'R4U ™"' \NATURAL HISTORY INSECTS. / IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II. NEW-YORK: PUBLISHED BY HARPER & BROTHERS^ 82 CLIFF-STREET. 1835, CONTENTS. CHAPTER I.— ON THE NATURE OF THE META- MORPHOSES OF INSECTS, ILLUSTRATED IN THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE BUTTERFLY. Introductory — Singularity of Transformations— Remark- able Caterpillar of the Swallow-tailed Butterfly — True nature of Chrysalides, and misstatement respecting them — Structure of Chrysalides — Errors of Goedart — Golden Chrysalides — Inquiry how the Fluids of Chrysalides are converted into Solids— Experiments of Reaumur— Anal- ogy of the inactive State of a Chrysalis with the chew- ing of the Cud in Animals— State of the ChrysaUs when ready to disclose the Butterfly— Extrication of the Fly- Extension of the Antennae and Tongue — Supposed Uses of the Anteimae — Expansion of the Wings — Scales of the Wings, 13 CHAPTER II.— FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS, AS ILLUSTRA- TED IN THE BUTTERFLY. Theory of S wammerdam — Theory of Herold — Observations thereon — Analogy of Insect Transformations with the Development of higher Animals and Man — No growth in Winged Insects — White Butterflies — Bloody Rain — Pei- resc's quaint Statement — Double-brooded Insects — Dura- tion of the Life of Insects shortened by Warmth, and prolonged by Cold— Reaumur's Experiments — Irregular Period of Duration of Insects in the Chrysalis Slate — Periodical Appearance of Butterflies, 30 CHAPTER HI.- THE NATURAL HISTORY OF VARI- OUS INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. Conical Chrysalides produce Moths, and are enclosed in Cocoons— Supposed causes of the Difference between Butterflies and Moths in this respect — Distribution of Colours in Insects — Cocoons of pure Silk — Slender silken Cocoons guarded by Leaves— Mode of Spinning Cocoons — Gum and Paste introduced into the Substance of Co- coons— Processionary Caterpillars form Cocoons in com- •If. ns, Till CONTENTS. pany, in which Hairs are mixed with Silk — The Great Eggar Moth Cocoon— x^ssembling of Moths— Pahsade Cocoon of Hair and Silk — Strength of Cocoons not in- dicative of the Duration of the Chrysahs State— Rough Cocoons formed of Earth and Silk — Elongate Tongue- case of Chrysalides — Polished Earthen Cocoon — Cocoons formed of chips of Wood, and of Leaves, Twigs, and Moss — Extraction of the Moth from the Cocoon — Contrivance of the Larvse to allow the more easy Extrication of the Moth — Regularity in the Time of Appearance of Insects — Extrication of the Chrysalis from the Cocoon — Extri- cation of Perfect Insects from the Caterpillar case, . . 47 CHAPTER IV.— NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SILK- WORM MOTH. Description of the Egg— Caterpillar — Manner of changing its Skin — Sizes from the young to the fuUgrown Worm — Description of the latter— Silk Bags— Manner of forming its Cocoon — Length of the Silk — Descriptionof theChrys- aUs— The Moth— Its Habits— Number of Eggs, ... 78 CHAPTER v.— HISTORY OF SILK, &c. History of its Fabrication— Several kinds of Worms reared in India and America — The Silk Company — Culture of the Mulberry-tree — Laboratory — Air — Heat — Tempera- ture— Light — Of the kinds of Silkworm — Eggs — Hatch- ing—Space— Food — Weight and Length of the fullgrown Worm, 85 CHAPTER VI. — NATURAL HISTORY OF INDIAN MOTHS AND OTHERS REARED FOR THEIR SILK. Tusseh Silkworm, its Metamorphoses, its Flight, Manner of Winding the Silk — Jarroo Silkworm, their Habits— Ar- rindy or Arundi Silkworm, Manner of Rearing, its Meta- morphoses, Its Silk, Manner of Spinning — The Manner of Manufacturing the Silk of Tinea Punctata— Account of the Silk of an Indigenous American Moth — History of preparing Silk from Spiders, kinds of. Manner of Spin- ning, Number of Spiders, Eggs, Quantity of Silk, Weight of the Bags, 109 CHAPTER VII.— ON LUMINOUS WINGED INSECTS. History of the Glow-worm — Description of the Egg — The Larva— Its CleanUness — The Pupa — The perfect Insect —Difference between the Sexes— The Light— Whether V V CONTENTS. IX extinguished at pleasure — The Luminous Matter — Dar- win's Opinion — The Effects when placed in Gases — In Acid — Carus's Opinion — Whether it contain Heat — Mur- ray's Opinion — History of the Lantern of Paussus Sphe- rocerus — Of the Firefly — Of the Lantemfly — Of theCan- dlefly— Object of the Light, 117 CHAPTER VHL— NATURAL HISTORY OF COLEOP- TEROUS INSECTS. History of the Cockchafer, its Ravages — Description of the Larva, Pupa, Perfect Insect, its mode of appearing, Hab- its— Account of its Ravages in Ireland — The History of the Deathwatch, the Vulgar Opinion, its Noise, Number of Strokes— History of the Burying-beetle, its Manner of Burying Moles, &c. — For what Purpose — Description of the Larva and Pupa, 130 CHAPTER IX.~FTJRTHER HISTORY OF THE COLE- OPTEROUS INSECTS. History of the Stag-beetle, its Habits — Description of the Larva, Pupa, and Cocoon — A Marvellous Story — History of the Pellet-beetle, the Manner of forming its Pellets, &c., its Strength, an fJmblem of the Egyptians, its Sym- bolical Meaning — History of the Water-beetle — Descrip- tion of the Nidus, Larva, its peculiar formed Jaws, the Utility of the Fringe of the Tail, its Ravages, considered a Shrimp, Pupa, Perfect Insect — History of the Tortoise- beetle— Description of the Larva, its Habits, Pupa, Per- fect Insect, 142 CHAPTER X.— NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MAN- TES, &c. Why called Fortune-tellers — Description of the Nidus — Larva — Roesel's Observations — Destroyed by Ants — Combat between two Mantes — Manner of entrapping its Prey — Superstitious Idea of the Hottentots— Natural History of the Walking Leaf— The Supposition of the Indians — Its Similarity to a Leaf — Walking Stick — Its Habits — Their Eggs— Natural History of Cockroach — Whence brought — Their Ravages — Manner of Laying their Eggs— Natural History of the Earwig — The care of the Parent for her Young — Its voracious Habits — Wings of the Perfect Insect — Natural History of the Field-bug— Its Young, &c., 150 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XL— NATURAL HISTORY OF THE CRICKETS. History of the House-cricket, its Habits, Popular Preju- dices, its Noise— History of the Field-cricket, difficult to catch, its Habits, its Sound — A singular Species — His- tory of the Mole-cricket, its Forelegs, its Chamber for its Eggs, its Metamorphoses, Mode of attacking its Enemies, its Noise, Manner of Flight, supposed to be Luminous, 161 CHAPTER XII.— NATURAL HISTORY OF THE LO- CUST, &c. The Idea entertained by the Ancients, by the Arabs — The supposed Meaning of the Letters on their Wings, &c. — Their Food — Ravagss — The Description given by Joel — The Beneficial Results from the Locusts, used as Food — Niebuhr's Account — Their Ravages in Barbary, in Tran- sylvania, in Spain — Size of the largest Species — Ravages in Mahratta and in Africa — The Wart-eating Locust — Prickly Grasshopper — On the Metamorphoses of this kind of Insects, 168 chapter' XIII.-NATURAL HISTORY OF THE CI- CADA. Organs of Sound — History of the North American Species — Its Habits — Its Metamorphosis — Probably two Varie- ties— Eaten by Animals — Its Ovipositor — Manner of Lay- ing its Eggs— Period of Life — Used in Making Soap — History of the Cuckoo Spit — Its Metamorphosis — Its Habits — History of the Cicada Goudoti — Its Envelope- ment in the Sap of Plants — How discharged like Rain — Quantity— Whether any Pernicious Qualities — History of the Cicada Limbata — Its Wax, &c., 190 CHAPTER XIV.— NATURAL HISTORY OF THE EPHEMERA OR MAYFLY. An Account of the Larva and Pupa — Their Differences — The Fomfiation of their Fins or Breathing Apparatus — The Larva of another kind of Ephemera — Their Habita- tions—^Habits of the Perfect Insect — Manner of changing its Skin— Of laying their Eggs, &c., 202 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XV.— THE NATURAL HISTORY OF VA- RIOUS OBNOXIOUS SPECIES OF DIPTEROUS INSECTS. Distribution of Species and Individuals — Housefly — Struc- ture of its Mouth — Power of Walking against Gravity — Ovoviviparous Flies — The Blowrfly and Blue Bottle- fly — Wheatfly — Hessianfly — German Wheatfly — Choral Dances of Summer and Winter Midges — Midnight Gyra- tions of Midges— Gnat, 213 CHAPTER XVI.— THE NATURAL HISTORY OF VA- RIOUS OBNOXIOUS SPECIES OF DIPTEROUS INSECTS CONTINUED. Moscheto — The Black Fly of America — Domestic Fly — The Hungarian Fly — Gadflies — Breeseflies — Structure of Mouth of Tabanus and Gnat — Females only Blood- thirsty—The Zimb— The Forest-fly, 233 CHAPTER XVII.— THE NATURAL HISTORY OF VA- RIOUS SPECIES OF SAWFLIES. An Account of the Ovipositor and Sawing Apparatus — An Account of the Rose Sawfly — Description of their Eggs, Larvse, the Effect of Rain — Description of their Cocoon — their Perfect State — its Ravages on Turnips, . . . 246 CHAPTER XVIII.— NATURAL HISTORY OF PARA- SITICAL INSECTS FOUND ON PLANTS, AND PARASITICAL PLANTS FOUND ON INSECTS. History of the Gall found on the Brambles — Its Parasite— History of the Cimex which attacks Flowers — History of a Beetle which attacks Leaves — History of the Cater- pillar peculiar for forming Galls — History of the Insect wliich forms resinous Galls on the Pine-tree — An Ac- count of the Fungus found attached to the Melolontha or Maybug — An Account of the Vegetating Wasp — An Account of the Plant found on the Pupa of a Cicada, on Moths, and on Larvae — The supposed Causes of the Phe- nomena—An Account of Portions of Flowers being found attached to Insects, 254 CHAPTER XIX.— NATURAL HISTORY OF SOME INSECTS WHICH ARE OBNOXIOUS TO TREES. History of the Larva which is termed the Oak pruner — History of the Larva which causes Tumours on Fruit- trees — History of Hylesinus Destructor — History of the Brown-tailed Moth, " . . . 266 XU CONTENTS. CHAPTER XX.— THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE FLEA. Its supposed Manner of Appearance— Us Eggs—Rosel's Opinion with respect to the Young — Defrance's Opinion — The Manner of Preparing Food for the Young Larvae — Description of its Pupa and Cocoon — Perfect Insect — Its Habits, 274 CHAPTER XXL— THE NATURAL HISTORY OF VA- RIOUS SPECIES OF CRABS AND OTHER CRUS- TACEOUS ANIMALS. History of the Lobster — The Mode of casting its Skin — Its Parasite — History of the Land-crab — History of the Her- mit-crab— History of the Pea-crab, 281 CHAPTER XXn.— ON THE METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. Metamorphoses of Insects— Larva — Pupae — Partial — Com- plete — S emi-c omplete — S ubsemi-c omplete — Incomplete — Obtected— Coarctate, 291 CHAPTER XXIII.— HINTS FOR STUDENTS. Collection of Insects — Charge of Cruelty considered — Ad- vantages of the Study of Entomology — Number of Spe- cies— Means of obtaining a Knowledge of Forms and Classification — Number of Generic Divisions — Terms — Instruments for collecting — Easiest Modes of putting to Death, &c.— Localities of Insects— Store-boxes, . . . 29& INSECTS. CHAPTER I. ON THE NATURE OF THE METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS, ILLUS- ' TRATED IN THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF THE BUTTERFLY. Litroductory — Singularity of Transformations — Remarkable Cat- erpillar of the Swallow-tailed Butterfly — True nature of Chrysa- lides, and misstatement respecting them — Structure of Chrysalides — Errors of Goedart — Golden Chrysalides — Inquiry how the Fluids of Chrysalides are converted into Solids — Experiments of Reaumur — Analogy of the inactive State of a Chrysalis with the chewiiig of the Ctid in Animals — State of the Chrysalis when ready to disclose the Butterfly — Extrication of the Fly — Exten- sion of the AntenncB and Tongue — Supposed Uses of the Anten- nae— Expansion of the Wings — Scales of the Wings. In the fifth and sixth chapters of our preceding volume, we have detailed the history and proceed- ings of various kinds of caterpillars ; and in. the con- cluding chapter, the seventeenth, we have shown the manoeuvres by which the caterpillars of three kinds of butterflies, viz., the white, or cabbage but- terfly {Pontia BrasstccB), the peacock butterfly {Va- nessa ib), and the swallow-tailed butterfly {Papilio Machaon), eff"ect their transformations to the inac- tive state of a chrysalis ; the other larvae which we have described in the two former chapters likewise belong, with the exception of the caddis worms, to various species of moths. In pursuing the history of these transformations it remains for us to show the manner in which the chrysalis state is thrown off", after which the butter- fly appears in all its beauty ; but as the proceedings of the butterfly aff'ord but a very insufficient idea of Vol, II.— B 14 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. I. the various kinds of transformations undergone either by the moths or insects of other orders, we shall enter into the subject at further detail, feeling convinced that it is impossible for us to lay before our readers any subject connected with these little animals which so fully coincides with the title of our work — " The Natural History of Insects." The manner in which Messrs. Kirby and Spence introduce this subject is so appropriate, that we can- not resist the temptation to quote it, as being admi- rably adapted to rouse the attention of the student to the metamorphoses of the insect world : — " Were a naturalist to announce to the world the discovery of an animal which for the first five years of its life existed in the form of a serpent, which then pene- trating into the earth, and weaving a shroud of pure silk of the finest texture, contracted itself within this covering into a body without external mouth or limbs, and resembling more than any thing else an Egyptian mummy ; and which, lastly, after remain- ing in this state, without food and without motion, for three years longer, should, at the end of that pe- riod, burst its silken cerements, struggle through its earthy covering, and start into day a winged bird— - what think you would be the sensation excited by this strange piece of intelhgenceV After the first doubts of its truth were dispelled, what astonish- ment would succeed ! — among the learned what sur- mises! what investigations! — among the vulgar what eager curiosity ! what amazement !" Swammerdam, indeed, justly observes— " This history is so amazing in all its circumstances, that it might very well pass for a romance were it not built upon the most firm foundations of truth ;" and the illustrious Goethe, whoso knowledge of mankind was only equalled by his love of nature, says of these changes, " I would call these transmutations wonderful, if the Avonderful in nature were not that which occurs eve.ry moment." en. I.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 15 We will now proceed more minutely to detail the manner in which these transformations are effected, especially the circumstances connected with the es- cape of the butterfly from the chrysalis, continuing to take as examples the three species of butterflies noticed above, and whose caterpillars we have fig- ured in our forrtier volume. There are several pe- culiarities, however, connected with the caterpillar of the swallow-tailed butterfly, which will be con- sidered interesting. Until recently this butterfly, which is by far the most remarkable of the British species, was of very rare occurrence in England : but it has within these few years been found plentifully in the fens of Cam- bridgeshire and Huntingdonshire. The caterpillar of this fine butterfly is of a green colour, Vv^th vel- vety black rings, which are alternately spotted with red ; it feeds upon various umbelliferous plants, es- pecially the fennel and carrot, preferring the flowers, and is remarkable for having the back of the neck armed with a red-coloured instrument composed of two fleshy horns, branching from a common stem, and shaped somev/hat like the letter Y ; this organ appears to be similar in some respects to the horns of snails, and is capable of similar movements, be- ing completely retractile. It appears from the ob- seiTations of Reaumur that it is only when the cat- erpillar is disturbed that it throws out this instru- ment, sometimes to its whole extent, at others with the horns only protruded thus Y, and occasionally with them unequally extended thus V ; and, as it secretes an acrid liquor which emits an unpleasant smell, particularly when the animal is irritated, it is probably an organ of defence, to protect it from the attacks of the ichneumon flies. Reaumur mentions the remarkable circumstance that the caterpillar, when spinning the silken cord by which it is to be supported on assuming the chrysalis state, invaria- bly affixes it across its body at the junction of the 16 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. I. fifth and sixth segments, where there is a cavity or gutter, in which it is easily kept from gUding back- wards or forwards, and the cord is sometimes so completely immersed in this channel as to be almost hidden from sight. Although, as we have already stated, the newly- formed chrysalis of a butterfly when opened is found to contain only a mass of pulp or soft substance, in which no trace of the parts of the future butterfly can be observed, yet we are able to perceive in the external covering of the chrysalis all the external organs of the fly, in a very short period before the skin of the chrysalis has been cast off". Indeed Swammerdam (whose inimitable dissections of va- rious insects in their diff'erent states induced our celebrated philosopher Ray, in his " Wisdom of God in the Works of the Creation," to place him at the head of those observers who had, by their exquisite investigations, completely overturned the monstrous doctrine of equivocal generation) very plainly de- monstrated, that even before the period when the CH. I.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 17 caterpillar is ready to become a chrysalis, all the parts of a butterfly may be discovered within its body, thus satisfactorily proving that the chrysalis is no more than " a beautiful and orderly represen- tation of such limbs of the caterpillar as have grown under its skin ; for though the limbs now mentioned may be seen under the insect's skin at the time it crawls and eats in the form of a caterpillar, never- theless it is, in this state, on account of their ex- treme tenderness and delicacy, a very difficult mat- ter to have a satisfactory view of them. They are in a manner as fluid as water, and they lie folded up in many very tender membranes interwoven with pulmonary tubes. The best time to obtain an ele- gant view of them is when the caterpillar is just about throwing off its skin, and exhibiting to open view the miraculous operations of nature which it hitherto concealed." In his remarkable history of " An Animal in an Animal," the same author gives practical directions as to the mode to be adopted to obtain a view of this interesting sight : — " one must choose a full-grown caterpillar, tie to its body a small thread, and then put it into boiling water, and take it out soon after ; thus its external skin will separate, because the fluids between the two skins are by this means rare- fied and dilated, and therefore they break and separ- ate both the vessels and the fibres wherewith they were united together. By this means the external skin of the caterpillar, being spontaneously separ- ated, may be easily drawn off from the butterfly, which is contained and folded up in it. This done, it is clearly and distinctly seen, that within this skin of the caterpillar a perfect and real butterfly was hidden." These curious facts were illustrated by Swam- merdam in the two following figures of the cater- pillar of the tortoise-shell butterfly {Vanessa urticce), in the second of which the outer skin has been drawn B2 18 NATURAL HISTORY. [CII. I. off, and the various limbs of the future butterfly are represented as extended. These figures will be sufficient to refute, in the most satisfactory manner, the statement of a recent author, that it is the tail of the larva which becomes the head of the butterfly. The outer skin of a chrysalis is of a hard and rigid substance, although on its first exclusion from the skin of the caterpillar it is not enclosed in this hard covering. "At the moment of this change," ob- serve Messrs. Kirby and Spence, founding their ob- servations upon those of Reaumur, contained in the eighth memoir of his first volume upon chrysalides in general, " the envelope is nearly soft and mem- branous. But they are besides covered with a vis- cous fluid, which appears to ooze out chiefly from under the wings, and which, very soon drying, forms the exterior hard shell. At first the anten- nas, wings, and legs can each be separated from the body ; and it is only after these parts have been glued together by the fluid just mentioned, which takes place in less than twenty-four hours, that they are immoveably attached to the body of the pupa, as we usually see them/' CH. I.] METAMORPHOSEST OF INSECTS. 19 On examining a chrysalis we are enabled to dis- cover, without difficulty, the eyes of the butterfly, as well as its wings, which are of a small size, and folded upon the sides ; in addition to which, there are to be observed, arising from the head and lying upon the breast, several slender divisions, which, on being more minutely examined, are discovered to be the two filaments of the tongue or proboscis, the legs, and the antennae, which are the outermost pair, shown in the figure, are distinctly articulated along their whole length, and are thickened towards the tip ; the joints of the abdomen are all likewise plainly indicated by the various indentations of the abdomen. The hinder legs and wings are not dis- coverable, because they lie under the preceding pairs of those organs. The chrysalides of all but- terflies are termed angular, from the various an- gular projections upon different parts of their bodies, while those of moths are termed conical, from not exhibiting any of those projecting tubercles. Of these projections, the most remarkable in the common butterflies is one which is situated in the middle of the back, between the wings, of a trian- gular form, having on each side a smaller elevated tblack point, so that by giving a little stretch to the imagination, a person might easily consider these to represent the nose and eyes, as indeed some authors have done ; '• Nay," says Swammerdam, " they have given drawings of their idle conceits," evident- ly referring to the figures given by Gcedart in his work " De Insectis," published in 1685, from which we copy the first of the following figures of the chrysalis of the red admiral butterfly (Fawe^-sa ata- Janta), which certainly resembles a lady in a plaited tippet, this portion of the dress being formed by the nerves of the wings of the chrysalis. The other and more accurate figure shows that this author mistook the projections on the back of the chrysa- lis for its face, and we are thus enabled to obtain 20 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. I. a rational explanation of this strange statement, " that wher6 the back of the caterpillar is placed, there the belly and legs of the animal into which it is changed are situated ; and on the contrary, where the belly and legs were, there the back of the ani- mal, which by transformation was produced from the caterpillar, is discovered. And," adds he, " this wonderful transformation is effected in a short space of time, so as to be distinctly observed, be- cause as soon as the skin is shed this transforma-' tion manifestly appears." Shortly after entering the pupa state the chrysalides of various kinds of butterflies assume, in a greater or less degree, a bur- nished golden appearance, whence they obtained the names of chrysalis and aurelia, which were subse- quently applied to the whole of the lepidopterous pupae. The alchymists, indeed, mistook this for real gold ; and, as Messrs. Kirby and Spence observe, " referred to the case as an argument in favour of the transmutation of metals." But Reaumur found that this appearance is owing to the shining white membrane immediately below the outer skin, which, being of a transparent yellow, gives a golden tinge to the former, in the same way that tinfoil, when covered with a yellow varnish, assumes the metal- lic appearance which we see in gilt leather. He mentions too, " that for the production of this ef- fect it is essential that the inner membrane be moist ; whence may be explained the disappearance of the gilding as soon as the butterfly is ready to escape CH. I.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 21 from the pupa. The shade of colour in these gilded chrysahdes is various : some are of a rich yellow, like pure gold, others much paler, and some nearly as white as silver." Respecting the gradual manner in which the va- rious limbs of a butterfly are developed in the milky fluid with which the body of a newly-disclosed chrysalis is filled, and in which the rudiments of its future limbs and organs, themselves almost as fluid, swim, it does not appear that sufficiently precise experiments have hitherto been made. It was the opinion of Swammerdam, who dissected chrysalides at the end of two, six or eight, twelve or thirteen, and sixteen or seventeen days, after they had as- sumed that form, that it was by evaporation of the superfluous humidity, or by the help of an insensible perspiration, that the enclosed limbs of a butterfly acquire their full strength. Reaumur, who investigated the subject with greater nicety than any other naturalist, observes, " a chrysalis remains many weeks, and often many months, without taking any sustenance, and during so long a fast, some evaporation must assuredly take place ; but to what a shadow would its body be consequently reduced if the greatest part of the liquor which penetrates its diiferent parts were to evaporate. It appears to me more probable, that this fluid unites or is incorporated with the more solid parts of the chrysalis, and that it becomes thicker when thus united, giving greater solidity to the diff'erent parts, in the same manner as the blood and lymph are employed to eff'ect the same purpose in our own bodies ; and the fluid which nourishes the limbs of a chrysalis surrounds, or, as it were, bathes them individually, so that the envelope of each of these parts being chiefly employed to pre- vent too much evaporation, may be regarded as per- forming an office analogous to that of the shell of the egg." 22 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. I. To put this supposition to the test of experiment, Reaumur accurately weighed two chrysalides im- mediately after their exclusion ; one of these weigh- ed nearly eighteen, and the other nearly nineteen grains ; at the end of sixteen days, when they were ready to become butterflies, he found that the light- est weighed more than seventeen, and the heaviest more than eighteen grains : hence the fluid escaping by insensible perspiration must be very trifling in quantity. It consists of a kind of aqueous and very limpid liquor, as Reaumur discovered by an experi- ment recorded in his first volume, in which he placed chrysalides in glass tubes hermetically seal- ed, when it was found, at the end of several days, that small drops of a very clear liquid were attached to the inner surface of the tube, sufl^icient, when they had rolled to the bottom, to form a much lar- ger drop. In his second volume Reaumur appears more decidedly to consider that it is by evaporation that the inspissation of the fluids is eff'ected, having repeated the experiment, and discovered that the aqueous fluid collected in the bulb of the tube had, at the end of a few days, acquired a volume ex- ceeding that of eight or ten large drops. Such are the views of Reaumur: and Messrs. Kirby and Spence observe, with respect to the subject, that " the end to be accomplished during the pupa's ex- istence is the gradual evaporation of the watery parts of this fluid, and the development of the organs of the enclosed animal by the absorption and assimi- lation of the residuum." Now it will be seen that this observation perfectly corresponds with the views and the results of the experiments of M. Reaumur, notwithstanding a recent author has at- tempted to prove that Messrs. Kirby and Spence misunderstood and misapplied the observations of Reaumur. It is also to be borne in mind, with reference to the solution of this question, that the chrysalis is CH. I.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 23 furnished with the same number of breathing pores as the caterpillar, and, from the experiments of Reaumur and De Geer upon chrysalides, placed in water, oil, the receiver of an airpump, &c., there appears every reason to consider that the theory of Reaumur adopted by Kirby and Spence is correct. A fanciful idea has recently been started, that the nearest analogy which exists among the other class- es of animals with the inactive state of the chrysa- lis is that of an ox torpid, when reclining in a meadow to ruminate and digest the grass he had just been devouring, " for the pupa, though it does not chew the cud like the ox, assuredly rests for the purpose of digesting or (if the term be preferred) of assimilating the cruder fluids stored up by the caterpillar, and forming or perfecting therefrom the organs and members of the mature insect." Unless, however, it be intended by this statement to imply that in the chrysalis state the insect is employed in digesting the food of the caterpillar, there can be no ground for the analogy ; and that such a supposition is erroneous is evident from the following remark of Swammerdam : — " When the caterpillar has fed sufficiently it rests some time ; in this period all the food it has taken is thoroughly digested; it then forms a pretty strong web." Hence it is evident, that if there be any analogy at all between an insect and an ox while chewing the cud, it must be during the period mentioned by Swammerdam, and not while in the chrysalis state. When the insect has remained under the form of a chrysalis for a sufficient length of time to bring all the various organs to a proper state of consist- ence, the period of bursting through the walls of its prison may often be easily ascertained ; the golden colour becomes indistinct, and, in those chrysalides whose skin is sufficiently thin, the form of the legs, antennae, and tongue, and the colours of the wings of the enclosed butterfly, become visible through the 24 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. I. skin which covers them, even without the assist- ance of the microscope. The extremities of the legs are now observed to move very distinctly, and the wings begin to enlarge, so that it is no longer possible for the brittle skin which covers the w^hole to withstand the struggles of the enclosed butterfly ; it accordingly gives way by a longitudinal slit down the middle of the back, behind the head, where there is usually a suture for the purpose. The slit rapidly extends along the head down the breast on each side of the cases of the antennas, so that the skin of the chrysalis is burst into four distinct and regular pieces, one of which enclosed the antennae, legs, and tongue, another the abdomen, and the other two the two pairs of wings. From this slit the butterfly now emerges ; but the insect has not only to disengage itself from the hard outer skin : we have also seen that the diff"erent limbs ^are separately enclosed in sheaths, which become sol- dered together by an external glutinous secretion (forming when dried the outer skin) ; as, however, the skin which covers these various parts on the inside, is extremely delicate and tender, from not being exposed to the air, it all breaks and flies off without any certain order ; hence it arises that so many broken and ragged membranes, almost as CH. I.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 25 thin as a cobweb, appear on the inner surface of the skin when thrown off. But the insect, even when thus extricated from the walls of its chrysalis prison, has not yet attain- ed its full perfection, being at first weak and feeble ; and, as might easily be expected from an examina- tion of the chrysalis, the wings are of a very small size, compared to that which they acquire when fully expanded, appearing at first like pieces of wet paper, soft, and full of wrinkles, cavities, and swel- lings, as represented in the following figure : — They, however, expand so rapidly, that, as Swam merdam observes, "the naked eye cannot trace their unfolding, from reaching scarce half the length of the body, until they acquire, O miracle of mira- cles! in the short space of about half a quarter of an hour, their full extent and bigness," the various spots and markings increasing in equal proportion. The proceedings of one of the insects which we have selected to illustrate this branch of the sub- ject, namely, the swallow-tailed butterfly, when just disclosed, have been recorded by Messrs. Kirby and Spence from actual observation, and from their statement we extract the following passage : — " To observe how gradual, and yet how rapid, was the development of the parts and organs, and particu- VOL. II.— C 26 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. I, larly of the wings, and the perfect coming forth of the colours and spots as the sun gave vigour to it, was a most interesting spectacle. At first it was unable to elevate or even move its wings ; but in pro- portion as the aerial or other fluid was forced by the motions of its trunk into their nervures, their nu- merous corrugations and folds gradually yielded to the action till they had gained their greatest extent, and the film between all the nervures became tense. The ocelli, and spots and bars, which appeared at first as but germes and rudiments of wliat they were to be, grew with the growing wing, and shone forth upon its complete expansion in full magnitude and beauty." Other changes also take place. The two fila- ments of the proboscis, which were stretched at full length along the breast, are now curled into a beautiful spiral tube under the head, and the anten- nae, which were laid by the side of the legs beneath the bod3% are now stretched into the air, from the crown of the head upon which they are affixed ; it requires, however, some little stretch of fancy to regard these latter organs in the light in which they were viewed by our poet Spenser : — " Two deadly weavons first he bore, Strongly outlanced towaras either side, Like two sharp spears, his enemies to gore ; Like as a warlike brigandine, applide To fight, lays forth her threatful pikes afore, The engines which in them sad death do hide ; So did this fly outstretch his fearful horns, Yet so as him their terror more adorns." Spenser's Muiopotmos. These appendages, which have generally been term- ed antennae, horns, or feelers, are found in all in- sects, being of an endless variety of forms, and have been regarded by some naturalists as instru- ments of touch, by others as organs of smelling, Avhile by others they liave been considered as those of the sense of hearing. CII. I.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 27 Indeed, in the Alphabet of Insects, Mr. Rennie has not hesitated to give them the name of ears, ob- serving, " As I have httle doubt these organs will one day be proved to be ears, 1 think it will direct attention more decidedly to them by at once term- ing them ears, than by leaving them (their uses) open to all sorts of crude fancies, so easy to form, but so detrimental to correct inquiry." Until, however, it shall be proved, not only that the senses of insects are precisely similar to those of the higher animals (which, from the very great differences in their gen- eral organization, appears to many naturalists to be very doubtful), but also that the antennae are the or- gans of hearing, it must be allowed that the employ- ment of so decided a term as ears must be very im- proper, and really " detrimental to correct inquiry," by leading the student to suppose that the uses of these organs, upon which the most eminent natural- ists are at variance, had been clearly ascertained. Hence, in the following pages, we shall continue to employ the term antennas for these appendages, as being one unlikely to lead to erroneous suppositions. The manner in which the surprising change in the size of the butterfly's wings is so suddenly effected, from its small corrugated form until it acquires its full development, is owing to the impulsion either of air or an aqueous fluid, or perhaps of both, into the tubular nervures of the wings ; for although, on looking at these beautiful instruments of flight, we only perceive a covering of richly coloured down, yet on brushing this off and minutely exam- ining the substance of the wing, it will be found to consist of two layers of very thin membrane, be- tween which various veins, nervures, wing-bones, or ribs, as they have been termed, are found dis- posed in a longitudinal direction. Hence, when the insect impels into the minutest ramifications of these nervures of its moist and corrugated wings sufficient fluid to distend the tubes, it follows that the mem- 28 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. I. brane between the tubes or nervures becomes at the same time extended to its proper size, when it very quickly dries by the action of the atmosphere. The experiments of Swammerdam and Reaumur suffi- ciently elucidate these facts, from which it would appear that an aeriform as well as an aqueous fluid is injected into the tubes, and hence it is that the in- sect, when newly disclosed, agitates its unfolded wings for the purpose of putting these fluids in mo- tion. Indeed, according to Swammerdam, a violent agitation is produced in the fluids of the butterfly, so that they are driven from the internal vessels into the tubes of the wings, which are likewise supplied with air from the tracheae. The manner in which the wings are wrinkled when closed is admirably adapted for the easy extension of the connecting membrane ; for although the wing ap- pears at first to be much thicker than it subsequently is, yet the appearance is not real, being only pro- duced by the two layers of membranes not being applied to each other, so that there is a space be- tween them, and also by the surface of each mem- brane being entirely covered with wrinkles, so very minute as to be almost invisible to the naked eye. Consequently it is to be observed, that these wings are not, as might be imagined, folded up like the vv^ings of a beetle or an earwig, and hence it is that on the first extrication of the butterfly all the future markings of the wing are visible, but of a very di- minished size. It is a curious question, and one which we believe has not hitherto been noticed, in what manner the downy scales of the wings are at this time disposed, and whether they increase in size, since it is to be observed, that it is to these scales, which are so densely planted both upon the upper and the under surface of the wings, and not to the substance of the wing itself, that the butterfly owes all its gor- geous colours. According to De Geer these should CH. I.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 29 be considered as feathers, from being affixed to the wings by minute quills; but Reaumur considers them rather as scales, from being composed of small membranous plates, having nothing in com- mon with feathers. The number of these scales upon the wings of a single butterfly is really won- derful, Leeuwenhoeck having observed more than 400,000 upon the wings of the silkworm moth. Their forms are likewise extremely numerous in the different species. Indeed, a recent author has sug- gested, in the 11th number of the Magazine of Nat- ural History, that they would afford very satisfac- tory marks to distinguish the various species of Lepi- doptera. From examinations, however, which we have made for the purpose of verifying this remark, we are convinced that the adoption of such a char- acter would be impracticable, not only from the dif- ficulty attending its examination, for no one would be willing to spoil a fine specimen by rubbing the down off" its wings, but also from the circumstance that, upon the different parts of the same wing of a butterfly, several forms of scales are to be found. These scales are arranged upon the wing in trans- verse lines, the extremities of the scales of one row resting upon and lying flat on the base of the succeeding one, like the tiles upon the roof of a house. According to Messrs. Kirby and Spence, there appears to be a double layer of scales on both sides of the wings, the under layer generally con^ sisting of white ones. C8 30 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. IT. CHAPTER IL FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON THE METAMORPHOSES OP IN- SECTS, AS ILLUSTRATED IN THE BUTTERFLY. Theory of Swammerdam — Theory vf Herold — Observations there- on— Analogy of Insect Transformations with the Development of higher Animals and Man — No growth in Winged Insects — White Butterflies — Bloody rain — Peiresc^s quaint Statement — Double-brooded Insects — Duration of the Life of Insects shortened by Warmth, and prolonged by Cold — Reaumur^s Experiments — Irregular Period of Duration of Insects in the Chrysalis State — Periodical appearance of Butterflies. In the preceding chapter we have seen that the general theory respecting the transformations of in- sects proposed by Swammerdam, and usually adopt- ed, is, that the caterpillar, as soon as it has burst from the egg, contains within its body the various envelopes which present themselves on every moulting of the skin during the caterpillar and chrysahs state, as well as the butterfly itself. A celebrated German physiologist, Dr. Herold, who has studied the subject more closely than any natu- ralist since the days of Swammerdam, Reaumur, and Lyonnet, has, however, proposed an hypothesis which appears to differ considerably from the pre- ceding. According to this author, as quoted by Kirby and Spence, " the successive skins of the caterpillar, the pupa-case, the future butterfly, and its parts and organs (except those of sex, which he discovered in the newly-excluded larva), do not pre- exist as germes, but are formed successively from the rete mucosum, or mucous network, which it- sell is formed anew upon every change of skin CH. II.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 31 from what he denominates the blood or chyle," agreeing with other naturalists in the supposition that the epiploon or corps graisseux (a mass of thick- ish mucilage contained in floating membranes appa- rently analogous to the fat in the larger animals) is stored up in the larva, in order that, in the pupa state, it may serve for the development of the imago. Now it appears to us, that although the first-men- tioned theory seems at first sight to be completely at variance with the second, yet, on a more careful consideration, the differences will not be found to be very great. It is to be observed in the first place, as giving much weight to the views of Herold, that in the dissections of Lyonnet and others who have studied the anatomy of caterpillars in their natural state, no traces of an enclosed animal or of any succes- sion of skins have been observed, except the mu- cous network and fatty mucilage noticed above. It is further to be observed, that in the works of Swammerdam, Reaumur, &c., who have by unnat- ural means succeeded in discovering in the body of the caterpillar the germe of the butterfly, no traces of the successive skins of the caterpillar or of the chrysalis have been observed. Indeed, as we have seen in the preceding chapter, the outer skin of the chrysalis is not formed until the insect has become a pupa, although it may be said that the gummy fluid which is employed by the pupa to form a coat- ing, which upon exposure to the air immediately becomes hardened, must exist in its fluid state in the body of the caterpillar. And the same remark will appi'y to the other successive skins of the insect. Herold's theory is formed in reference to the manner in which the development of the various organs becomes observable in a state of nature. It is not, however, to be supposed, that the period when thi'ise organs are first observable is necessa- 32 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. II. rily that of their first existence, or that their gradual appearance is a sound argument against their pre- existence and co-existence as germes. Now, as we have already seen in the preceding chapter, the experiments of Swammerdam and Reaumur clearly demonstrate that by a certain pro- cess the organs of the butterfly may be rendered visible in the caterpillar, the most decisive evidence of this fact being the circumstance recorded by Reaumur, that he discovered the eggs of a butterfly at least eight or ten days before its period of assu- ming the pupa state ; and the same author likewise discovered that the rudimentary organs of a butterfly while in the caterpillar state are not arranged in the same position as in the chrysalis, the antennae, in- stead of being laid flat along the breast, being curled like the horn of a ram, and the tongue, instead of being also laid along the breast as in the chrysalis, or folded spirally and perpendicularly as in the but- terfly, being laid flat, but in a spiral direction, beneath the head. It would be interesting, observes Reaumur, to ascertain all the intimate communications ("com- munications") existing between the caterpillar and ■^he enclosed butterfly, but the delicacy of the va- rious parts must ever prevent our attaining this "knowledge. In order, however, to discover as far as possible in what manner the organs of the but- terfly are connected with those of the caterpillar, this author selected a caterpillar ready to change into chrysalis, the skin of which was already slit down the back, and cut off" more than half of the three anterior scaly legs on one side ; the chrysalis was subsequently discovered to have the corre- sponding legs shorter than those on the other side. CH. II.] METAMORPHOSES OP INSECTS. 33 He does not, however, mention whether this was caused by the gradual shortening of all the joints of the legs, or by the want of the terminal ones ; we should presume the latter. In order to discover the limbs of the butterfly, Swammerdam and Reaumur had recourse to an un- natural mode of causing the visible development of the various organs. Herold, however, confines himself to nature, and his object is merely to trace the mode of the development and alteration of form which it must be admitted take place at every moulting of the skin ; for instance, the inner skin of a caterpillar just preparing to moult is almost as tough as that of the outer skin of one which has recently moulted, but in the latter nothing is to be found, in a natural state, to represent its future skins or the enclosed chrysalis or butterfly, except mu- cous network or fatty pulp. It is true that, as in the outer skin of the pupa as noticed above, the ru- diments of these skins may be contained in this net- work, and of the butterfly in this fatty pulp ; but at the same time it must be admitted that the gradual development, or, as Herold misterms it, formation, of this skin, is constantly taking place, and this we imagine is precisely what Herold intends to illus- trate when he states that the successive skins are successively formed, produced, or, as we ought rather to say, developed, from the rete mucosum. In like manner Herold expressly admits that the or- gans of sex of the butterfly are discoverable in the newly-excluded caterpillar, as well as that the fu- ture buttei-fly is produced from the fatty pulp which is stored up in the larva expressly for its develop- ment, and which constitutes the mucilaginous mat- ter with which a newly-excluded chrysalis is filled. Herold has merely endeavoured to trace the manner in which the limbs of the butterfly are produced from this matter. We have omitted to notice the improper use 34 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. II. which appears to us to have been made by some au- thors respecting the statement of Herold, of the op- eration of a formative power supposed to be pos- sessed by the rete mucosum in effecting the various developments of the insect, being convinced that Dr. Herold merely intended to refer to the contin- ued action of- the living and growing principle im- planted by Providence in this mucous network, and not, as has been supposed, to a blind power pos- sessed by it capable of acting without the superin- tendence of nature or the Creator, and forming it- self into various envelopes or organs. Hence, therefore, we do not consider the gradual development of these organs to be less indicative of the constant operation of the great Creator than the growth of the chick in the egg, or of a plant from seed ; neither do we think, after what has been ad- vanced, that the theory of Herold will be deemed, as it has hitherto been, a monstrous and untenable one. Indeed, by construing the statement of his theory (which we consider ourselves warranted in doing) in the following manner, " the successive skins of the caterpillar, the pupa-case, the future butterfly and its parts and organs (except those of sex), do not exist in the newborn caterpillar as vis- ible germes, but are successively developed from the rete mucosum," the objections which have been made to it appear to vanish. Various authors have endeavoured to trace an analogy between the growth of a butterfly through its various stages and the development of the high- er animals from the foetus until their arrival at full growth ; but the result of these inquiries, as might naturally be expected from the great diff'erence be- tween the construction of the animals, has hitherto been contradictory. One class of naturalists view- ing the extrication of the human fcetus from its ex- ternal envelope (chorion), and its subsequent con- tinuance in the liquor amnii, have thought that the CH. II.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 35 exclusion of the insect from the egg represented the first of these events, that consequently while in the larva state they still continue a kind of foetus, and that being in the pupa state enveloped in a fluid an- alogous to the liquor amnii, the true birth of the in- sect does not take place until it is excluded in the form of a butterfly. Reaumur, in his eighth me- moir, has started an interesting idea, that not only does the chrysalis represent the egg of a bird, but that the caterpillar itself may be likewise regarded as an egg of an extraordinary kind, endowed with organs of motion and nutrition. Other naturalists founding their observations upon the circumstances of the insect being capable of reproducing its species on becoming a butterfly or beetle, &c., and of its having now attained its full size, consider that this state is analogous to the full growth of the higher animals after their arrival at puberty. This leads us to notice an error of very common occurrence among those who have paid but little at- tention to insects. We have been repeatedly asked, on showing our cabinet of insects to persons of this class, and pointing out insects of diff'erent sizes ap- pearing at first sight very similar, what was the use of keeping such a number of specimens of the same species, many of which had evidently not yet ar- rived at their full size 1 We have given a double reason by way of answer, informing our querists," in the first place, that as soon as insects acquire per- fect wings they cease to grow, and, in the second, we have pointed out the peculiar traits of the vari- ous distinct but closely allied species ; thus, the white butterflies which sport over our gardens, and devour our cabbages while in the caterpillar state, have been constantly pointed out as instances of the growth of insects of the same species, some not being above an inch and a third across the wings, while others are nearly three inches in expanse ; 36 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. It, but the fact is, that there are numerous distinct spe- cies among these white butterflies, varying in the time of their appearance and distinctive marks. When we consider, moreover, that it is during the caterpillar state that the insect takes its chief nour- ishment, and that in the butterfly state it sips only the nectar of flowers, it will be evident that no in- crease of size could be expected to take place in the latter portion of its life. It is true that by various circumstances (such, for instance, as depriving the caterpillar of its proper supply of food), a butterfly may be prevented from acquiring the full size of the . species to which it belongs ; but as soon as its wings are expanded it has acquired its full size, and would not grow a single hair's breadth wider or larger if it were to live as many months as its dura- tion in the perfect state is confined to days. CH. II.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 37 Svvammerdam, in his dissection of the chrysalis of a butterfly, discovered that the bladder, stomach, and some part of the gullet were filled with a deep purple moist substance, which, when laid upon pa- per, looked like real blood. When the butterfly has acquired its perfect form, it discharges this matter in the form of several large drops of a bloody-look- mg fluid, which has at different times become the object of superstitious terror, inasmuch as when the number of butterflies produced has been considera- ble, as when several broods have arrived at the winged state at the same time, the appearance of bloody showers has been produced. Thus, Hollin- shed relates, that in the fifth century, " at Yorke, it rained bloud," and in 697, " corne, as it was gath- ered in the harveste-time, appeared bloudie ;" and, " in the furthermost partes of Scotland, it rayned bloud." From Batman's " Doome," we find that in 1553 it was deemed among the forewarnings of the deaths of Charles and Philip, Dukes of Brunswick, that " there were drops of bloude upon herbs and trees ;" but the most interesting account which has been published of an occurrence of this kind, is that related in the " Life of Peiresc," which, on account of its quaintness, we have preferred extracting en- tire from Gassendi's life, rather than copy Reau- mur's version of it, as has been done by various writers. '* Nothing in the whole year 1608 did more please him than that he observed and philosophized about the bloody rain, which was commonly reported to have fallen about the beginningof July ; great drops thereof were plainly to be seen both in the city it- self, upon the walls of the great church, which is near the city wall, and upon the city walls them- selves ; also upon the walls of villages, hamlets, and towns for some miles round about ; for in the first place he went himself to see those wherewith the stones were coloured, and did what he could to Vol. II.-D H8 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. IL come to speak with those husbandmen, who, beyond Lambesk, were reported to have been so affrighted at the faUing of the said rain, that they left their work, and ran as fast as their legs could carry them into the adjacent houses ; whereupon he found that it was a fable which was reported touching those husbandmen." Fanciful theories were, however, as much in vogue then as in the present day, for Gassendi proceeds : — " Nor was he pleased that the naturalists should re- fer this kind of rain to vapours drawn up out of red earth aloft into the air, which, congealing afterward into liquor, fall down in this form ; because such va-' pours as are drawn aloft by heat ascend without colour, as we may know by the alone example of red roses, out of which the vapours that arise by heat are congealed into transpfrrent water. He was less pleased with the common people and some di- vines, who judged that it was the work of the devils and witches who had killed innocent young children ; for this he accounted a mere conjecture, possibly also injurious to the goodness and providence of God. In the meanwhile an accident happened out of which he conceived he had collected the true cause thereof; — for some months before he shut up in a box a certain palmer-worm which he had found, rare for its bigness and form, which, when he had forgotten, he heard a buzzing in the box, and when he opened it, found the palmer-worm, having cast its coat, to be turned into a very beautiful butterfly, which presently flew away, leaving on the bottom of the box a red drop as broad as an ordinary sous or shiUing ; and because this happened about the beginning of the same month, and about the same time an incredible multitude of butterflies were ob- served flying in the air, he was therefore of opinion that such kind of butterflies, resting upon the walls, had there shed such like drops, and of the same big- ness : wherefore he went the se<;ond time, and CH. II.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 39 found by experience that those drops were not found on the house-tops nor upon the round sides of the stones which stuck out, as it would have happened if blood had fallen from the sky, but rather where the stones were somewhat hollowed, and in holes where such small creatures might nestle and shroud themselves. Moreover, the walls which were so spotted were not in the middle of towns, but they were such as bordered upon the fields ; nor were they on the highest parts, but only so moderately high as butterflies are commonly wont to fly." The period in which an insect - remains in the chrysalis state is not always of the same duration, although at the same period of the year it is similar ; for instance, those caterpillars of the swallow-tailed butterfly which are changed into chrysalides about the middle of July, appear as butterflies at the end of thirteen days, while those which appear in the caterpillar state at the beginning of September re- main during the winter in the chrysalis, and do not become butterflies until the spring. " Thus," says Reaumur, " here is one butterfly which only remains thirteen days in the chrysalis state, while another, precisely similar, requires nine months to bring it to perfection, just as though the inhabitants of cold regions were to live four or five centuries, while the life of those dwelling under the equator was only to be extended to its ordinary length : hence it is evi- dent that it is by evaporation or combination of the fluid parts of a chrysalis, produced by the applica- tion of heat, that the insect is brought to its perfect state much quicker at one period of the year than at another." Conceiving, therefore, that ihe butterfly is not in a state to burst from the chrysalis until by the ac- tion of heat and insensible perspiration a certain quantity of superabundant humidity has evaporated, and the other fluid parts of the body become assimi- lated, Reaumur came to a conclusion, that in pro- 40 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. II, portion to the quickness with which the process of evaporation is effected by the increase of heat, the sooner the butterfly would be enabled to escape from the chrysalis. Acting upon this idea, this cel- ebrated author tried various experiments with chrys- alides, the result of which fully justifies the conclu- sion at which he had arrived, and thereby proved that he was enabled to prolong or shorten the life of an insect at pleasure. Thus, by placing various kinds of chrysalides, which would not naturally produce perfect insects until the spring or summer, in one of the hothouses of the Jardin des Plantes, in the month of January, 1734, he found that they very shortly produced butterflies and moths, those which would not have appeared until May escaping from the chrysalis at the end of ten or twelve days, others in three weeks, and others, which would not have become perfect insects until August, in five or six weeks. The insects thus produced differed in no single respect from those reared in a state of na- ture, and deposited their eggs even in the midst of winter. In the month of November following, be- ing two months earlier than before, he placed other chrysalides in the hothouses, and these in like man- ner produced perfect insects in the beginning of De- cember, which would not otherwise have appeared until May. Thus, by forcing the evolution of a but- terfly in December, which ought not naturally to take place until June or July, we are enabled to con- vert a single-brooded species into one which pro- duces two generations of caterpillars in the year, the first brood appearing in June, from eggs depos- ited in May, by butterflies recently disclosed ; this brood of caterpillars being transformed into butter- flies before the end of July, when they deposite eggs, which are hatched in August or September ; and the second brood of caterpillars entering into the chrys- alis state before the winter, from which they are excluded in the following May as butterflies. CH. II.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 41 Reaumur had also recourse to a still more inge- nious mode of causing the speedy disclosure of but- terflies. In order to obtain a more regular supply of heat than could be obtained from a stove, he placed chrysalides in hollow balls of glass of the size of an egg under a sitting hen, which would as easily mistake them as round stones for her eggs ; the results were similar to those in the former ex- periment, the butterfly appearing in the course of a few days. He omitted, however, to endeavour to discover by experiment, whether by increasing the temperature of the hothouse above summer heat he could not produce them in fewer than thirteen days, or whether a temperature beyond that of summer would not destroy them. He likewise did not en- deavour to discover whether, by maintaining a con- stant summer heat, a succession of broods could not be obtained in the year, none of which should re- main longer than thirteen days in the chrysalis state, so that five or six difi'erent generations might be produced in twelve months ; or whether in such case the insect would not return to its natural habits, and produce but two broods in the course of a year. We mention these circumstances in the hopes that some of our entomologists may be tempted to pursue so interesting an investigation. Besides these, Reaumur tried a series of opposite experiments, which we shall not detail, but by which he proved, that by placing chrysalides in cellars or icehouses at diff"erent periods of their existence, he was enabled to prolong their duration in that state, although he was at first fearful lest his chrysalides would share the same fate with eggs kept too long, and become addled. Not satisfied with trying the effiects both of heat and cold, this indefatigable naturalist was induced, in continuance of a series of valuable experiments upon the varnishing of eggs of hens, to varnish sev- eral chrysalides, carefully covering every part of D2 42 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. II. the body except the respiratory spiracles, the result of which was, that although kept in the ordinary temperature, the exclusion of the perfect insects was delayed for some weeks. But there are other circumstances connected with the irregular appearance of insects in their perfect state, which it is impossible to account for upon the same principles as those observed in the preceding experiments : — these are, first, the circumstance of some insects remaining for one or more years in the chrysalis state, while others of the same species, reared in a precisely similar manner, are evolved at the proper season ; and, secondly, the irregular appearance of certain insects. " The parental cares of nature," observes Mr. Haworth, in his account of the small eggar moth (Eriogaster lanestris), " are extended towards this poor insect in a very extraordinary and interesting CH. II.] METAMORPHOSES OP INSECTS. 43 manner. Doomed to a regular appearance in the winged state at the termination of the cold and un- genial month of February, nature (that it may not fail and become extinct) reserves a small portion of it annually in the pupa state until the February fol- lowing that of its pupation, and sometimes even until the third occurrence of that frigid month ; denying their emancipation all the intermediate time, and thus effectually securing, by these unu- sual means, the safety and perpetuation of an ani- mal, small, it is true, but whose animal existence in the winged state at that inclement season is proba- bly of more consequence in the intricacy of its great Creator's plans than we are at present aware of, although he constantly exposes it to the danger- ous vicissitudes of winter ; for ' Each shell, each crawling insect, holds a rank Important in the plan of Him who framed This scale of beings ; holds a rank, which lost, Would break the chain, and leave behind a gap Which nature's self would rue.' " The cause of such exceeding care and solicitude for the welfare of this moth it is difficult for any one to explain or account for in any satisfactory manner, unless indeed in such a one as the divine Stillingtleet, author of the above admirable lines, has suggested therein. It even appears that these insects are occasion- ally not disclosed until the fourth year. In like manner, the pivet hawk moth {Sphinx ligustri) has been known to remain three years in the chrysalis state ; and the Rev. J. Burrell once bred a small emperor moth {Saturnia pavonia minor), which had existed two years in that condition. Mr. Marshall also records a similar circumstance respecting the spotted muslin moth (Diaphora mendica) ; but in this instance the regularity in the exclusion of the num- bers of the moth was very remarkable, since out of thirty-six chrysalides twelve appeared at the proper 44 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. II. season, twelve others appeared at the end of two years, and the remaining twelve at the end of three years. Heineken also relates that he kept several pupae of the large emperor moth through the win- ter in a room heated daily by a stove, and several others in a cold chamber, and that some of each parcel appeared in March, while others had not ap- peared in July, although still in a healthy condition. In England this moth appears, in its natural state, in the months of April and May, and again in Au- gust. As, however, we do not find it recorded by Haworth or Stephens that this is one of the double- brooded moths, it appears to us probable that Heine- ken's remaining specimens would have appeared in the following August. But if this were the case with Heineken's specimens (and this supposition will enable us to account for the appearance of the British specimens in August), to what is it owing that a portion of the same brood should remain three or four months longer in the chrysalis than the remainder of the brood; the case being usually very different with those specimens which remain longer in the chrysalis, for these make their appear- ance at the same time of the year as their elder brethren 1 We may probably account for the cir- cumstance mentioned by Heineken, that those placed in the heated room did not appear earlier than those kept in the cold, by supposing that the heat was not maintained during the night, and that even in the daytime it might not have greatly exceeded that temperature of the atmosphere. Respecting the periodical appearance of insects, the Cicada septemdecim, subsequently noticed, which is said to make its appearance only once in seven- teen years, affords one of the most striking exam- ples ; but there are several of the British butterflies which are not less remarkable. Among these, the painted lady butterfly {Cynthia cardui) is eminently conspicuous, occurring in the neighbourhood of the CH. II.] METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS. 45 metropolis every third or fourth year. The fine white bordered butterfly (Vanessa antiopa) is another instance of this irregularity. Mr. Haworth remarks upon this insect, " There is something very extra- ordinary in the periodical but irregular appearance of these species — Edusa and Cardui. They are plentiful all over the kingdom in some years, after which Antiopa will not be seen by any one for eight or ten or more years, and then appear again as plentiful as before. To suppose they come from the Continent is an idle conjecture, because the English specimens are easily distinguished from all others by the superior whiteness of their borders. Perhaps their eggs in this climate, like the seeds of some vegetables, may occasionally lie dormant for several seasons, and not hatch until some extra- ordinary coincidences awake them into active life." And Mr. Stephens observes respecting the same butterfly, " Till about the middle of the last century few specimens had been observed ; but about sixty years since it appeared in such prodigious numbers throughout the kingdom that the entomologists of that day gave it the appellation of the Grand Sur- prise." It also occurred again in plenty in 1789 and 1803, since which time it has been seldom met with. The same author elsewhere observes, " The cause of this interesting phenomenon appears inexplica- ble : its solution has baffled the inquiries of ento- mologists, and several speculative opinions have been advanced thereon. By some persons, their sudden increase has been attributed to the previous failures of their enemies, the ichneumons and the soft-billed birds ; by others, to an increased temper- ature ; others again suppose that their eggs lie dor- mant until called into life and vigour by some ex- traordinary latent coincidences. But all these opin- ions are mere conjecture, and they do not suffi- ciently clear up the difficulty, which is rendered more obscure from the fact that several of the in- 46 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. II sects, especially Cynthia cardui, appear constantly in some parts, and periodically in others." But the most extraordinary fact recorded of this kind is one related by this author, respecting the white W. hair- streak butterfly ( Thecla W. album of Hubner, which was at first regarded by Mr. Stephens as the Thecla pruni of Linnaeus). Previous to 1827 this butterfly had never been observed by him in the vicinity of Ripley, where he had for several seasons been in the habit of collecting, as we, who have had the pleasure of accompanying him in some of his ex- cursions near that town, can testify. But in the month of July in that year, " the boundless profu- sion with which the hedges /or miles were enlivened by the myriads that hovered over every flower and bramble blossom, exceeded any thing of the kind I have ever witnessed ; some notion of the numbers may be formed when I mention that I captured, without moving from the spot, nearly two hundred specimens in less than half an hour, as they suc- cessively approached the bramble-bush where I had taken up my position." It will be observed that the insects were not confined to a single spot, but ex- tended for miles ; their numbers must consequently have been incalculable, and this is the more re- markable since Mr. Stephens adds, "that the hedges to the north and northwest of the village were per- fectly free, although the brambles, &c., were in plenty." CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 47 CHAPTER III. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF VARIOUS INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. Conical Chrysalides produce Moths, and are enclosed in Cocoons — Supposed Causes of the Difference between Butterflies and Moths in this respect — Distribution of Colours in Insects — Cocoons of pure Silk — Slender Silken Cocoons guarded by Leaves — Mode of Spinning Cocoons — Gum and Paste introduced into the Sub- stance of Cocoons — Processionary Caterpillars form Cocoons in Company, in which Hairs are mixed with Silk — The Great Eg- gar Moth Cocoon — Assembling of Moths — Palisade Cocoon of Hair and Silk — Strength of Cocoons not indicative of the Dura- tion of the Chrysalis State — Rough Cocoons formed of Earth and Silk — Elongate Tongue-case of Chrysalides — Polished Earthen Cocoon — Cocoons formed of Chips of Wood, and of Leaves, Twigs, and Moss — Extraction of the Moth from the Cocoon — Contrivance of the Larvce to allow the more easy Extrication of the Moth — Regidarity in the Time of Appearance of Insects — Extrication of the Chrysalis from the Cocoon — Extrication of Per- fect Insects from the Caterpillar Case. In a former chapter we have stated that, with veiy few exceptions, butterflies are produced from angu- lated chrysahdes, while those of moths are of a conical shape. In addition to this, we may notice that the chiysalides of butterflies are, for the most part, naked and exposed, while those of moths are generally enclosed in a case or cocoon, formed by the larva previous to undergoing its change. The cause of this additional variation appears to us to result from the preceding, since it is evident that the projections and points which arm the chrysalis of a butterfly would very much annoy the inhabi- tant of a dwelling in which it can scarcely turn itself, while no form could be better adapted to the inhab- itant of a cocoon than the conical, the base of the 48 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. III. cone being rounded; and this appears to be still more satisfactorily illustrated by the circumstance that the slight motions of the pupa are entirely pro- duced by the twisting about of the apex of the cone, which part encloses the segments of the abdomen of the insect. We shall now proceed to notice the peculiarities observable in these conical chrysalides, and in the cocoons which are thus dependant upon the forms of their bodies. Respecting the form of these chrysalides, but little need be said. They are of a cylindric shape, the head is rounded, and the tail produced into a conical point ; the wings, legs, and antennae, are disposed as in the pupse of butterflies. It is the coverings con- structed by the caterpillars, in which these chrysa- lides pass their inactive and almost lifeless state, \\ihich more particularly merit our attention. And here we may observe, that it appears to be a re- markable provision of nature, that while the chrys- alis state of the delicate butterfly is undergone in a naked and exposed manner, the robust moths and sphinxes are buried in cocoons beneath the earth or in the midst of leaves. May not this circum- stance be intended to represent the difl'erence in the habits of the future insect ; preparing it, as it were, for its coming mode of life 1 The butterfly passing its hfe in the sunbeams, we may suppose that in its exposed chrysalis state it is becoming fitted for the glare of light in which it is to live ; while the moth, appearing only in the dusk, passes its inactive state within the darkened chamber of its cocoon. This leads us to notice another beautiful provision of nature, in which, although we observe her every- where lavishing her bounties with the utrr.ost prod- igality, we find them constantly applied where they will neither be lost nor misplaced. We allude to the illustration aff'orded by the various tribes of but- terflies and moths of the distribution of colours in CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 49 the works of the creation, from which we may per- haps obtain another reason why the chrysalides of the butterflies should be naked and exposed, and those of the moths incased in a dark cocoon. The butterflies being day-fliers, and exposed to the sun, are far more splendidly adorned with colours than any other of the Lepidoptera, while the dusk and night-flying moths, especially the Noctu(E, which are eminently nocturnal, are almost invariably of dingy teints. Those NoctucB, however, which depart from the character of the family by becoming par- tial day-fliers, such as Noctua, Chry sites, &c., have their wings clothed with splendid scales, whence some of them are known by the English names of the Burnished Brass Moth, the Gold Spangle, &c. This economy is however even carried to a more singular extent ; since in those moths whose upper wings do not cover the lower, the latter are equally variegated with the former, while in those which rest with the upper wings meeting together and cov- ering the lower, the latter are of a uniform dirty brown colour, without markings. In like manner, we find in the moths produced from the geometric or looper caterpillars, a greater variety of teints than are exhibited in the other tribes of moths ; and we consequently find them sporting by day, and form- ing a portion of a section which Mr. Stephens has, from this circumstance, termed Pomeridiana, with the remark that they fly early in the afternoon, and in the evening or in the twihght, though some few may be found throughout 'the night. But the typi- cal species fly in the full blaze of sunshine, and when they alight elevate their wings after the man- ner of the PapilionidcB. The indefatigable French naturalist Reaumur, to whose remarks we and other authors have been so much indebted, has given two chapters upon the con- struction of cocoons — his twelfth memoir of the first volume, comprising such as are of a rounded form, Vol. II.— E 50 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. III. composed of materials furnished by the caterpillar itself, being either entirely of silk, or of silk min- gled with the hairs of the caterpillar ; and his thir- teenth memoir, comprising cocoons of an irregular form, in which other matters besides silk are em- ployed. As these memoirs would occupy at least one hundred and fifty of our pages, we can give but an imperfect idea of the various objects treated upon. In the subsequent pages of this chapter we have, however, endeavoured to introduce an account of the chief peculiarities of structure, with some additional information and remarks. Among those insects which form their cocoons of pure silk, the silkworm stands far pre-eminent ; for, as Reaumur observes, if the luxury of silk were taken away, where could wool sufficient to supply its place be found 1 The poor, he adds, would be obliged to go unclad, unless, indeed, he should dis- cover some method of employing the silken co- coons of other insects, which are sufficiently com- mon, and equally prolific, and which seem to be well adapted for such an experiment : indeed, Reaumur endeavoured to rear a tubercled species of caterpil- lar, found in the pear, for that purpose, but he did not succeed, except in one instance, in which the co- coon weighed as much as three of those of the silk- worm. Some species of caterpillars being probably un- provided with a sufficient supply of silk, content themselves with spinning a cocoon of so flimsy a construction as to resemble network, allowing the chrysalis to be perceived without difficulty, and seeming formed merely as a support rather than as a defence to the enclosed animal. Of this descrip- tion is one noticed by Messrs. Kirby and Spence, somewhat resembling an air balloon, the meshes of which are large and perfectly square. The pupa hangs in the centre, fixed by some few slight threads, which diverge from it to all parts of the cocoon, so CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 51 that it looks as if suspended in the air, like Mahom- et's coffin, without visible support. Other species, among which the beautiful Eng- lish scarlet tiger moth {Hypercampa dominula)^ may be mentioned, form their cocoons of a somewhat more compact texture, but still insufficient com- pletely to hide the chrysaUs. The majority of the species, however, of those which are but ill-con- cealed in their cocoons, endeavour to supply the de- ficiency by drawing the adjacent foliage close to- gether with silken strings, in the middle of which they occasionally congregate and form their co- coons in company. But the majority of silken co- coons are of a more solid description. The man- ner in which these cocoons, including that of the silkworm, are spun, is remarkable for not having the thread disposed regularly, like that of a ball of 52 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. III. cotton, in which it is made to pass along the whole circumference of the ball. This we may easily imagine would be an easy task for the insect ; but if a cotton-spinner were to be told that he must form his ball of cotton of equal thickness throughout, but that the thread must, at the same time, be arranged in an irregular and more or less zigzag course, he would give up his task in despair. This is, how- ever, precisely what the silkworm and other cater- pillars execute, as any one may observe in unwind- ing the silk from the cocoon of a silkworm. In general, these cocoons of a firm consistence are composed of an outer loose covering of silk, in the middle of which the compact egg-shaped cocoon is observed ; in some instances, however, the outer envelope is entirely omitted, and in others it is so closely spun as scarcely to differ from the cocoon itself. Some caterpillars, in order to strengttien their cocoons, moisten them with a gummy matter dif- fused from the anus, after they have been completed; among these the emperor moth may be mentioned : In like manner the caterpillars of the lackey moth {Clisiocampa neustria), the white satin moth {Leu- coma salicis, &c.), emit a yellow paste-like matter, which they apply by continued motions of the head to the under surface of the cocoon, and this, when, dry, becomes a powder which renders it opaque. In some specimens which we have reared of the rare lappet moth {Gastropacha quercifoUa), from caterpil- lars from the fens of Cambridgeshire, we found the inside of the cocoon and the body of the chrysalis thickly covered with a white powder of this descrip- tion. We have also observed that the chrysalis of the large red-underwing moth (Caiocala nupta), is covered with a powdery bloom of a bluish colour. Cocoons formed entirely of silk are generally the work of smooth-bodied caterpillars, but many of these animals are in this state very hairy, whence CH. HI.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 53 they are termed in some parts of the country, wool- ly-bears. Some of these, on their changing to the chrysalis state, cast off their skin at once with the hair still attached to it, as may be seen from the exuviae contained in the cocoon; but many, pre- vious to becoming pupae, strip themselves of their coat of hairs, which they incorporate with the silk of their cocoons. Among these, the processionary caterpillars, of which we have given an account in our previous volume, may be mentioned. This in- teresting insect (the Cnethocampa processionea), was introduced by Martin and Stewart, as a British spe- cies, on the authority of a specimen contained in the British collection at the British Museum, which has been regarded as belonging to it ; but Mr. Ste- phens thinks that this is rather referable to another species, the Cnethocampa pityocampa, and, conse- quently, that the claim of the former insect to be considered as a British species is dubious. In order to prepare for the last moulting which precedes the change to the pupa state, they arrange themselves on a branch in the manner represented in figure 1, page 54. In this position they remain many hours, at the expiration of which time they shed their skins. Immediately after this is accom- plished, their hairs are of a white colour. In this state they remain for more than twenty-four hours longer without taking any sustenance. Having completed their growth, they undergo their change to the chrysalis ; but this is effected in the nest, each caterpillar spinning for itself a cocoon, uniting their hairs with the silk ; so that on opening a cocoon just before the caterpillar changes to a chrysalis, the former is scarcely recognisable, being com- pletely smooth and divested of hairs. As in the larva, so in the chrysalis state, these insects are gregarious, fixing themselves as closely together as possible (fig. 2, p. 54) ; the cocoons being attached to and parallel with each other, and disposed in layers E 2 54 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. III. like a honeycomb, the thickness of the layer being equal to the length of the cocoon, and its extent Fig. 1. equal to the size of the nest ; but it generally hap- pens that the latter is not sufficiently large to allow all the cocoons to be arranged in a single tier, so Fig. 2. that sometimes they consist of two, and occasion- ally of three layers. After the whole of the moths have been produced (all of which make their ap- pearance in the same day), these layers of cocoons very much resemble the combs of a bee or a wasp's nest, the head of each cocoon being stripped off by CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 55 the moth on effecting its escape, and causing the whole to look like an assemblage of empty cells. These insects are remarkable for another quahty, which renders it very unpleasant to approach their nests, or to handle the caterpillars. Reaumur had cause to speak very feelingly upon the subject, hav- ing suffered very severely from the intolerable irri- tation produced by their hairs. Reaumur likens these caterpillars to a species of bean which is brought from the American islands, the pods of which are covered with hairs so exceedingly sharp and fine, that, on touching or rubbing them with the hand, they run into the flesh : in like manner the hairs of these caterpillars, on being touched by the hand, cause it to swell : and Reaumur and some of his companions suffered for four or five days from the inflammation produced by them : his face, and especially one of his eyes, being very much affected in consequence of his having touched them with his fingers on which the hairs were sticking. Sev- eral ladies also, who were with Reaumur, but who did not handle the caterpillars, had their necks in- flam.ed, and it was evident that this was produced by the very fine hairs which were floating in the atmosphere. This was especially the case after the insects were transformed into chrysalides and moths, being seldom observed while the insects re- mained in the caterpillar state. However, so pow- erful is their action, that Reaumur suggests that they might advantageously be used as vesicatories ; and, indeed, no less than two enactments were made by the Roman senate against the medicinal exhibition of them, under severe penalties, in con- sequence of their virulence. The only remedy which Reaumur was able to discover to counteract the effects of these hairs, was to rub parsley-lea<^es smartly upon the affected parts for several minutes. This he found so efhcacious, that, in the parts thus : rubbed, the irritation immediately subsided. 56 NATURAL HISTORY. J^CH. III. The great eggar moth {Lasiocampa quercus), is another example in which the hairs of the cater- pillar are introduced into the structure of the co- coon. The name of the genus has been given to this moth, in allusion to the hairiness of the cater- pillars. In this insect it is observable that the size of the cocoon does not appear to be at all propor- tioned to that of the caterpillar ; the former being so small that it is difficult to conceive how so large a caterpillar can shut itself up in a domicile as small and inconvenient as those dungeon cells built in the "olden time," in which the unfortunate captive could neither stand upright nor lay down. And this is the more remarkable, because the insects being at full liberty and not stinted of materials, there seems no sufficient reason why they should con- fine themselves within such narrow bounds. Some species, however, run into the opposite extreme ; those, for instance, of the ghost moth {Hepiolus hu- mult), and the cream-spot tiger (Arctia villica), are several times larger than the chrysalis which each contains. The great eggar moth is of very common occur- rence in England, and its larva is almost one of the largest caterpillars which we have, being often nearly four inches long. It feeds upon various trees and shrubs ; it is of an ochreous colour, with black rings and white spots, and is very hairy. It is full-fed about the end of June. The cocoon is of a cylindrical form, with the ends rounded, and the outer surface appears nearly smooth ; hence in its appearance it so much resembles an egg, that the moths which are produced from this kind of cocoons are termed eggars. On touching it, how- ever, it is found to be set with stiffish hairs. In order to form its cocoon of this figure, the caterpil- lar keeps its body continually bent in different po- sitions while it is employed in its formation, each end of the body being constantly bent in the shape CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 57 which is thus given to the two ends of the cocoon. Sometimes the head and tail are curled opposite to ,... jM each other, fig. A, while at others the body assumes the form of the letter S, fig. B. Hence the body of the insect becomes the model of its cocoon. The motions of the insect, in forming the different parts of the cocoon, are very gradual. The man- ner in which the layer of silk which serves for the groundwork of the cocoon is spun, does not mate- rially differ from that of the caterpillars ; but when the network is somewhat advanced, it is observed to acquire an external covering of hair, which stands erect to a considerable height, as in fig. C. These hairs have been stripped from those parts of the body of the enclosed caterpillar which are placed against the sides of the cocoon, the caterpillar being observed at such time to fret itself against the inner surface of the network, whereby the hairs are protru- ded through the meshes of the net ; the basal portion of these hairs still however remains within the co- coon, and as a prickly unevenness would be pro- duced in the inner surface of the cocoon, which would irritate the soft chrysalis when newly dis- closed if the hairs were to remain in that position, the insect, in order to remedy this inconvenience, forces the basal portions of the hairs closely against the inner surface of the cocoon, and fastens them in that position with silken threads ; by this means the outer parts of the hairs are brought to lie flat upon the outer surface of the cocoon, which is then 58 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. lU. made stronger by further layers of silk, and when completed its consistence is very hard, the outer surface rendered smooth, and the inner lined with a coating of shining silken tapestry. The perfect insects make their appearance about the end of July, and their singular mode of pairing has long attracted the attention of entomologists. " It is a frequent practice with our London aure- lians," observes Mr. Haworth, " when they breed a female of this and some other day-flying species, to take her while yet a virgin into the vicinity of woods, where, if the weather is favourable, she never fails to attract a numerous train of males, whose only business appears to be an incessant, rapid, and undulating flight in search after their un- impregnated females, one of which is no sooner perceived than they become so much enamoured of their fair and chaste relation as absolutely to lose all kind of fear for their own personal safety, which at other times is effectually secured by the reiter- ated evolutions of their " strong and rapid wings. So fearless, indeed, have I beheld them become on these occasions, as to climb up and down the sides of the cage which contained the dear object of their eager pursuit, in exactly the same hurrying manner as honey-bees which have lost themselves climb up and down the glass of a window. *' While under this enervating fascination, if you even handle them, or suffer them to creep buzzing through your hands, they are not alarmed, as they would be at another time, but continue to urge their pursuit as before, endeavouring to gain admittance into the cage ; of course any quantity of them may be readily secured. In about four hours after the aurelians have thought proper to admit a male of their liking into the cage to the poor drowsy object of all this anxiety, she will not fail to deposite a great quantity of large impregnated eggs, of an oval shape and whitish colour, blotched with darker CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 59 marks, in miniature pretty much resembling those of a common sparrow. " The aurehans call such a wedding as the above a sembling (assembling) match, and never succeed with any but a virgin female. By what unknown, and perhaps unnamed power, the males distinguish between a married female and one that has not been impregnated I know not, and should be glad to learn, but that they can and do make an unerring dis- crimination between the two is well known to most aurelians. They avoid the latter, and never ap- proach her, while for the former they display all the sohcitude and anxiety I have above so fully ex- plained. There was once an instance of a male creeping into the pocket of an aurelian, which con- tained a virgin female in his pocket-box." We have, however, heard of still more extraor- dinary exploits than this, performed by these inam- oratoes. Jurine records two circumstances some- what similar : one of his friends captured a female of the emperor moth, and stuck it with a pin upon his hat, and in the course of his walk no less than thirteen males were caught hovering about his head. The other circumstance was still more re- markable, and seems to prove that it is by scent that the males are attracted — a female of the fox moth {Eriogaster ruhi) was killed immediately after her exclusion from the chrysalis, when she ejected some drops of a fluid similar to that which we have noticed above in the butterfly as the cause of the bloody rain. On the following day a male flew into the chamber, on the second day another male ap- peared, and in the evening a third, and from their motions it was evident that they were attracted to the spot by the scent of the fluid before mentioned. Jurine conjectures that the fine feathered antennae of the male are the parts which serve to direct them in these flights, and the diff'erences between these organs in the two sexes are easily perceived. 60 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. III. Reaumur has also narrated the proceedings of a small hairy caterpillar, which feeds upon lichens, and which appears to us to be that of the muslin moth (Nudaria mundana), which Schaflfer has figured and described at great length under the name of the steinmoosraupe — the stone-moss caterpillar. These caterpillars form their cocoons about the 7th or 8th of July, and, at first sight, they may easily be mistaken for the caterpillars themselves; the cocoons are found upon walls or on flat bits of stone, and in forming them the caterpillar pulls off its hairs and plants them in an upright position round its body, side by side, like the pales of a pali- sade, in an oval ring, in the middle of which it is itself stationed; within this enclosure it spins a slender web, which scarcely conceals the chrysalis* This tissue supports the hairs, which are forced to bend over it at the top by silken threads, so as to form a kind of roof. The perfect insect appeared about the 25th of July. It has been considered by the author of the " In- sect Transformations" (p. 180), to be one of the most striking instances of instinctive foresight, that the caterpillars which build cocoons of a substantial structure are destined to remain much longer in the chrysalis trance than those which spin merely a flimsy web of silk, the latter, for the most part, be- ing stated to undergo their final transformation in a few weeks, while the former continue entranced the larger portion of the year, appearing in the per- fect state the summer after their architectural la- bours have been completed. As we cannot but acknowledge that the view of nature exhibited by this theory is an interesting one, we regret that we are under the necessity of stating that it is unsup- ported by facts ; for instance, there are many but- terflies which pass the winter in the pupa state, and yet their cocoons are destitute of any covering at all. Again, some of the most robust cocoons are CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 61 formed for the protection of insects which remain but a few weeks in the chrysalis state, while a co- coon of very flimsy construction often defends an insect throughout the winter ; thus one of our lar- gest and rarest moths, the Glory of Kent {Endromis versicolora), spins a slender, open, netlike cocoon, in which it remains enclosed not less than ten months, from June until April. The still rarer lob- ster caterpillar {Stauropus fagi) forms a cocoon of a delicate silky nature, in which it is enclosed from September till June. The cocoons of the ermine moth are equally slender, but they are stillmore ex- posed than the former, being placed at the root of trees, &c. There are, however, two moths already noticed in this and a preceding chapter, which most completely disprove the theory alluded to. The large eggar moth forms a very hard cocoon, in which it only remains four weeks, from the end of June to the end of July; the small eggar moth, which, as we have seen, sometimes remains as many years in its cocoon, and always throughout the winter, is of a much less firm consistence. The double-brooded moths and butterflies are also in- stances in which it would be requisite, for the sup- port of this theory, that those specimens which pass the winter in the chrysalis state ought to be more strongly defended than those which are only a few weeks in the summer in that state ; and yet we find not the slightest difference between the two broods in this respect. We now come to those cocoons in which various matters are introduced into the construction of the cocoon besides those furnished by the body of the caterpillar itself Among those caterpillars which form their co- coons under ground, into which they enter for the first time for this express purpose, we may notice the handsome one of the Cucullia scrophularm, found upon the mullein and water betony, of a grayish Vol. II.— F 62 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. in. pearl colour, with black spots which are surrounded by yellow rings. This caterpillar descends into the earth about the middle of July, where it forms an egg-shaped cocoon of bits of earth fastened together by silken threads, from which the moth appears in the following April. One of these caterpillars af- forded Reaumur a good opportunity of examining the proceedings of such caterpillars as form their retreats under ground, as well as the mode in which they procure materials for one or two additional in- ner linings of the cocoon, in the inside of which CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 63 they constantly work. He dug up one of these co- coons when it was nearly completed, and broke off about one third of its extent at one end, as in fig. A, from which it will be perceived that the thickness of the structure is considerable. The insect imme- diately commenced the reparation of its cocoon, which it completely effected in the course of four hours, by means of bits of earth which had been placed within its reach. It commenced by protru- ding nearly the whole of its body out of the breach (fig. B) and seizing a piece of earth with its strong jaws, which it bore into its damaged cocoon; this employment it continued for some time, selecting with much care those bits of earth which were fit- test for its use ; during this time, therefore, it was employed only in collecting materials, since it was rarely that it affixed any of these grains to the walls of its cell unless it met with one which happened exactly to fit any part of the damaged breach. It now, however, commenced spinning a slight band of silken network round the aperture, and then at- tached bits of earth thereto by means of silken cords, which it spun for that purpose during its la- bour ; thus by degrees the size of the damaged part became contracted. When the aperture had be- come nearly closed (fig. C),the caterpillar, in order to close it entirely, was observed to spin arched lines of silk from one side to the other of the aper- ture, crossing each other at different angles, hke a coarse kind of network, into which it fastened grains of earth, so as to render its external surface similar to the sound part ; it however did not con- tent itself until it had also strengthened the inside with smaller grains of earth, so that when Reaumur opened the cocoon again with a penknife, the new part was found to be equally thick and compact with the other part which had not been damaged. The internal operations of these caterpillars are not ob- servable, because they do not commence the silken 64 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. III. tapestry with which they are lined until they have completely closed the outer walls. The chrysalis of this insect is remarkable in hav- ing the tongue of the moth, not simply stretched along the breast as in most chrysalides ; but as from its great length that organ would reach further than the extremity of the body if extended in a straight line, it is bent back when it has reached the last ring of the body, and is recurved to the length of several segments. The tongue-case of the chrysa- lis of the very rare English moth, Noctua {Calopha- sid) Unarm (whose cocoon is very similar in its con- struction to that of the spectacle moth subsequently mentioned), also turns upwards, and is prominent laterally beyond the sides of the body. There are other instances in which the tongue is even much longer than in these moths, and in which this organ is differently folded, as in the sphinxes, in which the tongue very far exceeds the length of the body ; but in the chrysalis state it is folded up and incased in a short cylindrical proboscis, curved upon the breast. There is another caterpillar, however, which ex- hibits much more ingenuity than that of the water betony moth above mentioned. Like the cocoons formed by the latter, the substance of its case is chiefly earth ; but instead of the outside being rough CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 65 and uneven, it is smooth and finely polished, and, moreover, instead of being formed in the earth it is built upon leaves, so that the caterpillar is under the necessity of fetching its materials from a consider- able distance. Reaumur found these caterpillars upon the oak and apple, and some of them formed their cocoons during the night, without his having observed the process. He noticed, however, that the earthen walls of the cocoon were moistened, although the earth at the bottom of his breeding-cage was quite dry. It w^as evident, therefore, that the caterpillar had moistened the earth, but he could not imagine how a caterpillar, which, in constructing its cocoon, is for the most part enclosed within, could give to the exterior so smooth and polished a surface ; and had he not been more of a naturalist than a gour- mand, his curiosity in this respect would not have been satisfied; for, having observed one morning that his only remaining caterpillar was making prep- arations for forming its cocoon, by attaching a few silken threads as a base upon a leaf, he quitted his study at two o'clock to dine, and returning in less than an hour to watch its manoeuvres, he found that it had, during his short absence, completed three quarters of its cocoon, the mode of construction of which was found to be somewhat similar to that employed by cottagers in building mud walls, the chopped straw which is employed to bind the mud together being replaced by the meshes of a loose silken web of an oval shape. When this web is nearly completed, the insect collects a quantity of earth within the net merely sufficient for its future purposes. It then shuts itself up in this net by en- tirely closing the aperture, and commences the building of its mud walls by moistening one of the bits of earth with a liquid which it emits from its mouth : when well moistened, it pushes the paste through the meshes of its net, when it immediately G2 66 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. III. assumes a smooth appearance. Reaumur observed that it repeatedly pushed its head with considerable force against the inner surface of the cocoon, so as to force the more moistened earth to run through the meehes of its net. Hence it is evident that the silken net has both an external and an internal cov- ering of mud. When the operation was completed, Reaumur opened the cocoon and took it away from the caterpillar, which, however, made a second du- ring the night ; it was, however, but slightly cased with mud, the insect not having sufficient fluid left to moisten the grains of earth with. The moths produced from some of the cocoons thus construct- ed, were "found dead in the breeding-cages at the end of October. They were of an ashy gray col- our, with two palish bands across the wings, and are considered by Ernst as the oak eggar moth {Trichocera cratagi). The cocoon which we have figured from Reaun^ur is similarly formed, but the caterpillar differed in its markings from those of the former caterpillars, and Reaumur did not succeed in rearing it to the perfect state. The caterpillars of numerous other species of moths form their cocoons of chips of wood and bark, connected together with silk ; but these are gener- ally constructed without much regularity in the ar- rangement of the chips. Among these, that of the puss moth, subsequently noticed, is one of the hard- est cocoons with which we are acquainted. It is composed of very minute gnawed bits of bark, strongly cemented together with a gummy secretion mixed with silk. There is, however, another spe- cies, whose proceedings have been detailed by Reau- mur, which far exceeds the others in the neatness and ingenuity of its case ; and it is consequently to be regretted that this author has not recorded the particular species, nor figured the moth produced from it. Messrs. Kirby and Spence, however, sup- pose that it may probably be the smallest black arch CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 67 moth [Pi/ralis {Nola, Leach) strigilata). The cater- pillar is of a small size, and of a flattened form, with fourteen legs, the fourth, fifth, and sixth segments of the body not being furnished with feet ; it is of a yellowish white colour, with a fleshy tinge, with tufts of red hairs on each ring, and two brown spots near the middle of the body. It was found by Reau- mur in May upon the oak. This ingenious little workman constructs its cocoon with an immense number of small chips of a rectangular form, which it gnaws from the bark of the oak, and which it fas- tens together like the boards of a room-floor, end to end. One of these caterpillars was brought to Reaumur upon a twig, and on each side of its body there was observed a thin appendage a little longer than the insect's body, attached to the twig, of a long triangular form. They projected at an angle from each side of the twig, and somewhat resembled in miniature the feathers fastened to the end of an ar- row (fig. A, p. 68). The space between these two wings was also of a triangular shape, and this forms the basement of the insect's cocoon, the chips of which the wings were formed having been gnawed from it, as was perceivable from its lighter colour. It does not seem requisite, as Reaumur observes, that nature should bestow any extraordinary degree of intelligence upon an insect for the purpose of con- structing an oval or rounded cocoon, that being the shape in which it arranges its materials from the very commencement, and to which the various po- sitions of its body while at work are sufficient to impart that form. But when we observe an insect commencing the construction of its cocoon (which when completed will resemble the longitudinal sec- tion of an inverted cone, with an elliptical protuber- ant base), by forming two flat and triangular walls, thus adopting a mode of procedure which certainly appears very unfitted for such a purpose, we must at least confess, if we find that this was the plan 68 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. III. best adapted for the completion of its work, that the insect is as mechanical as ingenious. A B Reaumur wondered, at this stage of the building, what form the cocoon would ultimately exhibit, thinking that additional appendages would be affixed to the>se at different angles, so as to form a kind of perpendicular roof ; but the insect's ideas of archi- tecture were different from any which Reaumur had fancied, for the little workman destined these two wings alone to form a case perfectly closed, and these two were amply sufficient for its purpose. The chief object of the insect was now perceived to be to bring the outer edges of these two wings to- gether, just as we shut a pair of folding or cupboard doors, when they are opened and pushed backwards. Hence we may judge with what mechanical skill .and precision the insect nmst form these two wings ; for unless they are made of a proper size while CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 69 apart, they could not possibly be brought together, nor could the edges be made to fit closely to each other, and yet the insect has neither compasses, rules, nor planes, Avithout which a carpenter would make but a bungling job of his cupboard doors. When, therefore, these two walls or wings are of a proper size, the insect, which always keeps be- tween them, attaches threads to the outer edge of one of them, at the lower part, which it then applies to the opposite outer edge of the other ; these threads are then pulled until the edges are brought into contact, when it fastens them with shorter silk- en threads, and in this way proceeds upwards until the whole of the two edges are brought together, as represented in figure B, the insect being enclosed within them. But another difficulty here arises ; a concave, but not deep space, has been formed within these walls upon the bark of the twig; but the walls thus brought together are flat, and, like the closed doors of some oldfashioned cupboards, form an acute an- gle, not only in front, but at each side, which would necessarily be very inconvenient to a cylindrical chrysalis within ; the insect, therefore, by repeat- edly pushing against the walls when brought to- gether, from within, with its head, causes them to assume a convex figure. The opening which is ob- served at the broadest part of the cone at the upper end of the figure is also subsequently closed in the same manner, and when the whole is thus comple- ted, the seams are so nicely joined as to be imper- ceptible ; the inside is then lined Avith a fine coating of silk, and the insect undergoes its transformation in security, being well protected by the great resem- blance of the cocoon to the bark upon which it is affixed, and of which in fact it is composed. Other caterpillars introduce the leaves of the plants upon which they feed into the structure of ' their cocoons, and these are arranged with more or 70 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. III. less regularity in different species, in some of which they are very beautiful. There is a caterpillar found upon the chickweed about the end of July, of a green colour, and of the middle size, with two black spots bordered with white upon the fourth ring, and with another spot of the same colour upon the eighth ring. Its mode of walking somewhat resembles that of the geomet- ric caterpillars, although the moth, from Reaumur's account, evidently belongs to the Noctuidce, the singular form of the larva indicating it to be one of the spectacle moths {Ahrostola). It constructs its cocoon about the beginning of August, by attaching together without much precision the leaves and ten- der twigs of the chickweed which it has bitten off. In this way it forms an envelope, within which it is completely concealed, and, in order to keep the whole in place, it spins an inner slender web of white silk, from whence, in the following July, a moth of a brownish colour, with faint yellow spots, makes its appearance. There is another caterpillar observed by Reau- mur, which arranges the leaves with which it covers its cocoon with much more regularity than the pre- ceding species. This is found in the month of Oc- tober upon the cypress spurge, and it evidently be- longs to one of the species of Acronycta, as may be seen by comparing Reaumur's figure of the cater- pillar with those of Hubner and other lepidopterists. This caterpillar is black, with white longitudinal stripes, and with one lateral red line. It arranges the narrow leaves which it has detached from the CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 71 plant with considerable skill, side by side, the round- ed figure formed by their union being larger at one end than the other. Other caterpillars, like the bumblebees, give to their cocoons a covering of moss. One of these is a small smooth larva, w^ith sixteen legs, which feeds upon minute mosses or lichens, and which appears to be that of the marbled green moth {Bryophila glandifera.) This caterpillar forms a cocoon of a rounded form, surrounded with moss, of which small tufts are fastened together so as to form a hollow ball. In general, the caterpillar enclosed in a' cocoon becomes a chrysalis in a few days ; but there are some instances in which the caterpillar remains unchanged for several months. When one of these cocoon-forming insects has completed its state of inactivity in the chrysalis state, it bursts out of the pupa in the same manner as the butterflies. It has yet, however, another ef- fort to make before it sees the light of day. It is born in a dark prison, the walls of which are often of the most surprising hardness, and the enclosed animal is weak, and apparently unprovided with jaws or other instruments to effect its escape. The man- ner in which this is managed has not been quite satisfactorily explained. Some authors have as- serted that it is by the action of a powerful liquid which the moth emits from the mouth, that the threads of a cocoon are rendered moist and pliant. 72 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. III. and the giim dissolved, so that the insect has then only to push against the end of the cocoon with its head, in order to make its way out ; while others, including Reaumur, consider that no fluid is em- ployed, but that the head becomes a battering-ram, to burst through the cocoon, breaking the threads in its passage ; the facetted eyes being considered to act as fine files, assisting in making the aperture. Count Dandolo, in his work on the silkworm, how- ever, observes that the end of the cocoon is wetted for an hour, and sometimes even several hours, be- fore the moth makes its way out. " Perhaps," say Messrs. Kirby and Spence, " the two opinions may be reconciled by supposing the silkworm first to moisten, and then break the threads of the cocoon." In other instances, in which more solid materials than silk have been employed, such as grains of earth, or chips of wood, the difficulty appears greatly increased — thus we have met with the co- coon of the puss moth {Cerura vinula), in its natu- ral situation upon the bark of willow trees, and it has been with the greatest difficulty that we have been able to cut it open with a penknife ; that this was, however, owing to the hardness of the gummy secretion with which the caterpillar (whose remark- able form we have subsequently noticed) had ce- mented the dust and chips of willow together, of which the cocoon is composed, is evident, for had it been formed only of silk and chips, it would have readily yielded to the knife ; but the caterpillar, in a state of confinement, will moreover build its case with gnawed bits of paper, which, when dried, ac- quire an equal consistence with the chip-cocoons. Now the mouth of this moth is of a very rudi- mentary nature, and from the perfect and smooth appearance of the down upon the head of the newly-disclosed moth, it is evident that some other method than force must have been adopted to work a passage through so hard a wall. We must there- CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 73 fore refer the extrication to the effect of some liquid with which the insect is furnished, sufficient to dissolve the gummy matter of its cocoon. This liquid Reaumur ascertained by experiment was neither of an aqueous nor an inflammable nature, like spirits of wine. Messrs. Kirby and Spence con- sider that it must essentially be of ah acid nature, so powerful as immediately to dissolve the gum, and yet so harmless to the moth as not to injure it by its action, a supposition which may be consid- ered analogous to the action of the gastric juice. This caterpillar, notwithstanding its remarkable shape, and the singular fork at the extremity of its body, is unable to guard itself from the attacks of the ichneumon flies. One of these (Ophion luteum) attacks it, and deposites her eggs in its body, in which the grubs of the ichneumons feed in the manner stated in our former volume, a fact recorded by every naturalist since the days of Gcedart. We notice this circumstance, because it has been stated in a popular work (Insect Architecture, p. 95, 325) that the ichneumon fly contrives to deposite its eggs in the case of the puss moth; but no instance has ever yet been recorded of such a fact. When we consider how difficult a thing it must be even for this large moth to efi'ect its escape through the walls of its cocoon, how much more so must it be for its delicately-formed parasites, which have not only to bore through it, but their own individual cocoons also which are enclosed within it. It is true that they are furnished with jaws, but may they not like- wise be provided with some fluid analogous to that of the moth 1 It is remarkable that occasionally several of these parasites, of which four or five prey upon a single caterpillar, are found dead in their cocoons, while one or two only have contrived to escape. This we should consider a sufficient rea- son for doubting the supposition that these parasite grubs, knowing that it would require all the united Vol. XL— G 74 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. III. efforts of their flies to effect an escape, had pur- posely arranged themselves with their heads all pointing to one end of the cocoon. In the preceding instances the escape is effected by the perfect insect from a cocoon, the substance of which is of an equal consistence throughout; but there are numerous instances in which the cat- erpillar provides for the more easy extrication of the moth, by various peculiarities in the construc- tion of the cocoon. Of these we shall only notice the mode of escape of the emperor moth, of which Reaumur has given a complete account. On examining one of these cocoons from which the moth has escaped, and another which still contains the chrysalis, both ap- pear perfectly alike, the place from which the moth has escaped not being observable. The cocoon is of an oval shape, with its upper end produced al- most into a point, like a Florence flask; at this end the hairs of the cocoon are longitudinally gummed together, converging like so many bristles to a blunt point, in the middle of wliicli is a circular aperture forming a kind of clastic funnel, through which the insect does not experience much difficulty in ma- king its exit, but which immediately closes again when the insect has escaped. So easy a mode of extrication would however afford an equally easy entrance to minute parasites or other voracious CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 75 enemies ; hence nature has instructed the cater- pillar to form a second funnel within the former, formed similarly, but in which the threads are more closely arranged, no aperture being left as in the former. Thus, although the difficulty of entrance from without is increased in consequence of the convexity of the inner funnel, the escape of the moth is scarcely rendered more difficult. Accord- ing to IMeinecken, the pressure of the converging threads of this funnel serves to compress the abdo- men of the moth as it emerges from the cocoon, which forces the fluids to enter the nervures of the wings, and gives them the full expansion. How this is effected, however, we can scarcely conceive ; for as the pressure must be applied against the hind parts of the body while it is forcing itself through the passage, we should have considered that the tluids would have been forced into that part of the body which had not yet undergone that pres- sure, and not into the wings and legs which are at the front of the body, just as in pushing the finger through a tight ring, the blood is forced back into the hand, and not into the tip of the finger. It is a remarkable circumstance that some insects are extremely regular in the hours of their appear- ance in the perfect state ; some species, as the silk- worm moth and the Sphinx cenotherce^ being pro- duced at sunrise ; others, as the true hawk moth, at noon ; others, again, as the death's-head moth, in the afternoon ; and lastly, others, as some of the May-flies, only in the evening. Hitherto we have only stated instances in which the extrication from the cocoon has been effected by the insect after arriving at the perfect state. The chrysalis itself, in some insects, makes an ap- erture in the cocoon, through which it protrudes a considerable portion of its body, sufficient to allow the moth to disengage itself from the chrysalis without difficulty. The goat moth is an example 76 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. Ill- of this mode of proceeding ; the empty chrysalis cases of which may constantly be found sticking half out of holes in rotten willow trees. This is effected by sharp points upon the head of the pupa, which are employed for the purpose of making the first breach in the cocoon, through which the body is subsequently further protruded by the assistance of a series of sharp hooks along its rings, by which it is enabled to keep itself in its advanced position when it makes a small further advance, and thus repeats the operation until a considerable portion is protruded into the open air. In the ftfteenth chapter of our former volume we have given the history of several caterpillars that construct cases in ^vhich they reside, and which they carry about with them. "When these cater- pillars have attained their full size, they fix the lower end of their cases, from which the head was previously protruded, to the adjacent objects, so that these cases also serve them as cocoons. Of these caterpillars, the species of the genus Psyche exhibit some extraordinary circumstances. One of these, which we have observed, is, that the male moths make their escape from the opposite end of the case, by first protruding the head of the chrysa- lis out of that end of the case which was originally CH. III.] INSECTS WHICH FORM COCOONS. 77 occupied by the tail of the larva. There can be no doubt that this change of situation takes place be- fore the change to the chrysalis occurs. The two remarkable cases described by Messrs. Kirby and Spence appear to us to be decidedly referrible to this group of moths, although those authors merely suspect them to belong to terrestrial animals. Of these, one is described as being the produc- tion of an insect inhabitant of New-Holland, and as being six inches long, and about four fifths of an inch in diameter. It consists of a bag of thick cinereous silken web, to which are fastened in a sex- tuple series pieces of stick of about an inch long, the end of one mostly resting upon the base of another; between each series a space of about three tenths of an inch intervenes, but at the apex they all converge. This probably imitates the branch or stem of some tree or plant in which the leaves are linear, and diverge but little from the stem. In a small periodical work on natural history, published in 1799, entitled " The Naturalist's Pocket Magazine," in which several productions of New- Holland were first published, we find a description of one of these cases and its caterpillar, under the name of porcupine caterpillar of New South Wales. It is described as a large grub, three inches long, the three first rings being of a fine yellow colour, beautifully marked with black or dusky oblong spots, each having a pair of claws ; the other rings are of a dirty pale yellow colour, except the ex- tremity of the back, which is of the same spotted yellow colour as the head and three first rings. The case of the caterpillar resembled the finest fleecy hosier^^ of a gray, ash, or mouse colour, having the silky softness of a moleskin, the exte- rior being fortified with small pieces of slight twigs of different lengths. It had two apertures, which the insect opened or closed at pleasure. It is stated, G2 78 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. IV. that whenever any accident has happened to the case, so as to lacerate or tear it in holes, the little animal repairs with incredible expedition whatever damage may have been received, so that in a few hours it fills up a large hole with the same silky substance, and this with an exactness so perfect that the nicest eye cannot discern what was the extent of the injury. It is likewise stated to experience the different changes to which the caterpillar tribe are subject: these changes are not however described; but the late Rev. Lansdown Guilding, to whom nat- ural history is under many obligations, succeeded in tracing the transformations of two kindred spe- cies, inhabitants of the West Indies, and has pub- lished the result of his very singular observations in the " Linnaean Transactions." From these we learn that the insect produced from one of these cases proved to be a moth which nearly resembled our English wood-leopard {Zeuzera <25cwZi),lhat the female is very large and unwieldy, without wings, and that she never quits her case CHAPTER IV. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE SILKWORM MOTH. Description of the Egg — Caterpillar — Manner of changing its Skin — Sizes from the young to the full-grown Worm — Description of the latter — Silk-bags— Manner of forming its Cocoon — Length of the Silk — Description of the Chrysalis — the Moth — its Habits — number of Eggs. The silkworm, like all other insects of the same class, undergoes a variety of changes during the short period of its life ; assuming, in each of its three successive transformations, a form wholly CH. IV.] HISTORY OF THE SILKWORM. 79 dissimilar to that with which it was previously in- vested. We will proceed to trace the changes which it undergoes, commencing with the egg, which is about the size of a grain, and of a yellow colour when fresh ; but after a few days, becomes rather dark, of a bluish cast. The period which the egg requires is dependant on the temperature of the climate ; so much so, that some eggs may be pre- served during the winter and spring ; or they may be quickened by artificial means, when the natural food appears in sufficient quantity for their sup- port. When hatched, it appears as a black worm, about a quarter of an inch in length, gradually becomes larger and whiter, and in about eight days its head enlarges and it is attacked by illness, which lasts for three days ; refusing food, and remaining in a state of lethargy. This illness is supposed to be on account of the smallness of the skin. The worm appears at the end of the third day much wasted, and throwing off a kind of humour, v^hich has ex- uded between its body and the skin about to be cast off, at the same time emits from its body silken cords, so as to fasten the abandoned skin to a spot while the insect forsakes it, which it performs in the following manner. It first rubs its head among the leafy fibres, so as to disencumber itself of the scaly covering, and then breaks through that part of the skin nearest the head. This action causes the larva very great exertion. Soon afterward it disengages its fore feet, and then the body is quickly drawn from the skin, which remains stationary. This operation occupies two or three minutes. The insect then begins to feed with renewed vigour and health. The skin sometimes refuses to separate from the body ; in which case the pressure occa- sions swelling and inflammations, and generally terminates in death. 80 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. IV. Those worms which have recently shed their skin are easily known from the others, by the pale colour and wrinkled appearance of their new skin. The larva changes its skin five separate times ; and, on each occasion, increases in size and weight, as may be seen in the following table : Inches. Take to an ounce When born • . i 54,526 One moult h 3,840 Two i . 610 Three U . 144 Four 2 . 35 Five 2ito3 6 Thus, in the space of a few short weeks, the worm increases in weight more than nine thousand times. The annexed figures represent the worm in its last stage, the chrysalis, and the cocoon. The caterpillar, having arrived at its last moult, devours its food most voraciously, and for ten days continues increasing in size ; so that its structure can be better explained than in its former stages. It is now about three inches in length, and is com- CH. IV.] DESCRIPTION OF THE CATERPILLAR. 81 posed of twelve membranous rings; the head is scaly, hard, and tapering ; the mouth is horizontal ; it has sixteen feet, six of which are placed in front, armed with claws, on the three rings nearest to the head ; the other ten feet are placed behind, eight of which are on the sixth to the ninth, and two on the last ring- These feet may be termed holders. There is also a kind of tail on the upper part of the last ring but one. At the end of the period above stated the worm's desire for food begins to lessen, though it continues to nibble the leaves, which it scatters about ; its colour is now of a light green ; it is very restless and uneasy, erects its head, and moves from side to side in a circular manner, seeking a corner where 82 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. IV. it can commence its labour of forming its cocoon, before which, however, the body becomes firmer, more glossy, and somewhat transparent towards its head ; it also lessens in size. It may not be out of place to mention here from whence the silk proceeds; — The silk is secreted in the form of a fine yellow gum, in two long slender vessels, one on each side of the body. This silky material, when drawn from the orifices beneath the mouth, appears to be one thread, but is, in fact, com- posed of two fibres, which are extracted from the orifices, and brought together by means of two hooks placed in the mouth. The worm, having fixed upon some corner that will suit its purpose, commences the labour by spin- ning thin and irregular threads, so as to support its future dwelling ; it then forms upon these a loose structure of an oval shape, which is called floss silk ; in the three following days it forms a firm and con- sistent, yellow ball, the interior of which is smeared with a peculiar gum, so as to shield it against the rain and various changes of temperatures. The filament is not spun in regular concentric circles, I i CH. IV.] THE SILKWORM MOTH. 83 but in stops, going backwards and forwards with a sort of waving motion, which the worm effects by means of its fore feet, while it remains in the in- terior. Isnard, an old author, affirms, that the length of the silk of one cocoon, when drawn out, will meas- ure six miles, that is, 10,565 j^ards; but Count Dandolo says, the probable length is 625 yards ; other authors state it to be about 400 yards ; while Pullein says the average length is 300 yards. The latter author thus writes : — ''There is scarcely any thing among the various wonders which the animal creation affords, more admirable than the variety of changes which the silkworm undergoes; but the curious texture of that silken covering with which it surrounds itself, when it arrives at the perfection of its animal life, vastly surpasses what is made by other animals of this class. All the caterpillar kind do, indeed, undergo changes like those of the silk- worm, and the beauty of them in their butterfly state greatly exceeds it; but the covering which they put on before this change into a fly is poor and mean, when compared to that golden tissue in which the silkworm wraps itself. They, indeed, come forth in a variety of colours, their wings bedropped with gold and scarlet, yet are ihey but the beings of a summer's day ; both their life and beauty quickly vanish, and they leave no remembrance after them ; but the silkworm leaves behind it such beautiful, such beneficial monuments, as at once record both the wisdom of their Creator and his bounty to man." The worm, having finished its cocoon, rests awhile from its labour, and at the same time decreases in size and bulk ; it then throws off its last skin, and undergoes its metamorphosis into a chrysalis, which is of a chestnut colour, and smooth. The time during which the insect remains in this state of lethargy is generally from fifteen to thirty days, as 84 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. IV. it is influenced by the temperature of the climate in which this metamorphosis is about to take place, viz., in England it requires thirty days, in France twenty-one, in Spain and Italy eighteen to twenty, and in India only eleven days. After the above stated periods the insect breaks through the upper end of the cocoon, by emitting a liquid from its mouth, which moistens the gum with which it has lined the interior of its chamber. After this operation it appears as the perfect insect, with four wings of a grayish white colour, with two trans- verse undulated bands on the fore and hind wings. The stationary and sluggish habits of these moths are not entirely owing, as is generally supposed, to the insect being confined within certain limits during the period of several generations ; as these habits are also common to others of the same family, which are only found in certain local districts ; and this proves that this valuable insect partakes of the same mode of life in the domestic as in the wild or natural state. Their life continues for the short period of two or three days, in which time they are wholly occupied in securing the continuance of CH. V.J HISTORY OF SILK, ETC. 85 their kind. Various accounts are given as to the number of eggs which the female lays, some stating 250, while others mention 400 to 500 as the usual number. CHAPTER V. HISTORY OF SILK, &C. History of its Fabrication — Several Kinds of Worms reared in India and America — The Silk Company — Culture of the Mul- berry-tree — Laboratory — Air — Heat — Temperature — Light — Of the Kinds of Silkivorm — Eggs — Hatching — Space — Food — Weight and Length of the fidl-grown Worm. It is allowed by all, that the silkworm and the mulberry-tree are indigenous to China, where the former is termed Se. According to the Chinese historians, one of their emperors ordered his wife to endeavour to rear the silkworm, for the purpose of making its industry available to man. After many fruitless attempts, she at last completely suc- ceeded, and was enabled to fabricate from the raw threads stuffs which she afterward embroidered with images of flowers and birds. This invention, which the Chinese state as taking place 2,698 years before the Christian era, raised the emperess to the rank of a divinity, under the title of Spirit of the silk- worm and of the mulberry-tree. From China the culture of the silkworm passed very slowly into Persia and India, and thence, though after the lapse of several centuries, into Europe. It is certain that prior to the time of Alexander the Great, silk was unknown in Greece ; and it is probable that when that conqueror adopted the flowing robes of the Medes and Persians, he first became acquainted with silk. This commodity was unknown in the early times of the Roman republic ; the victories of Vol. II.— H 86 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. V Lucullus, and of Pompey the Great, first making the Romans acquainted with it. It is said that the Em- peror Aurehan refused the request of his emperess, who desired a robe of silk, stating that he could not afford to purchase a vestment worth its weight in gold. Tiberius decreed that none should wear gar- ments made of so costly a material. Heliogabalus was the first emperor who clothed himself in silk. It does not appear that the origin of this precious material was known to the Romans for many centu- ries ; for most of the classical authors suppose it to have been the produce of a tree, probably from find- ing the cocoons suspended by the worms to the branches of the mulberry. Aristotle, hoAvever, speaks of a large horned worm, which, after chan- ging several times, spun a cocoon, which women dis- entangled, and the threads thus obtained were sub- sequently woven into stuff". This worm is stated by the same author to be a native of the Island of Cos, ■ and Pliny makes it feed on the oak and the cypress- tree. It is probable, therefore, that this insect was not the silkworm, for in the same proportion as the silk obtained from the real insect was used among the Romans, so the importation from the Island of Cos was abandoned. In the middle of the sixth century, under the reign of Justinian, two monks brought to Constan- tinople the eggs of the wonderful insect which pro- duced silk, as also the tree on which it was nourish- ed. Previously to this time immense sums of money went to Persia for the purchase of silk, a commodity then much used. Justinian thought it impolitic to enrich an enemy, when with little pains the silkworm might be cultivated at home. He therefore most amply rewarded the monks for in- structing his people in the mode of rearing these in- sects. From Conslantinople the culture of the silk- worm spread over Greece, so that in less than five hundred years, that portion of this country hitherto CH. v.] HISTORY OF SILK, ETC. 87 called Peloponnesus, changed its denomination into that of Morea, from the immense plantations of the IMorus alba, or white mulberry. Some authors, however, assert that the name was suggested by the resemblance of the Morea to the shape of the mulberry-leaf, a less plausible opinion than the for- mer. Ancient authors asserted, that sericum or silk was obtained either from fleeces growing upon trees, or from the bark of trees or flowers ; others, that it was procured from spiders or beetles ; while some, however, who came nearer the truth, spoke of worms feeding on the mulberry-leaves, with cot- ton growing on the branches like flax. When Roger, King of Sicily, conquered the Pelo- ponnesus in 1130, he transported the silkworms and such as cultivated them to Palermo, and into Italy ; and such was the success of the speculation in this last country, that it is doubtful whether even at the present moment Calabria, where the silk- cultivators were early encouraged, does not produce more silk than the whole of the rest of Italy. In the wars of Charles the Eighth, in 1499, in Italy, some gentlemen seeing the advantages of the commerce of silk, introduced the mulberry into France, and large plantations were soon raised in Provence. The first tree which was ever planted in France by Guy-Pape St. Auban, Seigneur d'Al- lan, still existed in 1802, near Montelimart. Faujas Saint- Fond, who saw it, gives the following descrip- tion : — •' Its large branches are withered, and its stem is divided into three parts ; but, in spite of the number of winters it has braved, it is still covered in spring with leaves and fruit. Its descendants are now spread over the soil of France, and yield a large revenue to the state." In spite of the encouragement given by Charles the Eighth to the culture of the silkworm, still little progress was made ; for the silks of Spain, into which country the Moors had introduced the silk- 88 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. V. worm, were used in France. Henry the Second issued an edict in 1554, commanding large planta- tions to be made in France ; and he is reported to have been the first French king who wore silk stock- ings ; while in 1668, the women's hats were turned into hoods made of French silk, whereby every maidservant became a standing revenue to the French king of one half of her wages. A simple gardener of Nismes established a nursery of mulber- ries under the reign of Charles the Ninth, which in a few years supplied the plains of Languedoc, Pro- vence, and Dauphine with the finest plants. Henry the Fourth, contrary to the advice of Sully, encour- aged the native production of silk; he issued an edict in 1599, prohibiting the importation of stuffs of that material ; and by letters patent invited, as much as possible, the further plantation of the mul- berry-tree. He ordered Olivier de Serres to bring the tree to Paris, and twenty thousand were trans- ported to that city, where the king had built a large house near the Tuileries for the cultivation of the silkworm. This branch of commerce was neglected in France under Louis XIH., but in the following reign, under the auspices of the sage Colbert, it once again re- vived. He established royal nurseries in Berri, An- goumois, Orleannois, Poitou, Burgundy, and Franche Comte, and distributed and planted the tree gratui- tously. Nevertheless, as these beneficial measures were forced upon the people, it happened that, in- stead of thriving, the young plants were found to perish rapidly. The government then promised to pay twenty-four sous for every mulberry-tree which should have been planted three years. This ju- dicious measure at once succeeded, and the above- named provinces soon became covered with this precious wood. Not content with this first step, Colbert invited Le Sieur Benais, from Bologna, to superintend the unravelling of the cocoons; and CH. v.] HISTORY OF SILK, ETC. 89 this the Italian did so well, that in a short time the raw thread of France was quite as beautiful as that of Italy. Asa recompense for his skill, Benais re- ceived letters of nobility and considerable pecuniary gratifications at the hands of Louis XIV. During the turbulent times of the Revolution, a vast number of the finest mulberry plantations were ruined: since the Restoration nearly a miUion of fresh trees have been planted, and the cultivation of the silkworm has thriven proportionably. Not- withstanding this advance, however, France does not produce a sufficient quantity of raw silk for the purposes of its manufacturers. Such being the history of the silkworm in France, the profits derived from it make it a matter worth in- quiring into, whether there is any thing in the cli- mate of England which is unfavourable to the cul- tivation of the silkworm. It is stated, that at the celebration of the marriage between Margaret daughter of Henry III., and Alex- ander III. of Scotland, in the year 1251, a most ex- travagant display of magnificence was made by one thousand English knights appearing in cointises of silk. It appears also that in the reign of Henry VI., there were a company of silk-women as early as the year 1455 ; but these, it is probable, were em- ployed rather in embroidering and making small haberdasheries, than in the broad manufacture of that article. Italy continued to supply England and most other countries with silk. In the year 1554, in the reign of Mary, an act of parliament was made to restrain the growing vanity of the lower classes of the people. This statute enacts, " That whoever shall wear silk in or upon his or her hat, bonnet, or girdle, scabbard, hose, or spur leather, shall be imprisoned during three months, and forfeit ten pounds." This absurd statute was however repealed in the first year of the reign of James I., who, remarking the effect of the great en- H2 90 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. V. couragement given by Henry IV. to the plantation of the mulberry, recommended the same measures most earnestly more than once from the throne, un- happily however without effect. It is recorded of him, that while King of Scotland, being anxious to impress the ambassador sent from the English court with due reverence, he wrote to his friend the Earl of Mar to borrow a pair of silk stockings, an article of extreme rarity in those days ; concluding his epistle with the following appeal to the feelings of his subject — "For ye would not, sure, that your king should appear like a scrub before strangers." It is said also of Elizabeth, that being presented by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, with a pair of silk stockings, she was so much pleased with the gift as never to wear any of a different material during the rest of her life. The magnificent and expensive prince Henry VIII. was not able to in- dulge his vanity, on gala days, as successfully as his daughter, except when by great chance he could procure a pair of silk stockings from Spain. Sir Thomas Gresham presented Edward VI. with a pair of long Spanish silk stockings, and from their rarity this offering was deemed worthy of much notice. The broad silk manufacture was introduced into England in the year 1620, and in nine years after it was become so considerable, that the silk throw- sters were incorporated by charter. In 1661, forty thousand persons were employed by this company. The revocation of the edict of Nantes contributed to promote the manufacture of silk in England most largely ; and the invention of the silk-throwing ma- chine at Derby, in 1719, added so much to the rep- utation of English manufactures, that, according to Keyster, the English silks were higher in the mar- ket than even the Italian. It appears from the statements which have been made, that there exist several kinds of this valuable worm : the one which is reared in Europe has been CH. v.] HISTORY OF SILK, ETC. 91 termed an annual; while the one procured direct from China is a monthly worm, therefore capable of producing twelve crops of silk in the year, supe- rior in quality to many other sorts : and the same observer mentions, that it actually Avould be a mine to whoever can undertake its cultivation. The worm which produces the fine nankeen silk is con- sidered the best in the world. Various persons have tried to rear the silkworm in the East Indies, especially in Bengal and Coro- mandel, and as the climate is more congenial to it, we have every reason to suppose that they will ul- timately succeed. The East India company has granted to, and has also exerted its influence with the native princes, in obtaining for the experimenters portions of lands in various parts for the propaga- tion of the mulberry-trees. The princes themselves consider it no mean occupation to rear this useful worm, for the purpose of obtaining silk to make state dresses for their camels and elephants. In North America, especially in Pennsylvania, they have succeeded in cultivating the silkworm, the silk of which is stated to be finer in texture than the Italian silk, and produces a larger return from the same number of cocoons. Should the production of silk increase as rapidly in America as cotton has done in that country for the last thirty years, it will become an article, in a commercial point of view, of the greatest importance. As the white mulberry and silkworm are said to succeed in almost all the states of the Union, it has attracted the attention of the American government. In spite of the encouragement held out at various times for the culture of the silkworm in England, it has never been attempted on a large scale in this country, and yet it appears not improbable, that it would not only succeed, but be attended with ad- vantages here which are wanting in climates more apparently favoured than ours. 92 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. V. In Italy the chrysalides come too early to life : it is therefore necessary to destroy them, lest by eating their way out of the cocoons the silk should be injured. In order to effect this, they are col- lected and placed in heated ovens, where the silk, without singular precautions, is very apt to be in- jured. In our climate the progression of the insect tribe is slower, and in the case of the silkworm sufficient time is afforded to wind off the silk with- out killing the chrysalides. But besides the damage which may be done to the silk in Italy, from sub- jecting the cocoons to the heat of ovens, it is neces- sary, in order to obtain eggs, to allow the most vig- orous moths to eat their way out of the largest cones : hence the silk of all such cones is as cer- tainly lost in Italy as it would be preserved in Eng- land. In the south of France the frosts are often so intense after the mulberry-leaves are out as to nip them. This is seldom the case in South Britain. A further advantage in our favour arises from the comparative absence of those sultry heats and those thunder-storms so injurious to the life of the silk- worm. In the year 1825, a company was formed for the produce of silk in the British dominions, under the title of " The British, Irish, and Colonial Silk Com- pany," and was supported by individuals of the highest rank and respectability, many of whom were induced to give their countenance to the project, by a patriotic desire to amehorate the con- dition of the Irish peasantry, by adding to them a profitable source of industry. A royal charter was obtained, and active measures were taken to pro- mote the success of the design. A spot of ground, of about eighty acres, was selected on the estate of the Earl of Kingston, near Michelstown, in the county of Cork, and in this place nearly 400,000 trees of the white mulberry were transplanted. The whole proved unusually successful ; very few CII. v.] HISTORY OF SILK, ETC. 93 trees having died, and many having in the first yeai of their transplantation put forth shoots twenty inches in length. A small but complete building for rearing silkworms was adopted on the plan of Count Dandolo, and every thing seemed to promise that success which should attend judicious plans and well-directed energy. ' The experiment was also repeated on a more limited scale in England. Between 70,000 and 80,000 mulberry-trees were planted on nineteen acres of fine rich soil, situated near Slough. The trees flourished here as well as in Ireland ; but the attempt to rear silkworms in the United Kingdom has been ultimately abandoned by the company. Its managers now turn the whole of their attention to an establishment in the Island of Malta, where the growth of the trees is said to be more rapid by at least one third than in Italy. The great desideratum with us is plantations of mulberry. This tree accommodates itself to almost any soil, although it is finer and more vigorous in some than in others. If planted in elevated spots, and exposed to dry, light winds, the leaves yield a food very favourable to the production of an abundant supply of the best silk. If, on the other hand, the soil be too dry, and the exposure too warm, the mulberry-tree speedily languishes, producing a small yellow leaf, an improper and inadequate food for the supply of the worm. According to the best judges, the gentle slope of a calcareous hill, on which there is a sufficiency of earth, and where the clefts of the rock permit the roots to insinuate themselves so as to be protected from humidity, while they are kept fresh, affords the best soil for the mulberry-tree. A deeper or moister soil, though very favourable to the growth of the plant, causes the production of a watery leaf, which, it is found from experiments, tends to make the silk less abundant and less fine. Within these twenty years the Russian government have encouraged mulberry 94 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. V. plantations in various parts of their dominions. Marshal Bieberstein has introduced the silkworm in the Ukraine, where, in 49<^ N. latitude, the admi- rable incitements to the cultivation of silk by hon- orary and substantial rewards from the Emperor of the Russias, are about to be repaid to that govern- ment by the abundance of the silk produced. The testimony of Evelyn as to the feasibility of producing silk in England is unequivocal, and will perhaps appear conclusive when compared with what has been already stated. " We have already mentioned some of the uses of this excellent tree, especially of the white, be- cause the fruit is of a paler colour, which is also of a more luscious taste, and less than the black. The rind also is whiter, and the leaves of a mealy, clear green colour, far tenderer and sooner pro- duced by at least a fortnight, which is a marvellous advantage to the newly-disclosed silkworm ; also they arrive sooner at their maturity, and the food produces a finer web. Nor is this tree less beauti- ful to the eye than the fairest elm, very proper for walks and avenues. The timber, among other properties, will last in the water as well as the most solid oak, and the bark makes good and tough boat-ropes. It suffers no kind of vermin to breed on it, whether standing or felled, nor dare any cater- pillars attack it, save the silkworm only. The lop- pings are excellent fuel, but that for which this tree is in the greatest and most worthy esteem is for the leaves, which, besides the silkworm, nourish cows, sheep, and other cattle, especially young porkers, being boiled with a little bran. The fruit is excel- lent to feed poultry. It seems whatever eats of them will with difficulty be reduced to endure any thing else, as long as they can come by them. To say nothing of their other sovereign quahties, I have read that in Syria they make bread of them, but that the eating makes men bold. OH. v.] HISTORY OF SILK, ETC. 95 " To proceed with the leaf, for which the mul- berry is chiefly cherished, the benefits of it are so great, that they are frequently let to farmers for vast sums, so that one sole tree has yielded the proprietor a rent of twenty shillings per annum for the leaves only, and six or seven pounds of silk, worth as many pounds sterling, in five or six weeks, for those who kept the worms. We know that till after Italy had made silk above a thousand years, they received it not in France, it being hardly yet a hundred since they betook themselves to this manu- facture in Provence, Languedoc, Dauphine, and Ly- onnais, and not in the Orleannois till the time of Henri IV. ; but it is incredible what a revenue that amounts to in that kingdom. About the same time it was, or a little after, that King James did, with extraordinary care, recommend it to this nation by a book of directions, acts of council, and all other princely assistance. But this did not take, no more than that of Henry the Fourth's proposal about the environs of Paris, who filled the highways, gardens, and parks of France with the trees, beginning with his own garden for encouragement. " Yet I say this could not be brought into example till this present great monarch, Louis XIV., by the indefatigable diligence of Monsieur Colbert, so suc- cessfully revived it, that it is prodigious to consider what a happy progress they have made in it ; — to our shame be it spoken, who have no other discour- agements from any insuperable difficulty but our sloth and want of industry, since wherever these trees will grow and prosper, the silkworm will do so also. " It is demonstrable that mulberries, in four or five years, may be spread all over this land ; and when the indigent and young daughters in proud families are as willing to gain three or four shillings a day for gathering silk, and busying themselves in this sweet and easy employment, as some do to get 96 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. V. fourpence a day for hard work at hemp, flax, and wool, the reputation of mulberries will spread in England and other plantations. " The leaves of the mulberry should be gathered from trees of seven or eight years old — if of such as are very young, it impairs their gro\vth, neither are they so healthful for the worms, making them hydropsical, and apt to burst — as do also the leaves of such trees as are planted in a too waterish or over rich soil, and where no sun comes — and all sick and yellow leaves are hurtful. It is better to clip and let the leaves fall on a subtended sheet or blanket, than to gather them by hand, or strip them, which mars and hurts the branches, and bruises the leaves, that should hardly be touched. Some there are that lop off the boughs, and make it their pru- ning ; and it is a tolerable way so it be discreetly done, in the over thick parts of the tree ; but these leaves, gathered from a separate branch, will die and wither much sooner than those which are taken from the tree immediately, unless you set the stem in water. Leaves gathered from boughs cut off will shrink in three hours, whereas those you take from the living tree will last as many days, and being thus awhile kept are better than over fresh ones. It is a rule never to gather in a rainy season, nor to cut any branch while the wet is on it, and therefore against such suspected times you are to provide beforehand, and to reserve them in some fresh and dry place. The same caution you must observe for the dew, though it do not rain, for wet food kills the worms. But if this cannot be altogether pre- vented, put the leaves between a pair of sheets, well dried by the fire, and shake them up and down, till the moisture be drunk up in the linen, and then spread them to the air a little, on another dry cloth, you may feed with them boldly. The top leaves and oldest should be gathered last, as being most proper to repast the worms with towards the last CH. v.] HISTORY OP SILK, ETC. 97 change. The gatherer must be neat, have his hands clean, and his breath sweet, and not poi-soned with onions or tobacco, and be careful not to press the leaves, by crowding them into bags or baskets. Lastly, that they gather only, unless in case of ne- cessity, leaves from the present, not from the former year's sprigs or old wood, which are not only rude and harsh, but are annexed to stubbed stalks, which injure the worms and spoil the denudated branches. One note more let me add, that in first hatching the eggs sometimes disclose earlier than there is provision for them on the trees, in which case the tender leaves of lettuce, dandelion, and endive may supply the defect, so they feed not on them too long or over much, which gives them the lask. " I have no more to add but for this our encour- agement, and to encounter the objections which may be suggested about the coldness and moisture of our country — that the spring is in Provence no less inconstant than is ours m England, that the colds at Paris are altogether as sharp, and that in May, when it had continued raining for nine-and-twenty days successively, M. Jenard assures us he pro- ceeded in his work without the least disaster ; and in the year 1664 he presented the French king, his master, with a considerable quantity of better silks than Messina or Bononia could produce, which he sold raw^ at Lyons for a pistole the pound, when that of Avignon, Provence, and Dauphine produced little above half that price. There is a mulberry-tree brought from Virginia not to be contemned, upon which they find silkworms, which would exceed the silk of Paris itself, if the planters of nauseous tobacco did not hinder the culture. " Sir J. Berkley, who was many years governor of that ample colony, told me he presented King Charles the Second with as much silk as made his majesty a complete suit of apparel. " Lastly, let it not seem altogether impertinent if Vol. 1L— I 98 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. V. I add one premonition to those less experienced gardeners who frequently expose their orange and light tender furniture trees of the greenhouse too early — that the first leaves putting forth of this wise tree {sapientissi?na, as Pliny calls it), is a more in- fallible note when those delicate plants may be safely brought out to the air than any other prog- nostic or indication." The rearing of the silkworm requires not only great caution, but great art. The laboratory des- tined to preserve these useful insects, from the time of hatching to the period of maturity, should not be built in the vicinity of any damp spot, or near large rivers or masses of stagnant waters. It has been remarked, that a free circulation of dry air is the most favourable to the health of the silkworm; hence, the silkworms in laboratories which are situated on gentle elevations yield a more abundant and a finer harvest of silk than those which are reared on the plains. The laboratory should be placed north and south, in such a way that the largest side should look eastward. A due temperature, proper ventilation, and light, are so absolutely essential to the health of the worm, and therefore to the quality and quantity of silk, that no other apology than the importance of the subject will be needed for enlarging on each of these three heads. Heat. — It is clear that the hatching of the worm should be adapted to the budding of the leaf on which it is to be fed, otherwise the animal would be produced only to die. Temperature is the mean by which the insect may be retarded or advanced in its development, so as to time its birth precisely to the period of the production of the mulberry leaf. If it be considered that the foliation of trees varies sometimes during many days in the same season of different years, the importance of ascertaining the precise degree of heat necessary to hatch the CH. v.] HISTORY OF SILK, ETC. 99 silkworm will be very apparent. When eggs have been kept in a certain degi-ee of warmth, it requires less stove-heat to develop the silkworm ; this is so true, and so worthy of notice, that we find, if in winter the eggs have been kept in an atmosphere of 55° or 59°, or heaped together, they come forth, without the aid of the stove, spontaneously when the room is but slightly warmed, and before the mulberry-tree has given any signs of vegetation; in this case these worms must be thrown away. The eggs of different proprietors, placed in the same room, under the same circumstances, are foun5 not to be hatched at the same time. Those which during the winter have been kept at a higher and more even temperature, come forth four or five days earlier than others. The following extract from Dandolo exhibits the power and the utility of temperature in the art of rearing the silkworm. '* A prudent proprietor has done all in his power when, on observing the season favourable, and the bud of the mulberry-shoots in a proper degree of forwardness, he has put the eggs into the stove- room. Should the weather suddenly change, as it did in 1814, it is then of great use to have the power of backing the hatching of the eggs without injur- ing the worm, as I have before stated, and to prolong their two first stages by a few days. To obtain this, the only method is, after the worms have been re- moved "into the laboratoiy about five hours, to lower the temperature to 73° from 75°, four hours after further to lower it to 71°, and the following day to 68°, if necessary. " This cooling of the air diminishes the hunger of the young silkworm by degrees, and without danger; and by these means the modifications are prevented, which, at 75°, would have brought on the casting or moulting much more speedily. "At 75° the first moulting is effected the fifth 100 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. V, day; while at 71^ it requires six or seven days. The second moulting, which at 75^ is wrought in four days, at 69*^ and 71^ takes six days for its ac- comphshment. Thus, by foresight and prudence, the proprietor will be enabled to gain seven or eight days, which prevents any ill effect from the unfa- vourableness of the season ; and this time gained, it is evident, may be of the utmost consequence, for in the year 1813 the silkworms were reared in thirty- one days, and it required thirty-eight days to raise them in 1814, to allow time for the growth of the mulberry leaf; and I do not comprise in these seven days v/hich I gained, three days which I delayed in the hatching of the silkworms, having perceived that the whole season Avas bad. Those who are not careful thus to meet the accidental untoward- ness of seasons, and by art to prevent their injuries, would be obliged either to throw away the early hatched eggs, or to strip the mulberry-tree too soon, and injure the leaves which are to feed the silkworm in its adult stages hereafter. These con- siderations must strongly impress the necessity of delaying the hatching of the eggs by some days, rather than hurry their coming forth ; particularly as there is no fear, when worms are reared in this secure manner, of their being injured ; should there occur two or three hot days, these would only ac- celerate the moulting a few days sooner. It is also certain that the later silkworms, in their last stage of progress, make choice of the leaves suitable to their age, and particularly those leaves which are quite ripened, which, for the proprietor's in- terest, is the most important period, as it is at that last period the greatest consumption of the leaves occurs." That a great degree of heat will be borne is proved by the following facts : — " It cannot be said that silkv/orms are injured by any degree of heat in these climates, however con- CH. v.] HISTORY OF SILK, ETC. 101 siderable it may be. Native of Asia, it must be accustomed to heat more intense than it can expe- rience in Europe ; but the sudden change from moderate heat to violent heat it cannot bear. Rapid changes in general from heat to cold and cold to heat, are highly injurious. In its native climate it is not exposed to these vicissitudes, and therefore thrives well without requiring all the care we are obliged to bestow on it. With us, on the contrary, the temperature of the atmosphere is so variable, that without artificial means we could not fix it in our laboratories for rearing silkworms. A series of experiments has proved, that in France, 68° is the most suitable to the silkworm. Some cultivators have raised it as high as 73*^ and even 77° with good success. We must not lose sight of this fact, that it is not heat that affects the silkworm, but sudden transitions from one temperature to another, such as making it pass from 68° to 77" in one day, I am convinced would greatly annoy it, and injure its health. If it happen to be necessary to hasten the worms in consequence of the advanced state of the mulberry leaf, which cannot be retarded, it should be done gradually, so that they perceive not the alteration. The silkworm suffers as much from dif- ficulty of breathing in bad air, as from sudden changes of temperature. M. Boissier de Sauvagues will show us, by his experiments, to what degree the heat may be raised in rearing silkworms, with- out fear of injuring them. One year, when hurried by the early growth of the mulberry leaves, which were developed towards the latter end of April, I gave the silkworms 100° of heat during the two first days after hatching, and about 95" during the remainder of the first and second age. There elapsed only nine days from the hatching until the second moulting or casting, inclusively. Those who saw the process could not imagine that silk- worms would be able to stand so intensely hot and 12 102 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. V. overcoming an atmosphere. The walls, wicker hurdles, were so heated, they could scarcely be touched. All thought they must be burnt — must perish ; however, all went on perfectly well, and, to their great surprise, I had a most abundant crop. I afterward tried giving the silkworms, in their first age, from 93° to 95^ ; 89° to 91^ in the second age ; and it is remarkable, that the duration of these two ages was nearly similar to that of the preceding experiment, in which they had experienced some degrees more of heat. Perhaps there may be a degree of heat beyond v/hich we cannot affect the progress of the silkworm. It is to be added, they had an equal proportion of food in both experiments to that which is given in the common manner of rearing silkworms. It is singular that these worms, thus hastened in their two first stages, consume only five days in moulting the third and fourth time, although with only a temperature of 82^ ; while those worms that have not been hastened, take seven or eight days for each of the two last moultings, in an exactly similar degree 'of temperature. It ap- pears sufficient to have given the constitution of the insects an impetus to regulate the quick suc- cession of its changes. " This impetus, which we have been describing as operating such rapid growth, also gives the in- sects vigour and activity, which they preserve through their after ages, and prevents diseases ; thus the hastened and forced cultivation presents a double advantage. It also shortens the care and attendance necessary for silkworms, and sooner ends the anxiety of the cultivator, who must neces- sarily feel anxiety until the cocoon is gathered. " To follow this method, it is requisite well to observe the advancement of the season ; the shoot- ing of the mulberry leaf ; whether it is checked by cold ; if, again, the growth of the leaf is delayed, and heat should soon after set in, and ripen it more CH. v.] HISTORY OF SILK, ETC. 103 quickly than was expected, as often occurs, it would be advantageous then to hasten the worms by heat ; for if they are allowed to delay from want of heat, their first age is prolonged, and the mul- berry leaf will grow and harden, and become unfit for them ; the essential point is, that their progress should follow that of the mulberry leaf. If cultiva- tors adopt this method, they must put the eggs to hatch ten days later than they would require to be laid to hatch in the ordinary way, and they must calculate the duration of the diff'erent ages of the worm, and so manage that the completion of the rearing, or fourth age, should fall into the time in which the leaf has attained its full growth." Air. — The exhalations produced from a laboratory spacious enough to contain worms proceeding from an ounce of eggs, are quite astonishing. If one ounce of the dung taken from the wicker trays be put into a bottle capable of holding one pound and a half of liquid, and hermetically sealed, in six or eight hours after, according to the tempera- ture, the atmospherical air in the bottle will be found vitiated, and totally poisonous. To deter- mine this, a bird may be put into the bottle when it is first opened; it will faint and die if left in it many moments ; or, if a lighted candle be intro- duced into it, the candle will go out directly. These phenomena would not of course occur if the bottle contained atmospherical air alone. From this it is evident that in the fifth age, the laboratory before mentioned containing 1 ,200 pounds of excrement, that quantity may corrupt, about every eight hours, a volume of air equal to 16,800 Paris pints, or bottles, that are capable of holding two pounds of liquid ; and in one day this quantity of excrement would corrupt a volume of air equal to 50,400 Paris pints. Having thus stated the quantity of corrupt air produced by the excrement in the laboratory, it 104 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. V. must appear evident how necessary it is to get rid of it as soon as it disengages itself, and continually and gently to renovate the atmosphere. Light. — Many think that light is injurious to silk- worms. It is certain that in their native climate it does not injure them, although they are exposed to it by various circumstances ; however, there is here no question of exposing them to the sun, but only of rendering their habitations as light as our own. It is always observed, that on the sides on which the light shines directly on the hurdles, the silk- worms are more numerous and stronger than in those places where the edges of the wicker hurdles intercept the light, and form a shade, Avhich is also a reason for having very low edges to the wicker trays. Even the sun shining full on the worms seems not to annoy them. If the rays are too hot, and shine too long on them, they may suffer; but this cannot occur, nor does it affect the question, as it is not proposed to expose the silkworms to the sun, but only desired to show that the air is more vitiated, and that there is more damp in a dark laboratory than in a light one. The effect of this, perhaps the most powerful agent on life in general, should be particularly attended to in the rearing of the silkworm. In order, therefore, to cultivate the silkworm with advantage, and to put this precious insect in nearly the same circumstances as if it were in its native climate, it is necessary that ventilators should be so placed that the mass of noxious vapours should never be allowed to stagnate to the prejudice of the silkworm ; that stoves should be so situated as to maintain an equable and a fit temperature, and that the windows should be sufficient to admit a due de- gree of light. The size of the laboratory will vary according to the number of worms to be reared ; but in all cases the space should be ample, as nothing is more pre- CH. v.] HISTORY OF SILK, ETC. 105 judicial to the health of the insect than being crowded in one spot. Count Dandolo's laboratory, calculated to hold twenty ounces of eggs of silk- worms, which would ultimately yield about twenty hundred weight of cocoons, was thirty feet wide, seventy-seven feet long, and twelve feet high. The time from the hatching of an egg to the cat- erpillar spinning, is nearly five weeks. Tiiis period is subdivided by cultivators into five others, marked by the events of the worm moulting. Count Dan- dolo mentions three species of silkworm ; the first the common one, 39,168 eggs of which weigh an ounce, and which casts its skin four times, hence termed the common silkworm of four casts. Sec- ond, the small silkworm of three casts, 42,620 eggs of which weigh an ounce ; the worms and the co- coons of this sort are three fifths smaller than the preceding. They eat as much as the four-cast worm. Their cocoon is better constructed, the thread finer, and, from an equal v»^eight of cocoons, a greater quantity of silk is yielded by the three- cast silkworm than by the common or four-cast one : besides this advantage, these three-cast silk- worms require four days' less care, by which the accidents and expenses of that period are saved. The mulberry-tree, too, being stripped sooner for these, shoots faster, and is therefore better prepared to resist the approaching cold. For these reasons. Count Dandolo strongly urges the cultivation of this species in preference to that of the four-cast or common worm. There is also a large species of four-cast silkworm. The eggs of these are only one fiftieth more in weight, although the worm is, when at its full size, twice and a half as heavy as the mature common four-cast worm. The only ad- vantage these offer is that 18|- lbs. of mulberry leaves will produce Ij lb. of cocoons, while it re- quires 2O4 lbs. to produce the same quantity of silk from the common silkworm- The disadvantages 106 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. V. of the cultivation of this large species are manifest : the silk is coarser ; their life being four or five days longer, the labourers must be kept longer ; the ex- pense and the risks are therefore greater ; and the accidents attending the mulberry-tree will also be thereby multiphed. It has been stated, that 39,168 eggs of the com- mon silkworm weigh an ounce. If each egg pro- duced a worm, and each worm came to maturity, an ounce of eggs should yield 162 lbs. of cocoon. This is in conformity with Count Dandolo's expe- rience, under his improved mode of rearing the silk- worm. Latreille, however, gives a very different result. Formerly, he says, an ounce of eggs pro- duced 80 or 100 lbs. of cocoon, ten or at most twelve pounds of cocoon yielding a pound of silk. But for some time the ounce of eggs has scarcely yielded thirty or forty pounds of cocoon, and fifteen or six- teen pounds of cocoon yields but a pound of silk. This diff'erence he attributes to the injudicious selection of eggs. A perfect egg or grain, as it is termed, should be of a dark slate-colour. There are different modes adopted to hatch them. In the south of France they are enclosed in cotton, and carried by the wo- men between their petticoat and chemise during the day, and at night placed in the same bed with them. The spontaneous hatching of eggs by means of the natural heat of the atmosphere, is of course out of the question in climates as variable as those of Europe. During the hatching of the eggs, the tem- perature of the stove-room in which the worms are to be developed should be at least 64^, and this should be gradually increased up to 75^, in which degree of warmth the young worm is to be kept until the first cast or moulthig. The heat during the second cast should be between 73° and 75°, be- tween 71° and 73° till the third, and lastly, between 68° aild 71° till the fourth. I CH. v.] HISTORY OF SILK, ETC. 107 The extent of space which should be occupied by the silkworms in their different ages is no less essential than the due regulation of temperature *o their development; an ounce of eggs should have a space, In the first age, of 7 feet 4 inches square ; In the second age, of 14 feet 8 inches square ; In the third age, of 34 feet 6 inches square ; In the fourth age, of 82 feet 6 inches square ; In the fifth age, of 183 feet 4 inches square. The food which they consume should be no less accurately determined; and great care must be taken in picking and sorting the leaves for the feed- ing of the worms of the first ages, such as picking off all the twigs, the stalks of the leaves, spots, &c., and to clear them as much as possible from all use- less parts. This operation is most essential in the two first ages, when the leaves are to be chopped very small. In the third age, the sorting and pick- ing the leaves is not of much consequence, and still less so in the fourth and fifth ages. The sorting and picking is of importance, inas- much as it enables you to put fifteen or twenty per cent, less substance upon the wickers than would otherwise be done, and which the worms would not eat. This substance increases the litter and the moisture, without necessity or motive. In climates where they are in the open air, it would, of course, be unnecessary to sort the leaves. In the fifth, and even in the fourth age, when the season is favourable, leaves, mixed with a quantity of mulberries, boughs and stalks, may be put on the hurdles, although it is known that the worms do not eat them, because at that period it would be too troublesome to sort so large a quantity perfectly, nor is there the same motive to do so. These sub- stances being by this time grown large, hard, and woody, are less liable to fermentation, although they may accumulate as litter. If the laboratories 108 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. V. are kept constantly dry and well aired, these sub- stances will do no mischief, but keep the litter light, and allow the air to circulate more freely through it. When the silkworms find any leaves that they do not like, they leave them. There are some of a dark hazel colour, which have fermented shghtly ; these the worms will eat, if they are not quite spoiled, nor are they the worse for it ; from which fact it would appear that the fermentation has not affected the saccharine or resinous part of the leaf. The quantity of leaves, according to Dandolo, taken from the tree, and employed for each ounce of eggs, amounts to 1609 lbs. 8 oz., divided in the following manner : lbs. oz First age, sorted leaves, . 6 0 Second age, „ . 18 0 Third age, „ . 60 0 Fourth age, „ . 180 0 Fifth age, „ . . . 1098 0 1362 0 But this leaf has lost by sorting much of its weight, in the following proportion : — Refuse picked from the leaves : — lbs. oz. First age, ...... 1 8 Second age, .... Third age, .... Fourth age, .... Fifth age, . . . . . .102 Sorted leaves, ..... Refuse picking, 1504 During the whole period of rearing the silkworms, the 1609 lbs. 8 oz. of the leaves taken from the tree, have lost 3 0 9 0 27 0 102 0 142 8 lbs. 02 1362 0 142 8 CH. VI.] INDIAN AND OTHER MOTHS. 109 lbs. oz. Brought forward . . . 1504 8 by evaporation and other causes, be- sides sorting and piciting, as above stated, ...... 105 0 Total, 1609 8 With these precautions, it is found that in thirty- nine days the worm becomes 9500 times heavier, while in twenty-eight days it is increased forty times in length. In the last twenty-eight days of its existence, viz., from the period of its greatest development as a caterpillar until its death as a moth, it gradually diminishes in length a fifth, and in weight about thirty times. CHAPTER VI. NATtJRAL HISTORY OP INDIAN MOTHS AND OTHERS REARED FOR THEIR SILK. Tusseh Silkworm, its Metamorphoses, its Flight, Manner of winding the Silk — Jarwo Silkivorm, their Habits — Arrindy or Arundi Silkworm, Manner of Rearing, its Metamorphoses, its Silk, Manner of Spinning — The Manner of Mamfaciuring the Silk of Tinea punctata — Account of the Silk of an indigenous American Moth — History of preparing Silk from Spiders, Kinds of, Manner of Spinning, Number of Spiders, Eggs, Quantity of Silk, Weight of the Bags. Dr. Roxburgh informs Us that the East Indians possess three or four species of moths, from the cocoons of which they have been in the habit of spinning coarse kinds of silk. The first is termed the Tusseh silkworm, or Bughy, of the natives of the Burbhoom Hills {Pha- ItBTia paphia), which seems to have been employed Vol. II.— K 110 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. VI, from time immemorial, and is found in such abun- dance over many parts of Bengal and the adjoining provinces, as to have afforded to the natives a plen- tiful supply of a most durable, coarse, dark-coloured silk, which is woven into a kind of cloth called Tusseh doothies, much worn by the Brahmins and other classes of Hindoos. This silkworm cannot be reared as the common one ; the natives therefore go out in quest of them into the jungles, and find the young worms on the branches of the asseen and byers trees, which the natives cut off, and convey near their habitations, distributing the worms on the asseen in proportion to the size of the trees, but they place more on the byers, and employ the Pariahs to guard them day and night, to preserve them from birds and bats. The eggs of this species are white, and are hatched according to the temperature of the air; in two or three weeks, however, the worms have nearly acquired their full size, which is above four inches in length and three in circumference ; their colours are hght green, with a light yellowish-col- oured stripe on each side; the sixth and seventh rings are marked with an oblong gold spot; the back is also marked with a few round darker coL- FiG. 2. CH. VI.] INDIAN AND OTHER MOTHS. Ill oured spots, and from these issue a few long, coarse, distinct hairs, with others of a smaller size scattered over the body. These worms, when they approach near their full size, suspend themselves by their feet, as they are too heavy to crawl in search of their food with their back upwards, as is usual with most caterpillars. When these worms are ready to spin their co- coons, in Avhich they are to pass the torpid state of their existence, each of them connects, by means of the recent glutinous filaments of which the co- coon is made, two or three leaves into an exterior envelope, which serve as a basis to spin the com- plete cocoon in ; besides which it is suspended, as in fig. 2, from a iDranch of the tree in a wonderful manner, by a thick solid cord, spun of the same materials as the cocoon, which is of an oval form, and very firm in texture. After the space of nine months the chrysalis discharges from its mouth a quantity of liquor, with which the upper end of the cocoon is softened, so as to enable the perfect insect to work its way out in a very short space of time. The perfect insect is very large, and measures from the tip of one wing of the male to that of the other, five or six, and the female from six to eight inches. The wings are of a uniform yellowish brown, with one round transparent spot in each of the fore wings. In this state, it is said, they all take flight, females as well as males ; and the ac- counts given by the natives of the distance which the male insects fly are truly astonishing, for it is no uncommon practice among them to catch some of the male moths, and put a mark on their wings previous to letting them fly, the marks of different districts being known, and it has been stated that these insects have been caught at a distance of a hundred miles and upwards. Their life, which continues from six to twelve days, is wholly taken up in providing for a continuation of the species. 112 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. VI. The female deposites her eggs on the branches of the tree on which she may happen to rest, and they adhere firmly by means of the gluten which covers them when newly laid. The natives, when about to wind off these co- coons, place them in a ley made of plantain ashes and water, for about two hours, and then set them in an earthen pot; those which are properly soft- ened are first applied to the reel, and so on, till the whole are wound off, which is performed in the fol- lowing manner : the cocoons are laid in a smooth earthen dish without water, the reel is turned by the right hand, while the thread of four or five co- coons passes over the left thigh of the spinner, and he gives the threads a twist with his left hand upon his thigh. The thread is exceedingly apt to come off double and treble for several yards together, which is not regarded by the natives, as breaking off double threads would diminish the produce, and moreover would occasion loss of time ; a very even thread, however, may with care be reeled from either the Bughy or Jarroo cocoons. The species just mentioned is so called from be- ing produced in the coldest month of the year, say January, the former being about a month before them. The history of the Jarroo is very similar to the one just described ; but the principal difference between these two species is, that the natives dress out plots of asseen-trees on purpose for these worms, and retain a part of the cocoons, which they hang out on the asseen-trees when the proper season arrives for the moths to come to their perfect state. The male insects of this species are said invariably, soon after birth, to fly away and leave the females on the trees ; but, in the space of ten or twelve hours, or perhaps one, two, or three days, a flight of strange males arrives, settles on the branches with the females which have been neglected, and after a short time the female lays her eggs and then CH. VI.] INDIAN AND OTHER MOTHS. 113 expires. The hill people calculate good or ill for- tune in proportion to the speedy or tardy arrival of the males. The cocoon is of darker colour than the bughy, and like that the worms are also guarded. The other species is peculiar to the interior of Ben- gal, and is named Arrindy or Arundi, on account of the worms feeding on the arrindi, ricinus, or palma christi, from which tree the castor-oil is extracted. This species is capable of being reared in the same manner as the common silkworms. The eggs of this insect are ovate, of a pure white colour, and are hatched in about ten or fifteen days. In about a month the worms arrive to their full size, in which period they cast their skins three or four times ; the size of this worm is from two and a half to three inches in length, composed of ten rings ; across the centre of each are several small, soft, conic, pointed tubercles; the prevailing colour is pale green; in this state they are voracious, devouring daily many times their own weight of food. The cocoons are white or yellowish, of a very soft dehcate texture ; in general, about two or three inches in length, and three in circumference, pointed at both ends. In this case the chrysalis remains ten to twenty days, then issues forth from one end, and in the perfect state exists from four to eight days, during which period it is wholly employed in the great work of nature, remaining perfectly contented in its cham- ber, and seldom attempting to fly away. The wings expand from four to live inches, and are of a gray- ish-brown colour, with bands across and a diapha- nous spot in the centre. K2 114 NATURAL HlSTOilY. [cH. VI. • The silk is so exceedingly delicate as to render it impracticable to wind it off; it is therefore spun like cotton. The yarn thus manufactured is woven into a coarse kind of white cloth, of a seemingly loose texture, but of incredible durability, the life of one person being seldom sufficient to wear out a gar- ment made of it, so that the same piece descends from mother to daughter. The manner of spinning the cocoon of this spe- cies is stated to be in the following way, viz. : four or five are fastened to a stick, stuck in the ground, or on an apparatus held in the hand ; their threads are united into one, by means of being made fast to a piece of wood, with a heavy weight to make it spin round, while suspended by the thread ; but they are always spun wet, by being placed in cold water. The cloth is woven in small pieces in a loom ; it is coarse and open. On being however well washed and beaten in cold water, it is made soft and pliable ; if placed in boiling water, it causes it to tear like old rotten cloth. There is also a cocoon which is mixed with the above species in spinning, found wild on the mango- trees, but otherwise little known. Various means have been employed in Europe to obtain different sorts of silks ; thus the caterpillars of a minute moth {Tinea punctata) have been used by M. Habenstreet in the following manner: — A great number of these worms are placed on a model (which is suspended from the ceiling of a room), of the form of the robe or shawl, &c., that is required to be made, and the motions of the in- sects are directed by oiling the part of the model not to be covered by them. The cloth thus ob- tained exceeds in fineness the lightest gauze, and has been worn as a robe, over her court dress, by the Queen of Bavaria. In America Mr. Bartram has experimented on an indigenous species of moth, which he found CH. VI.] INDIAN AND OTHER MOTHS. 115 much more easily raised than the common silk- worms : he did not lose any by sickness ; neither lightning nor thunder disturbs them ; nor are they subject to be hurt by the frost, as is the case with the common kind. And as they lie so long in their chrysalis state, the cocoons may be unwound at leisure hours during the winter evening. One of their cocoons will weigh more than four of the common silkworms, and, it may be presumed, will yield a proportionably greater quantity of silk. Means also have been employed by M. Bon, in the year 1710, for procuring and preparing silk from the webs of spiders, from which we have extracted the following; — " M. Bon reduces the spiders under two heads, those with long legs and those with short, which furnish the finest raw silk. The filaments of the spiders are of two kinds ; the first is weak, and is commonly termed the web, it only serves for the purpose of catching flies; the second is much stronger, and is formed into bags to contain the eggs, which, by this means, are sheltered from the cold, and guarded from the ichneumon: the bags are wound very loose round the eggs ; the latter are generally of a gray colour when fresh, but they soon turn blackish when exposed to the air." M. Bon collected about twelve or thirteen ounces of the bags of the short-legged kind, as they were the most common to be met with ; and caused them to be well beaten for some time with the hand and a stick, to get out all the dust; he then washed them in lukewarm water, till they left the water very clean; after this operation, he laid them to steep, in a large vessel, with soap, saltpetre, and gumarabic. The whole was left to boil over a gentle fire for three hours, then taken out, and washed in warm water to get out the soap ; and after all, laid to dry some days, to fit them for card' ing, which was done by the coinmon silk-carders. 116 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. VI. but with cards much finer than ordinary. He thus obtained a silk of an ash colour, which was easily spun ; the thread thus procured was both stronger and finer than that of common silk ; which shows, that all sorts of works may be made of it ; nor is there any reason to fear but that it will stand any trials of the loom, after having passed that of the stocking-weavers. M. Bon had stockings and gloves made of this material, which he presented to the French Academy and to the Royal Society. Some difficulties having been advanced as to the practicability of procuring a sufficient quantity of spider-bags for any large work, M. Bon observes that there would be no difficulty at all, had we but the art of breeding them, as we do silkworms ; for they multiply much more, every spider laying from six to seven hundred eggs, which are hatched of themselves, without any care, in the months of Au- gust and September. M. Bon ordered all the short- legged spiders that could be found in the above months to be brought to him, and placed ihem in boxes made of paper, which he pricked full of pin- holes to give them air, and fed tliem with flies : some time afterward, he found that the greatest part of them had formed their egg-bags ; and he considered that the spiders yielded more silk in proportion than the common silkworm ; for example, he said that it really required two ounces of spider- silk to make a pair of stockings, whereas it takes seven or eight of common silk. But M. Reaumur was of an opinion that the nat- ural fierceness of the spiders renders them unfit to be bred in the manner of silkworms, or to be kept together in cells, fifty or more in each, for the large and strong spiders destroy and eat their weak com- panions, until there is hardly one or two left in each cell. He also affirms that the spider-bag is inferior, both in lustre and strength, to that of the common silkworm ; and he mentions that the thread of the CH. VII.] LUMINOUS WINGED INSECTS. 117 spider-bags only bears the weight of thirty-six grains, while that of the common silkworm is ca- pable of bearing two drachms and a half, although the former is about eighteen times thicker ; and that they furnish much less silk than the silkworms, as the weight of the spider-bag is about a grain, and when clean for use it loses two thirds, while that of the silkworm weighs four grains. Therefore it requires 2,304 of the latter to produce a pound of silk, while it takes at least 27,648 spiders to pro- duce the same weight ; the work of twelve spiders only equals that of one silkworm; nor can the thread be wound off as easily as that of the silk- worm, but must, of necessity, be carded ; by which means, being torn in pieces, its evenness, which contributes much to its lustre, is destroyed. CHAPTER VII. ON LUMINOUS WINGED INSECTS. History of the Glow-worm — Description of the Egg — The Larva- Its Cleanli7iess — The Pupa — The perfect Insect — Difference be- tween the Sexes — The Light — Whether extinguished at pleasure — The luminous Matter — Darwin'' s Opinion — The Effects when placed in Gases — In Acid — Cams'' s Opinion — Whether it con- tain Heat — Murray's Opinion — History of the Lantern of Paus- sus sph(Brocerus—Of the Firefly— Of the Lanternfiy—Of the Candlefly — Object of the Light. We propose in this chapter to give an account of those insects which are remarkable for their lumi- nous property. Most of our readers may have ob- served a phenomenon, which is thus described by the poet Thomson, " Among the choked lanes, on every hedge The glow-worm lights his gems ; and through the dark " A moving radiance twinkles." 118 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. VII. We well remember, even this day, the idea we received in our childhood by the first impression on viewing one of these insects ; we could scarcely overcome the species of terror and distrust with which we saw moving insects on fire, and yet not consumed ; but a short time corrected our errors, and admiration succeeded the more painful feeling. No time has since been able to diminish the de- light with which we first contemplated these " stars of the earth." The glow-worm {Lampyris nociiluca) is very com- mon, but is either local in its habits, being only found in certain places, and has been supposed to disappear occasionally for some time, and then re appear with its usual splendour. It is more gener- ally found to inhabit the borders of paths and the outer margins of woods or coppices, especially in low situations, where it is observable after the heat of the day is over, and when the dew is falling. ^ The females, which are more numerous than the males, deposite their eggs in the month of June or July, on grass, moss, &c. They are of a yellow colour, and are stated to be luminous, but it is doubtful whether the luminous matter so observed is any thing but an excretion of the insect, appear- ing under the form of a congeries of minute brill- iant points. The larvae, after remaining quiescent for about five or six weeks, break their shells and make their appearance ; when first emerged from the eggs they are very small and of a white colour, but they rapidly increase in size, and become much darker, passing from a dark brown to almost black. The three stages of these insects, viz., larva, pupa, and imago, or perfect insects, are very similar to one another. The larva is composed of eleven segments ; it has six feet ; two rows of reddish spots down the back ; and is capable of emitting a phosphoric light from the last rings of the abdo- men. The light appears like two brilliant spots, CH. VII.] LUMINOUS WINGED INSECTS. 119 when attentively examined, during the fine nights in autumn, when they are creeping about in search of their food, which consists of small snails, &c. A curious account has been given of the cleanliness of the larvae, after having partaken of their food, from which we will make the following extract : — "Having foimd the larva," says a gentleman, "when looking for objects of natural history in the neighbourhood of Dartford, I placed it into my box, and thinking it might be a vegetable feeder, I put some of the oak bark, moss, fern, and honeysuckle along with it. Into the same box I afterward put several specimens of small snails, with pellucid shells, which I found in the same locality. When on inspecting it the next day, I found that the veg- etable substances I had placed with it were not touched, and that the snails had glued themselves to the top of the box. After examining the insect for some time, I noticed that it made some very singular movements with its tail, in the manner of the common earwig and the devil's coach-horse, by bending up its tail over its back. There appeared to be something so uncommon in its movements. 120 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. VII. that my curiosity was excited to observe them more minutely ; and, as the creature was not at all timid, I could easily observe it through a glass of some power. The caudal instrument, I discovered by this means, consists of a double row of white cartilaginous rays, {b) disposed in a circle, one row With the rays open, With the rays shut, within the other, and what was most singular, these were retractile in a curious manner, to the horns of the snail. The rays were united by a soft, moist, gelatinous membrane, but so as to be individually CH. VII.} LUMINOUS WINGED INSECTS. 121 extensile; one or two being frequently stretched beyond the line of the others. It was not long be- fore I convinced myself that this singular instru- ment was employed by the insect for cleaning itself, and it would have been difficult to devise any thing more eff"ectual for the purpose, though its ac- tions were different from all others of this kind with which I was acquainted, inasmuch as it operated by suction, and not as a comb, a brush, or a wiper. It was moreover furnished in the interior with a sort of pocket of a funnel shape, formed by the conver- ging rays, into which was collected the dirt, &c., from off" the back of the insect." The accuracy of these facts we must leave for further in*^estigation. After the space of one year and nine months the larvae are changed, having however frequently cast off" their skins, into the second or pupa state, in which they remain nearly quiescent for two or three weeks, when they change their last skins and become perfect insects. In this state the two sexes are easily distinguished, as the male appears like a perfect beetle, having wings and wing-cases ; while the female, on the contrary, seems to have undergone hardly any change in appearance from that of the larva, except that she is much larger, and of a lighter colour. It is the female which is prin- cipally luminous in the perfect state. The male was generally considered incapable of exhibiting any light, until John Ray, the father of English naturalists, first pointed out that the latter sex was Vol. II.— L 122 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. VII. also in possession of this luminous property, but in a less degree ; the light in it is only distinguishable when the wings are expanded, or when the insects are flying, as the luminous matter is hidden and much smaller in this sex. The females of the glow-worm can occasionally conceal or eclipse their light. The author of the excellent " Natural History of Selborne" supposed that they regularly extinguished the torch between the hours of eleven and twelve ; M'-hich has called forth the idea that it may be to secure themselves from becoming the prey of the nightingale or some other nocturnal bird : while the author of the " Jour- nal of a Naturalist" considers that the summer light of the glow-worm is displayed as a signal taper, or, as Mr. Moore has more poetically said — " The glow-worm's lamp is gleaming, love." The appearance of the autumnal light can have no such object, unless it serves as a point of union in the supposed migrations, like the leading call in migratory birds.* The last mentioned observer in- forms us " that the light of the glow-worm has sen- sibly diminished since the 14th of July. Though deep in the herbage, a clear steady light has been observed as late on one occasion as the 28th of Sep- tember, 1826, though very different in its sparkling from that of the summer months. The light of one, if placed on the watch-glass, is sufficient to ascer- tain the hour: nor is it an uncommon occurrence for anglers, &c., to place several of these insects on i their hats, when they have been out in the evening, , to cheer them after their day's sport. We are informed by Mr. Macartney that the light- yielding matter reposes under the transparent por- tion of the skin, through which it is seen ; and he * The common people of Italy believe that these insects in- habit the graves of the departed. CH. VII.] LUMINOUS WINGED INSECTS. 123 infers that the luminous matter in the glow-worm is absorbed, being replaced by the interstitial matter, when the season for emitting light is gone by. He also observed two minute elliptical sacs, formed of an elastic fibre, wound spirally, and similar to that of the tracheae of insects, which contained a yellow substance, soft in consistency, and closer in texture than that hning the adjoining region, and affording a more brilliant and permanent light. This light he concluded to be less under the control of the in- sect than the luminous substance in its vicinity, which he infers it has the property voluntarily to extinguish, referable to some inscrutable power de- pendant on volition, and not, as was advocated by Carradori, by retracting it under a membrane : when he extracted the latter from living glow-worms it afforded no light, while the two sacs, in like circum- stances, shone uninterruptedly for several hours. It was supposed by Dr. Darwin that the luminous appearance was owing to a secretion of some phos- phoric matter, and a slow combustion arising from this phosphorus entering into combination with the oxygen inspired ; Mr. Murray, however, has experi- mentally ascertained, " that the luminous matter does not contain phosphorus." It was, however, regarded by Spallanzani as a compound of hydrogen and phosphoretted hydrogen : this gentleman -and Foster also ascertained that the luminous matter shone more brilliantly in oxygen : 3^et several ex- perimenters have found no such effect take place. It has also been stated, that the light of the glow- worm is extinguished by the application of hydro- gen and carbonic acid gas ; while, on the other hand, these effects have also been contradicted ; but it is added, that the insect appears not to suffer ma- terially in the former ; and though the insect ex- pired in carbonic acid gas, the light suffered no echpse by its death, but continued for some time. It has also been stated, that the light was in- 124 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. VII. creased by heat and oxygen, and extinguished by cold, also by hydrogen and carbonic acid gas. Mr. Murray has ascertained, by experiments, " that the light is not sensibly increased by the purest oxygen, and is not extinguished in hydrogen and carbonic acid gas;" and he found that the luminous matter continued to shine, without alteration, in oxvgen, nitrous oxyde, hydrogen, carbonic acid gas, cyano- gen, olefiant gas, and nitrous gas ; and the light is not extinguishable by being placed in water, oil, or even in different kinds of acids, such as muriatic, nitric, and sulphuric, but continued for some seconds. In a solution of pure caustic potassa it became of a bluish teint, and appeared to undulate ; and in tinc- ture of iodine the light continued for a minute. In alcohol it lasted nearly two, and in ammonia it con- tinued for a minute. It has lately been discovered by Dr. Carus, of Dresden, that there is a connexion between the cir- culation of the blood in the Lampyris Italtca, or Italian glow-worm, and the luminous matter which occupies a great part of the under side of the abdo- men, and that the varying intensity of the light is thus produced ; the greater intensity corresponding precisely with each pulsation of that fluid : being from forty-four to fifty-four times in a minute, when the insect is not disturbed, but more rapid and irreg- ular when alarmed. Some authors are of opinion that there exists a sensible degree of heat in the luminous matter, for it has been stated that the thermometer was affect- ed by nearly a degree when the insect was allowed to pass over its bulb ; while others have asserted that no heat is perceptible. Mr. Murray is of opinion that the luminous sub- stance remains permanently luminous, and the eclipse seems entirely occasioned by the spherulae, in which the luminous principle resides, being withdrawn by a contractile movement into the darker recesses of CH. VII.] LUMINOUS WINGED INSECTS. 125 the body of the insects, or being imbosomed in the interstitial substance. The light, when placed in elevated temperatures, is destroyed, perhaps by de- composition, which low temperature only tempo- rarily suspends. We think it proper to add, that the glow-worm is not the only insect which is capable of emitting a light, but that there are several species in different orders which possess this property in common. The light is, however, displayed from various parts of their bodies. Thus, in a rare insect [Paussus sphcErocerus) from Africa, the globes of the antennae, as we are informed by Mr. Afzelius, were, to his astonishment, on opening a box, wherein he had placed one for security, able to spread a phosphoric light, like, to use his expression, two lanterns. This so excited his curiosity that he was induced to examine this singular phenomenon several times during the evening. But on looking at it the follow- ing morning, he found the insect dead, and that the light had disappeared. The next insect, an inhabitant of South America, is termed the firefly (Elater noct.iluca). It is about an inch long, and one third of an inch broad, of a dark brownish-black colour, except a yellow eyelike tubercle, placed at each posterior angle of the tho- rax. There are also two patches on the abdomen, concealed by the wing-cases^ which are luminous. When the insect is flying, it appears adorned with four brilliant gems of the most beautiful golden-blue lustre : in fact, the whole body of this remarkable insect is stated to be full of luminous matter, which shines forth between the abdominal rings when stretched. This fact probably suggested the fol- lowing lines of Darwin : — " Yovi bid in air the tropic beetle burn, And fill with golden flame his winged urn." The light which proceeds from the two spots on the L2 126 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. VII. thorax is said to be sufficient for a person to read the smallest print, by moving one of them, when placed between the fingers with the light down- wards, along the line ; and, when several are put together in a glass or transparent tube, the light will be found sufficiently great to admit of writing by it. These singular creatures have doubtless lent a friendly light to many a tropical wanderer. No doubt the briUiancy of the spectacle alone is suffi- cient to raise the despondent spirit of a person who has lost his track in one of the deep American forests. Their splendour has been mentioned in the following words : — " I could not but admire the thousands and tens of thousands of fireflies that spangled the gulf below, a tiny galaxy; they did not tvviniile promiscuously, but seemed to emit their small green light by signals, beginning at the head of the ravine, and glaring all the way down in a wavy, continuous, lambent flash; every fly, as it were, taking the time from its neighbour ahead; then, for a moment, all would be dark, until the stream of sparkles flowed down once more from the head of the valley, and again disappeared astern of us." We are informed that these insects were for- merly used by the Indians as lamps, so that they were enabled to perform their evening household works, to spin, weave, paint, dance, &c., by their light, as well as for the purpose of lighting them on their nocturnal hunting and fishing expeditions; when employed for the latter, one of them was tied to each of their feet. They are also used by the Indians, by whom these insects are denominated cucuji, for the purpose of destroying the gnats or mosehetoes in their abodes, which would become otherwise excessively trouble- some. When required for this occupation, it be- comes necessary for the Indians to place them- selves on some eminence, with a lighted firebrand in their hands, which they wave about in the air ; CH. VII.] LUMINOUS WINGED INSECTS. 127 these insects, as well as others, are attracted by the light, and, at the same time, we are told, the Indians often call out cucuie, cucuie ; and after hav- ing- secured a sufficient number, they return and let them loose in their residences, where the insect seeks the moschetoes about the beds, and the faces of those asleep. The same person also relates, that many wanton wild fellows rub their faces with the luminous matter of these insects, for the purpose of meeting their neighbours with a flaming counte- nance. On certain festival days they are collected in great numbers, and distributed over the garments of the young people, who gallop through the street on their chargers, which are also similarly orna- mented; thus producing, on a dark evening, the idea of moving figures of fiery horsemen. And also on similar occasions, the young men display their gallantry by decking their mistresses with these sparkling living "diamonds." Mr. Southey has, in one of his poems, mentioned this fly in the following manner : — " She beckoned and descended, and drew out From underneath her A'est a cage, or net It rather might be called, so fine the twigs Which knit it, where confined two fireflies gave Their lustre. By that Ught did Madoc first Behold the features of his lovely bride." It is related by Mouffet, that, on one occasion, this insect caused in the West Indies the failure of some troops ; for in the evening of the day on which they had landed, they saw an infinite number of moving lights in the woods, which they supposed were the torches of the Spaniards advancing upon them, and immediately betook themselves to their ships. Having mentioned three species of coleopterous or hard-winged insects, we will now proceed to speak of two of the hemipterous order, which are 128 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. VII. Stated to possess the power of discharging a light from the projection in front of their heads ; but as to the accuracy of this statement, we think it best to quol€ the words of the European who first promul- gated this extraordinary phenomenon. Madame Merian, in her work on the Insects of Surinam, gives the following curious account of the manner in which she was frightened by this insect : — " The Indians once brought me," says the lady, " before I knew that they shone by night, a number of these lanternflies {Fnlgora lanternaria), which I shut up in a large wooden box. In the night they made such a noise that I awoke in a fright, and ordered a light to be brought, not knowing from whence the noise proceeded. As soon as we found that it came from the box, we opened it, but were still more alarmed, and let it fall to the ground in a fright, at seeing a flame of fire come out of it ; and as many animals as came out so many flames of fire appeared. When we found this to be the case, we recovered from our fright, and again collected the insects, highly admiring their splendid appearance." CH. VII.] LUMINOUS WINGED INSECTS. 129 She also states, that the light proceeding from one of these insects was sufficient to read a com- mon newspaper. Parts of the lanternfly are formed into armlets and necklaces, attached together by- means of fine metallic thread, and worn by the higher ranks of the Brazilian ladies, by whom their splendour is considered exquisite and brilliant. Such gems are these ornaments held by the ladies, that the sum of ten to fourteen pounds is said to be given for them. It has also been stated by a travel- ler, that he journeyed many miles by the light of these insects through the woods and district of the Brazils. The second species, which is designated the candlefly (Fulgora candelaria), is an inhabitant of China, from whence dry specimens are sent in great profusion. The light is said to proceed from the projection in front of the head, as in the former, though some authors have doubted the accuracy of this idea. Mr. Donovan, in his book on the Insects of China, has represented one seated on a flower, emitting a powerful light, which light is stated to be of a faint purplish colour. This is supposed to be the insect collected by the tenawhat (which may 130 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. VIII. prove to be a species of Ploceus or Weaver-bird), to decorate its nest, to which they are attached by means of clay or some other adhesive substance, whether for tlie purpose of food or of light remains to be proved, or " perhaps to scare some nocturnal spoiler ;" one author states it may be " to see com- pany." The real object of this light is not thoroughly understood by entomologists ; but Messrs. Kirby and Spence " consider that it may act the part that their name imports, enabling them to discover their prey, and to steer themselves safely in the night," which probably is the case, as most of the herbivorous sucking insects are nocturnal. When this luminous projection is cut down the centre and laid open, it will be found perfectly hollow, without any appear- ance of having contained any luminous matter, which, perhaps, is situated between the outer skin and the interior lining of the rostrum or beak of the insect. CHAPTER VIII. NATURAL HISTORY OF COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. History of the Cockchafer, its Ravages — Description of the Larva, Pupa, Perfect Insect, its mode of appearing, Habits — Account of its Ravages in Ireland — The history of the Death-watch, the Vulgar Opinion, its I^oise, Number of Strokes — History of the Burying-beetle, its Manner of Burying Moles, 4"C. — For what Purpose — Description of the Larva and Pupa. In this and the following chapter we propose to give the natural history of several coleopterous or hard-winged insects. One of the most destructive is commonly known by the name of Cockchafer {Melolontha vulgaris). The larva, which is vulgarly CH. VIII.] COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. 131 called the white worm, commits great ravages du- ring four years which nature has allotted for the duration of their existence, on the roots of plants, grasses, and on any vegetable substances that may fall in their way while burrowing beneath the sur- face of the earth. In autumn they begin to bury themselves deep in the earth, to protect them from the inclemency of the winter, lying in a torpid state. On the approach of spring they recommence their work of destruction, by undermining acres of the richest meadows, so that the turf can be rolled up as if it had been cut with a turf-spade. A poor farmer, near Norwich, suffered so much from the grubs, that the court of that city, out of compas- sion, allowed him twenty-five pounds ; the man and his servant declared that they had gathered eighty bushels of these obnoxious insects. In the year 1785, many provinces of France were so infested by them, that the government offered a premium for the best mode of destroying them. It is more particularly to feast upon this grub that the rooks follow the plough. When the larva has arrived to its full growth they cease to eat, and then bury 132 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. Vllt^ themselves in the earth to the depth of a foot and a half or two feet. It constructs itself a very even sort of cocoon, smooth within, and lines it with its excrements, and with some silken thread. Their bodies become shorter and inflated. They quit their skin and change into a chrysalis, through the covering of which all the parts of the perfect in- sect are easily distinguished. In the month of Feb- ruary the cockchafer tears its envelope, and issues forth under its final form. But the insect is at first yellowish, and rather soft, and still remains for some time under ground, to get rid of its superfluous humidity. It approaches by little and little to the surface of the earth, from which it does not issue forth entirely until it is attracted by a mild heat. The contact with the air completely fortifies it, and gives its external parts their proper colour. CH. VIII.] COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. 133 Having now arrived at its perfect slate, it begins to congregate in great numbers on the borders of forests or v/oods, remaining motionless in the day- time, but on the setting of the sun it issues forth to devour the leaves of the various trees, and is not particular whether it be elm or lime. They remain in this state eight or nine days, having performed all the functions intended by nature on their arri- ving at this their last stage. The female, when about to lay her eggs, digs a hole in the earth, with the assistance of her fore-feet, about half a foot in depth, and deposites her eggs, one by the side of the other ; having finished this operation, the insect re- turns to the trees, and perishes, after having lan- guished one or two days. It appears, from a paper printed in the Philo- sophical Transactions for 1697, that these insects committed great ravages in particular districts in Ireland. " These insects," says Mr. Molineux, "were first noticed in this kingdom in 1G88. They appeared on the southeast coastofGalw ay, brought thither by a southwest wind, one of the most com- mon, I might almost say, tradewinds of this coun- try. From hence they penetrated into the inland parts towards Headford, about twelve miles north of the town of Galway. Here and there in the ad- jacent country, multitudes of them appeared among the trees and hedges in the daytime, hanging by the boughs in clusters, like bees when they swarm. In this posture they continued, with little or no mo- tion, during the heat of the sun ; but towards even- ing or sunset they would all disperse and fly about, with a strange humming noise, like the beating of distant drums, and in such vast numbers, that they darkened the air for the space of two or three square miles. Persons travelling on the roads, or abroad in the fields, found it very uneasy to make their way through them, they would so beat and knock themselves against their faces in their flight, and Vol. n.— M 134 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. VIII with such a force as to make the place smart, and leave a mark behind them. In a short time after their coming they had so entirely eaten up and de- stroyed all the leaves of the trees for some miles round, that the whole country, though in the middle of summer, M^as left as bare as in the depth of win- ter ; and the noise they made, in gnawing the leaves, made a sound much resembhng the sawing of tim- ber. They also came into the gardens, and de- stroyed the buds, blossoms, and leaves of all the fruit-trees, so that they were left perfectly naked ; nay, many that were more delicate than the rest, lost their sap as well as leaves, and quite withered away, so that they never recovered again. Their multitudes spread so exceedingly, that they infested houses, and became extremely offensive and trouble- some. Their numerous young, hatched from the eggs which they had lodged under ground, near the surface of the earth, did still more harm in that close retirement than all the flying swarms of their parents had done abroad ; for this destructive broody lying under ground, ate up the roots of corn and grass, and thus consumed the support both of man and beast. This plague was' happily checked sev- eral ways. High winds and wet mizzling weather destroyed many millions of them in a day; and when this constitution of the air prevailed, they were so enfeebled that they would let go their hold, and drop to the ground from the branches ;^ and so little a fall as this was quite sufficient to dis- able, and sometimes perfectly to kill them : nay, it was observable that even when they were most vig- orous, a slight blow would for some time stun them^ if not deprive them of life. During these unfavour- able seasons of the weather, the swine and poultry of the country would watch under the trees for their falling, and feed and fatten on them ; and even the poorer sort of the country people, when the country laboured under a scarcity of provisions, had a way CH. VIII.] COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. 135 of dressing them, and living upon them as food. In a little time, it was found that smoke was another thing very offensive to them ; and by burning heath, fern, &c., the gardens were secured, or if the insects had already entered, they were thus driven out again. Towards the latter end of summer they re- tired of themselves, and so totally disappeared, that in a few days you could not see one left. A year or two ago, all along the southwest coast of the county of Galway, for some miles together, there were found dead on the shore such infinite multi- tudes of them, and in such vast heaps, that, by a moderate estimate, it was computed that there could not be less than forty or fifty horse-loads in all; which was a new colony, or a supernumerary swarm, from the same place whence the first stock came, in 1688, driven by the wind from their native land, which I conclude to be Normandy or Brittany, in France ; it being a country much infested by this insect, and from whence England has, therefore, been pestered in a similar manner with swarms of this vermin ; but these meeting with a contrary wind before they could land, were stopped and tired with the voyage, and were all driven into the sea ; which, by the motions of its waves and tides, cast their floating bodies in heaps to the shore. It is observed, that they seldom keep above a year to- gether in a place, and their usual stages or marches are computed to be about six miles in a year. Hitherto their progress has been westerly, follow- ing the course of that wind which blows most com- monly in this country." "In the year 1574," says Mouffet, "so great a number of cockchafers were driven into the river Severn, that they altogether hindered the mills from working, and were with difficulty destroyed by the united efforts of the people, and the different kinds of hawks, ducks, and other birds, which devoured them with eagerness." 136 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. VIII. Various methods have been proposed for destroy- ing the insect, both in the larva and imago ; when in the larva state, it is proposed to cause the plough to be followed by children, to gather up in baskets such of these animals as the share might upturn, and then burn them. The method proposed for de- stroying the perfect insects is to burn flambeaux made of sulphur, surrounded with pitch, rosin, and a slight external layer of yellow wax : while the in- sects remain in a state of repose on the leaves and hedges, the flambeaux being paraded under, the in- sects are suff"ocated by the smoke and the odour of the sulphur, rosin, &c., so that they are easily shaken off" and burnt. The rook, jay, and several other omnivorous birds, are thought, instead of being reckoned a nuisance to man, amply to deserve his protection, for the great benefit they confer on the farmer ; for nearly three months of the spring they do little else than walk about the fields for the purpose of seek- ing for and feeding on the grub of this destructive insect. From the following curious calculation, an idea may be formed as to the just value of these much-injured birds : — " Suppose a nest of five young jays, each, while yet young, consumed," says a cautious observer, " at least fifteen of these full- sized grubs in a day, and averaging their sizes, it may be said they each consumed twenty ; this, for five, makes one hundred ; and if we suppose the two parents to devour between them the same num- ber, it appears that this family consumed about two hundred. This, in three months, amounts to 20,000 : but as the grub continues in the same state four years, this single family, without reckoning their descendants after the first year, would destroy as many as 80,000 grubs. Now, supposing that 40,000 of these insects would have been in due time females, and that each female lays, as is really the case, two hundred eggs, it will appear that no less CH. VIII.] COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. 137 than 8,000,000 of grubs have been destroyed, or at least prevented from being hatched, by this single family of jays." That remarkable insect commonly known by the name of the death-watch, under which, however, several insects are confounded, has been the cause of more terror to mankind than any thing in nature of equal bulk : its size does not exceed a quarter of an inch, and the colour is very similar to decayed wood, in which the animal lives. It has been considered a portentive of death to some one of the family in the house where it is heard, though the philosopher and naturalist may smile at this absurd idea : " Yet," says Sir Thomas Brown, " the person who could eradicate this error from the minds of the people, would save many a cold sweat from the meticulous head of nurses and grandmothers." This vulgar error no doubt gave rise to the following lines of Swift : — " A woodworm That lies in old wood, like a hare in her form, With teeth or with claw, it will bite or will scratch ; And chamber-maids christen this worm a death-watch — Because, like a watch, it always cries click: Then wo be to those in the house who are sick — For, sure as a gun, they would give up the ghost If the maggot cries click, when it scratches the post : But, a kettle of scalding hot water injected, InfaUibly cures the timber affected : The omen is broken, the danger is over, ' The maggot will die, and the sick will recover." In old houses, where these ominous insects abound, they may be heard during the day, as the spring advances, to call to one another; which call, if no answer be returned, the insect repeats in a dif- ferent place. This sharp ticking, which by its dis- tinctness quickly fixes the attention, is performed by raising itself upon its hind-legs, and then, with its body a little inclined, it strikes its head with great force and agility on the plane of position, and its M2 138 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. VIII. strokes are sometimes so powerful as to make con- siderable impression, especially if they fall on any substance softer than wood. Mr. Derham tells us, that he had two of these insects in a little box for about three weeks, and he could make one of them beat whenever he pleased, by imitating the insect, which can be done by tapping with a nail upon the table; it having become so familiarized as to an- swer readily. The prevailing number of distinct strokes which this insect of ill omen beats, is from seven to nine or eleven times in quick succession ; which very circumstance may, perhaps, still add, in some degree, to the ominous character it bears among the vulgar. The silence of night gives such full value to the love-calls of these insects, that it has caused vulgar and superstitious minds to sup- pose that the death-tick is only heard at midnight. — " The wether's bell Before the drooping flock tolled forth the knell, The solemn death-watch clicked the hour she died!" A more curious instance of laborious industry is furnished by the burying beetle. It was first re- marked by M. Gleditsch, that dead moles and other small animals, if laid on loose ground, quickly dis- appeared. In order to ascertain the cause of such a curious circumstance, he placed one in his garden, and found that on the third morning it was removed CH. YIII.] COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. 139 from the surface and buried three inches beneath the soil. It was strange that the dark and peaceful life of a mole should have merited at some friendly hand the honours of the sepulchre : observing noth- ing, however, but four beetles under the carcass, he buried the creature again, and found that in six days it swarmed with maggots. It then struck M. Gle- ditsch that these were the progeny of the beetles he had seen, and that these had performed the rites of sepulture for the purpose of safely committing their young to a mass which, if not concealed, would have been destroyed by the first carrion crow.* Accord- ingly he placed four of these beetles under a glass cover, and gave them two dead frogs. In twelve hours, two of the insects had buried one of the frogs ; the other two ran about the whole day, ap- parently busied in measuring the dimensions of their work ; and, on the third day, the second frog was also buried. M. Gleditsch then gave them a dead hnnet : a pair of beetles immediately prepared to inter the bird. They pushed out the earth from under the body, and tugged at the feathers, and made all the efforts suitable to their end. The male, how- ever, chose to drive away the female, and for five hours to labour alone. He lifted up and turned the bird, gave it a more convenient arrangement, and from time to time mounted on the carcass to tread it down. At length, wearied with its labour, it leaned its head upon the earth, beside the bird, and for a full hour remained as motionless as the corpse by its side. After this it proceeded with renewed vigour. And by dint of pulling from below and treading it down from above, the dead linnet was buried on the third day. The result of these ex- periments was, that in fifty days, our four beetles * Could one have imagined, says M. G., that a small beetle, without the aid or assistance of any other stronger creature, could bury under the earth, in so short a space of time, a mole, which surpassed it at least thirty times in bulk and in weight ? 140 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. VIII. had interred twelve carcasses, viz. : four frogs, three small birds, two fishes, one mole, two grasshoppers, besides the entrails of a fish, and two morsels of the lungs of an ox. These laborious operations generally take place when the weather becomes steadily warm, say from the middle of April to the end of October ; and it is the smaller carcasses only which are thus buried, to form a proper nidus for the eggs, and to nourish the young family which spring from them ; thus nature has ordained the procreation of this species should go on under ground, because foxes, ravens, and other carnivorous creatures, devouring the bodies above ground, would swallow the larvae of this beetle along with their food, which might possibly extirpate these singular but useful insects. The eggs deposited by the parent insect are white ; from these the larvae proceed, which are, when full grown, more than an inch in length, and of a yellowish white colour, with a scaly orange-coloured shield across the middle of each division of the body. Each larvae forms for itself an oval cell in the ground, in which it changes to a yellowish chrysa- lis, out of which, in the space of about eighteen days, proceeds the perfect insect, as represented in the figure. There is a small beetle occasionally found under stones and under heaps of rotten plants, in many parts of Great Britain, and known by the name of Bombardier (Brachinus crepitans) , which, as its cog- nomen imports, may be considered as the artillery- man of insects. It has the power of emitting a volume of blue acrid smoke, accompanied with an explosion, which never fails to arrest the attack, and for a moment confound the audacious enemy, especially the splendid carnivorous beetle (CaZo^oma sycophanta). When its assailant has recovered the effect of its surprise, the pursuit is renewed, a sec- ond discharge again stops its career, and during the CH. VIIl.] COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. 141 interval it takes the opportunity of escaping. In this way the artillerymen can keep up a running fire, so as to let off twenty good discharges suc- cessively. On lifting up a large stone in gravelly situations, an explosion will be heard, and a streak of smoke occasionally seen issuing from the ground ; — no sooner is the alarm thus given, than twenty or thirty other subterranean volcanoes vomit forth their little smoke, evidencing the terror and the remedy for it of a colony of Bombardier beetles. There is also another species, rather smaller than the former, which is capable of exploding in the same manner about ten or twelve good discharges; but they afterward emit a yellow or brown fluid. The smell of the smoke is strong and pungent, and has some similarity with that exhaled by nitric acid ; the fluid is caustic, and turns paper red, and pro- duces on the skin, when handled, the sensation of burning and forming red spots, which pass into a brown colour, and, though washed, remain several days. One insect of this tribe is said, in addition to the mere explosion, to have the power of guiding with its hind hmbs the acrid smoke to any given spot, so as literally to entitle it to the credit of Jbeing a decent shot. 142 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. IX. CHAPTER IX. FURTHER HISTORY OF THE COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. History of the Stag-beetle, its Habits — Description of the Larva, Pupa, and Cocoon — a Marvellous Story — History of the Pellet- beetle, the Manner of forming its Pellet, cfc, its Strength, an Emblem of the Egyptians, its Symbolical Meaning — History of the Water-beetle — Description of the Nidus, Larva, its peculiarly formed Jaws, the Utility of the Fringe of the Tail, its Ravages, considered a Shriinp, Pupa, perfect Insect — History of the Tor- toise-beetle— Descriptioji of the Larva, its Habits, Pupa, perfect Insect. One of the largest of our indigenous insects is the stag-beetle {Lucanus cervus). It is chiefly found in narrow shady lanes, generally on an oak or elm tree. The perfect insect attacks the roots and leaves of those trees. It lies concealed in their stumps du- ring the day, and feeds only during the evening. CH.'lX.] COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. 143 Linnaeus, however, states, that its food is the juice which exudes from decayed oaks. Their young burrow in the bark and hollows of trees, and there undergo the usual metamorphoses. Its larva, which perfectly resembles that of the other true beetles, is also found in the hollow of oak trees, residing in the fine vegetable mould usually seen in such cavities, and feeding on the softer parts of the decayed wood. It is of a very consid- erable size, of a pale yellowish or whitish brown colour, and when stretched out at full length meas- ures nearly four inches. When arrived at its full 144 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. IX. size, which, according to some, is hardly sooner than the fifth or sixth year, it forms, by frequently turn- ing itself, and moistening it with its glutinous saliva, a smooth oval hollow in the earth, in which it lies, and afterward remaining perfectly still for the space of nearly a month, divests itself of its skin, and commences pupa or chrysalis. It is now much shorter than before, of a rather deeper colour, and exhibits, in a striking manner, the rudiments of the large extended jaws and broad head, so conspicuous in the perfect insect : the legs are also proportionably larger and longer than in the larva state. The ball of earth in which this chrysalis is contained is considerably larger than a hen's egg, and of a rough exterior surface, and per- fectly smooth and polished within. The chrysalis lies three months before it gives birth to the com- plete insect, which usually emerges in the months of July and August. Bingley has a marvellous story of their supposed rapacity, which, if not gravely stated by the rever- end editor of the Animal Biography, as related to himself by one of his own intimate and intelligent friends, might have been supposed by the general reader to have been borrowed from the Travels of the veracious Munchausen. " An intimate and mteUigent friend of the editor informed him that he had often found several heads CH. IX.] COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. 145 of these insects together, all perfectly alive, while the trunks and abdomens were nowhere to be found ; sometimes only the abdomens were gone, and the heads and trunks were left together. How this circumstance took place he never could dis- cover with any certainty. He supposes, however, that it must have been in consequence of the se- vere battles that sometimes take place among the fiercest of the insect tribes ; but their mouths not seeming formed for animal food, he is at a loss to guess what becomes of their abdomen. They do not fly till most of the birds have retired to rest, and indeed, if we were to suppose that any of them devoured them, it would be difficult to say why the heads or trunks should be rejected." The peculiar instinct which nature has ordained the different insects for the preservation of the kind, is well exemplified in the tribe of the Pellet-beetles, natives of both continents. Though the casual ob- server may be apt to raise associations rather unfa- vourable to the cleanliness of these insects, yet their indefatigable industry cannot but cause him to be struck with the wisdom of the Creator. Between the months of April and September, several of these insects may be seen rolling globular pellets of moist dung, which, according to Catesby, " they discover by the excellence of their noses." Their industry is surprising, as well as the mutual assistance wiiich they render to one another in rolling these globular balls from the place where they made them to the place of their interment, which is usually several feet. This operation is performed by fastening their four fore-legs firmly, raising their hind parts, and forcing the ball with the hind-legs. Several of them are sometimes engaged in trundling one ball, which, on meeting with impediments from the unevenness of the ground, they sometimes desert ; when, how- ever, it is attempted by others with success, un- less it happen to roll into some deep hollow, where Vol. II.— N 146 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. IX. they are constrained to leave off; but they continue to work by roHing the next ball that comes in their way. None of them appear to know their own ball, but an equal care for the whole appears to affect the community. They form these pellets while the dung remains moist, and leave them to harden in the sun before they attempt to roll them ; in their removing them from place to place, the balls may be seen tumbling about over the little eminences that are in their way ; they are not, however, easily discouraged, and repeated attempts usually surmount the difficulties. This object is effected, because in the middle of each of these pellets is buried an egg, the larva of which, when awakened into life, finds its food already prepared for its use : after having devoured the parent's supply, it seeks the surface , and after the usual time, it forms its pellet of moist dung, coated outside with clay, which gives them the appearance of round stones. Their roundness has caused much surprise to entomologists, as re- gards the manner in which it is formed ; some sup- posing that, having proceeded so far as to allow of its entering, the larva lays in a supply of clay and dung, then fixes itself, and plasters first the outward coat, and then the inward, with the dung. It silently changes into a chrysalis, and after a short time it appears in the perfect insect, when it is of a deep shining black colour, about three quarters of an inch in length. The strength of these insects is very great, which is often shown by the planters in America placing one under each candlestick, where they will remain quiet until the table is struck ; the insect being thus disturbed, will begin to move the candlesticks about of its own accord, though in an awkward manner, to the great delight of the visiters. Several of this tribe were emblems of the Egyp- tians, and accordingly are to be met with abundantly in their hieroglyphics, symbolical of the world, the CH. IX.] COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. 147 sun, and of a courageous warrior : of the sun, from its head being surrounded with radiated projections, the number of the joints of the feet equalUng the thirty days of the month : of courage, from an idea entertained that the insect was born of a male : and of the world, because it rolled dung into little orbs. Among those insects which reside in stagnant water during their metamorphoses, we select the water-beetle {Dytiscus marginalis), to show its pe- culiar transformation. The larvae proceed from eggs left in a singularly formed nidus of a silky sub- stance, which is allowed by the parent to float on the surface of the water : the part above is long and tapering, as if to serve as a mark of some dis- tinction. . After the period of ten or twelve days, they put on the form shown in the upper figure. They are of a yellowish brown colour, measuring two inches and a half in length, and rather transpa- rent ; the body is covered with strong shields ; the end of the abdomen is furnished with two long ap- 148 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. IX pendages, fringed on their sides with fine hairs. When the larva wishes suddenly to change its po- sition in the water, or dart from the approach of some larger insect or animal, which might devour it, the insect gives a prompt v£rmicular movement to its body, striking- the water with its tail, the fringe of which then becomes very useful to the animal, since the tail is thereby rendered more fit to resist the water, and to cause the insect to ad- vance. The head is rather flat, armed in front with a pair of very strong, long, and curved jaws, which, when magnified, appear to have at their apex an aperture or an oblong hole, through which the in- sect sucks, by little and httle, all the sohd parts of its prey, which generally consist of other larvae. They are even bold enough' to attack water-newts and tadpoles, and have been known to seize a young tench of three inches in length, and to kill it in the space of a minute : they are, therefore, considered as one of the most mischievous animals that can infest a fish-pond. The singular form of the larva caused it to be considered by ancient authors as analogous with the shrimp tribe, and it has actually been referred to that series of crustaceous insects under the denomination of Sqn.illa aqnalica. When arrived at its full growth, the larva forms itself an oval hollow cocoon, made of soft earth or clay, collected from the banks of the water it inhabits ; in a few days it changes into a chrysalis, which is of a white oolour. After the space of three weeks it undergoes the last metamorphosis, as represented in the right-hand figure. The perfect insect is rather more than an inch long, of a blackish olive colour, with the outer mar- gins of the neck and wings bordered with yellow. The two sexes of this insect are easily distinguished from each other. The male is known not only by the smoothness of the wing-cases, but also by the breadth of the fore-feet, which are abbreviated and CH. IX.] COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS. 149 dilated, convex beneath, and serve as a sucker; while all the feet of the female are similar to one another, and the wing-cases are deeply impressed with a series of longitudinal furrows. On mint, and other verticillated plants, we some- j times find a very singularly formed larva of the tor- toise beetle, Cassida viridis, which is yellowish [; brown in colour, and of an oval shape, and has the I; sides of the body edged with a fringe of projecting fibres ; the two terminal ones are longer than the rest, and generally carried over the body towards the head, while the animal is in motion. On these t filaments, it is said, the animal collects its own ex- crement, and thus forms itself a canopy of it over its back, probably for the purpose of defending it- self from the attacks of its enemies. When it ar- rives at maturity, it fastens itself to a leaf, casts its skin, and commences the pupa state, which is also of a very remarkable shape, and is peculiar for the breadth or dilatation of the forepart ; from the chrysalis, in the space of three weeks, proceeds the insect in its complete state, when its length is nearly a quarter of an inch ; its body is of an oval shape, and its colour bright green above, with the under part black. N2 150 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. CHAPTER X. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE MANTES, ETC. "Why called Fortune-tellers — Description of the Nidus — Larva — RcescVs Observations — Destroyed by Ants — Combat between Two Mantes — Manner of entrapping its Prey — Superstitious Idea of the Hottentots — Natural History of the Walking Leaf — The Sup- position of the Indians — Its Similarity to a Leaf — Walking Stick Its Habits — Their Eggs — Natural History of the Cockroach — Whence brought — Their Ravages — Manner of laying their Eggs — Natural History of the Eearwig — The Care of the Parent for her Young — Its voracious Habits — Wings of the perfect Insect — Natural History of the Field Bug — Its Young, ^c. This singular insect has, from its peculiar atti- tudes, given rise to some superstitious ideas. Mouf- fet tells us, that " they are called mantes, that is, fortune-tellers ; either because by their coming they do show the spring to be at hand, so Anacreon, the poet, sang ; or else they foretel death or famine, as Coelius, the scholiast of Theocritus, writes ; or, lastly, because it always holds up its forefeet like hands, praying, as it were, after the manner of their diviners, who, in that gesture, did pour out their supplications to their gods. So divine a creature is CH. X.] HISTORY OF THE MANTES, ETC. 151 this esteemed, that if a childe aske the way to such a place, she will stretch out one of her feet, and show him the right way, and seldom or never misse. As she resembleth these diviners in the elevation of her hands, so, also, in likeness of motion, for they do not sport themselves as others do, nor leap, nor play, but walking softly, she returns her modestly, and showes forth a kind of mature gravity." Such are the marvellous stories told by old authors of the praying mantes. This tribe of insects, which is scientifically termed Mantides, is pecuhar for the eggs being imbedded by the female in a case of matter of the consistence of fine parchment, of an orange colour, nearly two inches in length, and about three fourths of an inch in its greatest diameter. This mass is usually fixed to the stalk of some plant. The eggs them- selves are arranged in two rows in the coriaceous mass. One of these masses being sent to Reese], he observed that a double row of egg-like bodies sprouted up in close contact with each other in a furrow, which divided the mass longitudinally; these little eminences soon became animated, for 152 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. X. out of them Roesel perceived the young mantes struggling to come forth. As soon as one had suc- ceeded in freeing itself from the egg, it ran off with the agility of an ant ; the colour, general form, and size of which, it had a no less strict resemblance to, than to its nimbleness. Roesel, determining to study the!r habits, enclosed the young mantes in a glass vessel, but this con- finement appeared to be excessively irksome ; the insects, accordingly, made every attempt to escape from their prison. While the insects ran about the glass, Roesel remarked that they frequently came in contact with each other, and that when this was the case a battle ensued, and the victor, even at their tender age, always devoured its vanquished brother. Although Roesel was aware of the car- niverous propensities of this tribe of insects, he did not imagine that these would be exercised on their own kind ; and thinking that so unnatui-al a proceeding could only have been occasioned by the cravings of hunger, the observer then supplied the imprisoned mantes with ants for food. I had no sooner done so, says Roesel, than I perceived my error ; my young insects fled before the ants like sheep from wolves. The whole community was in great commotion, and I soon saw the ants, which I had intended to be eaten, falling on, killing, and eat- ing the mantes. It was a matter of wonder to me, to remark how quickly the mantes, which had only seen their own kind, know their natural enemies. I afterward learned that ants fall on these insects, even when they are full grown, and speedily kill them. I removed ray young mantes, therefore, as soon as possible out of the way of their enemies, and put a dozen into a glass case by themselves, and fed them with flies and plant-lice ; the size of the former frightened them at this stage of their existence; the latter, however, appeared to be a dainty food for them. Nevertheless, although they CH. X.] HISTORY OF THE MANTES, ETC. 153 had an abundant supply of nourishment, they never ceased to attack, kill, and eat each other when they met ; so that I speedily lost almost the whole of my original stock ; and thinking to preserve the re- mainder by permitting the insects to stray among the flowers of my garden, I found that these, too, were lost to me, having fallen a prey to their ene- mies, the ants. The same observer having put a full-grown male and female mantis into a glass case, and taken the precaution of satisfying their hunger, saw never- theless that the cruelty was not surpassed by that of the spider. No sooner did the two insects espy each other, than both remained stiff and motionless, fixing their eyes on each other. In this condition they continued a long time, when the whole frame of each became violently agitated ; the neck was stretched out, the wings expanded and fluttered, while the rest of the body and tail were moved with great agitation. They rushed towards each other with the utmost fury, and hewed away with their sharp, sabre-like forefeet, to use Roesers expression, like a couple of infuriated hussars. Barrow has remarked, that the Chinese take ad- vantage of the pugnacity of these insects, and keep them separate, in bamboo cages, for fighting, as we do gamecocks. He mentioned that they attack each other with sucii ferocity, as seldom to quit their hold without bringing away, at the same time, a limb of their antagonist. This custom of making them devour each other is so common, that, in the summer months, scarcely a boy is to be seen with- out his Sage of warriors. Although irascible and cruel, the mantis is essen- tially a cowardly insect. An ant will put the largest to flight, and even their own food, if it appear in the shape of a blue-bottle fly, will teirify them. When, however, the fly is not too large, it is curious to re- mark how cumiingly it endeavours to entrap its 154 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. X. prey. For this purpose it raises its body, and lift- ing up and joining its two forefeet, it remains for hours motionless, in the attitude of one praying. When the mantis espies a fly, even at a distance, it never takes off its bright green eye from its destined booty. The slightest variation in the movement of the fly is met by a correspondent one of the eye, without moving the head of the mantis. If the fly should not approach sufficiently near, or if, on the contrary, it should betray any signs of removing altogether, the mantis drags its body so cautiously towards its prey as to be almost imperceptible to the observer ; it then stretches itself as near as pos- sible to the fly, w^ithout absolutely shifting its place ; and when it has approached sufliciently near, the long claws, hitherto raised and folded up, are thrown upon the victim with the rapidity of hght- ning. Rcesel asserts, that the mantis will hook up a fly at the distance of four inches. The insect thus caught is held carefully by the mantis, until it mangles and devours its prey, limb by limb. Having finished its repast, the mantis CH. X.] HISTORY OF THE MANTES, ETC. 155 cleans its claw, feelers, and head, with the greatest apparent care, and then sets forth in quest of fresh booty. Roesel says that a male mantis will eat four, and a female six flies, daily. The Hottentots consider the species which is found in South Africa an insect of good omen; especially if one should, by chance, ahght upon them. The insect which is here represented belongs to a tribe very analogous to the last, but whose habits and manners are totally different, so much so that our readers may not consider them unworthy of no- tice. On looking at the figure very attentively, one is struck by the great similarity it bears to a leaf. This opinion is also entertained by the Indians, who believe that these insects grow on the trees like leaves; and that, when they have arrived at ma- turity, thev loosen themselves and fly away. It has 156 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. X. also caused Messrs. Kirby and Spence to observe, "To such perfection, indeed, has nature in them carried her mimetic arts, that you would declare, upon beholding some insects, that they had robbed the trees of their leaves to form for themselves artificial wings, so exactly do they resemble them in their form, substance, and vascular structure ; some representing green leaves, and others those that are dry and withered ; nay, sometimes this mimicry is so exquisite, that you would mistake the whole insect for a portion of the branching spray of a tree." There are also some other species, which are wing- less, and therefore called walking-sticks. Through- out their metamorphoses these are stated to be more especially found only in the colder latitudes, while the winged species inhabit only the warmer parts of the world. They also bear great likeness to branches of trees, which induced one of the former mentioned authors to say, " I have one from Brazil, eight inches long, that, unless it was seen to move, could scarcely be conceived to be any thing else than a small branch with its spray ; the legs, as well as the head, having their little snags and knobs, so that no imitation can be more perfect." Their habits have been stated to differ from those of the former tribe. These insects live on the trees, on the leaves of which they feed by night ; they are very unsocial in their mode of life, being rarely found more than two in company ; during the day they are found lying close under the surface of the leaves of plants, with their forelegs stretched out before, parallel with their antennae, or feelers, as if to protect them from enemies. One extraordinary circumstance has been mentioned with respect to these insects, that is, if by any violence they should lose a limb, the same is reproduced, when they un- dergo their change of skin, as occurs among crus- ■ tacea and spiders. CH. X.] HISTORY OF THE MANTES, ETC. 157 They do not lay their eggs in a conglomerated mass, but indiscriminately scatter them in various places. They, as well as the more perfect insects, are so like portions of vegetables, that if one was unacquainted with the circumstance of their dis- similarity, he would be induced to pronounce them seed vessels of some species of umbelliferous plants. Of the cockroach, or, as it is more generally termed, black beetle, which so infests houses, but more especially the bakers', in this metropolis, there are many species ; some of them are nearly three inches long. They principally inhabit the warmer parts of the world, though now more scat- tered, by means of shipping. The one most com- mon in this country is from Asia; there is also another, which came with raw sugar from the West Indies. This pestiferous race of beings, says an observer, are equally noisome and mischievous to natives or strangers, but particularly to collectors. These nasty and voracious insects fly out in the evenings, and commit monstrous depredations. They plunder and erode all kinds of victuals, dressed and undressed, and damage all sorts of clothing, especially those which are touched with powder, pomatum, and similar substances, every thing made of leather, books, paper, and various other articles ; which, if they do not destroy, at least they soil, as they frequently deposite a drop of their excrement w^hen they settle, and some way or other, by that means, damage what they cannot devour. They fly into the flame of candles, and sometimes into the dishes ; are very fond of ink and of oil, into which they are apt to fall and perish. In this case they soon turn most offensively putrid, so that a man might as well sit over the cadaverous body of a large animal as write with the ink in which they have died. They often fly into persons'' faces and bosoms; and their legs being armed with sharp spines, the pricking excites a sudden horror not Vol. II.— 0 158 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. X. easily described. In old houses they swarm by myriads, making every part filthy beyond descrip- tion wherever they harbour, which in the daytime is in dark corners, behind all sorts of clothes, in trunks, boxes, and, in short, every place where they can lie concealed. In old timber and deal houses, when the family is retired at night to sleep, this in- sect, among other disagreeable properties, has the power of making a noise which very much resem- bles a pretty smart knocking with the knuckle upon the wainscoting. The gigantic cockroach which is found in South America, is frequently known by the name of the drummer. Three or four of these noisy creatures will sometimes be impelled to an- swer one another, and cause such a drumming noise, that none but those who are very good sleepers can rest for them. What is most disagree- able, those who have not gauze curtains are some- times attacked by them in their sleep. The sick and dying have their extremities attacked, and the ends of the toes and fingers of the dead are fre- quently stripped both of the skin and flesh. Mouffet relates, that " I have heard from persons of good credit that one of these cockroaches was found and taken in the top of the roof of the church at Peterborough, which was six times larger than the common species, and which not only pierced the skin of those who endeavoured to seize it, but bit so deep as to draw blood in great quantity. It was a thumb's length and breadth in size, and being con- fined in a cavity of the wall, after two or three days made its escape, no one knew how." It appears, from this description, to have probably been the one which we have just mentioned as from South America. The female of the common cockroach lays one or two singularly-formed capsules, of a long square shape, half the size of the abdomen, with one side rounded, and shelving down with the margin straight CH. X.] HISTORY OF THE MANTES, ETC. 159 and saw-shaped on the other. It is, when fresh, white and soft, but, after being exposed to the air, becomes hard and brown. The capsule contains sixteen or eighteen eggs placed in two rows ; the young make their escape through a cleft on the straight side. Their metamorphoses are very sim- ilar to other insects of the orthopterous order. It is not uncommon to find the cast skin of these in- sects lying about the houses which they inhabit in innumerable quantities. The idea of the earwig introducing itself into the human ear, and causing madness and death, may be ranked among vulgar errors. If it infested human ears, it is more than probable that it would be often found in the ears of other animals, and yet such is not the fact. The cerumen or waxen secretion in the ear is in itself a sufficient guard against the en- trance of an insect, w^hose natural food is decayed fruit and vegetables. Some years ago, several regi- ments were encamped in the neighbourhood of Winchester, in fields swarming with these insects ; nevertheless, during the whole season, one single in- stance only occurred of the earwig getting into the human ear. The insect fell into the ear of a soldier who was sleeping. The accident caused no incon- venience, and it was speedily killed by pouring oil into the ear, and extracted by syringing the cavity with warm water. In most other insects the parent is solicitous only to place the eggs in circumstances most favourable to their protection, after which she seems to forget even the spot to which her offspring have been com- mitted. But, among earwigs, on the contrary, the eggs are hatched and the young ones fostered by the parent. M. Degeer relates, that at the beginning of the month of June, he found under a stone a female earwig, surrounded by a number of young offspring, which were evidently her own. He put them all into a box of fresh earth ; they did not enter the k 160 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. X. earth., but placed themselves under their mother and between her legs, she remaining quite quiet, and suffering them to continue there sometimes for an hour or two together. For their nourishment he placed in the box a piece of very ripe apple, which the old one instantly seized on and began to eat with avidity ; the young ones, too, seemed to eat a little, but with much less relish. On the eighth of June he observed that the young earwigs had changed their skins ; and though this moulting had effected no material difference in their appearance, yet by it they were evidently brought nearer to the state of a perfect insect. At another time, about the beginning of April, says the same observer, I found a female earwig under some stones, placed over a heap of eggs, of which she took all the care imaginable, without ever quitting them. Degeer took both the insect and the eggs, and put them into a box filled with earth. As he had scattered the eggs about, the parent insect set about gathering them together. She seized them one by one in her jaws, removed them care- fully to the surface of the box, and in a few days formed a little heap, on which he found her sitting and brooding like a hen over her chickens. The young burst their shells in the middle of May. Their colour was at first white. Degeer fed them with apple for some time, and saw them change their skins more than once. The mother at last died, when her young nearly devoured her carcass, impelled, as Degeer supposes, to so unnatural a deed by hunger and the want of proper food. One only survived on the 23d of July. In their larva state they differ very little from the perfect insect in outward appearance, with the exception of want- ing wings and wing-cases. The wings are folded up with wonderful neatness in the wing-cases, though the former are nine or ten times larger than the envelope which contains them. The wings Cn. XI.] THE CRICKETS. 161 are first drawn together lengthwise like a fan, and then refolded across in two different places, one about the middle of the membrane, the other from the centre where the first fold proceeded. A species of field-bug {Pentatoma grisea) also shows a very great affection for her young offspring ; though the family consist of about thirty or forty, yet the parent pays as much attention as a hen does to her brood. She never leaves them, and, as soon as she begins to move, all the little progeny closely follow, and whenever she stops they assemble in clusters round her. Degeer remarks, that if dis- turbed, the mother shows every symptom of exces- sive uneasiness. In other circumstances such an alarm would have caused her immediate flight ; but now she never stirred from her family, but kept beating her wings incessantly with a rapid motion, evidently for the purpose of protecting them from the apprehended danger. CHAPTER XI. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE CRICKETS. History of the Hotise Cricket, its Habits, popular Prejudices, its Noise — History of the Field Cricket, difficult to catch, its Habits, its Sound — A singular Species — History of the Mole Cricket, its Fore legs, its Chamber for its Eggs, its Metamorphoses, Mode of attacking its Enemies, its Noise, Manner of Flight, supposed to be huminous. The crickets and mole crickets resemble each other so closely, that we shall take the opportunity of bringing their respective histories into one chapter. Tender insects, says White, that live abroad, either enjoy only the short period of one summer, 02 162 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. XI. or else doze away the cold, uncomfortable months in profound slumbers ; but the house crickets, re- siding, as it were, in a torrid zone, are always alert and merry ; a good Christmas fire is to them what the heat of the dog-days is to others. " Around, in sympathetic mirth, Its tricks the kitten tries ; The cricket chirrups in the hearth ; The crackhng fagot flies." As one would suppose by their living near fires, they are a thirsty race, and show a great propensity for liquids, being frequently found drowned in pans of water, milk, broth, or the like : whatever is moist they affect, and therefore they often gnaw holes in wet woollen stockings and aprons that are hung to the fire. These animals are not only very thirsty, but very voracious, for they will eat the scummings of pots, yest, and crumbs of bread, and kitchen offal or sweepings of almost every description. In the summer they have been observed to fly, when it became dusk, out of the windows and over the neighbouring roofs. This feat of activity ac- counts for the sudden manner in which they often leave their haunts, as it does also for the means by which they come into houses where they were not known before, especially new-built houses, being pleased with the moisture of the walls ; and, besides, CH. XI.] THE CRICKETS. 163 the softness of the mortar enables them to burrow and mine between the joints of the bricks or stones, and to open communications from one room to an- other. Jt is remarkable that many sorts of insects seem never to use their wings but when they wish to shift their quarters and settle new colonies. When in the air, they move in waves or curves, like woodpeckers, opening and shutting their wings at every stroke, and thus are always rising and sinking. When their numbers increase to a great degree, they become pests, flying into the candles, and dashing into people's faces. In families at such times they are like Pharaoh's plague of frogs, in their bedchambers, and in their beds, and in their ovens, and in their kneading-troughs. Popular prejudice frequently prevents any at- tempt being made to rid the house of this noisy ani- mal. Many persons imagine that their presence is attended with good fortune to the inmates, and that to drive them away or to kill them will bring some misfortune on the family. The noise of the cricket, according to Degeer, is produced by the male ele- vating its horny wing-cases, and rubbing them briskly together. The sound, no doubt, suggested the name, for it is exactly imitated by the syllables, cree-cree. It is in the dusk of the evening, when friendly faces are assembled round the blazing hearth, that the warmth raises the cricket's cry of love. It is the single tale, the one chant of its life and, however loud the conversation or the laugh, its shrill note is heard through all. This shrilling was once so troublesome to a lady as to cause her to resort to every means to dislodge the insect from its roost ; but all in vain. It so happened that a wedding was celebrated in her house with all kinds of music. The trumpet and the drum were rather more than the cricket could cry down ; and whether it was fright, or whether it was anger at being van- quished, which drove these insects ofl', is not quite 164 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. XI. certain ; but certain it is, they never after troubled the house or the lady. There are few, however, who object to the cry ; for over the hearts of most men the merry chirp of the house cricket has power, calling up those days when its single note was min- gled with many a voice, which will not, perhaps, be heard again. The learned Scaliger, it is said, kept some in a box, to cheer him in his labours. This is also practised in Spain ; and in Africa, persons make a trade of crickets ; they feed them in a kind of iron oven, and sell them to the natives, among whom the noise they make is thought pleasing and these people imagine that it assists in lullin^ them to sleep. While taking our evening rambles over the heath, we sometimes hear the cheerful summer ciy of the field cricket ; but they are so sly and cautious, says White, that it is difficult to obtain sight of one of these sonorous animals ; for, feeling a person's foot- steps as he advances, they stop short in the midst of their song, and retire backward nimbly into their burrows, until all suspicion of danger is over. There is one way, however, by which an observer may obtain his wish : it is by a pliant stalk of grass being gently insinuated into their burrows, which will probe their windings to the bottom, and quickly bring out the animal, as it lays hold of the grass with its paws. When the males meet, they fight fiercely, as White found by some which he put into the crevices of a dry stone wall, where he would have been glad to have made them settle. The first that got possession of the chinks would seize on any that were obtruded upon them, with their strong jaws, toothed like the shears of a lobster's claw; with them they perforate and round their curious cells. They feed on such herbs as grow before the mouths of their burrows, and rarely stir more than two or three inches from home. Sitting ill the entrance of their caverns, they chirp all CH. XI.] THE CRICKETS. 165 night as well as day, from the middle of the raonth of May to the middle of July. In hot weather, when they are most vigorous, they make the hill echo ; and, in the still hours of darkness, may be heard at a considerable distance. In the beginning of the season, their notes are more faint and in- ward, but become louder as summer advances, and so die away again by degrees, " The sounds of these animals," says White, " do not always give us pleasure according to their sweetness and melody. We are more apt to be captivated or disgusted with the associations which they promote, than with the notes themselves. Thus, the shrilling of the field cricket, though sharp and stridulous, yet marvellously delights some hearers, filhng their minds with a train of summer ideas, of every thing that is rural, verdurous, and joyous." They afford some persons much amuse- ment when placed in a paper cage and set in the sun, and supplied with plants moistened with water, on which they will live some time, and become so merry and loud as to be irksome, when in a room where a person is sitting. There is one species which is singularly furnished with an apparatus, like an umbrella, over the front of the face, probably useful for the purpose of pro- tecting it when the animal is burrowing. The name of the next species, the mole cricket, is a very good index to its form and habits. It often infests gardens by the sides of canals, where it is an unwelcome guest to the gardener ; so much so, that a German author of an old book of gardening was induced to exclaim, " Happy are the places where this pest is not known." These creatures also occasion great damage among the plants, &c., in kitchen gardens, by burrowing, and by devouring the roots, which causes them to wither. The pe- culiar shape of their fore-arms is well adapted for the purposes of burrowing, both by their great 166 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. XI. strength and breadth. They are turned outwards, like their namesake's, the mole, to whose habits they are very analogous, and enable the insects when sought for to burrow with very great rapidity, leaving a ridge in the surface as they work ; but they do not form hillocks as the mole. These ani- mals prefer for their haunts moist meadows, also the sides of quiet and running water, and swampy wet soil. Their habitations are surrounded with many winding passages, which generally lead to a kind of chamber or nursery, marvellously formed by the parent for the preservation of her offspring. This CH. XI.] THE CRICKETS. 167 chamber is about the size of a small egg, though not quite so oval, neatly smoothed and rounded, and within are deposited more than a hundred eggs of a dirty yellow colour. In a month, these give birth to the young, which resemble the parent in every thing but the wings, except that at first they are white, soft, and very small. The careful parent, it is said, not only protects her eggs by forming the oval chamber for them, but surrounds it with a reg- ular defence of ditches and ramparts, about which she herself keeps anxious watch. A iDlack ground- beetle is the enemy from which she has most to dread, but for which the maternal instinct is often more than a match ; for, as it endeavours to creep into the chamber, the mole cricket seizes it, and bites it asunder. " In the middle of April," says White, " at the close of day, these animals begin to solace themselves by a low, dull, jarring note, con- tinued for a long time without interruption, and not unlike the chattering of the goatsucker, but more- inward." When the mole crickets fly, they move in rising and falling curves, somewhat like the first species. They are supposed by some persons to be luminous, and that these animals are probably flie ignis-fatuus, or jack-o'-lantern. 168 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. XIL CHAPTER XII. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE LOCUST, ETC. The Idea entertained by the Ancients, hy the Arabs — The supposed Meaning of the Letters on their Wings, (SfC, — Their Food — Rav- ages— The Description given by Joel — The Beneficial Results from the Locusts, used as Food — Niebuhr^s Account — Their Rav- ages in Barbary, in Transylvania, in Spain — Size of the largest Species — Ravages in Mahratta, and in Africa — The Wart-eat- ing Locust — Prickly Grasshopper — On the Metamorphoses of thia kind of hisects. The history of the locust is indeed a series of the greatest calamities which human nature has suffered. Kingdoms have been depopulated. In all ages and times, these insects have so deeply impressed the imagination, that all people have looked on them vi^ith superstitious horror. Their devastations have entered into the history of nations, and their effi- gies have been perpetuated in coins, like those of other conquerors of the earth. We are the army of the great God, and we lay ninety-and-nine eggs ; were the hundredth put forth, the world would be ours — such is the speech the CH. XII.] THE LOCUST, ETC. 169 Arabs put into the mouth of the locust. The Mo- hammedans say, 'that after God had created man from clay, of that which was left he made the lo- cust. The feeling which the Arabs entertain of this insect is well shown in the description they give of its pedigree and person. It has the head of the horse, the horns of the stag, the eye of the ele- phant, the neck of the ox, the breast of the lion, the body of the scorpion, the hip of the camel, the legs of the stork, the wings of the eagle, and the tail of the dragon. The wings of some being spotted, were thought by many to be leaves from the book of fate, in which letters announcing the destiny of nations were to be read- Much of this description is quite oriental, but such is the general resemblance to some of the animals mentioned, that in Germany one of its names is grass-horse, and in Italy it is still termed cavalletta. About its neck, too, the integuments have some re- semblance to the trappings of a horse, though other species have the appearance of being hooded. Paul Jetzote, professor of Greek literature at the Gymnasium of Stettin, wrote a work on the meaning of the three letters, which were, according to him, to be seen on the wings of those locusts which visited Silesia in 1712. These letters were B. E. S., and formed the initials of the Latin words ; " Bella Erunt Saeva," or " Babel Est Solitudo ;" also the German words, "Bedeutet Erschreckliche Schlacten," portending frightful battles, " Bedeutet und Erfreuliche Siege," portending happy victories. There are Greek and Hebrew sentences, in which no doubt the professor showed as much learning, judgment, and spirit of prophecy, as in those already quoted. Not content with the dreadful presence of this plague, the inhabitants of most countries took that opportunity of adding to their present misery by Vol. II.— P 170 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. XII. prognosticating future evils. The direction of their flight pointed out the kingdom doomed to bow under ihe divine wrath. The colour of the insect desig- nated the national uniform of such armies as were to go forth and conquer. Aldovandus states, on the authority of Cruntz, that Tamerlane's army being infested by locusts, that chief looked on it as a warning from God, and desisted from his designs on Jerusalem. But to turn from these idle tales to the real hor- rors of its history. The locust feeds on all green things, though the food is not the same with each kind. Some prefer the rankest and coarsest grass, and leave the finer untouched. They have been known to consume the straw with which the vines were bound to the poles of a vineyard, and pass over the shrub itself. But whatever they fall on they eat with voracity, and leave whole countries, which be- fore were green, quite black, and as if burnt by fire. But though voracious, and though the plains on which they may have happened to alight may not be sufficient to supply the whole of their countless myriads, yet there is a semblance of subordination among them. They are not observed to scramble for the portion which a more fortunate neighbour may have alighted on, but each takes that which falls to his lot. Pliny has given us many tales of the ferocity of these insects, and Aldrovandus has copied them. That they fall on the snake, and, seizing it by the neck, throttle it ; and that one is a match for the serpent. That they consume animal as well as vegetable substances is improbable ; they have been known, however, when several have been shut up together, to fall on, attack, and devour each other, in this respect imitating many species of herbivor- ous caterpillars. Their numbers are so great that the sun is for hours eclipsed by a flight of these insects. A Ger- CH. XII. J THE LOCUST, ETC. 171 man author has made a rough estimate of a swarm, which in the year 1693 covered four square miles of ground. He made out that, when he trod on the ground, at least three were crushed, and that in a square German measure, less than an English foot, ten were destroyed ; and after determining the num- ber of these square measures in the four square miles, he concludes that ninety-two billions one hundred and sixty millions of locusts were congre- gated on that surface. This is altogether a mod- erate calculation, for not only is their number more compact in breadth, but they are often piled knee high on the earth. No wonder, then, that the swarms which visited the Islands of Formosa and Tayowan, in 1645, caused by their numbers such a famine, that 8,000 men died of hunger; or that the heaps of rotten car- casses, washed on the shore by the sea, caused, ac- cording to St. Augustine, such a plague, that in the kingdom of Massinissa alone, 800,000 perished. Franc. Alvarez, in his Itinerario JEthiopico, states, that when in that country, such a host of locusts gathered there, that they expelled the inhabitants of the district, who were unwilling to resort to the means which would have destroyed this pest, lest by so doing they should be thought to rebel against this punishment of the Deity. They witnessed the destruction of all things with sighs and wringing of hands, and at last were driven from their homes to preserve their lives. The melancholy spectacle moved Alvarez much. The accounts of their ravages, published during the last century, give the liveliest picture of their devastations. Hungary, 9th June, 1748. — The misery is hourly increasing. The inhabitants are now obliged to sell their kine, for there is no longer any grass to feed them with, and instead of it, the locusts are covering the fields knee deep. 172 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. XII. 28th June. — The locust has appeared on the Danube and Theisse in such numbers, that we are reduced to the direst necessity. They cover a cir- cle of four miles, and not a blade of grass is to be seen. Their colour is brown, and when we drive them into the water, they swim to the opposite shore. When they have consumed all, they leave an intolerable stench behind. It is all over with harvest ; we go out three or four thousand together, driving our cattle before us, to slay these pests, but the slaughter of 100,000 only makes place for 100,000 more. Vienna, 3d July. — The plague of the locust is extending from Lower Hungary ; and the reports from Funfkirchen say, that they have taken wing, and crossed the Danube in such countless myriads as to darken the sun. In one night they have so completely destroyed the grass and the foliage of trees, that they now look like bare brooms. Clausenberg, 30th June. — The locusts which have taken possession of our district, are red. They have fixed particularly on the banks of the Marasch, near Sarvoras, and have covered a circle of four Hungarian miles, in such numbers, that, independent of those killed by accident, we have felled and burnt four thousand baskets full. They consume the pro- duce of the whole land. Hermanstadt, 10th July. — Prayers are offered up in all places in which the quail and the locust have not as yet been sent. The latter are coming from Carlsbad here. The vineyards, which are wonder- fully prolific, are alone untouched by these insects. Every other thing which they meet with on their march, the herbage, the forest leaves, and even the bread in the houses, is booty and food for them. 24th July. — To-day they have poured in on us in myriads, and we have in vain tried every thing to oppose their victorious career. Six thousand men sallied forth with flails and such other utensils, but CH. XII.] THE LOCUST, ETC. 173' all in vain. Yesterday a hussar, coming from the plague committee, saw such a host of these insects near Szanda, that they covered the country for a mile round, and were so thick that the hussar, though on horseback, was obliged to dismount and halt for three hours, until the inhabitants of the district, coming with all sorts of instruments, beat about, and forced,, with loud cries, these locusts tO' quit the spot. Warsaw, 17th July. — The accounts from Podolia,. Volhynia, and the Ukraine, give terrible accounts of the locusts ; they cover the country for miles, and are heaped up a foot high. Breslau, 3d August. — The locusts still infest Po- dolia and the Ukraine ; but as some great hailstones have fallen and crushed myriads, and the storks and other birds are flocking about them, we hope that this plague will be removed. The stench they cause is extremely disagreeable to travellers. Labycrew, 25th July. — The whole of Starastey is in possession of the locusts, which cover the land in such clouds, one host pushed onwards by another, that in some places it is impossible to pass. Warsaw, 15th August. — The locusts are within four miles of us. A few of the vanguard ushered in the rest, but none have reached the city. They divided themselves into four divisions, each of which took a separate direction. A certain prince sent out soldiers against them, and they fired not only with small arms, but cannons, upon which they divided, and thus got rid of the danger. On the other hand, the storks and cranes were unluckily frightened, for they consumed many of these insects daily. Trav- ellers who come hither are obliged to walk knee deep among them, and endure a dreadful stench; and when they fly against the naked hand and face, they cause burning blisters on the skin, so that the sufferers become powerless through pain. Falkenberg, 15th August. — I have just seen a P2 174 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. XII. sight which I never before witnessed in my hfe, the flight of the locusts which are coming from Po- land. I never could imagine any thing so terrible. This day is beautiful ; but before I could look round, a thick smoke came over us, as if a forest were on fire. This happened at twelve o'clock. A fearful sound accompanied the smoke, like the rumbling of stormy wind. The sun was darkened, and we could not see ten paces before us. The sky never poured down snow so thickly, as it teemed with locusts. Their course is orderly, as they all appear to go to one spot. Those which have settled here consume in a moment all herbage and garden-stuff to the very roots, and after a short halt fly off. It is now three o'clock, and the spectacle is not over. Breslau. — On the 25th they went towards Biez, and their flight lasted four hours. The sun was so darkened, that they who were without could not dis- cern the city. London, 15th Aug. — Towards evening a dark black cloud was seen gathering in the east, which turned out to be a swarm of locusts. Many fell in the streets, and others in St. James's Park. They are no doubt a portion of the swarm which devasta- ted Poland. The accounts from Norfolk state, that the trees are as leafless now as in winter. Luckily, however, tliesc islands am and have been compara- tively exempted from the awful visitations of this pest. The common people, not content, however, with the terrors of the scene, have added to them, by stating that some of these insects were seen as big as pigeons, the probability being that large birds were forced to take rapid flight, and, being seen to head the swarm, were mistaken for its leaders. Many people, too, have endeavoured to make out that, previous to the flight of the main body, the locusts send out scouts and a quarter-master general to reconnoitre the ground on which the whole are to settle. CH. XII.] THE LOCUST, ETC. 175 It is no wonder, then, that from the earliest times, means have been resorted to to mitigate the horrors ■which the locust occasions. Pliny states that there I was a law in Cyrene which compelled the inhabi- I tants to destroy these creatures three times in the i year ; the first in their egg state, the second when ; they were hatched, and the third when the insect i was mature. The inhabitants of Lemnos were * j -obliged to bring a certain number to the authorities. j It is after the perusal of the above that we recog- I nise the description given by the prophet ,Toel of i their devastations, as sublimely characteristic : " A i day of darkness and of gloominess, a day of clouds j and of thick darkness, as the morning opened upon 1 the mountains : a great people and a strong. A fire j devor.reth before them, and behind them a flame 1 burneth. The land is as the garden of Eden before I them, and behind them a desolate wilderness ; yea, < and nothing shall escape them. The appearance of them is as the appearance of horses, and as horse- men so shall they run. Like the noise of chariots ' on the tops of mountains, so shall they leap , like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth the stubble, as a strong people set in battle array. They shall run like mighty men ; they shall climb the wall like men of war. And they shall march every one on his ways, and they shall not broak his ranks , neither shall one thrust another. They shall walk every one on his path, and when they .fall upon the sword they shall not be wounded. They shall run to and fro in the city. They shall run upon the wall. I'hey shall climb up upon the houses. They shall enter in at the windows like a thief. The earth shall quake before them : the heavens shall tremble : the sun and moon shall be dark, and the stars shall with- draw their shining." The neighbourhood of Aries in France was so in- fested by locusts, that a reward was oflered for so much weight of them killed, and in twenty days the 1176 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. XII. whole were exterminated. The people spread can- vass, and going opposite to it set up great cries, which drove the insects against it. They were col- lected and sent in sacks to the government. In Italy a similar means caused twelve thousand sacks to be collected. Huge graves were made, and these collections rammed down into them and covered with quick-lime. These insects, terrible scourges as they are to man, are nevertheless ministers of beneficial changes in the economy of nature. They clear away those rank and noxious weeds which choke the soil, and thus allow the earth to appear in a far more beauti- ful dress, clothed with new herbs,, superb lilies, and fresh annual grasses and young shoots of the peren- nial kinds, affording delicious herbage for the wild cattle and game. They turn up and excavate the surface of deserts, in fulfilling their instinct of de- positing their eggs ; and as subsequent rains kill both them and their young brood, furnish a manure in places inaccessible to the approach of man. They also serve as food, not only to birds, but even to man.. Pliny mentions that it was an ordinary dehcacy among the Parthians ; and Diodorus Siculus asserts that the ./Ethiopians subsisted on them. Whenever visited by these insects, they pursued them with great cries, which causing them to fall, they gathered them in heaps, and sprinkling them over with salt, thus preserved them for future use. Leo Africanus says that the Arabians and Lybians rejoiced in the coming of the locust, which they caught and ate either boiled or dried in the sun, Beda mentions that the poor of Palestine soaked these insects in oil and used them as food. In fact, most of the nations who have been visited by this pest have probably, in the first instance, been obliged to feed on the locust through necessity, and have continued it subsequently from choice. The Jews evidently were not only allowed tO' CH. XII.] THE LOCUST, ETC. 177 consume these creatures, but actually did so, and the rabbins gave the marks by which the clean might be distinguished from the unclean species. It is conjectured too by some Hebrew scholars, that the word which is translated quail in Exodus refers to the locust. This word (selavim) says the anony- mous author from whom I quote, was never thought either by the older or the later rabbins to be equiva- lent to quails, although they did not know what to mako of it. Josephus, probably from a similar rea- son, was the first to translate it by quails, because the Greek word, used in the text of the Septuagint, has a great resemblance with that which signifies quail. And these authorities have been followed by our translators. It is difficult to conceive how such a number of quails could be gathered together as to cover the surface for miles two ells high, how they could be caught when there, and how preserved sweet du- ring the sojourn of the Israelites ; although all these difficulties disappear if, in the passage alluded to, the word be applied to the locust. Their manners, their forming the food of the surrounding nations, their long continuance on the spots on which they settle, seem to confirm the above conjecture, and leave the miraculous interposition of a special act undis- turbed. That the food of John the Baptist, which was said to have been locusts and wild honey, was probably the insect and not any part of a tree, is probable from what has been already said. The earlier commentators of the Testament being igno- rant of the fact of grasshoppers being used as food, thought that the achridas, which St. John ate, must have been achrodrica, or the buds of trees, and others read achradas, which, say they, means inTheophras- tus the wild pear. A long and learned summary of the dispute is to be found in Aldrovandus. The following extract from Niebuhr verifies some of the statements which have already been made, 178 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. XII.' especially with regard to their devastations ; but he states that the Arabians distinguish several kinds of these insects, to which they give separate names. They refer only to the delicacy of its flesh, and not to the nature of the insect. The red locust is termed Muken, as it is esteemed by the epicures much fatter and more succulent than the light lo- cust, which is called by them Dubbe, because it has a tendency to produce diarrhoea. The inhabitants of Arabia, Persia, Africa, and Syria, are accustomed to eat them. The Turks have an aversion to this kind of food, but if the Europeans express the same, the Arabians remind them of their fondness for crabs, &c. This kind of food, however, is supposed to thicken the blood and produce melancholy. The noise they made, says Niebuhr, in flying, is frightful and stunning, like that of a waterfall, but it is com- ' pared by Bochart to the sound of a flame of fire driven by the wind, and the effect of their bite to that of fire. Dr. Shaw, who was a witness of the devasta- tions of these insects in Barbary in 1724, thus de- scribes their habits. They first appeared in March, when the wind had been southerly for some time. In the beginning of April their numbers were so vastly increased, that in the heat of the day they formed themselves into large swarms, that appeared like clouds, and darkened the sun. In the middle , of May they began to disappear, retiring into the plains to deposite their eggs. In June the young brood began to make their appearance, forming many compact bodies of several hundred yards square, which, afterward, marching forward, climbed the trees, walls, and houses, eating every thing which was green in their way. The inhabitants, to stop their progress, laid trenches all over their fields and gardens, which they filled with water. Some placed large quantities of heath, stubble, and such like combustible matter in rows, and set them CH. XII.] THE LOCUST, ETC. 179 on fire on the approach of the locusts. But all this was to no purpose, for the trenches were quickly filled up, and the fires put out by the great number of swarms which succeeded each other. A day or two after one of these was in motion, others, that were just hatched, came to glean after them, gnaw- ing off the young branches and the very bark of the trees. Having lived near a month in this manner, they arrived at their full growth, and threw off the worm-like state by casting their skin. To prepare themselves for this change they fixed their hinder part to some bush or twig, or corner of a stone, when immediately, by an undulating motion used on the occasion, their heads would first appear, and soon after the rest of their bodies. The whole transformation was performed in seven or eight minutes' time, after which they remained for a little while in a languid condition ; but as soon as the sun and the air had hardened their wings, and dried up the moisture that remained, after casting off their sloughs, they returned to their former greediness with an addition both of their strength and agihty. But they did not long continue in this state before they entirely dispersed : after laying their eggs, they directed their course northward, and probably perished in the sea. In that country, however, the amazing fertility of the soil, and warmness of the climate, generally render the depredations of these insects of httle consequence; besides that many circumstances concur to diminish their number. Though naturally herbivorous, they often fight with each other, and the victor devours the vanquished. They are a prey too of serpents, lizards, frogs, and the carnivorous birds. They have been found in the stomachs of the eagle and different kinds of fowl. They are also used as food by the Moors, who go to hunt them, fry them in oil or butter, and sell them publicly at Tunis and other places. The following interesting account of the ravages 180 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. XII. of the locust is given in the 46th vol. of Philosoph- ical Transactions : — "The first swarm entered Transylvania in Au- gust, 1747 ; these were succeeded by others, which, were so surprisingly numerous, that when they reached the Red Tower they were full four hours in their passage over that place ; and they flew so close that they made a sort of. noise in the air by beating with their wings against one another. The width of the swarm was some hundreds of fathoms, and the height or density may be easily imagined to be more considerable, inasmuch as they hid the sun and darkened the sky, even to that degree, when they flew low, that people could not know one another at the distance of twenty yards ; they were to fly over a river that runs by the valleys of the Red Tower, and could find neither resting-place nor food, but being at length tired of their flight, one part of them lighted on the unripe corn on this side of the Red Tower, such as millet and Turkish wheat ; another pitched in a low wood, where, hav- ing miserably wasted the produce of the land, they continued their journey as if a signal had been given for a march. The guards of the Red Tower attempted to stop their irruption into Transylvania by firing at them ; and, indeed, when the balls and shot swept through the swarm, they gave way and divided ; but having filled up their ranks in a mo- ment, they proceeded on their journey. In the, month of September some troops of them were thrown to the ground by great rains and other in- clemencies of the weather, and, thoroughly soaked with wet, they crept along in quest of holes in the earth, dung, and straw, where, being sheltered from i the rains, they laid a vast number of eggs, which i stuck together by a viscid juice, and were longer and smaller than what are commonly called ants' eggs, very like grains of oats. The females, havingJ laid their eggs, die like the silkworm : and we Tran-s CH. Xrl.] THE LOCUST, ETC. 181 sylvanians found that the swarms which entered our fields by the Red Tower did not seem to intend remaining there, but were thrown to the ground by the force of the wind, and there laid their eggs ; a vast number of which being turned up and crushed by the plough, in the ensuing spring, yielded a yel- lowish juice. "In the spring of 1748, certain little blackish worms were seen lying in the fields and among the bushes, sticking together, and collected in clus- ters, not unlike the hillocks of moles and ants. As nobody knew what they were, there was little or no notice taken of them, and in May they were covered by the shooting of the corn sown in win- ter; but the subsequent June showed what these worms were ; for then, as the corn sown in the spring was pretty high, these creatures began to spread over the fields, and became destructive to the vegetables by their number. Then the country people, who had slighted the warning given to them, began to repent of their negligence ; for as these insects were dispersed all over the fields, they could not be extirpated without injuring the corn. At that time they differed little or nothing from our common grasshopper, having their head, sides, and back of a dark colour, with a yellow belly, and the rest of a reddish hue. About the middle of June, according as they were hatched, sooner or later, they were generally a finger's length or somewhat longer ; but their shape and colour still continued. Towards the end of June they cast off their outward covering, and then it plainly appeared that they had wings very like the wings of bees, but as yet un- ripe and unexpanded ; and then their bodies were very tender, and of a yellowish green ; in order to render themselves fit for flying, they gradually un- folded their wings with their hinder feet, as flies do ; and as soon as any of them found themselves able to use their wings they soared up, and flying round Vou II.— Q 182 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. XII. the others enticed them to join them, and thus their numbers increasing daily, they took circular flights of thirty or forty yards square until they were joined by the rest ; and after miserably laying waste their native fields, they proceeded elsewhere in large troops. Wherever those troops happened to pitch, they spared no sort of vegetable ; they ate up the young corn and the very grass; but nothing was more dismal than to behold the land in which they were hatched, for they so greedily devoured every green thing thereon before they could fly, that they" left the ground quite bare. * Different methods are to be employed against them, according to their age and state ; for some will be effectual as soon as they are hatched, others when they begin to crawl, others, in fine, when they begin to fly ; and expe- rience has taught us here in Transylvania that it would have been of great service to have diligently sought out the places where the females lodged, for nothing was more easy than to have carefully vis- ited those places in March and April, and to destroy their eggs and the little worms with sticks and briers, or, if they were not to be beat out of the bushes, dunghills, and heaps of straw, to set fire to them ; and this method would have been very easy, convenient, and successful, as it has been in other places ; but in summer, after they have marched out of their spring quarters, and invaded the corn- fields, &c., it is almost impossible to extirpate them without thoroughly thrashing the whole piece of land that harbours them with sticks or flails, and thus crushing the locust with the produce of the land. Finally, when the corn is ripe, or nearly so, we have found, to our great loss, that there is no other method of getting rid of them, or even dimin- ishing their number, but to surround the piece of ground with a nmltitude of people, who might fright them away with bells, brass vessels, and all other sorts of noise. But even this method will not sue- CH. XII.] THE LOCUST, ETC. 183 ceed until the sim is pretty high, so as to dry the corn from dew, for otherwise they will either stick to the stalks or lie hid under the grass ; but when they happen to be driven to a waste piece of ground, they are to be beaten with sticks or briers ; and if they gather together in heaps, straw and litter is to be thrown over them and set on fire. Now this method seems rather to lessen their number than totally to destroy them, for many of them lurk un- der the grass or thick corn, and in the fissures of the ground, from the sun's heat ; wherefore it is requisite to repeat this operation several times in order to diminish their numbers, and consequently the damage done by them. " It will likewise be of use, when a large troop of them has pitched, to dig a long trench of an ell width and depth, and place several persons along its edges, provided with brooms and such like things, while another numerous set of people form a semicircle, that takes in both ends of the trench and encompasses the locusts, and, by making the noise above mentioned, drive them into the trench, out of which, if they attempt to escape, those on the edges are to sweep them back, and then crush them with their brooms and stakes, and bury them by throwing in the earth again. But when they have begun to fly, there should be horsemen on the watch in the fields, who, upon any appearance of the swarm taking wing, should immediately alarm the neighbourhood by a certain signal, that they might come and fright them from their lands by all sorts of noise ; and if, tired with flying, they happen to pitch on a waste piece of land, it will be very easy to kill them with sticks and brooms, in the evening or very early in the morning, while they are wet with dew, or at any time in rainy weather, for then they are not able to fly. I have already taken notice, that if the weather be cold or wet in autumn, they generally hide themselves in secret 184 NATT7RAL HISTORY. [CH. XII. places, where they lay their eggs and then die. Therefore, great care should be taken at this time, when the ground is freed of its crop, to destroy them before they lay their eggs. In the month of September, 1748, we received certain intelligence, that several swarms of locusts had come out of Wallachia into Transylvania, through the usual in- lets, and took possession of a tract of land in the neighbourhood of Clausenberg, three miles in length, where it was not possible to save the millet and the Turkish corn from these devourers." In Dillon's Travels through Spain, we find the following account of the devastations of a species of locust in 1754, 55, 56, and 57. " The locusts are continually seen in the southern parts of Spain, particularly in the pastures and remote uncultivated districts of Estremadura, but in general are not taken notice of, if not very numerous, as they com- monly feed upon wild herbs, without preying upon gardens and cultivated lands, or making their way into houses. The peasants look at them with in- difference while they are frisking about in the fields, neglecting any measure to destroy them till the danger is immediate, and the favourable moment to remedy the evil is elapsed. Their yearly number is not very considerable, as the males are far more numerous than the females. If an equal proportion were allowed only for ten years, their number would be so great as to destroy the whole vegetative sys- tem ; beasts and birds would starve for want of subsistence, and even man would become a prey to their ravenous appetites. In 1754 their increase was so great from the multitude of females, that all La Mancha and Portugal were covered with them, and totally ravaged : the horrors of famine spread even further, and assailed the fruitful provinces of Andalusia, Murcia, and Valencia. These locusts seem to devour, not so much from a ravenous ap- petite, as from a rage for destroying every thing CH. XII.] THE LOCUST, ETC. 185 that comes in the way. It is not surprising that they should be fond of the most juicy plants and fruits, such as melons, and all manner of fruits and herbs, and feed also on aromatic plants, such as lavender, thyme, and rosemary, which are so com- mon in Spain, that they serve to heat ovens ; but it is very singular that they eat equally mustard-seed, garlic, and onions — nay, hemlock, and the most rank and poisonous plants, such as the deadly night- shade and the thorn-apple ; they will even prey upon crowsfoot, whose causticity burns the very body of beasts; and such is their universal taste, that they do not prefer the innocent mallow to the bitter furze, or rue to wormwood, consuming all ahke, without predilection or favour, with this re- markable circumstance, that during the four years they committed such dreadful havoc in Estrema- dura, the love-apple, or Solanum lycopersicon of Lin- naeus, was the only plant that escaped their rapa- cious teeth, and claimed a respect to its root, leaves, flower, and fruit. Naturalists may search for their motives, which I am at a loss to discover ; the more, as I saw millions of them alight on a field near Al- maden, and devour the woollen and hnen garments of the peasants, which were lying to dry on the ground. The curate of the village, a man of ve- racity, at whose house I was, assured me that a body of them entered the church, and devoured the silk garments that adorned the images of the saints, not sparing even the varnish on the altars. Out of curiosity to know the nature of so formidable a creature, I was urged to examine all its parts with the utmost exactness. Its head is of the size of a pea, though longer, its forehead pointing down- wards, like the handsome Andalusian horse ; its mouth is large and open, its eyes black and rolling, added to a timid aspect, not unlike a hare. In its two jaws it has four incisive teeth, whose sharp points traverse each other like scisaors, their mech- Q2 186 NATURAL HISTORY. [cH. XII. anism being such as to gripe or cut. Thus armed, what can resist a legion of such enemies ? "The locust spends the months of April, May, and June, in the place of its birth. At the end of June its wings have a fine rose colour, and its body is strong. Being then in their prime, they assem- ble for the last time about ten o'clock, when the warmth of the sun has cleared their wings from the dampness of the night ; the males and females rise together five hundred feet high, forming a black cloud that darkens the rays of the sun ; the clear atmosphere of Spain becomes gloomy, and the finest summer's day of Estremadura more dismal than the winter of Holland. The rustling of so many millions of wings in the air seems like the trees of a forest agitated by the wind. The first direc- tion of tliis column is always against the wind ; which, if not too strong, the column will extend about a couple of leagues ; the locusts then make a halt, when the most dreadful havoc begins. Their sense of smell being so delicate, they can find at that distance a cornfield or a garden, and, after de- molishing it, rise again in search of another ; this may be said to be done in an instant. Each seems to have four arms and two feet. The males climb up the plants as sailors do the shrouds of a ship, and nip off" the tenderest buds, which fall to the fe- males below." Many old people assured Mr. Dillon, when so much mischief was done in 1754, that it was the third time in their remembrance, and that they are always to be found in the pasture-grounds of Estre- madura, whence they spread into the other prov- inces of Spain. There exists several kinds, each of which in- habits various portions of the earth. One of the largest of this tribe measures four inches long, and from the tip of one wing to the tip of the other eight inches. This is salted, and sold in the Levant CH. XII.] THE LOCUST, ETC. 187 markets. The females are considered by the epi- cures to be more delicate and more edible than the males, owing to the ovaries. An immense army of another species devastated the Mahratta country. The column extended five hundred miles, and was so compact, when on the wing, that, like an eclipse, it completely hid the sun, so that no shadow was cast by any object, and some lofty tombs two hun- dred yards distant were rendered quite invisible. To add to the horror of the scene, they were not the Locusta migratoria, but a red species, so that after they had devoured every thing and clustered on the branches, the trees appeared to be dripping with gore. The South African locust, Mr. Barrow tells us, might be said to cover a surface of the ground for the space of two thousand square miles. So nu- merous were they, that they effectually hid a large river, and those which lay on the surface were so thick that the water was rendered invisible by them. When these insects attack a cornfield, they mount on the top and pick out the grain before they de- vour the leaf or stem. And when the larvae, which are still more voracious than the parent insect, are on the march, it is impossible to make them turn out of their way, which is usually that of the wind. At sunset the troop halts and divides into separate groups, each occupying in bee-like clusters the neighbouring eminences for the night. One of the modes of destroying these destructive creatures is now practised by the colonists, who turn a large flock of sheep among them, and thus secure an immense number of them being trodden to death. In a former visitation of this plague, all the full- grown insects were blown into the sea by a hurri- cane, drowned, and cast up again in such quantities as to form a bank more than a yard in height and nearly fifty miles long. The stench arising from their carcasses was sensible in Sneeuwberg, a 188 NATURAL HISTORY. [CH. XII. distance of a hundred and fifty miles from the coast. The species which is termed the wart-eating lo- cust has earned its name from the fact of the com- mon people of Sweden catching them for the pur- pose of destroying warts on the hand and elsewhere. The creature is made to bite the excrescence, and at the same time it discharges an acrid liquor on it. The mode of cure would doubtlessly be efficacious, provided the insect does bite and does discharge the corrosive fluid, for it is well known that me- chanical or chymical injuries to a part possessed of such a low degree of vitality as a wart speedily kill it, and cause it to drop off. The prickly grasshop- per, however, would answer the purpose most ef- fectually, if we are to credit Mr. Jackson's account of the powers of its teeth. " I have" (in India) says he, " caught some locusts of an extraordinary size, and very thick in proportion to their length. They have no wings, move slowly, and are easily taken. I soon found it necessary to be careful that they did not bite me, for I am persuaded they could easily have bitten my finger to the bone. I tried one with a twig about as thick as a quill, which it bit through instantly. 1 then dissected one, and on examining one of its grinders, found it nearly as large as a human tooth, and so hard that I was not able to make any impression on it with my pen- knife. The grinders were nearly the colour of ma- hogany. Finding that we were not molested by flies or other insects, and ascribing this circum- stance to the excessive heat of the sun at this sea- son, I made the experiment on one of these large locusts by exposing it to the sun, which actually killed it in less than an hour. I also found that flies, when exposed in the middle of the day, fell down almost instantly, and that all kinds of insects must either get into some shade or inevitably perish." The females of this kind of insect possess an I CH. XII.] THE LOCUST, ETC. 189 amazing fecundity, and generally lay from five hun- dred to seven hundred eggs at a time. The ovi- positor is composed of two flat blades, which are turned up at their extremities somewhat like a cut- lass. With this instrument the eggs are deposited in a little chamber formed in the earth with great art. After they are deposited in a fit place, they remain in their respective chambers, shielded from the cold, during the whole of winter, till the heat of spring begins to hatch and vivify them. About May each egg produces a larva, which at first is quite white, but soon turns of a brown colour. The parent having now fulfilled the purposes of nature, seems speedily to grow old, withered, and decrepit, and dies. The young, however, after having esca- ped from the egg, remain within the egg-chamber, protected from external injuries, until they have acquired bulk and strength sufficient to protect themselves. The larvae now begin to shift for themselves. With their two legs they excavate the ground near the roots of herbs and plants, and support themselves by gnawing these, and subsist- ing on the juices, which exude in consequence of their bites. In this state they remain until they undergo another transformation, and, with them as with the rest of the insect tribe, the passage from a less to a more perfect state of being is one of suffering and danger. The metamorphosis, though completed in a few minutes, is performed with great agitation and difficulty : many perish in this severe effort of nature. In a short time, however, the insect recovers, and finds itself provided with wings. It takes possession of our meadows, and fills the air with its incessant chirpings. This note, which is produced by the male, is no sooner heard than it is answered by another male, who, appa- rently indignant, raises a shrill cry. After many insults of this kind, the two insects meet and fight for the female. 190 NATURAL HISTORY. [cil. XIII. CHAPTER XIII. NATURAL HISTORY OF THE CICADA. Organs of Sound — History of the North American Species — Its Habits — Its Metamorphosis — Probably two Varieties — Eaten by Animals — Its Ovipositor — Manner of laying its Eggs — Period of Life — Used in making Soap — History of the Cuckoo Spit — Its Metamorphosis — Its Habits — History of the Cicada goudoti — Its Envelopement in the Sap of Plants — How discharged like Rain — Qiumtity — Whether any Pernicious Qualities — History of the Cicada limbata — Its Wax,