MAL H51D 01; AMMAL5 BIOLOGY LIBRARY G I The Natural History of Animals ', * • . • HUMMING-BIRDS (TROCHILIDAE) OF AMERICA HUMMING-BIRDS (TrochilidcE) These brilliantly-coloured little forms, of which between 400 and 500 species have been described, are perhaps the most attractive members of their class, and some of them are the smallest known birds. Excluding the tail, which is often long out of all proportion, they vary in length from S% to rather less than 2>£ inches. They are wholly American (and West Indian), ranging from Tierra del Fuego to Canada, and from sea-level to a vertical height of 16,000 feet. The mountains and hills of the northern parts of South America are inhabited by the largest number of beautiful species. Unfortunately, like many other birds of attractive plumage, they are ruthlessly hunted down to minister to the vanity of womankind. The species represented in the plate are: i. Lamprolcema rhanii, 2. Thalurania furcata, 3. Lesbia sparganura^ 4. Calypte Helence, 5. Diphlogana hesperus. The Natural History of Animals The Animal Life of the World in its various Aspects and Relations BY J. R. AINSWORTH DAVIS, M.A. TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE PROFESSOR IN THE UNIVERSITY OF WALES, AND PROFESSOR OF ZOOLOGY AND GEOLOGY IN UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, ABERYSTWYTH HALF-VOL. VIII LONDON THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY 34 SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND 1904 BIOLOGY LIBRARY G CONTENTS HALF-VOL. VIII UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY (Continued} CHAPTER LXVIIL— ANIMAL FRIENDS— FISHES, MOLLUSCS. AND CRUSTACEANS AS FOOD— FISHERIES Page Sources of information - - - « 261 FISHES (PISCES) AS FOOD Line-Fishing, Net-Fishing, and Trawling 261 THE HERRING FAMILY (CLUPEID^E) — Herring (Clupea harengus) ; Sprat (C. sprattus\ "whitebait"; Pilchard (C. pilchardus\ Sardines; Anchovy (En- graulis encrasicholus] ----------- 263 THE COD FAMILY (GADID^E)— Cod (Gadus morrhua), Coal-Fish (G. wrens). Had- dock (G. ceglefinus). Whiting (G. merlangus), Ling (Molva uulgaris], Hake (Merluccius vulgaris) - - - - - - - - - - -265 THE FLAT-FISH FAMILY (PLEURONECTID./E) — Turbot (Rhombus maximus), Brill (R. lcEvis\ Halibut (Hippoglossus vulgaris\ Sole (Solea vulgaris}, Plaice (Pleuronectes platessd), Flounder (P.flesus), Dab (P. limanda), Lemon Dab (P. microcephalus) - - - - - - - - - - - - -268 THE MACKEREL FAMILY (SCOMBRID.E)— Mackerel (Scomber vernalis), Common Tunny (Orcynus thynnus) ----------- 270 THE RED MULLET FAMILY (MULLID.E)— Striped Red Mullet (Mullus surmul- letus\ Plain Red Mullet (M. barbatus) 271 THE JOHN DORY FAMILY (CYTTID^E)— John Dory (Zeus fader) - - - - 272 THE GURNARD FAMILY (COTTID/E)— Bull-Heads (Cottus\ Grey Gurnard (Trigla gurnardus], Red Gurnard (T. cuculus) 272 THE GREY MULLET FAMILY (MUGILID^E)— Thin-lipped and Thick-lipped Grey Mullets (Mugil capito and M. cheld) 273 THE EEL FAMILY (MUR^ENID^E)— Conger (Conger vulgaris), Common Eel (An- guilla vulgaris] - - - - - - - - - - - -274 THE SALMON FAMILY (SALMONID^;)— Salmon (Salmo salar), River Trout (Salmo fario\ Smelt or Sparling (Osmerus eperlanus) 275 vi CONTENTS Page THE STURGEON FAMILY (ACIPENSERID^E)— Common Sturgeon (Acipenser sturio\ Sterlet (A. ruthenus\ Giant Sturgeon or Hausen (A. huso\ Gulden stadt's Stur- geon (A. Giildenstadti) ; Caviare and Isinglass 277 SKATES AND RAYS (BATOIDEI)— Skate (Raia batis\ Thornback (R. clavatd) - - 278 ROUND MOUTHS (CYCLOSTOMATA)— Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), River Lamprey or Lampern (P. fluviatilis] 278 FISHERIES "Wet" Fish and "Shell "-Fish. Statistics of British Fisheries. Scientific investi- gations, and their great importance. Chief lines of work: (i) Statistics, (2) Habits and Life-Histories, (3) Food of Fishes — Plankton. Hensen's quanti- tative determinations - - - - 279 FISH-CULTURE (PISCICULTURE) — Antiquity of the Art. Italian Eel-culture. Carp- culture in Germany, £c. Artificial Fecundation, Hatching, and Hatcheries. Necessity for Endowment of Scientific Research 284 MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSCA) AS FOOD THE OYSTER (Ostrea}—" Flat", Portuguese, and American Oysters (Ostrea edulis, O.angulata, and O. Virginiand). Oyster-Culture — History and Methods of the Industry as practised in France. English Oyster-Industry— Whitstable Fishery 288 THE EDIBLE MUSSEL (Mytilus edulis) — Mussel-culture in Scotland, Germany, and France (bouchot system) - .... 294 THE COCKLE (Cardium edule) - - - 296 THE PERIWINKLE (Littorina littorea} - .... 297 CRUSTACEANS (CRUSTACEA) AS FOOD THE LOBSTER (Homarus vulgaris} and American Lobster (ff. Americanus). Lobster-hatching in Norway, Scotland, and North America - 297 SHRIMPS AND PRAWNS — Common Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris\ Prawns (Palawan serratus, &c.) ... 299 THE FRESHWATER CRAYFISH (Astacus fluviatilis) and Noble Crayfish (A. nobilis) 300 CHAPTER LXIX.— ANIMAL FRIENDS— WILD ANIMALS CAPTURED FOR VARIOUS ECONOMIC PURPOSES— BENEFICIALS Nature of the Economic Products, other than Food, obtained from Wild Animals - 301 FUR-BEARING MAMMALS (MAMMALIA) Use of Skins and Furs as Garments. Clothing of the Ostiaks .... 301 FUR-YIELDING FLESH-EATERS (CARNIVORA)— Weasel and Marten Family (Mus- telida)\ Russian Sable (Mustela zibellind); American Sable (M. Americana)-, Stoat (Putorius erminea\ the Source of "Ermine"; American Mink (P. mson}\ Russian Mink (P. lutreold)\ Sea-Otter (Latax lutris) - - - - - 303 Seal-Lions or Eared Seals (Otaridtz): Northern Fur-Seal (Otaria ursina), Sealing Industry of the Bearing Sea and Pribyloff Islands .... 304 FUR-YIELDING GNAWERS (RCDENTI A)— American Beaver (Castor Canadensis\ European Beaver (C. fiber), Musquash (Fiber zibethicus\ Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera\ Common Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris\ Rabbit (Lepus cuniculus) - 307 CONTENTS vii SKINS AND DOWN OF WILD BIRDS (AVES) Page Grebes (Podicipes] and Eider-Ducks (Somateria) ------- 308 WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, FAT, &c. Importance of Leather and Horn 309 THE WALRUS ( Trichechus rosmarus] 311 SEALS (PHOCID.E)— Uses of Blubber and Skins. Harp or Greenland Seal (Phoca Grcenlandica\ Hooded or Bladder-Nosed Seal (Cystophora cristata\ Baikal Seal (Phoca Sibiricd), Caspian Seal (P. Caspica) 312 THE DUGONG (Halicore dugong] --313 WHALES, &c. (CETACEA)— Toothless Whales (Mystacoceti]\ Greenland or "Right" Whale (Balatna mysticetus], Blubber and Whalebone; Southern "Right" Whale (B. australis}. Toothed Whales (Odontocetf}: Cachalot or Sperm Whale (Phy- seter macrocephalus], Spermaceti; White Whale or Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas), Blubber and "Porpoise Leather" ------- 314 REPTILES (REPTILIA)— Skins of Crocodiles and Lizards - - - - - - 317 FISHES (PISCES)— Skins of Sharks and Dog-Fishes as "Shagreen", Skins of ordi- nary Bony Fishes (Teleostei} for clarifying Beer and Manufacture of Fish-glue, Oil of the Menhaden or Pogy (Clupea menhaden)-, Sharks and Dog-Fishes - 317 INSECTS (INSECT A)— Locust-Oil ----- 318 MEDICINAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL PRODUCTS ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS AS MEDICINAL AGENTS— The practice of medicine in ancient times; animal extracts; animal fats used in pharmacy; gelatine and isinglass ; experiments on animals- - - - - - -318 Medicinal Value of Fish-Oil — Cod-liver Oil 321 Medicinal Uses of Insects — Oil-Beetles (Meloidce or Cantharidce), Spanish Flies (Canthartdes\ Hungarian species (Lytta vesicatoria): Cochineal - - 321 Medicinal Use of Leeches (Discophora) — Medicinal Leech (Hirudo medi- cinalis\ Green Leech (H. officinalis) - - - - - - - -321 MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL PRODUCTS— Mottuscs (Mollusca\ Cuttle-Fish (Sepia officinalis), cuttle-bone, "pounce"; Money Cowry (Cypraa monetd) and other shells used as currency, Indian wampum; other uses of shells - 322 Sponges (Port/era) — Bath Sponge (Euspongia officinalis], Zimocca Sponge (Euspongia zimocca\ Horse Sponge (Hippospongia equina) ; Sponge Fisheries 324 WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR HABITS Action of " Beneficials " .- 325 BENEFICIAL MAMMALS (MAMMALIA)— Foxes, Weasels, Stoats, &c.: Moles, Hedge- hogs, and Shrews : Bats : Scavenging Mammals — Hyaenas, Rats - 325 BENEFICIAL BIRDS ( AVES)— Diurnal Birds of Prey: Owls— Barn Owl (Strix flammea); Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus): Swifts, Swallows, Martins, and Titmice: Secretary Bird (Serpentarius secretariats} : Scavenging Birds — Vultures - - 327 viii CONTENTS Page BENEFICIAL REPTILES (REPTILIA) — Lizards: Snakes — Corn Snake (Coluber gut- tatus\ Rat Snake (Zamenis mucosus) 328 BENEFICIAL AMPHIBIANS (AMPHIBIA) — Frogs and Toads 328 BENEFICIAL FISHES (PISCES)— Scavenging Work : Carp in Reservoirs - - - 329 BENEFICIAL INSECTS (INSECTA)— Enemies of Insect-pests : Destroyers of Carrion — Burying Beetles, Flies : Fertilization of Plants by Insects - ... 329 BENEFICIAL SPIDER-LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA) — Spiders .... 329 BENEFICIAL MYRIAPODS (MYRIAPODA)- Centipedes ... . 329 BENEFICIAL CRUSTACEANS (CRUSTACEA)— Scavenging Work: Crabs - - 329 BENEFICIAL ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA)— Earth-Worms - - - 329 BENEFICIAL PARASITIC WORMS 330 CHAPTER LXX.— ANIMAL FOES— THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN ENEMIES AMONG MAMMALS (MAMMALIA)— Lion (Fetts leo\ Tiger (F. tigris\ other Felines. Bears — Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus\ Brown Bear (U. arctos] and "Grizzly", Sloth- Bear (U. labiatus}. Wolves. Large Herbivorous Forms — Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, Buffalo, Elephant. Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), &c., Peccaries (Dicotyles]. Blood-sucking Bats - - 331 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG REPTILES (REPTILIA)— Crocodiles and Alligators. Poisonous Lizards (Heloderma). Non-Poisonous Snakes: Anaconda or Water- Boa (Euneces murinus). Poisonous Snakes: Indian Cobra (Naia tripudians)> Krait (Bungarus casruleus], Australian Death- Adder (Acanthophis antarcticus\ Coral Snake (Elaps corallinus), Sea-Snakes (Hydrophince), African Puff-Adder (Vipera arietans), Russell's Viper (V. Russelli\ Rattle-Snakes (Crotalus) - - 336 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG FISHES (PISCES)— Sharks— Rondeletian Shark (Car- charodon Rondeletii}. Fishes with Poison-spines. Fishes Poisonous as Food, Globe-Fishes (Dwdon and Tetrodori), Coffer-Fishes (Ostraciori) ... 340 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSCA)— Giant Squids and Octopi. Cone- Shells - - 340 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG INSECTS (INSECTA) — Mosquitoes and Malarial Diseases .... 340 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG SPIDER-LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA) — Scorpions, Spiders, Itch-Mites - - 341 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG MYRIAPODS (MYRIAPODA)— Centipedes - - 341 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA)— Leeches - - - 342 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG FLAT-WORMS (PLATYHELMIA)— Flukes (Trematoda): Liver- Fluke (Fasaola hepattca}, Bilharzia. Tape- Worms (Cestoda}: Com- mon Tape- Worm (Tania solium\ Beef Tape- Worm (T. saginata), Broad Tape- Worm (Bothriocephalus latus\ Echinococcus Tape- Worm (7! echinococcus) - 342 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ROUND-WORMS (NEMATHELMIA) — Round- Worm (Ascaris lumbricoidts\ Thread-Worm (Oxyuris ruermicularis\ Palisade-Worm (Dochmius duodenalis] of miners' anaemia, Guinea- Worm (Filaria medinensis\ Trichina (Trichina spiralis) 343 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG HEDGEHOG-SKINNED ANIMALS (ECHINODERMATA)— Sea-Urchins with Poison-Spines 344 CONTENTS ix Page PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ZOOPHYTES (CCELENTERATA)— Jelly-Fishes, &c. - 344 PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ANIMALCULES (PROTOZOA) — Malaria Parasites, &c. 344 CHAPTER LXXL— ANIMAL FOES— FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES Enormous Number of Animal Pests. Necessity for Scientific Research - 345 INJURIOUS MAMMALS (MAMMALIA) — Carnivores that attack Domesticated Ani- mals. Browsing and Gnawing Mammals destructive to Plants: Deer, Goats, Rats, Mice, Voles, Hares, Rabbits. Destruction of Grain, &c., and Dissemina- tion of Disease-Germs by Rats, Mice, &c. 345 INJURIOUS BIRDS (AVES) — Birds of Prey. Raven (Corvus corax], Kea Parrot (Nestor notabilis], Woodpeckers, Crows, Rooks, Sparrows .-•-'_. 347 INJURIOUS REPTILES (REPTILIA) — Crocodiles, Alligators, Poisonous Snakes - 348 INJURIOUS FISHES (PISCES)— Pike (Esox lucius\ Skates and Rays - - - 348 INJURIOUS MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSCA) — Octopus. Common Whelk (Buccinum un- datum\ Dog- Whelk (Nassa reticosd), Purple-Shell (Purpura lapillus\ Land- Snails, Land-Slugs. Ship-Worm (Teredo navalis), Edible Mussel (Mytilus edulis) - - 348 INJURIOUS INSECTS (INSECTA)— Forms injurious to Stock: Flies (Diptera), Ox- Warble Flies (Hypodermis boms and H. lineatus), Tsetse Fly (Glossina morsitans) ............. 348 Forms injurious to cultivated Plants, Food, Clothing, &c. — Bugs (Hemi- ptera): Aphides or Green Flies (Aphidce), Corn Aphis (Aphis cerealis], Oat Aphis (A. avence), Bean Aphis (A.fab m Fig. 1209.— MacDonald's Hatching Bottle. The one on the SUpply by liberating great the left is arranged for hatching purposes, and the other .. r r • i contains fry. Course of water indicated by arrows. numbers of fry in the sea, the data are at present too incomplete to estimate their utility. It appears to be certain in some cases that good has been done by them, one instance of the sort being afforded by the Norwegian hatchery near Flodevig, but the expense involved is considerable, and for some species and some localities may well turn out to be so great as not to be justifiable. The large majority of the just- hatched fry which are now from time to time placed in the sea are destined to perish before growing to a marketable size, and it may in the end turn out to be necessary to carry the culture to a stage which will give a greatly increased chance of survival. But this is notoriously difficult, and a large amount of experiment is necessary before success is likely to be attained. And even in the event of the various obstacles being surmounted, the greatly increased expense of such a method may prevent its adoption. 288 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY There is a second possibility of exactly opposite kind, suggested by Cunningham, i.e. to give up hatching, and largely increase the extent of spawning-ponds, contenting ourselves with setting adrift vast numbers of fertilized eggs. Both the possibilities mentioned require testing on a large scale, and afford suitable objects for large Government expenditure. The money spent on a single battle-ship, or even on a cruiser, if devoted to this pur- pose, would quite conceivably settle the whole vexed question of British marine fish-hatcheries so far as some of the more im- portant food-fishes are concerned. And unless scientific research, both pure and as applied to our important industries, fisheries of course included, is not far more largely endowed in future than it has been in the past, it may come about in the course of time that the country will be unable to afford a sufficient number of battle-ships, cruisers, and similar expensive necessaries. MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSCA) AS FOOD Brief mention has already been made (see p. 214) of various molluscs used for food in different parts of the world. A few of these are of such importance that they require somewhat more detailed treatment. They are Oysters, Mussels, Cockles, and Periwinkles. The Oyster (Ostrea). — The most important European species is the " Flat" Oyster (O. edulis), to which our " natives " belong. There is also the large, somewhat triangular, Portuguese Oyster (O. angulata), which is of considerable economic importance, though of coarser kind. The American Oyster (O. Virginiana), commonly known in this country as " blue point ", is the object of valuable and extensive fisheries on the Atlantic coast of the United States. In spite of typhoid scares it is probable that oysters will continue to be popular delicacies in this country, those from Whitstable and other fisheries in the Thames estuary being most esteemed. Oyster Culture. — Some nations engage on a large scale in oyster culture as well as oyster fishing. Italy, Holland, France, and the United States may be particularly mentioned in this connection. This kind of culture mainly depends on the fact that the larvae, fry, or "spat" readily attach themselves to various foreign objects, and can then be reared to "seed" MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 289 oysters, which may be further grown where produced, or else despatched elsewhere. The practice varies largely in different countries, and perhaps the most interesting case is afforded by France. It may be remarked in passing that the Italian oyster- industry has existed continuously from the times of the ancient Romans, and that the oysters are commonly grown upon bundles of twigs (fascines]. The Dutch largely employ earthenware tiles, and the numerous estuaries of Holland afford suitable localities. The large development of oyster-culture in France during the last few decades is very remarkable, and is the outcome of some experiments made in 1853 by M. de Bon, commissaire of marine at St. Servan. At that time the natural oyster-beds of France had been so much depleted by over-dredging that not only was strict legislation regarding them necessary, but the question of future supply naturally demanded attention. The observer men- tioned found that the oyster-fry readily attached themselves to pieces of stone or stick, and this was the first step in the evolu- tion of " collectors " to serve this end. The earliest attempts to revive the industry by artificial culture were unfortunately not successful, but many natural obstacles were gradually overcome, the final result being a flourishing and highly-specialized trade, in which there is much division of labour. The total annual value of the industry considerably exceeds half a million pounds sterling. In 1902 the fresh oysters imported into this country from France were worth ,£30,000. Public dredging of the natural oyster-banks of France is so stringently limited by Government that they are of little im- portance as regards the direct supply of the market. They are, in fact, regarded as a reserve of spawning individuals, by which vast quantities of spat are produced. One important branch of the industry is to catch the spat on collectors in- geniously adapted to the conditions of particular localities. Some of these devices are made of boards, fixed together in successive tiers; but most of them consist of curved earthenware tiles, ar- ranged in wooden crates, wired together, or otherwise associated (fig. 1210). Whatever their precise nature, they are mostly to be found fixed in their appointed places near low tide-mark or in shallow water, by the beginning of July, i.e. at the time when the fry are liberated from between the shells of the parent oysters. The tiles (or boards) have previously been covered 290 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY with a thin layer of a mixture of lime and sand (or mud), and it is the under surfaces which, under ordinary circumstances, serve for the attachment of the larval oysters when these give up a free-swimming existence for a sedentary life. It may be added that in some localities it has been found possible to construct large spawning-ponds instead of relying on the supply of spat from the oyster-banks off the shore. Fig. i2>o. — The Cabaret Collector (Ruche) in position (at Arcachon). Young oysters are seen attached to the tile which is being lifted, and to another that is up-ended on the right. The collectors are covered with sea-weed, so that when left by the tide they are kept moist, and protected from heat and light. A " set " of spat having been secured on the collectors, the tender molluscs are left till about October, by which time they have grown to the size of a finger-nail, and are known as " seed- oysters ". They are then flaked off the tiles (or boards), which the thin layer of lime renders possible with trifling loss, and carefully packed. This ends the stage of production {produc- tion), and the little oysters are now committed to the care of another set of specialists, who rear them to a marketable size. This process of tlevage is much more difficult. The tleveur places the seed in rectangular rearing-cases, the upper and lower sides of which are chiefly made of wire-gauze. As MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 291 growth proceeds, sorting from time to time becomes necessary, so as to give increased room. The cases are placed in oyster " parks ", which are simply enclosed areas of shallow water, with boundaries of the most various character, from lines of waving saplings to solid masonry pierced by flood-gates (fig. 1211). When the oysters have attained a fair size they may be trans- rig. 121 r. — A Norwegian Oyster-Park ferred from the cases to the floor of the park, which sometimes has to be specially prepared for their reception. There are still two more stages which some French oysters have to go through before they reach the market. One is the process of " greening", as at Marennes, the products of which are greatly esteemed. The oysters are here kept for a long time in small and muddy salt ponds (claires), where they gradually acquire a green colour owing to the nature of the food avail- able, which consists of minute algae. At the same time a pecu- liarly delicate flavour is imparted. Healthy British oysters from the estuaries of the Roach and Crouch, in Essex, may also be 292 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY green, and for the same reason. Certain green oysters, however, should be looked upon with suspicion, as, for example, some of those from Cornwall, in which the colour is due to the presence of copper. The last process to which some of the French oysters are subjected is that of education for transport. They are gradually accustomed to be out of water, and to close their valves closely, which clearly enables them to be sent in a good condition for long distances. English Oyster- Industry. — That this industry is of considerable importance will already have been gathered from the statistics on page 280. We may take as an example the Whit- stable Oyster Fishery Company, which is one of the most notable. As to its yield of oysters, the Secretary of the Com- pany, Mr. W. H. Reeves, writes in a private letter: "With regard to statis- tics I can only say that our own sales of oysters average about 10 million to 1 2 million yearly, and of this number about two- thirds are English Natives and the rest imported from France, with a small percentage of East River oysters from America ". As most persons are aware, Whitstable is on the north coast of Kent, east of the Isle of Sheppey, and has been an important seat of the oyster-trade from very remote times. The details here given are derived from a book by A. O. Collard (The Oyster and Dredgers of Whitstable], to which readers are referred for further information. The following quotation from this book will give an idea of the length of time for which " natives " have been popular: — "Among some valuable notes attached to the evidence taken on oath in the Committee of the House of Lords in 1866, on certain bills promoted by the Herne Bay Fishery Company, I find the following observations : ' The Whitstable Company are a most ancient body of ' free fishers Fig. 1212. — Shell of a Whitstable Native, with young Oysters attached. Reduced. MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 293 and dredgers ', who, from father to son, have carried on the business of an oyster fishery during, it is probable, a period of Fig. 1213. — Wheeler's Beehive Collector. Much reduced. at least two thousand years. It was about A.D. 80 that Julius Agricola first exported oysters from the neighbourhood of the Fig. 1214. — Whitstable Oyster-Dredger at Work. Dredges on the rail. Reculvers to Rome, and for the ancestors of the Whitstable free dredgers Rome was, during about three centuries, their VOL. IV. 114 294 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Billingsgate.' . . . When we remember what is known of the early state of Great Britain, we can scarcely be surprised that Sallust, who lived and wrote about fifty years before Christ, had a better opinion of our oysters than our ancestors, for he said, * The poor Britons — there is some good in them after all — they produce an oyster '. Whitstable may certainly claim some share in creating that good impression." The superior quality of the Whitstable Natives is mainly due to the character of the in- shore beds where the oysters live, for not only is the soil favourable, but there is the necessary admixture of fresh water of suitable nature from the land. Upon these beds are planted the seed oysters dredged further out in the estuary, while some of these are imported from France. The "cultch" to which the bivalves attach themselves is largely made up of empty oyster-shells (fig. 1212). One ingenious method that has been tried for catching the spat is by means of Wheeler's Beehive Collector (fig. 1213), made of perforated earthen- ware, and partly filled with empty shells. Space forbids reference to the way in which the mature natives are treated after they have been dredged (fig. 1214) and before they are finally packed in barrels for the market. The Edible Mussel (Mytilus edulis, fig. 1215). — This mollusc is used to a considerable extent as human food, though there is rather a prejudice against it on account of the fact that occasional batches turn out to be poisonous, causing serious illness or even death. That mussels are nevertheless eaten largely in England may be deduced from the fact that in 1902 no less a quantity BYSSUS FOOT Fig. 1215.— Edible Mussel (Mytilus edulis} INTERTIDAL AND SHALLOW WATER ANIMALS The plate represents a tide-pool on the British coast, and intro- duces a number of familiar marine animals. Beginning with those lowest in the scale they are : 1. Sea-Anemones {Actinia:}. 2. Common Star-fish ( Uraster rubens). 3. Acorn- Barnacles (Balanus). 4. Shore-Crab (Carcinus mcenas). 5. Cockles (Cardiuni). The one on the left belongs to the edible species (C. edule}. 6. Sea- Mussels (Mytilus edulis). 7. Scallop (Pectin). 8. Periwinkles (Littorina). Those on the right are of the edible sort (L. littorea], while the small yellow ones on the left belong to another species (L. obtusata). 9. Purple-Shells (Purpura lapillus). 10. Gulls (Larus). MOLLUSCS AS FOOD 295 than 43 tons 10 cwts. of them was seized and condemned at and near Billingsgate Market. On the Continent the consump- tion is much greater than with us. The mussel is greatly valued as a bait in British line-fishing, particularly on the coast of Scotland. The yield in that country for 1902 amounted to 95,663 cwts., valued at ^5445, which con- trasts strongly with the 247,186 cwts., worth ,£14,506, collected in 1892. The meaning of the steady diminution which has been going on for some years has reference to the displacement of line-fishing by trawling. The same thing has been happening with regard to " clams " (species of Pecten and various other bivalves), another valuable bait in Scottish line-fishing. The quantity of clams taken in 1892 was 20,769 cwts. (^2736), but in 1902 only 4320 cwts. (£586). Muss el- Culture. — As in the case of the oyster, the eggs hatch out into free-swimming " fry ", which after a time attach them- .selves to various objects, not, however, by the substance of one valve, but by silky byssus threads. Nor is the mussel obliged to spend the whole of its fixed life in one spot, for it can cast off the threads, and crawl away to some distance, if adverse circumstances render a change of residence desirable. Import- ant musselries were established some years ago at Montrose, .and previously barren ground was made very valuable. The principle involved essentially consists in reserving certain beds for the production of " seed ", as in the case of the strictly- preserved natural oyster-banks on the French coast (see p. 289). From these beds the young mussels are collected and planted out on other areas. On the Baltic coast of Germany tree-branches are thrust into the sea-floor in shallow water (fig. 1216), serving as collectors for the fry, which grow upon them to a marketable size. After from three to five years they are pulled up, weighed, and sold with their living crop still adhering. At some points of the French sea-board, especially at Es- naudes on the west coast, elaborate mussel-farming is practised, on what is known as the " bouchot " system. Each bouchot is a V-shaped or W-shaped collection of stakes driven into the mud, with the opening directed seawards. Adjacent stakes are -connected by interwoven branches, and the 500 bouchots of the Esnaude musselry have a collective length of not far short of 296 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY 130 miles. During the first two months of the year the mussel- fry attach themselves to the bouchots next the sea, and by May have grown sufficiently large to be scraped off without diffi- culty. They are then placed in small bags made of old canvas and the like, which are fixed to stakes further from the sea. Ultimately the bags rot away, leaving the mussels hanging in bunches by their byssal threads. As time goes on they are transferred further and further landwards, till by the time the 1 Fig. 1216.— Part of a Baltic Musselry innermost stakes are reached they are large enough to gather for sale. The annual yield of Esnaudes is valued at not less than ,£52,000. The Cockle (Cardium edule). — As a cheap, if indigestible, sub- stitute for the oyster this -bivalve is largely eaten by the populace in this and other countries. It burrows in the sand or mud of bays and estuaries, and is captured by raking at low tide. More- cambe Bay, Caermarthen Bay, and the estuary of the Teign are notable localities. Statistics for this country are not available, for even in the Reports of the Scottish Fishery Board the CRUSTACEANS AS FOOD 297 cockle is an " unclassified " shell-fish. But most of us have seen small detachments of this mollusc displayed for sale on stalls, with vinegar and pepper as accompaniments, and have specu- lated as to what kind of customer might be expected. And we have the significant fact that, in 1902, 7 tons 18 cwts. 2 qrs. of cockles were seized and condemned at or near Billingsgate Market. The Periwinkle (Littorina littorea). — The popular 'winkle is gathered between tide-marks on many parts of our coasts, the greater part of the London supply being derived from Scotland. The large quantity of 54 tons 5 cwts. was seized and condemned at or near Billingsgate Market in 1902. CRUSTACEANS (CRUSTACEA) AS FOOD We are here chiefly concerned with Lobsters, Prawns, Shrimps, and Crabs (fig. 1217), though these are far from being the only edible species. The Lobster (Homarus vulgaris). — Of all large crustaceans this is the most esteemed in this country, and vast numbers are annually consumed. Along the rocky parts of the coast of the British Isles, Norway, Canada, and many other countries, lobster- fishing is a very important industry. A large part of the English supply is derived from Scotland, for which the yield in 1902 was 786,400, valued at ,£37,114. The home-supply is by no means equal to the demand, and our imports of lobsters, fresh and canned, are very considerable. Of the former we relied upon Norway for 38,538 (worth about ^"1850) in 1902, and upon France for many more. Lobster -canning is an important in- dustry for Newfoundland, Canada, and the United States. It should be added that the American Lobster (H. Americanus) is not of the same species as our native form, though closely allied. Lobsters are caught in " pots " or " creels ", contrivances of the nature of traps, constructed of a wooden framework covered with netting (fig. 1218). Fish-entrails or other garbage is used as bait, the creel being sunk in a suitable spot by means of stones, a cord with a cork at the end serving to mark the spot. Lobster-fishing has to be regulated with considerable strin- gency, as it is only too easy to deplete the supply. Hatching has 298 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY been carried on to a considerable extent in several countries with a view to maintain or, if possible, increase the numbers available. The difficulties to be overcome are far less formidable than in the case of fishes, for the female or "hen" lobster carries about her Fig. 1217. — i, Common Prawn (Palcemon serrattts], 2, Common Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris). 3, The Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus,. 4, The Lobster (Homarus vulgaris) eggs attached to the under side of the tail, at which time she is said to be in "berry". So long ago as 1887 Captain Dannevig, at the Norwegian fish-hatchery near Arendal, found it possible to rear lobster-fry from the eggs, and such rearing is now resorted to by Scotland, Canada, and the United States, among other countries. * The Aberdeen hatchery, for example, liberated some CRUSTACEANS AS FOOD 299 3000 minute lobsters during 1902. The value of these hatcheries is doubtful. The Edible Crab (Cancer pagurus). — This savoury crustacean is also of considerable economic importance (see p. 280). The chief method of capture is the same as for the lobster. Hatching methods are here also being made the subject of experiment. The Aberdeen hatchery cast adrift in the open sea no less than 4,500,000 of juvenile crabs in the year 1902. Shrimps and Prawns. — A Common Shrimp (Crangon vulgaris) is distinguished from a Prawn (Pal&mon serratus, &c.) not only Fig. 1218.— Crab-Pots by its smaller size, but also by several structural features, of which the most obvious is the absence of the sharp saw-edged spine which projects from the head of the latter. Prawns are often known as " red shrimps ". The annual consumption in this country must be very large, judging from observation, and the fact that in 1902 shrimps (presumably including prawns as well) to the amount of over 54 tons were seized and condemned at or near Billingsgate Market. We also know that in the year men- tioned over 900 fishing-boats (mostly second class) were engaged in capturing shrimps and prawns, chiefly by trawls, round the coasts of England and Wales. The catch of three small third- class Scottish trawlers working for that period in the Solway Firth was worth ^3571, and if the earnings of the English boats were 3oo UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY proportionate the total value of their catch must have been very considerable. And we have further to consider the great army of shrimpers working by means of various kinds of hand-net (fig. 1219), or dragging similar contrivances along by means of carts. Fig. 1219. — Shrimper working a Push-Net The Fresh-Water Crayfish (Astacus fluviatilis). — This inhabi- tant of many of our rivers and canals, which resembles a small lobster in appearance, is of no great economic importance to this country, although of decidedly delicate flavour. On the Continent, however, an allied but larger species (A. nobilis) is much eaten. CHAPTER LXIX ANIMAL FRIENDS— WILD ANIMALS CAPTURED FOR VARIOUS ECONOMIC PURPOSES— BENEFICIALS The present section has mainly been concerned with the animal kingdom as a source of food, although in dealing with domesticated forms it has been found convenient to mention com- modities of other kinds, such as wool. We now have to deal with economic products other than food, for the sake of which wild animals of various kinds are captured. Prominent among these desiderata are furs, skins, fats, and oils, besides which there are a great number of less important articles of commerce, such as sponges and medicinal substances, that call for passing notice. Animal products employed entirely or mainly for decorative purposes will be reserved for treatment under Animal ^Esthetics. FUR-BEARING MAMMALS (MAMMALIA) Although in temperate regions, as we have seen (p. 228), woven clothes have replaced for ordinary purposes the garments of skin and fur devised by prehistoric races, this by no means applies to the colder parts of the world, where ordinary clothing does not afford sufficient protection from the rigorous climate. The nomad tribes of the Russian steppes, for example, make large use of such garments, and the heathen Ostiaks of North Siberia do so to a still greater extent (fig. 1220). Of the latter Brehm says (in North Pole to Equator} that " . . . they use nothing but the skin of the reindeer for clothing, and only employ the furs of other animals for the occasional decoration of the reindeer, or, as the Russians call them, stag skins. Their dress consists of a close- fitting skin coat reaching to the knee; in the men it is slit down the breast, in the women it is open down the whole front, but held together with leather thongs; a hood of the same material is 301 302 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY usually attached to or forms part of the dress; mittens also are sewn on; leather breeches reach below the knee; and leather stockings, which fasten over the knee, complete the attire. The fur garment worn by the women is edged down the sides of the Fig. 1220.— Heathen Ostiaks opening with a carefully-pieced border of variously-coloured little squares of short-haired fur, and always has a broad band of dog- skin round the foot ; that worn by the men has at most a border of dog-skin round the foot; the leather stockings, if they are deco- rated at all, are composed of many prettily-combined, diversely- coloured stripes of skin from the leg of a reindeer, with a stout FUR-BEARING MAMMALS 303 shoe partly sewn on, partly laced over the foot." The Esquimaux dress is spoken of elsewhere (see p. 227). That we ourselves have not altogether abandoned the dress- materials of our remote prehistoric ancestors is sufficiently attested by the fact that in 1902 over 97,000,000 skins and furs, worth ,£5,578,452, were imported into this country, though of course only a part of these were destined for personal wear. The list of fur-bearing Mammals is a very long one, but the most important orders in this connection are the Flesh- Eaters (Carnivora) and the Gnawers (Rodentia), and the purpose of the present section will be sufficiently attained by dealing with a few species belonging to these. It may be noted that we look to the colder parts of the world, especially Canada and Russia, for our chief supply, for the growth of a dense under-coat of fur is an adaptation to rigorous climatal conditions. And it is the pelts obtained in winter that are valuable. In 1902 Canada exported furs to the value of ,£98,000. FUR- YIELDING FLESH -£ATERS (CARNIVORA). — Some of the most important furs of commerce are derived from the members of the Weasel and Marten Family (Mustelidae). Pre-eminent among these is the Russian Sable (Must e la zibellina), which formerly abounded throughout the forest regions of Siberia, but is now mostly to be found in the eastern part of that country, includ- ing Kamschatka, where the seaport of Petropavlosk is an impor- tant dep6t for the pelts. A single skin may be worth as much as ,£30 in this country. The chief method of hunting is by means of dogs, which force the sables to take refuge in trees, from which they are shaken or knocked down into suitably disposed nets. The closely allied American Sable (M. Americana], largely trapped in Canada, is also of considerable importance. The white skins (with black tails) known as " ermine ", which custom leads us to associate with the "great ones of the earth", are no other than the winter coats of the Stoat (Putorius erminea), one of our native " vermin". It is widely distributed through the arctic and temperate regions of both Old and New Worlds, but only assumes full winter livery in the colder parts of its area of distribution. The Minks or Visons are comparatively large aquatic animals of the weasel kind, with brown fur. The pelts of the American Mink (Putorius vison) are most esteemed, and are of importance 3°4 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY in the Canadian fur- trade. Those of the Russian Mink (P. lutreola) are less valuable. Passing over Bears, Foxes, Leopards, &c., mention must be made of Sea-Otters and Fur- Seals, of which the latter in par- ticular are of great economic importance. The Sea-Otter (Latax lutris), native to the coastal waters of the North Pacific, has been so persistently hunted down that its numbers have rapidly diminished during the last twenty years, and it is probably doomed to speedy extinction. Spearing, clubbing, Fig. 1221. — Northern Fur-Seals (Otaria ursina] on the Pribyloff and netting are the chief modes of capture. The fur of the adult is very dense, and of a beautiful dark colour. Owing to their rarity skins are now of great value, a single one being worth at least ;£ioo, or, in exceptional cases, double that amount or even still more. Certain species of Sea-Lions or Eared Seals (Otaridae) are the " fur seals " of commerce, which furnish the valuable skins with which most of us are familiar. Some of them are native to the Southern seas, but the most notable kind is the Northern Fur- Seal (Otaria ursina, figs. 1221 and 1222), or Sea-Bear of the Pacific. The Pribyloff Islands of the Behring Sea have long been famous as one of the most important centres of the industry to which this THE SABLE (Mustela zibellind) This small carnivore, a near relative of our native Pine- Marten, is one of the most valuable ol fur-yielding animals. It formerly ranged across the northern parts of Asia, from the Urals to the Behring Sea, but has been so persistently hunted down that it is now chiefly found in the forests of eastern Siberia and Kams- chatka, Petropavlovsk on the coast of the latter being the chief depot for sable-skins. It is only the thick winter- fur that is valuable, and a good pelt may be worth as much as ^30. Saoles were formerly caught for the most part" by trapping, and sometimes guns were resorted to, though with great risk of injury to the skins. At the present time they are usually hunted down with dogs, and forced to take refuge in trees, from which they are shaken or knocked down into suitably disposed nets. THE RUSSIAN SABLE (MUSTELA ZIBELLINA), THE KING OF THE MARTENS FUR-BEARING MAMMALS 305 species gives rise. As elsewhere briefly described (vol. iii, p. 492), large numbers of the fur-seals repair to these islands during the summer for the purpose of bringing up their young. It is the young " bachelor" males, or " holluschickie ", that are not strong enough to secure establishments, which are slaughtered for the sake of their skins. These are carefully driven to inland " killing grounds ", knocked on the head, and flayed as quickly as possible. Very full details of the industry are given by H. W. Elliot in his well-known book An Arctic Province, from which the following extract is taken: — "The common or popular notion in regard to seal-skins is, that they are worn by those animals just as they appear when offered for sale; that the fur-seal swims about, exposing the same soft coat with which our ladies of fashion so delight to cover their tender forms during inclement winter. This is a very great mistake; few skins are less attractive than a seal-skin is when it is taken from the creature. The fur is not visible; it Fig I222 _Northern Fur-seais is concealed entirely by a coat of stiff over-hair, dull, gray-brown, and grizzled. It takes three of them to make a lady's sack and boa; and in order that a reason for their costliness may be apparent, I take great pleasure in submitting a description of the tedious and skilful labour necessary to their dressing by the furriers ere they are fit for use. A leading manufacturer writing to me says : ' When the skins are received by us in the salt, we wash off the salt, placing them upon a beam somewhat like a tanner's beam, removing the fat from the flesh side with a beaming-knife, care being required that no cuts or uneven places are made in the pelt. The skins are next washed in water and placed upon the beam with the fur up, and the grease and water removed by the knife. The skins are then dried by moderate heat, being tacked out on frames to keep them smooth. After being fully dried, they are soaked in water and thoroughly cleansed with soap and water. In some cases they can be unhaired without this drying process and cleansed before drying. After the cleansing process they pass 3o6 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY to the picker, who dries the fur by stove-heat, the pelt being kept moist. When the fur is dry he places the skin on a beam, and while it is warm he removes the main coat of hair with a dull shoe-knife, grasping the hair with his thumb and knife, the thumb being protected by a rubber cob. The hair must be pulled out, not broken. After a portion is removed the skin must be again warmed at the stove, the pelt being kept moist. When the outer hairs have been mostly removed, he uses a beaming-knife to work out the fine hairs (which are shorter), and the remaining coarser hairs. It will be seen that great care must be used, as the skin is in that soft state that too much pressure of the knife would take the fur also ; indeed, bare spots are made? Carelessly-cured skins are sometimes worthless on this account. The skins are next dried, afterwards dampened on the pelt side, and shaved to a fine, even surface. They are then stretched, worked, and dried, after- wards softened in a fulling-mill, or by treading them with the bare feet in a hogshead, one head being removed and the cask placed nearly upright, into which the workman gets with a few skins and some fine hardwood saw-dust, to absorb the grease while he dances upon them to break them into leather. If the skins have been shaved thin, as required when finished, any defective spots or holes must now be mended, the skin smoothed and pasted with paper on the pelt side, or two pasted together to protect the pelt in drying. The usual process in the United States is to leave the pelt sufficiently thick to protect them without pasting. In dyeing, the liquid dye is put on with a brush, carefully covering the points of the standing fur. After lying folded, with the points touching each other, for some time, the skins are hung up and dried. The dry dye is then removed, and so on, until the required shade is obtained. One or two of these coats of dye are put on much heavier and pressed down to the roots of the fur, making what is called the ground. From eight to twelve coats are required to produce a good colour. The skins are then washed clean, the fur dried, the pelt moist. They are shaved down to the required thickness, dried, working them some time while drying, then softened in a hogshead, and sometimes run in a revolving cylinder with fine saw-dust to clean them. The English process does not have the washing after dyeing." Fur-Seals are also hunted in the open sea, at times when the herds are migrating. The United States endeavoured to put an FUR-BEARING MAMMALS 307 end to this " pelagic" sealing in the Behring Sea on the part of other nations, but the matter being submitted to arbitration, it was decided that, subject to certain restrictions, the practice should be allowed to continue. The yield of the fur-seal industry of British Columbia in 1900 was 35,523 skins (value $562,845), and in 1901 24,422 skins (value §366,330). FUR- YIELDING GNAWERS ( RODENTIA). — Beaver, Chinchilla, Musquash, Squirrel, and Rabbit are here of greatest importance. Fig. 1223. — Musquash (Fiber zibethicus) The Beaver (Castor). — The American Beaver (Castor Cana- densis] is largely trapped in Canada for the sake of its fur, which is greatly esteemed, though no longer used in the manufacture of top-hats, silk having proved both cheaper and better for the pur- pose. The animal has been slaughtered in so wholesale a manner that beaver-fur is becoming increasingly rare and expensive. The European Beaver (C. fiber], once abundant, is now too scarce to be of economic value. Regarding the value attached to the skins of those which existed in Wales down to 1188, Beddard (in The Cambridge Natural History], after stating that the species was extinct in England before the historic period, remarks: " . . . they were rare in the Principality for a hundred years or so before 3o8 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY the Norman Conquest. The king Hywel Dda, who died in 948 A.D., fixed the price of a Beaver skin at 120 pence, the skins of Stag, Wolf, and Fox being worth only 8 pence apiece." The Musquash (Fiber zibethicus, fig. 1223). — This is a large North American vole, which is of considerable importance to the Canadian fur-trade, chiefly, it would seem, because it is made into imitation seal-skin. The Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigerd). — The cold climate to which the soft gray fur of this pretty little rodent is an adaptation, is here a result not of latitude but of altitude. Chinchillas live in the high Andes of Peru and Bolivia, and are something like squirrels in appearance, except that the tail is far less bushy (see vol. i, p. 134). The Common Squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris}. — This species has a remarkably wide distribution, ranging from Ireland to Japan, and also being native to North Africa. It is the chief source of " squirrel " fur, which is of grey or drab colour, quite unlike the reddish -brown of our ordinary native specimens. The skins of commerce are, in fact, taken from individuals inhabiting the colder parts of Russia, the grey hue being, as in many other cases, an adaptation to the severe climate of winter. The Rabbit (Lepus cuniculus]. — Among the cheaper kinds of fur that of the rabbit is best known, and by means of dyeing and other processes it is worked up into passable imitations of more costly pelts. SKINS AND DOWN OF WILD BIRDS (AvES) Deferring for the present the question of the wild birds which are subjected to wholesale butchery on account of their beautiful plumage, mention may here be made of Grebes and Eider- Ducks. Grebes (species of Podicipes\ --These widely - distributed aquatic birds are distinguished by the density and beautiful silver-white colour of the plumage on the under side of the body. Muffs and other articles made of " grebe" are manu- factured from the skin of this region, with the feathers attached as in nature. Eider-Ducks (Somateria, fig. 1224). — Two species of these essentially Arctic birds are of commercial importance on account WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 309 01 the valuable down developed on the nest as a climatal adap- tation. The Common Eider (Somateria mollissima], which has a wide range, and is included in the British avifauna, is carefully preserved in Iceland and Norway. In Labrador and Greenland it is replaced by an allied species (S. Dresseri). The Scandinavian eider-industry is based on the fact that the female bird lines and covers her nest with down plucked from her own breast (see p. 60). The breeding-places are on low ground near the coast, or upon rocky islets, and each " eder- fold" (i.e. eider-fold) is worked for profit by a special proprietor. Both eggs and down are collected at regular intervals during the nesting-season, but the amount obtainable from a particular nest Fig 1224.— Eider-Drake (Somateria. mollissima) is, of course, limited, and care is taken to allow the despoiled mother-birds to hatch out some at least of the final batch of eggs. The last lot of down is collected when the nests have been deserted for the season. About three-quarters of the Danish supply is derived from Greenland. Newton (in A Dictionary of Birds] thus disposes of two popular errors regarding these birds: — "The story of the drakes furnishing down after the duck's supply is exhausted is a fiction. He never goes near the nest. . . . Equally fictitious is the often-repeated statement that eider-down is white. Mouse-colour would perhaps best describe its hue." WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, FAT, ETC. It has been considered desirable in this book to deal with domesticated animals in a special section, but the plan (like any other) has certain disadvantages, especially when treating of VOL. IV. 115 3 io UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY economic products. Leather, horn, fat, &c. &c., are, of course, derived from both tame and wild animals, and this must be kept in mind here. The importance of leather and horn will be realized by reading the following extracts from Simmonds (in Animal Products)'. — "The leather manufacture is one of our most an- cient and important industries. . . . The old adage that there is nothing like leather is certainly verified in the multifarious uses to which leather has been or is now put. We make coverings of it in articles of personal use, for a man may be clothed in leather garments from the head to the foot. In saddlery and harness its use is universal, and nothing can sup- plant it for durability. In articles for* household or domestic use, we have leather hangings and coverings for furniture, buckets and bottles, cups and hose. . . . For travelling we have portmanteaus, valises, and hand-bags, pocket-books, purses, and cigar-cases. . . . We write on leather, and we cover our books with it, and it has even been used by photographers to take likenesses on. It is the packing and baling material in many countries from its cheapness and durability. Hammocks, boats, and even cannon have been made of it, whilst the leather apron is the most durable and serviceable protection for many an artisan. Leather shields were and are still in use in many countries. It serves for the grip-handle of swords, and for the sheaths of knives. We use leather in balls for cricket and football, and we cover musical instruments with it, as well as telescopes and many philosophical instruments, for protection. It is the most ancient, useful, and generally applied animal substance for an infinite variety of purposes. And, moreover, leather can be made of the skin or hide of almost every quadruped, and of many fishes, serpents, and reptiles. Human skin has even been tanned, but it is too thin for any serviceable use." In the following remarks about horn it will be remembered that the antlers of deer are of bony nature: — "The rights and privileges of the 'horn- workers ' and * horn-pressers ' in former times occupied the pro- minent attention of the Legislature. But there is no fear in the present day ' of the trade being ruined, and the business lost to the nation', as was the cry when the statutes 6 Edward IV, c. i, and 7 James I, c. 14 were passed, forbidding the sale of horns to foreigners, and prohibiting the export of our wrought horns. The invention of horn lanterns has been by some ascribed WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 311 to King Alfred, who is said to have first used them to preserve his candle time -measurers from the wind. ... A lantern [was formerly] an indispensable family article; there was no going into the yard or out of the door on dark nights without one. A piece of horn was sometimes placed over the title of mediaeval MSS. to preserve the letters from injury, while the transparent material allowed them to be read. The child's horn-book of later times had its leaves of alphabet and spelling covered en- tirely with thin sheets of this material. Although the principal manufacturing applications of horn are for combs, umbrella -tops, and knife-handles, yet there are other uses as extensive and varied as the descriptions of horn which come into the market, or bristle on the head of the animals characterized by these frontal appendages. Ox, buffalo, and deer horns are those mostly worked up, but the horns of the rhinoceros, ram, goat, and some other animals are also employed to a limited extent for different purposes. . . . While many of the former uses of horns for glazing purposes, for drinking -cups, for horn -books, and for the bugle of the bold forester have passed away, other and more elegant and varied applications have been found for this plastic and durable substance. Extensive as is the present use of horns, we believe that many further manufacturing purposes may be found for them, and that they will become even still more important in a commercial point of view. They receive a great variety of applications at the present day, owing to their toughness and elasticity, as well as their remarkable pro- perty of softening under heat, of welding, and of being moulded into various forms under pressure." It may be added that for many purposes both leather and horn are now replaced by cheap substitutes. As most of the horns used on a large scale for manufacturing purposes are those of oxen, it will suffice to devote the rest of this sub -section to the consideration of certain wild animals captured chiefly for the sake of the leather and fat which they yield. THE WALRUS (TRICHECHUS ROSMARUS). — This huge aquatic carnivore, which may attain the weight of 3300 Ibs., is a purely Arctic form, and once abounded in the Behring Sea, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and on the coasts of Newfoundland and Labrador. Like so many other wild animals, however, it has been so much 3i2 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY hunted down that the walrus industry is a declining one. Rifle, lance, and harpoon are all employed in its destruction. The economic products are skin, fat, and ivory. The skin is very thick and tough, but tanning reduces its value. It is employed for some of the coarser purposes to which leather is put, and in former times was largely used in North Europe for making ropes and cables, to which end strips of it were plaited together. The fat or blubber, though of good quality, is yielded in relatively small quantities. The ivory making up the large tusks is inferior to that of the elephant. SEALS (PHOCID^:). — These are often confounded with the Fur- Seals (Otaridae) and their allies, from wfiich, however, they are distinguished by their more complete adaptation to an aquatic life, as seen more particularly in the complete absence of an external ear, and the backwardly-directed hind-flippers, which are bound together by a fold of skin (see vol. iii, p. 78). Seals are hunted for the sake of their blubber, which makes excellent oil for lighting and lubricating purposes; and also on account of the value of their skins, which are dressed as one of the coarser furs; while they yield leather that, especially when enamelled, finds increasing favour. The animals are killed by clubs, harpoons, or rifles, according to circumstances. By far the most important species for the sealing industry is the Harp or Greenland Seal (Phoca Grcenlandica, fig. 1225), the former name of which has reference to the presence of a curved black mark on the back of the male. Next to this species in importance, and like it native to the Arctic Ocean, is the curious Hooded or Bladder- Nosed Seal (Cystophora cristata), so named from a dilat- able swelling on the nose of the male. The most noted sealing centres are the coasts of, and the parts of the sea adjacent to West Greenland, Newfoundland, Jan Mayen Island, and North Russia (including the White Sea and the vicinity of Nova Zembla). From the British stand -point it is most interesting to notice that sealing is one of the chief industries of Newfound- land, its products in 1902 reaching the value of ,£166,747. The young are born on ice-floes, the " whelping ice", off the coast of Labrador, during January and February, and do not take to the water for about three months. The cold Labrador current, which sets southward along the American coast, brings the ''whelping ice" to the latitude of Newfoundland by about mid- March, WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC 313 and the well-equipped steam-sealers of St. John's begin their annual sealing-trip at the commencement of that month, timing their journey to reach the floes before the " whelps" are old enough to leave the ice. Lake Baikal and the Caspian Sea were once connected with the Arctic Ocean, one proof of which is found in the fact that each is inhabited by a special kind of seal (Phoca Sibirica and P. Caspica), both of which are largely captured by means of Fig. 1225. — Harp or Greenland Seal (Phoca Grcenlandica) strong wide-meshed nets, worked on the same principle as the " drift-nets " used for catching herring and mackerel. The Cas- pian sealers let down their nets from boats, those of Lake Baikal take advantage of the holes in the ice, to which the seals come up in order to breathe. THE DUGONG (HALICORE DUGONG). — This member of the order of Sea -Cows (Sirenia), which ranges from Ceylon to East Australia, is, when adult, about the size of an ox, and is captured for the sake of its flesh, fat, and hide. Its pursuit is one of the Queensland industries, and harpooning is the method adopted. Semon (in In the Australian Bush) says of it:— UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY " The whites capture dugong principally for their fat, which is said to possess therapeutic qualities. It is considered an ex- cellent remedy for consumption, but, happily for the dugongs, this seems to be a mere superstition. I have not tasted their meat myself, though some whites are very fond of it, and com- pare it to veal. Others, however, describe its taste as disagree- able and kisipid. The aborigines of Torres Straits consider it a great delicacy." The hide is thick and tough, rendering it suitable for machine-straps. WHALES, &c. (CETACEA). — Whales and their kind have been systematically hunted down from very remote times, chiefly for the sake of their fat or blubber, but some species also for their baleen or " whale -bone ", and others on account of the value of their skins. As else- where stated (p. 209), the flesh of ceta- ceans is regarded as a great luxury by the Esquimaux and many other primi- tive peoples. A distinction is drawn between the Toothed Whales and the Toothless Whales, in which transverse plates of baleen, with fringed edges, Fig. 1 226. -Baleen, a, Three plates hang down from the TOOf of the ttlOUth in section ; b, a pair of plates. Greatly / ,- , \ . _ . reduced. (tig. i22o), serving as a sort of strainer by which water is removed from the plankton used as food. Toothless Whales (Mystacoceti\ — The most important member of this group is the Greenland or Northern " Right " Whale {Baltzna mysticetus), a purely Arctic species. The British whaling industry, of which the chief ports engaged are Peter- head and Dundee, is chiefly concerned with the capture of this animal, but unfortunately has greatly declined of late years. To Newfoundland the pursuit of whales is a matter of much greater relative importance. The old method of capture was from open boats, by means of harpoons thrown by hand, lances being afterwards used to despatch the wounded animals. The harpoon -gun afforded an improvement upon this, while a modern steam-whaler can dis- pense with the use of open boats, and discharge harpoons (some- times loaded with explosives) from a platform in the bows. WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 315 Adult Greenland whales now attain a length of 50 or 60 feet, but much larger specimens were often captured in the palmy days of the whaling industry. The average product from a single animal is said to be about 1 5 tons of oil and 1 5 cwts. of whalebone. The former, like that of seals, is valuable as a lubri- cant and for other technical purposes, but the discovery of petroleum has greatly lessened the value of this and other animal fats as a source of artificial heat and light. Whalebone is be- coming increasingly expensive in proportion to the diminishing supplies, and is still in great demand for a number of purposes, owing to its toughness, durability, and elasticity. It is now largely replaced by steel, as, e.g., for umbrella-frames and corsets. The Southern " Right " Whale (B. australis], which closely resembles the Greenland form, though its baleen is not of such good quality, has a very wide area of distribution, but is absent from the Arctic Ocean. The chief interest attaching to it is that at one time it was common in the Bay of Biscay, where it formed the object of an important industry, especially to the Basques of North Spain. Some points relating to this are thus summarized by Beddard (in The Cambridge Natural History] :— "Among the small towns which fringe the bay it is very common to find the whale incorporated in the armorial bearings. * Over the portal of the first old house in the steep street of Guetaria ', writes Sir Clements Markham (P. Z. S., 1881), 'there is a shield of arms consisting of whales amid waves of the sea. At Motrico the town arms consist of a whale in the sea harpooned, and with a boat with men holding the line.' Plenty of other such ex- amples testify to the prevalence of the whaling industry on these adjoining coasts pf Spain and France. It appears that though the fishery began much earlier — even in the ninth century — the first actual document relating to it dates from the year 1150. It is in the shape of privileges granted by Sancho the Wise to the city of San Sebastian. The trade was still very flourishing in the sixteenth century. Rondeletius the naturalist described Bayonne as the centre of the trade, and tells us that the flesh, especially of the tongue, was exposed for sale as food in the markets. M. Fischer (Actes Linn. Soc. Bordeaux, 1881), who, as well as Sir Clements Markham, has given an important account of the whaling industry on the Basque shores, quotes an account of the methods pursued in the sixteenth century. It was at Biarritz 3i 6 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY —or as Ambroise Pare, from whom Fischer quotes, spelt it, Biaris — that the main fisheries were undertaken. . . . The in- habitants set upon a hill a tower from which they could see 'the balaines which pass, and perceiving them coming partly by the loud noise they make, and partly by the water which they throw out by a conduit which they possess in the middle of the fore- head.' Several boats then set out in pursuit, some of which were reserved for men whose sole duty it was to pick out of the water their comrades who had overbalanced themselves in their ex- citement. The harpoons bore a mark by which their respective owners could recognize them, and the carcass of the animal was shared in accordance with the numbers and owners of the har- poons found sticking in the dead body of the whale. At this period the fishery was at its height, but it continued to be an occupation along those shores until the beginning of the eigh- teenth century, after which it gradually declined. The fishery of whales began to be carried farther afield than the shore, and for a long time the Basques furnished expert harpooners to whaling vessels proceeding to the Arctic seas." Toothed Whales (Odontoceti\ — The largest of these is the Cachalot or Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus, fig. 1227), which has been credited with reaching a length of over 80 feet, though this is probably an exaggeration. It ranges throughout the warmer seas of the world. The great head possesses a squarish snout that projects in front of the mouth, which is consequently placed on the under side of the body, obliging the Cachalot, it is said, to turn over like a shark when it wishes to bite. Many stories are current regarding the fierceness of this animal, and no doubt many whale-boats have been crushed in its formidable jaws, but that whaling and other vessels have at times been reported " missing " as a result of the attacks of Cachalots, as has been suggested, would appear to be more problematical. Like other cetaceans, this whale has a thick coat of blubber under the skin, and the front part of the skull is modified into a curious basin-shaped receptacle, which is full of the liquid fat known as spermaceti. As much as forty-five barrels of this have been taken from a single individual. Mixed with a small percentage of bees'-wax it was formerly much used in manufacturing candles of the better sort. The White Whale or Beluga (Delphinapterus leucas] is an WILD ANIMALS YIELDING LEATHER, HORN, ETC. 317 Arctic species related to the Dolphins and Porpoises. The average length of adults is about 10 feet, but this may be con- siderably exceeded. It is chiefly hunted on the north of Russia and north-east of Canada, and is one of those cetaceans which ascend rivers. The blubber is of good quality, and the skin is made into the "porpoise leather" of commerce, which is of con- Fig. 1227. — Cachalot or Sperm Whale (Physeter macroct.pha.lus) siderable value for the manufacture of shooting -boots and some other articles. REPTILES (REPTILIA). — It need only be said here that orna- mental leather is made from the skins of Crocodiles and various Lizards, while " tortoise-shell " is obtained from certain Turtles. Of the last something will be said in a succeeding section. FISHES (PISCES). — The skins of various members of this group are of economic value. Those of certain sharks and dog-fishes, for instance, are the source of " shagreen ", used to some extent as ornamental leather, but chiefly for polishing wood. Their value for the latter purpose depends upon the fact that they are full of little hard-pointed scales, covered with enamel. The skins of some of the ordinary bony fishes (Teleostei) are employed for 3i8 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY clarifying beer, while in Eastern countries, such as India and China, they are converted into fish-glue, which is a very powerful adhesive. Other fishes serve as a source of oil for technical purposes, as, e.g.y the Menhaden or Pogy (Clupea menhaden), a member of the herring family. This species is largely captured on the eastern coasts of the United States for this particular purpose. The livers of sharks and dog-fishes are also of considerable value as a source of oil. INSECTS (!NSECTA). — One would scarcely expect this group to be included under the present heading, but it appears that in Algeria locusts are utilized in the preparation of a kind of oil. MEDICINAL AND MISCELLANEOUS ECONOMIC PRODUCTS ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS AS MEDICINAL AGENTS. — In former days large use was made of animals in medicine, the pre- scriptions being usually fanciful and often revolting. To consider these ancient practices at length would be here superfluous, and the subject will be sufficiently illustrated by the following quotation from Hulme's Natural History Lore and Legend, a book in which much curious matter is brought together: — " Cogan in his Haven of Health declares ' thus much will I say as to the commendation of the hare, and of the defense of hunters' toyle, that no beast, be it never so great, is profitable to so many and so diverse uses in Physicke as the hare', and he then proceeds to give numerous prescriptions in which it is the principal feature. * The knee-bone of an Hare taken out alive and worne abute the necke is excellent against Convulsion fitts ', we are told, and perhaps it may be so, but the point that more especially strikes us, and it impresses one over and over again in these mediaeval recipes, is the cold-blooded cruelty and indifference to animal suffering that is shown in so many of them. Fried mice were considered a specific in small-pox, but it was necessary that they should be fried alive; while for cataract a fox should be captured, his tongue cut out, and the animal released; the member thus barbarously procured was placed in a bag of red cloth and hung round the man's neck. For erysipelas a favourite old remedy was to cut off one-half of the ear of a cat and let the blood drop on the part affected, while for fits one popular recipe was to take a mole MEDICINAL AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 319 alive, cut the tip of his nose off, and let nine drops of the blood fall on to a drop of sugar: the swallowing of this was held to be a certain cure." " The shrew-mouse, one of the most inoffensive of creatures, was by our ancestors held to be of terribly poisonous nature. Its bite was thought to be most venomous, and even contact with it in any way was accounted extremely dangerous. Cattle and horses seized with any malady that appeared to cause any numb- ness of the legs were at once reputed shrew-struck. 'It is a raven- ing beast,' quoth Topsell, 'feigning itself gentle and tame, but being touched it biteth deep and poysoneth deadly. It beareth a cruel minde, desiring to hunt anything, neither is there any creature that it loveth.' On whatever limb it crept was 'cruel anguish', often ending in paralysis. These calumnies have pre- vailed in many countries and for many ages, the Romans being as firmly convinced of the deadly nature of the shrew-mouse as any British rustic of a century ago. . . . Happily there was a certain antidote against the evil wrought by this malevolent beast. A large ash-tree being chosen, a deep hole was made in its trunk, and after certain incantations were made a shrew-mouse was thrust alive into the opening, and the hole securely plugged. ' A shrew-ash ', says Gilbert White in his Natural History of Selborne, ' is an ash whose twigs or branches, when gently applied to the limbs of cattle, will immediately relieve the pain which a beast suffers from the running of a shrew-mouse over the part affected. Against this accident, to which they were continually liable, our provident forefathers always kept a shrew-ash at hand, which when once medicated would maintain its virtue for ever.' One of these shrew-ashes, now but a fragment of what was evidently once a massive stately tree, may still be seen (1895) near the Sheen Gate in Richmond Park, and there are those still living who can remember cattle and horses being brought to it for its healing virtues." " To cure a stye our forefathers had great faith in rubbing it with hairs from a cat's tail, two essential points being that the cat should be a black one, and that the operation should take place on the first night of the new moon ; but to cure warts the hairs must be taken from the tail of a tortoise-shell cat, and even then the remedy is only efficacious during the month of May." " Toads were in great repute in sickness. ' In time of com- 32o UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY mon contagion,' writes Sir Kenelm Digby in 1660, 'men used to carry about with them the powder of a toad, and sometimes a living toad or spider shut up in a box, which draws the contagious air which otherwise would infect the party'; and many other illus- trations of their employment as preventive or remedies might be given. The spider and the toad seem to have been each regarded as most venomous creatures, and in many of the old remedies one or other of them at will are recommended, either alternative being regarded as equally efficacious; thus for whooping-cough, if one cannot find a toad to thrust up the chimney, two spiders in a walnut-shell will serve equally well." The physicians of former times were* particularly fond of ad- ministering all sorts of animal extracts, some of them noisome enough, and it is somewhat curious that of recent times large use has been made of certain such extracts with beneficial result, though it need hardly be said that our modern methods of pre- paration are not on the old lines. Pepsin, for instance, a well- known aid to gastric digestion, is prepared from the lining of the pig's stomach, while pancreatin, which facilitates intestinal diges- tion, is obtained from the pancreas of domestic animals. Disease of the thyroid " gland " in the throat leads to serious mal-nutrition, or even to cretinism, palliation if not cure of which can be effected either by grafting a healthy piece of thyroid from an animal into the patient, or by administering thyroid extract. Several other preparations of the kind are also in use. Certain specific germ-diseases can also be prevented or combated by animal preparations, the most familiar instance being that of vaccination as a safeguard against small-pox. Diphtheria is now often cured by an extract (antitoxin) derived from horse's blood. Different principles are involved in the uses of the extracts, &c., mentioned, but details would here be out of place. Various kinds of animal fat are used in pharmacy in the pre- paration of ointments, &c. They include mutton suet, hogs' lard, spermaceti, and lanoline, the last being the natural grease of wool. Gelatine is employed for making " gelatine lozenges" and various jujubes, also as the adhesive medium for " court plaster". It is obtained from bones, hides, horns, and hoofs by steaming. Isin- glass (see p. 278) is a superior kind of gelatine. It should not be forgotten that the careful study of the anatomy and physiology of lower animals has played a leading VARIETIES OF THE FIELD-SNAIL (Helix hortensis) Variation is one of the fundamental phenomena upon which the Evolution Theory is based. No two individuals of the same species are ever precisely alike, a fact familiarly illustrated by the dissimilarity which often exists between children of the same parents. It appears that all parts of the body are liable to varia- tion, which may be of very marked kind and is no doubt, at least in part, due to the action of surroundings. A typical cas©, selected for this plate because it appeals to the eye, is that of the Field- Snail (Helix hortensis), of wrjich some 90 races or varieties have been described. In some of these the shell is "self-coloured", yellow or pinkish-brown being common tints. In other cases there are in addition dark bands, the number of which is distinctive of the race, while the ground colour has also to be considered. Enough varieties have been introduced into the plate to illustrate the principle. VARIETIES OF THE FIELD-SNAIL (HELIX HORTENSIS) MEDICINAL AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 321 part in the evolution of modern medicine. Without skilled re- searches on such animals it would never have been possible for operative surgery to reach its present high pitch of perfection. The prevention and cure of disease, other than by surgical methods, have also benefited greatly in the past by such investi- gations, and seem likely to benefit to a much larger extent in the immediate future. Medicinal Value of Fish-Oil. — It need only be said here that the preparation of cod-liver oil, of which the Cod- Fish (Gadus morrhud) is the recognized source, is a by no means unimportant industry. Medical Uses of Insects. — The Oil- Beetles (Meloidcz or Can- tharidce) are so called because they abound in an irritant sort of oil, which no doubt protects them to some extent from the attacks of insec- tivorous animals. Some of them are used to make preparations for blister- 7 . , . i r i F'S- 1228.— Spanish Fly or Blister Beetle (Lytta vesicatoria) ing- the skin, and of these a and b, Adults; c, larva. ''blister-beetles the most notable are the "Spanish flies" (C ant har ides], belonging to South and Central Europe. For commercial purposes a bright-green species (Lytta vesicatoria, fig. 1228), collected in Hungary, is most important. Various officinal extracts and plasters are pre- pared from the dried bodies of these insects. Although Cochineal, another insect product (see p. 260), ap- pears to have no value as a drug, it is largely used to give liquid medicines an attractive appearance. Medicinal Use of Leeches (Discophord). — Two kinds of Leech are used for blood-letting, the commoner being the Medicinal Leech (Hirudo medicinalis\ which is mostly collected in Spain, France, and Italy. The Green Leech (H. officinalis] of Hungary answers the same purpose. In these days the extent to which these creatures are employed is comparatively small, but in the Middle Ages, when blood-letting was esteemed a sovereign cure for every ailment, the physician took his name from this favourite remedy, and was familiarly known as a ''leech ". 322 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Fig. 1229.— A Cuttle-bone MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL PRODUCTS. — It will be convenient to consider here a few odds and ends, which are difficult to place under other headings. Miscellaneous Products of Molluscs (Mollusca). — The internal shell of the Cuttle-fish (Sepia officinalis, fig. 1229), under the name of " cuttle -bone ", is ground up to form an in- gredient of various tooth- powders. Before the inven- tion of blotting-paper it was largely used (as also- was fine sand)* to sprinkle upon wet writing. It was known as " pounce", and a " pounce- box ", with a perforated top, was part of the regular equip- ment of an old-fashioned ink- stand or standish. Cooke (in The Cambridge Natural History) makes the following interesting remarks about the miscellaneous uses of shells: — " The employment of shells as a medium of exchange was exceedingly common amongst uncivilized tribes in all parts of the world, and has by no means yet become obsolete. One of the commonest species thus em- ployed is the 'money cowry' (Cyprtza moneta, L., fig. 1230), which stands almost alone in being used entire, while nearly all the other forms of shell money are made out of por- tions of shells, thus requiring a certain amount of labour in the pro- cess of formation. ... In British India about 4000 are said to have passed for a shilling, but the value appears to differ according to their condition, poor specimens being comparatively worthless. According to Reeve a gentleman residing at Cuttack is said to have paid for the erection of his bungalow entirely in cowries. The building cost him 4000 Rs. sicca (about ^400), and as 64 cowries = i pice, and 64 pice = i rupee sicca, he paid over Fig. 1230. — Money Cowry (Cypreea moneta) MEDICINAL AND ECONOMIC PRODUCTS 323 16,000,000 cowries in all. Cowries are imported to England from India and other places for the purpose of exportation to West Africa, to be exchanged for native products. The trade, however, appears to be greatly on the decrease. At the port of Lagos, in 1870, 50,000 cwts. of cowries were imported. A banded form of Nerita polita was used as money in certain parts of the South Pacific. The sandal -wood imported into the China market is largely obtained from the New Hebrides, being purchased of the natives in exchange for Ovulum angu- losum, which they especially esteem as an ornament. Some- times, as in the Duke of York group, the use of shell money is specially restricted to certain kinds of purchase, being employed there only in the buying of swine. Among the tribes of the north-west coasts of America, the common Dentalium indianorum [a tusk- shell] used to form the standard of value, until it was superseded, under the auspices of the Hudson's Bay Company, by blankets. A slave was valued at a fathom of from twenty-five to forty of these shells, strung lengthwise. Inferior or broken specimens were strung together in a similar way, but were less highly esteemed; they corresponded more to our silver and copper coins, while the strings of the best shells repre- sented gold. The wampum (fig. 1231) of the eastern coast of North America differed from all these forms of shell money, in that it required a laborious process for its manufacture. Wam- pum consisted of strings of cylindrical beads, each about a quarter of an inch m length and half that breadth. The beads were of two colours, white and purple, the latter being the more valuable. Both were formed from the common clam ( Venus mercenaries), the valves of which are often stained with purple at the lower margins, while the rest of the shell is white. Cut small, ground down, and pierced, these shells were converted into money, which appears to have been current along the whole seaboard of North America from Maine to Florida, and on the Gulf Coast as far as Central America, as well as among the Fig. 1231. — Indian Wampum. Reduced. 324 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY inland tribes east of the Mississippi. Another kind of wampum was made from the shells of Busycon carica and B. perversum. By staining the wampum with various colours, and disposing these colours in belts in various forms of arrangement, the Indians were able to preserve records, send messages, and keep account of any kind of event, treaty, or transaction. Another common form of money in California was Olivella biplicata, strung together by rubbing down the apex. Button-shaped discs cut from Saxidomus arata and Pachydesma crassatelloides, as well as oblong pieces of Haliotis, were employed for the same purpose, when strung together in lengths of several yards." Shells are put to various uses in the islands of the Pacific, as, e.g., the making of fish-hooks, spoons, knives, and axe-heads. The ingenious Chinese convert the thin translucent shell of a flat bivalve (P * lacuna placenta} into window-panes, grind up cockle-shells for lime, or, by mixing the powder with oil, make a sort of putty. Speaking of the West of Scotland, Anderson Smith (in Bender lock) thus describes an old-time practice: — "There is a curious old custom that used formerly to be in use in this locality, and no doubt was generally employed along the sea- board, as the most simple and ready means of arrangement of bargains by a non-writing population. That was, when a bar- gain ' was made, each party to the transaction got one half of a bivalve shell — such as a mussel, cockle, or oyster — and when the bargain was implemented, the half that fitted exactly was delivered up as a receipt. Thus a man who had a box full of unfitted shells might be either a creditor or a debtor; but the box filled with fitted shells represented receipted accounts. Those who know the difficulty of fitting the valves of some classes of bivalves will readily acknowledge the value of this arrangement." Sponges (Porifera). — The horny skeletons of certain sponges have been used for toilet and other purposes since the times of the ancient Greeks. The best kind of Bath Sponge (Euspongia officinalis], known to commerce as " Turkey Sponge ", comes from the Mediterranean and Red Sea, as well as the less esteemed Zimocca Sponge (Euspongia zimocca] and Horse Sponge (Hippospongia equina). Other kinds, both fine and coarse, are imported from the Bahamas, and sponges of commercial value are to be found off Australia and some of the South Sea Islands. WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN 325 Three methods of sponge-fishing are practised in the Medi- terranean, according to the depth of water. Where this is very shallow a five-pronged fork is employed, beyond the range of which (up to about 30 fathoms) diving is resorted to, while speci- mens growing in comparatively deep water (up to 200 fathoms) are dredged. The yield of the Italian sponge-fisheries for 1902 was worth ,£24,720. WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN ON ACCOUNT OF THEIR HABITS From the economic stand-point many wild forms are of very considerable benefit to man, because they prey upon other crea- tures which are injurious to himself, his stock, and his crops. To some such animals we should extend the " protection " which they deserve at our hands, while for others equally beneficial (e.g. certain insects) we can do nothing in that direction. And it should be remembered that without very full knowledge it is very risky either to mercilessly persecute native forms, or to* intro- duce species from other countries. The result of the ruthless slaughter of bats in a particular locality has been elsewhere men- tioned (see vol. ii, p. 346), while the introduction of rabbits into Australia has led to unexpected and undesirable consequences. Certain other wild species deserve the name of " beneficials " because they promote the health of mankind, or unconsciously assist in the work of agriculture, &c. It will sufficiently serve the purposes of this work if the general nature of our indebtedness to certain groups of animals is indicated in a few paragraphs. For this and the other aspects of applied natural history readers who may be interested are specially recommended to consult Theobald's First Report on Economic Zoology (1902), one of the publications issued under the auspices of the British Museum (Natural History). This is rendered particularly valuable by the Introduction ("A Classi- fication of Animals from the point of view of Economic Zoology ") written by Ray Lankester. The word " beneficials " is applied by him in a somewhat narrower sense than it is here. BENEFICIAL MAMMALS (MAMMALIA). — The destructiveness of Foxes, Weasels, Stoats, and the like, is so obvious, that the idea of their being "beneficials" would be scouted by many, though VOL. IV. 116 326 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY they probably do more good than harm. The Fox, for instance, in spite of his ravages on poultry, destroys large numbers of field-voles and field-mice, together with noxious insects, such as cockchafers. And, of the Weasel (fig. 1232), Ritzema Bos says (in Agricultural Zoology)'. — " The weasel does some damage in fowl-houses and dove- •:r*---^:r?if5^^?^=g^;H?^^-T^ •••-•- ..-:. ;..;..,, -I • -I 1 fill cots, and is also de- structive to game. This, however, does not outweigh its very great use, since it is above all an untiring vole - catcher. When in any region the field- voles have multiplied excessively, an immi- gration of weasels takes place from sur- rounding parts. In years when there is a plague of voles the usual breeding-time in spring is followed by another later on. A very large number of weasels may be found in a vole-infected dis- trict, and they thin out the mischievous rodents in a surprising manner. Nor are the weasels less useful in winter than in sum- mer. They even follow under the snow the voles which winter in the country, and the slaughter effected at this period must exert a great influence on the following season, when these animals re- commence their injurious work." The feelings of poultry-keepers and game-keepers are readily intelligible, but without full know- ledge it is unwise to stigmatize as " vermin " apparently undesir- able animals. Foxes only escape the libel for sporting reasons. Fig. 1232.— Weasels (Putorius vulgaris) WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN 327 The Insect- eating Mammals (Insectivora), such as Mole, Hedgehog, and Shrews, destroy enormous numbers of noxious insects and insect-larvae, and are beneficials of the first rank. The mole is also of use in mixing and draining the soil. The vast majority of Bats (Chiroptera) feed on insects, and do much to keep down the numbers of the innumerable species which are injurious to stock and cultivated plants, as well as to forest- trees. In the hotter parts of the globe some Mammals do useful work as scavengers, e.g. Hyaenas (see vol. ii, p. 14). Rats and the like also act as sanitary agents. BENEFICIAL BIRDS (AvEs). — By destroying field- voles, &c., and small birds of injurious char- acter, many of the smaller birds of prey, such as Kestrels, Buzzards, and Merlins, do much good, though it must be con- fessed that there is an- other side to the matter. Aflalo says of the Kestrel (in Natural History of the British fstes):—"lts food consists almost en- tirely of mice, so that its persecution is wanton folly ". Even should it prove requisite to classify any of our native species, unfortunately now existing in greatly diminished numbers, as " vermin ", they ought to be de- stroyed in a merciful way. Some of the steel traps used for slaughtering these and other wild animals (such as rabbits) are a disgrace to civilization, and only fit for the days of rack and thumb-screw. Owls are more useful, but even more disliked than the diurnal birds of prey, partly as a result of the superstitions associated with them. Aflalo makes the following apposite remarks in this regard about the Barn Owl (Strix flammea, fig. 1233). — " Its dis- appearance from neighbourhoods where it once was plentiful is Fig. 1233. — Barn Owl (Strix Jlammea} and Nest 328 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY doubtless due to the short-sighted policy of persecution meted out to the unoffending bird by gamekeepers. As rats, shrews, and voles are among its favourite articles of food, a few of these voracious birds on an estate should be worth a ton of poison. . . . The way in which gardener, farmer, and game-preserver unite in persecuting this owl has been mentioned, and it is to be doubted whether they would achieve a far different result were they actually to breed and turn down rats and voles, of which this bird must annually destroy hundreds of bushels." A great many birds render us invaluable service by destroying vast numbers of injurious insects and insect-larvae. The Cuckoo (Cucuhis canorus\ for example, is a great protector of fruit- culture and forestry, for it greedily devours certain hairy kinds of caterpillar, which most other birds refuse to touch. Among other benefactors may be particularly mentioned — Swifts, Swal- lows, Martins, and Tit- Mice. In Germany various useful species are provided with suitable nesting -boxes and wintering -boxes, the size of the opening being adjusted to the particular kind of bird. The African Secretary Bird (Serpentarius secretarius} is a notable destroyer of poisonous snakes, and is domesticated by the farmers of South Africa for the sake of its services in this direction. There are also scavenging birds, such as Vultures, which in hot countries discharge a most useful office. BENEFICIAL REPTILES (REPTILIA). — Lizards are certainly to be regarded as beneficials, for they feed largely upon injurious insects and the like. Many Snakes are also useful, and some of them render conspicuous service by preying upon small rodents. Some species may even be domesticated on this account, as, e.g., the Corn Snake (Coluber guttatus) in North America, and the Rat Snake (Zamenis mucosus] in India. BENEFICIAL AMPHIBIANS (AMPHIBIA). — All the members of the class are beneficial, inasmuch as they live upon insects, snails, slugs, and other destructive creatures. Ritzema Bos states that . ..." in the research garden attached to the Rouen entomological laboratory the snails were entirely exter- minated in 1891, as a result of introducing a hundred toads and ninety frogs ". The Toad in particular is one of the most useful animals that can be put into a garden, effectually protecting WILD ANIMALS BENEFICIAL TO MAN 329 strawberries from the ravages of slugs and performing other valuable offices of like nature. BENEFICIAL FISHES (PISCES). — Much of the scavenging work in the sea and fresh water is efficiently discharged by members of this class. Among freshwater fishes Carp are particularly valuable in maintaining the purity of our drinking supply, keeping it free from insects, insect larvae, and decaying matter. They are not infrequently kept in reservoirs on this account. And since the larvae of such notorious pests as gnats, mosquitoes, and sand- midges are all aquatic, we are largely saved from annoyance and even from disease by the good offices of these and various other freshwater fishes. BENEFICIAL INSECTS (!NSECTA). - -There are quite a large number of insects which either when adult or in the larval state, or it may be throughout life, are the natural enemies of many notorious insect pests. Sufficient examples have already been given in vol. ii, chap, ix, vol. iii, pp. 391-393, and in pp. 194, 195 of the present volume. Carrion is also largely destroyed by insect-larvae, such as the grubs of Burying- Beetles and the maggots of various Flies. Nor must we forget the large part which insects take in the fertilization of plants (see p. 83), including many which are of great import- ance to mankind. BENEFICIAL SPIDER- LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA). — Of the members of this group it need only be said that Spiders, in par- ticular, largely assist in keeping the numbers of insects within due limits. BENEFICIAL MYRIAPODS (MYRIAPODA). — The numerous kinds of Centipede undoubtedly destroy large numbers of noxious ground- insects, and have therefore a claim to be included among beneficial animals. BENEFICIAL CRUSTACEANS (CRUSTACEA). — A large amount of scavenging work is carried on by the members of this class, and, so far as the sea is concerned, Crabs are particularly notable in this respect. BENEFICIAL ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA). — Earth- Worms render con- siderable service to agriculture (see vol. ii, p. 258) in more than one way. They reduce large quantities of soil to a finely-divided state, making it into a suitable seed-bed, bring earth to the surface as a sort of natural " top-dressing ", and it may be added that their 33o UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY burrows in the ground help on the work of drainage and aeration. In short, the habits of these animals benefit the land in much the same way as the operations of ploughing, harrowing, and the like. BENEFICIAL PARASITIC WORMS. — At first sight one is rather apt to imagine that the members of the several groups of these not altogether pleasing creatures do nothing but harm. This is not, however, strictly true, for many of them pay special atten- tion to noxious animals, and assist considerably in keeping down their numbers. CHAPTER LXX ANIMAL FOES— THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG MAMMALS (MAMMALIA). — We are not justified in calling the fiercer and larger Mammals or other animals our enemies, simply because they defend themselves when attacked, and in most cases man will probably be found to have been the first aggressor. And even when that is not the case, at least when carnivorous forms are in question, casualties are usually the outcome of the Law of Hunger, or it may be parental solici- tude. Partly owing to its comparatively straightforward habits, the Lion (Felis led), when left alone, does not attack human beings to the extent that might be supposed, unless pressed by hunger. Speaking of North- East Africa, Sir Samuel Baker says (in Wild Beasts and their Ways):—"\n the locality which I have men- tioned, the lions, although numerous, were never regarded as dangerous unless attacked; there was an abundance of game, therefore the carnivora were plentfully supplied, and a large area of country being entirely uninhabited, the lions were unaccus- tomed to the sight of human beings, and held them in respect. During the night we took the precaution to light extensive bon- fires within our camp, which was well protected by a circular fence of impenetrable thorns, but we were never threatened by wild animals except on one occasion." Where the country is thickly populated it is only to be expected that individual animals may at times acquire bad habits, or, as Vogt puts it (in Mammalia): — "Old experienced lions who know how little danger they are exposed to in breaking in upon the villages of the badly -armed negroes will, it appears, hanker after human flesh ". The stealthy cat-like habits of the Tiger (Felix tigris, fig. 1234) render it a good deal more dangerous to man than its 331 332 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY nobler cousin. But even the " man-eaters ", which at one time undoubtedly accounted for a considerable number of the Indian natives, must have been but a small percentage of the tigers actually in existence. Of these once-dreaded marauders G. P. Sanderson gives the following graphic account (in Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India]'. — "This truly terrible scourge to the timid and unarmed inhabitants of an Indian village is now happily becoming very rare; man-eaters of a bad type are seldom Fig. 1234.— Tiger (Felts tigris] heard of, or, if heard of, rarely survive long. Before there were so many European sportsmen as there now are in the country, a man-eater frequently caused the temporary abandonment of whole tracts; and the sites of small hamlets abandoned by the terrified inhabitants, and which have never been reoccupied, are not uncommonly met with by the sportsman in the jungles. The terror inspired by a man-eater throughout the district ranged by him is extreme. The helpless people are defenceless against his attacks. Their occupations of cattle-grazing or wood-cutting take them into the jungles, where they feel that they go with their lives in their hands. A rustling leaf, or a squirrel or bird moving in THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 333 the undergrowth, sets their hearts beating with a dread sense of danger. The only security they feel is in numbers. Though the bloodthirsty monster is perhaps reposing with the remains of his last victim miles away, the terror he inspires is always present to every one throughout his domain. The rapidity and uncertainty of a man-eater's movements form the chief elements of the dread he causes. His name is in every one's mouth; his daring, ferocity, and appalling appearance are represented with true Eastern exag- geration ; and until some European sportsman, perhaps after days or weeks of pursuit, lays him low, thousands live in fear day and night. Bold man-eaters have been known to enter a village and carry off a victim from the first open hut. Having lived in a tract so circumstanced until I shot the fiend that possessed it, and having myself felt something of the grim dread that had taken hold of the country-side, where ordinary rambling about the jungles, and even sitting outside the tent after dark except with a large fire, or moving from the encampment without an escort, were unsafe, I could realize the feelings of relief and thankfulness so earnestly expressed by the poor ryots when I shot the Jezebel that had held sway over them so long. The man-eater is often an old tiger (more frequently a tigress), or an animal that, through having been wounded or otherwise hurt, has been unable to pro- cure its usual food, and takes to this means of subsistence." In a recent article (in The Sports of the World) Lieutenant-general Sir Montagu G. Gerard thus speaks on this subject: — "Man-eaters are very rare indeed, and . . . probably become so accidentally. The accepted belief that they are necessarily mangy is a myth; it may be the cause, not the effect. For whatever reason, they seem to acquire preternatural cunning, and natives believe that the soul of a man is imprisoned within them. I once spent a fortnight following one, who never during that time killed within ten miles of her last victim. ... A former colonel of the C.I. Horse, the most celebrated tiger slayer of thirty years back, killed an excep- tionally mischievous one, which in a year had accounted for eighty-seven known victims. ... I have only killed four un- doubted ones, whose victims ranged from thirty-three to about a dozen apiece; but I have known of several others, generally sulky males, who had killed cattle-herds or wood-cutters disturbing them." Of other members of the Cat family (Felidae) large enough to 334 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY be dangerous to man, it need only be said that, since they are expert climbers, trees afford no refuge to human beings if they chance to be attacked. Bears (Ursidse), from their great strength and powerful claws, are dangerous antagonists when roused, but they can scarcely be considered the natural enemies of mankind, for most of them leave human beings alone unless provoked, or impelled by hunger. It may be gathered from accounts of Arctic expeditions, for example, that a hungry Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus) will not hesitate to attack men, and similarly for the Brown Bear of Europe (U. arctos), and the North American variety of that species commonly known as the " Grizzly ". It is rather curious that the Indian Sloth- Bear (U. labiatus), which chiefly lives on fruit, honey, and insects, is somewhat given to turning upon our species, though, obviously, not as the result of hunger. At least Sir Samuel Baker says (in Wild Beasts and their Ways): — "This species is very active, and although it refuses flesh, it is one of the most mis- chievous of its kind, as it will frequently attack man without the slightest reason, but from sheer pugnacity". And under these circumstances the long - curved claws are capable of inflicting " terrible wounds upon a human being". Wolves, when pressed by hunger, are destructive to human life in several countries, their habit of hunting in large packs greatly aggravating the danger, as everyone is aware. The annual casualties due to wolves in parts of the Russian Empire are by no means inconsiderable. Even without special provocation some of the larger wild Mammals of purely herbivorous habit may injure or kill human beings, as in the case of Hippopotami, Buffaloes, Rhinoceroses, and Elephants. All have heard, for example, of "rogue" Ele- phants, ill-natured males which have been expelled from their herds for general misbehaviour. But details are here unnecessary. Some of the smaller forms, such as Wild Boars, are also danger- ous, and the Peccaries (Dicotyles), which range from South America to Mexico and Texas, are even more so. A. G. Requa recounts the following amusing adventure (in The Big Game of North America] with a herd of White-lipped Peccaries (D. labiatus), which sufficiently illustrates their ferocity: — "I had not sat there more than five minutes before I heard the sharp noise of the Peccaries. They came in sight not more than twenty yards below rne. There THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 335 were not more than a dozen that I could see, and there were plenty of small pines near by; so I thought that I would just kill the whole herd, provided they showed fight. As they came into the open ground they seemed to wind me, as they began to snuff and paw. I fired at one, and, just as I intended, only crippled him. He set up a great squealing, and, sure enough, here they came! I was just a little excited, and started for a tree, forgetting my coat and turkey. I had scarcely time to get up when they were around the tree, and instead of twelve, they kept coming till there were at least two hundred. I commenced shooting, and killed five with my rifle, that being the number of shells in my gun. It then occurred to me that my rifle-shells were in my coat; so, having no further use for my rifle, and realizing that it would become a burden to me if compelled to stay in the tree several hours, as seemed likely, I threw it down. Fortunately I had both revolvers, and a belt full of cartridges for them ; so I went at them. They were chewing the tree, and climbing over each other trying to get at me. Each shot laid one out, and each shot seemed to make them more and more furious, as they would rush at the tree, and gnaw the bark and wood, while the white flakes of froth fell from their mouths. I tried to count them, and found that there were over two hundred left, and I had killed twenty- three. The position I had was not a comfortable one, but I had to stand it. Then for the first time I thought of the boys. Had they heard my shooting? if so, would they come? Then I remembered I had not fired the signal agreed on, and that I had followed the turkeys up the mountain and down again, and by this time the boys must be four miles up the canon and on the opposite side. The Peccaries showed no signs of leaving. It was now noon, and very warm. They would root around, then come back to the tree, and grunt, and paw, and bite the tree; then they would cool down a little, would go a short distance away, root around awhile, then come back again. I was getting tired of being treed, but it was just what we had planned the night before, only we were not all together. If the boys could only hear my firing, and come over, how quick we would wipe them out! Such thoughts ran through my head; but still the pigs stayed. One o'clock came, then two; still they stayed. Then I thought I would fire a signal with my revolver — maybe the boys were hunting for me; so I made a noise, and back to the tree they came. I killed three 336 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY of them in about a second; then I waited. Three o'clock came, then four, and no sign of the boys. Some of the pigs would feed while the others stood guard; then they would change off. I was so tired I could scarcely stay in the tree ; so I took my belt off and buckled myself fast to the trunk, so that I would not fall out. Seven o'clock! I could see no change; they still camped near me, showing no signs of weakening. Then the sun went behind the mountain; darkness came on, and I was thirsty, hungry, and tired; but, worse than all, I was a prisoner. Twelve o'clock! The moon shone brightly, and I could see my sentinels scattered around. Two o'clock! Then came a signal from some of the outside ones; the rest snuffed the air, then'away they all went. I could hear them far below, going down the mountain. . . . Here- after, anyone who wants to hunt Peccaries can hunt them, and be blanked; but I prefer some kind of game that is not so fond of human flesh as they are." Without the friendly tree the adventure might have ended differently, for the same writer tells us of these animals that — " If one of their number is wounded so that it squeals, the whole herd becomes ferocious, will charge their enemy on sight, and speedily destroy him, unless he escapes by climbing a tree or by flight". The blood-sucking Bats have been spoken about elsewhere (see vol. ii, p. 39). PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG REPTILES (REPTILIA). — The larger Crocodiles and Alligators are particularly destructive to human life, though their sphere of operations is obviously much limited by their aquatic habits. Speaking of Ega on the Upper Amazons, Bates says (in The Naturalist on the Amazons) : — " Alligators were rather troublesome in the dry season. During these months there was almost always one or two lying in wait near the bathing-place for anything that might turn up at the edge of the water — dog, sheep, pig, child, or drunken Indian." With reference to Crocodiles in Madagascar, Sibree remarks (in The Great African Island]'. — " They are regarded with a superstitious dread by many of the Malagasy tribes, and are so dangerous in some parts of the island that at every village on the banks of the rivers a space is carefully fenced off with strong stakes, so that the women and girls can draw water without the risk of being seized by the jaws or swept off by the tail of these disgusting-looking creatures". Tales about the ferocity of Crocodiles are sufficiently numerous, many of them, of THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 337 course, having reference to that notable species, the Nile Crocodile (Crocodilus Niloticus, fig. 1235). The following remarks by Sir Samuel Baker (in Wild Beasts and Their Ways] will sufficiently illustrate the point: — "The throat of a crocodile is not only large, but is capable of great expansion, and although the habits of the creature usually permit the body of a victim to rest in quiet until it is devoured in piecemeal, there are many exceptions to the rule; large crocodiles will swallow a small person without the slower operation of dismemberment. . . . When I was in Fig. 1235.— Nile Crocodile (Crocodilus Niloticus) command of the Khedive's expedition, our losses through croco- diles were very distressing, all of which were terrible examples of the ferocity, combined with cunning, which characterizes this useless scourge. On one occasion the vessels were sailing up the White Nile with a strong north wind, making at least 7 knots an hour ; one of the cavasses was sitting upon the deck, with his legs dangling over the sides of the deeply-laden vessel, his feet being half a yard above the water. Suddenly a rush was made by a very large crocodile, and the man was seized and carried off in a shorter time than it would take to announce the fact. This was done in the presence of a hundred men on board the vessel, and nothing was ever heard of the unfortunate cavass." 338 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Mention may here be made of the fact that two species of poisonous Lizards exist, both native to North America. One \Heloderma horridum, fig. 1236) is a Mexican form, while the other, commonly known as the " Gila Monster " (//". suspectum], inhabits New Mexico and Arizona. The sharp curved teeth of these creatures are grooved in front and behind for the purpose of conducting the poison, which is secreted by a series of small glands opening along the edge of the lower jaw. Of the Gila Monster, Fig. 1236. — Mexican Poisonous Lizard (Helodenna horriduni) Gadow states (in The Cambridge Natural History]: — " Frogs are probably paralysed or killed by the bite, which, although not so dangerous as that of poisonous snakes, is effective enough to produce severe symptoms even on man, and a few cases of death of people who had been bitten are on record ". Poisonous Snakes are among the most formidable personal enemies of man, and are justly dreaded in the countries they in- habit, which embrace all but the coldest parts of the globe. There is also reason to think that at least one of the larger non-poisonous snakes, i.e. the Anaconda or Water- Boa (Euneces murinus) of northern South America, may now and then crush and devour 339 of 33 feet, its victim, described here. In they only by being THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN human beings. This species is said to attain the length or possibly more. The mechanism by which a venomous serpent bites so as to introduce poison into the wound, has been already (see vol. ii, p. 80), so does not require mention justice to such creatures it may be said that, as a rule, attack human beings when interfered with, as, e.g., accidentally trodden upon. Among the most dreaded species are the Indian Cobra ( Naia tripudians ) ; the even more dan- gerous Krait (Bun- garus c&ruleus) of the same country ; the Australian Death - Adder {Acanthophis antarcticus ) ; the Coral -Snake (Elaps corallinus] of tropical South America; the Sea- Snakes (Hydro- phince] of the Indian Ocean ; the African Puff -Adder (Vipera arietans}', Russell's Viper (V. RusselK), native to South Asia; and the American Rattle-Snakes (species of Crotalus). The following remarks by Semon (in In The Australian BusK) will prove of interest: — "It is decidedly no exaggeration to say that 500 persons are yearly bitten on the Australian continent, although the majority of these cases do not prove fatal. The population of Australia is at present supposed to amount to 3,000,000 [in 1901 it was nearer 4,000,000]. About 20,000 deaths by snake-bite are yearly re- ported from the British provinces of India, containing 120,000,000 inhabitants [population of India in 1901 was 294,266,701]. This record may indeed be somewhat exaggerated, and may owe its Fig. 1237. — Indian Cobra (Naia tripudians) 34° UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY enormity to conscious or unconscious deception of the magistrates by the native officials. Decidedly, however, the figures are not so- much overrated as is frequently believed. In India, as well as in Australia, in the course of a year about one person in 6000 falls a victim to snake-bite." PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG FISHES (PISCES). — Some of the larger Sharks injure or devour bodily a good many human beings every year. The most notable is the Rondeletian Shark (Car- charodon Rondeletii\ which ranges through the warmer parts of the ocean, and may attain the length of 40 feet. Those fishes also which possess poisonous spines (see vol. ii, p. 355) may cause serious injury, while some species are poisonous as food, such, e.g., as Globe- Fishes (Diodon and Tetrodon ) and Coffer - Fishes (O sir acton). PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG MOLLUSCS (MoL- LUSCA). — Some of the giant Squids, and larger creatures of the Octopus kind, are certainly capable of injuring or destroying human beings. How far they do so, or have done so, it is im- possible to say. And a few Sea -Snails, such as Cone -Shells (see vol. ii, p. 357), give poisonous bites. PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG INSECTS (!NSECTA). — It is quite impossible here to pass in review the host of insects which bite or sting, and many of which make up by numbers what they lack in size. Bees, Wasps, Ants, Gnats (fig. 1238), Mosquitoes, Midges, Sand- Flies, Fleas, Bugs, and Lice are all more or less notable in their way, or perhaps notorious would be a better word. And many insects which do not bite or sting may nevertheless be a serious nuisance, e.g. House- Flies and Flesh- Flies. But a fresh and unwelcome interest attaches to insects now that it is known that some of them are the means of conveying the germs of serious disease into the human body. The recent Fig. 1238. — A Gnat (Culex], enlarged THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN work of Major Ross in reference to malarial fever is the best illustration that can be given. It appears that a particular sort of Mosquito (Anopheles) is infested with certain stages in the life- history of a parasitic animalcule (Htzmamceba) which are intro- duced into the blood of persons bitten. Further development is there possible, serious disturbances of the system resulting. And when the mosquito bites a human being whose blood harbours these further stages it is in turn infected. In short the mosquito infects man, and man infects the mosquitOo Some of the details are given in fig. 1239. Fortu- nately the researches of Ross en- able preventive measures to be adopted. The early part of the life of the insect is passed in stagnant water (compare vol. iii, p. 403), from which the immature stages can be cleared out by the use of petroleum, if applied at a suitable time. The method has been exceedingly successful at Havannah, formerly a great breedincr-oround for vellow fever minute spores; D> spores liberated by breaking up of 11 *& & rL the corpuscle; when taken up into the body of the mos- and other disorders of malarial iuito with human blood some sp°res assume the form E, others the form F; G shows fusion of an E-spore with a type. The Subject SUggeStS an- thread from an F-spore; H, the fusion is complete, and at 1 • 1 -• . this stage the parasite pierces the wall of the mosquito's Other nOmily On tile necessity digestive tube; after complex changes the parasites reach for properly endowing scientific the salivary glands of research. PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG SPIDER-LIKE ANIMALS (ARACHNIDA). — It need only be noted that Scorpions possess poisonous stings, while some of the larger Spiders inflict poisonous bites. At one time an exaggerated virulence was ascribed in Italy to the latter. Violent exercise was the reputed cure, hence the origin of the rapid dance known as a " Tarantella" (i.e. the diminutive of " Tarantula ", the name of the spider). The unpleasant skin-disease known as " Itch " is caused by the attacks of a kind of Mite (Sarcoptes scabei, see p. 196). PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG MYRIAPODS (MYRIAPODA). — The Fig. 1239. — Malaria Parasite (Heemamaeba) A, Two parasites within a red blood-corpuscle of man ; B, one of the same branching; c, division of same into produced, which is introduced into the blood of a human being and attacks the red corpuscles; j, the mosquito (Anopheles]. All but j greatly enlarged. VOL. IV. 117 342 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY large Centipedes (Scolopendra) which abound in tropical countries are well known on account of their painful and poisonous bites. PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ANNELIDS (ANNELIDA). — Some of the Leeches, especially the Land- Leeches of tropical countries, are peculiarly unpleasant to encounter (see vol. ii, p. 148). PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG FLAT-WORMS (PLATYHELMIA).— Among the Flukes (Trematoda) about eleven different species have been described as parasitic in human beings, including the kind which causes " liver-rot" in sheep, and which will be the subject of further notice. On one notorious scourge of the sort (Bilharzia hczmatobia) Gamble remarks as follows (in The Cam- bridge Natural History) : — " This formidable parasite was dis- covered by Bilharz in 1853 in the veins of the bladder of patients at the Cairo Hospital, and is remarkable from its abundance on the east coast and inland countries of Africa from Egypt to the Cape, as well as in the districts bordering Lake Nyassa and the Zambesi river, while westwards it occurs on the Gold Coast. Mecca is a source of infection whence Mohammedans carry the disease to distant places. In Egypt about 30 per cent of the native population is affected by the serious disease known as haematuria, resulting from the attacks of Bilharzia, so that, of the many scourges from which in Africa man suffers, this one is perhaps the most severe." A number of Tape- Worms (Cestoda) infest the human subject, and one example has been given in an earlier volume (vol. i, p. 441), i.e. the Common Tape- Worm (Tcznia soliuin), which is a common consequence of eating " measly " pork in a partially cooked condition. Another not infrequent human parasite in Western Europe is the Beef Tape- Worm (Ttznia saginata\ derived from " measly " beef. The Broad Tape- Worm (Bothriocephalus latus), which is well known as a parasite of man in Russia, Switzer- land, North America, and Japan, results from eating diseased fish, especially pike, which have not been sufficiently cooked. All these three forms attain their adult state in the human intestine, from which they can be expelled with comparative ease by suitable drugs. Another tape -worm (Ttznia echinococcus] which when adult is found in the dog's intestine, is a much more dangerous parasite to man, in whom it may occur in its earlier bladder- worm form of existence as a swelling or cyst in the lungs or liver {Echinococcus veterinorum, fig. 1 240), often with fatal consequences. THE PERSONAL ENEMIES OF MAN 343 Pigs and ruminants are also liable to the disease. Gamble says of the bladder- worm stage (in The Cambridge Natural Histoiy): — " Eckinococcus is most fre- quent in Iceland, where it affects 2 to 3 per cent of the population, and a still larger proportion of sheep; while in Copenhagen, Northern Germany, some districts of Switzerland, and Victoria it is not uncommon, but is fre- quently found during post- mortem examinations when no definite symptoms of its presence had been previously noticed." PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ROUND - WORMS (NEMATHELMIA). — A number of species of these objection- able forms are found as in- ternal parasites within the bodies of human beings. The Round -Worm (Ascaris lumbri- coides] and Thread- Worm (Oxyuris vermicularis) are two of the commonest sorts. Far more dangerous than these is one of the Palisade- Worms (Dochmius duodenalis], which possesses spines in the neigh- bourhood of the mouth, enabling it to burrow in the wall of the small intestine of its host. This worm is the cause of the fatal disease called " miners' anaemia ". The Guinea- Worm (Filaria medi- nensis), only too well known in tropical countries, is the cause of serious tumours, especially in the legs. These are caused by the female, an elongated (usually 20 to 32 inches) slender creature which lives under the skin of the person affected. Trichinosis is an extremely dangerous disorder contracted by eating diseased pork, containing the encapsuled stage of a minute Fig. 1240.— Echinococcus Cyst from the Liver of a Cow a, Outer covering of cyst, which has been cut away along b to show the cyst itself (c] ; d, d, d, secondary cysts each of which may produce several tape-worms. Reduced. Fig. 1241. — Trichinae encysted in Muscle. Much enlarged. 344 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY thread-worm (Trichina spiralis, fig. 1241). On reaching the human stomach the capsules are dissolved, the minute worms become adult, and myriads of larvae are produced, which bore into the walls of the intestine. They are then carried in the blood to different parts of the body, especially the muscles, where they come to rest, and pass into the encapsuled stage. Pigs contract the complaint by eating diseased rats, or the offal from their slaughtered fellows, if the latter are infected. PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG HEDGEHOG- SKINNED ANIMALS (ECHINODERMATA). — Unpleasant wounds may be given by the long sharp spines of some sea-urchins, especially when these are provided with poison-glands (see vol. ii, pi 361). PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ZOOPHYTES (CCELENTERATA). — The larger Jelly- Fishes, such as the Portuguese Man-of-war (Phy- salid), possess innumerable nettling capsules, by which they can inflict painful stings, of which the effects may long be felt. PERSONAL ENEMIES AMONG ANIMALCULES (PROTOZOA). — These are probably more numerous than at one time suspected. The malaria-parasites introduced by means of Mosquitoes (see p. 341) are the most serious at present known. CHAPTER LXXI ANIMAL FOES— FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES A large volume would be required to give anything like an adequate account of the innumerable animal pests which more or less diminish the success of many human operations. Keepers of stock or poultry, crop-growers, gardeners, foresters, and the like, all have constant and painful experience of some such forms. Other animals damage buildings, food, clothes, and various manu- factured articles. To cope successfully with many of these foes requires much knowledge of their habits and life-histories, and such knowledge can only be acquired by patient and long- continued scientific research, carried out by trained experts. Although an increasing amount of this kind of work is done in the United Kingdom, we are at present very far behind such countries as Germany and the United States, where the value of research is fully appreciated by the authorities. Our own govern- ment is comparatively apathetic in the matter, and our univer- sities are too much occupied in turning out graduates by the score to undertake more than a small fraction of the original investiga- tions upon which the prosperity of many of our industries ulti- mately depends. It is only possible here to briefly review the animal kingdom with a view to pointing out some of the more injurious forms. INJURIOUS MAMMALS (MAMMALIA). — It goes without saying that the carnivores which attack man (see p. 331) are still more mischievous by way of raiding flocks and herds. Besides which, members of the same group which are not powerful enough to be considered our own personal enemies, may nevertheless be very destructive to domesticated animals. Foxes, Weasels, and Stoats may be mentioned in illustration. But at the same time it ought to be remembered that the damage inflicted is not 345 346 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY infrequently balanced, or even outweighed, by benefits conferred in other ways (see p. 325). Cultivated plants are often injured or destroyed by herbivorous or omnivorous Mammals — Deer and various gnawing mammals, such as Rats, Mice, Voles, Hares, and Rabbits. Such creatures may also be injurious in gardens, orchards, and woods, by in- juring the bark of trees. In this re- spect Goats are particularly de- structive. A re- markable instance of this is given in the following pas- sage from Wallace ( Island Life} : - " When first dis- covered [over 400 years ago], St. Helena was densely covered with a luxuriant forest vegetation, the trees overhanging the seaward preci- pices and covering every part of the surface with an evergreen mantle. This indigenous vegetation has been almost wholly destroyed; and although an immense number of foreign plants have been introduced, and have more or less completely estab- lished themselves, yet the general aspect of the island is now so barren and forbidding, that some persons find it difficult to believe that it was once all green and fertile. The cause of the change is, however, very easily explained. The rich soil formed by decomposed volcanic rock and vegetable deposits could only be retained on the steep slopes so long as it was Fig. 1242. — Common House-Mouse (M-iis musculus) FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 347 protected by the vegetation to which it in great part owed its origin. When this was destroyed, the heavy tropical rains soon washed away the soil, and has left a vast expanse of bare rock or sterile clay. This irreparable destruction was caused in the first place by goats, which were introduced by the Portuguese in 1513, and increased so rapidly that in 1588 they existed in thousands. These animals are the greatest of all foes to trees, because they eat off the young seedlings, and thus prevent the natural restoration of the forest. They were, however, aided by the reckless waste of man." Rats, Mice (fig. 1242), and other small rodents are destructive to stored grain and other commodities, and may become a thorough nuisance in dwellings, as most of us have found by experience. Such creatures may also be productive of serious harm by disseminating various diseases. Rats, for example, often cause trichinosis in swine (see p. 344), and hence indirectly in human beings, or may spread such viru- lent germs as those of bubonic plague. INJURIOUS BIRDS (AVES). — Large birds of prey, such as Eagles, may attack various domesticated animals, and even the Raven (Corvus corax) is known to injure lambs, among other forms. The Kea Parrot (Nestor notabilis] of New Zealand has acquired the reprehensible habit of killing sheep by biting deep holes in their backs, its object being said to be to reach the fat in the neighbourhood of the kidneys. The smaller Birds of Prey may raid poultry-yards or game-preserves, and some of them destroy useful insectivorous birds. Certain species, however, do more good than harm (see p. 327). Among insectivorous birds the Woodpeckers damage trees in the course of their search for food (fig. 1243), and also sometimes by excavating nesting-holes in sound trunks. A great many plant-eating or omnivorous birds do much mischief in cultivated fields, gardens, and orchards, the exact nature of the depredations depending upon the species. Most, if not all, omnivorous birds also do a certain amount of good, sufficient, in some cases, en- Fig. 1243. — Tree "ringed" by a Woodpecker 348 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY tirely to outweigh their misdeeds. Crows, Rooks, and Sparrows are among the most hurtful forms in Western Europe. Some of the mainly beneficial species are: Thrushes, Starlings, and Chaffinches. INJURIOUS REPTILES (REPTILIA). — It is only necessary to note that Crocodiles, Alligators, and poisonous Snakes destroy a num- ber of domesticated animals. INJURIOUS FISHES ( PISCES). — Some of the more voracious freshwater forms, especially the Pike (Esox luciiis] destroy other species of greater value, or interfere with the work of fish- culture. Skate and Rays are destructive to oysters. INJURIOUS MOLLUSCS (MOLLUSCA). — Forms like the Octopus and its kind destroy oysters, as also do several species of boring sea-snail. Of the latter the " whelks " detrimental to British oyster - culture are chiefly the Common Whelk ( Buccinum undatum ), the Dog- Whelk (N asset reticosd], and the Purple- Shell (Pur- pur a lapillus). Various North American species which do harm in the same way are popularly known as "drills". Cultivated plants of almost all kinds are liable to the attacks of various Land -Snails and Land -Slugs (fig. 1244), which are probably by far the most injurious of all molluscs from the human stand-point. Among injurious bivalves the Ship- Worm (Teredo navalis] is notorious for the way in which it has damaged the timbers of ships and wooden piles. At one time it worked such devastation in the sea-dykes of Holland that serious disaster was threatened. The Edible Mussel (Mytilus edulis] is sometimes an enemy to oyster- culture, as it may cover up and smother beds of young oysters. INJURIOUS INSECTS (INSECTA). — These are so excessively numerous, and at the same time so destructive, that they are the subject of a particularly extensive literature, and constantly engage the attention of many skilled naturalists, especially at the numerous experimental Entomological Stations of America. Fig. 1244. — i, Field-Slug (Limax agrestis] ; 2, Black Slug (Arion ater); and 3, a related species (A. empiricorum] with its eggs 4. FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 349 Domesticated animals are attacked by a great variety of insects, of which only a few can be here mentioned. Some- thing has elsewhere been said about Bot- Flies (see p. 191). Two such forms, the Ox- Warble Flies (Hypoderma bovis and H. lineatus, fig. 1245), lay their eggs on the legs of cattle, usually near the heels. It is probable (but not absolutely cer- tain) that the maggots when hatched pierce the skin, under which they make their way to the back. At any rate they are found in that region later on, living in swellings (" warbles") which open to the exterior. Of the injuries inflicted Somerville says (in Farm and Gar- den Insects] : — " The damage done by this insect is enormous, the Newcastle Hide Pro- : tection Society, for in- | stance, reporting that the hides dealt with in that town alone in 1892 had been damaged by warbles to the extent of ,£14,000. Besides the injury to the leather H. bovis causes great damage by unsettling cattle and preventing them thriving properly. When cattle dis- cover that the fly is hovering near they rush wildly about the field; and the constant irritation to which the larva subjects them when located in the skin is no less detrimental to the ani- mals. The flesh in the neighbourhood of the warbles is also much reduced in value, being covered by a jelly-like substance known as 'licked beef." The bite of the much-dreaded Tsetse Fly (Glossina morsitans) of tropical Africa is fatal to horses, producing " nagana " or " fly- sickness " (see p. 241). This is because the bite introduces into the horse's blood certain stages in the life-history of a parasitic animalcule (Trypanosoma), which attacks the red corpuscles. Other biting flies may introduce fatal germs, as, e.g., the bacilli which are the cause of anthrax (splenic fever, quarter evil). The insect pests which damage stock are mostly Flies and Fig. 1245.— Ox-Warble Fly (Hypoderma}, enlarged 350 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Fleas (Dipt era], but forms extremely injurious to cultivated and other plants are to be found in several orders, as a brief summary will show. It will be convenient to mention at the same time some of the species which damage food, clothing, buildings, &c. &c. Bugs (Hemipterd}. — By means of their piercing and suctorial mouth-parts innumerable members of this order are able to feed upon the sap of plants, often with the most deplorable consequences. Aphides or Green- Flies (Aphidce] and Scale- Insects or Mealy Bugs (Coccida) are among the most mis- chievous, for though of small size they are astoundingly pro- -d Fig. 1246. — Vine Aphis (Phylloxera vaslatrix) a, Wingless root-sucking female; b, winged over- ground female; c, wingless overground female; dt male; e, gall-producing female. Fig. 1247.— Apple Scale- Insect (My- tilaspis pomorum], enlarged. A, Male. B, Female, c, Nymph. lific. Aphides are often popularly known as " blight", and nearly 200 species of them are British, while some 800 have altogether been described. Many important cultivated plants are infested by particular kinds of Aphis, as will be gathered from the names of the following : — Corn Aphis (Aphis cerealis\ Oat Aphis (A. avence). Bean Aphis (A. fabcz). Cabbage Aphis (A. brassic(z\ Turnip Aphis (A. rapce\ Hop Aphis (A. humuli\ Cherry Aphis (A. cerasi\ Plum Aphis (A. pruni}, &c. &c. Enormous damage is done in vineyards by the Vine Aphis (Phylloxera devastatrix, fig. 1 246). During the spring and summer wingless females work havoc upon the roots, which swell up into small galls. They lay unfertilized eggs, which hatch out into forms like themselves, and there may be as many as eight generations of the kind produced during the season. But the last batch of these eggs produced in autumn gives rise to wingless males and winged females, that live- above-ground and attack the leaves. The fertilized "winter- FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 351 eggs " of this generation survive, lie dormant during the winter, and wingless females hatch out from them in the following spring. Scale- Insects (Coccidce), of which one kind has already been described (see vol. iii, p. 381), are particularly harmful in fruit- culture. Well known in Britain are — Apple Scale (Mytilaspis pomorum), white woolly Currant Scale (Pulvinaria ribesice), and Gooseberry and Currant Scale (Lecanium ribis). Fringe -Winged Insects (Thysanoptera). See vol. i, p. 355. Flies (Dipterd). — The most familiar pests belonging to this group are the Crane- Flies or " Daddy- Long- Legs " (Tipulida\ of which there are at least some thirty British species. The larvae, known as " leather -jackets ", are very de- structive to the roots of grasses and cereals (fig. 1248). A species which has been responsible for great damage to cereal crops in America is the Hessian Fly (Cecidomyia destructor), so called because it is supposed to have been introduced into the New World in 1778 by means of straw brought by Hessian mercenaries. \ ® The female fly lays her eggs in pairs in the angles where the leaves Fig.i248.-crane-Fiy(r#«/*^^). i, Larva; r i 11 • • ^1 2> PuPa; 3. adult; 4, eggs. of wheat, barley, or rye join the stem. The maggots feed upon the juices of the haulm, causing this to bend or break, and interfering greatly with the develop- ment of the grain. The Wheat -Midge (Cecidomyia tritici) is chiefly destructive to wheat and rye, the eggs in this case being laid in the flowers. The Frit- Fly (Oscinis frit) is injurious to cereals in much the same way as the Hessian Fly, but its eggs are here laid on the under sides of the leaves. Some flies lay their eggs on food, and cause great annoyance. The Blow- Fly or Blue-Bottle (Musca vomitorid) and the Cheese-Fly (Piophila casei] are well-known examples. Moths and Butterflies {Lepidoptera). — Almost everyone has noticed the way in which the caterpillars of these insects vora- ciously devour plants of various kind, and a mere list of destructive species would occupy a considerable space. Among injurious 352 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Butterflies the Whites (Pierida) are only too familiar. They in- clude, for example, the Large Garden White or Cabbage Butter- fly (Pieris brassica), the Small White (P. rap enlarged (actual size in same position and hosts escaping record in the first years of the outbreak, the force employed against the caterpillar has killed directly by hand, to date, about two billions and three millions of these dreadful creatures. The unrecorded destruction will doubtless bring the list of killed to at least some four billions. The results so far have more than justified the necessary outlay." The Corn Moth or Corn Wolf ( Tinea granella, fig. 1251) is a small granary-pest that does much damage to stored grain. The Clothes- Moths, so destructive to garments of cloth and fur, are closely related. The last species to be here mentioned is the Wax Moth (Galleria mellonella), one of the enemies of apiculturalists. The female tries to enter a bee-hive, and, if successful, lays her eggs there. When the caterpillars hatch out they burrow into the combs, and feed upon the wax. 354 UTILITARIAN ZOOLOGY Injurious Beetles (Coleopterd). — Many notorious malefactors belong to this order. Among the most injurious are " wire- worms ", which do great damage to the underground parts of cereals, grasses, and root-crops, and are no other than the larvae of the little Click- Beetles (Elaterida). The still smaller Turnip Flea-Beetles (Haltica nemorum, fig. 1252, and H. unditlata), popularly known as Turnip-" Flies", are very injurious to turnips and related plants, for the adults attack the leaves from the outside, while their larvae burrow within them. Some of the " Chafers " are very injurious to trees, crops, and pastures. The Common Cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris), when adult, ravages the foliage of trees, while its grubs live underground, and attack the roots of grasses, various crop - plants, and many trees. A form which created a " scare " in this country some years ago is the Colorado Beetle (Chry- somela decemlineatd], a par- ticularly prolific insect which, both in the larval state and when adult, devours potato leaves. The larvae of Beetles belonging to one family {BruckicUe} burrow in seeds, and some of them infest plants of economic value, e.g. Pea- Beetles (Biuchus pisi) and Bean- Beetle (B. fab&). The little long-snouted Weevils (Cvrculionida), of which some- thing like 20,000 species have already been described, include a large number of pests, of which both adults and larvae feed on vegetable matter. The Pea- Weevil (Sitones lineatus], for example, devours the leaves of pea, bean, clover, &c., while its larvae prey upon their roots. The Apple-blossom Weevil (Anthonomus po- morum) is very destructive in orchards to both apple and pear. The female insect deposits her eggs in the young flower-buds, one in each, and may carry on this injurious operation for two or three weeks. The Corn- Weevil (Calandria granaria, fig. 1253) bores holes in young grains of corn, and each of the some 1 50 eggs of a single female are deposited within separate grains. Some of Fig. 1252. — Stages of Turnip Flea-Beetle (Haltica nemorum]. i, Adult (enlarged), showing wing-covers and wings spread out; 2, 3, natural size of same; 4, 5, eggs (5 enlarged); 6, 7, bur- rows of larvae (7 enlarged); 8, 9, larva (natural size and en- larged); 10, n, pupa (natural size and enlarged). FORMS INJURIOUS TO HUMAN INDUSTRIES 355 the Weevils are among the pests of forestry, certain forms attack- ing conifers, e.g. species of Hylobius and Piss odes. Some of the Beetles are indoor pests, their larvae feeding on all sorts of substances. The members of one small family (Dermestida) devour animal substances, and are very destructive in museums. To one species at least (Anthrenus fasciatus] the horse-hair coverings of furniture prove palatable. The larvae of the Bacon- Beetle (Dermestes lardarius) indulge in a more luxurious diet, as the name indicates. The larvae and adults of certain species belonging to another family (Ptinidce) are not often seen, though some of them are frequently heard, and their " works " are familiar. A kind of literary flavour at- taches itself to the Biscuit- "Weevil" (Anobium pani- temn), for its larva is most likely the " original book- worm " which finds its pabu- lum in libraries, though paper is not the only item in its bill * of fare, for Sharp remarks .. rr-*i x~« 7*7 * r 7 {in The Cambridge Natural TT ' j \ 1 • History) that ". . . it must possess extraordinary powers of digestion, as we have known it to pass several consecutive generations on a diet of opium; it has also been reported to thrive on tablets of dried compressed meat; in India it is said to disintegrate books; a more usual food of the insect is, how- ever, hard biscuits; weevily biscuits are known to every sailor, and the so-called * weevil ' is usually the larva of A. paniceum ". The " Greater Death - Watches " belong to allied species (A. striatum and A. tessellatuni), and are the cause of " worm-eaten " wood and much superstition. Injurious Membrane -Winged Insects (Hymenoptera). — To farmers and fruit-growers the Saw -Flies are here most dele- terious, while Wood -Borers are among the pests of forestry. Their operations have been already sufficiently described (see vol. i, p. 371; vol. ii, p. 203; and vol. iii, p. 386). Prominent pests are the Corn Saw- Fly (Cephus pygmceus\ Turnip Saw- Fly Fig. 1253. — Weevils, i, Gram of wheat, snowing the punc- tured hole' and s, the «xit of the perfect weevil. 2. Pupa (natural size); 3, magnified. 4, Grain of Indian corn, with weevil inside. 6,7,G>m-Weevil(C«/««rfn»^«« pubis; //, ilium; I— v (in hind-limb), toes. 472 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME LIFE IN THE KAINOZOIC EPOCH Even in the earlier stages of the Kainozoic epoch we find that the fauna had a comparatively modern aspect, and the later stages ultimately merge into the present. Among backboned land -animals Mammals and Birds were dominant, and it will be as well to confine our attention to a few interesting facts con- cerning these groups. KAINOZOIC MAMMALS (MAMMALIA). — The fossil remains which have so far been examined enable us to trace the gradual evolu- tion of the subdivisions of several mammalian orders, notably Fig. 1331. — Restoration of Phenacodus (reduced) so as regards Hoofed Mammals (Ungulata) and Flesh-Eaters (Carnivora). In the earliest stage of the epoch we find the ancestors of the hoofed forms represented by small primitive swamp-dwellers, constituting an extinct group (Condylarthra), of which a well-known type (Phenacodus] is represented in figs. 1331 and 1332. By increasing complications of structure, affecting limbs, teeth, brain, &c., the various odd-toed and even-toed un- gulates have sprung from creatures of the kind, as also Conies (Hyracoidea), and, most probably, Elephants (Proboscidea]. The nature of some of the specializations which took place have been briefly explained in a previous section (see vol. iii, p. 137). What is true for Hoofed Mammals as regards one primitive group is also true for Flesh- Eaters with reference to another such group (Creodonta). Indeed there is not a great deal AN EXTINCT GROUND-SLOTH (Megatherium} It is a remarkable fact that certain groups of land-animals were in part represented, in comparatively late geological times, by gigantic forms which have since become extinct. This is the case, for example, with the Mammals poor in Teeth (Edentata), to which belongs the South American Ground- Sloth (Megatherium} repre- sented in the plate, which is taken from a photograph of a restora- tion in the British Museum. In size it was nearly as large as an elephant, and is believed to have fed on leaves, as do the relatively in- significant Sloths which now live in the trees of the South American forests. The plate represents the Ground-Sloth in the position it assumed for the purpose of pulling down branches, or uprooting small trees, in order to obtain its food. EXTINCT SOUTH AMERICAN GROUND-SLOTH (MEGATHERIUM) LIFE IN THE KAINOZOIC EPOCH 473 of difference between the early kainozoic ancestors of Ungulates and Carnivores, both of which undoubtedly sprang from the same mesozoic stock, though this is as yet unknown. In similar fashion we find that the lines of descent of recent Insect-Eaters (Insectivora), Lemurs (Lemuroided), and Monkeys (Primates] converge as we trace them back to the beginning of the epoch. The branches of the genealogical tree of mammals corresponding to the last two groups actually meet, and on this account some experts would place the Lemurs in the same order as Monkeys (Primates). We further find that the lines of descent of Insecti- vores, Lemurs, and Monkeys converge towards those of the Ungulates and Carnivores, and this appears to be also true for the Mammals Poor in Teeth (Edentata]. Some day, perhaps, we may be able to trace back all these six orders, together with Conies and Ele- phants, to common meso- zoic ancestors. W hales , &c. (Cetaced), Sea - Cows ( Sirenia ), Fig 133,_skeleton of Phenacodus (reduced) Gnawers (Rodentid), and Bats (Chiropterd) seem to have acquired their typical characters before the Kainozoic epoch began, and we are not yet able to trace them back to the main line of mammalian descent. The two first groups, and creatures of the seal kind, replaced the marine reptiles of Mesozoic time in the life of the sea, and the Flying Reptiles proved unable to maintain their supremacy against the competition of Bats and Birds. In the later part of the Kainozoic epoch certain orders of mammals were represented by relatively gigantic forms. A good instance of this is afforded by certain extinct American representatives of the Mammals Poor in Teeth (Edentata). At this time South America and the southern part of the sister continent were inhabited by huge Ground -Sloths, of which one typical form (Megatherium) was at least as large as an elephant. It and its allies combined some of the structural features of exist- ing Sloths and American Ant- Eaters. That so large an animal as the one mentioned was not a climber is sufficiently obvious. 474 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME It is supposed to have been a leaf-eater, pulling off branches, or even uprooting small trees. A related form (Mylodon), which attained the size of a rhinoceros, possessed an external skeleton consisting of small bony plates imbedded in the skin. Remains of the skin, &c., of an allied type (Neomylodon) were not long since discovered in a South American cave, and in so fresh a state as to warrant a belief in the animal's recent extinction, while some naturalists, partly on the strength of native traditions, believe (or at any rate hope) that the creature still lives in the desert regions of Patagonia. Gigantic Armadilloes, of which one type (Glyptodon) was about 16 feet in length, inhabited America in comparatively late Kainozoic times. Turning to Australia, we find that some of the immediate prede- cessors of the Pouched Mammals (Marsupialid) of that continent at- tained large dimensions. The skull of the Pouched " Lion" (Thylacoled], a form related to the existing Pha- langers, was about 9 inches long. Its name is rather unfortunate, for it was probably of vegetarian habit. Very much larger than this was a gigantic animal (Diprotodon) related both to the Phalangers and Kangaroos, for it was about as large as a rhinoceros, its skull alone being over 3 feet in length. Its limbs were adapted for walking. Three large extinct Mammals have a special interest as being contemporaneous with prehistoric Man in Western Europe, including Britain. One was the Irish "Elk" (Cervus Hiberni- cus, fig. 1333), remains of which are not uncommon in the peat- bogs of Ireland. The female possessed no antlers, but the male was well -endowed in this respect, for in him these weapons sometimes had a spread of about 10 feet. The Sabre-Toothed Tiger (Mackairodus) belonged to a group of Flesh- Eaters now extinct, and possessed enormous upper tusks, which are respon- sible for its name. The lower tusks were quite small. It seems that the huge weapons of creatures of the kind were too well developed to be of much use, probably indeed acting as encum- - 1333.— Irish Elk (Cervus Hibernicus], much reduced LIFE IN THE KAINOZOIC EPOCH 475 ig- I334- — Mammoth (Elefihas primigenius), much reduced brances which in the end brought about extinction. Here, as in many other cases, over-specialization proved fatal. The last extinct Mammal to be mentioned is the Mammoth (Elephas primigenius, fig. 1334), a sort of Elephant which had a very wide geographical range in the northern hemisphere, especially in the colder parts of this. The frozen bodies of Mammoths are now and then discovered in the iron-bound soil of the Siberian tundras, and these prove the exis- tence of a thick coat of long black over - hair, together with reddish wool, a character no doubt to be regarded as a climatal adaptation. One of the prehistoric drawings made by the men of the Stone Age (see p. 233) gives a rough outline of one of these animals, and indicates the shaggy coat. It was found in a French cavern, and executed upon a piece of mammoth tusk. The Siberian variety has long been known as a source of fossil ivory. Kainozoic Birds (Aves). — Some of the extinct Running Birds (Ratitce) are perhaps the most in- teresting. In New Zealand, for example, the Moas existed during the period of human occupation, and were finally exter- - I33S-— Skeleton of Moa (Pachyomis elephantopus], much reduced 476 DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE AND TIME minated by the Maoris. The largest form (Dinornis maximus) attained a height of over 1 1 feet. Another sort of Moa (Pachy- ornis elephant opus , fig. 1335), though not so large as this, was much more massive in build. Egg-shells and feathers of these birds have been found, as well as skeletons. The bones and egg-shells of other large running birds (/Epyornis] have been abundantly discovered in Madagascar, and it is not unlikely that they too owed their extinction to human agency. Some species were little inferior in size to trie largest Moas. It is not improbable that the creation of the fabulous bird known as a "roc", which figures in the Arabian Nights and other Eastern stories, was originally based upon ancient traditions regarding some of the extinct running birds. At the present time such birds are limited to the soutnern hemisphere, but we know that during early Kainozoic times they also existed in the northern half of both Old and New Worlds. PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY CHAPTER LXXVIII PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY— THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION —EVOLUTION AS A FACT Having now considered at some length the relations of animals to their surroundings (or environment), in which, of course, other organisms are included, and having also reviewed the life-cycles or life-histories of certain typical forms, this work may be fitly concluded by a brief survey of the Theory of Evolution, which at the present day not only dominates the realm of Natural History, but has also had a far-reaching influence upon almost every branch of learning. The kinds or species of animal at present existing are almost innumerable, and we know from the geological record that a host of others once lived which are now extinct, some having become so within the historic period, while others died out millions of years ago. Until the second half of last century it was commonly believed that all these species came into existence by "special creation", and to ask "why?" any kind of animal had a particular structure, developed after a special fashion, exemplified certain habits, or lived in a definite area, was con- sidered undesirable or even impious. The only answer to such questions given by the doctrine of special creation was that these things were so because they had been designed to be so, accord- ing to a plan into which the human mind was forbidden to pry. Now and then, however, from the time of Aristotle onwards, this paralyzing dogma failed to satisfy the minds of certain naturalists who were ahead of their times. Among these per- haps the most notable was the eminent French zoologist Lamarck, who in 1801 expressed the view that all existing species have descended from, i.e. been evolved from, pre-existing 477 478 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY species. He further propounded a Theory of Evolution, which attempted to explain how species have originated from those which preceded them. But comparatively little attention was paid to the evolutionary views of Lamarck and some other naturalists till the year 18580 In that year a new Theory of Evolution (now commonly known as Darwinism) was simul- taneously propounded by Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, who, working independently on facts collected in entirely different parts of the world, had reached practically the same conclusions regarding the manner in which organisms of different kind have come into existence. The publication of Darwin's epoch-making book, The Origin of Species, followed in 1859, and since that date the doctrine of evolution has made steady head- way, at first against strong and even embittered opposition, until now the doctrine of special creation is almost entirely held by those who have had no scientific training worthy the name, together with some few others who cling tenaciously to the old and once popular view. This chapter is concerned with the fact of Evolution, and not with the various theories associated with the names of Darwin and many others which attempt an explanation of that fact. The distinction between the fact and its explanation is of im- portance in a popular work like this. Botanists and zoologists, after the manner of their kind, are constantly engaged in polemics about all sorts of evolutionary problems, their controversies being often not a little acrimonious, and sometimes even taking a personal turn. These things, however, -are not unknown among the votaries of other studies. But in such cases it is not the fact of evolution that is in question, but this or that difficult question as to the way in which it has come about. All are agreed that evolution and not special creation has been and is the primary law of organic nature, probably, indeed, of nature in general. Since the whole of this book has been written from the evolu- tionary stand-point, much has already been adduced in support of the fact of evolution, and it will therefore suffice to summarize some of the chief arguments in its favour, following the order adopted by Romanes (in Darwin and After Darwin). THE ARGUMENT FROM CLASSIFICATION. — If the various kinds or species of animal were absolutely separate creations we should expect to find them clearly distinguishable from one another, EVOLUTION AS A FACT 479 but this is by no means universally the case. Indeed, it is by no means easy to exactly state what a species is. Some such definition may be given, for example, as the one by Swainson:— "A species, in the usual acceptation of the term, is an animal which, in a state of nature, is distinguished by certain peculiarities of form, size, colour, or other circumstances, from another animal. It propagates, 'after its kind', individuals perfectly resembling the parent; its peculiarities, therefore, are permanent." But un- fortunately there are such things as varieties or races, which are subdivisions of species, and might be taken for such if seen in a museum. In the case of the Field Snail (Helix hortensis), for example, there are many such races, distinguished by variously coloured and banded shells. But in cases like this we usually find that the different varieties, when crossed, produce offspring (mongrels) which are perfectly fertile as regards one another and the parent varieties. On the other hand, the offspring (hybrids) produced by crossing two undoubted species are usually, but not always, infertile. A notable instance is seen in mules, which are obtained by crossing horses (Equus caballus) with asses (E. asinus). We further find that two or more apparently distinct species may be connected by a series of intermediate varieties. This is beautifully seen in some of the extinct Lamp- Shells and Snails, while the early turns of the spiral in some Ammonites (see p. 465) may resemble one adult species, though the later turns may correspond to another adult species. Facts of the kind cited, while only susceptible of interpretation in a mystical manner by the doctrine of special creation, harmonize very well with the evolution theory, according to which organ- isms are constantly being adapted to changing surroundings, and new specializations are continually coming into existence. On this hypothesis we may regard varieties as species "in the making". Species are aggregated into larger groups known as genera, these into families, and so on, to orders, classes, and phyla or sub-kingdoms, respectively marked out by agreements and differ- ences of increasingly broader and more general kind. If these various groups of, e.g., Backboned Animals, are diagrammatically arranged so as to best express their mutual arrangements, a tree-like arrangement results (see vol. i, p. in), the phylum corresponding to a main branch. This was perceived in pre- evolutionary days, and the only rational explanation so far given 480 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY of it is that such a tree is really a genealogical one. The con- clusion is fully confirmed by the geological record. We also find a number of existing animals which, though on the whole susceptible of classification in one group, also show points of marked agreement with members of one or more other groups. A notable instance is afforded by Peripatus (see vol. i, p. 398), which, though an undoubted Arthropod, is singularly like a segmented Worm or Annelid in some respects. If the classification tree is a genealogical one, the existence of such animals is readily intelligible. Such cases are otherwise inex- plicable, unless some unintelligible and dogmatic statement offered by the believer in special creation can be so regarded. THE ARGUMENT FROM FORM AND STRUCTURE (MORPHOLOGY). —A very large number of examples might be brought forward to show that many organs can only be rationally interpreted on an evolutionary basis. A particularly good instance is afforded by the lungs of air-breathing vertebrates, which appear to be modifications of the swim -bladders possessed by fishes (see vol. ii, p. 421). And it may be added that there are many other structural characters of these air-breathing forms which point to an aquatic ancestry. That this should be so, is only intelligible from the stand-point of evolution. If we take a particular group of animals, say Mammals, we shall find that they are constructed on a particular plan, modified in a great variety of ways to suit the exigencies of various modes of life. This is very well illustrated by the structure of the limbs, in reference to different kinds of locomotion, e.g. swift progression by running on a firm surface, swimming, climbing, and burrow- ing, as set out in detail in the section on Locomotion (vol. iii). We have here, it would appear, a gradual Adaptation by a pro- cess of evolution to conditions of different kind. The strongest argument from structure in favour of the doctrine of evolution is that derived from those parts of animals which are known as vestiges (rudimentary organs). The human body, for example, is in itself quite a museum of such structures. Indeed, one may say that it is an archaeological museum, for vestiges can only be reasonably explained as the remains of organs which were of greater importance in ancestral forms. The lower end of the backbone (coccyx), for instance, looks uncommonly like the remains of what was once a tail, and the EVOLUTION AS A FACT 481 same explanation can be given of the tailless condition of the man -like or anthropoid apes (Gorilla, &c.). The troublesome little outgrowth from the intestine familiarly known as the ' 'appendix", which when diseased leads to appendicitis, corre- sponds to what is a large and useful structure in some other Mammals; and a little red fold (semilunar fold) in the inner corner of the eye appears to be the remnant of a third eyelid. And so on, almost indefinitely. Among Mammals other than Fig- J336-— (i) and (2), Upper and lower grinding-teeth of a young Duck-Bill (Ornithorhynchus), natural size and enlarged; (3) grinding tooth (enlarged) of an extinct Mesozoic mammal (Microlestes). ourselves we find a great variety of vestiges. Whalebone Whales, to take a well-known case, possess neither teeth nor externally visible hind-limbs. But traces of teeth are found in the jaws of very young individuals, although they are never cut. And vestigial hind -limbs are found even in adults, im- bedded in the muscles of the hinder part of the body, exactly where hind-limbs should be were they fully developed. Unless we simply accept these things as inexplicable facts, we must fall back on the doctrine of evolution, and consider such structures as dwindled heritages, reminiscent of earlier conditions. Passing from the higher Mammals to their lowest existing 482 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY relatives, we find in the Australian Duck- Bill (Ornithorhynchus] that the adult animal possesses four horny plates in place of teeth. But these are preceded by small molars (fig. 1336) which last for a short time only. The conclusion may be drawn that the Duck- Bill is descended from ancestors which possessed teeth when adult. And, in connection with this, it is interesting and significant that the transitory teeth of this creature are singularly like those possessed by an extremely ancient Mesozoic mammal, which has been extinct for an enormous length of time. ARGUMENT FROM DEVELOPMENT. — As already explained in the section on Development and Life -History (vol. iii), an animal of complex structure results from a process of gradual up-building, in which the ovum or egg -cell is the first and simplest stage. Speaking very broadly, the course of this development is taken to be a recapitulation of the history of the group to which the particular animal belongs. The life- history of a particular form may, for example, include stages adapted to different modes of life, and in some cases these apparently correspond to ancestral stages similarly adapted. We see this in the Frog, which is hatched out as an aquatic tadpole, breathing by gills and fitted in various other ways for life in water. From this the conclusion is drawn that the remote ancestors of Frogs were aquatic creatures, related to the stock from which recent fishes have descended. The argument may be extended to Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals, for though these do not begin life as aquatic tadpoles, all of them possess gill- slits during certain stages in their development. But these slits have nothing to do with breathing, apparently serving no useful purpose, and ultimately close up. One result of their presence in the embryo is that some of the blood-vessels develop in a somewhat roundabout manner (see vol. i, p. 244). These vessels begin in conformity to what may be called the "fish- plan ", abandoning this later on for the arrangement char- acterizing the air-breathing adult. Such a peculiar method of development is quite unintelligible unless it is explained by reference to ancestry. The Feather- Star (Comatula) furnishes a striking example of recapitulation in its life-history. It is for some time fixed to some firm object by means of a stalk, which is later on aban- doned. This may very reasonably be taken to mean that EVOLUTION AS A FACT 483 Feather -Stars have descended from fixed forms resembling the related Sea- Lilies, some of which still live in the deep sea. THE ARGUMENT FROM THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD. — Although our knowledge of the successive faunas which have existed in the course of the earth's history is lamentably incomplete, all the facts with which we are acquainted harmonize with the doctrine of evolution (see p. 456). There has been a general progress from low to high, and many animal pedigrees have been worked out in considerable detail. Taking Hoofed Mam- mals and Flesh- Eaters, for instance, the geological record shows that the existing subdivisions of these orders can be traced back, respectively, to common ancestors (see p. 472). The most ancient birds known possess characters which are strong evidence of reptilian descent, and Reptiles, in their turn, are in all pro- bability an offshoot from an amphibian stock. Similar evolu- tionary conclusions can be drawn in all cases where sufficiently abundant evidence is available. THE ARGUMENT FROM GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. — The way in which animals are at the present time distributed over the face of the globe is susceptible of no satisfactory explanation unless we have recourse to the theory of evolution. Admitting this, and at the same time making full use of the evidence afforded by the geological record, many things which would Otherwise be entirely unintelligible find an easy solution, as has already been sufficiently indicated (see p. 409). We are able in this way to understand why Tapirs are at the present time only to be found in south-east Asia and tropical America, Pouched Mammals in the Australian region and America, and similarly for many other apparent anomalies. CHAPTER LXXIX THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION— THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES If we admit that the existing kinds or species of animals have arisen by a process of evolution from pre-existing species, the pertinent question " How?" demands an answer. Our ignorance is here so profound that we have so far only been able to frame working hypotheses to account for the facts. And every theory from time to time propounded leads to endless controversy, though, on the whole, we are constantly getting nearer to the heart of things. Everything depends upon the properties and possibilities of the living substance (protoplasm) which is the essential part of every organism, but it is precisely here that the gaps in our knowledge are most painfully obvious. The history of every science presents us with regularly alter- nating phases of fact-collection, and generalization upon facts. At the present time we badly need more facts, upon which to base further speculations as to the methods of evolution. And this is more particularly true regarding experiments on heredity and related matters, upon which satisfactory answers to evolu- tionary questions must necessarily depend. We are here only concerned with a brief statement of the leading theories and principles which have so far been brought forward, commencing with the doctrine of Natural Selection, simultaneously advanced by Darwin and Wallace, and which has had a quite unprecedented influence upon the methods of human thought. NATURAL SELECTION (DARWINISM) This theory of evolution, which is essentially of utilitarian character, marshals together a large number of indisputable facts, suggests their mutual relations, and builds up, step by step, a very convincing hypothesis as to how and why new species have 484 NATURAL SELECTION 485 come into existence during the countless ages for which life has existed on the earth. It is, to begin with, sufficiently obvious that the available living space on the earth is, after all, restricted, and there must therefore be a limit to the number of plants and animals that can exist at the same time. We know, however, that all organ- isms tend to increase in a more or less rapid manner, yet, in a given locality, the numbers of individuals belonging to a par- ticular species remain fairly steady. There must, therefore, be various checks preventing indefinite increase — a constant fight for life, a Struggle for Existence. Every plant and every animal is engaged in a keen competition with other forms of life, and has also to battle with the constantly-changing physical condi- tions which collectively constitute climate. Individuals that for any reason surpass others in this constant warfare with their surroundings are, so to speak, selected by Nature to carry on their race, while their less fortunate fellows go to the wall. We have, in short, the active principle of Natural Selection or Survival of the Fittest. We have further to consider how and why it is that given individuals are thus favoured in the universal struggle for ex- istence. The classes of facts which give us some insight into this matter may be conveniently arranged in the following tabular statement, followed by a brief discussion of the principles involved. PROVED FACTS NECESSARY CONSEQUENCES Limited Surface cf Globe and Rapid te urace c lobe and Rapid ) _ Increase in Numbers } Stru^le for c* i r T- • ( Natural Selection or Survival of the Struggle for Existence and Variation • p. Natural Selection and Heredity ... Origin of New Species RAPID INCREASE IN NUMBERS. — Darwin takes the elephant as an example of an animal of which the numbers increase with minimum rapidity, a family of six within the space of 60 years being the average, while individuals live for about a century. Supposing all the offspring to survive for the full tenure of existence, this gives a total of about 19,000,000 elephants de- scended from a single pair after the lapse of from 740 to 750 years. As an example of a species which increases with great rapidity VOL. IV. 126 486 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY we may take the Field Vole (Arvicala arvalis], which produces several broods during the same summer, some of these propa- gating in their turn before winter. Crampe has calculated that, if there were no checks to increase, a single pair of these animals, supposing their first brood to be born on April 15 of a given year, would be represented by the very respectable total of 198 on the following 8th of October. Continental agriculturists sometimes have a very unpleasant object-lesson as to these possibilities, for in certain "vole years" the ordinary checks to increase are inefficient, the result being that enormous numbers of field-voles make their appearance, and do an immense amount of damage to crops. It not infrequently happens that when particular species of animals are introduced into a new country, where the checks that keep down their numbers in their native countries cease to operate, they increase in a phenomenal way. The result of intro- ducing rabbits into Australia affords one of the best examples of this. VARIATION AND HEREDITY. — It is a well-known fact that no two individuals of the same species are precisely alike. There is, in other words, a tendency to vary. The fact of Variation enables us to understand why certain individuals, rather than others, have a better chance of surviving in the struggle for existence. For in any given environment variations in some directions must more or less favour the animals which possess them. They are, in fact, usefiil variations, tending to greater fitness as regards some particular set of surroundings. In many herbivorous animals, for example, in regions where carnivorous enemies abound, it is clear that an individual varying in such a way that its locomotor powers are somewhat better than those of its fellows, will have a better chance of escaping from enemies, and also of securing an abundant supply of food. Other things being equal, it will also be more likely to perpetuate its species than more slowly moving individuals of the same species. Next comes the question of Heredity. No one disputes the possibility of certain characters being transmitted from one genera- tion to another. The doctrine of Natural Selection involves the view that favourable variations are thus perpetuated, and as, in each successive generation, individuals which continue to vary in favourable directions will have the best chance of surviving, NATURAL SELECTION 487 we can suppose such variations to gradually accumulate until their amount is so large as to constitute a new species. Darwin's conclusions as to the joint result of variation and heredity were largely based on observations made upon domes- Fig. 1337. — Blue Rock and some of the domesticated varieties of Pigeon: (i), Blue Rock (CoZiunba livza); (2), Tumbler; (3), Owl; (4), Jacobin; (5), Fantail; (6), Pouter ticated animals. We know, for example, that all the numerous breeds of pigeons (fig. 1337), such as Pouters, Fantails, Carriers, Tumblers, &c. &c., are descended from one original species, i.e. the Blue Rock (Columba livia), as the result of artificial selection by human agency. That is to say, individuals varying in some particular direction have been selected by man with a 488 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY view to producing offspring presenting the special character or characters in an increased degree. OBJECTIONS TO THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION. — At various times a number of objections have been made to the theory, some being of a very trifling and quibbling sort, others of more serious nature. It is no part of the plan of this book to enter into all the difficulties that require or have required to be met, and it may suffice to mention or\e of the most formidable objections, derived from the supposed " swamping effects of inter- crossing ". That is to say, supposing a favourable variation to have arisen, it seems at first sight that it is just as likely to gradually disappear again by intercrossing as to be emphasized by heredity, indeed more likely. Fleeming Jenkin, the first propounder of this difficulty, illustrated it by the possible case of a white man becoming king of a black island population, his whiteness typifying a favourable variation. His immediate de- scendants would not be white, but yellow, and in the course of several generations the royal house would probably be just as black as their subjects. It may be added that if a number of domesticated races of, say, pigeons, are allowed to cross freely together, their peculiar characteristics gradually disappear, and the features possessed by the original wild stock are reacquired. This is generally explained as a case of reversion or atavism, or in more popular language, a " throw back" to the ancestral type. The objection has been often met by supposing that the particular variation occurred not in one, but in a number of individuals, thus giving a better start for the formation of a new species, but such an idea requires proof. Even if we admit the probability of the occurrence, the factor of Isolation must be emphasized, as has been done by Romanes and others. Isola- tion of individuals presenting a certain kind of variation would certainly prevent the swamping effect of intercrossing from oper- ating, and pigeon-fanciers, for example, could never succeed in producing new breeds if they did not sort out and keep their birds separate, according to their special requirements. Such isolation actually occurs in nature when a small number of indi- viduals belonging to a particular species reach, say, an oceanic island, where adaptations to a new set of surroundings become necessary, and where they are separated from the original home SUPPLEMENTARY FACTORS OF EVOLUTION 489 of their kind. And it is particularly significant to note, in this connection, that such islands are peculiarly rich in distinct species. Isolation is also exemplified by the area between tide-marks, as in some of the periwinkles. Some of these creatures are gradu- ally becoming adapted to breathing damp air, ' those which are best off in this respect living near high-water mark. It is pretty clear that individuals varying so as to breathe damp air better than their fellows would naturally take to living further from the sea, and would be thus to some extent isolated. Isolation may also be of a physiological nature, as emphasized by Romanes in his theory of physiological selection. We know that, as a rule, the crosses between allied species, i.e. hybrids, are infertile, and it is largely owing to this fact that animal species remain distinct. It seems, therefore, a plausible assump- tion that the rise of new species has partly been rendered possible by an increasing tendency for the crosses between them and their parent stocks to be infertile. In other words, there has been a physiological variation in the direction indicated, alongside of other variations in shape, proportion, colour, &c. &c. SUPPLEMENTARY FACTORS OF EVOLUTION Admitting the importance of Natural Selection, it by no means follows that it has been the only evolutionary factor determining the origin of new species. COURTSHIP SELECTION. — Darwin believed that some of the characters of male animals have been brought about by selec- tion exercised on the part of their mates. The possibilities in this direction have already been discussed at some length (see p. 143) in dealing with the Law of Battle and the Law of Beauty. It is, after all, a special kind of Natural Selection, which may have determined the evolution of certain weapons and of aesthetic characters. LAMARCKISM. — Under this head may be included the pre- Darwinian views of the French naturalists Lamarck and Buffon, to which Darwin himself was inclined to attach some importance. These views turn upon the inheritance of " acquired characters", regarding which there has been an interminable amount of discussion. It must be premised that the body of an animal higher in the scale than an Animalcule is related to (i) 49o PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY the existence of the individual, and (2) the existence of the species. The greater part of the body, having more particu- larly to do with (i), is conveniently termed the "soma" (Gk. soma, body), and this is the bearer of germ-cells, some of which are destined to grow into fresh individuals, and are therefore concerned with (2). An " acquired " character is one which comes into existence in the soma, as an accommodation to its mode of life, i.e. as an individual adjustment to surroundings. Here have to be considered the results*of " use and disuse " of organs possessed by the individual. Let us take, for example, some of the sea-snails which live between tide-marks, and are accommodating themselves to breathing damp air as against air dissolved in water. The gill or gills which are specially concerned with the latter kind of breathing have less work to do than in purely aquatic forms, and there is no reason to doubt that they may therefore (as the result of partial "disuse") be slightly diminished in size in the lifetime of an individual which is migrating towards high-tide mark. On the other hand, the roof of the gill-chamber (see vol. ii, p. 460) has to do with breathing damp air, and in the lifetime of the individual supposed, may well (by 4 'use") acquire increased specialization in connection with that duty. According to the Lamarckian view, these two acquired char- acters of the soma, i.e. dwindling gill and specializing roof to gill-chamber, would be transmitted to the offspring. Were this so, use and disuse might ultimately lead to the evolution of a race of land-snails well adapted for air-breathing, but with gills shrunk to mere vestiges or absent altogether. Lamarckism also involves the view that the surroundings of an animal, by their direct action, bring about acquired char- acters, positive or negative, as the case may be. We have, in other words, a direct action of the environment. Considering once more the case of a sea-snail living between tide-marks, it may be regarded as alternately subject to two influences so far as breathing is concerned, i.e. the action of the water which covers it for part of its existence, and the action of the damp air which surrounds it during the other part. The former favours gill-retention, the latter gill-reduction, and conversely as regards the arrangement for breathing ordinary air. Near low- tide mark the influence of water is obviously predominant, and near high-tide mark the action of air is more felt. VARIATION 491 Some further remarks will be made about acquired characters in the sequel. NEO-LAMARCKISM. — It is difficult to sum up in a few words the beliefs of the Neo-Lamarckian school. They essentially involve the view that there are general Laws of Growth, leading to progress in definite directions, by means of successive varia- tions of the same kind. The action of Natural Selection is largely discounted. This chapter may perhaps best be concluded by the addition of a few remarks on Variation and Heredity. VARIATION Beyond the fact that living matter does vary, we know very little. No clear answer can as yet be given to the questions why this should be so, and how variations of a given kind are brought about. There can be no doubt, however, that the indi- viduals of any particular species differ from one another in a great variety of ways, and often to a very considerable amount. There is, in fact, an illimitable field for the action of selected principles. Many variations, too, are sudden or discontinuous, and probably new species have been often evolved at a much more rapid rate than supposed by Darwin, who believed in the selection and accumulation of small variations. Since his time our knowledge of variational possibilities has been largely increased. There can be no doubt that a large majority of the characters of animals are adaptations to the environment, i.e. fit them to live in relation to certain surroundings. The origin of such adaptations must naturally be sought in variations. Here it is necessary to clearly distinguish between variations of the soma and variations of the germ, i.e. somatic and germinal variation. As we have seen, the Lamarckians believe that the former (acquired characters) can be transmitted. According to the school of Weismann, on the other hand, it is only the germinal variations which are capable of transmission. As, of course, the development of a germ-cell into an individual means the pro- duction of a new soma as well as more germ-cells, this new soma will have been influenced by variations which have taken place in the germ from which it has been developed. That is to say, the character of a soma mainly depends upon the char- 492 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY acters of the germ from which it has been developed, but the soma has no direct influence upon the germs of which it is the bearer. Organic Selection. — Lloyd Morgan, Baldwin, and Osborn have elaborated a view (of which Weismann himself suggested the possibility) as to the possibility of co-operation between germinal and somatic variations in the interests of the species. Even if we admit that the latter (acquired characters) are non- trans- missible, it by no means follows that trTey have no evolutionary import. However unimportant the soma may be as to the pro- vision of variations that can be inherited and so help in the making of new species, it is at least the bearer of germ-cells, to which its survival and well-being are of the first importance. If, therefore, it is able to accommodate itself to its surroundings so as to survive and leave offspring, it will give variations which have arisen in its germ-cells a chance of being preserved. Accommo- dation, i.e. the rise of acquired characters, is consequently inti- mately bound up with the adaptation of the species. It must not be regarded as definitely settled that acquired characters are never transmitted, although many supposed in- stances have been explained away. A vast amount of observa- tion and experiment is still necessary, and dogmatism is at present quite out of place. The question still remains as to whether variations are inde- pendent of the action of the environment, directly due to its action, or to some extent dependent upon it. There are probably perhaps several possibilities. The germ-cells, for instance, are in many cases so sheltered from the action of surroundings that some of their variations may well be inherent. It is also well-nigh certain that there is such a thing as environmental variation. But here there are two possibilities. The action of the surroundings may directly set up variations, or it may simply act in such a way as to favour variational possibilities, i.e. it may direct and further, but not absolutely initiate. Nor is its action necessarily limited to either alternative. HEREDITY In cases of egg-development it is necessarily the germ-cells that are the means of transmitting characters from one genera- tion to the next. Innumerable investigations upon such cells HEREDITY 493 also render it practically certain that the part concerned with heredity is the nucleus, i.e. the specialized particle of protoplasm which every germ-cell contains. Weismann limits the field still further, and considers that the nucleus is in part composed of "germ plasma", a protoplasmic material specially concerned with the transmission of characters. In typical egg-propagation (see vol. iii, p. 335) germ-cells from the two parents fuse together, and the essential point about the process seems to be the union of the two nuclei. This has undoubtedly an important bearing on the question of heredity, but precisely what bearing is still a matter of doubt. It is perhaps the most remarkable fact in the whole realm of knowledge that the fusion of two microscopic particles of protoplasm should carry with it so vast a range of possibilities as regards inheritance. There are some clear cases which prove that the germ-cells are influenced by some of the factors in the surroundings. Yung, for example, by bringing up tadpoles on specially nutritious food, was able to produce with certainty an abnormal proportion of females (90 per cent or even more), and we have elsewhere seen (see p. 256) that a fertilized bee's egg may give rise to either a worker or queen, according to the nature of the food received by the larva. Even more remarkable is the case of certain lowly crustaceans upon which Schmankewitsch experimented. In the course of several generations he was able to convert a species (Artemia Milhausenii) living in saltish water into another species (A. salina), by gradually increasing the amount of salt. He also found it possible to conduct the experiment in the reverse order, and in this instance was able to go a step further, obtaining a third species of a distinct genus (Branchipus stagnalis), char- acteristic of perfectly fresh water. In the light of such facts it seems difficult to believe that there is no possibility of acquired somatic characters being transmissible, for we can scarcely main- tain that in all the cases cited the germ -cells were directly influenced by modification in the surroundings. Galton has formulated a law (since modified by Karl Pearson) expressing numerically the influence of parents and remoter an- cestors upon the characters of offspring, and the application of mathematical methods to biological statistics is likely to yield important results in the immediate future, as regards heredity, variation, and many other problems. On the botanical side very 494 PHILOSOPHIC ZOOLOGY remarkable results bearing on the theory of heredity have been obtained by applying the principles of Mendel, but these cannot be discussed here, especially as there are difficulties in the way of conducting similar experiments on animals. Readers who wish to acquire further knowledge in matters relating to biological theory would do well to consult the works of Darwin, Wallace (especially Darwinism)^ Romanes (Darwin and After Darwin], Weismann, Lloyd Morgan, Verworn (General Physiology), E. B. Wilson (The Cell in9 Development and Inheri- tance), T. Hunt Morgan (Evolution and Adaptation), and Mendel (Principles of Heredity). A good preliminary acquaintance with the subject may be obtained .by reading Arthur Thomson's Science of Life. GLOSSARY Abomasurn, in the stomach of Ruminants, the fourth compartment (chemical stomach). Abysmal zone (Gk. abysstis, very deep), the deepest part of the sea. Accommodation, adjustment of the individual to its surrounding's. Acetabulum (L. for vinegar cup), the socket in the hip into which the thigh-bone fits. Acquired character, a character acquired by an individual in relation to its surroundings. Adaptation, the adjustment of species to their surroundings. Adductor muscles (L. adduco, I lead to), muscles which by their contraction close the shells of Bivalve Molluscs, Lamp-Shells, and Mussel-Shrimps. Adipose fin, the small, fatty second dorsal fin of members of the Salmon Family. ^Esthetic or Esthetics (Gk. aisthetiktis, sen- sitive), the philosophy of the beautiful. Afferent branchial vessels (L. aff&ro, I carry to ; Gk. branchia, gills), blood-vessels which carry impure blood to gills to be purified. Afferent nerve-fibre (L. affSro^ I carry to), a nerve -fibre in which the impulse travels towards the central organs. Air-bladder. See Swim-bladder. Ala spuria. See Bastard-iving. Albinism (L. albus, white or pale), exceptional whiteness or paleness in hue of some mem- bers of a species. Albino, an individual exhibiting1 albinism. Albumen, or Albumin, the complex albumi- noid (which see) of which the white of an egg is made up. Albuminoids, complex compounds, chiefly made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulphur, and (in some cases) phosphorus. Alima, pi. -ae, in Mantis-Shrimps, an attenu- ated kind of larva. Ambergris, concretions formed in the intestine of the sperm-whale. Used in perfumery. Ambulacral, relating to an ambulacrum; Am- bulacral area, a band or zone bearing tube- feet ; Ambulacral ossicle, one of the cal- careous plates roofing an ambulacrum. Ambulacrum, pi. -a (L. for pleasure grove), in Star-Fishes, one of the grooves in which the tube-feet are lodged. 495 Ammocaetes, the larva of a Lamprey. Amoeboid movement, irregular flowing or creeping- movements, performed by naked masses of protoplasm, e.g. in the Proteus Animalcule (Amoeba). Amphibious (Gk. amphi, both ways; bitis, life): (i) able to breathe both ordinary air and air dissolved in water; (2) breathing dissolved air during the early part of life and ordinary air afterwards. Ampulla (L. ampulla, a flask): (i) in the internal ear of Vertebrates, the swollen part of a semicircular canal; (2) in Echinoderms, a small sac connected with a tube-foot. Anabolic, relating to anabolism. Anabolism (Gk. anabtile, an ascent), the up- building chemical processes that take place within the body. Analogous, displaying analogy. Analogy (Gk. analtfgtis, in agreement with), applied to parts which do the same physio- logical work irrespective of relative position and mode of development. See also Hom- ology. Anatomy (Gk. anatome, dissection), the study of structure. Anbury, in turnips, a disease due to the pres- ence of a fungus-animal (Plasmodiophora brassicce}. Antenna (L. for yard-arm): (i) one of the feelers of an Insect, or Myriapod; (2) one of the second feelers of a Crustacean ; (3) one of the head-feelers of a Bristle-Worm. Antennary gland, in higher Crustaceans, one of a pair of excretory organs by which nitro- genous waste is removed from the body. They open at the bases of the antennae. Antennule, in Crustaceans, one of the small first pair of feelers. Anthrax, in cattle, &c., a bacterial disease, often set up by insect bites. Anthropoid (Gk. anthroptis, man; eidtis, ap- pearance), man-like. Anti-toxin (Gk. anti, against; L. toxicum> poison), a complex organic substance (defen- sive proteid) conferring immunity against disease-germs. Antler, in Deer, a bony outgrowth from the skull, which is shed annually. 496 GLOSSARY Antler-royal, the third branch of a Red Deer's antler (counting- from its base). Aorta (Gk. aeiro, I carry), the chief artery of the body. Aortic arches, the arteries which traverse the visceral arches of Vertebrates. Apical disc, in Echinoderms (especially sea- urchins), a double circlet of plates on the upper surface of the body. Apiculture (L. apis, a bee), bee-culture. Apteria (Gk. a, without; pterylon a feather), featherless patches of a Bird's skin. Arch, of a vertebra (or joint of the backbone), the dorsal part which forms the roof and sides of the hole traversed by the spinal cord. Archenteron (Gk. arche, a beginning1; enteron, an intestine), the digestive cavity of the Gastrula (which see). Area of distribution, area inhabited by a species or other animal group. It is discon- tinuous if consisting of two or more isolated portions. Artery, a blood-vessel which carries blood from the heart. Articular processes, projections on the arches of vertebrae, by which these are connected tog-ether. Artificial selection, the production of breeds of domesticated animals by human ag-ency. Assimilation (L. adsimilo, I make like), the conversion of digested food into body-sub- stance. Atavism (L. atavus, an ancestor). See Re-ver- sion. Atlas, the ring- -shaped first vertebra of the neck-region. Atoll, a ring--shaped coral island. Atrial cavity (L. atrium, a hall), a space sur- rounding- most of the pharynx in Lancelets and Ascidians. Atriopore, the opening of the Atrial cavity (which see). Auricle (L. auricula, a little ear), a relatively thin-walled heart-chamber, into which veins pour blood. Auricularia, pi. -ae (L. for lobe of the ear), in Sea-Cucumbers, a bilateral larva, provided with a sinuous ciliated band, sug-gesting- the appearance of an ear in side-view. Australian region, Australia and adjacent islands, with eastern part of East Indies, New Zealand, and Polynesia. Axis, the second neck-vertebra. Balancers (halteres), small club-shaped struc- tures representing the reduced hind-wings in Flies. Baleen ("whalebone"), in toothless Whales, elastic plates hanging- down from the roof of the mouth. Barb, one of the flattened branches borne by the axis of a feather. Barbel, one of the sensitive filaments with which the mouth-region is provided in some Fishes, e.g. Cat-Fishes. Barbule, one of the small branches borne by the barbs of a feather. Bastard-wing (ala spuria), a tuft of feathers borne by the thumb of a bird. Beche-de-mer, Trepang (which see). Bedeguar, a tufted gall on the rose, produced by the attack of a Gall-Fly. Beneficials, those wild animals that by their habits promote the welfare of mankind. Benthos (Gk. benthos, depth), the assemblage of anjmals inhabiting deep water. Bez-tine, the second branch of a Red Deer's antler (counting- from its base). Biconcave, hollow on both sides, e.g. the ver- tebra of a Fish. Bicuspid. See Premolar. Bilateral Symmetry. See Symmetry. Bile, or Gall, the secretion of the liver. Bile-duct, a tube throug-h which bile passes into the intestine. Biology (Gk. bib's, life ; Ibgos, a discourse), the science of life. Bipinnaria, pi. -ae, in Star-Fishes, the bilateral larva, which is provided with pairs of soft ciliated arms. Bivalve, applied to the shell of a Mollusc when made up of two pieces or valves, e.g. in a Mussel. Lamp-shells (Brachiopoda) are also bivalve, and Mussel -Shrimps (Ostracoda) possess a bivalve shield or shell. Blastopore (Gk. blastbs, a g-erm ; ptira, a pas- sage), the mouth of a Gastrula (which see). Blastosphere (Gk. blastbs, a g-erm; sphaira, a sphere), a hollow and spheroidal kind of Blastula (which see). Blastula (Gk. dim. of blastbs, a germ), the embryonic stage resulting from Cleavage (which see). Blight, a disease of plants, often due to the presence of aphides. Blubber, in marine Mammals, a thick layer of fat below the skin. Body - cavity, in animals higher than Zoo - phytes, a space or series of spaces between the internal organs and body-wall. Botany (Gk. botane, a plant), the science deal- ing with plants. Bouchot, in mussel-culture, a collector made of stakes with interwoven twigs. Brachiolaria, pi. -ae, a variety of the Bipin- naria (which see). Bronchus, pi. -i, one of the two main branches of the wind-pipe. Brood -parasitism, used of animals (e.g. the Cuckoo) which evade the responsibility of bringing up their own young. Brow-tine, the lowest branch of a Red Deer's antler, projecting over the forehead. Byssus (Gk. byssos), adhesive threads by which some Bivalve Molluscs attach themselves. GLOSSARY 497 Caecum, pi. -a (L. ccecus, blind), a blindly ending" tube. Calcaneum (L. for heel), the heel-bone. Calcar (L. for spur), a small pointed projection on the inner side of a Frog's hind-foot. Calcareous (L. calx, calcis, lime), of a limy nature. Callosity, a hardened patch of skin. Calyx (Gk. kalyx, a cup), the outer investing leaves of a flower. Canine, one of the four " eye-teeth " in a Mam- mal. Situated outside the Incisors(which see), and well developed in carnivorous forms. Cannon-bone: (i) in Horse, &c., the large metacarpal or metatarsal of the single digit; (2) in Ruminants, the compound bone formed by fusion of third and fourth meta- carpals or metatarsals. Capillaries (L. capillus, hair), microscopic blood-vessels with exceedingly thin walls. The name is misleading, since they are much smaller than the finest hairs. Carapace, a firm protective shield covering the upper side and flanks in some animals. Cardia (the Greek name), the opening be- tween gullet and stomach. Cardo (L. for hinge), the basal joint of an Insect's second jaw. Carinate (L. carina, a keel): (i) with a keel- like projection; (2) applied to flying birds, in which the breast-bone possesses such a pro- jection, for the attachment of the muscles of flight. Carnassials (L. carnosus, relating to flesh), or Flesh-teeth, in Carnivores, four cutting cheek-teeth which act like scissors. Carnivorous, flesh-eating. Carotid (Gk. k&ra, the head), a term applied to arteries which carry blood to the head and neck. Carpale, pi. --ia (Gk. karptis, the wrist), the distal elements of the carpus. Carpel (Gk. karptis, fruit), a modified flower- leaf that bears ovules. The Pistil (which see) consists of one or more carpels. Carpus (Gk. karptis, the wrist), the skeleton of the wrist. Cartilage, gristle. Caste, in social Insects, a set of similar indi- viduals. Caval veins, in air-breathing Vertebrates, the great veins which return impure blood to the heart. Caviare, the preserved hard roes (ovaries) of the sturgeon. Cell, a nucleated mass of protoplasm, gener- ally microscopic, and usually regarded as the unit of structure. Centrale, a central element of the carpus or tarsus. Centrum, pi. -a, of a vertebra, the relatively massive ventral part, flooring the hole tra- versed by the spinal cord. Cephalo- thorax (Gk. ktphale, the head ; ihorax, the chest), in some Arthropods, the front region of the body, formed by fusion of the head with part or all of the thorax. Cerata (Gk. ke'rata, horns), in Sea-slugs (Nudi- branchs), club-shaped outgrowths springing from the back. Cercaria, pi. -ae (Gk. k&rktfs, a tail), in Flukes, a tadpole-shaped stage in the life-history. Produced by the Redia (which see), and immediately preceding the adult stage. Cerci (Gk. kVrktis, a tail), jointed rods project- ing from the hinder end of an Insect's abdo- men. Cere (L. cera, wax), a bare patch of skin at the base of a Bird's beak. Cerebellum (L. dim. of cerebrum, the brain), an unpaired dorsal outgrowth from the hinder part of the brain of a Vertebrate. Cerebral hemispheres (L. cerebrum, the brain), the highest part of the brain in Vertebrates, usually consisting of a pair of outgrowths from near its front end. Cervical (L. cervix, the neck), relating to the neck. Chalaza (Gk. for hail), in a Bird's egg, a twisted cord-like structure traversing the albumen (" white ") at either end. Cheek-teeth, the back-teeth. Chelicera, pi. -ae, (Gk. chele, a claw; kVras, a horn), one of the first pair of head-limbs in Spider-like animals (Arachnida). Chlorophyll (Gk. chlortis, grass green ; phylltin, a leaf), or Leaf-green, the characteristic pig- ment of green plants. It also occurs in a few lower animals. Chordotonal organ (Gk. chtirde, a string; tonaios, stretched), in some Insects, a kind of sense-organ related to balance, or hearing, or both. Choroid (Gk. choritin, skin ; eidtis, appearance), the middle coat of the eyeball. It is pig- mented and vascular, and externally forms the iris (which see). Chromatophore(Gk. chroma, colouring matter; phVrd, I bear), a small or minute body con- taining pigment, and situated in the skin. Colour-changes are due to the alteration in size of such bodies. Chrysalis, pi. -ides (the Greek name), the pupa of a Moth or Butterfly. Ciliary action, the movement of cilia. Cilium, pi. cilia (L. cilium, eyelash), a micro- scopic thread of protoplasm, possessing the power of alternately bending and straighten- ing. Numerous cilia are usually associated together. The derivation is misleading. Circulatory organs, the structures concerned with distributing blood and lymph through- out the body. Cirrus, pi. -i (L. cirrus, a tentacle): (i) one of the slender-jointed appendages of a Barnacle; (2) one of the sensory filaments borne by the segments of Bristle-Worms ; (3) in Sea-Lilies, one of the jointed threads of which numerous circlets are borne by the stalk. 498 GLOSSARY Claire, in French oyster culture, a muddy salt pond in which oysters are ' greened ' by feeding- on minute algae. Clavicle, the collar-bone. Cleavage, the early divisions of the fertilized egg-cell, resulting- in a Blastula (which see). Clitellum (L. clitellce, a pack-saddle), in Earth-Worms and Leeches, a g-landular re- gion of the skin, which secretes the material for the cocoon. Cloaca (L. cloaca, a sewer), a chamber into which, e.g. in a Frog-, intestine, excretory org-ans, and reproductive organs open. Coccyx (Gk. for cuckoo), the reduced tail- region of the backbone in Man and the man- like Apes. Cochineal, a red pigment extracted from the dried bodies of Cochineal Insects. Cochlea (L. cochlea, a snail-shell), in Mam- mals, a spirally-coiled part of the membran- ous labyrinth. Cocoon, a variously shaped case in which the eggs or other inactive stages in the life- history of various animals are enclosed. Ccelom (Gk. koilos, hollow), a Body-cavity (which see) containing lymph-like fluid and communicating with the exterior by excretory tubes. Ccenosarc (Gk. kointis, common ; sarx, sarcos, flesh), in colonial Zoophytes, the common body by which the individuals are united. Collar-cell, in Sponges, a cell bearing a single flagellum with a collar-like projection at its base. Collector, in oyster- and mussel-culture, an arrangement of twigs, boards, or tiles, to which the larvae or fry attach themselves. Colonial, relating to a Colony (which see). Colony, an assemblage of lower animals, in which the bodies of all the individuals are continuous. The condition is a result of vegetative propagation. Columella (L. columella, a little pillar), a small rod which stretches across the drum of the ear in Birds, some Reptiles, and some Am- phibians. Columnar epithelium, epithelium composed of cells elongated at right angles to the surface. Commensalism (L. con-, together; mensa, a dining-table), the association of two organ- isms as messmates, or commensals, to the benefit of one or both. Compound eye, an eye made up of more or less numerous optically distinct elements each with an external facet. Possessed by many Arthropods. Concha (L. concha, a shell) the ear-flap of a Mammal. Condyle (Gk. condylos, a tubercle), a rounded projection on a bone or cartilage, where it helps to form a movable joint. Mandibular condyles, at back of lower jaw, where it unites with skull. Occipital condyle (or condyles), on back of skull, where it joins the backbone. Conjugation (L. conjugato, conjngatum, to bind together), in some Animalcules, the temporary or permanent fusion of two indi- viduals, accompanied by union of nuclear material, and having an invigorating effect, shown by active vegetative propagation. Continental island, an island that was at one time part of an existing continent. Contractile, endowed with contractility. Contractility, the power possessed by proto- plasm of changing its shape with no or slight change in volume. CoracBid bone (Gk. ktirax, a raven), a ventral element in the shoulder-skeleton of lower Vertebrates. Coracoid process, a projection (compared in Man to a raven's beak) on the shoulder-blade of Mammals, equivalent to the coracoid bone. Cornea (L. corneus, horny), a transparent area of the sclerotic coat through which light enters the eye. Corolla (L. for little crown), the inner invest- ing leaves of a flower. Usually brightly coloured. Corpus callosum (L. for hard body), a band of nerve-fibres which in most Mammals connects the cerebral hemispheres. Corpuscles (L. dim. of corpus, a body), micro- scopic bodies floating in blood or lymph. White or Colourless Corpuscles, nucleated cells, able to change their shape, found in both blood and lymph. Red Corpuscles, round or oval discs present in the blood of many animals. Cortex (L. cortex, bark), the external layer of the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum. Costal (L. costa, a rib), relating to the ribs. Courtship coloration, beautiful colours dis- played (usually by the male) as a courtship accessory. Courtship selection, preferential mating, as determined by combat, or by the possession of aesthetic characters. Cranial flexure, a bend in the brain. Cranial nerves, the nerves which arise from the brain. Cranium (Gk. kranitin, the skull), the brain- case. Crop, in the gut of various animals, a dilated part of the gullet, or enlarged region follow- ing the gullet. It serves for temporary stor- age of food. Cross -fertilization, fertilization of an egg-cell by a sperm (or its equivalent) derived from another organism. Cross-pollination, transfer of pollen from the stamens of one flower to the stigma of another flower. Coxa (L. coxa, a hip), the basal joint of an Insect's leg. Cul de mulct, Sea-anemones used as an article of food in parts of southern Europe. Cultch, in oyster-culture, empty shells, broken tiles, &c., upon which oysters are grown. GLOSSARY 499 Cuticle, an elastic exoskeleton of horny con- sistency external to the epidermis, by which it is secreted. Cysticercus, pi. -i (Gk. cystis, a bladder; kVrktfs, a tail), in most Tape-Worms, the bladder- worm stage. Darwinism. See Natural selection. Degeneration, a process of simplification whereby some forms adapt themselves to a parasitic or to a fixed mode of life. Denitrifying, used of bacteria which liberate nitrogen from organic matter. Dental formula, a numerical expression, show- ing the number and kinds of teeth present in a given species of Mammal. Dentine (L. dens, dentis, a tooth), a hard sub- stance of which teeth are chiefly composed. Dermatoptic vision (Gk. d£rma, -attfs, a skin; optikos, pertaining to sight), seeing by means of the skin. Dermis (Gk. d&rma, a skin), the inner layer of the skin. Diaphragm (the Greek name), the midriff. Didactyle (Gk. di-, two; daktyltis, a finger or toe), possessing two digits. Digitigrade (L. digitus, the toe of an animal; grado, I walk), walking upon the digits. Diphycercal (Gk. diphyes, double; kerktis, a tail). See Protocercal. Diploblastic (Gk. diplous, double; blasttis, a germ), applied to animals in which the body is essentially composed of two cellular layers. Dispersal, the spreading of a species from the area where it was first evolved. Dorsal (L. dorsum, the back), applied to the upper side of an animal. Ductless glands, a name applied to a number of small structures, of various use, which do not possess ducts or tubes for carrying off a liquid secretion. See Lymphatic glands, Thymns, Thyroid, Spleen. Ectoderm (Gk. Vktos, outside; d'erma, a skin), the external cellular layer of the body. Ectoparasite. See Parasite. Eder-fold, one of the nesting-grounds of the eider-duck. Efferent branchial vessels (L. eff&ro, I carry from; Gk. branchia, gills), blood-vessels which carry off purified blood from gills. Efferent nerve -fibre (L. effero, I carry from), a nerve -fibre in which the impulse travels ^ outwards from the central organs. Elevage, in French oyster-culture, the rearing f of young oysters to a marketable size. Eleveur, a French oyster-culturalist concerned with Elevage. Elytron, pi. -a, (Greek name for (i) ): (i) in Insects, a fore-wing modified into a hard cover for the delicate hind-wing; (2) in some marine Bristle -Worms, a breathing-- scale. Embryology (Gk. ZmbryVn, an embryo ; a discourse), the study of the development of animals. Endoderm (Gk. Pndtfn, within ; d#rma, a skin), the internal cellular layer of the body. Endoparasite. See Parasite. Endoskeleton, internal hard parts serving for support, &c. Entomophilous(Gk. e'nto'mb's, an insect; phileo, I love), of flowers, pollinated by insects. Environment, the sum total of an animal's surroundings. Eozoic epoch (Gk. eos, dawn; zoe, life), the most ancient geological era. Ephippium (Gk. ephippitin, a saddle-cloth), in Water-" Fleas ", a saddle-shaped thicken- ing of the parent-shell, serving to enclose and protect the winter-eggs. Ephyra, pi. -ae, a young jelly-fish of flattened form, produced by transverse fission of a fixed Zoophyte. Epidermis (the Greek name), the protective outer layer of the skin. Epigenesis (Gk. Zpi, after; gennatf, I pro- duce), the accepted view that development of animals is a process involving a gradual up-building from simple to complex. See Preformation. Epiglottis (the Greek name), in Mammals, an elastic flap which prevents food from enter- ing the wind-pipe. Epipodium, pi. -ia (Gk. epi, upon; pous, podos, a foot), in some Molluscs, a muscular flap arising high up either side of the foot. Epipubic, connected with the front end of the Pubis (which see). Epithelium, pi. -a, layers of cells covering ex- ternal and lining internal surfaces. Ethiopian region, south Arabia with Africa south of the Sahara. Euglenoid movement, a wriggling mode of creeping effected by altering the shape of the body, as in Euglena, a sort of Animalcule. Eustachian tube, a passage connecting the drum of the ear with the pharynx in air- breathing Vertebrates. Evolution (L. evolutio, an unfolding), the de- velopment of species by modification of pre- existing species. See also Special creation. Excretion, the getting rid of waste products. Exhalent. See Siphon. Exoskeleton, external hard parts serving for support, &c. Extensor, applied to muscles which straighten or extend a limb, or region of the body. Fascine, in oyster-culture, a bundle of twigs used as a spat-collector. Femoral, relating to the thigh. Femur (L. for thigh): (i) the thigh-bone of Vertebrates; (2) a part of the leg in Insects, &c. Fenestra ovalis (L. for oval window), in Verte- brates, a membrane -filled vacuity in the 500 GLOSSARY outer wall of the firm capsule containing- the essential organs of hearing-. Fertilization, the fusion of two nuclear masses, commonly derived from different individuals. Fetlock, in limbs of Horse, &c. : (i) the knuckle-joint of the single digit ; (2) the tuft of hair attached to this joint. Fibula (L. for bodkin), the bone of the lower leg- which is on the little-toe side. Fibulare, a proximal element of the tarsus, situated on the side next the little toe. Filoplume, a small and imperfect feather, of downy texture. Finger-and-Toe. See Anbury. Fin-rays, in Fishes, skeletal rods which sup- port the fins. Fins, in various aquatic animals, flat expan- sions of the body used in swimming-. Fission (L. findo, fissum, to split), vegetative propagation by splitting- of the parent body. Flagellum, pi. -a (L. for whip-lash), an elon- gated thread of protoplasm, capable of executing lashing movements. A single cell bears but one or a few. See Cilium. Flexor, applied to muscles which bend or flex a limb, or region of the body. Fluke, in Cetaceans, one of. the tail-lobes. Fly-sickness, a fatal disease of horses, &c., set up by the attacks of the tsetse-fly. Food-vacuole, in Animalcules, a food-contain- ing space within the body. Food-yolk, nutritive material stored up in (or outside) the egg-cell, for use during develop- ment. Foot: (i) in broad sense, the extremity of any limb used for locomotion ; (2) more strictly, the extremity of a hind-limb in Vertebrates ; (3) an unpaired muscular projection from the under side of a Mollusc, used in locomotion. Foot-stump. See Parapod. Foramen, pi. -ina (L. for hole), a hole through which (usually) a nerve or blood-vessel passes. Foramen magnum, the large open- ing in the back of the brain-case, where brain and spinal cord are continuous. Foramina repugnatoria, in Millipedes, small pores on the sides of the body, by which the stink-glands open. Fore-gut, the front part of the digestive tube, developed as an inpushing from the exterior. Fossils (L. fossilis, dug out), the remains of organisms, or proofs of their existence, which have been naturally imbedded in rocks. Frenulum (L. dim. of frenum, a bridle), in Moths, one or more bristles projecting from the front of the hind-wing, and attaching this to the fore-wing by interlocking with the Retinaculum (which see). Funicle (L. funicuhis, a cord), in Moss-Po- lypes, a fibrous band connecting the stomach with the body-wall. Funnel, a muscular tube through which Cuttle- fishes, &c., eject water from the gill-cavity, and are enabled to swim. Furcula (L. for a prop), the " merry -thought" of a Bird, consisting of the two collar-bones united together. Galea (L. for a helmet), in Insects, the outer branch of the second or third jaw. Gall: (i) bile; (2) an abnormal external growth resulting from the attack of a parasite. Gall-bladder, a membranous bag in which bile is temporarily stored. Ganglion, pi. ganglia (Gk. for a small tumour), an aggregation of nerve-cells. Gangli_49I> 492, 493- Acrseids, ii 311, 312-313. [262, 459. Acredula caudata, i 158; iii 261- Acridiidse, ii 213 ; iii 379. See also Grasshoppers and Locusts. Acridium migratorium, iv 356-357. — peregrinum, i 382. See Schistocerca peregrina. Acrobates pygmaeus, iii 285, 286. AcrOCephalUS arundinaceus, iii 458. — palustris, i 160. — phragmitis, i 160. — streperus, i 160; iii 458. Actseon, iii 218 (illust). Actinia mesembryanthemum, i 473! iv. 25. Actinophrys, i 496. Actinosphaerium, i 489, 496 (illust); iii 6 (illust). Actinozoa, i 473-478. See also Sea- Flowers. Adams, i 3. " Adam's apple ", i 47- [445- Adder, i 234 (illust); ii 80, 282; iii AddUCtOr muscles, of Bivalve- Molluscs, i 330-331, 336, 337, 338; ii357; iii 36, 37. Adjutants, i 179; ii 69; iii 307, 308. .ffigialitiS Cantiana, i 169; ii 286; iii 453- — hiaticula, i 169; ii 286; iv 133. — Sanctse-Helena^, iv 423. .ffigithalus pendulinus, iii 459. .Elurus, iv 429. -ffiolidia, ii ioo. ^EoliS. See Eolis. .ffipyornis, iv 476. -Kpyprymnus rufescens, iii 480. -ffischna grandis, i 376. [408. Esthetic Zoology, i 15-16; iv 400- ^Ethalium, i 498; ii 270. Aethurus glirinus, iii 284. [iv 9. Afferent branchial vessels, i 242, 262, 272. Afferent nerve-fibres, i 51, 52-53; AflalO, iii 1 86; iv 327, 364. After-shafts, i 142, 188. Agalena, iii 374. — labyrinthica, ii 130. Agamidae, iii 53. Agapornis, iv 391. Aggressive resemblance :— — amphibians, ii 291. — arachnids, ii 299-300. — mammals, ii 7-9, 18, 19, 22, 279, 290. — reptiles, ii 282. Aglaophenia, iv 103 (illust). Aglossa, iii 50. Agouta, i 85; ii 33. Agouti, i 133-134. Agricola, Julius, iv 293. Agrion puella, i 376. AgriOtes lineatus, ii 211. — obscurus, ii 211. Agriotypus armatus, iv 194-195. AgTOtiS exclamationis, i 364 ; iii 401 ; iv. 352. — segetum, iv 352. Aguarachay, ii 17. Air-bladder. See Swim-bladder. Air-cells, i 45; ii 427. Air-chambers, i 103. Air-passages, i 45-46. — birds, i 147. [429. — mammals, i 45-46; ii 428 (illust), — reptiles, i 206. 513 Air-sacs and air-spaces, i 45. — birds, i 147; ii 426; iii 57, 60, 61, 62, 63, 132, 297. — insects, ii 439; iii 312. — reptiles, iii 309. Air-tubes, i 45. — arachnids, ii 443. — insects, i 348 ; ii 437~438, 439, 44O- 442, 463, 464, 465, 467, 468 ; iii 310, — myriapods, ii'436, 437. [315. — peripatus, i 401; ii 434-435. Alactaga decumana, iii 195-196. Ala spuria, i 143. Alauda arborea, i 156. — arvensis, i 156; iii 455, 456, 468-469. Albatross, wandering, i 183 (illust.). Albatrosses, i 152, 182-183; ii 52, 53. Albicore, i 274. Albinism, iv 384. Albumen, i 33, 151; iii 347. Albuminoids, i 33, 37. Alburnus lucidus, i 282; ii 449, 450. Alca forda, i 184; iii 66. — impennis, i 184; iii 66. Alcedo ispida, i 164; iii 453-454. Alces machlis, 1 112; iii 152. AlciOpe, iv 44 (illust). AlCOCk, iv 37, 437. Alcyonium digitatum, i 477- Aldrovandia, iv 73. Alectorides, i 152, 170. Alectorooenas, iv 423. Alder-Fly, i 377 (illust); ii 466-467. Algae, ii 193, 195, 197, 198, 268-269, 271, 273, 295; iv 64-65, 75, 76. Alima, iii 368 (illust.), 369. Allen, Grant, iv 401. Alligator, Chinese, i 210, 211 (illust). — Mississippiensis, i 210 ; iii 124, 448 ; iv 151-152, 378-379- — pike-headed or American. See A. Mississippiensis. — Sinensis, i 211. [50-51. Alligators, i 203, 209-210, 211 ; iii Alligator-Terrapin, ii 72. AUman, iv 281. Allolobophora, iii 228. — fcetida, iii 361. Allurus, iii 361. Alopecias vulpes, i 286 ; ii 88. Alpaca, i 122; iv 231-232 (illust). Alternation of generations, iii 349-350, 352, 382, 422. Alucita polydactyla, i 366. Alytes obstetricans, iii 440 (illust ). Amalthaea amaebigera, iii 353 Ambergris, iv 403. [(illust). Amblyornis inornatus, iv 406-407. Amblyrhynchus cristatus, ii 192; i" 5», 52- INDEX Ambulacra! areas, i 457-458, 462, 464; iii 91-96. — grooves, i 451, 457, 459, 460; iii 91. — ossicles, i 452, 453. — vessels, iii 91, 92, 95. Ambulacrum (pi. Ambulacra). See Ambulacral grooves. Amia, i 267, 269; ii 453. Ammocsetes, i 292; iii 423. AnimodiSCUS charoides, iv 454. — incertus, iv 454. Ammonites, iv 465 (illust), 479. Ammophila sabulosa, i 373; ii 106. Am03ba, i 488-491 (illust.); ii 268-269, 418 ; iii 2, 6 (illust.), 231, 318-319 (illust); iv 4-5. — Umax, iv 4. [iii 2-4. Amceboid movement, i 39, 49, 149; Amphibia, i 60, 62-63, 238-256; h'82- 83, 192-194, 291, 304-305, 322-323, 334. 355, 37i~372> 422-423, 4S6-458; iii 45-50, 116-121, 182-184, 212-214, 272, 287-288, 332, 434-443; iv 29-30, 47, 152-154, 201, 214, 328, 417, 419, 421, 428, 432, 463, 467. — extinct, ii 334; iii 214; iv 463, 467 (illust.). — limbless, i 245, 255-256. See also Caecilians. — tailed, i 245-249. See also Newts and Salamanders. — tailless, i 245, 249-255. See also Frogs and Toads. Amphidasis betularia, ii 293-294. Amphidotus cordatus, iii 357. Amphineura, i 3", 339-341; iii 104, 404-405. AmphiOXUS, i 61, 293-297; ii 244-245, 382, 389; iii 8, 40, 214-215, 342, 344- 345; iv. 46. — lanceolatus, i 293-297. See also Lancelet. Amphipoda, i 414-415 (illust.); ii 142-143, 222,404-405; iii 174-175- Amphisbsena fuliginosa, ii 76; iii — handed, ii 76. [209. — spotted, ii 76. [210. Amphisbsenidse, ii 329, 425; iii 209- Amphiuma means, i 248; iii 48, 435- fri 355- Amphiura squamata, i 455 (illust.); Ampulla (pi. Ampullae), i 453. 457; iii 91, 92. Ampullaria, ii 83, 460-461. Anabas scandens, ii 451-452; iii Anableps, iv 47-48. [n6, 272. Anacanthini, i 273, 278-280. Anaconda, i 232 (illust.); ii 79; iii 53; iv 338-339- Anal fin (of Fishes), i 257, 266, 271, 273, 278, 290, 295. [214. Anals (anal shields of the Tortoise), i Anarrhichas lupus, i 275; ii 86. Anas boschas, i 176; ii 65; iii 58; iv 247-248. Anchovy, iv 265 (illust.). Anemonia, i 474 (illust.). Angel-Fish, i 286-287 (illust.). Angler, deep-sea, ii 85-86 (illust.). Angler-Fish, i 274; ii 84-85 {illust): iii 115. [21. Anguillula aceti, i 448 ; ii 222 ; iii — vulgaris, i 283 ; ii 447-448 ; iii. 214, 433-434; iv I28, 274. Anguis fragilis, i 223 ; ii 76, 371 ; iii in, 446. Animalcules, i 304, 487-499 (illust); ii 163, 266-270, 272-274, 341, 361-362, 418-419; iii 2, 4, 5, 6 (illust), 8-9, 88-89, 231, 317-325, 333-335 : iv 40 (illust.), 49, 76, 77, 99-101 (illust.), 206-207, 341, 344, 363, 449, 453, 454- 455. 458, 464- — extinct, iv 458. Animal products— — as medicinal agents, iv 318-321. — miscellaneous, iv 322-325. Animals, i 4- — class-names of, i 7-8. — generic names of, i 9. — relations between plants and, iv 64- 98 (illust). — specific names of, i 9. — study of, i 4-17. Ankle, amphibians, i 253. — birds, i 145-146; iii 126. — mammals, i 24, 32 ; iii 190, 254-256 — reptiles, i 199. [(illust . Annandale, ii n8, 304, 306, 315; iii 52, 178, 179. Annelida (see also Bristle-Worms and Leeches), i 304, 425-433; ii 146-149. 257-259, 3o8, 338-339, 360-361, 374- 375, 382, 408-410, 444-445 : iii- 7, 8, 22-23, 97-99, 226-230, 329-33°, 358- 361; iv. 7-10, 12, 25, 26, 34, 42, 44- 45, 75, 199-200, 216-217, 439, 452. Anobium, i 379- — paniceum, iii 224; iv 355. — striatum, iii 223-224; iv 355. — tessellatum, iii 223-224; iv 355. Anodon. See Anodonta. Anodonta, i 328; ii 248-249, 335, 398- 399; iii 37- 406-407. Anomalurus, i 126. — pelii, iii 283-284. Anomia ephippium, iii 408-409. Anomma arcens, ii 103. Anomodontia, iv 467-468. Anopheles, iv 207, 34i. Anosia erippus, ii 307, 312. Anous stolidus, ii 53. Anser albifrons, i 177. — brachyrhynchus, i 177. — cinereus, i 177; ii 238; iv 248. — domesticus, iv 248-249. — segetum, i 177. Anseres, i 152, 176-178; ii 237-238. Ant (and see Ants). — black garden, i 373; iv 119. — brown garden. See Slave Ant. — slave, i 373; iv 175-178. — slave-making or Amazon, i 373 ; iv 175-178 (illust). — solitary, i 373. — wood- or horse-, i 373; iv 116-118 (illust). — yellow, i 373; iv 119-120. AntS (see also Ant), i 373; ii 206-209, 251, 358, 373; iv 81-83, 92, 97, 113- 120, 175-179, 465- — Asiatic, iv 115-116. — driver, ii 103-104. — foraging, ii 104-106 (illust); iv 120. — harvesting, ii 207-208. — honey, ii 206-207 (illust.). — leaf-cutting, ii 208-209 (illust.). Ant-Bear, i 136. See also Ant-Eater, great. Ant-Eater, banded, ii 42. — Cape, i 136, 137 (illust.); ii. 42, 44. — great, i 136; ii. 41-42; iii 256, 482. Ant-Eater, lesser, iii 255, 256 (illust). — scaly, ii 42. See also Pangolin. — spiny, i 70, 143; ii 43 (illust), 44, 322, 333; iii 475-477 (illust); iv 211- — spiny- tongued, i 70. [212. — two-toed, iii 256, 257 (illust). Antechinomys laniger, iii 192. Antedon. See Comatula rosacea. Antelope, Klipspringer, iv 142. — royal, i 109. — sable, ii 352, 354. — saiga, i. 118 (illust.). Antelopes, i 114, 117-118; ii 279, 352, 354, 365-366; iii 248; ivgS, 140, 141, 142. [iv 12, 28. Antenn83, of crustaceans, i 405, 406; — of insects, i 345, 350, 356, 357, 358, 359, 36o, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 368; ii 440; iv 164. — of myriapods, i 395, 396, 397, 398. — of peripatus, i 399; iii 102. Antennary glands, i 408, 416. AntennulCS, of crustaceans, i 404; iv 12-13, 3° (illust), 31, 35. Anthea cereus, i 476. Ant-hills, i 373. [iv 161-162. Anthocharis cardamines, i 362; Anthocopa papaveris, iii 391. Anthonomus pomorum, iv 354. Anthophora, i 374; iv 193. Anthozoa, i 473. See also Sea- Flowers. Anthrax, i 3; iv 349- — morio, ii 119. Anthrenus fasciatus, iv 355. Anthriscus sylvestris, iv 161. Anthropomorpha, iii 160 - 161 (illust). Anthropopithecus niger, i 72; iii 160, 161; iv 382, 383. AnthUS obscurus, i 157. — pratensis, i 157. — Richardi, i 157. — trivialis, i 157. [iii 151. Antilocapra Americana, i 112-113; Anti-toxin, iv 79-80, 320. Antlers, i no, in (illust), 112; ii 351-352. Ant-Lions, i 377, 378, 379; ii 111-113 (illust.); iv 16. Ant-plants, iv 75. Ant-thrushes, ii 105. Anura, i 245, 249-255 ; iii 45, 49-50, 182-184, 436-442. See also Frogs and Toads. Anurida maritima, i 384. Anurosorex, ii 34. Aorta, i 41, 147. See also Aortic arches. Aortic arches, i 41, 147, 191, 201, 208, 215, 240-244, 254, 262, 272. Apatura iris, i 361. Ape, Barbary, i 74-75 (illust). — black, iii 159 (illust); iv 426. Apes, i 71-75: » 348-349; iii 236-238, 493-494; iv 419-420, 424. — anthropoid, i 72 (illust); iii 158-161 (illust). Aphsenogaster arenarius, ii 208. — barbarus, ii 207-208. Aphides, i 353 (illust.); ii 122, 217-, iii 381-382; iv 116, 119-120 (illust.), Aphis avense, iv 350. [350. — brassicse, i 353; iv 350. — cerasi, iv 350. INDEX 5'5 AphiS cerealis, iv 350. — fabse, iv 350. — humuli, iv 350. — pruni, iv 350. — rapse, iv 350. — sambuci, iv 119 (illust.). AphiS, bean, iv 350. — cabbage, i 353 i illust); iv 350. — cherry, iv 350. — corn, iv 350. — hop, iv 350. — oat, iv 350. — plum, iv 350. — turnip-flower, iii 382 (illust); ivsso. — vine, i 353; ii 217; iv 350 (illust.). Aphis-Lions, i 378; ii 114. Aphrodite aculeata, i 429 ; ii 147, 339, 408. Aphyonus gelatinosus, iv 443 (illust.). Apical disc, i 458. Apiculture, iv 252-259. Apis mellifica, i 374; " 205, 439; iv 43, 108, in, 251-259. Aplysia, i 324-325: " 397; "i 35, 218, — camelus, iv 398. [412. Apocyrtus, ii 315. Aporia cratsegi, i 362. Appendages. See also Legs, Mouth- parts, Tentacles, &c. — annelids, i 426; iii 22-23. — arachnids, i 386, 388, 389, 390-391, 393, 394; ii 126, 127, 131, 132, 217- 218. — cephalopods, i 311, 312, 313; iii 31, 32, 33- — crustaceans, i 302-303, 403-406, 410, 412, 413, 414, 418, 420, 421, 422; ii 137, 141, 142, 144, 254-255, 256; iii 25-27, 28, 277, 364, 366-367; iv 13-14. — echinoderms, i 455, 459-460; iii 23- 24, 114-115, 278. — insects, i 345-346 ; iii 28-30, 167, 222-223, 273-276. — king-crab, i 423. — myriapods, i 394, 395, 396, 397. — peripatus, i 399. — pycnogons, i 424. Appendicularia, i 298 (illust.); iii 39. "Appendix", iv 481. AptenodytCS Forsteri, i 186; iii 67. — Pennanti, i 186. Aptera, i 351, 384-385; ii "8, 213- 214; iii 176, 314, 377. Apteria, i 142. [450. Apteryx, i 190; ii 68, 320; iii 130, 449, ApUS, i 421-422 (illust.); ii 255-256, 405; iii 26 (illust.), 362 (illust); iv 12-13 (illust. \ Aqueous humour, i 58. Aquila chrysaetus, i 174. Ara. iv 390, 391. Arachnida. See Spider-like animals. Araneidse, i 387, 390-393. See also Spiders. Arapaima gigas, iv 433 Area lactea, i 337; iv 399. Archseopteryx, i 206-207; iii 296, 298; iv47i. Archenteron, iii 341, 344. Archiannelida, i 429, 431-432; iii 99. 359- Archigetes Sieboldi, iv 203-204 Arctia caja, i 363- [(illust.). Arctictis, ii 13. Arctiura majus, iv 98. Arctocebus, ii 320. Arctocebus calabarensis, iii 243. Arctomys, iv 135. — marmotta, i 126 ; iv 387. — monax, i 126. Ardea cinerea, i 179; ii 55 ; iv 375. — minuta, i 179. AreniCOla Claparedii, iv 34. — Grubii, iv 34. — piscatorum, i 430 ; ii 257, 408-409 ; iii 226 ; iv 34. Argali, iii 248. [418. Argonaut, i 315-316 ; iii 32-33 (illust.), Argonauta argo, i 315-316 ; iii 32- 33, 4i8. ArgUlUS, iv 196-197 (illust.). Argyroneta aquatica, i 392-393; ii 131; iii 375-376. Arion ater, i 328 ; ii 199-201, 247, 434 ; iv 348. — empiricorum, iv 348. Aristophanes, iv 247, 248. Aristotle, i 8, 60; ii 294; iii 393; iv 369. "Aristotle's lantern", i 458, 459- Arius, iii 427. Ark-shells, i 336-337 ; iv 399. Arm, i 30-31. Armadillidium, ii 222. — vulgare, ii 143, 342. Armadillo, hairy, ii 234. — six-banded, i 136 (illust.). — small, ii 367. — three-banded, ii 341-342. ArmadilloeS, i 64 ; ii 333 ; iii 482 ; "Armour", ii 333-341. [iv 474- "Army Worm", iv 127. Arnoglossus macrolophus, iv 159. Arrian, iv 374. Arrow- Worms, iii 21 (illust.) ; iv 42 (illust.), 453. Artemia Mulhausenii, iv 493. — salina, iv 493. Arterial bulb, i 272. — cone, i 240, 243. Arteries, i 39-41; Hi 11-12 (illust.). See also Aortic arches. Arthropoda, i 304, 342-424 (and see Jointed-limbed animals). Arthrostraca, i 410, 414-415 ; iii >74-*75- Articular processes, i 26, 229. Articulates, in. Artiodactyla, i 104, 107-122; iii 147-154, 488-490. See also Mam- mals, hoofed. Arts, i i. Arum-lily, iv 80. Arvicola. See Microtus. AscariS lumbricoides, i 447; iv 343. — megalocephala, i 447 ; iv 362 Ascidia mentula, i 297 (illust.), iii 38-39 (illust.), 421-422. Ascidians, i 297-300 (illust.); ii 245- 246, 278, 306, 389-390; iii 8, 38-39 (illust.), 332, 421-422 (illust.); iv 38 (illust.), 46 (illust.), 105-106 (illust), 438, 45i-_ — barrel, iii 39 (illust.). Asellus aquaticus, i 415; ii 143, AsiO accipitrinus, i 165. [222, 405. — otus, i 165. Aspidobranchia, i 317, 322-324. Aspredo, iii 426. Asps, African, ii 80. Asses, i 107 ; iv 238-239. — African, wild, i 107. — Nubian, iv 239. Assimilation, i 43 (and see Food). Association of organisms, i 18; iv 63-207. — colonial animals, iv 99-106. — commensalism, iv 74-75, 170-183, 184. — courtship and mating of animals, iv 143-169. — general principles, iv 63-64. — mutualism, iv 67, 75-76, 170. — parasitism, iv 76-79, 170, 184-207. — plants and animals, iv 64-98. — social animals, iv 107-142. AstacUS fluviatilis, i 412; ii 137, 253, 402-403 ; iii 367-368 ; iv 200, 300. — nobilis, iv 300. Asteriadse, ii 153-154- Asteroidea, i 454. See also Star- Fishes. Astia vittata iv 167 (illust.), 168. "Astrachan", iv 229. Astragalus, iii 254. 256. Astroides calycularis, iv 102 (illust.). Atalanta, i 321 ; ii 99 (illust.). Atavism, iv 235, 488. Ateles Bartletti, iii 255. AtelOdUS. See Rhinoceros. Athalia spinarum, i 371 ; ii 204 ; iii 389 ; iv 356. Atherura Africana, i 132. Atkinson, Canon, ii 343. Atlantosaurus, iv 469. Atlas (or first) vertebra, i 26, 143, i94, 239, 251. AtollS, iv 441 (illust). Atrial cavity, i 296, 298; H 244, Atriopore, i 296, 297. [245. Atropus divinatoria, i 379; iii 223. Attacus atlas, i 363. Atta fervens, ii 208, 209. Attidse, iii 168, 175-176; iv 166. Attus volans, iii 289. Atya, ii 253-254. Atypus Sulzeri, i 392. Auditory cells, i 56. See also Hearing, organs of. — nerves, i 51. — ossicles', i 57. — sacs, i 464. — vesicles, i 479, 480. Audubon, iii 283. Auk, great, i 184; iii 66. — little, i 184. Auks, i 184 ; ii 53 ; iii 66. Aulastomum gulo, i 433 ; ii 1^9. Aurelia, i 482 (illust.) ; iii 352 (illust.), 353- Auricles, i 40, 147, 148, 200-201, 207, 229, 240, 262, 265, 308, 314, 320, 323, 325, 327, 329, 333. Auricularia, iii 357 (illust). Auroch, i 114. See Bison, European. Austen, Godwin, i 2. [428. Australian region, iv 413, 414, 426- Autodax lugubris, iii 435. Autolytus prolifer, iii 358 (illust.). Avebury, Lord, i 397; iv 118, 119, 209, 227. Avens, iv 98 (illust). Aviculidse, iv 398. AVQCet, iii 127-128. Axis, ii 351-352. Axis vertebra, i 27, 194. Axolotl, i 249 (illust.); iii 435-436. Aye-aye, ii 320. Azalea, iv 94. INDEX B Babirussa, i 109; iii 488; iv 426, 427 Baboon, Arabian, i 75. [(illust.). — black, iii 159 (illust.); iv 426. — yellow, i 76. Baboons, i 75-76; ii 349, 363-365 (illust.); iii 158, 494; iv 134, 145-146. Bacillus anthracis, iv 78. Backbone. See Vertebral column. Bacteria, i 3 ; iv 65, 67-68, 76, 77-78 ( illust.), 79, 98. Bacterium aceti, iv 78. Badaraia exclamationis, iii 402. Badger, common, i 97 (illust); ii 230- — honey-, ii 231. [231; iii 156. Badgers, i 94, 96, 97; ii 230-231. Bain, iv 401. Baker, Sir Samuel, ii 15, 262, 351 ; iii 138, 140; iv 212, 241, 331, 334, 337. 364- Balsena australis, iv 315. — mysticetus, i 101; ii 29; iv 314-315. Balsenoptera bob'ps, ii 29. Balance, or balance and hearing, organs of, i 56, 150, 203, 209, 245, 263, 310. 333, 409: iv 32-39- — of amphibia, i 245; iv 39 (illust.). — of annelids, iv 33-34 (illust.). — of ascidians, iv 38 (illust). — of birds, i 150. [(illust.). — of crustaceans, i 409 ; iv 35-36 — of fishes, i 263; iv 38-39 (illust). — of hydrozoa (Jelly- Fishes), iv 38-39 (illust). — of insects, iv 37-38 (illust). — of mammals, i 56 (illust). — of molluscs, i 310, 333 ; iv 34-35 — of reptiles, i 203, 209. f (illust). Balancers, i 355- Balanidse, ii 406. BalaninUS glandium, i 369. — nucum, ii 211. Balanoglossus, i 300-301; ii 246, 306, 390; iii 7, 215-216, 420-421. Balanus, i 417; "254; «i 363-364- Baldwin, iv 401, 403, 492. Baleen, i TOI (illust). [402, 403. Baler, of crustaceans, i 404, 405 ; ii BalfOUT, Maitland, i 398; iii 337. Balistes, iv 205. — capriscus, i 278. Balloon-Fish, ii 306. Balsams, iv 91-92. Bamboo-Rats, iii 204. Banana, iv 89. [(illust). BandiCOOt, pig-footed, iii 191-192 Bandicoots, ii 43, 234; iii 191-192. Banxrings, i 83 (illust.); iii 246-247. " Barbados earth ", i 496. Barbel, i 282; iv 381. Barbels, i 268, 278, 279, 280, 282, 283, Barberry, iv 96. [292. Barbets, iv i33. Barbs, i 142. Barbules, i 142. Barbus vulgaris, i 282; iv 381. Barnacle, acorn, i 417, 418-419; ii 254, 4°6: "i 363-364- f — ship-, i 417-418 (illust); ii 254 (illust); ^363-364. Barnacles, i 410, 417-419; ii 144, 254, 406; iii 363-364; iv 197-199. Barramunda. See Lung- Fish, Aus- tralian. Barrigudo, i 77. Basiliscus Americanus, i 223 ; iii 52-53- Basilisk, helmeted, i 223; iii 52-53. " Basket- Worms ", iii 400. Bass, common, i 273; iv 381. Basses, i 273. Bastard wing, i 143; iii 301, 304. Bat (and see Bats)— — barbastelle, i 82. — Bechstein's, i 82. — Daubentin's, i 82. — hairy-armed, i 82. — horse-shoe, i 83. greater, i 83. lesser, i 83. — javelin-, ii 39, 40 (illust). — kalong, i 82: iii 245. • — long-eared, i 8r, 82 (illust). — long-tongued shrew-, ii 39. — Natterer's, i 82. — noctule, i 82. — pipistrelle, i 82; iii 292-293 (illust). — serotine, i 82. [(illust). — vampire, long-tongued, ii 38-39 true, i 82-83; " 39~40- — whiskered, i 82. BatS (and see Bat), i 68, 81-83; » 38- 40, 320-321, 328, 346-347; iii 244-245, 292-295, 485-486; iv 89, 327, 424, 427, 429, 473.^ [iv 212. — fruit-eating, i 81-82; ii 321; iii 245; — insect-eating, i 82-83. — leaf-nosed, i 82-83. — true, i 82. — vampire, i 82-83; ii 38, 39-40. Bates, i 6; ii 40, 104, 186, 311, 325, 326; iii 210; iv 251, 336. Bateson, ii 287, 289; iv 32. Bathynomus giganteus, iv 447. Batoidei, i 284, 287-290. See also Skates and Rays. Bdellostoma, ii 383-384. Beadlet, i 473-474- Beak, of birds, i 141, 153, 155, 156, 158, 161, 164, 166, 169, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 183, 184, 186, 188, 190; ii 64, 186-187, 188-191, 242 (illust); iii 266. Beaked chelmon, ii 87-88. Bear, brown, i 95 (illust); ii 227-228; iii 155, 491 (illust.); iv 334, 372. — grizzly, i 95; iv 334. — Malayan, ii 227. — polar, i 95; ii 19-20, 227, 279; iii 75, 76, 155-156: iv 334. — proboscis-, ii 229, 230 (illust). — sloth-, ii 228 (illust). — spectacled, iv 429. Bears (and see Bear), i 86, 94-99 ; ii 5, 227-230; iii 135-136; iv 334. — large, i 94-95 ; iii 155-156, 491. — small, i 94 ; ii 229-230; iii 247-248. Bear - Animalcules, i 387, 394 Bear-Cat, ii 13- [(illust). "Beast", i 8. Beaver, American, i 127 ; iv 136-140, 3°7- — European, i 127; iv 135-136, 307-308. Beavers, i 127; ii 177 ; Hi 73-74. Bechstein, iv 149. Beddard, iii 286, 361, 493; iv 142, 222, 307, 315, 409. Bedeguars, ii 204-205 (illust.) : iv 79. BedichOn, Madame, iv 213. Bee, carpenter, i 374; iii 390-391 (illust.) ; iv 108, 356. — flower-, i 374. Bee (Cont.) — hive- or honey-, i 374 ; ii 205 ; iii 274-275 (illust); iv 43 (illust), 108, in, 121, 251-259 (illust.) — humble-, i 374 (illust); ii 119 (illust); iv 94, 109-111. — Poppy, iii 39i- — wood-, i 374 (illust.). Bees (and see Bee), i 373, 374; ii 205- 206, 250, 307, 358, 439 ; iii 274-275, 311, 312, 313; iv 29, 45, 160, 192-164. — leaf-cutting, i 374 ; iii 391 ; iv 108. — mason-, iv 53-54, 108, 195. — "short-tongued", iv 109. — solitary, i 374. Bee-Fly, ii 119 (illust). Bee-keeping, i 15 ; iv 257-259 (illust). Bee- "Louse", iv 190. Beetle (and see Beetles)— — bacon, ii 109 (illust), no; iv 355. — bean, ii 211 ; iv 354. — bombardier, ii 358-359, 373. — Colorado potato-, ii 211 ; iv 354. — goliath-, i 368. — Hercules, i 368. [394 (illust). — long-horned oak-, iii 273 (illust), — maggot-eating, ii 109 (illust). — pea, ii 211; iv 354. [(illust). — sacred scarab, i 368; ii 209-211 — stag, i 368. — tiger, field, ii 107. green, i 367 (illust). — violet ground-, i 367 ; ii 107. — water, great, i 367 (illust.) ; ii 108- 109 (illust.), 439; iii 29 (illust). — great black, ii 109, 440 ; iii 398, 399 (illust). [(illust). — whirligig, i 367; ii 440 ; iii 29-39 Beetles (and see Weevils, Ladybirds, &c.), i 351, 366-369; ii 107-110, 209-211, 287, 308, 314-315, 326-327, 337, 345, 439-440 : iii i77~I78, 223-224, 313-3M, 393-399; iv 43, 82-83, 159, 162, 163, 165-166, 192-194, 354-355, - "blister", iv 321 (illust). [423. — burying- or sexton-, ii 109 (illust), no; iii 396-398 (illust.). — carrion-, ii 109 (illust), no. rove, ii no. — click-, ii 211, 359; iii 177-178 (illust), 224 ; iv 354. — flea-, i 366; iii 178. — turnip, i 366 (illust.) ; iii 178 ; iv 354 (illust). — ground-, i 367 ; ii 107. — oil-, iv 192-193, 321. — rove-, i 367-368 ; ii 108. — scarab, i 368 ; ii 209-211. — tiger, i 367; ii 107, 315. — tree-, iii 273-274. [iv 16 (illust. \ — water-, i 367 ; ii 108-109, 439-440 ; Behemoth, i 108. Belemnites, iv 465, 466 (illust.). Bell, iii 71- Bell -Animalcule, i 489, 493-494 (illust.); ii 266-267, 418; iii 2, 5, 6, (illust), 8-9, 319-320 (illust.), 321, 323, 325 (illust), 335. Bell-bird, iv 43i. Belloc, ii 370. Belone vulgaris, i 275. Belt, i 6 ; ii 304; iv 120, 257-258 (illust.). Beluga. See Whale, white. Benham, ii 339. Benthos, ii 330-33*- Bernard, iv 130. Bernicla brenta, i 177 ; ii 238. INDEX Beroe, i 483; » 156 (illust): Hi 19 (illust.). [(illust.). Berry Animalcule, ii 273-274 Bettongia Lesueuri, iii 480. [453. Bichir, i 266-268 (illust.); ii 334, 421, BiCUSpidS, i 35 See also Teeth. Bighorn, iii 187. Bilateral symmetry. See Sym- metry. Bile, i 37-38, 48 ; ii 212-213. Bile-duct, i 37. Binturong, ii 13. Biology, i 4, s, 16-17. Bipalium Kewense, ii 446. Bipinnaria, i 450 ; iii 356. Bird-Lice. See Biting-Lice. Birds, i 30, 31, 60, 139-190; ii 45-69, 184-191, 235-243, 279, 290, 295-296, 309-311, 322, 328, 333, 343-344, 354, 367-370, 426-427; iii 56-67, 125-132, 185-186, 261-267, 286, 295-308, 332, 448-474; iv 29-30, 59-62, 88-89, 95, 96, 129-134, 146-151, 202-203, 214, 246-251, 308-309, 327-328, 347-348, 369, 370, 375-378, 387-39I> 395, 4J7> 418-419, 421, 423, 425, 427-428, 430-432, 436-437, 448. — extinct, ii 45 (illust.) ; iii 296 (illust.), 298; iv 471, 475-476 (illust.). — of Paradise, i 154-155 (illust.). — of prey, i 173 ; ii 69, 370; iii 307 ; iv 327. See also Eagles, Vultures, Owls, &c. [170, 171. BiTgUS latro, ii 220-221, 469-470 ; iii Bison, American, i 114 (illust.). — European, i 114; iv 225. Biting-Lice, i 374, 379-380; ii 1 10-1 1 1 ; iv 356. Bittacus tipularius, ii m. Bitterling, ii 452 (illust.). Bittern, common, i 179. — little, i 179. Blackbird, i 159 ; iii 185 ; iv 96. Bladder-headed Fly, ii 119 (illust.). Bladderworts, iv 73-74 (illust.); 95. Blastoidea, iv 459. Blastopore, iii 344. Blastosphere, iii 338, 344. Blastula, iii 338, 339, 340-341, 342, 344- [396- Bleak, i 282; ii 449 (illust.), 450; iv Blennies, i 275 ; ii 86 ; iii 425-426. Blennius pholis, i 275. Blenny, smooth, i 275. — viviparous, iii 425-426. Blindworm, i 223-224; ii 76, 311, 371 ; iii in (illust.), 446. BlOOd, 5 38-39 (illust.), 41, 69, 147, 200-202, 208, 463 ; ii 426. See also Circulatory organs. Blood-corpuscles, i 38-39. See also Corpuscles. Blood-system, i 38, 39-41, 63. See also Circulatory organs. Blood-vessels, i 35, 38, 39, 49, 147. See also Circulatory organs. Blow-Fly, iv 72, 351. Blubber, i TOO; iii 84; iv 312, 314. Blue-bottle, i 358. Blue-buck, ii 169-170. Blue Roller, ii 60-61 (illust.). Blyth, iv 247. [iii 270. Boa-constrictor, i 232 (illust.); ii 79; Boar, wild, i 108; ii 231-234 (illust.); Boas, iii 270. [iv 233, 334, 373. — - tree-, ii 70. — water-. See Anaconda. VOL. iv. Body-cavity, i 303, 468. See also Abdominal cavity, Coelom, &c. Body-wall, i 4<», 426, 427, 447-448, 462, 467-468, 484, 485, 486; iii 101. Bohemilla comata, iv 25 (illust.). BoletUS edulis, iv 81. — Satanas, iv 81. Bombinator, iv 417. Bombus, iv 109-111. Bombus leucorum, i 374. — ruderatus, iv m. — terrestris, i 374. Bombyx mori, i 364 ; ii 214 ; iv 259- Bon, De, iv 289. [260. Bone, i 25. Bonellia, green, ii 150 (illust.); 410. — viridis, ii 150, 410. Bones. See Skeleton and Endo- skeleton. Bonito, i 274. Bonxie, ii 52. "Boobies", i 181 ; iii 63. Book-Lice, i 374, 37y; i" 223 (illust.). Books, i 6-7, 15. Book-Scorpions, i 389 (illust.). Book-" Worm". See Book-Lice. Boonder, i 74- Boring organ, of molluscs, ii 97-98. BOS American us, i 114. — bonassus, i 114. — bubalus, i 115. — caffer, i 115. — frontalis, iv 225. — gaurus, i 1 14. — grunniens, i 114 ; iv 225. — indicus, i 114; iv 225. — longifrons, iv 224. — primigenius, i 114; iv 224. — taurus, i 114 ; ii 167-169 ; iv 225. Bostrichus typographus, iii 224 Botany, i 5- [(illust.). Botaurus stellaris, i 179. Bot-Flies, i 358; ii izi; iv 191 (illust). Bothriocephalus latus, iv 342. BotrylluS, i 300 (illust.); iv 105-106 (illust). Bower-Birds, i 155 ; iv 405-407. Bowfin, i 269 ; ii 453. Bow-Fly, ii 119 (illust). Brachinus crepitans, ii 358-359, Brachiolaria, iii 356. [373. Brachiopoda, i 436, 438-440 ; ii 259- 260, 339-340, 411; iii 8. Bradypus tridactylus, ii 178-179 ; Braem, iii 330. [iii 256, 481. Brain. See also Cerebral-hemispheres. — amphibians, i 245 ; iv 21 (illust). — annelids, iv 8-9, 12. — birds, i 149 (illust.); iv 22. — crustaceans, iv 12, 13, 14. — development of vertebrate, iv 20-23 — fishes, iv 21 (illust), 22. [(illust). — mammals, i 24, 52 (illust), 67-68; iv 21-23 (illust.). — reptiles, i 209, 216. Brain-case, i 24, 27-28, 80, 103, 193, Brain ganglia, i 303. [202-203. Brambling, i 156. Branchellion, ii 410. Branchiata, i 343, 402-424; ii 135- Branchiobdella, iv 200. [145. Branchiomma, iv 44-45. Branchiopoda, i 421-422. Branchipus, ii 405- • — • stagnalis, iv 493. Braula caeca, iv 190. Bream, common, i 282. Breast-bone, i 29, 145, 152 ; iii 202, 299, 309. Breathing, i 17, 45-46, 148 ; ii 376- 380, 420-421, 424. — of plants, ii 379-380. Breathing organs:— — acorn-headed worm, ii 390. — amphibians, i 240-242, 244-245, 254; ii 422-423, 456-458. — animalcules, ii 418-419. [446. — annelids, i 428, 429, 408-410, 445- — arachnids, i 386, 388-389, 390, 391, 392; ii 442-443. — ascidians, i 298; ii 389-390. — birds, i 147-149; ii 426-427. — crustaceans, i 403-404; ii 400-406, 443-444, 469-470. [416. — echinoderms, i 452, 458, 463; ii 411- — fishes, ii 383-388, 447-456. See also Gills, Gill-clefts, &c. — flat-worms, ii 445-446. — insects, i 348-349, 357= » 437~442, — king-crab, ii 406-407. [462-468. — lamp-shells, ii 411. — lancelet, ii 389. — mammals, i 45-47, 67; ii 427-431. — molluscs, i 308, 331, 332, 333, 340, 341; ii 39!~399, 432~434, 459~462. — moss-polypes, ii 410-411. — myriapods, i 395, 397; ii 435-437. — nemertines, ii 391, 445. — peripatus, i 401 ; ii 434~435- — reptiles, i 202, 209, 215-216, 230; ii — siphon-worms, ii 410. [424-426. — sponges, ii 418. — wheel-animalcules, i 435; ii 410. — zoophytes, ii 416-418. Breathing-pores. See Stigmata. Breathing tube, of insects. See Air-tubes. — of molluscs. See Syphon. Breeze-Flies, iv 190. Brehm, i 6; ii 279, 365; iii 186; iv 146, 148, 301. Brephos notha, iii 401. Brill, iii 432: iv268. Bristles, of annelids, i 425-431; iii 227-229, 360. Bristle-Tail, i 433 (illust); ii 410. Bristle- Worms, i 425-432 (illust.); ii 146-147, 257-258, 338-339, 360-361, 380, 408-409 ; iii 22-23, 97-99- 226- 230, 329-330 (illust.), 358-361 (illust); iv 8, 44-45, 199-200, 216-217. — few-bristled, i 430-431. — many-bristled, i 430-431. — simple-segmented, i 431-432. Brittle-Stars, i 454, 455-456; ii 285, 414, 416; iii 114-115 (illust), 278 (illust), 328, 354-355 (illust); iv 459. Bronchial tubes, i 46; ii 427. Bronchus (pi. bronchi), i 46. Bronze age, iv 208, 233, 234, 262. Brood-capsules, i 422. Brood-pouches— — amphibians, iii 440-441 (illust), 442. — annelids, iii 358, 359 (illust.). — crustaceans, iii 362-363 (illust), 364, 365- — echinoderms, iii 355 (illust.), 356- — fishes, iii 427 (illust). [357. — mammals, iii 476 (illust.', 477. — molluscs, iii 405-406. BrtlChidse. See Beetles— Pen- and Bean-. Bruchus fabae, ii 211; iv 354. — pisi, ii 21 1 ; iv 354. 128 INDEX Brunner, ii 250. Bryophyta, iv 64. Bubalus ami, iv 226. — buffelus, iv 225-226. — caama, iv 141. Bubble-Shells, i 324 (illust.); ii 100. Bubo ignavus, i 166. Buccinum undatum, i 321 ; ii 96, 97, 394-395: "i 4 i 2, 413; iv 348. Buceros galeatus, ii 242. Bucerotidae. See Hornbills. Buck, iii 460; iv 378. Buckland, Frank, i 6; ii 139; iii 444; Budgerigar, iv 390. [iv 382. Buffalo, Cape, i 115; ii 321. — Indian, i 115; iv 226. Buffaloes, i 114-115; ii 352; iv 225- Buffbn, iv 489. [226, 334, 373. BufO calamitata, i 255. — vulgaris, i 255; ii 82, 83; iii 50, 436- Bufonidae, i 255. [437. Bug, bed-, ii 123; iv 190. — needle-, i 354; ii 123-124. Bugs (and see Bug), i 351-355; ii 122- 124, 216-217, 316, 359, 440-441; iii 29, 178-180, 380-383 ; iv 189-190, 192, 350-351. — mealy. See Scale- Insects. — tree- or plant-, iii 224-225, 380-381; and see Cicada. — water, i 354-355; ii 123-124; iii 382- BugUla, iv 105. [383; iv 190. Bulimus, iii 414. Bulla, i 324 (illust.). Bullfinch, i 156. Bull-heads, i 274; iv 273. Bullia. iii 108. Bungarus cceruleus, iv 339. Bunting, cirl, i 156. — corn, i 156. — reed, i 156. — snow, i 156. — yellow, i 156 (illust.). Buphaga Africana, ii 62. Burbot, i 279. Burdock, iv 98 (illust.). Buried coal-fields, i 2-3. Burnett salmon. See Lung- Fish, Australian. "Burrs", ^97-98. Bustard, Australian, iv 150 (illust.). — great, i 170; ii 241-242; iv 150, 377. — little, iv 377. Bustards, i 152, 170; ii 240-242; iv BusyCOn carica, iv 324. [147. — perversum, iv 324. Butcher-Bird, great, ii 65 (illust.). "Butcher-Birds", i 158; ii 64-65. Buteo lagopus, i 174. — vulgaris, i 174. Buthus Europaeus, i 387- Butler, Cyrus W., iii 124; iv 151. Butter-Fish, iii 426. Butterfly (and see Butterflies)— — black-veined brown (or monarch), ii 307, 312. — black-veined white, i 362. — bli>e, common, i 362. — brimstone, i 362. — cabbage, or large white, i 362, 372; ii 214, 311, 399-400 (illust); iv 161 (illust.), 162; iv 194, 352. — copper, small, i 362. — green - veined white, i 362, 373 (illust.) ; iv 352. — Indian skipper, iii 402 (illust.). — orange tip, i 362; iv 161-162 (illust.). Butterfly (Cant.) — painted lady, i 361; iii 400. — peacock, i 361; ii 215; iii 400; v 56. — purple emperor, i 361. — red admiral, i 361; iii 400. — resplendent Ptolemy, i 361. — small white, or garden white, i 362; iv 352. [iii 400. — tortoiseshell, great, i 361 (illust.); small, i 361; ii 215, 294; iii 400. — white admiral, ii 312. Butterflies (and see Butterfly), i 351, 358-362, 372, 373; ii 120, 214-215, 252, 3"-3i3; i" 167, 310, 311, 399- 402; iv 56, 160-162, 351-353, 433. — bird-winged, i 362. — blues, i 362. — coppers, i 362. — fritillaries, i 361; iii 400. — leaf-, ii 298-299 (illust.), 300. — swallow-tailed, i 362; ii 312; iv 43. — whites, i 361. Butterwort, iv 68. Buzzard, common, i 174. — honey, i 175. — rough-legged, i 174. BySSUS, i 335, 336, 337, 338 ; iii 406, 407, 408, 409. Caccabis rufa, i 172. Cachalot, ii 29. See also Whales, sperm-. Cacti, Mexican, iv 95. [(illust.). CaddiS-Fly, diamond-spotted, i 375 — large, i 375 (illust.). Caddis-Flies, i 374, 378-379; ii n6, 467 ; iii 385-386 (illust.) ; iv 195. — land-, iii 386 (illust.). Caddis-" Moths". See Caddis-Flies. Caddis Shrimps, iii 369. "Caddis-Worms", i 378-379; » "6, 337 (illust.), 467; iii 385. CseCllians, i 255-256 (illust.); ii 83, 329, 423; iii 46, 213-214 (illust.), 442-443 (illust.). Caecum (pi. Caeca), i 348, 453 ; ii 167, 172, 176; and see Digestive organs. Caerostris mitralis, ii 299-300. Caillard, Paul, iv 374. Caiman sclerops, i 211 (illust.). — spectacled, i 211 (illust.). Caimans, i 210. Cairina moschata, iv 151, 248. Calamaries. See Squids. Calamoichthys, i 266, 268 ; ii 453. Calandra granaria, i 369; iv 354-355. — oryzae, i 369. Calandruccio, iii 433. Calcaneum, i 207 ; iii 192. Calcar, of frog, i 250. — of rotifers, i 435. Calicidae, iii 403-404- Calidris arenaria, i 169. Caligus, iv 201. Callidina symbiotica, iv 75. Calling hares, i 125. CallionymUS carebares, iv 159. — lineatus, iv 158-159. — lyra, ii 306; iv 158. Callorhynchus antarcticus, i 291 ; Callosities, i 72. L» 335- Callula pulchra, ii 304- Calocalanus pavo, iv 452. Calodactylus aureus, iii 268. Calotermes flavicollis, i 379 ; ii 212-213 ; iv 122-123. Calotes nigrilabris, i 222. Cambrensis, Geraldus, iv 136. Camel, Arabian, i 122; iii 151 (illust.) ; iv 230. — bactrian, i 122 ; iv 230, 231 (illust.). Camelopard, i 119; and see Giraffe. Camelopardalis giraffa. See Giraffa camelopardalis. Camels, i 109, 120-122; ii 171, 279; iii 152-153 ; iv 230-231. [231. CamelUS bactrianus, i 122 ; iv 230, — dromedarius, i 122 ; iii 151 ; iv 230. Campanularia, iii 351 (illust.). Canaries, iii 261 ; iv 387-389 (illust.). Canarium commune, ii 190. Cancer pagurus, i 412 ; ii 140, 337-338, 403-404 : iii 366 ; iv 298-299. Canes venatici, iv 367-368. Canidae, iii 491 ; iv 220-222. Canine teeth, i 35, 98, 109; and see Teeth. CaniS aurenus, i 93. — azarae, ii 17, 343. — dingo, i 94 ; ii 343 ; iv 222. — familiaris, iii 132-137, 154-155 ; iv 220-222, 367-368, 383-384. — lagopus, ii 18. — latrans, i 93. — lupus, i 93 ; iv 372. — vulpes, i 94 ; iv 372-373- — zerda, i 94 ; ii 19. Cannabina flavirostris, i 156. — linaria, i 156. — rufescens, i 156. "Cannon-bones", Hi 142, 149- 150, Cannula, ii 80. [152, 153, 196. Cantharidae. See Beetles, oil-. Cantharides, iv 321. Canvas-back, iii 60. Capercailzie, i 172 ; ii 239. Capillaries, i 41. Capra segagra, i 117; iii 248, 249; — hirca, i 117 ; iv 229-230. [iv 230. — ibex, i 117; iii 151. — Pyrenaica, 117. — Siberica, i 117. — Sinaitica, i 117. Caprella, i4is; ii T42, 404-405; 111277. Capreolus caprea, i 112. CaprimulgUS Europseus, i 163; ii — Virginianus, ii 58. [56-58; iii 453. Capsus, i 352 (illust.). Capuchin weeper, i 77. Capybara, i 134-135; ii 178; iii Carabidae, ii 107. [74-75 (illust.). Carabus violaceus, i 367 ; ii 107. Carapace, i 214. — crustaceans, i 406, 421, 422; iii 27. — tortoises and turtles, i 212, 213-214, 216-217, 218, 219, 220; ii 334 (illust.). Carassius auratus, i 282 ; iv 392-393. Carbohydrates, i 33- Carbonate of lime, ii 259, 277. /carbon dioxidex Carbonic acid gas V CO2 ) i 44; ii 270, 271, 273, 289, 377-380, 382, 383, 384, 420; iv 65-68, 76. Carboniferous period, ii 380, 463, 464. [iii 41- Carcharias glaucus, i 284; ii 88; Carcharodon Rondeletii, i 286; ii 88; iv 340. Carcinus mcenas, i 412; ii X4o; iv Cardiidas, iii 180. [197-199 INDEX Cardium edule, i 334; ii 373; Hi 180; iv 296-297. Carduelis elegans, i 156. Carinaria, i 321; ii 99. Carinatae, i 152-186; iii 450-474. Carmine, iv 260. CamiVOra. See Mammals, flesh- eating. Carotid arches, i 243. Carp, beaked, ii 195. [(illust.). — common, i 282; ii 448; iv 196, 200 Carpalia, i 198. Carpenter, i 17; ii 252; iv 164. CarpinchO. See Capybara. Carp-" Louse", iv 196-197 (illust.). Carpocapsa pomonella, i 365 ; iv Carps, i 282; ii 195; iv 286, 329. [352. Carpus. See Wrist. Cartilage(s), i 25-26, 239, 261. — costal, i 29. — hyomandibular, i 260, 271. — thyroid, i 47. Caryophyllia Smithii, i 476. Cassell, i 17- Cassis, i 321. Cassowaries, i 187, 188, 189-190; iii 130, 131 (illust.), 449. 45°- Castor Canadensis, i 127; iv 136-140, 307- — fiber, i 127; iii 73-74; iv 135-136, Castoridae, ii 177. [307-308. Casuarius, i 189 ; ii 243 ; iii 130, 131, 449. 450. Cat, domestic, i 87, 93; ii 225; iii 157, 158 (illust.); iv 146, 222-223, 384- 386 (illust). — fallow, i 88; iv 222, 223 (illust.). — fishing, ii n; iii 75-76. — pampas, i 88. — wild, i 88; iv 222. Cats proper, i 86-88; ii 5, lo-n; iii I57-I58, 247, 491-492; and see Cat. Catch-Flies, iv 86 (illust.), 93, 94. Caterpillars, i 359-360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365 (illust.); ii 214-215, 252, 293- 294, 297-298 (illust.), 300, 307, 313- 314 (illust.), 346-347, 359-36o, 374; iii 102-103, 399 (illust.), 400, 401 (illust.), 402 (illust.); iv 59, 77, 259 (illust), 351, 352, 353. — " false ", i 371. - "surface", i 364. Catesby, ii 140. Cat-Fishes, i 280; ii 335; iii 426-427. — electric, ii 86. Cat-gut, iv 259. Catheturus Lathami, iii 451-452. Catoblepas gnu, i n8. Cattle (see also Oxen)— — humped, i 114; iv 225. — white (or Chillingham), iv 224. Caval veins, i 200. Cavia cutleri, i 134. Cavicornia, i 113; ii 352; iii 152. Caviidse, i 134; ii 178. Cavius porcellus, i 134. Cavy, cutler's, i 134. — restless, i 134. Cavies, i 134; ii 178. Cebidae, ii 326. Cebus capucinus, i 77. Cecidomyla destructor, iv 351. — tritici, iv 351. Celandine, greater, iv 80, 97. Cells, i 49, 51, 55-56, 467, 469-471, 471, 484-486; ii 270; iii 2, 3-4, 5 (illust), 9-10, 12, 13, 317, 326, 333, 334, 335, 338, 339, 34Q, 342! iv 5, 25 (illust.), 26, 29, 30, 31-32 (illust), 33, 34, 35, 37, 39, 4°, 4*, 42, 43, 44- Cell-Walls, ii 270, 273. Cellulose, ii 273. Cement, i 35; " 166. Cement-glands, i 418, 435; iii 363. Centaurea alpina, iv 82. Centetes, i 85. — ecaudatus, ii 33. Centipede, shield-bearing, ii 133-134 (illust), 436-437 (illust); iii 165 (illust). — thirty-foot, i 394 (illust); ii 132-133; iii 371-372. Centipedes, i 342, 394-398; ii 132- 134, 360, 435-437! »i 163-165, 370- 373; iv 14-15, 215-216, 329. — earth, ii 133; iii 225 (illust.). Centronotus Gunnellus, iii 426. Cephalochorda, i 293-297; ii 244- Cephalophus, ii 365-366. [245. — monticola, ii 169-170. Cephalopoda, i 311-317; ii 94-96, 372-373, 392-393; iii 30-33. i°4, 108- 110, 417-419; iv 18-19, 45- Cephalopterus ornatus, iv 431. CephalO-thoraX, of arachnids, i 386. — crustaceans, i 413, 414. [356. Cephus pygmaeus, iii 387-388; iv Cerambyx heros, iii 273, 394. Cerastes cornutus, ii 282; iv 407, Cerata, ii 357, 382. [408. Ceratodus, i 264, 265; ii 83-84, 454- Ceratophrys ornata, ii 305. [456. Ceratopogon, i 357; ii 121. Ceratopsia, iv 470. Cercaria, i 444- Cerceris, iv 160. Cerci, i 345, 350. Cercolabes prehensilis, iii 253, 255. Cercoleptes, ii 326. — caudivovulus, iii 247-248, 255. Cercopidse, ii 217; Hi 178. Cercopithecus cephus, i 74. — diana, i 74. — sabaeus, i 74. Cere, i 140, 166, 175. Cerebellum, i 52, 150, 263; iv 22, 23. Cerebral ganglia. See Brain gan- glia. Cerebral-hemispheres, i 52, 67-68, 70, 149, 202, 263; iv 22-23 (illust). Ceriornis satyrus, iv 148-149. Certhia familiaris, i 157; ii 59-60; iii 264. Cerura vinula, i 363; ii 313-314, 359-360; iii 401-402. Cervical groove, i 402. Cervidae. See Deer. Cervulus, iv 424. CerVTlS axis, ii 351-352. — Canadensis, i in. — dama, i in; iii 151. — elaphus, i in; iv 144-145, 373-374- — Hibernicus, iv 474. CestOda, i 441-443; and see Tape- Worms. Cestracion Philippi, i 287; ii 89- 90; iii 424. CestUS, i 483; iii 20. Cetacea, i 61, 68, 99-101; ii 25-30, 329, 430; iii 83-86, 490-491; iv 314- 317, 473. See also Whales, Por- poises, &c. Cetonia aurata, i 368, 369. Cetorhinus maximus, ii 88. ChserOCampa elpenor, ii 314. — porcellus, ii 314. Chaeronycteris, ii 38. Chseropus, ii 43. — castanotus, iii 191-192. Chaetoderma, i 341 (illust); iii 222 Chaetognatha, iii 21. [(illust.). Chaetopoda, i 425-432. See also Bristle-Worms. Chafers, i 368, 369 (illust). Chaffinch, i 156; ii 187; iii 469 (illust), 470; iv 147 (illust), 148, 348. Chalcides ocellatus, ii 77. — tridactylus, i 225. Chalicodoma muraria, iv 53-54, Chalk, i 496. [i95. Chalk period, iii 309. Chamaeleo Oweni, iv 151. — vulgaris, i 227; iii 269, 270, 446. Chameleon, common, i 227 (illust); iii 269 (illust), 270, 446. — Owen's, iv 151 (illust). Chameleons, i 221, 226-227; ii 73-75, 290-291, 425-426. Chamois, i 117-118; iii 248. — Alpine, ii 365. Change Of function. See Function. Chapman, ii 21; iii 460; iv 378. Charadrius pluvialis, i 169; iii 455. — Virginicus, iii 305. Charaeas graminis, iv 163, 352. Chasmorhynchus, iv 431. Chatterers, iv 43i. Cheek-pouches, i 72, 73, 74, 126, 129; iii 192-193. Cheeks, i 37. Cheese-Fly, iii 178; iv 35i. Cheetah, i 88 ; ii 10-11; iii 157-158; iv 368-369 (illust.). [iv 359. Cheimatobia brumata, i 364, 372; Cheironectes variegatus, iii 70. Cheirotherium, iv 467. Chelicerae, i 386. See also Mouth- parts. Chelidon urbica, i 161; iii 461, 467, Chelifer cancroides, i 389. [468. Chelmon rostratus, ii 87. Chelone imbricata, i 218; ii 72, 191; iii 55; iv 395-396- — midas, i 218; ii 191; iii 55, 446-447. Chelonia, i 203, 212-221 ; U 191-192, 333-334! Hi 54-56. — S-necked, i 216, 217-219. Chelonidae. See Turtles. Chelura terebrans, ii 222; iii 225. Chelydra serpentina, ii 72. Chemical changes within the body, i 43-44 (illust); ii 1-3, 376-380. — elements, i 33. Chemistry, i 4, 17. Chenalopex ^gyptiacus, i 177- Chervil, wild, iv 161. Chest, i 24, 46. Chevrotain, Asiatic, i 109, no (illust); iii 150, 152. — water, i 109; iii 150. Chevrotains, i 109; iii 150, 152. Chiasognathus Grantii, iv 159 (illust). ChiffchafT i 160; iii 185 (illust). Chilognatha, i 396. See also Milli- pedes. Chilomonas, i 489 (illust); iii 6. ChilOpOda, i 396- See also Centi- pedes, [(illust.). Chimaera, bottle-nosed, i 290, 291 — monstrosa, i 290-291; ii 387. 520 INDEX Chimaeras, i 257, 290-291 (illust.); ii 335- Chimarrogale Himalayica, ii 34- 35; "i 7i- Chimpanzee, i 72 (illust.); ii 349; iii 160 (illust.), 161, 494; iv 382, 383 (illust.). Chinchilla, common, i 133 (illust.); — lanigera, i 133; iv 308. [iv 308. Chipmunk, common, i 126. Chiromys, ii 320. Chironomidse, ii 121, 467-468. Chironomus plumosus, i 357. Chiroptera. See Bats. Chirotes caniculatus, ii 76; iii 209. Chiton marginatus, i 340. — polii, iii 404. Chitons, i 340-341 (illust.) ; ii 342, 391-392; iii 104; iv 16-17. Chlamydera, iv 4o6. Chlamydosaurus Kingi, i 222; iii 123-124. [287. Chlamydoselache anguineus, i Chlorophyll, i 466, 494; ii 3, 270, 271, 272, 273, 379; iv 65, 66. Cholaepus didactylus, i 135, 136; Chondrostina, ii 195. [ii 179-180. Chordata, i 62, 292-293. See also Vertebrates. Chordotonal organs, of insects, iv Choroid coat, i 58. [37 (illust.). Chough, i 154. Chromatophores, i 313. Chrysochloris capensis, ii 33-34; iii 202, 203. ChiySOlOphUS Amherstiae, iv 148. — giganteus, iv 148. — pictus, i 172; iv 148. Chrysomela decemlineata, ii 211; »v 354- Chrysomitris spinus, i 156. Chrysopa, ii 114. — vulgaris, i 378. Chrysophanus phlceas, i 362. Chrysopidse. See Lace-wing Flies. Chrysops csecutiens, ii 119. Chrysosplenium, iv 88. Chrysothrix sciurea, i 78. Chrysotoxum bicinctum, ii 119. Chubb, i 262. Chun, ii 287. Churn-Owl. See Night-Jar. Cicada septendecim, ii 217; iii 224- 225, 377. 380-381. — seventeen-year, ii 217 ; iii 224-225 (illust.), 377, 380-381. Cicadas, i 352-353 (illust.). Cicindela campestris, i 367; " 107. Ciconia alba, i 179; ii 55; iii 127; iv Cilia. See Cilium. [62. Ciliata, i 493: ii 266-267; iii 5, 89. Ciliated grooves, of zoophytes, ii 417-418. Ciliated membranes, i 49, 149. Cilium (pi. Cilia), i 49 (illust.), 332, 431- 434. 445. 47°, 483. 484. 492, 493 > ii 243-246, 248, 249, 261, 262, 263, 265, 266, 398, 409, 417, 418, 446 ; iii 4-8, 20, 38, 39, 89, 91, 319, 320, 322, 323, 342, 359, 360, 364. 4o6, 420, 421; iv 102, 173. Cimex lectularius, i 354; iv 190. Ciona intestinalis, i 296 (illust.). Circulatory organs, i 38. — amphibians, i 240-244, 253-254. — annelids, i 427-428. — birds, i 146-147. Circulatory Organs (Cant.) — crustaceans, i 408, 422. — echinoderms, i 452, 458, 463. — fishes, i 261-262, 265, 272; ii 384. — insects, i 348; ii 465-466. — mammals, i 38-43, 67. — molluscs, i 308, 317, 320, 332, 340. — myriapods, ii 437. — peripatus, i 399-400. — reptiles, i 200-201, 208, 215. Circus seruginosus, i 174. — cineraceus, i 175. — cyaneus, i 175. Cirolana borealis, i 415 (illust.) ; ii Cirratulus, i 430. JHS- Cirripedia. See Barnacles. ' Cirroteuthidse, iii 33. Cirroteuthis, iii 33 (illust.). Cirrus (pi. Cirri), i 418, 426, 428, 461 ; ii. 146. Cisticola cursitans, iii 459-460. Civet-Cats, i 89; ii 11-14, 226-227; iii 156-157, 247. — African, i 89; iii 157 (illust.). — Indian, i 89 (illust.). — palm-, ii 12-13, 226-227. Cladocera, i 421, 422; ii 256; iii 26. "Clams", iv 294, 323. Clarke, S. F., iii 448. Class, i 9. Classification, i 7, 21-499. — amphibians, i 245. — animalcules, i 425. — arachnids, i 387. — arthropods, i 342-343. — artificial, in. — biblical, i 7-8. — birds, i 152. — by definition, i 10. pedigree, i n. type, i 10. — crustaceans, i 410. — echinoderms, i 454. — fishes, i 257. — flat-worms, i 441. — insects, i 350-351. — invertebrates, i 304. — linear, i 10. — mammals, i 68-70. — molluscs, i 311. — myriapods, i 396. — natural, in. — of Aristotle, i 8, 60. — — Cuvier, i 10. Linnaeus, i 9-10. — plants, iv 64. — reptiles, i 203. — sponges, i 486. — standpoint of, i 7-11. — vertebrates, i 60. primitive, i 293. — zoophytes, i 473. Clathrulina, i 496. Clausilia plicatula, ii 200. Clavellina, i 300. Claviceps purpurea, iv 98. Clavicle, i 29, 145, 207; iii 202, 298. Claws, i 64. — arachnids, i 391; iii 276. — birds, i 141, 190; iii 263 (illust.), 264. — insects, iii 273-274, 276. — mammals, i 78, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91 , 92, 97, 133, 134; iii 201, 202, 203, 205, 206, 244-245 (illust.), 247, 251, 252, 253, 254, 256, 257, 258. — peripatus, iii 101. — reptiles, iii 208. Cleavage, iii 338. Cleavers, iv 97-98. Clegg, ii 1 20-12 1. Cleodora, iv 451. [3o. Cle'on dipterum, ii 465 (illust.); iii Clepsidrina blattarum, i 489, 498; iii 6 (illust.); iv 206-207. Clepsine, ii 149. Climbing birds, iii 263. Climbing-scales, iii 283, 284 (illust.). Clio, iv 45i. Clione, iv 451. Clisiocampa neustria, i 314. Clitellum, i 431; iii 360. Cloaca, i 69, 140, 146, 192, 200, 208, 215, 240, 261, 463. Clover, iv 76. ! Clover-dodder, iv 76. Clupea harengus, i 283 ; iii 425 ; iv 128, 129, 263-264. — menhaden, iv 318. — pilchardus, i 283; iv 265. — sprattus, i 283; iv 264. Clupeidse. See Herrings. Clytus arietis, ii 314. Cnethocampa processionea, ii Coal, i 2-3; ii 380. [346-347- Coal-Fish, iv 266-269. Coati, ii 229, 230 (illust); iii 247. Cobitis tensea, ii 450- Cobra, common, i 234; ii 80; iv 339 — giant, 280. [(illust.), 3^1. "Cobra de capellO." See Cobra, common. Cobras, i 232, 234; ii 303. COCCidse, iii 381; iv 350, 351, 400. Coccinella, i 369; ii 109-110, 308, — bipunctata, i 366, 369. l3'5- — septempunctata, i 366, 369. Coccothraustes vulgaris, i 156. Coccus cacti, i 353; iv 260. COCCyX, i 27; iv 480. Cochineal, iv 260, 321. Cochineal insect,i 353 : iv 260 (illust.). COCkatOO, great black, ii 189-190 CockatOOS, i 166. [jllust). Cockchafer, i 368; ii 209; iii 224; iv 354- Cockle, common, i 334 ; ii 373 ; iii 1 80 (illust.) ; iv 296-297. COCkleS, i 334; » 398; "i 180. Cockroach, i 343-350 (illust.), 381, 498-499; ii 101-102, 250, 438; iii 167, 273-274, 378; iv 358- Cockroach gregarine, i 498-499; iii 6; iv 206-207 (illust.). Cocoons, — annelids, iii 360-361 (illust). — arachnids, iii 374, 375. — beetles, iii 398 (illust). — membrane-winged insects, i 370, 371 ; iii 388, 389; iv no, 112, 115, 118, 126. — moths and butterflies, i 360, 362, 363, 364; iii 400, 401, 402 (illust); iv 259. Cod- Fish, common, i 22 (illust), 278; iii 425; iv 266 (illust), 321. Cod-Fishes, i 278-279; iv 265-268. Codonocladium, i 489, 494 (illust.); CodOSiga, iv loo (illust). [iii 6. Ccelaria labyrinthiformis, i 475 (illust). Ccelenterata. See Zoophytes. Coelogenys paca, i 133 Coelom, i 427. See also Body cavity. Cceloplana, i 483; iii 5. Ccenolestes, i 138; ii 42; "i 478. Ccenosarc, i 476, 478, 479; iv IOT- INDEX Ccenurus cerebralis, iv 361. Coflfer-Fislies, i 278; ii 334; iv 34o. Cogan, iv 318. Colchicum, iv 97. Coleoptera, i 351, 366-369; ii 107-110, 209-211, 314-315, 326-327, 337, 358- 359, 373, 439-440; "i 29-30, 177-178, 223-224, 313-314. 393-399; iv J92- 194, 354-355, 423. Coleridge, i 183. ColieS, iii 266-267. Colius macrurus, iii 267. Collar Animalcules, i 494; ii 267. Collar-bone, i 29; iii 202, 298. See also Clavicle. Collar-cells, i 484, 486, 494; ii 266. Collard, A.O., iv 292. Collembola, i 384-385; iii 176. Collocalia, iii 462 (Must.). Colobi, i 73. [" 3J5- Coloborhombus fasciatipennis, Colobus guereza, i 73; iii 237, 238. Coloration, i. 16. See also Warning coloration and Courtship coloration. — amphibians, i 238, 251; ii 291, 304- 305; iii 288; iv 153. — animalcules, ii 267, 273. — annelids, ii 308. — arachnids, i 390 ; ii 299-300, 308 ; — ascidians, ii 306. [iv 168. — birds, ii 279, 381, 290, 295-296, 309-311; iii 450, 465, 471; iv 132- 134, 148, 387-388, 390. — birds' eggs, ii 285-286. — crustaceans, ii 278, 279, 292-293 ; iii 175; iv 168-169, 444-445. — fishes, i 269, 274, 275, 276; ii 84, 283-284, 291-292, 296, 305-306, 431; iv 154, 155, 156, 157, 158-159, 171, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 442. — flat- worms, ii 271, 308, 446 ; iv. 203. — insects, i 361, 363, 364, 366, 367, 368, 369, 376; ii 117, 1 1 8, 286-287, 293-294, 296-300; 307-308, 311-316, 360; iv 160-162, 176. — mammals, i 64-65, 119; ii 7-9, 18- 19, 22, 178, 279, 283, 289-290, 295, 302, 324, 366-367 ; iii 488 ; iv 140, 145-146, 235-236, 239, 244. — molluscs, i 313 ; ii 285, 292, 296, 306-307; iii 37. — plants, iv 81, 85. — reptiles, i 224, 232-233, 234-235, 246; ii 81, 281-282, 290-291, 303-304, 311, 344-345; iii 211, 212, 287; iv 152. — reversed shading, ii 282-284. — zoophytes, ii 272, 285, 308-309, 361. Colossendeis, iv 447 (illust.). Colour-bodies, i 3*3- ColOUr-SChemeS. See Coloration. ColpOda CUCUllUS, iii 321 (illust.), Coluber guttatus, iv 328. [322-323. — longissimus, iii 270. ColugO, i 86 (illust); iii 281-282, 485. Columba Hvia, i 139, 167; ii 184; iv 250-251, 487. — cenas, i 167; ii 185. — palumbas, i 167; ii 185; iii 458. Columbse, i 152, 167-168. See also Pigeons. Columella, i 150. Coly, long-tailed, iii 267 (illust.). ColymbuS arcticus, i 185; ii 54; iii — glacialis, i 184. [60, 66. — septentrionalis, i 185; iii 66. Comatula rosacea, i 460, 461: ii 264-265, 413, 414-415; iii 23; iv 482. Comb- Jellies, i 473, 483 (illust.); ii 155-156 ^illust), 278 ; iii 5, 19-20 (illust.). [184. Commensalism, iv 74-75, 170-183, — crustaceans, iv 172-174, 179-182 — echinoderms, iv 172. [(illust). — fishes, iv 170, 171. — insects, iv 175-179 (illust). — molluscs, iv 172-174, 183. — siphon-worms, iv 182, 183 (illust). — sponges, iv 172, 181-182. — zoophytes, iv 171, 172, 179-181, 182, 183 (illust). Comparative method, i 12. Conan Doyle, i 121-122. Concha. See Ear-flap. Conch-Shell, iv 397. Condor, i 175; iv432. Condylarthra, iv 472. Condyles, occipital— — amphibians, i 66. — birds, i 66, 143. — mammals, i 28-29, 66, 123; ii 176. — reptiles, i 66, 193. [315. Condylodeira tricondyloides, ii Condylura cristata, ii 37; i" 202; iv 418. Cone-Shells, i 321; ii 357; iv 340. Confucius, iv 244. [274. Conger vulgaris, i 283; iii 434; iv Conies, i 68, 103-104; iii 248-250; iv 472. Conjugation of Animalcules, iii 323-325 (illust.). Connective tissue, i 25, 469. Conolophus subcristatus, ii 192. Conops flavipes, ii 119- Contour feathers, i 142, 143, 153. Contractile vacuole. See Pulsat- ing vacuole. Contractile vesicle, i 435- Conus, i 321. " Convergence ", iii 193, 208, 213. Convoluta RoscoflFensis, ii 271. Cony, Abyssinian, i 104 (illust), iii — Syrian, i 104. [250. — tree, iii 250 (illust). See also Conies. Cooke, ii 199; iii 106; iv 215, 322. COOt, i 171 ; ii 240, 295 ; iii 61-62 (illust), 128, 456; iv 147. Copepoda, i 410, 420; ii 144, 254-255; iii 25-26, 363 ; iv 196-197, 283-284, Copilia vitrea, iv 452. [452. Coracias garrulus, ii 60-61. CoraCOid bone, i 30, 69, 145, 187; — process, i 29, 69 (illust). [iii 298. Coral (and see Corals)— — antler-, i 475 (illust). — brain-, i 475 (illust). — clove-, i 475 (illust.) — hedgehog-, i 475 (illust.). — madrepore, i 475 (illust.). — millepore, ii 160-161 (illust). — mushroom, i 475 (illust.), 476. — organ-pipe, i 477~478, ii 34*, 4*7- — red, i 23, 478 (illust). — shrub-, i 475 (illust). — sun-, i 475 (illust). — tuft-, i 475 (illust). Corals (and see Coral), i 465, 473, 475, 476; ii 158-159, 272, 285, 308, 328, 353; iv 102, 199, 440-441, 446, 447-448, 459, 464. Coral-Fish, iv 437, 438 (illust). Corallimorphus rigidus, iii 353 (illust). CoraUium rubrum, i 23 (illust). Coral polypes, i 23 (illust). Cordiceps, iv 77. [(illust.). Corethra plumicornis, iv 37 Cormorant, black, i 181 ; ii 48 ; iii 63, 64, 471 (illust). — green, i 181; ii 48; iii 63-64. Cormorants, i 152, 181; ii 48-49; iii 62-64. Corn-Crake, i 171; ii 240 (illust.)., Cornea, i 58. [368. Corn Thrips, i 355 (illust); ii 216. Corn Wolf. See Moth, corn. Coronella Isevis, i 232. Corophiidae, iii 369. Corpus callosum, i 52, 68. Corpuscles, colourless, i 38, 42, 43, 49, 149, 469, 488; ii 269; iii 3; iv 79. — red, i 38, 147. — touch-, i 53-54. Cortex, cerebral, iv 22-23. Corvidse, i 153-154; ii 187, 235-237. COITUS corax, i 153; iv 347. — cornix, i 154. — corone, i 153. — frugilegus, i 153; ii 235-236, iv 130- — monedula, i 153. [132. Corydaloides Scudderi, ii 463. Corythaix leucotis, iii 263. Corythopanes cristatus, i 223. Cosmia trapezina, ii 252. Cossus ligniperda, i 363; iv 352. Cotile riparia, i 161; iii 453. Cotingidae, iv 43i. Cottidse. See Gurnards. CottUS gobio, i 274; iv 273. — scorpius, i 274. Coturnix communis, i 172; ii 239. Courtship and mating, iv r43- — amphibians, iv 152-154. [144- — arachnids, iv 166-168 (illust.). — birds, iv 146-151. — crustaceans, iv 168-169. — fishes, iv 154-159. — insects, iv 114, 118, 121, 159-166 — mammals, iv 144-146. l(illust). — reptiles, iv 151-152. Courtship coloration, i 16; iv 402. — amphibians, iv 153. — arachnids, iv 168. — birds, iv 148. — crustaceans, iv 168-169. — fishes, iv 154, 155, 156, 157, 158-159. — insects, iv 160-162. — mammals, iv 145-146. — reptiles, iv 152. Cowan, iv 257, 258. Cowries, i 321 (illust. j; iv 322-323 Coyote, i 93. [illust). Coypu, iii 74- Crab (and see Crabs)— — Anderson's blanket-, iv 180-181 — bear-, i 411 (illust). [(illust). — buffoon, iii 172. — cocoa-nut. See Crab, robber. — countryman, ii 220. — demon-faced, iii 171, 172 (illust.). — devil, ii 338. — dromia, i 411 (illust). — edible, i 412 ; ii 140, 337-338, 403- 404; iii 366-367 (illust); iv 298 (illust), — gulf-weed, ii 140. t299- — musical strand-, iv 37. — northern stone-, ii 338 (illust). — robber or cocoa-nut, ii 220-221 (illust), 469-470; iii 170-171. — shore, i 412; ii 140; iv 197-199 (illust). 522 INDEX Crab (Cent.) — spider, i 411 (illust.); ii 287-289. — sponge-, common, iv 181. Andaman, iv 181-182 (illust.). — squeaker, iv 37. — swimming or fiddler, iii 28 (illust.). Crabs, i 412; ii 138-141, 403-404; 443, 469-470; iii 27-28, 170-172, 175, 277, 332, 365-367, 368; iv 14-15, 35, 43, 329. [140; iii 171. — swift land or swift-footed sand, ii Crake, spotted, i 171. Crampe, iv 486. Crane, common, i 170 (illust.); ii 241. — crowned, ii 241 (illust.). [(illust.). Cranes, i 152, 170; ii 240-242, 427 Crane-Flies, i 358; ii 119 (illust.), 215-216; iv 351 (illust.). Crangon vulgaris, i 412; ii 137; iv 298, 299-300. Cranial flexure, i 203. — nerves, i 52-53, 55; iv 19. Cranium. See Brain-case. Cranmer, iv 249. Crayfish, common or fresh-water, i 412; ii 137, 253 (illust.), 402-403; iii 27, 277, 278, 365, 367-368 (illust.); iv 13-14 (illust.), 30 (illust.), 31, 200, 300. Creeper, common or tree-, i 157 ; ii 59-60 (illust.); iii 264, 463-464. Creodonta, iv 472. Crepidula, iii 413. Crex pratensis, i 171; ii 368, 240. Cricetus, ii 177. — frumentarius, i 129. Cricket, field-, i 383. — house-, i 383. — mole-, i 383 (illust.); ii 328, 359; iii 222-223, 379-38o, 381; iv 358. Crickets, i 381, 383; ii 315; Hi 379- 380; iv 38, 162. Crinoidea, i 454- See also Feather- Stars and Sea- Lilies. Cristatella, iii 100 (illust.), 330-331 CrOCidura aranea, ii 34. [(illust.). — Etrusca, i 85. Crocodile, estuarine, i 210, 212. — Indian, i 210. — Nile, i 210, 211 (illust.); ii 70-71, 333 (illust.); iii 50-51 (illust.), 447; iv 337, 39i- — West African, i 212. Crocodiles, i 203, 204-209, 210-212; » 70-71, 320, 424-425: "i 50-51, 124, 447-448; ivi52, 336-337- — American, i 212. Crocodilia, i 203, 204-212 (illust.); and see Crocodiles and Alligators. CrOCOdilUS cataphractus, i 212. — niloticus, i 210, 211; ii 70-71, 333; iii 50-51, 447; iv 337, 391. — palustris, i 210. — porosus, i 210. Crop, i 146. Crossbill, i 156; ii 187-188 (illust.). " Cross-Carrier ", i 390. Cross-fertilization, of flowers, iv 84, 85-89. Crossopus fodiens, i 84; ii 34. "Cross-Spider", i 390. Crotalus, iv 339. — durissimus, i 234; ii 80. Crow, carrion, i 153. — hooded, i 154 [307; iv 348. CroWS, i 153-154; ii 187, 235-237; iii Crowned Tyrant, ii 61 (illust.). Crumen, iv 142. Crustacea, i 343, 402-422; ii 135-144, 253-256, 278-279, 287-289, 292-293, 337-338, 374, 400-406, 443-444, 469- 470; iii 25-28, 169-172, 174-175, 225, 277-278, 332, 362-369 ; iv 12-14, 35- 37, 196-199, 216, 297-300, 439, 444- 447, 452, 460, 465, 493. — bivalve, i 410, 419-420. — fork-footed, i 410, 420; iii 25-26, 363 ; iv 196-197, 283-284, 452. — higher, i 410-416; ii 135-143, 220- 222, 253-254, 400-405; iii 27-28, 365- — intermediate, i 410, 416. [369. — leaf-footed, i 410, 421-422; ii 405; iii 26-27, 362-363. • — lower, i 410, 416-422 ; ii 144-145, 254-256, 405-406; iii 25-27, 362-365; iv 196-199. — sessile-eyed, i 410, 414-415; ii 141- 142, 404-405; iii 174-175, 365. — stalk-eyed, i 410-414 ; ii 135-141 ; iii 365-368. See also Lobsters, Crabs, Opossum Shrimps, &c. — ten-legged. See Lobsters; Crabs; Crustacea, stalk-eyed, &c. Cryptobranchus lateralis, i 248; ii 457; iii 48. Cryptoprocta ferox, i 88; ii 12. Crypturi, i 152, 173. Cteniza, i 392. — caementaria, iii 376-377. Ctenobranchia, 317, 318-321. Ctenophora, i 473, 483; ii 155-156, 279; iii 19-20. Ctenoplana, i 483; iii 5. CuckOO, common, i 162 (illust.); ii 58; iii 449; iv 62, 328. — South African, i 162. CuckOOS, i 162; ii 309. [178. "CuckOO Spit", i 353: ii 217; iii CuCUlUS canorus, i 162; ii 58; iii 449; — gularis, i 162. [iv 62, 328. CUGUmaria, i 462 (illust.). See also Sea-Cucumbers. Culex, i 356-357: iv 34°- — annulatus, iii 403-404. — pipiens, i 356-357; ii 121, 442. Culicidse, ii 121. Cumacea, i 410, 414 (illust.). Cunningham, iii 426, 431; iv 261, Curassows, iv 431. [281, 288. CUTCUlionidse. See Weevils. Curlew, Stone-, i 169; iii 471. Curlews, i 169; ii 67, 68 (illust.). Cuscuta, iv 76. Cushat, i 167. CUSPS, ii 6. Cuttle-bone, i 313-314; ^322 (illust.). Cuttle-Fish, common, i 311-314 (illust.); iii 418; iv 18-19 (illust.), 322. Cuttle -Fishes, i 311-316; ii 94-96 (illust.), 372-373, 392-393 (illust.); iii 30-33; iv 29, 34-35, 45 (illust.), 444. Cuvier, i 10. Cuvierina, iv 451. Cyamus ceti, i 4*5- Cyanecula suecica, i 160. CyClaS, iii 232 (illust.), 406, 407. — cornea, ii 249-250. Cyclophorus, ii 432. Cyclops, i 420 (illust.); ii 254-255; iii 25-26, 363, 364. Cyclopterus lumpus, ii 292. Cyclostoma elegans, ii 200, 432; iii 106. Cyclostomata, i 257, 291-292; ii. 9i- 92; and see Lampreys and Hags. Cyclothurus didactylus, iii 256, Cyclura carinata, iii 52. [257. Cydippe, i 483 (illust.); ii 155; iii 19- 20 (illust.). Cygnus atratus, i 177. — Bewicki, i 177. — musicus, i 177. — nigricollis, i 177 — olor, i 177; iii 456, 457. Cynailurus jubatus, i 88; iii 157- 158; iv 368-369. Cynips argentea, iv 82. Cynogale, ii 13. Cynognathus, iv 468. Cynomys Columbianus, iv 135. — Ludovicianus, i 126; ii 367; iv 135. — Mexicanus, iv 135. Cynopithecus niger, iii 159 (illust.); Cyprsea, i 321, 322. [iv 426. — moneta, iv 322-323. Cypridina, iii 364. Cyprinidae, ii 195. Cyprinus carpio, i 282; ii 448. Cypris, i 419-420; iii 364. Cypselidas, iii 462. CypselUS apUS, i 163; iii 186, 462. Cyrena, iii 406. Cysticercus pisiformis, iv 362. Cystoidea, iv 459. Cystophora cristata, iv 312. Cytherea dione, ii 336. — spiny, ii 336. Cyttidse. See John Dory. D Dab, iii 432; iv 269. — lemon, iii 432; iv 270. Dabb, i 222. Dabchick, i 185; Hi 65-66 (illust.), Daddy-Long-Legs, i 358. [457. Dace, i 283; iv 396. Dacelo gigantea, i 165. Dachshund, iv 221 (illust.). Dafila acuta, i 176. "Dam", of Beaver, iv 136-139. Danaids, ii 311, 312. DanaiS chrysippus, ii 312. — echeria, ii 312. — niavius, ii 312. Dancing-Flies, iii 291. Dandelion, iv 80. Dannevig, Captain, iv 287, 298. Daphnia pulex, i 419 (illust.), 422; ii 256, 405; iii 26 (illust.), 362-363 (illust.). Darters, i 181; ii 49-50 (illust.): iii 64. Darwin, i 6, u, 15; ii 39, 192, 220, 258, 259, 342, 344, 365; iv 68, 88, 143, 146, 149, 159, 161, 163, 210, 217, 222, 235, 244, 248, 251, 441, 478, 485, 487, 489, 492, 494. Darwinism, iv 478, 484-488. Dasychira pudibunda, i 364. Dasychone, iv 44-45. Dasypeltis, iv 421. Dasyprocta agouti, i 133. DasypUS minutus, ii 367. — sexcinctus, i 136. — villosus, ii 234. Dasyures, ii 322. Date-Shells, iii 411 (illust.). Daudebardia rufa, ii 200. INDEX 523 Daulias luscinia, i 160. Day, iii ii 6. Day-Flies. See May-Flies. Dead-man's Fingers, i 477 (illust.). Dean, iii 41. Death-Adders, ii 80; iv 339. Death-feigning habit, ii 342-345. — arachnids and insects, ii 345, 373- — birds, ii 343-344. t374- — mammals, ii 343. — reptiles, ii 344~345- [224; ™ 355- "Death-watches", i 379; iii 223- Decapoda (Cephalopoda), i 314-315; iii 30-31. — (Crustacea), i 410-412; ii 135-141, 337-338, 400-404, 469-470; iii 27-28, 169-172, 175, 365-368; iv 13-14- Deer, i 109, 110-112; ii 321, 367; iii 152; iv 142, 144-145, 346. — Chinese water, i in. — fallow, i in; iii 151 (illust.). — mouse-. See Chevrotains. — mule, iv 430. [142, 402. — musk-, i IIO-IIT; iii 131 (illust.); iv — red, i in; iv 144-145, 373-374- — roe, i Ti2. — spotted, ii 351-352. — Virginian, iv 430. Defences of animals, i 17; ii 275- 375- — precautionary measures, ii 276, 277- 33i- — resistance, ii 276-277, 332-362. — retreat, ii 277, 363-375. Degeneration, biological, i 298, 431, 432; iii 420-421; iv 197, 197-199, 203. DegU, i 132 (illust.). Delphinapterus leucas, iii 83; iv Delphinidse, ii 26-29. [316-3*7- Delphinus delphis, ii 27-28. Dendrelaphis, iii 270. Dendrocolaptidse, iii 463- DendrOCOpUS major, i 162; ii 58. — minor, i 162. Dendrohyrax arborea. See Pro- cavia. Dendrolagus, ii 182. — Lumholtzii, iii 258. Dendronotus arborescens, ii 296. Dendrophis, iii 270. Dendryphantes capitatus, iv 167. Dental formulae, of mammals, i 36, 67, 72, 78-79; ii 6, 7. Dentalium, i 338; iii 221-222, 412. — indianorum, iv 323. — vulgare, i 338-339- Dentine, i 35, 102. Derbyshire-neck, i 43- Dermanyssus gallinse, iv 360. Dermaptera, iii 282. DermatOChelys. See Sphargis. Dermatocoptes, iv 196. Dermatophagus, iv 196. Dermatoptic vision, iv 39-40. Dermestes lardarius, ii 109, no; Dermestidse, ii no. [iv 355. Dermis, i 25. See also Skin. Descartes, i 203. Desman, Russian, ii 35; iii 71-72 — Spanish, iii 72. [(illust.). Desmans, i 83; ii 35; iii 71-72, 246. Desmodus rufus, ii 39. [(illust.). Desmognathus fuscus, iii 435 Desoria glacialis, i 384; ii 214. Development, i ii, 14, 18. See also Life Histories and Metamorphosis. — direct, iii 355. Development (Cent.} — indirect, iii 355. — influence of food-yolk on, iii 345-348. — acorn-headed worm, iii 420-421. — amphibians, i 62-63, 240-242, 249, 254, 256; ii 457-458; iii 434-443- — animalcules, i 491, 493-494, 498 ; iii 3I7~325, 333-335; iy 206-207. — annelids, iii 318, 329-330, 358-361. — arachnids, i 387; iii 373-377. — ascidians, iii 332, 421-422; iv 105- — birds, i 151-152; iii 448-453. [106. — • crustaceans, i 409; iii 362-369; iv 197-199. — echinoderms, iii 328, 354-357. — fishes, i 60, 264, 279; iii 422-434. — flat- worms, iii 329; iv 201—205. — insects, iii 377-404. — king-crabs, iii 369. — lancelet, iii 342, 344-345. — mammals, iii 474-494. — molluscs, iii 404-419. — moss-polypes, iii 330-331; iv 104. — myriapods, iii 370-373. — nemertines, iii 419. — peripatus, iii 370. — reptiles, i 203, 209, 216; iii 443-448. — sponges, i 485; iii 325-326, 341-342, — thread-worms, iv 205-206. [343. — zoophytes, i 471-472, 4?6, 478-479, 480, 481, 482; iii 327-328, 339-34 1, 349-353; iv 103-104. Devil's coach-horse, i 368 (illust); DeviS, iv 407. [ii 108. Dianthoecia albimacula, iv 86. Diapheromera femorata, iii 379. Diaphora mendica, ii 313. Diaphragm. See Midriff. Diatoms, ii 248; iv 72. Dibranchiata. See Cuttle-Fishes. Dickens, i 383; iv 408. Dicotyles, iv 141-142. — labiatus, iii 489; iv 334-336. — torquatus, i 109; ii 233, 234; iii 149, Dicynodon, iv 468. [489. Didelphyidae. See Opossums. Didelphys azarse, iii 480. — marsupialis, iii 255. — murina, iii 479. — Virginiana, i 138; iii 260. Didus ineptus, ii 369-370. Difflugia, i 489 (illust); ii 341; iii 6 Digby, Sir Kenelm, iv 320. [(illust.). Digestion, i 37-38; ii 1-3. Digestive caeca, i 348. See also Caecum. — cavity, i 34. — glands, i 34, 36-37. Digestive organs, i 34-38. — amphibians, i 240, 253; ii 194. — annelids, i 427; ii 259. — birds, i 146; ii 184. — crustaceans, i 407; ii 136-137. — echinoderms, i 452-453, 458; ii 413. — fishes, i 261, 271-272; ii 450. — insects, i 346-348. — mammals, i 67. — carnivorous, ii 7. herbivorous, ii 165, 167, 168-169, 171, 172, 176. [233-234. — omnivorous, i 34-38; ii 225, 226. — molluscs, i 308, 332-333- — nemertines, ii 391. — reptiles, i 199-200, 207, 215, 230. — siphon worms, ii 260. — thread-worms, i 448. — zoophytes, i 471, 473-474- Digestive-tube and Breathing, ii 382-383. Digitigrade feet structure:— — biHs, iii 126. — mammals, 86, 87; ii 5-6 (illust.); iii 134, 154-155, 157- Digits, i 24, 31-32. — amphibians, i 238, 248, 250, 252; iii 48, 49, 121, 272, 288. — birds, i 141, 146, 149, 152, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 168, 170, 171, 173, 176, 179, 180, 185, 188; iii 58, 59, 61- 62, 65, 66, 126, 127, 128, 130, 153, 261, 263, 264-265, 266, 295, 299, 473. — fishes, iii 119. — mammals: — flesh-eating, i 86, 90, 91, 92; iii 76, 78-79, 80, 84, 154, 155, 156, 157, 247. gnawing, i 123, 125, 128, 133; iii 74, 75, 194, 195, i96, !97> 203, 205, 252, 253. hoofed, i 104-105, 106, 107, 108, no, 113-114, 120; iii 130, 137-138, 139, 142-144, 147, 148, 149, 150, 152, 153- insect-eating, i 83, 86 ; iii 197- 198, 202. [258-260. pouched, iii 190, 191-192, 206, — bats, i8i, 82; iii 244-245, 292, 293— conies, i 104; iii 249. [294. edentates, i 136; iii 254, 256. elephants, i 102. — lemurs, i 80; iii 241, 242, 243, 244. — man and monkeys, i 24, 31-32, 7*» 73, 77, 78 ; "i 158, 233-234, 237, 238, 240. — reptiles, i 196-198, 205, 209, 213, 215, 218, 223, 225, 237; iii 54, 55, 122, 209, 268-269, 270, 286. Dingo, i 94; ii 343; iv 222. Dinophilus, i 431. Dinornis maximus, iv 476. Dinornithidae, iv 428. Dinosauria, iii 124: iv 469-470. Dinosaurs, armoured, iv 469. 470 — beast-footed, iv 469. [(illust.). — bird-footed, iv 469-470 (illust). — horned, iv 470. — reptile-footed, iv 469. Diodon, i 278; ii 334; iv 340. Diomedea exulans, i 183. Dionsea muscipula, iv 69-70. Diphyes, ii 161. Diploblastica, i 467, 490, 491- Diplonychus, iii 382. Diplopoda, i 396. See also Milli- pedes, [(illust). Diplozoon paradoxum, iv 201-202 Dipnoi, i 257, 264-266. See also Lung- Fishes. Dipodidse, iii 192, 194-197. Dipodomys Fhillipsi, iii 193-194. Diprotodon, iv 474. Dipsacus laciniatus, iv 92. Diptera, i 351, 355-358; ii 119, 120- 122, 2I5-2I6, 251, 314, 441-442, 462, 467-468; iii 178, 289-290, 291, 311, 313, 402-404; iv 127, 190-192, 349, DipUS jaculus, ii 319, 322. [351. — Mauritanicus, iii 196. "Discontinuous distribution", iv 410-412, 429, 430. See also Dis- tribution in space. DlSCOphora. See Leeches. Distomum macrostomum, iv 202- 203 (illust). 524 INDEX Distribution in space, i 14-15; iv 409-455, 483. — acorn-headed worms, iv 438. — amphibians, i 245, 247, 248, 249, 254, 255; iii 213, 214, 272, 288; iv 417. 4*9, 42i» 426» 428, 432. — animalcules, iv 453-454. [452. — annelids, i 431-432; ii 445; iv 321, — arachnids, i 387, 389, 392; ii 131. — ascidians, iv 438, 451. — birds:— anserine, i 177-178; iv 309. game-, i 172; ii 239; iii 450-452; iv 417, 419, 425, 431. perching, i 153, 155-156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 168 ; iv 417, 421, 423. 425. 427. 431- picarian, i 161, 162, 163, 164; iv 425, 428, 431. [432. running, i 188, 189; iv42i, 428, bustards and cranes, i 170. divers and grebes, i 184; iv 417. eagles and vultures, i 174, 175, 176; iv 421, 432. gulls, i 168; iv 437. herons and storks, i 179, 180. owls, i 165-166. — parrots, i 166; iv 427-428, 431. pelicans and cormorants, i 181; ii 52-53; iii 62; iv448. — penguins, i 186; iv 437. petrels and albatrosses, J 182 ; iv 448. pigeons and sandgrouse, i 139, 167-168; iv 250, 423, 428. plovers, i 168; iv 423. rails, i 171. — tinamous, i 173; iv 432. — crustaceans, i 410, 413, 416, 417, 421; iv 297, 444-447, 452. — echinoderms, i 454, 456, 459, 461, 464; iv 440, 447, 452. — fishes:— bony, i 269, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 282, 283; iv 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268-269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 417, 426, 433, 437-438, 443-444, 448. ganoid, i 266, 268, 269; iv 277- 278, 417, 421. lung, i 264; ii 454-455: iv 4". 421, 428, 433. chimaeras, i 290, 291. round-mouths, i 291, 292. sharks and dog-fishes, i 284, 285, 286, 287; iv 448. skates and rays, i 288, 290 ; ii 357: iv 433- — flat- worms, i 445; ii 446; iv 342-343, 361, 440. — insects, i 353, 361, 362, 367, 368, 369, 378, 379, 382, 383: » "7, "8, 294, 311, 312 ; iv 252, 417-418, 422, 423, 426, 433-434, 452. — king-crabs, i 422-423. — lamp-shells, i 438. — lancelets, i 293-294; iv 438. — mammals: — egg-laying, i 70; ii 44; iv 427. flesh-eating, i 87-88, 89, 90, 91, 93, 94, 95, 97-98, 99> 276 1 i" 247 ; iv 303, 304, 311, 312, 313, 415, 418, 420, 422, 424, 429, 436, 448. gnawing, i 124-125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132-133, 134; iii 74, 192, 196, 203, 282, 283, 284 ; iv 135- 136, 308, 416, 418, 420, 422, 425, 430. Distribution in space (Cont.} — mammals (cant.} hoofed, i 105, 106, 107, 108-109, no, in, 112, 114, 115, n6, 117, 118, 122; ii 234; iii 248; iv 225, 226, 230- 232, 233, 415-416, 418, 420, 422, 424, 426-427, 429-430. insect-eating, i 83, 84, 85, 86; ii 34, 35; iv 4!5, 4I8, 420, 422, 424, 429. pouched, i 69, 138 ; iii 260; iv 411, 418, 427, 430. — apes and monkeys, i 72, 74, 75- 76; iv 419-420, 424, 426, 429. bats, i 82, 83; iii 294-295; iv 424, 427, 429- [315, 4I5, 448. — — cetaceans, i 101; ii 28, 29; ^314, conies, i 103. edentates, i 136; iv 421, 425, 430. elephants, i 103; iv 424-425. — lemurs, i 79; iii 240-241, 244; iv 420, 422, 427. [316, 436. sea-cows, i 102; ii 173; iv 313, — molluscs, i 314, 315, 316, 328, 334, 337 ; iv 288, 295, 296, 419, 421, 433, 438-439, 444, 451-452. — moss-polypes, i 436 ; iii 100; iv 439. — myriappds, i 397. [452-453- — nemertines, i 305 ; ii 444; iv 439, — peripatus, i 398. — reptiles, i 209, 210, 212, 217, 218, 219, 22O, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 227, 232, 233, 234-235, 236; iii 51, 52, 53, 54, 209, 2ii ; iv 410, 417, 419, 421, 425, 428,^432, 437, 448. — sea-" spiders ", iv 447. — siphon-worms, iv 439-440. — sponges, i 486, 487; iv 324, 447~448. — thread-worms, iv 453. — zoophytes, i 473, 475, 476, 481, 483; iv 440-441, 453-454. [456-476. Distribution in time, i 15, 19 ; iv — amphibians, iv 463, 467. — animalcules, i 496; iv 458, 464. — arachnids, iv 462. — arthropods, extinct, iv 460-462. — birds, iv 471, 475-476. — crustaceans, iv 460, 465. — echinoderms, iv 459, 464. — fishes, iv 463, 466-467. — insects, iv 462, 465. — king-crabs, iv 462. — lamp-shells, i 438; iv 459-460, 464. — mammals, i 111-112, 127 ; iv 471, 472-475. — molluscs, iv 462-463, 465-466. — myriapods, iv 462. — reptiles, iv 463-464, 467-471. — sponges, iv 464. — zoophytes, iv 458-459, 464. Diver, black-throated, i 185 ; ii 54 (illust.); iii6o(illust.),6i. — great northern, i 184. — red-throated, i 185; iii 66. DiverS.i 152, 183-185: \\^; iii 64-66. Division of physiological labour, i 469, 481; ii 64, 161, 417; iii 9-10, 19, 3*7, 333-334, 339, 342 : iv 5, 22, 39, 100-101, 102-105 (illust.), 107, no, in, 112, 114-127, 128-129, I3°, T35> 138, T77- DiXOn, ii 57! i» 453, 455, 457, 465: iv 131. Dochmius duodenalis, iv 343. DodO, ii 369-370 (illust.). Dog-Fish, piked, i 286; ii 335. — spotted, i 257-264, 284, 285 (illust.), 286; ii 385-387: i" 424- Dog-Fishes, I 12-13, 257-264, 284, 286; iii 40-41; iv 32, 39, 128-129. — spiny, i 286. Dog-Louse, biting, iv 356. DogS, &c., i 86, 92-94, 380; ii 15-16 (illust.); iii 132-137 (illust.), 154-155, 491-492; iv 220-222 (illuSt.), 367-368, Dog-TiCk, iv 195. [383-384. Dog-Whelk, iii 412. Dolichosoma, iv 463. Doliolum, iii 39. Doloraedes fimbriatus, ii 131. Dolphin, common, ii 27-28 (illust.). — gangetic, ii 28 (illust.), 71. Dolphins, ii 26-29; iii 85. Domestication, iv 217-220. — birds, iv 246-251 (illust.). — insects, iv 251-260 (illust.). — mammals, iv 220-245 (illust.). Dorcatherium aquaticum, i 109; iii 150. Dories, i 273-274 ; and see John- Dory. Dorippe facchino, iii 172. Doris, i 326; ii 397; iii 412. Dormouse, common, i 131 (illust.); ii 176, 367; iii 251-252 (illust.). — fat, iv 244-245 (illust.). Doto coronata, ii 296. Dotterel, i 169; iii 465 (illust.). Double-Eyes, iv 47-48. Double - tube arrangement, of vertebrates, i 24, 61, 303. Dove, ring-, i 167. — rock-, i 167 ; and see Pigeon, blue- rock. — stock-, i 167; ii 185. — turtle-, i 167; ii 185. Doves, i 167; iv 133. Down-feathers, i 143. Draco volans, i 222; iii 287. Dragonet, gemmeous, ii 306 ; iv 158 — sordid, iv 158. [(illust.). — spangled, iv 158-159. Dragon-Fly, demoiselle, i 376. — great, i 376. Dragon-Flies, i 374, 376; ii 114-115, 464-465; iii 311, 312, 313 (illust), 383-385 (illust.); iv43. Dragons, flying, i 222; ii 327. Drake, gray, i 376 (illust.). — green, i 376. "Drills", iv348. Dromseus Novae Hollandise, i 1 88; ii 243; iii 130, 449, 45°- Dromia, i 411 (illust.). Drone-Fly, ii 119, 216, 314, 441-4:2 (illust.); iii 311. Drones, iv 252-253 (illust.), 254, 256. Droseracese, iv 68-69. "Drum", of ear, i 57; ii 386-387. Dryandra, iv 89. Dryiophidse, ii 79. Dryophis, iii 271. Duck, ferruginous, i 176. — golden-eye, i 176. — long-tailed, i 176. — musk or "muscovy", iv 248, 151. — steamer, iii 60. — tufted, i 176. [248. — wild, i 176; iii 58, 467 (illust.): iv DuckS (and see Duck), i 152, 176-177; ii 65 (illust.), 237-238; iii 58, 59-61; iv 26, 147-148, 247-248. — eider-, 176; iv 308-309. common, iii 59, 60 (illust.) ; iv 60 (illust.), 309 (illust.). INDEX 525 DuckS (Cont.} — eider- (cont.) Scandinavian, iv 309. — shoveller, i 176. Duck-Bill, See Duck-Mole. Duck-Mole, or Duck-billed Platy- pus, i 69, 70 (illust.), 143; " 44, 322; iii 69-70, 475, 477-478; iv 211, 212, Duckweeds, iv 95. [481-482. Duct:— - bile-, i 37. — thoracic, i 42. Ductless glands, i 43. DugOng, i 102; ii 173-174 (illust.); iii 81-82, 490; iv 313-314. Dumble-Dor, i 368. Dunlin, i 169. Duyker-Boks, ii 365-366. Dwellings of Animals (see also Nests), i 18; iii 349. — annelids, ii 257-258; iii 358. — arachnids, iii 373, 374~377- — crustaceans, iii 368-369. — echinoderms, iii 355, 356, 357. — insects, ii 116; iii 380-381, 390-391, 392, 393, 400; iv 109-110, HI-II2, 115-117, 120, 122, 124, 125-126. — mammals, iii 477-478, 480, 482, 483- 485, 491-492, 494; iv 135, 136-140. — molluscs, iii 407-411, 414-417, 418. — nemertines, iii 419. — reptiles, iii 444, 447,^ 448. — wheel-animalcules, iv 75. Dynastes hercules, i 368. Dytiscus marginalis, i 367, 368; ii 108-109, 439; iii 29; iv 16. E Eagle, fishing-. See Osprey. — golden, i 174; iv6i, 369, 370 (illust.). — white-tailed, i 174. Eagles, i 152, 173-175: iv 347- Ear, i 56, 59; and see Hearing, organs of. Ear-capsule, ii 386-387. Ear-flap, i 57, 81, 98; Hi 74; iv 57. "Earlet", i 82. Earth- Wolf, i 87, 91-92 (illust.); ii 15. Earthworms, i 431, 467-468; ii 258- 259, 328, 444-445; iii 3, 227-230 (ilust.), 360-361 ; iv 8-9, 29, 34, 40, 98, 329-330. Earwig, i 380-381 (illust.); ii 250, 359; iii 167, 377-378 (illust.); iv 44, 358. "Eating-cells", ii 269. Echidna, i 70; H 43, 44; Hi 475; iv — aculeata, iii 475-477. [211-212. Echinococcus veterinorum, iv 342-343 (illust.). Echinodermata. See Hedgehog- skinned Animals. Echinoidea, i 454. See also Sea- Urchins. Echinomyia grossa, ii 119. Echinopora gemmacea, i 475 (illust.). Echinorhynchidse. See Thorn- headed Worms. Echinorhynchus, i 449. — gigas, i 449. [iii 92-93. Echinus esculentus, i 456; ii 412; Echkiroidea (and Echiurus), i 433: ii 149-150, 410. Eciton drepanophora, ii 105-106. — hamata, ii 104-106; iv 120. Economic Zoology, i 15; iv 208-330, 394-400. Ectoderm, i 467, 468, 470-471, 474, 484; iii 339, 342, 344, 345, 359; iv 6, 7, 8, 20, 24, 25, 30, 31, 33, 34, 35, 41, Ectoparasite, iv 76. [46, 47. Ectosarc, i 492, 493. Edentata, i 68, 136; ii 41-42, 178- 180, 234, 322, 327, 341-342 ; iii 253- 257) 482; iv 421, 425, 430, 473-474- Edriophthalmata, ii 141-143. Eel, common, i 283 (illust.); ii 447-448; iii 214, 433-434; iv 128, 274. — conger, i 283; iii 434; iv 32, 274 (illust.). — electric, ii 86, 87 (illust.). — Mediterranean mursena, i 283-284. Eels, i 283-284; iii 43, 272; iv 274, 285. Eel-pout, i 279. Eel- Worm, beet, iv 363 (illust.). — root-knot, iv 363. — stem-, iv 363. Eel- Worms, iv 78; iv 362-363. Efferent branchial vessels or efferent gill arteries, i 242, 262. Efferent nerve-fibres, i 51, 52; iv9- Effodientia, ii 44. Efts, i 246. See also Newts. Egg-bagS, iii 363, 373, 374. Egg-capsules, Hi 378 (illust.), 412 (illust.), 413, 418 (illust.), 424, (illust.). 425 (illust.). Egg-CellS, iii 335-337, 338> 34°, 344, 345-347, 352, 353, 4Mi 478; iv 84, 85. Eggers. See Moths, lappet-. Egg-glue, iii 365, 368. Eggs and Egg - producing or- — amphibians, iii 434, 435 (illust.), 436, 437 (illust.), 438, 439 (illust.), 440, 441, — annelids, iii 358, 360-361. [442. — arachnids, iii 373; iv 196. — ascidians, iii 421, 422. — birds, i 151 (illust.), 161, 163, 188, 190; ii 285-286 (illust.); iii 346, 347 (illust.), 448, 449, 450, 451-452, 453 (illust.), 454, 455-458 (illust.), 461, 462, 464, 465, 466, 471; iv6o (illust.), 186, 187-188, 214, 246, 250. — crustaceans, iii 362-363, 364, 365, 369; iv 298. — fishes, i 264, 284; iii 346, 424, 425 (illust.), 426-427, 429-430, 432; iv 128, 263, 266, 268, 270, 272, 273, 275, 286-287, 450-451- — flat- worms, iv 185, 201, 202, 204. — flukes, i 444. — insects, i 350, 356-357, 35?, 361, 372, 373, 376, 377, 378; ii 464, 466, 467; iii 378-379, 380, 381, 382, 383 (illust.), 387, 389, 391, 392, 396, 398, 399, 400, 402, 403 (illust.); iv 72, no, IIT, 115, 118, 119, 126, 191 (illust.), 192, 193, !94, 253, 254, 351, 354. — king-crab, iii 369. — lancelet, i 294. — mammals, i 69; iii 475, 477, 478. — molluscs, i 314; iii 404, 405-406, 41 1, 412-413 (illust.), 414, 417-418 (illust. . — myriapods, iii 371-373- — nemertines, iii 419. — peripatus, iii 370. — reptiles, i 216; iii 444, 445, 446, 447, 448; iv 214. — tape-worms, i 442-443. — thread-worms, iv 206. — zoophytes, i 472, 479. Egg-SaCS, of Cyclops, i 420. "Egg-tOOth", of embryo reptiles, iii 445, 446 (illust.), 447. Eider ducks, i 176. [iv 339. Elaps corallinus, i 234; ii 79, 303; Elasipoda, iii 96-97; iv 447. Elasmobranchii, i 257, 284-290. See also Sharks and Rays. Elateridse. See Beetles, click-. Elbow-joint, i 30. Electric organs, of fishes, ii 86, 91. Eledone moschata, i 315; ii 94; Hi 418. Elephant, African, i 103 (illust.); ii 172; iv 242-243. — Indian, i 103; H 172; iv 241-242, 243, (illust.), 366, 367. Elephants, i 68, 102-103; " 171-172, 321, 349-35°; »i 153, 49°: iv 212, 241-243, 334, 373, 394, 395, 424, 472- "Elephant "-shrew, i 83, 84 (illust.); ii 37-38; Hi 197-198, 246. Elephas Africanus, i 103; H 172; iv 242-243. — Indicus, i 103; ii 172; iv 241-242, 243, 366-367. — primigenius, iv 394, 475. Elk. i 112; iii 152. — Irish, iv 474 (illust.). Elliot, H. w., iv3o5. Elysia viridis, ii 292. Elytra (sing. Elytron). — annelids, i 429; ii 408. — insects. See Wing-covers. Emarginula, ii 394- Emberiza cirlus, i 156. — citrinella, i 156. — miliaria, i 156. — shceniclus, i 156. Embryo (and see also Development, Life Histories, &c.):— [(illust.). — amphibians, Hi 439 (illust.), 443 — fishes, iii 425 (illust.), 426 (illust.). — lancelet, iii 344-345 (illust.). — mammals, iii 477 (illust.). — reptiles, iii 445, 446 (illust.). — tape-worms, iv 205. — vertebrates, i 62; ii 381-382 (illust.), — zoophytes, Hi 340-341. [420-421. EmbryolOgist, standpoint of, i 13-14. Embryology. See Development. EmeUS, i 187, 188-189; ii 354: iii 128, 130, 449, 450. Empidse, iii 291. Empusa muscse, iv 76, 77. [446. Emys orbicularis, i 218; iii 54, 122, Endoderm, i 467, 468, 470-471, 474, 484, 490; ii 272; Hi 339, 342, 344-34 SI Endoparasite, iv 76. [iv 6. Endosarc, i 492, 493. Endoskeleton :— — amphibians, 239, 251-253. — birds, i 143-146, 186-187. — fishes, i 259-261, 271. — mammals, i 25-32, 66-67. [301. — primitive vertebrates, i 295, 298, 299, — reptiles, i 193-199, 205-207, 214-215, 229-230. Energy:— — actual or kinetic, i 44. — potential, i 44. Engraulis encrasicholus, iv 265. Enoicyla pusilla, iii 386. Entellus Monkey, i 72-73 (illust.). Entomostraca, i 410; ii 254-256. See also Crustacea, lower. EoliS, i 326 (illust.); H 306, 357. 526 INDEX Eophrynus, iv 462 (illust.). Eozoic epoch, iv 457-458. Epeira diadema, i 390-392; ii 127- 129; iii 276; iv 44. Ephelota gemmipara, iii 320 Ephemera danica, i 376. [(illust.). — vulgata, i 376; ii 465. Ephemeridae, i 376-377; ii 115-116, Ephippium, iii 363. [465-466. Ephyrse, i 482; iii 352 (illust.). Epicrium glutinosum, i 256. Epidermis (see also Skin), i 25, 63- 64; iv 25. Epigenesis, doctrine of, iii 336. Epiglottis, i 46; ii 429. Epinephelus hexagonatus, iv 437, Epipodium, i 324- [438. Epipods, ii 401, 403-404. Epipubic bones, i 69; iii 478. Epistylis, iv 99-100 (illust.). Epithelium, i 468, 469-470 (illust.) ; Equus, i 106. [iii 344. — Africanus or tseniopus, i 107 ; iv — asinus, iv 238-239. [239. — Burchelli, i 107; iv 235. — caballus, i 107; ii 165-167; iii 132, 134, 140-147; iv 233-238, 366. — onager, i 107. — Przewalskii, iv 234. — tarpan, i 107. Erethizon dorsatus, i 132; iii 253. Eretmophorus, iv 28-29 (illust.). Erinaceus Europseus, ii 32-33, 342 ; iii 484. Eriocampa limacina, iv 356. Eriodes arachnoides, i 77. Eristalis tenax, ii 119, 216, 314, 441, 442. Erithacus rubecula, i 160. Ermine, i 98; ii 22 (illust.), 290; iv Errantia, i 429. [303. Erycina, iii 108 (illust.). Erythrinus, ii 452. Eschricht, ii 27. [38i. ESOX lUCiUS, i 282 ; ii 84 ; iv 348, 380, Esquimaux, iv 210, 213, 227-228, 233- [423- Ethiopian region, iv 413, 414, 419- Eucyrtidium, i 4*9 (illust.); iii 6 (illust.). [465. Eudromias morinellus, i 169; iii Eudyptes, iii 186. Eudyptula minor, i 186. Euglena viridis, i 489 (illust.), 494; ii 267, 272; iii 6, 88-89; iy 4° (illust.). Euglossa, ii 206. Eumeces Schneideri, ii 77- Eumenes arbustorum, iii 392 Eumenidse, Hi 392-393- [(illust.). Euneces murinus, i 232; ii 79; iii 53; iv 338-339. Euphorbia, iv 80. Euplectella, i 486; iv 446. EuplOtes, iii 88 (illust.). Eurypterida, iv 461-462 (illust.). Euscorpius Europseus, i 387. Euspongia officinalis, i 486, 487; iii — zimocca, iv 324. [326; iv 324. Eustachian tube, i 57, 263. Eustrongylus gigas, iv 362. Eutheria, i 68; and see Mammals. Euthyneura, i 317, 324-328. Evans, A. H., ii 241, 266; iii 466. Everitt, Nicholas, iv 376. Evolution:— — of aesthetics, iv 403-407. — of air-sacs, ii 439. Evolution (Cont.) — of birds, iii 185. [20-23 (illust.). — of brain and nervous system, iv 6, — of crustaceans, iii 364-365. — of ear, iv 38-39. — of gill-clefts, iii 381-382. — of gill-pouches, iii 382. — of human civilization, iv 208. — of insects, iii 274. [452-453. — of lungs, i 47, 264, 269 ; ii 421-422, — of mammals, iii 143, 154, 158, 200, 474-475, 481; iv 471, 472-473. — of metazoa, iii 333-334.' — of parachutes, iii 281, 284, 286. — .of sight organs, iv 40-41, 46-47 — of teeth, i 12-13. [(iliust.). — of wings of insects, iii 314-315. Evolution theory, i 12-17; iv 477-494. — argument from classification, iv 478- development, iv 482. [480. fiprm and structure, iv 480-482. geographical distribution, iv 483- geological record, iv 483. — heredity, iv 492-494. — natural selection, iv 484-489. — supplementary factors, iv 489-491. — variation, iv 491-492. [241. Ewart, Cossar, iii 142; iv 235, 240, Excretory organs:— — amphibians, i 238, 251. — animalcules, i 491, 492, 493. — annelids, i 425, 428. — ascidians, iv 106. — birds, i 140. — crustaceans, i 408, 416, 422. — echinoderms, i 453, 456, 458, 459, 460, 463. — fishes, i 258, 261, 272, 284. — flat-worms, i 442. — insects, i 349. — lamp-shells, i 440. — mammals, i 43-45, 47-48. — molluscs, i 308, 310, 331, 333. — moss-polypes, i 438. — nemertines, i 305. — peripatus, i 401. — reptiles, i 199-200, 208, 215, 227. — siphon-worms, i 433, 434. — thread-worms, i 448. — wheel-animalcules, i 435. Excretory pores of Sea-Flowers (Anthozoa), i 474. [i 331. Exhalent aperture, of molluscs, EXOC03tUS, i 275-276 ; iii 288. — volitans, i 276. EXQSkeleton, i 25; and see Shell, Carapace, Scales, &c. — amphibians, i 255 ; iii 214. — birds, i 141-143. — crustaceans, i 406. [iii 95, 97. — echinoderms, i 452, 456, 460, 464 ; — fishes, i 258-259, 266-269. — insects, i 346. — mammals, i 25, 63-65. — reptiles, i 192-193, 205, 213-214. — spider-like animals (arachnids), i 385-386. Extensor muscles, i 408; and see Muscular system. Eye camera, iv 44-46, 47-48. — compound, i 346; iv 43-44 (illust.). — pineal, iv 47 (illust.), 48. Eyeball, i 57-58 (illust.), 263 Eye-cups, iv 41 (illust.), 42. Eyelid, third, i 140, 151, 205; iii 74; iv 481. Eyelids, i 57, 225, 226, 228. Eyes. See Sight, organs of. Eye-Spots, i 435, 480; iii 359, 36O; iv 40, 41, 42, 46. Fabre, ii 210; iii 387, 392; iv 53, 54, 108, 192, 195. Face, i 28-29, 73, 74, 75- FalCO Eesalon, i 174. — peregrinus, i 174. — subbuteo, i 174. — tinnunculus, i 174. — vespertinus, i 174. FalCOn, peregrine, i 173 (illust.), 174. — red-footed, i 174. FalCOnS, i 173-174; ii 46 (illust.); iii 305, 306 (illust.) ; iv 61. False gill, i 263, 270; ii 386. [132. False Scorpions, i 387, 388-389; ii False Spiders, i 387-388; iii 169. " False- Wireworms", ii 219; iii 225. Fane, Lady Augusta, iv 365. Fasciola hepatica, i 443-445; iv 202, FatS, i 33, 37-38. [360, 361. Feathers, i 142-143 (illust.), 147, iS4> 186, 188; iii 297-298, 301; iv 248-249, - "powder-down", i 178-179. [251. — "rowing", iii 296, 301. — "steering", iii 296, 301. Feather-Stars, 1454,460,461 (illust.); ii 413, 414-415, 264-265; iii 8, 23 (illust.), 278 (illust.), 279, 328; iv 199, Feather tracts, i 142. [482. Fecundity, ii 345-347 ; iii 362, 425, 436, 482-483; iv 193, 194, 202, 486. Feeding habits. See Food. Feet (see also Appendages and Digits):— — amphibians, iii 46, 48, 49. — arachnids, iii 276. — birds, i 161, 163, 164, 166, 178, 184; iii 58 (illust.), 59, 61 (illust.), 62, 65 (illust.), 66, 127-128 (illust.), 261, 263, (illust.), 264, 265-266. — insects, iii 222-223, 273-276 (illust.); iv 254 (illust.). — mammals, i 24, 32; iii 71-72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 79, 81, 155 (illust.), 158 (illust.), 233, 234, 238, 242 (illust.), 243-244, 248, 249, 253, 258, 259, 260. — reptiles, iii 50, 268-270 (illust.). Felidse. See Cats proper. FellS caffra, iv 222. — cattus, i 88 ; iv 222-223, 384. — concolor, i 88 ; ii 9. [384, 386. — domesticus, iii 157, 158 ; iv 222-223, — leo, i 87; ii 9; iv 331, 369-371. — leopardus, i 87-88. — maniculata, i 88; iv. 222, 223. — onca, i 88. — pajeros, i 88. — panthera, i 87-88. — pardalis, iv 429. — tigris, i 87; ii 7-9; iv 331-333, 371- — viverrina, ii 9; iii 75-76. [372- Femur, amphibia, i 241, 252; iii 183. — birds, i 144. — insects, i 344; iii 163, 176. — mammals, i 31-32. — reptiles, i 197-198. Fenestra ovalis, i 57. Fennec, i 93 (illust. 1, 94: ii 19, 279. Fern-Owl. See Night-jar. INDEX 527 "Ferreiro", Hi 437-438 (illust). Ferret, i 98 • iv 369. FetlOCk, of horse, iii 140-141. Fa>er zibethicus, i 130; iii 73; iv 307, 308. [183. Fibula, amphibians, i 241, 252; iii — mammals, i 31-32, 123-124, 125, 127, 131; iii 134-135, Mi, 143, 149, 152, 158, 190, 194, 237, 258. — reptiles, i 197-198. Fieldfare, i 159; iii 463. Filaria medlnensis, iv 343. File-Fishes, i 277-278. File-Shells, iii 36-37 (illust.), 408. Filoplumes, i 142. Fin, adipose, i 282. — anal or ventral, i 257, 271, 273, 278- 279, 282, 285, 288, 290. — caudal, i 257, 258; and see Tail-fin. — dorsal, i 257, 270, 273, 274. — pectoral, i 258, 266, 271. — pelvic, i 258, 266, 271. — unpaired, i 257, 258. FiUS, of amphibians, iii 45, 46. arrow- worms, iii 21. bony-fishes, i 270-271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 282, 283; iii 41-43, 115-116, 182, 272, 288, 289, 427; iv 28-29, 158-159, 272, 275. cetaceans, iii 84. chimseras, i 290. lancelet, i 294-295. lung-fishes, i 264, 265, 266. molluscs, iii 33. round-mouths, i 291, 292. sharks and dog-fishes, i 257-258, 285; iii 40-41. — skates and rays, i 288; iii 44. Finches, i 156 (illust.); ii 187-188; iv — desert, ii 279. [150. Fingers. See Digits. Fin-rays, i 261; iii 115, 118. Fire-cylinder, iv 106 (illust.). Fire-Flies, ii 323; iv 165-166. Fischer, iv 315. Fisheries, iv 279-288. Fishes, i 12, 23, 60, 62, 257-292; ii 83-92, 194-195, 283-284, 291-292, 296, 305-306, 323, 330, 334-335, 355- 357, 383-388, 421-422, 447-456; iii 40-44, 115-116, 182, 214, 272, 288- 289, 422-434: iv 32, 38-39, 46, 47-48, 128-129, I54'I59, T96-i97, 200-201, 204, 205, 214, 261-279, 317-3*8, 329, 340, 348, 379-38i, 392-393, 396-397, 4J7, 4!9, 42i, 428, 433, 437-438, 442~ 444, 448, 463, 466-467. — bony, i 259, 266-284. See also Ga- noids and Teleosts. — cartilaginous, i 259, 284-290. — extinct, iv 463 (illust), 466. — firm-jawed, i 273, 277-278. — soft-finned, 273, 278-280. — spine-finned, i 273-276. — tube-bladdered, i 273, 280-284. — tuft-gilled, i 273, 276-277. Fish-hatching, i 15: iv 284-288. Fish-Hawk, iv 61. Fishing-Frog, i 274; ii 84-85 (illust). Fish- "Lice", ii 144; iv 196-197 (illust.). Fish-Lizards, iv 468, 460 (illust). "Fish Newts", i 247-248. Fission (see also Development), iii 318-320, 325-326, 327-328, 329, 330, 335, 352; iv99, 101, 105. — multiple, iii 321-322, 325. Fissipedia, i 86-98. See also Cats, Dogs, Bears, &c. Fissurella Grseca, i 323; ii 394. Flagellata, i 494-495; ii 266, 267- 268; Hi 8. FlageUum (pi. Flagella), i 471, 484, 494, 495, 498; ii 266, 267, 273, 274; iii 4-5 (illust), 8, 322, 334, 335; iv 101. Flamingo, common, i 177-178; iii 460, 461 (illust); iv 377 (illust), 378. Flamingoes, i 152, 177; iv 378. Fiat-Fishes, i 60, 61 (illust), 279- 280; ii 284, 291; iii 43, 431-432. Flat- Worms, i 304, 441-447; ii 151- 152, 271, 308, 361, 445-446; iii 7, 20- 21, 329; iv 200-205, 268-270, 342— 343, 360-362. Flea, common, i 358; ii 122 (illust); iii 178 (illust). Fleas, i 355, 358; ii 222; iii 178, 314; Fleure, H. J., iv 35. [iv 192. Flexor muscles, i 407; Hi 261. Flies, two-winged, i 351, 355-358; ii 119 (illust), 120-122, 215-216, 251- 252 (illust.), 314, 441-442, 462, 467- 468; iii 167, 178, 289-290, 291, 311, 313 (illust), 402-404; iv 127, 190- 192, 349, 351- " Flittermice ", i 81. Floscularia, ii 263. Flounder, iii 432; iv 269. Flower, ii 166; iii 85, 487, 490. Flowers, iv 83-90. See also Plants. "Flowers of tan", i 498; H 270. Fluke, Liver-, 443-445 (illust); iv 202, 360, 361 (illust.). — Pollack-, i 200, 201 (illust). Flukes, i 441, 443-445; ii 151; iv 200- 203, 342- Flustra, i 436-437- Flycatcher, spotted, ii 61. Flycatchers, American or tyrant, ii — old world, ii 61. [61. Flying Birds, i 152-186. See also Birds. Flying Dragons, i 222; iii 287. Flying-Fish, common, i 276. Flying-Fishes, i 275-276; iii 288- 289. [ing. Flying-Foxes. See Bats, fruit-eat- Flying Frog, H 319 (illust), 323, 327; iii 287-288. Fly ing- "Lemur", i 86 (illust); iii 281-282, 485. Flying-Mouse, iii 285 (illust.), 286. Fly-Mould, iv 76, 77 (illust). Food, animals as a source of, iv 211- 217, 261-300. — assimilation of, i 43; ii 2. [324. — feeding at favourable times, ii 318- in suitable places, ii 324-331. — kinds of, i 33. — necessity for, i 32; ii 1-3. — process of digestion, i 37-38; ii 1-3. — relation between nutrition of plants and animals, iv 68-74. Food and Feeding Habits, i 17; ii 1-274. — of acorn-headed worm, ii 243, 246. — amphibians, i 240, 254, 255; ii 82- 83, 192-194. — animalcules, i 488, 490; H 266-270, 272-274. [259. — annelids, i 429, 433; H 146-149, 257- — arachnids, i 385, 392, 393; ii 125- — ascidians, ii 245-246. [132. Food and Feeding Habits (Cont.) — birds, i 151, 155, 157, 158, 160, 161, 164, 175, 176, 179, 180-181, 183, 186; ii 45-69, 184-191, 235-243, 322; iii 455, 465-466, 467-471- — crustaceans, ii 135 - 144, 220 - 222, 253-256. — echinoderms, H 153-154, 264-265. — fishes, i 274, 275, 276, 278; ii 83-92, !94-i95, 323; iv 283-284. — flat-worms, i 445; ii 151-152, 271. See also Parasitism. — insects, i 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 359, 361, 363, 364, 365, 367, 368, 369, 372, 381; ii 101-124, 202-217, 250- 252, 326-328; iv 56, IIO, III-II2, 116, 119-120, 121, 122-123, 256, 259, — king-crab, ii 144-145. [260. — lamp-shells, ii 260-261. — lancelet, ii 243, 244-245. — mammals, ii 1-44, 164-183, 224-234; iii 474-475- egg-laying, ii 44, 322; Hi 477. flesh-eating, i 91, 94, 98-99; ii 5-25- gnawing, i 128, 129; ii 31-38, 174-178, 321-322, 324-325. hoofed, i 106, 109; ii 165-171, 321, 323-324,366, iv49o. insect-eating, i 83 ; ii 31-38. See also Bats. pouched, ii 42-43, 180-183, 322; iii 478-479. apes and monkeys, ii 164-165, 225, 320, 325, 326. — bats, i 82; ii 38-40, 320-321. cetaceans, i 100-101 ; H 25-30, 490-491. edentates, H 41-42, 178-180, 322, elephants, i 103; ii 321. [327. lemurs, ii 225-226, 320. man, i 32-34; ii 164, 225; iv 208- 217. [49°: sea-cows, i 102; ii 173-174; iii — molluscs, i 311, 319; ii 94-100, 196- 201, 247-250. — moss-polypes, ii 261. — myriapods, ii 132-134, 218-219. — nemertines, ii 93. — peripatus, H 134. [65-74- — plants, i 33, 488; ii 3, 270-274; iv — primitive vertebrates, ii 243. — reptiles, i 199, 215, 218, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 232, 233, 236; ii 70-81, 191-192, 320. — siphon worms, ii 149-150, 259-260. — sponges, i 484, 488; ii 265-266. — thread-worms, ii 222-223. See also Parasitism. — wheel-animalcules, ii 261-263. — zoophytes, i 466-467; u 155-162, 271-272; iv 103. FOOd-grOOVeS, ii 265, 4i4~4I5- Food-vacuoles, ii 266, 268, 419. FOOd-yOlk, i 152; iii 34°. 345 - 347 (illust), 414, 417, 418, 424, 425, 431, 434, 439, 442, 444, 475- FOOt, mammals, &c. See Feet — molluscs, i 307, 317, 319, 321, 323, 326, 332, 334, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341; ii 94, 373; iii 34, 35, 36, 103, 104-106, 107-108, 180 (illust.), 181, 218, 219, 220, 221, 232, 406, 408, 409, 410, 413, 416, 417; iv 35 (illust). — wheel-animalcules, iii 100. Foot-jaws, i 404. See also Mouth- parts, of crustaceans. 528 INDEX FOOt-StumpS, i 425, 426, 428; ii 408; iii 22-23, 98* 226, 227, 228; iv 199. Foramen magnum, i 28. Foramina repugnatoria, i 396, 495- Foraminifera, i 489, 495-496 (illust.); ii ioo, 248, 269-270, 341; iii 6; iv 454, Forbes, i 6; ii 185; 221, 310. [458. Forearm, i 24, 30; iii 16. Fore-limbS. See Limbs. Forest-Fly, ii 122; iv 190. Forflcula auricularia, i 380-381; ii 250; iii 377-378; iv 44, 358. Formic acid, ii 105, 359-360; iv 83, 118. Formica exsecta, iv 82-83; 118-119. — fusca, i 373; iv 175-178. — pratensis, iv 119. — rufa, i 373; iv 116-118. — And see Ant and Ants. Fossores, iii 392-393. Foster, Sir Michael, iii n. "Foumart", i 98. FOUSSa, i 88; ii 12 (illust). Fowl, red jungle-, i 172; iv 246. FOWlS, domestic, i 172, 380; iii 126 (illust.), 347; iv 148, 246-247. — game-, i 172; iv 246-247 (illust.). Fowler, Warde, i 6. FOX, common, i 94; iv 372-373. — Sahara, i 93 (illust.), 94; ii 19, 279. — white or Arctic, ii 18-19 (illust.). Foxes, ii 15, 17-19; iv 326, 345. Foxglove, iv 80, 90, 94. Fratercula arctica, i 184; iii 66. Fredericella, iii 331 (illust.). FregatUS, i 181-182; ii 52-53; iii 62. — aquila, i 182; 1152-53. — minor, ii 52-53. Frenulum, iii 312. Friar Birds, ii 309-311 (illust.). Frigate-Bird, great, i 182; ii 52. — lesser, ii 52-53. Frigate-Birds, I 181-182; ii 52-53 (illust.); iii 62. Fringilla cannabina, i 156. — ccelebs, i 156; ii 187; iii 469, 470. — montifringillina, i 156. Frit-Fly, iv 35 1. Frog, bull-, i 254; iii 50. — common or grass-, i 249-254 (illust.); ii 82, 192, 291, 422-423, 457-458 ; iii 50, 182-184 (illust.), 436-437; iv 408. — edible, i 254; iii 50; iv 153. — flying, ii 319 (illust.), 323, 327 ; iii — Guppy's, i 255. [287-288 - "wrestler", ii 371-372. Frogs, i 249-255; ii 457-458; iii 8, 49- 50, 272, 332, 436-442; iv 26, 201, 152- 154- — tree-, ii 82-83 • "i 437-439, 441-442 (illust.), 272. green, iii 272 (illust.); iv 392. — "water", iii 50. Frog-Hoppers, i 353; " 217; iii 178. Frontal sinuses, iv 191. Frullania dilatata, iv 75. FUCUS, i 320; ii 198, 296. — serratus, iv 75. Fulcrum, iii 15, 16, 302, 310. Fulica atra, i 171 ; ii 240 ; iii 61-62, Fuligula cristata, i 176. [456 — ferina, i 176; iii 59. — glaucion, i 176. — marila, i 176. — myroca, i 176. — vallisneria, iii 59. Function, change of, i 13, 244, 260, 263, 269; ii 80, 126, 386-387, 390, 393, 409, 435; iii 31, 475-477! iv 28-29. Fungi, iv 65, 67-68, 76, 77, 78, 98. Fungia scrutaria, i 475, 476 (illust. ). Fungus-Animalcules, i 496-497 ; ii 270; iii 322; iv 363. Funnel, of head-footed molluscs, 1313, 317; ii 393; iii 31, 32. " Funny-bone ", i 30. Fur, i64, 96, 98, 130, 133-134; »i 68, 69, 7X» 76-77* 201, 202, 203, 204, 207; iv 136, 228-229, 243, 301-308. Furcula (merrythought), i 144, 145, 187 ; iii 298. Furnarius, iii 461, 464. Gad-Flies, i 355; " 119 (illust), 120- Gadidse. See Cods. [i2i;iv43. Gadinia, ii 462. GadOW, ii 334; iii 46, 53, 117, 183, 212, 268, 287-288, 271, 446; iv 338, 391, 392, 432. GaduS aeglefinus, i 278-279; iv 267. — merlangus, i 279; iv 267. — morrhua, i 22, 278; iv 266, 321. — virens, ir 266-267. Galagos, ii 320. Galanthus nivalis, iv 93. Galeodes araneoides, i 387. Galeopithecus, iii 281-282, 485. Galeus canis, i 285. Galium aparine, iv 97-98. Gall. See Bile. Gall-bladder, i 37, no, 200, 241, 253, Galle, i 3- [262, 270. Galleria mellonella, iv 353. Gall-Fly, rose, ii 204-205 (illust). Gall-Flies, i 372; ii 204-205; iv 78-79, 81-82. Gallinse, i 152, 172-173; ii 238-239; iii 450-452; iv 148-149. GallinagO coelestis, i 169. — gallinula, i 169. — major, i 169. Gallinula chloropus, i 171; ii 240; iii 61. "Galls", iv 78-79 (illust), 82. GalluS bankiva, i 172; ii 239; iv 246. — domesticus, iv 246-247. GaltOn, Sir Francis, iv 218, 493. Gamble, ii 292, 308, 446; iv 342, 343. Game-Birds, i 152, 172-173; ii 238- 239: »i 450-452; iv 148-149, 375-377- Gammarus, i 414. — locusta, ii 142. — neglectus, iii 365 (illust.). Ganglion (pi. Ganglia), i 298, 303, 307, 310, 314, 327, 333, 347, 349, 401, 428, 440; iv 8, n, 12, 13-14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 34, 35. — brain (or cerebral), i 298, 310, 333, 349, 401, 409, 427, 428, 438, 440, 442, 444, 446. — buccal, of molluscs, i 327. — foot (or pedal), of molluscs, 1310,333. — lateral (or pleural), of molluscs, i 310, 333. [i 3°9, 333- — visceral (or abdominal), of molluscs, Ganglion-Cells. See Nerve-cells. Gannet, common, i 181, 418; ii 50; iii 62 (illust.), 63, 455. Gannets, i 181; iii 62-63, 471. Ganoidea. See Ganoid Fishes. Ganoid Fishes, i 266-269 (illust); ii 453;_iv277-278.> — " fringe-finned", i 266, 268. — "ray-mined", i 268-269. Ganoid scales, i 266, 268. Gapers, i 334-335- — sand, i 334 (illust); ii 250; iii 220. Gardener-Birds, iv4o6-4o7 (illust). Gare-Fowl, i 184. See Auk, great. Gar-Fish, common, i 275. Garial, Gangetic, i 212 (illust); ii 71. — Schlegel's, i 212. Garialis Gangetica, i 212; ii 7i. Garials, i 209, 212. Gar-Pike, i 268 (illust); ii 453. Garrulus glandarius, i 153-154. Garstang, ii 305, 306, 308. Gasterosteidae. See Sticklebacks. Gastraea theory, iii 34i. Gastric (or peptic) glands, i 37, 146. Gastric juice, i 37; ii 169. Gastric mill, i 407-408; ii 136 (illust). Gastrophilus equi, i 358; iv 191. Gastropoda (see also Snails and Slugs), i 311, 317-328; ii 96-100, 196- 201, 247, 278, 306-307, 335-337, 373, 393-397, 432-434, 459-462; iii 33-36, 104-108, 180-181, 217-219, 412-417; iv 17-18, 35, 57-58, 397-398. Gastrosteus aculeatus, i 276; iii 428; iv 154-157. — pungitius, i 276; iii 428, 430-431. — spinachia, i 276; iii 428, 431. Gastrula, iii 341, 342, 344. Gaur, i 114. Gavise, i 152, 168. Gayal, iv 225. Gazella Arabica, i n8; ii 353. — Bennetti, i 118. — Cuvieri, ii 353. — dorcas, i 118; ii 353. — euchore, ii 353; iii 187-188. — Granti, ii 353. — Soemmeringi, ii 353. — subgutturosa, i 118. Gazelle, Arabian, i 118; ii 353. — dorcas, i 118; ii 353. — Indian, i 118. — Persian, i 118. Gazelles, i 118; ii 353 (illust.). Gecarcinidse, iii 170. Gecarcinus ruricola, ii 220. Gecinus viridis, i 161; iii 263. GeCkO, fringed, iii 286, 287 (illust). — wall, i 221 (illust); ii 319 (illust.); iv 391- GeckOS, i 221-222; ii 73-74, 322, 371; iii 268-269. Geese (and see Goose), i 152, 177; ii 237-238; iv 147-148, 248-249. Gehyra mutilata, iii 268. Gemmation (see also Development), iii 320-321, 325-326, 327-328, 329- 330, 332, 335, 340, 342, 35o, 422; iv 99, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106. Gemmules, iii 326. Generalization, i 2-4. " Generalized type ", i 195-196, 405- Generic name, i Q. [406, 422. Genet, common, i 89. Genetta vulgaris, i 89. Gennceus nycthemerus, i 172. Genus, i 9. Geodephaga, ii 326-327. Geology, i 15, 17; iv 456-458- Geometridse (Geometers), ii 297-298; iii 102-103. INDEX 529 Geomyidse. See Pouched Rats. Geomys bursarius, i 131; iii 204-205. Geonemertes Palaensis, ii 444. Geophilidse, ii 133-134: iii 225. Geophilus longicornis, i 394, 397; iii 225. Geotrupes stercorarius, i 368. Gephyrea, i 304, 433-434. See also Siphon- Worms. Gerard, Sir Montague G., iv332. Germ-cells, iv 49o, 49i, 492, 493. Germinal disc, 151. "Germ plasma", iv 494. Germ theory, i 3. [iii 29. Gerris paludum, i 354; ii 123, 124; Gesner, Conrad, i 9; iv 387. Geum urbanum, ivgS. [(illust). Gibbon, Silver, i 71 (illust); iii 160 Gibbons, i 72; iii 160-161, 237-238. Gibson, Ernest, ii 303. [(illust). Gigantorhynchus gigas,iv 205-206 "Gila monster", iv 338 Gill-aperture, amphibians, ii 457. — crustaceans, ii 403, 469. — fishes, iii 214. Gill-arches, amphibians, i 242. — embryo vertebrates, i 242, 244. — fishes, i 260, 266, 270; ii 386. Gill-arteries, afferent, i 262, 272. • efferent, i 262. [iv 201. Gill-Cavity, or chamber, amphibians, — annelids, ii 408. — crustaceans, ii 400, 402, 403, 469, — fishes, ii 448, 451. [47°- — insects, ii 466. — molluscs, ii 392, 393~394, 395-396 (illust. }, 397, 432-433, 459, 460 (illust ), 261, 462; iii 31. Gill-Clefts, acorn-headed worm, i 301. — amphibians, i 240-242, 248, 249, 254, 256; iii 442-443 (illust). — ascidians, iii 421-422. — embryo vertebrates, i 62-63, 67, 242, 244; ii 381-382. — fishes, i 62, 258, 262-263, 264, 265, 266, 270, 284, 286, 287, 288, 291; ii 381, 386-387, 388, 448. — formation of, ii 381-383. — lancelet, i 295-296; ii 389. Gill-COVer, crustaceans, i 403-404; ii 400, 403. — fishes, i 264, 266, 270, 277; ii387, 388. — king-crab, ii 406. Gill-filamentS, annelids, i 430. — fishes, i 266, 270, 277; ii 388. Gill-foldS, amphibians, ii 457. — crustaceans, ii 469. — fishes, i 262, 263, 265, 266; ii 383, 385, 386, 388, 45i.__ — king-crab, i 423; ii 406-407. Gill-formula, of lobster, 11401 (illust). Gill-openings. See Gill-clefts. Gill-plate, crustaceans, i 404. — molluscs, iii 405-406. Gill-pOUChes, acorn-headed worm, i 301 ; ii 390. — formation of, ii 381, 382. — lampreys and hags, i 292 ; ii 383, 384 (illust), 385. — salamanders, ii 457. — sharks and rays, ii 385-386. "Gill-rakers", ii 387. Gills, ii 381, 387, 388-389, 420. — amphibians, i 240-242, 248, 249, 254, 256; ii 456, 457; iii 442; iv 201. — annelids, i 430; ii 408, 409, 410. — crustaceans, i 403-404; ii 400-402 GUIS (Cant.) (illust.), 403, 404 (illust), 405, 406, 443,469, 470. _ [416. — echinoderms, i 458, 459; ii 413, 415, — fishes, i 62, 265, 270; ii 387, 455, 456; iii 424; iv 200-201. — insects, ii 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468. — king-crab, ii 406. — lamp-shells, ii 411. — molluscs, i 308, 313, 317, 318, 322- 324, 326, 332, 336, 337, 338, 340, 341; ii249, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396-397, 398-399, 432-433, 459, 460, 461, 462. Gill-Slits. See Gill-clefts. Giraffa camelopardalis, i 119-120; ii 170; iii 151. Giraffes, i 109, 119-120 (illust); ii 170; iii 151 (illust), 153. Girdle, of earthworm, i 431. Gizzard, i 146; ii 184 (illust). Gjardiniere, iv 406. Glacier- "Flea", i 384 (illust); ii 214. Glandina, ii 96. Glandular pit, of hoofed mammals, i no, 116, 117. Glareolus pratincola, i 169. Glass-Crabs, ii 279. Glaucus atlanticus, ii 100, 284. Glenoid cavity, i 29. [340. Globe-Fishes, i 278; ii 306, 334; iv Globigerina, i 489, 496 (illust); iii 6 Globigerina ooze, i 496. [(illust). Glochidium, iii 37 (illust.), 406-407 Gloger, ii 347. [(illust.). Glomeris, i 396. [iv 349- Glossina morsitans, i 358; ii 120; Glossiphonia, iii 361. Glossophaga soricina, ii 39- Glottis, birds, i 147. — mammals, i 34, 46; ii 429. Glow- Worms, iv 165-166 (illust). Gluten, i 33. Glutton, ig8; ii 20-21. Glyphocrangon priononta, iv 444, Glyptodon, iv 474. [445 (illust). Gnat, common, i 356-357 (illust); ii 121 (illust), 442 (illust). — ringed, iii 403-404 (illust). Gnats, i 355; ii 121, 251; iii 30, 403- 404 ; iv 190, 340 (illust). — fungus, iv 127. Gnu, i 1 1 8, 119 (illust). Goat, Angora, iv 229 (illust), 230. — Bezoar, i 117; iii 248, 249 (illust); iv 230. — domestic, i 117; iv 229-230. — Kashmir, iv 230. — Rocky Mountain, i 117. — wild, i 117. Goats, i 29, 114, 117; ii 169, 352; iii 248; iv 145, 229-230, 346-347. Goat-Sucker. See Night-jar. Gobies, i 275; ii 87. Gobio fluviatilis, i 282. Gobius niger, i 275. Godwit, bar tailed, i 169. — black-tailed, i 169; ii 66 (illust). GodwitS, i 169; ii 68. Goeldi, iii 437- Goitre, i 43. [114, 119 (illust). Golden-eyed Fly, i 378 (illust.) ; ii Goldfinch, i 156. Gold-Fish, 5 282; iv 392-393 (illust). Goliathus Drurei, i 368. Gomphocerus, i 381. [iii 350. Gonangium (pi. Gonangia), i 479 ; Goniaster, i 450, 457. Gonophores, iii 350-351 (illust.). Gonopteryx rhamni, i 362. Goosander, i 177; ii 238; iii 61. GOOSe (and see Geese), bean, i 177. — bernicle, i 177. — brent, i 177; ii 238 (illust). — Egyptian, i 177. [248. — gray-lag, i 177 (illust); ii 238; iv — pink-footed, i 177. — solan. See Gannet, common. — white-fronted, i 177. Goosegrass, iv 97-98 (illust). Gopher, common, iii 204-205 (illust). — striped, i 126. Gordian-Worm, i 448. Gordius, i 448. [374. Gordon, Lord Granville, iv 369, 372, Gorgonia, i 478. — verrucosa, ii 285. Gorilla, i 72 (illust); ii 348; iii 160 (illust), 161, 236, 237, 494. — savagei. See Gorilla. Gosse, i 7. Gould, iv 405. Goura, i 167. Goureau, ii 316. Graber, iii 135, 165, 166, 232. Grallae, i 152, 171; ii 240; iii 61-62. Granby, Marquis of, iv 376. Grant, Ogilvie, iv 148. Grantia compressa, i 486. Grapholitha nebritana, iv 352. Grapsidae, ii 469. GrapSUS varius, iii 175. Graptolites, iv 458-459 (illust). Grasping Organ of Feather Stars, iii 279. [(illust). Grasshopper, migratory, i 382 Grasshoppers, i 381-382; ii 213, 315; iii 379-380; iv 38, 162. — desert, ii 282. — green, i 381, 382-383; iii 176-177 (illust), 379, 380 (illust). Grassi, ii 212; iii 433; iv 121, 123, 124. Gravitation, laws of, i 3. Gray, iv 210. Grayling, iv 379-381 (illust). Grebe, eared, i 185. — great crested, i 185. — little, i 185; iii 65-66 (illust.), 457. — red-necked, i 185. — Slavonian, i 185. [64-66; iv 308. Grebes, i 152, 183-185 ; ii 53, 295 ; iii Greenfinch, i 156; ii 187. "Green-Fly." See Aphides. Gregarines, i 492, 498-499 ; iii 322 ; iv. 206-207. Grenfell, w. H., iv 381. Greyhound, iv 221 (illust). Grey matter, of brain, i 52. — of spinal cord, i 50-51. Grey Mullet, thick-lipped, iv 273. — thin-lipped, iv 273 (illust.), 381. Grey Mullets, i 275; iv 273. Gribble, ii 222; iii 225-226. Gristle. See Cartilage. GrOOS, Karl, iv 400, 401 , 403. Grosbeak, iii 463 (illust). Ground-Sloths, iii 256; iv 473-474. GrOUSe, black, i 172; ii 239. — red, i 172-173; ii 239; iv 376-377. GruS cinerea, i 170. — communis, ii 241. Gryllldae. See Crickets. GryUotalpa campestris, ii 359; iii 379-380, 381. — vulgaris, i 383; iii 222-223; 'v 358- 530 INDEX GryllUS campestris, i 383. — domesticus, i 383. Guacharo, ii 188. Guanaco, i 122; iii 153; iv 232. Guara rubra, i 180. Gudgeon, i 282. Guenon, green, i 74. Guenons, i 73. Guereza, i 73; iii 237, 238 (illust.). Guiana Pig, i 134- Guillemot, black, i 184. — common, i 184; iii 66, 453. Guillemots, i 184; ii 53. Guinea-Fowl, i 172; ii 239; iv 249- Guinea-Pig, i 134- [250 (illust.). Guinea- Worm, iv 343. Gulars, i 214. Gular sac, iii 287. Gull, black-backed (great), i 168. (lesser), i 168. — black-headed, i 168. — common, i 168. — glaucous, i 168. [(illust.). — herring, i 168 (illust.); iii 57-58 — Iceland, i 168. — little, i 168. [305, 308. GullS, i 152, 168; ii 51; Hi 57-58, 304, Gullet, of mammals, i 35, 37, 49. GulO borealis, i 98. — luscus, ii 20. Gunnel, iii 426. [iv 266, 272, 276. Giinther, ii 296, 356, 448, 451; iii 425; Gurnard, grey, iv 273. — red, i 275; iv 273. [iv 272-273. Gurnards, i 275; ii 306; iii 115, 119; Gut. See Digestive-tube. Gymnophiona, i 245, 255-256; iii 45- 46, 213-214, 442-443. Gyps Riippeli, i 175. Gyrinidse. See Gyrinus natator. Gyrinus natator, i 367 ; ii 440 ; iii 29-30. H Haacke, iii 76, 243. Habenaria bifolia, iv 87, 88. Habrocestum splendens, iv 167 (illust.). Haddock, i 278-279; iv. 267 (illust.). Haddon, ii 450. Hseckel, iii 341- Hsemamceba, iv 341 (illust.). [274. Hsematococcus pluvialis, ii 273- Hsematopota pluvialis, ii 120. Hsematopus ostralegus. i 169; ii 67-68. [468. Haemoglobin, i 38, 45, 428; ii 467- Hag-Fish, Californian, ii 383-384 (illust.). [(illust.). — common, i 292; ii 91, 92 (illust.), 385 HagS, i 291-292; ii 91-92, 383-385. Hair, i 25. — of mammals, i 25, 63-65, 67. See also Fur. Hair-foUicles, i 63 (illust.). Hake, iv 201, 268. Halcyon, ii 54. Half-Loopers, iii 103. Haliaetus albicilla, i 174. Halibut, iii 425, 432 ; iv 268-269. Halichondria panicea, i 486; iv Haliclystus, i 482. [101. Halicore dugong, i 102; ii 173-174; iii 490; iv 313. Halictus, iv 109. Haliotis tuberculata, i 307-311; ii 393-394; iii 412; iv 324. Halitherium, iii 83. Halobates, i 354; ii 124; iii 382. Halopsyche, iv 451. Halteres, i 355; iii 313- [354- Haltica nemorum, i 366; iii 178; iv — undulata, iv 354. HalticidSB. See Beetles, flea-. Hamites, iv 466 (illust.). Hamster, common, i 129. Hamsters, i 129-130; ii 177. Hancock, H. J. B., iv 117. Hand, of mammals (see also Digits), i 24, 30, 31; iii 233-236, 237, 240 (illust), 241 (illust.), 242 {illust.), 243-244, 251, 252 (illust.), 259-260. Hapale Jacchus, i 78. Haploceros montanus, i 117. Haplodactylus, ii 195. Haplodontidse, iv 418. [289, 290. Hare, Alpine or Irish, i 9, 124-125; ii — American, ii 289. Hares, 9, 123-125; ii 174-176 (illust.), 324; iii 188, 482, 483; iv 244, 346, 374. Harelda glacialis, i 176. Banner, iii 100, 33o. Harpa, i 321. Harpagophytum, iv 98. Harp-Shells, i 321. Harpy, crowned, i 174. Harpyhaliaetus coronatus, i 174. Harrier, hen, i 175. — marsh, i 174. — Montagu's, i 174-175. Harriotta, i 290 (illust.), 291. Harte, Bret, iii 236. Hartebeest, iv 141 (illust.). tiv 360. Harvest (or Gooseberry-) "Bug", Harvestmen, i 387, 390 (illust); ii Hasarius Hoyi, iv 167-168. [132. "Hastening of events", law of, iii 119, 348, 439. Hastings, Marquess of, iv 213. Hatteria punctata, i 236-237; iii 56, 444 ; iv 47, 410. Hausen. See Sturgeon, giant Haviland, ii 213. Hawfinch, i 156. Headley, iii 299, 307, 472; iv 61. Head-lobe, of sea-centipede, i 426; iv Head-Louse, i 354. [12, 13. Head-shield, iii 218. Hearing, organs of, iv 24, 32-33, 402. — amphibians, i 245, 254. — birds, i 150. — crustaceans, i 409; iv 36-37. — development of, iv 38-39. — fishes, i 263; ii 386-387; iv 38-39. — insects, i 381, 382; iv 37-38 (illust). — mammals, i 56-57 (illust). — reptiles, i 232. — See also Balance and hearing, organs of. Heart (see also Circulatory organs) : — amphibians, i 240-241, 253. — arthropods, i 342, 348, 400, 408. — birds, i 147-148. — fishes, i 262, 265, 272. — invertebrates, i 303. [(illust). — mammals, i 38-41 (illust); iii 12 — molluscs, i 308, 314, 317, 320, 325, 328, 333, 34°- — reptiles, i 200, 207-208. — vertebrates, i 63, 303. Heart-Urchin, purple, i 459; ii 415 (illust). Heart-Urchins, i 459; iii 357 (illust). Heathcote, iii 164. Hedge - Accentor. See Sparrow, hedge-. Hedgehog, common, i 85 (illust); ii 32-33, 342; iii 135, 484; iv 327. Hedgehogs, i 64, 83, 85; ii 333; iii 246. Hedgehog-skinned animals (echi- nodermata), 1304,450-464; ii 153-154, 223, 264-265, 279, 340, 361, 411-416; iii 3-4, 23-24, 90-97, 114-115, 230, 232, 278-279, 328-329, 354-357; iv 41, 217, 344, 44°, 446, 447, 452, 459, 465. — extinct, iii 93; iv 459, 465. Heilprin, iv 409. Helcion pellucidum, ii 199. Heliastrsea Forskaliana, i 475 Helicarion, ii 373; iii 181. [(illust). Heliconids, ii 3 11-312. Heliosphsera, i 489 (illust.); iii 6 Heliozoa, i 496. [(illust). Helix arbustorum, ii 200. — aspersa, i 326-328 ; ii 196, 199, 335, 433; iii 104, 414; iv 18, 31, 45, 58. — fruticum, ii 200. — hortensis, ii 200. — ichthyomura, ii 200. — lapicida, ii 200. — nemoralis, ii 200. — pomatia, i 328; ii 200. Hell-Bender, i 248; ii 456-457; iii48. Helmet-Shells, i 321. [355; iv 338. Heloderma horrida, i 224; ii 354- — suspecta, i 224; iv 338. Helophilus, ii 119. • HemerobiidSB. See Lace-wing Flies. Hemerobius, ii 114. [(illust). Hemiaster cavernosus, iii 355 Hemichorda, i 293, 300-301. See also Acorn-headed Worm. [189. Hemicognathus leptorhyncus, ii Hemidactylus coctsei, iii 268. Hemiptera, i 351-355 ; ii 122-124, 216-217, 316, 359, 440-441 ; iii 178- 180, 380-383; iv 189-190, 350-351. Hensen, iv 283. Heptanchus, ii 386. Herdman, ii 296, 306; iv 204, 398, 399. Heredity, i 19; iv 486, 492-494. Hermione hystrix, ii 339. Hermit-Crab, common, 1412 (illust); ii 137-138 (illust), 403. — stopper-fisted, iv 446-447. Hermit-Crabs, i 412; ii 220. Hermiteles melanarius, i 373 Hernandez, iv 387. [(illust). Herodiones, i 152, 178-180. Herodotus, iv 223. Heron, boat-billed, i 179. — common grey, i 179; ii 54-55; iv 375. — night, i 179. Herons, i 152, 178-179; iii 463; iv6i. HerpesteS griseus, i 91 ; iv 386. — ichneumon, i 90-91; iv 386. — urva, ii 14. — Widdringtoni, i 91. [271. Herpetodryas carinatus, iii 270, Herrings, i 283 ; iii 425 ; iv 128, 129 (illust.), 200, 263-265 (illust.). Hesperornis regalis, 1145 (illust). Hessian Fly, iv 351. Heteralocha Gouldi, ii 64 Heterocephalus, iii 204. Heterocera, i 360, 362-366. See also Moths. Heterodera radicicola, iv 363. — Schachtii, iv 363. INDEX Heterogeny, Hi 382. Heteromita, i 489, 494; i» 6 (illust.). Heteropods, i 321; ii 99-100 (illust.), 278; iii 34-35 (illust.), 412; iv 35 (illust.). [(illust.). Heteropora Hempricliii, i 475 Heteroptera, i 353-355- Hexactinia, i 474-476. Hexamita, i 489 (illust.); iii 6 (illust.). Hexanchus, ii 386. HiCkSOn, i 7; 11372,448; iiii75; iv45o. Hilara, iii 291. Hip-bone, i 31. Hip-girdles, i 31, 196; iii 119-120. — amphibians, i 239, 251, 253 ; iii 183. — birds, i 145; iii 125. — fishes, i 261. — mammals, i 31; iii 133. — reptiles, i 199, 215. Hippobosca equina, iv 190. Hippoboscidae, ii 122; iv 190. Hippocampus antiquorum, 1277; ii 296; iii 43-44, 427. Hippoglossus vulgaris,iv 268-269. Hippolyte varians, ii 292-293, 294. Hippopotami, i 107-108; ii 171, 321, 351; iii 148, 248, 489-490; iv 334. Hippopotamus, common (amphib- ius), i 107 (illust.); ii 171; iii 489-490; iv 373- — Liberian (Liberiensis), i 107. Hippospongia equina, iv 324. Hippotragus niger, ii 352, 354- Hirmoneura obscura, iii 290. HtrudO medicinalis, i 432; ii 147-148; iii 22; iv 42, 321. — officinalis, iv 321. [467-468. Hirundo rustica, i 161 ; iii 461, Hispa, ii 337- Hissing-Fly, ii 119 (illust.). Histeridse, ii no. Hister quadrinotatus, ii 109. Hoatzin, iii 472-473 (illust.); iv 431. Hobby, i 174; ii 370. Hock, of horse, iii 140-141. Hog, red river-, i 108. — wart, i 108-109. Holarctic region, iv 415. HolOCephall, i 257, 290-291. See also Chimaeras. HolOthuroidea, i 454, 462-464 ; and see Sea-Cucumbers. Holt, iii 426; iv 158. Homarus vulgaris, i 302-304, 342, 402-409; ii 135-137, 400-402; iii 169, 277-278; iv 297-299. Homer, iv 248. Homes, of animals. See Dwellings and Nests. [58. "Homing instinct", i 18; iv 54, 57, Homoptera, i 352-353. HomoriS gutturalis, iii 464. — lophotis, iii 464. Homo sapiens, i 71. See also Man. Honey, iv no, 251-252, 258-259. Honey-bag, ii 206. Honey-Bear, iii 247-248, 255 (illust.). Honey-comb, iv 254-255 (illust.). Honey-eaters. See Friar Birds. Honey-Guide, white-eared, ii 63-64 Honey-Guides, ii 191. [(illust.). Honeysuckle, iv 87, 88, 94 (illust.). Hoofed Mammals. See Mammals. Hoof-glands, i n6. Hoofs, of mammals, iii 143-144, 148, !49. 152, 248. [i 362, 369-370. * ' Hook-and-eye " arrangement, Hoopoe, European, i 164 (illust.). Hoopoes, i 163-164; iii 454. HoplOCampa fulvicornis, iv 356. — testudinea, iv 356. [268. Hoplodactylus Anamallensis, iii Hoplopterus cayanus, iv 404-405. Hop-" Spider", red, iv 360. Horn, iv 310-311. Hornbill, great, ii 186, 242 (illust.). — rhinoceros, i 164 (illust.). Hornbllls, i 164; ii 242; iii 466, 471. "Horncores", ii 352- Horned "Toad", Californian (rep- tile), i 223; iv 392. Hornell, iv 204, 398. Hornet, common, i 374; ii 250; iv 112. Hornets, ii 307. [iv 311. Horns, of rhinoceros, i 105-106; ii 350; — of ruminants, 164, 112-113, XI5> "6, 117, 118, 120; ii 352-354 (illust.); iv 3"- Horse, Arabian, iv 236 (illust.), 237. — Clydesdale, iv 237 (illust.). — Przewalsky's, iv 234 (illust.). Horses, i 106-107; ii 165-167, 350-354; iii 129-130, 132, 134, 140-147; iv 190, 191, 233-238, 366. — prehistoric, iii 143 ; iv 233, 234 (illust. ). — tarpan, or " wild", i 107; ii 350-351; — tiger. See Zebras. [iv 234. Horse-bOt, i 358; iv 191 (illust.). Horse-Fly, great, ii 120. Horse-Leech, i 433. "Horse-shoe Crab." See King- Crabs. Horse-Stinger, i 358, 376 (illust.). Horse-Worm, iv 362. Hotinus candelabrius, iii 179- — spinolae, iii 179-180. Houghton, iv 239, 244. House-Fly, i 355-356, 358; ii 120, 251- 252 (illust.); iii 275-276 (illust.); iv 16 (illust.), 43, 77 (illust.). House- Martin, i 161; iii 461, 467, 468, 471; iv 60. HoUSSay, ii 370; iv 130. [(illust.). Hover-Fly, ii 119 (illust.), 216; iii 402 Hudson, W. H., i 7; ii 10, 17, 303, 305, 343, 371, 372; iii 463, 480, 486; iv 404. Hugo, Victor, i 315; iii 419. Huias, ii 64 (illust.). Hulme, iv 318. Human body, structure and func- tions of, i 24-59. See also Man. Humboldt, iv 216. Humerus, i 29-30, 144, 197-198, 241, 252; iii 118, 298. [89, 431. Humming-Birds, i 163; ii 191; iv Hunuman, i 72-73; ii 164-165. Hurst, iii 403. Huxley, i 2, 24, 402, 418, 435, 436; ii 3, 254, 400, 401; iii 338; iv 282. Hyaena, brown (brunnea), i 91. — spotted, or laughing (crocuta), i 91; — striped (striata), i 91. ii 14 (illust.). Hysenas, i 87, 91; ii 14-15; iv 327. Hyaenidse. See Hyaenas. Hyalincecia, ii 339. Hyalonema, i 486. [328, 339-341- Hydra, i 465-473; ii 160; iii 2, 10, 327, — brown (fusca), i 466. [271-272. — green (viridis), i 465, 466 (illust.); ii Hydra-tuba (pi. Hydra-tubse), i Hydrocarbons, i 33. [482. Hydrochaerus capybara, i 134; ii 178; iii 74-75. Hydrocharis, iv 95. Hydrochelidon nigra, i 168. Hydrogen, i 33; ii 378. Hydroid Zoophytes. See Zoophytes. Hydromedusae. See Zoophytes, hydroid. Hydrometridae, ii 440- Hydrophidae, ii 80; iii 53-54; ^339. Hydrophilus piceus, ii 109, 440; iii 398, 399- Hydropotes inermis, i m. Hydropsy chidae, ii 116. Hydrozoa, i 465-473, 478-483; ii 160- 162, 278; iii 17-19, 89-90; iv 33-34. Hydrus bicolor, iii 54 (illust.). Hyla arborea, iii 272; iv 392. — Europea, ii 82-83. — faber, iii 437-438. — Goeldii, iii 442. Hylidae. See Frogs, tree-. Hylobates leuciscus, iii 160. Hylobius, iv 355. [(illust). Hylodes Martinicensis, iii 439 Hylotoma rosae, iii 388. Hymenoptera, i 351, 369-374; ii 102, 103-107, 202-209, 250-251, 307, 358; iii 28-29, 386-393; iv 108-120, 194- *95, 355-356- "HyOid apparatus", i 29, 193, 199, 229, 239, 244, 260; ii 58. — arch, i 260. Hyo-mandibular bone, i 271. cartilage, i 260. cleft, i 260. Hypoderma bovis, i 358; iv 349. — lineatus, iv 349. Hypogeophis, iii 443- Hyponomenta padella, i 365- Hypotriorchis sublutes, ii 37°- Hypsiprymnus, ii 182. Hyracoidea. See Conies. [250. Hyrax, Abyssinian, i 104 (illust.); iii — Syrian, i 104. — tree-, iii 250 (illust.). Hystricomorpha, ii 178. Hystrix cristata, i 132; ii 342. I lanthina, iii 413- Ibex, Alpine, i 117; iii 151 (illust.). — Arabian, i 117. [iv 230. — Grecian, i 117; iii 248, 249 (illust.); — Himalayan, i 117. — Spanish, i 117. [(illust). IblS, African (^Ethiopica), i 179-180 — scarlet, i 179. Ibises, i 179-180. [386. Ichneumon, Egyptian, i 90-91; iv — grey, i 91 (illust. ) ; iv 386. Ichneumons, i 90-91 ; iii 157. Ichneumon-Fly, yellow-legged, iv 194 (illust). Ichneumon-Flies, 1372-373; " 107, 360; iii 388 (illust); iv 194-195. Ichthyomys, i 129. Ichthyophis glutinosa, iii 442-443- Ichthyopsida, i 204, 237. Ichthyosauria, iv 468, 469. Idotea, i 415; ii 405. Iguana, common, i 222; ii 192, 193 (illust); iii 52, 445. — ring-tailed, iii 52. — tuberculata. See Common. Iguanas, i 221, 222-223, 229; » I92: iii 52-53, 267. 532 INDEX Iguanodon, iv 470 (illust.). Ilium (pi. Ilia), i 145, 196, 197, 199, 241, 252, 253. Ilysia scytale, Hi 211; iv 432. Imago, i 356, 350; and see Insects, vol. iii, &c. [iii 319. " Immortality of the Protozoa ", Impatiens tricornis, iv 91-92. Impennes, i 152, 186; iii 66-67. Inachus, ii 287-289. Incisors, i 35-36. See also Teeth. IndicatOlldse. See Honey-Guides. Indicator Sparmanni, ii 63-64. Infusoria, i 492-495; ii 266-268. See also Animalcules. Inhalent aperture, of bivalve molluscs, i 331, 336. Ink-bag, of molluscs, i 313; ii 372- 373; iv 466. Insecta. See Insects. InsectiVOra. See Mammals, insect- eating. Insects, i 8, 18, 342, 343-385; « ioi- 124, 202-217, 250-252, 282, 286-287, 293-294, 296-300, 307-308, 311-316, 323, 326-328, 337, 346-347, 357-36o, 373; 437-442, 462-468; iii 28-30, 102- 103, 165-167, 176-180, 222-225, 273- 276, 309-315, 377-404; iv 15-16, 26, 29, 31, 37-38, 43, 45, 53-56, 68-72, 81-83, 85-88, 90, 91-94, 108-127, I59~ 166, 189-196, 215, 251-260, 318, 329, 340-341, 393, 399, 417-418, 422, 423, 433-434, 452, 462, 465. — classification of, i 350-351. — extinct, ii 463, 464. — fringe-winged, i 351, 355; ii 216. • — half-winged. See Bugs. — membrane-winged, i 351, 369-374; ii 102, 103-107, 202-209, 250-251, 307, 358; iii 386-393; iv 108-120, 194-195, 355-356. — net-winged, i 351, 374-380 (illust.); ii no— 116, 211-213, 462-467; iii 30, 383-386; iv 120-126, 356. — praying, i 381; ii 116-118; iii 378. See also Mantis, praying. — scale - winged. See Moths and Butterflies. — sheath-winged. See Beetles. — "stick-" and "leaf-", i 381; ii 297- 299, 3595 "i 102-103 (illust.), 378- 379- — straight-winged, i 351, 380-383; ii 116-118, 213, 250, 299, 315-316; iii 176-177, 377-38o; iv 356-357- — two-winged. See Flies. — wingless, i 351, 384-385; ii 213-214; iii 176, 314, 377. [49-53- Instinct and intelligence, i 18; iv — birds, iv 59-63, 130-134, 186. — insects, iv 53-56, 108-127, T76- — mammals, iv 135-142. — molluscs, iv 56-58. Interambulacral areas, i 457-458. Interfemoral membrane, of bats, i 81; ii 38. Intestine (and see Digestive-tube) : — amphibians, i 240, 241, 253. — birds, i 146. — fishes, i 260, 262, 270, 272. — large, i 35, 146. — mammals, i 35, 37, 69; iii ii. — reptiles, i 200, 207, 208, 229. — small, i 35, 146. Introduction, i 1-19. Inuus ecaudatus, i 73-75- Invertebrates, general and classi- fication, i 8, 302 - 304. See also under the various groups. Ipnops Murrayi, iv 443 (illust.). Iris, i 58. Iron age, iv 208. Ischium, i 145, 196-197, 239, 252. Isolation, iv 488-489. Isopoda, i 414, 415 (illust.); ii 142, 143, 222, 404, 405; iv 199. IVOry, iv 394, 395, 475. IXOdeS reduvius, iv 360. — ricinus, iv 195. Jacanas, iii 128, 129 (illust.). Jacares, i 210. Jackals, i 93; ii 15, if. [iv 96. Jackdaw, i 153; ii 235, 236; iii 455; Jacobi, S. L., iv 286. Jaguar, i 88; ii 7, 10; iii 247; iv 142. Java Sparrow, i 156; iv 389. Jaw-bones, i 28, 69 (illust), 108 (illust.). See also Jaws. Jaw -joint, i 28-29, 123. See also Jaws. JaWS, amphibians, i 239, 240, 253. — birds, i 143-144, 166. — fishes, i 259-260 (illust. ), 266, 268, 270, 271, 277—278, 282. — invertebrates. See Mouth-parts. — mammals, i 28-29, 66, 69, 86, 91, 108, 123; ii 7. — reptiles, i 193, 199, 206, 210, 212, 213, 215, 229, 237; ii 80-81. — vertebrates, i 62. [458 (illust.). Jaw-Spines, of echinoderms, i 452, Jay, i 153; iv 97- Jefferies, Richard, i 6, 7. Jelly -Fish (see also Comb-Jellies), i 465, 481-483 ; ii 160, 278, 309 ; iii 3, 17-19, 89-90, 327, 349-353: iv 7, 33-34, 40-41, 1Q2, 344. — compound, i 481; ii 161-162, 417; iii 19, 327; iv 103-104. Jelly-tubes, i 293-264. Jenkin, Fleeming, iv 488. JenMnS, J. Travis, iv 261, 283. Jenks, iv 208, 218. Jenner Weir, iv 149. Jerboa, Egyptian, ii 319 (illust.), 322, iii 196 (illust.). — five-toed, iii 195-196. — Siberian, i 131 (illust.); iii 195-196. — three-toed, iii 196. Jerboas, i 131; ii 279; Hi 192, 194-197. John-Dory, i 273-274; iv 272 (illust.). Johnston, Sir Harry, ii 170; iv 243. Jointed-limbed Animals (Arthro- poda), i 304, 342-424; ii 101-145, 202- 222, 250-256, 337-338, 400-407, 434- 444 ; iii 101-103, 162-172, 174-180, 222-226, 272-278, 331-332; iv 10-16, 26, 460-462, 465. — air-breathing, i 342, 343-402. — aquatic, i 342, 402-424. — classification of, i 342-343. — extinct, ii 342; iv 460-462. Joint-gills, ii 400-402. See also Gills. Jones, Rymer, iii 32. Jouannetia, iii 410-411. JulUS guttatus, i 396. — Londinensis, i 396. [372. — terrestris, i 396; ii 218-219; iii 225, Jumping-Hare, Cape, iii 195 (illust.), 252 (illust.). Jumping-Mice, i 131 ; iii 192, 194- 197. See also Jerboas. Jumping-MOUSC, North American, iii 194-195. [(illust.). Jumping-Shrew, Cape, iii 197-198 — rock, iii 198. [197-198. Jumping-Shrews, i 83; ii 37-38; iii Jungle-FOWl, red, i 172; ii 239; iv 246. Jurinea mollis, iv 82. Justinian, Emperor, iv 259. K Kainozoic epoch, iv 457, 472-476. Kakapo, i 166; ii 319 (illust.), 320. Kallima inachis, ii 298 (illust.). Kauchil, i 109, no (illust.); iii 150, 152 (illust.). Kangaroo, red, iii 189-190 (illust.). Kangaroos, i 14, 69; ii 42, 182, 322, 354, 367: i" 188-191, 478, 479 (illust.), 480; iv 89. Kangaroo -Rat, common, i 130- (illust.), 131; iii 193-194 (illust.). — Lesueur's, iii 480. — red, iii 480. Katydids, i 383. Kea, i 166. Kearton, C. and R., i 7; ii 52, 54; iii Keeble, ii 292. [185, 468. Kent, Saville, iv 437. Kerner, iv 64, 70, 82, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97- Kerr, Graham, ii 456. Kestrel, i 174; iv 327. Kidneys. See Excretory organs. "King Charles's oak-apples", 372. King-Crabs, i 343, 422-423; ii 144- 145, 406-407; iii 369; iv 462. Kingfisher, European, i 164. Kingfishers, i 164-165 (illust.); ii 54; iii 453-454, 471- "King of the Herrings", i 290- 291 (illust.); ii 387. Kinkajou, iii 247-248, 255 (illust.). Kipling, i 121 ; iv 223, 386. Kite, i 175- Kite-Flying, iii 289-291. Kittiwake, i 168; iii 455 (illust.), 456. Kiwis, i 187, 190; ii 68-69, 320; iii 130, 449, 450. Knee, of birds, iii 65. — of mammals, iii 140-141. Knee-joint, i 32. Knee-pan, i 32. Knot, i 169. [260, 479. Koala, ii 180, 181 (illust.), 322; iii 259- KoodOO, common, ii 366. Krait, iv 339. Krauss, ii 140; Hi 171. Kreuz-spinner, i 390. Krieghoff, iii 290. Labial palps, i 332; ii 248, 249. See also Mouth-parts. Labium, i 346. See also Mouth- parts. Labrax lupus, iv 381. Labrum, i 346. See also Mouth-parts. INDEX 533 Labrus maculatus, i 276. Labyrinthodon, iv 467 (illust.). Lace coralline, i 437- [122-123. Lacerta agilis, i 191, 225 ; ii 281 ; iii — muralis, i 225; iii 267-268. — ocellata, iii 445-446. — viridis, i 225; iv 391. Lacertilla, i 203, 221-227; and see Lizards. Lace-wing Flies, i 377, 378; ii "4- Lacon murinus, ii 359- Lacteals, i 38, 42. Lactuca sativa, iv 93. Lady-Bird, seven-spotted, i 369. — two-spotted, i 369. Lady-Birds, i 366, 369 (illust.); ii 109- no, 308; iv 59. Laemargus borealis, i 286. Lagena, i 150. — seminuda, iv 454. Lagomys Alpinus, i 125. LagOpUS mutus, i 172; ii 290; iv 134. — Scoticus, ii 239; iv 376-377. Lagostomus trichodactylus, i 133: " 17- Lagothrix Humboldti, i 77- Lake, iv 260. Lama guanacus, i 122; iii 153; iv 232. — lama, i 122; iv 231-232. — pacos, i 122; iv 231-232. — vicunia, i 122; iii 153. Lamarck, iv 477-478, 489. Lamarckism, iv 489-490. Lamella, of sponges, i 484. — of zoophytes, i 467, 468, 474, 479. Lamellae, iii 269. Lamellibranchia, i 311, 328-338: " 248-250, 398-399; iii 8, 36-37. I04, 108, 180, 219-221, 405-411 ; iv 18, 398-399- Lamna cornubica, i 286. Lampern, i 291 (illust.); ii 91; iii 423; iv 279. [iv 279. Lamprey, river, i 291 (illust.); iii 423; — sea, i 291; ii 91-92; iii 423; iv 279. — small, i 291; iii 423. Lampreys, i 291-292 ; ii 91-92, 383- 385 (illust.). Lamp-Shells, i 304, 438-440; ii 260- 261, 279, 339-340, 411; iii 8; iv 465. — extinct, ii 340; iv 459-460, 479. Lampyridae, ii 323. Lampyris noctiluca, iv 165. Lancelet, i 61, 293-297 (illust.); ii 244-245 (illust.), 382, 389 (illust.) ; iii 8, 40, 214-215 (illust.), 342, 344-345 (illust.); iv 46. Land-Snails. See Snails. Langley, iii 307- LaniUS collurio, i 158. — excubitor, i 158; ii 65. Lantern-Fly, Chinese, iii 179 (illust.). Lantern-Flies, i 353; iii 179-180. Lapwing, i 169; iii 454, 472 (illust.). — spur- winged, iv 404-405 (illust.). Larks, i 156; ii 370; iii 303. — desert, ii 279. Larus argentatus, i 168; iii 57-58. — canus, i 168. — fuscus, i 168. — glaucus, i 168. — leucopterus, i 168. — marinus, i 168. — minutus, i 168. — ridibundus, i 168. Larva (pi. Larvae), i 140; iii 347-348. — acorn-headed worm, iii 7, 420-421. VOL. IV. Larva — amphibians, iii 434-435, 436, 437, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443. See also Tadpoles. — annelids, iii 7, 359-360; iv 199. — ascidians, i 298-299; iii 38-39, 421- 422; iv 38, 46. — crustaceans, i 417; iii 25, 27-28, 364- 365, 366-367, 368, 369; iv 197, 198. — echinoderms, i 450, 461 ; iii 7, 23, 354-357- — fishes, i 292; iii 423, 431, 432-434. — flat-worms, 1444; iv20i, 202, 204-205. — insects. See also Nymphs and Caterpillars. membrane-winged, i 370, 371, 372, 373; » 203, 204, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392; iv no, 115, 116, 118, 120, 194-195, 256. net-winged, i 374, 375, 376, 377, 378-379; ii 111-113, "4, 1*5, IT6, 467 ; iii 385-386. beetles, i 367, 369 ; ii 107, 109, no, 209, 211, 337, 439; iii 223-224, 394, 398; iv 192, 193, 194, 329, 354, 355. bugs, i 353; ii 123, 217, 359; iii 224-225. flies, two-winged, i 357, 358 ; ii 121, 215, 216, 441-442, 467-468; iii 30, 178, 402-403; iv 37, 127, 191, 215, 329, 351- moths and butterflies. See Cater- pillars. — king-crabs, iii 369. — molluscs, iii 37, 404-405, 406-407, 411-412, 414. — moss-polypes, iii 7. — myriapods, iii 372. — nemertines, iii 419. — sponges, iii 342. — zoophytes, iii 350, 353. Larynx, birds, i 147. — mammals, i 47 (illust.). Lasiocampa quereus, i 364; iv 163. Lasiocampidse, iii 400. LasiuS flavus, i 373; iv 119-120. — niger, i 373; iv 119. Latax lutris, ii 23-24; iii 77; iv 304. Lateral line, i 263, 271, 447, 448; iv Latex, iv 80-81, 93- [39- Latrodectus scelio, ii 127, 308. Laughing Jackass, i 164-165 (illust.). Law, i 17. Leaf-green. See Chlorophyll. Leather, iv 310, 317. [351. "Leather-jackets", ii 215-216; iv Lecanium ribis, iv 35i. Leech, fish-, iv 200 (illust.). — green, iv 321. — horse-, ii 149. — medicinal, i 432; ii 147-148 (illust.); iii 22; iv 321. Leeches, i 425, 432-433; » 147-149, 409-410; iii 22, 99, 360, 361; iv 8, 42, — land-, ii 148-149. [200, 341. Leeuwenhoek, iv 43. Leg, i 31-32. See also Tibia and Fibula. Legs (see also Limbs, Appendages) : — arachnids, i 386, 389, 391, 393. — birds, i 141, 188; iii 58, 59, 62, 65, 126-128, 120-130. — crustaceans, i 403, 406, 413, 414, 420; iii 28, 169-172, 277, 278. — insects, i 345, 381, 382, 383; ii 113- 114, 115, 117, 123; iii 29-30, 165-167, 176, 178, 222-223, 273, 274; iv 254. Legs (Cot it.} — mammals, i 31-32; ii 354; iii 140, 159, 161, 162. [163-165. — myriapods, i 394, 395, 396, 397; iii — peripatus, i 399, iii 101. Lemming, Norwegian, i 130 (illust.). Lemmings, i 130; ii 177. Lemna, iv 95. Lemur, bear, iii 243 (illust. ). — catta. See Ring-tailed. — dwarf mouse-, iii 493. — ring-tailed, i 80 (illust.). Lemurs, i 68, 79-80; ii 225-226, 320; iii 240-244, 492-493; iv 140, 420, 422, 424, 427, 473. — slow, ii 319 (illust.); iii 242-244. LemUTOidea. See Lemurs. Lens of Eye, i 58; iv 47-48. [247. Leopard, African, i 88; ii 5, 7, 10; iii Leopards, hunting, i 88; ii 10-11 (illust.); iii 157-158. Lepas anatifera, i 417-418; ii 254; iii 363-364. [268. Lepidodactylus aurantiacus, iii LepidOptera (see also Moths and Butterflies), i 351, 358-366; ii 120, 214-215, 252, 293-294, 297-299, 307- 308, 311-314, 346-347, 359-36°; i" 309-402; iv 351-353- U56. Lepidosiren, i 264, 265, 266; ii 83, Lepidosteus, i 268; ii 334, 453. Lepisma saccharina, i 384; ii 214. LeptOCephalUS brevirostris, iii 434 — Morrisii, iii 434. [(illust.). Leptodactylusmystacinus, 111437. Leptodera oxophila, ii 222. Leptogorgia virgulata, ii 285. Leptoplana tremellaris, ii 152; iii 20-21. [iii 357 (illust.). Leptoptychaster Kerguelensis, Leptostraca, i 41°, 4^6; iii 365- LepUS Americanus, ii 289. — cuniculus, i 9, 124; ii 174-176; iii 482; iv 141, 243-244, 308, 375, 386. — timidus, i 9, 124; ii 174-176; iii 188, 482, 483; iv 244. — variabilis, i 9, 124-125; ii 289. Lernaea, iv 197 (illust.). Lett, W. P., ii 16. Leucandra aspera, i 487 (illust.). Leucania pallens, i 364. LeUCiSCUS alburnus, iv 396. — cephalus, i 283. — phoxinus, i 283. — rutilus, i 282; ii 449, 450. — vulgaris, i 283; iv 396. [203. Leucochloridium paradoxum, vi Leueopsis gigas, iv 195. Leverets, i 124; iii 483. Leverrier, i 3. Levers, iii 15 (illust.), 119, 302, 310. Lewis, iii 300. [384 (illust.). Libellula depressa, i 375, 376; iii Lice, i 354; ii 122, 124; iii 314; iv 190. Lichens, iv 65, 75-76 (illust.). Liesk, H 221. Life-histories, iii 316, 335-339, 349. — acorn-headed worm, iii 420-421. — amphibians, i 254; ii 457-458; iii 45- 46, 434-443. — animalcules, i 497, 498; iii 317-325, 333-334! iv 341- — annelids, iii 329-330, 334~335, 35s- 361; iv 199-200, 206-207. — arachnids, iii 373~377: iv 195-196- — ascidians, i 298, 299; iii 38-39, 421- 422; iv 105-106. 129 534 INDEX Life-histories ( Con t. ) — birds, iii 448-474. [196-199. — crustaceans, iii 27-28, 362-369; iv — echinoderms, i 450, 461; iii 328-329; 354-357- _ — fishes, iii 422-434; iv 282-283. — flat -worms, flukes, i 444-445; iv 200-203. planarian worms, iii 329. tape-worms, i 442-443 ; iv 203- 205, 342-343. — insects, membrane -winged, i 371, 372; ii 203; iii 386-393; iv 108-120, i94~195, 256. net-winged, i 374, 376, 377, 378- 379; ii 464, 466-467; iii 383-386; iv 121-126. [377-38p- straight-winged, i 350, 380; iii wingless, iii 377. [iv 192-194. beetles, i 367; ii 211; iii 393-399; bugs, i 353 ; ii 217 ; iii 225, 380- 383; iv 380-381. flies, two-winged, i 356-357 ; ii 467-468; iii 402-404; iv 72, 191. moths and butterflies, i 359-360, 361, 362, 363. 364. 365; "i 309-402; — king-crabs, iii 369. [iv 72, 259. — lancelet, iii 342, 344~345- — mammals, iii 474-494. — molluscs, i 323-324; iii 404-419. — moss-polypes, i 436; iii 330-331. — myriapods, iii 370-373. — nemertines, iii 419. — peripatus, iii 370. — reptiles, iii 443-448- — sponges, iii 325-326, 341-342, 343. — thread-worms, i 448, 449; iv 205-206, 343-344- — zoophytes, i 478-480, 482 ; iii 327- 328, 339-341, 349-353: ^ 101-104. Ligaments, i 330; iii 141-142, 299, Ligia oceanica, ii 143. [301, 3°2- Ligula, ii 205, 206. See also Mouth- parts of insects. Ligurinus chloris, i 156; ii 187. Lima, iii 36-37, 408. Limacina, iv 45r. Limax, iii 414. '— agrestis, i 328; ii 247; iv 348. — maximus, ii 199, 201. Limb-gills, ii 400-402. See also Gills. Limbs (see also Appendages, Legs, Digits, &c.): — amphibians, i 22-23, 250-253 (illust.); iii 48-50, 117-119, 120-121, 182-183 (illust.), 212-214, 272. — birds, i 140-141; iii 58, 59, 61-62, 65-67, 125-132, 261-267, 295-304. — fish, i 23. — mammals, i 24, 29-32, 61, 66-67, 91, 98, 100, IOT, 102; ii 25-26, 182; iii 70-86, 132-144, 147-162, 186-198, 201-207, 233-260, 292-294. — reptiles, i 196-199, 207, 213, 215, 216, 228, 232; iii 50-51, 53-56, 122- 124, 208, 209, 211, 267-270. — vertebrates, i6i; iii 117-120 (illust.). — evolution of, iii 117-121. — modification of, i 61, 66-67, 70, 100, 104, 127, 140. Limenitis misippus, ii 312. — sibylla, ii 312. Limicolse, i 152, 168-169. Limnsea stagnalis, i 328; ii 434; iii 34, 104, 106, 414; iv 18. — truncatula, i 444; iv 360, 361. Limnobates stagnorum, i 354; ii 123-124. LimnopMlus rhombicus, i 375 (illust.). Limnoria lignorum, ii 222; iii 225- 226. Limosa belgica, i 169; ii 66. — lapponica, i 169. Limpet, bonnet-, iii 413. — common, i 323; ii 197-199 (illust.), 336-337, 395-396, 432-433; i" 104, 272, 412, 415 (illust.), 416-417 (illust.); iv 35, 42-43, 57-58 (illust.). — John Knox's, i 323 ; ii 395-396 (illust. ). — keyhole, i 323; ii 394. Limpets, i 323-324; ii 196, 197-199; Hi 416-417. LimulUS, i 422-423 (illust.); ii 144-145, 406-407; iii 369. — polyphemus, iii 369 (illust.). Linaria cannabina, ii 187; iii 470. Lincecum, ii 208. Linckia multiflora, iii 329 (illust.). Linckiidse, iii 328, 329 (illust.). Line-Fishing, iv 261-262. Linens marinus, i 305. Ling, iv 267-268. Linguatulidse, i 387, 393; iv 196. Lingulella, iv 46o. Liunsea borealis, iv 97 (illust.). Linnaeus, i 9-10, 351; ii 346. Linn6, Karl von. See Linnaeus. Linnet, i 156; ii 187; iii 470 (illust.). Lion, i 87; ii 5, 7, 9; iii 491; iv 98, 145, 213, 33i, 369-371 (illust.). Liopelma, iv 428. Lipoptena cervi, iv 190. Lips, of arthropods, &c. See Mouth- parts. [173. — of mammals, i 34, 69, 103, 120; ii Lithinus nigrocristatus, ii 287 (illust.). Lithobius forficatus, i 394; ii 132- 133; iii 165, 371-372- Lithocolletis corylella, i 365- Lithodes maia, ii 338. LithOdoniUS, iii 411. [iv 297. Littorina littorea, i 318; ii 196, 460; — obtusata, i 320. — rudis, i 320; ii 460. Littorinidse, ii 459-460. See also Littorina. Liver, i 37, 48. "Liver" tubes, i 348. Liverworts, iv 75 (illust.). Livingstone, iv 215. Lizard [and see Lizards) : — black-lipped tree-, i 222. — bronze-, ii 77 (illust.). three-toed, i 225. — capuchin, i 223. — common, i 225. — cylinder, ii 77 (illust.). — European snake-eyed, i 225 (illust). — eyed, iii 445-4f6. — frilled, i 222; iii 123-124 (illust.). — Galapagos land-, ii 192. — Galapagos sea-, i 222-223; ii 192; iii 51, 52 (illust.). — green, i 225; iv 391. [(illust.). — sand, i 191-203; ii 281; iii 122-123 — Spanish, iii 446. — stump-tailed, i 226 (illust.); ii 76. — viviparous, iii 446. — wall, i 225; iii 267-268. Lizards (see also Iguanas, Monitors, &c.), i 199, 203, 221-227; ii 73-76, Lizards (Cont.} 192, 281-282, 329, 333-334, 344-345, 370-37 i, 424, 425; Hi 51-53, in, 122-124, 184-185, 207-210, 267-270, 286-287, 332, 445-446; iv 151, 152, — agamoid, i 221, 222. [328. — burrowing, i 225. See also Skiuks. — common, i 221, 225. — flying, i 222; iii 287. — scale-footed, i 221, 222. — snake-, i 221, 223-224; ii 76. reversible, ii 76; iii 209-210 (illust.). [282. — thorny-tailed, i 222; ii 77 (illust.), — Tunisian, ii 77 (illust.). — venomous, i 221, 224-225; ii 354- 355 (illust.); iv 338. [232. Llamas, i 120, 122 (illust.); iv 231- Lloyd Morgan, i 7; ii 74, 343; iv 49, 5o, 53, 56, 59, !56, 186, 401, 492, 494. Loach, common, i 283; ii 450. — spring, ii 450. Lobelia cardinalis, iv 89. Lobster, American, iv 297. — common, i 302-304, 342, 402-409 (illust.); ii 135-137, 400-402 (illust.); iii 169, 277-278 (illust.); iv 297-299 — Norway, i 412. [(illust. ). — rock-, i 410, 412 (illust.); ii 137, 279, 338; iii 368; iv 37. [43. Lobsters, iii 27, 332, 365; iv 35-36, Lob-WOrm, common, ii 257 ; iv 34 "Local death", i 43-44. [(illust.). LOCUSt, migratory, i 382; ii 213; iv 356-357 (illust.). — red-legged, iii 379 (illust.). LoCUStS, i 381-382; ii 213, 439; iii 379; iv 3l8, 356-358- [177- Locusta viridissima, i 383; iii 176- Locustella naevia, i 160. LoCUStidse. See Grasshoppers, green. Locust -shrimps, i 410, 413-414 (illust.). "Lodge", of beaver, iv 139-140. Logger-head, iii 59-60. Loir. See Dormouse, fat. Loligo vulgaris, i 314; ii 94, 392; Long, Francis, ii 19. [iii 417-418. "Longicorns", Hi 273. Lonicera alpigena, iv 94. — Etrusca, iv 87, 88. Looping movements, i 364, 432, 467; iii 99, 102-103, IO7- Lophius piscatorius, i 274; ii 84- 85; Hi 115. Lophobranchii, i 273, 276-277. Lophohelia, iv 446. Lophophore, ii 261. Lophopus crystallinus, i 438; ii 261; iii 100, 331. Lories, H 191. Loriquets, ii 191. [(illust). LoriS, common, ii 320; iii 241, 242 — gracilis. See Slender. — slender, iii 241 (illust.), 242. Lota vulgaris, i 279. Love-Birds, i 166; iv 390-391. Lower jaw-bone, i 28, 108. See also Jaws. [188. Loxia curvirostra, i 156; ii 187- LubbOCk, Sir John. See Avebury, Lord. Lucanus cervus, i 368. Lucernaria, i 482. Luciola, iv 165-166. Lugard, Captain, iv 240. [iii 226. LugWOrm, i 430 (illust.) ; ii 408-409; INDEX 535 LumbriCUS herculeus, i 431 ; ii 258 — rubellus, iii 361. [iii 228. Luminous organs, of insects, iv Lump-Fish, iii 425- [165-166. Lumpsucker, ii 292. "Lung-books", i 386; ii 442-443. See also Breathing organs, of arach- nids, [ii 83, 456. Lung-FiSh, African, i 264, 265 (illust). ; Australian, i 264, 265 (illust. ) ; ii 83-84, 454-456. [ii 83, 456. South American, i 264, 265, 266; Lung-Fishes, i 257, 264-266; ii 83- 84, 330, 422-423, 453-456; iv 29-30, LungS, i 45-47; ii 420. [411-412. — amphibians, i 240-242, 244-245, 254, 256; ii 422-423, 456, 457. — birds, i 47; ii 426-427 (illust). — crustaceans, ii 443, 469. [421-422. — evolution of, i 47 ; ii 452-453 ; iii — fishes, i 264; ii 453-456. [(illust.). — mammals, i 45-47, 67 ; ii 427-431 — molluscs, i 328; ii 432-434 (illust.), 460, 461, 462. — reptiles, i 202, 209, 226-227, 230; ii Lung-sac, ii 436. [424-426 (illust.). Lung- Worm, iv 362. Lures, of fishes, ii 84-86. Luth, i 216 (illust.). Lutra felina, ii 23. — vulgaris, ii 22-23; i" ?6. Lycosa, ii 114. — piratica, ii 130-131. — tarantula, ii 130. Lycosidse, i 393; iii 373-374- Lydekker, i 17; iii 194, 493; iv 384. Lymph, i 38, 41-42, 469. Lymph-system, of annelids, i 428. — of mammals, i 38, 41-43 (illust). Lymphatic glands, i 43. — vessels, i 42. [89. Lynx, Polar (vulgaris), i 88 (illust.), — Spanish fpardinus), i 88. Lyre-Birds, i 161. Lyriocephalus scutatus, iii 270. Lyrurus tetrix, ii 239. Lytta vesicatoria, iv 321. M MacaCUS cynomolgus, i 74. — ecaudatus, i 74. — nemestrinus, iii 233, 234. — rhesus, i 74. — silenus, i 74-75. Macaques, i 74-75. MacaWS, i 166; iv 390 (illust), 391. MacBride, iii 92. [287 (illust). MacDonald's hatching-bottle, iv Macgillivray, iii 61. Machairodus, iv 474. Machetes pugnax, i 169. Machilis maritima, i 384. Mackerel, common, i 274; iii 42, 43, (illust.) ; iv 270 (illust). — Spanish, iii 41-43. Mackerels, i 274; ii 84; iv 128-129, 270-271. Mackerel-Pikes, i 275-276. Macrobiotus, i 394 (illust). Macronucleus, i 493; iii 323, 325. Macropodidse. See Kangaroos. Macropomus viridiauratus, iii Macropus, ii 182. [427. — rufus, iii 189-190. MacrOSCelideS tetradactylus, iii 198. — typicus, i 83; iii 197-198. Madrepora laxa, i 475 (illust). Madrepores (madrepore corals), i 452, 475- _ f?5~96. Madreporite, i 452, 458, 463; iii 91, Maggot, i 356. See Larvae. Magot, i 74. Magpie, i 153- Maia, ii 287-289. — squinado, i 411 (illust). Mail-Shells, i 340-341 (illust); ii 342, 391-392 (illust.); iii 104, 404-405; iv 16-17 (illust). MalaCOStraca, i 410. See also Crus- tacea, higher. Mallard. See Duck, wild. Malleolar bone, iii 152. Malpighi, i 12. Malpighian tubes, of insects, i 349. Maltby, w. B.,ii455. Mamestra brassicse, i 364; iv 352- Mammals, i 8, 60, 63-138; ii i-44, 164-183, 224-234, 279, 289-290, 295, 301-303, 427-431; iii 68-86, 132-162, 186-198, 199-207, 232-261, 281-286, 292-295, 332; iv 29-30, 88, 89, 134- 142, 144-146, 208-213, 220-245, 301- 308, 325-327, 331-336, 345-347, 366- 375, 382-387, 394-395, 4T5-4J6, 4I8, 419-420, 422, 424-425, 426-427, 429- 430, 480-482. — egg-laying, i 69-70, 138; ii 44, 332; iii 69-70, 475-478; iv 211-212, 427. — extinct, i 111-112; iii 83, 143, 256; iv 471-475, 481-482. — flesh-eating, i 68, 86-99; ii 5-25, 226-231, 343; iii 75-86, 154-158, 188, 247-248, 491-492; iv 212-213, 220-224, 303-307, 366-373, 382-386, 415, 418, 420, 422, 424, 429, 436, 472-473. — gnawing, i 68, 122-135; " 174-178, 234, 321-322, 345-346, 366-368; iii 72- 75, 188, 192-197, 202-205, 250-253, 282-284, 482-484; iv 135-141, 212, 307-308, 374-375, 386-387, 416, 418, 421, 422, 425, 430, 473. — hoofed, i 68, 104-122; ii 165-171, 231-234, 321, 350-354, 365-366; iii I37~I54, 186-188, 248, 249, 486-490; iv 140-142, 144-145, 212, 373-374, 415-416, 418, 420, 422, 424, 426-427, 429-430, 472. — insect-eating (see also Bats), i 68, 83-86; ii 31-38; iii 71-72, 197-198, 200-202, 245-247, 281-282, 484-485; iv 212, 415, 418, 420, 422, 424, 429, 473- — pouched, i 69, 136-138; ii 42-43, 180-183, 322, 354, 430-431; iii 70, 188-192, 205-207, 257-261, 284-286, 478-481; iv 411, 418, 427, 430, 474. — See also Man, Monkeys,&c., Lemurs, Cetaceans, Sea - Cows, Elephants, Conies, and Edentata. Mammary glands. See Milk- glands. Mammillaria, iv 95. Mammoth, iv 394, 475 (illust). Mampalon, ii 13 (illust). Man, i 15, 21-59 (illust), 70-71; ii 6, 225; iii 8, 158-162 (illust), 233-237, Manakins, iv 43i. [493-494- Manatee, i 102 (illust); ii 173; iii 81- 82 (illust), 490. [iii 81-82, 490. Manatus Americanus, i 102; ii 173; Mandible, i 28. See also Jaws. Mandibles, i 345-346. See also Mouth-parts. Mandibular arch, i 260. [(illust). Mandrill, i 75-76 (illust); iv 145-146 MangOUSti, crab-eating, ii 14. MangOUStiS, i 89, 90-91; ii 13-14; iii 156-157; iv386. [42, 295. Manis pentadactyla, i 136, 138; ii Mantidse. See Mantis, praying-. Mantis, praying-, i 381; ii 117-118 (illust), 315-316; iii 167, 378 (illust). Mantis net-wings, ii 1 1 3-1 14 (illust ). Mantispes styriaca, ii 114. Mantispides, ii 113-114. Mantis religiosa. See Mantis, praying-. [404; iii 369. "Mantis-Shrimps", i 413; ii 141, Mantle, of molluscs, i 308, 329, 330; ii 432, 433- — -cavity, of molluscs, i 308, 312, 313, 319-320, 327-328, 332; ii 392. gills, of molluscs, ii 396-397. — -lobes, of molluscs, i 331, 338; iii Manubrium, i 479. [220-221. Manyplies, ii 169. See also Diges- tive organs, of mammals, herbivorous. Mareca penelope, i 176; iii 58. Marey, iii 311. [398. Margaritifera vulgaris, iv 205, Margarodes, iv 400. Markham, Gervaise, iv 244. Markham, Sir Clements, iv 315. Marmoset, common, i 78 (illust. ). Marmosets, i 71, 78-79; ii 225; iii 494- Marmot, Alpine, i 126; iv 387. Marmots (see also Prarie-Marmots), i 126-127; iv 135. Marrow, i 24-25, 26, 28. Marshall, Milnes, i 14; ii 2; iii 337. Marsupialia, i 69; and see Mam- mals, pouched. Marsupial Mole. See Pouched Mole. [iv 303. Martens, i 97-98; ii 22; iii 156, 247; Martin, H. T., iv 136, 139. Martin, house-, i 161; iii 461, 467, 468, 471; iv 60. — sand-, i 161; iii 453. Mask, of insects, ii 115. , Masking, ii 287-289. Mastacembelidse, iv 426. Mastax, i 435- Mastodonsaurus, iv 467. MataCO, ii 34J-342. Mating. See Courtship. Matter, i 4- MaxillSB, first, i 345-346. See also Mouth-parts. — second, i 345-346. See also Mouth- parts. May-Fly, common, i 375, 376 (illust); ii 465 (illust). May-Flies, i 374, 376-377; ii 115-116, 465-466; iii 30; iv 164-165 (illust). M'Cook, ii 208, 209. Meadow-Flies, ii 119 (illust). Median lines, i 447, 448. Medulla oblongata, i 50, 150, 203, 253: iv2i. Medusa (pi. Medusas), i 478, 479, 480, 481, 482. See also Jelly-Fish. — "covered-eyed", i 483. — "naked-eyed", i 483. Megachile, iii 391. Megalobatrachus maximus, 247; ii457; iii 48. 536 INDEX Megalopa, iii 28, 366 (illust.), 367- Megalops thrissoides, iv 381. Megapelia (Goura) victories, ii Megapodiidse, iii 450-452. tl85- MegapOdiUS eremita, iii 451. — Layardi, iii 451. — tumulus iii 452. Megatherium, ii 327; iv 473-474. Melanism, iv 384. [443. Melanocetus Murray!, ii 85-86; iv Melauoplus femur - rubrum, iii 379. [iv 249. Meleagris gallopavo, i 172; ii 239; Meles taxus, i 97; U 230; iii 156. Melianthus major, iv 87, 89. Melipona fasciculata, iv 251-252. Mellinus arvensis, i 373; ii 106. Melliyora, ii 231. Meloe, iv 193-194. Meloidae. See Beetles, oil-. Melolontha vulgaris, i 368; ii 209; iii 224; iv 354. Melopliagus ovis, iv 190. Melophorus, ii 206. Melopsittacus undulatus, iv 39o. Membranipora, i 437. [i 245. Membranous labyrinth, amphibia, birds, i 150. fishes, i 263; iv 39. mammals, i 56. reptiles, i 203, 209, 232. vertebrates, lower, iv 39 (illust.). Mendel, iv 493, 494. Menhaden, iv 318. [iv 356. Menopon pallidum, i 380; ii m; Mephitis suffocans, ii 301-303, 354- Merganser, red-breasted, i 177; ii 54 (illust.); iii6o-6i (illust.). Mergansers, iii 60-6 1. Mergulus alle, i 184. MergUS albellus, i 177. — merganser, i 177; iii 61. — serrator, i 177; ii 54; iii 60-61. Merlin, i 174; iv 327. Merluccius vulgaris, iv 268. " Mermaids' purses ", iii 424. Merostomata, iv 462. Merriam, Hart, iii 253. [iii 298. "Merry-thought", i 144. MS, 187; Mesenteries, i 473, 474, 476. Mesoderm, iii 342, 344, 345; iv 47- Mesogloea, iii 339, 342. Mesotarsal ankle-joint, i 146, 199- Mesozoic epoch, iii 308; iv 457, 464- 471. Metacarpus, ii 197, 198; iii 134, 299. Metagenesis, iii 382, 422. Metamorphosis, i 350; iii 377. See also Life-histories. — acorn-headed worms, iii 420-421. — amphibians, iii 434- 435, 438-439, — ascidians, iii 421. [442, 443. — crustaceans, i 409. — echinoderms, i 450; iii 354-356. — fishes, iii 423, 431-433. — insects, membrane-winged, i 370; iii 386-393; iv 195. [379; iii 383-386. net-winged, i 374, 376, 377, 378, straight-winged, iii 377-380. wingless, iii 377. [193. beetles, i 367; iii 393-399; iv 192, bugs, iii 380-383. flies, two-winged, i 356-357; iii 402-404; iv 191. [iii 309-402. moths and butterflies, i 359-360; — molluscs, iii 405, 406-407, 411-412, — nemertines, iii 419. [414, 415. Metatarsus, i 31, 144, 146, 241, 252; ii 197, 198; iii 126, 134. Metatheria, i 68-69; and see Mam- mals, pouched. [333-334, 335- Metazoa, i 490, 491; iii 2, 318, 325, Method, comparative, i 12. — scientific, i 1-4. Methone Anderssoni, ii 282. Mias. See Orang-utan. Mice, i 125, 127-131; ii 234, 321; iii 483; iv 387. See also Mouse. Microbes. See Bacteria. Microcebus pusillus, iii 493. Micrococcus prodigiosus, iv 78. Microgaster glomeratus, i 372; iv 194. $191. Microglossus aterrimus, ii 189- Microlestes, iv 484-482. Micronucleus, i 493; iii 323-325. Microscope, effect on study of zoology, i 10-12. Microstomum lineare, iii 329. Microtome, i 466. Micro tUS, i 129; ii 177; iv 486. — agrestis (common field-vole), i 129. — amphibius, i 129. — arvalis (southern field- vole), iv 486. — glareolus, i 129. Midge, black, i 357; ii 121. — plumed, i 357. Midges, i 357; ii 121, 467-468; iv 190. — sand-, ii 121, 468 (illust.); iv 190. Midriff, i 24, 46, 67, 148, 209; ii 427, Migration, i 18. [430. — as means of protection, ii 329-331. — birds, i 168; ii 239, 241; iii 305; iv 61-62. [263, 276. — fishes, iii 423, 426, 433, 434; iv 128, — insects, iv 127, 256-257. — mammals, i 130. Miliola, i 489 (illust.); iii 6 (illust.). Milk, i 65. [481. Milk-glands, i 65-66; iii 474-475, — apes and monkeys, i 71. — bats, i 81; iii 485. — cetaceans, iii 490-491. — edentates, iii 482. — elephants, iii 490. — lemurs, i 80. [477, 478. — mammals, egg-laying, i 69; iii 475- hoofed, i 108; iii 487, 488, 489. insect-eating, i 83; iii 484, 485. pouched, i 68-69; iii 478-479. — sea-cows, i 102. MillaiS, H48, 62, 63; iii 187. Millepora, i 480-481; ii 160-161. Miller's thumb, i 274; iv 273. Millipedes, i 342, 394-398; ii 218- 219, 360, 435-437= i» 163-164, 370- 373; iv 14-15, 30, 31, 360. — flattened, i 396 (illust.). — pill-, i 396. — snake-, iii 225. [219; iii 372. earth, or common, i 396; 218- London, i 396 (illust.). spotted, i 396 (illust.). Milvus ictinus, i 175- Mimicry* » 3OI> 3°9-317- — arachnids, ii 299-300, 316; iii 168. — birds, ii 309-311. — insects, ii 311-316; iv 160. — mammals, ii 37; iii 246-247. — plants, iv 81. — reptiles, ii 311; iii 211. Mimulus luteus, iv 90. Mineral salts, i 33. Minks. See Visons. Minnow, i 283. M'lntosh, iii 426. Mirikis, i 77 (illust.). Mitchell, Chalmers, iv 414. Mite, cheese-, i 393 (illust.); ii 443. — currant gall-, iv 360. — gall-, ii 217. — hair-, iv 196 (illust). [341. — mange- or itch-, i 393; iv 196 (illust.), — meal-, ii 217. — red fowl-, iv 360. Mites, i 387, 393; ii 132, 217-218, 442- 443; iv 15, 83, 195, 196, 360. Mitra, i 321. Mitre-Shells, i 321. "Moas", iv 428, 475-476 (illust.). Moabius, iii 231. Moggridge, ii 207. "Mohair", iv 230. Molars, i 36; and see Teeth. Mole, common, i 81 (illust.), 86; ii 36- 37 (illust.); iii 200-202 (illust.), 484- 485 (illust.); iv 327. — golden, i 86; ii 33-34 (illust.:; iii 202, 203. — star-nosed, ii 37 (illust.); iii 202; ir 418 (illust). Moles, i 86; ii 328; iii 246; and see Mole. Molecular vibration, i 54, 57. Molecules, is 4- Mole-Rat, common, ii 177-178 (illust.); iii 203-204 (illust). — great, i 130. [204. Mole-RatS, i 130; ii 177-178; iii 203- Mole-Shrews, ii 35-36 (illust). Molge cristatus, i 246; iii 46, 47; iv — palmatus, i 246; iii 46. [153. — tseniatus, i 246. — vulgaris, iii 46. - Waltli, ii 334- MollUSCa. See Molluscs. MollUSCS, i ii, 304, 307-341; ii 93- 100, 196-201, 247-250, 279, 287, 292, 296, 306-307, 335-337, 342, 357, 372- 373. 39I~399, 432-434> 459-462; iii 30-37, 103-110, 180-181, 217-222, 331, 404-419: iv 16-19, 29, 3i, 34-35, 45-46, 56-58, 214-215, 288-297, 322- 324, 34°, 348, 397-399, 4^9, 421-422, 433, 438-439> 444, 448, 451, 462-463, 465-466. — bivalve, i 311, 328-338; ii 248-250, 331, 335, 336, 357, 398~399; i" 8, 36- 37, 104, 108, 180, 219-221, 232, 405- 411; iv 18, 34, 40, 45-46, 215, 288- 297,. 398-399- — extinct, iv 465-466, 479. — head-footed, i 311-317; ii 391-393; iii 104, 108-110, 417-419; iv 18-19, 34-35, 45, 214,^ 438. — "headless", i 331. — Primitive. See Protomolluscs. MolluSCOida. See Moss -Polypes and Lamp-Shells. [iv 428. Moloch horridus, i 222; ii 333-334; Molva vulgaris, iv 267-268. Monads, i 494: » 267-268; iii 6 illust). — springing, i 489, 494 (illust ; ; ii 267- 268. " Money - Spinner " (or Money- Spider), i 393; " 218. Monitor, desert, ii 73, 282. — Nile, i 224-225 (illust); ii 73. — Papuan, ii 73. — water, ii 73; iii 52 (illust). [52. Monitors, i 221, 224-225; ii 73; iii 51- INDEX 537 Monkey (and see Monkeys): — barrigudo, i 77. — Diana, i 74. — entellus, i 72-73 (illust.); ii 164-165. — green guenon, i 74. — guereza, i 73. — Java, i 74. — miriki, i 77 (illust. }. — moustache, i 74. — owl-faced night-, ii 319 (illust.), 32°- — pig-tailed, iii 233, 234 (illust.). — proboscis, i 73. — red howling, i 76-77. — rhesus, i 74. — saki, black, i 78; iii 240, 241 (illust.). — spider, i 77; iii 239-240 (illust.), 255 — squirrel, i 78. [(illust.). — wanderoo, i 74-75 (illust.). Monkeys (and see Monkey, Baboons, &c.), i 71-79; ii 225, 325, 326, 348- 349, 363-365 5 i» 158-162, 223-240, 493-494 ; iv 134, 140, 382, 419-420, 424, 429, 473. — Capuchin, i 77. — clawed. See Marmosets. — colobi or African thumbless, i 73; — guenon, i 73-74. [iii 237, 238. — howling, i 76-77; iv 146. — macaques, i 74-75. — naked-tailed, i 76-77. — New World, i 76-78; iii 238-240. — Old World, i 72-76; and see Apes, Baboons, &c. — sakis, i 76, 78. — tailed, i 72. Monkey-Musk, iv 90 (illust). Monk-Fish, i 286-287 (illust.). Monkshood, iv 80. Monodon monoceros, iv 394. MonOtremata. See Mammals, egg- laying. Montagu, iv 149. Moor-Hen, i 171; ii 240, 295; iii 61. Moose, i 112; iii 52; and see Elk. Moquin-Tandon, ii-igg, 201. Mordella, iv 43. "More- Pork" Birds, iv 428. Morgan, Lewis H., iv 136. Morgan, Lloyd. See Lloyd Morgan. Morgan, T. Hunt, iv 494. Morone labrax, i 273. MorphO cypris, i 361. — Neoptolemus, i 361. Morphology, of animals, i 11-13, *?'• iv 480-482. Morris, iii 434; iv 407. Morula, iii 338, 340, 341, 342. Mosasaurus, iv 469. Moschus moschiferus, i no; iii 151; iv 402. Moseley, i 7, 398. Mosquitoes, i 355; ii 121, 215; iv 190, 207, 341 (illust.). Moss-Polypes, i 304, 436-438; ii 26l> 279. 339) 410-411; iii 7, 8, 99- 100, 330-331; iv 104-105, 439. Motacilla alba, i 157. — flava, i 157; ii 66. — lugubris, i 157: ii 65. — melanope, i 157; iii 125, 457-458. — Raii, i 157. Moth (and see Moths) : — antler, iv 163. — atlas, i 363. — black arches, ii 287. — brimstone, i 364; ii 297-298; iii 102. — brown dolly, i 365. Moth (Cent.) — buff-tip, i 363; ii 299. — cabbage, iv 352 (illust.). — chimney sweeper, i 364. — cinnabar, iv 59. 4 — clothes, i 365 (illust.); iv 353. — codlin, i 365; iv 352 (illust.). — common wainscot, i 364. — corn, iv 353 (illust.). — currant, i 364; ii 307. — death's-head, i 363; iv 43. — diamond-back, iv 352. — dun-bar, ii 252. — early thorn, ii 300. — emperor, i 363; ii 120; iv 164 (illust.). — ermine-, little, i 365. white, ii 313. — gipsy, iv 353, 359. — goat, i 363; iv 43, 352. — gold-tail, ii 360. — grass, iv 352. — great yellow underwing, iv 352. — green oak, i 365. [iv 352. — heart-and-dart, i 364; iii 401 (illust.); — humming-bird, iii 311. — lackey, i 364. — lobster, ii 313-314 (illust.). — magpie or currant, i 364; ii 307. — muslin, ii 313. — nun, iv 353. — oak eggar, i 364; iv 163 (illust.). — oak procession-, ii 346-347. — oak silk-, iv 260. — pale tussock-, i 364. — pea, iv 352. — peppered, ii 293-294. — pine Hawk-, i 363; ii 314. — plume, common, i 366. twenty, i 366. — privet, i 363. [401-402. — puss, i 363; ii 313-314, 359-360; iii — silkworm, i 364 ; ii 214 ; iii 401 ; iv 259-260 (illust.). — silver Y, i 364; iii 401 (illust.); iv 352. — tiger, i 363. — turnip, iv 352. — wax, iv 353. — winter-, i 364, 372; iv 359 (illust.). Moths (and see Moth), i 351, 358-360, 362-366; ii 120, 214-215, 252, 313; iii 312, 313, 399-402; iv 56, 72, 162-164, 351-353- ^ — burnet, iii 402. — clear-wing, i 362, 363. hornet, i 363; ii 313. — hawk-, i 362, 363; iv 88. elephant, ii 314. — lappet, iii 400. — large, i 362, 363-364. — leaf-miner, i 362, 365. — leaf-roller, i 362, 365. — looper, i 362, 364. — owlet, i 362, 364; iii 103, 401; iv 352. — plume, i 362, 365-366. — small, i 362, 365-366. — South American, iii 401. — spinner, i 362, 363-364. " Mother Carey's chicken ", i 183. Mother-of-pearl, iv 398. Mouflon, iv 227. [406. Moulting process, of crustaceans, i Mountain Devil. See Moloch. Mouse, harvest (and see Mice), i 128; iii 483 (illust.). [347. — house-, i 128; ii 321; iv 346 (illust.), — wood-, or long-tailed field-, i 128. Mouse-Birds, iii 266-267. Mouse-Deer, i 109 ; and see Chevro- tains. Mouth and Mouth-Cavity (see also Mouth-parts, Jaws, &c.): — of acorn-headed worm, i 301. — of amphibians, i 238, 240, 253, 255. — of animalcules, i 492, 493, 494, 495. — of annelids, i 426, 427, 432; ii 147, 148. — of arachnids. See Mouth-parts. — of ascidians, i 297, 298. — of birds, i 143-144; and see Beak. — of crustaceans. See Mouth-parts. — of echinoderms, i 451, 452, 455, 457, 458, 459, 460, 462. — of fishes, i 13, 258, 261, 265, 270, 271, 274, 276, 283, 284, 291-292. — of flat-worms, i 442, 443, 444, 445, 446. — of insects. See Mouth-parts. — of king-crabs. See Mouth-parts. — of lancelet, i 294. — of mammals, i 34, 46, 54-55. — of molluscs, i 307, 311, 331, 339; ii 196-197, 198 (illust.). — of moss-polypes, i 437. — of myriapods. See Mouth-parts. — of nemertines, i 305. — of peripatus. See Mouth-parts. — of reptiles, i 13, 192, 193, 199, 206, 216, 228, 229. — of siphon-worms, i 432; ii 150. — of thread-worms, i 447. — of vertebrates, i 303. [263. — of wheel animalcules, i 434-355; ii — of zoophytes, i 466, 473, 476, 477, 479, 481, 483. Mouth-parts and Mouth of Ar- thropods (see also Limbs, Jaws, Appendages): — arachnids, i 386, 388, 390, 391, 394. — crustaceans, i 403, 404, 407, 408, 413, 414, 417, 418, 421, 422; ii 141, 142, 144; iii 277-278. — insects, i 345, 346, 348. beetles, i 367; ii 107. bugs, i 351-352; ii 122-123 (illust.), 216-217. flies, two- winged, i 355 - 356, 358; ii 120, 121 (illust.), 122, 215. moths and butterflies, i 359 (illust.); ii 103, 214-215 (illust.), 252; iv 164. fringe-winged, ii 216. membrane - winged, i 370 ; ii 205-206, 207; iv 254, 255 (illust.). net-winged, i 376, 377; ii in, 113, 114, 115, 116; iii 223, 386; iv 122. [ii 102. straight-winged, i 345-346, 380; — king-crabs, i 423. [218 (illust.). — myriapods, i 395, 396; ii 132-133, — peripatus, i 399, 401 ; ii 134. — sea-spiders, i 424. Movement, i 17-18. — amoeboid, i 49; iii 1-4. — ciliary, i 49; iii 4-8. See also Cilia. — euglenoid, iii 88-89. — muscular, i 48-49; iii 8-16, 17-18, 87-88, 112-113, 173-174, 199-200, 231, 292. See also Muscular Sys- tem. — organs of (see also Appendages, Digits, Limbs): [216. acorn -headed worm, iii 215- amphibians, iii 45-50, 116-121, 182-184, 212-214, 372, 287-288. 538 INDEX Movement, organs of (Cant.) — animalcules, i 490, 492, 494, 495; iii 2, 4, 5, 8, 88-89, 231. — annelids, i 426, 430-431, 432; iii 22-23, 97-99, 226-230. arachnids, i 386; iii 168-169, 175-176, 276, 289, 290-291. ascidians, iii 38-39. birds, i 149; iii 56-67, 125-132, 185-186, 261-267, 286, 295-308. — • crustaceans, i 403, 406; iii 25- 28, 169-172, 174-175, 225-226, 277- 278, 366-367. echinoderms, i 451, 453, 455, 457, 464; iii 3-4, 23-24, 90-97, 114- 115, 230, 232, 278-279. fishes, i 257-258; iii 40-44, 115- 116, 182, 272, 288-289. [21. flat-worms, i 445, 446; iii 20- insects, i 345 ; iii 28-30, 102- 103, 165-167, 176-180, 222-225, 272- 278, 309-315- lancelet, iii 40, 214-215. mammals, i 48-49, 98, TOO ; ii 24-25 ; iii 68-86, 132-162, 186-198, 200-207, 232-261, 281-286, 292-295. molluscs, i 307, 312-313, 317, 323, 326, 332, 334, 336, 341; iii 30-37, 103-110, 180-181, 217-222, 232 moss-polypes, iii 99-100. — myriapods, i 394, 395, 396, 397; iii 163-165, 225. nemertines, iii 24. peripatus, i 399; iii 101-102. reptiles, i 195-199; iii 50-56, IIO-IIT, 121-124, 184-185, 207-212, 267-272, 286-287, 308-309. siphon-worms, iii 230. thread-worms, iii 21. wheel -animalcules, i 434; iii ico-ioi. [20, 89-90. zoophytes, i 467, 483; iii 2, 18- Mucous membrane, i 35, 54-55. Mud-" Eel" or Siren, i 249; ii 457; iii 48-49, 213 (illust.). Mud-Fishes. See Lung- Fishes. Mud-Shrimp, i 416 (illust.); ii 405; iii 365- Mud-Skippers, ii 87 (illust.), 448, 450; iii 115-116, 182, 272. Mugil capito, i 275; iv 273, 381. — chelo, iv 273. MugilidJB. See Grey-Mullets. Mules, iv 239-241, 479. Mliller, Johannes, i 12. MullidSB. See Red-Mullets. MullUS barbatus, iv 271. — surmulletus, iv 271. MungOOSe, Egyptian, i 90-91; iv 386. — Indian, i 91; iv 386 (illust.). Munia oryzivora, i 156; iv 389. Muntjacs, iv 424. Mursena helena, i 283-284. Mursenidse. See Eels. Murex, i 320-321; ii 336. — Branderi, iv 397 (illust.). Muridse. See Rats and Mice. MUS decumanus, i 128; iv 375. — minutus, i 128; iii 483. — musculus, i 128; ii 321; iv 346. — rattus, i 128. — sylvaticus, i 128. Musca carnaria, ii 346. — domestica, i 355-356, 358 ; ii 120, 251-252; iii 275-276; iv 16, 77. — vomitoria, i 358; iv 351. [ii 367. Muscardinus avellanarius, i 131; Muscicapa grisola, ii 61. Muscicapidse, ii 61. Muscivora regia, ii 61. Muscle, "involuntary", i 49; iii 10-13. — striated, iii 12-13 (illust.). — unstriated, iii 10-12 (illust.). - "voluntary", i 49; iii 13. Muscles, i 48-49, 303, 469; iii 13-16. See also Muscular System and Move- ment. Muscle-fibres, iii 8-9, 10, 11-13, 14. 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 40, 91, 92, 93, 95, 100, 105, 216, 228, 229, 272, 279. Muscular action, i 48-49. See Movement. Muscular locomotion. See Move- ment and Muscular System. * Muscular System, acorn-headed worm, iii 215-216. — amphibians, iii 272. — annelids, iii 22, 98, 99, 226, 228-229. — ascidians, iii 38-39. — birds, i 149; iii 261-262, 297, 299-303. — crustaceans, i 408; iii 278. — echinoderms, iii 91-92, 93, 95, 97, 115, 278, 279. See also Water- vascular System. — fishes, iii 115-116. — flat- worms, iii 20-21. — insects, iii 163, 310-311. — lancelet, iii 40-345. — mammals, i 48-49 ; iii 135, 201, 202, 233-236, 293. — molluscs, iii 31, 33, 36-37, 104-106, 219, 222. — moss-polypes, iii 99-100. — peripatus, iii 101. — reptiles, iii iio-m, 208, 270. — siphon-worms, iii 230. — thread-worms, iii 21. — zoophytes, iii 18. Muscular tissue, iii 10, 13, 14. See also Muscular System. Musical organs, of insects, i 353, 382, 383; iv 38. Musimon. See Mouflon. Musk, i no-iii. Musk-glands, i 205. Musk-Ox, i 115 (illust.). Musk-Rat, i 130; iii 73 (illust.). Musk-Shrew, i 83; iii 71. Musquash, i 130; iii 73 (illust.); iv 307 (illust.), 308. Mussel, edible, i 335-336; iii 4°5, 4°6, 407-408 (illust.) ; iv 294-295 ullust.), — culture, iv 295-296 (illust.). [348. MuSSelS, freshwater, i 328-333; ii 248- 249> 335, 398-399; i" 37, 220, 406- — sea, i 335-337- [407 (illnst.). Mussel-Shrimp, i 419-420 (illust.); ii 405-406; iii 25, 26, 364. Mustela Americana, iv 303. — erminea. See Putorius ermineus. — lutreola. See Putorius lutreolus. — martes, i 98; ii 22. — putorius. See Putorius fcetidus. — Sibirica. See Putorius Sibiricus. — vison. See Putorius vison. — vulgaris. See Putorius vulgaris. — zibellina, i 98; iii 156; iv 303. Mustelidse, i 97-98; ii 21-22; Hi 156; iv 303-304. See also Martens and Weasels. Mustelus Isevis, i 285. Mutilla Europsea, i 373: ii 106. Mutualism, i 18; iv 67, 75-76, 170. Mya arenaria, i 334; » 250; iii 220. MycetCS caraya, iv 146. — seniculus, i 76-77. Mycetophilidse, iv 127. Mycetozoa, i 489, 496, 498 (illust.); ii 270; iii 6, 8, 322. Mygale avicularia, 1392; ii 106, 130, Mygnimia aviculus, ii 315. [443. Myliobatis aquila, i 288 ; H 90 ; iii Mylodon, iv 474. [44. Myodes lemmus, i 130; ii 177. Myogale moschata, i 83; ii 35; iii 71- — Pyrenaica, iii 72. [72. Myopa ferruginea, ii 119. Myopotamus coypu, iii 74. MyOXidSe, ii 176-177; iii 251-252. Myoxus glis, iv 244-245. Myrianida, iii 318 (illust.). Myriapoda (see also Centipedes and Millipedes), i 342, 394-398; ii 132- 134, 218-219, 360, 435-437; iii 163- 165, 225, 370-373; iv 14-15, 462. — insect-like, i 396, 397. — larva-like, i 396, 397-398. — spider-legged, i 396, 397. Myrmecobius, ii 42-43. Myrmecocystus Mexicanus, ii 206-207. Myrmecophaga jubata, i 136; ii 41-42; iii 256, 482. Myrmeleo, i 378: iv l6- — formicarius, ii 111-113. Myrmica rubra, iv 119 (illust.). My Sis, i 413; iii 365; iv 36. Mystacoceti, iia& See also Whales, toothless. [35 1. Mytilaspis pomorum, iii 381 ; iv Mytilus edulis, i 335 ; iii 405, 406, 407-408; iv 294-295, 348. [385. Myxine glutinosa, i 292 ; ii 91, 92, MyXOHiycetes. See Mycetozoa. Myzostoma, iv 199 (illust.). N bungarus, ii 80. — haie, ii 80. — tripudians, i 234; ii 80; iv 339. Nails, of mammals, i 25, 64 ; and see Claws. Nais, iv 42 (illust.). Names, scientific, i 9. Narwhal, iv 394. Nasal cavities (see also Smell): — birds, i 147. — mammals, i 55-56 (illust.). Nassa reticosa, iii 412; iv 348. Nasua socialis, ii 229, 230. [413. Natica Josephina, ii 98; iii 217, 218, Native Wolf, ii 42. See also Thyla- cinus. Natterjack, i 255. Natural classification, i n. — history. See Zoology. Natural Selection, iv 484-488. — objections to theory of, iv 488-489. Nature-Study, i 5-7 > iv 63-64. Naumann, ii 370. NaupliUS eye, i 422. [198. — larva, i 417; iii 25, 364-365,; iv 197, NautilUS, paper, i 315-316; iii 32-33, 418. — pearly, i 316-317 (illust.); ii 335, 393; iii 108-109, 418; iv 18, 45 (illust.). — pompilius. See Nautilus, pearly. Nearctic Region, iv 413, 414, 418- Nebalia, i 416; ii 405; iii 365. [419. INDEX 539 Neck, i 35- — -ligament, ii 165, 167. — vertebrae, i 26-27, 66; iii 83-84. Necrophorus, iii 396-398. — Germanica, ii 109, i 10. — vespillo, ii 109, no. Nectogale elegans, ii 35; iii 71. Nekton, iv 435, 448. [450. Nemachilus barbatulus, i 283 ; ii Nemathelmia. See Thread-Worms. Nematodes, ii 222. Nematus ribesii, iv 356. Nemertea. See Nemertines. Nemertines, i 304, 305-307; ii 93, 391, 444; iii 24, 419; iv 10, ii, 439, Nemesia, i 392- [452-453- Nemobius sylvestris, i 383- Neo-Lamarckism, iv 491. Neomenia, i 341. Neomylodon, ii 327; iv 474. Neotropical Region, iv 413, 414, 428-434. [iii 382-383. Nepa cinerea, i 354; ii 108, 124, 440; Nepenthes, iv 70-71. Nephridia (sing, nephridium), i 401. See also Excretory organs. Nephrops norvegicus, i 412. Nepidse, ii 440-441; Hi 382-383. Nereis, i 425-429 ; ii 146-147 ; iii 97- 98; iv 12, 44. Nerita polita, iv 323. Neritic Zone, iv 435-441. Nerve-cells, i 51 (illust.), 471; iv 6- 7, 9, 14, 17, 22-23. Nerve-Centre, iv 9. See also Gan- glia, &c. Nerve-COrd (see also Nervous Sys- tem), of invertebrates (higher), i 303-304, 306-307, 349, 400, 401, 407, 409, 428; iv 7-8, 9 (illust.), 10, ii- 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17. — of vertebrates (primitive), i 293, 296- 297. [27. Nerve-fibres, i 51-52 ; iv 6, 8, 9, 14, Nerve-lOOp (see also Nervous Sys- tem), of molluscs, i 310, 318, 320, 324, 325, 328; iv 17-18, 19. Nerve-plate, iv 20 (illust.). Nerve-ring (see also Nervous Sys- tem), of invertebrates (higher), i 303- 304, 306-307, 310, 328, 333, 349, 407, 409, 427, 428, 440, 443, 444, 448; iv 7, 8, ii, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19. Nerves, i 50. — auditory, i 56. — cranial, i 52-53, 55- — olfactory, i 55-56 (illust.). — optic, i 58. — sensory, i 53. — spinal, i 51. Nerve-tissue, iii 10. See also Ner- vous System. Nervous System, i 18, 49-53; iv i- — amphibians, iv 21. [5, 19-20. — annelids, i 428; iv 7-10, 34. — arachnids, iv 15. — birds, i 149-150; iv 22. — crustaceans, i 407, 409; iv 12-14. — development of, in vertebrate em- bryo, iv 20. — echinoderms, i 454, 458. — evolution of, iv 6. — fishes, i 263, 270, 272; iv 21. — flat-worms, i 442, 444, 446. — insects, i 347, 349; iv 15-16. — invertebrates, higher, i 303-304. — lamp-shells, i 440. Nervous System (Cont.} — mammals, i 49-53; iv 19-23. — molluscs, i 309, 310, 332; iv 16-19, — moss-polypes, i 438. t34~35- — myriapods, i 395; iv 14-15. — nemertines, i 306-307. — peripatus, i 400, 401; iv 14, 15. — reptiles, i 200, 202, 209. — sympathetic, i 50, 53; iv 19-20. — thread-worms, i 448. primitive, i 293, 294, 295, 296-297, — vertebrates, i 63. [298, 301. — visceral, iv 10, 14, 16, 17. — wheel-animalcules, i 435. — zoophytes, iv 5-7. Nestor meridionalis, ii 191. — notabilis, i 166; ii 190, 191; iv 347. Nests and Nesting Habits (see also Dwellings): — amphibians, iii 437-438, 439, 442. — arachnids, i 393; iii 374~377- — birds, i 163, 179, 188, 189, 190; iii 449, 450, 451-452, 453-464, 466, 468, 469, 472; iv 59-61, 130-132, 186, 187- 188, 405-407. — fishes, iii 427-430; iv 157. — insects, i 373, 374, 379; ii 208-209; iii 390-391, 392> 393. 394~396: iv 53~ 54, 109-110, iu-112, 115, 116, 117, 120, 126, 252-253, 254-255. — mammals, iii 478, 480, 483, 484, 493. — molluscs, iii 408. — myriapods, iii 372. — reptiles, i 209; iii 444-446, 447, 448. Net-Fishing, iv 262. Nettling organs, i 467, 471, 474; ii 306, 309, 357, 361 ; iv 103, 104. Neurons, iv 6, 7, 8, 9, 20, 23 (illust.). Neuroptera, i 351, 374-380; ii no- 116, 156, 157-158, 160, 161, 162, 211, 213, 462-467; iii 30, 383-386; iv 120- Newman, Edward, iii 396. [126. Newt, common, iii 46. — crested, i 246 (illust.); iii 46, 47; iv — small, i 246. [152 (illust.). — Spanish, ii 334. — webbed, i 246; iii 46. NewtS, i 245-246; ii 83, 457; iii 46, 117-119, 120-121, 332, 434, 435. — "Fish", i 247-248; and see Sala- manders. Newton, Alfred, iv 61, 246, 249, 309, 387, 389, 406. Newton, Sir Isaac, i 3. Nichomache, ii 339. [74. Nictitating membrane, i 192; iii Night-hawk. See Night-jar. Nightingale, i 160; iv i49. Night-jar, i 163; ii 56-57 (illust.); iii 453- [(illust.), 454. Night -light animalcule, iv 453 Nitrogen, i 33, 44; iv 65-68. Noctiluca, i 489, 495 (illust.); iii 6; iv 453, 454- Noctuidse. See Moths, owlet. NodOsaria, i 489 (illust.); iii 6. — scalaris, iv 454. Nopal, iv 260. Nose, of mammals, i 34, 55, 81; and see Smell. Nose-leaf, of bats, i 82-83. Nostrils, amphibians, ii 423. — birds, i 182-183; i" 62. — fishes, i 258, 265; ii 422-423. — mammals, i 46, 72, 76, 100; ii 430. — reptiles, i 205, 216; ii 424-425; iii NotarchUS, iii 107 (illust.). [208. Nothura maculosa, ii 343. Notidanus griseus, i 287. Notochord, i 61, 292-293, 295, 298, 301; iii 38-39, 40, 214, 216, 344. Notonecta, i 354-355; iii 29. — glauca, ii 124. Notonectidse, ii 440. [Hi 206-207. Notoryctes typhlops, ii 43, 329; Nototrema, iii 442. Nuchal, i 214. [187. Nucifraga caryocatactes, i 154; ii Nucleus (pi. Nuclei), i 39, 469, 490, 49', 493, 494, 49&, 498; iii 317, 318, 319, 320, 323-325, 338; iv 493. NUGUla, i 338; iii 108. Nudibranchia, i 324, 326; ii 100, 306-307, 382; iii 36. — arquatus, i 169; ii 67. — pha^opus, i 169. [iv 249-250. Numida meleagris, i 172; ii 239; Nummulina, i 496. Nurse Hound, i 286. Nut-cracker, i 154; ii 187. Nut-hatches, i 157; ii 187; iii 264, 454- Nutrition, i 32. See Food. Nyctea Scandiaca, i 165; ii 279. Nycteribia, iv 190. Nycticebus tardigradus, ii 319, 320; Hi 241, 242. Nycticorax griseus, i 179. [320. Nyctipithecus trivirgatus, ii 319, Nymphalidse, iii 400. Nymphs, bugs, iii 381. — insects, net-winged, ii 464-465, 466; iii 30, 384-385; iv 121, 122, 123. straight-winged, iii 378. O Oak, iv 79, 81-82. "Oak-apples", iv 79. "Oak spangles", 5372. Obelia, i 478-480. Occipital bone, i 28. — condyles. See Condyles. Ocellus (pi. Ocelli), i 376. Ocelot, iv 429. Ocneria dispar, iv 353, 359. Octactinia, i 474, 476-478; iv 102. OctObOthrium merlangi, iv 200. — pollachii, iv 200, 201 (illust.). OctOCOralla, i 476-478. See also Sea-Flower, eight-rayed. Octodon degus, i 132 (illust A Octodons, i 131-132. [419- Octopoda, i 315-316; Hi 31-33, 418- OctOpUS, common, i 315; ii 94; iii 31- 32, 109-110 (illust.), 418. -— musky, ii 94. — vulgaris. See Octopus, common. Octopi, i 315; iv 18-19, 56-57, 348; and see Octopus. Ocypoda arenaria, ii 141. — ceratophthalmus, ii 140-141; iii 171. — macrocera, iv 37. Ocypodidse, ii 140; iii 171. Ocypus olens, i 368. Odonata, ii 464-465; iii 383-385. OdontOCeti, ii 26. See also Whales, toothed. Odontoid peg, i 194. Odontophore. See Rasping organ. Odynerus parietum, i 374. — reniformis, iii 392 j illust.). OZcodoma, ii 208-209. 540 INDEX (Ecophylla smaragdina, iv 115- (Edemia fusca, i 177. [n6. — nigra, i 177. (Edicnemus scolopax, i 169; Hi 471. (Estridse, iv 191. (Estrus ovis, i 358; iv 191. Ogle, iv 91. Oil-Birds, ii 188. [454. Oil-gland, of birds, i 140; iii 56-57, Okapi, ii 170-171 (illust); iii 191. Okapia Johnston!. See Okapi. "Old-man's beard", i 372. Olfactory cells, i 55-56; iv 31-32 — nerves, i 55-56 (illust.). [(illust.). OligOChseta, i 429, 430-431 ; ii 146 ; iii 227, 360-361; iv 199-200. Oligoneuria, ii 466. Oliva. See Olive-Shells. Olivella biplicata, iv 324. Olive-Shells, i 321 (illust.); iii 2 1 8. Olm, i 249 (illust.); ii 457; iii 48. Omasum, ii 169. See also Digestive organs of mammals, herbivorous. Ommatidium, iv 43. Onager, i 107. Oncsea venusta, iv 452. Onchidium, ii 330; iii 414, 415 (illust.), 435. Oniscus murarius, i 415; ii 222. Ontogeny, iii 335. Onuphis conchilega, ii 339. Opelet, i 476. [358-359. Operculum, annelids, ii 258, 339; iii — arachnids, i 386. — fishes. See Gill-cover. — king-crab, ii 406. [iii 415-416. — molluscs, i 319; ii 336 (illust.), 460; — moss-polypes, ii 339. Ophidia, i 203, 227-236. Ophidiaster diplex, iii 329 (illust.). Ophiocephalus, ii 451. Ophiuroidea, i 454. See also Brittle- Stars. [34, 35-36. Opisthobranchia, i 317, 324-326; »« Opisthocomus cristatus, iii 472- 473; iv43i. Opisthoteuthis, iii 33 (illust.). OpOSSUm, Azara's, iii 480 (illust.). — common, i 69, 138; iii 260 (illust.). — mouse, iii 479. — water, in 70 (illust.). OpOSSUniS, ii 42, 180, 181, 234, 343; iii 255, 260, 478. Opossum-Shrimps, i 410. 412-413 (illust.); iii 365; iv 36. OptiC cup, iv 46-47. — lobes, i 149—150, 203; iv 21-22. — nerves, i 58, 149, 151; iv 47. — tracts, i 149. — vesicle, iv 46. Opuntia coccinellifera, iv 260. Oral hood, i 294. Oral papilla, i 399- [160.. 161, 494. Orang-utan, i 72 (illust.); ii 349; iii Orbits, i 57, 71, 80. Orca gladiator, ii 27; iii 85. Orchids, iv 74-75, 86-88 (illust.). Orcynus thynnus, iv 270, 381. Oreotragus saltator, iv 142. Organic selection, iv 492. Oriental Region, iv 413, 414, 424- Oriole, golden, i 155-156. [426. Orioles, i 155-156; ii 309-311 (illust.). Ollolus decipiens, ii 310-311. — galbula, i 155. Ormer, i 307-311 (illust.), 322-323; ii 393-394= iii 412; iv35. Ornithopoda, iv 469-470. Ornithoptera, i 362. Ornithorhynchus paradoxus, i 70; ii 44; iii 69-70, 475, 477-478; iv 211, 212, 481-482. Orthagoriscus mola, iv 448. Orthoptera, i 351, 380-383; ii 116- 118, 213, 250, 299, 315-316, 327, 359; iii 176-177, 377-38o; iv 356-357. — leaping, i 380, 381-383. — running, i 380-381. Orthotomus sutorius, iii 459, 460. Orycteropus capensis, i 136, 137; Oryzorictes, ii 33. [ii 42. Osborn, iv 492. Oscinis frit, iv 351. OsCUlum, i 484, 486; iii 325, 326*342. OsgOOd, Fletcher, iv 353. Osmerus eperlanus, i 282; iv 276. Osmia papaveris, iii 391. Osphradium, i 310-311. Osprey, i 175; ii 48; iv 61. Ossicles, i 29. — auditory, i 57. Osteoglossidse, iv 433. Ostracion quadricornis, i 278; ii 334; iv 340. Ostracoda, i 410, 419-420; ii 255> 405-406; iii 25, 364. Ostracodermata, iv 463 (illust.). Ostrea, iii 409. — angulata, iv 288. — edulis, i 338; iii 406; iv 288. — Virginiana, iii 405; iv 288. Ostrich, African, i 187, 188 (illust.); ii 367-368; iii 130, 153, 449; iv 250, 251- _ [449- — American, i 187, 188; iii 130, 153. Ostriches, i 188; ii 354; iii 128-132, 153, 186; iv 146. Otaria stelleri, i 98. — ursina, iii 492; iv 304-307. OtaridSB. See Sea- Lions. OtlS australis, iv 150. — tarda, i 170; ii 241-242; iv 150, 377. — tetrax, iv 377. Otocorys alpestris, i 156. OtOCystS, iv 33, 34, 35 (illust.), 36, 37, 38. Otolicnus, ii 320. OtolithS, iv 33, 34, 35, 36. Otter, common, i 98; ii 22; iii 76. — feline, ii 23. — sea, ii 23-24; iii 77 ( illust. ). Otters, i 98; ii 22-24; iii 76-77, 492. Oval window, i 57. Ovary, iii 340 ; and see Eggs and Egg-producing organs. Oven-Birds, iii 461 (illust.), 464- Ovibos moschatus, i 115. Ovicells, iv 104. Ovipositor, i 370, 372, 377, 382, 383; ii 203, 204 (illust.), 205; iii 379, 380 (illust.), 381, 386-387 (illust), 388 (illust.); iv 194, 195 (illust.). OvlS argali, iii 186-187, 248. — aries, ii 168; iv 226-229. — Canadensis, i 116. — montana, iii 187. — musimon, i 116; iv 227. — tragelaphus, iv 227. Ovules, iv 85. Ovulum angulosum, iv 323. — patulum, ii 285. — uniplicatum, ii 285. Ovum (pi. Ova), iii 335-337- See also Egg-cells. Owl, barn-, i 165; iv 327-328. — burrowing, i 166; iv 135. — fish, i 166. — great-horned or eagle, i 166. — hawk, i 166; ii 319 (illust.). — long-eared, i 165. — pigmy, i 166. — short-eared, i 165. — snowy, i 165; ii 279. — tawny or wood-, {165. Owls, i 152, 165-166; ii 46, 322; iv 327-328. Ox-bot, i 358. Oxen (and see Cattle), i 109, 113-115; ii 167-169, 225, 352; iv 224-225. — European, i 114; iv 225. — Hungarian, iv 224 (illust.). Ox-Fly, ii 120. Oxidation, ii 377- Ox-Peckers, ii 62-63 (illust.). Ox- Warble Flies, iv 349 (illust.). Oxyethira costalis, iii 385 (illust.), 386. [420; iv 65-68, 76. Oxygen, i 33, 45: ii 377-380, 382, 383, Oxythyrea funesta, iv 82-83. Oxytricha, iii 88 (illust.). Oxyuris vermicularis, iv 343. Oyster (and see Oysters) : — American, iii 405; iv 288. — common, i 338; iii 406. — "flat", iv 288. — pearl-, iv 205, 398 (illust.). — Portuguese, iv 288. [294. Oysters, i 338; ii 398; Hi 409; iv 288- — thorny, ii 336; iii 409. Oyster-catcher, i 169; ii 67-68. Oyster -culture, i 15; iv 288-294 Ozothallia, ii 198. [(illust.). Paca, i 133-134- [324- Pachydesma crassatelloides, iv Pachyornis elephantopus, iv 475, 476 (illust.). Pacinian bodies, iv 27 (illust.). Packard, iii 165. Packing cells, i 471- Padus humilis, iv 430. [138, 403. Pagurus Bernhardus, 1412; ii 137- Palsearctic Region, iv 412, 4i3, 4i4- Palaempn, iv 35, 36. [418. — Jamaicensis, ii 137. — serratus, i 412; ii 137, 292, 403; iii 169; iv 298, 299-300. Palseodiscus, iv 459. Palaeozoic epoch, iv 457, 458-464. Palingenia horaria, i 375 (illust.). Palinurus vulgaris, i 412 ; ii 137, 279, S38; Hi 368; iv 37. Palisade-Worms, iv 343, 362 ; and see Strongyles. Pallas, ii 140. [334. Pallial line, of bivalve molluscs, i 331, Palm, i 24, 30-31. See also Hand. Palm-Cat, ii 226-227 (illust.). [227. Palm-CivetS, Asiatic, ii 12-13, 226- Palmer Worm, ii 360. Palm-Thief. See Crab, robber-. PalOlO viridis, iv 216-217. Palolo Worm, iv 216-217. Palp, i 346. See also Mouth-parts. Paludicella, iii 331 (illust.). Paludina vivipara, i 320; iii 414; iv 17-18. Palustra, iii 401. INDEX 5'4i Pancreas, i 37, 146, 200, 241, 253, 261, Pancreatic juice, i 37. [272. Pancreatin, iv 320. Panda, iv 429. Pandion haliaetus, i 175 : » 48- Pangolin, long -tailed, i 136, 138 (illust.). Pangolins, 1142, 295, 333, 342; 111257. Paniscus cephalotes, ii 360. Panther, Asiatic, i 88. Panthers, i 87-88. [462. Panyptila Sancti Hieronymi, Hi PapiliO machaon, i 362. — meriones, ii 312. — merope, ii 312. Papillae, of tongue, i 54-55 (illust). Papillosa, ii TOO. PapiO babium, i 76. — hamadryas, i 75. — mormon, i 75-76; iv 145-146. Parachute, Hi 281. — amphibians, iii 288. — arachnids, iii 289. — birds, iii 286. — mammals, iii 282, 283, 284-285, 286. — reptiles, iii 286, 287. [281-289. "Parachute animals", ii 327; iii Paradisea apoda, i 154. 155- Paradise Bird, great, i 154, 155 (illust.). Paradise Fish, iii 427; iv 393 (illust.). Paradoxures, ii 12. Paradoxurus typus, ii 226-227. Parakeet. See Parroquet. Paramcecium, i 489, 492-493; ii 266, 361-362; iii 5, 6. — caudatum, iii 323-325. [(illust). Parapandalus spinipes, iv 445 Parapod, of molluscs, iii 35. ParapOdS, of annelids. See Foot- stumps. Parasitism, i 18; iv 170, 184-185. — animalcules, iv 78, 206-207, 341, 349, — annelids, iv 199-200. [363. — arachnids, iv 195-196. — birds, iv 185-188. — crustaceans, iv 196-199. — fishes, iv 1 88. — flukes, iv 200-203, 342> 360, 361. — insects, iv 78-79, 189-196, 356. — molluscs, iv 188-189. — plants, iv 76-77. — tape-worms, i 442-443; iv 203-205, 342-343. 361-362. [363. — thread-worms, iv 78, 205-206, 362- Pareiasaurus, iv 468 (illust). Parenteau, ii 199, 201. Parietal foramen, i 193, 203. "Parr', iii 432. Parra jacana, iii 128, 129. Parroquet, grass, iv 39o. — slight-billed, ii 189. Parrot, blue-mountain, ii 191. — gray, i 166; iv 389. — ka-ka, ii 191. — kea, i 166; ii 191 (illust); iv 347. — owl, i 166-167; " I89, 319 (illust), 320. Parrots (and see Parrot), i 152 166- 167; ii 188-191; iii 265-266; iv 389- — hanging, iii 266. [391. — nestor-, i 166. — pigmy, iii 266. Parrot-Fish, ii 361; iv 437. Parrotlets, i 166. Partridge, common, i 172; ii 239. — red-legged or French, i 172. PaniS ater, i 158. — coeruleus, i 158. — cristatus, i 158. — major, i 158. — palustris, i 158. Pasang, i 117- [469-47°- Passer domesticus, i 156 ; ii 187 ; iii — montanus, i 156; ii 187; iii 470. Passeres, i 152-161. See also Perch- ing-Birds. Pastor roseus, i 155- Patagium, iii 292. PateUa. See Knee-pan. Patella vulgata, i 323-324 : » 197- 199, 336-337, 395-396, 432-433; iii 104, 272, 412, 416-417; iv 42, 57-58. Path- Wasp, i 373; » «>6. Paunch, ii 168. See also Digestive organs of mammals, herbivorous. Pauropoda, i 396, 397-398- Pauropus, i 398. Pavo cristatus, i 172; iv 148. Peacock, i 172; 11 239; iv 148, 149. Pearl-fisheries, iv 398-399- Pearls, iv 205, 398-399- Pearson, Karl, iv 493. Peccary, collared, i 109; U233 (illust); iii 149, 489. — white-lipped, iii 489; iv 334-336- Peccaries, i 109 ; ii 234, 351 ; m 149- 150, 487, 489; iv 141-142, 334-336. Peckham, Dr. and Mrs., ii 316; iv 55, 56, 166, 1 68. [(illust). Pectanthis asterpides, iii 90 Pecten, i 337, 151; ill 36-37. 4°9; iv 45-46, 295. — Jacobseus, i 337. Pectinaria, ii 339- Pectinatella, iii 100. — gelatinosa, iii 100. Pectines, i 386. Pectoralis major, iii 300. Pectoral muscles, i 149; iii 300. Pedal cords, i 309, 310; iv 16-17. Pedetes caffer, iii 195, 252. Pedicellarise. See Jaw-spines. Pediculus capitis, i 354- Pedipalpi. See Whip-Scorpions. Pedipalps, i 386. See also Mouth- parts. Pedipes, iii 107 (illust.). [(illust). Peewit, i 169 ; ii 286 ; iii 454, 472 Pelagic Zone, iv 435, 448-455. Pelagonemertes, iii 24; iv 453 (illust). Pelagothuria, iii 24 (illust). Pelamides, ii 28. Pelargonium, iv 94. Pelecanus, ii 50. — onocrotalus, i 181. — trachyrhynchus, iii 62. Pelias berus, i 234; H 80, 282; iii 445. Pelican, European, i 181. [iii 307. Pelicans, i 152, 180-181 ; ii 50 (illust); Pelican Fish, iv 446 (illust). PelVlS, iii 119, 120. — amphibians, i 239, 241, 253. — birds, i 144, 145; iii 132. — fishes, i 259, 261. [159. — mammals, i 27, 31, 69 ; iii 120, 133, — reptiles, i 196, 197, 199. Penguin, blue, i 186; iii 67 (illust). — emperor, i 186; iii 67. — king, i 186, 187 (illust). Penguins, i 152, 186, 187; ii 54-55, — crested, iii 186. [329; iii 66-67. Pennatula, i 478; iv 102. Pentacrinus, i 459-461 (illust.). See also Sea-Lilies. Pentastomum tsenioides, i 393. Pepsin, iv 320. Pepsis, U 106. PeptiC, or gastric glands, i 37, 146. Peptone, i 37- Perameles, ii 43; iii 191. Peramelidse, iii 191-192. [381. Perca fluviatilis, i 269-272; ii 84; iv Perch, climbing, ii 451-452 (illust); iii 116, 272. [381. — common, i 269-272 (illust); ii 84; iv Perches, i 273; ii 388; iv 197. Perching Birds, i 152-161 ; iii 261- 263; iv 387-389. "Perching mechanism", of birds, i 149; iii 261—263. Perch-" Louse ", iv 197 (illust). Perdix cinerea, i 172; ii 239. Perez, iv 123. Perga Lewisii, iii 389-390- Pericardium, i 325, 327, 329, 333, 342, 348, 400, 408, 435. Perichseta, iii 227-228. Periophthalmus, 11 448, 450; iii 115- — Koelreuteri, ii 87. [116, 272. — Schlosseri, iii 116. PeripatUS, i 342, 392-402 (illust.); ii 134, 360, 434-435; "i 101-102, 274, 370; iv 14, 15. Periplaneta Americana, i 343. — orientalis, i 343-350; ii 250, 438; iii 273-274, 378; iv 358- Perissodactyla, i 104-107 ; Hi 137- 147, 487-488; and see Mammals, hoofed. Peristaltic movements, iii n. Periwinkle, i 318-320 (illust); H 196, 459-460; iv 97, 297, 438, 489. Perla bicaudata, i 377- Perlidse, ii n6, 463-464- Pernis apivorus, i 175- Perodicticus potto, ii 320; iii 243. Perognathus fasciatus, i 131. Ferris, iv 123. " Persian lamb ", iv 229. Perspiration. See Sweat. [359. PestS, agricultural, i 18, 129; iv 349- Petauroides volans, iii 286. PetauniS breviceps, iii 285. — sciureus, iii 284-285. Petrels, i 152, 182-183. — storm, i 183; ii 52, 53. Petrogale, ii 182. — xanthopus, iii 479. Petromyzon, ii 384. — branchialis, i 291. [279. — fluviatilis, i 291 ; ii 91 ; iii 423 ; iv — marinus, i 291 ; ii 91-92 ; iii 423 ; iv — Planeri, iii 423. t279- Pettigrew, iii 68, 81, 131. PhaCOChceniS /Ethiopicus, i 108. — Africanus, i 109. Phaethon, i 182; Hi 62. — ffithereus, i 182. Phagocytes, ii 269. PhalacrOCOraX Capensis, ii 48. — carbo, i 181; ii 48; iii 63, 64, 471. — graculus, i 181; ii 48; iii 63-64. Plialsenopsis Schilleriana, iv 86- 88 (illust.). Phalanger, common, iii 259 (illust). — long-snouted, ii 181-182 (illust); iv 89. Phalangers, H 180-182, 234, 322 ; iii 258-259. 542 INDEX Phalangers (Cmt.) — flying, iii 284-286. — squirrel, iii 284-285. Phalanges, sing. Phalanx (and see Digits): — birds, i 146. — mammals, i 31, 32; iii 84. — reptiles, i 198. Phalangistidse, ii 180-182. Phalangium opilio, i 390. Phalarope, grey, i 169 (illust.), 170; — red-necked, i 169. [iii 127-128. PhalarOpUS fulicarius, i 169; iii 127, — hyperboreus, i 169. [128. Phallusia mammillata, i 296 (illust. }. Phallus impudicus, iv 98. Pharyngeal bones, lower, i 276. Pharynx, annelids, i 427, 429, 430. — ascidians, i 297, 298 ; ii 245, 246, 389-390. — flat-worms, i 445, 446; ii 151, 152. — lancelet, ii 389, 390. — mammals, i 34-35. — molluscs, i 308. — nemertines, ii 391. — wheel-animalcules, i 435. Phascolarctos cinereus, ii 180, 181; iii 259-260, 479. Phascolomyidse, ii 183; iii 48o. PhaSCOlomyS. See Phascolomyidse. Phasianella, iii 106. Phasianus Colchicus, i 172; ii 239. Phasmidse, ii 359: "i 378-379- Pheasant, Amherst's, iv 148. — Argus, iv 148. — common, i 172. — gold, i 172; iv 148. — silver, i 172. Pheasants, i 172; ii 239; iii 300 (fllust.). Pheasant-Shells, iii 106. Phelsuma Andamanense, iii 268. Phenacodus, iv 472, 473 (illust.). Phengodes Hieronymi, iv 165. Phidippus morsitans, iv 168. Philaenus spumarius, ii 217. Philemon Timorlaoensis, ii 310- Philepitta, iv 423. [311- Philhetserus socius, iii 463- Philine aperta, i 324; ii 100. Philodina roseola, i 435; ii 262; iii zoo. [iv 477. Philosophical Zoology, i 16-17, 19; PhOCa Caspica, iv 313. — Greenlandica, i 99; iv 312, 313. — Sibirica, iv 313. — vitulina, i 99. [26-27. Phocaena communis, i 100-101; ii PhOCidSB. See Seals, true. Phcenicopterus roseus, iii 460, 461; iv 377) 378- Pholadidea, iii 410. Pholas dactylus, i 335, 336; iii 221, Phoraspis, ii 315. [409-410. Phormosoma luculenta, iii 94-95- Phryganea grandis, i 375 (illust.). — striata, iii 385 (illust.), 386. Phryganeidse. See Caddis-Flies. Phrynosoma cornutum, i 223; iv Phrynus, i 389; iii 169. [392. Phyllirhoe, i 326; iii 36. Phyllomedusa Jheringi, iii 437. Phyllopertha horticola, i 368. Phyllopoda, i 410, 421-422; ii 255- 256, 405; iii 362-363. — gill-footed, i 421-422. Phyllopteryx eques, ii 296; iv 75. PhyllOSCOpUS rufus, i 160; iii 185. — sibilatrix, i 160. — trochilus, i 160. [ii 39, 40. Phyllostoma spectrum, i 82-83; Phyllostomata, i 82-83. PhyUoxera vastatrix, i 353; ii 217; Phylogeny, iii 335. [iv 350. Physalia, ii 161-162; ^344. Physeter macrocephalus, ii 29; PhysiCS, i 4, 17- [iv 316, 317. Physignathus Lesueuri, iii 53. Physiological selection, iv 489. Physiology, standpoint of, i 13. Physophora hydrostatica, ii 161, 162 (illust.). Physostomi, i 273, 280-284 Phytophthora infestans, iv 76. Phytoptus ribis, iv 360. — vitis, ii 218. Picarise, i 152, 161-165. Picarian Birds, i 152, 161-165. Pica rustica, i 153. Picidse, iii 264-265. Picucules, iii 463-464 PiCUletS, iii 264. 410 (illust.). PiddOCkS, i 335 (illust.) ; iii 221, 409- Pieridse, i 361-362; ii 312; and see Pieris. PieriS brassicae, i 362; ii 214; iii 309- 400; iv 161, 162, 194, 352. — napi, i 362; iv 352. — rapse, i 362; iv 352. Pigeon, blue rock, i 139-152, 167; ii 186; iv 250-251, 487 (illust.). — crowned, i 167 (illust.); ii 185. — nutmeg-, i 186. [(illust.). — wood-, i 167 ; ii 185, 286 ; iii 458 Pigeons, i 139-152 (illust.); ii 184, 185- 186; iii 286 (illust.), 304, 305 (illust.), 470-471; iv 250-251, 487 (illust.). — "fruit"-, ii 185-186. — ground-, ii 185. — tree-, ii 185-186. "Pigeon's milk", i 151; iii 470-471- PigS, i 67, 105, 108-109; ii 231-234, 351; iii 487, 488-489; iv 98, 204, 206, 232-233. Pika, Siberian, i 125 (illust.). Pikas, i 125 ; and see Calling-Hares. Pike, bony, ii 334. [(illust.), 381. — common, i 282 ; ii 84 ; iv 348, 380 Pikes, i 282. Pilchard, i 283; iv 265. Pilidium, iii 419 (illust.). "Pill Bugs", ii 342. Pillow-Fish, ii 306. Pimpla instigator, iv 194. Pindar, iv 247. Pine Marten, i 98; ii 22. Pineal body, i 203. — eye, i 203; iv 47 (illust.), 48. Pinguicula, iv 68. Pinna. See Ear-flap. Pinnipedia (see also Sea-Lions, Wal- ruses, and Seals], i 86, 98-99; ii 24- 25, 329; iii 77-86, 492. Pinnules, i 459; ii 265. Pintail, i 176. Piophila casei, iii 178; iv 351. Pipa Americana, iii 50, 441, 442. Pipe-Fish, iii 427. — great, i 277; iii 427. Pipit, meadow, i 157. — Richard's, i 157. — rock, i 157. — tree, i 157. Pipridse, iv 431. PiSCiCOla, iv 200 (illust.). Pisciculture, i 18; iv 284-288. Pisidium, iii 407. Pissodes, iv 355. Pitcher Plants, iv 70-72. Pithecia Satanas, i 78; iii 24o, 241. Placoid scales, i 12-13, 259, 261, Placula, iii 338. 339. [288. Placuna placenta, iv 324. Plagiolepis, ii 206. [269. Plaice, i 279; ii 291-292; iii 432; iv Plan, of work, i 17-19. Planaria gonocephala, iii 7 (illust.). — lactea, i 445 (illust.). Planarian worms, i 441, 445-447,. 483; ii 151-152, 271, 308, 361, 445- 446; iii 7, 20-21, 329; iv 41, 440. — land forms, i 446; ii 152. Planes minutus, ii 140. Plankton, i 420; ii 29, 330; iv 283- 284, 435, 449-455, 459- Ui4- Planorbis corneus, i 328; ii 434; iii Plantain -Eater, African, iii 263 (illust.). Plantigrade feet structure, am- phibians, iii 121. — insects, iii 166. — mammals, i 94 (illust.); iii 135-136,, 155, 156, 158, 162. Plant-Lice. See Aphides. Plants, association of animals and, iv — carnivorous, iv 68-74. [74-76. — classification of, iv 64. — defences of, iv 80-83, 9°-95- — dispersal of, by animals, iv 95-98. — food of, i 33, 488; ii 3, 270-274; iv — parasitism, iv 76-77. [65-74. — pollination of, iv 83-90. — relation between nutrition of ani- mals and, iv 68-74. [353. Planula (pi. Planulse), iii 342, 350,. Plasma, i 38, 42, 147, 428, 469. Plasmodiophora brassicse, i\ 78; iv 363. Plastron, of turtles and tortoises, L 214, 217, 218, 220; ii 334. Platalea leucolodia, i 180. Platanista Gangetica, ii 28-29. "Plate Beaver", iii 74. Platyhelmia, i 304, 441-447; and see Flat-Worms. Platypus, duck-billed. See Duck- Mole. Plecotus auritus, i 82. Plectognathi, i 273, 277-278. Plectrophenax nivalis, i 156. Plesiosauria, iv 468, 469. Pleurobranchus membranaceus,. ii 306. Pleuronectes flesus, iv 269. — limanda, iv 269. — microcephalus, iv 270. — platessa, i 279; iv 369. PleUTOnectidse. See Flat Fishes. Pliny, iv 245, 369, 389, 399. PlotUS, ii 49: iii 64- Ploughshare bone, i 144; iii 20* (illust), 298. [455; iv 61-62. PlOVer, golden, i 169 (illust.); iii 454- American, iii 305. — grey, i 169. — Kentish, i 169; ii 286; iii 453. — ringed, i 169; ii 286; iv 133 (illust.). Plovers, i 152, 168-169; ii 67-68, 296; iii 465; iv 377, 423. Plumatella, i 437; ii 261; iii 331. Plumbago, iv 93. INDEX 543 Plume coralline, i 437- Plum-" Spider ", red, iv 360. Plumularia, i 480. Plunkett, Sir Horace, iv 246. Plusia gamma, i 364; »» 401; »v Plutarch, iv 239. [352- Plutella cruciferarum, iv 352. Pluteus (pi. Plutei), iii 355, 356- Pneumatic duct, ii 452. Pneumoderma, iv 451. Pochard, i 176; iii 59- Pocillopora favosa, i 475 (illust.). POCket-Gopher, common, i 131. POCket-MoUSe, banded, i 131. — common, iii 193-194 (illust.). Podargus, iv 428. Podicipes, i 185; iv3o8. — auritus, i 185. — cristatus, i 185. — fluviatilis, i 185; iii 65-66, 457. — griseigena, i 185. — nigricollis, i 185. Podura aquatica, i 384- — villosa, iii 176. POO, iv 408. Pogonomyrmex barbatus, ii 208. Pogy, iv 318. Pointer, iv 367 (illust.), 368. [(illust.). Poison -bag, echinoderms, ii 361 — fishes, ii 356-357 (illust.). — insects, iv 118. [234. Poison fangs, of reptiles, i 224, 230, PoiSOn-glandS, amphibians, ii 355. — arachnids, i 386, 388, 391; ii 125, — echinoderms, i 458. [126. — insects, ii 105, 358. — molluscs, ii 97, 357. — myriapods, i 394; ii 133. — nemertines, ii 93. [355 ; iv 338. — reptiles, i 224, 230, 234; ii 80, 354- Poison-spines, of echinoderms, ii 361 (illust.). — of fishes, ii 305-306, 355-357 (illust.). Polar bodies, Hi 336-337 (illust.). Pole-Cat, i 97-98; ii 22. Pole-Cats, water-, ii 22 ; and see Visons. Polian vesicles, iii 92. Political Economy, i 17. Pollack, iv 200. [92. Pollen, iv 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, "Pollen basket", of bees, iv 254 (illust.). Pollination, of flowers, iv 83-90. Polyacanthus viridiauratus, iii 427 ; iv 393. Polyborus tharus, ii 303- Polychseta, i 429-430; ii 146, 408; iii — free-living, i 429. [227. — sedentary, i 429-430. Polycirrus aurantiacus, ii 380. Polyclades, ii 151, 152. Polydesmus complanatus, i 396. Polyergus rufescens, i 373. PolygOrdlUS, i 431-432 ; iii 99, 359- PolylOphUS, iii 326. [360. Polynema gracilis, iv 194. — natans, iii 28-29. Polynoe, i 429; ii 408. PolynoidS, ii 408; iii 358. Polyommatus alexis, i 362. Polype, freshwater, i 465-473 (illust.); ii 160, 271-272; iii 2, 10 (illust.), 327, 328, 339-341- Polypterus, i 266-268; ii 334, 421, 453. Polyrhachis, iv 115. Polystomella imperatrix, iv 454. Polystomum integerrimum, iv 201. [;illust.). Polyxenia cyanostylis, iv 33 Polyzpa, i 436-438 ; ii 261, 339, 410- 411; iii 7, 8, 99-100, 330-331; iv 104- 105. Polyzonium Germanicum, iii 373. Pomatoceros triqueter, ii 258. PompiliUS exaltatus, i 373. — viaticus, ii 106. Pond-Skater, i 354; ii 123 (illust.), 440; iii 29 (illust.). Pontobdella, iii 361. Pony (and see Horses): — Norwegian, iv 235-236 (illust.). — Shetland, iv 237, 238 (illust.). Porbeagles, i 286. Porcellana platycheles, iii 368. Porcupine, Brazilian tree-, iii 253, 255 (illust.). — brush-tailed, i 132. — Canadian tree-, i 132; iii 253. — common, i 132; ii 342. Porcupines, i 64, 125, 131-135; ii 178, 333! i» 252-253. Porcupine Worm, ii 339- Porcus babirussa, i 109; iii 488. Porgana marnetta, i 171. Porifera. See Sponges. Pork "measles", i 443- Porpoise, i 67, 100-101 (illust.); ii 26; iii 490-491. Porschinsky, ii 315- Portal circulation, i 41, 202. — vein, i 41. Porte croix, i 390. Porthesia auriflua, ii 360. Portuguese Man-of-war, ii 161- 162 ; iv 344. Posterior nares, i 46, 147. Potamides, iii 417. [108. Potamochcerus penicillatus, i Potamogale velox, ii 35; iii 72. Potato-Fungus, iv 76. POtatO plant, iv 76. — thrips, i 355 (illust.). PottO, Bosnian's, iii 243 (illust.), 244. PottOS, ii 320. [479- POUCh, of marsupials, iii 193, 206, 478- Pouched-Bear, iii 259-260, 479. Pouched-Jerboa, iii 192. Pouched " Lion ", iv 474. POUChed mammals. See Mammals. Pouched-Mole, ii 43 (illust.), 328-329; iii 206-207. Pouched-Rats, i 130-131; iii 192- 193, 204-205; iv 418. Poulpe. See Octopus. POUltOn, ii 286, 293, 294, 297, 300, 303, 305, 3i4, 359! iii 399! iv 160, 162. POUltry-LOUSe, pale, ii iii. Power, Madame Jeanette, iv 57. PoyOU, i 137 (illust.). Pracellodomus sibilatrix, iii 464. ''Prairie Dog". See Prairie-Mar- mot, common. Prairie-Marmot, Columbian, iv 135. — common, i 126-127 (illust.); ii 367; — Mexican, iv 135. [iv 135. Pratincola rubetra, i 1 60. — rubicola, i 160. Pratincole, i 169. Prawn, ^Esop, ii 292-293, 294. — common, i 412 ; ii 137, 292, 403; iii 169; iv 298 (illust.), 299-300. — freshwater, ii 253-254. — Jamaica, ii 137. Prawns, iii 27, 365; iv 35, 36, 444- 445 (illust.). Praying - Insects, i 381 ; and see Mantis, praying-. Preformation, doctrine of, iii 336. Premolars, i 36. See also Teeth. Priapulus, ii 410 (illust.). Primates, i 68, 70-79. See also Man, Apes, and Monkeys. Prionocrangon ommatosteres, iv 445 (i"ust.). Prionodura, iv 407. Pristis antiquorum, i 288; ii 89. ProbOSCidea. See Elephants. ProbOSCiS, of acorn-headed worm, iii 215, 216. — elephants, i 102; ii 171-172. — insects, i 359, 363; ii 205, 206, 214, — molluscs, i 320, 339. [215. — nemertines, i 305-306; ii 93. — siphon-worms, i 433; ii 150. — tapirs, i 105. Proboscis-Bear, ii 229, 230 (illust.). PrObOSCiS-Sheath, of nemertines, i 305-306. PrOCavia Abyssimca, i 104; iii 250. — arborea, iii 250. — Syriaca, i 104. Procellaria pelagica, i 183. Proctotretus multimaculatus, ii 344-345. [247. Procyon lotor, i 94; ii 229-230; iii Proechidna, i 70; iii 475. Proglottides, iv 204. Pro-legs, i 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365 ; ii 314 ; iii 102, 103. Proneomenia, i 341 (illust. ). Prongbucks, i 109, 112-113; Hi 151 (illust.). [34-35- Prosobranchia, i 317, 318-324; Hi Prosopistoma, ii 466 (illust) ; Hi 30. Prosthiostomum, ii 152. Prostomium, iii 359; iv 12. Proteas, iv 89. Protection of eggs and young, i 18; iii 349, 362. — amphibians, Hi 434~435, 436-437, 438-439» 44°-44 i, 442, 443- — annelids, Hi 358, 361. — arachnids, iii 373-374, 375. — birds, iii 448, 449, 451-452, 453, 454, 457, 464-474; iv 60 [368. — crustaceans, iii 362-363, 365, 367- — echinoderms, iii 355, 356-357. — fishes, iii 423, 424, 426-430. — insects, Hi 378, 379, 380, 381, 382- 383, 387-388, 389-39°, 391-392, 393, 394-396, 400, 402; iv 56, 115, 117, 1 1 8, 1 20, 126, 256. — mammals, i 65 ; iii 474~475, 477> 478-480, 481, 482-483, 485, 486, 487- 488, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494. — molluscs, iii 404, 405-406, 412-413, 414, 417-418. — myriapods, Hi 37I~373- — peripatus, iii 370. — reptiles, iii 444, 445, 446, 447. — zoophytes, iii 350, 352-353. Protective mimicry. See Mimicry. Protective resemblance (see also Masking and Mimicry}, ii 278, 282— 283, 285, 289, 294-295, 300. — amphibians, ii 291. — arachnids, ii 299-300. — ascidians, ii 278. — birds, ii 279, 281, 290, 295-296; iii 450, 453, 47i: iv 132-134. 544 INDEX Protective resemblance (Cent.} — birds (Cotit. ) eggs and young, ii 285-286. — crustaceans, ii 278, 279, 292-293. — fishes, ii 283-284, 291-292, 296. — insects, ii 282, 286-287, 293-294, 296-300; iii 399; iv 160, 161-162. — mammals, ii 18, 279, 289-290, 295 ; iii 488. — molluscs, ii 278, 285, 287-289, 292, — reptiles, ii 281-282, 290-291. [296. — zoophytes, ii 278. ProteidS. See Albuminoids. Proteles Lalandii, i 91-92; ii 15- Protelidae, i 87, 91-92 ; and see Pro- teles. Proterospongia, iv 100-101 (illust.). Proteus anguineus, i 249 ; ii 457 ; iii 48. Proteus animalcule, i 488-491; ii 268-269, 418; iii 2, 6, 231, 318-319; iv 4-5- Protochordata, i 60, 292-301. See also Lancelet, Ascidians, and Acorn- headed Worm. Protohydra, i 480. ProtOmollUSCS, i 311, 339-341: " 391-392; iii 222, 404-405; iv 16-17, Protomyxa, i 497. 498- [215- Protoplasm, i 39, 43-44, 469, 484, 487-488, 490, 492, 498; ii 1-3, 266, 268, 270, 379; iii i; iv 1-3, 449, 484. Protopterus, i 264, 265; ii 83, 456. ProtOtheria, i 69-70. See Mam- mals, egg-laying. Prototracheata. See Peripatus. Protozoa, i 304, 487-499; ii 163, 266- 270, 272-274, 341, 361-362, 418-419; iii 2, 4, 5, 6, 8-9, 88-89, 231, 317-325, 333-335; iv 4°, 49, 76> 77, 99-IOI> 206-207, 363, 449, 453, 454-455, 458, — amceba-like, i 492, 495-498. [464. Proventriculus, i 14°- Prussia acid, ii 360. Psalter, ii 169. See also Digestive organs of mammals, herbivorous. Psammodromus Hispanicus, iii Psephurus, i 268. [446. Pseudobranch, i 263; ii 386. Pseudobranchus striatus, iii 49. Pseudoceros velutinus, ii 308. PseudOpOdS, of animalcules, i 490, 495, 496; ii 268-269, 270; iii 2, 3, 4; iv 4~5- Pseudoscorpionidae, i 387, 388-389. Psilura monacha, ii 287; iv 353. Psittaci, i 152, 166-167; " 188-191; iii 265-266. Psittacus erithacus, i 166; iv 389. Psocus fasciatus, i 379- Psolus ephippifer, iii 357- Psopheticus stridulans, iv 37. Psychidae, iii 400. Psychology, i 17. Psychropotes, iii 96 (illust.). Ptarmigan, i 172; ii 290 (illust.); iv 134 (illust.). Pteranodon, iii 309; iv 471. Pterasteridae, iii 356. Pteridophyta, iv 64. Pteroceras, ii 336. Pterodactylus, iv 470-471 (illust.). PteromalUS pontise, iv 194. — puparum, iv 194. Pteromys petaurista, iii 282-283. Pteronarcys, ii 464 (illust.). Pterophorus pterodactylus, i 366. Pteropoda, i 325-326; ii 278; iii 35- 36, 412; iv45i. PterOpUS, i 81-82; ii 321; iv 212. — edulis. i 82; iii 245. Pterosaur, paddle-tailed, iii 308-309 (illust.). [471. Pterosauria, iii 292, 308-309; iv 470- Pterotrachea, i 321; ii 99 (illust.); iv 35 (illust.). Pterylse, i 142. [155- Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus, i Ptinidae, iv 355. Ptyodactylus homolepis, iii 268. Pubis, i 145- Puff Adder, ii 80, 303-304; iv 339. Puffin, common, i 184; iii 66. B Puffins, i 184; ii 53. Pug Dog, i 383, 384 (illust.). Pulex irritans, i 358; ii 122; iii 178. Pulicidae. See Fleas. Pulmonary artery, i 40-41. Pulmonata, i 317, 324, 326-328 ; ii roc, 330, 461-462. Pulsating vacuole, i 491, 493, 494, 496; ii 419- PulVlllUS, iii 274-275, 276. Pulvinaria ribesiae, iv 351. Puma, i 88; ii 9 (illust.), 10; iii 247. Pupa (pi. Pupae) : — beetles, i 367; iii 394 (illust.); iv 192. — bugs, iii 381. — flies, two-winged, i 356, 357; ii 442 (illust.), 468 (illust.); iii 402 (illust.), 403-404 (illust.); iv 191 (illust). — insects, membrane -winged, i 370, 371, 372; iii 387, 388, 389, 391; iv IIO, 112, 115, 117, Il8, 120, 177, 195, 255, 256. net-winged, i 377, 378, 379 ; iii 385-386. — moths and butterflies, i 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365; iii 399-400 (illust.), 401 (illust.), 402 (illust.). Pupil, of mammals, i 58, 93, 94. "Pure cultures", i4. Purple -Shell, i 320-321; ii 96-97 (illust.), 394-395; iii 412 (illust.), 416; iv 348. Purpura lapillus, i 320-321; ii 96- 97, 394-395: "i 4T2, 416; iv 348. PutoriUS ermineus, i 98; ii 22, 289; iv — foetid us, i 97; ii 22; iv 369. [303. — lutreolus, iii 76; iv 304. — Sibiricus, iii 76. — vison, iii 76; iv 304. — vulgaris i 98; ii 21, 290. PycnOgOn, shore, i 424 (illust.). Pycnogonida, i 343, 424 ; iv 447 (illust.). Pycnogonum littorale, i 424. Pygaera bucephala, i 363-364; ii 299. PygOpOdeS, i 152, 183-185; iii 64-65. Pygopus lepidopus, i 222. Pylocheles, iv 446-447- Pyloric caeca, i 272. Pyloric sac, i 453. Pyrosoma, i 300; iv 106. — gigantea, iv 106. Pyrrhocorax graculus, i 154. Pyrrhula Europaea, i 156. Python, Indian (molurus), i 231, 232 (illust.). — West African (sebse), i 231, 232 (illust). Pythons, i 232; ii 79, 320; iii 270, 445. Pythonomorpha, iv 469. Q Quadrate bone, i 143, 193, 206, 215, Quadrumana, iii 253. [237. Quadrupeds, i 8. Quail, i 172; ii 239. Quercus pubescens, iv 81-82. Querquedula crecca, iii 58. — quetta, i 176. Quill- feathers, i 142-143 (illust.), 153, 155, \56, 157, 158, 163, 173, 178, 182, 186; iii 296-297, 301. R Rabbit, i 9, 124 (illust); ii 174-176, 324, 325, 345-346, 366-367; iii ii, 12, 202, 482; iv 140, 141, 243-244, 308, 346, 375, 386. — angora, iv 243, 244 (illust.). — chinchilla, iv 243. RaCCOOn, common, i 94 (illust.); ii RachiS, i 142. [229-230; iii 247. Radiale, i 144, 197, 198, 252; iii 299. Radial Vessels. See Ambulacral vessels. Radiates (Radiata), i ii. Radiolaria, i 496; ii 341; iv 76, 77, 453, 454, 458. Radiolarian ooze, i 496. Radius, i 30, 144, 196, 197, 241, 251, 252; iii 118, 134, 141, 149, 158, 237, 299. Radula, pi. Radulae (see also Rasp- ing organ), i 310; ii 95, 96, 97, 196, Radula sac, i 310; ii 95. [198. Raia batis, i 288; ii 386; iii 424; iv 278. — clavata, i 288; ii 334; iv 278. Rail, land-, i 171; ii 240 (illust), 343- — water-, i 171 ; ii 344. [344, 368. Rails, i 152, 171; ii 240, 343-344, 368; iii 61-62, 186. RaUus aquaticus, i 171. Ramulina globulifera, iv 454. Rana Catesbyana, i 254; iii 50. — esculenta, i 254; iii 50; iv 153. — Guppyi, i 255. — temporaria, i 249; ii 82, 192-194, 291, 422-423, 457-458; iii 50, 182- 184, 436-437. [iii 383. Ranatra linearis, i 354; ii 124, 440; Rangifer tarandus, i m; iii 152; iv 219. Ranidae, i 254. See also Frogs. Raphides, iv 80. Raphidia ophiopsis, i 377- Rasores, ii 238. Rasping organ, of molluscs, i 308- 310, 311, 339; ii 94-96 (illust), 97, 99, 196, 247, 248. Rat, black, i 127; and see Rats. — common or brown, i 127; iv 375. — water-. See Vole, water-. RatS, i 127; ii 234, 321; iv 346, 347. See also Mole-Rats, Pouched-Rats, &c. Ratitae, i 152, 186-190; ii 243; iii 128- 132, 449-45°- Rat-Kangaroos, ii 182. "Rat-tailed Maggot", ii 216, 44i, 442 (illust). "Rattle", i 235; ii 304 (illust.). Rattlesnake, i 234-235 (illust.); ii 80 (illust.), 304 (illust); iv 135, 339. INDEX 545 Raven, I 153; ii 235, 236, 237; iv 96, Ray, John, i 9. [130, 347, 408. Ray, thornback, i 288 (illust.); " 334; — whip-, i 288. [iv 278 (illust.). Rays, i 257, 284, 287-290; ii 90, 385- 387; iii 44, 424-425; iv 204, 278, 348. — eagle-, i 288; ii 90 (illust.); iii 44 (illust.). [(illust). — electric, i 290 (illust.); ii 90, 91 — sting-, i 288-290; ii 356, 357; iv 205. — true, i 288. Ray-Animalcule, i 496; iv 76, 77 (illust.), 449 (illust.), 453, 454, 458. Ray Lankester, i 400; iv 282, 325. Razorbill, common, i 184 (illust.); iii 66. Razor-Shells, i 355 (illust.); iii 220 (illust.); iv 215. Reason, i 52; iv 53. Reaumur, iii 388. Recapitulation, law of, i 14; ii 9, 15, 29, 394; iii 118-119, 142-143, 321, 335-336, 337-339, 348, 432; iv 482. Rectal gills, ii 464- See also Gills, of insects. Rectrices, i 143; iii 297. See also Feathers. Rectum, ii 464-465, 466. [128. Recurvlrostra avocetta, iii 127- Redia (pi. Rediae), i 444. Red-Mullet, plain, iv 271. — striped, iv 271 (illust.). Red-Mullets, iv 271-272. Red- or Forked-Worm, iv 362. Redpole, lesser, i 156. — mealy, i 156. "Red-Spider", i 393; » 218, 443. Red-spotted Bluethroat, i 160. Redstart, i 160. — black, i 160. [190. Reduvius personatus, ii 123; iv Redwing, i 160. Reed, ii 169. Reed-fish, i 266, 268 (illust.); ii 453. Reeve, iv 322. Reeves, w. H., iv 292. Reflex actions, iv 9 (illust.), 24, 33, 34, 49, 50. Regeneration, biological : — amphibians, iii 332. — annelids, ii 374-375; iii 329. — birds, iii 332. — crustaceans, ii 374; iii 331-332. — echinoderms, i 454; iii 328-329. — flat-worms, iii 329. — mammals, iii 332. — moss-polypes, iii 331. — reptiles, ii 371 ; iii 332. — sponges, iii 325, 326. — zoophytes, iii 328. RegulUS cristatus, i 160. — ignicapillis, i 160. Reindeer, i 111-112; iii 152; iv 218, 219 (illust.). "Reindeer Age", i 112. Remiges, i 143; iii 296. See also Feathers. Rengger, iv 146. Rennin, ii 169. Reptiles, i 60, 191-237; ii 70-81, 191- 192, 281-282, 290-291, 303-304, 311, 320, 333, 344-345, 354-355, 37O-37*, 424-426; iii 50-56, iio-ui, 121-124, 184-185, 207-212, 267-272, 286-287, 308-309, 332, 443-448 ; iv 29-30, 47, 48, 151-152, 214, 317, 328, 336-337, 348, 378, 391-392, 395-396, 417, 419, Reptiles (Cent.} 421, 425, 428, 432, 437, 463-464, 467- 471. — extinct, ii 328, 329-330; iii 124, 292, 308-309 (illust.); iv 463-464, 467-471 — flying. See Extinct. [(illust.). — terrible. See Dinosaurs. — toothless, i 212-221. See also Turtles and Tortoises. — varied-toothed, iv 467-468. Respiratory organs. See Breath- ing organs. Respiratory trees, of echinoderms, ii 414; iii 96, 97. Retepora, i 437 (illust.). RetiCUlum, ii 168. See also Diges- tive organs of mammals, herbivo- rous. Retina, i 58. Retinaculum, iii 312. [99. Retractor muscles, i 334, 438 ; iii Retropinna Richardsoni, iv 275. Reversion, iv 488. Rhabdites, ii 361. Rhabdocceles, ii 151, 152. Rhabdophora, iv 458-459- Rhacophorus pardalis, iii 287-288. — Reintwardti, ii 319, 323; iii 288. — reticulatas, iii 441-442. — Schlegeli, iii 439. Rhamphastidae, ii 186-187. Rhamporhynchus, iii 308-309. Rhea, common (Americana), i 188. — Darwin's (Darwini), i 188. — long-billed (macrorhynca), i 188. Rheas, i 188 ; ii 243 ; iii 130, 153, 449. Rhina squatina, i 286-287. Rhinoceros, common or black (bicor- nis), i 106 (illust.); ii 350; iii 138-139, 140. [350; iii 139 (illust.). — Indian (unicornis), i 106 (illust.); ii — white (sinus), iii 138. Rhinoceroses, i 64, 105-106 ; ii 350 ; iii 138-140, 488; iv 334, 373. Rhinoderma Darwini, iii 440-441 (illust.). RhinolOphUS ferrumequinum, i 83. — hipposideros, i 83. [83. Rhinopoma microphyllum, i 82- Rhizocrinus, iv 446. Rhizomys, iii 204. Rhizopoda, i 492, 495-498; ii 268- 270, 341. See also Animalcules. Rhodeus amarus, ii 452 (illust.). Rhodites rosse, i 372; ii 204-205. RhombUS laevis, iv 268. — maximus, i 279; iii 431-432; iv 268. Rhopalia, iv 41 (illust.). Rhopalocera, i 360-362. See also Butterflies. Rhyacophilides, ii 116. Rhynchites betulae, iii 394-396. Rhynchocephala, i 203, 236-237; iii 56, 444 ; iv 410, 464, 467. Rhynchodesmus terrestris, ii 446. Rhynchops, ii 52. Rhynchosuchus Schlegeli, i 212. Rhyssa, iv 195. Rhytina, ii 173-174. Ribs, amphibians, i 239. — birds, i 144-145. — fishes, i 261. — mammals, i 29, 46. — reptiles, i 194-195, 206, 237 ; ii 424 ; iii iio-ui, 287. Rice-Bird, i 156. Richardia .ffithiopica, iv 80. Ridley, H. N., iii 488. Rimula, ii 394. Ring-muscle, ii 171. Ring-Ousel, i 160. Rissa tridactyla, i 168; iii 455, 456. Ritzema Bos, ii 235, 347; iv 326, 328, 358. River-Shrew, African, ii 35. River- Worm, red, i 431 ; iv 203-204. Roach, i 282; ii 449 (illust.), 450. Robin Redbreast, i 160 ; iii 185 ; iv Robinson, Louis, iii 234. [96. ROCk-BadgerS. See Conies. Rock-borers, i 335. Rock Goby, i 275. "Rock Hoppers", iii 186. Rock-Kangaroos, ii 182. ROCk-Lobster. See Lobster. Rock -Wallaby, yellow -footed, iii 479 (illust.). Rodentia. See Mammals, gnawing. Rods and Cones, i 58; iv 47. Rolling-up habit, ii 341-342. Rolt, H. A., iv 379. Romanes, ii 154, 324; Hi 19, 95, 115, 234: iv 385, 401, 478, 488, 489, 494. Rondeletius, iv 315. Rook, i 153 (illust.); 11235, 236 261, 288. — mammals, i 42. — reptiles, i 192-193, 205, 213-214, 223, 225, 226, 228, 237; iii 210. Scale- Worm, ii 408 (illust.); iii 358. Scallop, edible, i 337-338. — pilgrim, i 337 (illust). [45-46. Scallops, i 337-338; iii 36-37, 409; iv Scansores, iii 263. Scaphander, ii TOO. Scaphirhynchus, i 268. Scaphites, iv 466 (illust.). Scaphppoda, i 311, 333-339; " 247- 248; iii 221-222, 411-412; iv 18. Scapula, i 29, 69, 187, 197, 198, 241, 252 ; iii 201, 298 ; and see Shoulder- girdles. "Scar" of Limpet, iv 57-58. Scarabseus sacer, i 368; ii 209-211. ScaniS, ii 361 ; iv 437. Scaup, i 176. Scelimena, iii 29-30. Scent-glands, iv 142 (illust), 152. Scepastus pachyrhyncoides, ii Scharff, iii 105. [315. Scheltopusik, i 223 (illust.). Schiemenz, ii 98. Schiller, iv 403. Schimper, iv 64. Schistocerca (Acridium) pere- grina, i 382; ii 213. Schizopoda, i 41°, 412-413. Schizotarsia, i 396, 397. Schmankewitsch, iv 493. Schmidt, Oscar, iii 148. Schneider, iv 56. Sciara militaris, iv 127. Science, i i, 2. Scientific Method, i 1-4. Scincidse, iii 207-208. Scincus officinalis, i 225; ii 76, 77, 282; iii 207-208. Scissor-bills, ii 52 (illust.). SciUTidse. See Squirrels. Sciuroptems volucella, iii 283. SciUITlS laticaudatus, iii 247. — vulgaris, i 123; ii 367; iii 483-484; iv 308. Sclater, w. L., ii 3n, 3i6; iv 4i2. Sclerotic coat, i 57. SCOlOpaX gallinago, iii 127, 128. — rusticula, i 169; ii 68. Scolopendra morsitans, i 397. Scolopendrella, i 397. Scomber colias, iii 41-43. — vernalis, i 274; iii 42, 43; iv 270. SCOmbridse. See Mackerels. Scopelus engraulis, ii 319. Scorpio, i 387. Scorpion, field-, i 387. — house-, i 387. — rock-, i 387. Scorpions, i 385-387 (illust); ii 125, 442-443; iii 168-169, 373; iv 15- Scorpion-Flies, i 377-378 (illust.); ii in. Scorpionidae. See Scorpions. Scorpion-Shells, ii 336. Scorpion-Spiders, i 389. SCOter, black, i 177. — velvet, i 177. Scott Elliot, iv 64, 83, 89. "Scratching" birds, ii 238. Scrobicularia, ii 249, 250 (illust.); iii 219 (illust.). Scrub-Turkey, iii 451-452. Scrupocellaria, iv 105. Scudder, ii 307. Scutes, of reptiles, i 192, 205, 209, 210, 223; ii 333 (illust). [165. SCUtigera, i 397; ii 133-134, 436; iii Scyllarus arctus, i 411 (illust.). Scy Ilium canicula, i 257-264, 284, 285; ii 385-387; "i 424- — catulus, i 286. Scyphomedusse, i 480, 481-483. See also Hydroids. Sea -Anemones, i 465, 473-474 (illust.); ii 156-158 (illust), 289, 308, 341, 361, 417-418 (illust); iii 327- 328 (illust), 353; iv 7, 25 (illust), 76, Sea-Bass, iii 425 (illust). [217. Sea-Bear, iii 79, 492; iv 304-307. Sea-Breams, ii 195. Sea-Butterflies, ii 278. Sea-Cat, i 290-291 (illust); ii 387 (illust.). Sea-Centipede, i 425-429 (illust); ii 146; iii 97-98 (illust); iv 12, 44. Sea-COWS, i 68, 101-102 (illust); ii I73~I74 (illust), 329; iii 81-83 (illust.), 490; iv 213, 313-314, 436, 473- Sea -Cucumbers, i 454, 462-464 (illust); ii 264, 414, 416 (illust.); iii 24 (illust), 92, 95-97 (illust), 230, 328, 357; iv 199, 217. — footless, iii 97 (illust). Sea-Ear. See Ormer. Sea-Flowers, i 473-478; and see Sea- Anemones, Corals, &c. — eight-rayed, i 474, 476-478; iv 102. — six-rayed, i 474-476. Sea-Hare, i 324-325; ii 397; iii 35 (illust), 218, 412. [iv 75. Sea-Horse, Australian, ii 296 (illust); — short-snouted, i 277 (illust); iii 43- 44, 427 (illust). Sea-Lemon, ii 397 (illust); iii 412. Sea-Lilies, i 454, 459-460 (illust); ii 265, 413, 415; iii 8, 23, 328; iv 199, 446 (illust), 447, 459. Sea-Lion, Steller's, i 98, 99 (illust). Sea-Lions, i 98 ; ii 24-25 ; iii 77-79 (illust.), 492; iv 304-307. INDEX 547 Sea-Lizards, iv 468, 469 (illust.). Sea-Mats, i 436-437 (illust), 478; ii 339- [339, 408. "Sea-Mouse", i 429; ii 147 (illust.), Sea-Net, i 437 (illust). Sea-Otter, iv 304. "Sea-Parrots", i 184. Sea-Pens, i 473, 478; iv 102. Sea-Scorpion, i 274. Sea-Serpents, iv 469. Sea-Slater, ii 143 (illust.), 405; in 365, 368; iv 199. Sea- "Spiders", i 343, 424 (illust); iv 447 (illust). Sea-Squirts, i 293, 297-300 (illust). See also Ascidians. Sea-Urchin, edible, i 456-459 (illust); iii 92-93. Sea-Urchins, i 454, 456-459; ii 264, 289, 340 (illust), 361 (illust), 412 (illust), 413, 415-416 (illust',; iii 92- 95. 355-356, 357 (illust); iv 41, 199, — irregular, i 459. [217, 459. — regular, i 459. Sea- weeds, iv 64, 95. See also Algae. Seal, common, i 99 (illust) ; iii 78 (illust), 80-81. — harp, or Greenland, i 99 ; iv 312, 313 (illust). — hooded or bladder-nosed, iv 312. — northern fur-, iii 79, 492; iv 304-307. Seals, i 98-99; ii 24-25; i" 492- — eared. See Sea-Lions. — true, i 98-99; iii 80-81; iv 312-313. Sebaceous glands, i 63-64; iii 476- 477; iv 196. Secretary Bird, i 176; ii 46-48 (illust) ; iv 328. Sedentaria, i 429-430. SedgWick, Adam, i 398; ii 360; iii 102. Segmentation, i 61, 343, 349; ii 375, — annelids, i 425, 426, 427, 431. [382. — arachnids, i 385-386, 388, 392. — crustaceans, i 402-406, 416, 420; iv 13-14- — insects, i 343, 345, 349, 359, 384. — myriapods, i 394, 395. — peripatus, i 399. — vertebrates, i 61, 295; iv 19. Segmented Worms. See Annelida. Seiler, Raphael, iv 387. Selache maxima, i 286. Selachoidei, i 284-287. See also Sharks and Dog- Fishes. Selenia illunaria, ii 300. Self-fertilization of Flowers, iv 84, 85. SelOUS, ii 352; iv 364, 365, 370. Semilunar fold, iv 481. Semi-plantigrade feet struc- ture, iii 156, 157. Semnopithecus entellus, i 72-73; — nasica, i 73. [ii 164-165. — roxellanus, i 73. Semon, i 7 ; ii 83, 127, 189, 354, 357, 455; »i 53. 258, 285, 450, 451, 452, 477; iv 211, 212, 252, 313. Semper, ii 315, 444, 445, 450, 461 ; iii 181. Sense Organs, i 18 ; iv 2-5, 24-25 ; and see Sight, Hearing, Smell, &c. — evolution of, i 59; iv 6. — special, i 263-264, 350. — amphibians, i 245, 256 ; iv 26, 29- — animalcules, i 491 ; iv 40. [30, 32. — annelids, i 428-429; ii 146, 148; iv 25, 26, 28, 29, 34, 40, 42, 44-45. Sense Organs (Cont.) — arachnids, i 386-387, 388, 389, 390, 392; iv 44, 45. — ascidians, iv 38, 46. — birds, i 150-151; iv 26, 27, 29-30. — crustaceans, i 408; ii 136; iv 28, 30- 3J» 35-37- — echinoderms, i 454, 463-464 ; ii 154, 415, 416; iv 41 ; and see Tube-feet — fishes, i 263-264, 272; iv 28-29, 3°» 32> 38-39, 46, 47- — flat-worms, i 446. — insects, i 349-350; iii 387; iv 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 43-44, 45, 164-166. — king-crabs, i 423. — lancelet, iv 46. — mammals, i 53-59 ; ii 24, 227, 228, 232; iv 27, 28, 29, 30, 31-32, 140-142. — molluscs, i 310-311, 332; ii 331; iv 28, 29, 30-31, 40, 41, 42-43, 45. — myriapods, i 395, 396, 397; iv 30, 31. — peripatus, i 399, 402. — reptiles, i 203, 209, 213, 228, 230- 232, 237; iv 27, 29-30, 47, 48. — wheel-animalcules, i 435. — zoophytes, i 479, 480, 482, 483; iv 25, 26, 28, 33-34, 40-41. Sensitiveness, iv 2-3. Sensory nerves, i 53. Sepia officinalis, 131 1-314; 1194-96, 392-393; iii 418; iv 18-19, 322. Septa, of sea-flowers, i 474, 476, 477. Seriatopora subulata, i 475 (illust). Serinus canarius, iv 387-389. Serpentarius secretarius, i 176; ii 46-48; iv 328. Serpula, i 43°; ii 258, 339, 409. Serranus atrarius, iii 425- Serratula lycopifolia, iv 82-83. Sertularia, i 480. Setse, i 408, 409, 426, 429, 43i, 432, 433 ; ii 146, 360 ; and see Sense Organs. Sewellels, iv 418. Shag, i 181; ii 48; iii 63-64. "Shagreen", iv3i7. Shanny, i 275. Shark, basking, i 286; ii 88. — blue, i 284-286 (illust.); ii 88; iii 41. — Greenland, i 286. — grey six-gilled, i 287. — hammer-headed, i 285-286 (illust). — Japanese frill-gilled, i 287. — Port- Jackson, i 287; ii 89, 90; iii 424 (illust). — rondeletian, i 286; ii 88; iv 340. — thresher or fox-, ii 88-89. — zebra, i 286. Sharks, i 257, 284-290; ii 88, 385-387; iii 40-41, 424-425; iv 128-129, 204. — comb-toothed, i 287. Sharp, ii 117, 203, 210, 213, 251, 313, 466; iii 30, 225, 264, 379, 388, 389, 393, 394: iv 113, 215, 355, 356. Sheep, i 29, 114, 115-117; ii 168, 352; iii 248; iv 142, 226-229. — Archar, iii 186-187 (illust). — Barbary, iv 227. — bighorn, i 116. — flat-tailed, iv 228. — merino, iv 229. — mouflon, i 116. — Rocky Mountain, iii 187. Sheep-bot, i 358; iv 191. Sheep-" tick", iv 190 (illust). Sheldrake, i 177; iii 58 (illust). Shell-glands, i 416, 422. Shell-membrane, iii 347. Shell-muscle, of molluscs, i 307. Shells, of animalcules, i 489, 495-496; ii 341. — crustaceans, i 406, 419-420; ii 405. — lamp-shells, i 438-439; ii 339-340. — molluscs, i 307, 310, 316-317, 318- 319, 320, 321, 324, 325, 327, 328, 329- 331. 334-335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 34' : ii 335-337, 394= iii 32, 35, 36-37, 408, 409-410, 411, 415, 416; iv 322-324. — turtles and tortoises, i 214, 218, 219, Shields, G. O., iv 364. [220. Shield-Urchins, i 459. Shin-bone, i 32. Shipley, ii 260; iii 92. [411; iv 348. "Ship-Worm", i 335; iii 410 (illust), Shore Lark, i 156. Shoulder-blade, i 29: iii 201, 298. Shoulder-girdles, i 196; iii 119-120. amphibians, i 251. birds, i 145; iii 298. fishes, i 261; iii 118. mammals, i 29, 69; iii 132. reptiles, i 198, 215. — -joint, i 29-30. Shrew, common, i 84-85. — garden, ii 34, 35 (illust). — lesser, i 84. — Tuscan, i 84 (illust), 85. — water, i 84; ii 34. — web-footed, ii 35; iii 71. Shrews, i 83, 84-85 ; ii 34-35, 37 ; iii 71; iv327. — burrowing, ii 34. — swimming, ii 34-35. Himalayan, iii 71. — See also Jumping-Shrews, Tree- Shrews, Elephant - Shrew, Musk- Shrew, &c. Shrike, grey, i 158. — red-backed, i 158. Shrikes, i 158; ii 64-65; iv 133. Shrimp, common, i 412 ; ii 137 ; iv 298, 299-300 (illust). — freshwater, i 415; ii 142. Shrimps, ii 403 ; iii 27, 365 ; iv 35, 445 (illust). Shuckard, iii 391. Sialidse, ii 466-467. Sialis lutaria, i 377; ii 466-467. Sibree, iv 336. Side-gills, ii 401-402. See also Gills. Sight, organs and sense of, iv 24, 39- 48, 401-402. — development of, iv 46-47. [214. — amphibians, i 245, 249, 251; iii 213- — animalcules, iv 40. — annelids, i 426, 432; iv 40, 42, 44-45. — arachnids, i 386-390, 392, 399; iv 44, — ascidians, iv 46. [45. — birds, i 150-151. — crustaceans, i 409, 414, 417, 420, 422; iv43, 445. — echinoderms, i 451, 458; iv 41. — fishes, i 60, 263, 270, 279-280, 285, 291; iv46, 47, 443-444- — flat- worms, i 446; iv 41. — insects, i 346, 352-353, 358, 366, 376; iv 43-44, 45, 121, 164-166. — king-crabs, i 423. — lancelet, iv 46. — mammals, i 57-58. — molluscs, i 312, 317, 327, 328, 338; iii 218-219; iv 4°, 4T, 45, 444- — myriapods, i 395, 397. — peripatus, i 399, 402. 548 INDEX Sight (Cant.) — pycnogons, i 424. — reptiles, i 203, 213, 225, 226, 228; iii 208, 210, 212; iv 47, 48. — wheel-animalcules, i 435. — zoophytes, i 482; iv 40-41. [367. "Signalling coloration", ii 366- Silene nutans, iv 86. — . pumilio, iv 94. — S. Elizabeths:, iv 94. Siliceous spicules, of sponges, i 485, 486 (illust.). Silk-glands, iv n6, 259, Silk-industry, iv 259-260. Silkworm-mould, iv 77. Silkworms, i 360; ii 214 ; iv 259-260 [(illust.). Silpha atrata, ii 109-110. Siluridae, i 280; iii 426-427. Silurus glanis, i 280, 281. Silver-Fish, i 384 (illust.}; ii 214. Simia satyrus, i 72; ii 349; iii 160, 161, 494. Simmonds, iv 213, 233, 310. Simonea folliculorum, iv 196 Simroth, iii 105. [(illust.). Simuliidse, ii 121, 468. Sinclair, iii 371, 372, 373; iv 216. Single tube arrangement, of invertebrates, higher, i 303. Siphon, of echinoderms, i 458; ii 413. Siphonaria, ii 462. Siphonariadse, ii 461-462. Siphonophora, i 481 ; ii 161-162 ; iii 19, 327; iv 103-104. Siphonops annulatus, i 255; iii 213-214. Siphons, of molluscs, i 320, 334, 335 ; ii 96, 249-250, 331, 336, 395, 462 ; iii 219, 220, 221, 410, 411; iv 40. Siphon- Worms, i 304, 433-434 ; ii 149-150,259-260,410; iii 230; ^439. — bristly, i 433; ii 149-150. See also Bristle-Tail. [317. Siphuncle, of pearly nautilus, i 316- SipunCUlUS nudUS. See Siphon- Worms. Siredon Mexicanus, i 249. Sirenia, i 68, 101-102; and see Sea- Cows. Sirenidae. See Salamanders, siren. Siren lacertina, 1249; ii 457; iii 48- Sirex augur, iii 387. [49, 213. — gigas, i 371; ii 203; iii 386-387. Siricidse, iv 195. Siskin, i 156. [(illust.). Sitaris humeralis, iv 192-193 Sitones lineatus, iv 354. Sitta csesia, i 157; ii 187; iii 264,454. Skater, common, ii 124. — pond-, i 354; ii 123 (illust.), 440; iii 29 (illust). Skates, i 284, 287-288 (illust.) ; ii 90, 386; iii 44, 424 (illust.); iv 39, 278, 348. Skeleton (see also Endoskeleton, Exoskeleton, Shell, Scales, Cara- pace, &c.): — axial, i 26-29. — influence of, on development of breathing organs, ii 412-414. — acorn-headed worm, i 301. — amphibians, i 239-241 (illust.), 251- 253 (illust.); iii 183 (illust.). — ascidians, i 298. — birds, i 143-146 (illust.); iii 265 (illust.), 298-299 (illust.); iv 475-476. Skeleton (Cant.) — echinoderms, i 452, 455, 456-458, 460, 462, 464; iii 355; and see Test. — fishes, i 259-261 (illust.), 271. — invertebrates, higher, i 303; iii 14. — lancelet, i 294, 295. — mammals, i 25, 26-32 (illust.); iii 14, 79 (illust.), 83-84, 132-135 (illust.), 141-143, 190-191 (illust.), 236 (illust.), 237, 293-294 (illust.); iv 473-475 (illust.). — moss-polypes, i 436, 437. — reptiles, i 192-199 (illust.), 204, 205- 207, 213-215, 221-222, 228-230; iii no (illust.), 124 (illust.), 309; iv 468- 471 (illust.). — sponges, i 484, 485, 486, 487. — vertebrates, i 60-62, 302-303. land, iii 119-120 (illust.). primitive, i 292-293. — zoophytes, i 475, 476, 477, 478, 480; iii 328. Skeleton shrimps, i 415 (illust.); ii 142, 404-405; iii 277 (illust.). Skimmers, ii 52. [53-54. Skin (and see Exoskeleton), i 44-45, — amphibians, i 238-239, 245, 247, 251, 255; iii 214. — fishes, i 258-259, 263, 284, 291, 292. — mammals, i 25. — molluscs, 1313. — peripatus, i 399. — reptiles, i 220, 226, 228. Skin-glands, i 238-239; ii 435. Skink, common, i 225 ; ii 76, 77 (illust); iii 207-208 (illust), 282. SkinkS, i 221, 225; ii 75-76; iii 207- 208. Skip-Jacks. See Beetles, click-. Skua, common or great, i 168 (illust); — long-tailed, i 168. [ii 52. — pomatorhine, i 168. — Richardson's, i 168; ii 52. Skuas, i 168; iisz (illust). Skull, amphibians, i 239, 252. — birds, i 143; ii 242 (illust.). — fishes, i 259, 271. — mammals, i 27-28 (illust), 66, 79 (illust), 103; ii 7 (illust), 16 (illust), 31 (illust), 176 (illust.). — reptiles, i 193, 205-206, 209, 210, 215, 227, 229. [354. Skunk, American, ii 301-303 (illust.), Skunks, 197; in 247. Skylark, i 156: iii 455 (illust.), 456, 468-469 (illust); iv 408. Slade, R., iii 194- [I°4, 413- Slime-glands, i 399; " J34, 36°; iii Slipper Animalcule, i 489. 492-493 (illust); ii 266, 361-362; iii 5, 6 (illust), 323-325 (illust.). Sloth, three-toed, ii 178-179 (illust.); iii 256, 481 (illust), 482. — two-toed, i 136 (illust); ii 179-180. SlOthS, i 14, 136; ii 178-180, 295, 322, 327; iii 254, 256; iv 75. — ground-, iii 256; iv 473-474. Sloth-Bear, iv 334. Slow- Worm, i 223-224. Slug (and see Slugs): — black, i 328; ii 199-201 (illust), 247, 434; iv 348 (illust.). — great, ii 199-201. [(illust). — grey field-, i 328 ; ii 247 ; iv 348 — red, ii 200 (illust). Slugs, i 317, 326, 328 ; ii 96-100, 199- 201, 247, 292, 296, 306-307, 330, 357, SlUgS (Cont.} 374, 382« 393-397, 432-434, 459-462; iii 33-36, 217-219, 412-417; iv 31, 35,. 88-89, 214. — land-, i 328; and see Slug. — sea-, i 324, 326; ii 100, 306-307, 382; Smeathman, iv 125. [iii 36. Smell, organs and sense of, iv 24, 30- 32, 402-403. — amphibians, iv 32 (illust). — birds, i 149, 182-183. — crustaceans, i 409; iv 30-31 (illust). — fishes, i 261, 265, 272; ii 422-423;: iv 31-32. — insects, i 350; iv 30-31 (illust), 164. — mammals, i 55-56 (illust.); ii 227; iv 140-142. — molluscs, i 310-311; iv 31 (illust). — myriapods, iv 30-31 (illust). Smelt, common, i 282 ; iv 275, 276 Smew, i 177. [(illust). Smith, Anderson, iii 426; iv 324. Smith, Fred., i 7; ii 115, 156; iii 428 r Smith, S. I., ii 140. [iv 154. Smooth Hound, i 285. Snail (and see Snails): — Alpine, ii 200 (illust.). — apple-, ii 460-461 (illust). — bush, ii 200 (illust). — field, ii 200 (illust). — garden, i 326-328 (illust); ii 196,. J99. 335, 433; iii I04, 4J4 : iv i& (illust), 31, 45, 58. — glass, iii 180-181. — hedge, ii 200 (illust). — operculate land-, ii 200 (illust). — pond-, i 328; ii 434; iii 34, 104, 106,. 414; iv 18 (illust). — purple, i 320-321; ii 96-97 (illust), 394-395; iii 412 (illust), 416; iv 348. — river-, i 320; iii 414; iv 17-18; (illust). — Roman, i 328; ii 200 (illust). — round-mouthed, ii 200 (illust.). — South American land-, iii 414. — stone, ii 200 (illust). — trumpet-, i 328; ii 434; iii 414. — violet-, iii 413 (illust). — worm-, iii 413-414. Snails (and see Snail), i 307-311, 317— 328; ii 96-100, 199-201, 247, 287, 330, 335-336, 373, 393-397, 432~434, 459~ 462; iii 33-36, 104-108, 180-181, 217- 219, 412-417; iv 17-18, 29, 31, 35, 88- — comb-gilled, i 318-321. [89, 214. — fore-gilled, i 318-324; iii 34-35. — hind-gilled, i 317, 324-326; iii 34, 35-36- — land-, i 326-328; ii 199-291 (illust.);: iii 414. [461-462. — lung, i 317, 324, 326-328; ii loo, 330, — sea-, i 307-311 (illust), 318-326' (illust); ii 278, 285, 287, 288, 336;: iii 412-413; iv 397-398, 45i (illust). — shield-gilled, i 318, 322-324. — wing-footed, i 325-326; iii 35-36- (illust), 412; iv 451 (illust). Snake (and see Snakes): — /Esculapian, iii 270. — American black, iii 270. — Brazilian wood-, iii 270, 271 (illust). — coral, i 232, 234; ii 79, 303, 311; iv 339- — coral cylinder, iii 211; iv 432. — corn, iv 328. — egg-eating, iv 421. — European blind, i 236. INDEX 549 Snake (Cont.) — grass, i 232, 233 (illust.); ii 78; iii 53, — rat, iv 328. [270, 444-445- — rattle-, i 234-235 (illust.); ii 80 (illust.), 304 (illust.); iv 135, 339. — smooth, i 232-233 (illust. ). — wart, iii 53. Snakes (see also Snake, Pythons, Boas, Vipers, &c.), i 203, 227-236; ii 76-81, 303-304, 311, 329, 330, 425; iii 53~54> no-iii, 184, 210-212, 270- 272, 444-445: iv 152, 328, 338-340, 391. [212 (illust.). — blind-, i 232, 235-236 ; ii 79, 329 ; iii — - burrowing. See Blind-Snakes. — cylinder-, iii 211. — sea-, i 232, 234; ii 80; iii 53~54 (illust.); iv 339. — shield-tailed, ii 79 ; iii 21 1-21 2 (illust. }. — simple-toothed, i 232-233. — tree-, iii 270-271. [272. — whip, i 232, 233-234; ii 79; iii 271- — wood-, iii 270. [iii 64. Snake-Birds, i 181; ii 49-50 (illust.); Snake-Flies, i 377; ii m. Snake-headed Fish, ii 451 (illust). Snipe, i 169. — common, i 169; iii 127, 128. — great, i 169. — Jack, i 169. [288, 291. Snout, fishes, i 268-269, 275, 276, 282, — mammals, i 83, 108; iii 201-20?. Snowdrop, iv 92-93 (illust), 97. Sociology, i 17. Sodium chloride, i 33- [455- Solan Goose, i 181, 418; iii 62-63, Solaster papposus, i 454. Soldier-Crab. See Hermit-Crab. Soldier-Fly, ii 119 (illust.). Sole, common, i 279-280; iii 432; iv 32, 269 (illust). — lemon. See Dab, lemon. Sole-bones, i 32. Sole-region, i 24. Solea VUlgarlS. See Sole, common Solen, i 335; iii 220; iv 215. — ensis, i 335. — siliqua, i 335. Solenodon, i 85; ii 33. Solenomya, iii 108. Solenostoma, iii 42.7. Solmaris coronantha, iv33 (illust). SolpUgidSB, i 387-388; iii 169. Soma, iv 490, 491, 492. Somateria Dresseri, iv 309. [309. — mollissima, i 176; iii 59, 60; iv 60, Somerville, iv 349. " Song-birds", i 152. Song-box, i 149. Soothsayers, i 381; ii 116-118. See also Mantis, praying-. Sorex minutus, i 84. — vulgaris, i 84-85. Sound-waves, i 56-57. Spalacidse. See Mole-Rats. Spalax typhlus, i 130; ii 177-178; iii 203-204. "Spanish Fly", iv 321 (illust). Sparidae, ii 195. Sparling. See Smelt. Sparrow (and see Sparrows): — hedge-, i 160; iii 185. [^llust). — house-, i 156; ii 187, 224; iii 469-470 — tree-, i 156; ii 187; iii 470. [348. SparrOWS (and see Sparrow), iv 202, Sparrow-Hawk, i 174 illust). Spatangus purpureus, i 459; ii 415- VOL. IV. Spatula clypeata, i 176. Spatularia, i 269. Spawn (see also Eggs): — of amphibians, iii 436-437, 439. — of molluscs, iii 412-414 (illust), 417- 418 (illust). [i 14; iv 477, 478. "Special creation", doctrine of, Species, i 9. Specific name, i 9. Spectre-Tarsier, i 80 (illust); ii 319 (illust), 320; iii 244 (illust). Spelerpes bilineatus, iii 435. Spencer, Herbert, iv 401, 403. Speotito cunicularia, i 166. Spermaceti, iv 316. Spermaphyta, iv 64. Spermary, iii 340. Spermophilus citillus, i 126. — tridecemlineatus, i 126. Sperms, Hi 335, 336, 340. Sphseroma, i 415. Sphargidse, i 216-217; iii 55. Sphargis, i 216-217; Hi 55. Spheniscus minor, iii 67. Sphex ichneumonea, iv 56. Sphinx ligustri, i 363. — pinastri, i 363; iv 87. [iii 326, 342. SpiCUleS, i 477, 485 (illust); ii 341; Spider (and see Spiders): — Australian flying-, iii 289 (illust). — Australian poisonous, ii 127, 308. — bird - catching, i 392; ii 130, 443 (illust). — garden- (or cross), i 390-392 (illust); ii 127-129, 443; iii 276. [276. — harlequin-, i 393; ii 131 (illust); iii — hedge- (or field), i 392; ii 130; iu 374 — house-, i 392; ii 129 (illust), 130, 443 ; iii 168, 374. — mascarene, ii 308-309. — raft-, ii 131. — tarantula, ii 130; iii 168, iv 341. — water-, i 392-393; " 131; iii 375-376 (illust). Spiders (and see Spider), i 387, 390- 393; ii 126-131, 299-300, 316, 345, 373-374, 442-443 ! iii 168, 276, 289, 290-291,^373-377; iv 15, 44, 45, 166- — crab-, iii 168. [168, 329, 341. — four-lunged, i 392. — hunting, ii 130, 131 (illust); iv 166. — jumping, ii 131; iii 168, 175-176 — segmented, i 392. [(illust). — trap-door, i 392; iii 376-377 (illust). — two-lunged, i 392-393. — unsegmented, i 392-393. — wolf-, i 393; ii 130-131; iii 373-374. Spider-like animals (arachnida), i 342, 385-394; " 125-132, 217-218, 299-300, 308, 316, 345, 373-374, 442- 443 ; iii 168-169, 175-176, 276, 289, 373-377J iv 15, 166-168, 195-196, 34i, — extinct, iv 462. [360, 462. Spilosoma menthastri, ii 313- Spinal bulb, iv 21. Spinal COrd (and see Vertebral column), i 26, 50-51 (illust), 52; iv 19, 20. Spinal marrow, i 24-25, 26, 28. Spinal nerves, i 51 ; iv 19, 20; and see Nervous System. Spines, of echinoderms, i 452, 456- 457; iii 93, 94-95. — fishes, i 271, 273, 274, 275, 276, 278, 286, 288; H 333-334- — mammals, i 64; ii 333. — molluscs, i 336. "Spinnerets", i 392; H 127 (illust), 129. [129. Spinning-glands, i 389, 391; ii 127- Spiracle, i 258, 286; H 386; iv 201. Spiracular cleft, i 258, 260, 263; ii 386-387. Spiral valve, i 261. SpiTOChsete cholerae asiaticae, iv 78. — Obermeieri, iv 78. Spirorbis, i 430; ii 258, 339; Hi 358- 359 (illust); iv 75. Spirula, i 315 (illust). Spittle. See Saliva. Spleen, i 43. Splenic fever, i 3- " Splint-bones", Hi 142. Spondylus, ii 336; iii 409. Sponge (and see Sponges), bath-, i 486, 487 (illust); iii 326; iv 324. — bread-crumb, i 486; iv 101. — cup-, iii 326 (illust). [(illust.). — freshwater, i 487 ; ii 272 ; iii 326 — glass-rope, i 486. — horse, iv 324. — zimocca, iv 324. Sponges (and see Sponge), i 304, 484- 487, 494; ii 163, 265-266, 285, 309, 341, 418; iii 3, 8, 325-326, 34J-343; iv 101, 324, 447-448, 464. — calcareous, i 486, 487 (illust.). — siliceous, i 486-487. Spongilla, i 487; ii 272; Hi 326. Spontaneity, iv 2-3. Spoonbills, i 1 80. Spore-formation, Hi 321-323. See also Development. Spores, i 498-499; iii 322; iv 98, 206. Sporocyst, i 444; iv 202-203. Sporoducts, iv 206. Sporosacs, iii 351. SpOrOZOa, i 492, 498-499 ; Hi 322 ; iv 206-207. See also Animalcules. Sporting Zoology, i 15 ; iv 364-381. Sprat, i 283; iv 197, 264. Sprat- "Louse", iv 197 (illust). Springbok, iii 187-188. Springers. See Spring-Tails. Spring-Fly, great, ii 119 (illust). Springing apparatus, of insects, 384; Hi 176, 177-178, 179. Spring-Tails, i 384-385; H 214; Hi 176 (illust), 377. Spurges, iv 80, 89, 97. Squamata, i 227. Squatarola Helvetica, i 169. Squid, common, i 314. Squids, i 314-315; H 94-96, 392; Hi 30-33, 417-418; iv 18-19, 45, 340. Squilla, ii 404. — Desmaresti, i 413-414. [369. — mantis, i 411, 413 (illust); ii 141; Hi Squirrel, common, i 125 ; ii 367, 368 (illust); Hi 483-484; iv 308. — " flying-" American, iii 283. — — brown, i 126; iii 282-283. Squirrels, i 125-126; H 176-177; Hi 246-247, 251 ; iv 97. — "flying"-, i 126; ii 327; iii 282-284. African, i 126; iii 283-284 (illust). - — ground-, i 125-126. Stable-Fly, ii 120. Staby, Ludwig, iv 286. Stainton, H 252. Staphylinidse, ii 108. Star-Fish, common, i 450-454 (illust.); ii 153-154; Hi 90-92 (illust); iv 41 (illust.). 130 550 INDEX Star-Fishes, 1 450-454 (illust. ); ii 153- 154, 413 (illust.), 4!5: iii 3~4, 9°~92, 232 (illust.), 328-329 (illust.), 356- 357 (illust.); iv 199, 459. Starling, common, i 155 (illust.); ii 236; iv 408. — rose-coloured, i 155. Starlings, i 155; H 236; iv 348, 408. Statoblasts, iii 330-331. Stauropus fagi, ii 313, 314. Staveley, ii 124, 128; iii 374, 375. Steatornis Caripensis, ii 188. Steatornithidse, ii 188. Stebbing, ii 143; Hi 171. [64. Steganopodes, i 152, 180-182; iii 62- Stegocephala, ii 334; Hi 214; iv 463, 467. Stegosaurus, iv 469, 470. Stegostoma tigrinum, i 286. Stenobothrus, i 381. Stenopteryx hinmdinis, iv 190. Stenorhynchus, ii 287-289. Stentor, iii 319. Stephalia corona, iv 104. Stephanoceros, ii 262, 263. Stercorarius, i 168; ii 51-52. — catarrhactes, i 168 ; ii 52. — crepidatus, i 168 ; H 52. — parasiticus, i 168. — pomatorhinus, i 168. Sterlet, iv 277, 278. Sterna Cantiaca, i 168. — Dougalli, i 168. — fluviatilis, i 168; iii 453. — macrura, i 168. — minuta, i 168; iv 133. Sternal sinus, i 408. Sterne, iv 408. Sternum, amphibians, i 239, 251. — birds, i 145, 186-187; iii 299. — mammals, i 29, 69, 145; iii 202. — reptiles, i 195, 206; iii 309. Stevenson, Robert Louis, iii 236. Stickleback, fifteen-spined or sea, i 276; iii 428 (illust.), 431. — ten-spined, i 276; iii 430-431. — three-spined, i 276; iii 428 (illust.); iv 154-157- Sticklebacks, i 16, 276; iii 427-431; iv 154-157, 196. Stigmata (sing. Stigma), i 348, 388- 390, 395-397, 401: ii 434-44°, 442; iv *93- "Stilt Urchin", iii 94-95 (illust.). Stimulus (pi. Stimuli), i 53-54, 55; iv 3-5 (illust.), Q, 24-26, 29-30, 32- Sting, of arachnids, i 386. [33. — of insects, i 373 ; ii 105, 357-358 (illust.). Stinging -Cells. See Nettling or- gans. Stink-glands, insects, i 353-354; ii 3i5, 358-360. [iv 1^1 — mammals, i 97-98; ii 301-303, 354; — myriapods, i 396; ii 360. Stinkhorn, iv 98. Stint, little, i 169. Stoat, i 98; ii 22, 289; iv 303, 345. Stomach (and see Digestive organs): — honey-comb, ii 168-169. — rennet, ii 169. — amphibians, i 241 (illust.), 253 (illust.). [(illust.). — birds, i 140 (illust.), 146; ii 184 — crustaceans, i 407-408 (illust.). — echinoderms, i 452-453, 455. — fishes, i 261, 270 (illust.). Stomach ^Cont.} — mammals, herbivorous, i 109; ii 165, 167, 168-169 (illust.), 171, 172; iii 490. [ii 39-40, 225. omnivorous, i 35, 36 (illust.), 37; — molluscs, i 308, 309 (illust.). — reptiles, i 207 (illust.), 208. — zoophytes, i 473, 474 (illust.), 479. Stomatopoda, i 410, 413-414; ii 141. Stomoxys calcitrans, ii 120. Stone Age, iv 208, 210, 228, 233. — newer, iv 224, 226. — older, iv 226, 233. Stone chat, i 160; iv 133. Stone-Flies, i 374, 377; H "6, 463- 464 (illust.). Stork, American wood, ii 55. * — marabout, i 179. [iv 62. — white, i 179; ii 55; iii 127 (illust.); Storks, i 152, 179; ii 55; iii 127, 307; iv 62. Stratiomys chameleon, ii 119. Stratum (pi. Strata), iv 456-457 (illust.). Strepsiceros kudu, ii 366. Strepsilus interpres, i 169; ii 67. Strepsiptera, iii 314; iv 192. Streptoneura, i 317, 318-324. Striges, i 152, 165-166; and see Owls. Stringops habroptilus, i 166; ii 189, 319, 320. Strix flammea, i 165; iv 327-328. StrombUS, i 321 (illust.); ii 373; iii 107 (illust.), 180, 181 (illust.). — gigas, iv 397. Strongyle, armed, iv 362. — giant-, iv 362. — stomach-, iv 362. StrongyluS armatus, iv 362. — contortus, iv 362. — filaria, iv 362. [485. Struggle for Existence, i 65; iv Struthio camelus, i 188; H 243; iii 130, 153, 449. Strychnos nux-vomica, iv 80. Sturgeon, common, i 268 (illust.); iv — giant, iv 277. [277 (illust.). — Giildenstadt's, iv 277. — shovel-nose, i 268 (illust.). — slender-beaked, i 268-269 (illust.). — spoonbill or paddle - fish, i 269 (illust.). Sturnus vulgaris, i 155; ii 237. Stylaster, i 480-481. Stylopidse, iv 192. StylOpS, iii 313 (illust.), 314. Sty lops aterrimus, iv 192 (illust.). Subclavius, iii 300. Succinea putris, iv 202 (illust.). Suckers, of bats, iii 245 (illust.). Suctoria, iii 320. Sugarbush, iv 89. Sugar Squirrel, iii 284-285. Suidse, ii 231-234. Sula Bassana, it 50; iii 62-63, 455- — piscatrix, ii 53. Sulphuric acid, ii 98. Sun- Animalcules, i 489, 496 (illust.); iii 6 (illust.). Sun-Birds, i 157: iv 89. Sundews, iv 68-69 (illust.). Sun-Fishes, i 278; iv 448 (illust.). Sun-Star, i 454- Supporting tissue. See Bone, Gristle, &c. Surface tension, i 467. Surnia ulula, i 166; ii 319. SUS cristata, iv 373. [373. — scrofa, i 108; ii 231-234; iv 232-233, Susliks, i 126; and see Gophers. Susuk, ii 28-29 (illust.). Swainson, iv 479. Swallow-Fly, iv 190 (illust.). SwallOWS, i 161; ii 56; iii 304, 305, 461, 467-468; iv 60, 328. Swan (and see Swans): — Bewick's, i 177. — black, i 177. — black-necked, i 177. [457. — white or mute, i 177; iii 456 (illust.), Swans, i 177; ii 65, 237-238; iii 58, Sweat, i 44-45. [147-148. Sweat glands, i 44-45; iii 476-477. Swift, common, i 163; and see Swifts. — palm, iv 61. Swifts, i 163; ii 56; iii 186, 304, 305, 462; iv 328. Swim-bladder, of fishes, i 269, 272, 273, 280; ii 421-422 (illust.), 450, 452- 453, 454, 455: "i 43 T> 432- " Swimmerets ", i 403; iii 27. Swimming-bells, iii 19; iv 103. Swimming-feet, i 420, 421-422. Swimming-plates, iii 20. Swine. See Pigs. S WOrd-Fish, common, i 273. Sword-Fishes, i 273. Syanceia, ii 356. Sycandra raphanus, i 487 (illust.). Syllis ramosa, iii 330. Sylvia atricapilla, i 160. — cinerea, i 160. — curruca, i 160. — hortensis, i 160. — undata, i 160. Symbiosis, iv 67, 75-76, 170. Symmetry, bilateral, i 21-22, 447, 450, 452; iii 93-94. [93-94- — radial, i 23, 450, 451, 452, 466 ; iii Sympathetic ganglia, i 53. Sympathetic System, i 50, 53; and see Nervous System. Symphyla, i 396, 397- Synageles picata, ii 316. Synallaxis phryganophila, 111464. Synapta, i 464; iii 97 (illust.), 230. Syncoryne, iii 350 (illust.). Syngamus trachealis, iv 362. Syngnatha, i 396. See also Centi- pedes. Syngnathus acus, i 277; iii 427. Synotus barbastellus, i 82. Syrinx, i 149, 175- Syrittus pipiens, ii 119. Syrnium aluco, i 165. Syrphus, H 216; iii 402. — balteatus, ii 119; iii 402. — Pyrastri, iii 402. [280. Syrrhaptes paradoxus, i 168; H Tabanus bovis, i 358 ; ii 119, 120. Tachyeres cinereus, iii 60. Tactile Organs. See Touch, organs of. Tadorna cornuta, i 177 ; iii 58. Tadpoles, i 62-63; « 192-194 (illust.), 457-458; iii 4, 45-46 (illust.), 434~436, 437, 438-439 (illust), 440, 441, 442, 443, 493- Tsenia coenurus, iv 361, 362. — echinococcus, iv 342-343 (illust.). INDEX 551 Tsenia (Cant.} — saginata, iv 342. — serrata, iv 362. — solium, i 441-443; iv 204. Taguan, iii 286. Tail (see also Tail-fin): [45, 46, 47. — amphibians, 1238, 245, 250, 254; iii 4, — ascidians, iii 38-39. [298, 301, 302. — birds, i 185, 186; iii 264, 266, 296, — mammals, i 76, 77, 78; iii 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 77, 82, 84, 85, 159, 188- 190, 239-240 (illust.), 243, 244, 247- 248, 251, 253, 255 (illust.), 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 282, 283, 286, 479-480; iv 140, 228-229. — reptiles, i 194, 224; ii 371; iii 50, 51- S2, 53-54, 56, 211, 270, 272, 308, 309. Tail-coverts, i 143; i" 297. Tail-fin, of amphibians, i 246; iii 45, 46, 442, 443. — crustaceans, i 408-409; iii 27; iv 36. — fishes, i 258, 264, 271; ii 450; iii 40- — lancelet, i 294. [41, 182, 288-289. — mammals, aquatic, i 98, 100. — round-mouths (cyclostomata), i 291. — See also Fins, caudal. [iii 30. Tail-rods, of insects, ii 465-466, 467 ; Tail-shield, iii 211-212. [(illust.). Tailor -Bird, Indian, iii 459, 460 Talegallus Lathami, iii 451-452. Talitrus locusta, i 414, 415; ii 142, 404; iii i74-!75- Talorchestia, ii 141. Talpa Europsea, i 86; ii 36; iii 200- 202, 484-485. [256. Tamandua tetradactyla, iii 255- Tamias striata, i 126. Tanagra chserophyllata, i 364. Tanrec. See Tenrec. Tantalus loculator, ii 55. Taonius abyssicola, iv 444. Tape-Worm (and see Tape-Worms): — beef, iv 342. — broad, iv 342. — common, i 441-443 (illust.), iv 204. — fish, iv 204. — simple, iv 203-204 (illust.). Tape-Worms, i 441-443; " 151; iv 203-205 (illust.), 342-343, 361-362. Tapir, Brazilian, i 105 (illust.); iii 487 (illust.), 488. — Malayan, iii 138 (illust.), 488. Tapirs, i 14, 15, 105; ii 166, 321; iii 137-138, 488. [488. TapiruS Americanus, i 105 ; iii 487, — Indicus, iii 138, 488. Tarantula, ii 130; iii 168; iv 341. Tardigrada, i 387, 394. Tarentola Mauritanica, i 221; ii Tarpon, iv 381. [319; iv 391. Tarsipes rostratus, ii 18 1-1 82 ; iv 89. Tarsius spectrum, i 80; ii 319, 320; iii 244. " Tarso-metatarsus", i 146; iii 126. Tarsus, amphibians, i 241, 252, 253. — birds, i 145-146; iii 126. — insects, i 344. — mammals, i 32 ; and see Ankte. — reptiles, i 197, 198, 199, 204, 207. Tassel-Tails, i 384; iii 377. Taste, organs and sense of, i 54-55, 56; iv 24, 29-30, 403. — amphibians, iv 29-30. — annelids, iv 29. — birds, iv 29-30. — fishes, iv 29-30. — insects, iv 29 (illust.). Taste (Cont.} [(illust.). — mammals, i 54-55 (illust.); iv 29-30 — molluscs, iv 29. — reptiles, iv 29-30. Taste-buds, i 55; iv 29-30 (illust.). Taste-cells, i 55. Teal, i 176; iii 58. [341- Tealia crassicornis, i 476; ii 289, Tear-chamber, of snakes, i 228. Teasel, iv 92 (illust.). TeatS, i 66, 108; and see Milk-glands. Tectibranchs, i 324; ii «»; iii 35. Teeth, i 12-13, 37- — carnassial, ii 7, 15. — evolution of, i 12-13. — amphibians, i 253. — birds, extinct, ii 45, 296. — - fishes, i 12-13, 27, 261, 275, 276, 282, 284, 287, 288; ii 84, 86, 88, 89- 90, 195. (illust.). — mammals, egg -laying, iv 481-482 flesh-eating, i 86, 87, 88, 92, 94, 98; ii 6-7 (illust.), 14, 15-16 (illust.), 25. gnawing, i 123 (illust.), 125, 128, 132, 133, 134; ii 174-175, 177, 178. hoofed, i 67, 106, 108, 109, no, in, 113, 120; ii 166 (illust.), 167- 168, 171, 232-233 (illust.), 234, 351. insect-eating, ii 31-32; iii 246. pouched, ii 181, 182, 183. bats, i 81, 8e; ii 39. cetaceans, ii 27, 29, 67, 349. edentates, i 67, 136; ii 41, 179- 180. [172 (illust.), 350. elephants, i 102-103 (illust.); ii lemurs, ii 226. man and monkeys, i 35-36 (illust.), 67, 71, 76, 78-79; ii 6, 225, 348-349; iv 146. sea-cows, i 102. — molluscs, ii 95-96 (illust.). — reptiles, i 199, 207, 209, 210, 212, 224, 230, 232, 233, 234, 237; ii 192, 354-355- Tegenaria, i 392; ii 129, 130. — civilis, i 392. — domestica, i 392; iii 374. Teleostei, i 266, 269-284; ii 84-88, I94-i95, 355-357, 388, 447-452; iii 41-43, 425-434; iv 128, 263-276, 317- 318. TeleOStomi, i 257, 266-284. See also Teleostei and Ganoids. "Telescope Fish", ^393 (illust.). Telson, i 403. Tench, i 283; ii 448. Tendons, i 48; iii 262, 299, 300, 301. Tennent, iv 396. [33 (illust.). Tenrec, common, i 84 (illust.), 85; ii — rice-, ii 33. Tenrecs, i 34-35 (illust.); ii 33. Tensor muscles, iii 300, 301. Tentacles, of annelids, ii 308; iii 360. — ascidians, ii 246. [416; iii 24, 97. — echinoderms., i 462, 463, 464; ii 264, — molluscs, r 307, 310, 311-312, 324, 327, 328; iii 31, 37, 103, 108-110, 218; iv 28, 58. — zoophytes, i 466, 467, 473, 474, 476, 477, 479, 483; ii 155, 156-158, 160, 416, 417; iii 20, 89-90; iv 28, 33. Tentaculocysts, iv 33 (illust.). Tenthredinidse, iii 388. Terebella conchilega, ii 339, 409 Terebratula, i 438. [illust.). Teredo navalis, i 335; iii 410, 411; iv 348- Termes bellicosus, i 379; iv 124-126. — lucifugus, i 379; iv 123-124. — tenuis, iv 356. Termite (and see Termites): — light-shunning, iv 123-124 (illust). — warrior, iv 124-126 (illust.). — yellow-necked, iv 122-123. Termites, i 374, 379; ii no, 212-213; iii 223, 383; iv 16, 120-126, 356. Tern, Arctic, i 168. - black, i 168. — common, i 168; iii 463 (illust). — little, i 168; iv 133 (illust). — roseate, i 168. — sandwich, i 168. Terns, i 168; ii 51; iii 463; iv 133. Test, of ascidians, i 297-298; iii 421. — of echinoderms, i 457-458, 459; ii 340, 413; iii 92-93, 95. Testacella, ii 100; iii 415. TestudO, Grseca, i 312; ii 191; iii 54; — nigrita, i 218. [iv 391-392. — polyphemus, iii 447. — sulcata, i 219 (illust). — sumeirei, iv 392. Tetrabranchiata, i 316-317. Tetraceros, iv 424. Tetranychus autumnalis, iv 360. — rubescens, iv 360. — telarius, ii 218, 443; iv 360. Tetrao Scoticus, i 172. — tetrix, i 172. — urogallus, i 172; ii 239. Tetrarhynchus, iv 204 (illust). Tetrodon, i 278; ii 306, 334; iv 340. Tettix, i 382. Textularia agglutinans, iv 454. Thalamita natator, iii 28. Thalassicola pelagica, iv 449. Thalassochelys caretta,iii 55. Thalassophryne, ii 355-356. Thalessa, iv 195 (illust.). Thallophyta, iv 64-65. Thelyphonus, i 389. Theobald, iv 325. Theory of Evolution, i 12-17. See also Evolution. Theridium nervosum, iii 374-375. Theropoda, iv 469. Thick-headed Fly, ii 119 (illust). Thigh, i 24. — -bone, i 31-32. joint, i 31. Thomisidse, Hi 168. Thomson, Arthur, iv 494. Thomson, Wyville, i 7. Thoracic duct, i 42 (illust). [368. Thoracostraca, i 410-414; iii 365- Thorax (and see Cephalo-thorax) : — arachnids, i 388. — birds, i 148. — crustaceans, i 402, 403-404, 410, 413, 414, 415, 416, 418, 420, 421. — insects, i 345, 347, 352, 356, 359. — mammals, i 24-25, 42. — reptiles, i 193-194, 206. Thoreau, \T, iv 153, 408. Thornback. See Ray. Thorn-headed Worm, i 442, 449; iv 205-206 (illust). Thorny Oysters, ii 336; iii 409. Thread-cells. See Nettling organs. Thread- Worms, i 304, 447-449; ii 222-223 ; iii 21 ; iv 205-206, 343-344, 453- 552 INDEX Thresher, i 286. Thrips cerealium, 1355 (illust.); iiai6. — minutissima, i 355. [(illust.). Throat pOUCh, of birds, iv 150 — of reptiles, iv 152 (illust.). Thrush, common, or song-, i 159 ; iii — missel-, i 160. [457, 458; iv 96. — rock-, iv 96. Thrushes, i 158-160; iii 185 ; iv 348. Thumb, of mammals, i 31, 71, 73, 77, 78, 79, 81. See also Digits. Thumb-joint, i 31. Thylacinus, ii 16 (illust.), 42. Thylacoleo, iv 474. Thymus gland, i 43. ThynnuS albicora, i 274. — pelamys, i 274. — thynnus. See Orcynus thynnus. Thyroid cartilage, i 47. — gland, i 43. Thysanoptera, i 351, 355; ii 122, 216. Thysanura, i 384, 397- Tibia, amphibians, i 241, 252, 253. — birds. See " Tibio-tarsus ". — insects, i 344. — mammals, i 32, 123-124, 125, 127, 131; iii 134-135, 141, 149, 158, 190, — reptiles, i 197. [237, 258. "Tibio-tarsus", i 144, 146; iii 126. Tickell, Hi 245. Ticks, i 393; ii 132; iv 195 (illust.), 360. — dog, iv 195. — sheep, iv 190. Tiger, i 87 ; ii 5, 7-9 ; iii 247, 491 ; iv 331-333 (illust.), 371-372- — sabre-toothed, iv 474. Tinamous, i 152, 173; ii 343. Tinea vulgaris, i 283; ii 448. Tinea granella, iv 353. — pellionella, i 365. Tipula oleracea, i 358; ii "9, 215. Tipulidse. See Crane-Flies. Tit (and see Tits): — blue, i 158. — coal-, i 158. — crested, i 158. — great, i 158. [459. — long-tailed, i 158; iii 261-262 (illust.), — marsh, i 158. — penduline, iii 459 (illust.). Tits, or tit-mice, i 157-158 (illust.); ii 60; iv 202, 328; and see Tit. Titlark, i 157. Toad (and see Toads): — African, clawed, iii 50. — common, i 250 (illust.), 255; ii 82, 83 (illust.), 304; iii 50, 436-437; iv 328. — horned (California). See Horned "Toad". [(illust.). — horned (South America), ii 305 — Surinam water-, iii 49, 50 (illust.), 441, 442 (illust.). Toads (and see Toad), 249, 255; ii 304- 305, 457 ; iii 49-50, 436, 440-442 : iv — fire-bellied, iv 417. [152, 417. — tongueless, iii 50. Toddy-Cats, ii 12-13. [320-321. Tokophrya quadripartata, iii Tolypeutes tricinctus, ii 341-342. Tomopteris, iii 22-23 (illust.). Tongue, amphibians, i 253; ii 82. — birds, i 161, 163; iv 29. — fishes, i 261, 292. — mammals, i 29, 34, 37, 54-55, 120; ii 38, 39. 42, lg2; iv 29. — reptiles, i 199, 207, 224, 226, 230- 232; iv29. Tongue-Shells, iv 46o (illust.). Tongue-Worms, i 387, 393 (illust.); Tope, common, i 285. [iv 196. Tornaria, iii 420, 421 (illust.). Torpedo, i 290. — marmorata (marbled torpedo), i 290; ii 90 (illust.), 91, 410. — nobiliana, i 289 (illust.). Tortoise (and see Tortoises): — European pond-, i 218; iii 54, 122 (illust.), 446. — Gopher, iii 447. — Grecian, i 212-216 (illust.); ii 191; iii 54; iv 391-392. — soft American, i 221. Gangetic, i 221. Nilotic, i 220 (illust.), 221; iii 55. Tortoises (and see Tortoise), i 203, 212-221; ii 71-72, 333, 334, 424; iii 54-55, 121-122, 446-448; iv 151, 391- — American snapper-, ii 72. [392. — giant, i 218; ii 191-192. — hinged, ii 334. — land and freshwater, i 216, 217-218. — side-necked, i 216, 219. — snake-necked, ii 72. — soft, i 216, 219-221; iii 54-55 (illust.). "Tortoise-shell", i 219; ii 72; iv 395-396. Tortrix viridana, i 365. Totanus glareolus, i 169. — hypoleucus, i 169; iii 127, 128. — ochropus, i 169. Toucans, i 162; ii 186-187. Touch, organs and sense of, i 53-55; iv 24, 25-29 ; and see Sense Organs, Tentacles, &c. — amphibians, iv 26 (illust.). — annelids, i 428; iv 25 (illust.), 26, 28. — birds, iv 26 (illust.), 27, 29. — crustaceans, i 409 ; iv 28. — echinoderms, i 454. — fishes, iv 28-29 (illust.). — insects, i 349-350; iv 26 (illust.), 28. — mammals, i 53-54, 55; iv 27 (illust.), — molluscs, i 310; iv 28, 58. [28. — reptiles, iv 27, 29. [28. — zoophytes, i 466; iv 25 (illust.), 26, Touch-corpuscles, i 53-54 (illust.); iv 26, 27 (illust.), 28. Trachea, i 46-47- Tracheae, ii 434. See also Air-tubes. Tracheal gills, ii 463. See also Gills, of insects. Tracheal tubes, i 348. See also Air-tubes. Tracheata. See Centipedes, &c., Insects, and Spider-like Animals. — primitive. See Peripatus. TrachUlUS draco, ii 357. — vipera, ii 305-306, 357. Trachypetra bufo, ii 282. Trachyphyllia Geoffroyi, i 475 (illust.). [76. Trachysaurus rugosus, i 226; ii Tragopan, scarlet, iv 148-149. Tragulidse, i 109; iii 150, 152. Tragulus Javanicus, i 109, no; iii Tragus, i 82. [150, 152. Transparency, of marine animals, ii 278-279. Transverse process, i 194, 251. Trawling, iv 262-263 (illust.). Tree-Kangaroos, ii 182; iii 257-258. Tree-Shrews, i 83; ii 37. — Bornean, i 83; iii 246-247 (illust.). Trematoda. See Flukes. Tribonyx Mortieri, iii 61. Triceratops, iv 47o. Trichechus rosmarus, i 98; iii 79- 80; iv 311-312, 394. [(illust.). Trichina spiralis, iv 343-344 Trichocysts, ii 362. Trichodectes latus, i 380; iv 356. Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus, ii 191. Trichophaga tapetzella, i 365. Trichosurus vulpeculus, iii 259. Triclades, ii 151, 152. Tricondyla, ii 315. Tricorythus, ii 466. Tridacna, ii 357; iii 408. Trigger-Fish, iv 205. Trigger-hairs, i 471. Trigla, i 275; iii 115. — cuculus, iv 273. — gurnardus, iv 273. — pini, i 275. Trilobites, ii 342; iv 460 (illust.), 461. Trimen, ii 312. Trimeresurus, iii 272. Tringa acuminata, i 169. — alpina, i 169. — canutus, i 169. — minuta, i 169. — striata, i 169. — subarquata, i 169. — Temmincki, i 169. Trionyx ferox, i 221. — Gangeticus, i 221. — triunguis, i 221; iii 55. Triphsena pronuba, iv 352. Triploblastica, i 468, 490, 491. Triton. See Molge. Trochammina coronata, iv 454. — nitida, iv 454. Trochidae, i 322. Trochilidae, ii 191. TrOChilium apiforme, i 363; ii 313. — crabroniformis, ii 313. Trochospheres, iii 7, 359-360 (illust.), 364-365, 404-405 (illust.), 411-412 (illust.), 414, 415 (illust.). Troglodytes parvulus, i 160. Trogonidse, iii 266. Trogons, iii 266. Tropic-Bird, red-beaked, i 182. Tropic-Birds, i 181-182; iii 62. Tropidonotus natrix, i 232; ii 78; iii 53, 270, 444-445- TrOUt, common, i 282; ii 292; iv 275- Truffles, iv 98. [276 (illust.), 379. Trumpet - Animalcule, iii 319 (illust.). Trumpet-Shell, I 328; ii 434: iii 4H- Trumpeters, ii 240-242. Trunk, of body, i 25 (illust.). — of elephants. See Proboscis. Trygonidse, i 288-290; ii 357; iv 204. Trygon pastinaca, i 290; ii 357. Trypanosoma, iv 349. Tsetse-Fly, i 358; ii 120 (illust.); iv 190, 239, 241, 349. Tuataras, i 203, 236-237 (illust. ;: iii 56, 444; iv 47, 410. Tube, dorsal, i 24. — ventral, i 24. Tube-COnstrUCtion, annelids, ii 257- 258 (illust.), 339. j — insects, ii 337 (illust.). Tube-feet, of echinoderms, i 451, 453, 454, 455, 457, 458, 459, 460, 462, 463, 464; ii 413 (illust.), 415, 416; iii 90, 9i, 92, 93, 95, 96, 232. INDEX 553 Tube-nosed Birds (Tubinares), i 152, 182-183; ii 53; and see Petrels and Albatrosses. [204. Tubifex rivulorum, I 431; iv 203- Tubipora musica, i 477; H 34^ 4X7- Tubularia, i 480; ii 160. TunicateS. See Ascidians. Tunny, i 274; iv 270-271, 381. Tupaia tana, i 83, 84; iii 246-247. TupaiidSB, i 83; iii 246-247. Turbellaria, i 441, 445-447; « 151- 152, 271, 445-446; iii 7, 20-21, 329. TurbOt, i 60-6 1 (illust.), 279 (illust.); iii 425, 431-432 (illust.); iv 268. TurdUS iliacus, i 160. — merula, i 159. — musicus, i 159; iii 457, 458. — pilaris, i 159. — torquata, i 160. — viscivorus, i 160. Turkey, i 172; ii 239; iv 249-250. Turner, iv 387. Turnip "Flies". See Beetles, flea-. Turnstone, i 169; ii 67. Turret-Shells (Turritella), i 321. Turtle, edible, iii 55, 446-447- — green, i 218; ii 191. — hawk's-bill, i 218; ii 72 (illust.), 191; iii 55; iv 395-396 (illust.). — leathery. See Turtles. — loggerhead, iii 55. Turtles (and see Turtle), i 203, 212- 221; ii 71-72, 333, 334, 424; iii 54-56, 446-448. — leathery, i 216-217 (illust.); iii 55, 56. Turtur communis, i 167; ii 185. Tusks, of mammals (see also Teeth), i 102, 109, no, in; ii 348-350. Tusk-Shells, i 3", 338-339 (illust.); ii 247-248; iii 221-222, 411-412; iv Tusser, iv 249. [18, 323. Twite, i 156. TylenchUS devastatrix, iv 363. — scandens, ii 222-223. Tylopoda, iii 152-153. Tylototriton Andersoni, ii 334. Tympanic cavity, i 57. — membrane, i 57, 192. Type, classification by, i 10. — "generalized", i 195-196. — "theoretical", i 196. Typhlonectes compressicau- data, iii 443. Typhlonus nasus, iv 443 (illust.). Typhlopidse, i 235-236; ii 79, 329; iii 212. [212. Typhlops vermicularis, i 236; iii Tyrian purple, i 321; iv 397. TyrOglyphUS farinse, ii 217. — siro, i 393; ii443. u Udonella caligorum, iv 201. Ulna, i 30, 144, 196, 197, 241, 251, 252; iii 118, 134, 141, 143, 149, i52) 158, 237, 299. Ulnare, i 144, 197, 198, 252; iii 299. Umbrella-Bird, iv 431. [237. Uncinate process, i 145, 187, 206, Ungulata, i 68. See also Mammals, hoofed. — even-toed, i 107-122. non-ruminating forms, i 107-109. ruminants, i 109-122. — odd-toed, i 104-107. UniO, i 328; ii 248-249, 335; iii 37, 406-407. Unpaired fin, i 257, 258. Upper arm, i 24. Upper arm-bone, i 29-30 ; iii 298 ; and see Humerus. Upupa epops, i 164. Uraster rubens, i 450-454; ii 153; Ureter, i 48. [iii 90-92; iv 41. Uria grylle, i 184. — troile, i 184; iii 66, 453. Urinary bladder, i 48. Urochord, i 298. UrOChorda, i 293, 297-300. See also Ascidians. Urodela, i 245-249; ii 456; iii 45, 46- 49, 212-213, 434-436. Uromastix, i 222; ii 77, 282. — • acanthinurus, ii 77. — spinipes, i 222. Uropeltidse, ii 79; Hi 211-212. Uropeltis grandis, iii 211-212. Uropsilus soricipes, ii 36. Urostyle, i 251. Urotrichus, ii 36. Ursidse, i 94-95; iii 155-156, 491; and see Ursus. — sub-, i 94; iii 247-248. UrSOn, iii 253. [iv 334, 372. UrsUS arctos, i 95, 227-228 ; iii 155 ; — ferox, i 95. — labiatus, ii 228 ; iv 334. — Malayanus, ii 227. — maritimus, i 95; ii 19, 227; iii 75-76, — ornatus, iv 429. [155-156; iv 334. UruS, i 114; iv 224. [iv 208-408. Utilitarian Zoology, i 15-16, iS; — animal aesthetics, iv 400-408. foes, iv 321-363. forms injurious to human industries, iv 345, 363. personal enemies, iv 321-344. friends, iv 219-224, 325-330. pets, iv 382-393. products used for decorative pur- poses, iv 394-400. [300. — animals as a source of food, iv 211- — domestication of animals, iv 217- 260; and see Domestication. — sporting zoology, iv 364-381. Utricularia, iv 73-74, 95. Vaccination, iv 79, 320. Vacuum (pi. vacua), iii 268-269. Vagus nerve, i 53- [iii 454, 472. Vanellus cristatus, i 169; ii 286; Vanessa Atlanta, i 361. — cardui, i 361. — lo, i 361; ii 215; iv 56. — polychloros, i 361. — • urticae, i 361; ii 215, 294. Van Someren, iii 456; iv6o. VaranuS griseus, ii 73, 282. — Niloticus, i 224; ii 73. — prasinus, ii 73. — Salvator, ii 73; iii 51-52. Variation, iv 486, 491-492. Varro, iv 248. Vegetative Propagation, i 299; iii 316-332, 422. See also Development and Life-histories. Vein, portal, i 41. Veins, i 39-41 ; and see Circulatory organs. Velella, ii 161; iv 450 (illust.). Veliger.iii 406 (illust.),4i4, 415 (illust.). Velum, i 479; iii 406. Venous sinus, i 200, 240, 262. Ventral COrd. See Nerve-cord. Ventral plates, iii 114. Ventral shields, i 228; iii no-m, 270-271. Ventricle, i 40; and see Circulatory organs. Venus mercenaria, iv 323. Venus's Flower-Basket, i 486; iv 446 (illust.). Venus's Fly-trap, iv 69-70 (illust.). Venus's Girdle, i 483; iii 20 (illust. ;. Verification of Generalization, 13-4- Vermetus, iii 413-414. Verneuilina pygmsea, iv 454. Verreaux, ii 47- Vertebrae (and see Vertebral column; : — atlas, i 26-27 (illust.). — chest-, i 27. — loin-, i r?7. — neck-, i 26-27, 66, 144. — sacral, i 27. — tail, i 27, 144, 1 86. Vertebral column, amphibians, i 239, 251, 256. — birds, 144-145, 186. — fishes, i 260-261, 271. [254. — mammals, i 26-27 (illust), 66; iii — reptiles, i 193-194, 214-215, 221-222, 229-230, 237; iii no-iii. [115. Vertebral ossicles, i 455; iii «4- VertebrateS, classification and essen- tial characters, i 60-63. t3°4- — contrasted with invertebrates, i 302- — See also Vertebrates, primitive ; Round-mouths (Cyclostomata), Fishes, Amphibia, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals. — "cold-blooded", i 191. — primitive, i 292-301; ii 92, 243-246; iii 38-40, 214-216. See also Lance- let, Ascidians, and Acorn -headed Worm. Verworn, iv 494. [112. Vespa crabo, i 374; ii 250-251; iv — Germanica, iv 111-112. — vulgaris, i 373; ii 250-251. Vespertillo Bechsteini, i 82. — Daubentini, i 82. — mystacinus, i 82. — Nattereri, i 82. Vespertilionidse, i 82. VesperugO Leisleri, i 82. — noctula, i 82. — pipistrellus, i 82; iii 292-293. — serotinus, i 82. Vespid33. See Vespa. Vicunia, i 122; Hi 153, 248. Vidua, iv 421. Vine-Louse, i 353; and see Aphis, vine-. [222; iii 21. Vinegar- or Paste-Eel, i 448; ii Violet, iv 97. [iv 407-408 (illust.). Viper (and see Vipers), honied, ii 282; — Russell's, iv 339. — water, iii 53. Vipers (and see Viper), i 232, 234-235; ii 80-8 1 ; iii 445. — " pit ", i 235. — tree-, iii 272. Vipera arietans, ii 80; iv 339. — Russelli, iv 339. ViperidSB. See Vipers. 554 INDEX Visceral arches, amphibians, i 242. — embryo vertebrates, i 62 ; ii 381 — fishes, i 260. [(illust.), 421. Visceral Clefts, amphibians, i 242. — embryo vertebrates, i 62; ii 381-382 (illust.), 421. — primitive vertebrates, i 293. — fishes, i 260. Visceral hump, of molluscs, i 308, 309, 312, 313, 316, 318-319, 322-324, 325, 327- [259- Visceral skeleton, of fishes, i 258- VlSOn, ii 22; iii 76; iv 303-304. — American, iii 76; iv 304. — European or Russian, iii 76; iv 303. — Siberian, iii 76. Vitreous humour, i 58. [181. Vitrina pellucida, ii 373; iii 180- Viverra civetta, i 89; iii 157. — zibetha, i 89. [227; iii 156-157. Viverridse, i 87, 88-91; ii 11-14, 226- Vizcacha, i 133; ii 17-18 (illust.). Vocal chords, i 47. Vogt, Carl, ii 27, 32, 229, 230, 321, 350, 363; iii 85, 150, 160, 196, 249, 331. Voice, organs of, birds, i 147, 149. — mammals, i 47. — reptiles, i 202. Voice-box, i 47. Vole, bank-, i 129. — field- (common), i 129; ii 177. (southern), ii 177; iv 486. — water-, i 128 (illust.}, 129; iii 73. Voles, i 128-129; i" 73, 483: iv 13°. Volucella pellucens, ii 119. [346. Volutes, i 321. VolVOX, i 489, 494-495 (illust.); ii 274; iii 6, 334-335 (illust.). Von Baer, in. Vorticella, i 489, 493-494; ii 266, 418; iii 2, 5, 6, 8-9, 319-320, 321, 323, 325. Vosseler, ii 255. Vultur monachus, i 175- Vulture, black, i 175. — eagle-, ii 303. — Riippel's, i 175 (illust.). Vultures, i 152, 173-175; ii 69; iv 328. — American, i 175. w Wagtail, blue-headed, i 157. — grey, i 157; iii 125 (illust), 457 (illust.), 458. — pied or water, i 157; ii 65. — white, i 157. — yellow, i 157; ii 66 (illust.). Wagtails, i 156-157; ii 65-66; iii 185. Waldheimia, i 438-439 (illust.). Wallace, i 7, ii; ii 40, 189, 284, 309, 311, 312, 346, 349; iii 282, 287, 294, 494; iv 132, 140, 143, 160, 212, 346, 409, 410, 412, 417, 419, 422, 426, 433, 478, 494. "Wallace's line", iv 424, 426. Walrus, i 98; ii 24-25, 349; iii 79-80 (illust.), 492; iv 311-312, 394. Walton, Izaak, iv 364. Wampum, Indian, iv 323-324 (illust.). "Wandering cells", iii 3-4. See also Cells. Wanderoo, i 74-75 (illust.). Wapiti, i in. Warbler, blackcap, i 160 (illust.). — Dartford, i 160. — fan-tail, iii 459-460. Warbler (Cont.) — garden, i 160 (illust.). — grasshopper, i 160. — marsh, i 160. — reed, i 160 ; iii 458. great, iii 458 (illust.). — sedge, i 160. Warblers, i 160 (illust.) ; iv 202. Warde-Fowler, W., ii 65. See also Mimicry. Warning coloration, i 16; ii 301; iv 58-59, 160, 402. — acorn-headed worms, ii 306. — amphibians, ii 304-305. — annelids, ii 308. — ascidians, ii 306. — fishes, ii 305-306. — flat-worms, ii 308. — insects, ii 307-308, 360; iii 399; iv $g. — mammals, ii 301-303. — molluscs, ii 306-307. — plants, iv 81. — reptiles, ii 303-304, 3"- — sponges, ii 309. — zoophytes, ii 308-309, 361. Warnings, spurious. See Mimicry. Wart-Hog, African, iv 373. Wart-Hogs, i 108-109. Wasp (and see Wasps) : — common, i 373; ii 250-251. — common sand-, i 373. — fly-storing sand-, i 373. — mud-, i 374. — path-, i 373. Wasps, i 16, 373-374; ii 206, 250-251, 307, 358; iii 3"-3i2 (illust.), iv 29- 30 (illust.), 55-56, 59, 1 1 i-i 12 (illust.), — sand-, i 373. [192, 356. — solitary, i 374; iii 391-393. Waste-products, i 44-46; ii 377. Waste -removing organs. See Breathing organs and Excretory organs. Water (H2O), i 33; ii 270, 271, 273, 377-38o, 382-383, 420; iv 65-66, 76. Water-Boatmen, i 354-355; ii 124, 440; iii 29 (illust.). Water-Fleas, i 419, 421, 422 (illust.;, 466-467; ii 256, 405; iii 26 (illust.), 362-363 (illust.). Water-'guana, iii 53- Water-Hen, iii 61. — Mortier's, iii 61. Water-Pheasant. See Ja9ana. Water-Scorpions, i 354; ii 124, 44o- 441; iii 382-383. Water-testing organ, of molluscs, i 320, 333: iv 31. Water-vascular system, of echino- derms, i 452, 457, 458-459, 463; ii 412, 414-416; iii 91-92, 95-96, 97. Waterton, Charles, i 7; iii 239. Watson, Alfred, E. T., iv 364. Wax-glands, iv 254 (illust.). Weasel, common, i 98; ii 21, 290; iv 326 (illust.). Weasels, i 97-98 (illust. ) ; ii 20-22 ; iii 156; iv 303, 326, 345. Weaver-Birds, i 156. WebS, of arachnids, i 391, 392; iii 374; and see Nests. Weever, greater, ii 357. — lesser, ii 357. Weever-Fish, ii 305-306. Weevil (and see Weevils): — apple-blossom, iv 354. — birch-, iii 394-396 (illust.); iv 50. Weevil (Cont.) — biscuit-, iv 355. [(illust.). — corn-, i 369 (illust.); iv 354-355 — nut-, i 369; ii 2ii (illust.). — pea-, iv 354. — rice-, i 369 (illust). Weevils, i 369; ii 211, 315, 337; iii 224, 394-396 : iv 50, 354-355- Weismann, iii 319 ; iv 491, 492, 493, Welhaven, J. S., iv 4o8. [494. WelS, i 280 (illust). Whale (and see Whales) : — fin-back (or Rorqual), ii 29; iii 85. — Greenland or northern "right", i 101 ; ii 29, 30; iii 491; iv 314-315. - killer-, ii 26, 27 (illust); iii 85. — southern "right", iv 315. — sperm- (or Cachalot), ii 29; iv 316, 3i7Jillust), 403. — white, iii 83 (illust); iv 316-317. Whales (and see Whale), i 61, 99-101; ii 26-30; iii 83-86, 490-491; iv 209- 210, 314, 317. — toothed, ii 26-29; iy 3 1 6-3 17. — toothless, or whalebone, ii 26, 29-30; iv 314-316. "Whalebone", i 100, 101 (illust); ii 30 (illust); iv 314, 315. Whale-Louse, 1415 (illust); ii i43. Wheatear, i 160; iii 185 (illust); iv 133- Wheat-Eelworm, ii 222-223 (illust). Wheel- Animalcules, i 304, 434-435; ii 261-263, 4IQ; iii 100-101. Wheel-organ, i 434, 435; ii 4io. Whelk, common, i 321 (illust); ii 96, 97, 394-395; "i 412, 413 (illust); iv — dog-, iv 348. [348. Whewell, i u. Whimbrel, i 169. Whinchat, i 160; iv 133. Whip-poor-Will, ii 58. Whip-Scorpions, i 387, 389 (illust); ii 125-126, 443; iii 169 (illust). "Whiskers", of mammals, iv 28. White, Gilbert, i 6 ; iii 380, 466, 467, 471, 483; iv 319. White-" Ants ". See Termites. "Whitebait", iv 264. White matter, of spinal cord, i 50-51. Whitethroat, i 160 (illust.). — lesser, i 160 (illust). Whiting, i 279; ii 283; iv 200, 267. Whooper, i 177. Whydah Finches, iv 421. Widgeon, i 176; iii 58. Wiedersheim, iii 118. Wildebeest, i n8. Willey, iii no, 214, 418. Willows, iv 89, 92. Wilson, E. B., iv 494. Wilson, Gregg, iii 478. Windhover, i 174. Windpipe (and see Breathing organ): — birds, i 147; ii 427. — mammals, i 46-47 (illust). Wing-COVers, beetles, i 366; ii 315; iii 313, 314. — insects, straight-winged, i 345, 380. Wing-COVertS, of birds, i 143, 178; Wings:— [iii 297. — bats, i 81; iii 292-294. — birds : game, iii 300. perching, i 153, 155, 156, 158, 160, 161; iii 303, 304. picarian, i 163; iii 304. INDEX 555 Wings (Cont.) — birds (Cont.} running, i 188, 189, 190; iii 130- 132. [66. auks, divers and grebes, i 184; iii eagles and vultures, i 174, 175 ; iii 305, 306. gulls, iii 304, 305, 308. herons and storks, i 178, 179, 180; iii 307. [181; iii 307. pelicans and cormorants, i 180, penguins, i 186; iii 67. petrels and albatrosses, i 183. pigeons and sand-grouse, i 140- J43, J45, 167: i» 3 I 369-372. Wolff, Caspar Friedrich, iii 336. Wolf-Fish, i 275; u86. Wolverene. See Glutton. Wombat, i 69 (illust); ii 183 (illust), 322; iii 480. "Wonder-nets", ii 430. WOOd, J. G., ii37i; ivn7. Wood-borer, large, i 371 (illust.) ; ii 203; iii 386-387 (illust). Wood-borers, or Wood- Wasps, i 370- 371; ii 203; iii 386-387; iv 195, 355. Woodcock, i 169; ii 68 (illust). Woodlark, i 156. WOOd-LOUSe, i 415 (illust); ii 222; and see Wood-Lice. — pill, ii 143, 222, 342. — water, ii 143, 222, 405. Wood-Lice, i 415; ii 222, 342, 405, 444; iii 368; and see Wood-Louse. Woodpecker (and see Woodpeckers): — great spotted, i 162; ii 58. — green, i 161; iii 263 (illust). — lesser-spotted, i 162. Woodpeckers, i 161-162 ; ii 58, 187, 370; iii 264-265, 454; iv 347. — three-toed, iii 264-265. WOOdward, Smith, iv 471. WOOd- Wasps. See Wood-borers. "Wool", of sheep, &c., iv 227, 228- 229 (illust), 230, 232. "Woolly bears", i 360; and see Caterpillars. ''Worm-castings", i 430; ii 257, 259 ; iii 226, 230. "Worms." See Annelida, Earth- Worms, Flat -Worms, Thread- Worms, &c. Wrack, ii 198. Wrasse, Ballan, i 276. Wrasses, i 276; ii 86. Wren, common, i 160, 161. — fire-crested, i 160 (illust). — golden-crested, i 160 (illust). — willow, i 160. — wood, i 1 60. Wrens, i 160-161; iii 185. Wrist-bones, i 30-31; «i 299; and see Radiale and Ulnare. Wunderlich, iii 492. WuychuchOl, iii 71-72 (illust). X Xanthoptera semicrocea, iv 72. Xenophon, iv 375. Xenophorus, ii 287, 288 (illust). Xenopus Isevis, iii 50. Xenos, iv 192. Xiphias gladius, i 273. Xiphocera asina, ii 282. Xiphosura, i 343, 422-423 ; ii 144- 145, 406-407 ; iii 369. [391. Xylocopa violacea, i 374 ; iii 39°- Yak, i 114; iv 225. "Yellow cells", iv 76, 77. Yellow-hammer, i 156 (illust). Yew, iv 80. Yolk. See Food-yolk. Yolk-sac, iii 425, 431, 432. Young (see also Larvae). — amphibians. See Tadpoles, Larvae, — annelids, iii 358, 361. [&c. — arachnids, i 392; iii 373-376. — birds, i 151-152, 153, 158, 161, 163, 165, 166, 167, 168, 170, 172, 176, 189; ii 285-286 (illust); iii 448, 449, 450, 452, 460 (illust), 466-474 (illust); iv 186, 187 (illust). — care of, See Protection. — crustaceans, iii 363, 365, 367-368 ; and see Larvae. — echinoderms, iii 355; and see Larvae. — fishes, iii 43i~434- — insects. See Larvae, Nymphs, and Caterpillars. — mammals, i 65, 68-69 > " 43Q-431 : iii 477 (illust), 478-480 (illust.), 481 (illust), 482-494; iv 312-313. — myriapods, iii 372. — reptiles, i 209; iii 443-445, 447. Yung, iv 493. Yungia aurantiaca, ii 308. ZameniS constrictor, iii 270. — mucosus, iv 328. Zapus Hudsonianus, iii 194-195. Zebra, Burchell's, i 107 ; iv 235 (illust), 241. Zebras, i 107; iv 140, 235 (illust), 239. Zebra-mules, iv 239-241 (illust). Zebra Shark, i 286. ZebU, i 114; iv 225 (illust). Zeus faber, i 273-274; iv 272. Zosea, iii 27-28 (illust), 366-367 ZoOid, i 436, 437. [(illust). Zoology, i 5- — aesthetic. See ./Esthetic Zoology. — economic. See Economic Zoology. — in Middle Ages, i 9. — of sport. See Sporting Zoology. — philosophical. See Philosophical Zoology. — utilitarian. See Utilitarian Zoology. — ways of studying, i 5-17. Zoophytes, i 304, 436, 465-483; " 155-162, 271-272, 308-309, 340-341, 361, 416-418; iii 17-20, 89-90, 327- 328, 339-341, 349-353: iv 5-7, 25, 26, 33-34, 101-104, 44Q-441, 449-45°, 453-454, 458-459> 464- — extinct, iv 458-459. — hydroid, i 465-473, 478-483 (illust); ii 160-162 (illust), 340-341; iii 327, 328, 350-352; iv 102-104. Zoospores, ii 273. Zootoca vivipara, i 225; iii 446. Zostera, iii 369- Zygsena malleus, i 285-286. Zygsenidse, iii 402. Davie, J.R.A. ghe natural history of animal B JBIOiOGV LIBRARY 8 301525 UBRAPY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY