, which can be
erected when the creature is angry. The
tail has longer hair towards the extremity,
but no proper tuft.

Of the intelligence of this and an allied species
Bates speaks very emphatically. " In Para," he
writes, " Midas iirsithts is often seen in a tame
state in the houses of the inhabitants. When full
grown it is about nine inches long, independently
of the tail, which measures fifteen inches. The fur
is thick, and black in colour, with the exception of
a reddish-brown streak down the middle of the
back. . . . Anatomists who have dissected species
of Midas tell us that the brain is of a very low type,
as far as the absence of convolutions goes, the sur-
face being as smooth as that of a squirrel's. I should
conclude at once that this character is an unsafe
guide in judging of the mental qualities of these
animals; in mobility of expression of countenance,
intelligence, and general manners these small
monkeys resemble the higher apes far more than
they do any rodent animal with which I am
acquainted.

On the Upper Amazons I once saw a tame
individual of the Midas leoninus [ = Hapale or
Midas rosalia\ a species first described by Hum-
boldt, which was still more playful and intel-
ligent than the one just described. This rare
and beautiful little monkey is only seven inches
in length, exclusive of the tail. It is named
teoninus on account of the long brown mane which
depends from the neck, and which gives it very
much the appearance of a diminutive lion. In
the house where it was kept it was familiar with
every one; its greatest pleasure seemed to be to
climb about the bodies of different persons who
entered. The first time I went in it ran across
the room straightway to the chair on which I had
sat down, and climbed up to my shoulder; arrived
there, it turned round and looked into my face,
showing its little teeth, and chattering, as though
it would say, 'Well, and how do you do?' It
showed more affection towards its master than

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND DESCENT.

73

toward strangers, and would climb up to his head
a dozen times in the course of an hour, making
a great show every time of searching there for
certain animalcula." — Bates, The Naturalist on tlie
River Amazons, vol. i. chap. iii.

The species most frequently to be seen
among us are the bushy -eared monkeys,
known under the name of Ouistiti or Common
Marmosets. Fig. 24 represents the com-
monest of the species so called (Hapale

Jacchus}. This little creature attains at
most a length of 9^ inches, while the thick-
haired tail with dark rings is about one- third
longer. The distinguishing character of
these animals consists in stiff tufts of hair in
front of the ears, these tufts being mostly
divided into three parts, and generally of
a bright colour. In the species represented
these tufts are white, while the body has a
grayish or dark slate-colour.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND DESCENT OF THE

APES AND MONKEYS.

The geographical distribution of apes and
monkeys presents many remarkable pecu-
liarities worthy of a closer consideration.

With few exceptions, belonging chiefly to
the Semnopitheci and the Cynocephali,
found on the high mountains of Asia and
Africa, even in some cases on the edge of
the snow-line, all monkeys are to be found
within the tropical and subtropical zone in
which palm-trees flourish. The palms have
even a wider area of distribution in lati-
tude, for while the magot is indeed settled on
European soil in company with the dwarf-
palm of the Mediterranean region, monkeys
are altogether wanting in the palmetto re-
gions of Texas and Louisiana. On Mada-
gascar and the Antilles also monkeys do not
occur, although these islands are rich in
palms. As regards elevation, however,
monkeys have the advantage, for in the
Himalayas and in Northern Tibet monkeys
are met with even in the pine forests of the
higher regions, which are covered with snow
for months together.

This law of confinement to tropical and
subtropical climates appears to have been
universally valid also in former geological
epochs. The primitive monkeys pressed
much farther northwards, but during epochs

when palms also extended to the shores of
the Baltic and the south coast of England.
When the Thames flowed in regions whose
climate, to judge from the plants found in
them, resembled that of the region intersected
by the mouths of the Ganges, monkeys oc-
curred even in the latitude of London. The
largest and most human-like monkeys are
found only in the hottest regions of the Old
World, and an ancestor of these, the Dryopi-
thecus, lived in southern France during the
Miocene period as member of a fauna
analogous to that of the torrid zone in the
present age.

Of special importance is the sharp separa-
tion between the monkeys of the Old and the
New World, those of the I ndo- African tropics
on the one side, and those of the South
American tropics on the other, a separation
which is unequivocally expressed in the
zoological characters, and culminates in this,
that the Simise of the Old World, by the
structure of their nose and teeth, as well as
by their adaptation to more varied conditions
of life, have unquestionably attained in their
branches a higher stage than their American
kindred. All the American Platyrrhines with
36 teeth, and all the Clawed Monkeys, are

arboreal forms, and so much dependent on

10

74

APES AND MONKEYS.

the existence of forests that they have neither
crossed the Cordilleras nor extended to the
Antilles, which, nevertheless, were probably
connected in former times with the mainland,
though, no doubt, only by means of treeless
isthmuses. Most of the American Simiae
have never come down to the earth. They
have been born in the tops of the trees of the
primeval forest, there have lived, and have
ended their existence still hanging in death
to the branches.

Now although the majority of Old World
Simiae, which have all the same dental formula
as man, live entirely among trees, even some
of the anthropoid apes, like the orangs and
gibbons, still leading such a life exclusively,
yet we see many adaptations to other con-
ditions of life. One may characterize the
chimpanzee and gorilla as well as the magot
as semi-arboreal forms. They sleep on the
trees, seek their nourishment partly in their
fruits, but remain just as much upon the
ground, where the former, at least, assume a
semi-erect position, and frequently, especially
in fighting, go upon only two feet. As
entirely terrestrial forms we may designate
the Macacus nemcstrinus and all the baboons,
for, while they are able to clamber about
dexterously among the rocks on all fours,
and seek their nourishment, for the most
part, only on the ground, and, indeed, even
in the earth, they climb high trees but seldom,
and most of them prefer to frequent districts
quite destitute of trees. That high mountains
rising above the tree-line can form no barrier
to the distribution of terrestrial monkeys, as
it does to those of America, follows as a matter
of course.

Yet the arboreal life seems even in the
Old World to have exercised an important
influence on the geographical distribution,
for all the arboreal forms of the Old World
are confined to their respective continents
and island groups. The members of the
genus Troglodytes (chimpanzee and gorilla),
the Colobi, and Cercopitheci are all restricted

to Africa; the mias, gibbons, and Semnopi-
theci are found only in the Asiatic tropics;
the macaques are an Asiatic type, of which
only one species, the magot, has spread west-
wards along the borders of the Mediterranean.
The baboons, on the other hand, in spite of
their extension to Arabia, and in spite of the
occurrence of the -black ape on the islands
of the Eastern Archipelago as far as Celebes,
appear to be an essentially African type.
But these two genera, the macaques, and still
more the baboons, distributed over both con-
tinents, are precisely the two which have
more and more abandoned arboreal habits of
life.

Although sufficient evidence is forthcoming
to show that even at the present day the
various families of monkeys undertake migra-
tions, which are chiefly determined by the
want of food, and some species manifestly
lead a nomadic and vagabond life, yet these
migrations must be confined within pretty
narrow limits, and afford no explanation of
the striking distance of the black ape on the
one hand, and the magot on the other hand
from their present centres.

To explain these facts, as well as the
absolute geographical separation of the Simise
of the two hemispheres, and the absence of
all true monkeys on Madagascar and the
Antilles, we must recognize other causes as
the determining factors, and these we can
find only in tracing the origin of the different
forms.

We now know, mostly, to be sure, only
through fragments of jaws containing teeth,
a considerable number of fossil Indo-European
and some few American monkeys. The
species belonging to the older Tertiary strata,
the Eocene, are doubtful, and it is only the
Middle and Upper Tertiaries as well as the
cave- and alluvial deposits that have yielded
undoubted simian remains.

On a closer analysis of these fossil forms
the first result that is established as an in-
dubitable fact is, that the separation of types

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND DESCENT.

75

according to hemispheres, as it now exists,
was indicated from the first: all the fossil
remains of Simia; hitherto found in the strata
of the Old World belong to the Catarrhines
with 32 teeth; all the New World bones, on
the other hand, to Platyrrhines with 36 teeth.
From the beginning of the Miocene, and
probably even earlier, the two hemispheres
were accordingly at least so far separated
that no transmigrations of monkeys could
take place. Similarly the absence of monkeys
on Madagascar proves that that large African
island has been separated from the mainland
since monkeys have existed, while, on the
other hand, the close agreement between the
monkeys of the Sunda Islands and those of
the neighbouring part of the Asiatic continent
must force on us the conviction that these
lands, now separated by arms of the sea,
must have been in connection with one
another down to comparatively recent geologi-
cal epochs. The two simian stems, that of
the Old World and that of the New, must
accordingly have developed in isolation from
one another, and cannot be traced back to a
common root.

We have already mentioned that, in ac-
cordance with the extension of warm climates
towards the north, to which the vegetable
world bears witness, the areas of distribution
of monkeys also extended northwards into
what is now Temperate Europe and the
north of the present United States. Judging
from the abundant remains that have been
discovered, especially at Pikermi in Greece
and Sansans at the foot of the Pyrenees, as
well as in Italy, we may conclude that in the
later Miocene period the belt bordering the
Mediterranean on the north must have been
inhabited by just as numerous herds of
monkeys of various species as the wooded
regions of the tropics in the interior of the
continents now are.

Some facts appear to indicate that the
extinct monkeys of the Mediterranean region
belong more to the types now found in Asia,

and exhibit characters combined which at
the present day are seen distinct and in a
more pronounced form in individual families
and genera. Thus, as Gaudry has shown,
the monkey which has left behind such
abundant remains at Pikermi (Mesopithecus)
is a Semnopithecus as regards the structure
of its head and the form of its teeth, while on
the contrary the bones of the body would
cause us to refer it to the macaques. This
mixture of characters, which afterwards be-
came more and more fixed so as to mark
off different divisions more sharply, is a
phenomenon of very common occurrence,
which we shall frequently, and indeed almost
universally, meet with hereafter in the various
orders of the Mammalia. The older type
is neither macaque nor Semnopithecus, but
possesses certain characters of both; only in
the present geological epoch have these char-
acters become so pronounced as to charac-
terize different genera. One can trace the
magot from this separation.

But this again is the only circumstance
that could be adduced in the case of the
Simise as favouring the idea of a gradually
advancing development of the types. If we
consider the present Old World forms as
regards their divisions, Semnopitheci, Cerco-
pitheci, and Colobi might be taken as form-
ing the leading types for both continents, all
these being purely arboreal forms, intelligent
climbers, typical monkeys in every respect.
In the macaques on the one hand, and the
baboons on the other hand, we find adapta-
tions to a terrestrial mode of life represented,
in the gibbons and the other Anthropo-
morpha; higher developments towards the
human type. Attention has already been
drawn to the fact that these anthropoid apes
ascend towards the human type in different
directions, that accordingly, as I have already
clearly shown a considerable time ago, no
single line of ascent to the human type can be
demonstrated; that the gorilla stands nearer
to man than its rivals in respect of the struc-

APES AND MONKEYS.

ture of its extremities, the orang as regards
that of the brain, the chimpanzee that of the
head and teeth. The assertion of a single
line of development leading up to man finds
accordingly no support whatever in facts
from an analysis of the Simise of the present
day.

And just as little support does it find in
the consideration of the fossil forms. With
the exception of the above-mentioned sharper
fixation of characters, which, however, have
nothing to do with the question of resem-
blance to man, and accordingly with a higher
development especially of the brain, we can
adduce not a single fact in favour of the idea
that during the different periods in the history
of the earth's crust the type of the Simiae
has made steady advances to a higher state
of development. The large anthropoid ape
found at Sansans, the Dryopitliecus Fonlantz,
of which, it must be mentioned, we possess
only an incomplete lower jaw, stands as near
to man as any of the still living Anthropo-
morpha:, if not nearer. In South America
there were even found remains of a large ape
(Laopithecus) which stands nearer to man
than all the American monkeys of the present
time. The Miocene period has accordingly
brought the Simian type as far, has developed
it to as great a height, as our present world.
In respect of organic perfection this type has
stood still since the later Miocene period.

It must be admitted, however, that if, in
accordance with the principles of the now
received evolution theory, we take into
account the development of the individual,
we have to meet the significant fact, that
the infant ape is in every respect nearer
the child of the human species than the adult
ape is to an adult man. The original dis-
tinctions of the young of both types are

much more insignificant than those of adult
individuals. This assertion long ago made
by me in my " Lectures upon Man " has re-
ceived striking confirmation from the more
recent investigations on the young Anthro-
pomorphae which have died in European
zoological gardens. The older the indivi-
dual becomes the more pronounced become
the characteristic distinctions in the form of
the jaws, the occipital crests, &c. Man and
ape, as they develop from the embryonic
condition and the young form, diverge indeed
almost in opposite directions towards the
final type of their genus ; but even adult apes
always retain in their organization traits which
correspond to those of the human infant.

From these facts we may draw the con-
clusion that man cannot stand in genetic
relation either to any of the present apes or
to any of the fossil forms yet discovered,
but that both types have originated from a
common form which is more clearly expressed
at the stage of infancy, because the period of
childhood is more closely approximated to it.

The question whether the true apes and
monkeys, or in one word the Simiae, can be
brought into genetic connection with the
Prosimii will be discussed in treating of the
latter.

By way of resume we may say that the
Simiae, so far as they are known to us, have
been from their first appearance on the stage
of life arboreal forms adapted to a tropical
climate, forms moreover which have always
been strictly limited to the hemispheres now
assigned to them, but which in earlier geo-
logical epochs spread farther to the north
within these hemispheres, and that in neither
hemisphere do they exhibit any essential
advance in organization since the Miocene
period.

THE PROSIMIANS

(PROS I MI I).

Climbing animals, with complete dentition, opposable thumb and great-toe, bony orbit not closed behind, mostly

more than two teats, and a campanulate (diffuse) placenta.

A singular mixed assemblage of tropical
animals, which, in defiance of all anatomical
grounds, have always been associated by
ignorant animal -stuffers with the apes and
monkeys, solely on account of the possession
of an opposable hallux or pollex on all four
extremities. But it is now known to scientific
naturalists that the points of distinction from
the monkeys are so important that we must
rather rank the Prosimii, or at least some
of them, among the lowest mammals, a pro-
ceeding to which there is the less reason for
holding the existence of the opposable digits
in question to be an objection, since such
digits are frequently met with fully developed
on the hind- limbs even of low forms of
marsupials.

The brain-case is roundish or longish with
crests and ridges very little marked, a con-
dition connected with the weakness of the
jaws and their muscles. Even in those
genera in which the eye is very large it lies
altogether behind the facial region, which
with the bony nose mostly appears to be
drawn forwards almost in the form of a tube.
The bony orbits are never complete as in the
Simiae, but are merely surrounded by an
external ring (and even that in Galeopithecus
is not complete), their cavities being con-
tinuous behind with the temporal fossa; or

depressions at the temples. This single
decisive character enables us to distinguish
at the first glance the skull of one of the
Prosimii from one of the Simiae.

The eyes and the orbits inclosing them
are commonly very large, as in most nocturnal
animals, and in some, as the loris and tarsier,
are so enormous that only a thin plate of
bone, as thin as a piece of paper, separates
the two orbits, and only a narrow canal is
left in the middle line for the passage of the
nerves of smell to the nostrils, which are
much elongated. In others again, the lemur,
the indris, and the aye-aye, the bridge of the
nose is broad, and the eyes appear to be
placed more to the side as in Carnivora and
other mammals. The tear-ducts, which in
all the Simiae as in man, lie in the inner angle
of the orbit, are found in the lemurs, as in
most marsupials, outside the orbits on the
cheeks.

The jaws, as already remarked, are mostly
weak. In some (Indris, Lemur) the pre-
maxilla becomes fused very early with the
upper jaw, while in others (Tarsius, Loris,
Microcebus) the sutures or lines of union
remain visible all through life. The lower
jaw is always slender, never high, as in many
of the Simise, and its two halves always
remain separated by a suture, which is even

THE PROSIMIANS.

in many cases so lax that the two halves fall
apart when one attempts to obtain a skeleton
of the animal. This character also suffices
to distinguish at the first glance the lower
jaw of a prosimian from that of a monkey.

While the dentition of the Simian presents
very constant numbers and relations, it is, on
the contrary, remarkably variable among the
Prosimii, and that both in respect of the
number of teeth and in respect of the structure
of the different sorts of teeth. In general
one may say that the dental system, especially
through the presence of double rows of sharp-
pointed cusps on the molars as well as
through the variations in the development of
the incisors arid canines, is intimately allied
to that of the insectivores or marsupials, and
at any rate is altogether removed from that
of the monkeys. For the most part a more
or less considerable gap or diastema separates
the upper incisors in the same way as in the
bats, and the broad crowns of the incisors
are sometimes, as in Indris, placed sideways,
similarly to what we meet with in the
kangaroos. In other cases, as in Tarsius,
on the other hand, the hook -like curved
middle incisors of the upper jaw stand close
together, and far surpass in length the
canines as well as the crowns of all the other
teeth, while in the aye-aye the middle incisors,
which are the only ones that are present in
both upper and under jaw, entirely correspond
to those of the rodents in structure and in the
absence of roots. The incisors of the lower
jaw are always pressed close together in the
middle, are frequently six in number, and are
more or less flattened on the sides ; sometimes
(Lemur, Indris) they are placed horizontally
as in the kangaroos, while in Galeopithecus
they are even expanded and split into strips,
as in the rat-kangaroo (Hypsiprymnus). — Ca-
nines are altogether wanting in the adult aye-
aye, being only found (in the upper jaw) in
the milk-dentition. In Tarsius they are small
and insignificant; in others (Galago, Loris,
Microcebus) they are more prominent and

stronger, and hook-like with a cutting edge;
in the true lemurs and in the genus Indris
they are triangular with a cutting edge, and
in Galeopithecus the first premolar, as in
many Insectivora, plays the part of a canine
as regards form and position. — The premolars,
which are present in the milk-dentition in the
aye-aye, are absent in the permanent dentition,
and its few molars are simple stumps with a
smooth surface without enamel folds or cusps,
as in many rodents. Among most of the
others the premolars form a sharp point, but
through the development of an inner tubercle
as well as through the division of the sharp
point gradually pass into the form of per-
manent molars, which mostly possess four
sharp cusps both in the upper and under jaw,
these cusps standing opposite one another in
pairs and interlocking when the mouth is
shut. True diastemas occur in the aye-aye
and in those genera (Lemur, Indris) in which
the canine in front is developed in breadth ;
in the other cases the crowns of the teeth
meet and merely present indentations opposite
the projecting cusps of the teeth of the
opposite jaw.

The dentition constitutes beyond doubt the
most conservative element of the skeleton.
Constant relations in this part of the structure
bear witness to a common origin. But, as
may be seen from the preceding sketch,
no general scheme of the dentition of the
Prosimii can be drawn up; a proof that this
is only an apparent group of animals hetero-
geneously composed of the descendants of
various stocks, the types represented in
which approach one another only in the form
of their limbs.

The brain has not the least resemblance to
that of the apes and monkeys. While the
smooth cerebrum of the small Clawed Mon-
keys still covers the cerebellum completely,
the latter is almost entirely free in the Prosimii,
and the few fissures or folds which the cere-
brum shows do not agree in their arrangement
with the general plan of structure seen in the

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

79

Simile. The brain resembles that of the
Insectivora.

Just as little does the structure of the rest
of the skeleton correspond to that of the
Simiae. The cervical, dorsal, and lumbar
portions of the vertebral column (that is, the
portion in front of the ribs, the portion bearing
the ribs, and the portion behind the ribs) are
those of a mammal climbing on all-fours; the
narrow pelvis connected with a sacrum of
only a few vertebrae does not resemble that
of the Simiae.

Although all the prosimians are climbers,
yet the structure of the limbs exhibits great
diversities. In the aye-aye and the lemurs
the upper -arm is as long as the fore-arm, in
the others somewhat shorter, in the Galago
quite short, and in this last, as in the aye-aye,
it is stout and massive, while it is in other
cases long and cylindrical. The femur or
thigh-bone is always long, often longer than the
tibia; in the fore-arm, radius and ulna display
great varieties of structure. In many forms,
as in Galago and Tarsius, the chief bones of
the ankle (the scaphoid and calcaneum) are
greatly elongated. The digits and nails or
claws exhibit multiform variations. Galeopi-
thecus has sharp claws on all the digits and
neither hallux nor pollex opposable. The
aye-aye has flat nails only on hallux and
pollex, on the other digits claws, and only the
hallux is opposable. In all there is a claw at
least upon the second digit of the hind-foot,
and in Tarsius the toes expand, as in the
tree-frogs, into discs, on which there are
small rudimentary flat nails.

As there is no likeness to the brain of the
Simiae in the smooth brain of the Prosimii,
so also do the other organs of the latter fail
to present the slightest resemblance to the
corresponding organs of the former. None
of the Prosimii has a human-like ear, this
organ being sometimes small, but covered
with hair and pointed, sometimes naked, but
in that case very large and capable of being
rolled up as in the Chiroptera (Bats). The

uterus is bicornuate (two -horned), some-
times even quite divided. Besides the pec-
toral teats, found in all animals which carry
their young clinging to their breast, there
are mostly others also, situated on the abdo-
men or even in the region of the groin.
Usually the whole body, with the exception
of the point of the nose, is covered with
hair; the fur is mostly thick and woolly.
As in the sloths, the vessels of the thigh and
the upper-arm, the arteries and veins in the
region of the groin and axilla break up into
plexuses of small vessels, so called retia
mirabilia, which afterwards unite again into
common trunks.

It would lead us too far if I were now
to go into a number of other details of
anatomical structure, which all serve to show,
on the one hand, the fundamental difference
of the Prosimii from the Simiae, and, on the
other hand, the distinctions prevailing be-
tween the different families of the Prosimii.
Further investigations will without doubt
afford us the means of breaking up this
manifestly unnatural order into its separate
constituents.

But I may draw attention to one other
essential point. Great weight has justly been
attached to the form of the placenta, although
it is going too far to regard it, as some do, as
the most important character for the classifi-
cation of mammals. The Simiae have, like
man, a discoidal placenta, which is some-
times entire, sometimes divided; but the
Prosimii which have thus far been examined
(Propithecus, Lepidilemur, Hapalemur, Chi-
rogaleus) possess a placenta composed of
separate villi, which covers the whole egg
except the apical pole, and the form of
which, campanulate, as it is called, allies
it on the one side to the zonary or belt-
shaped placenta of the Carnivora and on the
other to the diffuse placenta of the Ungulata.
This latter relation especially has great sig-
nificance, as the fossil remains of Prosimii
prove. Unfortunately these investigations

8o

THE PROSIMIANS.

extend so far only to the family of the
lemurs, and we must await future researches
in order to learn whether this character,
which entirely separates the Prosimii from the
Simiae, holds good also with reference to the
other families, which might well be doubted.

All the Prosimii are tropical nocturnal
climbers, in which the general habits of
nocturnal animals are represented in different
degrees. While the true lemurs are to be
seen not infrequently even by day, the aye-
aye, the tarsier, the galagos, and the loris
move about only by night and sleep during
the day, rolled up in dark retreats. Many
are sleepy and sluggish in their movements;
but the power of leaping is exhibited in
different degrees of development in different
forms. This power is seen at its highest
in Tarsius and Galeopithecus, in the latter
of which it is assisted by an expansion of
the skin which stretches between the body
and the limbs, and acts as a parachute.
The structure of the limbs in different forms
harmonizes with these various powers of
movement. While the true lemurs, which
prowl about with a cat-like stealthiness, have
all the limbs of equal length, we see a
gradual shortening of the fore -limbs and
lengthening of the hind-limbs in the aye-aye,
galagos, and tarsier, and in the two latter
the power of leaping is increased by the
fact that the ankle- bones attain an extra-
ordinary length, so that the structure of the
foot approaches in some measure that of
birds. On the other hand, one might be
disposed to say that in Indris and Loris the
arrangement seen in Galeopithecus is in a
certain sense anticipated by the equal length-
ening of both pairs of limbs.

Most of the Prosimii bring forth only one
young one at a birth, and this they carry
about with them for a considerable time after.
Still we are at liberty to presume that in some
species, in which the females have several
pairs of teats, several young ones are born at
once and are tended in holes of trees.

We subdivide these animals according to
their geographical distribution, since a syste-
matic classification appears impracticable.

THE
PROSIMIANS OF MADAGASCAR.

The Lemurs (Lemurida).

The lemurs (Lemurida) are animals which
may attain the size of cats, and which, while
bearing most resemblance in the general form
of body to the Mammalia of other orders,
are distinguished by their dentition. In the
upper jaw there are always two very small
incisors placed vertically and scarcely sepa-
rated by an interval in the middle line, and
these are followed by a large canine often
curved hook -wise or triangular in form.
There next follows a gap or diastema for
the reception of the canine of the lower jaw.
After that come three single -cusped pre-
molars, which, however, through the gradual
development of an internal process, approach
the form of the three molars. These last
have two exterior cusps and a rounded in-
ternal heel or process, so that they resemble
the so-called carnassial teeth of many carni-
vores.— In the lower jaw three very narrow
but long incisors are inserted horizontally
very close to one another on each side.
Then follows the small canine, after which
come two single-cusped premolars, and then
three molars, on each of which there are
four more or less well-marked but not very
sharp tubercles, separated by a transverse

2*1*3*3

furrow. The dental formula is -

3 ' l ' 2 ' 3

= 36 teeth. The last molar is generally
the smallest in both jaws.

The family we are now dealing with is
one rich in genera and species, and one in
which we may recognize, first, in the den-
tition a greater or less tendency to the use
of animal food, and, secondly, in the struc-
ture of the ankle an aptitude for leaping.

THE LEMURS.

81

Thus the so-called
Dwarf Lemur (Mi-
crocebtis myoxinus}
shows such an elon-
gation of the scaph-
oid and calcaneum as
to remind us of the
Galagos of Africa,
and to serve as the
type of a sub-family
known as the Macro-
tarsi. In the Weasel
Lemurs (Lepidile-
mur) the upper in-
cisors are shed very
early without leav-
ing any traces, and
the short canines
and blunt -tubercled
molars indicate, as
in the Hapalemurs,
a more purely vege-
table diet, which, in-
deed, seems to be
proved in the case of the latter genus at
least, since only bamboo leaves have been
found in the stomach.
The greatly enlarged
caecal expansion of the
stomach and the long
csecum in all lemurs
point to the same
kind of nourishment.
Slight variations in
the structure of the
hands and feet, in
the number of the
teats, and so on, have
served as means for
distinguishing the
genera.

All the lemurs have
a rounded skull with
more or less project-
ing muzzle, so that
the names of Fox

Fig. 25.— Ring-tailed Lemur (Lemur catta). page 83.

where the fur is
mostly short. The

Fig. 26. — The Dwarf Lemur (Microcebus myoxinus}. page 83.

(Ring-tailed)1 Lemur
(Lemur catta) and
Cat (Mouse) Lemur
(Chirogaleus) have
been applied to cer-
tain forms on ac-
count of a general
resemblance in ex-
ternal form to the
animals named. The
ears are of medium
size and abundantly
covered with hair,
never naked. The
eyes are rather small
than large for noc-
turnal animals. The
nostrils are at the
end of the muzzle.
The whole face, as
well as the backs of
the hands and feet,
are thinly covered
with hair, but else-
thick, fine, woolly, and
two pairs of limbs, ex-
cept in the Macrotarsi,
are almost equal in
length; the pollex
(thumb) is less devel-
oped than the hallux
(great toe). All the
digits, except the claw-
bearing second digit
of the hind -feet, are
covered with flat or
sometimes slightly
arched nails. The tail
is mostly longer than
the body, and bushy,
like that of a squirrel.
The colour of the

1 The first name is a translation
of that used in German, the one
in parentheses the name used by

Enclish writers. — TR.

11

82

THE PROSIMIANS.

fur is generally grayish-brown, ash-gray, or
grayish-yellow, and lighter on the under side
than on the back. Usually the colour is
adapted to that of the branches of the trees
which they frequent. Still brighter colours,
rusty-red for example, and constant markings
in the form of stripes,
spots, and light and
dark rings on. the tail
also occur. Some
species vary very
much in colour, and
in others the males
and females are so
different that they
have been mistaken
for different species.
All the lemurs live
socially and lead a
nocturnal life, sleep-
ing through the day,
curled up with their
tails over them, either
singly or sometimes
in pairs; and the
smaller species in-
habit either holes in
trees (Chirogaleus),
or artificial nests like
those of the dwarf
lemur (Microcebus).
The females in the
latter genus have,
besides the usual
pectoral teats, a pair

of teats in the abdom-
inal region, which
leads us to infer that they bring up a numer-
ous offspring in their nests. The sleep of
the lemurs is not so sound that they are not
liable to be awakened even by slight noises.
The hind-feet of the true lemurs possess
a remarkable arrangement of muscles and
sinews at the ankle-joint, by means of which,
when the limb is bent, the foot completely
embraces the branch on which the animal

sits. The creature is thus enabled to sit firmly
while sleeping without any muscular exer-
tion. The apparatus continues to act even
for some days after death. A black lemur
which I was dissecting, firmly embraced my
thumb in this way when I bent its leg.

After sunset the

lemurs awake,
range their fur,

Fig. 27. — The Gray or Broad-nosed Lemur (Hapalcmur griseus

ar-
and

then, amid loud cries,
go in search of their
food. Some species
have a very loud
voice, and since they
often practise their
music in companies
of thirty or forty, and
appear mutually to
try to outvie one an-
other, like the Ameri-
can howling mon-
keys, their choruses
are truly excruciating
to the ear. The voice
of the ruffed lemur
(Lemur varius), a
creature only 16 in-
ches in length, is
said to be so like the
growl of a lion as to
inspire terror. After
such concerts the
whole band betakes
itself to search for
food, performing,
meanwhile, the most
audacious feats in
climbing, leaping, and other kinds of gym-
nastics. During their foray they work in-
credible devastation among the fruit-trees;
devastations, however, which are of no serious
consequence to man since they are wrought
only in the inmost depths of the primeval
forests. The young come into the world
already covered with hair, and coloured like
their parents. At first they cling fast between

THE LEMURS.

the legs of the mother, who tends them with
loving care. Wounded lemurs defend them-
selves vigorously with their teeth and claws
against men and dogs. Their flesh is esteemed.

In captivity they seem to be rather stupid,
but they accustom
themselves easily
to society, live on
peaceable terms
with other animals,
take kindly to a
mixed, largely vege-
table diet, are fond
of being stroked,
and gently scratch-
ed with the finger-
tips, but otherwise
excite little interest,
since it is only at
night that they be-
come really lively.
Some species are
now to be found in
all zoological gar-
dens.

The Ring-tailed
Lemur (Letmtr cat-
fa), fig. 25, is a small
elegant animal, with
a body of about 1 6
inches, and a tail of
about 20 inches in
length. The fine
thick woolly fur
varies from gray to
brown -red. Face, Fig. 28.
ears, and throat are
white, the nose is black, and the eyes are
surrounded, by black rings, having the ap-
pearance of spectacles; the bushy tail is
marked with bright coloured rings. This
species lives in the south-west of Madagascar,
and is said to be distinguished by the elegance
of its movements.

The Dwarf Lemur (Microcebiis myoxinus],
fig. 26, somewhat resembles our dormouse,

which it about equals in size. The chief
points of resemblance consist in the long tail
becoming bushy towards the end, and the
long hairs of the moustache. The large
spoon-shaped ears can be folded up. The

ankles, as already
mentioned,are elon-
gated, the toes fur-
nished with small
discs to serve as
means of attach-
ment. Besides the
pectoral teats the
female has two
others situated on
the abdomen. They
build nestsforthem-
selves like squirrels,
and live only in the
densest woods. The
species represented
in fig. 26 is of a
rusty yellow colour
with a white streak
on the nose.

The Gray or
Broad-nosed Lemur
(Hapalemur gris-
eus) or Bokombol
of the natives, fig.
27, is an entirely
nocturnal animal,
which, during the
day, however, has
only a very light
sleep. It grunts
like a little pig,
climbs and jumps nimbly about in the bam-
boo thickets by night, living on the bamboo
leaves. It has short hairy ears almost
hidden in the thick fur of the body, which
is of a gray colour, passing into dark brown
on the back. The tail is very long, and
the dentition is marked by prominent upper
incisors.

As in the preceding genera we know also

The Waluvi or Forked-crowned Mouse Lemur (Chirogaleus furcifer",
page 84.

84

THE PROSIMIANS.

several species of Mouse Lemurs, the best
known of which is the Waluvi of the natives
(Chirogaleus furcifer), fig. 28. Its characters
are a slender body, tail longer than the body,
muzzle and ears pointed, hind-legs longer
than the fore-legs, fur woolly, white. It has

-The Ir

two black stripes running back from the eyes
to the nape of the neck, where they meet,
and whence they are continued backwards in
a single stripe. The members of this species
prefer to live in hollow trees inhabited by
bees; they are excellent leapers, and have a
sharp trumpet-like voice, which they delight
in using by night. The genus is represented
in the Zoological Gardens, London.

The Indris Family (Tndrisidd).

Among the Indrisida are to be found the
giants of the Prosimii. The Indris (Lich-
anotus Indris}, after which the family is
named, reaches a height of about three feet

'_ _. when standing upright.

The dentition deviates
from that of the lemurs
not only in the form of the
teeth, but also in the fact
that in the under-jaw there
are only two horizontal
incisors on each side. In
the molars of both jaws
four tubercles separated
by a transverse furrow can
be plainly distinguished.
The tubercles are more-
over blunt, and soon get
rubbed away by use, which
indicates a decided prefer-
ence for vegetable food.
The dental formula is

2 • i ' 2 • 2

- = 30 teeth.
2 • i • 2 • 3

The head is small, the
muzzle pointed, the ears
thickly covered with hair,
and almost hid in the fur,
the eyes small for a noc-
turnal animal, the neck
short, the body and limbs
slender, the fore-limbs far
shorter than the hind
ones, the thighs of which
are very powerful. The
hands and feet are peculiarly striking. Both
pollex and hallux (thumb and great toe)
stand far apart from the other digits, to
which they can be opposed, and the former
is specially powerful. All the digits, except
these two, are united to one another by a
tight skin, and cannot be separated. In this
way a true climbing foot, almost like that
of the chameleon, is formed, and since hands

fndris).

UNIVERSITY

OF

THE INDRIS FAMILY.

and feet are black on the hairy upper surface
in all species, this creature looks as if it had
boxing-gloves on all its extremities. These
creatures have been divided according to the
length of the tail, apart from minor differences,
into two genera, each con-
taining several species. One
of these comprises the true
Indris (Lic/ianotus] with short
brush-like tail, and to this genus
the form shown in fig. 29 be-
longs. The other consists of
the Veiled Lemurs (Propithe-
cus), with tail almost as long
as the body. The fur is very
thick, soft, almost woolly. Its
colours are mixed white and
black, inclining in places to
dark brown and reddish white.
With respect to the distribu-
tion of the various patches of
colour, there appear to be many
individual and sexual varia-
tions.

Sleeping lightly by day these
creatures jump about in the
trees by night like lively mon-
keys, seeking for their food,
which consists of fruits, insects,
and small birds. They seem
to be the most highly en-
dowed of all the Prosimii, and
the accounts of Sonnerat agree
with the more recent ones of
Pollen in describing them as
gentle, good-natured, andeasily
tamed. Both authorities agree
likewise in stating that the
typical species, the Indris or Babakoto (Lich-
anotus Indris], fig. 29, is trained in parts of
Madagascar to hunt for birds, which they
surprise and seize with great skill. They
eat sitting and holding their plunder in their
hands. Their voice is said by some to re-
semble the crying of a child, by others to
be almost deafening when they are present

in large numbers. In some parts of the
island the Malagasies believe that their ances-
tors after death are changed into animals of
this kind, on which account worship is paid
to them, and the leaves of trees on which

Fig. 30. — The Aye-aye (Chiromys mad,

they have been seen climbing are regarded
as remedies for dangerous diseases. So far
no one has had an opportunity of observing
living Indris in Europe, possibly because the
superstitious ideas cherished about them by
the natives are an obstacle to their expor-
tation. The name Indris is a native name
signifying "man of the woods."

86

THE PROSIMIANS.

The Aye-aye.

The Aye-aye (Chiromys madagascariensis],
fig. 30, one of the rarest animals of the large
African island, is a species so peculiar as to
form by itself an entire family. On a first
hasty glance its large bushy tail and the
whole form of its body cause it to resemble
a squirrel of about the size of a cat. The
head is roundish, the snout but little pro-
truding, the ears large and naked, the eyes
large with round and very contracted pupil,
the nose naked with sickle- shaped nostrils,
the lips provided with long moustache hairs,
the fur, which is mostly of a grayish-brown
colour, mingled with long bristly hairs, which
are specially well developed on the tail.

The adult animal has in each half of the
jaw, above and below, a strong sharp chisel-
shaped incisor, which is covered in front with
a very thick, behind with a very thin layer of
enamel, and being without a root reaches back
in the jaw to beyond the molars, and keeps
constantly growing as it is worn away by use,
a tooth accordingly which in all these respects
resembles that of the rodents. By their
action on one another these incisors get so
ground down that their front part projects
like a chisel while a broad heel or process is
formed behind. After these incisors there
follows, as in the rodents, a large gap or dias-
tema, and then in the upper jaw a small pre-
molar, lying very close to the three molars, while
in the lower jaw this premolar is wanting.
All the molars are simple, round, smcoth-
polished stumps. The dental formula is thus

= 1 8 teeth, and the dentition of

the adult is decidedly rodent in character.

Altogether different is the milk-dentition,
which has been made known by Peters from
the examination of a new-born specimen, as
also of one a little older in which the per-
manent teeth were just on the point of cutting
the gum. From this examination it was found
that in each jaw, both above and below, there

exists a second incisor, which afterwards drops
out, that in the upper jaw there is a canine
which is also ultimately lost, that both above
and below these appear two premolars, which
on the change of teeth disappear entirely
below, while the hinder of the two is replaced
in the upper jaw by a permanent tooth. The
milk-dentition accordingly comprises exactly
the same number of teeth as the permanent,
since in place of the three permanent molars
of the upper jaw there are one incisor, one
canine, and one premolar, and in place of
those of the lower jaw one incisor and two
premolars. The incisors of the milk-dentition
are divided into lobes and notched.

That an animal with a dentition of this
nature cannot be regarded as belonging to
the rodents or gnawing animals, but must
be ranked with the prosimians, is beyond
question. But through the alteration of the
dental system above described the aye-aye
becomes one of the most remarkable animals
in creation. The inherited prosimian den-
tition, indicated in the dental formula of the
milk-teeth, has, by adaptation to an altered
mode of life, become converted into that of a
rodent through the disappearance of char-
acteristic elements.

The hands and feet are formed in a highly
peculiar manner Only the great toes have
a flat nail, all the other toes and all the
fingers having claw-like arched nails. The
great toe is opposable and very powerful, but
the thumb, on the other hand, is small, and
has the same direction as the other fingers.
The fourth finger is inordinately long, the
fourth digit of the feet not so much so; the
middle finger is extraordinarily thin, the first
joint (phalanx) very long and curved, the
small phalanx carrying the claw very short,
so that the finger rather looks like a jointed
awl than a true finger.

The aye-aye is the most persistent clay-
sleeper known. Even a good shaking cannot
rouse the creature from its profound slumbers.
Only one specimen has hitherto been brought

THE AYE-AYE.

alive to Europe, a specimen kept in the
Zoological Gardens of London; and once
when, on hearing it rustling in its straw, I
wished to examine it by lamp-light the
creature instantly rolled itself up into a ball,
putting its head between its legs and wrap-
ping its tail round both. In its native land
the animal sleeps by day in bamboo thickets.
By night, however, it is lively, climbing up
and down on the trees, and leaping actively
and cleverly. It utters a sort of grunting
sound, and seeks its food, which consists of
insects, larvae, and the sweet pith of the sugar
and bamboo canes, by gnawing a hole in the
cane or in trees and then transfixing its prey
with its thin withered-up middle finger, or
scooping out the pith by means of the same.
The London specimen was very lazy, ill-
natured, and apt to bite, but this was un-
questionably due to its long captivity, for
Sonnerat, who discovered the creature in
Madagascar, describes it as good-natured
and confiding.

THE AFRICAN PROSIMIANS.

The Potto Family (Pterodictidd).

The family of the Pottos or the African
Slow Lemurs is composed of only two noc-
turnal animals, with woolly fur, medium-sized
round eyes, and short naked ears, somewhat
pointed snout, slender body, short tail, fore-
and hind-limbs of almost equal length, but
with rather large hands, which have only a
rudimentary nailless forefinger. They have
in each jaw above and below only two in-
cisors, the lower ones placed horizontally,
sharp-edged canines, three single-cusped pre-
molars, and the same number of tolerably
sharp-cusped molars. The dental formula is

2 ' i ' 3 ' 3

3 ' 3

= 36 teeth.

living respectively in Sierra Leone and Old
Calabar, the points of distinction being the
degree of development of the forefinger and
tail. In accordance with this division these
two species are called in scientific nomen-
clature Ptcrodicticus Potto (fig. 31) and
Arctocebus calabarcnsis (fig. 32). Both

Two genera, Pterodicticus and Arctocebus,
have been formed rather unnecessarily out of
the two species, the Potto and Angwantibo,

Fig. 31.— The l'i

species have large thumbs and great toes
covered with a flat nail, flat nails on all the
digits except the second of the hind-feet,
which has a large erect sharp claw. In the
potto the fore-finger, though rudimentary, is
still recognizable, the tail stump -like, the
body slender; while in the plump angwantibo,
which has larger eyes and ears than the
potto, the forefinger has shrunk to a mere
wart, and the tail likewise is so reduced
in size as to be quite hidden in the fur,
which is much more woolly than that of
the potto. On account of the large eyes
and ears this form is sometimes called the
bear-lemur.

So far as our scanty information regarding

88

THE PROSIMIANS.

these creatures reaches, they sleep by day
rolled up in dark hiding-places, but by night
become very active and lively, climbing and
jumping about in search of their food, which
consists chiefly of all sorts of fruits, but partly
also of insects, eggs, and small birds. The
pottos living in the Zoological Gardens in
London caught birds introduced into their
cage very dexterously, tore them instantly
into pieces, and appeared to be very well
satisfied with this sort of food.

The Galagos (Galagonidd).

The members of this family are large-eared,
long-tailed, African forms, constituting only
a single genus (Otolicnus or Galago), but
one which comprises a pretty large number
of species. The largest species (Otolicnus
(Galago] crassicaudatus), the Grand or Thick-
tailed Galago, attains a length of about 1 2
inches exclusive of the tail, which measures
15 or 1 6 inches; most of the other species
are at most 8 inches long. They inhabit the
forests of tropical Africa from Zanzibar to
the Guinea Coast.

A thick soft woolly fur covers the whole
body. The tail is covered with thicker and
stiffer hairs. The ears, nose, hands, and
feet are naked.

On the round almost catlike head, in which
there are large eyes with oval pupils contract-
ing by day to narrow vertical slits, we are at
once struck by the large naked ears with
rims or borders on the inner edge. By night
these ears are expanded in the form of paper-
cornets, but by day and in a state of rest are
rolled up so as entirely to stop the sense of
hearing. The body is small and weak, the
hind-legs much longer and stronger than the
fore-legs. The two chief bones of the ankle,
the calcaneum and the scaphoid, are so
elongated as to measure half the length of
the lower leg; the digits are long and power-
ful, and all except the second digit of the
hind-foot, which carries a claw, provided with

flat nails. The second digit of the fore-foot
(the index, or so to speak, fore-finger) is
shortened, but carries a small nail. Although
the female is said to bring forth only one
young one at a birth, it has three pairs of
teats. The young one is carried about by
the mother clinging to her body.

Fig. 32. — The Angwantibo (Arctocebus calabarcnsis}. page 87.

The dentition indicates rather an animal
than a vegetable diet. In the upper jaw
there are on each side two chisel-shaped
vertical incisors separated by a gap, while in
the lower jaw there are three incisors on
each side placed horizontally. The canines
are sharp, furrowed, and curved ; the adjacent
premolars, both above and below, almost of
the same form and size as the canines. Next
follow in the upper jaw one, in the lower jaw
two single-cusped premolars, and then in the
upper four, in the lower three molars with
three or four pretty sharp cusps, and besides
these, in the largest species, sometimes a

THE LORIS.

89

small fifth molar in the upper jaw. The

dental formula is

= 36.

3 • i • 2 ; 3

These little creatures live in pairs, are
most frequently to be met with in the mimosa
or gum-acacia forests, sleep by day with the
head squeezed in between the front legs and

Fig. 33. — The Common Galago (Ololicnus Galago).

the long tail wrapped round, but by night are
extremely lively and agile while they go
hunting after their food, which consists
essentially of insects, small birds, and mice,
to which sweet fruits and juices are some-
times added as a seasoning. The accounts of
observers are not quite in harmony with one
another; perhaps in consequence of the fact
that the habits of separate species inhabiting
different districts are not quite the same.
While the galagos living in West Africa
are described as persistent day-sleepers and
harmless fruit and gum eaters, it is reported

of their Eastern kindred, on the contrary,
that though they do not take to flight in the
presence of man, they are roused from their
slumbers even by the sound of approaching
footsteps, that they climb and jump about
among the trees with great agility and
vivacity, and that by night they go ravaging
like true beasts of prey among insects and
other animals of small size. In Zanzibar
the Komba (Otolicmts agisymbanus] is said
frequently to make itself intoxicated with
palm wine, so that it falls from the tree and
gets caught. The little creatures are easily
tamed, become confiding and affectionate, and
delight their owners by their lively move-
ments and the exhibition of their powers of
climbing and leaping, while moreover they
repay the attention bestowed upon them by
the assiduity with which by night they hunt
after all sorts of noxious vermin, which are
so abundant in the tropics, especially after
cockroaches and mice. The species repre-
sented in fig. 33, the Galago proper (Oto-
licnus Galago), appears to range over the
whole of tropical Africa, It has a woolly
fur, of a sort of gray fawn-colour on the
back, whitish beneath, and flesh-coloured
ears.

THE EAST INDIAN PROSIMIANS.

The Loris (Lorisida).

The members of this family are forms
with pointed snouts, large eyes, slender
bodies, long thin limbs, short fore-finger, and
rudimentary tail, or no tail at all.

They correspond to the African pottos, and
form only a single genus (Stenops or Loris),
although the plumper species have been
separated by some under the name of Nycti-
cebus. They are small animals, for the
Plump Loris (Stcnops or Nycticebus tardi-
gradiis), the largest species, attains only a
length of 14 inches. In their habits they are

altogether nocturnal, and they live wholly on

12

THE PROSIMIANS.

animal food, especially insects and birds.
The dentition shows the same number of
teeth as that of the galagos, but is dis-
tinguished from the latter by the fact that,
in the upper jaw the outer incisor is much
smaller than the inner, and that there is one
premolar more and one molar less. Dental

2 ' " '3 '3 ~

formula

• 2 -3

3 •
= 36 teeth.

The Slow-paced
Lemur or Slender
Loris (Stenops gra-
cilis), fig. 34, which
inhabits Malabar,
Madras, and Cey-
lon, has a body of
at most 10 inches
in length, a round
head scarcely separ-
ated from the body
by the thick neck,
rounded slightly
hairy ears, and large
round owl-like eyes,
so near one another
that the nose, which
is pointed in such
a manner as to
give the creature a
rather impudent
look, forms only a narrow partition between
them. The body is small and weak, the
abdomen contracted, the limbs long and thin,
the hind ones much longer than the fore ones,
the hands and feet long and narrow, the
thumbs and great toes short, but powerful
and far apart, the second digit of the hand
(the fore-finger) short, that of the foot armed
with a claw.

The little animals sleep by day in a very
singular position, rolled up into a ball, with
their head between the hind-legs, often hang-
ing like sloths to a branch of a tree. After
sunset they wake up, set themselves to rights,
and proceed slowly and deliberately with

Fig. 34.— The Slow-paced Lemur or Slender Ix)ris (Stenops gracilis).

inaudible steps after their plunder. They
climb cleverly, but with great caution, always
testing with the hand or foot before they take
hold or pass from one branch to another.
The fingers and toes, which are provided
with flat nails, have rather broad cushions
below, which appear to cling to foreign sur-
faces. . It appears
to be quite indif-
ferent to the loris
whether they move
about on the bran-
ches or suspended
from them. Their
eyes gleam brightly
in the dark. When
a loris catches sight
of its prey, it first
looks long and
steadfastly at it,
then crawls slowly
up, and finally, with
a sudden leap, seizes
it with its hand, and
if it is a bird, bites
through its head in
order to regale itself
on the brain, which
forms its favourite
food. Like all noc-
turnal animals,these
also are accused by the natives of all sorts of
misdeeds, and are tortured to death in every
imaginable way. The plump loris, abundant
both in the island of Sumatra and on the
mainland, is, indeed, much larger and more
powerfully built than the previous species,
but appears to be even plumper than it is on
account of its thicker fur. In captivity they
appear to be stupid, lazy, tedious creatures.

The following interesting account of a slow-
paced lemur kept by Sir William Jones, the Orien-
talist, in India, is contained in the fourth volume
of the Asiatic Rescarclics: —

" In his manners he was, for the most part, gentle,
except in the cold season, when his temper seemed

THE LORIS.

wholly changed; and his Creator, who made him
so sensible of cold, to which he must often have
been exposed even in his native forests, gave him,
probably for that reason, his thick fur, which we
rarely see on animals in these tropical climates.
To me, who not only constantly fed him, but
bathed him twice a
week in water ac-
commodated to the
seasons, and whom he
clearly distinguished
from others, he was
at all times grateful,
but, when I disturbed
him in winter, he was
usually indignant, and
seemed to reproach
me with the uneasi-
ness which he felt,
though no possible
precautions had been
omitted to keep him
in a proper degree of
warmth. At all times
he was pleased with
being stroked on the
head and throat, and
frequently suffered
me to touch his ex-
tremely sharp teeth ;
but at all times his
temper was quick,
and, when he was un-
seasonably disturbed,
he expressed a little
resentment by an ob-
scure murmur, like
that of a squirrel, or
a greater degree of
displeasure by a pee-
vish cry, especially in winter, when he was often
as fierce, on being much importuned, as any beast
of the woods. From half an hour after sunrise to
half an hour before sunset he slept without inter-
mission, rolled up like a hedgehog; and, as soon as
he awoke, he began to prepare himself for the
labours of his approaching day, licking and dressing
himself like a cat, an operation which the flexibility
of his neck and limbs enabled him to perform very
completely; he was then ready for a slight break-
fast, after which he commonly took a short nap,
but, when the sun was quite set, he recovered all

Fig. 35. — The Spectre-tarsier (Tarsias spectrum}, page 92

his vivacity. His ordinary food was the sweet fruit
of this country, plantains always, and mangos during
the season, but he refused peaches, and was not fond
of mulberries, or even of guaiavas; milk he lapped
eagerly, but was contented with plain water. In
general he was not voracious, but never satiated with
_ , i grasshoppers, and

passed the whole
night, while the hot
season lasted, in prow-
ling for them. When
a grasshopper or any
insect alighted within
his reach, his eyes,
which he fixed on his
prey, glowed with un-
common fire; and,
having drawn himself
back to spring on it
with greater force, he
seized the victim with
both his fore-paws, but
held it in one of them
while he devoured it.
For other purposes,
and sometimes even
for that of holding his
food, he used all his
paws indifferently as
hands, and frequently
grasped with one of
them the higher part
of his ample cage,
while his three others
were severally en-
gaged at the bottom
of it; and in the even-
ing he usually stood
erect for many min-
utes, playing on the
wires with his fingers, and rapidly moving his body
from side to side, as if he had found the utility of
exercise in his unnatural state of confinement. A
little before daybreak, when my early hours gave me
frequent opportunities of observing him, he seemed
to solicit my attention, and if I presented my finger
to him he licked or nibbled it with great gentleness,
but eagerly took fruit when I offered it, though he
seldom ate much at his morning repast. When the
day brought back his night, his eyes lost their lustre
and strength, and he composed himself for a slum-
ber of ten or eleven hours. . . .

THE PROSIMIANS.

My little friend was, on the whole, very engag-
ing; and, when he was found lifeless in the same
posture in which he would naturally have slept, I
consoled myself with believing that he had died
without pain, and lived with as much pleasure as
he could have enjoyed in a state of captivity."

The Spectre-tarsier.

This creature, known to naturalists as Tar-
sins spectrum (fig. 35), ranges from Sumatra,
Java, and Borneo to Celebes and the Philip-
pines, and is the sole species of a very pecu-
liar genus. It is a small animal (body about
6, tail about 10 inches long), resembling the
jumping mouse or jerboa in general form,
with large round eyes, short fore-feet, long
jumping legs, and very long tufted tail.

This little creature might be considered
as a one-sided development of the type of the
loris. The head and especially the skull
have in fact much resemblance to those of
the latter; only the circular, yellow, or light
brown eyes, gleaming by night as they do,
are so enormous, that according to the ex-
pression of one observer, the head, sitting
upon the short thick neck, appears like a
blind lantern, capable of being turned by a
ball-and-socket joint in all directions. The
body is round, compact, covered to the wrist
and ankle with fine thick woolly fur of a
brownish -gray colour, but lighter on the
under side. The muzzle is broad, the small
nose not prominent, the ears of moderate
size, but yet provided with internal raised
borders. The fore-limbs are very short, the
hands long, the thumb slightly developed
and not opposable, the middle finger the
longest, all furnished with flat nails, which
are a little arched in the middle. The length
of the legs is mainly due to the almost naked,
cylindrical, fleshless, tarsal region of the foot,
which is formed out of the elongated ankle-
bones known as the scaphoid and calcaneum.
The foot has very long spread-out toes.
The great toe is large and powerful, and it,
as well as the fourth and fifth toes, carry flat

nails, while the second and third toes have
short erect claws. All the digits both of the
fore and hind feet have on the under side
callous round cushions, by means of which the
creature appears to adhere firmly to foreign
surfaces like the tree-frog. The tail, as in
the jerboas, is excessively long, cylindrical
in shape, and adorned at the end with a kind
of tuft. It serves as a support in sitting and
as a rudder in leaping.

The dentition is a purely insectivorous one.
In the upper jaw incisors, canines, and pre-
molars have the same sharp somewhat hook-
like form. The innermost incisor is the most
prominent, the second is smaller, the canine
again larger, the first premolar very small,
the second larger, the third two-cusped, the
molars broader than long with sharp cusps
on the outer edge. In the lower jaw the
canine is the largest tooth, and the incisors
are small but vertically placed. Dental

formula

• -> • -i

= 34 teeth.

i '3 ' 3

Nocturnal in their habits, though even by
day they never sleep very soundly, these
little creatures, which live in pairs in the
densest parts of bamboo thickets, are regarded
by the natives with dread and abhorrence.
They have every kind of evil attributed
to them. By day they are sulky and ill-
humoured and sleep a great deal, but by
night they are lively and amuse themselves
with jumping, going noiselessly after their
prey, which consists solely of insects, crabs,
and small lizards. They catch their booty
with the hands while jumping, and appear to
be very voracious. Only one young one is
brought forth at a birth, and it comes into
the world already covered with hair; even on
the second day it begins to climb, but as a
rule it clings to the legs of its mother, which
for a long time carries it about with it, often
holding it in its mouth as cats do. In
captivity the creature becomes confiding and
affectionate, but no one has yet succeeded
in bringing a living specimen to Europe.

THE COLUGOS.

93

The Colugos (Gakofitheddd).

The Colugos, flying-lemurs or flying-cats,
forming the genus Galeopithecus,1 and the
family of the Galeopithecida are animals
which have somewhat of the appearance of
gigantic bats. The best-known form has a
body of about 12 inches in length, and
a tail of about 8 inches in length. At-
tached to the sides of the body and the
tail is a hair-clad fold of skin, called the
patagium, which, when expanded, meas-
ures about 1 6 inches across before and
behind. The head is long and pointed,
the ears are pretty large, almost naked,
somewhat rounded, the eyes prominent,
the nostrils at the point of the snout
but placed sidewards, and separated by
a broad partition. The neck is short,
the body slender, the tail thin and long.
The patagium runs from the sides of the
neck to the wrist in almost a straight
line, then descends in a curve to the
ankle, and from thence stretches to the
point of the incurved tail in such a
manner that this portion forms a tri-
angular lobe. The skin, which is every-
where covered with thick white hair,
connects also the digits of both fore and
hind limbs as far as the roots of the
sharp, cutting curved claws, but these
digits, unlike those of the bats, are
short. There is no opposable thumb or
great toe.

One would link the flying-lemurs with the
flying-foxes (Pteropus), if the dentition and
the form of the skeleton, especially of the
digits, were not different. In the upper jaw
there is in the former a wide median gap or
diastema, then on each side a quite small
incisor placed very close to the next tooth
beyond, then two sharp-pointed triangular
teeth, the first of which, the larger of the two,

1 The genus Galeopithecus is now usually included among the
Insectivora, to which order it was first referred by Dr. Peters of
Berlin, but according to Prof. Parker it stands in fact quite isolated,
having no near relations whatever. — TR.

is the canine, while the second is a premolar.
After these there follow five sharp-pointed
teeth, the cusps of which are in two rows.
In the lower jaw there are three broad
incisors divided into strips like the teeth of
a comb, the two inner of which are placed
horizontally, then again two sharp-pointed

Fig. 36. — The Colugo or Flying-cat (Galeopithecus volilans). page 94.

triangular teeth, the first the canine, the second
a premolar, after which come another pre-
molar, one with several cusps, and four
molars which get worn away by use. It is
the dentition of an insect-eater, which has
adapted itself also to a vegetable diet. The

dental formula is

i ' i

5

= 36 teeth.

3 • i • 2 • 4

The orbits do not form a complete bony ring
as in the other Prosimii, but have a wide gap
behind. The lower jaw is heavy and massive ;
the fore-arm very long and so also the fore-
leg.

The flying-lemurs sleep by day hanging

94

THE PROSIMIANS.

head downwards by the hind feet, and
enveloped in their patagium as in a mantle.
They live indeed socially, but not in such
large companies as the flying-foxes. They
awaken at dusk and begin clambering about
in the trees in search of their food, which
consists largely of insects, larvae, eggs, and
small animals, but partly also perhaps of juicy
fruits and leaves. They cannot exactly fly;
but the patagium serves as a sort of parachute,
with the aid of which they are able to make
astonishing leaps from one tree to another.
The ordinary colugo (Galeopithccus volitans)
is represented in fig. 36. Whether several
species can be distinguished is still doubtful.
They inhabit the large Sunda Islands and
extend as far as the Philippines, and are met
with also on the mainland, especially in Siam
and Cochin-China. They are, however, com-
paratively rare and not often observed.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND
DESCENT OF THE PROSIMIANS.

The geographical distribution, as well as
the origin of the Prosimii, present some
extremely interesting problems, which indeed
have not yet been completely solved.

All the Prosimii now living belong ex-
clusively to the tropical and subtropical parts
of the Old World, and indeed to three
separate regions, which are sharply marked
off from one another, having no genera nor
even families in common. The East Indies
and especially the Sunda Islands form the
home of the loris, tarsiers, and flying-lemurs;
West Africa is inhabited by the potto and
angwantibo, the whole of Africa by the
galagos; all the others, that is to say, all the
numerous forms of indris and true lemurs, as
well as the aye-aye, are confined to Mada-
gascar.

This distribution may be held to point first
of all to the fact, that Madagascar forms a
zoological province altogether distinct from

the continents, showing a greater amount of
peculiarity than many now isolated regions,
a peculiarity which, moreover, must date from
the earlier Tertiary times, since it is likewise
manifested in relation to other mammals.
But further, one cannot help recognizing that
the very varied forms of Prosimii must belong
to several separate stocks which have been
distinguished from one another since the
beginning of the Tertiary period. The East
Indian and West African types cannot be
derived from the same stock as those of
Madagascar, and all speculations as to the
former existence of a continent, now largely
submerged, but which, when it did exist, ex-
tended from the East Indies to Madagascar
and the mainland of Africa, perhaps even to
America, having the large East African island
as its centre, — all speculations about this so-
called Lemuria, from which the Prosimii, and
then, as their descendants, the monkeys and
the human race were supposed to have been
distributed over the earth, at once fall to the
ground, in face of the simple fact that the
various types of the locally separate Prosimii
can only by violence be united into one
group.

Till a few years ago no fossil Prosimii
were known; but recently their remains have
been found in the Upper Eocene of France
(Quercy), and in considerable numbers in
the Lower Eocene of Wyoming in North
America. But here we must probably dis-
tinguish two sets of discoveries.

The sole incontestable European prosimian
has been found in the phosphorites of Quercy
in Western France. It is so closely allied to
the West African potto by the structure of
its head and teeth that it can scarcely be held
to form a separate genus. The African
centre accordingly then lay more to the north.
To this form, of which we possess the entire
skull, the name of Necrolemur has been
given.

But in addition to this, there have been
found in the gypsum of Montmartre and in

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND DESCENT.

95

other places remains of small animals, in some
cases as large as foxes, which were formerly
referred, under the name of Adapis, to the
Ungulata, but which, on careful examination,
exhibit such close affinities to the Prosimii
that a controversy is still carried on between
the finders as to whether they must be
referred to the one group or the other.
These remains include some almost entire
skulls ; and this uncertainty at any rate shows
that we have here to deal with transitional
forms, whose relations are all the more diffi-
cult to determine since they occur along with
the remains of genuine Prosimii, and accor-
dingly cannot be the ancestors of the latter.

In North America the case is the same.
Wyoming has yielded a large number of such
transitional forms, which have been called
Limnotherida; but besides these a small
number of other forms, Lemuravida, which
show much closer affinities to the lemurs.

Neither in the Old nor the New World
have there yet been found in later strata
any remains which can be shown to belong
to the Prosimii. Both the transitional forms
and the true Prosimii disappear with the
Eocene, and in America both sets have quite
died out, while in the Old World the true
prosimian type has been continued to the
present age. We must await the results of
further investigations before we can decide
the question of the true relations of the
transitional forms, and, in particular, we must
ascertain the structure of the limbs of these
forms in order to determine whether they
were analogous to those of the present
Prosimii or to those of the Ungulates.

Combining the results of palseontological,
geographical, and zoological investigation we
can only say that the variously formed order
of the Prosimii must have had also a varied
origin, probably from marsupials, to which
many features of their organization point, and
that certain forms belonging to the order are
among the oldest Tertiary mammals known.
It is, at any rate, in the highest degree re-
markable that types, which were so abun-
dantly represented in North America in early
Tertiary times, have quite died out there.

If this high antiquity of the Prosimii,
reaching back almost to the oldest strata from
which we have obtained any placental mam-
mals, has been demonstrated by palaeonto-
logical discoveries, this fact affords at the
same time a proof, that the formation of
hands, that is, of opposable thumbs or great
toes, does not represent, as was formerly be-
lieved, a further development of the foot,
but must rather be regarded as a more or
less primitive structure.

But lastly, we may conclude from these
facts that no very close affinity can be de-
monstrated to subsist between the Prosimii
and the Simise, and hence between them and
man. With the exception of the opposable
first digits, which are, indeed, as we have
seen, a widely distributed common feature,
the Prosimii have not a single anatomical
character in common with the apes and
monkeys. The dentition, the most constant
of all anatomical characters, associates them
with the Insectivora; to include them among
the ancestors of man is to defy all the
principles of scientific investigation.

THE BATS

(CHIROPTERA).

Distinguished by the possession of wings formed by a membrane attached to the body, and commonly also to the
hind-limbs and tail, and capable of being extended by the remarkably elongated digits of the fore-limbs;
complete dentition; two pectoral mammae; discoidal placenta.

The body in the bats is in general thick-
set and compact, the neck short, the skull
rather small than large, somewhat elongated.
Owing to the remarkable development of
various appendages of the skin, however,
as well as to the broad muzzle, the head
in the living animal appears to be rather
large. The eyes depart from the general
rule for nocturnal animals in being rather
small, sometimes even very small; the ears
are always large, often peculiarly devel-
oped; the nose is sometimes naked, and
situated at the end of the snout, sometimes
adorned in a singular manner with flaps of
skin supported by cartilage.

The brain -case is mostly rounded, and
frequently divided from the facial region by
a marked constriction. The orbit is mostly
continuous with the temporal fossa or de-
pression at the temple, and it is only rarely
bounded by a narrow external bony ring.
The structure of the premaxilla is often very
peculiar. Only in rare cases do the two pre-
maxillary bones meet in the middle; for the
most part they are separated by a wide in-
terval, so that the upper incisors are placed
quite to the side, and often they are reduced
to small bony scales which scarcely cut the
gums.

The dentition belongs to the insectivorous

type, and even that of the flying-foxes, which
we leave out of account in the meantime, can
be derived therefrom. All the other bats
may, without hesitation, be designated as
flying Insectivora.

The number of the teeth varies in an ex-
traordinary manner, from 24 to 38 for the
total, but the numbers 32, 34, and 30 are
those by which the total is most frequently
represented. Twenty-three of the sixty-seven
genera that have been distinguished, that is,
more than one-third of the whole, have 32
teeth. Besides the original deviations, espe-
cially in the number of the molars, the dis-
tinctions chiefly depend upon this, that in
many genera many incisors and premolars
drop out very early, or are not replaced at
the change of teeth. The incisors are mostly
very small, in the upper jaw placed, as we
have seen, to the side, and there also pecu-
liarly apt to disappear. The canines, which
are always present, are large, recurved, and
provided with cutting edges, in many genera,
as notably in the vampyres, very large and
prominent ; the premolars sharp and conical ;
the molars furnished with two or three pointed
cusps, which are so arranged as to fit closely
into one another, so that they do not get
ground away by use, but are kept always
sharp. The dentition is thus specially adapted

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

97

to hold fast and transfix the prey. The milk
dentition is very different from the permanent.
The teeth are furnished with backwardly
directed hooked points. — But we must not
here try to enter on details.

The ear is always large, the flap mostly
naked, and frequently, as in our long-eared
bat (Plecotus auritus), developed to such an
extent as to equal in length one-third of the
body, and to be capable of being rolled up
as in the galagos. The inner ear-covering
(tragus) is always very large, often tongue-
or spoon-shaped, and on it, as on the external
flap, there are always borders and projections
on the inner side which afford constant
characters to distinguish species.

The structure of the wings deserves a more
thorough examination. The breast-bone or
sternum, to which the strong muscles for
effecting the downward stroke of the wings
are attached, is large, and is furnished with
a broad pre-sternum or manubrium, and a
long vertical longitudinal keel, which reminds
us of the structure seen in birds. The collar-
bones, which afford a support for the joint of
the fore -limb, are large and strong ; the
humerus, or bone of the upper arm, is the
largest and strongest bone in the whole body.
The fore-arm is likewise very much elongated,
but consists solely of the ulna, the radius being
rudimentary. The wrist is very short, and
is formed out of only a few small bones; all
the five bones of the middle hand, or what
anatomists call the metacarpal region, are
present, but that of the first digit is short and
thick, those of all the others long and thin.
The first digit remains more or less free, is
short and thick, and carries a large sharp
sickle-shaped claw. The other digits are
mostly without nails, and usually composed
of two remarkably long and thin joints (pha-
langes). In most of the flying-foxes (Pteropus)
the second digit is usually armed with a small
claw. " By means of these digits the wings
are spread out or folded up, just as the cover
of an umbrella is by means of. the ribs. The

membrane forming the wings begins as a
fold of the skin at the neck, envelops the
fore-limbs and their digits, and, getting
attached to the sides of the body, is continued
backwards to the hind-limbs, which, for the
most part, it includes down to the ankle-
bones, and then passes to the tail, which is
sometimes left entirely free, sometimes just
fringed with the membrane, and sometimes
entirely inclosed by it.

This membrane, apart from that portion of
it which is comprised between the elongated
digits, repeats the structure of such parachutes
as are met with in the flying-lemur, the flying-
squirrel, and the marsupials, all outgrowths
from lateral folds which occur in many em-
bryos. The portion belonging to the hand,
moreover, is likewise nothing else than the
excessive development of a primitive em-
bryonic condition. In all mammals hands
and feet are at first little oar-shaped processes,
within which the growing fingers lie embedded
in the tissue, and connected to their ex-
tremities by skin. In mammals possessing
fins or flippers (seals, whales, &c.) this em-
bryonic condition persists, but in most mam-
mals the digits grow out beyond the connect-
ing skin, which, however, often remains to a
greater or less extent as a web between the
toes (otters, beavers). In the bats the digits
grow to an extraordinary length, and carry
along with them the connecting membrane,
which thus persists as part of an organ of
flight. The wing of the bats is thus a spe-
cialized form of the fin or the embryonic limb,
and although it is a powerful organ of flight,
yet it has no resemblance in structure to the
bird's wing, which has arisen from quite
different modifications.

The rapidity and ease of flight depend
upon the length and sharpness of the wings,
and this latter property is determined by the
proportion of the fifth to the third or middle
digit. Among our native bats the noctule
( Vesperitgo noctula) and the long-winged bat
(Miniopteriis Schreiberi) are in no way in-

98

THE BATS.

ferior to swallows in rapidity and strength
of wing, or in the power of sudden turning,
and like these, rise high in the air to fight
even with storms. In them the ratio of the
length of the fifth to that of the middle digit
is respectively 10 : 18 and 10 : 17, while in
the rather helpless horse- shoe bats (RMno-
lophus), which keep fluttering about in the
lower regions of the atmosphere, and in the
water-bats ( Vespcrtilio dasycnema and others)
the proportion is only 10 : 12.

The flying membrane itself is always very
thin, composed of two delicate layers of skin,
between which run blood-vessels, elastic fibres,
and a very remarkable nervous tissue. To
the naked eye it appears perfectly hairless,
while the rest of the body is thickly covered
with hair, but it has, in fact, a large number
of delicate little hairs scattered over it, which,
as is proved by the little bundles of nerves at
their roots, act as highly sensitive end-organs
of touch.

The feet are constructed on the normal
type, always short and powerful, the five toes
quite free, and armed with strong sickle-
shaped claws. When resting, the bats either
hang by the feet with the head downwards or
by the clawed thumb of the fore-limb. At
the ankle there is usually developed a spur
which is directed inwards, and is always
very thin, but often, at the same time, re-
markably long, and this spur serves to sup-
port the expanded membrane between the
feet and tail.

Of the senses, that of touch is the most
highly developed. Bats which have had
their eyes sealed, or even picked out, fly
about amidst outstretched threads and other
obstacles without striking against them with
as much ease and security as if they could
see. In many species the small eyes are so
hidden amongst the hair that keen vision is
certainly impossible, and yet they can catch
flying insects. Without doubt they are made
acquainted with the presence of external ob-
jects by the sense of touch even before they

come in actual contact with them. This sense
is developed in all the naked parts — ears,
nose, and flying membrane.

If the sense of sight is weak, that of smell
must be regarded as almost equal to zero.
Bats which are accustomed to milk and flesh
are unable to find out these articles by the
nose, and if a high development of this sense
has been inferred from the size of the nasal
appendages, that inference was based on
error, for no animal smells with the outer
nose, which is capable of receiving only im-
pressions of touch:

Hearing, on the other hand, is extra-
ordinarily keen and delicate, and, unquestion-
ably, bats can hear tones which are inaudible
to our ears. This is proved even by the voice
of most of the native species; its pitch is so
high that many persons cannot hear it at all,
while the bat perceives it at great distances,
and by means of it attracts and warns its
fellows. Recently it has been rendered very
probable that many insects utter sounds which
man cannot hear, but which are, without
doubt, audible to the bat. Many insects
have a flight quite inaudible to man, by
which, nevertheless, a bat is even awakened
out of sleep.

The mental endowments of the bats can
only be reckoned at a very low level. The
brain has no convolutions, as is usually the
case with small animals. The hemispheres
of the large brain (the cerebrum) neither
cover the mid-brain nor the cerebellum, and
are accordingly only very slightly developed.
Yet their capacities are adapted to the con-
ditions of their existence. They show what
seems like great ingenuity in selecting their
retreats; they know their hunting-ground, if
we may so speak, as accurately as possible.
Some species can be tamed to a certain ex-
tent.

If their mode of life and their qualities are
not accurately known, that is mainly because
they are all nocturnal animals, and our Euro-
pean species, which are still those best known

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

99

in these respects, hibernate. In tropical
countries they are active all the year round.

For their winter retreats the bats seek out
warm dark recesses sheltered from the wind,
and in these they are often found together in
enormous swarms. Caves, grottoes, clefts in
the rocks, hollow trees, retired corners in
buildings, unused chimneys, the spaces be-
neath roofs, and so forth are the places
where they are chiefly to be found during
this period of the year. Among buildings
they naturally prefer old disused buildings
where people seldom come. Such winter-
quarters are often sought out by bats from
distant parts all round. The different species
mostly hang themselves up separately. The
hardier forms, which have less dread of the
cold, fly out earlier in the spring, and return
later in the autumn, and place themselves
nearer the entrances to the caves, while the
other species retire further in. Before the
beginning of the winter-sleep copious evacua-
tions take place, and then the animals hang
themselves up by the claws of the hind-feet
with the head downward, and more or less
enveloped by the wings. This occupation
of the winter-quarters is not effected without
a good deal of quarrelling, crying, and even
biting. Frequently they even hang on by
one another. As in all hibernating animals,
the temperature gradually sinks, and the
body, at first fat, becomes thin; the beats of
the heart and the movements of respiration
become less frequent, and consciousness is
often lost to such an extent that the animals
cannot be awakened except by warmth. Yet
in this respect different species are very
different from one another. Some have a
comparatively light sleep, waking up again
when there is but a slight rise of temperature,
and sometimes even flying out, or changing
their position, not without quarrelling. Others
again sleep much more profoundly. In such
winter-quarters the excrement of bats, in
which are always to be found undigested re-
mains of insects, legs, carapaces, wing-covers,

&c., is heaped up to the depth of a foot or
more, so that the accumulation can be em-
ployed as guano. During the hibernation
the functions of the body, in particular the
breathing, take place at the expense of the
stored-up fat.

Frequently these winter-quarters are used
by the bats as retreats by day, even during
their period of activity in summer; but, for the
most part, other summer-quarters are sought
out, often at a great distance from those oc-
cupied during the winter, and then they are
mostly occupied only by individuals of the
same sex. Thus I once examined at Geneva
retreats of the early -flying noctule, which
were inhabited only by males, with only a
female here and there, and which during the
winter regularly stood empty. In taking off
the roof of a six -storied house, to the space
beneath which access could be obtained by
only a single hole, from which the bats could
be seen regularly flying out, so that there
could be no difficulty in keeping all the oc-
cupants prisoners, seventy males were found
with only two females. While in summer the
noctule hunts about in the town of Geneva,
and makes its retreats in corners about houses,
one would seek for it there in vain in winter,
since it then prefers hollow trees.

There is much that is peculiar in the mode
of reproduction of these animals. The
uterus is always partially divided, sometimes
divided almost throughout its length, but, for
the most part, as in birds, though not to the
same extent as in them, the ovary and the
horn or prolongation of the uterus on one
side are imperfectly developed, so that the
internal organs are not symmetrical. Most
species bring forth only one young one at a
time, but many frequently two. At the time
of giving birth to her young the female sus-
pends herself by the claws of the thumbs,
and bending the tail inwards forms a sort of
sack with the lower portion of the flying
membrane, and into this drops her young.
In the case of the horseshoe-bat the young

IOO

THE BATS.

one for a day or so clings on to two rudi-
mentary eminences at the opening of the
female pudenda, but in other species it at
once crawls up to the two pectoral teats.
The ovum and the embryo begin to develop
in spring, and our species mostly usher their
young into the world from the end of May to
the middle of June. For a long period the
young are carried about by the mother. The
union of the sexes takes place in autumn |
before the winter-sleep, at least, in the case
of adult bats — a fact now definitely ascertained.
Only a certain number of young ones, which
in the autumn had not reached the period
of puberty, unite in spring; all the old ones
unite in autumn. The semen remains in the
uterus of the female in a state fit to fertilize
the ovum all through the winter, and not till
spring does the ovum become liberated from
the ovary, and get impregnated, so that the
embryo may begin to develop. Similar
processes are observed in many other mam-
mals, as, for example, in the roebuck.

The food of our bats while living in a state
of freedom consists exclusively of insects and
spiders, which they sometimes catch in flight,
sometimes by dexterously snapping them up
from the spots on which they are resting,
while themselves flying. The great army of
the mostly noxious moths or nocturnal Lepi-
doptera forms the bulk of their food, and
hence bats must be regarded as remarkably
useful creatures to man. They perform
during the darkness the same service as is
performed by the swallows by day, a service
but imperfectly rendered by the small number
of goatsuckers and small owls, which also
destroy nocturnal flying insects. Bats ought,
for that reason, to enjoy the same respect
and protection as the swallows. Like all
insect-eaters the bats are extremely voracious,
being active during almost the entire night
with only short intervals of rest; but their
pursuit of insects and other prey is carried
on chiefly just after sunset and before sunrise.
A pause takes place about midnight. Ac-

cording to their powers of flight they take
short rests between their different forays, or
go on flying for hours together like swallows.
Some pretend to have observed, that in all
the rapid turns of their chase, which, how-
ever, is always carried on within a limited
range, the bats go to work in a very dainty
particular manner, and likewise exhibit much
prudence. They are said, for example, to
consume only the bodies of moths, allowing
the wings to drop, and it is even related that
a bat has spared a female in order to catch
one after another the males who swarmed
round her. It may be that the female crouched
in a fissure in the bark of a tree in such a
manner that the bat could not get at her.
Many a fable is invented regarding the animal
kingdom!

But though in a state of freedom it has
never been observed that the native bats
make use of any other food than that men-
tioned; in captivity it has sometimes happened
that one has attacked the other, sucked out
its blood, and then consumed it. Similar
things have been observed in other animals
also, otherwise very peaceable in their habits.
On the other hand, it is a well-established
fact that bloodthirsty bats do live in tropical
countries. In hot regions their food is cer-
tainly more varied, and consists, on the one
hand, of fruits, on the other hand of the
blood of warm-blooded animals, especially
birds. Bacon, and dead things generally,
they never touch unless they have been
trained to it.

The enemies of the bats are, above all, the
owls, and next after these, such animals as
seek them out in their hiding-places — martens,
weasels, rats, and even mice. But, for the
most part, they hang themselves up in places
where climbing animals cannot reach.

The fur is mostly fine and thick. The
hairs have a peculiar structure by which they
can be recognized with certainty under the
microscope. Wingless insects and mites
usually swarm as parasites on this fur and

FLYING-FOXES.

101

even on the flying membrane. The colour
of the fur is always dark, sometimes inclining
more to gray, sometimes to black, sometimes
to brown or fawn-colour, almost always uni-
form. Spotted or striped bats are very few
indeed.

The number of genera is very large, above
60; that of the species which have been so
far distinguished, upwards of 3OO.1 They are
distributed over the whole earth, wherever
there is a sufficiency of insects, even reaching
as far as the snowy regions round the poles
and high up in the mountains. The grouping
of the species in genera, and of genera in
families, is extremely difficult in consequence
of the varied nature of the dentition and the
frequently unimportant character of the other
differences; and on that account we have
confined ourselves principally to our native
European forms, taking into consideration
only a few very peculiar forms belonging to
more distant regions.

First of all, the order may be divided into
two groups — the Fruit-eating Bats (Carpo-
phaga or Frugivora) and the Insect-eating
Bats (Entomophaga). The former is not
numerous, being made up of the single family
of the flying -foxes (Pteropida). The other
group comprises all the rest.

THE FRUIT-EATING BATS

(CARPOPHAGA).

Flying-foxes (Pteropida).

With flattened masticating molars, and mostly with a clawed
second digit on the fore-limb ; snout long.

Natives of the Old World, Australia, and
the South Sea Islands, these large bats, the
largest species of which, the kalong, spans
with outstretched wings a width of five feet,
are mainly distinguished by their dentition,
partly also by the structure of their wings;
but with these distinctions are associated

1 Mr. G. E. Dobson in his treatise on the Chiroptera describes
400 species distributed among 80 genera.

many other anatomical and embryological
peculiarities.

The skull is long, the brain -case pear-
shaped, separated from the facial region by a
marked constriction, the orbits scarcely sepa-
rated from the temporal fossae or depressions
at the temples, the snout projecting, the nose
formed in the usual manner. The premaxilla
is well developed, closed in the form of a bow
under the cavity of the nose, and carries two
small vertically placed incisors. There then
follows a large sharp mostly recurved canine,
which is immediately succeeded by a very
small recurved premolar, which, however,
frequently drops out or remains undeveloped.
There next comes an interval without teeth,
and then three molars, which decrease in size
from before backwards; and finally a small
tubercled tooth placed somewhat to the inside
out of the series. In the lower jaw incisors
and canines are similar, the premolar some-
what larger, and instead of three there are
four molars, and behind these again the small
tubercled tooth. The dental formula is thus

— = ?A. The form of the molars is
2 • i • i • 5

extremely peculiar in both jaws. In the
young animal they consist of two lateral
triangular plates of enamel, which meet to-
gether, and are elevated at the middle and at
both ends of the tooth. The enamel plates
are separated from each other by a deep
groove, and the teeth so formed present a
distant resemblance to the molars of many
ruminants. Seen from the side, these teeth
appear to have only one triangular cusp, for
the outer cusp is higher than the inner. In
the adult animal the crowns of the teeth get
so worn away that they exhibit a rounded
grinding surface sloping down inwards. — It
is thus not an original pure insectivorous
dentition which the flying-foxes possess; the
sharp canines and molar cusps contradict that ;
but it becomes converted into a dentition of
that kind by use, and accordingly it may be
surmised that the young flying-foxes feed on

IO2

THE BATS.

insects and small animals, and only later
adopt a vegetable diet.

As in all bats, the strong thumb is quite
free from the flying membrane, and is armed
with a sickle-shaped claw; but, unlike other
members of the order, the flying- fox has

'S- 37' — The Kalong (Pteropiis cdulis).

also the second digit imperfectly devel-
oped, it being altogether scarcely so
long as the metacarpal bone of the very
long third digit. In most species, too,
it is also armed with a claw, though a
small one, and this claw is already plainly
recognizable in the unborn kalongs.

The species represented in fig. 37, the
Kalong (Pteropus cdulis), has a fox-like
head with sharp snout and ears, brownish
black fur, somewhat lighter underneath,
and almost black wings, which merely fringe
the hind-limbs. The tail is altogether want-
ing. It lives in large flocks on the Sunda
Islands as far east as Timor, and also passes
over to the continent by way of Malacca.
By day it hangs on trees by one" foot, as

TRUE BATS.

103

shown in the illustration on the previous
page, preferring such trees as have hori-
zontal branches; and often enormous crowds
of them are to be found in that position
together. They do not particularly seek for
shade or darkness, but they are so wrapt up
in their wings that it seems as if hundreds
of colossal pear-shaped fruits were hanging
from the trees.

About dusk, or even before it, they fly
away in search of their food, which consists
not only of fruits but also of small mammals
and birds, and even of fishes. Trustworthy-
observers have seen kalongs hovering like
falcons over ponds in which small fish
were playing, and then, darting down upon
the fish, seize them with their feet, carry
them away, and consume them. In their
native countries they are often snared in
nets. Their flesh is said by some to have,
when macerated, somewhat of the taste of
hare's flesh, by others to have a disgusting
taste like that of foxes. In some parts the
captive animals are fed and reared, but in
others very few eat them.

In a state of freedom they live together
peaceably, and quarrels and fights, always
accompanied by screeching noises, only occur
in the seeking out of sleeping-quarters and
at the pairing season. At the cry of wounded
kalongs their companions assemble together,
apparently to afford help.

Kalongs have been brought to Europe
repeatedly, but even those which I saw in
London, where they were kept in a roomy
hall in which they could fly about freely, did
not survive long. Most of them were apt
to bite, but some were good-natured.

Allied genera with a short tail (Cyno-
nycteris) occur in Africa, among other places
in Egypt.

A graphic description is given by the celebrated
buccaneer and naturalist William Dampier, of the
setting out of these large bats on their nightly
expeditions as observed by him in the Philippine
Islands. The bats were found in "incredible num-

ber " on a small low woody island, not above a
mile in circumference, about a mile from the shore
of a larger island. " In the evening as soon as the
sun was set, these creatures would begin to take
their flight from this island, in swarms like bees,
directing their flight over to the main island, and
whither afterwards I know not. Thus we should
see them rising up from the island till night hin-
dered our sight, and in the morning, as soon as it
was light, we should see them returning again like
a cloud to the small island till the sunrising. This
course they kept constantly while we lay here,
affording us every morning and evening an hour's
diversion in gazing at them and talking about
them."

Along with this it is interesting to read an
account by another observer of the mode in which
they take up their quarters for the day. " From
the arrival of the first comer until the sun is high
above the horizon, a scene of incessant wrangling
and contention is enacted among them, as each
endeavours to secure a higher and better place, or
to eject a neighbour from too close vicinage. In
these struggles the bats hook themselves along the
branches, scrambling about hand over hand with
some speed, biting each other severely, striking out
with the long claw of the thumb, shrieking and
cackling without intermission. Each new arrival
is compelled to fly several times round the tree,
being threatened from all points, and when he
eventually hooks on he has to go through a series
of combats, and be probably ejected two or three
times before he makes good his tenure." — Tickell,
in a memoir published in the Calcutta Journal of
Natural History, quoted by Jerdon in his Mammals
of India.

THE INSECT-EATING BATS

(ENTOMOPHAGA).

Our native bats all belong to this group, in which the
molars have sharp cusps fitting into one another, a
short snout, and only one claw on the wing-limb,
namely, on the first digit or thumb. Two families
are distinguished.

True Bats or Vespertilionidae (Gymnorhina).

The simple nose at the extremity of the snout without leaf-
like appendages.

This, the most numerous family, is dis-
tributed over the whole earth, and although

104

THE BATS.

most abundantly represented in hot climates,
is to be found even in the polar regions and

high up in the mountains. The snout is
very short, the premaxillary bones placed

Fig. 38. — The Long-eared Bat (Plecotus auritus).

laterally, so that a deep median gap separates
the upper incisors on the different sides of
the jaw; the ears are almost always large,
membranous, and naked, and the inner ear-
flap, the tragus, is developed in the form of
a tongue- or spoon-shaped ear-covering.

To this group belongs the Long-eared Bat
(Plecotus auritus) of Europe, fig. 38.

The skull is highly arched, the facial region
attached to the rest of the skull at an angle.
On both sides of the median gap or diastema
in the upper jaw stand two small incisors,

Fig. 39. — The Barbastelle or Pug-nose Bat (Svnotus iartastellus).

which are followed by a strong recurved
canine; then come two single -cusped pre-
molars, and three molars with several cusps.
In the lower jaw six incisors are crowded
together in the space corresponding to the
diastema in the upper jaw, and after the
canine follow three single-cusped premolars,

and the same number of molars with several

2 ' I ' 2 ° 3

cusps. The dental formula is thus . .

O O *5

= 36 teeth.

The large papercornet-shaped ears strike
us at the first glance. They measure more
than two-thirds of the whole length of the

TRUE BATS.

105

body, and when seen in certain positions
appear like two large thick horns. They are
thin and membranous, and are fused together
on the crown of the head. The external
margin runs down almost to the corner of
the mouth. The inner ear-covering or tragus
is long and tongue -shaped; the eyes very
small, the muzzle flat ; the wings short,
rounded; the point of
the tail projects be-
yond the flying mem-
brane.

This species is met
with throughout Eu-
rope within the limits
of the wooded region,
and reaches as far as
India. It flies high
with a fluttering move-
ment of the wings, and
in flying generally rolls
up its ears in such a
manner that they re-
semble ram's horns.
_

Its favourite hunting-
ground is in open
spaces, and about the
roads in woods and
groves. It appears
only late in the year,
and comes out late in the evening. It usu-
ally passes the summer in hollow trees, the
winter in buildings. It stands cold well, and
survives in captivity.

The Barbastelle or Pug-nose Bat (Synotus
barbastellus), fig. 39, resembles the former
species in the fusion of the ears on the crown
of the head, but not in the size of the ears.
The genus has one premolar less than the
previous in each half of the lower jaw, and
accordingly only 34 teeth. The short but
very broad ear has a peculiarly curved
expanded outer margin, the inferior portion
of which extends to the cheek between the
eye and the angle of the mouth. The wings
are long and slender, the colour of the fur

Fig. 40. — The Water-bat ( Vespfrtilio Daubentoni}.

almost black, and the power of flight great
both in respect of endurance and capacity for
rapid turning. This species stands the cold
very well, comes out early, fears neither
storm nor rain, and is to be found high in
the mountains, wherever there are human
dwellings, since in these it prefers to pass
the winter. It has a span of about one

foot or rather more,
survives in confine-
ment, and can even
to a certain extent be
tamed.

The typical bats
forming the genus
Vespertilio, to which
the Common Mouse-
coloured Bat ( V. mur-
inus) and the Water-
bat ( V. Daiibcntoni],
fig. 40, belong, are dis-
tinguished by having
the largest number of
teeth which bats can
have ; namely, in each
half of the upper jaw
two, of the lower,
three incisors, one
canine, three single-
cusped premolars, and
three molars with several cusps. Dental

2 ' I ' T, ' T.

formula - - = 38 teeth. The snout

3 ' i ' 3 ' 3

is sharper and longer than in the previous
species, the ear sometimes longer, so as when
laid flat to reach beyond the point of the
nose, as in the mouse- coloured bat, sometimes
shorter as in the species represented in the
illustration. These typical bats, of which
there are seven species in Europe, are very
sensitive to cold and rain, have a long and
very profound winter-sleep, leave their winter-
quarters late in the year and retire again
early, in flying keep near the ground, fluttering
their short broad wings and showing little
power of rapid turning. The mouse-coloured

io6

THE BATS.

bat spends the winter and the day exclusively
in buildings, and is one of the worst of fliers.
Much better powers of flight are possessed
by the water- bat, which mostly pursues
midges and gnats immediately above the

surface of the water, near which it prefers to
remain in summer. It flies out early in the
morning, and is found beside lakes even at
a height of upwards of 3000 feet above sea-
level. It spends the day, and rests at intervals

Fig. 41. — The Module ( Vesperugo noctula}.

during the night, in hollow trees or holes in
the wall in the vicinity of water. Its winter-
quarters are in hollow trees often pretty far
from its hunting-ground.

The most enduring and expert fliers among
the bats of Europe are the members of the
genus Vesperugo, a genus with long skull,
sharp and narrow wings, only two premolars
above and below, but large canines. Dental

r 2 • i • 2 • 3

formula — ; — : — ;-= = 34 teeth,
o o

The ears are always distinct, rounded,
shorter than the head, the tragus broad,
spoon-shaped, the tail completely inclosed
by the flying membrane. To this genus
belong the smallest and the largest species
of our native bats. The largest, which has

a span of about 16 inches, is the Noctule (Ves-
perugo noctula], fig. 41. It has a brownish-
red body and black wings, short broad ears,
comes out very early, mostly before sunset,
and hunts high in the air with rapid swallow-
like turns in its flight. It has great power
of sustaining flight, and is very voracious;
smells strongly of musk, and usually the female
brings forth two young ones at a birth. The
winter-sleep lasts long. In summer, as above
stated, the sexes usually live apart, not
uniting till autumn.

Still more powerful and more capable of
sustaining flight is the Pipistrelle or Dwarf
Bat ( Vesperitgo pipistrellus], fig. 42, with
small sharp ears, narrow tragus, and body of
a reddish colour like that of the roebuck. It

LEAF-NOSED BATS.

107

prefers narrow recesses in buildings and
trees, cares little for cold, snow, rain, or
wind, wakes early and easily out of its winter-
sleep, flies about sometimes in dull but warm
winter days, and with as much expertness
and agility as its large cousin; easily accus-
toms itself to captivity ; and, like the noctule,
brings forth two
young at a birth.

While the other
bats are rather sta-
tionary, the Ves-
perugos undertake
long migrations,
and it seems to be
proved regarding a
species, whose true
home is in the
north, and which
never advances fur-
ther south than the
Harz Mountains,
the Vespcrugo Nil-
soni, that its migra-
tions extend from
the Russian Baltic
provinces, where it
passes the winter
and early summer,

to the shores of the White Sea, where it
appears in crowds towards autumn.

Leaf-nosed Bats (Phyllostomata).

With membranous appendages to the nose, mostly supported
by thin plates of cartilage.

As already observed, this sometimes simple,
sometimes rather complex nasal appendage
has nothing to do with the sense of smell,
but is only the seat of a delicate sense of
touch. This group, very rich in genera and
species, is but sparingly represented in our
part of the world, and is specially abundant
in the tropics of both hemispheres. The
food is frequently composed of fruits and the
blood and flesh of warm-blooded animals
besides insects.

Fig. 42. — The Pipistrelle or Dwarf Bat (Vesperugo pipistrellus).

As links of transition connecting the two
families we may regard those genera and
sub-families in which the nasal appendage
has only a small extent and a simple form.
Among these is the Flap-nosed Bat (Rkino-
poma microphy llum\ fig. 43, immense numbers
of which inhabit natural and artificial caves

in Lower Egypt,
where by their very'
abundance, by their
manner of flutter-
ing about, and by
the stench of the
frequently foot-
deep accumulations
of their excrements,
they constitute a
material hindrance
in the exploration of
the ancient monu-
ments. This species
is a small mouse-
coloured form, with
pretty long wings,
and with the lower
part of the legs and
also of the tail quite
free, the latter pro-
jecting in the form

of a thin naked pointed rod to a length
as great as that of the whole body. The
ears are of moderate size, the tragi narrow,
small, the nose somewhat proboscis-like, and
terminating in a small disk pierced by the
nostrils, and rising above into a short flabby
point. The nostrils can be quite closed
as in diving animals. There are only 28
teeth; in the upper jaw one incisor, one
canine, one premolar, and three molars; in
the lower, two incisors, one canine, two pre-
molars, and three molars. Dental formula

i • i

= 28. The premaxilla is complete

and without a median interval.

Much more developed, though still simple,
is the nasal appendage in the notorious and

io8

THE BATS.

numerous family of the South American leaf-
nosed bats or vampires, the largest species
of which, the True Vampire (Phyllostoma
spectrum}, a species with a span of 28 inches,
is represented in fig. 44. The nose-leaf ex-
actly resembles the point of a halbert. It
has a broad crescent-shaped base, the ends of

which are directed upwards,
of the concave edge
of this base are situ-
ated the nostrils,
which are small.
From the nostrils a
middle ridge rises to
the point of the leaf
which proceeds from
the horns of the cres-
cent. The head is
short and thick, the
ears pretty large,
spoon -shaped, with
small hairy tragi; the
thin lips of the wide
mouth have warty
projections on them,
which perhaps play
a part in the opera-
tion of sucking. The
tongue is short, and
scarcely protrusible.

This family, occurring

In the middle

Fig. 43. — The Flap-nosed Bat (Rhinopoma mien

only in South

America, is distinguished by the peculiar
character of its dentition. For the most part
there is one small but broad incisor with a
notched chisel-shaped crown in each half of
the upper jaw ; many genera have two. The
canines are very long, especially in the lower
jaw, recurved, very sharply pointed, and with
sharp cutting edges. Then follow generally
two single-cusped premolars, and three molars
with several cusps, the last of which is very
small. The number of the premolars likewise
varies. The dental formula of the genus

Phyllostoma is

, = 32.

In

many

species the tail is altogether wanting ; in

others it is present, sometimes longer and
sometimes shorter, and on this difference, as
well as on the differences in the structure of
the teeth, are founded the different genera.

From the many contradictory accounts re-
lating to these animals, which are still the
subject of a variety of fables, we seem to be
able to gather so much at least, that their

diet is a very
varied one, differ-
ing in different cir-
cumstances and
in different re-
gions. Most of
all they seem to
prefer insects, and
then juicy fruits,
and where these
are present in
sufficient abund-
ance they appear
neither to attack
the lower warm-
blooded animals
nor man. But
when this kind of
food is not to be
had, mammals

•jyiium). page 107. and birds must
make up for this
They approach sleeping animals

defect.

and men so noiselessly that these are not
awakened, and then begin sucking at some
naked part, preferring in man to attack
the toes when seen projecting beyond the
blankets, these parts being almost insen-
sible from cold. They then pierce the skin
with their small notched incisors, making
a minute wound like that of a leech, a
wound that continues to bleed for a longer
or shorter time according to the constitution
of the person bitten. The results of these
bites and the subsequent loss of blood have
been enormously exaggerated, and careful
inquirers, who were bitten themselves, have
very reasonably drawn attention to the fact

LEAF-NOSED BATS.

109

that in many parts of South America, where
vampires are so numerous, cattle could not
be kept at all if the food of those creatures
consisted solely of blood. Martin made some
decisive experiments in a house standing by
itself, where he kept in a well-closed room
various birds and mammals along with some

vampire-bats. The window was latticed so
as to admit insects, and a bunch of bananas
hung from the ceiling. " Now as long as
the fruits lasted and insects had free access,
the vampires lived on this food. But when
the window -shutters were closed and the
admission of insects thus prevented, it was

Fig. 44. — The Vampire Bat (Phyllostoma spectrum}.

always found on the following morning that
some birds lay on the floor deprived of their
blood, and dead. On the morning next after
the birds were devoured. Only after the
third or fourth night were traces of blood
seen on the mammals." From this it would
appear, therefore, that it is hunger that
makes the vampires bloodthirsty, We may,
however, point out this, that in this case,
as in the case of some other animals, it
may perhaps happen that man, for example,
is attacked in certain districts, but not in
others.

The Horse-shoe Bats of the Old World,

forming the genus Rhinolophus, have a nasal
appendage of the most complicated structure.
It rests upon a horseshoe-shaped leaf running
forward to the end of the snout, and contain-
ing the nostrils in deep pits in the middle of
its concavity. The nostrils are surmounted by
a narrow lancet-shaped process, behind which
rises a second larger process of the same
form, having several deep pits at its base.
The ears are of middle size, narrowed above
to a point, the tragus broad, the dentition
marked by the unusually large gap in the middle
of the upper jaw, in consequence of which the
small incisors are placed wholly at the side.

no

The canines are large.

THE BATS.
The dental formula

is '• — = 32 teeth. The wings are

2 ' i ' 3 ' 3

short and broad, the short tail included within
the flying membrane which terminates behind

in a right angle, or nearly so. The fur is
light gray.

To the north of the Alps two species are
common, the Lesser Horse-shoe Bat (R/iino-
lophus hipposideros], scarcely larger than the

Fig. 45. — The Greater Horse-shoe Bat (Rhinolophusferrum-equinum).

dwarf bat, and the species represented in fig.
45, the Greater Horse-shoe Bat {R. ferrum-
equimim}. Both are bad fliers, fluttering about
near the ground, both are very sensitive to
cold and rain, and have their retreats in caves,
dry cellars, and beneath the rafters of houses.
In a state of freedom they live entirely on
insects. In captivity they sometimes show a
certain amount of bloodthirstiness, and eat
up other bats.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND
DESCENT OF THE BATS.

The geographical distribution of the bats
presents for two reasons a somewhat confused
picture: first, because their natural arrange-
ment in families traceable to a common type
is still far from having been satisfactorily
accomplished; and, secondly, because their
power of flight, which, as we have seen, even

at the present day, makes long migrations
possible, must necessarily have contributed
to enlarging their domains, and thus to
obliterate the evidence as to their original
seats. Some not uninteresting facts may,
however, be noted.

The fruit-bats are spread over the whole
of the tropical and subtropical parts of
Australia and the Old World generally, but
are altogether absent in the colder parts of
the temperate zones and in America. From
Central Africa they extend to Egypt and even
to the shores of the Mediterranean, from
India to Southern China and Japan, and
they are spread over the whole of Australia
and the South Sea Islands as far as the
Samoan group, with the exception of the
j Sandwich Islands and New Zealand. Un-
1 questionably this wide distribution is in a
large measure due to migrations; perhaps
some species have even been transported by

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND DESCENT.

in

man from one island group in the Pacific
Ocean to another; but their powers of flight
are so great that they were no doubt able to
cross the intervening seas without other
assistance.

Both smooth-nosed and leaf-nosed bats are
spread over the whole world wherever there
are insects enough for their food; and only in
the case of the latter group can any sort of local
limitation be noted. Among these the true
horse-shoe bats are altogether excluded from
America, the vampires, on the other hand,
almost entirely confined to South America,
only one species pressing as far north as
Southern California. Tropical South America
is thereby, as well as by the absence of flying
foxes, shown to be an originally isolated
region.

Concerning the derivation of the bats as
such from older types, palaeontology affords
us no information whatever. The remains
found in the more recent, and especially in
Quaternary deposits, belong, except for slight
variations, to genera and species still living,
and the oldest bat yet discovered, that found
in the Eocene gypsum of Montmartre, and
accordingly in an early deposit for placental

mammals, is closely allied to the genus
Vespertilio. The great variety of the genera
now living, and the wide distribution of in-
dividual types, are just as strong evidence
of the great age of the bats as the structure
of their dentition, which connects them im-
mediately with the insect-eating marsupials,
and even as the form of the wings themselves,
which, as has already been shown in detail,
are merely a special development of an
embryonic, and consequently very primitive
character. Looking at these relations we
could not be very much surprised if it should
turn out some day that transitional forms
were found connecting the flying-bats with
swimming ancestors, without there being any
line of development through four-footed land
animals. These, however, are only con-
jectures, for so far the structure of the bat's
wing stands by itself without any analogue to
place beside it. Only that of the flying
reptiles, the pterodactyls, presents some in-
teresting points of comparison, while the
bird's wing, in which we can see the result
of a gradual transformation of a reptilian
foot, has arisen out of totally different con-
ditions.

THE INSECT-EATERS

(INSECTIVORA).

Small plantigrade animals with a discoidal placenta and all three kinds of teeth ; mostly five clawed toes on

all four feet.

The nocturnal habits of these small animals,
the largest species of which is about equal
in size to a marten, withdraw these animals
from ordinary observation, but not for the
most part from unjust persecution. And yet
these animals are in most cases important
allies of man through their incessant hunt
after insects, snails, worms, and all kinds of
vermin. One may say with justice that they
pursue upon and under the earth, even indeed
in the water, the chase which the bats carry
on in the air. If the differences in structure
due to adaptation to flight were not so great,
the bats and the insectivores would undoubt-
edly be united into a single great division
of the mammals.

The adaptation to various habits of life has
been able to exert all the more influence on
the whole bodily structure of the Insectivora,
since they belong to the oldest mammalian
stocks which we are acquainted with, and
at the same time represent one of the lowest
grades of organization possible in ordinary
placental mammals.

The bodily form varies within very wide
limits, from the elegant little tupaias and
elephant or jumping shrews (Macroscelides)
to the shapeless golden moles (Chrysochlor-
ida), which seem like a short thick sausage.
It has been justly observed that these bodily

forms repeat those of certain groups of the
rodents. The members of the genus Clado-
bates are somewhat like the squirrels, the
elephant-shrews somewhat like the jerboas,
the shrews proper not unlike mice.

The mostly thick fur presents a large
number of transitions, from the soft thick
silky fur of the moles to the spiny coat of
the hedgehogs.

The head is mostly small, conical, often
even drawn out into a pointed mobile pro-
boscis, at the end of which the nostrils open.
It mostly passes over into the neck without
any clear demarcation. The organs of sense
are very variously formed. The eyes are for
the most part least developed, especially in
the genera living under the earth, some of
the members of which are quite blind, inas-
much as the skin covers the underlying pupil
without having a slit to form eyelids. The
ears are mostly very small or even entirely
absent. Scarcely ever do they exhibit those
striking forms which are met with in the bats.
The senses of touch and smell, on the other
hand, are both highly developed, and in most
species are united in the mobile proboscis.

The brain is for the most part very small,
and in respect of internal structure stands on
a much lower level of development than that
of any other placental mammals. All those

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

parts which in most of the other mammals are
more or less covered by the hemispheres of
the great brain (the cerebrum) — the parts
called the olfactory lobes, the corpora quad-
rigemina, and the cerebellum — remain among
the members of this group, as among the
marsupials, uncovered. The mental qualities
of these animals, in accordance with this low
structure of brain, are little developed.

This small insignificant brain lies in a
small brain -case, which even remains in
places membranous at the base, and only
seldom, as in the hedgehogs, develops crests
and ridges for the attachment of the muscles.
Usually this brain-case is prolonged without
any constriction into thin, weak, long jaws.
In many cases even the jugal arches which
support the jaws are wanting, as also bony
orbits, and these even when present are
always incomplete.

These weak jaws, moreover, have a very
remarkable dentition, which cannot be ex-
pressed by any general formula. There are
indeed always incisors, canines, and molars,
but their number, position, and form vary so
greatly that investigators have not been
always able to agree as to the character of
certain teeth.

In many genera all the teeth are separate
from one another as in reptiles, and in most
only the molars are arranged in close series,
the others standing isolated. In many cases
the total number of teeth amounts to 44,
which appears to have been the normal
number of the old mammals. The total
number may, however, fall as low as 30.
This variety is likewise exhibited in respect
of the form of the teeth.

Incisors, canines, and premolars often agree
with one another in form and size, and
present the form of a pointed cone or a
slightly curved fang. In other cases we find
a large pyramidal or recurved incisor taking
the place of the canine, while in others again
the incisors of the upper jaw may even be al-
together wanting. The lower jaw frequently

carries horizontally placed incisors, and in
other cases the incisors in both jaws stand
in closely set rows as in the Carnivora. A
projecting recurved canine is met with only
in the tanrecs. In most of the other mem-
bers of the order the canine resembles an
incisor in form and size, or agrees closely
with the premolars in external form and in
the possession of two roots. The premolars,
which are often very numerous, always have
a pointed cusp, but by the gradual appear-
ance of lateral tubercles and gradual increase
in size, pass over into true molars so imper-
ceptibly that no hard-and-fast line can be
drawn between the two. The remaining
molars, finally, almost always possess three or
four sharp cusps, and in the upper jaw are
always broader than in the lower. The
grinding surface of these teeth presents the
form of a reversed W or V, the points of
which, directed inwards, rest on a sharp and
narrow heel.

This whole dentition accordingly is ad-
mirably adapted for the transfixing and re-
taining of the prey, but not for dividing or
even for chewing it. It is altogether different
from that of the Carnivora, with which the
Insectivora were formerly combined. It is
distinguished by the absence of constant
formulas, by there being no well-marked car-
nassial tooth, and by the poor development
of the canines. It can only be compared
with the dentition of the bats and some living
or fossil marsupials. With respect to the
position that must be assigned to the Insec-
tivora in a natural classification of mammals,
these facts are of great importance.

The structure of the feet in the Insectivora
presents many variations due to the habits of
life. The tupaias living on trees have elegant
long limbs, the hind ones being, as in all
climbing animals, more powerful than those
in front. This disproportion becomes still
greater in the elephant-shrews, in which the
ankle is remarkably elongated, the lower part
of the leg, on the other hand, correspondingly

IB

THE INSECT-EATERS.

shortened. Exactly the opposite is seen in
the burrowing Insectivora, for example in
the moles, in which the fore-limbs undergo
the greatest modifications. The fore-foot is
greatly increased in breadth and gets turned
outwards, and a special subsidiary bone having
the form of a bent ploughshare is frequently
associated with the strong, flat, closely con-
nected fingers, which are armed with long
sharp claws. This powerful delving imple-
ment requires also strong muscles to move it,
and thus leads to a quite peculiar structure
of the bones of the fore-limbs, which are
unusually short and broad, and have very
pronounced ridges for the attachment of the
muscles. In the genera which live in the
water the toes are webbed, in all the others
there are generally short walking legs with
curved claws.

The tail varies greatly in length. In the
climbing, leaping, and running forms it is
long, sometimes densely covered with hair,
sometimes almost quite naked; in others it
is short, sometimes altogether absent.

The Insectivora are for the most part very
prolific, a fact indicated by the large number
of teats, of which there may be as many as
five pairs arranged in two rows along the
abdomen as far as the chest. The shapeless,
naked, large-headed, blind young ones come
into the world in a very helpless condition,
and generally lie several weeks in the nest
before they learn to run. The placenta is
discoidal, but shows a very low degree of
internal development. The organs of repro-
duction, especially in the male, agree most
closely with those of the rodents.

As the last peculiarity of this group we
must mention the large superficial glands
occurring in many genera. These diffuse
a penetrating musky odour, and are some-
times found at the sides near the middle of
the back, as in the shrews, but mostly in the
hinder parts of the body near the anus.

The Insectivora are almost all nocturnal
animals, and many of them live altogether

under the earth in burrows made by them-
selves. Only the climbers and springers of
southern latitudes carry on their hunt by day;
the others leave their holes and corners only
at sunset, and even hunt under the earth or
in the water. They are unsocial, mostly soli-
tary animals, which are found together only
in the pairing season. Many of them are
so fierce and insatiable that they even attack
and consume their own kind. It is asserted
that the moles and shrews eat in a single day
as much as they themselves weigh; but I am
not aware that accurate observations have
been made on the subject. Their food con-
sists chiefly of insects, spiders, and so forth;
but most of the species do not despise other
animal food also, and many attack even much
larger and stronger animals with savage fury.
Their voracity makes them uncommonly
useful to man, to whom they render material
assistance in his incessant war against vermin.
Since the dentition is, as we have seen,
extraordinarily varied and affords no general
marks of distinction, we divide the Insectivora
in accordance with their habits.

BANXRINGS OR CLIMBERS.

(TUPAI^).

Resembling squirrels, with sharp naked proboscis, and
long tufted tail.

This group is composed of several closely
allied genera, the dentition of which has a
primitive character, inasmuch as incisors,
canines, and premolars stand apart from one
another and are scarcely different in form
and size. The typical genus, Cladobates
(Tupaia), has 38 teeth; another, Ptilocer-
cus, has 42 teeth; and the third, Hylomys,
as many as 44. These lively and elegant
climbers, the largest species of which, the
Tana or Banxring (Cladobates Tana), shown
in fig. 46, is somewhat like a squirrel in size
and appearance, live in the forests of India
and the Sunda Islands. Their soft velvety
fur shows gray, brownish, and greenish

THE JUMPING-SHREWS.

colours, which closely approach those of the
branches and twigs on which they climb, so
that they can easily hide themselves. The
claws of their five distinct toes are sharp and
curved like those of our squirrels. They
hunt by day on trees and on the earth for
insects and larvse, and go sniffing all round
with their long snout covered with stiff
moustache bristles. The eyes are large, and
set in a closed orbit; the ears rounded and
short. Since they have four abdominal teats,
they probably bring forth several young at
a birth. Little further is known of their
habits, and no living specimens have yet been
brought to Europe.1

THE JUMPING-SHREWS

(MACROSCELIDA).

Like the jerboas, but with a long snout; natives
of Africa.

The disproportion between the hind- and
fore-limbs is not quite so great as in the
jerboas; the tail is shorter and has no tuft
at the end. At a distance, indeed, the little
creatures might easily be confounded with
jerboas, but when seen close at hand they are
at once distinguished by their long and very
mobile proboscis, their large ears, which
through the development of transverse ribs
in the flaps somewhat resemble the ears of
certain bats, and by their longer fore- and
shorter hind-limbs. The latter are furnished
in some species with five, in others with four
toes, and have the metatarsal bones very
much elongated.

The hotter the sun the more nimbly do
these inhabitants of the torrid deserts of
Africa jump about, sniffing under stones in
all directions with their long proboscis, and
even catching insects flying. At the slightest
noise they disappear into holes in the earth,
or slink away between stones, and since, as
in all inhabitants of the desert, the colour of

1 A specimen was acquired for the Zoological Gardens in London
in Jan. 1881.— TR.

their soft fur is assimilated to that of the soil,

Fig. 46.— The Banxring or Tana (Cladobatcs Tana).

they easily escape the eyes of their pursuers.

Fig. 47._The Elephant-shrew (Macroscclidcs typicus). page 116.

u6

THE INSECT-EATERS.

A German name meaning " reed proboscis-
bearer" (Ro/irriissler) has been invented for
these little animals, but the name is altogether
inappropriate, since they are never met with
among reeds or marshes, but only on the
driest ground. The designation "jumping
proboscis - bearer " would be more fitting.
In the large five -toed species known as
the Elephant -shrew
( Macroscelides typi-
cus\ which is repre-
sented in fig. 47, the
body measures rather
more than 4 inches,
the proboscis less
than i inch, and the
tail is nearly as long
as the body. It in-
habits South Africa.
Another, smaller,
species, the Algerian
Jumping-shrew (Ma-
croscelides Rozeti), is
found in the north, in
Morocco and Algeria.
The canine has two
roots, and in that
respect resembles a
premolar in form. A

scent -gland at the
root of the tail diffuses a strong odour. Occa-
sionally these animals may be seen hunting
in pairs, but nothing more is known of their
mode of life. Allied genera (Petrodromus)
have only four toes on the hind-feet.

THE DESMANS OR DIVERS

(MYOGALIDA).

With swimming feet, long proboscis, and flattened tail;
a group having a very remarkable geographical dis-
tribution.

One species, which forms a genus by itself
(Nectogale), is found in Tibet; another genus,
Potamogale, with a very peculiar dentition, be-
longs to West Africa; the typical genus, that

Fig. 48. — The Wuychuchol (Myogale mosc/iata).

of the Musk-shrews (Myogale), comprises two
species, the larger of which, the Wuychuchol
(M. moschata), is found in the Volga and the
other rivers of the steppes of southern Russia,
while the smaller species, the Desman ( M. pyr-
enaica), is found in the torrents of the Pyrenees
and other mountain-chains of northern Spain.
The remarkably mobile naked proboscis,

notched at the ex-
tremity, the feet with
five toes all connected
byaweb, and the long
flattened tail covered
with scales at the end
enable us to recognize
these creatures at the
first glance. The eyes
are very small, and
almost completely
hidden in the fur;
there are no external
ears; the hind-feet
are very much elon-
gated, curved, and
scaly, and have some-
thing of the appear-
ance of those of a
swan, except that
they have five well-
formed toes. The
web extends to the root of the claw on each
toe. The scent-glands under the root of the
tail diffuse an intolerable and very persistent
musk-odour.

The dentition is very peculiar. In the
premaxilla (upper jaw) there is on each side
only one large strong incisor, which has a
pyramidal form and cutting edges ; and in the
same jaw this tooth is followed on each side
by a very small canine, five premolars, and
four molars each with three pointed cusps.
The lower jaw has on each side two incisors
placed horizontally, and only three molars.
There are thus in all 44 teeth : dental formula

1 ' i ' 5 '4

2 ' i ' 5 ' 3'

THE SHREWS OR RUNNERS.

117

The species represented in fig. 48, called
by the Russians the wuychuchol, is specially
abundant in the Volga. The animal is ex-
tremely expert in swimming and diving,
seldom leaves the water, and lives on leeches,
snails, and insects and their larvae. Its
formidable dentition makes me surmise that
it also attacks fish. The soft velvety fur, re-
sembling that of the moles but distinguished
by having a number of bristly hairs sparsely
scattered amongst it, is used as a trimming
for caps. The animal prefers ponds and
pools, and slowly running waters, and is
generally to be found at those parts where
there are loamy or clayey banks, in which it
can dig out its subterranean dwelling. This
consists of a chamber led up to by an obliquely
ascending tunnel, the entrance to which is
placed so deep below the surface of the water
that it does not get frozen up even in the
hardest Russian winters. The passage is
carefully smoothed internally, and rises so
much that the chamber to which it leads is
never submerged even by the highest floods.
Since the animal has been accidentally caught
in fishing-nets by night as well as by day, in
summer as well as in winter, it is probable
that it has no particular sleeping time, but like
the mole rests in its chamber for some hours
after every hunting foray to allow time for
digestion. The creature seizes its prey with its
snout as with a finger, and then pushes it into
its mouth. The stench diffused by the scent-
glands under the tail communicates itself even
to the flesh of pikes by which a wuychuchol has
been devoured, and thus renders it uneatable.

THE SHREWS OR RUNNERS

(SORICIDA).

This typical group is composed of the Shrews, the form
of whose body is like that of mice, from which, how-
ever, they are distinguished even externally by the
possession of a sharp proboscis and a mostly short
naked tail.

They may justly be called runners, for
they run along quickly, and climb like mice,

with which also they agree in their nocturnal
habits. This unfortunate resemblance is very
prejudicial to the little creatures. Men, cats,
and owls destroy them without mercy, but
they are eaten only by the birds, whose senses
are not very acute. Cats bite them dead, but
leave them lying, apparently because of their
strong musky odour, proceeding from two
glands which open at the sides about the
middle of the back.

The shrews form a group very rich in
genera and species, which are distributed
over the whole world except South America,
Australia and the islands connected with it.

A conical head, pointed very mobile snout
or proboscis with stiff tactile hairs, small eyes,
short, scarcely projecting ears, small five-toed
feet with sharp claws, and a tail inferior in
length to that of mice, and covered only with
a few thinly scattered hairs, sometimes even
scaly — such are the essential characters of the
shrews. The total number of the teeth varies
from 28 to 32, but the general character of
the dentition remains the same. The teeth
are so closely set that they sometimes seem
to be fused together. A very large recurved
incisor with a heel or process behind takes
up the greater part of each half of the pre-
maxilla. Behind this fang there are on each
side three, four, or even five teeth mostly
similar in form and size. The first of these
teeth is generally also to be regarded as an
incisor, because it stands in the premaxilla,
while those coming after are premolars, after
which there follow, for the most part, four
three-cusped true molars. The lower incisors
are also very large, but are placed horizontally,
and are curved upwards at the end. In some
the tubercles of the teeth are of a light
brownish-red colour, in others perfectly white.

The shrews are cruel animals, even against
their own kind, and are never found together
except at the pairing season. At other times
they live a hermit's life, concealing themselves
by day in dark holes, and carrying on their
hunt by night, uttering, meanwhile, sharp

u8

THE INSECT-EATERS.

shrill cries. Their activity lasts through the
whole year. They seek for insects, larvae,
worms, and snails even under the snow.
When two shrews meet there mostly begins
a battle for life or death ; the victor at once
eats up his antagonist. They are not even

Fig. 49. — The Garden-shrew (Crocidura aranea).

afraid of attacking animals much stronger
than themselves.

The females have mostly four, seldom six
abdominal teats, and suckle their blind and
shapeless young ones in their secure retreats
for a comparatively long time. A regular
nest is made for the purpose.

In this group are included the smallest
mammals. The body of the shrew of Tus-
cany (Sorex etruscus {Crocidura etruscd) ) is
less than an inch and a half in length, while
the tail measures just about one inch.

Illustrations are given of two species which
are of peculiar interest on account of their
habits.

The Garden-shrew (Crocidura araned], fig.
49, has not more than 28 perfectly white
teeth, and has a fur like that of a small
mouse. Of all species this is the one that

comes nearest human dwellings, especially
during the winter, being frequently found by
day in outhouses, stables, and barns, while
by night it pays visits to the kitchen and
larder in search of meal-worms, cockroaches,
crickets, and other insects. Much evil has
been spoken of the little creature, and, if one
might believe old wives' fables, the malicious
animal gnaws the hoofs of horses, sheep,
and swine, makes attacks on the smoked
meat in the stoves, and even takes the life of
fowls, or at least of chickens, in the most
scandalous manner. If these fables were
true, it would be impossible to rear any
domestic fowls at all, in face of the large
numbers of these little creatures which
manage to slip in everywhere with ease. I
observed for a long time the habits of some
shrew-mice which had established themselves
among some bundles of wood in an open
shed opposite the window of my room.
Every evening they gave me warning of the
commencement of their hunt by uttering their
shrill cries.

If the shrews deserve help and protection
on the part of man for the services they
render him in destroying vermin, it is
different with the large Water-shrew (Crosso-
pus fodiens), fig. 50, which attains the size of
a small rat. Its teeth, 34 in number, have
red points. The tail is somewhat flattened,
and stiff hairs standing in rows on the edge
of the toes appear to take the place of a web.

The ordinary food of the water-shrew con-
sists of insects, worms, water-snails, even of
frogs and lizards, and if that were all there
would be no great harm done. But there is
no doubt that it also attacks fish, and works
not a little devastation in ponds and tanks.
In winter when the water is covered with ice
it will even attack a large carp two pounds
in weight, seizing it by the neck, after which
it eats out its eyes and brain, getting access
to the latter by biting through the skull with
its recurved fangs. The more agile fishes,
such as the trout, escape from its pursuit.

THE SHREWS OR RUNNERS.

119

The following account of the habits of the water-
shrew is given in Bell's British Quadrupeds:—

"An intimate friend, in whose capabilities for
accurate observations we place the greatest reliance,
being one day concealed, gun in hand, for the

purpose of shooting some carrion crows, near a hill-
side ditch at Temple Grafton, near Stratford-on-
Avon, had his attention called to a shrew of this
species, which was busily engaged in seeking for
food amongst the stones in the rapid but shallow
water at the bottom of the ditch. These it turned
over or displaced, by forcing itself under them,
and in this manner several of large size, compared
with that of the animal itself, were removed. The
food appeared to be taken at the moment the stone
was raised from its resting-place, though in some
instances by the animal merely poking its long snout
under the stone, without lifting it; but in every
case, when caught, it was conveyed to the side
to be devoured. It consisted of smajl creatures
having hard parts, which the shrew was heard
crunching up in the process of mastication.

" Shortly afterwards the spot was pointed out to
us, and, on examination, we found the pretty stream
Sessile-eyed Crustacean, Gammarus Pulex, in plenty
under the stones in the ditch, and entertained but

little doubt that it was on these small crustaceans
that the shrew was feeding, and that the crushing
sound observed during mastication was occasioned
by their hard coverings.

" We do not know whether the water-shrew is
piscivorous in its habits, though it is not unlikely
that it may feed on the spawn or fry of minnows,
or other small fish, but to its carnivorous propensities
we can ourselves bear testimony. Having occasion
to enter an outhouse used as a carpenter's shop at
Welford Hill, we were somewhat surprised to hear
the shrill chattering squeak of a shrew, and its
quick rustle, or rather rush, amongst the shavings
upon the floor. Remaining still for a few minutes
we saw an animal of the present species emerge
from the shavings, and, scampering across a large
sheet of brown paper, pass under the dried body
of a barn-door fowl which was lying in a corner.
On lifting up the fowl by the legs, the shrew made
its escape from a hole in the abdomen, and it was
found on examination that nearly all the internal
parts, in a half-dried and half-decomposed state,
had been devoured, though whether wholly by the
shrew or partly by mice we are unable to state.

"Another equally well authenticated and inter-
esting notice of its flesh-consuming habits may with
advantage be introduced here. A brother of one
of the authors of the present work, having one
night placed a steel trap for vermin, visited it in
the following morning; and on drawing near, saw
that it contained a full-grown rat, on which was
perched a small black object, which proved on closer
approach to be a water-shrew. The rat was dead
and the shrew was devouring it. ...

" We have once, and once only, seen it at Sel-
bornc. It was hunting in the most active and
curious manner at the bottom of a small roadside
stream; and as its body was much flattened, the
white of the belly projected in a narrow border,
edging the deep black of the back, and rendering
it altogether the prettiest object imaginable.

" Its swimming is principally effected by the
alternate action of the hinder feet, which produces
an unequal or wriggling motion: it makes its way,
however, with great velocity, and as it swims rather
superficially, with the belly flattened, the sides, as
it were, spread out, and the tail extended back-
wards as a rudder, it forms a very beautiful and
pleasing object, moving on the calm surface of a
quiet brook, or diving in an instant after its food,
its black velvety coat becoming beautifully silvered
with the innumerable bubbles of air that cover it

120

THE INSECT-EATERS.

when submerged; and on rising again, the fur is
observed to be perfectly dry, repelling the water
as completely as the feathers of the water-fowl.
When submerged, the ear is nearly closed by means
of three little valves."

We annex to the group of the Runners
a few foreign genera, which might in part be
formed into separate families, but which are
only imperfectly known. An illustration is
furnished of one species which belongs ex-

clusively to the Antilles — the Agouta or
Almiqui of the natives (Solenodon paradoxum),
fig. 51. It is one of the largest of the
Insectivora, and possesses the large upper
triangular incisor of the musk-shrews, and in
the lower jaw has the second incisor in the
form of a canine. The teeth, 40 in number,
are white, and their form approaches that of
the tanrec of Madagascar. The proboscis-
like snout is very long, pointed, and mobile,

Fig. 51. — The Agouta or Almiqui (Solenodon paradoxum).

the tail round and scaly, the toes armed with
sharp claws, the body about 8 inches in
length. Nothing is known of the habits of
these creatures. Judging from their teeth
we must suppose that they live solely on
animal food. They form along with some
African genera (Potamogale, Rhynchocyon,
Eupleres) remarkable connecting links be-
tween the large groups of the shrews, the
tanrecs, and the hedgehogs, and even with
the Viverrida among the Carnivora.

THE CRAWLERS.

The Tanrecs (CaiMida).

Natives of the island of Madagascar which have the appear-
ance of our hedgehogs.

This is a very isolated group as regards its
geographical distribution and structural or-

ganization, and is made up of several genera
distinguished by their dentition and the char-
acter of their fur, but agreeing with the
shrews in the absence of the zygomatic arch,
with the hedgehogs in the absence of a pubic
symphysis, and with the members of the
genus Cladobates in having the bones of the
lower leg, the tibia and fibula, which in all
other Insectivora are more or less fused to-
gether, perfectly distinct.

The dentition is rather variable. The true
Tanrecs (forming the genus Centetes), fig. 52,
have 40 teeth ; others, to which the name of
Tendracs (forming the genus Ericulus) has
been given, have only 36. The carnivorous
nature of these animals is indicated in the
former by the recurved canines in both jaws
and the development of crests on the rather
long skull, while in the tendracs the canine is

THE TANRECS.

121

no way different from the following premolars.
Some species are all prickly like our hedge-
hogs, others haveonly scattered spines mingled
with coarse hair, and others again have a
very soft fur without any trace of spines.
The snout is always much more pointed than
in our hedgehogs, and the tail is usually
wanting or is represented only by a short
stump. All the species are capable of rolling

themselves up like a ball, but this power is
much less developed in those forms which
have a slender body and a semi-spinous coat,
than in those which are better protected by
their spines.

Have the tanrecs been introduced by man
into the islands of Mauritius and Bourbon?
So it is said; but that is not quite certain.
In any case they are now completely natural-

Fig. y.. — The Tanrec (Centetes ecaudatus).

ized in both, and live there in the same way
as on the great African island, that is to say,
squeezing themselves by day into some hole
or corner, and by night hunting after their
food, which consists mainly of insects, spiders,
millipedes, and the like, to which, however,
they are fond of adding small vertebrates or
fruits. The natives eat them, but prefer the
females, since the males diffuse a strong musky
odour which taints their flesh. Some authors
maintain that they have a summer-sleep, like
the winter-sleep of our hedgehogs, but by
others this is denied. Of the genus Gymnura
we are acquainted with only one species (G.
Rafflesii], which is a native of Sumatra, and
is characterized by the absence of spines, the
great length of the body, the almost naked
tail, and the large number of its teeth (44
in all).

The Hedgehogs (Erinacei).

A group composed of the completely spiny inhabitants of
the continents of the Old World.

Except for the abnormal genus Gymnura
the hedgehogs form a tolerably uniform group,
with sufficiently well-marked characters, and
found only on the mainland.

In the hedgehogs proper the head is short,
the snout pointed, but not elongated, the
body compact, and covered on the whole of
the upper surface with short, thick, pointed
spines, which the animal can erect in rolling
itself into a ball; the five-toed paws with
short claws are not very long; the tail is
short or absent.

The dentition appears to indicate a mixed
diet. There are no prominent canines; on the
crowns of the molars there are conical cusps

16

122

THE INSECT-EATERS.

which soon get worn away ; the canines and
premolars are not very different in structure,
but the first incisor in the upper jaw is strong
and vertical, and can play the part of a canine.

Our Hedgehog (Erinaceus europceus), fig.
53, belongs to the type genus. Many fables
have been invented regarding this peaceable
and timid creature, which sleeps by day
rolled up like a ball under bushes or hedges,
and roams about by night seeking its food,
which is beyond question of the most varied
description. Insects and their larvae make
up the chief part of it; but eggs, and the
small birds which make their nests on the
ground, frogs and reptiles, as well as mice,
are greedily devoured, and fruits that may
have fallen to the ground or which it can reach
by climbing form an agreeable dessert. The
movements of the hedgehog are sluggish,
their steps almost tottering, their gait clumsy
but noiseless; yet, in spite of this apparent
clumsiness and helplessness, the hedgehog is
perhaps even better fitted for hunting mice
than the cat. It patiently lies in wait for the
nimble rodent at the entrance of its hole, and
even shows some skill in reaching its prey by
burrowing. The noise which it makes in barns,
cellars, and stables perhaps helps to drive
away the mice; so much, at least, is certain,
that places visited by hedgehogs are soon
freed from rats and mice and all their kindred.

But what makes the hedgehog invaluable is
its power of withstanding organic poisons. It
eats up the cantharides insects, from which are
made the well-known blistering applications,
with as much satisfaction as the may-bug,
and wages an always successful war against
poisonous snakes. This insusceptibility to
the action of organic poisons has been con-
firmed by repeated experiments. The hedge-
hog does not suffer in the least from the bite
of a viper which could kill a dog. It is well
aware, however, of the dangerous nature of
its opponent, for it always begins by crushing
a viper's head, while it attacks non- poisonous
snakes at any part.

Although in such battles the hedgehog
gives proofs of courage, yet it shows great
timidity in its behaviour otherwise. On the
least noise it rolls itself up into a ball, and
exposes its erect spines to its antagonist.
Dogs attack it with fury, but they require a
special training to learn how to seize it.
The fox, it is said, resorts to disgusting
methods to compel it to unrol itself. In spite
of its strong smell it is eaten in some parts,
but the less strongly smelling females are
preferred to the males.

The female brings forth from four to seven
young ones at a time, and even at birth soft
spines adhere to the skin by means of a slimy
secretion. The mother tends her young
with much affection till they are able to
supply their own wants. In fig. 53 is repre-
sented one of these happy families, which has
established itself in a comfortable nest at the
foot of a hedge. In the fables the hedgehog
plays the part of the shrewd fellow, who beats
the hare at running, drives the fox out of his
hole, and always manages to get the better
of his opponents, whether alone or with the
assistance of his wife, who is just like himself,
and with whom he lives on the best under-
standing. In this respect he forms, it must
be admitted, an exception among the In-
sectivora, for the pairs remain united the
whole year through.

It is well known that in northern countries
the hedgehog passes the winter sleeping. It
usually makes a warm nest for itself beneath
a hedge, lines it with dry leaves, and rolled
up within, it there awaits the return of the
spring. Its sleep is not very deep, however,
and on warm days in winter it is often to be
seen crawling about in search of food.

THE BORROWERS.

A group in which the fore-feet are transformed into strong
spades.

In the members of this group the head is
always conical and pointed, and often ends

THK MOLES.

123

in a prolongation which serves as a pro-
boscis. The cylindrical often very compact
body is broader in front in consequence of
the enormous development of the region of
the shoulders, and in consequence of the

fact that the fore -limbs are almost hidden
in the fur. These limbs end in two short
but broad spade-like paws, and are armed
with long, flat claws with cutting edges. The
hinder part of the body is weak, the tail is

Fig. S3. — A Family of Hedgehogs (Ennaceus europceus).

sometimes rudimentary or quite absent, some-
times long; the eyes either very small and
hidden among the hair, or even quite covered
over by the skin. External ears are alto-
gether wanting. All burrowers lead an essen-
tially subterranean life, and seldom come to
the surface. Living almost entirely on animal
food they hunt after subterranean vermin,
of which they destroy great quantities. In
pursuing their prey they tunnel their way
through the earth with great rapidity. They
are all extraordinarily voracious, indeed in-
satiable. Cruel and savage, they live a her-
mit's life in their chambers, the males seeking
the females only during the pairing season.
Usually a male can secure a female for itself

only after engaging in violent battles with
rivals.

The Moles (Talpida).
With five toes on the fore-paws.

Our common mole ( Talpa europcca], fig. 54,
may be taken as the type of this group, so
rich in genera and species.

Who has not seen rt hanging from a trap,
with its sausage-shaped body, its sharp conical
head, its snout supported by an internal car-
tilaginous rod, its broad naked fore-paws
turned outwards and armed with short broad
sickle-shaped claws, with which a sabre-shaped
ploughshare bone is combined in order to
make the whole spade as broad as possible?

124

THE INSECT-EATERS.

The small eyes gleaming like carbuncles can
only be seen after the hair in which they are
buried has been blown aside. The external
ears are absent, and the entrance to the
auditory passage is protected by stiff hairs.
The hind-paws are weak, straight, five-toed;
the tail is short; the dentition is allied to
that of the carnivores; it consists in all of

Fig- 54- — The Common Mole (Talfa europaa). page 123.

44 teeth; three incisors above, four below,
which are followed by a strong canine with
two roots. The upper canine is particularly
sharp, and is pointed and recurved. The
single -cusped premolars pass gradually into
molars provided with several sharp pointed
cusps. The mole lives solitary in its dark
chamber, from which as a centre it untiringly
digs out winding passages the whole year
round, even under the snow. The fortress
is constructed at a suitable depth at some
distance from the hunting-ground, mostly
under the roots of a thick tree, and is con-
nected by a main gallery with the hunting-
passages. This fortress is a perfect work

of art in its way. Two circular galleries,
having numerous connections with each other
and with the parts beyond, surround a bottle-
shaped chamber, which is made warm with
the stems of grass and with dry mosses.
The hunting-passages are carried to great
distances, and are indicated in places by the
heaps of earth thrown up, the well-known
molehills. The mole extends these passages
two or three times a day in search for prey,
and afterwards retires to its fortress. At the
breeding season the male shuts up the female,
whom he has acquired by force, in a nest
situated at some little distance from his for-
tress, and there she brings into the world from
four to eight blind young ones, which she is
often compelled to defend against the male.

That the character which seems to be indicated
by this last fact is not universally applicable to
the mole there is good reason to think. " It
would appear that the affection of the male for his
mate continues to be of a very warm kind, at least
M. Le Court states that he several times found a
female caught in a trap with the male lying dead
beside her. The possession of strong family affec-
tions by the mole would seem further to be proved
by an observation communicated to M. Le Court,
according to which, when the mole's nest is in-
vaded by a sudden flood, both parents may be
seen struggling bravely, and risking their own lives
to save their young, and mutually assisting and
protecting each other while thus engaged." — W. S.
Dallas in Cassell's Nat. Hist., order Insectivora.

Nevertheless it must be admitted that other
accounts show that the instances just quoted are
quite compatible with the occasional manifestation
of an extraordinary ferocity of disposition such as
that indicated in the text. When urged by hunger
the mole would seem to be capable of almost any-
thing to allay its pangs, of the fierceness of which
M. Geoffrey St. Hilaire speaks in remarkably en-
ergetic terms. " The mole," he says, " does not
suffer from hunger like all other animals. In it
this appetite is heightened. It is an exhaustion
felt even to frenzy. The animal exhibits a violent
agitation; it is animated with fury when it darts
on its prey; its gluttony disorders all its faculties;
nothing is allowed to stand in the way in its efforts
to assuage its hunger; it abandons itself to its

THE MOLES.

125

voracity, whatever may happen; neither the pres-
ence of man, nor obstacles, nor menaces deter or
stop it." In the Diet. Classique d' Hist. Natitrellc
it is added that " a mole dies of hunger in a very
short time, and it is a noteworthy fact that even
when its hunger is carried to the highest pitch it
never touches vegetable substances that may be
lying beside it. On the contrary, let an animal be
within its reach, and it will suddenly dart upon it,
rip open its belly, and devour it almost entirely
in a brief space of time. Toads are almost the
only animals which are distasteful to it; frogs and
birds it devours with avidity. If two moles of the
same sex are inclosed together the weaker is soon
devoured, and only the skin and some bones be-
longing to it will be left."

It cannot be too often repeated that the
mole lives exclusively on animal food, that it
never touches either roots or any other kind
of vegetable matter, that it feeds on all sorts
of underground vermin (worms and maggots),
that it also eats snails and even frogs, which
it is very clever in seizing, darting forth from
the earth with the rapidity of an arrow, and
that it will rather die of hunger than eat any
kind of tuber or other juicy root.

He is thus in consequence of his mode of
feeding himself a useful animal, which frees
us from all kinds of subterranean vermin, and
one does wrong, great wrong, in persecuting
him in places where the throwing up of mole-
hills can do no harm. No doubt where plan-
tations might be damaged the injury that
may be wrought by the making of the under-
ground passages and the throwing up of the
molehills must be placed against the benefits
which the mole confers as a destroyer of
vermin, but should not lead to his being
blindly extirpated.

Partly in consequence of differences in the
dentition, partly in consequence of peculiari-
ties in structure, a number of genera in this
group have been separated off from the true
moles. We have figured as the type of these
foreigners a Canadian form, the Star-nosed
Mole (Condylura cristata), fig. 55, whose snout
ends in a star-shaped plate of cartilage, which

has the nostrils in the middle. The long tail
is thickly covered with hair, the fore-limbs are
much longer than in our moles. The denti-
tion is also different. The first incisor pre-
sents a form which indicates some approach
to that of the musk-shrew. This form is still
more developed in another mole from the same
region (Scalops canadensis), which forms a con-

:

Fig. 55.— The Stai

lura crlitatii).

necting link with the next group through its
dentition and its short, compact form of body.

Group of the Golden Moles (Chrysochloridd).

Forms belonging to the Cape, with three-toed fore-limbs and
fur with rainbow reflex colours.

These are small animals with short, cylin-
drical body, extremely short limbs, and no
tail. The structure of the skeleton of the
fore-limb stands quite alone in the animal
world on account of the peculiar form of the
wrist bones. The three toes of the fore-paw
carry enormous sickle-shaped claws like those
of the ant-eaters. The dentition approaches
very close to that of the musk-shrews, and
comprises in all 40 teeth. The first incisor

126

THE INSECT-EATERS.

is pyramidal in shape and sharp, and takes
the place of a true canine, which is wanting.

The fur, which is soft and velvety like
that of all burrowers, presents in the reflex
shimmer of rainbow colours an appearance
which we are not accustomed to see in mam-
mals. The golden moles have pretty much
the same habits as the true moles. Little

Fig. 56. — The Cape Golden Mole (Chrysochloris cafeasis/.

further, however, is known about them. Fig.
56 shows a drawing of the commonest species.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND
DESCENT OF THE INSECT-EATERS.

This subject presents several points of in-
terest. What first strikes one is the fact that
the group is altogether unrepresented on the
mainland of South America, as well as in
Australia and the Australasian islands gener-
ally.

This absence of the Insectivora in the two
large areas just mentioned can be ascribed

neither to the climate nor to the want of
suitable food. We find Insectivora in the
warmest districts of the earth, and there is
probably no other part of the world so rich
in insects as South America. The cause of
this remarkable deficiency in these regions
must accordingly be sought for in the origin
of the Insectivora, of which we shall speak
later on.

The deficiency is all the more striking
since Cuba and Hayti, these two large islands
of the Antilles which lie under the tropics,
are inhabited by the peculiar genus Solenodon,
which, as we have seen, is sufficiently special-
ized to form the type of a separate family.
There are likewise other examples of similarly
restricted distribution.

The island of Madagascar has its peculiar
insectivores. The tanrecs are found only
there and on the neighbouring islands of
Mauritius and Bourbon, which perhaps were
formerly connected by land with the larger
island. The genus Eupleres, so remarkable
on account of its affinity to the Viverrida,
has been found solely in Madagascar. This
island thus forms, as regards the Insectivora,
a quite isolated zoological province, which
seems to have no relation either to the
African mainland or to any other part of the
world.

The mainland of Africa possesses as peculiar
types the jumpers in the deserts of the North
and South, the golden moles, which at the
Cape take the place of the true moles, and
an inhabitant of the water, Potamogale, which
has been discovered in the Gaboon and in
Angola, a creature which leads a life like that
of a fish-otter, feeding chiefly on fish and
crustaceans, and which must be taken as
forming the type of a separate family.

The East Indies, including the Sunda
Islands, possess exclusively the climbing
tupaias, as well as the genus Gymnura, a
genus considerably different from the true
hedgehogs, with which it is perhaps im-
properly associated.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND DESCENT.

127

1 he hedgehogs are entirely absent from
the mainland of America as well as from the
greater part of Africa. In Africa they are
found only in the extreme south and in the
regions bordering on the Mediterranean,
which possess so many other animals in
common with Europe. On the other hand,
this group inhabits the whole of Europe and
Asia as far as the temperate parts of the
Western Himalayas.

Africa has no true moles, these being con-
fined to the north temperate zones of the two
hemispheres, and advancing in Asia only as
far as the Himalayas. The American genera
(Condylura, Scalops) are distinguished by so
important peculiarities, that many naturalists
have separated them from the moles proper in
order to make them types of special families,
in spite of the similarity in the structure of
the fore-paws.

The shrews alone are spread over the
whole of the vast area occupied by the
insectivores, from the polar regions to the
tropics, and from the snow-clad mountains to
the plains. They accordingly present strange
developments in order to adapt them to all
the conditions of life which our globe has to
offer. In face of this wide distribution in all
directions the fact already mentioned of the
exclusion of the insectivores from South
America and from Australia acquires increased
importance.

Our surprise is still further heightened,
when we see certain nearly allied species be-
longing to one and the same genus separated
by wide intervals of land. Of the two species
of the true musk-shrews one frequents, as we
have seen, the torrents of the Pyrenees and
Northern Spain, the other the rivers of the
Russian steppes. The two species of Macros-
celides, or jumping-shrews, one of which is a
native of the Cape, and the other of North
Africa, are separated by the greater part of
the huge extent of the African continent;
and the allied genus Petrodromus likewise
inhabits an isolated district in Mozambique.

All these striking facts we may, not perhaps
exactly explain, but at least partially elucidate
by a consideration of the origin or descent of
the Insectivora. Our Insectivora are the
descendants of very old stocks, which can be
traced back to the oldest strata in which have
been found any remains of mammals at all.

It is, in fact, the upper strata of the Keuper
(belonging to the Triassic system) in Europe
and North America, in which have been
found jaws and teeth of the oldest mammals
yet known. These remains, which have
been ascribed to genera called respectively
Dromotherium and Microlestes, exhibit a
dentition like that of the Insectivora. Are
they the remains of genuine Insectivora, of
insect-eating marsupials, or, as a distinguished
American naturalist, Mr. Marsh, maintains,
of the predecessors of the marsupials?

It is difficult to decide. The large number
of the teeth in the single lower jaw that is
known, and the distance of the teeth from
each other, are in favour of the marsupial char-
acter of the remains ; but the absence of the
inflexed angle of the hinder part of the lower
jaw, which is characteristic in the Marsupialia,
induces us to decide in favour of Mr. Marsh.
Whichever view one adheres to, so much at
least is certain, that the insectivorous type of
dentition in these oldest mammals is some-
thing that cannot be questioned, and this
structure is also seen in some other jaws that
have been found in the Purbeck limestones
of the upper Jura, remains from which Owen
has formed the genera Spalacotherium, Tri-
conodon, and others, which he at first assigned
to the insect-eaters, afterwards to the mar-
supials.

Now it has not escaped the notice of any-
one that these fossil remains, as well as
several other similar remains which have
been found in the Stonesfield slates belonging
to the lower Oolite formation, present the
greatest analogy to certain insect -eating
marsupials of the present day, which again
show so much resemblance to the present

128

THE INSECT-EATERS.

placental Insectivora, that several genera of
this latter group were regarded as marsupials
as long as their organs of reproduction re-
mained unknown to naturalists.

Since the dentition is a remarkably con-
servative element in the structure of mam-
mals, it may be inferred from all these cir-
cumstances that our present-day insectivores
are the descendants of older marsupial stocks,
which have been continued uninterruptedly
through the various geological periods, but
in which the reproductive organs have under-
gone progressive modifications, while the
other organs have remained more or less
backward in development.

The fossil remains of Insectivora are rare,
which is easily explained by the small size
and the rapid weathering of the bones. Un-
doubted remains of Insectivora have, never-
theless, been found in the Eocene of Wyoming
(North America), and in the phosphorites of
Quercy in France belonging to the upper
Eocene, remains, however, which cannot be
ranked without some violence in any of the
families now living. It is not till we reach
the Miocene that the remains exhibit the
characters of the families of the present day
—hedgehogs, moles, and shrews.

Now we understand partially the very
singular geographical distribution above in-
dicated. In Australia mammals have not
developed beyond the primitive marsupial
type. Insect-eating marsupials but no true
insectivores are to be found there. A
singular phenomenon is met with in South
America. There we find a number of
placental mammals, but the insect -eating
marsupials have perpetuated themselves as
opossums without further development in
this formerly isolated continent.

Madagascar, separated from the mainland
as it has been since the Eocene period, and
the Antilles, which have not been connected
with the mainland since the Miocene, have

their own insectivores, derived from peculiar
marsupial stocks. North America has only
the shrews in common with the Old World,
and these perhaps have immigrated from the
north, while all the other types of this con-
tinent appear to have developed from inde-
pendent stocks. Analogous facts are observed
in Africa, the East Indies, and the temperate
zone of the great Eurasian continent. The
separation of closely allied species by wide
intervals of land is perhaps explicable on the
supposition that allied forms have died out in
the intervening tracts. Of the wuychuchol
it is at least definitely known that it existed
in England in the Quaternary period, so
that accordingly the genus Myogale was at
that time probably spread over the whole of
Europe.

The rarity and inadequacy of the fossil
remains certainly leave great gaps in the
derivation of the separate types now living.
Of many of them we are still unacquainted
with the intermediate forms.

From the facts that have been already
adduced it has been established with perfect
clearness that the Insectivora cannot have
originated from any one stock, but that separ-
ate stocks already existed in Triassic times.

The bats are flying insectivores, but we
cannot trace their ancestors further back than
the Eocene, when they already appear with
their characteristic wings. It is possible that
the ouistitis among the American monkeys,
and certain genera of lemurs with an in-
sectivorous dentition, are descendants of
marsupials, which, under the influence of
special conditions of life, have developed to
that point at which they have come to
approach those lemurs which seem to be
descended from ancient hoofed animals (Un-
gulata). But we know nothing definite with
regard to this, and it is better to recognize
the gaps in our knowledge, than to fill them
up with more or less arbitrary conjectures.

THE FLESH-EATERS

(CARNIVORA).

Mammals with zonary placenta, free clawed toes, well developed canines, and more or less cutting molars.

Numerous variations on a simple and
strictly limited theme! The Carnivora form
in fact one of the best denned orders in the
class of the Mammalia. The internal organ-
ization, taken as a whole, is the same in all,
while the bodily form, the dentition, the fur,
the structure of the limbs are subject indeed
to considerable variations, but the deviations
from a common type under all these heads
are neither so wide nor so numerous as those
we have met with among the Insectivora.
In spite of all the variety there prevails
within this order a certain harmony, in so far
as very eccentric forms do not occur at all.
A tabular statement relating to the order,
drawn up on the model of police returns,
would contain under almost all the headings
the word "Average."

Among the Carnivora we meet with all
gradations, from the powerful and even
clumsy types to the rather slender small
forms ; but we find neither giants nor dwarfs
as in other orders. From the lion to the
weasel there is certainly abundant room for
a variety of forms.

The head, which is always well marked off
from the neck, is mostly roundish, but fre-
quently also drawn out into a rather long
muzzle. Its middle part is usually pretty
broad in consequence .of the considerable
development of the muscles of mastication,

which set the formidable jaws in motion. In
general the head in those forms which live
solely on animal food may be rounder, the
muzzle broader, while in those genera which
add to their diet a little vegetable food, the
head is apt to become narrower and the
muzzle more pointed. The ears are always
sharp and mobile; the eyes pretty large, and,
though situated at the side of the head,
directed forwards, their pupils sometimes
roundish, sometimes in the form of vertical
slits. The frequently pointed or at least
elongated muzzle never forms a proboscis,
such as occurs so often among the Insectivora.
The opening of the jaws is wide and is sur-
rounded by fleshy lips, on which there are
often set very long tactile hairs.

The body is sometimes compact or even
thickset, sometimes rather long; the limbs
in general of medium length, and though
somewhat shortened in those species which
creep or swim, never very short or very long,
and in any case always fleshy down to the
ankle-bones. There is never any remarkable
disproportion between the fore- and hind-
limbs, as in all jumping animals. The upper
parts of the limbs are not free from the trunk
as in the monkeys and the bats. There is
always a tail, but this organ is developed in
very variable proportions.

The structure of the whole body, and

17

130

THE FLESH-EATERS.

especially that of the skeleton, in most cases
combines great power of movement with
great strength. The ridges for the attach-
ment of the muscles are always very pro-
minent. The bony substance is very dense,
thus affording the greatest power of resistance
with the least bulk.

The brain-case, which is in itself small,
appears larger during life in consequence of
the remarkable development of the ridges to
which the muscles of the jaws and the nape
of the neck are attached. In the great ma-
jority of beasts of prey there is a well-marked
longitudinal ridge on the middle line of the
skull, the sagittal crest, which is continued
behind into two lateral ridges surrounding
the back part of the skull. The wide sweep
of the zygomatic arch, which attains its highest
development in the cat tribe (the Felida),
also points to the extraordinary development
of the muscles of mastication. The orbits are
never closed, but are always continuous with
the temporal fossae or depressions at the
temples. At the base of the large zygomatic
arches are the cavities which receive the
hinder joints of the lower jaw. The cavities
in question form transverse pits, in which
the rounded ends of the bones of the lower
jaw can turn round their axis. This arrange-
ment does not permit of any lateral move-
ment of the lower jaw, which can only be
raised and depressed. The carnivore can
thus never grind his food by the process of
mastication. The movements by which this
is effected, as by the ruminants, are alto-
gether out of his power. The halves of the
lower jaw never become fused together, but
are always separated by a suture in front.

The chest is always flattened at the sides,
so that the breast-bone often forms a pretty
prominent keel. The shoulder-girdle con-
sists only of a shoulder-blade. The collar-
bone is altogether wanting or quite rudimen-
tary. This structure would in itself show
that the fore -limb is not adapted for the
performance of complicated functions, that

it cannot be a true prehensile organ or organ
of flight. In harmony with this structure
the power of rotating the bones of the fore-
arm about themselves, what is called in scien-
tific language the power of pronation and
supination, is extremely limited.

The carnivore can run, strike with his
paw, can knock down his prey and hold it
fast, but he can only in exceptional cases
make use of his paw to carry his food to his
mouth.

We reserve till further on the thorough
examination of the feet and teeth ; and as
to the brain, all that we wish to observe
here is that the large brain, or cerebrum,
which always exhibits distinct convolutions,
never covers the small brain or cerebellum,
and always displays a peculiar structure in
the disposition of the fissures and convolu-
tions, a structure entirely different from that
of the apes and monkeys. The stomach is
always simple, sack-shaped. The intestine,
very short in the pure flesh-eaters, becomes
a little longer in those species which adopt a
mixed diet. All the species have an un-
pleasant smell, due to the secretions of the
glands in the skin, and mostly also to special
glands situated in the neighbourhood of the
anus. In some forms this abominably smell-
ing secretion is a genuine means of defence.

By the structure and arrangement of their
reproductive organs the Carnivora are alto-
gether separated from the insectivores. We
do not intend to go into details; and it is
enough to mention that the placenta, the
organ so important for the nourishment of
the embryo, has the form of a belt or muff
surrounding the ovum, the ends of which are
left free. A placenta of this form is called
zonary; and through attaching too much im-
portance to this structure, some naturalists
have included the carnivores, the elephants,
and the hyrax in the large group of the
" zono-placental mammals," greatly to the
advancement of a rational system of classifica-
tion!

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

Both bones of the lower limbs are always
present and distinct. Those of the wrist and
ankle, as well as of the metacarpus and meta-
tarsus (the bones corresponding to those of
the palm of the hand and the sole of the foot),
are also quite distinct, and in general can be
moved about pretty freely among each other.
The toes are free, often connected only by a
swimming-web, and are armed with sharp
hooked claws, which in the burrowing and
climbing species are long and powerful, in
the runners shorter and blunter, and in the
Felida and many of the Viverrida are really
terrible weapons. In these last forms they
are capable of being retracted along with the
last joint of the toe within membranous
sheaths or folds of the skin on the upper
surface of the foot. In this manner they are
protected from being worn away in walking,
while they can be protruded at will by means
of powerful muscles whenever the animal
wishes to put them to their natural use as
razor- like cutting instruments. They thus
form even more dangerous weapons than the
teeth.

The mode in which the limbs are held in
walking is very various, and serves as a
means of distinguishing the larger sub-
divisions.

The massive and rather clumsy Carnivora,
such as the bears, for example, place the
entire sole of the foot as far as the ankle on
the ground. The impression of their feet,
their tread, somewhat resembles that of man
or the Simise. These are the " sole-walkers"
(Plantigrada). Those forms, on the other
hand, which have more flexible limbs and
more slender bodies, such as the cats and
dogs, place only the ends of their toes on the
ground ; the whole weight of their body rests
in walking on the joint between the second
and the last of the small bones of the toes.
These are " finger- walkers " (Digitigrada).
Between these two extremes there are many
intermediate grades. The martens, for ex-
ample, place the whole length of their toes

and the metacarpal or metatarsal region on
the ground, keeping only the ankle (or wrist)
elevated; they have consequently been called
Semiplantigrada. Most of the Viverrida, on
the other hand, are Semiplantigrada which
keep the metacarpus and metatarsus also
elevated. These finer distinctions, however,
are all the less capable of being maintained
since some species are semiplantigrade in
front, and completely plantigrade behind.
Naturalists have accordingly only retained
the designations for the structures adapted to
the very different modes of progression at
the two extremes. The plantigrade form
was without doubt the original mode of pro-
gression of the primitive carnivores; only
gradually have the ankle, the metacarpus (or
metatarsus), and lastly, the first two joints of
the toes been raised above the ground.

In most cases the feet have five free toes.
The number may, however, sink to four
either on one or both pairs of limbs. But
the reduction is carried no further. Among
the carnivores we know no forms, such as
are found in many other orders, having feet
with three or two toes, or even with only
one.

The dentition is even more characteristic
than the structure of the foot. It is dis-
tinguished first of all by the remarkable
constancy in the number of the teeth, which
are all placed in the front portion of the
jaws. With the exception of a single
species, the sea- otter (Enhydra), all the
Carnivora have in each half of the jaw both
above and below three incisors and one
canine. The only variations are in the
number of the molars and premolars. The
small close-set vertical incisors have, for the
most part, chisel- shaped crowns, and are
admirably adapted for gnawing bones. The
crowns are frequently so notched that the
series has the appearance of a saw. The
middle incisors are the first to appear, and
the outer ones the last.

The canines, sometimes simply conical and

132

THE FLESH-EATERS.

straight, are mostly recurved, very sharp,
laterally compressed, with a sharp hinder
edge, and often notched like a saw. They
always overtop the crowns of the other teeth,
even when they are poorly developed, and
when the mouth is closed they fit into cor-
responding gaps or diastemas in the opposite
jaws, sliding past each other in order to do
so. The canine of the lower jaw, usually not
so powerful as that of the upper, gets inserted
in a diastema between the incisors and the
upper canine, while this upper canine fits
into a diastema between the lower canine
and the first of the lower premolars. The
size, strength, and sharpness of the canines
correspond to the greater or less degree of
ferocity" in the disposition of the animal.

The premolars and molars are usually close
enough together at the base to form a con-
tinuous series; but their crowns have high
cusps and points, and the teeth of the opposite
jaws usually correspond to one another in
such a manner that each tooth fits into the
interval between two teeth in the opposite
jaw when the mouth is closed.

There has been much controversy as to the
significance of the molar teeth in the Carni-
vora. Many naturalists direct their attention
in a one-sided manner to the form of the
individual teeth, while others attach most
importance to their development from the
milk-teeth. It must indeed be admitted that
in many cases we can scarcely resort to this
latter character, since the milk dentition is
frequently unknown, especially in the case of
extinct types. It is clear that only very
rarely by some lucky accident we can become
acquainted with the deciduous dentition of a
fossil genus.

With reference to the form alone, three
kinds of molars have been distinguished
among the carnivores still living. Behind
the canine come the premolars, which are
mostly furnished with only a single median
cusp, which is sometimes conical, mostly sharp,
and in many cases accompanied by small

lateral cusps, which, though less prominently
developed, are not less sharp. The premolars
as well as the incisors and canines belong to
the milk dentition. In no living carnivore
does the number of these premolars exceed
four in each half of the jaw ; but this number
may be reduced to two or even to one.
Some of these teeth which are still present
in the young animal afterwards drop out, as,
for example, in some bears. After these
premolars, which usually increase in size from
before backwards, there almost always follows
a peculiarly formed tooth known as the
sectorial or carnassial tooth. It is usually
the strongest tooth in the whole set, shaped
like a sharp blade, divided mostly into two,
sometimes more, lobes, and in almost every
case provided with a heel or process running
inwards. The carnassial teeth of the upper
jaw close above the lower ones when the
mouth is shut, and these four teeth form
in this way the four blades of two pairs of
shears, which are just as sharp as instruments
made of steel. If the canines are fitted by
their form to transfix and hold fast, if the pre-
molars tear the prey into fragments, the car-
nassial teeth cut and divide it like shears,
and since they are seated far back in the
jaws, which form single levers, they can be
worked with inexpressible force. Under the
action of the carnassial teeth the bones are
crunched, and the form of these teeth is all
the more complicated the greater the ferocity
of the animal to which they belong.

Behind the carnassial tooth there is a
varying number of so-called tubercled teeth,
never more than three, however, and some-
times these are altogether wanting. These
are broad teeth with rather flat crowns, mostly
studded with blunt tubercles, and often re-
sembling human molars. Their uneven
surface manifestly shows that they are in-
tended for crushing or bruising the food, and
they are more numerous and stronger the
more omnivorous the animal is.

On comparing the dental systems of all

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

133

living and fossil carnivores, we are led to the
conclusion that since the beginning of the
Tertiary epoch two series have been going
on developing, two series originally repre-
sented by two families now extinct. Of these
one, the Arctocyonida, were more omnivorous,
while theother, the Hyaenodontida, approached
the carnivorous marsupials in the form of their
sharp cutting molars. The genera belonging
to both of these families have all 44 teeth,
and in the Hysenodontida there were at least
5 premolars, the two last of which had the
form of carnassial teeth. Throughout the
whole series of the Carnivora the carnassial
tooth of the upper jaw appears to have
belonged both to the milk and the permanent
dentition, while the lower carnassial in most
cases belongs solely to the permanent set.

It is manifest from this fact that the form
and origin of the teeth do not correspond
to one another, and that the authorities who
rely solely on the one or the other of these
characters for their determinations cannot
come to an agreement.

However that may be, so much remains
certain, that the modifications which the Car-
nivora exhibit in their dental systems are due
primarily to the diminution in the number of
the teeth, which goes hand in hand with a
special adaptation of the structure of the
teeth to definite purposes. In the old families
the numerous premolars pass gradually over
into the likewise numerous molars. In the
families of the present day the differences in
form are more marked and the number of the
teeth is diminished, whether through the loss
of premolars or through that of true molars
or tubercled teeth. At the present day only
one carnivore has as many as 44 teeth, but
the dogs and the bears (Canida and Ursida)
have 42, and in this number there are as
many tubercled teeth as in the extinct
Arctocyonida. The diminution is continued
in the racoons, which have 40 teeth, and in
the badgers and kinkajous, which have 36;
but in all these groups the omnivorous char-

acter indicated by the tubercled teeth is
preserved, even though these are reduced in
number.

The Viverrida with 40 teeth have preserved
in their dentition manifest traces of one of
a marsupial type, but one which is in the
highest degree carnivorous in character, and
this character becomes more prominent in the
hyaenas with 34 teeth, and still more so in
the members of the cat tribe (Felida), the
most carnivorous of all, with only 30. In
this series it is easy to trace the decline of
the tubercled teeth and the diminution in
number of the premolars, processes which
culminate in the Machairodus, that formidable
giant feline of Pliocene and Quaternary times,
in which the premolars are reduced in number
and size, and the dentition is almost confined
to the long, sharp, dagger-like canines and
the powerful carnassials, far back in the jaws.

All these relations of the dentition are so
constant that we can only point to three ex-
ceptions among all the numerous carnivores.
The sea-otter has only 32 teeth, while the
other otters have 36. It is the only carnivore
which has only four incisors instead of six in
the lower jaw. The earth-wolf of the Cape
(Proteles), which resembles the hyaenas in so
many respects, has only 30 teeth, just as
many as the cats, but its back teeth are so
insignificant and ill-formed that they seem as
if they had been hindered in their develop-
ment; they stand apart from one another,
and one can distinguish among them neither
premolars, nor carnassials, nor tubercled teeth.
Finally, a small animal belonging to Pata-
gonia, having the general appearance of a
weasel, an animal called Lyncodon, has only
28 teeth, having one premolar less than the
Felida, whose dentition presented the smallest
number of highly specialized teeth known
before the discovery of the Lyncodon.

The mode of life of the Carnivora is just
as varied as that of the animals on which
they feed. All live at the expense of weaker
animals than themselves; but their means of

'34

THE DOG TRIBE.

providing themselves with their food are very
different. Some hunt alone or in pairs, others
in larger or smaller companies. Some hunt
only by day, others only by night. Some
resort to cunning, others rely solely on their
strength, others depend on their speed. There
are certain carnivores which pursue their prey
running, while others crawl up towards it
and then seize it by a sudden bound. Some
are agile climbers and live mainly in trees,
others are very expert swimmers and divers,
and others again economize their strength, and
in order to obtain their prey trust only to in-
exhaustible patience and to stratagem. There
is almost always one of the senses more
highly developed than all the others. Most
frequently it is the sense of smell that guides
them, often also that of hearing, sometimes
only the sense of sight.

The mental qualities and the disposition are
just as varied as the food. Those which feed

on living animals are frequently bloodthirsty
and kill more than they can consume. The
carrion-eaters are voracious and cowardly. The
vegetable-feeders have a gentle disposition.

In general the robber must be more in-
telligent than the robbed. We have accor-
dingly just as little reason to be surprised at
the highly developed intelligence of certain
carnivores as at the ease with which some of
them make themselves the associates of man.
To this order man owes his oldest and trus-
tiest domestic companion, the dog.

But it would be superfluous to enter here
into further details, which we reserve till we
come to the more thorough examination of
the individual types. We regard this great
order as made up of six families: the Dogs
(Canida); the Hyaenas (Hyoenida); the Cats
(Felida); the Viverrines (Viverrida); the
Bears (Ursida); and the Martens (Mus-
telida).

THE DOG TRIBE

(CANIDA).

Digitigrade carnivores with long running legs, five free toes on the fore-feet, four on the hind-feet, and in

most cases 42 teeth.

This large family, distributed over the
whole world, is easily recognizable even in its
most divergent forms. The not very large
head carries in all wild members of the family
erect, pointed, very mobile ears, often very
large, and wide open eyes, and is produced
into a longer or shorter muzzle, at the end of
which open the wide mobile nostrils. The
wide mouth is surrounded by thick fleshy
lips, on which are set sparsely scattered tac-
tile hairs. The long broad fleshy tongue
serves to lap up liquids. The vertebrae of
the strong fleshy neck have broad and high
processes for the attachment of the powerful
muscles. The small laterally compressed

chest and insignificant trunk are supported
by straight legs, which are relatively longer
than in other carnivores. The toes are mostly
armed with a few curved claws, which get
worn away in running. On the sole of the
feet are callous pads covered with a thick
rough skin. The tail, generally long, is often
shaggy. The fur is pretty thick, but only
rarely of much value to the furrier; in certain
parts the hair is elongated so as to form a
mane or long tuft. There may be as many
as ten abdominal teats, and the number of
the young born at one time is often very
considerable. The coat is seldom brightly
coloured or marked; in general the prevail-

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

135

ing hue is a dull gray, which may pass over
into yellow, brown, or red.

The dentition offers little variety. In the
majority of the Canida the incisors are narrow
and sharp. The upper ones often show a
median cusp, with two side cusps, separated by
not very deep incisions, while the lower ones
have only a notch in the middle. The can-
ines are seldom very strong, but often curved,
slender, and flattened at the sides. Both
above and below there are four premolars in
the milk dentition, and the last of these in
the upper jaw is the carnassial tooth. The
others both above and below increase in size
from before backwards. They are all single-
cusped. The upper carnassial has a large
oblique cusp in the middle, the lower is two-
lobed. The tubercled teeth diminish in size
from before backwards; the first is always
very large and mostly quadrangular in form.
The general formula is — Milk dentition

V i ' 4 i •• v i ' 4 ' 2

- = 32; permanent dentition ^-

3'i'4 3-I-4-3

= 42. Exceptions are met with only as re-
gards the number of the true molars or tuber-
cled teeth. Some wild dogs belonging to
India, which have been formed into the genus
Cyon, have only two molars in the lower jaw,
accordingly only 40 teeth in all, while a re-
markable South African dog with large ears,
Otocyon caffer, has always four tubercled teeth
below and three or four above, which brings
the total number of its teeth up to 46 or even
48, a number which exceeds that of almost
all other placental mammals.

Essentially carnivorous in their diet the
Canida are in general not so bloodthirsty as
the cats (Felida) or martens (Mustelida).
Many of them not only do not despise carrion,
but even show a decided fondness for it, and
prefer tainted game to fresh meat. In a
domesticated state they can certainly easily
be accustomed to any kind of diet, but with
the exception of certain species most of the
wild Canida abstain from vegetable food, and
their strong tubercled teeth serve rather to

masticate flesh and crush bones. Yet there
are some few species which manifest a de-
cided preference for a vegetable diet.

All the Canida chase living prey, the great
majority of them by night, but some also by
day. While resting they remain in clefts in
the rocks and other holes and corners. Some
excavate underground recesses with passages
leading to them. They hunt most frequently
in troops, often very numerous ones, seldom
singly or in pairs, and they know how to con-
cert plans of attack so as to cut off the re-
treat of their destined prey. Their extra-
ordinarily keen scent is what guides them
and furnishes them with their chief notions
about the objects around them. The sense
of hearing is only of secondary importance,
and is most highly developed in those species
which live in great deserts. The sight is
only a slightly developed subsidiary sense.
In order to gain an accurate knowledge of
any object the dog must sniff it all round.
Its memory is based on its smell.

I am speaking here only of wild dogs.
With few exceptions they are all cowardly
beasts, which never, even when urged by
hunger, attack singly animals with which they
might have to wage any serious battle. But
in these cases they assemble in troops, to
break the resistance, and when once their
prey has been overpowered by their united
strength, they show their cruelty and fero-
city even in devouring those of their own
kind which may have been wounded in the
struggle.

Wild Canida do not bark, but howl.
Scarcely any sounds uttered by animals are
more unpleasant to hear. The howling-
monkeys alone can rival wolves or jackals
in the diabolical music which they create.

The glands of the skin are very highly de-
veloped, and besides the numerous sebaceous
or fat-secreting glands which are found every-
where, the Canida have either a single large
gland at the root of the tail (like the fox) or
several smaller scent-glands. All the Canida

1 36

THE DOG TRIBE.

likewise have a peculiar gamy smell, often
sufficiently penetrating, and all the more per-
sistent since this family exhibit none of the
cleanly instincts for which the cat tribe are
remarkable.

None of the Canida are tree- climbers.
They hunt down their prey by the rapidity
of their course in the open ground. Only
seldom do they resort to stratagem. Some
species crouch and crawl so as to approach
their prey, and have even acquired a certain
reputation on account of the "thousand tricks"
by which they outwit their victims, but in
general the Canida make after their game in
full chase.

The Canida are very prolific. Haifa dozen
young at a birth is the average, and this
average may be considerably exceeded. The
young come into the world with closed eyes,
and are mostly tended by the mother alone,
which for a long time watches over them
with the utmost solicitude, and is often
even compelled to defend them against the
father.

Though it cannot be denied that the wild
Canida have a pretty highly developed in-
telligence, yet we should not overestimate
their capacities, which do not surpass those
of the other Carnivora. Neither in the chase
nor in their modes of defending themselves
against enemies do they exhibit any very
high endowments. We should be careful
not to ascribe to the wild species qualities
which the domesticated dogs have acquired
by centuries of intercourse with man. A
weasel is not less sly and cunning than a fox,
which yet passes in fable for the master of
all sorts of wily tricks, and the wild cats are
just as astute as foxes in concerting plans of
attack, in which they weigh all the difficulties
of an enterprise, and take the probabilities of
success into consideration. If we leave out
of account the training given by man, the
effects of which have been inherited and
further and further developed for numberless
generations, then we can see in the dog only

a social carnivore, which has intelligence
enough for its business as a hunter in the
open field, but no more.

What makes up for all the bad qualities of
the dog in the eyes of man is the readiness
with which several species of this family have
abandoned their liberty in order to place
themselves entirely under his rule. This is
certainly a very remarkable trait of character,
and all the more so since it has been found
in several species natives of widely different
countries. But precisely in this fact we see
a striking proof of that which we have said
about the wild Canida, for the domesticated
dogs have, as regards their intelligence,
neither more nor less than man has put into
them.

The family of the Canida is very numerous,
and the species are all the more varied in
character since the family is distributed over
a vast geographical area. Founding on the
essential differences in the structure of the
teeth and feet we may distinguish four genera:
the Dogs Proper, forming the genus Canis,
with 42 teeth; the genus Cyon,1 with 40 teeth;
the genus Otocyon, with 48. These three
genera have all five toes on the fore- and
four on the hind-feet. Lastly, the Cape Hunt-
ing Dogs, forming the genus Lycaon, which
have only four toes on all the feet, while their
dentition does not differ from that of the dogs
proper.

Since these latter are the most numerous,
several subgenera have been distinguished,
but these cannot be regarded as well estab-
lished. The subdivision into wolves, with
a round pupil, and foxes with a vertical slit
for the pupil, is still that which is most
generally accepted. It must be admitted,
however, that there are connecting links
between the two extremes as regards the
form of the pupil.

1 The smaller number of teeth in the genus Cyon or Cuon (called
by some naturalists Chryseus) is due to the absence of the second
tubercled tooth on each side of the lower jaw. To this genus
belong the kholsun or dhole of Western India (Cyan diilc!iuensis\
and the buansuah of Northern India (Cuon primtrvus).— TR.

To /act page 136.

PLATE VI. -. A PACK OF WOLVES (Canis lupus] IN PURSUIT OF PREY.

THE GROUP OF THE WOLVES.

137

THE DOGS PROPER

(CANIS)
With five toes in front, four behind, and 42 teeth.

The Group of the Wolves (subgenus Lupus).

With round pupil; includes the strongest species with the
longest legs.

Our common Wolf (Cants lupus) may serve
as the type of the whole group. A highly
social animal, the wolf is distributed over all
Europe, all the continent of Asia except the
hot regions, and all North America, in one
word, over all the cold and temperate regions
of both hemispheres. High mountains are
seldom visited by it except as places of refuge,
when it is driven away by the civilization of
the plains. It prefers the wild tracts of
moderately high mountains, and of plains
where forests afford a secure retreat, and in
general can make itself comfortable anywhere,
if only it can find a good resting-place and
abundant food. Man has driven it away
wherever he could, and in England it has
been extirpated. In our days it is chiefly in
western Europe, in the Jura, the Ardennes,
and the maritime mountains of Northern
Spain where it still roams about in small
troops, while in the East, in Poland, Russia,
and Hungary, it still forms large flocks, which
in time of war press further west in the train
of the armies.

The wolf cannot be better described than
by saying that it is like a large lean slim dog
with a thick head, pointed muzzle, and shaggy
hanging tail. The legs are thin, the paws
narrow, the fur abundant and thick in north-
ern countries during the winter, of a yellowish-
gray colour, sometimes inclining to red, yellow,
or black. Like all animals with a wide distri-
bution the wolves have coats which vary very
much according to the country and the season
of the year. In general the fur is highly
esteemed as a shaggy sort. The tail is never
so well covered with hair as that of the fox.

In spite of the reputation for coarse
stupidity, which has been created for it by
the writers of fables, the wolf is an untiring
cunning hunter, which in all its hunts traverses
considerable stretches of ground. It seeks
out carrion as well as living victims.

In summer it is almost always to be found
alone, or accompanied only by a female, but
in winter the pairs unite into large troops,
sometimes numbering more than a hundred
individuals. After sunset they call to one
another by uttering a frightful whining howl
most disagreeable to hear, and the chase lasts
the whole night through. By day the wolf
rests in dense underwood, in fissures in the
rocks, holes in the snow, or amidst the reeds
on the margins of ponds and marshes.

The wolf goes where hunger calls. In
winter he approaches the dwellings and
stables, in summer he prefers to hunt in the
woods. Fainthearted and cowardly when
alone, he often takes to flight in the most
ridiculous manner on the slightest occasion ;
but when combined into a tolerably numerous
troop, the same animals show themselves to
be daring, reckless, and terrible in the last
degree. He flees from man, especially where
he has made acquaintance with fire-arms;
nevertheless the stories told of the " wer-
wolf" are not altogether without foundation.
There were mad wolves which, just like mad
dogs, fell upon all that came in their way.

The wolf has just as keen a scent as the
best hunting hound, and is just as expert in
following a trail. Plate VI. depicts a band
of wolves so occupied. The wolf is sly,
clever, and patient. When he hunts alone
he follows his victim with remarkable perse-
verance and certainty. For hours at a time
he lies in wait beside the well-known tracks
of his prey, and always manages to overcome
the obstacles which he finds in his way. It
is an established fact that a pack of wolves
draws up regular plans of attack, and the
members of it come to a mutual understand-
ing as to their respective roles. If they have

18

'38

THE DOG TRIBE.

once combined for any enterprise against
other animals which are capable of defending
themselves, they lend each other aid. It is
said that they devour their dead and wounded
comrades, but other observers deny that they
have these cannibal habits. Perhaps this
difference of opinion is due to the fact that
the wolf behaves differently in different situa-

tions. The hunger of the wolf has become
proverbial, and the wolf is not the only
animal in which hunger can materially pre-
judice love to one's neighbour.

The wolf kills more than his hunger re-
quires, at least more than is necessary for his
immediate wants, but not beyond what is
necessary to satisfy the future demands of his

Fig. 57.— The African Wolf (Cants tupasttr).

appetite, which he always takes prudently
into consideration; for what he cannot eat
to-day he can perhaps consume in eight or ten
days. He devours everything, both fresh
meat and carrion, and even manifests a
preference for the latter. Mammals and
birds, reptiles and amphibians, and even the
dried stockfish of northern lands, seem to
come all alike to his little-spoiled palate. It
is even said that when hard pressed by hunger
he does not despise maybugs, or pumpkins,
or fresh heads of maize. For domestic dogs
and foxes, his nearest blood relations, the
wolf appears to have a peculiar relish, and
the former repay the hatred which he owes
them in full measure. In pastoral countries

bands of wolves attack not only sheep and
goats, which are their ordinary victims, but
even considerable herds of cattle and horses,
from which they try to separate a single in-
dividual in order to overwhelm it by a com-
bined attack. In other parts the wolves com-
mit great ravages among game, attacking
even the moose and the wild boar. In the
North they follow the migrations of the
lemmings; in the mountains they endeavour
to break into stables and inclosures.

Where wolves are abundant they become
a real plague through the ravages which they
commit among flocks and herds, and especially
sheep, as well as through their attacks on
man. Among undomesticated animals only

ERSITY

' OF

THE GROUP OF THE WOLVES.

139

powerful bulls, the auerochs, the half-wild
horses of the steppes, tarpans, and boars can
withstand their onsets. On account of these
depredations the wolf is implacably pursued
by man. All methods seem good which help
towards his extermination. Poison, firearms,
snares and traps, and battues with well-trained

dogs are all resorted to for the purpose.
Wolf-hunting formerly stood, and in some
countries still stands, in high honour.

The female wolf gives birth in spring to
from four to six young, which remain blind
for three weeks and are suckled for a pretty
long time. Wolfs are easily tamed while

Fig. 58.— The Maned Wolf (Canis jnl>,iius).

young, but must be well looked after and
kept isolated when they attain the age of
puberty, for they become wild again when
they hear other wolves howl. In spite of the
rooted hatred between dogs and wolves these
animals often unite and produce hybrids,
which are mutually fertile. In many districts
the race of the wolf-hounds is even said to be
recruited by this process of bastardizing.

Fig. 57 gives a representation of the
African Wolf (Cants lupaster), which ranges
over the whole of the north and the centre
of the continent, and is distinguished from the
European wolf by its inferior size and strength,
its larger straight ears, a tolerably bushy tail,
and a brownish colour. The ancient Egyptians

have represented this wolf on their monu-
ments. It sometimes commits considerable
devastation among sheep and goats, but
mostly lives on smaller prey and on carrion,
which it prefers to any other kind of food.

The Maned Wolf (C. jubatus), fig. 58, of
South America is of the size of our wolf, but
weaker, and has longer legs. The ears are
larger, the tail shorter, the anal glands more
developed than in other wolves. It is of a
cinnamon-brown colour, but has a black face
and black paws, and a white spot on the
throat. A mane of stiff hair covers the nape
of the neck and the back. It lives chiefly on
agoutis and guinea-pigs, but eats also much
fruit; it attacks sheep but rarely. This ex-

140

THE DOG TRIBE.

traordinarily shy creature, which hunts only
by night, has generally managed to withdraw
itself from the observations of travellers.

The Coyote or Prairie-wolf (Cants latrans),
fig- 59- which ranges throughout North
America as far as Mexico, approaches the
foxes in the form of its long bushy tail, its sharp
snout, and rather
short legs. Its thick
fur is of a yellowish-
gray colour. Its
mode of life alto-
gether resembles
that of our wolves.
The only difference
to be noted is that
the female excavates
a subterranean hole
in which to give birth
to her young. Its
howling, barking,
and whining can be
heard to a very con-
siderable distance.

The following is
taken from a paper
by Dr. Coues in the
American Naturalist
(1867), as quoted in the
official report by Drs.

Coues and Yarrow on the Collections of Mammals
in portions of some of the Western States of
America.

"The Prairie or Barking Wolf (Cants latrans,
Say) is by far the most abundant carnivorous
animal in Arizona, as it is also in almost every part
of the West. Practically, the coyote is a nuisance;
theoretically, he compels a certain degree of
admiration, viewing his irrepressible positivity of
character and his versatile nature. If his genius
has nothing essentially noble or lofty about it, it is
undeniable that few animals possess so many and
so various attributes, or act them out with such
dogged perseverance. Ever on the alert, and
keenly alive to a sense of danger, he yet exhibits
the coolest effrontery when his path crosses ours.
The main object of his life seems to be the satis-
fying of a hunger which is always craving, and to

Fig. 59.— The Coyote or Prairie-wolf (Canis latrans).

this aim all his cunning, impudence, and audacity
are mainly directed.

" Much has been written concerning the famous
polyglot serenades of the Coyote by those who
have been unwilling listeners, but it is difficult to
convey an adequate idea in words of the noisy con-
fusion. One must have spent an hour or two
vainly trying to sleep before he is in a condition

to appreciate the full
force of the annoyance.
It is a singular fact
that the howling of two
or three wolves gives
an impression that a
score are engaged, so
many, so long-drawn
arc the notes, and so un-
interruptedly are they
continued by one indi-
vidual after another. A
short, sharp bark is
sounded, followed by
several more in quick
succession, the time
growing faster and the
pitch higher, till they
run together into a
long-drawn lugubrious
howl in the highest
possible key. The same
strain is taken up again
and again by different
members of the pack,
while from a greater

distance the deep melancholy baying of the more
wary Lobo1 breaks in to add to the discord, till the
very leaves of the trees seem quivering to the in-
harmonious sounds. It is not true, as asserted by
some, that the coyotes howl only just after dark and
at daylight. Though they may be noisiest at these
times, when the pack is gathering together for a
night's foraging, or dispersing again to their diurnal
retreat, I know that they give tongue at any time
during the night. They are rarely, if ever, heard in
the daytime, though frequently to be seen, at least
in secluded regions. Ordinarily, however, they
spend the day in quiet out-of-the-way places, among
rocks, in thick copses, &c., and seek their prey
mainly by night, collecting for this purpose into
packs, as already noticed."

1 The American, Timber, or Buffalo Wolf (Canis lupus occkien-
tolls).

THE GROUP OF THE WOLVES.

141

The Jackal, the Dib of the Arabs (C.atircus],
is to be seen in Plate VII., where it is repre-
sented in company with hyaenas, to which he
is said to act as guide. Since he can scent
carrion at great distances, the natives main-
tain that without his aid the hysenas would
die of hunger in consequence of the dulness
of their senses. Is this explanation correct?

I cannot say. But the fact is that when the
yelping of jackals is heard, one has not to
wait long in order to hear the laughing and
harsh cries of the hyaena.

The stories told by us of the fox are told
by the Arabs of the jackal. Among the
animals of Northern Africa it is regarded as
the type of cunning, malice, treachery, and

Fig. 60. — The Slender Jackal (Cants anthus).

shamelessness. But while our fox carries on
its depredations in silence, the jackal has full
claim to its Arabic name, which signifies
"howler." It is a truly diabolical music,
which goes on from sunset to dawn, which
has something melancholy and pitiful in its
sound, and becomes simply intolerable when
the band is numerous and hungry. Some-
times the jackals utter a distinct bark.

The long fur, of a dirty yellow on the bacK,
and more copper-coloured on the sides, gives
the jackal somewhat of the appearance of the
fox, from which it is distinguished, however,
by its longer legs and round pupil. It extends
from India through Persia and Asia Minor
to Northern and Central Africa, and is found
also in Greece, and even in Dalmatia; and

everywhere it is the same animal, universally
detested and universally pursued. Of a
variety, the Slender Jackal, which some even
regard as a species under the name of Cants
anthus, a variety recognizable by its gray fur
and longer and slimmer legs, an illustration
(fig. 60) is furnished for this reason, that the
greyhounds of the Arabs (the slugi) are pro-
bably descended from it.

Jackals always assemble in troops, and
slay and ravage every creature that they are
a match for. Instead of the few domestic
fowls, with which, in spite of all their cunning
and wiliness, they must for the most part
content themselves, they would, no doubt,
levy tithes on the goats and sheep of the
natives, if it were not for the dogs, which

142

THE DOG TRIBE.

pursue them with fury. Disgusting, filthy, ill-
smelling animals, they put up in case of
necessity with any kind of nourishment, even
with the excrements of other animals. They
follow travellers and caravans, and know very
well how to estimate the dangers that may
threaten them. The post-cars in Algiers
cause them no fear, as I have myself been
able to observe. A jackal which was quietly
observing us swiftly made off when the guide,
who had remained a little behind, drew his
revolver out of his pocket.

Perhaps we have been too lavish of our
examples of Canida with round pupils. But
apart from the fact that, we are far from hav-
ing exhausted the number of known species,
since numerous other species are to be found
in all countries from which we have adduced
examples, a strong interest attaches to these
animals from the fact that among them the
stocks of our numerous races of domestic
dogs are to be sought.

Several facts have to be considered in
determining the question so frequently dis-
cussed as to the origin of our domestic dogs,
the individual races of which differ much
more among themselves than the species of
wild dogs known to us. . These races, which
undoubtedly have been produced by selection
by man, would certainly be regarded partly
as species, partly even as forming distinct
genera, if they were met with in the wild
state. There is no organ in their body which
has not varied indefinitely through artificial
breeding, and there are only two common
characters which can be conceded to them—
the round pupil and the bearing. The wild
species carry the tail low, almost dragging;
the domestic varieties carry it high, often
bent up towards the back, and in this case
mostly on the left side. This last character
is indeed the only one which was recognized
by Linnaeus as common to all domestic dogs.
-The modification of the races in the hands
of man cannot be denied. We have too

many proofs of the fact to be able to doubt
it; and from the representations on the monu-
ments of ancient Egypt and the mummies
left behind by the Incas of Peru, down to the
present time, we can trace long series of
variations, the final goal of which is even yet
far from being reached, since the existing
races are still being constantly modified, per-
fected, and multiplied.

Are these races derived from several
original wild stocks, or only from a single
one, which in the course of centuries has been
gradually modified in different directions, and
is no longer represented in the wild state?
That is a question which different people have
endeavoured to answer in different ways.

We must, first of all, here call attention to
the fact, that domesticated dogs belonging to
different races have been found both in the
oldest deposits in which human remains of
any kind have been met with, and also by
European discoverers in countries into which
dogs could not have been introduced from
the lands of our ancient civilization. The
bone-caves, lake-dwellings, kitchen-middens,
and sepulchres of ancient tribes in all parts
of the world have yielded remains of domestic
dogs ; and these remains, as well as the
Egyptian frescoes, prove to us that the races
reared in different districts were from the
first different in form, size, and bearing.

It is incontestable that domestic dogs have
never been found in districts in which wild
dogs with round pupils have not been found
also, and that it is easy to discover in the old
or little modified races the marks of these
wild species. Where man did not experience
the necessity for modifying the wild species
greatly, the races which he tamed for his use
resemble their wild kindred so much that one
can distinguish them only by the bark. The
dogs of the Eskimo differ in no respect from
the wolves of Labrador, nor those of the
Red-skins of the Rocky Mountains from the
coyote. No difference could be pointed out
between the skull of a dog of the lake-dwell-

THE GROUP OF THE WOLVES.

ings of Switzerland of the stone period and
that of the jackal, none between the skull of
a dog of the bronze period and that of an
Indian wolf (Cam's pallipes]. Several forms
of large domestic dogs represented on the
Egyptian monuments bear a remarkable
resemblance to the African wolf (Cants

lupaster); and the small races with straight
pointed ears are probably descended from
the jackal. The wolf-hounds so valuable to
our ancestors had a wonderful resemblance
to the wolves which they were employed to
hunt. The hatred which the domestic races
manifest towards their wild kindred, and they

•

61. — The Dingo {Canis (thigo\. pftge 144.

to them, is a trait of character which is always
repeated in like cases.

Notwithstanding their wildness, all species
of wild dogs attach themselves readily to
man, especially when young, and more or
less easily renounce their independence in
favour of the master who has brought them
under his yoke. This surrender of their
independence can most easily be recognized
in domestic dogs by the mode in which the
ears are held, these being always erect in the
wild species, while in many of the domesticated
races, on the other hand, they become more
or less pendent.

It appears accordingly from the investiga-
tions of the present day, among which those

carried on with rare perseverance by Prof.
Jeitteles of Vienna deserve specially to be
mentioned, that all species of wild dogs with
round pupils are capable of domestication, and
that many of them, some of which are figured
and described in this work, have become the
ancestors of our domestic breeds. The readi-
ness with which these different breeds sprung
from various stocks unite with one another
to produce fruitful offspring, has exercised an
unmistakable influence on the formation of
new races and the perfecting of the old.

These conclusions are strengthened by the
fact, that in many countries the neglected
dogs which have regained their freedom have
acquired characters adapted to the land which

144

THE DOG TRIBE.

they inhabit. These so-called pariah dogs
swarm in the East, as, for example, in India.
Flocks of them living in freedom form the
sanitary police of the towns and villages in
which they live, cleansing them of all kinds
of filth and garbage. They closely resemble
one another, and as the half-wild street-dogs
of Cairo resemble the jackals of the country
in which they are found, so the pariah dogs
of India can hardly be distinguished from the
wild jackal which inhabits the same country.

As representative of these degenerate
breeds a figure is given of the Australian
dog, the Dingo (Canis dingo], fig. 61. It is
a wolf with long legs and bushy tail of the
size of a sheep-dog. Dampier found it in a
wild condition when he landed in Australia
in 1699. It chased kangaroos in not very
numerous flocks. From the earliest times
the natives have tamed dingos which they
have caught young, and have made use of
them in hunting marsupials. After the colon-
ization of Australia these dogs attacked herds
of sheep by preference, committing great
ravages amongst them, and they are hence
relentlessly pursued by the colonists.

When tamed they are good watch-dogs,
but they cherish a savage hatred towards
other dogs and towards Europeans. The fur
is a mixture of yellow and black. Hybrids
with other dogs are not uncommon, and are
esteemed for their strength and endurance.

" The Dingos, or native dogs, ' Warragal ' of the
aborigines . . . are the wolves of the colony,
and are perhaps unequalled for cunning. These
animals breed in the holes of rocks: a litter was
found near Yas Plains, which the discoverer failed
to destroy, thinking to return and catch the mother
also, and thus exterminate the whole family; but
the 'old lady' must have been watching him, for
on his returning a short time after, he found all the
little dingos had been carried away, and he was
never able, although diligent search was made in
the vicinity, to discover their place of removal.
The cunning displayed by these animals, and the
agony they can endure without evincing the usual
effects of pain, would seem almost incredible, had

it not been related by those on whose testimony
every dependence can be placed. The following
are a few among a number of extraordinary in-
stances.

" One had been beaten so severely that it was
supposed all the bones were broken, and it was left
for dead. Upon the person accidentally looking
back, after having walked some distance, his sur-
prise was much excited by seeing ' master dingo
rise, shake himself, and march into the bush, evad-
ing all pursuit.' — One supposed dead was brought
into a hut for the purpose of undergoing 'decorti-
cation ; ' at the commencement of the skinning
process upon the face, the only perceptible move-
ment was a slight quivering of the lips, which was
regarded at the time as mere muscular irritability:
the man, after skinning a very small portion, left
the hut to sharpen his knife, and returning found
the animal sitting up, with the flayed integument
hanging over one side of the face.

"Another instance was that of a settler, who,
returning from a sporting expedition with six kan-
garoo dogs, met a dingo, which was attacked by
the dogs and worried to such a degree, that, find-
ing matters becoming serious, and that the worst
of the sport came to his share, the cunning dingo
pretended to be dead; — thinking he had departed
the way of all dogs, they gave him a parting shake
and left him. Unfortunately for the poor dingo,
he was of an impatient disposition, and was con-
sequently premature in his resurrection: for before
the settler and his dogs had gone any distance, he
was seen to rise and skulk away, but at a slow
pace, on account of the treatment he had received ;
the dogs soon re-attacked him, when he was handled
in a manner that must have effectively prevented
any resuscitation a second time." — Bennett: Wan-
derings in New South Wales.

The Group of the Foxes (sub-genus Vulpes).

Distinguished from the wolves by their vertical oval pupil,
their shorter legs, longer and more bushy tail, larger ears,
and more elegant and more pointed snout. The dentition
shows indeed the same number and arrangement of the
teeth, which, however, seem to be more slender and more
elegantly formed, characters which are specially well seen
in the long and much curved canines.

These characters, which are easily distin-
guishable in extreme cases, appear, however,
only gradually, and we find transitional forms
in respect of all of them.

THE GROUP OF THE FOXES.

145

The pupil becomes more oval, and its
transverse diameter diminishes only gradu-
ally. We likewise have species with pretty
long legs or but slightly bushy tail. The
ears present all grades of intermediate forms,
between small pointed ears like those of the
jackals, and the monstrous ear-flaps of the
elegant fenneks of Sahara.

The habits and mode of life vary in accor-
dance with these characters. The species
with slit -like vertical pupils are altogether
nocturnal. Those with large ears are prin-
cipally guided by impressions transmitted by
the sense of hearing, and are not so good as
dogs at following tracks by the scent. The
short-legged species do not capture their prey

Fig. 62. — The Black-backed Jackal (Cants mesomelas).

by their speed, but surprise them by cunning ;
and the weakness of their whole structure
induces many forms to provide secure retreats
for themselves by burrowing. But all these
modifications are slow and gradual, and the
connecting line between the extremes can be
indicated by numerous intermediate forms.

The Black-backed Jackal (Cants mesomelas],
fig. 62, of South Africa belongs to the num-
ber of these intermediate forms. Of the same
size as the jackal, it nevertheless approaches
the fox in its very sharp snout and rather
short legs. The ears are tolerably large, the
pupils broadly oval. In colour it resembles
a fox, covered with a black shabrack, con-
trasting strongly with the golden red of the

sides. Fond of carrion, this bold and yet
wily so-called jackal is given to breaking
into villages and camps by night, and makes
itself detested by its plunderings in farm-
yards. It is even accused of eating off the
fat tails of the sheep reared in South Africa.

A fox not less detested by the natives is
the Aguarachay (Cants Azures), fig. 63, which
is distributed over the whole of South America
and ascends the Cordilleras to the height of
about 10,000 feet. It does not, like our fox,
inhabit holes made by itself, but often estab-
lishes itself in the burrows dug by the arma-
dillos, and manages to find other suitable
places of concealment. It lives chiefly on
small mammals and birds, but also attacks

19

146

THE DOG TRIBE.

young lambs, llamas, and vicunas, and ap-
pears to be quite as cunning as our European
species. With this it also agrees in the nu-
merous varieties of colour in the fur, which
may be brownish -black, rusty red, gray, or
even white. Since young ones of different
colours are born at the same time, it is clear
that no importance can be attached to these
variations. The pupil is somewhat narrower
than in the former species, and the legs are

somewhat longer than those of the fox. In
spite of the hatred to which the aguarachay
is subject on account of the severe ravages it
commits in the poultry-yard, it is often tamed
in .Paraguay and even employed in hunting,
in which occupation the keenness of its scent
enables it to act as a setter with great effi-
ciency.

Our Fox (Canis vulpes), of which a whole
family is represented in fig. 64, may serve as

Fig. 63.— The Aguarachay (Canis Azarcz). page 145.

the type of a sub-group, distinguished by a
slit-like pupil, short legs, bushy tail, and long
slender recurved canines. This animal, which
is met with throughout the temperate and
even in the frigid zones of both hemispheres,
varies considerably in respect both of the
colour and the value of the fur. In general
those skins are most highly esteemed which
are derived from animals inhabiting cold
regions and killed in winter. The colour of
the fur likewise has a great influence on its
commercial value. The very young animals
are almost black ; the yellow colour increases
with age; and the pale yellowish red, fre-
quently with a dark stripe along the back,
prevails in adult animals. But the utmost
variety of shades, from black to white, from
red to gray, and from brown to yellow, may
occur according to the country, the season,
and other still unknown circumstances.

The fox never lives in troops. It hunts
alone or at most by families. It digs holes for
itself underground, and these are often very
skilfully planned according to the locality,
and always possess several means of exit or
entry. The animal sleeps by day in a central
chamber, in which also the female tends her
young ones for a considerable period after
birth. The fox, however, is very much
addicted to taking possession by force or
fraud of the holes dug by other animals, as,
for example, by the badger or even by the
rabbit among us, or by the bobak in the
steppes of Russia. If it cannot drive out the
legitimate owner, it appears to come to an
understanding with him. That he does not
seriously try to cope with the badger need
excite no surprise, since the strength of the
latter is much greater than his own. But it
is much more difficult to believe those who

THE GROUP OF THE FOXES.

147

tell us that they have found rabbits and foxes
living together in the same burrows in perfect
harmony.

Does Reynard answer to the reputation

him? Yes and no. While exaggerating his
intelligence, cunning, treachery, and hypo-
crisy, these fable-writers have at the same
time underrated the qualities of those animals

which the writers of fables have created for with which they bring him in contact. He

Fig. 64, — The Fox (Canis vulpes).

certainly possesses in a high degree all the
qualities demanded by the business of a sly
thief, and even exhibits a certain good-humour
or disposition to tease, while at the same
time we know of many surprising instances
of a strange simplicity on his part. When
hunted it often manages to escape with re-
markable adroitness from hounds and hunts-
men in full cry. He resorts to all devices
to attain his end. He exhibits cunning and
audacity, rapidity of movement, patience, and

an accurate knowledge of localities. His
behaviour is certainly very different accor-
ding as he feels himself in perfect security
or dreads danger. By day he ventures out
in quest of his prey if he has to dread
neither dogs nor men, but he does not leave
his hole before nightfall if his keen scent
or acute hearing warns him that it might
be the worse for him. He is an excel-
lent runner and jumper, crawls like a snake
noiselessly along the ground when he wants

148

THE DOG TRIBE.

to approach his victim or to hide himself,
and knows so well how to obliterate his
trail that the best, dogs are often at fault.
Hunger seldom blinds him to danger, but
when he has the opportunity he kills without
mercy and far beyond his immediate needs.

In our civilized countries, in which the
stronger carnivores are altogether wanting, the
fox is certainly the
deadliest enemy of
all kinds of game,
for he attacks even
the young of the
roebuck, without
sparing other
smaller creatures.
The hunters pursue
him all the more
eagerly because he
practises so many
tricks upon them,
and as in the case of
the wolf all methods
seem good that lead
to his extinction.1

But if we are
bound to acknow-
ledge all these de-
vastations which

the fox commits in

Fig. 65. — The Corsac (Cants corsac).

favourable opportunity presents itself, that he
snatches a bird or makes a feast on a young
hare. The farmer who looks well after his
fowls by day and at night shuts them up in
poultry -yards inaccessible to the fox and
watched into the bargain by a good dog,
should consequently only rejoice at the ser-
vices which Master Reynard renders him in

ridding his fields of
mice. Finally, when
we consider that
game undoubtedly
does more harm
than good to the
agriculturist, we
might draw the very
unwelcome conclu-
sion for lovers of
the chase, that the
fox is to be ranked
with those animals
which confer the
greatest benefits
on agriculture.

Foxes captured
young have often
been tamed and
brought up along
with dogs. But the

the poultry-yard, and must also place to his
account the few bunches of grapes which,
when they do not hang too high, he consumes
for dessert, after he has regaled himself by
night on a cock or a duck, yet it must also
be admitted that in our country, at least, the
fox lives chiefly on field-mice, of which he
devours remarkable quantities. In spring,
when the young ones have been weaned, the
fox is glad to find larger prey, but these de-
predations among fowls, partridges, young
hares, and so forth, usually last at most one
or two months. All the rest of the year
mice form his chief food, and then it scarcely
happens except by accident, when a peculiarly

1 In Germany, to wit, not of course in England. — TR.

strong disagreeable
odour proceeding from the anal scent-gland,
and their pitiful howling, are so unpleasant,
that these experiments have always ultimately
been abandoned.

The Corsac (Canis corsac), fig. 65, is a
smaller fox, with rounder pupils and a shorter
tail, which has adapted itself to life in the
steppes and deserts of northern and central
Asia. The extremely thick fur is red in
summer, lighter and somewhat grayish in
winter, the under-surface yellowish. A lighter
patch above the eye reminds us of the mark-
ings of most badger-hounds. The corsac
has a very different mode of life from that of
the fox. He digs no hole for himself, sleeps
where he can, often in the burrows of the

THE GROUP OF THE FOXES.

149

bobak, and traverses wide stretches of the
steppes, which he inhabits to the exclusion of
the woods and mountains. He hunts every-
thing which he is a match for, and even
follows the swarms of locusts, of which he
devours great numbers. His fur is highly
esteemed in China, but scarcely enters into
European trade.

On the island of Jan Mayen I became
well acquainted with the White or Arctic Fox
(Cants lagopiis\ fig. 66. As its name indicates,
this pretty animal, which is much smaller
than our fox, inhabits all Polar lands, and it
is likewise found in the mountains of Norway,
even beyond the Arctic Circle. The muzzle
is shorter, and so also are the ears, than those

Fig. 66. — The White or Arctic Fox (Canis lagopus).

of our fox. The tail is very bushy, and the
claws of the two middle toes of the fore-feet
project a good deal, and are very strong.
The legs are very short, and the soles of the
feet quite covered with hair. The animal is
very remarkable on account of its change of
colour according to the season. In summer
the fur is grayish brown, with a violet or blue
shimmer; in winter it becomes much thicker,
and consists of a snow-white, short, warm
down with longer hairs intermingled. Hence
the terms blue fox and white fox are both
applied to this animal. Since this alteration
is only gradually accomplished many sorts of
mixtures in the colours are to be seen, and
moreover all Polar foxes are not subject to

these half-yearly variations, so that one may
meet with gray specimens in winter and
white in summer. The fur is not greatly
valued, since the hair does not remain long
attached to the skin.

This animal, at once crafty, foolishly bold,
and stupid, picks up a miserable subsistence
by eating all it can find in the dreary wastes
which it inhabits. All observers are agreed
as to the rare mixture of cowardice, slyness,
and boldness rising to the pitch of folly, which
this fox exhibits. Usually very timid and
cautious, at certain times it shuns no danger,
and allows itself to be struck dead without
making even an attempt at flight. On the
island of Jan Mayen we have seen these

THE DOG TRIBE.

foxes, though they had never before seen the
face of man, flee away even when we were
at a great distance, and afterwards fall upon
an overcoat which had been left on the shore,
and begin gnawing and devouring the greasy
collar without allowing themselves to be
driven away by the sailors pelting them with
stones. Steller, who in the beginning of last

Fig. 67. — The Sahara Fox or Fennek (Cants

century was compelled to remain a year on
one of the islands of Behring's Strait, where
his ship had been stranded, tells the most
singular tales about these foxes. They stole
everything in the huts, both edible and in-
edible; snatched from the shipwrecked party
the bodies of the animals which they had
just killed, removed the men's clothes and
blankets while they were sleeping, dug up
their dead in order to devour the corpses, and
buried their booty with such skill that it was
impossible for anyone to find it. All these
acts of theft effected with such unbounded
insolence had at last so enraged the ship-
wrecked mariners that they were not content

with killing the foxes by the hundred, but
tortured the hated beasts to death in the most
cruel manner.

The Arctic fox indeed devours everything
that a fox's stomach can digest; but its chief
resource consists in all sorts of birds and
waifs from the sea. The island of Jan Mayen,
on which I have seen them in troops of from
twelve to fifteen individuals, affords no
other kind of food. It has neither plants
nor other mammals, but has swarms of
swimming and diving birds, which the
foxes are very adroit in surprising-
darting upon them and seizing them
with a sudden bound. The nests of
these birds — stormy petrels, auks, great
northern divers, and gulls — escape from
the depredations of these plunderers by
the fact that they are built on the sides
of cliffs which sink precipitously down
and are inaccessible to every animal
which cannot fly. There remains accor-
dingly the refuse of the sea, the skeletons
of whales, dolphins, seals killed on the
ice, fish, crustaceans, and molluscs, — in
short, all that can be cast upon the shore.
That is manifestly their sole resource in
winter, when they are exposed to long
famines.

No attempts have ever been made to
tame these Arctic foxes. They always
remain wild and insensible to caresses. I
brought with me some very young scarcely
weaned specimens, which continued to live
for a long while in the zoological gardens at
Frankfort. Luckily our voyage from Iceland,
where we bought them, did not last long; for
I believe we could not have kept them much
longer on board the ship, they so polluted
everything with their abominable stench.

The smallest, but at the same time the
most elegant of all the Canida, is the Sahara
Fox, the Fennek of the Arabs (Cants zerda),
fig. 67. Its body measures only 18 inches
from the tip of the snout to the root of the
tail ; the tail measures about 8 inches. The

THE GROUP OF THE FOXES.

head is pretty broad and almost spherical, the
muzzle narrow, pointed, and furnished with
long whiskers. The body is slender, the tail
bushy, the limbs short and very thin but well
formed, the eyes large with oval pupils. But
what chiefly distinguishes the fennek from
other animals of its kind are the very large
ears in the form of paper-cornets, these ears
being in fact longer than the head, inter-
nally covered with long silky hairs and
almost constantly in motion.

Like all inhabitants of the desert the
fennek has the colour of the ground of
these naked wastes: it is grayish-yellow
on the back, rather lighter below. The
very thick, fine, silky fur is made still
thicker in winter by the addition of a
warm covering of down.

The fennek is nocturnal in its habits.
It digs very artistic holes for itself, and
these it prefers to form among the tufts
of alfa-grass. When pursued it escapes
from sight by burrowing in the sand with
lightning-like rapidity. Its hearing and
its smell are alike keen; the slightest
noise arrests its attention, and when it
has once found a scent it does not easily
lose it. Its food consists chiefly of
birds, which it surprises in their roosts
noiselessly and with admirable skill.
Courageous and fierce, this little crea-
ture attacks even the tufted fowls of the
desert. If it finds nothing better it tries to
catch even the agile and wary jerboas, and
despises neither lizards nor the larger beetles
nor locusts. The dates fallen from the palm-
trees are a dainty greatly relished. It appears
not to care about carrion, and since it keeps
away from settled places and the encamp-
ments of the nomads it is scarcely pursued
at all. The Arabs who come in contact with
Europeans are well aware of the value which
the latter place upon these amiable, gentle,
and elegant little creatures. In Biskra, for
example, fenneks are always offered to trav-
ellers for sale, and they readily become at-

tached to their masters and eagerly respond
to their caresses after they have undergone
hard treatment and all sorts of privations at
the hands of the Arabs. The fennek is fed
just like a little dog; but it can scarcely
stand the climate of Central Europe, always
suffering from frost. Its plaintive sighing
voice is like that of a little child.

Fig. 68. — The Viverra Dog or Tanuki (iVyctereutcs Tjiverrinus}.

A member of the Canida very different
in form is the Viverra Dog (Nyctereutes
viverrinus), fig. 68, the Tanuki of the Japanese,
which inhabits the whole of eastern and
middle Asia. The thick body supported by
short legs, the very short rounded ears, and
the pointed snout give the animal a good
deal of resemblance to the Viverrida; while
the short rounded tail and the fur covered
with long disordered hairs remind us of the
badger. The general colour is dark brown,
the head and sides of the neck brighter,
yellowish, the parts round the eyes and the
ridge of the nose almost white. The den-
tition is altogether like that of the dogs; the

152

THE DOG TRIBE.

tubercled teeth are well developed, and two
of the premolars in the upper jaw disappear
in older individuals.

This animal sleeps by day in the grass or
in bushes, and hunts by night after the man-
ner of foxes. It seeks especially for mice
and fish, which it is very expert in catching;
but it also eats fruits of all kinds, and is said
to be altogether
very voracious. In
northern lands it
has a short winter-
sleep, most fre-
quently in the de-
serted hole of a fox.
The creature is
easily tamed, but
little more can be
said about it.

The Long-eared
Fox of South Africa,
the jackal-gna of
the colonists (Oto-
cyon coffer (megalo-
tis) ), fig. 69, forms
a separate genus
on account of its
remarkable denti-
tion. It has an
unusual number of
tubercled teeth; in

the upper jaw two, and in the lower jaw one
more than the dogs, which brings the total
number of the teeth up to 48.

The form of the body is that of a jackal,
with pretty long legs, pointed snout, thick
head, and two enormous ears, like those of
the fennek. The body attains the length of
2 feet, the very bushy tail about i foot.
The general colour of the fur is grayish-
yellow, while the ears, legs, and tail are dark-
brown.

The long- eared fox inhabits the steppes
occupied by scattered underwood to the north
of the Orange River, and advances as far
as the Zambesi. It conceals itself by day

Fig. 69. — The Long-cared Fox (Otocyon caffer).

and hunts at night, making pitiful howls the
while. Its food consists of small animals, and
especially of locusts, the swarms of which it
follows in their migrations.

A separate genus must also be formed for
the Cape Hunting- dog (Lycaon pictus), fig.
70, of South Africa, where it is also known
as the wild dog. This animal has, in common

with the hyaenas,
four toes on all four
feet, and also the
large anal scent-
glands, which dif-
fuse a penetrating
odour. But the re-
semblance to the
hyaenas, to which
the animal owes the
name of hyaena-dog
sometimes applied
to it, is confined to
these peculiarities,
and with respect to
all other characters,
as well as its mode
of life, it is a savage
wolf with long legs,
round pupils, and
large, almost naked
ears, which give it
some resemblance

to the former species. The Cape hunting-
dog is one of the most variegated of all mam-
mals. Broad black, yellow-ochre, and white
patches are scattered over its body in so
irregular a manner that no two animals can
be found similarly marked, and even the
patches on the two sides of the same individual
exhibit no symmetrical arrangement.

Having a very keen scent, which, as the
hunters maintain, surpasses that of the best
blood-hounds, the Cape hunting-dog hunts
in troops of twelve or thirteen individuals
the large herbivora of its native land — the
antelopes, gnus, and even the terrible Cape
buffaloes. The narratives of travellers are full

THE GROUP OF THE FOXES.

153

of admiration for these savage animals, which,
overwhelming each other in the fury of their
career, scour the plains in pursuit of the
antelopes, and pay no heed to the wounds
which the buffalo inflicts on them with his
horns and hoofs. After striking down their
prey they are said to devour, not only the
object of their pursuit, but also those of their

comrades which have fallen on the field of
battle. They devastate the flocks of the
colonists when these are not well watched,
and even attack man.

Tame Cape hunting-dogs have been seen,
and it is recorded that certain tribes in the
interior of Africa train them for hunting,
catching them young in the holes which the

Fig. 70. — The Cape Hunting-dog or Wild Dog (Lycaon f ictus).

mothers dig for their cubs. Their intro-
duction into Europe for employment in great
hunting parties has even been recommended.
The horrible stench which these animals
diffuse, as well as their inability to stand the
severity of our climate, will, in our opinion,
place insuperable obstacles in the way of the
accomplishment of this acclimatization, which
is besides altogether undesirable.

" Among the flocks and herds [of South Africa]
there is no animal whose ravages are more dreaded
than those of the wild dog. Fortunately their visits
are rare, for I have known as many as fifty or sixty
sheep missing after one, though, of course, not a
third of that number had been killed by them;

and so daring are they that I have seen them dash
into a herd of cattle feeding not a hundred yards
from the house, and drive out a beast, disappear
over a rise in the ground with it, and kill it and
pick its bones before we could get the saddles on
our horses and follow them. It is a marvellous
sight to see a pack of them hunting, drawing cover
after cover, their sharp bell-like note ringing through
the air, while a few of the fastest of their number
take up their stations along the expected line of
the run — the wind, the nature of the ground, and
the habits of the game all taken into consideration
with the most wonderful skill; and then to see
them after they have found, going at their long
unswerving gallop, so close together that a sheet
might cover them, while those who had been
stationed, or had stationed themselves, it is hard

20

'54

THE HYENAS.

to say which, drop in one by one as they find
themselves unable to make the running any longer;
and the chase, generally a gnu or a water-antelope,
pressed first by one and then another, though it
may distance the pack for a while, soon comes
back to it, and is in the end almost invariably run

into. The only thing to which I can compare these
animals, and their instinct, as people call it, is a pack
of hounds hunted and whipped in to by members of
their own body, and combining in one human rea-
son and brute cunning and power." — Drummond,
Tlte Large Game of South and South-east Africa.

THE HYAENAS

Digitigrade carnivores, with powerful body decreasing in size from before backwards; mostly with four toes

on all four feet, and at most 34 teeth.

The hyaenas form only a small group
among the Carnivora of the present day, but
played a more important role, especially \
during the earlier part of the Quaternary
epoch. They are animals inferior in size
only to the large felines and bears, and are
distinguished at the first glance by the great
disproportion between their very strong but
somewhat crooked fore-limbs and their weak
hinder quarters.

The head is massive, broad behind, the
muzzle short, the ears pretty large and pointed,
the eyes placed at the side, very prominent
and with round pupils, the nose short and
blunt, the tail short but bushy; the fore-limbs
are longer than the hind-limbs, but are always
curved inwards. In the true hyaenas all the
feet have four toes armed with strong non-
retractile claws, while the abnormal genus
composed of the earth- wolves (Proteles) has
five toes on the fore-feet like dogs. The fur
is very long and coarse, but not very thick;
longer hairs form a mane on the nape of the
neck and the front part of the back. All
hysenas have a rather large gland on each
side of the anus, and from these glands there
proceeds a strong disagreeable odour.

The skull of the hyaenas somewhat resembles
that of the Felidae in the round form and
comparatively small capacity of the brain-

case, in the great development of the ridges
for the attachment of the muscles, in the
wide sweep of the zygomatic arches, and in
the shortness and strength of the jaws.
The processes of the neck vertebrae are
unusually well developed. The rest of the
skeleton approaches that of the Canidae in
structure.

The dentition is very remarkable. The
strong middle incisors have chisel -shaped
crowns mostly ground down by use, while the
outermost incisors are conical and similar in
form to the strong, almost straight, and not
very sharp canines. The three premolars
which follow the canines in each jaw are
single-cusped, the first too low, the third very
large and strong. Next comes in each half
of each jaw an enormous carnassial tooth.
Those in the upper jaw have each two broad
sharp lobes which form an angle at their
point of union, so that the tooth, supported
as it is by a strong internal heel or process,
when seen from above presents the form of
a half-moon. In the upper jaw this formid-
able carnassial is followed by a small tuber-
cled tooth, which is wanting in the lower jaw.
The carnassial of the upper jaw is present
even in the milk dentition, while that of the
lower jaw, on the other hand, first appears
in the permanent set of teeth. In each jaw

7V/«x fa ft 154.

PLATE VII. -- STRIPED HYAENAS (ffyana tlriata) AND JACKALS (Canis aurms).

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

155

accordingly there is only one molar; all the
others are premolars.

The milk dentition is not less remarkable.
Besides the incisors and the canines there are
in the upper jaw four premolars, a small front
one which is never changed, a two-lobed one
with two roots, which disappears and is
succeeded by a conical tooth, a third, forming
the carnassial, with three lobes and a heel,
which is ultimately replaced by the third
conical tooth of the permanent dentition, and
a fourth small one, the place of which is
ultimately taken by the permanent carnassial.
In the lower jaw are four premolars, the first
of which is small and is never replaced after
it has been shed, while the other three are
replaced, a carnassial being at the same time
added in the permanent dentition. Milk

dentition: ~ ^=32. Permanent den-

3 • i • 4 -o

3 • i • 4 • i
tition: ....... = 34

This is one of the

3 ' i ' 3 '

rare cases in which the permanent dentition
exhibits great changes in form as compared
with the milk dentition, yet with only a slight
increase in the number of the teeth.

The structure of the skull and the nature
of the dentition indicate strength of jaw, and
the hyaena manifests this strength at every
meal. It crunches into fragments bones
which resist the jaws of the lion, and seems to
swallow the splinters with a peculiar relish.
In old hyaenas the teeth are generally found
to be much worn away, and often to such a
degree that the crowns have almost dis-
appeared, and the cavities of the teeth are
exposed.

All hyaenas are nocturnal animals, which
pass the day in solitude in caves and grottoes,
which they quit at night in order to hunt
their prey in bands. They call one another
together by making a diabolical concert which
lasts till they find some booty, which they
then proceed to devour in perfect silence,
though frequently not without some savage
quarrelling and fighting.

The hyaena is specially a carrion -eater.
With an apparently limping and waggling
gait it trots about in search of food, and
cannot long keep up a more rapid rate of
progression. It is far from having the keen-
ness of sense which distinguishes the Canidae.
The Arabs even maintain that the hyaena
finds little success in its search for food unless
it is led by the jackal. And it is indeed a
fact that in Algeria at least the jackal is
always heard first at the beginning of the
night, and that it is not till later that the voice
of the hyaena is joined to the miserable yelp-
ing of his cousin, and that jackals are always
certain to be seen when hyaenas announce
their presence. Yet this comradeship is not
carried so far on the side of the hyaena that
it would allow the jackal to share in its feasts.
As long as it is unsatisfied it drives away
the jackal by force, and the latter is compelled,
in spite of its pitiful howling, to wait till it can
pick up the crumbs from its master's table.

Voracious and cowardly the hyaena roams
round the villages of the settled population
and the camps of the nomads, and follows
the caravans in order to make its disgusting
meals on animals that have died from thirst
and exhaustion. Nothing is more repulsive
than such a meal. The stench of the carrion
attracts the hysena by night as it does the
vulture by day; and the first thing which the
former does on finding a carcass is to tear
open the abdomen and wallow with its head
and fore-feet in the putrefying entrails. It
pays no respect to graveyards, but digs up
dead bodies if the grave is not too deep.

The cowardliness of the hyaena has become
proverbial among the natives. According to
their account these disgusting brutes never
attack animals which can make a serious
resistance. The large Canidse regularly
make them take to flight, and the larger
antelopes, horses, oxen, boars, and even
asses defend themselves against them with
success. If we only considered the terrible
weapons found in its jaws, which are only

iS6

THE HY/ENAS.

surpassed by those of the Felidae, we should
conjecture that the hyaena must be a ferocious
beast of prey dangerous even to man. But
that is not the case. The spotted hyaena will
at most seize on little children when awake,
though it may perhaps attack adult persons
found sleeping outside of the houses or the
tents. But the flocks of sheep and goats

suffer greatly from the ravages of hyaenas,
when they are not protected by courageous
and watchful dogs.

The natives do not hunt the hyaena, but
merely kill it when they can. In their
opinion the hyaena is so filthy an animal that
it would only pollute the weapon with which
it was wounded. It is caught in snares, pits,

Fig. 71. — The Spotted Hyaena (Hyierta crocuta).

or other sorts of traps. Sometimes it is
poisoned, sometimes caught alive. Only the
European colonists and travellers honour it
with rifle or musket shots. In North Africa
the Arabs, provided only with a piece of
carpet, boldly enter the cave of a hyaena,
which allows itself to be driven back hissing
like a cat and snarling. When the animal
has thus been forced back to the inmost
recess of the cave the intruder throws the
carpet over its head, and then, regardless of
the fury with which it attempts to bite and
scratch, falls upon the animal and binds the
carpet firmly round its head, ties its legs with
a cord and drags it into the camp, where the

women and children stone the animal to
death.

In some secure retreat the female hyaena
brings forth at a birth from three to seven
blind and shapeless cubs, which she watches
over tenderly, and even defends with courage
until they can shift for themselves.

They are easily tamed and trained when
young. The captive hyaenas are obedient,
but never get so sincerely attached to their
masters as the large felines sometimes do.
Their stench, their disagreeable disposition,
and their hideousness cause these efforts at
taming them to be confined to menageries.

The Striped Hyaena (Hyawa striata), — of

SPOTTED HY^NA— EARTH-WOLF.

157

which there is a full-page illustration, Plate
VII., representing a troop in the act of falling
on the carcass of an antelope, while the jackals
respectfully await their share, — is that form
which has the widest geographical distribution.
It is found in all the temperate and warm parts
of Africa and Asia, from the shores of the
Atlantic to those of the Pacific. Formerly it
swarmed in Algeria;
but in spite of its in-
clination to haunt the
vicinity of human
dwellings it is gradu-
ally retreating, espe-
cially before the Eu-
ropean colonists, who
are not restrained
in their attacks upon
this animal by the
superstitions which
the Arabs entertain
with regard to it. The
large black trans-
verse stripes on the
reddish-yellow fur at
once distinguish it
from the allied
species.

The tubercled
tooth in the upper
jaw is quite rudimentary, and often disappears
altogether in the adult animal. Notwithstand-
ing this mark of a carnivorous dentition, and
in spite of its comparatively large size, this
species is the most cowardly of all.

The tubercled tooth persists in those species
which are peculiar to South Africa. In the
Spotted Hyaena {Hycena crocuta], fig. 71,
which formerly used even to visit the streets
of Cape Town, brown spots are irregularly
distributed over the reddish-yellow fur. In
certain districts this animal is still dreaded as
a beast of prey, since it is not disinclined to
pursue living game. In the Brown Hyaena
(H. brunnea) the hair on the back is of a
uniform brown colour and not very stiff, and

Fig. 72. — The Earth-wolf or Aardwolf (Proleles Lalandii}.

ultimately becomes very long, so as to fall
down over the body and form a sort of mane.
The brown hyaena mostly roams about the
sea-shore, and feeds on refuse cast up by the
sea; but it also attacks flocks of domestic
animals.

All these hyaenas have the same noisy
nocturnal mode of life, and the same disgust-
ing habits. But while
the other two species
utter broken howls,
abruptly changing
from an unsteady
bass to a high-pitched
tenor, the spotted
hysena expresses its
various feelings by a
sort of yelping, ex-
tremely penetrating,
diabolical laughter, a
genuine laugh of de-
spair at once terrible
and comic. This
form is not so easily
tamed as the striped
species. It is said to
be more stupid than
the latter, but the
differences in respect
of mental qualities
cannot be great. Dulness of sense and vora-
city are the most prominent attributes of both.
A very abnormal genus is formed by an
animal which is moreover rather rare, the
Earth-wolf, or Aardwolf of the Dutch settlers
at the Cape, where it is to be found. Its
scientific name is Proteles Lalandii, fig. 72.
Judging from its bearing and general aspect
one might regard the animal as a rather
small striped hyaena, but its fore-feet are five-
toed like those of the Canidae, and the stripes
with which it is marked are further apart
than in the hyaena, which it otherwise re-
sembles externally. And, after all, the re-
semblance is only external, and disappears
on an examination of the skull and dentition.

THE CAT TRIBE.

The ridges for the attachment of the muscles
are very slightly developed, and both pre-
molars and molars few in number and very
rudimentary. The incisors and canines,
however, still preserve the hysena type. The
molars and premolars are nothing but small
sharp lancet-shaped blades, and are placed so
far apart that they cannot fit into one another
when the mouth is closed. They are very
apt to fall out. In the specimens of the earth-
wolf best furnished in this respect there are
all 30 teeth, four molars above, three

m

below, so similar in form that no distinction
could be pointed out between true molars and
premolars. Singularly enough, however, these
distinctions are found in the milk dentition,
in which there is a carnassial tooth. In this

way it is proved that this form of dentition is
the result of a process of degradation whereby
the animal has got rid of a portion of the
carnivorous characters which belonged to its
ancestors.

The earth-wolf lives in underground holes,
which it digs out very rapidly. It is said to
feed chiefly on lambs, and to be very fond of
the fat tails of sheep. Possibly this may be
so, but if we may judge from the dentition
we should expect it to live chiefly on prey
which it can snap up and swallow whole-
small lizards, locusts, and insects of all
sorts. Scarcely anything is known about its
mode of life, except that it is nocturnal in
its habits, and, as already intimated, has its
dwelling underground.

THE CAT TRIBE

(FEUD A).
Digitigrade carnivores, mostly with retractile claws and never more than 30 teeth.

The Felida are without doubt the typical
carnivores. They combine an undeniable
grace with extraordinary strength, an innate
ferocity with the most gently caressing dis-
position. The flexibility of their limbs, the
adroitness which they show in their games
and their serious battles, the untamable spirit
with which they fight, the treacherous cares-
sing ways which they exhibit on favourable
opportunities, the mode in which they keep
their fur clean — that fur which is often so
richly adorned; all these qualities combined
would certainly have given these animals pre-
cedence as domestic animals over the Canida,
to which they are certainly equal in point of
intelligence, if their independent character,
their love of freedom and hatred of restraint,
did not throw obstacles in the way. The cat
is attached to its master, loves him, but does
not become his slave like the dog. It always,

even in the most humble position, preserves
a remnant of its personal pride. Even in the
worst conditions the Felida always remain
free from disagreeable odours, and never
diffuse those ill-smelling effluvia of which the
dog-tribe and the hyaenas are so lavish.

The head in the Felida is in general not
very large, but is always quite distinct from
the strong thick neck. It is round, almost
spherical, the profile of the brow mostly
curved, seldom flat as in the lion ; the muzzle
blunt, the lips thick, with strong tactile hairs
forming whiskers or moustaches; the ears
small, hairy, and very mobile; the eyes large,
separated by a pretty broad ridge of the nose,
the pupils mostly in the form of a vertical
slit, though in certain cases round. The
body is powerful, often pretty long, the tail
sometimes long, sometimes short ; the legs
strong, muscular, seldom long ; the paws

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

159

broad, and with five toes in front, four
behind. The first digit of the fore-foot is
shortened, and does not touch the earth.
The claws of the Felida are perhaps more
dangerous weapons than their teeth. Usually
the members of this group slink quietly about
on velvety feet, the sickle-shaped claws, sharp
as razors, withdrawn in the sheaths formed
by folds of the skin on the back of the paws,
being held back in that position by strong
elastic ligaments. In walking and in playing
the claws are not protruded, and thus escape
being worn away, and remain always sharply
cutting. But when in action the claws are
exserted by the powerful contraction of the
flexor muscles of the toes effecting a rotatory
movement of the last joint, to which the claws
are attached. As soon as the contraction of
the muscles ceases the elastic ligaments bring
them back to their normal position. The
cat can thus stretch out its claws at will; as
soon as this exertion of the will comes to an
end they dart back into their sheaths as if
by the action of a spring. The cheetahs or
hunting-leopards, which have long legs like
the Canida, do not possess this structure of
the toes.

The strong and formidable dentition varies
within only very narrow limits. The incisors
are small, close-set, sharp, and adapted for
gnawing bones. The frequently enormous
canines are curved, pointed, sharp on the
hinder edge, and grooved on the outer side
with longitudinal furrows. In the upper jaw
there are three premolars, the first of which,
small and conical, disappears altogether in
the lynxes; the second, sharp and laterally
compressed, has a sharp median blade-like
cusp; and the third, the carnassial, with two
broad sharp cutting lobes, has a small internal
rounded heel. Immediately behind this car-
nassial there is a very small tubercled tooth,
the only true molar in the upper jaw. In
the lower jaw are two premolars with sharp
median cusps, and a carnassial with two
sharp lobes but without a heel, this carnassial

being a true permanent molar. The upper
tubercled tooth and the lower carnassial are
absent in the milk dentition, in which we find
the same arrangement as in that of the
hyaenas, namely, that the last premolar both
in the upper and the lower jaw plays the part
of a carnassial. This form of tooth thus
becomes in the present as in the previous
families shifted in position in the permanent
dentition, in which it occupies the next place
behind.

The dental formula is thus as follows: —

Milk dentition:

3 ' i ' 3 '

= 26.

Permanent dentition:

3 • i • 2 • o

3 ' i '3 '

= 30-

3 • i • 2 • i

The longitudinal or sagittal crest of the
skull is not so prominent as in the hyaenas
and the Canida, but the ridges at the back of
the skull are very highly developed ; the very
short-levered jaws, accordingly, possess, with
an equal bulk of masticatory muscles, much
greater strength than longer jaws, such, for
example, as those possessed by the Canida.
The muscles of mastication are indeed re-
markably powerful, a fact to which the wide
sweep of the zygomatic arches in this case also
bears testimony.

Among the anatomical features we mention
only the tongue, which is covered with horny
warts with points directed backwards, and
acts like a rasp. The Felida can draw blood
by licking. The females have eight teats,
which lie in pairs both on the breast and the
abdomen.

Distributed over the whole earth except
Australia, Madagascar, and the Antilles, the
Felida lead almost everywhere the same
nocturnal life. They hunt especially after
living prey. They are greatly assisted in the
chase by the acuteness of their hearing and
their sight, and their extraordinarily change-
able pupils adapt themselves in the most
striking manner to the quantity of light that
reaches them. The sense of touch is very
highly developed in the hairs of the whiskers ;

i6o

THE CAT TRIBE.

the eyes, which gleam by night like carbuncles,
do not see very far, but are wonderfully
adapted to recognize objects in the immediate
neighbourhood in the darkness of night.
The slightest noise arrests the attention of
these animals, which never err as to the direc-
tion and place of origin of the sound. The
slightest movement of an object excites in
them the desire to pounce down upon it;
motionless objects are not heeded.

They combine an astonishing flexibility
with massive strength, suddenness of attack
with infinite patience. With the exception
of some large species, such as the tiger and
lion, all the Felida with retractile claws are
capital climbers. Many lie in wait for their
prey, crouching close down on the branches
of trees. Good runners in case of need, they
yet prefer to attack by cunning rather than
in open battle, to take their victim by surprise
rather than to overpower him by superior
force. They creep and crawl noiselessly up to
the object of their pursuit, sharply watching all
his movements, remain motionless when their
destined prey shows any uneasiness, and
again creep forwards when his fears seem to
be set at rest. They make use of all the
advantages of the ground like skilled hunters,
concealing themselves as much as they can,
until at last, when they have arrived within
a sufficient distance, they overwhelm the
animal with a sudden mighty spring, knock
it down with a single stroke of their paw, and
then tear it to pieces with their claws and
teeth. Only when urged by the keenest
pangs of hunger do they follow an animal
which they have missed at the first bound.
Usually they turn back with a shamefaced
look and angry growls. But when their leap
is successful, and they have struck their
victim in the side, as is most commonly the
case, or on the nape of the neck, and have
rendered it defenceless by a few good bites,
then begins an undignified scene — the victor
plays with his victim, lets it stand up again
and take a few tottering steps, then darts

upon it anew, and shows by the. motions of
its tail, by its delighted purring, what pleasure
it finds in the useless efforts of its panting
and bleeding prey, as it vainly endeavours to
escape from death. At last the cruelly mur-
dered animal has breathed its last with con-
vulsive spasms. In most cases the victor
then seizes it in its teeth and carries or drags
it to some secure retreat, where he devours
it. It is in so doing that the extraordinary
strength of these ravagers is most frequently
displayed. A lion has been seen to leap over
high hedges carrying an ox in its jaws.

The Felida do not bury their stores as the
Canida do, and they eat carrion only in cases
of dire necessity, when they have suffered
long from want of food. But although they
prefer a freshly killed victim, yet they will
return for one or two nights to their prey
when it has been too much for one meal.

The nature of the prey is in proportion
to the strength of the ravager. The large
Felicia attack the large ruminants; the small
species are content with mice, and even with
lizards and locusts. In general the Felida
avoid as much as possible encounters with
antagonists which might vanquish them ; they
never become bold till they are urged by
necessity. There are, nevertheless, accounts
of battles for life or death with opponents
whose strength or watchfulness the assailant
had under- estimated, with competitors for
some particular prey, or with rivals for the
favour of some female in the season of heat.
Towards man the large species behave in
very different ways. They shun him when
they have made acquaintance with fire-arms
and when they come across him accidentally
by day, for in general the Felida show little
courage in the daytime. But lions, tigers,
jaguars, and panthers have the reputation of
preferring human flesh when once they have
tasted it. Old males of these species are very
apt to be "man-eaters." It may be surmised
that this preference for human flesh is most
pronounced in those places in which the

THE CHEETAHS OR HUNTING-LEOPARDS.

161

animals have learned by experience that the
attack upon an unarmed man is no very
dangerous affair.

The Felida hunt alone or in pairs, never
in troops. Males and females frequently
combine their efforts when they have young
ones, but these unions do not last, and for the

greater part of the year Felida of both sexes
remain solitary.

The Felida, and especially the wild species,
are far from being so prolific as the Canida.
Among the wild species two or three young
ones at a birth appears to be the average.

The females seem to manifest a peculiar

'-^=i" "

Fig. 73. — Fahhad or Maneless Hunting-leopard (Cynailurus guttatus). page 162.

tenderness for their offspring, and to watch
over them with assiduous care. While suck-
ling they leave their lair only during the short
intervals in which they are engaged in hunt-
ing. Constantly occupied with licking and
cleaning her unruly cubs, and watching over
their sports, the mother patiently allows her-
self to be ill-used by them in all sorts of
ways. In defending them against enemies
she will risk her own life fearlessly. There
is no more terrible creature than the lioness
robbed of her cubs during her absence. She
follows the track of the robber for immense
distances, uttering pitiful howls, and if she
overtakes the object of her pursuit attacks

him with furious rage. Should she find her
offspring slaughtered she makes known her
loss with a heart-rending cry. The maternal
affection of the Felida is so strong that they
adopt the sucklings of other species when
their own have been ravished from them.

In this family we distinguish three genera:
the Cheetahs or hunting-leopards (Cynailurus),
with long thin legs and non- retractile claws;
the True Felines, forming the genus Felis,
with short strong legs, retractile claws, and
30 teeth ; and the Lynxes, forming the genus
Lynx, with longer legs, retractile claws, and
only 28 teeth. This last genus is also dis-
tinguished from the other two by the short-

1 62

THE CAT TRIBE.

ness of the tail and the possession of tufts of
hair on the ears.

THE CHEETAHS
OR HUNTING-LEOPARDS.

(CYNAILURUS).

This genus consists of only two species,
differing but slightly from one another, one of
which, the Fahhad of the Arabs (C. guttatiis),
fig- 73. inhabits Africa, while the other, the
Cheetah (C. jubatus), is a native of Arabia
and Asia Minor. The genus may be shortly
characterized as one having a cat's head with
a dog's body marked with spots. The two
species, which are of about the size of a large
greyhound, are only distinguished by the
fact that one of them, the cheetah, has a
mane on the neck. The yellowish -red or
orange-coloured fur, marked with brown and
black spots, which run into one another so as
to form rings on the rather long tail, appears
to be admirably adapted to the general colour
of the ground in the deserts and steppes,
where these animals prefer to roam. The
legs are long and slim, as slim as those of
the Canida, the paws small, the claws curved
and sharp, but the elastic ligaments which
ought to hold them back are so weak that
the claws protrude from their sheaths and
get worn away in walking. The head is
rounded like that of the true felines, the
blunt snout rather more protruding. The
ears, the eyes with their round pupils, and
the dentition present no variation whatever
from the forms characteristic of the Felida
generally. The voice, too, is the same. The
hunting-leopards roar, purr, and hiss like true
felines, they likewise growl as they do; but
they also utter peculiar sounds which the
Arabs have imitated in the names which
they apply to these animals.

The cheetahs hunt singly or in pairs, and
their ordinary prey is antelopes, which in-
habit the same lands as they do. They
endeavour to outwit these cautious animals

by crawling up towards them on the ground
against the wind. But they do not content
themselves, like the true felines, with a single
bound in endeavouring to overwhelm their
victims. They make several leaps, and
even dart headlong like greyhounds after the
flying animals, though, indeed, only for a
rather short time. Have they learned from
their victims the method of using their fore-
paws? One might almost believe it, for they
stamp with their weak paw on their over-
thrown prey as roe-deer and antelopes do.

The character of the cheetahs is of the
same mixed nature as their bodily structure.
Like the dogs they are easily tamed, become
attached and faithful servants of their masters,
but this only till the chase begins, when their
whole behaviour at once becomes that of
genuine felines. The Arabs used formerly
to train them to hunt gazelles more frequently
than they do now. The cheetah is conveyed
in a wagon drawn by oxen to the neighbour-
hood of a flock of gazelles, whose mistrust is
not aroused thereby since they are accustomed
to the sight of such vehicles. But as soon
as they have got sufficiently near the game,
the hood which had been thrown over the
head of the cheetah is taken off, and the
animal slips down from the wagon, crawls
forwards, often by circuitous routes, in order
to get under the wind, and finally, when it
has got near enough, making two or three
enormous leaps, pounces on the victim which
it had singled out, and knocks it down, but
sometimes allows itself to be dragged along
in wild career while it tries to seize its victim
by the throat. The hunters dash down with
the greatest haste, again place the hood over
the cheetah, which greedily gulps down the
blood of its victim, and after they have allowed
it its hunting- right, bring it back to the
wagon. In the Middle Ages this mode of
hunting was held in as high honour among
the Mongols as hunting with the falcon.

Nothing is known of the mode of life of
these beautiful animals in a state of freedom.

To face fxige i

PLATE VIII. - THE BARBARY LION (Fdis leo).

FELINES OF THE OLD WORLD.

163

THE TRUE FELINES

(FEUS).

The genus Felis, the members of which
are spread over the entire area occupied by
the family as a whole, includes indeed numer-
ous species and varieties, but exhibits so
much uniformity in general structure that it
is impossible to divide it up into smaller
groups of less value. There is certainly a
great difference between a lion or tiger and
the wild cat as regards size; but in all other
respects the felines resemble one another so
closely, and the intermediate forms are so
numerous, that we glide in a sense from one
extreme of the series to the other without
being able to find a halting-place. The
characteristics assigned by us to the family
are true for all the members of the genus
without exception, and we can add only a
few details pertaining to their peculiar con-
ditions of life.

Felines of the Old World.

Among the large species the first place is
assigned by most to "the king of beasts,"
the Lion (Felts led), Plates VIII. and IX.,
which is distinguished by its form, by the
mane which adorns the male, by the uniform
colour of its coat, which is always yellowish,
but varies from pale yellow to brown or even
black in places, by the existence of a horny
wart at the end of its tufted tail, and by the
disproportion between the powerful shoulders
and fore-limbs and the relatively weaker and
less-developed hind-limbs. This dispropor-
tion is apparently increased in the males
by the presence of the mane, and is less
noticeable in the lioness, which in youth in-
deed is elegant in form, but in adult years
does not become more beautiful, since it is a
good deal disfigured by its loose hanging
abdomen and teats.

An adult lion may attain the length of
about five feet, measured from the point cf

the snout to the root of the tail. The tail
measures about two feet and a half, or rather
more. The weight may amount to 440
pounds. It is manifest that .such a mass,
when suddenly hurled by a mighty bound at
the back of an animal, is mostly sufficient in
itself to dash the latter to the ground.

The lion ranges over the whole of Africa
and a part of East and Central Asia, and the
different species vary not a little in size, in
the development of the mane, and in colour
according to the region in which they are
found. The Asiatic lions are the smallest,
and may even want the mane, as is the case
with a little -known variety belonging to
Gujerat. Among the African lions that of
the Cape has the most luxuriant mane and
the darkest colour, while the variety belong-
ing to the Atlas Mountains, represented in
Plate VIII., has a mane of a rather lighter
brown, and that of the Senegal (Plate IX.) a
mane of a yellowish hue.

The lion is the only true feline which never
climbs trees. What it cannot reach by a leap
of from 10 to 13 feet in height is safe from
its claws. Lion-hunters even frequently
resort to the device of constructing screens
in the trees, behind which they conceal them-
selves close to a fastened victim, which serves
as a lure, attracting by its cries the royal
ravager.

Like all other felines, the lion hunts singly,
or in the breeding season in company with
the female, and almost always in the dead of
night. He scours at a trotting pace wide
stretches of country in order to reach the
places where he hopes to find his prey. He
especially seeks for opportunities of finding
the large herbivora assembled together, and
with that purpose visits their habitual water-
ing-places and pasture-grounds and the in-
closures in which they are kept. The lion
is seldom seen by day. During daylight it
takes its rest in the thickest parts of jungles
and forests, in shady retreats difficult of ac-
cess, in open caves and clefts in the rocks,

164

THE CAT TRIBE.

and is very unwilling to be disturbed. Yet
hunger or the necessity for examining its
hunting-ground sometimes drives the lion out
by day, and travellers tell of very unpleasant
encounters with troops of lions pursuing in
broad daylight one of those countless herds
of antelopes which roam over Central Africa.
But these are exceptions to the rule, and a
large number of the anecdotes which are said
to testify to a supposed magnanimity char-
acteristic of the lion, have originated solely
in the sort of stupefaction which comes over
all nocturnal animals when they are compelled
for any reason to forsake their retreats by day.
The same lion, which at night dashes upon
a victim with the rapidity of lightning and
instantly puts it to death, will pass it by un-
touched, and even flee from it, if it falls in
with it by day.

The fable has some truth at bottom if it
ascribes to the monarch (to use the language
of courts) a certain degree of simplicity. The
lion is, in fact, the least wily and the least
gifted of the whole feline genus. It makes
up for the want of cunning by strength.

Its strength is, indeed, terrible and as-
tonishing. With a single stroke of its power-
ful paw the lion breaks the back of a horse,
with a single bite it crunches to fragments the
neck vertebrae of a cow. If the lion, in the
vast regions inhabited by wild, wary, and
experienced animals, lies in wait for its un-
suspecting victim in well-concealed ambushes,
it relies solely on brute strength when it
levies its tithe on the herds of domestic
animals which are kept in inclosures in the
neighbourhood of its lair.

The Arabs compare the roaring of the lion
to the roll of thunder. It is observed that
the lion gives forth those terrible sounds
only when it wishes to warn its comrades, or
to strike terror among other animals, all of
which, without exception, fall into a state of
the greatest excitement and fear as soon as
they hear this roaring, and dart away des-
perately in all directions, and in that way

make it easier for the ravager to select a
victim.

With respect to this terrible roar Dr. Livingstone
is not so awe-struck. " To talk of the majestic roar
of the lion," he says, " is mere majestic twaddle.
On my mentioning the fact some years ago the
assertion was doubted, so I have been careful ever
since to inquire the opinions of Europeans, who
have heard both, if they could detect any difference
between the roar of a lion and that of an ostrich ;
the invariable answer was — that they could not
when the animal was at any distance." — Miss.
Travels in S. Africa.

We will not go into detail with regard to
the thousand narratives of more or less
dangerous lion -hunts, of attacks upon and
attacks by lions. The lion attacks man or
retreats before him according to the degree
of his hunger, or according to the time of day
or night. Old experienced lions which know
how little danger they are exposed to in
breaking in upon the villages of the badly
armed negroes, will, it appears, hanker after
human flesh. Bright fires are the best pro-
tection for the camps. Who can wonder that
an animal conscious of so much strength as
the lion should defend itself with uncommon
energy? The story of Livingstone, who was
thrown down and severely wounded by a lion
which he had pierced with two bullets, is well
known. The dying lion crushed Living-
stone's arm with its teeth, and, in addition to
that, made a plunge at two men who were
hastening to their master's assistance. One
of them received a terrible bite in the thigh,
while the other had his shoulder lacerated.
Speaking candidly, shall we conclude from
such occurrences that the lion is very ready
to attack man?

The ravages which lions commit among
the flocks of the natives and the colonists in
Africa are very considerable. We know what
devastation they used to cause in Algeria,
where all the cattle-rearers laid their account
with having to share more or less of their
stock with these beasts of prey. At the

To face page 164.

PLATE IX. - THE SENEGAL LION (FdU

FELINES OF THE OLD WORLD.

165

present day nothing more is heard of the
lion in Algeria. The European hunters have
managed to rid the country of them entirely.
It is now impossible to have such hunts in
the colony as those which were carried on by
Jules Gerard, who used to stand unprotected
in the moonlight awaiting with firm foot the
onset of the lion, and then, just at the instant
when the animal was crouching on the ground
a few yards off, preparing to take his fatal
spring, would smash his skull with a well-
aimed ball which struck between the eyes.
Formerly the Arabs organized great lion-
hunts, when they used to form a ring round
his lair, and all fired together on his appear-
ance. Almost invariably the lion, whether
wounded or not, would break through the
circle, killing or wounding some of the hunters
before he breathed his last. The native
Negroes and Kaffirs hunt him fearlessly in
the same manner, though only armed with
lances. Others capture him in snares or pit-
falls. Everywhere he has given way before
firearms much more quickly, and, we may
well say, in a much more cowardly manner
than the tiger.

When there is plenty of food the lion
commits great ravages, killing every day a
large animal such as an antelope, buffalo,
zebra, or wild boar, the remains of which it
leaves to the hyaenas and jackals. When
urged by hunger it will even attack carrion,
but never except with great reluctance. The
powerful Cape buffaloes are the only animals
which often wage successful battle against
this assailant. The lion never attacks the
elephant, the rhinoceros, or the hippopotamus ;
he knows only too well that the struggle
would not always terminate in his favour.
Conscious as he is of his strength he never-
theless prudently withdraws.

The lioness gives birth to three or four cubs
at a time, and these are born with open eyes,
and are of about the size of a small cat with
a large head. The mother shows great fond-
ness for them, and takes delight in their sports.

When caught young the lion can easily be
tamed, and becomes attached to its keeper;
and it easily breeds in captivity. Most of
the lions which are exhibited in menageries
and zoological gardens have been born within
the bars of a cage. Even the ancient
Egyptians knew how to tame the lion, as we
can see from numerous drawings and sculp-
tures on their monuments. The Romans
of the Empire used immense numbers of lions
for their games in the circus. It is probable
that the lion still inhabited the Balkan
Peninsula within historical times, but at the
present day it is entirely banished from
European soil.

The majestic aspect of the male lion, which
is incontestably a type of calm conscious
strength, has procured for this- animal an
undeserved reputation. The lion has been
credited with all the attributes of a ruler
magnanimous even in his wrath, has been
depicted as full of compassion for the weak,
grateful for services rendered to him, and
indulgent towards an overthrown antagonist.
It would be in vain to seek in the accounts
of those natives who have become acquainted
with the king of beasts in a state of freedom,
for traits corresponding to these enthusiastic
prepossessions. The lion is a feline and
nothing more than a feline, sluggish and not
easily moved by day, but by night a mighty
beast of prey, employing craft and force
alternately, terrible when hungry, indolent
when satiated. The captured lion easily
resigns himself to his fate. When trained
from youth up he even shows less inde-
pendence of character than his small ally,
the domestic cat. But like the latter he has
moments of ill-humour, which he vents not
in a few light scratches, but in serious and
often fatal wounds. Most lion-tamers can
tell us something of that.

The Tiger (Felts tigris), which is repre-
sented in fig. 74 as he is seen dashing through
the forest, is inferior to the lion neither in
strength nor size, and surpasses him in

166

THE CAT TRIBE.

courage and savagery. The ancients did not
become acquainted with him till late, not till
the time of Augustus ; and it is probable that
if he had been known earlier he would have
received the place of the lion in fable.

The body of this powerful beast of prey
exhibits much more pleasing proportions than
that of the lion. The breast is beautifully
proportioned to the hinder part of the trunk.
The rather smooth hair lying close to the
body allows the undulating lines of the head,
trunk, and limbs to be clearly seen. Old
males have been killed with bodies measuring
six and a half feet from the tip of the snout
to the root of the tail, while the tail was just
half that length. The head is rounded, with
a somewhat conically arched profile. The
face is bordered by nearly white whiskers,
which are pretty long, bushy, and stiff, and
give the old male a very dignified appear-
ance. The pupils are round, the paws
enormously broad, the legs very powerful
and not very long.

The tiger is a large striped cat. The
ground colour of his fur is a yellowish-white,
sometimes passing into reddish-yellow, darker
on the back than on the under side, where it
is almost a pure white; and this ground-
colour is variegated with dark-brown or even
black transverse stripes which stand out in
strong contrast. The tigers oi the north
have a paler coat, and in winter even have a
pretty thick wool between the longer hairs.

The territory occupied by the tiger is
tolerably extensive. From the large Sunda
Islands to the banks of the Amur, and from
China to Caucasia, he is met with everywhere
in Asia; but he manifestly prefers the low
districts of the torrid zone, the dense bam-
boo thickets, the jungle, and similar places,
where he can easily find secure retreats,
from which he can dash down with a mighty
spring upon his victim, as shown in the illus-
tration. He adapts himself to very different
conditions of life. He makes himself at
home on the bare steppes and upon stony

plateaux, in primeval forests as well as on
the hills clad with a dense foliage of bushes,
in thickets as well as on the cold and dreary
flats of Eastern Siberia, where in winter he
digs out his lair in the thick snow. No im-
pediment stops him in his migrations in search
of rich hunting-grounds. Notwithstanding
his weight he climbs on low trees, and swims
not only across rivers but even across arms
of the sea, as, for example, across the channel
which separates Singapore from the main-
land.

Although the tiger prefers large animals
for booty, it does not despise the small ones.
It is said to be just as fond of the various
species of pheasants and peacocks as of the
buffaloes, stags, and wild boars which inhabit
the forests of India. Of all animals it shows
least fear of man. The lion shuns man
when armed with a firearm; the tiger seeks
him out. It may justly be said that no animal
levies so serious tithes on the natives as the
tiger does. In spite of the incessant hunting
parties of the English, thousands of human
beings are killed by these ravagers every
year in India. In all the village districts so-
called 'man-eaters' are known, that is, old
tigers which seek no other kind of game, and
are wily enough to escape all pursuit.
Among the animals of these districts it is
only the elephant, the rhinoceros, and the
Indian black bear (Urstis labiatus), often also
the buffalo, which can make a successful stand
against this assailant. There are even well-
established cases in which buffaloes have got
rid of a tiger that had leaped on their neck
by pressing their enemy violently against a
tree so that he fell off, and have afterwards
put him to death by repeated thrusts with
their horns. But such battles are rare. In
most cases the animal attacked breaks down
under the first shock of the heavy tiger,
which dashes down upon the back of its
neck with an enormous bound, lacerates its
loins with its claws, and tears open its throat
with its teeth.

FELINES OF THE OLD WORLD.

167

On the subject of the man-eater, Mr. G. P. San-
derson, officer in charge of the government ele-
phant-catching establishment in Mysore, makes the
following remarks: —

"This truly terrible scourge to the timid and
unarmed inhabitants of an Indian village is now
happily becoming very rare; man-eaters of a bad
type are seldom heard of, or if heard of, rarely

survive long. Before there were so many European
sportsmen as there now are in the country, a man-
eater frequently caused the temporary abandon-
ment of whole tracts ; and the sites of small hamlets
abandoned by the terrified inhabitants, and which
have never been reoccupied, are not uncommonly
met with by the sportsman in the jungles. The
terror inspired by a man-eater throughout the

-The Tiger (Felis tigris}. page 165.

district ranged by him is extreme. The helpless
people are defenceless against his attacks. Their
occupations of cattle-grazing or wood-cutting take
them into the jungles, where they feel that they go
with their lives in their hands. A rustling leaf, or
a squirrel or bird moving in the undergrowth, sets
their hearts beating with a dread sense of danger.
The only security they feel is in numbers. Though
the bloodthirsty monster is perhaps reposing with
the remains of his last victim miles away, the terror
he inspires is always present to every one through-
out his domain. The rapidity and uncertainty of
a man-eater's movements form the chief elements
of the dread he causes. His name is in every one's
mouth; his daring, ferocity, and appalling appear-
ance are represented with true Eastern exaggera-

tion ; and until some European sportsman, perhaps
after days or weeks of pursuit, lays him low,
thousands live in fear day and night. Bold man-
eaters have been known to enter a village and
carry off a victim from the first open hut. Having
lived in a tract so circumstanced until I shot the
fiend that possessed it, and having myself felt
something of the grim dread that had taken hold
of the country-side, where ordinary rambling about
the jungles, and even sitting outside the tent after
dark except with a large fire, or moving from the
encampment without an escort were unsafe, I could
realize the feelings of relief and thankfulness so
earnestly expressed by the poor ryots when I
shot the Jezebel that had held sway over them so
long.

1 68

THE CAT TRIBE.

"The man-eater is often an old tiger (more fre-
quently a tigress), or an animal that, through having
been wounded or otherwise hurt, has been unable
to procure its usual food, and takes to this means
of subsistence. . . The man-eater is as cowardly
as it is cunning, fleeing before an armed man, be-
tween whom and a possible victim it discriminates
with wonderful sagacity. The slightest sound of
any one in pursuit of it, even the whisper of a
single sportsman with one or two trackers in its
haunts, starts it at once; it will then probably
travel for miles, though even whilst fleeing it may
pounce upon some unwary victim, as I have seen
an ordinary tiger seize a bullock when itself the
object of hot pursuit. This combination of cow-
ardice and audacity constitutes the difficulty there
always is in bringing a man-eater to bag." — Thirteen
Years among the Wild Beasts of India.

Tiger-hunting is much more dangerous
than lion-hunting, because the tiger is much
wilier than the lion, and knows so well how
to hide itself that it almost always falls upon
the hunter unexpectedly. In India and
China large hunting-parties used to be or-
ganized on a scale worthy of a military ex-
pedition. Thousands of armed men and
hundreds of elephants were assembled to-
gether, the lairs and hiding-places of the
savage beast were surrounded, and it was
endeavoured to inclose him within a ring of
lances. This ring was indeed often enough
broken through, not without dead and wounded
being left behind. Now-a-days the hunt is
organized on a more modest scale, and yet it
leads to better results. All possible means,
even torches and rockets, are employed to
scare the tiger from his lair. The animal is
caught in nets, in traps, in pitfalls covered
with bushes. Good marksmen accompanied
by dogs seek him out under the direction of
experienced guides, and try to kill him with
a rifle- ball. This kind of sport is, indeed, a
very favourite one in India, but extremely
dangerous. Many an English officer has
thereby been maimed for life, for the wounds
made by the claws and teeth of a tiger are
always very severe. For the extermination

of such an enemy of human kind all means
are good, but, notwithstanding the high pre-
miums which the Indian government and
the native rulers pay to the successful hun-
ter, the extirpation of the tiger is a slow
process.

If we would say anything of the behaviour
of the tiger in captivity we should merely
repeat in a great measure what has been said
about the lion. It is worth mentioning, how-
ever, that even the tiger born in a menagerie
or a zoological garden, and kept tame from
birth, is always more to be dreaded than the
lion. The instances of a return to the savage
condition are more frequent in the case of the
tiger. The tiger, however, agrees with the
lion in being easily propagated in captivity.
It has even been found possible to produce
hybrids between a lion and a tigress.

Africa, Asia, and the Sunda Islands harbour
large spotted felines, which have been desig-
nated by the names of Leopards and Panthers.
Are they species? Are they varieties? The
question still remains unanswered. Certain
it is that the panther of Java (Felis varicgata]
has a smaller head, longer neck and tail,
more slender body, and more simple and
more numerous spots than the rest of his
kindred; but it is equally certain that it
occurs in a quite black variety, whose spots
can only be discerned in sunlight, and which
was considered to be a separate species until
black and spotted young ones were found on
one occasion to be born together of the same
mother.

Be this as it may, it must at least be
acknowledged that the African Panther (Felis
Leopardus], to which some would restrict the
name of leopard, and the Asiatic Panther
(F. Panthera) are extremely like one another,
and that the name panther is the only one in
use in Algeria. The general colour of these
two felines is a light yellow ochre, inclining on
the back to brown, on the under-side to white,
while the spots are black. In both species
two different kinds of spots are scattered

To face page i

PLATE X. - THE LEOPARD (Felis Itopardus),

FELINES OF THE OLD WORLD.

169

over this light-coloured garment; smaller
angular complete spots, and larger circular,
or rather ring-shaped ones, surrounding a
rose-coloured or yellowish-red centre. But
in the African form the complete spots, which
are crowded together, are found only on the

sides, and on the back are replaced by the
ring-shaped spots, while in the Asiatic form
the latter kind of spots are not so closely
crowded together, and cover the whole body
except the head and lower part of the legs.
These differences are certainly too slight to

Fig. 75. — The Clouded Tiger (l-'clis macioscelis}. page 170.

suffice for the distinction of two different
species.

In Plate X. one of these felines is re-
presented sitting erect on the branch of a
tree, underneath which her young ones are
playing, while she herself keeps watch all
round with eager attention. Her beautiful
eyes are staring steadfastly in one direction.
Is she looking for prey? Does she spy any
danger? One may be sure that she would
dart with lightning-like rapidity on any
enemy or any careless traveller that might
venture to approach, that she would know
neither fear nor mercy if it were a matter of
protecting her brood.

Panthers do not attain the size of the tiger,

but they are nevertheless terrible enemies
for every creature, even for man. Nothing
equals the grace, the elegance, the lightness
of the panther, when like a serpent he winds
through the bush crawling on his belly. He
shows wonderful skill in hiding himself amidst
the branches of trees, and for hours together
he will lie stretched out his whole length
upon a branch, with his legs hanging down on
both sides, patiently and quietly waiting
without any other movement than a gentle
vibration of the tip of 'his tail, ever on the
watch for an animal to make his prey or an
enemy to attack. In those parts in which he
has made acquaintance with firearms he tries
to avoid man when he can, without, however,

23

THE CAT TRIBE.

greatly fearing him, and the most experienced
hunter may pass by in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of a crouching panther without
suspecting his presence, while the panther, on
the other hand, is observing with watchful
eye his slightest movements. When wounded
or tormented by the pangs of hunger the
panther becomes terrible. He darts out un-
expectedly on his antagonist, and the hunting
screens in the trees, which afford entire pro-
tection against the lion, are of no avail against
this expert climber. The French have suc-
ceeded in banishing the lion from Algeria,
but all the efforts of Bourbonnel and his bold
companions of the chase have not resulted in
the extirpation of the panther. The ravages
which these beasts commit among flocks and
herds are considerable, and their boldness
is so great that even yet they venture near
towns. These ravages are all the more
serious because the panther, like others of the
beasts of prey of which we have spoken, kills
more than enough to satisfy his hunger,
when he has once managed to break into an
inclosure or a stall. The fires which keep
off the lions seem rather to attract the panther.
On the other hand large dogs, which tremble
at the sight of the lion, attack the panther
with courage, and the latter, in spite of his
desperate defence, cannot escape, where there
are no trees, from a numerous pack of good
dogs.

In the forest the panther easily eludes his
assailants by climbing a tree. The hatred
shown by dogs he repays with interest, and
isolated watch-dogs easily become his prey.
Among wild animals wild boars, antelopes,
monkeys, and the hyrax appear to be his
favourite victims. Even porcupines, however,
are not protected by their spines. Among
domesticated animals the panther prefers,
when he has the choice, goats to sheep, which
are somewhat protected by their wool ; but he
also attacks asses and mules, and in the farm-
yards and villages does not despise either
dogs or cats nor even poultry. When tamed

he is delightful on account of his mild and
affectionate disposition and caressing ways,
but always dangerous from the liability of his
bloodthirsty instincts to return.

The Clouded Tiger (F. macroscelis), fig. 75,
a native of Siam, Borneo, and Sumatra, is
an animal with a longer body than the
previous species, and with a different colour-
ing of the coat, which shows a tendency in
the spots to assume a striped arrangement.
The ground colour is a dull gray inclining
to yellow or reel. The paws and tail are
covered with small black complete spots,
while on the sides there are large spots
arranged in series, and the head and neck are
marked with longitudinal parallel stripes.

The character of this feline, which may
attain the length of three feet or more,
appears to be the opposite of that of the
panther. The natives, indeed, detest the
clouded tiger as the ravager of their poultry
yards, but do not fear it at all. It lives
in the woods, where it chiefly hunts after
small mammals and birds. The few speci-
mens which have been brought to Europe
exhibited a gentle disposition. They easily
became familiar with man and even with dogs,
were fond of being caressed, and behaved
altogether like domestic cats.

In the Marbled Cat (F. marmorata), fig. 76,
which likewise comes from the Sunda Islands,
and reaches about the size of a large domestic
cat, the arrangement of the spots in stripes
becomes still plainer. The paws and the tail
are still marked with small black spots, while
broad brown and black stripes extend over
the sides and neck. The animal lives in the
forests of Borneo and Sumatra in the same
manner as our wild cat, and in captivity be-
haves like the domestic cat.

There was long a controversy as to the
origin of the latter. At the present day
doubt is no longer possible. Our cat still
lives in a wild or half-wild state throughout
the interior of Africa, in the Soudan, in
Abyssinia, and even in Palestine, and has

FELINES OF THE OLD WORLD.

been called by Riippell, who first discovered
it, the Fallow Cat. It is also known as
the Gloved Cat (F. maniculata\ fig. 77.
On a careful comparison of the skeleton of
this wild cat with that of the mummies of cats
which are found in plenty in the Egyptian
monuments, as well as with the skeletons of
our domestic cat, the complete agreement of
the two has been thoroughly established.

The examination of the half-wild cats that
roam about in the villages of Nubia and
Abyssinia, and which have nearly preserved
the form and markings of the wild species,
has only confirmed this result. The fur of
the fallow cat has a yellowish or reddish
colour, darker on the back and lighter on the
under side. The legs and tail are ringed, as
in our domestic cat; on the head there are

Fig. 76. — The Marbled Cat (Felis marmorata}.

some darker longitudinal stripes, and on the
sides confused irregular marblings. It is
proper to observe here that all our domestic
cats, even those which afterwards become
quite black or white, have when young a
ringed tail, though the rings are indeed often
only very faintly marked.

The fallow cat seems as much at home
among the scanty bushes of the steppes as
in the primeval forests of Central Africa,
where, like our wild cat, it pursues small
rodents and birds. When caught young it
is easily tamed, and attaches itself to man, or
rather to human dwellings, even in those
countries in which the inhabitants certainly
take no care of it. The ancient Egyptians
undoubtedly obtained it from the interior of
Africa, and afterwards they held it in such
reverence that the unhappy wight who, even
through accident, had caused the death of a
cat was regarded as a murderer and punished

with death. The ancient Greeks were un-
acquainted with the cat. No bones belonging
to it were found in the ruins of Troy. Hero-
dotus told his countrymen of the animal as
he had observed it in Egypt. It was in
Egypt that the Romans became acquainted
with it.

Now all our domestic animals derived from
India, or from Asia generally, were known
to the ancient Aryans, and since the domestic
cat was unknown to all the ancient Aryan
races, the inference that the domestic cat is
derived not from Asia but from Africa is
obvious. The domestic cat has accordingly
been introduced into the countries north of
the Mediterranean by the Romans, who ob-
tained it from Egypt; and the nations that
followed the Romans, the Arabs and Semites
in general, brought it further west. Now-a-
days this useful hunter of small rodents has
been spread by man over the whole earth,

172

THE CAT TRIBE.

but in the tenth century of our era the do-
mestic cat was still so rare, that it was re-
garded in England as an animal of great
value, with regard to which the laws named
certain defects which made a sale invalid, just
as at present in the case of horses. Man has

formed various races, but since the cat has
always preserved a certain independence in
the gratification of its sexual instincts, these
races are much less numerous and less diver-
gent from one another than those of other
domestic animals.

illow Cat (Felis manicula

The Wild Cat (Fe/is catus), fig. 78, of our
part of the world is much larger and stronger
than the domestic cat. The head is relatively
thicker and larger, the body more powerful,
the tail shorter, the fur thicker, the teeth
sharper. The fur has a grayish-yellow ground
with black stripes, which are specially well
marked on the head, back, sides, and very
bushy tail. The legs -awe short, the;, paws
very strong and broad.

It is essentially a European animal, which
scarcely crosses the Caucasus, but is found
everywhere in dense forests as far as the
limit of trees. Decidedly nocturnal in its
habits it spends the day in holes in trees or
hidden among the foliage in tree-tops, some-
times in clefts among the rocks, often even
in the deserted hole of the fox or badger.
On the approach of night it leaves its place

of concealment and betakes itself to its soli-
tary hunt. It is only during the season of
heat that a pair may sometimes be seen to-
gether. This season passed, the sexes hunt
separately. All the hair-clad and feathered
denizens of the woods, from the young roe-
deer to the mouse, from the eaglet to the
thrush and wren, become the prey of this
fierce hunter, who combines strength with
agility, boldness with cunning. The wild
cat is a tiger on a small scale. It approaches
noiselessly, makes a great spring to seize its
victim, but does not pursue, and always turns
back ashamed when it has missed its aim.
It knows very well the habitual resorts of its
game, where to lie in wait, and patiently ex-
pect the hare as it comes from the wood to
pay a visit to a neighbouring field. I have
myself shot in the Odenwald a wild tom-cat

FELINES OF THE OLD WORLD.

173

which had placed itself on the watch opposite
me. I had been warned by a slight rustling
among the dry leaves, but the animal on
reaching its chosen spot remained motionless,
and I lay in wait for him in vain for an hour
before a favouring moonbeam enabled me to

take aim at him amidst the bushes. The
wild cat seldom pursues its prey beyond the
limits of the woods in which it roams. Its
visits to poultry-yards are confined to the
neighbouring villages and the woodland houses
of foresters. The chief food of the wild cat

Fig. 78. -The Wild Cat (l-'clis aitus).

consists of field-mice, voles, rats, and other
noxious rodents; and it has often been asked
whether they should not be protected instead
of being relentlessly pursued. As regards
this question, as in the case of the fox also,
different interests clash. Game has scarcely
any deadlier enemy among our wild animals
than the wild cat; the hunter accordingly will
make every effort to extirpate it. On the
other hand, the peasant and the farmer, and
indeed even the non-hunting forester, will pro-
bably esteem more highly the benefits which
these animals confer upon them in reducing
the numbers of the game, and especially of
the rodents, which injure the forests and the
crops. These benefits are certainly not
counterbalanced by the slight damage which
they themselves do in stealing a few fowls.
Yes, it might even be asked, whether the cat

is not on the whole of service to the poultry-
yards through the successful war which it
wages against weasels and fitchets, those
insatiable foes of fowls, ducks, and pigeons.

Dogs pursue the wild cat with all the
greater fury, because it, far from fearing
them, makes a courageous defence. It re-
quires a pack of three or four strong dogs to
master a wild cat. The hunt is even not
without danger. If the wild cat is not killed
on the spot, it darts savagely upon the ag-
gressor ; and cases are known in which
hunters have been severely wounded by this
courageous animal.

When caught young the wild cat can be
tamed to a certain point, but never com-
pletely. Its fierce nature is apt to break out
occasionally. Not a few instances are known
in which it has unexpectedly attacked its

174

THE CAT TRIBE.

master in an access of blind fury. Have our
forefathers had the patience to tame this
denizen of the woods? This is all the less
likely, since the wild cat is not easy to feed,
requiring as it does living prey, and never
surviving long in captivity. Moreover, the

differences which mark it off from the
domestic cat are too important to have been
obliterated by an imperfect domestication
during a few centuries.

Among the numerous felines which inhabit
Southern Asia, we may mention also the

Fig. 79. — The Viverrine Cat (Felis viverrina).

Viverrine Ca* (Felis viverrina), fig. 79, in
which some see the type of a separate group,
distinguished by a long slender body, small
head, short legs, and tail of moderate length
terminating in a point. It is a beautiful
animal, reminding us by its gliding move-
ments of the civet cats, and has a soft fur,
the colour of which is a grayish -yellow
marked with brown spots arranged in longi-
tudinal stripes. In other respects it resembles
all the other felines, leading the same kind
of life, and not distinguishable by a single
important character. The fur is pretty
highly esteemed in some places.

The Serval (Felis Serval), fig. 80, the
"boschkatt" of the Dutch colonists at the
Cape, forms the connecting link between the
felines and the lynxes. The lean, slender

body attains the length of three feet or more,
while the short, and not very bushy tail
measures only about one foot. The legs are
pretty long, the head longish, the nose bent,
the ears large and shaped like pointed paper-
cornets. The serval is an inhabitant of the
plains of Africa, where the only wood con-
sists of a few bushes, and is met with from
the Cape to Algeria. It conceals itself by
day among the branches of the pistachios
and tamarisks, or in clefts and caves in the
rocks. Its strength enables it to attack
antelopes and sheep, but it prefers to make
war on the francolin and other birds of the
steppes. It is also very fond of paying
visits in its own interest to the poultry-yards
of the settlers, who on account of this unfor-
tunate passion regard the serval with detes-

FELINES OF THE NEW WORLD.

175

tation. It is usually caught in traps. The
coarse reddish-yellow fur, over which small
brown spots are distributed, is little esteemed
by us, but among the neg.roes of the interior
of Africa is so highly valued, that the negro
princes wear it as a mark of their high dignity,

as ermine was formerly worn by the sove-
reigns of Europe.

Felines of the New World.

The felines distributed over the whole of
the mainland of America form in a certain

Kig. 80. —The Serval (Ft Us Serval).

measure parallel series to those of the Old
World, but while the striped or uniformly
coloured felines, such as the tiger and lion,
in the Old World surpass the others in size
and strength, the chief role belongs in the
western hemisphere to the spotted species.

The Jaguar (Felts onca) attains about the
size of a tiger, but is not so long or so
massive in form, and has shorter legs.

The jaguar is in every respect a large
panther, whose range extends over the whole
of South America and even part of North
America — as far as Texas and South Cali-
fornia. Its thick, soft, silky fur is distinguished
from that of the panthers of the Old World
by the presence of pretty large ring-shaped
spots on the sides, shoulders, and thighs,
with a few small black points in the centre

of the ring, which is rose-red in its ground-
colour.

The general colour of the whole fur varies
very greatly from yellowish-white to black,
but no special homes can be assigned to
these varieties. Differently coloured young
ones are often found in the same brood.

Plate XI represents the jaguar crawling
on an overthrown tree, on which it is on the
look out for a capybara, a large South
American rodent, of whose flesh it is said to
be peculiarly fond. The jaguar, however,
like the tiger and panther, contents itself
with any kind of food and any place of abode.
It is found on the treeless Pampas of the
Argentine Confederation, where it can hide
itself only in the tall grass, and is found no less
in the densest primeval forests of Brazil. But

THE CAT TRIBE.

it prefers the borders of the forest, the shady
banks of the great rivers and the standing
waters adjacent to them, where it lies in wait
for the animals which come to drink. It
climbs trees expertly even in pursuit of mon-
keys, swims across the broadest rivers, and
jumps with ease over high hedges and walls.
Although it prefers horses and mules, tapirs,
peccaries, and capybaras, yet it does not
despise rats and agoutis, and knows how to
get the better of the armadillos in spite of
their armour. Birds seem to be not less
tasty to it than the large lizards; it will
even attack crocodiles and alligators, is capital
at fishing with its paw, like our cats, and it
can dexterously empty the carapace of the
large turtles, which it turns on their backs
when they come to the sandy shores to lay
their eggs. Only the oxen of the Pampas
can withstand its onset; but these, it must be
remembered, were introduced by man, and do
not belong to the original native fauna of
America.

With reference to man the jaguar behaves
like the large felines of the Old World, By
day it mostly leaves him unmolested, by
night attacks and devours him. It flees
from him in those parts in which it has
become acquainted with firearms; but seeks
him out in order to make him its prey when
it knows from experience that it runs no
great danger. There are " man-eaters " in
America as in India, and it is always the old
males that devote themselves specially to
human prey. It appears, however, that these
attacks on the human species are rarer in
America than in India.

Besides the modes of hunting adopted in
the Old World, others, perhaps more effective,
are carried on in the New against the jaguar.
Foremost among these is hunting with arrows
poisoned with curara, and projected by means
of a blow-pipe. The Indians who carry on
this mode of hunting march out with a pack
of courageous dogs. The jaguar when bayed
by the dogs at once takes to a tree, and from

this secure station keeps watch on its four-
footed assailants, paying little heed to the
small arrows with which the Indians prick
its skin and cause it no more pain than a
thorn would, although in a few minutes they
paralyse it. In other cases heroic Indians
will advance boldly against it, their left arm
merely protected from its bites by a sheep-
skin, while they transfix its breast with a
lance or a large dagger. The Gauchos throw
the lasso round it and strangle it, dragging
it along as Achilles did the dead body of
Hector. But for this mode of hunting an
excellently trained high-spirited stallion is
required, for at the sight of the terrible
ravager most horses tremble in all their
limbs, and remain rooted to the spot as if
paralysed. It is needless to go into further
details, for all that we have said of the tiger
and panther can also be applied to the
jaguar. Like the panther it does not fear
fire, and like the lion it is said to prefer the
coloured man to the white.

One would never think of comparing the
Cougar or Puma (Felis concolor), fig. 81, to
the lion, if it were not that the coat of this
American feline is without markings. The
general colour of this coat, however, is some-
what different from that of the lion, inclining
more to olive- or grayish-green. With the
exception of this uniformly coloured coat,
which has no trace of either spots or stripes,
everything is different in this so-called
American lion. The head, which in the lion
appears large and broad, is relatively small in
the puma; the profile is not straight, but bent
like that of a cat ; the body is slender, long,
and well-proportioned. The mane is wanting,
and so also are the tuft and spine on the tail.

The puma, in fact, shares with the majority
of the American felines, a rather longish
form of body and short legs. The fact that
the young are spotted and striped at birth,
like those of the lion, proves that the uni-
formly coloured coat is a later acquisition.

The small head, elegant in outline, is

To face page 176

PLATE XI. — THE JAGUAR (Fetisonca).

FELINES OF THE NEW WORLD.

177

adorned with two splendid brightly gleaming
eyes. Among all the mammals which I
know the seal alone can vie with the puma
in the beauty of this feature.

this eye is deceptive. Wherever it is found
(and its domain extends from Patagonia to
Canada), the puma has the reputation of
being a cruel and cowardly beast. Its size,

But the proud and gentle expression of which is upwards of four feet, would enable

Fig. Si.— The Puma or Cougar (Felis concolor).

it to attack the largest tame and wild
animals of America; but it leaves the horses,
mules, and oxen unmolested, flees before
dogs and man, while it eagerly attacks sheep
and goats, as well as monkeys, peccaries,
armadillos, and all mammals, birds, reptiles,
and fish of comparatively small size. Like
all felines, it prefers cautiously to slink up
to its victim and surprise it with a bound,
but it pursues even the agile monkeys on
the trees with enormous and well-calculated
leaps. Every kind of habitat is alike to the
puma if only it can find a safe retreat to rest
in. The treeless Pampas please it just
as well as the tumbled rocks of the moun-
tains or the primeval forests. It swims across
rivers, and climbs to the highest tree-tops
with the greatest ease.

The ravages which the puma commits
among the flocks have made him detested
everywhere. The jaguar kills only a single
animal, if it suffices to satisfy his hunger; but
the puma flies at the throat of an animal, and
sucks its blood without touching its flesh.
Pumas have been killed after they had
slaughtered twenty sheep immediately before,
and their stomachs have been found to con-
tain nothing but coagulated blood. One can
therefore easily understand that such butcheries
must cause the ravager to be pursued with
untiring zeal and bitter hatred, and the pur-
suit is all the easier since the animal may be
attacked without fear. In the Pampas the
Gauchos strangle him as they do the jaguar;
in the forests he is hunted with a couple of
dogs, on seeing which he immediately takes

178

THE CAT TRIBE.

to a tree, whence he observes for an instant
his barking foes. If the hunter is not quickly
at hand with his missiles, the animal escapes
with rapid leaps from branch to branch. Dogs
fall upon him with fury, while they fear the
jaguar, and only bark at him. It need hardly

be mentioned that for his extirpation one has
recourse to snares, traps, poisoned arrows,
&c., and that he is fearlessly attacked with
a naked weapon. The Indians eat his firm
white flesh, which is said to resemble veal.
Shy and timid the puma is easily tamed, and

Fig. 82.— The Oi

behaves in captivity like a gently-disposed cat,
though it often becomes an unpleasant com-
panion through the violence of its caresses.
But in the settlements it is difficult to train
it to spare tame poultry. Its innate thirst
for blood often causes it to deviate from the
paths of a hardly acquired virtue.

The following narrative by Lady Florence Dixie
shows the terror which the puma inspires in mules
and horses: —

"As we were approaching the spot where we
intended camping, one of the mules, which was
heading the troop, suddenly turned and dashed
away, and in another instant the whole troop broke
up and dispersed, galloping in all directions. What
was the cause of this stampede? We pressed
quickly forward, but nothing stirred in the long
grass, though we scoured everywhere. We were
baffled for a minute. ' It's a puma somewhere,'

said Gregorio. The words were hardly out ol his
mouth when a loud view-holloa rent the air.
'There he goes, there he goes!' shouted two or
three of our party in chorus, and sure enough, there
he was going — a mighty yellow puma — slouching
swiftly away at some distance to our left, with my
brother following close on his track. For us all
to gallop after and come within ten yards of the
puma was the work of a moment, but to get nearer
than ten yards or so was quite another matter,
as our horses were quivering with fright, and with
difficulty were kept from turning tail and bolting
from the dread presence of their mortal enemy.
Meanwhile the puma, finding himself surrounded,
lay sullenly down, eyeing us with dogged hate,
and scarcely seeming to heed the presence of the
dogs, who were growling furiously at him at a
respectful distance from his claws. Finding it
useless to try to approach on horseback, my brother
dismounted, and a rifle being at hand, took steady
aim at the crouching animal and fired. Simul-

FELINES OF THE NEW WORLD.

179

taneous with the report, with outstretched paws
and a deep growl, the puma sprang forward, and
then fell heavily to the ground, whilst our horses,
becoming wholly unmanageable, reared up and
fairly bolted. When we again got control of them,
nothing would induce them to return to the spot

where the now lifeless body of the puma lay, and
we had to dismount and walk there. Very fierce
and dangerous it looked ; and at the sight of its
ponderous paws with their sharp talons and its
cruel white teeth, we wondered whether, if it knew
its own powers, the puma would be such a cowardly

Fig. 83. — The Pampas Cat (Felis pajeros). page 180.

animal as it is. They scarcely ever attack man,
even when brought to bay, but lie down and
doggedly meet their fate, though they can kill
a full-grown guanaco with one blow of the paw,
and pull down a horse with similar ease." — Across
Patagonia.

The Ocelot (Felis pardalis), fig. 82, corres-
ponds somewhat in size and behaviour to the
Clouded Tiger of the Old World. It attains
a length of about 3 feet or more, while the
tail measures about 18 inches. The ground
colour of his fine soft fur is reddish yellow on
the back, and yellowish white beneath. The
head and neck show dark longitudinal stripes,
the tail black transverse stripes. The paws
are spotted, and on the sides a few large
ring-shaped brown spots are visible, and
these inclose a lighter-coloured centre marked

with a few black spots of minute size, but
sometimes they run together so as to form
longitudinal stripes. The ocelot inhabits
almost the same regions as the puma, but
prefers to frequent the great forests, whence
it makes excursions into the neighbouring
farmyards and villages. Its food appears to
consist mainly of birds and rodents.

What may, perhaps, be said to distinguish
it from the other felines is the fact that the
male is nearly always accompanied by the
female. Its life is in other respects the same
as that of the puma. It fears dogs and
men, does not attack large animals, and like
the puma leads a wandering life. It is said
to be less bloodthirsty than the puma, and it
is hunted rather for its fine fur than on
account of the damage it does.

i8o

THE CAT TRIBE.

The Pampas Cat (Felts pajeros), fig. 83,
represents our wild cat throughout Patagonia
as far as the Straits of Magellan. The silver-
gray ground colour marked with rusty red
spots and stripes gives to its coat a noble and
somewhat distinguished appearance. On the
sides and neck the spots run together into

longitudinal stripes. This beautiful cat lives
chiefly in the Pampas far from the forests,
feeds on birds and burrowing rodents, and
appears to have a very gentle and agreeable
disposition. It might, perhaps, be reared in
Europe. The Gauchos let it alone, for it
renders them good service in destroying the

Hg. 84.— The Eyra (Felts eyra).

rodents which dig out the ground underneath
their horses' feet and thus cause them to
stumble.

As the type of the American cats with
longish worm-shaped body, an illustration is
given of the Brazilian Eyra (F. eyra), fig 84.
The body attains a length of rather more
than 1 8 inches, while the tail measures from
12 to 1 6 inches. With its small head and
long cylindrical body the eyra resembles at
the first glance rather a weasel than a cat.
The soft silky fur has a beautiful orange-
yellow colour, and is without stripes or spots.
A largerspecies.the Jaguarondi (F.jaguarondi ),
with a dark grayish -brown fur, takes the
place of the eyra in the forests. Both species
almost always hunt in pairs, prefer birds to
mammals, do great damage in the poultry-
yards, but also attack lambs and animals of
the size of a roe-deer, are very adroit and

wily, and are eagerly hunted by the inhabi-
tants. No one has ever succeeded in taming
either of them.

THE LYNXES.

(LYNX).

The group of the lynxes (genus Lynx) is
distinguished from the other Felida not only
by their short compact body, long legs, short,
sometimes merely rudimentary, tail, and the
tufts of stiff hair on the rather large pointed
ears, but also by the fact of their having a
more highly developed carnivorous dentition.
The first premolar in the upper jaw in most
cases remains undeveloped, or if it appears,
it is deciduous and soon lost. The lynxes
accordingly have two teeth fewer than the
felines and hunting-leopards, and in respect
of this reduced dentition approach the terrible-

THK LYNXES.

181

extinct Machairodus, which may be taken as
the type of the carnivores in the highest
stage of their development.

The lynxes, of which we are acquainted
with about a dozen species, are distributed
over the whole of the mainland of the Old
World, but in the New World advance
southwards only as far as Mexico. They
have not forced their way along the Isthmus
of Panama, and are entirely wanting in South
America. On the other hand, lynxes are
found in the burning deserts of Africa and
Asia, but it may probably be said that these
beautiful creatures thrive best in the Polar
regions and among the mountains of the
temperate zone. The Booted Lynx (L. cali-
gatus} of the warm regions of the Old World
scarcely exceeds in size our wild cat, while
the lynxes of the high latitudes of Norway and
Canada are not much inferior to the panther.

The characters which we have mentioned
above are indeed always very well marked,
but not always developed in the same degree.

The tail of the booted lynx is longer, its
legs shorter than in the other species; in its
general aspect it approaches more closely to
the felines than the others do. The fur also
presents certain differences with regard to
the development of certain parts. The winter
coats of the lynxes of the far north command
good prices. They are, indeed, somewhat
coarse and easily torn ; but on the other hand,
are thick, warm, and brightly coloured, and
therefore much sought after for coarse furs,
while those of the southern species are so
thinly clad with hair that they do not appear
in the market at all. In most cases the face
of the lynx is bordered by large long glossy
whiskers, which leave the chin free and end
in two points, something like the whiskers of
the saints in the old Byzantine pictures; but
it is again the northern species that have the
whiskers longest and bushiest. The paws
of the southern species are thin and narrow;
those of the Polar forms, on the other hand,
broad and powerful.

In their general habits of life the lynxes
do indeed manifest the characteristic stamp
of the feline nature, but they, nevertheless,
exhibit certain peculiarities. They hunt by
night, and cower by day in carefully chosen
retreats; but they often hunt in pairs, and
not infrequently in more numerous bands. If
in some cases they confine themselves to a
single great leap in making an attack upon
an intended victim, they can nevertheless,
thanks to their long legs, pursue their game
running, and when the first leap has been a
failure they do not turn back ashamed, but
make several leaps in succession. They
prefer to remain within a limited district when
they can find enough food, go out upon their
hunting expeditions with great regularity,
and when they hunt in company follow their
own trail so well, each of the hinder ones
always treading in the footsteps of the one in
front, that from the track alone a hunter can
never tell how many of these animals have
passed. All the wiles of the other members
of the cat tribe are known to them, and they
also are guided by a remarkably acute sense
of hearing. We speak of " lynx-eyes" when
we mean to indicate an unusual keenness of
vision, but all modern observers are agreed
that, as regards this sense, the lynx does not
surpass the other members of the family to
which it belongs. Courageous, fierce, and
wily, the lynx lives at the expense of all
animals which it can destroy. Large game
is preferred to small. But necessity knows
no law. The northern lynxes slay the elk
and the stag, but do not despise either the
hare, the partridge, or the duck. If there is
excess of food they kill only to lap up the
blood. When we think of the ravages com-
mitted, for example, in the Alps, by the
few lynxes to be found here and there, con-
stantly exposed to pursuit, we might almost
believe that the fierce animals were driven
by fury and despair to manifestly useless
butcheries.

The chase of the lynx is difficult and

182

THE CAT TRIBE.

laborious, but not very dangerous. In general
it tries to get out of the way of men and
dogs, while it has a peculiar hankering after
cats. But when driven into a corner, hotly
pursued or wounded, it does battle for itself

spiritedly, and woe to the dog which it can stronger than a cat!

manage to reach with its terrible claws!
And this need not excite wonder. One
ought to be very careful in approaching a
wounded wild cat; how much more so then
in approaching a lynx, which is infinitely

Fig. 85.— The Caracal (Lynx Canical).

An illustration is furnished of the Caracal
(L. Caracal), fig. 85, as representing the
lynxes of the south. Its very long legs, its
slender and almost lean body, and its uniform
reddish-yellow coat proclaim it at the first
glance to be an inhabitant of the desert.
The colour varies more or less from yellow
to brown or brownish-red, but always seems
to be wonderfully adapted to the districts
which it inhabits. Where there are no
fragments of rock, fissures, and caves, then
pistachios and myrtle bushes or the tufts of
the alfa-grass afford the caracal secure retreats
in which it may cower by day. In Algeria
it is almost extirpated. In the Sahara it is
detested as the ravager of the poultry-yards
and the dangerous enemy of the watch-dogs.
It has never yet been tamed.

Europe supports two species of lynxes.
The stronger of the two, the Polar Lynx
(L. vulgaris), fig. 86, was formerly spread
over all Germany and France as far as the
Alps and the Pyrenees, and to be found in
forests everywhere. At the present day
lynxes are a great rarity in the Alps, the
Ardennes, and even the Bohemian forest,
while Norway, Sweden, and the whole of the
eastern part of our continent still harbour
a pretty large number of them. Only on
one occasion in the course of my numerous
residences in the High Alps, one night during
a terrible snowstorm, did I hear the strong
harsh voice of the lynx in the neighbourhood
of my tent, which was erected on the Aar
Glacier. The next morning we could follow
its track across the glacier, and two days

THE LYNXES.

183

later we heard that a wild animal, probably
a lynx, had destroyed some sheep in a pen
forty or fifty miles off. In the north the lynx
is generally found in the forests, where it
sits crouching on the branch of some tree
on the watch for passing game.

In winter, when snow is on the ground,
it is fond of pursuing hares, making while
doing so a series of astonishing leaps. It
is caught in traps, and is hunted, sometimes
by large parties, sometimes singly, with the
aid of a good greyhound, both on account

ijj. 86. — The Polar Lynx (l.ynx vulga

of the damage it does and also for the
sake of its fur. The hunting parties usually
endeavour to surround the object of pursuit
so that it cannot escape. The colour of
its coat varies very much, passing from red
or yellowish-brown with irregular spots in
summer to silver-gray for the ground-colour
in winter. But one may say with truth that
there is no lynx which exactly resembles
another. The Canadian lynx is only a
variety of the European, but is distinguished
by its longer and thicker fur, which is very
valuable.

Some examples are known of tamed lynxes
which become just as gentle and obedient
as the best trained cats. But these cases
are rare, and the lynxes kept in cages are
in general very uninteresting. They remain

motionless for hours, show a little animation
only when something is given them to eat,
and pay very little attention to what goes
on round about them.

The Spanish Lynx (L. (Fclis) pardinus),
fig. 87, is unmistakably a distinct species.
It is found throughout the Iberian Peninsula
and nowhere else. Weaker and longer in
the legs than the other European species,
the Spanish lynx has a coat of a yellowish-
red colour, with small irregularly scattered
spots on it, and faint longitudinal stripes on
the head; its whiskers are very insignificant,
and its tail very short. It lives in the same
manner as the northern lynx, and even
ventures near towns. Its flesh is highly
esteemed as a dainty by the Spaniards; and
in the middle ages that of the northern

1 34

THE CAT TRIBE.

lynx also was considered to make an ex-
cellent roast. This is rather a noticeable
fact, seeing that the flesh of beasts of prey
in general, notwithstanding its beautiful
white colour, is rendered by its toughness
not very appetizing.

The Fossa.— We introduce here a very

remarkable animal which is found only in
Madagascar, and which may be described as
a Tertiary feline whose existence has been
continued to the present day. It is the Fossa
of the Malagasies, or, in scientific nomencla-
ture, Cryptoprocta ferox (fig. 88).

I have called the fossa a Tertiary feline,

Fig. 87.— The Spanish Lynx (Lynx pardinus). page 183.

and we must actually go back to the Eocene
formations in order to meet with another
dentition of the kind. In the upper and
under jaw there are six incisors as in all
Carnivora; but in the upper jaw the two inner
pairs are very small with narrow crowns,
while the outer pair are much larger, and
have each the form of a truncated cone.
The canines are short, thick, not very sharp
at the edges, like the canines of certain
bears. After the canines there follow on
each side four premolars, the first very
small, deciduous; the second with two roots;
the third larger than the first two, with a
posterior heel and an internal marginal
tubercle; while the fourth is the carnassial,
with two very sharp cusps and an internal

process in front. A very small transversely
placed tubercled tooth comes close behind
the posterior cusp of the carnassial. If the
supernumerary deciduous premolar is left
out of account, the dentition of the upper
jaw is that of a feline of the present day.
The lower jaw has very strong curved
canines, and behind these the same number
of premolars as the upper jaw (four on each
side), the first again deciduous, the others
increasing in size from before backwards,
with sharp median cusps, and finally a car-
nassial with two sharp cusps and a posterior
heel.

This lower jaw is no longer than that of
a feline, for it has two premolars in excess.
But the form and position of the teeth are

THE FOSSA.

185

of such a nature that if the lower jaw were
found by itself, and without its deciduous
premolar, it would be included without
further consideration in a fossil genus be-
longing to the Upper Eocene, which has
long been known to palaeontologists under
the name of Pseudselurus. The formula of
the two genera is certainly different. Pseu-

dselurus has only 32 teeth, while the fossa
has 36. But there are only slight differences
in the forms of the teeth. The fossil species
have also been called "four-toothed cats,"
for all the other felines have only three
molars in the lower jaw. The fossa would
accordingly be a five-toothed cat.

But here end the characters which the

Fig. 88.— The Fossa (Cryptoprocta ferox).

fossa has in common with the other felines,
and with them alone. With respect to its
other characters the fossa is allied partly to
the felines, partly to the Viverrida, or to the
latter alone.

The claws are retractile, as in the felines
and in many Viverrida. The fossa is mani-
festly plantigrade like certain Viverrida. The
body is very long, the legs short, the ears
small; the pupil is slit-like. All these char-
acters, to which we must add the longish
form of the skull with a well -developed
sagittal crest, and the long jaws, are more
like what we find in the civet-cats; and this
relationship is further indicated by the naked
soles and by the presence of a pair of scent-
glands in the neighbourhood of the anus,

diffusing a very unpleasant odour. Such
glands, always developed in the civet-cats,
are wanting in the felines.

We may thus describe the fossa as a civet-
cat with a Tertiary feline dentition. It forms
a connecting link between two families, which
at the present day are strictly separate.

The fur is of a uniform reddish-yellow,
inclining to brown on the back; the hair is
smooth, closely pressed to the body, and

coarse.

Since the fossa is the only beast of prey
of considerable size in Madagascar (the few
civet-cats which are found there attain only
the length of the ermine, while the fossa
measures about 2 feet 8 inches in length, not
including the tail of ^.bout 2 feet 4 inches

186

THE VIVERRINES.

in length), it will not excite surprise that the
Malagasies have an undue dread of it. It
is a very ferocious nocturnal animal, which
works great havoc in the poultry -yards,
pursues the lemurs on the trees, and attacks

even young pigs. It is comparatively easy
to kill, since it is readily lured by the cry of
a fastened hen. The natives eat its flesh,
and, in spite of the diabolical stench which
the animal diffuses, regard it as a dainty.

THE VIVERRINES

(VIVERRIDA).

Carnivora of small, or at most of moderate, size, with short legs, and two permanent molars in each half

of each jaw.

This family, which is so strictly confined
to the warm parts of the Old World that the
most northerly species are not found to the
north of the Mediterranean, presents rather
variable characters.

The body is in most cases long, slender,
and not powerfully built; the legs are always
short ; the tail is usually very long and bushy,
but running to a point at the end. The head
is small, the rather long snout always pro-
vided with very long whiskers. The brain-
case is considerably prolonged towards the
back of the skull, the orbits are often closed
in the form of a ring, the zygomatic arches
not very wide, and the muscular ridges poorly
developed.

The family is divisible into two groups
based on the structure of the feet, which
have sometimes five, sometimes only four
toes. In the one group, of which we may
take the civet-cats as the type, the feet
resemble those of the felines in structure;
while in the other, the mangoustis, we may
even observe a tendency to the structure
seen in the bears. The civets are, in fact,
digitigrade, their toes are connected at the
base by a membrane, hairy below as well as
above, and armed with retractile claws. The
mangoustis, on the contrary, are rather
plantigrade, have pretty long toes, which are
perfectly distinct, and with the claws non-

retractile, so that they get worn away in
walking. The soles of the feet are naked,
or only slightly hairy.

The fur is sometimes fine and silky, some-
times long-haired and coarse. Dark colours,
suitable to the generally nocturnal habits
of the animals, prevail; yet stripes, spots,
and confused markings, which, however, do
not stand out very well from the dark
ground, are often present.

The dentition of the Yiverrida, while
exhibiting a certain variability in the number
of the teeth, presents forms which remind
us of the insectivores, and even of certain
marsupials, as in particular the rat kangaroos.
The incisors and canines have the general
characters of the carnivorous dentition, but
the canines are often not very prominent or
very strong.

The premolars, on the other hand, play
an important role. They are strong, pointed,
sometimes conical, sometimes flattened on
the sides and with cutting edges, but never
develop such strong secondary lobes as are
met with in the other Carnivora. In
the upper jaw the last premolar, as in all
other carnivores, is the carnassial tooth, but
it is very variable in its forms. Its crown
scarcely ever rises above that of the pre-
molar immediately preceding. . When well
developed this tooth shows a tendency to

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

187

have its cusps of a sharp-pointed conical
form, but in many cases it scarcely differs
in form from the true molars which come
after it. The latter usually have sharp-
pointed cusps on the outer edge, and are
prolonged into a narrow internal heel in such

a manner as to assume exactly the charac-
teristic form of the teeth of the Insectivora,
so that one could not tell their origin if they
were found singly. On the other hand, we
observe in some genera a well-marked
tendency in the dentition to become adapted

Fig. 89. — The Common Genet (Genettavu/garis). page 188.

to a mixed diet. The crowns then become
broad, almost quadrangular, the tubercles
become blunt and get so worn away that
in the latter years of the animal's life they
present to view almost even surfaces.

The tendency to a progressive specializa-
tion of the teeth is strikingly shown on a
comparison of the milk with the permanent
dentition of these animals. The premolars
of the milk dentition are manifestly in-
sectivore teeth, with sharp points which fit
into those of the opposite jaw. I reckon
with Owen three premolars above and below
in the milk dentition of the suricate. The
second deciduous premolar of the upper jaw
has five sharp points, and by its form and
size plays the part of a carnassial; the third
has only three points, and resembles a
permanent molar. Now in the permanent

dentition the large five-pointed tooth is
replaced by a conical tooth, and it is the last
of the second set of teeth which becomes
the permanent carnassial. The same thing
happens in the lower jaw. The last pre-
molar is, in the milk dentition, a carnassial
with points; but in the permanent dentition
it is replaced by a simple conical tooth, and
the first permanent molar becomes the
carnassial.

The total number of the teeth in the
permanent dentition varies according to the
development of the premolars. There are
always two true molars in each half of the
jaw, but there may be three or four premolars.
The formulas of the permanent dentition are

•J'I'7'2 ? ' I ' 4 ' 2

The species which have been examined with

1 88

THE VIVERRINES.

reference to their milk dentition all belong
to the less numerous group comprising the
genera with 36 permanent teeth, their

formula consequently is

' 3

= 28. The

same process which we have already observed

in other families goes on here also; the
carnassial moves in a measure backwards
at the change of the teeth.

All these animals diffuse a penetrating
musk odour, which is due to a secretion
formed in well-developed anal glands. In

Fig. 90.— The African Civet-cat ( Vivcrra Civetta).

the true civets these glands are inclosed in
pretty large-sized pouches of a peculiar form.

The mode of life of the Viverrida is very
varied. Some are nocturnal animals, while
others hunt only by day. Some run and
chase their prey like dogs, others slink up to
it and seize it with a spring like cats. Many
are expert climbers, others prefer the dry
bare soil of the steppes. The great majority
are exclusively carnivorous in their diet, but
some live chiefly on fruits. Certain species
can easily be tamed, and these render the
same services as cats, ridding houses of mice;
others, again, always remain wild and warlike
even against their own kind.

The genera and species are very numerous.
We select from the number only a few repre-
sentatives of the two groups that we have
indicated.

THE CIVETS

(AILUROPOOA).
Digitigrade viverrines with retractile claws.

The Common Genet (Gcnctta vulgaris), fig.
89, is the sole representative of this group in
Europe. It is met with throughout the whole
of the maritime districts of the western half
of the Mediterranean — in Southern France,
Spain, Morocco, and Algeria north of the
Atlas. It prefers rocky slopes overgrown
with broom and pistachio shrubs to dense
woods, but climbs pretty well; and feeds on
birds, rats, mice, and, in case of necessity,
even on insects.

It is a pretty animal, with a body measur-
ing about 20 and a tail of about 16 inches in
length. The ground-colour of its coat is a

THE CIVETS.

189

yellowish-gray, with marbled patches of black ;
the short, sharp-pointed head shows some
longitudinal stripes; the pointed tail is ringed,
the ears are pretty broad but short, the pupils
have vertical slits, the very short feet have
five toes armed with retractile claws. The
genet has in all 42
teeth. The molars
have several cusps,
the upper carnas-
sial is oblique
and sharp. The
premolars have
only a single sharp
lobe; the canines
are sharp and re-
curved. The musk-
pouch on the hip
is not very deep.

The genet is
nocturnal in its
habits, but by day
does not sleep so
soundly that it is
not awakened by
the approach of an
enemy or the pass-
ing of its prey.
Unparalleled is
the suppleness and
flexibility with
which it crawls on
its belly like a ser-
pent in order to
surprise a victim, which it finally seizes with
a spring. In dodging and gliding it is a true
artist, and indeed an elegant artist, and, thanks
to the facility with which it can insinuate
itself through the narrowest openings, it is a
pretty dangerous enemy for the poultry-yards.
There it behaves like the marten, slaughtering
all the fowls it can catch. In spite of these
depredations it is not very fiercely pursued,
for it renders good service by the destruc-
tion of noxious rodents, and, if we leave out
of account occasional outbreaks of blood-

thirstiness, it manifests on the whole a gentle
and agreeable disposition, and can even be
so far tamed as to respect the poultry-yard
of its master. It is pretty frequently kept in
certain districts as a domestic animal in place
of the cat. Its strong musk odour, however,

does not make it
welcome to every
one. It is often
hunted for its fur;
but not much is
known about its
general mode of
life in a free state.
Two species of
Civet-cats, the
African civet (Viv-
erra Civcttd), fig.
90, and the Asiatic
or Indian civet

Fig. 91.— The Asiatic or Indian Civet (Viverra Zitetha}.

have acquired a
certain reputation
through yielding a
fragrant substance
known as civet,
which is still prized
in the East, and
was formerly much
used in medicine.
Now the use of
this scent with us
is confined to the
perfumer, and even
with him it is getting more and more replaced
by true musk derived from the musk-deer. In
front of the anus, but in its immediate vicinity,
there is found in the civet-cats a longish slit
which leads into a wide pouch divided by a
partition into two hairy pockets, into which
open a large number of glands secreting a sort
of wax like that which is formed in the ears.
These pouches are present in both sexes. In
certain districts in Africa as well as in India a
large number of these animals are often kept
in cages for the sake of the civet, which is

THE VIVERRINES.

Ill

stiil sold at high prices. When caught young
these creatures can be tamed, but adult civet-
cats can at most be trained to present their
pouch between the bars of the cage so as to
allow of the precious contents being extracted
with a spoon. The fragrant matter is then
well mixed with oil and inclosed in small tin
boxes, the lids of which are afterwards secured
by solder. The ani-
mals are fed with fresh
meat, chiefly that of
birds, which they pre-
fer to any other kind
of food. The better
the civet-cat is fed the
more civet does it yield.
The smell pollutes the
whole neighbourhood.
To carry on such a
business one would
really need to have no
nose at all!

The two species are
pretty like one another.
The African civet at-
tains the size of a fox,
the Indian is smaller.
The fur is coarse and
thick. A sort of mane
which the creature can
erect extends along the
whole of the back as far as the long bushy tail.
The ground-colour in the African species is
yellowish-gray, and the adornment is in the
form of irregular dark brown patches. The
Indian species has a longer and leaner body.
The patches unite into stripes, and the ground-
colour is brownish. Both species sleep dur-
ing the day, by night they hunt after birds.
They are said to be peculiarly fond of eggs,
and to show great skill in searching out nests.
But it must again be admitted that not much
is known about their habits in a state of
freedom. The African species is found
throughout Central Africa, from Zanzibar to
Guinea. The Indian species inhabits not only

Fig. 92. — The Delundun

the mainland but also the islands, and the
Malays have introduced it almost everywhere,
even into the islands of the Pacific Ocean.

The slender Delundung or Linsang (Prio-
nodon gracilis), fig. 92, exhibits a still more
pronounced form of carnivorous dentition
than the civet-cats. The last molar of the
upper jaw is almost always absent; the other
. molars and the prcmo-
lars have sharp points
like those of an insec-
tivore; the canines are
slender, very sharp at
the ends, and recurved.
This wonderfully ele-
gant little animal,whose
body attains the length
of about 1 6, and the
tail about 12 inches, is
even more slender and
short- legged than the
genet. The head is
rather long, the snout
pointed, the pupils ver-
tical as in the cat tribe,
the short smooth silky
fur prettily marbled
with dark brown
patches on a yellow
ground. The tail is
ringed, and has a white
point. The creature leads a nocturnal life in
Java and the Malay Peninsula, and feeds
almost exclusively on birds. The natives,
who call it "the little tiger," both on account
of the savageness of its disposition and the
colour and markings of its coat, detest it as a
bold and dexterous plunderer of the poultry-
yard.

TheParadoxuresor Musangs ' Parado.vnrns]
manifest, in opposition to the previous species,
a decided tendency to a vegetable diet in the
structure of their blunt-tubercled molar teeth,
which soon get worn down. This genus,
which is very rich in species, has been sub-
divided into several sub-genera, founded on

(Prionodon i

THE CIVETS.

191

very unimportant distinctions. They are
nocturnal animals, with pupils like cats, which
they about equal in size. They approach
the genets in the elongation of their powerful
body, in the shortness of their legs, and in
the form of the head. The tail, almost as
long as the body, can be rolled up, but does
not serve for a prehensile organ, as has some-
times been asserted. The feet have five toes,
armed with pretty long but hardly retractile

claws. In their mode of progression these
animals are semi-plantigracle, and the musk-
pouch exists only in the form of an open fold
or fissure, in which lie the openings of the
ducts leading from the glands, which excrete
a substance like tallow, having a very dis-
agreeable oclour.

The paradoxures are capital climbers, and
hunt principally after birds and birds' nests;
but they also commit great ravages in the

Fig. 93. — The Common Paradoxure or Palm-cat \Paradt)xurus typus).

plantations, where they seek for sugary fruits,
such as pine-apples and bananas, but still
more for ripe coffee-beans. They eat the
fleshy pods of the coffee-fruit and evacuate
the undigested beans, which are searched for
amidst their excrements under the pretext
that they make the best coffee. But the
yield from this source scarcely makes good
the damage done by these animals, and the
Javanese prefer to reap their coffee for them-
selves and to keep their fowls, rather than
to pay with these the labour that the para-
doxure performs in plundering their coffee-
bushes. The numerous species are distrib-
uted through the East Indies, including the
Sunda Islands. Fig. 93 represents the

largest species of the genus, the Common
Paradoxure or Palm-cat, the Coffee-cat of
the Hindus (Paradoxurus typus}, whose dark
yellow coat is marked with black spots.

The Mampalon (Cynogale Bcnncttii), fig.
94, is the type of the aquatic forms among
the Viverrida. The shape of the body is
almost like that of a very long and power-
fully built otter. The very short strong feet
have five toes, which are webbed to the
middle, and armed with strong curved non-
retractile claws. The mampalon is semi-
plantigrade. The sole of the foot is naked.
The broad flattened head has very short
external ears. The muzzle is broad and
rounded, and has at the end slit-like nostrils,

192

THE VIVERRINES.

which can be closed when the animal dives.
The cheeks and lips are furnished with enor-
mously long whiskers, and there are similar
long hairs above the eyes. These hairs are
all strong bristles of a yellow colour, and im-
part quite a peculiar aspect to the face. The
fur is smooth and thick, and intermingled

with pretty long lustrous bristly hairs. It
is of a dark-brown colour. The dentition
is very remarkable. The canines are very
strong, the premolars very sharp. The last
upper premolar has something of the charac-
ter of a carnassial tooth, but the two last molars
both above and below have almost flat crowns

Fig. 94. — The Mampalon (Cynogale Btnnetlii). page 191.

with blunt tubercles. This structure is met
with alike in the otters and in the fruit-
eaters, and in the former it indicates a diet
consisting mainly of crustaceans, mussels, and
snails.

The mampalon lives on the banks of lakes
and rivers in the islands of Borneo and
Sumatra. It feeds chiefly on fish and crabs;
but it is said also to be a good climber, and
to despise neither birds nor fruits.

THE MANGOUSTIS

(CYNOPODA).

With elongated toes, large non-retractile claws, and
naked soles.

From this group, very rich in genera and
species, we select only a few noteworthy
representatives.

The True Mangoustis (Herpcstcs) may
properly have a place assigned to them in

advance of the other genera on account of
the good reputation which some of them have
acquired. They have a very long but strong
and well-set body, a long pointed tail, short
legs, feet with five toes, armed with very long,
strong, curved, non-retractile claws. Some
species, however, exhibit only four toes on
the hind-feet. The features are round or
broadly oval. The dentition indicates the
carnivore. The canines are short, much
curved, and very sharp; the premolars cut-
ting, the carnassial pretty well developed,
especially in the upper jaw; the molars with
sharp points on the crown. There are usually
40 teeth in all, four premolars and two molars
in each half of each jaw. But in some species
the first premolar disappears early, so that
the total amounts to only 36 teeth. The fur
is always rough on account of the numerous
bristles which project beyond a short wool,
and often become so long that they en-

THE MANGOUSTIS.

tirely conceal the legs when the animal
is creeping on the ground. Various species
of these animals are found in all the warm
parts of the Old World, and all hunt only by
day, catching their prey alive.

Only one species (//. Widdringtoni) is
found in Europe, in the south of Spain, and
it is very little known. The hairs of this

species are used in making paint-brushes for
artists. That is all that is known about it.
The Egyptian Ichneumon, or Pharaoh's
Rat, as it is sometimes called (ffcrpestes
Ickncumoii), fig. 95, is found especially in the
Lower Nile Valley, but its domain extends
into Palestine on the one hand, and as far as
Tunis on the other. Among the twelve

Fig. 95. — The Egyptian Ichneumon or Pharaoh's Rat (Herpcsrcs Ichneumon}.

species of Herpestes native to Africa the
Egyptian ichneumon is one of the largest, its
body measuring about two feet in length,
while the length of the tail is about 20
inches. The head is pointed, the ears short,
the body pretty thick, the feet five-toed, the
legs very short and almost hidden under the
long hairs of the grayish-green fur, the
colour of which is very well adapted to
prevent the animal from being seen when
it creeps according to its wont amidst the
high grass and in the cane thickets. The
long tail set with rather stiff bristles ends
in a tuft which comes to a point.

The ancient Egyptians worshipped this
ichneumon as a benefactor of the land. They
saw in it the inexorable destroyer of the
crocodile, and especially of the crocodile's
eggs, as well as of dangerous poisonous ser-
pents. Numerous ichneumon mummies are
found in the graves. The most extraordinary

deeds of heroism are related on the part of
this animal. Not content with burrowing into
the eggs of these terrible reptiles, the ichneu-
mon was even said to steal into the open
throat of sleeping crocodiles, to creep down
to the stomach, and then to tear out the heart,
and thus destroy the animal in a highly inge-
nious but cruel manner. If it met a large
poisonous serpent, it was said to call its com-
rades to its aid in order to fight the terrible
enemy in common. There was certainly
much of the fabulous in these stories, but what
we may accept as truth is that the ichneumon
destroyed poisonous serpents and crocodiles'
eggs. Since the crocodile has entirely dis-
appeared from Lower Egypt, and the ich-
neumon accordingly can no longer render any
services against it, the fellahs of the present
day take chiefly into account the devastations
which it commits in their poultry-yards, and

pursue with an inexpiable hatred the creature

M

194

THE VIVERRINES.

that steals their fowls, ducks, and pigeons, and
plunders the nests with their chickens and
brood-hens. The Pharaoh's Rats are affec-
tionate parents. The family, consisting of
father, mother, and young ones, hunt during
the summer in company, and while creeping
amidst the grass keep so well together that
one might fancy a large thick serpent was
crawling about. The Egyptian ichneumon is
often enough tamed, to serve as a means of
ridding houses of all sorts of vermin. But it

soon makes itself disagreeable by its smell, by
the noise it makes, and by the ravages it com-
mits among the poultry in spite of all taming.
The Gray Ichneumon, or Mongoose (Hcr-
pcstes griseus), fig. 96, which occurs in India,
measures only about 1 8 or 20 inches in length
and has a silver-gray fur. Of a much more
peaceable disposition than the Egyptian ich-
neumon, it can easily be rendered attached
and confiding. It does not make much noise,
keeps itself very clean, and renders the Hindus,

Fig. 96. — The Mongoose or Gra^ Ichneumon (Hcrpcstes griseus).

who hold it in high esteem, important service
through its untiring pursuit not only of rats
and mice, but still more of serpents, which are
so common in India. As regards the poisons
of serpents it is gifted with the same insus-
ceptibility to their action as the hedgehog,
and it attacks with the most praiseworthy fury
even the largest hooded snake. The battles
which the mongoose wages against these
terrible reptiles are as dramatic as those be-
tween the hedgehog and the viper, and the
mongoose almost always comes out the victor.
For the most part it manages to seize the
serpent by the neck, and then to crush its
head with a single powerful bite, after which
it at once proceeds to devour it. Even when
it has suffered a bite so that blood is drawn,
and it is overmastered for an instant by the
poison, the courageous animal does not allow
itself to be deterred, and renews its attacks

after a short rest, which it employs in eating
some green herbs. The natives maintain
that the mongoose knows antidotes among
the native plants, but this is incorrect. On
the contrary, it swallows the first green thing
it can find, manifestly with the intention of
producing vomiting, as dogs do. In the year.
1871 an attempt was made to introduce the
mongoose into the island of St. Lucia, one of
the Lesser Antilles, which is infested by the
terrible fcr-dc-lance, or lance-headed viper.
A young mongoose killed one of these ser-
pents after an obstinate struggle, in which its
blood was drawn without its betraying any
sign of being injuriously affected thereby.
But it appears that the efforts to propagate
this useful animal in the Antilles have not
been successful.

In Jamaica great services have been rendered
to the sugar-planters by the mongoose, which has

THE MANGOUSTIS.

'95

been introduced into that island with great success
as a means of destroying the rats (brown and black,
but especially the"cane-piece rat") which do so much
damage to the sugar-canes. Four males and five
female? were introduced direct from India in 1872,
and since then they have multiplied enormously.
As to the effect of this in diminishing the number
of rats, Mr. D. Morris, writing to the Field from
Jamaica on the 24th of Feb. 1882, says, " There can
be no doubt that on sugar estates the mongoose
has fully realized the hopes held out regarding its
powers as a rat-catcher, and sugar-planters all over
the island speak in the most unqualified terms of
the good it has done in destroying the rapacious
'cane-piece rat,' and reducing the expense of rat-
catching in all its phases." Several particular
cases are adduced to show the extent to which this
has been accomplished, and the writer concludes
that "the annual saving to sugar estates by the
introduction of the mongoose might very fairly be
put down at 90 per cent of the rat-catching ex-
penses, and at 75 to 80 per cent of rat-eaten canes."

A cut is also furnished illustrating the
Suricate {Rhyzcena (Suricata) tctradactyla),
fig. 97, which is easily distinguished • by its
very long slender head, feet with four toes
armed with long curved non-retractile claws,
and by its dentition. It has only three pre-
molars and two molars in each jaw, which brings
the total number of teeth to 36. All the teeth
are very sharp and pointed, thus approaching
the insectivorous type. This small animal
(only a foot in length) inhabits South Africa
from the equator to the Cape. It lives in
underground dwellings, which it excavates
with great celerity. The fur is gray and
adorned on the back with ten transverse
stripes. The tail, six inches in length, is
round and thinly covered with hair.

The suricate goes sniffing about in all
directions like an insectivore, and preys upon
small mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects.
It is easily tamed, and is kept in the huts of
the natives as a domestic animal for the de-
struction of vermin ; but the abominable stench
which it diffuses from its anal glands, and its
habit of excavating underground passages,
make it tolerable only to the Kaffirs, who are

accustomed to all sorts of bad smells from
their youth up.

"As company for the monkeys and myself for
many years past I have had a 'Jemmy.' All my
suricates I call 'Jemmys.' The Latin name is
Suricata Zenick. . . .

" I should like now to say something of the habits

Fig. 97. — The Suricate {Rhvz<rna. tetradactyla}.

of this pretty little fellow. Jemmy the Third (for
I have previously had two Jemmys) was allowed
the free range of the whole house. He was full of
curiosity and restlessness, running continually from
one room to another. He very seldom walked;
his pace, on the contrary, was a short gallop, or
rather canter. When on the move he always gave
tongue like a hound on the scent. It was impossible
to describe his melodious cry in words. When
handled and petted he would utter a sharp bark,
not unlike that of a dog, and if he was in a very
good humour I could, by imitating him, make him
bark alternately with myself. His great peculiarity
was his wonderfully intelligent and observant look.
He had the habit also of sitting up on his tail like
a kangaroo: his fore-paws on this occasion were
like a dog's when begging. He was very fond of
warmth, and would sit up inside the fender and
warm himself, occasionally leaning back against the

196

THE BEARS.

fender and looking around \vit'i the satisfied air of
an old gentleman reposing after dinner.

"One of the funniest scenes that ever happened
with Jemmy was as follows. Some seaside speci-
mens had been sent me, and among the seaweed
was a live shore crab about the size of a five-
shilling piece. Little Judy, the marmoset, who will
eat any quantity of meal-worms, bluebottle flics,
&c., came down at once off the mantel-piece and
examined the crab, who was crawling about on the
floor. None of my animals evidently had seen a
live crab before. The monkeys were very fright-
ened, and made the same cry of alarm as when
I show them a snake or the house-broom. Judy
plainly thought that the crab was a huge insect.
The crab put out his two nippers at full length and
gave the marmoset such a pinch that she retreated
back again to the mantel-piece, and from this safe
height gazed down upon the still threatening crab,
uttering loud cries of 'Chich, chicly, chich,' alternated
with her plaintive, shrill, bat-like note. Presently

round the corner comes Mrs. Cat. The cat
evidently thought that the crab, that was gently
crawling about, was a mouse. She instantly
crouched, head, eyes, and ears all intent, as if
trying to make up her mind whether the crab was
a mouse on which she ought to pounce or not.
Hearing the row caused by the crab and marmoset
fight, up comes Jemmy in full cry, with tail cocked
well in the air. He also attacked the crab, but
could not make head or tail of him. He did not
like the smell, still less did he like the sundry nips
in the nose that he received from the crab's claws.

"A grand crab and Jemmy fight, which lasted
nearly half an hour, then took place, ending in the
discomfiture of the crab, whose carcass, when dead,
the marmoset and the cat, both coming forward,
evidently desired to share. Although it was appa-
rent that the taste of the crab was not agreeable
to Jemmy's palate, yet he gradually ate him up,
claws, shell, and all, simply that the other animals
should not get a single bit." — Frank Buckland,
ATotcs and Jottings from Animal Life.

THE BEARS

(URSIDA).

Plantigrade carnivores, often with a plump and thickset body, with a degraded and often scarcely
recognizable carnassial, and large tubercled teeth.

The characters of this large and very
numerous family, which is distributed over
all parts of the world inhabited by Carnivora
generally, are not so clearly marked as might
be supposed by those who are acquainted
only with the bears usually kept in our
menageries.

All bears are, indeed, unmistakably planti-
grade, touching the ground with the naked
sole of the foot throughout its whole length,
but this character is found also in certain
Viverrida and Mustelida, and consequently
does not belong exclusively to the bears.
The strong toes, usually five in number, are
furnished in most species with large curved
claws, which get worn away in walking, but

there are also species in which these claws
are more or less retractile. The body is
mostly clumsy and thickset, but we also meet
with elegant members of the group with
long slender bodies. The tail, which in the
large bears is very short and often a mere
stump, is in other cases a genuine prehensile
organ, like that of the American monkeys.
With the exception of one species inhabiting
the far north beyond the tree limit, all bears
are excellent climbers. In our zoological
gardens most of them play the role of clowns,
inasmuch as their movements present the
appearance of a clumsy helplessness, while
in reality they are accomplished with much
dexterity, caution, and delicacy.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

197

The bears are in general omnivorous,
delighting both in animal and vegetable food;
but here also we meet with differences.
There are some which are entirely carnivorous,
for example, the polar bear; while other
species are almost purely vegetarian. In
this family we can point to a series of
transitions between these two opposite kinds
of diet, transitions which are also recognizable
in the dentition.

The dentition of the Ursida is, in fact,
distinguished from that of all the other
Carnivora by the marked tendency to the
omnivorous type, which is gradually deve-
loped (in different species) from behind
forwards, and is manifested partly in the
structure of the teeth, partly in the loss of
premolars originally formed on the carnivorous
type.

In all bears we observe in each jaw at least
two small tubercled molars, to which in the
large bears a third is added in the lower jaw.
In some American genera the tubercles of
these true molars still appear in the form of
low but sharp cones, but in the true bears
they are so blunt that an isolated specimen
of one of these molars might, on account of
its massive form and broad grinding surface
studded with only insignificant inequalities,
be ascribed to a pig.

The carnassial, which in the upper jaw is
a premolar, in the lower a true molar, is
scarcely distinguishable in form from the
other molars, though it is somewhat longer
and flattened at the sides, and has rather
sharper tubercles. Only in the American
genus Bassaris can it be at once recognized
as a carnassial by its two sharp external cusps
and its internal heel. No one would have
thought of distinguishing a carnassial tooth
specially if the dentition of the bears had
been adopted as the general carnivorous type.

The premolars present the form ordinarily
met with in Carnivora, but here again it is
found that the premolars of the small Ameri-
can bears (coatis, raccoons, &c.) have a rather

sharp, triangular, median lobe, while in the
large bears this part is thick and conical.
These premolars, moreover, have a tendency
to disappear as age advances, so that in some
large bears there is a wide interval separating
the canine from the cheek teeth.

The canines and incisors preserve the
character of carnivores' teeth. But this
character is very pronounced only in the genus
Bassaris, in which the canines resemble those
of the fox, while in the coatis they assume
the form of a strong triangular blade, sharp
on both edges, and in the true bears become
very clumsy, having only a slightly developed
conical crown with an enormous root.

The bears of the Old World are, in general,
to be described rather as omnivorous than
carnivorous in their diet, while most of the
American bears have preserved the car-
nivorous type more strictly.

Since the number of the premolars and
molars varies a little, it will be as well to give
a few of the formulas for these teeth.

Large Bears, Ailuropus: ^-7- = 42 teeth.
Procyon, Nasua, Bassaris: — — = 40 teeth.
Ailurus: ~— — 38 teeth.

^ ' 2

Arctictis, Cercoleptes: — — = 36 teeth.

In the milk-dentition of the true bears, the
bassaris, and the coatis, there are four pre-
molars with rather blunt tubercles, both in
the upper and the lower jaw.

In this family we form two large groups:
the Subursida or Small Bears, with 36-40
teeth and a long tail ; and the True or Large
Bears (Ursida), with 42 teeth and short tail.
The two groups are equally represented in
both hemispheres.

1 98

THE BEARS.

THE SMALL BEARS

(SUBURSIDA).

Among the American Small Bears the
Cacamizli (fiassaris astuta], fig. 98, forms
such an excellent connecting link with the
Viverrida, that many naturalists have included

£

Fig. 98. — The Cacamizli (Bassaris astuta).

it in that family. This elegant animal, whose
rather slender body, pointed muzzle, tolerably
large ears, and ringed bushy tail remind us
at once of the fox and the raccoon, inhabits
the forests of Mexico, Southern California,
and Texas. The dentition has essentially the
structure of that of a carnivore. The tubercles
of the molars are pretty sharp, the carnassials,
especially that of the upper jaw, well formed
and characteristic, the canines slender and
sharp. There are in all 40 teeth. A certain
approximation to the Viverrida is seen further
in the fact that this genus has round the
anus a naked patch in which the ducts from
the scent-glands open. The feet have five

toes provided with semi -retractile claws.
The fur, of a pretty dark gray-brown colour
on the back, but lighter on the under side, is
marked with some dark stripes on the neck.
The very strong and thickly-haired tail is
marked with alternate white and dark rings.

The animal leads a nocturnal life, and hides
by day in holes in trees or clefts in the rocks
according as it finds opportunity, lining its
retreat with moss and dried leaves. It is
often to be found near human habitations,
where it hunts after birds, small mammals,
and insects. The Mexican name, which
means " squirrel- cat," indicates its habits
pretty well. It is an agile climber, very shy,
but shows a strong attachment to its nest,
which it defends courageously even against
man. When caught young it is easily tamed,
and makes itself useful by hunting after
vermin like a cat, and affords entertainment
and pleasure by its elegant and rapid squirrel-
like movements and by its lively disposition
and fondness for all kinds of sports.

The Raccoons (Procyon), another American
genus, also have 40 teeth, but with a rather
different structure. The carnassials in this
genus can hardly be distinguished from the
tubercled teeth by which they are followed,
and if we took only the permanent dentition
into consideration, without paying regard to
the development, we might say that there
were in each jaw three molars with one
tubercle and one with several tubercles, while
in reality four premolars have been shed.
The body of these animals is short and com-
pact, the head broad behind and with a short
but pointed muzzle, the legs thin, the tail
pretty long and ringed.

Three species of this genus are known,
but all very much alike: the Crab-eating Rac-
coon (Procyon cancrivorus) of South America,
where it is found especially among the man-
grove trees on the coasts; the Mexican or black-
footed Raccoon (P. flcrnandczi] in Mexico
and Southern California; and the Common
Raccoon (P. lotor), fig. 99, which owes its

THK SMALL BEARS.

199

specific name, signifying "the washer," to its
singular habit of washing its food, or, in the
absence of water, at least rubbing it with its
fore paws, before it consumes it, an action in
which it is represented in the engraving.
This species, which ranges throughout
North America as far as the limit of
forests, furnishes us with a valuable
kind of warm fur of a grayish-red col-
our, which is chiefly used for making
mantles, collars, and rugs. The head
of the animal shows two broad black
patches round the eyes and a stripe
of the same colour on the nose. The
whole fur is composed of a thick down
mingled with long bristly hairs, and
the animal seems to be much plumper
than it actually is. The raccoon is
inclined to be nocturnal in his habits,
and is a very intelligent, adroit, lively,
and agile creature, which pursues
prey just as easily among the trees as
on the ground, and whose behaviour,
indicating a spritely and frolicsome
disposition, has been compared with
that of monkeys. He feeds on all
that he can lay hold on, and turns for
food to the vegetable as well as the
animal kingdom. Sweet fruits are
just as agreeable to him as small
mammals and birds; he shows much
dexterity in catching fish and crabs, and is
particularly fond of eggs, the contents of
which he manages to drain without losing a
drop. Insects and their larvae are manifestly
relished by him exceedingly. Of all the Car-
nivora the raccoon is perhaps the cleverest
in the use of his fore paws, for he catches
insects in their flight and crushes them be-
tween the two front paws, and in general
uses these paws almost like hands in carrying
the food to his mouth. If there is water
near he never fails to betake himself thither
to dip his food into it and wash it quite clean
before beginning his meal.

Notwithstanding all his agility the raccoon

shows much forethought in the measures he
takes in pursuing his prey. When he has
stilled his hunger he rests in a hole in a tree
or in a safe retreat among rocks.

He is caught in traps, especially in winter

Fig. 99. — The Common Raccoon (Procyon lotor).

for the sake of his fur, and he is also hunted
by torchlight with the aid of well-trained
dogs for the sake of his flesh, which is much
prized. The young animal is easily tamed,
and he would be an agreeable domestic pet
on account of the attachment he shows to his
master, his lively disposition, and his readiness
to live on peaceable terms with other animals,
if these good qualities were not cast in the
shade by his curiosity, which impels him to
poke his nose everywhere and to steal every-
thing that is eatable. At first he amuses, but
ultimately he becomes a nuisance.

Although very different in their external
appearance the Coatis or Proboscis -bears,

200

THE BEARS.

f*> -vv:;

Fig. 100. — The Social Coati (Nasua socialis).

laterally compressed canines. Of
these there are several varieties
or species, distributed over the
whole of the mainland of South
America.

The body is rather long, but
powerful, and the coati can be re-
cognized at the first glance by its
long proboscis-like snout, which
is supported by a double cartil-
aginous tube having the nostrils
at the end. The shape and
movements of this snout remind
us very much of certain insec-
tivores. The legs are short and
strong, the toes united for the
greater part of their length, and
armed with strong claws flat-
tened on the sides. The tail,

forming the genus Nasua, approximate very
closely to the raccoons in their dentition,
which is distinguished solely by the triangular

which is almost as long as the body, reminds
us by its pointed extremity of that of the
Egyptian ichneumon.

THE SMALL BEARS.

201

The species shown in the illustration, the
Social Coati (Nasua socialis], fig. 100, attains
the length of a yard and more from the point
of the snout to the tip of the tail. The long-
haired coarse fur, which is but little valued in
commerce, is of a reddish-brown colour inclin-
ing to gray, with white spots on the snout
and round the eyes;
the tail is ringed.

These animals live
in pretty numerous
companies in the
primeval forests of
their native land, and
hunt their prey with
much noise and clat-
ter. The old males
separate themselves
from these unruly
bands in order to live
as hermits, and rejoin
their companions
only at the season of
heat. The coatis are
the vagabonds of the
woods and forests.
They climb with
great dexterity, go
snorting and sniffing
all about both on
the ground and on trees, and are just as

good at grubbing up roots, digging in the
ground with their snout like pigs, as they
are at snatching birds out of their nests on
the branches of the trees. Like the raccoons,
they gather into their store everything that
they can lay hold of, but prefer eggs, insects,
and fruits. They certainly damage the plan-
tations, but yet are not very much disliked,
since they but seldom attack the poultry.
At the breeding season violent battles take
place between the males.

The coatis are fiery-tempered, pugnacious
animals, always quarrelling and fighting with
each other; but they fight out their domestic
brawls among themselves, and are always

ready to support one another loyally against
a common enemy, and courageously to defend
their young, who follow their parents about
very early. They give each other warning
of the approach of danger by a peculiar shrill
cry. They are hunted with dogs for the
sake of their tender and highly palatable

flesh. -When pur-
sued they at once
take to trees if they
can, but if pushed
into a corner they will
defend themselves
with spirit.

In confinement
they show little at-
tachment to their
masters, to whom
they render no obedi-
ence, acting entirely
according to their
own good pleasure,
and becoming dis-
agreeable and even
dangerous when they
grow old. They are
set down as having
but little intelligence,
but they are only
defiant and indepen-
In our zoological gardens they are at
once the delight and terror of the monkeys,
with whom they are commonly associated.
The monkey cannot refrain from teasing
the coati, catching hold of its tail, which the
latter always carries straight up, and giving
it a good shake. The coati, who is thereby
thrown into a fury, turns round growling and
grunting to snap at its tormentor, who, how-
ever, escapes with a single spring to the top
of the cage. But the coati is a good climber.
In spite of the relative slowness of its move-
ments it pursues the monkey without cessation,
often for hours together, and does not give
up the chase till it has revenged itself with a
good bite.

26

101. — The Kinkajou (Ccrcoleptes caiidivolvulus}. page 202,

dent.

2O2

THE BEARS.

The Kinkajou or Honey-bear (Cercoleptes
caudivolvuliis), fig. 101, is perhaps the most
extraordinary type among the American Small
Bears. To a body resembling that of a lemur
is attached a long prehensile tail like that
of a sajou. The head is small and round,
the muzzle short, the ears rounded like those
of a cat ; the tongue is very long and adapted

for licking up the honey of the wild bees, of
which the kinkajou is extremely fond; the
legs are short but strong, the feet five-toed,
and the toes provided with sharp curved
semi-retractile claws. There are only 36
teeth, since each jaw has only three premolars
and two molars with flat crowns. The
carnassial is not developed. The prehensile

e Binturong (Arctictis binturong}.

tail is used for the same purposes as that of
the sajous; the animal twines on to branches
by means of it, hangs itself up by it, and,
though it is covered with hair all round, even
uses it to seize hold of objects which it cannot
otherwise reach. The fur is thick, soft, of a
yellowish-brown colour with a golden shimmer,
darker on the back than on the under side.
The eyes gleam by night like those of a cat.

The kinkajou lives a solitary life in the
primeval forests of South America north of
the equator. It is exclusively a nocturnal
animal, spends the day in holes in trees,
which are carefully lined by it with some
material to keep them warm, and seeks its
food by night, that food consisting chiefly of
honey, insects, and sweet fruits. It is fond
of snatching birds out of their nests, and it

drinks the contents of their eggs. It uses its
fore paws as squirrels do theirs.

The kinkajou, according to all authorities,
is a true pattern of virtue in captivity, an
animal which carries to its grave a character
for faithfulness and honour, which contents
itself with what is given to it, is as tender
and attached as a child, is fond of receiving
caresses and returning them with interest;—
in short, it is really a pity that this bundle of
amiability, accustomed to a warm moist climate
and a nocturnal life, soon perishes under our
rude sky.

The Small Bears of tropical Asia are
altogether different from those of America.

The Binturong (Arctictis binturong], fig.
102, inhabits the forests of the Greater Sunda
Islands and the neighbouring mainland. The

THE SMALL BEARS.

203

long but powerful body carries a dog-like

head, which, however, is adorned with pointed

ears ending in long tufts of hair. The legs

are short and strong; the feet provided with

five free toes armed with strong non-retractile

claws. The prehensile tail, covered with

long hair, is a little

longer than the body,

which may attain the

length of about two feet

from the end of the

muzzle to the root of

the tail. The fur is

rough and coarse, with

long bristles on the

body and still longer

ones on the tail, and of

a uniform dead black

colour.

The free life of this
beautiful climber is
little known. It is
essentially a nocturnal
animal, clambers slowly
about on the trees, and
renders all its move-
ments secure by means
of its tail. The den-
tition indicates an al-
most purely vegetable
diet. It comprises in all 36 teeth, and the
thick short canines are the only marks of
the carnivorous nature of the animal. The
premolars have blunt conical tubercles; the
carnassials are not developed in their char-
acteristic form; the true molars have almost
flat crowns.

The animal has been but seldom seen in
a state of captivity, but often enough to let
us know that it is gentle and quiet in its
disposition, and that it by no means despises
animal food.

It is much the same with the Panda
(Ailurus fulgens), fig. 103, a wonderfully
pretty little animal of about the size of a
plump cat, found on the southern slopes of

Fig. 103. — The Panda (Ailurus fulgens).

the Himalayas at the height of about 6500
to 10,000 feet. The head resembles that of
a cat, or rather of a lynx, except that it wants
the tufts of hair present in the latter. The
muzzle is very short, the skull round, the face
surrounded by large bushy whiskers, the ears

moderately large and
pointed, the body short
and compact, the paws
short, five-toed, the toes
armed with strong non-
retractile claws, the tail
pretty long, measuring
about 14 inches, while
the body measures
about half a yard or
more. The remarkably
long, thick, bushy, silky
fur has a beautiful dark
russet-red colour, with
a golden sheen on the
back, while the belly
and feet are black. The
ears are white within,
red on the outside, the
whiskers white, the
parts round the eyes
red.

The free life of this
pretty little nocturnal
tree-climber, which is pursued for the sake of
its fur, is scarcely known. Judging from its
dentition we should conclude that it is essen-
tially a fruit-eater. It has in all 38 teeth;
and the tubercles of the molars are so blunt,
and the canines so little developed, that its
dentition might be compared with that of
an omnivorous ungulate. A single living
specimen1 has been brought to Europe, but
the poor creature was ill, and recovered with
difficulty, and only for a short time. This
panda used to place itself in an attitude of
defence, getting up on its hind-legs like a
bear, and snorting and snarling vigorously,

1 At least two living specimens have now been brought to Europe,
both kept in the gardens of the Zoological Society in London. — TR.

204

THE BEARS.

while its usual voice was a sort of twitter.
It ate only vegetable food.

As a transitional form between the Small
Bears, on the one hand, and the True Bears
on the other, we mention a very remarkable
animal which was discovered a few years ago
by Peter David in the high forests of Central

Tibet, and which has been called Ailuropiis
melanoleucns (fig. 104). It is of the size of
our brown bear, but has a white body, while
the feet, ears, and end of the tail are black.
Each eye is surrounded by a black ring, and
the black colour of the fore-legs is continued
over the shoulder to the middle line of the

Fig. 104. — Ailuropits mclanoleiicus.

back, so that the animal appears to carry a
black yoke. The dentition approaches that
of the true bears, comprising in all 40 teeth.
Of the four premolars the first is very small
and probably deciduous; the others increase
in size from before backwards, and gradually
approach in the form of their tubercles the
two very large molars, which have a wrinkled
grinding surface. In general the dentition is
similar to that of the true bears, but it never-
theless presents some rather important differ-
ences. The very broad feet are placed on the
ground in walking for only half their length,
as in the panda, to which this large animal
has certain points of resemblance in the form
of the head and skull. Altogether it is placed
by all the known characters of its structure
between the panda and the true bears, of
which it reminds us by its long coarse fur.

The animal inhabits the almost inaccessible
heights of the mountains of Eastern Tibet,
feeds chiefly on roots, bamboo canes, and
other vegetable substances, never leaves its
domain to approach human dwellings; and
is known only to a few native hunters who
roam over these lofty mountains.

THE LARGE BEARS

(URSIDA).

With 42 teeth, 4 premolars above and below, 2 molars
in the tipper jaw, 3 in the lower, all with flat wrinkled
crowns, on which are low blunt tubercles.

All these teeth are present immediately
after the change in the dentition in early
life, but they all remain only in some species,
while in others some of the premolars or
even of the incisors drop out as life advances.

To face page 304.

PLATE XII. — THE POLAR BEAR ( Ursus maritime).

THE LARGE BEARS.

205

The tail is always very short, the body and
the limbs short and sturdy, the paws enor-
mous and provided with very long claws.
The muzzle is usually elongated. The fur
of these bears is always in request as a
material for rugs and similar articles for
which a fine fur is not required. The flesh
is palatable, and that of the paws is even
considered a dainty.

The only exclusively carnivorous species
among these bears is the Polar Bear ( Ursus
marithmis), Plate XII., which is at the same
time the largest of all carnivores. Old males
attain a length of from 8 to &}4 feet, and
a weight of 650 to 900 Ibs. The polar bear
has a rather long but thick and strong body,
a long round neck not well marked off from
the head, small ears, and a pretty long pointed
black muzzle. The eyebrows are pretty
well marked, but eyelashes are wanting.
The legs are short, very powerful, and fleshy;
the paws excessively broad, armed with short
curved claws ; the sole of the foot almost
completely covered with hair, so that only a
few small naked callous patches are to be
seen. The tail is very short, and scarcely
projects beyond the long dense fur, which is
composed of fine, almost woolly hair, and is
considerably longer on the under side and
on the borders of the limbs than on other
parts. This beautiful fur, which in the young
animal is pure white, assumes a yellowish
colour as the bear grows older, and, in contrast
to that of other animals inhabiting the far
north, it does not change with the seasons.

The cause of this permanence of the white
colour is easy to understand. Other polar
animals which inhabit the land usually adapt
their colour in summer to that of the ground,
and become white only when the snow has,
as it were, covered their native land with a
shroud. The polar bear, on the other hand,
inhabits only the realm of ice on the shores
of the Arctic Sea, and in summer never
ventures far into the land. The ice-girdle
which surrounds the north pole is, in fact, its

true home. It advances and retires with this
girdle which man has in vain attempted to
break through, and if it sometimes penetrates
into less inhospitable regions it is because it
has allowed itself to be carried away by an
ice-floe.

Like the tiger and lion in tropical countries,
the polar bear is the absolute tyrant of creation
in the whole circumference of the north pole.
An expert swimmer and diver, and endowed
with gigantic strength, he rules both by force
and cunning. Seals are his favourite prey,
but he manages also to surprise fish in the
water, and the reindeer and the Arctic fox
on land, and when driven by hunger he does
not despise the fresh carcass of a whale, the
stores of sailors, or even carrion. He carries
on his hunt just as well during the endless
night of winter as during the continuous
summer of those inhospitable climes. The
female alone sleeps during the winter, digging
a hole for herself in the snow when she is
about to bring forth her young. The scent
of the polar bear is very keen, and so also
is the sight; these are the two senses by
which he is guided in his expeditions.

In his chase after seals, which hide under
the ice and pierce holes for themselves by
which to breathe at the surface, the polar
bear behaves with the utmost caution and
cunning. For hours together he remains
sentinel at the edge of one of these holes,
and if he does not succeed in killing the seal
with a single blow of his powerful paw at the
instant when the latter puts its head out of
the water, then he tries to catch it by diving
into the water at some little distance and
swimming towards the hole under the ice.

The journals of whalers and Arctic ex-
plorers are filled with narratives of encounters
with polar bears, which have often had a
very disastrous result. We may sum up
these narratives by saying that the polar
bear when his hunger is appeased very often
shuns man, though he does not at all fear
him ; that when urged by hunger or impelled

2O6

THE BEARS.

by a sort of curiosity he approaches ships
lying at anchor or dwellings that Have been
erected on the coast to pass the winter in;
that when hungry he attacks man, even though
armed, with courage, and that when wounded
he becomes terrible. The female defends
her young to the last, allowing herself to be
killed rather than leave them to themselves.
Notwithstanding the apparent heaviness and
clumsiness of his movements the bear easily
overtakes man in running, and his terrible
strength enables him to carry off an un-
fortunate victim in his jaws without exertion.
In spite of the dangers which the chase of
the polar bear entails all the inhabitants and
visitors of the polar regions give themselves
up to it with zeal. Traps, snares, and other
artificial contrivances can hardly be used
against him. The polar bear removes or
escapes them with singular adroitness. The
rifle or the naked weapon, spear or hunting-
knife, is necessary; and, above all, courage
and coolness are requisite. It is a battle for
life and death, in which one antagonist must
slay the other. But the prize is a powerful
inducement. The fur is valuable, the flesh
good to eat, and even necessary as a pre-
servative against scurvy. The liver alone
seems to be actually poisonous, or at least
noxious.

When caught very young the polar bear
may be tamed to a certain extent. But even
its caresses are not very delicate, and with
age it becomes disagreeable, sullen, and
dangerous to its keeper.

The Gray Bear, the Grizzlyof the Americans
( Ursus ferox (horribilis) ), represents our
European bear throughout the whole of the
Rocky Mountain region. It attains a greater
size than our bear. Adult males occasionally
reach a length of 8 feet, and weigh as much
as 900 Ibs. The coat has a grayish -brown
colour, the hair is pretty long and rough ; the
muzzle somewhat more pointed, the forehead
broader, the teeth stronger and sharper than
in our bears. The claws are very long and

curved; the tail and the ears pretty short.
The skull closely resembles that of a fossil
bear with a flat forehead found in the caves
along with the true cave-bear. A wood-cut
representing the grizzly would, however, be
so like that of our own bear that we dispense
with it.

By all accounts the grizzly is much fiercer
than his nearest ally, our European bear,
which he greatly resembles, however, in his
mode of life. In most cases he attacks man
without flinching, and few instances are
known in which he shunned the conflict.
The bison is not too strong for him. His
fury is all the more terrible the greater his
strength. In early life he climbs oak trees to
feed on the acorns, while at a more advanced
age he scarcely ventures on trees, which have
hence often served as places of refuge for men
pursued by him. He runs pretty quickly, and
swims with ease across the largest rivers.
His fur is used for the same purposes as that
of our bears; his flesh is highly esteemed.
In confinement he behaves like our bear.

Narrow escape from a "Grizzly": — "In 1870 a
small party of citizens were going up the Chaquaque
Canon. The trail led along a bench high above the
bottom, in which were trees and thickets. The
piping of young turkeys was heard in the thicket,
and one of the citizens who carried a shot-gun
proposed to go down and kill some for supper.
The party waited for him. He had hardly dis-
appeared in the thicket before he reappeared in full
flight, while close at his heels followed a huge she-
grizzly with two cubs. In a few seconds she over-
took him and struck him a powerful blow with her
fore paw, knocking him senseless. She then deliber-
ately smelt over the prostrate body, and, apparently
satisfied that he was dead, went slowly back to the
thicket. The party above had been unable to do
anything. As soon as the bear left they hastily
consulted together, and some of the boldest were
about to go down when the body sprang to its feet,
and made the best possible time to the top of the
hill. An examination disclosed the fact that the
bear's claws had struck the man's body behind, just
below the waistband of his trousers; and though
every particle of clothing, upper and under, had

To face page ao6.

PLATE XIII. — THE COMMON OR BROWN BEAR ( Urais arctos).

THE LARGE BEARS.

207

been torn from that part of the person, the skin
was not broken nor the man injured beyond some
slight bruises. He explained that the blow, throw-
ing him forward on his stomach, had knocked the
breath and consciousness out of him. When he
recovered his senses the bear was smelling at him,
and, knowing the consequences of moving, he lay
still. I have never heard a more striking instance
of presence of mind and nerve." — Dodge: Plains of
the Great West.

The Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos], although
at the present day greatly restricted in range
as compared with what he was formerly,
nevertheless still inhabits a considerable area,
and one may say that he is to be met with here
and there throughout the whole of the main-
land of the Old World north of the Atlas and

-*

the Himalayas. In civilized countries he has
been driven to the mountains.

He is a large plump animal, which may
attain the length of 7 feet and a weight
of 550 Ibs. It will be understood that a
species distributed over so wide a geographical
range as this is must present a number of
local varieties more or less different from one
another. Hunters and species-makers have
accordingly not spared themselves the trouble
of distinguishing a considerable number of
species, regarding which all that can be said
in a general way is that the size of the animals
is the less the further south their home lies.
The bears of the Pyrenees, the Atlas, and
Syria cannot rival in size those of Norway,
Russia, and Kamchatka.

I will not give here a minute description of
our common bear, which is known to everyone,
and which has been depicted by Specht (Plate
XIII.) in a manner that cannot be surpassed.
The family shown in the plate referred to has
established itself in a wild region amongst
rocks at the foot of a large fir-tree. The
mother observes with watchful eye the sports
of her young ones. The plump little cubs
are wrestling with each other; the one is
rolling on the ground while the other is wad-
dling up to him on his hind-legs, just as old

bears do when they are making ready for an
attack.

The brown she-bear brings forth two or
three young ones during the severest winter's
cold, usually towards the end of January.
The little bears are very amiable creatures,
and in the highest degree comical. Clowns
in every respect, clumsy and yet supple,
always ready for fun and frolic, good-humoured
with every one, docile to a certain point, they
yet always exhibit a certain egoistic independ-
ence, which later in life becomes changed into
sulkiness. The attachment of the mother
towards them is without bounds. For several
weeks she never leaves them for an instant,
remaining without any food in the dark retreat
which she had chosen out as the place of her
delivery. She teaches them to walk, to climb,
and to swim, and defends them with fury even
at the risk of her life. But though she over-
whelms them with caresses, keeps them warm,
licks them, and submits to all their teasing,
yet she does not fail to punish them when
she thinks that necessary. A good blow with
the foot, a box on the ear, and even a slight
bite are among the ordinary means of educa-
tion which she does not spare. It is even
asserted that bears two or three years old are
employed to educate their younger brothers
and sisters. Such teachers are called by the
Russians " Pastun."

I cannot agree with some recent authors
in denying to the bear wiliness, attachment,
affectionateness, and intelligence. The young
bear is, on the contrary, wily, intelligent,
shrewd, and devoted to his comrades. But
why should he be attached to man, who keeps
him in confinement and treats him to blows
as soon as he shows a disposition to live after
his own fashion? Shrewdness and a power
of observation belong to the bear in good
measure. In the course of a voyage which
we ourselves made to the North we happened
to have on board a bear six months old which
had shortly before been caught in Russia.
He yielded only to violence, and would not

20o

THE BEARS.

obey me till he had got a good cudgelling,
which banished him to his den for some days
But he was perhaps the most intelligent
animal that we had on board, including both
dogs and foxes. On the deck there stood a
cask filled with salt meat. The other animals
sniffed all round it, and endeavoured unsuc-
cessfully to gnaw through the wood. The

bear, after attentively examining the cask for
a whole day, at last found the bung, and this
he managed to pull out with his teeth and
paws so that he could introduce his long
snout into the hole and lick the contents.
The cook complained of him bitterly, because
he was far cleverer at plundering his stores
than foxes and dogs. The young bear may

Fig. 105. — The Black Bear (Ursus nmcricanus).

be uncouth, clumsy, and obstinate — but awk-
wardness and clumsiness do not exclude
intelligence.

The bear, like other carnivores, becomes
sullen and even malicious in old age. But
even then it is principally when his rest is
disturbed that he makes himself disagreeable.
He will spend whole hours sucking at his
paws and gently growling the while. My
bear had the habit of sucking in that way at
the end of my dressing-gown or the bottoms
of my trousers when I sat studying on deck.
If one disturbs the bear in this peaceful
occupation he becomes furious ; but one who
passes quietly by without disturbing him he
allows to go on his way unmolested.

And yet not always. In summer, when
he is principally a vegetarian, feeding chiefly

on berries and other fruits, roots, honey, and
ants, even the old bear is a good-humoured
fellow; in winter he becomes a flesh-eater,
and when hunger torments him he spares
nothing. He then attacks man as well as
the largest animals, pursues horses and oxen
running, breaks into dwellings and stables,
slaughters every living thing, and fills the
neighbourhood with terror by his growls.

The chase of the brown bear is always
dangerous, but is a favourite sport among
the inhabitants of the North. The bear
knows the danger that threatens him, and
takes to flight. When assailed by the dogs
he at last stands at bay. With one stroke of
his powerful paw he slits open the belly of a
dog or breaks its back-bone. I f only wounded
by a hunter he dashes upon his antagonist,

THE LARGE BEARS.

209

and then getting up on his hind-legs tries to
suffocate him in his embrace. Only in case
of the direst necessity does he use his teeth.
A blow with his paw suffices to lay a man
at his feet. The people of Siberia, notwith-

standing his enormous strength, attack him in
the same way as the Indians do the jaguar.
They wrap a sheepskin round their left arm
and stab the bear with a dagger or cleave
his head with a heavy blade at the instant

Fig. 106.— The Malayan or Coco-nut Palm Bear (Ursus malayanus). page 210.

when he stands up. But it requires a strong
fellow to carry on that kind of hunt.

The Black Bear, or Black Baribal ( Ursus
aniericamis), fig. 105, which attains the length
of about 6*/2 feet at the most, is a harmless
creature compared with his brown cousin. A
sort of good-humour and fondness for gym-
nastic exercises on trees appear to be the
essential traits in his character. The glossy
black bristly hairs of his loose fur are so long
that they cover even his toes and tail and
give him a terrible appearance, which is not
borne out by his behaviour. All young bears
have on their breast a more or less light-
coloured patch shaped like a half-moon; in
the young of the black bear the patch is white
or yellow and resembles a neck-shield. In
the southern bears this patch persists through

life, while in our species it mostly disappears
with age.

The black bear prefers the woods, and
climbs from pleasure and not merely from
necessity. It often hides in hollow trees.
Almost a strict vegetarian, it nevertheless
attacks animals when hungry, and is not
embarrassed in the presence of herds and
flocks, but always flees from man. When
attacked it defends itself bravely, and since
it possesses great stubbornness and extra-
ordinary strength, it becomes dangerous when
wounded. It is hunted for the sake of its
fur and flesh. In the opinion of the Indians
it is the most intelligent animal in creation
after the beaver. It is more easily tamed
than our common bear, and it amuses soldiers,
nurse-maids, and children to an extraordinary

27

210

THE BEARS.

degree by its gymnastic tricks and by the
beseeching, humble, and pitiful attitudes it
assumes in begging for a bit of bread.

Among the southern bears with a light-
coloured neck-fillet and black fur we mention
the Malayan or Coco-nut Palm Bear, the

Bruan of the natives (Ursus matayanus], fig.
1 06, of which a sub-genus has been formed
by some under the name of Heliarctos.

It is a very small ugly animal, with a thick
head, lank body, pretty long legs, enormous
paws and very long strong claws, and with

Fig. 107. — The Indian Hlack Bear or Sloth-bear (Ursus labiatus).

only three premolars and two molars in each
jaw. It may attain the length of about 4^
feet. Its short smooth fur is of a brilliant
black except for the whitish -yellow neck-
fillet.

This inhabitant of the Sunda Islands,
Nepal, and Cochin-China is perhaps the most
expert climber among all the large bears.
It lives exclusively on vegetable food, and
renders itself detested by the natives through
the ravages which it commits in the planta-
tions. Coco-nuts, which it opens very
cleverly, appear to be its favourite dainty.
Wonderful tales are told of the dexterity
with which this bear climbs the smooth
stems of the coco-nut palms. His tongue is

excessively long, and he uses it like a noose
to pluck the bananas that he cannot other-
wise reach. Of a harmless disposition, he
can easily be tamed when caught very young
and kept in the warm moist climate of his
native land. The specimens which have
been kept in confinement in Europe have
been obstinate, dirty, and even ill-natured,
and have endeavoured to get free, or at
least sought to pass the time, by gnawing
at the wood of their cage.

The Common Indian Black Bear or Sloth-
bear (Ursus labiatns], fig. 107, which has
been taken as the type of a separate sub-
genus (Prochilus),1 is one of the most peculiar

1 II is the Melursiis ui sinus of Shaw. — TK.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS.

211

forms to be found among the bears. It
grows to a considerable size, attaining the
length of about six feet, and attracts attention
by its long flat-browed head ending in a
movable proboscis, on which the nostrils
open in the form of slits protected by flaps,
which are constantly in motion. The thin
lips hang down over the mouth, and can be
pushed out in the form of a tube. The very
long thin flattened tongue resembles that of
a giraffe, and is used as an organ for grasping.
The large paws are armed with enormous
sharp sickle-shaped claws, reminding us by
their form of the claws of sloths.1

The Indian black bear inhabits the moun-
tain forests of India and Ceylon. It climbs
the highest trees with ease, seeking fruits and
the nests of wild bees, of which it is extremely
fond. With its long claws it opens the most
solidly built nests of the termites, which it
devours just as greedily as our bear does ants.

The sweeter the fruits and plants are the
more are they sought after by this animal,
which likewise commits great ravages in
the sugar plantations. He rests during the

hot hours of the day, and prefers the cool
nights for his plundering expeditions, in
which he but seldom attacks animals.2

The reputation of the Indian black bear is
different in different places. On the main-
land he is regarded as a tolerably peaceable
animal, and yet liable to outbursts of rage.
When disturbed in his comfortable repose, or
when one seeks to ward off his attacks on
the beehives, he takes it very ill. In Ceylon
the Indian black bear is even more dreaded
than the tiger. Everywhere he is regarded
as very cruel. The natives maintain that
in making an attack he always aims at the
eyes, endeavouring to tear them out with his
claws, and afterwards strangling his victim
and rending it in pieces.

The apparent good-nature of the Indian
black bear in confinement is not to be trusted.
Many a keeper has been very severely handled
in consequence of sudden accesses of fury in
this savage animal. In their native country
these animals are trained to dance, and led
about by a ring through their nose to furnish
amusement, as the brown bears are among us.

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY

(MUSTELIDA).

Except a single species all the Carnivora belonging to this family have a single large tubercled tooth in each half
of the upper, and two molars in each half of the lower jaw.

The finest and most valuable furs arederived
from this family. The costliest of all furs are
in fact those obtained from the martens and
otters. The sea-otter, the sable, and the
visons are everywhere regarded as the jewels
of the fur trade. To wear ermine was at one
time the prerogative of princes, and even the
inferior sorts, such as the furs of the American

1 It is partly to this circumstance, partly to the fact that the inner
incisors frequently drop out very early in life, that this animal owes
the vernacular name of Sloth-bear, by which it is often known.
— TR.

marten, the common marten, and the polecat
still hold the first rank in the trade.

The members of this family are in general
small animals, for the great majority are on
an average only about 18 or 20 inches in
length.

Only the dentition, of which we will speak
below, can furnish fixed characters for the

5 Mr. G. P. Sanderson in his Wild Beasts of India mentions
instances in which the Indian black bear has been known to eat
the flesh of dead animals, but he adds that it never attempts to kill
animals for food. — TR.

212

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY.

marking off of this numerous family, which
includes the greatest diversity of forms.
There are long and slender forms, like the
marten or weasel, which for this reason have
been called the "worm-shaped" Mustelida,
and in contrast to these, the plump compact
forms which approach the bears in their ex-
ternal aspect. While some are plantigrade
like the former family, others are digitigrade
or semi-plantigrade. Some have sharp more
or less retractile claws, while in others the
claws, though strong, are immovable. In
short we see in respect to the form of the
body and the structure of the feet almost as
many diversities as there are between the cat
tribe on the one hand and the bears on the
other.

Equally varied is their mode of life. Some
are excellent swimmers, hunt only in the
water, and have all the qualities belonging to
diving animals; others range about over the
surface of the earth, and even make their
retreats in underground holes dug by them-
selves; others again lead an active aerial
sort of life, climbing on trees, and surpassing
even the agile squirrels in dexterity and
rapidity of movement. If the weasels, pole-
cats, and beech-martens are true blood-suckers
which murder without mercy and so to speak
revel in massacre, others are rather peace-
able and timid animals, which feed chiefly on
plants, and appear to have their sharp teeth
only for defence. We thus observe in this
family a number of varied adaptations — more
diverse, indeed, than in any other group of the
Carnivora.

One single character belongs to them all,
but it is developed in them in various degrees,
and it is one that they share with the Viverrida
and Hyaenida. It consists in the anal scent-
glands, or rather stink-glands. Though the
musk of the civet is used in perfumery, it
would never occur to any one to use the
secretion of the polecat in that way, and still
less that of the skunks. So much the worse
for the beautiful furs. Even those derived

from the animals which are the least obnoxious
in respect of their smell, require the most
assiduous labour to deprive them of their
offensive odour, while in the case of the skunk
all efforts are thrown away.

The dentition of the Mustelida exhibits a
tolerable amount of diversity, but in all cases
we can recognize a well-defined general plan.
Both above and below there are six small
close-set incisors in the front of the mouth;
only in the sea-otter, which has no more than
four in the lower jaw, is this number reduced.
Very rarely is there any marked difference to
be observed between the outer and inner
pairs of these teeth, as is the case in the cat
tribe ; yet there are species which eat a great
deal of flesh, as, for instance, the ermine and
tayra, in which the outer pair in the upper
jaw become quite conical or even recurved.—
The canines are usually slender, thin, very
sharply pointed, but never have longitudinal
furrows or sharp edges as in the cat tribe.
The true molars are pretty constant in
number and form. There is always in the
upper jaw a single pretty thick transversely
placed tubercled tooth immediately behind
the carnassial, the tubercles usually four in
number, and sometimes rather pointed or
even sharp, sometimes blunted and flattened.
The two extremes in the series are formed,
on the one hand by the genus Lyncodon, a
weasel-like creature belonging to Patagonia,
in which this tooth is narrow and almost
sharp; and on the other hand by the sea-
otter, in which it is the largest of all, and has
the tubercles so blunted that it might be taken
as the tooth of a herbivorous animal.

With a single exception the lower jaw has
two true molars, the first of which is the car-
nassial. Originally this latter tooth has three
sharp cusps, but the posterior cusp usually
gets worn away by the pressure of the
opposite carnassial in the upper jaw, so that
it often assumes the form of a hollow heel.
The tubercled tooth following the carnassial
is usually small and roundish with a rough

GROUP OF THE BADGERS.

213

grinding surface. In Lyncodon this tubercled
tooth is wanting.

The premolars present the greatest amount
of variety. The last of these, the carnassial
of the upper jaw, usually furnished with two
strong external cusps and an internal heel,
gets blunted like the lower carnassial, and in
the sea-otter in particular it does so to such a
degree that it may wholly lose its character.

In a large number of genera, the badgers,
gluttons, and true martens, there are three
other premolars in front of the upper carnas-
sial, bringing the total number of these teeth
up to four. These three premolars increase
in size from before backwards, and either
have a laterally-compressed sharp-pointed
cusp or are in the form of a more or less trun-
cated cone. In some genera, as, for example,
in the otters, the first premolar is so small
and insignificant that it is placed, not behind,
but on the inner side of the canine. In the
lower jaw there are originally four pre-
molars in front of the permanent carnassial,
and these have similar forms to those in the
upper jaw, and exhibit the same increase in
size from before backwards.

But this original number of four premolars
above and below is preserved only in the
true martens and the gluttons, and in both
jaws there is observed in different members
of the group a gradual diminution in the
number of these teeth from before backwards,
a diminution whose last stage is seen in the
Lyncodon, in which the number is reduced
to two in each half of the jaw. The two
extremes in this series are thus as shown in
the following formulas:—

COMPLETE DENTITION.

REDUCED DENTITION.

Mustela,

= 38- Lyncodon,

= 28.

All the steps intermediate between these
extremes occur.

Leaving out of account the incisors and
canines, the number of which is always the
same, namely 16 (except in the single instance

above mentioned), we find in fact the follow-
ing variations in the premolars and molars
proper: —

~^~2 = 38 teeth: Mustela, Gulo.

U.J ^ .5 teeth -^ Meles> Taxidea, Helictis,
3 ' 2 ^ ^ Lutra, Arctonyx.

, . j ( Mydaus, Mephitis (inpart),

— — = 34 teeth: <? Galictis, Putorius, Rhab-

( dogale.

— = 32 teeth: Mephitis (in part).

= 32 teeth: Mellivora.

— — = 28 teeth: Lyncodon.

Beyond doubt this progressive reduction
distinguishes a family, the characters of
which are not yet completely determined, and
which along with archaic types possesses a
number of other forms.

The Mustelida may be divided according
to the structure of their feet into three groups:
Plantigrada: the Badgers (Melida); Digiti-
grada: the Martens (Martida); Web-footed
forms: the Otters (Lutrida).

GROUP OF THE BADGERS

(MELIDA).

Plantigrade carnivores, with thick-set clumsy body,
short feet, and highly developed anal glands.

Our Common Badger (Meles taxus), fig.
1 08, may be taken as type of the group.

The rather long head gradually narrows
in front to a naked snout, like that of a pig,
with which the badger has often been com-
pared also on account of the thick rounded
body somewhat higher behind than in front.
The eyes and ears are small; the legs very
short and thick, the paws naked on the sole
and with five toes carrying long curved claws,
which on the fore-paws are very prominent
and, as in all burrowing animals, sharp and
broad. The tail is short and thickly covered
with hair. At its root near the anus is a

214

THE HADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY.

pretty broad transverse fissure forming the
opening of the pouch of the stink-gland,
which is almost quite destitute of hair.

Like most species of its genus the badger
has a rough coarse fur mixed with pretty
long bristly hairs, and presenting the excep-
tional character of being darker on the under
side than on the back. The belly and paws
are black while the back is grayish yellow.

Two longitudinal black stripes extend from
the snout backwards across the eyes and
ears. The hide was formerly much used in
making trunk-covers, wallets, and portman-
teaus.

The dentition exhibits a carnivorous char-
acter only in the incisors, canines, and pre-
molars, while the true molars, especially those
of the upper jaw, are very broad, and bear

Fig. ic

ommon Badger (.1A*.

•213.

witness to an adaptation for a vegetable diet.
The animal attains a length of 2^ feet and
a weight of about 55 Ibs.

In fable the badger plays the role of a
peace-loving, gentle, and cautious Philistine,
who loves beyond everything his comfort, his
family, and his house, but who may become
furious if alarmed or disturbed in his habits.
He is the cousin and friend of the fox, whom
he vainly seeks to lead back to the path of
virtue, but whose defence he undertakes as a
good-natured relative in spite of all the ma-
licious tricks that Reynard plays him. With
the exception of this friendship, which can
scarcely be said to exist, the leading traits
in the character of the badger are summed
up with great ingenuity in these fables.

The badger is distributed throughout the
temperate zone of the Eurasian continent,

and extends even to Japan. Everywhere
its habits are the same. With great circum-
spection it chooses out the place in which to
dig its hole, preferring the slopes on the
sunny side of lonely wooded hills. Passages
of 8 to 10 yards in length, and sometimes
as many as ten in number, lead to a large
underground chamber, which is made warm
with moss and dried leaves, and is inhabited
either by a solitary male or by a female and
her young. Only two or three of these
passages serve as the ordinary means of
egress, the others are intended for ventila-
tion, or for flight in case of urgent danger.
The utmost cleanliness is maintained in this
dwelling, which is excavated at the depth
of some yards below the surface of the
ground.

In this comfortable and safe habitation the

GROUP OF THE BADGERS.

215

badger spends the day, and he leaves it only
with great caution on the advent of night. In
very silent and lonely places he may be seen
going out by day to warm himself in the sun.
Often the fox annoys him, but in most cases
he cedes to him part of his dwelling, retiring
himself to the deepest
part of his chamber.

In southern lands, on
the shores of the Mediter-
ranean, for example, the
badger remains active the
whole year round, but fur-
ther north he passes the
winter asleep. This sleep,
however, is never very
profound, and fine mild
days very easily awake
the sleeper. During this
sleep the badger becomes
very lean. On the first
sunny day of spring he
goes out hungry in search
of food. He takes what
nature can offer him. In
Siberia he is so entirely
carnivorous that he at-
tacks even the herds of
cattle in order to slay
calves. In Germany he
hunts in spring for mice, rats, moles, nests of
ants and humble-bees, going about grunting
like a pig, and turning up the earth with his
snout. He thereby makes himself useful in
destroying a number of subterranean insect
larva;, caterpillars, worms, and snails. Eggs
and small birds which make their nests on the
ground are devoured by him just as readily as
lizards, serpents, toads, and underground fungi.
Truffles and other fungi, as well as a few juicy
roots, are eaten as accompaniments to the
staple of his meal. To the stings of ants and
humble-bees he pays little heed, shaking these
assailants off with a grunt. On the approach
of autumn the badger becomes more herbiv-
orous, and grows fatter and fatter every day.

Fig. 109. — The Telagon (.Wydaus Tciagott}. page 216

Fruits of all kinds, starchy tubers, sweet
bunches of grapes and currants, and the like,
are then more sought after than mice; but if
these or young hares or partridges fall in his
way, then he eats up with pleasure the dainty
with which fortune has provided him.

The breeding season
occurs in October, when
his table is most abun-
dantly supplied. The
hermit then changes his
habits for a few weeks,
and follows the precepts
of civic law in offering
a suitable home to his
spouse. But this common
housekeeping does not
last long. The couples
separate from bed and
board in order to hold the
usual winter-sleep. In
the beginning of March
the female gives birth to
from three to five blind
young ones, which she
tenderly nurses by means
of three pairs of teats, one
on the breast, and two
others on the abdomen.
In order to maintain the
cleanliness so dear to the badger the female
digs out a retired chamber beside that in
which they live, and accustoms her young
ones to make use of this for the satisfaction
of their needs. The invention of the earth-
closet free from smell has accordingly been
made by the badger. The female supports
her young for a long time after the weaning,
bringing in worms, snails, honey, fruits, and
roots for them. Towards autumn the young
badgers leave the maternal habitation in
order to set themselves up as hermits on their
own account.

The badger, as already mentioned, is
cautious. It quits its hole only after it has
sniffed and carefully examined the neighbour-

2l6

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY.

hood all round, and on the slightest danger
it takes refuge in one of its passages. When
driven into a corner, however, it defends
itself with courage, laying itself on its back
and fighting with claws and teeth. When
pursued into its hole by dogs, it leans its
back against the back of its chamber while
resisting the aggressor with its claws and
teeth, and only when attacked by several

dogs does it resolve to quit its retreat. It is
caught in nets spread in front of the passages
leading out of its hole; sometimes it is shot
at the instant of emerging from the ground ;
sometimes it is dug out or pulled out of its
hole after being transfixed with a long spike.
The flesh is not bad to eat, and the fat is
used in preparing various salves to which
great remedial virtues are ascribed. Young

Fig. no.— The Cape Ratel (Ratelus capensis).

badgers have been tamed, but these experi-
ments have found few imitators.

The American Badgers, on account of cer-
tain peculiarities in their dentition, have been
ranked in a separate genus under the name of
Taxidea. They lead a similar life to our bad-
ger, and are found throughout North America
from the 38th parallel of latitude to Mexico.
The Indian Badgers, which have a longer
and less bushy tail, are likewise referred to a
separate genus under the name of Arctonyx.

The Telagon or Stinking Badger (Mydaus
Telagon), fig. 109, which inhabits the islands
of Java and Sumatra and the neighbouring
parts of the mainland, is still more of a
burrower than the common badger, from
which it is distinguished by its more pointed
snout, longer body, rudimentary tail, ears
hidden under the hair, and its longer fore-

paws and toes, which are united together as
far as the roots of the long and sharp claws.
The fur, composed of long thick hair, exhibits
a uniform brown colour except for a white
stripe which runs from the head along the
back nearly to the root of the tail.

This little animal, which attains a length
of 14 inches at most, is found only on
mountains above 6000 feet in height, and
has similar habits to our badger. The stink-
glands at the anus serve as a means of
defence. By muscular pressure the telagon
can squirt the ill-smelling moist secretion of
these glands to a distance of several feet.
The stench is so strong that it may be smelt
under the wind at the distance of half a mile
or more. The flesh is said to be palatable,
but only if the glands have been cut out
immediately after the death of the animal.

GROUP OF THE BADGERS.

217

The Honey-badgers (Ratelus or Mellivora),
of which two species are known, a smaller,
indigenous in South and Central Africa,
while the other larger species, which attains
the length of from 24 to 28 inches, is a native
of India, are, like
the previous forms,
nocturnal animals,
which remain in
excavated holes
by day and roam
about at night in
search of their
food. This con-
sists mainly of
honey, but also
of birds, mice,
tortoises, snails,
locusts, and fruits.
The honey- bad-
gers seek out
principally the un-
derground nests
of humble-bees
and other species ;
but the nests of
bees in hollow
trees are not safe
from them, for
they are very good
climbers. The
head is shorter

Fig. in. — The Brazilian Skunk {Mephitis su/ocans}. page 218.

than in the former genera, the legs are short
and adapted for burrowing, the tail is rather
long; one premolar is wanting in the denti-
tion; the long coarse fur appears as if divided
into two parts. A light gray, almost white,
mantle appears to cover the back from head
to tail, while the rest of the body is black.

The honey -badgers, like the telagons,
defend themselves by the diffusion of an
intolerable odour. They appear, however, to
be good-humoured, lively, and even tricky
creatures. They are often seen in our zoo-
logical gardens, where they attract attention
by their singular habit of running about in

their cage and regularly, at a particular spot
which they have selected for this exercise,
standing upon their head.

I have seen a honey-badger in the Jardin
des Plantes at Paris which repeated this

process at the
same spot a hun-
dred times without
getting tired.
An illustration is
givenof the honey-
badger known as
the Cape Ratel
(Ratelus or Mel-
livora capensis),
fig. 1 10.

The Skunks
(Mephitis] are
small, veryelegant,
short-legged, but
slender burrowers,
which have a long
naked snout and
long bushy tail.
Their fine soft
thick fur attracts
notice by its lon-
gitudinal white
stripes, which form
varied markings
on the back. The
ground-colour of
the fur is always black. The variety in the
white markings is so great that one can
scarcely find two specimens exactly alike.
The dentition is very much reduced by the
loss of one or two premolars. Advantage has
been taken of these characters to establish
some sub-genera, which, however, have little
value, for the nature of the teeth, among
which the last tuberclecl teeth are very peculiar
in their structure, remains always the same.
The skunks inhabit the whole length and
breadth of America from Northern Canada
and Hudson's Bay to Patagonia.

Notwithstanding their greater or less

28

218

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY.

diversity in appearance they have all similar
habits. In the evening and at night they
roam about in search of booty, which consists
mainly of beetles and small birds, and by
night they rest in trees or clefts in the rocks.
The Brazilian Skunk, known under the name
of Surilho (Mephitis su/ocans), fig. in, has
only 32 teeth, while the Chinga of the
Mexicans has 34.

The skunks fear neither man nor the most
formidable beasts of prey. They can squirt
the stinking yellow fluid secreted by their
anal glands to the distance of several yards.
When danger threatens them they turn round,
erect their tail, protrude the anus, in order to
expose the openings of the glands in the
lower part of the gut, and squirt out the fluid,
which diffuses such a frightful stench that
every creature endowed with a nose recoils
in a state of suffocation. This diabolical
stench is so persistent that it resists washing
with soap repeated daily for months. Fire
and smoke alone can extinguish it.

Under the protection of this terrible weapon
of defence the skunk feels itself secure against
any enemy, even the jaguar. Only the most
courageous dogs overcome the violent ab-
horrence excited by this pest, and dart upon
the skunk to kill it with a bite. They then
seek to get rid of the stench by rubbing their
head and body in the earth.

GROUP OF THE MARTENS

(MARTIDA).

Mostly di^itigrade animals, with long, and even worm-like
body, frequently retractile claws, and usually a long
bushy tail; the upper tubercled tooth small and
transversely placed; the upper carnassial sharp, with
a horizontal process in front. The transition from
the previous to the present group is formed by some
plantigrade members of the latter.

The Glutton (Gulo borealis), PI. XIV.,
inhabits at the present day only the Arctic
Regions of both hemispheres, while in
Quaternary times it advanced to the foot of
the Pyrenees and the Alps. The body is

short and thickset, the head small and pointed,
the legs pretty long, the feet five-toed and
those of the fore-legs placed entirely on the
ground in walking, while those of the hind-
legs touch the ground for only half their
length, the tail short and very bushy. As in
the true martens there are in all 38 teeth, but
the upper carnassial has no process in front,
and the lower has only two cusps. The pre-
molars are sharply pointed. The long thick
glossy fur is of a chestnut -brown colour or
even black, but the covering of the back is
always bordered by a lighter fringe. Adult
males grow to rather more than three feet in
length.

The pious Bishop Pontoppidan of Bergen
in Norway has told us the most wonderful
tales of this Arctic carnivore. According to
his account the glutton will sometimes eat so
much that it is obliged to squeeze itself
between two closely adjoining trees in order
to get rid of the excess! The truth is that
the glutton feeds on all that it can seize. It
attacks even young reindeers, elks, and
calves; but for the most part it must content
itself with lemmings and other small rodents.
Under the pressure of severe hunger it does
not even reject carrion; but though at the
moment when it scents its prey it betrays an
inexpressible voracity, yet it does not actually
devour more than sufficient to satiate its
hunger, and it buries the remnants of its
booty when too much for one meal.

It is found everywhere in the Arctic
Regions, as well in woods as in stony deserts.
I have seen it at the foot of the Sneehattan
among the last pine-trees and in the naked
wastes in the neighbourhood of the North
Cape, where it may be observed trotting along
in a very peculiar fashion, and yet with such
speed that one could not follow it on horse-
back. It carefully avoids man because it
dreads his weapons. Its formidable dentition
enables it, however, to withstand the attacks
of dogs.

The glutton sleeps in holes in trees or in

To/ace fa£ey\8.

PLATE XIV. — A WOLVERENE OR GLUTTON (Gulo boreatis} ATTACKING A REINDEER.

GROUP OF THE MARTENS.

219

rocks, but at irregular hours. It has no
winter sleep. During the endless days and
nights of the Arctic regions it may be seen
ranging about at any hour. Since it is very
wily and shrewd it is not easy either to catch
it in traps or for the hunter to get near it.
Cowering like a cat it lies patiently in wait
for the large animals, which it seizes by the
throat. Often it climbs on trees, and stretched

out on a branch remains patiently on the
watch for passing victims. It breaks into the
uninhabited huts of the Lapps in order to
revel on the stores.

The anal glands are but slightly developed,
and only seldom, in case of the utmost danger,
does it emit the obnoxious odour of which
they are the source. When caught young it
may be tamed to a certain degree, and affords

Fig. 112. — The Bush-dog (Icticvon venaticus}.

amusement by its sports with those of its own
kind. Its fur is little esteemed among us.
The female brings forth in the month of May
from two to four young ones, which it watches
over assiduously and defends with courage.

A very remarkable form which was first
discovered in a fossil condition in the caves
of Brazil, and was shortly afterwards found
living in the thickest parts of the primeval
forests, is the Bush-dog (Icticyon venaticus],
fig. 1 1 2, described by Lund. This very rare
nocturnal animal is about the size of a moder-
ately large, strong, thickset clog, which it
somewhat resembles in appearance. It is of
a brown colour, with a broad back, short
strong legs, short tail, and pretty long-haired
fur. The head is thick, the muzzle short and
broad, the fore-feet with five, the hind ones

with only four toes, all united at the base by
a broad membrane. The animal has only one
small tubercled tooth in each jaw, the carnas-
sial teeth are short and with a small heel, the
premolars pointed; but what mainly distin-
guishes this dentition is the great size of the
carnassials and canines of the lower jaw.
There are in all 36 teeth.

Not much is known of the habits of this
very timid creature. It digs out holes, and
appears to feed chiefly on birds and under-
ground animals.

The Hyrares or Grisons (Galictis], which
are distributed throughout South America,
have altogether the appearance of weasels;
a very long short-legged body, a short head
thick behind, rounded muzzle, naked soles,
sharp curved claws of moderate size, and

22O

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY.

long bushy tail. The scent-glands are fairly
well developed. The teeth number 34 in
all; the canines are very large, the premolars
triangular, the carnassials sharp and powerful,
the tubercled teeth small.

Of the two known species this work
furnishes an illustration of the larger, the
Tayra or Hyrare (Galictis barbara), fig. 113.
The body attains the length of 2 feet or
more, the tail about 6 inches. The colour of

Fig. 113.— The Tayra (Galictis barbara).

the fur is a beautiful golden-brown, inclining
sometimes more to yellow, sometimes more to
brown. A yellow spot, which becomes white
on the dried skins, is seen beneath the throat.
The smaller species, the Grison (Galictis
vittata), attains the length of only 18 inches,
and has a yellow colour on the back of the
neck, the ears, and the tip of the tail, while
the under parts of the body are almost black.
The two species lead a similar life to that
of our martens and weasels. The tayra pre-
fers the forests, the grison open coppices and
the vicinity of human dwellings. The agile
creatures are capital climbers, and hunt game
suitable to their size. Both have a decided
preference for winged game, and often the
despairing cry of the parrots betrays to the
hunters the misdeeds of these fierce creatures,

which are rather blood-suckers than flesh-
eaters. They run, leap, and climb with ex-
traordinary perseverance, and commit terrible
massacres in the poultry-yards. They are
hunted with dogs, which often surprise them
in their holes, which are always made in the
ground, or in other retreats; but they escape
when they can, like our martens, to the trees,
leap across the small branches from one tree-
top to another, clamber clown on the opposite
side of a stem to that on which their pursuers
are, scamper along the ground to another
tree, and in that way lead the best dogs
astray. Their fur is not highly valued. In
some places they are kept, like our cats, to
hunt rats and mice.

The Martens (Mustela) are distinguished
from the polecats (Putorins) solely by their

GROUP OF THE MARTENS.

221

dentition. In all other respects these two
genera, which are represented both in the
Old World and the New, resemble each
other very closely, and frequently they are
combined, only the species being distinguished.
Along with the otters these two genera
furnish us with the most valuable furs.

The martens and polecats are small digiti-
grade animals, with very long, often worm-
like body, very short legs, five-toed feet, with
sharp claws on the toes, long bushy tail, head
broad behind, and short pointed muzzle.
These savage depredators hide in very care-
fully chosen retreats in hollow trees, clefts in

Fig. 114. — The Pine-Marten (Mustela martes].

the rocks, old decayed walls, and the like;
and feed on the smaller mammals, on birds,
eggs, reptiles, insects, and even on fruits
when they can find nothing better. They
are the boldest and most cruel ravagers among
all the Carnivora, blood-suckers which kill far
beyond the requirements of their hunger,
expert climbers and jumpers, which often
combine in a remarkable degree boldness
and wiliness. The colder and severer the
climate of their habitat the more valuable is
their fur, especially when the animals have
been killed in winter.

The true Martens (Mustela) have 38 teeth
in all, in the upper jaw four premolars, the
last of which is a carnassial. The canines are
slender, curved, and very sharp-pointed; the
first premolar is very small, the upper carnas-

sial long, sharp, with a narrow process in
front, the tubercled tooth transversely elon-
gated, while that of the lower jaw is small and
round. In Europe we have two species of
this genus. The Pine -Marten (Mustela
martes], fig. 114, is brown, with an orange-
yellow spot on the throat. As in all other
martens, the fur consists of a very thick
down, fine and soft, of a yellow and gray
colour, with which are intermingled somewhat
longer and stronger hairs of a brown colour,
passing almost into black on the tail and
legs.

The marten is distributed throughout
Northern and Central Europe, extending as
far as Italy and Western Siberia; its limits
on the south-east are the Altai, the Ural, and
the Caucasus. It is an inhabitant of the

222

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY.

forests far from human dwellings, and makes
its home in high trees, in clefts in the rocks,
not infrequently in the plundered nests of
ravens, falcons, pigeons, and squirrels. In
unfrequented forests it hunts even by day;
but where it fears any danger it goes out on
its forays only by
night. Birds, eggs,
and mammals, as
large, it may be, as
the young of the
roe-deer, are his
favourite food, but
he can satisfy him-
self in case of need
with berries, fruits,
honey, and insects.
With respect to his
climbing powers
he is inferior only
to the monkeys.
Nothing is more
delightful than to
watch a marten
pursuing a squirrel.
The splendid ro-
dent darts about
with arrowy speed
in wonderful leaps,
and from time to
time scurries down
to the ground in
order to climb up
another tree ; the ravager pursues with equal
rapidity and at last overtakes his prey, though
in many cases not till after a bewildering
chase of several hours, and having caught him
at once kills him and slakes his thirst in the
blood drawn from the jugular veins of his
victim. If in this case the marten remains the
victor through his own rapidity and adroit-
ness, he knows how to gain his end in other
cases by patience and cunning. Cowering on
a branch he awaits motionless the instant
when he can dash unexpectedly upon an in-
cautious victim not dreaming of any danger.

Fig. 115. — The Beech-Marten (Mustela foina).

The female brings forth her young in a
warmly lined nest in April or May. From
three to five are born at a birth. They
remain blind for fifteen days, but can follow
their mother at the end of two months.

The marten is hunted for the sake of his

fur. He is caught in
traps or snares, or
his track is followed
on the new fallen
snow. Norway and
the Highlands of
Scotland yield the
best furs, the finest
specimens of which
are almost as dear
as that of the sable.
The furs of Nor-
thern Germany
and the High Alps
are not so highly
esteemed. Fur-
dealers have, how-
ever, assured me
that the few furs
obtained from the
elevated valleys of
the Swiss canton of
Valais and the En-
gadine maypass for
sables and fetch as
high prices when
they are well dyed.

The Beech- or Stone-marten {Mustcla
foina], fig. 115, is to be found almost in all
parts in which the rarer pine-marten is a native.
But while the latter prefers the woods the
former likes the vicinity of man, who furnishes
him with a rich diet in his poultry-yards and
dovecots. He makes his retreat chiefly in
old walls, barns, deserted threshing-floors,
under heaps of wood or stone, and keeps
himself well hidden by day, carrying on his
hunt only by night. In the course of his foray
he often gets into noisy conflicts with the cats
on the roofs. He is a good climber and a

GROUP OF THE MARTENS.

223

good swimmer, creeps about everywhere, and
shows great circumspection in avoiding the
traps and snares set to catch him, as well as
in keeping out of the range of musket-shot
designed for him. In certain districts where
the beech-marten is not rare he is pursued
by the proprietors with inexpressible fury;
of all our native animals he is certainly the
one that draws down the most fervent curses
on his head. And justly too, for the beech-

marten is, perhaps, still more bloodthirsty
than the pine-marten, and when he has
succeeded in making his way into a poultry-
yard murders every living thing. Often he
is found after such a nocturnal massacre
sleeping in the midst of his slaughtered
victims, as if intoxicated by their blood.
Certain noises, for example, the filing of a
saw or the sharpening of a scythe, can set
the sensitive beech- marten so beside himself

Fig. 116. — The Sable (Mustela. zotellina}.

that he forgets his usual caution. This
device is often resorted to in order to kill
him. A man begins filing a saw in the
vicinity of some well-known retreat of his,
while another armed with a gun lies in wait
for the animal, well concealed. The beech-
marten, with hair erect, darts furiously out
on the musician who tickles his ears so
unpleasantly, and meets his death before he
can reach him.

The beech -marten is easily distinguished
from the pine marten by his grayer fur, the
white colour of the throat-patch, by his longer
tail, and also by some peculiarities in the
structure of his upper carnassial and upper
tubercled tooth. The young can be more
easily tamed than those of the pine-marten.

They become obedient and attached to their
master, and even make themselves useful in
houses by hunting rats and mice. The fur
has a much lower value than that of the
pine-marten.

The Sable (Mustela zobellina), fig. 116, is
the king of the martens on account of its
extraordinarily soft thick fur, which appears
of a blackish colour on the back and feet, and
exhibits an ill-defined yellowish patch on the
throat. The down is grayish yellow inclining
to red. Many varieties of colour are met
with. The darker the colour and the glossier
the hair, the more costly is the fur. Although
the sable is no larger than our marten, .£24
is paid on the spot for a fine black sable-fur.
The largest sables attain a length of 1 8 inches.

224

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY.

The sable is easily distinguished from our
martens, not only by the characters derived
from the fur, but also by its larger rounded
ears, its shorter tail, and by having the soles
of its feet covered as it were with a brush of
stiff hairs, which facilitates the progress of the
animal on the snow. With respect to the skull
and the dentition the sable approaches most
nearly to the beech-marten, while its mode of
life most resembles that of the pine-marten.

The sable is found in all the cold and
mountainous regions of Siberia from the Ural
to Kamchatka. The numerous squirrels of
these regions form its principal food. For-
merly very abundant it has been driven by
man more and more into the wildest districts
of his extensive domain. It is hunted only
during the cold season. Even at the present
day some districts still pay their taxes in
sable- skins. The dearest are obtained by

Fig. 117. —The Polecat (Puloriusfatidus).

the trade from the neighbourhood of Yakutsk
and Okhotsk, and from Kamchatka. The
sable is caught in traps and snares, or is
hunted on the snow, the hunters wearing
snow-skates, and being accompanied by dogs,
with the aid of which they endeavour to
chase it to some isolated tree, whence they
shoot it down with blunted arrows so as not
to spoil its fur. The total annual yield of
furs in Siberia is estimated at 100,000, but
this number is decreasing every year.

North America possesses two species of
martens, the skins of which are reckoned as
of about equal value to those of the pine-
marten. One of these species, the American
Marten or Huron (Mustela amcricana), is,
perhaps, only a variety of our form; the

other, the Pekan or Canadian Marten, attains
the size of a fox, which it also resembles very
closely in form.

As already mentioned, the Polecats
(Putorius) are distinguished from the martens
by their reduced dentition, the whole number
of teeth in them being 34. The polecats
have, in fact, one premolar less in each jaw.
The sharper carnassials and the narrow upper
tubercled tooth indicate a still more blood-
thirsty character if possible than that of the
martens, from which the polecats are further
distinguished by their longer body, shorter
legs, and the tolerably large size of the anal
glands. The polecats, in fact, make use of
their stink- pouch as their last means of
defence.

GROUP OF THE MARTENS.

225

In this genus, comprising a large number
of species, three groups may be distinguished
by the variations in the distribution of the
colours of the fur: the True Polecats, the
Weasels, and the Visons. The characters
of these groups are easily recognized. The
polecats have the sides and back lighter
than the under side; in
the weasels, on the other
hand, the back is darker,
the under side very light ;
the visons, lastly, are
pretty uniform in colour,
but have the under side
a little lighter than the
rest of the fur.

The Polecat (Putorius
foztidus (Afustela puto-
rins) ), fig. 1 1 7, does not
quite attain the size of
the beech-marten, which
it resembles very much
in its mode of life. Like
it the polecat prefers to
live near human habita-
tions, where it can find
secure retreats. It com-
mits the same kind of
massacres, is no less
cunning and adroit, and
is not less detested, at
least in certain districts.
In other districts, on the contrary, the ser-
vices which it renders in the destruction
of mice, rats, field-mice, and even hamsters,
are highly prized. Since it hunts only at
night the poultry-yards may, in case of neces-
sity, be defended against him, so that the
slaughter of a few domestic fowls does not
outweigh his services in the fields and barns.
But since he is fond of laying up stores he
makes himself hated, not only on account of
his own bad smell, but also because of the
stench of the larder which he keeps in his
hiding-places.

One other quality distinguishes the polecat.

Fig. n8.— The Ferret (Putorius furo).

While the beech-marten eats reptiles only in
cases of the utmost need, the polecat appears
to be verv fond of lizards and serpents as
well as frogs. Experiments have shown that
he possesses the same power of resisting the
poison of vipers as that which the hedgehog
enjoys. Vipers, whose bite would infallibly
have killed a dog, did
not do the slightest in-
jury to a polecat, which
finally devoured them
after a hard battle. The
tenacity of life otherwise
displayed by these ani-
mals is very great and
known to all hunters.

The polecat inhabits
the same regions as the
beech-marten, but does
not venture into northern
lands, preferring temper-
ate regions. His fur,
dark brown underneath,
brownish yellow on the
sides and back, is much
inferior in value to that
of the marten. The
downy hair is, indeed,
just as fine and soft, but
the bristly hairs are
longer and coarser. The
horrible stench, which can
only with difficulty be removed, is also a cause
of its lower value. Germany, and especially
the Bavarian plateaux, yield the best speci-
mens. The animal is hunted in the same
way as the beech- marten, and he shares the
sensitiveness of the latter to harsh metallic
sounds.

The Ferret (Putorius (Mustela) ftiro), fig.
1 1 8, is only a trained variety of the polecat,
with white or yellowish fur, rather darker
underneath, and red eyes. Like all albinos
the ferret is less lively and has less power
of resisting external influences than his
kindred; it is more sensitive to frost and

23

226

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY.

damp, frequently becomes ill, but is just as
bloodthirsty as the polecat. It is probable that
this race of albinos was developed in Greece
and Italy, where the polecat in ancient times
took the place of the cat as a mouse-catcher,
and that the race which had in that way
become more familiar with man continued to
be bred for the hunting of rabbits. Aristotle

1'iij. 1 19. — The Cor

toat (Putoriits

was acquainted with the ferret, and the
Emperor Augustus sent some to the inhabi-
tants of the Balearic Islands and Spain, who
could not protect themselves against the
ravages committed in their fields by rabbits.
The ferret is known only in a half tame
condition, and it is still used in hunting
rabbits, but also, for the sake of sport, to
fight with large rats. Snares are set across
the mouths of the passages leading out of
rabbit burrows, and the spirited little animal,
with a small bell attached to it, is then
allowed in. The rabbits, mad with terror,
take to flight as soon as they hear the bell,
an:l are caught in the snares. It is necessary,

however, to muzzle the ferret, for otherwise
it would at once devour the first rabbit in
which it could set its teeth, and then sleep
out the period of digestion in the burrow,
putting the patience of the rabbit-catcher to
a hard trial.

Another species of polecat is known in the
south-east of Europe, extending as far as
the Caucasus. This is the Tiger Polecat
{Putorius sarmaticus], a species with yellow
spots and stripes on a fur of a darker colour
generally. It hunts chiefly the bobaks, the
small marmots of these regions. The fur is
little esteemed.

The Weasels, of which the sub-genus Gale
has been formed, are distinguished by their
long worm-like body, very short legs, and
the colour of their fur, dark on the back,
very light underneath. The numerous species
are found in both hemispheres, as well in the
north as in the torrid zone.

Notwithstanding their small size the weasels
are probably the most courageous and blood-
thirsty of all carnivores. They live among
heaps of stones, in clefts in the rocks, and in
general wherever they can find a hiding-
place, and they carry on their hunt by day as
well as by night. Two native species are
shown in the illustrations.

The Common Stoat or Ermine (Pntorius
(Mustehi) erminea), fig. 119, is one of the
larger species of weasels, attaining the length
of 10 inches with a tail of four inches.

Like most animals belonging to northern
regions the stoat changes its colour with the
season, and this it does even in our temperate
zone. In winter it is perfectly white, except
that there is a yellow shimmer underneath
and a beautiful black tuft at the tip of the
tail. In summer it is of a bright chestnut-
brown on the back and sides, yellowish white
on the belly, and quite black on the inner
sides of the paws and at the end of the tail.
It is an unwearied destroyer of rats, mice,
and field-mice, young rabbits, hares, par-
tridges and fowls, frogs, fish, and crabs.

GROUP OF THE MARTENS.

227

The ermine knows no danger; it attacks even
man, or at least offers an obstinate resistance
to him. If it cannot consume its prey it licks
up its blood. The almost incredible boldness
of this little animal is combined with much
cunning and caution. Sometimes several
ermines unite in order to render each other
assistance in mastering a larger animal.
Since it is small the ermine is of use to the
farmer in destroying vermin ; if it were larger
it would be the most dangerous enemy man
had to fear.

The wearing of the fur of the white ermine,
on which were fastened the black terminal
tufts of the tail, was formerly regarded as a
prerogative of princes. Now this fur is very
much out of fashion. The ermine is hunted
in winter for its fur in northern lands. The
skins of our ermines are worth nothing.

The Weasel Proper (Putorius (Musteld)
vulgaris), fig. 120, is still smaller than the
previous species. The body is eight inches
in length, and the very short tail, which has
no tuft, scarcely two inches. The weasel is
of a chestnut-brown colour with a reddish
shimmer on the back, white underneath, and
does not change its colour in the winter The
little creature advances no further north than
the south of Sweden, but on the other hand
makes its way much further south than the
ermine, and is found all along the northern
shores of the Mediterranean. Its life, its
habits, and its qualities are in no respect dif-
ferent from those of the ermine, only it attacks
smaller animals. Before the introduction of
the cat it was used by the ancient Greeks,
like the polecat, as a domestic animal for the
hunting of mice.

The Visons, which have been united in a
sub-genus under the name of Lutreola, ap-
proach the polecats in their general organiza-
tion, but are distinguishable by the uniform
brown colour of their short, thick, glossy fur,
by their stouter, although still rather long
body, by having a very large and massive
tubercled tooth in the upper jaw, by their

longer and more bushy tail, and their shorter
legs, the toes of which, especially on the hind-
feet, are united by a web extending to the
root of the short claws. The ears are very
short, the muzzle rounded and blunt. The
anal glands, so highly developed in the pole-

Fig. 120. — The Weasel (Putorius vulgaris).

cats, are not indeed altogether wanting, but
are very unimportant. Only in cases of the
utmost need do the visons diffuse a very dis-
agreeable smell. At other times their smell
is not indeed pleasant, but still no worse than
that of most other carnivores.

The visons are a transitional form between
the martens on the one hand and the otters
on the other, and the habits, practices, mode
of life, and kind of food correspond to this
intermediate position between two otherwise
well-defined types. The visons, in fact, live
more in the water than on the land. Low-
lying tracts of land, marshes, thickets on the
banks of rivers, rivers themselves, lakes, and

228

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY.

ponds are the places where they seek their
food and make their retreats. They swim
and dive easily and perseveringly, run and
jump on the land pretty well, climb very little
and never very high, hide in deserted burrows

Fig. 121. — The European Vison (Putorius lutnola).

of rodents which, perhaps, they have devoured,
and in clefts in the rocks on the borders of
the water, and feed on everything that oppor-
tunity offers. But without doubt they prefer
fishes, frogs, crabs, and mussels to aquatic
birds, water-rats, and field-mice. This mode
of feeding explains also, as our otters prove,
the large size of the tubercled teeth, which
we mentioned in speaking of the dentition.
These do not in the least indicate a vegetable
diet, as would be the case in a land animal,
but serve for the crushing of the hard external
skeletons of certain aquatic forms — mussels
and crustaceans.

With respect to keenness of scent, bold-

ness in attack, persistence in pursuit, and
stubbornness in defence, the visons are inferior
neither to the martens nor the otters. It would
appear, however, that their intelligence is less
highly developed. They allow themselves
to be caught even in the rudest traps, when
these are baited with a piece of duck's flesh
or the thigh of a frog, and if the trap has
caught them by one leg, they gnaw away the
limb on the wrong side, while the fox and
marten know how to liberate themselves by
biting through the captive paw between the
trap and the body.

When caught young visons can easily be
tamed. If well cared for they become attached
to their owner and obedient. In America
they have sometimes been trained for rat-
fighting, as has been done with the ferret in
Europe.

Visons are natives of the Arctic regions
and northern parts generally. Naturalists are
not agreed as to the distinguishing of the
species. Some make three distinct species:
the Siberian Vison (Putorius sibiricus), con-
fined to Eastern Siberia, with yellowish-brown
fur, long bushy tail, and whitish feet; the
European Vison (P. lutreola], fig. 1 2 1, of the
size of a ferret and of a brown colour with
white spots on the nose, found in the north-
east of Europe from the Weser to the Ural;
and the American Vison or Mink (P. vison],
which is larger and has no white spots. Other
naturalists maintain that these three species
are only more or less well-marked varieties
of a single circumpolar species, which has
advanced here and there into the temperate
zone. It is certain that there are intermedi-
ate forms. In commerce the skins of the
American visons are the most highly esteemed,
ranking next after those of the sable in price,
an estimation which is perfectly justified by
the beautiful chestnut-brown colour of the fur,
the softness of the thick down, and the glossi-
ness of the stronger hairs which scarcely pro-
ject beyond the down.

We mention here a small member of the

GROUP OF THE OTTERS.

229

Mustelida belonging to Patagonia, the Lynx-
tooth (Lyncodtm patagonicus). fig. 122, which
is remarkable for the extraordinary diminution
in the number of its teeth, of which there are
no more than 28. The sharp incisors have
the normal number, six in each jaw, the can-
ines are strong, scarcely curved, very long
and very sharp; but in both jaws there are
only two premolars. In the upper jaw the
second premolar is a very sharp carnassial
with a narrow heel, and this is followed by a
small transversely placed molar which is not
at all tubercled, and may almost be said to be
sharp. In the lower jaw there are two pointed
premolars and a molar, which is a five-pointed
carnassial. The tubercled tooth is altogether
wanting. The dentition accordingly has two
molars less than in the cat tribe, the same
number as in the lynxes, whence the name.
On a small scale this dentition somewhat re-
sembles that of the fossil Machairodus, and
presents a remarkable instance of the approxi-
mations that may be brought about between
two families through the reduction of the
number of the teeth.

Till recently nothing was known of this
animal but the skull, which was described by
Gervais. Now the museum at Geneva pos-
sesses two stuffed specimens brought from
Patagonia, and from these our drawing was
made. Except for its dentition the animal is
a true weasel, somewhat larger than the stoat.
The body is about twelve inches in length,
the tail scarcely four inches. The fur is
rough, coarse, formed of long, thinly scattered
bristly hairs, which on the back are of a bright
brownish-red, but on the sides and tail have
whitish points. The upper part of the head
is of a dirty yellowish-white colour, and this
colour is continued backwards across the ears
on two tufts composed of long hairs lying on
the sides of the neck, each tuft running to a
point. The nape and upper part of the neck,
as well as the throat and paws, have a rather
dark brown colour. The tail is clothed with
very long hair, ending in a tuft. The head

is short, the muzzle blunt, the ears very
small, rounded, and broad, the feet five-toed,
those of the hind-legs touching the ground
with the entire sole in walking, those of the
fore-legs only with half the sole, the toes
bearing short sharp claws. Nothing is known
of the habits of life of the animal. Judg-

Fig. 122. — The Lynx-tooth [Lyncodon patagonicus},

ing from its dentition it must be purely
carnivorous.

GROUP OF THE OTTERS

(LUTRIDA).

Aquatic Mustelida with long, but stout, cylindrical body,
short webbed feet, and flattened tail.

Our European Otter (Lutra vulgaris), fig.
123, may serve as the type of a considerable
number of species which are distributed
throughout all lands inhabited by Carnivora,
and for the most part frequent fresh water.
Founding on very insignificant points of dis-
tinction, naturalists have allotted these species
to a pretty large number of sub-genera.

230

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY.

which we will not mention, since the essential
characters are throughout the same in all.

The common otter, whose domain extends
over the whole of the Eurasian continent,
between the Arctic Circle in the north and
the Himalayas in the south, and embraces
even Japan, has a broad flattened head, with
short blunt muzzle, on the end of which there
open at the sides the slit-shaped nostrils,
which can be completely closed when the
animal dives. The lips are very thick, and
set with long twisted moustaches; the eyes
small, placed close together on the upper
surface of the head, the ears very short and
rounded. The moderately long neck is
almost as thick as the head, the body cylin-
drical ; the pretty long and easily compressed
tail ends in a point; the legs are very short,
but strong ; the paws somewhat crooked,
almost as in the badger-hound, the five toes
almost of equal length, and the feet com-
pletely webbed, the claws very short. An
adult otter may attain the length of 2^ feet
or more, while the tail measures half that
length.

The total number of the teeth is 36. The
incisors are short, almost equal in size ; the
canines massive, somewhat recurved. In the
upper jaw there are four premolars, the first
of which is very small, and placed on the
inner side of the canine, not behind it, while
the last premolar is a carnassial with a single
sharp cusp, and a very broad low heel. The
permanent molar with tubercled grinding sur-
face is enormously larger than all the other
teeth. In the lower jaw three conical pre-
molars, the smallest of which is in front and
the largest behind, are followed "by a carnas-
sial with three sharp conical cusps in front,
and a strong posterior heel, while this again
is succeeded by a rounded tubercled tooth.

The fur, which is pretty highly valued in
trade, is thick and short; glossy and rather
stiff long hairs cover a very soft down. The
colour is a beautiful dark chestnut-brown on
the back, but rather lighter underneath.

Of all our native animals the otter is cer-
tainly the most intelligent, that which makes
best use of the lessons taught by experience.
Its scent is infinitely delicate, its hearing
exceptionally keen. The otter is an active,
lively, spirited, and strong animal. Its ele-
ment is the water. It is a most expert
swimmer and diver; it swims easily against
the most torrential currents, and is in no way
inferior to the trout and the pike in rapidity
and flexibility of movement. Young cats
playing on the ground are only awkward
sprawlers in comparison with young otters
plunging about in the water.

The otter lives on the edge of streams
among the shingle of the banks, in deserted
foxes' holes, or in holes dug out by itself.
In most cases the passage leading out of
these holes opens at a certain depth below
the surface, while one or more passages open-
ing above serve for ventilation.

When I lived in the district of Souterre,
at the junction of the Rhone and the Arve,
in the neighbourhood of Geneva, I became
well acquainted with an otter which lurked
among the large blocks of stone on the edge
of the water. Every night it used to swim
up the Rhone to the slaughter-house of the
town, where it found abundance of fish and
crabs. Often I met it at night by moonlight
on a shady path which ascended along the
river-bank. The first few times it met me it
vanished with lightning speed in the water;
afterwards, when it had observed the course
I took, it merely stepped aside among the
bushes to let me pass. Plainly it knew that
I did not want to do it any harm. I often
found its evacuations on the path, and ex-
amined them. They were of a chalky white
colour, like those of clogs, and contained fish-
bones and fragments of the shells of crabs,
never anything else that I saw.

Fish and crabs are, in fact, the favourite
food of the otter. But it also consumes
small mammals, birds, frogs, and, in short,
everything that lives in and near the water.

TY 1

GROUP OF THE OTTERS.

231

In a state of freedom it is certainly ex-
clusively carnivorous, but in captivity it can
easily be accustomed to a vegetable diet.

The otter lives a solitary life. The breed-
ing season, which interrupts its solitariness
for a time, mostly occurs at the beginning of
spring. The female gives birth in May to

at most four blind young ones, which she
watches over tenderly, and keeps for a long
time under her guardianship.

Although otters are rather helpless crea-
tures on land, they yet sometimes traverse
long stretches of country to get from a dried-
up brook to another still running. They

"%'li^'%*''

Fig. 123. — The Otter (Lutra vulgaris). page 229.

waddle along pretty quickly with their belly
on the ground. They can easily be tamed,
become much attached to their master, follow-
ing him like a dog, and allow themselves to
be trained for fish-catching.

Yet the otter is passionately pursued on
account of the devastation it commits among
the fishes in ponds and rivers, as well as for
the sake of its fur and its tender tasty flesh,
which is among the articles of diet allowed
during fasts. In the eyes of the Church the
otter is a fish. But the hunting of the otter
is extremely difficult In the water the ani-
mal merely shows the point of its nose for an
instant to breathe. Traps it avoids with great
astuteness, and it detects at once by the smell
whether a human hand has touched them;
and when it has been caught by a single paw
it bites itself free and makes off.

The Sea-otter (Enhyilris marina), fig. 124,
is rightly considered a peculiar type, which
forms the connecting link between the otters
and seals. It is a powerful animal, attaining
a weight of about 90 Ibs., and a length of
nearly 4 feet. The species is absolutely con-
fined to the shores of Behring's Strait.

The head is quite round, the neck thick
and short, the body thick and cylindrical, the
tail short and flattened like an oar, the feet
very short -and clumsy. All the feet are
broadly webbed, and thus form powerful
oars ; the fore-paws are small, the toes com-
pletely covered with hair, and only indicated
by very short claws; the hind-legs are placed
very far back, and are long and broad,
shaped in fact almost like those of seals.

The dentition is very remarkable. The
sea-otter is the only carnivore which has only

232

THE BADGER AND WEASEL FAMILY.

four incisors in the lower jaw, while in the
upper jaw there is the normal number, six.
This state of matters is found even in the
milk dentition. The canines are large, but
not so massive as in the common otter. The

rest of the dentition has the same formula as
that of the polecat: three premolars above
and below, one true molar above, two below.
There would thus be in all 34 teeth if the
loss of a pair of incisors in the lower jaw did

Fig. 124. —The Sea-otter (Enhydris marina), page 231.

not bring the number down to 32. But, as
regards»th«tir form, these teeth are very dif-
ferent from (hose of the martens; for the
cheek-teeth, carnassials as well as molars, are
all tubercled, with broad, flat crowns, and
have so completely lost the character of carni-
vorous teeth, that one who found them sepa-
rately would have no hesitation in ascribing
them to an omnivorous animal.

It is easy to recognize in this structure the
result of a special kind of diet. The sea-
otter feeds, in fact, almost exclusively on
crustaceans (crabs, &c.) and mussels, whose
hard shells it crushes to pieces. Only ex-
ceptionally does it consume fish when they
fall in its way, never hunting after them.

Since the sea-otter inhabits the parts of
the Arctic regions bordering on the Pacific

Ocean, it spends almost the whole of its life
amid snow, ice, and ice-cold water. To this
coldness of its habitat it no doubt owes its
wonderfully beautiful brown, almost black fur,
with a silver-gray shimmer in old animals.
It is not so much a fur as a warm, flexible,
highly finished natural velvet, the down of
which is soft as eider-down, while the short
and thick bristly hairs keep out the water
completely. According to my own private
taste, the fur of the sea- otter is the finest in
the animal world, and far excels that of the
sable. In commerce, however, the skin of
the sable is more costly than that of the sea-
otter.

Towards the end of last century the sea-
otter was still pretty abundant on the coasts
of the islands in Behring's Strait and those

GROUP OF THE OTTERS.

233

of Kamchatka and northern California, but
it seems likely soon to disappear entirely in
consequence of the senseless pursuit carried
on against this gentle and intelligent animal.
Steller, who suffered shipwreck on Behring's
Island in the middle of last century, and
was there obliged to support himself and his
companions in misfortune for a year at the
expense of the numerous sea-otters, has given
us an account of this animal before the ap-
pearance of man. A truly idyllic picture!
The mothers play with their young ones,
follow them to their death, and pine away
over their loss. The males caress the females
tenderly. The societies live in perfect har-
mony, bask in the sun, and lead a careless
and happy life. They sleep without fear in
the vicinity of man, rolling themselves up
like dogs. They show themselves annoyed
when their retreat to the sea is cut off,
scarcely defend themselves against attack,
caress even the hand of the man who is pre-
paring to strike them dead, and roguishly
feign death when they have received a stroke,
getting up afterwards and making their escape
when one's back is turned. At the end of
a year of continuous massacre, in the course
of which more than 700 head were killed and
consumed, the sea-otter knows what man is.
It has retired to the most inaccessible parts
of the island. The companies place sentinels
to watch during their sleep, and when warned
by a shrill piping sound they all plunge at
once into the sea, the immediate neighbour-
hood of which they now never quit. Only in
very stormy nights, when the howling of the
hurricane and the raging of the sea drown
all other sounds, can they be surprised by
cautiously creeping up against the wind.

At the present day, according to the
account of H. W. Elliott, two-thirds of the
sea-otter skins of commerce come from two
small islands on the coasts of Alaska. The
sea-otters land only on the most retired cliffs
washed by surging waves. They no longer
venture to the middle island, the only habit-
able one, they sleep on the water on tangle,
and keep such strict watch that the hunters
are compelled to expose themselves to the
severest privations, to light no 'fire, never to
smoke, to sleep in pits in the snow, in short
to lead a life full of hardship and danger to
get a few rare skins. The animal which in
the time of Steller was the most careless and
confiding of creatures, is now a model of
wiliness and wariness. Is it possible to
maintain that this animal has learned nothing?
"The quick hearing and acute smell pos-
sessed by the sea-otter," says Elliott, "are
not equalled by any other creatures in the
Territory. They will take alarm and leave
from the effects of a small fire four or five
miles to the windward of them, and the foot-
step of man must be washed by the tide
many times before its trace ceases to alarm
the animal, and drive it from landing there
should it approach for that purpose."

Sea-otters are shot with bullets through
the head; they are surrounded by boats and
transfixed with spears; they are felled with
clubs during the terrible storms of these
regions, where they hide on the shore amid
heaps of tangle; they are even caught in
nets. But the yield of this hunt is diminish-
ing so much from year to year that the
government of the United States has already
taken measures to protect this valuable
animal from complete extinction.

234

THE FLESH-EATERS.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND DESCENT OF THE

FLESH-EATERS.

The geographical distribution of the Carni-
vora presents many characteristic features.

Two regions, the Antilles and Australia,
possess no native carnivores. Doubts may be
raised as regards the latter, which at the time
of its discovery by Europeans was inhabited
by a species of wild dog, the dingo. But it
is almost certain that this dog does not
originally belong to Australia, but that it was
brought thither by the first settlers, the
ancestors of the Australian savages, and
afterwards ran wild. As for the American
islands, we are quite sure that no trace of a
native carnivore has ever been found there.
But this absence of carnivores in the two
regions mentioned can excite no surprise,
for with the exception of a few bats and
rodents, probably imported, Australia has not
a single placental mammal, and the Antilles
have, in addition to a few immigrant repre-
sentatives of the two orders just named, only
the Solenodons, a special family of the
Insectivora.

The large island of Madagascar is some-
what better supplied with representatives of
this group. Besides the fossa (Cryptoprocta),
that remarkable type whose affinities we have
indicated above, Madagascar contains some
peculiar genera (Galidia, Galidictis), which
in all their characters belong to the Viverrida.
Now this family, one of the oldest among the
Carnivora, as we shall see in the sequel,
inhabits all the warm regions of Africa and
Asia, not excluding the Sunda Islands. It
extends, indeed, to the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean, and two species, the
common genet and an ichneumon, belonging
to the family, even cross the Straits of Gib-
raltar; but since the Viverrida are entirely
confined to the Old World, their presence on
the great African island can be understood.

The Hyaenas also belong to the warm parts
of the Old World, and more particularly to
the African continent; yet the domain of the
striped hyaena extends to India and there to
the foot of the Himalayas, while the other
two species as well as the aard-wolf (Proteles)
are restricted to the mainland of Africa.
Some have sought to explain the presence
of the striped hyaena in Asia Minor, Persia,
and India, as due to an immigration from
Africa; but since fossil hyaenas occur in the
Miocene deposits of the Sewalik Hills, it is
more probable that the present species is a
direct descendant of these old forms, which
has not changed its seat, but has rather
extended its domain westwards by migrations
in earlier geological periods.

Many of the Small Bears of Asia and
America can be shown to be specially localized.
The cacamizli, the raccoons, coatis, and
kinkajous or honey-bears are exclusively
American, while the binturong, the panda,
and his large cousin the ailuropus inhabit
only the high mountains of Tibet and the
Himalayas.

The typical Large or True Bears inhabit
the cold and temperate parts of both hemi-
spheres. In the warm regions, on the other
hand, are found more or less abnormal forms,
such as the sloth-bear and the small climbing
bears with a light-coloured neck-fillet. But
the whole of Africa is without bears, and
tropical America would be in the same
condition were it not that the great chain of
the Cordilleras possesses its spectacled bear,
which approaches the other tropical forms.

The Felida, Canida, and Mustelida swarm
in all regions inhabited by carnivores, with
the exception of Madagascar, the Antilles,
and Australia. It cannot even be said that
many individual genera are peculiar to

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND DESCENT.

235

definite limited areas. If some, such as the
cheetahs or hunting-leopards among the
Felida, are confined to the warm regions of
the Old World, yet the true cats, by which
we mean the members of the genus Felis,
and also the lynxes are distributed over both
hemispheres from the extreme north to the
tropics. It is the same with the Canida:
dogs, wolves, and foxes are met with every-
where. In Africa alone can we point to the
large-eared forms (Lycaon, Megalotis, Fen-
necus) as localized, while China and Japan
possess the abnormal genus Nyctereutes.
The Martens and Weasels are found every-
where. The glutton is a form peculiar to
the Arctic regions of both hemispheres. The
otters inhabit all countries containing car-
nivores of any kind; but the sea-otter is a
special type belonging to the northern coasts
of the Pacific Ocean as far as Behring's
Strait. In the Badger family Ictonyx is
essentially African, the genera Arctonyx,
Mydaus, and Helictis are Asiatic; Mephitis
and Taxidea are exclusively American.
The true badgers, the genus Meles, are
natives of the cold and temperate parts of
the Eurasian continent, while the honey-
badgers belong to the tropical parts of India
and Africa.

Altogether we observe in the geographical
distribution of the Carnivora, along with a
marked tendency to a general distribution
over the whole of the continental surface of
the earth, some striking local restrictions and
deficiencies, which can scarcely be explained
as due to the external conditions of climate
and food. Why could the Viverrida, which
are so widely distributed in the tropical parts
of the Old World, not live also in South
America? Why could the bears not live in
Africa? What is the significance of the
absolute exclusion of the Carnivora from the
Antilles, and of that of all families except the
Viverrida, together with the fossa (Crypto-
procta) from Madagascar? Whence this
wide distribution of the most important

families over both hemispheres, over against
the exclusion of the bears from Africa, and
of the hyaenas and Viverrida from America?

Palaeontology can give no categorical
answers to these questions, though it may,
perhaps, throw some light upon them.

Two sets of facts become prominent in
investigating the question of the origin of
the Carnivora; on the one hand, the resem-
blance to carnivorous marsupials presented
by several old genera, and, on the other
hand, the equivocal nature of the characters,
especially as regards the dentition, which, in
the case of many of the older fossil remains,
does not allow of us referring them to any of
the families now living.

Among the old Carnivora palaeontologists
have distinguished one family, now extinct,
which lasted on from the Eocene to the
Pliocene, which was represented both in
America and in the Old World, and whose
dentition exhibits such singular characters
that some authorities have ranked it among
the marsupials. After the typical genus
Hyaenodon, which is represented in both
hemispheres, this family, consisting of half a
dozen genera, has been called the Hyaeno-
dontida. The form of the molars, among
which there are always several carnassials,
approaches that of the carnivorous marsupials,
and judging from the casts of skulls that it
has been possible to make, the brain also re-
sembled the marsupial brain. The members
of the family were yet without doubt true
placental mammals. Filhol has been able to
prove this by the study of the milk dentition,
which is very different from that of the
marsupials. In these latter there is, in fact,
only a single tooth, the last premolar, which
is replaced by a permanent one, while in the
Hyaenodontida, as in all true carnivores, the
incisors, canines, and premolars are all decidu-
ous, those of the milk dentition being destined
to be replaced by a permanent set. But,
notwithstanding this irrefragable proof of the
right of the Hyaenodontida to a place among

236

THE FLESH-EATERS.

the Monodelphia, the resemblance of their
dentition to that of the marsupials still re-
mains, and this fact seems to point to mar-
supials as the forms from which those extinct
carnivores are to be derived.

The equivocalness of the characters of
many of the primitive carnivores is an equally
remarkable fact. The oldest known carnivore,
the genus Arctocyon from the sandstone of
La Fere, in the French department of Aisne,
a formation belonging to the Lower Eocene,
was of the size of a wolf, and had intermediate
characters between the dogs and bears.
Several Miocene genera (Amphicyon, Hysen-
arctos) present similar affinities. Amphicyon
had a dentition so closely approaching that
of the dogs that one may fall into some
embarrassment in trying to distinguish these
remains. " But Amphicyon," says Gaudry,
" was a plantigrade and perhaps a climber
like the bears, while the true dogs are digiti-
grade, and are not climbers. The upper
canines of Amphicyon were much longer and
straighter than in the dogs; the premolars
and the carnassial were smaller, and,, on the
other hand, the surface occupied by the
tubercled, that is, by the omnivorous teeth,
was much larger in comparison with the
extent of the incisors; these characters con-
tribute to indicate relationships with the
bears."

I will not enter further into these details.
Let it suffice to say that in Europe, as in
America, a number of these intermediate
genera have been found; that in the Eocene
there have been found connecting links be-
tween the Canida and Viverrida (Cynodon),
between the Viverrida and the Felida (Lim-
nofelis), and between the Mustelida and the
Felida (Pseudaelurus), and that in the Miocene
have been found connecting links between
the Viverrida and Hyaenida (Dititherium,
Hysnictis), and between the Viverrida and
the Mustelida (Lutrictis).

It is thus established, that none of the
families now living is clearly represented in

the Eocene strata; but that there we may
find the stocks of the Canida, Ursida, Viver-
rida, Mustelida, and Felida more or less
marked by subordinate relationships. On
the other hand, almost all the important
carnivorous families are clearly represented
in the Miocene either by genera still living
or by extinct genera. The only exception is
the family of the bears, including both Large
and Small Bears, remains of which have not
yet been discovered lower down than the
Pliocene. This fact may be regarded as all
the more striking since the most prominent
characters of the bear family, apart from the
dentition, namely, the clumsy limbs and
plantigrade feet, appear to have been common
to all Eocene forms. But when we remember
that the plantigrade Arctocyonida( Amphicyon,
Hyamarctos, &c.) are still very abundant in
the Miocene strata, that at this time they
had a very wide geographical distribution
both in the Old and the New World, we
cannot resist the idea that the bears are the
direct descendants of these families, of which
they have retained the clumsy forms and the
plantigrade mode of progression, while their
dentition became gradually more and more
adapted to an omnivorous diet.

The present families have inhabited the
same great geographical regions from the
time when they became fixed. The gigantic
Machairodi roamed over both hemispheres
in the same way as the present Felida now
do, and were found there along with Canida
and Mustelida. The Viverrida and Hysenida
were then excluded from the New World, as
the Procyonida were from the Old. All these
varied modifications or differentiations, to
use the technical term, have thus been
effected independently in the two hemispheres,
and have originated in separate mixed forms
and intermediate stocks indigenous in each.
These facts are another proof that the two
great continental masses have been separate
since the Eocene period. Not till Quaternary
times, when the ice -masses had restored

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND DESCENT.

237

bridges for them, could the Polar bears be-
come simultaneously distributed over both
hemispheres. The similarity, and, in fact,
almost complete identity, of so many species
which are found, on the one hand, in the
Hudson's Bay Territories and in Canada, on
the other hand, in Siberia and Lapland, may
be appealed to as a proof of this connection
between the two hemispheres in the far
north.

If these last facts stand firm and irrefutable,
we possess, on the other hand, well-grounded
indications of less distant relationships. Dur-
ing the Miocene period the hyaenas were
distributed over a wide area in Southern
Europe; Sansans, Montpellier, Pikermi are
sign-posts pointing to Asia, where the Sewalik
Hills at the foot of the Himalayas form the
boundary-mark on the east. The cave-
hyaena (Hy&na spelcea) inhabited in Quater-
nary times retreats in France, Germany,
Belgium, and even in England, which was
then connected with the Continent. But this
cave-hyaena presents so much resemblance to
the still living spotted hyaena (H. crocuta)
that the latter might well be regarded as its
direct descendant, and, on the other hand, as
Gaudry has shown, possesses such close affini-
ties to a species found in the Pliocene deposits
of Perrier in Auvergne (//. perrieri) that
this may be looked upon as its immediate
ancestor. The striped hyaena of the present
day is distinguished only by insignificant
details from another species likewise found
at Perrier (H. arvernensis). The brown
hyaena may be regarded as the direct descen-
dant of a species found at Pikermi (H. eximia).
The origin of the three species of hyaena now
living is accordingly pretty plainly demon-
strated.

The study of the milk dentition is of the
utmost importance in investigations of this
sort. The milk dentition, as we have already
said, is the family treasure which preserves
the characters by means of which the front
teeth, including the premolars, were marked

in the ancestral forms. The true molars are
afterwards added to the milk dentition; but
they also existed in the ancestor, and for the
most part, indeed, in considerable number.
Now we have seen that no carnivore now
living has more than one carnassial in each
half of each jaw, and this tooth, so highly
characteristic of the order, is always the last
premolar in the upper jaw, and the first
molar of the permanent dentition in the
lower. In all genera which have well-de-
veloped carnassials these exist, even in the
milk dentition ; but then it is always the second
last premolar in the upper jaw and the last
in the lower which exhibit this characteristic
form. The carnassial accordingly moves
further back at the shedding of the teeth.
This is particularly obvious in the hyaenas, in
which the carnassial of the milk dentition is re-
placed bya thick conical tooth in the permanent
one. From these facts it may, in my opinion,
be inferred that the ancestors of these carni-
vores must have possessed two more or less
developed carnassials, the first of which has
been lost in the permanent dentition which
now characterizes their descendants. Two
such carnassials, more or less fully developed,
are found, on the one hand, in many of the
marsupials of the present day, as, for example,
in the Tasmanian devil (Dasyurus), and, on
the other hand, in many extinct types, like
Hyaenodon, Pteroclon, Cynodon, &c. We
may accordingly assume that these old types
are connected with the carnivores of the
present day by direct generation.

We have thus summed up the facts. They
show, as it appears to us, that the primitive
stocks of the Carnivora must be sought in the
Marsupialia, which existed long before the
Tertiary period, and that these stocks were
from the first numerous. It is highly
probable that certain families are directly
descended from marsupial ancestors. The
Viverrida are beyond question in this
position. Their dentition approaches so
closely that of the insectivorous and carni-

THE FLESH-EATERS.

vorous mammals, that we might often be in
doubt where to place an animal of which only
the dentition was known. Other families,
such as the dogs and bears, appear to be
derived from the intermediate forms already
mentioned. But all these generations were
so clearly separated from one another in both
hemispheres by the end of the Eocene period,
that certain families could not develop at all
in one of the two, while others were enabled
to reach the highest stage of their develop-
ment. The Hysenida and Viverrida have not
been able to develop in the New World nor
the Procyonida in the Old, because the inter-
mediate forms from which these families might
have proceeded have been wanting since the
origin of the placental mammals. The
Canida, Felida, and Mustelida, on the con-
trary, have had fruitful branches in both
hemispheres. In this manner is explained, at
least in part, the present geographical distri-
bution with respect to the land-masses which

were already isolated in early geological
periods.

If this separation already existed during
the Tertiary period it does not follow that
migrations in the interior of these land-masses
could not take place, and that changes in
climate which occurred in the course of the
geological epochs should not have had a
great influence on the present distribution of
the Carnivora. In consequence of these
changes the hyaenas, which still inhabited
Europe in diluvial times, have since left it,
and the gluttons, which once advanced further
to the south, have subsequently again retired.
There is no doubt that many Felida, Canida,
Mustelida, and Viverrida, thanks to their
fleetness and energy, have been able to
spread themselves during geological periods
over wide stretches of territory, while other
more clumsy types remained pretty much
confined to the limits within which they
are still found.

THE SEALS

(PINNIPEDIA).

Aquatic carnivores with feet converted into flippers, spindle shaped body, complete dentition, and

zonary placenta.

The Flipper-footed animals, or Seals, as
they are usually called, are carnivores adapted
to an aquatic mode of life. They show, in
fact, in all the features of their structure, with
the exception of the characters necessarily
following from this adaptation, a real affinity
to the true Carnivora, with which many
authors have united them as a sub-order.
They are, in relation to the Carnivora, what
the Chiroptera are to the Insectivora — a
transformation of the general type with
reference to a quite specialized mode of life.

The head is small, the muzzle seldom
prolonged, usually blunt, and the mouth
surrounded by very thick fleshy lips, on which
are set strong, stiff, and mostly spirally
twisted whiskers. The nostrils are in the form
of narrow slits at the point of the snout ; and
the cartilages by which they are surrounded
are so constructed that they close the open-
ings by their elasticity, while they can be
expanded by means of strong counteracting
muscles. These slits lead into wide nasal
cavities with labyrinthine olfactory chambers,
which are not less highly developed than in
the dogs, and, accordingly, bear witness to a
very keen scent. The large expressive and
beautifully coloured eyes are highly convex
in front, and are protected by broad eyelids
with very long lashes. The skull proper is

round and broad, but the ridges by which
that of the land carnivores are marked are
slightly developed except in the eared seals
(Otarida). The outer ears are either entirely
absent or are only indicated by the weak and
very slightly projecting margins of the ear-
flaps. The mouths of the ear-passages can
be closed like the nostrils when the animals
dive. The neck is generally short, but well
marked off from the head. The form of the
body is that of a spindle, thick in front but
thinning towards the posterior extremity.
The body ends in a short flattened tail almost
hidden by the hind-flippers, which are always
directed backwards in an almost vertical
position, and form along with the tail a
powerful swimming apparatus.

The limbs, although formed on the general
plan, yet exhibit marked peculiarities. The
bones of the fore-limb, with the exception of
those of the digits, are very short, twisted and
flattened, and in the ordinary seals are almost
wholly concealed by the strong muscles that
move them in the mass of the body. The
flippers show in the skeleton, indeed, the five
quite separate and pretty long digits, but in
the living animal they are united by strong
ligaments down to the last phalanges, which
are usually armed with not very sharp claws.
The hind-limbs are attached to a strong pelvis

240

THE SEALS.

well fastened to the end of the vertebral
column; but this whole region is likewise
mostly hidden in the flesh. The digits of
these limbs are long, but connected to form
oars like those of the fore-limbs. The skin
always projects beyond the nails, which
appear to be set on the back of the flippers
and are sometimes altogether wanting.

The direction of the limbs is specially note-
worthy. The fore-limbs are directed obliquely
downwards. The palm of the hand is turned
in the direction of the axis of the body.
These limbs, in the ordinary seals especially,
show the position originally assumed by the
limbs in the embryos of all vertebrates, as
long as they retain the form of fin-like lobes.
The hind-limbs are directed so far backwards
that they continue the horizontal direction of
the vertebral column; and the sole of the foot
is turned towards the vertical median plane
of the body, the first digit forming the inferior
edge of the member. This arrangement of
the limbs, altogether embryonic in its character,
is retained more particularly in the common
seals. In the eared seals the limbs are more
slender, and the fore and hind paws or flippers
assume a somewhat different direction, which
seems to aim at placing the soles on the hori-
zontal plane of the ground.

The dentition is distinguished from that of
the Carnivora by a greater variability in the
number of the incisors, and by a less degree
of specialization in the molars. The normal
number of incisors in the Carnivora, six
above and six below, is seen only in many of
the young animals; but in most cases this
number gets considerably reduced in the
adult, and often so much so that the incisors
are entirely absent. The outer incisor of the
upper jaw often resembles the canine in form,
but always remains smaller. The canines,
which are always present, attain an enormous
size in the upper jaw of the walrus, and are
very strong in the eared seals. With respect
to form there is no longer any difference
among the teeth that come after the canines.

They always stand apart from one another,
and neither premolars nor molars, carnassials
nor tubercled teeth can be distinguished. The
first of these uniform molars is usually smaller
and has a less pronounced form than the
others. Often it has only a single root, while
the others have two; but there end the differ-
ences that can be pointed out in seals' molars.
But as regards the form which they present
in different animals there are pretty consider-
able variations. In general the crowns are
flattened on the sides and divided into several
.lobes, of which the middle one is most pro-
minent, while those at each side often form
sharp-pointed cusps. In other cases the teeth
are more rounded, and in that way form a
transition to the perfectly flat molars of the
walrus. But even in these examples of retro-
grade development of the carnivorous denti-
tion the lower jaw always shows an essential
carnivore character in the structure of the
joint by which it is attached to the skull — a
joint in the form of a transverse semi-
cylinder.

The body is mostly covered with a very
short thick downy fur, in which are set short
bristly hairs which never become wet.

Among the features of the internal organi-
zation we would draw attention to the large
broad brain with numerous convolutions, as
well as to special modifications in the structure
of the vessels and the heart, by means of
which these animals are enabled to remain for
a long time under water without breathing.
The placenta is zonary as in the land carni-
vores. The teats are situated very far back
in the abdomen.

The seals are remarkably social animals,
which live in all seas (sometimes in large
flocks), which can ascend pretty high up rivers,
and are even found in some basins now cut
off from the ocean, such as the Caspian Sea,
Lake Baikal, and the Sea of Aral. They are
unquestionably very intelligent animals, de-
voted to their comrades, their consorts, and
their young, animals which are prevented only

THE EARED SEALS.

241

by their form and their helplessness on land
from becoming as attached and obedient
domestic animals as dogs. Their movements
in the water are very graceful and charming.
They play with the fish they catch as cats do
with mice, make wonderful leaps and long
dives, swim under the water with marvellous
rapidity, and in the liquid element show as
much suppleness and agility as they display
clumsiness and helplessness on land. They
are nevertheless very fond of landing on
coasts and banks of ice in order to bask in
the sun, to rest, to caress each other, and the
females to suckle their young. But the eared
seals alone, thanks to their more flexible
limbs, are able to traverse considerable dis-
tances on land, and even to climb pretty
steep rocks. The ordinary seals move on
land only with difficulty by fixing themselves
with their flippers in front, and pulling up
their hinder parts, then drawing their bodies
up into a curve and throwing their front parts
again forwards. They drag their belly, along
the earth, show little suppleness and soon
become tired. This greatly facilitates the
pursuit of these animals, which are chiefly
hunted in the Arctic seas.

The Eskimo carry on this pursuit on a
small scale in their slim kayaks, throwing a
harpoon at a single seal to which is attached
by a cord a bladder filled with air to mark the
spot where the animal dived after being struck,
and other nations carry it on on a large scale
in order to appropriate the skins and the fat,
with which the body is in a certain measure
enveloped. The polar seals always keep in
the neighbourhood of ice-fields, on the surface
of which they are fond of basking in the sun,
or assemble on certain coasts, especially rocky
coasts. The vessels set sail in the beginning
of spring, and on reaching the parts frequented
by the seals the crew, armed with iron-pointed
staves, land and try to cut off the retreat of
the seals to the sea. The animals are stunned
by blows on the snout, and afterwards killed
by a stab through the heart. As soon as the

ice melts the seals migrate polewards. I was
able to observe these migrations during my
visit to Jan Mayen. There about 10,000
seals are killed on an average every year, and
there always remain many survivors, since the
island is mostly begirt by ice the whole year
round. On the occasion of our visit in
August, 1 86 1, however, the island was quite
free of ice, and with it the seals had vanished.
In the course of five days we saw only two
specimens of the Greenland seal, which ap-
proached our ship with great curiosity, and
one of which we succeeded in killing with a
bullet through the head. To the Eskimo the
seal is the basis of existence. They feed on
its black flesh, which is at once tough and
dry, because all the fat collects under the
skin; they drink the oil obtained from the
blubber by boiling, and this oil likewise fur-
nishes them with the means of securing light
and heat. They clothe themselves in its skin,
whose rather short but warm fur is impervi-
ous to water, and the entrails when suitably
prepared afford them water-tight coverings,
skins for sausages, bladders, and even yarn,
while the small bones of the limbs and tail
serve as playthings for their children.

In this order, not very varied as regards
its forms, but world-wide in its distribution
and very rich in individuals, we distinguish
three families: the Eared Seals, with visible
external ears; the True Seals, without external
ears; and the Walruses, with a very peculiar
dentition.

THE EARED SEALS

(OTARIDA).

Easily distinguished by the character just mentioned, the
visible external ears.

The external ears have the form of a semi-
circular flap, opposite which there often stands
a small movable lobe. The head and the
neck are longer than in the true seals, and the
limbs being more free from the body can be

used in walking. The webs on the feet pro-
si

242

THE SEALS.

ject considerably beyond the ends of the digits,
and are further extended by membranous lobes
corresponding to the fingers ; so that the small
nails are situated on the upper surface of the
flippers pretty far from the margin. The
forearms and the legs are free, and by bending
the longish paws at the wrist or ankle-joint
the animals can raise themselves wholly
above the ground and walk in that posture
without trailing their bellies. They wind
about in clambering up an incline, and in our
zoological gardens they may be seen spring-
ing up a short flight of steps one by one pretty
quickly, in order to reach a platform from
which they have to plunge into the tank to
catch a fish thrown to them. The voice of
the large species is like the lowing of oxen.

The eared seals are certainly the most
closely allied to the land Carnivora of all the
Pinnipedia. The skull, furnished with a strong
longitudinal ridge, and separated from the
pretty long facial region by a narrow constric-
tion, the large temporal fossae surrounded
by very wide zygomatic arches, the narrow
palate hollowed out almost in the form of a
channel, the large thick-rooted canines, the
whole arrangement of the lines give to the
skull of a sea-lion much resemblance to that
of a bear. True it is that this resemblance
disappears on a closer examination of the
dentition in particular, but the general impres-
sion betrays the affinity.

The eared seals have six incisors in the
upper jaw, three in each half of the premaxilla,
but the outer pair are very strongly curved,
and altogether show much resemblance in
form to the very prominent canines. The
molars, five or six in number in each half of
the jaw, are all very like one another, in
some cases provided with sharp-pointed cusps,
in others with small sharp eminences at the
base of the crown. These molars are set wide
apart, and are almost of equal size. In the
lower jaw there are only four not very broad
incisors, very highly curved canines, and five
isolated molars of similar form and equal size,

on the crowns of which the small secondary
cusps are usually better developed than in
the upper jaw.

Dental formula : ^ = 34-36 teeth

0

in all.

On the northern hemisphere the eared
seals are absolutely confined to the Pacific
Ocean and the surrounding seas, but on the
southern they are found in all the polar parts
of the Great Ocean, and ascend to the Cape
of Good Hope as well as to America and
Australia. A savage war is waged against
them in Tierra del Fuego, on the Falkland
Islands, and Kerguelen Land on the one
hand, and on the coasts of California, Alaska,
and Kamchatka on the other. We have
selected for illustration two species belonging
to the northern hemisphere, which play an
important part in the fisheries of the last-
mentioned coasts. Even in last century, in
the time of Steller, the inhabitants of these
inhospitable regions had committed such
massacres among these animals on the islands
of Pribylov, their chief resort, that the Russian
government soon found itself compelled to
regulate the fishery by strict measures so as
to prevent their entire extirpation. Some
idea may be formed of the destruction wrought
by these senseless massacres when we are
told that during the summer of 1868, when
the islands with the territory of Alaska had
just been ceded to the United States and the
new government had not had opportunity to
issue a new ordinance, the number slain
reached the enormous total of 250,000.

At this time the number of eared seals
assembled on the two islands of Pribylov,
St. Paul and St. George, was estimated at
three millions and a quarter. At present the
company which has the monopoly has only
the right of killing 100,000 head every year,
and on some points of the coasts the rocks
frequented by these animals have been laid
under ban so that the seals may resort there
in perfect security.

UNIVERSITY

OF

THE EARED SEALS.

243

Steller's Sea-lion (Otaria Stelleri], fig. 125,
which is found on all the coasts of the Pacific
Ocean from the north to California in the
east and Japan in the west, but is especially
abundant in the north on the shores of
Behring's Strait, derives the name of sea-lion

from an allied species (Otaria jiibata), which
in the time of Steller was very abundant on
Tierra del Fuego and the Falkland Islands,
and in which the male carries a small mane
on the back of the neck. Our species, first
described by Steller, has not this mane. It

IMHi

Fig. 125.— Steller's Sea-lion (Otaria Stelleri).

is the one that now delights the visitors to
the Jar din d' Acclimatisation at Paris and
several other zoological gardens. In the Lon-
don zoological gardens there was once an old
male of this species which had been wonder-
fully trained by a French sailor named
Lecomte, and was just as intelligent and as
much attached to its master as a dog. It is
this species also which is protected near San
Francisco, where it has settled on some rocks
in the neighbourhood of a tavern called Cliff
House, and is frequently visited by the
inhabitants of the Californian city.

The adult male attains a length of 16 feet,
and a weight of upwards of 1000 pounds.
The head is pretty long, the ear is drawn out

to a point below, and is covered with small
delicate hairs. The eyes are large, prominent,
and expressive; the swollen lips set with
thick whitish whiskers, which grow to the
length of 1 6 inches. The neck is long, but
loaded with fat, forming great folds which
fall down on the shoulders, and at a distance
may easily be mistaken for a mane. The
body is pretty long; the flippers of medium
size, covered with a rough tubercled skin;
the fur of a greenish colour with a golden
shimmer, but pretty variable. It is composed
of short rough hair without down. The
females scarcely attain half the length and a
fifth part of the weight of the males.

These sea-lions inhabit various coasts the

244

THE SEALS.

whole year round, but they assemble, especially
at the breeding season, on favourite spots.
About 20,000 of them can be counted on
St. Paul, and 7000 on St. George. The
fisheries are pursued on the former of these
islands. The old males, called by the sailors
" beach-masters," arrive first, choose out a
camping-ground, and await the arrival of the
pregnant females, now near the period of
delivery. When the females arrive the males
go to meet them, seize them by the nape of
the neck with their teeth and drag them to
the camping-ground which they have con-
quered for themselves, and which they often
maintain by terrible battles. After the birth
of the young copulation takes place, and for
a month at least the jealous male takes no
food and keeps the six or eight females that
he has selected constantly round him.

These animals are hunted for their fur,
which is used to cover light skiffs and furni-
ture, and for their fat and their entrails, from
which last cords and water-tight blouses are
made. About 800 are killed on St. Paul
every year. They are very wild and shy,
and plunge into the water on the slightest
appearance of danger. Their pursuers en-
deavour to cut off their retreat by landing on
a stormy night when the wind is blowing
from the land, and then chase them in troops
to the village fifteen miles off. The animals
walk clumsily and laboriously with winding
movements of the body, first raising the front
part of the body, then plunging forward, and
in a sense diving in order to advance. If
from utter exhaustion they will go no further
their pursuers are in the habit of frightening
them by the sudden opening out of an um-
brella. In this way the journey is accom-
plished in five or six days, and the animals
are then killed by musket-shots through the
neck or by stabs with spears through the heart.

The Sea-bear (Otaria ursina), fig. 126, is
a much more important object of pursuit, for
about 90,000 of them are annually killed on
the island of St. Paul and 10,000 on St.

George. This seal is much smaller than the
sea-lion. The males attain the length of
only 10 feet, and the females half that length.
The neck is short, the flippers pretty long,
and covered with a short black skin. The
fur, of a dark brown colour, soft, very thick,
and as glossy as silk, with a few stronger hairs
interspersed through it on the breast, is a
very valuable article of commerce. Thanks
to the length of their flippers, these animals
can walk on the ground with regular steps
and with the whole of their body raised.

The first males arrive on St. Paul in the
beginning of May. It is not known where
they pass the winter; it is very likely that they
migrate southwards. These males choose
their camping-groundson well-known breeding
places, and defend them obstinately against
the swarms that follow after. When all the
spots on the edge of the sea are occupied
by the "beach-masters," the later arrivals',
and among these old males known as "re-
serves," must content themselves with camp-
ing-grounds further back, and the "bachelors,"
at most five years old, are compelled to
retire to the surrounding islands, whence they
look out for a favourable moment to seize
upon a place or even a female deserted by
a beach-master. But the old males do not
stir from the spot except when they go to
meet a female, and the attempts at occupation
lead to furious encounters.

At last, about the middle of June, all the
males are assembled and encamped awaiting
the arrival of the females. The bulls go to
meet them, seize them with their teeth, and
drag them to their camping-grounds. But
other females arrive, and since at least seven
or eight are required to make up the harem
of an old male, the latter must leave his first
conquest to go and make a second. Mean-
while a neighbour, a reserve or a bachelor,
robs him of his first. Fierce battles ensue,
murderous encounters in which blood flows
down in streams, and one of the antagonists
is often killed. At the end of this period not

THE EARED SEALS.

245

a male remains which is not covered with
wounds, scars, and putrefying sores. But
then there are heroes who possess as many
as forty wives!

Immediately after their arrival the females
give birth to a single young one, and within
a few days after the birth there are new
fights, since the females are not insensible to
the solicitations of the bachelors. At last

the females give themselves up to the tender
care of their young, which they suckle on the
land, and at the end of six or seven weeks
dive into the sea to teach them to swim. At
first the young are so inexpert in swimming
that they are often in danger of drowning.

During this period, which lasts in all,
perhaps, three months, the beach-masters,
which had arrived large and fat at the

Fiij. 126.— The Sea-bear (Otaria ursina).

beginning of the season, have remained, as
Trouessart states, without meat or drink,
bound day and night to their camping-grounds,
fighting and watching without intermission.
They are now reduced to skeletons, and
scarcely have strength enough to drag them-
selves into the sea. At last at the beginning
of October all is ended. The shore is de-
serted. The old ones have gone off first, and
the others have followed them.

The destruction of these animals by the
seal-fishers is facilitated by the order which
the sea-bears observe in their encampments.
They are killed chiefly for their skins, which,
after undergoing a careful and laborious
treatment, are sold in England as linings for
garments. At the place of capture they are
merely salted. Only the three-year-old

bachelors, which yield the finest furs, are
slain. Since these lie apart from the others
the old males with their harems are not
molested, and get so accustomed to the
presence of man that one can move about in
these singular encampments without disturb-
ing them. As for the bachelors, they are
surrounded during their sleep, their retreat
to the sea cut off, and then they are driven
in hundreds to the slaughtering places, which
lie at a distance of a mile and a half at most.
There they are struck down with clubs, their
skin stripped off and salted, and the oil, which
is used only by the natives, since its smell is
very strong, extracted from their bodies by
boiling. The very tough and ill-smelling
flesh is eaten only by the inhabitants of the
Aleutian Islands.

246

THE SEALS.

THE TRUE SEALS

(PHOCIDA).

Distinguished from the eared seals by the absence of an
external ear

Besides the distinguishing mark just men-
tioned there are several other characteristic
features in the members of this group.
Among these are short limbs, the upper part
of which is buried in the flesh of the body,
while both sides of the flippers are covered
with hair; the two outer toes of the hind-limbs
longer than the inner ones ; and the negative
character consisting in the absence of lobes
on the flippers, continued beyond the end of
the limb in the direction of the digits. The
dentition varies in different genera as regards
the number of the incisors and the form of
the molars, which often have only one root.
On the strength of these characters several
genera have been distinguished.

All these animals have at bottom the same
habits, differing only in accordance with the
climate of their resorts and the more or less
injurious acquaintance which they have made
with man, who often pursues them with fury
for their skins, their fat, and in northern lands
also for their flesh. They always live gre-
gariously and often in very numerous flocks,
near the coast or near ice-fields, and readily
quit the water to rest, to sleep, or to bask in
the sun. Mostly of a peaceable and yielding
disposition they get into conflict with one
another only at the breeding season, when
similar scenes take place to those which have
been described with reference to the eared
seals. They sleep at irregular hours, and seek
their food, which consists of fish, crustaceans,
and molluscs, according to the hours and sea-
sons. They swim and dive admirably, sleep
swimming, and perform the most astonishing
feats in swimming with ease and elegance.
The shortness of their flippers renders them
very awkward on land, but they take advan-
tage of the flexibility of their spinal column

in order to drag themselves up steep rocks.
Curious and intelligent (for curiosity is always
the mother of intelligence) they are often
attracted by objects which they have never
seen before. In those parts where they have
not yet made acquaintance with man they
come up and examine with interest ships,
boats, and men who have landed on the
beach, and exhibit much gentleness and a
complete confidence, which is often their
destruction. They love and protect their
offspring, and female seals have been seen to
weep over the loss of their young. In the
case of many species it has also been shown
that they come to the assistance of comrades
in danger. Sharks, large dolphins, and in
the Arctic Regions the polar bear are their
greatest enemies next to man ; but in many
parts of the world they are masters, and live
in a peaceable and comfortable manner.

The scene is changed as soon as man
appears to hunt them. Endowed with sharp
sight, keen scent, and sufficiently good hear-
ing, the seals very soon learn to withdraw
themselves from attack so far as possible.
They become timid, approach the shore only
with extraordinary caution, raise their nostrils
above the water to breathe only for an in-
stant, examine the district carefully before
they come to land, and appoint sentinels
during the period of rest. After a few years
they begin to know the range of firearms,
and the hunters must then employ all the
devices employed in fox-hunting to outwit
them. Unfortunately the period of learning
was too short for some species, and has
scarcely sufficed to prevent their complete
extermination.

The young seals swim immediately after
birth, without having to undergo the training
necessary in the case of the sea-lions.

The Sea-elephant (Cystophora proboscidca],
fig. 127, is the largest of the Pinnipedia, at-
taining a length of 26 feet, and a weight of
more than 5 tons. It belongs with the
next species to a genus distinguished by

THE TRUE SEALS.

247

having canines with enormous roots and short
thick crowns like those of bears. There are
further five small molars, standing apart from
one another, almost round in shape, and pro-
vided with a few confluent folds and a single
root, and only two small close-set incisors in

the lower jaw, while in the upper jaw there are
four, the two outer ones being canines in minia-

2.1.5

ture. Dental formula:

= 30 teeth.

1.1.5

These animals live chiefly on crustaceans
and molluscs.

Fig. 127. — The Sea-elephant (Cystophora proboscidea).

The sea-elephant inhabits the Antarctic
seas, and formerly came in numerous flocks
to Patagonia, California, and Tasmania, while
at the present day only isolated individuals
are met with on the coasts of California, and
the others have retired to the almost inac-
cessible rocks of the Antarctic Ocean. The
head is broad and round, the eyes are sur-
rounded by only a few tactile hairs set in
concentric circles. On the lips there are
scarcely any such hairs. The front-flippers
are short, and the digits are furnished with
short strong claws, while those of the hind-

flippers are without either nails or claws.
The male has a short proboscis marked with
transverse folds, and the nostrils open on the
lower surface at the end of this proboscis,
which hangs down over the mouth when the
animal is resting. The sea-elephant can blow
up its proboscis so as to resemble a thick
sausage. The female, which is much smaller
than the male, shows no trace of this orna-
ment. The uniformly coloured fur is bluish-
gray or brownish ; the hairs are short and
stiff.

The habits of this species resemble those

248

THE SEALS.

of the sea-bears. The creatures are very
helpless and clumsy on land, and appear to
be in general very indolent and extremely
good-natured, so that one could commit the
most unreasonable massacres among them
with impunity.

The genus is represented in the Greenland
waters by the Bladder-nosed Seal (Cystophora

cristata], fig. 1 28, which attains the length of
only 10 feet, and in which the proboscis of
the male is replaced by a pretty broad sack
divided in the middle, lying on the surface
between the brow and the nose, and capable of
being blown up in such a manner as to resemble
a thick cap sitting on the creature's nose.
In the hind-flippers the two outer digits

j. 128.— The Bladder-nosed Seal (Cystophora cristata).

are pretty long, and they alone are provided
with claws, the inner ones being nailless.
The rough, coarse fur has a ground-colour
of gray, over which are scattered on the sides
a number of broad, almost black indistinct
patches.

This seal inhabits principally the ice-fields,
is very passionate and courageous, and attacks
the hunter, bellowing like a bull. The
Eskimo scarcely venture to pursue it in the
water, where it dashes against their kayaks
and tries to shatter them with its teeth. On
the ice they attack it with spears.

"With the exception of the bladder-nose, the
seals in the Greenland Seas appear to have little
or no combativeness in their nature, but are a harm-
less, persecuted, sportive race of graceful athletes,
making merry the solitary waters of polar lands.

"On the other hand, the male bladder-nose is, in

truth, the lion of the sea, dividing the empire of
the polar waters with its huge ally the walrus.
Instead of flying at the approach of the hunter, he
will quite calmly await the approach of danger, pre-
paring for defence by betaking himself to the centre
of the piece of ice he is on, and blowing up the
air-bladder on his forehead while he rears his head
and sniffs the air like an enraged bull, and often
gives battle successfully, making the clubs fly from
the hands of his assailants with his flippers, his
head being protected as with a helmet by the air-
bladder. He will then in turn act on the offensive,
and put his opponents to flight, pursuing them
with a shuffling serpent-like motion over the ice,
the result often proving dangerous to the panic-
stricken hunter if the boat has left that piece of
ice, as the seal will use his tusks rather ferociously
when thus enraged. However, he is not inclined
to give battle unless provoked, and looks a dull,
stupid-looking sort of epicurean as he lolls on the
surface of the ice and gazes about with his large

THE TRUE SEALS.

249

black eyes in an apparently meaningless stare." —
Dr. R. Brown on the Seals of Greenland in the
Manual of Instructions for the Arctic Expedition,
edited by Rupert Jones, 1875.

The southern seas, including the Mediter-

ranean, are inhabited by seals which have
two incisors in each half of the jaw both
above and below, small canines, and molars
with pointed lateral cusps besides the sharp
middle one. Of these teeth the first has

Fig. 129. — The Sea-leopard (Lepfoiiy.v leopardinus).

only one root, while the others have two.
These seals form the genus Leptonyx
i • 5

Dental formula:

= 32 teeth.

As representative of this genus, which in-
cludes also the Monk-seal of the Mediter-
ranean {Leptonyx monachus (Monaclms albi-
venter) ), an illustration is given of the sea-
leopard {Leptonyx leopardinus), fig 129, of
the Antarctic Seas, which attains the length
of about 12 feet, and has a gray-brown fur
interspersed in places with bright yellow
spots. The nails are small but sharp, their
colour black. On the hind-flippers they dis-
appear with age. The skull is longish, the
fur short, thick, without down.

The true seals, in the most restricted sense

of that term, the animals forming the genus
Phoca, have three incisors above, like the
land Carnivora, but only two below. Dental

formula: ; = 34 teeth.

The molars are deeply notched and very
sharp. A somewhat different genus (Halichce-
rus) has conical molars without lateral lobes.

As representative of this group composed
of the ordinary seals of our coasts, found only
in the northern hemisphere, the group to
which among others the Common Seal or
Sea-calf (Phoca vitulina of Linnaeus) belongs,
the Greenland Seal (Phoca grcenlanchca), fig.
130, has been selected for illustration. It is
the commonest species in the northern seas,
and its pursuit is carried on chiefly by the

32

250

THE SEALS.

Eskimo and the Europeans. The animal
attains a length of only 6y% feet at most. In
early years it is of a uniform gray colour,
somewhat darker on the back. Gradually the
dark colour increases, and in adult animals it
forms on the back two large patches resemb-
ing a saddle. The second digit of the fore-
flipper is longer than the others. Ice-fields
are the favourite resort of this species.

The species of the Caspian Sea, the Sea of
Aral, and Lake Baikal all belong to this group.

THE WALRUS OR MORSE

(TRICHECHUS ROSMARUS-PL. XV.).

This enormous creature, which attains a
length of from 20 to 23 feet and a weight
of 3300 Ibs., forms a family by itself. It

Fig. 130. — Tl

land Seal (Phoctigr&jilandica). page 249.

inhabits the ice-covered waters of the Arctic
Ocean. The thick and unshapely body is
very massive behind, the neck relatively thin,
the head small. The tail is rudimentary, the
thick lips set with stiff whiskers, each hair
of the thickness of a raven's quill. The
nostrils are situated on the highest part of
the blunt muzzle. The eyes are small.
The thick loose skin has a smooth covering
of bristly hair, which in the young animal is
brown, in adults yellowish, and in old animals
is disfigured by numerous scars and naked
patches. The end of the snout and the soles
of the feet are naked.

The dentition is different from that of all
other seals. In the upper jaw are to be seen
two straight massive tusks, obliquely cut
away on the outer surface. These project
far beyond the lips and may attain a length

of 2 feet and a weight of 17 or 18 Ibs. The
incisors are altogether wanting, both in the
upper and lower jaw. The flat molars, with
crowns blunted by use and single roots, are
set so far within the mouth that they lie
partly between the canines, along the border
of the palate, which is hollowed out so as to
form a groove. The number of these molars
may be as low as three in each half of the
jaw. In the female the canines are much less
developed. In those cases in which the den-
tition is reduced to the very lowest there are
in each half of the jaw only three or four
teeth, the first of which, considered to be a
premolar, gets worn away on both sides, while
the other three, which would thus be regarded
as true molars, get worn away obliquely. The
milk dentition is more in accordance with the
carnivorous type. It exhibits three incisors

THE WALRUS OR MORSE.

251

in each half of the jaw, both above and below,
and five molars above as against four below.
The incisors gradually disappear. All the
transitions between the two extremes may be
observed in the dentition according to the
age of the individual. The formulas are thus
as follows: —

3-i-S

Milk dentition:

Permanent dentition:

. I

3 • i
o . i

= 34-

= 14 teeth.

The walrus is accordingly a carnivore
which has gradually lost its teeth and at the
same time had their forms modified through
adaptation to a special kind of diet. It feeds,
in fact, chiefly on molluscs and sea-urchins,
which it digs up from the sea-bottom by
means of its tusks. But it does not despise
either fish or the flesh of slain whales.

Walruses live in numerous flocks in the
neighbourhood of coasts and ice-fields, and
only seldom undertake extensive migrations
by allowing themselves to be carried away
on ice-floes. Sluggish and dull on land,
where they nevertheless sometimes betake
themselves, raising their bodies by means of
their fore-paws or flippers, they are tolerably
agile in the water, swimming with great
rapidity, diving under the ice, and knocking
holes in it from below with their head in
order to breathe. They visit the coasts only
during and after the melting of the ice, are
fond of settling down for a long time in bays
where the shallows afford them a rich crop
of sand-dwelling molluscs and bivalves.

Furious battles take place between the
males in the breeding season. The walruses
are advantageously distinguished from other
seals by the courage with which they defend
themselves against man, by the devotion
with which they aid one another, and by
the self-sacrificing love with which parents
and young ones remain faithful to each
other to death. Walruses are hunted very
eagerly for the sake of their thick tough
skin, their fat, and their tusks, which are

estimated at the price of ivory. The hunt is
very dangerous. The walrus when pursued,
and especially when wounded, endeavours to
capsize or shatter the boats with his tusks
and fins, and since the others hasten up to
the defence of their surprised comrade, terrible
encounters ensue, sanguinary both for men
and for animals. The bellowing of the en-
raged walrus is compared to the roaring of a
lion. When caught young the walrus becomes
attached to man, and it might certainly be
tamed if we could furnish it with the necessary
means of subsistence. The Eskimo declare
that the walruses sometimes have to wage
battle against polar bears and killer-whales
(Orca gladiator], but European observers
have not been able to confirm these accounts.

An interesting account of the hunting of the
walrus as still pursued by the inhabitants of the
north of Norway is given by Weyprecht, one of the
leaders of the Austrian polar expedition of 1873-74.

" The true man of the ice," he writes, " is the
walrus-hunter. Whatever comes within range of
his gun or can be reached by his harpoon, that he
carries away with him. He kills the white whale
if he finds him, but does not despise even the shark;
he shoots the reindeer on the land and fills the
empty space with birds' eggs, which lie at his dis-
posal in thousands; he collects eider-down if he has
nothing better to do, and salts geese and ducks as
a reserve for winter in his home. But his proper
booty, that which he always has in his eye, which
he pursues as long as he can, and for the sake of
which he is ready to risk his life at any time, con-
sists in the walrus, the seal, and the polar bear.
Uninterruptedly he searches for traces of them ; as
soon as the ice is in sight they become for three or
four months the goal of his existence, for which he
ventures everything — the dream which he pursues
night and day.

"The chase demands small, easily managed, and
strongly built ships of about the size of our coasters,
which can take advantage of every break in the ice,
every open channel, to get forward. According as
they carry one boat or two they are manned with
eight or twelve men, and one or two harpooners, or
Fangmanner as they are there called. . . .

"There are twodifferent nationalities which furnish
crews for this employment: the blond and more

252

THE SEALS.

intelligent Norwegian, and the dark-haired Qven,
the descendant of the immigrant Russian Finns.
... A trait which unfortunately characterizes all
of them is an extreme indolence, which in the Qven
amounts to apathy. For hours together the latter
can lie on the same spot or steer to the same point
of the compass without giving any indication by his
countenance that his mind is occupied with any-
thing at all. In helping to lift a cask of bread on
board the Isbforn a Qven got the first joint of one
of his fingers smashed, whereupon the captain of
his ship cut off the shattered fragment with the
blubber-knife. On being asked whether the opera-
tion hurt him he calmly replied, 'No!'

" Although not to such a degree as the Qven the
Norwegian also possesses a considerable share of
listlessness. When a ship is beset by ice all quietly
place their hands in their bosoms, and it never
occurs to any of them to try to get free by their own
exertions. A general holiday prevails, a period of
dolcissimo far niente, of the most unbounded idle-
ness, which every one takes advantage of as best
he can. ' It will soon be all right' is the general
motto, and everyone thinks, in saying that, of the
favourable wind which in due course will set in and
open up the ice. . . .

" How completely changed, however, are these
same people when they have put off the sailor and
put on the hunter. 'A walrus in sight!' resounds
from the crow's-nest, and at one blow the sluggish
sailor is changed into the bold hunter, the cool shot,
the untiring pursuer. The boat's crew pounce upon
the boat, which is always kept in perfect readiness.
In an instant it is in the water, and, urged by power-
ful strokes of the oars, is making for the black spot
which indicates the booty in the distance. If there
is thick ice in the way the whole crew jump out,
pull up the boat, and drag it over the floe to the
next channel.

" All this is done so rapidly that you fancy you
have different men before your eyes. And yet there
is no hurrying, everyone performs his task with
calmness and without undue haste. Often the boats
go many miles in the pursuit, and remain absent
from the ship for days; often they are parted by
the mists, and do not find each other again till after
long searching. Only the captain, the cook, and
the cabin-boy then remain on board; how they
are to manreuvre the ship is their business. Nobody
thinks of that when there is a prospect of a catch.

" If the walrus is sleeping on the ice the boat is
almost inaudibly brought so close up to it that the

harpooneer can jump on the ice with his long lance
and quietly transfix his game, which is quite inca-
pable of offering anyresistance when out of the water.
If several animals are together and their assailants
succeed in killing those nearest the water so speedily
that the others cannot reach it, then the victory is
secure. The bodies of the slain then form a ram-
part which these animals, so helpless on the ice,
cannot surmount, and the whole herd fall victims
to the lance. Such a piece of luck is the great
object of desire to the walrus-hunter.

" But the chase assumes quite a different aspect
when the animals manage to reach the water in
time. They advance curiously up to the unknown
object and swim threateningly round the boat.
Forward in the prow stands the harpooneer — a
harpoon in his right hand ready to strike, five others
lying clear beside him so that he can seize them
with a rapid snatch. Beside him lie also a rifle and
a lance with a heavy wooden shaft, and a double-
edged blade a hand-breadth wide and a foot long.
Every man at the oars has an axe at his left hand,
a long rudely worked blubber-knife on his right.

" The foremost animal is now near enough. With
all his strength the hunter plunges the harpoon into
his body, rapidly withdraws the long thin shaft, and
fastens the end of the harpoon-line to a strong
block. The ungainly bleeding animal gives a loud
bellow and dives under the water, but the line, from
35 to 40 feet in length, allows him but little play.
He soon re-emerges and drags the boat along after
him. At the bellowing of their stricken comrade
the whole herd become infuriated and make a dash
against the weak boat and its occupants. Now
here, now there, a colossal shaggy head showing eyes
rolling with rage rises in the immediate vicinity
and exhibits its tusks a foot long. In blind fury
the animals lash the water close by the boat with
their huge bodies. The harpooneer meanwhile
stands coolly at his post and singles out a second
victim — a powerful stroke, and another animal is
fastened to the line. The boat now shoots on with
doubled speed, leaving a broad wake behind; the
furious herd still follows. Often it comes to a
close encounter. With the exception of the one
who has to steer the boat in the midst of the excit-
ing scene, and on whose coolness and dexterity the
life of all depends, every one quits his oar and seizes
his knife and axe to defend the slim craft against
the furious heads which, always returning, endeav-
our to strike the boat above the gunwale. It does
not occur to any of the animals to make a direct

PLATE XV. - THE WALRUS OR MORSE ( Tric/itchis

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND DESCENT.

253

thrust against the thin wooden planks; every one
of them tries to pierce the gunwale from above
with the strongly recurved tusks with which it is
accustomed to pull itself forward on the ice. If it
should manage to effect this the boat is destroyed
at one blow.

" In spite of the struggle going on the harpoonecr
is ever bent on making new victims. As long as
he has a single harpoon free he keeps fastening
fresh animals to the line. It sometimes happens
that six such monsters are pulling and tugging at
the boat at one time, and endeavour to drag it
underneath. Only the admirable dexterity and
coolness of the steersman, who, in the midst of the
exciting scene, dares not allow any movement of
the directing harpooneer to escape him, can protect
the boat from capsizing.

"Snorting and bellowing with rage the beaten
animals surround the boat in ever-widening circles.
Not till then does the harpooneer take to his lance.
By means of the line he pulls one of the stricken
animals, already weakened by the loss of blood,
nearer to him, and strikes it on the head with the
shaft. As soon as it turns round towards the boat
he plunges the lance deep into its breast and thus
gives it its death-blow. In this manner he puts
them all to death one after the other.

" Such battles take place now only occasionally,
for the number of the animals is greatly reduced.
Not very long ago there were still so many that
when the ship was filled with blubber the hunters
continued to slaughter the animals for the sake of
the ivory derived from their tusks, and left the dead
bodies as a prey to the bears and birds. But even
yet a successful hunter may kill from 150 to 2OO
walruses in a summer." — Weyprecht in Petermatiris
Mittheilungen, November, 1876.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND
DESCENT OF THE SEALS.

The geographical distribution of the Pinni-
pedia presents a remarkable peculiarity in the
presence of seals in basins such as the
Caspian Sea, the Sea of Aral, and Lake
Baikal, now entirely cut off from the ocean.
In general the members of this group inhabit
the shores of the ocean and delight in salt
water. Yet they ascend a good way up

rivers in pursuit of fish, and some are
regularly caught every year in Iceland, for
example, after following salmon up the rivers.
Accordingly it cannot be said that fresh
water is a hindrance to their settlement. On
the other hand, the first two of the inland
basins above mentioned are proved by the
character of their fauna otherwise and by the
form of the depressions by which they are
now separated from the sea, to have been
formerly in communication with the waters
of the ocean, and have been severed there-
from only by a comparatively recent elevation
of the land. The seals have been able to
survive this separation all the more easily
since the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral
are both slightly salt and both abound in fish.

Quite different is it with Lake Baikal,
which is inhabited by a seal only slightly
different from the Greenland seal, and perhaps
only a variety of the latter. The water of
Lake Baikal is quite fresh. The lake lies in
the midst of a mountainous district at the
height of more than 1 500 feet above sea-level,
is surrounded by high mountain peaks, and is
separated from the Arctic Ocean in the north
of Siberia by a very considerable stretch of
land. Even if we assumed that the seals
had traversed the plains of Siberia by means
of the rivers, there still remained a distance
of perhaps 1 30 miles to cross in the mountains
themselves in order to reach the lake. That
this was actually accomplished is a supposition
hardly credible, and, on the other hand, an
elevation of the land so great as to have cut
off Lake Baikal from the sea can scarcely be
believed to have taken place in quite recent
times. All explanations hitherto offered of
this remarkable fact appear to be unsatis-
factory.

As for the oceanic seals, the facts regard-
ing their distribution are tolerably simple.
The animals prefer the coasts of the cold and
temperate seas, and in tropical regions are
altogether wanting. The walrus is purely
Arctic, and transgresses the limit of the

254

THE SEALS.

Arctic circle only for a short distance on the
cold coasts of North America. The eared
seals inhabit in the northern hemisphere only
the coasts of the Pacific, from Behring's
Strait to Japan on the one side, and to the
extremity of California on the other; in the
southern hemisphere again they are found on
all the Antarctic coasts, and are met with on
those of Chile and the states of the Argentine
Confederation in America, those of the Cape
in Africa, as well as on the shores of Australia
and New Zealand. All the shores of the
Arctic Ocean and the Atlantic, including the
Mediterranean and the Black Sea as well as
the- inland basins above mentioned, are in-
habited only by seals proper, which also
extend over nearly the whole of the domain
occupied by the eared seals. Only the coasts
of Africa and the East Indies are wholly
destitute of seals. The seals proper are thus
the generally distributed type, while the
walruses and eared seals have more limited
ranges.

Palaeontology sheds but little light on the
origin of the seals. Their fossil remains are
extremely rare. In the upper Miocene of
France remains have been found, with respect
to which it is doubtful whether they should
be ascribed to eared seals or seals proper.
The other Tertiary remains belong indubi-
tably to true seals, and some fragments be-
longing to walruses have been discovered in
the glacial deposits of France and Virginia,
accordingly in districts pretty far south.

The affinities connecting the Pinnipedia on
the one hand through the structure of the
limbs with the sea otters, on the other through
the structure of the skull and teeth with the
bears, are most conspicuous in the eared seals.
The whole organization, as well as the late

appearance of the type in the history of the
earth, lead to the presumption that the Pin-
nipedia represent a branch of the Carnivora
which has gradually diverged from the main
trunk through undergoing a process of special
adaptation to an aquatic life, and which still
retains a considerable number of characters
belonging to the carnivorous type. The
walrus certainly leads to the Sirenia through
the remarkable modification of its dentition;
but we see in this approximation rather a
result of the convergence of characters in
types originally distinct brought about by
adaptation, than a fact pointing to affinity of
stock.

Since organic life in general has raised
itself from the depths of the water to the free
air, the fact of the adaptation of land animals
to an aquatic life would form a remarkable
anomaly if we had not a thousand examples
to show of retrograde development due to
special adaptations. Here this process of
degradation is manifested especially in the
structure of the teeth and limbs, which remain
in a less advanced state of development.
The continuance of the pulmonary respiration
is, without doubt, a proof of this declension
which has affected animals originally ter-
restrial. It is not at all likely that animals
originally aquatic should, while continuing to
live in the water, have exchanged the power
of breathing by gills for that of breathing by
lungs, whereby they are placed at a consider-
able disadvantage compared with the other
inhabitants of the water by the necessity of
rising from time to time to the surface. But
it would be useless to spin any more specula-
tions of this kind, since, in consequence of
the absence of palaeontological facts, they lack
in a measure a solid foundation.

13

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