f-tty

THE NATURALIST;

ILLUSTRATIVE OF THE

diurnal, Veqet&Wtf att& Mineral mng&om*,

(TO BE CONTINUED MONTHLY),

" Nothing can be unworthy of being investigated by Man which was thought worthy of being
created by God."— Boyle.

EDITED

BY NEVILLE WOOD, ESQ.

Vol. Ill January— September, 1838.

prfr'Tii .-i i i.

LONDON:

WHITTAKER AND CO., AVE-MARIA-LANE.
1838.

TO

JOHN WALBANKE CHILDERS, ESQ., M.P.,

Of Cantley Hall, in the West Riding of Yorkshire,

AS A SLIGHT RETURN

FOR THE KIND MANNER IN WHICH HE HAS EVER PROVED HIMSELF READY TO

ADVANCE THE INTERESTS OF THIS JOURNAL,

®bt Wrfr Volume

IS INSCRIBED,

BY HIS SINCERELY-OBLIGED FRIEND,

THE EDITOR.

THE NATURALIST.

REMARKS ON THE NATURAL HISTORY, SCENERY, AND
MANNERS OF NEW ZEALAND.

By Thomas Kier Short, Esq.

It is with great pleasure that I perceive you have introduced some papers on
foreign Natural History in your valuable work, The Naturalist. In the first
place, I consider it a great acquisition to your periodical, as it will doubtless
induce many to purchase it who would not be satisfied with articles treating
exclusively of the natural productions of our own country. In the second
place, it is opening a channel for many who cannot procure more expensive
works. But to enter upon my subject without further preface.

It has been my lot to be one of the few who have circumnavigated, the globe,
and to have visited its four quarters in pursuit of Natural History. The subject
of my present essay is New Zealand, and, if it is considered worthy of insertion
in The Naturalist, it shall be followed by others, on Vandieman's Land, South
America, and the Brazils.

I left Launceston, Vandieman's Land, for New Zealand, in the brig Brazil
Packet, March 26, 1836, and first made land at day-break on the 5th of April.
We entered the mouth of the river Hookeangah at nine o'clock, a. m., and
dropped anchor at noon of the same day.

New Zealand is situated between 34 and 47 degrees south latitude, and from
166 to about 180 east longitude. It was first discovered by Tasman, in 1642.
In 1770 the coast was explored by Captain Cooke, who sailed between the two
large islands, and gave the name " Cooke's Strait" to the channel. New Zealand
forms the southern boundary of Polynesia, and comprises two large and several
small islands. The appearance of the coast is bold and rocky, the land is high
and rugged ; and the southern mountains are occasionally covered with snow.

In the large northern island, where the principal if not the only settlements
of Europeans are situated, the climate is salubrious, the thermometer ranging
between 40 and 80 degrees, avoiding the heat of a tropical climate, yet warmer
than most temperate latitudes, generally equable, and seldom experiencing those
sudden vicissitudes so frequent and injurious in the variable climate of England.
The soil is in many parts fertile, and though possessing few indigenous articles
of food, yet these, when once introduced, grow spontaneously.

Thunder-storms are frequent and violent in New Zealand, particularly in the
winter months, when they are generally attended by torrents of rain. The

vol. in. — NO. XVI. B

2 NATURAL HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

waterfalls and forests of New Zealand — especially the latter — are well worthy
of notice.

Before I enter upon a more minute description of the natural productions of
the country, I shall conduct the reader from the heads of the river Hookyarga to
the Wcsleyan Mission station, Mungung, through some of the most delightful
scenery in the world. The appearance of the country is not, at first sight, very
interesting to the naturalist. The north head is composed of a barren sand-hill
in a conical form, being an excellent mark for vessels entering the river ; it is
destitute of all vegetation, and is of a whitish colour ; whilst that of the south
is composed of high broken hills. The barren rocks appear through in many
places, and arc clothed with verdure to their summits, the foliage being of a remark-
ably light green colour, which contrasted well with the sombre appearance of the
dark ^basaltic rocks. The whole island bears very strong marks of volcanic
agency.

On the south head an English sailor has built a small house, and hoists signals to

denote whether it is safe to cross the bar at the mouth of the river. The river at

the north is about three miles broad, and does not decrease in breadth for about four

miles from the heads,* when wc come to the first native village or settlement, called

Parkani, where the chief of the heads resides, who came on board as soon as the

vessel passed the village. Ho was a fine, tall, good-looking man for a New-

Zcalandcr, with his face, arms, and thighs much tattooed. The only covering he

wore was a largo green blanket, in which he was enveloped. He brought a

present of Water-melons, Figs, Maize (or Indian Corn), and Peaches. The

Peaches differed from any I have yet seen, being of a j^cllowish colour, and

possessing more of the flavour of Primus Armeniaca than of Amygdalw. A

little above Parkani the river takes a slight turn to the left ; the first European

settlement is situated on the rigbt bank, on a small isolated point of land called

" one tree point." At this part of the river the banks are steep, being composed

of a soft sinuous rock, which is much perforated by a species of Pholas, but as I

could not obtain a perfect specimen, I was unable to distinguish the species. The

banks above high- water mark were covered with a profusion of Ferns, among

which I found Polypodium scandens and P. pustzdatum, growing among large

bushes of Leptospermum scoparium, which was in full flower.

Somewhat above the point is a small rock or island cut into terraces, and which
was used by the natives as a place of defence previous to the introduction of
fire-arms. It is now covered with a profusion of Anthropodium cirratum, and a
small species of Pimelea, which I took for P. filamentosa.

The country becomes more interesting the further we proceed up the river,
which is now about one mile broad, the forest for the first time coming to the
water's edge, which, from its luxuriant appearance, induced me to land. After

NATURAL HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND. 3

passing through a thick flat of Phormyum tenax (New-Zealand Flax) four feet
high, we entered a dense forest, in which all the trees and plants were new,
with the exception of Fuchsia excorticata. The first thing that strikes the tra-
veller is Damara Australis (Kowdy tree), commonly called the New-Zealand
Pine, which often rises to the height of a hundred feet before it gives out branches,
looking more like works of art than of Nature. It has a fine smooth bark, and
is perhaps the only tree not infested by parasitic plants. In company with
Damara Australis arc generally found Dacrgdium cuj/ressum, I). plumosum,
Vitex littoralis, Melicgtis ramijiorus, and Taxus matai. The Palm and Fern
trees were of large dimensions, which, as well as other trees, were covered with
a variety of epiphytes and parasites, which imparted to them a beauty not their
own ; whilst the ground was covered with a profusion of Filices, Musci, and
Fungi, of the most varied forms and colours, the whole of which were quite new
to me. The numerous decayed trees and vegetable matter, the density of the
foliage impervious to the sun's rays, caused a cool damp atmosphere so congenial
to the growth of the lower orders of vegetation.

The Ornithology of New Zealand — or at least of this part of it — seems scanty,
as the only birds I saw in my course up the river were a few Cormorants,
small ash-coloured Herons, a little Bittern, and a black bird the size of a Star-
ling, having a small plume of white feathers under its chin, somewhat similar to
a clergyman's bands. Higher up the river again expands to about two miles
broad, but is very shallow ; the stones on the banks are curious, most of them
being spherical, and, piled upon each other in grand confusion, recall to the mind
of the romantic traveller the wars of the Tartars. They are composed of a spe-
cies of basalt.

The traveller, still ascending, arrives at a very confined part of the river called
" the Narrows," the river suddenly, contracting from two miles wide to one-fourth
of a mile, the bonks being high and steep, and the water rapid. Here we had
to stand waiting the return of the tide. On the banks I gathered Adeantum tri-
gonum, Pteris rotund/folia, and Asplenium bidbiferum. The distant mountains
now appear up the valleys, which, from the natives continually setting fire to
the woods, have a light blue shade, looking as if in a continual smoke.
Above the Narrows the muddy banks of the river arc covered with a species of
Mangrove. The tourist now comes in sight of the Wcsleyan Mission station,
situated on the ridit bank of the river, where the rivers Monomoka and Whioa
fall into the Hookeangah. I spent some weeks there, and found in their garden
fine trees of Peaches, Apples, Figs, Plums, White Mulberries, Agara Ameri-
cana, Arracaria excelsa, Coffee, Psedium piriferum, Oranges, Lemons (in fruit),
Vines, Gooseberries, Currants, Strawberries, and other vegetables.

b 2

4 DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA OF ST. ANDREWS.

In my next paper I intend to conduct your readers through the mountain-
passes to the bay of Islands, through scenery which it is almost impossible to
describe so as to do justice to its beauty.

Martin Hall, Nottinghamshire,
November 30, 1837-

LIST OF DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA CAPTURED IN THE NEIGH-
BOURHOOD OF ST. ANDREWS IN 1837.
With Observations, etc.
By Henry Buist.

Having been a constant reader of your valuable and useful magazine, The
Naturalist, since its commencement, I assure you I have derived great pleasure
as well as obtained much useful information from the perusal of the contents of
your monthly numbers as they appear, and always look forward with great
pleasure to the beginning of each month when The Naturalist arrives, I have
sent you the following list of Diurnal Lepidoptera taken by me this season in the
neighbourhood of St. Andrews, with observations on their time of appearance,
&c, hoping that it may prove interesting to at least a few of your numerous
readers, as it gives an idea of what Papilios they may expect to find in this
district.

The Butterflies enumerated in the following short list were all taken by my-
self this season, none of them at a greater distance than two miles from the city
of St. Andrews, which is situated on the East coast of Fifeshire, on a small bay
called St. Andrew's Bay. The climate here is particularly pure and healthy,
owing no doubt to its position with regard to the sea and adjacent country. The
weather, however, is generally cold and disagreeable in spring, on account of the
North-East winds generally prevailing during the months of April and May, and
bringing with them cold unpleasant vapours which load the air and check vege-
tation. Epidemic or contagious diseases are hardly ever known here, but the
climate is thought to be too sharp and penetrating for rheumatic constitutions, or
those who are threatened with consumptive complaints. The latitude of St.
Andrews is 56° 19' 33" north, true to a second, and the longitude 2° 50' west
from Greenwich. The medium temperature of the air at St. Andrews was
found by the late Dr. Jackson, Professor of Natural Philosophy here, from eight
years observation, to be 43° 374' of Fahrenheit. A small stream called the
Kinnes burn skirts the town on the South, on the banks of which stream I have

DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA OF ST. ANDREWS. 5

taken most of the insects mentioned below. On the N.W. side of the town are
the links, which run north for about ten miles, till they reach the mouth of the
river Eden. Here I have taken many insects. In the month of July this year
the beautiful blue Polyommatus Alexis was particularly abundant, and here also,
on the 18th of the same month, I saw a specimen of Macroylossa stellatarum.
The only museum of Natural History here is that in the United College build-
ings, the specimens in which, however, are fast going to decay from want of
attention. A few years ago a course of lectures on Natural History was de-
livered in the University, but, owing to the small number of students that
attended, I am sorry to say it was given up.

Pontia brassicae Hipparchia megsera

rapae — — — — — janira

napi hyperanthus

Vanessa urticae Lycaena phlaeas

io Polyommatus alexia

i atalanta

Pontia brassicce. — This Butterfly, although common here, is by no means so
plentiful as the two following, owing, I suppose, to the immense number of cater-
pillars which are destroyed by the larvae of a small Ichneumon. Of twelve
caterpillars which I fed this year only one changed into a chrysalis ; all the
others were destroyed by these larvae, which, when full grown, make their way
through the body of the caterpillar, and spin for themselves beautiful little yellow
cocoons. The caterpillar above mentioned is the only one that changed into a
chrysalis after having fastened the band for the suspension of the future pupa,
fell to the bottom of the box, and there changed itself into a chrysalis. The last
time I saw this Butterfly this season was on the 18th of October.

Pontia rapce and P. napi, with varieties of both, common.

Vanessa urticce. — I saw it for the first time this year on the 2nd of May ; last
year I noticed a single specimen as early as the 18th of March, another on the
4th of April, and several on the 15th of April, after which time it was abundant ;
this year it was not seen in any abundance till the 2nd week of May. The last
specimen I saw this year was on the 1 9th of October ; last year I observed one
as late as the middle of December.

Vanessa io. — On the 3rd of October, which was a dull damp day, when out in
the garden with a spade in my hand, digging up a weed from a bed of China
Asters then in flower, I was so fortunate as to disturb what I thought to be a
specimen of V. urticce, which flew off a short distance, and alighted on the
ground. But what was my surprise and delight when on seizing it by the tho-
rax with my fore-finger and thumb — which caused its wings to open a little — I
found it was what our earliest British entomologists named " omnium regina"
Vanessa Io. It has been stated that this beautiful insect — of which my speci-

6 DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA OF ST, ANDREWS.

men is a very perfect one — "probably does not extend beyond the Frith of
Forth," and this is the only recorded instance that I know of its having been seen
or taken on this side of the Forth.

Vanessa atalanta. — I have only seen one specimen of the Red Admiral here,
which was on the 18th and 19th of October. It is a very active insect, never
resting long on one spot. On the 18th it alighted several times close beside me
on the ground, on flowers, on the trunks of trees, &c, in the garden, but was so
active that I could not catch him. He at last flew out of the garden, and did
not again return that day. On the 19th I again found him in the garden, when
I secured him for my cabinet.

Hipparchia megcera. — This insect is extremely abundant here, especially dur-
ing August and September, before and after which month it is not so abundant.
The first specimen I saw this year was on the 3rd of June, and the last on the
19th of October. The last time I saw it in 183C was on the ISth of October.
I have taken specimens with 2 small ocelli, besides the large one on the under
side of the anterior wing.

Hipparchia janira. — Very abundant in the month of August, at the side of
the Kinnes burn, and flying over corn-fields.

ffijqtarchia hyperanihus. — Not very abundant here. Cut I saw and took it
in great abundance about 16 miles west from this in the parish of Abdie on the
10th of July, flying in a meadow, over the long grass.

Lyccena jMceas. — I have had great difficulty in procuring a perfect specimen
of this beautiful and active little Papilio (which is very abundant on the banks
of the Kinnes burn in August and beginning of September), owing, I suppose, to
its pugnacious habits, ofwhichlhad an example on the 24th of August. A
bold little fellow seemed to think himself the sovereign of a head of flowers of the
Common Ragwort (which they delight to settle upon), over which he kept con-
stant watch, offering instant battle to any other insect that attempted to alight
within his dominions. Whilst I watched him he beat off others of his own spe-
cies, as well as Polyommatus alexis and Hipparchia megcera. The specimens I
have taken of this littlu Butterfly var}r in the intensity of copper, as well
as as of the dark colour, and on the 14th of September I caught three specimens
of a variety with 4 blue spots on the dark part of the posterior wing, which spots
are encircled by a zone of a golden colour.

Polyommatus alexis. — As stated above, this insect was very abundant on the
links about the end of July. I have also taken specimens at the burn and in the
garden.

Law Park, near St. Andrews,

November 13, 1837.

AN ACCOUNT OF A YOUNG CUCKOO.
By W. H. Benshed.

In the month of July, 1834, I had a young Cuckoo given to me by a man who
was working in a stone-quarry. It was caught in its attempt to fly from the
nest of a pair of Wagtails built in a cleft in the rock. The man had confined the
young bird under a sieve, and inf >rmed me that the old birds had fed it during
the day. My residence being but a short distance from the quarry, I took an
old Bee-hive, and putting some net over the bottom, I placed the young bird
into it, and, fixing three Hop-poles in a triangle upon the lawn, set the hive
upon its side, in the top part, and watched the result. In a few minutes I
heard a low chirping note from the Cuckoo, and directly afterwards I saw the
two Wagtails settle upon the lawn. Delight and joy really appeared in all their
actions ; they rushed to and fro in the air, flying about the hive, and hovering
near it, with a graceful undulating motion, the Cuckoo crying more eagerly for
food as they darted past, or hung fluttering in the air.

I could not, moreover, help noticing tho actions of several other birds. A
brood of young Swallows flew from the chimney-top as the old ones gave their
peculiar note, or cry of warning of danger, which is heard when a Cat or Hawk
makes its appearance. A Wren flew to the hive, and seemed to eye its inmate
with some curiosity, but a bold, pugnacious Robin shewed such a disposition for
fighting that the cock Wagtail boldly attacked and drove him away.

The hen had now procured some food, which appeared to consist of small But-
terflies and caterpillars, but the nest seemed to excite her suspicions ; she
evidently feared being entangled with it. I then put a twig for a perch, and
she soon settled upon it, and gave the young Cuckoo its food. The two old birds
continued to feed it regularly for about a week, when their attention seemed to
be less constant, and, fearing it would be starved, I set it at liberty, but fre-
quently saw it until the end of August, sitting upon the end of a Hop-pole, and
still attended by the Wagtails.

The Rev. Gilbert White, in his Natural History of Selborne, has taken
notice of the instinct of the Cuckoo, in selecting the nest of a soft-billed bird with
whom to entrust her young. Without this precaution, it would seem to be a
total contradiction to the general feeling and impulse of Nature, and there can be
no doubt of the care and forethought of the Cuckoo, in thus selecting the nest of
birds which will provide food suitable for her young; and an extraordinary
instinct is given to the young Cuckoo, to destroy its helpless companions by
thrusting them out of the nest, beneath which they perish, thereby receiving the
undivided attendance of the old birds, as it is most probable they would not be
able to rear so large a bird and their own young too, particularly as the Cuckoo

8 HABITS OF THE NATTERJACK.

leaves this country early in the summer ; I have imagined that on account of the
shortness of the time which the Cuckoo spends in this country, it would not be
able to rear its own young, and hence the economy of leaving the egg in the nest
of another bird.

In my sc' ?>o.lrboy days I once put five young Starlings, which I had taken
from a- nole in a tree, into the nest of another pair of Starlings, which had built
in a Pigeon-cove and had four young ones. The nine birds were reared, but the
chirping was incessant, and the labour of the old birds very great.

The greatest boldness I ever witnessed in a parent bird was shewn by a hen
Partridge, which, on being surprised with her young covey, dashed like the
domestic hen at a spaniel, and fairly drove the Dog away, and who came cower-
ing to my heels. The beautiful bird, fired by her maternal feelings, came to
within a few yards of me, and then flew away to her mate, who had decoyed her
young away into safety. What a contrast this appears to the actions of the
Cuckoo ! but the laws of Nature are as unerring in the actions of each for the
propagation of their species, and the instinct that teaches the Ostrich to leave her
eggs in the sand, is as all-sufficient as the instinct that causes the Tomtit to build
so warm and close a nest that all the heat of her little body may be retained for
her eggs.

Maidstone, Nov. 1837.

HABITS OF THE NATTERJACK (Rana rubetra, Linn.)
By R. Tudor, Esq.

Dear Sir, — I have received the following very interesting communication
respecting the habits of the Natterjack, from R. Tudor, Esq., of Bootle (an
accurate and intelligent naturalist), which, if you think worthy of being inserted
in your magazine, you are at liberty to publish.

Being an observer of this curious and interesting animal, I beg leave to forward
to you a few particulars relative to its habits. The Natterjack is a reptile
intermediate between the Frog and the Toad, and is found in great abundance at
Bootle. Turton's description of the animal is, " Body about two inches and a
quarter long, tubercled, one inch and a quarter broad, above of a dirty yellow-
clouded with brown, beneath paler with black spots, back with a yellow line ;
fore feet four-toed ; hind feet five-toed and a little webbed." Its time of spawn-
ing is much later in the spring than that of the Common Frog, being about the
latter end of April. It is singular to observe the impregnated eggs strewed
about the shore after expulsion, in clusters bearing a great resemblance to strings
of black beads, extending many yards in length, and convoluted in every possible

HABITS OF THE NATTERJACK. 9

direction. The parts of the shore selected for that purpose are very much
saturated with moisture from fresh water exuding from the high land above, and
in spots also where this water forms shallow accumulations. During the expul-
sion of the spawn the male reptile is placed upon the back of the female, securely
fixed, and impregnates the spawn as it passes from her (no pre"i' s union of the
sexes having taken place), both animals moving at a moderate speed at the same
time, thereby causing the great length of the chain of spawn. The male at this
season is provided with a tubercle, or black warty excrescence on the inner side
of each thumb, for the purpose of giving him a more secure hold of the female
(accounting for the very vulgar and mistaken notion commonly entertained, that
the one year Frogs ride upon the backs of the three year Frogs until they are
killed). After a short time the tadpoles make their appearance, but they are
much smaller than those of the Common Frog, and remain in the water until
their metamorphosis is completed, which is generally in the course of a few
weeks. During this period a constant croaking is kept up by the male, which is
very different from that made by the Common Frog, and which may be heard
at a distance of at least five hundred yards ; this is continued till the season is
far advanced, and particularly on serene quiet evenings, and before a change of
weather ; it is a peculiar kind of harsh croak, not altogether unpleasant. After
the change to the perfect animal takes place, the young leave the water and seek
protection on the land. At first they confine themselves to rather moist situa-
tions, then gradually retire to more dry and gravelly spots, and are found in
clusters of fifty or sixty in a place, generally under tufts of grass, so closely
impacted together, that it is with great difficulty they can separate themselves.
After some time they become stronger, and seek a retired and more solitary
situation inland. Their progressive motion is very different from that of the
Frog or Toad ; it is not either the quick jump of the former, or the tardy walk
of the latter animal, but a wriggling run or shuffling walk. When taking their
prey — which generally consists of Earth-worms, Slugs, or different kinds of
insects, &c. — if not disturbed, it is interesting to observe the manner in which
this is performed. By placing a live Worm a few inches before them, their
attention is immediately directed to the object ; fixing themselves in the attitude
of a pointer Dog when setting its game, and with a peculiar turn of the head and
glance of the eye, they immediately seize the writhing prey, and so instantly is
it conveyed into their mouth and swallowed, that it requires the keenest eye to
detect their movements. This operation is performed by means of the tongue,
which is attached, differently from the same organ in animals in general, to the
fore part of the mouth, and in a manner folds back upon itself, terminating at
the back part of the mouth. In the winter season it is difficult to meet with these
animals, as they retire into holes and cavities inland, under stones and in different
vol. m. — no. xvi. c

10 AN EXCURSION TO THE 8UBMARINE FORE9T, CHESHIRE.

secluded situations, but on fine mild evenings they may be seen occasionally, and
generally before rain commences.

I remain, dear Sir,

Yours very respectfully,
fVoodside, near Liverpool, T. B. Hall.

November 14, 1837.

SOME ACCOUNT OP AN EXCURSION TO THE SUB-MARINE
FOREST, LEASOWES, CHESHIRE.

By a Member of the British Association.

On Friday evening an announcement was made by the general secretary, that
on the next morning steam-boats would be waiting to carry the members of
the British Association to some iron-works down the river, or to Leasowes
Castle, near the submarine forest. Saturday morning came, and with it torrents
of rain. I walked into the town, and must confess, from the miserable and dirty
appearance of the whole place, that I wished myself any where but in Liverpool.
As I was walking along, half inclined to leave for Manchester, a transitory break
appeared in the clouds ; it became lighter, I looked at my watch, found it wanted
but five minutes to one, the time the steamer was to start for the forest. I
called a cab, and arrived at the docks before the packet had started. The rain
again poured down, but I determined to keep on board and undergo the hard-
ship which the miserable weather promised. The packet did not start at the
time stated, on account of the smallness of the party, who at length one by one
arrived, and when we set off numbered altogether twenty-four.

Who our company was I knew not, and I must confess, when we started we
looked a" unlikely r party to enjoy ourselves as ever I saw. The weather
appeared to affect us all, and not one seemed inclined to say to another, how do
you do ? After dashing through the waves five or six miles, the steamer sud-
denly stopped, and we were informed that we must be put on shore by the boat.
The wind blew, and the rain came down quickly, so as to deter several of the
party from venturing across a mile or two of sea to the shore, lest they should
be made permanent inhabitants of the submarine forest we were about to visit.
However, with skilful sailors, who not only l'owed us over a part of the sea, but
carried U9 one by one on their broad shoulders, over several hundred feet, we
were at length securely placed upon the beach.

And here we found ourselves safely arrived at the object of our expedition,

AN EXCURSION TO THE SUBMARINE FOREST, CHESHIRE. 11

and had we not been wet through with the rain, and half frozen by the cold,
we might have at once fallen into a reverie among the ruins of fallen greatness
around us. There extended the roots of a mighty tree, that might once have
been the monarch of the forest, and all around were the remains of trees of smaller
growth, once the haunts of happy choristers, but now how changed the scene !
There was, however, no time either to moralize or poetize. Our party scattered
itself in various directions upon this forlorn beach, which was covered with the
stumps and roots of trees, and the remains of their branches scattered in all
directions, buried and kept in their situations by a deposition of mud. The
shore in this situation inclines very gradually, so that an immense tract of ground
is exposed at low tide. The remains of the forest extend for several hundred
acres along the shore between the Dee and Mersey. I picked up several speci-
mens of wood in a tolerable stale of preservation. One of our party found the
lower jaw of a fossil Elk. Some teeth and small bones were picked up by others,
but such was the pitiless beating of the storm that it discouraged the energies of
the most undaunted, and we accordingly made the best of our way to Leasowes
Castle, which, though the residence of a private gentleman, is for the accommo-
dation of the public opened as a public-house. In the Castle there are some fine
rooms, and from its battlements an extensive view of the surrounding country is
obtained, commanding the Irish Sea, the distant mountains of Wales, and the
counties of Cheshire and Lancashire. In the hall were some shells, animals, and
other objects of Natural History ; hanging upon the wall were three fossil heads
belonging to the Ruminant/ a. They were an Ox, an Antelope, and a Sheep, as
near as I could make out ; the head of the Ox and Antelope were of very large
size. The antlers of the latter were large and entire. Underneath these heads
there was an inscription stating that the heads were obtained from the submarine
forest, corroborating the truth of an old distich that states —

From Burkinly even unto Fulnee

A Squirrel might leap from tree to tree.

This district is now entirely under water.

In one of the rooms of the Castle is the carved roof of the old star-chamber
from Westminster Hall, being a gift to the family possessing this mansion,
some branches of which have held offices in the Exchequer. In another room
was a full length painting of William the Third, and underneath the following
inscription : — " William III. embarked from these Leasowes on the expedition
to the Battle of the Boyne."

Having looked over the house, and dried our clothes, we were summoned to a
very welcome repast, which the liberality of our Liverpool friends had provided.
Our party had by this time become mutually acquainted, and I think I may
venture to say that no party brought together in an accidental manner could

2c

12 COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS OF DORSETSHIRE.

enjoy themselves more than we did. After dinner, still being strangers to each
other by name, it was proposed that we should write our names and leave them
as a memorial with the gentleman of the local Committee who had come with us
from Liverpool. The revelation thus brought about proved that we had not left
behind us all the wisdom of our Universities, nor all those Avhose names were
known to fame. After spending an hour or two in a very agreeable manner, we
arrived at Liverpool in time for the finale meeting at seven o'clock.

CATALOGUE OF COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS FOUND IN DORSET-
SHIRE.
With Notes, Observations, etc.
By James Charles Dale, Esq., A.M., F.L.S.
(Concluded from Vol. II., p. 415.)
Genus ccxxi. Aleochara. — Species 87. umbrata. Glanville's Wootton. — 90.
fasciata. Glan. Wootton. — 98. sericea ? — 104. bipuncta, Ol. — 108.
fuscipes, Pk. Glan. Woott. — dimidiata. G. W. and Cranborne Chace.
ccxxiib. Callicerus. — 1. Spencii. G. W.
ccxxvi. Stenus. — 1. bimaculatus. G. W. — 8. pusillus. G. W.
ccxxvii. PjEDERUS. — 1. riparius. — 2. littoralis.

ccxxviii. Rugilus. — 2. orbicidatus. G. W. — 5. angustalus. G. W., Cran-
borne Chace.
ccxxix. Sunius ? — 5. angustatus. G. W., Cranborne Chace.

ccxxx. Autalia. — 1. rivularis. ? Seashore, Lulworth.

ccxxxii. Euplectus. — 3. Karsteniil G. W., May 8, 1835.
ccxxxiv. Arcopagus. — 3. puncticollis. G. W. — 4. glabricollis ? G. W.
ccxxxv. Tychus. — 1. niger? G. W.

ccxxxvi. Bryaxis. — 1. juncorum? G. W. — 5. sanguineus'}. West Staf-
ford.— 6. longicornis $. West Stafford.
ccxxxvii. Pselaphus. — 1. Herbstii ? G. W. — 2. Heisei. G. W. — 3.

longicollisl G. W.
ccxxxviii. ScYDMiENUS. — 3. hirticollisl G. W. — 13. thoracicus> Kunz.

G. W.
ccxl. Corticaria. — 4. transversalis. — 8. pubescens.
ccxlii. Crypta. — 1. bipunctata. Parley,
ccxlvi. Monotoma. — 1. picipes. G. W.
ccxlvii. — Silvan us. — 2. Surinamensis. G. W., always in «ugar.

COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS OF DORSETSHIRE. 18

ccxlviii. Bitoma. — 1. crenata. Parley.

ccl. Rhyzophagus. — 1. ferrugineus. West Stafford.

ccliii. Tenebrio. — 1. molitor. Parley. — 2. obscurus. Parley.

cclv. Pedinus. — 1. gibbum. Portland.

cclvi. Opatrum. — 1. sabulosum. Parley.

cclix. Phaleria. — 1. cadaverina. Near Poole.

cclx. Crypticus. — 1. quisquilius, L. Portland.

cclxi. Helops. — 1. caraboides. — 3. cceruleus.

cclxii. Blaps. — 3. mortisaga. G. W., Blandford.

cclxiv. Melandrya. — 1. caraboides, L. G. W., Sherborne, Charmouth.

cclxv. Cistela. — 2. ceramboides, L. Parley. — 3. castaneal — 6. fulvipes,

F. Bear Wood, near Holt Forest. — 5. murina. G. W., &c. — 7. sul-

phurea. Portland, Weymouth.
cclxv.b Omophlus. — 1. armerice. Portland,
cclxvi. Lagria. — 1. hirta. G. W.
cclxxii. Anaspis. — 1. frontalis. G. W., &c. — 3. rujicollis, G. W., &c. —

4. melanopa. G. W. — 10. nigricollis. G. W. — 11. biguttaia.
cclxxiii. Mordella. — 1. abdominalis,¥. G. W. — 2. pumila. Hodd Hill

and G. W.
cclxxiv. Ripiphorus. — 1. paradoxus. G. W.
cclxxvi. (Edemera. — 1. podagrarice. G. W. — 2. carulea. G. W. — 4.

lurida. Portland, Charmouth. — 5. viridissima. G. W.
cclxxviii. Conopalpus. — 1. testaceus. G. W. (Mr. Curtis), bred March 11,

1821.
cclxxix. Pyrochroa.-— 1. rubens, F. G. W.
cclxxx. Meloe. — 1. violaceus. G. W. — 2. proscarabazus. G. W., &c.

Small variety ? Weymouth.- — 3. tectus. Parley,
cclxxxiii. Anthicus. — 1. antkerinus. G. W., on mud. — 3. ater. Port-
land, under stones. — 4. fuscus. G. W., and Maiden Castle,
cclxxxiv. Ptinus. — 1. imperialis. G. W., on Whitethorne, May 26, 1823.

— 4. museoruml — 5. sex-punctatus. Farleigh, near Beaminster, June 27,

1816.— 6. Fur. G. W.— 7. crenatus. G. W., &c.
cclxxxix. Ptilinus. — 1. pectinicornis. G. W.
ccxc. Anobium. — 1 . castaneum. G. W. — 2. rufipes. — 4. striatum. G. W.

— 6. tessellatum. G. W. — 9. ptinoides. G. W., on Alder,
ccxci. Dermestes. — 2. murinus. G. W., &c.
ccxciii. Attagenus. — 1. pellio. G. W., always in the house,
ccxciv. Anthrenus. — 3. museorum, and 4. varius. G. W., in the house.

— 5. verbascil — Also a small one in flowers at Blandford.

14 COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS OF DORSETSHIRE.

ccxcvii.c Oomorphus. — 1. concolor. G. W., Parley, &c.
ccxcviii. Simplocaria. — 3. aemistriata. G. W. ; Portland ?
ccxcix. Byrrhus. — 1. varius. Holnest. — 7. pilula. G. W., &c.
ccc. Throscus. — 1. dermestoides, L. G. W.; Mullets Copse.
ccci. Trachys. — 2. minuta. Parley Copse.

cccii. Aphanisticus. — 1. pusillus. Newland Common and Lul worth.
cccvi. Ceratophytum. — 1. Latreillii. Parley Copse, July 1837.
cccix. Elater. — 3. cupreus. Near Sherborne, Mr. Morris. — 5. tessellatus.
G. W. — 7. metallicus. G. W. — 10. ephippium. Parley Copse. — 16.
minutus ? G. W. — 22. bipustulatus. G. W. — 25. holosericeus. G. W.
&C- — 26. murinus. G. W., &c. — 27. fulvipes. G. W. — 30. sputator.
G. W., &c— 31. obscurus. G. W., &c— 32. lineatus. G. W., &c— 39.
ceneus. Turnworth, Knighton and Parley Heaths. — 44. equiseti. Port-
land Ferry. — 47. niger. G. W., &c. — 48. nigrinus ? G. W. — 50. rufi-
caudis. G. W. — 55. marginatus. G. W., &c — 56. limbatus. G. W.,
&c. — 57- longicollis. G. W., &c.
cccx. Campylus. — 1. linearis. G. W.
cccxi. Dascillus. — 1. cervinus. G. W.
cccxii. Elodes. — 1. melanurus. G. W. — 2. Icetusl G. W. — 3. lividusl

G. W. — 4. marginatus. G. W. — 8. padi. Holnest.
cccxiii. Scirtes. — 1. hemisphcericus. Holnest, G. W. — 2. chrysomeloides.

Parley,
cccxv. Lampyris. — 1. noctiluca. G. W., &c.

cccxvii. Telephorus. — 1. alpinus. G. W. — 3. rusticus. G. W.' — 4>.fus-
cus. G. W. — 8. nigricans. G. W. — 9. lituratus. G. W. — 11. rufus.
G. W. — 13. lividus. G. W. — 15, Cantianus. G. W. — 17- thoracicus.
G. W— 18. aterl G. W.— 19. flavilabris. G. W.— 22. teslaceus. G.
W. — 23. pallidus. G. W. — 24. lateralis. G. W. — 28. melanurus.
G. W.
cccxviii. Malthinus. — 4. fasciatus. G. W. — 7. immaculatus. G. W. —

12. minimus'! G. W. — 15. brevicollis. G. W. and Lul worth,
cccxix. Malachius. — 1. ceneus. G. W., &c. — 2. bipustulatus. G. W., &c.

3. viridis. Portland, Charmouth — 12. fasciatus. G. W., Parley.
cccxx. Dasytes. — 2. flavipes. G. W. — 4. ceneus ? G. W. — 5. cceruleus.

Portland, Charmouth. — 10. impressus. G. W.
cccxxi. Tillus. — 1. elongatus. Blandford, on a Currant bush.
cccxxii. Opilus. — 1. mollis. Sherborne, Mr. Hey.
cccxxiii. Thanasimus. — 1. formicarius. G. W., on a Fir trunk,
cccxxv. Necrobia. — 3. quadra. G. W.

COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS OF DORSETSHIRE. 15

cccxxvi. Corynetbs. — 1. violaceus. G. W., Blandford.

cccxxxiv. Scolytub. — 1. destructor. G. W. — Also a black variety with

four red spots. St. Caundle, Mr. Sereell.
cccxxxv. Hylesinus. — 1. crenatu8. Sherborne. — k. fraxini. G. W.,

Parley,
cccxxxvi. Hylurgus. — 1. pinniperda. Holnest. — 8. rkododactylus. Parley

Heath on Furze,
cccxxxvii. Baris — 1. lignarius. G. W.
cccxxxix. Calandra. — 1. granaria. G. W.
cccxl. GymNjEtron. — 1. campanula. Blandford race-course. — 5. tricolor.

G. W. — 6. graminis. Moores river, Parley,
cccxli. Cionus. — 1. scrophularice. G. W. — 2. lerbasci? Q. W. ? — 3.

thapsi f G. W.—5. blattarice. G. W.—6. lolani. G. W.
cccxlii. SphjERULa. — 1. lyihri. G. W.

cccxliii. Orobitis. — 1. cyaneus. Plumby Wood, Mr. Serrell.
cccxli v. Mononvchus. — 1. pseudacori. Near Lyme Regis, Mr. Morris.
cccxlx. Ceutorhynchus. — (There are several un-named species of this genus

in my cabinet.) — 4. quercus. G. W. — 16. litura. G. W. — 19. ericce?

Parley and Knighton Heaths. — 23. pollinarius. G. W. — 34. sisymbrii.

G. W. — 46. horridus. Lul worth and Maiden Castles, and Purbeck. — 48.

castor. Parley. — 56. comari. Parley, Rev. W. Kirby, and J. C.

Dale.
cccxlvii. Cryptorhynchus. — 2. lapathi. Parley Copse and Charmouth.
cccli. Orchestes. — 1. alnu G. W. — 4. quercus. G. W. — 8. ilicis. G. W.

9. fagi. G. W.— 11. salicis. G. W., Parley, &c.
ccclii. Sibinia. — 2. primita. Durdle Door, West Lulworth.
cccliii. Ellescus. — 1. bipunctatus. Bere Wood.

cccliv. Tychius. — 6. picirostris ? Parley ? — 9. venustus. G. W., Parley,
cccclv. Balaninus. — 1. nucum. Elsington Wood, Holts. — 2. glandium.

Parley Copse, Cranborne Chace.
ccclvii. Grypidius. — 1. equiseti. G. W.
ccclx. Dorytomus. — 3. tremulcE. G. W.
ccclxii. Hypera. — 3. punctata. G. W. — 9. arator. G. W. — 20. rumicis.

G. W. — 21. nigrirostris. G. W.
ccclxvi. Molytes. — 2. Anglicanus. Charmouth. — 3. punctatus. G. W.
ccclxvii. — Hylobius. — 1. abietis. G. W., Lulworth, Parley, &c.
ccclxix. Alophus. — 1. triguttatus. Portland,
ccclxx. Barynotus. — 1. mercurialis. G. W., Charmouth. — 3. obscurus.

G. W., &c.

16 COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS OF DORSETSHIRE.

ccclxxi. Liophlceus. — 1. nubilus. G. W., &c.

ccclxxii. Otiorhynchus. — 6. rugifrons? Portland, Lulworth. — 10. tene-

bricosus. G. W. &c — 12. ater. Portland Ferry. — 14. piceus. G. W.
ccclxxiv. Thylacites. — 4. geminatus. Portland and Maiden Castle. — 5.

coryli. G. W. — 7. obesus! Parley. — 10. nigricans! Parley. — 13. chce-

tophorus ? Parley and Knighton Heath,
ccclxxiv. Sitona. — 8. tibialis ? G. W. — 18. fusca. Portland Ferry,
ccclxxvi. Polydrusus. — 4. cervinus. Bere Wood. — 10. undatus, Bere

"Wood. — oblongus. G. W., &c.
ccclxxvii. Phyllobius. — 1. pyri. Parley. — 2. ccssius. G. W. — 3. alneti.

G. W. — 5. argentatus. G. W. — 6. mali. G. W. — 8. uniformis. G. W.

— 9. albidus? Parley,
ccclxxviii. Tanymecus. — 1. palliatus. G. W., Charmouth.
ccclxxix. Cleonus. — 2. nebulosus. Parley Heath. — 4. sulcirostris. Port-
land, Lewell.
ccclxxxi. Larinus. — 2. planus. G. W.
ccclxxxii. Rhinocyllus. — 1. thaumaturgits. Portland.
ccclxxxi v. Apion. — 18. vernale. Lulworth. — 19. rufirostre. G. W. — 28.

cestioum. G. W. — 31. frumentar turn. G. W. & Parley. — 32. hcema-

todes. Knighton and Parley Heaths. — 60. ononis. Near Weymouth. —

pundifrons ? Parley. — 70. genistce. Newland Common and Parley. —

72. ulicis. G. W. and Parley,
ccclxxxv. Rhynchites. — 1. minutus. Parley Copse. — 5. cequatus. G.W.

— 7. betulce. G. W., Portland, Bere Wood. — 9. alliarice. G. W. — 7.

10. angustatus. Parley Copse, Bere Wood, Hook's Wood.
ccclxxxvi. Deporaus. — 1. betulcv. Bere and Elsington Woods, and Parley

Copse.
ccclxxxviii. Apoderus. — 1. avellancr. G. W., Cranborne Chace.
cccxc. Bruchus. — 2. granarius. G. W. — 9. cisti. G. W., Hodd Hill.
cccxcii. Platyrhinus. — 3. latirostris. Sherborne Park, Mr. Farnshaw.
cccxciii. Anthribus. — 1. albinus. Gussage, Mr. Ingpen.
cccxcv. Salpingus. — 1. ruficollis? Parley? — 2. virid/pennis ? G. W.,

Parley,
cccxcvi. Sph^eriestes. — 2. *t-pustulatus ? Parley ?
cccxcvii. Trogosita. — 1. Maurilannica. Blandford.
cccc. Prionus. — 1. coriarius. Parley,
ccccii. Cerambyx — 1. moschatus. Wolveton.

ccccvi. Pogonocherus. — 2. nebulosus. G. W. — 4. hispidus. G. W.
ccccviii. Saperda. — 7. cglindrica. Manston. — 9. prceusta.

COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS OF DORSETSHIRE. 17

ccccix. Callidium. — 7. alni. Blandford, Parley.

ccccx. Clytus. — 3. arietis. G. W., &c.

ccccxi. Obrium. — 2. minutum. Dorchester, Blandford.

ccccxiii. Rhagium. — 2. inquisitor. G. W., Parley. — 3. bifasciatum. G.

W., Parley,
ccccxiv. Toxotus. — 1. meridianu8. — 2. chrysogaster. G. W., Parley,
ccccxv. Leptuba. — 1. elongata. G. W., Parley, &c. — 3. 4>-fasciata. Par-
ley Copse. — 9. nigra. Parley and Bear Wood. — 10. melanura. G. W.
14. femorata. — 16. ruficornis. G. W., &c. — livida. Parley Copse and

Charmouth.
ccccxvii. Donacia. — 1. crassipes. Parley, by Moore's river. — 4. angustata ?

Parley. — 6. lemnce. Parley. — 7. dentipes. Parley and Wareham. —

8. sagittarice. Parley, Wareham, Middlemarsh. — 10. obscura? Parley.

12. impressa? Parley. — 13. sericea. G. W., &c. — 14. micans?

G. W.? — 17- menyanthedis. Wareham and P. town. — 18. simplex,

Parley, Wareham. — 19. linearis^ Parley, Wareham, &c. — 20. typhce,

Parley,
ccccxx. Crioceris. — 3. puncticollis. G. W. — 4. cyanella. G. W. — 5. ob-
scura. Middlemarsh. — 6. melanopa. G. W., Parley. — 7. asparagi,

Sherborne. — subspinosa. Caundle Holts, Mr. Serrell.
ccccxxii. Cassida. — 1. equestris. P- town — 3. rubiginosa. G- W., &c. —

4. murrea, G. W., &c. — 5. vitlata. Parley Heath, Thomas Vine. — 6.

vibex. G. W. ; Plumley Wood, Mr. Serrell. — 9. obsoleta. G. W. —

12. viridula. Parley. — 17- Anglica. G. W.
ccccxxiv. Galeruca. — 1. tanaceti. G. W., &c. — 2. rustica. Plumley

Wood, Mr. Serrell. — 3. cratcegi. G. W., Parley, &c. — 4. viburni.

Middlemarsh and Plumley Woods. — 4. caprece. G. W., Parley. — 7.

nymphece. Stinsford? Parley. — 9. calmariensis. Stinsford. — 10. line-

ola ? Parley. — 12. tenella. G. W., Parley, Charmouth.
ccccxxv. Adimonia. — 2. kalensis. Maiden Castle, Lulworth, Knighton

Heath, &c.
ccccxxvi. Luperus. — 1. rvfipes. Parley Copse and Elsington Wood. — 2.

jtavipes. Parley Copse and Elsington Wood. — 3. brassicce. Parley

Copse, Elsington Wood, G. W., Charmouth.
ccccxxvii. Altica. — 1. antennata. Maiden Castle. — 3. nemorum. G. W.,

&c— 6. lepidii? G. W.— 10. ^-pustulata. G. W., Parley.— 16.

pseudacori. G. W.. — 38. pusilla 1 Maiden Castle. — 47. anchusce. G. W.
ccccxxviii. Macrocnema. — 2. hyoscyami. G. W., &c. — 2b. unimaculata.

Poole, Mr. Curtis. — rufipes. G. W. — helxines. G. W. — cyanea?

Parley? — oleracea. Parley, Elsington Wood, &c. — emcee. — Stinsford

VOL. III. — NO. XVI. D

18 COLEOPTEROUS INSECTS OF DORSETSHIRE.

and Swanage. — 28. centaur ece. G. W., &c. — 30. orbiculata. G. W.
— 33. mercurialis. G. W. — 36. picina. G. W. — 37. concinna. Par-
le &c. — Matthewsii. G. W.
ccccxxxi. Cryptockphalus. — 4. sericeus. Portland, Charmouth. — 7- bipus-
tulatus. Near Parley Copse, and Knighton Heath. — 8. lineola. Parley,
Charmouth. — 10. morcei. Charmouth, Mr. Morris ; G. W. — 12. flavi-
labris. Bear Wood, near Holt Forest. — 16. labiatus. Parley, Bear
Wood, and Elsington Wood. — 19. pusillus. Portland and Parley. — Var.
0 ? G. W., Hook's Wood.— Var. y ? Parley Copse.}
ccccxxxii. Helodes. — 1. phellandrii. G. W., &c. — 2. beccabungce. G W.,

&c.
ccccxxxiii. Chrvsomela. — 1. marginella. G. W., &c — 2. unicolor. El-
sington Wood. — 3. vitellines. G. W. — 5. betulce. G. W. — 6. tumidula.
G. W. — 9. aucta. G. W., Elsington Wood. — 10. polygoni. G. W.,
Elsington Wood. — 11. rapkani. Stinsford. — 16. tremulce. G. W. — 17.
populi. G. W. — 18. polita. G. W. — 19. staphylcea. G. W. and Char-
mouth.— 20. Banksii. Parley. — 21- lamina. Sherborne, Mr. Morris.
24. sanguinolenta, Sherborne Park, Messrs. Morris and Cattley. — 29.
hyperici. Knighton Heath. — 30. geminata. G. W. — 31. varians.
Stinsford. — 32. litura. G. W., Parley, Charmouth. — 44. goetlingensis.
Badbury Rings, Charmouth and Sherborne. 45. kcemoptera. Portland,
Charmouth, G. W., and Batcomb Hill,
ccccxxxiv. Tim arch a. — 1. tenebricosa. G. W., &c. — 2. coriaria. Cerne

and Mintern Hills, Parley and Portland,
ccccxxxvi. Scymnus. — 12. litura. G. W.
ccccxxxvii. Cacicula. — pectoralis. G. W., Sewell, Parley,
ccccxxxxiii. Coccinella. — 5. hieroglyphica. Sewell plantation. — 8. hume-
ralis. G. W. — 9. dispar. — 10. conglomerates. G. W., Parley. — 12.
variabilis. G. W., &c. — 14. 12-punctata. Parley. — 16. 7-punctata.
G. W. — 18. oblongo-guttata. Parley. — 19. 16-guttata. Sherborne,
Mr. Key. — 22. 14-guttata. Parley and Blandford. — 23. globosa. Par-
ley, G. W. — lateralis. Winfrith, by Marley Wood,
ccccxxxix. Chilocorus. — 1. bipustulatus. G. W., Parley. — 2. renipus-

tulatus. Elsington Wood. — 4. 4>-verrucatus. G. W., Elsington Wood.
ccccxl. Endomychus. — 1. coccineus. Horton Firs, and Sherborne.
Glanville's Wootton, Dorsetshire,
August 9, 1837.

10

SOME ACCOUNT OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS ON ENTOMOLOGY.

By Peter Rylands, Esq.
A volume, as Mr. Neville Wood justly remarks, would be necessary to
contain satisfactory notices of all the works which have been published on Ento-
mology. This, however, does not appear requisite, and probably a chapter
devoted to a brief retrospect of a few of the more important, will be of the desired
use to the student.

For a long period after the time of Aristotle, whose labours have already
been sufficiently commented upon (Vol. II., p. 463), Entomology shared the
neglect with which other branches of Natural History were treated. Of the
authors who contributed to its partial revival in the sixteenth, and commence-
ment of the seventeenth century, Freuzius, Mouffat, Jonston, Aldrovan-
dus, and Goedart may be mentioned — their works are now only valuable as
curiosities. There was one, however, at this early period, zealously engaged in
prosecuting the same study, the result of whose labours remains of real worth at
the present day. This was the celebrated John Swammerdam, whose Biblia
Naturai appeared in 1728, several years after its author's death. An English
translation by Floyd was published in 1758, and remains a standard authority.
Cotemporary with Swammerdam were Rhedi, Borel, Bononio, Bonanni, and
Joblot, who also directed their attention to the physiology of insects, but their
works, although once valuable, may now be dispensed with.

In the early part of the eighteenth century Entomology continued to excite the
attention of philosophers, as between the years 1700 and 1730 various works
devoted to it were written by Albin, Ray, Willughby, Petiver, Bradley,.
Valisnieri, and others. None of these, although once much esteemed, are now
regarded as authorities.

We have now arrived at the commencement of an important era in the his-
tory of the science, caused by the publication, in 1735, of the Sy sterna Natures.
of Linnaeus, which is familiar to all, and therefore needs no comment here''
especially as it is noticed in Mr. Wood's" paper ; to the observations of that gen-
tleman, I would only add my conviction that much of the difficulty experienced
by students, in attaining a knowledge of modern classifications, would be removed
if previous to commencing the study ot them, that of the great Swede was per-
fectly understood, — and an acquaintance with it by a little assiduity and per-
severance may soon be obtained. Rcesel, Edwards, Reaumur, Drury, Sul-
zer, Sepp, Scopoli, and De Geer, followed the example of Linnaeus, by pub-
lishing works on the science which he had so greatly benefitted. Many of these
remain at the present time standard authorities. Me moires pour servir a I'His-

2c

20 ENTOMOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.

toire des Insectes (6 vols. Paris, 1742), by Reaumur, contains much that is
interesting, and will richly repay perusal. Sefp on the I?isects of the Nether-
lands (3 vols. 4to., Amsterdam, 1762), Scopoli's Entomologica Carniolica (Vin-
dobonise : 1763), Dbury's Illustrations of Natural History (3 vols. 4to., Lon-
don : 1772), and De Geeb's Histoire des Insectes (7 vols. 4to., Stockholm,
1752), although not absolutely necessary, are valuable for reference.

During the year 1775 the celebrated Fabricius published the first edition of
his Systema Entomologice (1 vol. 8vo. Fleusburgi, et Lipsiae), which was followed
by his Species Insectorum (2 vols. 8vo. Hamburgh, 1781), his Genera Insect-
orum (Kilonii, 1776), Mantissa Insectorum (2 vols. Hafniae, 1781), Philoso-
phies Entomologice (1778), Systema Eleutheratorum (2 vols. 1801), Syst. Pieza-
torum (1804), and his Syst. Antliatorum : all may be consulted with advantage.
Shortly after the publication of Systema Entomologice, Olivieb's Histoire Natu-
relle des Insectes appeared in Paris, which, from the beauty of the plates, and
the accuracy of the descriptions it contains, will always be considered a valuable
addition to the library of an entomologist.

In 1778 Moses Habbis published a beautiful work entitled " The Aurelian ;
or, Natural History of British Moths and Butterflies ;" and about the same time
appeared Cbamfb's Figures of Exotic Lepidoptera, and Roj:meb's " Genera Lin-
ncei et Fabricii llustrata," which are still considered of value. Of the works
published at this period, Smith and Abbott's Insects of Georgia (London : 1797),
Ebnst's Papillons d'Europe (8 vols. Paris : 1793), Hubneb's European Le-
pidoptera (2 vols. Augsburg : 1796, &c), and Espeb's work on the same sub-
ject (5 vols. Erlangen : 1777, &c), are truly excellent, but too expensive for the
majority of students. The same may be said respecting Donovan's Natural His-
tory of British Insects, in 16 vols. (London: 1798, &c), but his General Illus-
trations of Entomology (3 vols. London : 1805), may easily be dispensed with.

It will now be necessary to take a brief glance at some of the works which
have been published during the present century. Kibby and Spence's invalu-
able Introduction to Entomology (4 vols. 8vo. London: 1826, &c), it is scarcely
necessary to remark, ought to be attentively perused — and that more than once
— by all who desire a good elementary knowledge of the science. Dr. Bubmeis-
teb's Manual of Entomology (a translation of which appeared in 1836), also forms
an interesting and useful introduction to the science, although it is necessary to
caution the student against using the loose, defective system of nomenclature
which sullies its pages. Samouelle's Entomologist's Useful Compendium de-
serves its title, as it contains much that cannot fail to be useful to the reader.

Cubtis's British Entomology, aud Stephens's Illustrations, are invaluable,
and if possessed will render the purchase of Rennie's Conspectus of British
Moths and Butterflies unnecessary. The other works by this author, although

ENTOMOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. 21

calculated to diffuse a superficial knowledge of, and perhaps excite a taste for,
Entomology, are of scarcely any use to those who have attentively perused the
elementary works above mentioned.

Captain Thomas Brown's Book of Butterflies and Moths (London : 1832), is a
catch-penny compilation, illustrated with plates which perhaps might have satis-
fied the entomologists of the seventeenth century, but to those of the present
appear remarkable alone for their inferiority. Of a very different character are
the beautiful and interesting volumes of Sir W. Jardine's Naturalist's Library
devoted to insects ; their surprisingly low price places them within the reach of
all interested in the science ; need it be added that all will do well to procure
them.

The late edition, by Griffiths and others, of Cuvier's Insecta (2 vols. Lon-
don : Whittaker and Co.), although of little use for the determination of species,
contains, under the supplements to the orders, much that is valuable, and may
be perused with advantage.

The utility of the Guide to an Arrangement of British Insects, by Mr. Cur-
tis, has been fully shewn at p. 336 of the 2nd Vol. of The Naturalist; why is
the similar Catalogue of Stephens, the first part of which appeared in 1834,
suffered to remain in a state of incompletion ?

During the present year, the fourth part (containing the Insects) of Fauna
Boreali- Americana, by Mr. Kirby, has been published ; not having seen it, I
am unable to speak to its merits, but doubt not, from the known talents of the
author, that it will form a valuable addition to our entomological literature.
This brings my brief and necessarily very imperfect retrospect of works pub-
lished on Entomology to a close. It ought perhaps to be remarked that several
important works which illustrate the study of insects, in connexion with the
other classes of the animal kingdom, have been omitted in this summary, as
they are sufficiently noticed in Mr. Neville Wood's excellent paper on Zoolo-
gical Literature, which has been previously referred to. I conclude by expressing
a desire that this paper — imperfect as it is — will answer the end for which its
compilation was requested, and has been undertaken.
Bewsey House, near Warrington,
Dec. 4, 1837.

22

DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF PLANTS.

Article I.

By Mb. T. B. Hall.

According to the request of Mr. Edwin Lees, at Vol. II., p. 420, of The
Naturalist, I send you a list of the derivations of the names of our British
plants; I prepared it for my own use previous to undertaking the study of
Botany, and have since found it very useful, as it contributed much to fix the
names in my memory. I was not aware, at the time that I took so much pains
in collecting the derivations from various old works, that Sir W. J. Hooker had
given them in his valuable work, the British Flora, but as that may not be in
the hands of many of your readers, I trust these derivations, imperfect as they
may be found, will prove acceptable. The remarks that I added at the time
were principally from Sir J. E. Smith's English Flora, and the works from which
I extracted the derivations ; but from having access to various botanical works,
I am enabled to add-eonsiderably to them, and trust that they will not be found
altogether uninteresting. To such as are well acquainted with Botany they may
perhaps be looked upon as trifling,* but to those who are accustomed to look
upon Botany as a dry study, these casual remarks may perhaps be the means
of leading them to reconsider their verdict. I have made such additions from
Sir "W. J. Hooker's British Flora as will I think make the derivations tolerably
complete ; but should there be any deficiencies, perhaps some of your corres-
pondents will supply them, and correct any that may be wrong or misapplied.

If you deem them worthy of a place in your valuable magazine, I shall be
happy to send you a continuation, either with or without the remarks, as you
may consider best. It gives me great pleasure to revert to the period when
I first compiled it, in conjunction and with the assistance of a friend who was at
that time enthusiastically fond of Botany, and to whom I am almost entirely
indebted for what little knowledge I possess of that study.

Acer. — From acer, sharp or hard, on account of the sharpness of its juice
and hardness of the wood. It is the badge of the clan Oliphant.

Acer campestre, Common Maple. — This was formerly the principal wood for
all kinds of cabinet work, and, according to Evelyn, the knobs of ancient trees
affording beautiful and richly- variegated specimens were collected by the curious
at high prices. When beautifully veined or spotted, it was much prized by the

* Were this the case, it is not likely that Mr. Lees would have made the request. We more-
over positively know that many good naturalists are ignorant of the signification of the terms they
daily employ. — En.

DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF PLANTS. 23

Romans, and of such were composed the celebrated Tigrine and Pantherine tables ;
of which some particular specimens, as those of Cicero, Asinius Gallus, King
Juba, and the Mauritanian Ptolemy, are said to have been worth nearly their
weight in gold. But in modern times it has been in a great degree superseded
by mahogany. At that remote era it was deemed a suitable material for pur-
poses of state, and thus Virgil —

" A maple throne rais'd higher from the ground
Receiv'd the Trojan chief."

Pliny eulogizes the knobs and excrescences, the brusca and mollusca of this
tree, which often represented, in their natural contortions, birds, beasts, &c, as
does Ovid the clouded or mottled Maple. When allowed to grow to timber, it
makes excellent gun-stocks, and screws for cider-presses. The Maple, though in
our time rarely permitted to rise higher than brush- wood, has been known to exist
more than two centuries : at Knowle, in Kent, the Duke of Dorset's seat, one
measures twelve to fourteen feet in growth. The wood is much used for turning
in the lathe, and vessels may be thus produced so thin as to transmit light.
The foliage assumes a remarkably rich and mellow autumnal tint, of the successive
variations of which an elaborate description may be found in the Journal of a
Naturalist ; where also it is remarked that Maple is useful in hedges, not from
the opposition it affords, but by reason of its very quick growth from the stole
after it has been cut, whence it makes a fence in a shorter time than most of its
companions ; and when fire-wood is an object, it soon becomes sufficiently large
for that purpose. The leaves often in summer exhibit a white mouldy aspect,
which appears to be a mere exudation.* The younger foliage, in spring, is beset
with numerous red-coloured spiculse, conjectured by the above writer to be
occasioned by the puncture of some insect, probably for the formation of a nidus
for its young. A thin slice of the singularly rugged young shoot, cut through
horizontally, presents a beautiful and curious object in the microscope (Journ.
Nat, pi. 4, fig. 1.), exhibiting the different channels and variously-formed tubes
through which the sap flows, and the air circulates for the supply of all the
diversified requirements of the plant ; " it is good and delightful," adds the author
of the same work, " to contemplate the wonderful mechanism that has been
devised by the Almighty Architect, for the sustenance and particular necessities
of the simple Maple ; which naturally leads one to consider that, if He has so

* Mr. W. Baxter, in his Flowering Plants, observes hat tthis is probably occasioned by the
interwoven filaments of Erysiphe bicornes, a minute parasitical fungus, the receptacles of which
he finds very commonly interspersed amongst these filaments on the leaves of the Maple in the
neighbourhood of Oxford.

24 DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF PLANTS.

regarded such humble objects, how much more has He accounted worthy of His
beneficence the more highly-destined orders of His creation !"

To the admirers of the picturesque, to the lovers of human nature imbued
with its most amiable attributes, the Maple has acquired additional interest,
since beneath its shade, in Boldre Church-yard, are deposited the remains of the
pious Gilpin. There rests from his useful labours the exemplary parish priest,
and the able illustrator of the circumjacent-scenery.

Acer pseudo-platanus, Greater Maple, Mock Plane-tree, Sycamore. — This
tree flourishes best in open places and sandy grounds ; but will thrive very well
in richer soil. It grows quick — is easily transplanted — bears cropping — and grass
flourishes under its shade. It is said to grow better near the sea than in any
other situation, and that a plantation of these trees at fifty feet asunder, with
three Sea Sallow-thorns between every two of them, will make a fence sufficient
to defend the herbage of the country from the spray of the sea (Gent. Mac/., 1757,
p. 252.). The wood is soft and very white. The turners form it into bowls,
trenchers, &c. (the use of which is frequently mentioned by both ancient and
modern poets). If a hole is bored into the body of the tree when the sap rises
in spring, it discharges a considerable quantity of sweetish watery liquor, which
is used in making wines, and affords a fine white sugar (though the produce is
far less abundant than that from the North American Acer saccharinum, the
proper Sugar Maple), the art of extracting which was known to the aboriginal
tribes; and som i quantity has been for many years sent to France to be refined.
The polen appears globular in the microscope, but, if touched with moisture,
these globules burst open with four valves which assume the form of a cross.
Scarabceus melolontha feeds upon the leaves. The seed of the Sycamore affords a
pleasing instance of the care that Nature takes for the preservation of her infant
germs. In the seed (soaked in warm water) we shall find the radicle and long
radical leaves of the future plant folded up in an extraordinary manner, with the
minute leaves that are to succeed them folded in their bosom ; these radical leaves
are beautifully green, a circumstance not to be expected, as all light is excluded
by three coatings, and a woolly wrap that invests them. The bounty and
wisdom of Providence in nothing is more remarkably manifest than in the intel-
ligence displayed, and the provision appointed, for the young of organized and
inanimate nature. The egg of a bird or insect, or the seed of a plant, should
alone humble to the dust the arrogance of man. — Nat. Diary, T. T. 1824.

The Sycamore would appear to have been originally an exotic, gradually
introduced into Britain for ornament and shade. Tukner and Evelyn deny
its being indigenous, and Parkinson in 1640 says, "It is no where found wild
or natural in our land that I can learn, but only planted in orchards or walks
for shadowe's sake." It was little known in England so late as the seventeenth

DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF PLANTS. 25

century. Chaucer speaks of it as a rare exotic in the fourteenth century ; and
Gerard in 1597, as ** a stranger in England, which groweth only in the walkes
and places of pleasure of noblemen." It makes a beautiful appearance in bloom
(in May), and affords much pabulum for Bees, smelling strongly of honey.
Gilpin observes, "It affords an impenetrable shade, and often receives well
contrasted masses of light. Its bark has not the furrowed roughness of the
Oak ; but it has a species of roughness very picturesque. In itself it is smooth ;
but it peels off in large flakes like the Planes (to which in other respects it bears
a near alliance), leaving patches of different lines, seams, and cracks, which are
often picturesque." It is highly ornamental in rural scenery, in spring, by the
delicate green of its luxuriant foliage, and in autumn, when

" No tree of all the grove but has its charms ;
Though each its hue peculiar;

* * * * nor unnoted pass

The Sycamore, capricious in attire,

Now green, now tawny, and ere Autumn yet

Have changed the woods, in scarlet honours bright."

Among the larger specimens of British growth Strutt describes one at Cobham
Park, which measures twenty-six feet in circumference at the ground, and ninety-
four in height ; also one at Bishopton, Renfrewshire, twenty feet in growth, and
sixty feet in height. To secure varieties (the principal of which is the striped)
for pleasure grounds, budding, grafting, and inarching are practised : and it may
be here observed, that variegated plants in general should be planted in poor
hungry soil, to encourage the disease which occasions these beautiful stripes,
thus causing them to become more distinct. But these fancy trees, when con-
firmed, show their peculiarities to more advantage in a good soil.

Achillea (a^/XX£<«). — From Achilles, who is said to have cured Telephus
with it.

Achillea ptarmica, Sneeze-wort Yarrow, or Goose-tongue. — The whole plant,
and especially the root, has a pungent, biting taste, and when chewed in the
mouth, like Pellitory of Spain (for which it is sometimes sold in the shops), it
promotes a flow of saliva, and is found serviceable in the cure of the tooth-
ache. In spring the young tender shoots are put into salads to correct
the coldness of other herbs. The dried powder of the leaves snuffed up the
nostrils excites sneezing ; hence it has acquired the name of Sneeze-wort. Horses,
Cows, Goats, Swine, and Sheep eat it ; to the latter it is particularly acceptable.
A variety with double flowers is not uncommon in gardens, where it is known
by the name of Double Ptarmica, or Bachelors' Buttons, but it shouldbe admitted
with caution, the creeping roots extending more rapidly than may be desirable.

vol. III. — NO. XVI. e

2G CORRESPONDENCE.

Achillea millefolium, Common Yarrow or Milfoil, Thousand-leaved Grass. —
The flowers yield an essential oil. The leaves and flowering heads are celebrated
by the Materia Medica writers as stimulant and stomachic in infusion, but are
little attended to at present. The leaf loosely rolled together, and put up the
nostrils, causes, by an external blow of the finger, a bleeding at the nose, more
or less copious, according to the state of 'the vessels within ; whence the vulgar
name Nose-bleed. Sheep and Swine eat it. Horses, Cows, and Goats are not
fond of it. Though the productive and nutrient properties of Yarrow are inferior
to those of other plants equally adapted to light soils, Mr. Sinclair considers
it an indispensable ingredient of the most fattening and healthy pastures, in
which he suspects it may be destitute of sanative effects. We are assured by
W. P. Taunton, Esq., in Hort. Gram., that the prevalence of this plant indicates
a siliceous soil. It is sometimes used in the north of Europe as a substitute for
Hops, and also supposed to increase the inebriating quality of malt-liquor.
Hooker states that it is highly astringent, and that the Highlanders are said to
make an ointment of it, which dries and heals wounds.

Achillea tomentosa. — The whole herb, as well as the flower, has an ^ aromatic
scent when rubbed. It serves to decorate rock-work in gardens, but will not
bear wet or shade.

Woodside, near Liverpool,
Dec. 4, 1837.

( To be continued.)

CORRESPONDENCE.

Queries and Notes respecting Certain Plants.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Dear Sir, — As I consider your magazine a medium for receiving information
as well as for communicating the same, perhaps some of your correspondents
will inform me whether there is such a plant as Malope grandiflora in Loudon's
Hertus Britannicus. I have the last edition, but cannot find it ; or whether
there is such a species or not. I have a dried specimen of another plant which
I cannot find in Loudon's Catalogue, It is mentioned in the catalogue of garden
flowers in Howitt's Book of the Seasons under the name of Nigetta Romana,
but I can find neither it nor a synonym in Loudon's Hortus Britannicus. I
should also be obliged for information respecting Alyssum odorata and An-

CORRESPONDENCE. 27

tirrhinum aryophyllum, whether there are such plants in the catalogue before
mentioned.

In Mr. Watson's New Botanist's Guide, Clematis bitalba is not mentioned
as occurring in Essex, but when I visited that county in August I met with it
very plentifully in all the hedges about Coggeshall, where I gathered Dipsacus
pilosus in great abundance from the locality mentioned in the Guide ; it was
also plentiful in Little Coggeshall, on the road to Fielvedon. I found Antirrhinum
minus very abundant in corn-fields on the estate of Lord Western, and noticed
a single specimen of another species which I took to be Antirrhinum spurium.
Plantago media was very common about Coggeshall, which I merely mention to
record its entire absence from the Liverpool Flora. At Maldon, among the salt
marsh plants common to the muddy inlets of the Mersey, such as Statice armeria
and S. limonium, Chenopodium maritimum, &c, I found Salsolafruticosa, very
abundant, near the baths, on the banks of the reservoirs which are made to
collect the salt water at high tides. I likewise noticed Clinopodium vulgare
very abundant every where by the road-sides. It also occurs, but not plenti-
fully, with us. As I have always considered it a very common plant, I was
surprised to find it included in Watson's Guide, it must therefore be absent
from some counties. I may further mention that I have a specimen of Statice
from Jersey, but without any radical leaves, labelled as S. latifolia. Perhaps
Mr. Babington or some of your correspondents who have visited Jersey will
inform me if that plant has been discovered there.

In Lord Western's Park I noticed a splendid tree, Fagus castanea, in flower.
From the beauty of the flowers and foliage I should think it had a very doubtful
claim to be ranked among our native trees. Carex pseudo-cyperus and Thymus
serpyllum also occurred in the Park. Alopecurus agrestis was very abundant
in all the corn-fields; in this neighbourhood it is of very rare occurrence.
Bryonia dioica, common about Coggeshall, is absent from the Liverpool Flora.
I believe it does not occur nearer than Chester, from the neighbourhood of which
Mr. Tudor, of Bootle, has specimens. Sambucus ebulus occurs in the lane
leading to the Abbey Mills. Sagittaria sagittifolia and Rumex hydrolapathum
are plentiful in the Blackwater river, but rare with us. Arum maculatum and
Daphne laureola are common on hedges about Coggeshall. The former is very
rarely found in the neighbourhood of Liverpool, and the latter most elegant
shrub is not found at all. In the early spring I used always to be delighted to
meet with this shrub ; its graceful mode of growth and its flowering early in the
spring are both of them claims for the regard of the botanist.

I remain, dear Sir,

Yours respectfully,
Woodside, near Liverpool, T. B. Hall.

Nov. 14, 1837- e 2

2K CORRESPONDENCE.

Promiscuous Notes on various Topics.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Respected Friend, — In reply to the query by E. Blyth in your September
number (Vol. II., p. 291), as to the sexes of my specimens of Papilio podalirius,
I may inform him that they appear to be male and female. I may also observe
that I do not know whether the Pterocles are blind at birth or not, and remain
in the nest a considerable time. I certainly should be surprised to find so great
a deviation from the habits of their congeners in that respect. Still, as I have no
opportunity of ascertaining the point, I will not assert that they do or do not,
but must merely say as I did before, that I believe all the Tetraonidce see and
run from their nests at birth.

Notwithstanding the unusual severity of the past spring, and the late appear-
ance of the generality of our spring birds, a single Swallow was shot in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of York on the first of April, which is earlier, with one
exception, than I ever recollect meeting with Swallows myself.

Some months back a Grey Parrot which had been a great favourite, and, as I
understand, one of the greatest talkers of its species, was submitted to my
examination, as its owner suspected its death had been occasioned by poison.
On examination I found that its death was owing to pulmonary consumption.
The lungs were one mass of pus ; and on being placed in water, immediately
sank to the bottom. I believe a very large proportion of the Monkeys brought
to this country die of this complaint ; and one would not be surprised to find
that birds from warm and tropical climates did the same. Still, out of all the
birds I have dissected, amounting to some hundreds, this is the first instance I
have detected of diseased lungs ; and I should like to know whether any of your
correspondents ever met with similar cases. Birds seem in a great measure ex-
empt from the diseases of quadrupeds ; it is very common to find diseased and
carious bones in quadrupeds that have been kept in confinement, the disease
extending over most of the extremities ; but it is very unusual to find a diseased
state of the bones in birds, except in the immediate neighbourhood of an injury.
I have myself only met with a single instance of a bird where bones were gene-
rally diseased. It was that of a^King Vulture which was sent me by the noble
proprietor of the Knowsley aviary [[the Earl of Derby. — Ed.], and the disease
appeared to have its origin in a broken wing.

Since I sent my paper on the Rasorial birds (Vol. II., p. 57) Swainson's
second volume On the Classification of Birds has made its appearance. There
the Columbidce are also classed in the Rasores. This induced me to read to a
club of some of the members of our Philosophical Society a paper " On the Qui-
nary System, as carried out by modern ornithologists in the Rasorial order of

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM. 20

birds." It necessarily is very similar to my former paper, but takes a wider
view of the subject. If you would like to insert it, I may perhaps forward it
for that purpose. It is applied more particularly to Swainson's views and
statements.

I am, respectfully, thy friend,

Thomas Alus.
York, Uth Mo. 4, 1837.

£We think we may safely state that we shall at all times be most happy to
insert any communications from the pen of Mr. Allis ; and we will gladly re-
ceive his proposed paper, having never yet met with anything approaching a
philosophical refutation of the Quinary system. — Ed.]

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

On Ornithological Nomenclature.

To the Editor of The Naturalist.

Sir, — I cannot help thinking that my friend Mr. Morris has been unneces-
sarily severe in his animadversions on me and on my paper, which you did me
the honour of inserting in your September number (Vol. II., p. 302). I must
acknowledge that I was rather surprised at the nature and manner of his observ-
ations ; in short, good Mr. Editor, obstupui, steteruntque comse^ et voxfaucibus
hcBsit. His wit is so brilliant, and the edge of his satire so keen, that I was
quite dazzled by the bright coruscations of the one, and I fear that it will be
useless for me to attempt to ward off the fell swoops of the other. I hope you
will in fairness allow me to say a few words in reply, not in a spirit of revenge
and retaliation, but with the utmost good nature and good feeling towards him.
I begin by replying to his question — " whether I have ever read or seen Cuvier's
Regne Animal" that I am as little likely to quote works which I have never
seen, as himself, or any other of your correspondents. He thinks it may be as
well in some cases to mention the sources from which information has been
derived. I will do so. I have never set myself up as an oracle in any depart-
ment of Natural History, but I truly feel myself to be, what I stated in my
paper, viz., " a very humble student of the delightful Book of Nature," and am
always thankful for any information which I may obtain, even from the hum-
blest source, and it gives me pleasure to be enabled to communicate any to
others. What little knowledge of Ornithology I actually possess, I have obtained
by a diligent perusal of the Regne Animal of Cuvier (an excellent English

30 CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

translation of which I have in my possession), Selby's Ornithological Illustra-
tions, Montagu's Ornithological Dictionary, and though last not least, the British
Birds of that prince of xylographers, Thomas Bewick. I have also read a
multitude of papers in the Zoological and other Journals by Swainson, Vigors'
Gould, &c, and have examined specimens of nearly all our British birds in
various collections, public and private, provincial and metropolitan ; in Mr.
Morris's among the rest, to which I have had the pleasure of contributing some
specimens, and hope still to be enabled to do so.

I did not state that Cuvier had actually laid it down as a. rule, that generic
names should invariably be of Greek, and specific ones of Latin origin ; but I
positively affirm that he has acted on it in practice in the great majority of
names throughout his invaluable work, — on reference to which I find the des-
cription of the Nutcracker is headed — " Caryocatactes (Cuv.)" only. It is
true, even to a proverb, that every general rule is liable to exceptions- (except,
of course, Mr. Morris's general rulo as applied to scientific zoological nomen-
clature), and the principal object I had in view in my paper, was to prove that
no such exceptional general rule was necessary, or likely to be generally adopted.
It is easy enough for any one to lay down general rules, but the question is, will
the scientific world take them up, or, as Shakspeare says, " you may call
Spirits from the vasty deep, but will they come when you do call them." If
any applause however is due to the proposal above alluded to, I simply say,
" Palmam qui meruit, ferat" (meaning, of course, Mr. Morris). If any part of
my paper was unintelligible or obscure, I am sorry for it ; my meaning in the
clause to which Mr. Morris has particularly directed your attention is this : that
it ought to be considered equally admissible to give birds, &c, names (both
generic and specific) composed wholly of Greek, or of Latin, or of both, provided
the names themselves are truly appropriate. To illustrate my meaning stil1
more plainly, take, for example, Himanlopus melanopterus (both of Greek
origin ),Falco peregrinus (both Latin), Machetes pug nax (one of each) ; but where
both languages are employed in naming the same individual, that the generic
name should be of Greek and the specific of Latin origin ; Caryocatactes nuci-
fraga, for instance, I consider better than Nucifraga caryocatactes.

Allow me to say a few words, Mr. Editor, on your own critique on my pa-
per.— You blame me for doing what has been done by the most eminent natural-
ists, from the earliest antiquity to the present time ; in short, from Adam to
Aristotle, from Aristotle to Pliny, from Pliny to Linnjeus, from Linn^us
to Cuvier, and from Cuvier to Messrs. Morris, Sweeting, &c, for naming
the Osprey Ichthyaetus piscivorus, because both words carry the same meaning.
What think you of Machetes pug nax (CuviEn),Caryocatactes nucifraga (Nillson),
and Aetus Aquila (Morris) ? and if these Colossi of literature and science are
right, why am I to be considered wrong for doing the same thing ? Will you

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM. 31

be good enough to inform me from what uncivilized quarter of this'terraqueous
globe so opprobrious a name as " Ossifrage," for the White-tailed Erne or Sea
Eagle (Flalicetus albicilla), could have originated ? I certainly never wrote any-
such name, although it appears in my paper.

I hope what I have said will be satisfactory to Mr. Morris, as I can assure
him that I meant nothing personal by saying that the practice of giving generic
names of Greek and specific of Latin origin, did not originate with Mr. Anyone,
as I believe others as well as himself have laid claim to the same thing ;^at all
events I shall not enter into any further controversy on the subject, as it cannot
advance the cause of science, which ought to be the grand object of a scientific
journal ; but I am in hopes of having the pleasure of a personal conference on
these interesting matters with him before Christmas. Sincerely wishing him as
the Proprietor, and yourself as the Editor, of this Journal, every success,

I remain, Sir,

Your most obedient and very humble Servant,
R. H. Sweeting.
Ckarmouth, Dorsetshire,
Nov. 13, 1837.
[[Assuming that the colossi of science must, in our estimation, be right, is
** Degoing tne question." In the instances alluded to by Mr. Sweeting we should
unhesitatingly declare them to be wrong. But be this as it may, we see no just
cause for adopting anything merely because it is the emanation of a great mind,
and without employing our own intellect in the matter. — " Ossifrage " is no
word of our coinage — it is nothing more than Ossifraga anglicised. — Touching
the proprietorship of The Naturalist our correspondent may possibly be mis-
taken.

The publication of some parts of Mr. Morris's criticism of Mr. Sweeting's
letter was an infringement of our usual rules ; but we are sure our readers will
bear us out in the assertion that The Naturalist is, in general, by no means
inclined to be combative or personal. We are bound, in justice to Mr. Sweet-
ing, to insert the preceding epistle, but can admit no further recrimination that
could in any way wound the feelings of the individual against whom it is di-
rected.— Ed.]

Mr. MacGillivray's Articles on Anatomy.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Sir, — In the second volume of The Naturalist, p. 13, there is an admirable
article on the wings of birds, by Mr. MacGillivray, at the end of which
the author promises to continue his papers on the same subject (that of Ana-

32 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

tomy) in future numbers of this journal. My aim in now addressing you is to<
ascertain whethery ou have refused Mr. M.'s articles, or whether that gentleman
has failed to redeem his pledge. I am in hopes that this little hint may induce
him to continue the series if the fault rests with him, or that you will no longer
withhold the communications if you possess them.

I am, Sir,

Your humble Servant,
London, Aug. 12, 1837. A Medical Student.

[We think it little likely that we should ever feel inclined to reject any com-
munications from Mr. MacGillivbay's pen. — Ed.]

PROCEEDINGS OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.

ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON.

The first general meeting of this society for the present Session, was held on
the 3rd of November, at the Society's Rooms, Pall Mall, — N. A. Vigors, Esq.,
M.P., in the chair. — The minutes of the last meeting having been confirmed, the
Secretary proceeded to read the Report, which was highly satisfactory and
unanimously adopted. On the motion of Mr. Macleay, seconded by the Rev.
C. Page, Charles Lucian Bonaparte, Prince of Musignano, Mons. Temminck,
and Mr. Audubon, were elected foreign members of the society.

Mr. Blyth, having been called upon by the chairman, rose and delivered a
conversational lecture on the exquisite adaptation of means to end, exhibited in
a variety of interesting modifications of structure, noticeable in various birds, and
the purport of which had not been previously explained. — He first called atten-
tion to the presence of aigrettes or ear-tufts in the great Snowy Owl, which were
very obviously perceptible in the magnificent specimen before him, so much so
that he was astonished they had never before been remarked by naturalists.
It afforded him more pleasure than surprise to have detected their existence in
this bird, as it beautifully corroborated the views he had long previously enter-
tained and expressed respecting the systematic relations of the genus to which
it belonged. — The announcement of this structure in the bird in question was
received with much interest by all the naturalists present. Mr. Blyth then
proceeded to call attention to a singularity of habit, rather than a peculiarity of
structure, which was practised by the Motmot genus (Prionites), the members
of which — as was well known to all conversant with exotic Ornithology — were

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 33

accustomed to nibble off a small portion of the vane of their long middle tail
feathers, within a short distance of their extremity, leaving the tips barbed and
untouched, as also the entire remainder of their plumage. The same habit was
pointed out as existing in an Indian group of Magpies (Dendrocettce of Gould),
which considerably resembled the Motmot in outward form, and it was suggested
that attention and observation of the two groups, considered relatively, might
possibly elicit the intent of so anomalous a practice. The protuberance on the
beak of the Hornbills furnished the next subject of consideration, which was
descanted on at some length, and attention was called to a similar appendage in
the Ani ( Crotophagti), a South American genus, its presence in both instances
being accompanied by eyelashes, which is of very unusual occurrence among birds,
and which connection argued that the protuberance was not designed for mere
ornament, as some have supposed, but evidently for a direct object, probably to
detach particles of dust, from which the eyelashes would seem intended to protect
the eye. The gull-tufts of the Heron group — a tuft of peculiar unelastic cottony
down, present in those birds — was mentioned as being a structure designed to
protect the breast from water, these birds frequently standing with the bare part
of their legs quite immersed, so that, when they stretch out the neck to seize a
fish, the body was often bent very much forward, and the water would conse-
quently chill the chest, were it not defended by this peculiar structure, which
was quite impervious. Mr. Blyth discussed at considerable length the long-
contested question of the intent of pectinated claws of birds, detailed the various
opinions which had been brought forward on the subject, and argued that no
animal was furnished with express means of ridding itself of its parasitic
annoyance, however it might make use of structures designed for quite another
purpose. He contended that the pectinated claw was for detaching fish scales or
Beetles' claws that had adhered to the sides and corners of the mouth.

Mr. Vigors, M.P., congratulated the Society on the great accession of talent
it had gained, in allusion to the interesting observations which had been made
by Mr. Blyth. — He rejoiced that such a Society had been established, as it
would doubtless lead to inquiries highly interesting to ornithologists. — Matters
in themselves apparently trifling had conduced to the illustration of great and
important results. A hundred times he found that a research after minor
characters, which were calculated to escape the eye of common observation,
carried out truths highly interesting. — The clump of feathers on the head of an
Owl, the claws upon their feet, had led to serious investigations, pointing out the
aim and end of the functions thus developed, and shewing their adaptations to
the great objects of their Creator. The aigrette, for instance, in the modifications
of the greater number of Owls, and the disk of the eye, are peculiarities assigned
to them to direct them in their nocturnal researches for their prey. — He then

vol. in. — NO. XVI. F

34 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

commented on the peculiar features of the Toucan and Nightjar groups, and
pointed out the great analogy that existed between raptorial birds and car-
nivorous quadrupeds. The Vulture preys by its scent, and is furnished with a
fleshy caruncle, which is subservient to its sense of smell. The Falcon secures
its prey by sight, and this organ of vision is accordantly powerful ; the Owl by
hearing, and that bird is equally remarkable for the complicated structure of its
ear, to which the aigrette is designed to collect and confine the sound. — The
Canine and Feline race of quadrupeds, Mr. Vigors remarked, also possessed
similar faculties by which they secured their prey.' — The next analogy alluded to
was that between the bills of the Snipes and Toucans, the former using it for
probing the soft mud, and the latter likewise employing it for probing, but in a
different manner. — The majority of birds which were cohabitants with the
Toucans in the South American forests had elongated pensile nests, suspended
from the extreme branches of trees, beyond the reach of Snakes and Monkeys.
Nature had, however, appointed the Toucans to regulate their number, by pro-
viding them with a bill beautifully adapted for the purpose of inserting in those
nests, and dragging forth the eggs or callow young. — Mr. Vigors then adverted
at some length to Mr. Blyth's observations on the pectinated claws of birds, and
concluded with a eulogium on that gentleman's valuable information, more
particularly as regarded the connection between the eye-lashes and rostral
protuberance of the Hornbills and the Crotopkagce, and requested Mr. Macleay
to communicate his own personal observation on the latter.

Mr. Macleay then rose and remarked it would be presumption in him, after
the interesting discussion which had taken place, to add any observations. — From
his long residence in the West Indies, he had frequent opportunities of studying
the habits of Ani. It is a bird extremely sensitive of cold, and does not live in
captivity, even in that climate, unless kept by a fire ; they usually congregated
in considerable numbers, like the Tit, and thus obtained additional warmth. On
dissecting the bird and closely examining the stomach, he found it contained a
portion of animal food. He considered the eye-lashes protected the sight (in the
manner stated by Mr. Blyth) when passing through the briars. He then called
attention to a highly interesting fact, which he had lately discovered, and which
furnished an exclusive definition to the great order of Insessores, or Perching birds,
allowed on all hands to be a natural group, but which had hitherto baffled the
ingenuity of naturalists to define satisfactorily. The character to which Mr.
Macleay had alluded was one common and peculiar to the Insessorial order, viz.
— that their young are hatched naked or callow.

Mr. Blyth again rose, and statpd that the same character had also occurred
to him, as Mr- Yarrell and many other naturalists were aware, but he pointed
out certain exceptions to exist, as the Caprimidgidcc on the one hand, among

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 35

the Insessores, and the Cormorants on the other, which were hatched quite naked,
not being Insessores. — In the first case, the reason why the Caprimulgidce were
excluded covered with down was sufficiently obvious, when we remember that
these birds were hatched on the bare ground, without any preparation or nest,
in consequence of which no care of the parents could suffice to prevent them
from perishing, were they excluded otherwise. Mr. Vigors thought that the
Caprimulgidce scarcely constituted any exception at all, as they stood at the
extreme limit of the Insessores.

The second General Meeting of this Society for the present session was held at
the rooms on Friday, Dec. 1, Harry Chester, Esq., in the Chair.

The Report of the Council announced that the Hon. W. T. T. Fiennes had
most liberally offered to place in the custody of the Society during his life, and
at his own risk, the whole of his very valuable collection of stuffed birds, 500 speci-
mens, mounted in cases. The Council had accepted this most liberal offer, and
hoped that the collection would shortly be exhibited in the rooms of the society,
where it cannot fail to prove highly valuable, by furnishing it with the means
of promoting efficiently many of its important objects. — Since the last meeting
Viscount Boyne, T. B. Lennard, Esq., Frederick Beckford Long, Esq., the
Rev. John Jennings, and several other members, have been elected. — During
the last month the Council have not been able to obtain any new specimens
for the collection of live birds in St. James's Park. — The society has already a
valuable collection of British Anatidce. — The birds are generally in a very
healthy condition, and the extent of the water on which they are located enables
them to be seen in a natural state. — All the more ordinary Anatidce having been
already procured, the Council are anxious to make exertions for obtaining
additions to their stock of rare and unique specimens, trusting that the support
of the public will enable them to meet the expenses necessary for this purpose. —
Mr. Bartlett made some interesting observations on the various species of
Gulls, and Mr. Blyth on the close affinity of particular species of the Mealy
Linnet, and the meeting adjourned.

MEDICO-BOTANICAL SOCIETY.

Earl Stanhope, Pres., took the chair on Wednesday, Nov. 22. — After the
routine business Prof. Johnson read a desultory paper, regretting that the Society
had not met with the support nor reached the high station it deserved. Though
known and recognized, the labours of the Society were little appreciated by the
larger proportion of the metropolitan literati. Whence is this ? Why is not
the importance of the branch of science the object of their pursuits more felt by
the majority of the men in practice ? Because physicians are too much the

f 2

36 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

slaves of circumstances, journeying in the beaten path, applying remedies by
statute ; not investigating Vegetable Physiology ; because general practitioners
obtaining their chemicals and foreign drugs from Apothecaries' Hall, and their
simpler medicals from Covent-Garden, consider it superfluous to pursue such
investigation, not reflecting on the different properties, and their altered seat, in
the same plant at different times— now in the root, then in the foliage, and then
in the flower and seed ; nor on the temptation of a great demand to substitute
the plant gathered at improper seasons ; and because the compounder feels no
interest, no responsibility attaching to him, the mere trader cares not for such
knowledge. How much, however, do such attainments raise their possessor
above the common members of the profession ! To facilitate the acquirement of
extensive knowledge, how desirable is the division of labour, how advantageous
the co-operation of numbers ! Mr. Johnson called upon the practitioner to
reflect what numbers were rushing to the Temple of Knowledge, now open to all,
with no longer Mystery for porter. What was the object of this Society's in-
vestigation ? Respite from pain and death. — The Chairman coincided with the
learned professor, commented upon the immense advantages of exploring the me-
dicinal qualities of plants, the nature of therapeutic agents ; and mentioned a
few of the numerous and valuable additions to the materia medica by the labours of
the society whose records abound with similar instances. An interesting discus-
sion ensued on the qualities of the different Sennas, as imported from Alexan-
dria, from Tripoli, and from the East Indies, the change in its efficacy by the
mixture of leaves and stalks, &c, in which Drs. Fakr, Macreight, Sigmond,
and others took part.

LINN^EAN SOCIETY.

Nov, 21. — A letter was read from the Duke of Somerset, resigning his ap-
pointment of president, which he has held since the resignation of the Earl of
Derby in 1333. A special meeting was appointed for Saturday, Dec. 2, for the
choice of a successor, who, it is understood, will be Dr. Stanley, Bishop of
Norwich, who, in addition to his other high intellectual acquirements, is well-
versed in the different branches of Natural History. An address of congratu-
lation to her Majesty, with a request that she would become the patroness of the
Society, was also agreed to ; and it is an interesting coincidence, according to
The Atlas, that the anniversary of the Queen is that of the immortal naturalist
after whom this Society is named.

ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS OF CHELTENHAM.

The Zoological Gardens have, within the last six weeks, made rapid progress.
A large portion of the lake has been excavated, and many of the surrounding

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 37

\valk9 and embankments completely formed, and the planting is now being pro-
ceeded with from the entrance up to the proposed conservatories, and on either
side the grand promenade. From what has already been done, and the various
works now in progress, it is evident the committee of management, when called
upon for their report in January, will be able to give such an account of their
stewardship as cannot fail satisfying the subscribers to the undertaking that
there has been no lack of exertions on their part in carrying out the objects pro-
posed by the society. We have just heard with much pleasure that R. Capper,
Esq., has presented the Society with a donation of £20. We hope his example
will be followed by others. — Cheltenham Looker-On.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

The ordinary monthly meeting for general business was held Nov. 2, the Rev.
John Barlow, F.R.S., in the chair. — Mr. Yarrell read the report of the
council, which, on account of there being no meeting in the past month, em-
braced the affairs of the society since June. In the months of July and August
the total amount of receipts was £2,424. 2s. 8d., and of expenditure, £2,025.
The number of persons admitted to the gardens was 55,364, from whom £l,887
lis. was received; and to the museum, 496 persons, from whom £10. 9s. had
been received. In the months of September and October the receipts were
£l,653. 15s. ; the number of visitors to the gardens, 27,463, from whom £l,058
8s. was received, and to the museum, 5GG, the sum received being £9. lis.
Various donations were announced to the menagerie, museum, and library de-
partments, from the Prince of Musignano, Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg,
Mr. Audubon, Major Campbell, &c. ; and the present stock in hand at the
menagerie was stated as 1,032; or 284 mammalia, 725 birds, and 23 reptiles,
being 12 less than at the last report. No works are at present in progress. Mr.
Vigors, M.P., having questioned the secretary as to the great deficiency in the
Garden receipts over the corresponding period of last year, and being assured by
him that they were short by no less a sum than £3,880, entered into his views
as to providing some great additional objects of attraction by which the receipts
might be maintained. For this purpose he suggested the carrying into execution
the erection of a suspension-bridge, to communicate with the grounds of the
society on the opposite side of the Regent's Canal, and the judicious erection of
more extensive buildings, similar to those of other establishments in the coun-
try. The Chairman announced that the council had, the day previous, ap-
pointed a special committee on the subject of the deficiency in the Garden
receipts. With regard to the introduction of new animals, a spirited attempt
was being made to introduce two living Hippotami into the collection, and they
had received a promise of a material addition to their number of Lions. Mr.

38 EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

Vigors and other members having expressed their satisfaction at the inten-
tions of the council, and several new members having been elected and
proposed, the meeting adjourned.

The ordinary meeting was held Nov. 14, Mr. T.Bell, F.R.S., in the chair. —
Prince Lucien Bonapabte read a paper on his new arrangement of fishes, esta-
blished on characters which he considered preferable to the ordinary distinctions,
arranging them in three great classes according to the form of the branchiae, in
five sub-divisions and twelve orders. Mr. Gray made some observations on the
different species of Sorex (Shrews), premising them with some remarks on the
importance of paying attention to the external characters of mammalia, which he
considered would form better objects of distinction even than the teeth, the form
and appearance of which were modified by circumstances. Mr. Blyth made
some remarks on different distinctions of birds ; and Mr. Gould exhibited two
small collections of birds from Mr. Abbott, of Trebizond, and Mr. Hearne, of
Haiti. Mr. Yarrell exhibited a large specimen of Whitebait, about six inches
long, remarking that, although this fish was considered to be confined to the
Thames, it was found in many of the other rivers of Great Britain, and that,
although more seldom, this was to be ascribed to the mode adopted for catching
it. A Latin description was read from Mr. Westwood of a collection of insects
sent over by Mr. Cumming ; after which the meeting adjourned.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY.

The ordinary meeting was held Nov. 16, at the new rooms of the Society, 75,
Newman-street, Oxford- street, J. E. Gray, Esq., president, in the chair. A
paper was read from Dr. Bossey, on the Fungi which produce the ergot in the
Rye and other cereal grains, of which many specimens were exhibited. The pre-
sident announced various presents, among which were specimens of Goodyera
albida, from Mr. Robert Leyland, of Halifax, and of Claytonia alsinoides,
from Mr. Baxter, of Oxford, found wild in a wood near Chatsworth ; after
which the meeting adjourned till the anniversary the 29th of November.

EXTRACTS FROM THE FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

BOTANY.

1. Introduction of the Culture of Rice in the Centre of France. —
We have already (Bib. de Gen., Nov. 1836, p. 193) incidentally announced
this circumstance in an article relative to the naturalization of certain plants in

EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS. 39

the neighbourhood of Montpellier (Naturalist, Vol. II., p. 487). The companion
of the merchant of Montpellier of whom we have spoken now confirms the news,
adding details worthy of attention. The following letter is inserted in an excel-
lent publication entitled Bulletin de la Societe a" Agriculture du Department de
I'Herault. December, 1836.
Letter from M. Vialars, Sen., on the Attempts to cultivate Rice,

UNDERTAKEN AT MaNDIERAC, PROVINCE OF AUDE.

It is true that the society of agriculturists has this year gathered Rice within
the jurisdiction of Mandierac. This trial proves that the culture might be car-
ried out on a large scale, which will in fact be done next year ; but it must be
confessed that few localities are better fitted for the culture of Rice than
Mandierac. Its lands are marshy, and possess water in abundance to inundate
such parts as are required for growing Rice.

It is an error too widely circulated that Rice-grounds injure the salubrity of a
country. The countries where this culture has been introduced were originally
marshy, and from this fact alone it ought to cause fevers. It may even be said,
in favor of the Rice-grounds, that they destroy these marshes and drain the
country ; for instead of stagnant waters sending forth unhealthy miasmata, there
is only fresh water. It is true that towards the period of the maturation of the
Rice the grounds become dry, and that the neighbouring inhabitants are exposed
to fever ; but it is only what happens in our country on the borders of the marshes,
and it has been ascertained that in Lombardy, where Rice is cultivated, the mor-
tality is not greater than in any other part of the country where this culture has
not been introduced.

It is evident that the first trial cannot give a precise idea of the result to be
expected in future ; but it is useful to ascertain that Rice sown in a salt country
has flourished and produced seed. The Rice-grounds of Piedmont and Lombardy
are not topographically more favorably circumstanced than those of the provinces
of Aude and Herault ; the latter are even in a more meridional latitude, which
may be an advantage, since, as every one knows, the kingdom of Valence, con-
siderably south of us, produces Rice in abundance ; but even supposing that the
Rice-grounds of France produced less than those of the foreign country, we
should have, with or without reason, the droit protecteur of 24 fr. in 100 kil.,
which would be advantageous to the proprietors of Rice-grounds, but detrimental
to the consumer.

The experiment made by our society has been opposed by various circum-
stances independent of its control ; next year we may probably obtain positive
data respecting the produce of this culture, which I shall be happy to transmit
to you.

Rivesaltes, Nov. 19.

40 EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

The question regarding the influence of Rice-grounds on the public health has
not yet been investigated with all the care it deserves, and independently of
theories, prejudices and local interests. It should fall into the hands of an indi-
vidual accustomed to collect the numbers of the population, and to weigh them
with a degree of judgment which is not common, and of which we find examples
in the writings of Parent du Chatelet, Villerme, or Benoiston du Cha-
teauneuf. Since the time when M. Julio, Prefect of the ancient province of
Sesia, reported on the mortality of the Bice-grounds of the neighbourhood of
Verceil, and when M. De Candolle gave a correct extract in his returns ad-
dressed to the minister of the interior, that department of statistics in which the
advances of population are noted has made considerable progress. The mortality
as compared with the population has been acknowledged insufficient to express
the physical condition of nations : it depends too much on the proportional num-
ber of births. The longevity of old men is an exception which rather proves a
great destruction of young and less vigorous men. The number of centenaires
(individuals a hundred years old) is almost in an inverse ratio of the average
length of life to which we should attend, correcting all the numbers by an atten-
tive examination of the emigrations and immigrations of each locality. The
proportion of names properly and improperly entered, as well as the mean sta-
ture of the individuals at the time when the growth is always completed, that is
at the age of twenty-eight or thirty, are considerations by means of which the
salubrity of a country should be ascertained.

The Sardinian government has established a statistical committee, the mem-
bers of which give us hopes of a work worthy of confidence. We understand
that they propose particularly examining the mortality of the Rice countries of
Piedmont.

As regards the shore of the Mediterranean in the south of France, the ques-
tion is much more simple. This long line of marsh is already unwholesome and
little productive. The culture of Bice cannot greatly increase the number of
fevers, already considerable, and assuredly it should enrich the people, give them
better clothing, better habitations, more substantial food, which necessarily has
a favorable effect on health. Moreover, this part of France does not grow much
Corn. It is obliged to procure provisions from a distance, and will therefore gain
by the introduction of a culture which will perhaps afford the greatest quantity
of food which can be produced in a given space. — Bibliotheque Universelle de
Geneve, Nouvelle Serie.

2. Food of the Horse. — M. Felix Vogeli of Lyons published in 1836, in
one octavo volume (Paris : Anselin), a work entitled, " Flore Fourragere, ou
Traite complet des Alimens du Chevcd." The first part, observes a French jour-
nal from whose pages we have frequently quoted, treats of the ordinary food of

EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS. 41

the Horse, considered with respect to their natural history and nutritive proper-
ties. The author passes in review the various families of plants admitted by
Jussieu. He indicates the species which grow in France, in the meadows, and
their value as food. In the second part he speaks of the different operations
which the plants used as food undergo before being given to the animal. Lastly,
he enumerates the articles proper to be given to Horses, but which do not form
their customary food, as the leaves of trees, roots, tubercles, &c. — Bib. de Ge-
neve, Seconde Annee, p. 208.

3. Sleep of Flowers, by M. Dutrochet. — Some flowers wake but once,
namely, on their expansion, and have but one sleep, which immediately precedes
the death of the corolla ; such are the flowers of Mirabilis and Convolvulus.
Other flowers present, during many days, the waking and sleeping states alter-
nately, as, for example, the flower of the Dandelion (Leontodon taraxacum).
These are the flowers which I have chosen for my observations.

The flowers of Mirabilis jalappa and Mirabilis longiflora open their infun-
dibuliform corolla? in the evening, and close them on the morning of the
following day. This flower may be considered to be formed by the junction
of five petals which each possess their median line. The five nerves which
sustain the membranous tissue of the corolla, as the whalebone of an umbrella
supports the silk, are the sole agents of the motions which effect the expansion
of the corolla, and its closing or sleep. In the former case the five nerves curve
so as to direct their concavity outwards ; in the second case they bend in such
a manner as to direct their concavity towards the interior of the flower, and
they thus carry with them the membranous tissue of the corolla to the orifice
of its tubular canal.

Thus the same nerves successively execute at two different times two opposite
kinds of curvature. I have examined the internal structure of these nerves in
the microscope ; they possess externally acellular tissue the cells of which, dis-
posed in longitudinal series, principally decrease in size of the interior towards
the external surface, so that at the time of the turgescence of these cellules the
tissue which forms them curves in such a manner as to direct its concavity
outwards. It is that, therefore, which effects the expansion of the corolla, or
its awaking. On the interior surface of each nerve exists a fibrous tissue
composed of transparent fibres, extremely fine, and intermixed with globules
arranged in longitudinal series. This fibrous tissue is situated between a surface
of tubes on one hand, and a surface of superficial cells filled with air on the
other ; so that it is placed between two kinds of pneumatic organs.

I separated by a longitudinal section the cellular and the fibrous tissue which
compose the nerve, which I immediately plunged in water. The cellular tissue
is curved towards the outside, the fibrous tissue towards the interior, of the

VOL. III. — NO. XVI R

42 EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

corolla. These two inverse curvatures are invariably observed. Thus it is
undoubtedly the cellular tissue of each nerve, which, by its incurvation, effects
the awakening of the corolla, and it is the fibrous tissue which, by its incurva-
tion in an opposite direction, occasions the sleep of the corolla.

I separated a nerve from the corolla of Mirabilis, still in bud and about to
expand ; I plunged it in water, and it curved powerfully outwards, thus taking
the curvature which effects expansion or awakening. I transferred it into a
syrup of sugar : it curved in the opposite direction, or inwards. This proves
that in the first case there was turgescence of the cellules, the external water
being conveyed, by endosmose, towards the organic fluid which existed in the
cellules, and that in the second case there was depletion of the cellules ; because
their organic fluid, less dense than the external syrup, flowed towards the former.
It might be concluded, since the expansion of the flower is owing to the turges-
cence of the cellular tissue of its nerves, that its closing or its sleep was due to
depletion of the same cellular tissue ; but experience proves that such is not the
cause of the sleep of the corolla. — £The learned author of the paper then proceeds
to offer his reasons for this statement, which, however, we must defer to a future
occasion. We hope to extract further from the article in an early number. —
Ed. Nat.~\ — Annates des Sciences Naturelles.

4. On the Corolla op Cistacece, by M. Edouard Spach. — The corolla (absent
in some species) possesses only one whorl of petals, sometimes opposite to, some-
times alternate with, the sepals, and always distinct.

When the petals are five in flowers with five, four, or three sepals,* they
never alternate with the sepals, as had been supposed till this time ; but in
neither case do they offer any regular or constant symmetry relative to the
calyx, t

When there are three petals, j they alternate with the three sepals of the
inner whorl.

In the order Cistacece the petals, without exception very deciduous and inserted-
on the receptacle under the disk, are folded before the flowering, and turned in
the opposite direction from the inner sepals.

In the order Lechidacece the petals are in general more or less persistent, and
even grow a little after flowering. They are neither twisted nor rumpled in
aestivation, but simply imbricate, and are inserted at the base of a stiptiform
receptale, or, occasionally, at the summit of this stipe. In some species of the

* This formation is common to the majority of the species, and, with some other characters, it
constitutes M. Spach's Cistacece. «

t M. S. has arrived at this conclusion by the examination of a large number of species.

X The tripetalous and apetalous Cistacece constitute our author's Lechidacece : all have a pen-
tanepalous calyx.

MISCELLANY. 43

same order the primordial flower of each inflorescence is generally five-petaled,
while all the other flowers are apetalous. — Annates des Sciences Naturelles.

CHAPTER OF MISCELLANIES.

ZOOLOGY.

The Common Kingfisher (Alcedo ispida) shot near St. Andrews. — A spe-
cimen of this pretty little bird (which you have figured so beautifully in Nos.
xiii. and xiv.) was shot here in 1834, on the banks of the Kinnesburn, by the
miller who lives at the side of the stream. The specimen, which I wished to
purchase, is still in his possession. — Henry Buist, Law Park, near St. Andreies,
Nov. 14, 1837.

Partridges. — The Woodstock (Virginia) Sentinel of Nov. 2 says: — "Par-
tridges are so numerous in our vicinity that they have actually marched into the
stores of the village, offering themselves up willing sacrifices to the delighted
merchant. There is scarcely a garden in town where they are not to be found ;
and one morning this week we saw several sitting upon the market-house of this
place."

Frog sitting on a Fish's back. — When walking in the spring of the present
year by the side of a large fish-pond near Loose, in the vicinity of Maidstone, I
observed a person looking very intently at something in the water. On in-
quiring what had arrested his attention, he replied that he had seen a most
extraordinary sight — no less than a large Frog sitting upon the back of a fish,
the latter swimming about very slowly with its burden. He pointed out where
he last saw it, but a ripple caused by the breeze prevented my seeing it. I
should certainly have been very doubtful of the truth of the man's story had I
not seen in the Complete Angler the following curious account of a similar
circumstance, related by " Dubravius, a bishop of Bohemia," who " saw a Frog
when a Pike lay, very sleepily and quiet, by the shore-side, leap upon his head ;
and the Frog, having expressed malice or anger by his swollen cheeks and staring
eyes, did stretch out his legs, and embrace the Pike's head, and presently reach
them to his eyes, tearing, with them and his teeth, those tender parts ; the Pike,
moved with anguish, moves up and down the water, and rubs himself against
weeds, and whatever he thought might quit him of his enemy : but all in vain,
for the Frog did continue to ride triumphantly, and to bite and torment the Pike,
till his strength failed ; and then the Frog sank with the Pike to the bottom of
the water : then, presently, the Frog appeared again at the top ; and croaked, and

g2

44 MISCELLANY*

seemed to rejoice like a conqueror ; after which he presently retired to his secret
hole. The bishop that had beheld the battle, called his fishermen to fetch his
nets, and by all means to get the Pike, that they might declare what had hap-
pened. And the Pike was drawn forth ; and both his eyes were eaten out, — at
which they began to wonder ; the fishermen wished them to forbear, and assured
them he was certain that Pikes were often so served."

I can by no means agree with the bishop's opinion of the Frog's tearing out
the Pike's eyes. May we not suppose that the fish's eyes were either out or
approaching to blindness before the Frog got upon its back ? The fact of their
being frequently caught by fishermen with their eyes out seems to agree
Avith this.

I can depend upon the veracity of the person who told me he saw the Frog
upon the back of a fish,* seated, as he said, upon the nape of the neck, the hind
legs clinging round the body, and the toes of the fore legs close to the gills. I
can imagine no other motive for this circumstance than its being the season of
impregnation. The Frog in question was a male, and had placed itself upon a
sickly fish, instead of upon an animal of its own kind. — W. H. Benshed, Maid-
stone, Nov. 6, 1837.

Anecdote of a Kobin Redbreast. — I obtained the following fact, many years
ago, from the owner of the premises at Plymouth. Early in winter a Robin
was seen to frequent a Mulberry-tree close to the window of the late Mr.
Haydon'st printing-office in that place, where it sang very sweetly. The work-
men opened the window, and at length the bird flew in, and, being fed, did not
seem at all uneasy in its new situation. It sang almost daily, generally in the
morning and evening, wholly disregarding the operations of the workmen, and
apparently well satisfied with its new companions, until the following spring.
The window being opened at this season, it flew away, but, singular to say,
returned to the tree at the approach of winter, and was again received into the
office, where it took up its old station till the following March. Some of the
workmen would not believe that it was the same bird, and one of them, having
caught it, marked the breast feathers under the throat, with printing-ink. The
next spring came, and the bird took its departure as before, returning again, at
the end of September, to the old Mulberry-tree, with several other birds of its
kind. The window was quickly opened to the welcome old songster, when it
flew into the office, followed by two other birds, probably its young. It dis-
played greater familiarity than before, even perching on the caps of the men, and
there singing. It need not be remarked that it was ascertained to be the same

* Mr. Benshed before stated, that he " should certainly have been very doubtful of the truth
of the man s story v had he not met with the above quotation from Isaac Walton.— Ed.
f The father of the well-known artist. — Ed.

MISCELLANY. 45

bird.* A strange Cat one night during this third winter got into the office and
killed the old Robin and its two companions, whose remains were found by the
workmen on the following morning. The murderer was captured, and, it need
scarcely be added, put to death, being hung on the Mulberry-tree upon which
the favourite of the workmen had been first heard warbling its cheerful notes. —
C. Redding, Lichfield, Nov. 20, 1837.

Query respecting the Prize-essays on the Turnip Fly. — If in your next
number you would inform a constant reader of your magazine how soon the prize
essays on the Turnip Fly — respecting which advertisements appeared in the
newspapers some time ago — should be sent in, and to whom, and whether there are
not to be more than one, I should feel very much obliged to you. As, for obvious
reasons, my name should not appear, I will subscribe myself — Philander. —
[Postmark Doncaster, and received Dec. 16, 1837.] — [We are not aware, but
have made inquiry in more than one quarter. In case any correspondent favours
us with a reply in a few days subsequent to publication, how shall we address
Philander ? — Ed.]

Deaths from Eating Funguses. — On Saturday last three inquests were held
at Chippenham, on view of the bodies of R. Burroughs, two years and a half
old, who died on the 27th ult., his mother Mary Burroughs, aged thirty-two,
and her niece, Mary Ann Burroughs, aged four years and eight months, both
of whom died on the 29th ult. From the evidence of the different witnesses,
and the post mortem examination of the bodies, it appeared that the deaths of
all three were occasioned by their ignorantly eating some poisonous Funguses
resembling Mushrooms. The jury returned verdicts accordingly. — Cambridge
Chronicle, Sept., 1837. — [Were this part of the vegetable kingdom more accu-
rately studied, and were popular writers on Botany to furnish plain directions
for distinguishing the wholesome from the poisonous plants, the number of these
now too common accidents might be materially diminished. — Ed. Nat.~\

Female Ourang Outang. — Information was conveyed to the Zoological
Society in the latter part of last week, that a living female specimen of the
Ourang Outang, or wild man of the woods, had been landed at Plymouth, and
immediate steps were taken to secure so valuable a prize for the gardens. The
Ourang reached London on Saturday, and a bargain having been struck with the
sailor who had been so fortunate as to succeed in keeping her alive on the voyage
fron Borneo, she was in a few hours transferred to safe quarters in the Regent's
Park. Notwithstanding the confinement and fatigue of a five months' voyage,

* That the bird was the same we have no doubt ; but we are at a loss to conceive how the
marking the plumage H ith printer's ink could ascertain the point, since the usual moult must have
taken place between the departure and return of the bird. — Ed.

46 MISCELLAHY.

the creature appears in good health and spirits, and will probably prove as great
a source of attraction as the Chimpanzee. — Morning Post, Nov. 1837.

Sagacity of a Horse. — Last week, two Horses belonging to Mr. Ibbotson, of
Dungworth, were turned into a pasture in which there was a pit four yards deep ;
shortly afterwards, Mr. Ibbotson observed one of them to be very uneasy, fre-
quently running to the gate and trying to get out of the field. Thinking that
the Horse wanted to get under cover, as it was hailing very fast at the time,
he went to open the gate, where he was met by the Horse, which began
neighing very loud, and then gallopped to the mouth of the pit. Mr. Ibbotson
was attracted to the place, where he discovered the other Horse at the bottom ;
assistance was immediately procured, and Smiler was released from the awkward
predicament in which he had fallen, without having sustained any injury. The
other, on seeing his companion in a fair way for being liberated, started for home
at full speed. — Sheffield Iris, Nov., 1837.

Curiosities in Natural History. — A fine Hare, curiously marked, shot a
few days ago by George Broadrick, Esq., on his estate at Ellerholme, near
Wroot, Lincolnshire, is now in the hands of Mr. Reid, of this town, for preserva-
tion. The animal has four white feet ; the fore legs, breast, and part of the
shoulders are perfectly white, and a narrow white streak or band extends from
each shoulder completely across the back, forming a complete ring. — Mr. Reid has
also in his possession a perfect specimen of the Promerine Gull Qthe Pomerine
Skua, Lestris pomerinus, is the bird alluded to. — Ed.], shot a short time since
near Thome. He has ' likewise, among numerous other curiosities, a beautiful
Purple Tringa (Tringa purpurea), lately shot at Dinnington, near Worksop, by
J. C. Athorpe, Esq. — Doncaster Gazette, Dec. 1, 1837.

Habits of the Spring Oatear (Budytes flava). — The question respecting the
habits of Budytes flava (Vol. II., pp. 103, 294, 422) can only be settled by
observation. Mine certainly agrees with that of Mr. Salmon, as this species, on
its arrival here, resorts to the banks of the river Mersey, where during the spring
numbers may continually be seen busily engaged in seeking for food. The same
station is also frequented by Motacilla maculosa, the Pied "Wagtail. This latter
species seems rather to prefer the margins of ponds in the vicinity of farm-houses,
&c. — Peter Rylands, Bewsey House, near Warrington, Dec. 4, 1837-

Reply to Observations by Peter Rylands, Esq. — In reply to Mr. Ry-
lands (Vol. II., p. 361), in Dr. Pulteney's Catalogue I find the following pas-
sages : — " Procellaria puffinus, the Shearwater Petrel, Pen., No. 258 ; Edwards,
359 ; Lewin, I., No. 218. I cannot from my own inspection ascertain that it is
this bird, but from the descriptions received of it I can but little doubt it ; and
the same bird frequents the high cliffs of Purbeck and Portland." — " Anas
fuligula, Tufted Duck, Penn., No. 274, Lewin, No. 257. Shot at Bryan-

MISCELLANY. 47

Btone, &c, in great plenty, 1795." As regards " Mergus cucullatus (258) 263,"
I cannot explain without seeing my MS. Qu., " M. castor, Dun Diver (?),
common near Poole and Wareham," and " several near Blandford, 1776." —
J. C. Dale, Glanville's Wootton, Dorsetshire, Nov. 3, 1837.

Rough-legged Buzzard (Falco lagopus) near Scarborough. — We now and
then receive a visit from this very able forager. A few specimens have
recently been entrapped in the Rabbit-warrens about Hackness. The keepers
find it destructive amongst game. It also seems to possess a very lickerish
tooth, preferring the young game. — Patrick Hawkridge, Scarborough, Aug. 7,
1837.

White Variety op the Garden Ouzel (Merula hortensis). — Mr. John
Turle, animal-preserver of this town, has in his possession a curious species
[variety. — Ed. Nat.] of the Blackbird, the plumage of which is perfectly white.
The bird had been seen in the neighbourhood of Churchingford for the last two
or three weeks ; various arts were in vain tried to take it alive, and it was at
last shot. It is a remarkably fine male, with beautiful yellow bill and legs. —
Taunton Courier. — [We are, in law-phrase, much indebted to the "person or
persons unknown," who forwarded us the newspaper containing the above notice ;
but probably the said individuals are not aware that a fine is imposed for making
crosses or marks of any kind inside a newspaper transmitted by post. No fear
need be entertained that we shall overlook these paragraphs in the papers we
receive. — Ed. NatJ2

On Toads being found imbedded in Stone. — In looking over your last
number (Vol. II., p. 450), I noticed an account of a Toad being found alive
imbedded in a quantity of dislodged limestone. By the term dislodged lime-
stone I suppose is understood fragments of stone lying together, and the Toad
found in the middle or at the bottom. Taking this to be the case, I do not
think it very extraordinary, considering the habits of the animal. I have a lime-
stone quarry in the lower green sand at Maidstone, worked to the depth of eighty
feet, and in the lowest strata are many cracks and fissures, in which I have
frequently seen several young Toads, and a small species of Lizard or Eft.
The Toads are very little larger than a shilling, and seem to live entirely in the
situation mentioned. There is no communication upwards for air, as the beds
of stone are covered with loam and gravel ; but as some of these cracks are old
water-courses, there is most likely a circulation of air through them. I think
they are a different species from the Common Toad. Their colour is chocolate
brown. I believe no authentic instance of a Toad imbedded in solid stone is
known, at least in any of the old formations containing fossils of a marine ori-
gin ; but that they have been found enveloped in dislodged fragments with sand,
&c, hardened around into a substance like stone, is probable. My opinion is, that

48 MISCELLANY.

it is an impossibility for a living animal to support the enormous pressure which
the deep-seated rocks or beds of limestone have undergone ; and the inconsistency
of a Toad being associated with marine exuviae is so great that I cannot imagine
its occurrence. — W. H. Benshed, Maidstone, Nov. 6, 1837.

Snowy Owl (Surnia nyctea) shot in Dorsetshire. — Our esteemed corres-
pondent Mr. Dale informs us, in a communication dated Dec. 12, 1837, that a
Snowy Owl or Sum has been shot at Langton, near Blandford, by J. J. Far-
quiiarson, Esq., but at what period is not stated. — Ed.

Capture op an Eagle by a Boy. — A few days ago an Eagle was discovered
on Thwaites Fell, near Broughton-in-Furness, by a boy of the name of Jack-
son, of Swinside. The Eagle being on a low or level ground, was unable to rise,
and the boy, after a " hard siege," brought home the vanquished bird, though
not without the usual tokens of war amongst boys, — viz., tattered garments.
The Eagle, which is a remarkably fine one, and of a large size, is now in the
possession of John Lewthwaite, Esq., of Broadgate. — Kendal Mercury.

Capture of a Whale. — A fine young Whale, about 21 feet in length, was
caught near the shore, between Newlyn and Mousehole, on Saturday last. Some
fishermen of Newlyn, who discovered this monster of the deep, went out in a
boat, and were successful in fixing a small anchor in his blowing-hole, by which
means it was drawn to the shore. It exercised its tail tremendously in the
water, and would have smashed the boat to pieces if it had been within
reach of the blows. — West Briton.

[The value of these two communications would have been greatly enhanced
had the species been mentioned in both cases. At present they are of compara-
tively little use to the naturalist. — Ed. Nat.~\

Addition to Mr. Dale's Catalogue of Dorsetshire Coleoptera — To
my former list I have to add, li. Pgicilus. — 5. eryihropus. Portland, May,
1837. — Pogonus Burrellii. Charmouth, Sept,, 1837. — Forficula, a new spe-
cies (?) without wings. Charmouth, Sept., 1838. — Peronea umbrana. St.-
Caundle, Mr. Serrell. — Tephritis guttularis. G. W. — T. Westermanni. Char-
mouth.— Leia pulchella. G. W. — Gonia auriceps? Portland, May, 1837. —
Teichomyza fusca. Blandford. November & February ! — Ckyliza leptogaster.
— Ocyptera interrupta. Knighton Heath. — J. C. Dale, Glanville's Wootton,
Dorsetshire, Nov. 3, 1837.

Large Ray found off Feroe. — In October last an enormous Ray-fish was
found off Feroe, which weighed 384 pounds, was 13 inches thick, 8 feet 8
inches long, and 6 feet 2 inches wide. — Ed.

On Changes of Colour in the Plumage of Birds without Moulting.
— The inclosed skins of two female Whin Chats are excellent specimens of the
immense seasonal change which takes place in the plumage of several of our

MISCELLANY. 49

native birds without moulting a feather. I propose to term this their sum-
mer and winter aspect, as opposed to their summer and winter plumage,
which latter expression should be limited to actual change of feather, as
in the Pipits, Pied Flycatcher, &c. One of the birds I send you was
shot in summer before moulting, the other in autumn, after its autumnal
change ; the spring aspect is of course intermediate. The same change is exhi-
bited in all the other Chats, in the Redstarts, Fantails, Larks, and in the other
Buntings and Fringillidce (or birds of the Finch family) ; in short, I think I
may say in all our native Fringillidous species, with the exception of the Haw
Grosbeak. The Siskin shews it very remarkably. Yet this wearing off of the
extreme edgings of the feathers has almost escaped the observation of our natu-
ralists ! Observe the difference in the larger feathers ; you will find this to be a
capital test of whether an Insessorial bird moults once or twice in the year, and
you will perceive from this that the Grey Flycatcher moults but once, and the
Pied species twice — a fact which I have otherwise ascertained. The Shrikes
also moult twice in the year. — Edward Blyth, Tooting, Surrey, April 6, 183G>
in a letter to Neville Wood, Esq.

Haunts of the Darklegged Warbler (Sylvia loquax, Herbert). — In
riding over a considerable extent of country the other day, I noticed that the
Darklegged Warbler is rather more an Upland bird than its musical congener the
Willow, Warbler ; for I observed that on the hills the former very much predo-
minated, while the latter was considerably more abundant in the vallies — a fact
which I never remember to have noticed before. — Edward Blyth, Tooting,
Surrey, April 21, 1836, in a letter to Neville Wood, Esq. [We think this cir-
cumstance requires further confirmation before it can be considered a fact. — Ed.]

The Land Crab op Jamaica. — This species of Crab (Cancer ruricola),
at one time very abundant, and still common in less densely peopled or
uninhabited islands, is found inhabiting holes upon the highest hills and
mountains in the West Indies. When the season for spawning arrives,
vast armies of them set out from the hills, marching in a direct line to-
wards the sea-shore, for the purpose of depositing their eggs in the sand.
On this grand expedition nothing is allowed to turn them from their
course. With unyielding perseverance they surmount every obstacle which may
intervene, whether a house, rock, or any other body, not avoiding the labour of
climbing by going round, but ascending and passing over it in a straight line.
Having reached the destined limit of their journey, they deposit their eggs in the
sand, and recommence their toilsome march towards their upland retreats. They
set out after nightfall, and steadily advance, until the advance of daylight warns
them to seek concealment in the inequalities of the ground, or among any kind
of rubbish, where they lie ensconced until the stars again mvite them to pursue

vol. in. — NO. XVI. H

50 MISCELLANY.

their undeviating course. On their seaward journey they are in full vigour and
fine condition, and this is the time when they are caught in great numbers for
the table. Their flesh, which is of the purest whiteness, is highly esteemed,
but, like that of all crustaceous animals, is rather difficult of digestion. Return-
ing from the coast, they are exhausted, poor, and no longer fit for use. They
then retire to their burrows, and slough, or shed their shells, after which opera-
tion, and while in their soft state, they are again sought by epicures. Seeing
they are so much valued as an article of food, it is not surprising that their num-
bers should be exceedingly diminished, or quite extinguished, in populous islands,
where multitudes are annually consumed, before they have deposited their eggs
for the continuance of the species. Besides this cause of diminution, they are
destroyed in great numbers by other animals, and numbers of them perish from
exhaustion and injury on their homeward progress. When the eggs are hatched,
the young in like manner seek the hills, and pursue the course of life peculiar to
ibeir nice.— Sheffield Iris, Oct. 24, 1837-

BOTANY.

An Apple, grown by James Nosworthy, of St. Sidwell's, Exeter, was last
week plucked from a tree in his garden, of the extraordinary size of 17 1 inches
in circumference, and weighing lib. 3|oz.

Large Apple. — We have seen an Apple sent to Mr. Graham, farmer, Mast-
haugh, from the state of Cincinnati, in America, which weighs upwards of a
pound and a half! It is of the species called the Green Pippin, and has a pecu-
liarly pleasant smell ; when fresh from the tree, it must have weighed at least
two pounds. It is now in the shop of Mr. Turnbull, seedsman, George-street.
—Perth Chronicle.

Large Cabbage. — There is to be seen growing at Aislaby Hall, in the garden
belonging to the Rev. Thomas Hayes, a Cabbage, produced from one seed,
which measures in circumference 22 feet 7 inches, and stands 5 feet 6 inches.

An Extraordinary Turnip. — Last week, a Turnip of the common white
stone kind, was taken up in the field of Mr. Thomas Park, of Pickering, which
measured 42 inches in circumference, and weighed 211bs. It is allowed by se-
veral persons who have seen it to be the largest ever seen in that neighbour-
hood.

Remarkable Produce. — A Potatoe weighing 12 ounces, and having eleven
eye^ on it, was cut into eleven sets and planted in a garden at Harewood, on the
1 6th of May last, and the produce was taken up on the 4th of December, when
there were three hundred in number, besides some small ones about the size of
Walnuts. The 300 weighed 9lb. 1 2oz.

MISCELLANY. 51

Enormous Turnip. — Among the various Turnip crops produced within this
county (Yorkshire), there are few that will be found to vie with one grown by
Mr. William Swale, of the White Swan Inn, Middleham, on a part of the
estate of Col. Wood, of Middleham Parks ; the balls of the Turnips completely
cover the ground, which may literally be said to groan under the weight of them >'
one selected almost at random, weighs the enormous weight of 25 pounds, is two
feet nine inches in circumference, and the length, including the top, is three feet
ten inches. There appear to be many in this heavy crop of Turnips of a still
larger size.

fJThe above communications are interesting in as far as they prove the enor-
mous size to which various fruits and vegetables employed as food may be grown ;
but how far their quality is improved, is very questionable. That skilful cul-
ture might cause size and quality to go hand-in-hand, is, however, sufficiently
probable. — En. Nat.~\

Propagation of Apple-trees. — A new plan for increasing plantations of
Apple-trees has lately been carried into extensive practice by the inhabitants of
Bohemia. Neither seed nor grafting is required. The plan is to take shoots
from the best sorts, insert them in Potatoes, and plunge both into the ground,
leaving an inch or two of the shoot above the surface. The Potatoe nourishes
the shoot, while it pushes out roots, and the shoot gradually grows up and
becomes a beautiful tree, bearing the first fruit without requiring to be grafted.
Whatever may be the success of the undertaking, its novelty at least is an in-
ducement to give it a fair trial. — Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.

Result of cutting down Forests. — M. Devez de Chabriol, in a memoir
treating of the effects arising from the extirpation of forests, cites several histo-
rical documents, all tending to establish the fact that the temperature of a coun-
try is not only lowered by the taking away of the trees, but that streams dry
up, and rain ceases to fall. M. Boussingault confirms these by several in-
stances, where lakes have been diminished in consequence of cutting down the
neighbouring woods, and the water restored to its former level by suffering the
trees to grow again ; also where the quantity of water has always remained the
same when the woods near it have been left untouched. M. Boussingault
states that in some of the provinces of South America which are covered with
wood it rains every day ; and in others, where the soil is sandy and arid, it
never rains ; yet these provinces have the same latitude and climate, and the
projections and distances of mountains are nearly similar. — Aug. 19.

h2

52 MISCKLLANY.

MINERALOGY AND GEOLOGY.

Remains of Mammalia. — The remains of Mammalia have been found on the
plains of Cheshire^ In the progress of cutting for the Grand Junction Railway,
two grinders of the Elephant were discovered in a bed of gravel replete with ma-
rine shells.

Minerals in Jamaica. — The expectations of the Spaniards, which appearto have
been disappointed on the first discovery of Jamaica, by Colombus, with respect to its
mineral riches, seem to be on the eve of being realized, after an interval of
more than three centuries, in our days ; specimens of copper, gold, silver, lead^
and iron ores, of great beauty and richness, having been received in this country
from an estate in the vicinity of Kingston. The copper ore is said to yield fifty per
cent, of pure metal, and hence appears to be the richest in the world : and a cargo
of copper ore, shipped from an estate in the parish of St. George, sold as high as
£40 per ton. Besides this a discovery of coal, of excellent quality, has also taken
place, and promises to be of vast advantage to the inhabitants.- — Sheffield Iris.

Interesting Remains. — In excavating for the line of the Great Western
Railway, in a field close to the Cross Post Turnpike, on the Bristol road, the
workmen have discovered some very extensive remains of a Roman villa. The
foundations have been laid open, so that it would be very easy to form a toler-
ably correct ground-plan of the building. Two tesselated pavements were dis-
covered, but they were, unfortunately, in a great measure destroyed be-
fore the workmen were aware what they were digging through. Some por-
tions, however, remain uninjured. They are very curious and beautiful,
formed of small cubes of blue and white lias and red tile ; it is intended to re-
move and preserve these fragments if possible, but the cement is so decayed that
it is feared that the tesselre will not hold together. Numerous fragments of
Roman pottery, and other relics of a domestic nature, have been dug up. —
Bath Herald.

Antediluvian Remains. — The Columbus (American) Journal states, that in
the prosecution of a geological survey of Jackson county, Ohio, the bones of an
animal of extraordinary size were discovered. A tusk measured 10 feet 9 inches
in length, and 23 inches in circumference at the largest part, and weighed, when
taken from the earth, 180lb. The largest tooth weighed 801b. 4oz. and the other
bones were of corresponding proportions !

53

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

The New Botanist's Guide to the Localities of the Rarer Plants of Great
Britain. By Hewett Cotirell Watson. Vol. II. Scotland and adjacent
Isles. London: Longman Sf Co. 1837. pp. xxiv., 278. 12mo.

Nearly eighteen months, observes Mr. Watson, have elapsed since the pub-
lication of his first volume. The present volume is similar in character to its
predecessor, being in fact a continuation and conclusion of the work, the objects
of which we may briefly explain. Its aim is to furnish a catalogue of the rarer
British plants, either from the author's own observation, from that of such friends
as he can trust for accuracy, or from the best published works and catalogues.
A separate chapter is dedicated to each county, with the particular locality or
localities in which each species has occurred, and occasional notes and observa-
tions.

This second volume, as its title imports, treats of the botanical riches of Scot-
land; but in a Supplement various additions are made to the Flora of England
and Wales, each plant, as above, being followed by the locality, and the autho-
rity on which it is inserted.

So far as we have examined the work it is correctly printed ; and, aware as
we are of the author's zeal and knowledge of the subject, it is to us no matter of
surprise that he has performed his task in the most satisfactory manner.

Having given some account of the object of the work, and an opinion as to its ex-
ecution, we will conclude with a few words on the preface. It will be in the memory
of most of our botanical readers that, simultaneously with the first volume of the
New Botanists Guide, appeared Mr. Watson's Remarks on the Geographical
Distribution of British Plants, a separate work, but obviously intimately related
to the former. Mr. W.'s reviewer in The Athenceum professed himself at a loss
to perceive the cui bono of these Remarks. Now as a general rule we would not
recommend authors to reply to any reviews of their books in periodicals, espe-
cially as the reviewer and the public generally care very little about the matter,
and as authors are apt to be much more touchy and tender respecting their li-
terary bantlings than an impartial judge would be. In the present case, however,
a principle, and not the mere feelings of an author, was touched upon, and the
discussion is, therefore, not only allowable, but may prove salutary. We can
scarcely conceive a more interesting or useful department of Botany than the
distribution of plants. The fabrication of systems may be very amusing to their
framers, and may prove useful to the student of Botany as an abstract study,
but investigations relative to the distribution of plants, properly considered, must
lead to results of a more practically beneficial nature to mankind, and to the

54 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

discovery of the natural laws which govern the vegetable kingdom. Our au-
thor's reply to his reviewer is cleverly managed, and had we not been previously
aware of the reviewer's name, we should not have guessed it from Mr. Watson's
observations. Much less should we have suspected, reasoning a priori, that
the said reviewer was one of the " pillars of Botany." The erroneous tendency
of the reviewer's observations is, however, so obvious, that we shall not waste
further time in discussing the point.

Sacred Philosophy of the Seasons ; illustrating the Perfections of God in the
Phenomena of the Year. By the Bev. Henry Duncan, D.D. Autumn. Edin-
burgh : W. Oliphant fy Son ; Hamilton, Adams, fy Co., London. 1837. 12mo.
pp. 408.

We have had occasion to review the former parts of this series in preceding num-
bers (Vol. I., p. 274., Vol. II., p. 225), and the present volume completes the work.
It " will be found, in some respects, to differ in its character from the preceding
volumes, and to bear, in a large proportion of its contents, a less direct reference
to the season of the year. It seemed right that the concluding volume, besides
containing various details of autumnal appearances, produce, &c, and of the
diversified labours of the harvest, should be mainly occupied with the general
results of that remarkable system which pervades animated nature, and of which
the phenomena of the revolving year constitute one of the most prominent fea-
tures."— p. iii.

Though original in character and execution, this book is intended for the ge-
neral reader, and is not altogether free from the errors common to the class of
publications to which it belongs. Justice, however, compels us to state, that
these are neither numerous nor glaring, and it must further be observed, that it
cannot be expected that every one should be fully acquainted with the most
recent discoveries in Physiology, Zoology, Botany, and the various subjects,
which must be occasionally touched upon in these volumes. In cases where
these mistakes are many and important, the misfortune is, that they will alone
remain undetected by those whom they could be calculated to mislead.

The general divisions adopted by the author are, — the phenomena, produce,
and labours of the season, the woods, human food, human clothing, architecture,
the close of autumn, and general summary of the argument, each chapter con-
taining a vast mass of information, conveyed in a clear and unaffected style.

Though not belonging to that extensive class termed " gloomy religionists '' —
men, be it observed, better than their fellow-creatures rather in theory than in
practice, and often holding views opposed alike to scripture and to reason — Dr.
Duncan is occasionally, and we think too frequently, inclined to be austere on a

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 55

subject than which we cannot conceive one more lofty or more important to our
welfare both here and hereafter. Some authors write as if they were addressing a
nation of atheists, and are ever endeavoring, by arguments the most tedious and
common-place, to convince their benighted readers that there actually exists an
Almighty Power. Away with this cant and hypocrisy — for no other terms
would so aptly express our meaning — let us have no more of this blind mis-
guided Veneration, which at certain times and in certain minds seems to over-
cloud even the emanations of men talented and otherwise amiable. We would
not be understood to charge this mania upon the Rev. Dr. Duncan — but may
hint that he verges upon the overbearing and exclusive spirit common, in these
matters, to clergy in general, and to divines of the Church of England in parti-
cular. We feel no inclination to discuss, either here or elsewhere, the motives
which actuate the policy of the established or of any other church, but we shall
ever be ready to pass the most unqualified censure on the pseudo-religion of
which we have been speaking — especially where introduced into works of sci-
ence, which it is more calculated to retard than any thing we know.

Having taken this opportunity of expressing our opinion on an important
point, we shall conclude by promising the reader considerable amusement and
instruction from the series of which the volume before us is the conclusion.

Considerations on the Vital Principle ; with a Description of Mr. Crosse's
Experiments. By John Murray, F.S.A., F.L.S., &c. London : Effingham
Wilson, Royal Exchange. 1837. pp. 22. 8vo.

The universal apathy of the periodical press in its notices of Mr. Crosse's
marvellous experiments, and the general inertness of scientific men on so curious
a subject, has often surprised us. The comparative silence of the former may be
accounted for on the score of inability scientifically to investigate the matter;
and the latter class are notoriously slow and unwilling to examine new theories,
however important their results might be if true. In order to support these pre-
mises, it will only be necessary to mention the names of Galileo, Jenner,
Harvey, Gall, and a host of others, and to allude to the severe and disgrace-
fully unjust ordeal which the homoeopathic system of Medicine is now undergoing.
It was, therefore, with feelings of considerable pleasure — alloyed, we must con-
fess, with some suspicions — that we hailed the appearance of the pamphlet whose
title appears at the head of this article. Had it contained " more reasons and
less railing " — fewer charges of atheism, &c. — we should have be<.n better pleased.

As regards Mr. Crosse's experiments we think it probable, from all we have
heard or read on the subject, that the following conclusion at which Mr. Mur-
ray has arrived is correct, namely, that the ova of the Acarus derived from

56 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS

some of the sources mentioned are hatched by the electricity of the galvanic bat-
tery. Every medical man knows, either from his reading or his practice, that
minute living creatures have been found in the brain and other parts of the hu-
man body, but the cause of their existence in such singular localities is perhaps
not so easily explained. No one, however, would think of declaring to the
world that these animalcules were created by the instrument of the anatomist.
The assumption that Mr. Crosse's experiments created living beings is less glaring
to the unscientific, but nevertheless it is, .in effect, equally a non sequitur.
These cases, indeed, differ neither in kind nor in degree. Thus, whatever be
the popular view of the case, in the eyes of the arithmetician it is equally erro-
neous to say that 7 & 11 make 17 as to declare that the same numbers are equal
to 12.

We believe, with our author, that the vital principle is beyond " human ken,"
and that it will alone obey the will of Him in whom we '• live, and move, and
have our being." Many eminent men, however, have taken a different view of
this point, and if their researches have led them conscientiously to believe what
they advance, their opinions at least demand respect until we have the most
positive and undoubted means of refuting them. The authors of the most im-
portant discoveries have been accused of impiety, of fatalism, &c. &c, merely
for advocating those great truths — those laws of Nature, and therefore of God —
which in a few short years afterwards have been freely admitted and taught by
every one possessing the smallest claims to the title of a scientific man. New
theories, however true, are frequently so entirely opposed to our preconceived
opinions, that they appear to us absurd in the extreme, and are at once,
without the slightest rational ground for so doing, pronounced to be so, although
the wisest among us are too frequently compelled to censure ourselves for hasty
and unjust decisions. Let us then beware how we speak disrespectfully of those
whose names are considered ornaments of science, and whose works will be
cherished and revered by philanthropists as long as knowledge and improvement
continue to be desirable. Let us pause ere we designate any one an atheist ; and
even supposing a man to declare his conscientious belief that there is no one
ruling power, we are not to blame him, seeing that he cannot believe what he
does not believe.

We have been led to these observations by the strain in which the present
pamphlet is written, and the occasional dogmatism of the author upon points in
which, after all, he may be mistaken. The aim of his pages is to point out the
impossibility of creating living creatures, and the probability of the insects pro-
duced by Mr. Crosse's experiments having been hatched by the electricity of the
galvanic battery. The seeds of plants kept for hundreds and thousands of yeara
have vegetated when sown, and the eggs of insects may, in like manner, have

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 57

been concealed in some of the chemical substances employed in Mr. Crosse's
researches, and have been hatched by the galvanic influence of the battery. The
point can, however, hardly be said to be settled, and we should be glad to receive
further observations on a subject so interesting.

Our readers will recognize in Mr. Murray an early contributor to The
Naturalist.— The pamphlet is dedicated " to George Fife Angas, Esquire."

A Descriptive Account of the Palo-de-Vaca, or Cow-tree of the Caracas.
With a Chemical Analysis of the Milk and Bark. By John Murray, F.S.A.,
F.L.S., &c. London: Effingham Wilson, Royal Exchange. 1837. Royal 8vo.
pp. 24.

A considerable portion of the matter contained in these pages was commu-
nicated by Sir R. K. Porter, the chemical analysis only being by the author.
We have been much interested in their perusal ; and are alone deterred from
giving a summary of their contents by an unwillingness to detract from their
circulation. An engraving of this wonderful milk-yielding tree is supplied at
the beginning of the pamphlet, which is inscribed, " with great propriety," we
are informed, to Sir Robert Ker Porter. — In England we are content to obtain
the " staff of life " from Wheat — or even from Rye, Barley, &c. — and milk from
Cows, Goats, Asses, &c, but we here learn that a good mess of bread and milk
may be procured in the Caracas from the bountiful Palo-de-Vaca, or Cow-tree —
credat Judceus ! But for further and ample particulars we refer our readers to
Mr. Murray and Sir. R. Porter.

A History of British Birds. By William Yarrell, F.L.S., Sec. Z.S. U-

istrated by a Wood-cut of each Species, and numerous Vignettes. London :

John Van Voorst, 1, Paternoster Row. Nov. 1837. Part iii.

The illustrations of birds in this third number scarcely satisfy our expectations,

lough some few almost equal any in preceding parts for spirit and truth. We

trust this falling-off is only temporary, and that subsequent publications will not

tend to justify the doubtless erroneous suspicion — which has already reached our

irs — that so much pains were taken with the wood-cuts in the first part merely

to ensure a large sale for the work.

The letter-press maintains the admirable character which we have previously

lad occasion to commend ; and in this department at least we think we have an

ample guarantee, in the name and acquirements of the amiable author, that

nothing of an inferior nature will be admitted. The work is published in alter-

vol. in. — no. XVI. I

58 LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

nate months, and is to be completed in three volumes. We anticipate, with
increasing pleasure, the appearance of each successive part, and shall continue,
if possible, to report regularly on the progress of the work.

The Phrenological Journal, and Magazine of Moral Science. Vol. XL,
No. liv. Published quarterly. New Series, No. i., Dec, 1837. London :
Simpkin, Marshall, fy Co. : Maclachan Sr Stewart, Edinburgh, pp. 9G.

This old friend and favourite of ours, published during a period of fifteen years
at Edinburgh — a considerable portion of that time at a heavy loss — is now re-
moved to London, and appears under the auspices of Mr. H. C. Watson, the
well-known botanist. The arrangement and spirit of this number is excellent,
and augurs extremely well. We only wish the Editor had allowed the old
controversy between himself and the former Conductors to rest in oblivion — to
say the least it cannot be considered otherwise than bad taste. The work ought
to be perused by every philosophic naturalist, who should not be a mere collector
of specimens and framer of systems, but ought to feel interested in the rationale
of Natural History in its most extended sense. Besides the purely phrenological
articles there are several notices of immediate interest to the naturalist. We
hope ere long to return to this instructive periodical.

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

A new edition of Bechstein's Cage Birds is just published; but, not having
seen it, we can deliver no opinion as to its contents. — The first volume of British
Birds, by Sir W. Jardine, has lately appeared, forming a part of his Naturalist's
Library. This work has not yet reached us. — In the press, and speedily will be
published, in one 12mo. vol., The Wonders of Geology, with numerous engravings.
By Gideon Mantell, Esq., L.L.D., F.R.S. — We ought to observe that the
second volume of Mr. Watson's New Botanist's Guide — reviewed in our current
number, p. 53 — is a reprint, the whole of the first impression having been
destroyed by fire, at the printer's (Mr. Spottiswoode), in the spring of 1837.

THE NATURALIST.

DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS.
By Mr. T. B. Hall.

(Continued from page 26.)

Aceras. — From «, without, and xtgxs, a horn, in allusion to the absence of
a spur.

Aceras onthropophora, Green-man Orchis, or Twayblade. — It is difficult to
cultivate, and can only be propagated by seeds, which thrive best in a mixture
of sand, loam, and chalk. The English name is given on account of the supposed
resemblance of the flower to a naked human figure, with its hands and legs
cut off.

Acinos. — Loudon spells it Acynos, and states it to be the Greek name of a
balsamic plant, which probably was related to Thymus. Withering states
that under an erroneous notion that this plant produces no seeds, the ancients
applied to it the name acxwos {Acynos), sine semine, sterilis.

Acinos vulgaris, Basil Thyme. — This plant has a fragrant aromatic smell, and
is rare in Scotland.

Aconitum. — From xxoi-n, a rock or stone, because it is found in barren or rocky
places ; or from axowu, to sharpen, because it was used in medicines intended to
quicken the sight ; or from axwv, ax*i, a dart, savage nations poisoning their mis-
siles with a preparation from certain species. Theophrastus derives it from
Akovis, a city of Bithynia, near which it is said to abound.

Aconitum napellus, Common Wolfsbane, Monkshood, Helmet-flower, Friar's-
cap„ — It is not unfrequently met with in rustic gardens, with white, rose-coloured,
and variegated flowers ; nor can our island longer claim entire exemption from it
as a native, notwithstanding Dryden recounts among our blessings, that

" Our land is from the rage of tigers freed,

Nor nourishes the lion's angry seed,

Nor poisonous Aconite is here produced,

Or grows unknown ; or is, when known, refus'd."

That this herb is one of the most powerful of vegetable poisons cannot be doubted.
" The force and facultie of Woolfe's-bane is deadly, both to man and all kinds of
beasts," says Gerarde, who records several instances of its fatal effects ; but it
appears that various plants of somewhat similar names have been confounded by
ancient writers, and are scarcely to be discriminated by the moderns. The
flowers sometimes communicate, in a degree, their noxious quality even by their

VOL. III. — NO. XVII. K

60 DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF PLANTS.

odour; and that wearing them on the head may occasion "a violent megrim.'
Of the bad qualities of these plants we sometimes avail ourselves to get rid of
vermin. The juice is also used to poison flesh, for the destruction of Wolves,
Foxes, and other ravenous beasts. It is remarkable that the blue-flowered kinds
are much more virulent than those with yellow or white flowers. Physiologists
suppose the pernicious effects to be produced by irritating the nervous coats of
the stomach and intestines, so as to occasion violent convulsions through the
whole body. To relieve the stomach of its contents an infusion of tobacco>
followed by oily and mucilaginous medicines, has been recommended. Monks-
hood should not be planted where children have access, lest the}*- should put the
leaves or flowers in their mouths, or rub them about their eyes ; for a serious
disorder may be thus occasioned ; and the farina of the flowers blown into the
eyes will cause dangerous inflammation. Some interesting particulars of the
effects of this plant on those who have eaten it are detailed in Baxter's Flower-
ing Plants. *

Acorus. — A*>f ov, from a, without, and xo^n, the pupil of the eye, because it was
considered good for disorders of the eyes.

Acorus calamus, Myrtle Flag, Sweet-scented Flag, Sedge or Rush. — The
flowers are rare, the dried root powdered is used by the country people in Norfolk,
for curing the ague. On the Mayor's day in June, the cathedral of Norwich and
some of the streets have from time immemorial been strewed or decorated
with this plant, which, when trodden upon, smells somewhat like Myrtle ; but
having become less plentiful, its place is now supplied by Iris pseudacorus, or
the larger kinds of Sedge (Car ex). It is our only native truly aromatic plant.
The roots have a strong aromatic smell, and a warm, pungent, bitterish taste,
the flavour is greatly improved by drying, and when powdered they have cured
agues when the Peruvian bark has failed. They are commonly imported from
the Levant, but those of our own growth are fully as good. The Turks candy
the root as a prophylactic, and believe it to be a preservative against contagion.
Neither Horses, Cows, Goats, Sheep, nor Swine will eat it. The whole plant
has been used for tanning leather, and the French snuff a la violette is supposed to
be scented by this root.

Actcea. — AxT«<a, from ax-nj, the shore. Shrub-elder, the leaves somewhat
resembling those of the Elder. So called because it grows upon rocks and banks
near the shore ; or from ay«, to break, from its being easily broken.

Actcea spicata, Spiked Bane-berty, Black Bane-berry, Herb Cristopher. — This
plant is a powerful repellant. The root is useful in some nervous cases, but
must be administered with caution. The berries are very poisonous ; their juice,
with alum, yields a black dye. Is is said that Toads, allured by the fetid smell
of this plant, resort to it ; but it grows in such damp and shady situations as

DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF PLANTS. 61

those reptiles otherwise prefer. Sheep and Goats eat it ; Cows, Horses, and
Swine refuse it.

Actinocarpus. — Named from ax-nv, a ray, and xa^woy, a fruit, in consequence
of its curiously radiated fruit resembling a Star-fish.

Actinocarpus Damasonium, Star-headed Thrum-wort, or Water Plantain. —
This plant had the reputation of removing the effects of the venom of the Sea-
dog (Loudon).

Adiantum. — From a, neg., and 1>ixhu to grow wet. So called because its
leaves are not easily made wet.

Adiantum capillus-veneris, True maiden-hair. — A most elegant Fern, especially
when it projects from the sides of upright dripping caves or rocks. It is used in
the South of France, as well as A. pedatum, to make a syrup, which, being per-
fumed with Orange flowers, is called capillaire, and known by that name
throughout Europe, as a refreshing beverage when diluted with water. Asple-
nium irichomanes is occasionally substituted — an immaterial imposition, as
neither plant seems to possess either pectoral or any other active virtues.

Adonis. — From «^v, pleasing ; so named because it was fabled that Adonis
was changed into this flower by Venus, after having been slain by a Boar.

Where the blood was shed,

A flower began to rear its purple head." — Ovid.

i

Adonis autumnalis" Adonis-flower, Red Maithes, Autumnal Pheasants'-eye. —
Its beautiful scarlet blossoms have gained it admittance into gardens. Both the
French name Goutte-de-sang, and the more classical Adonis, may equally be |
traced to the sanguineous colour and globose form of the flowers, especially in an
unexpanded state ; in the latter designation fabled to have sprung from the blood
of that favourite. Besides the English names given above, it has been called
Bird's-eye, Pted Chamomile, and Rose-d-rubie, Flos-adonis. Miller informs
us in his Gardener's Dictionary (1759), that great quantities of the flowers of .
this plant were annually brought to London, and sold in the streets under the
name of red-morocco. In French it is called Gouttes-de-sang (drops of blood) ; ,
Aile-de-faisan (Pheasant's- wing) ; and Oeil-de-perdrix (Partridge's-eye).

Adoxa. — From a, without, and &>!<*, glory ; from the humble aspect of this
little flower.

Adoxa mosckatellina, Tuberous Moschatel. — This is an unobstrusive little
plant, flowering as early as the latter end of March, or the beginning of April,
and ripening its berries in May, soon after which its leaves decay. It delights j
to grow in moist shady places in woods and similar situations ; a circumstance i
which has not escaped the notice of the poet — 1

k2

62 DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF PLANTS.

" Adoxa loves the greenwood shade ;
There, wavering through the verdant glade,
Her scented seed she strews."

The flowers have a musky smell in the evening, or early in the morning, while
moist with dew ; and hence, by some called Musk Crowfoot.

Mgopodium. — From a«|, «<voj, a Goat, and woc^v, a little foot : the leaves
being cleft sometimes like a Goat's-foot, whence Goat- weed would be a preferable
name to Gout-weed.

Mgopodium podagraria. — The root is pungently aromatic, with some acrimony,
but it is not at all employed in medicine ; nor has it any title to its name Gout-
weed, though the Germans formerly used it to assuage the pain both of the gout
and piles. Linnjeus says it is eaten in Sweden, boiled for greens, when tender
in the spring. The same author also informs us that Cows, Sheep, and Goats
eat it, that Horses are not fond of it, and that Swine refuse it.

JEthusa. — From xtOvo-o-u, to make warm, as does the pungency of the plant.

JEthusa cgnapium, Common Fool's-parsley, Lesser Hemlock. — The whole
plant is poisonous, and when eaten is said to cause vomiting, delirium, numbness
of the extremities, and often death. We are'informed, in Mr. Loudon's Gar-
dener's Magazine, Vol. II., p. 337, that a boy six years old, who had taken some
of the plant for Parsley, at four o'clock, began immediately to utter cries of
anguish, complained of cramps in the stomach, assumed a livid hue, and died at
midnight. Another child, though the contents of his stomach were ejected, went
out of his senses, but by great care ultimately recovered. Two ladies of Castle
Donnington, in Leicestershire, partook of a salad into which some Fool's-parsley
had been put for Common Parsley ; they suffered considerably, but ultimately
recovered. We cannot, as Dr. Withering observes, be too particular in dis-
criminating these deleterious herbs, especially as they are frequently found
growing intermixed with culinary vegetables. This plant has been sometimes
mistaken for Common Parsley, but it may be readily distinguished by its leaves,
which are of a much darker green, more flat, and more finely divided. It also
wants the peculiar smell of the Common Parsley. If the Curled-leaved Parsley
only was cultivated in gardens, no such mistakes could happen. Fool's-parsley
may be distinguished from Hemlock (Conium maculatunx) in the stem not being
spotted, in its having but little smell, and by its more humble growth. Cows,
Horses, Sheep, Goats, and Swine, are said to eat it. It is reported to be
poisonous to Geese.

Agrimonia. — From ctyeos, a field, and /xsvw, to inhabit ; its usual station being
in fields. Hooker says the name is corrupted from Argemone, given by the
Greeks to a plant supposed to cure the cataract in the eye, called ace y^/xa ; but the
former derivation seems to be the most correct.

NATURAL HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND. 63

Agrimonia eupatoria. — Agrimony has been chiefly regarded as a medicinal
plant, and as such is often raised in gardens. The leaves have a slightly bitterish,
roughish taste, accompanied with an agreeable, though weak, aromatic flavour.
The flowers are in smell stronger, and more agreeable, than the leaves, and in
taste somewhat weaker. They readily give out their virtues both to water and
rectified spirit. The leaves impart to the former a greenish yellow, to the latter
a deep green colour. The Canadians are said to use an infusion of the root of
Agrimony in burning fevers with great success ; and an infusion of six ounces of
the crown of the root, in a quart of boiling water, sweetened with honey, and
half a pint of it three times a day, Dr. Hill says, is an effectual cure for the
jaundice. Infusions of the leaves, which are not disagreeable, may be used as
tea. Digested in whey, it affords a useful diet-drink, for the spring season, not
ungrateful to the palate or stomach. According to the observations of Linnaeus
Sheep or Goats eat it ; Cows, Horses, and Swine refuse it. The flowers when
fresh gathered smell like Apricots.

Agrostemma. — From ay%os, a field, and a-rs^x, a coronet ; quasi the garland of
the fields, the flowers proving a great ornament.

Agrostemma gitkago, Corn Cockle, Corn Campion, Wild Nigella. — This is a
very troublesome weed, and is too common in corn-fields ; it should be eradicated
by hand before it comes into flower. The seeds are large and heavy, and their
black husks, when mixed with Wheat, breaking so fine as to pass the boulters,
render the flour specky. They are, therefore, obnoxious to the millers, and
depreciate the sample of corn. Gerarde says, " What hurte it doth among corne,
the spoyle unto breade, as well in colour, taste, and vnwholesomnes, is better
known than desired." It is said sometimes to occur with a white flower. The
flowers are generally purple with bluish streaks or upright stalks, and, however
odious to the farmer, they must still be considered as very handsome.

Woodside, near Liverpool,
Dec. 22, 1837.

( To be continued.)

ON THE NATURAL HISTORY, SCENERY, &c, OF NEW ZEALAND.

By Thomas Kier Short, Esq.

(Continued from p. 4.)

I left the Mission station, on the second of May, for the Bay of Islands ; the

first part of the journey is to be performed in boats on the river Whimar, a branch

of the Hookeanga. After proceeding up the river for about five miles, I landed

64 NATURAL HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND.

at a native settlement, and then proceeded on foot, which, from the late heavy-
rains, made it very unpleasant, being something after the American fashion of
travelling by mud ; the first two miles being knee-deep in their mud and water.
The road passed through a large native village, to which were attached large
flats of Indian Corn, Kumaras, and Tarra. The Kumara is a species of sweet
Potatoe {Ipomcea batatis), about six inches long, and one inch thick. Some are
red, others yellow and white. It is the sacred food of the New Zealanders at
their religious ceremonies or tapus. The Tarra belongs to the natural order
Aroidece, but to which of its divisions I could not ascertain, as I never saw one in
flower. The natives had also large quantities of Peach-trees.

I now began to ascend a range of lofty hills, the road having been cut on the
summit of a high range, through a dense forest : the foliage of the forest was
splendid in the' extreme. The Palms on the hills were from thirty to forty feet
high ; some of them were in flower, others in fruit, which was produced in clus-
ters like grapes, and of a crimson colour ; they seemed, as Humboldt observes
of the Palms of South America, to have a region of their own. The road over
which I past had been cut some years previous, but in 1831 a dreadful hurricane
visited the island, spreading devastation all around ; upsetting houses and
huts, overwhelming the noblest ornaments of the forest, which in a great man-
ner blocked up the road. Some of the arborescent species of Ferns were splen-
did. Nor were the herbaceous Ferns less beautiful, some of which clasped the
trunks of trees and stones to such an extent that the ground was literally
covered with this tribe of plants.

I observed in this part of the road immense blocks of stone of the same kind as '
the adjacent hills, which could only have been removed by volcanic agency.
After proceeding about four miles through this forest, I arrived at a fine piece of
table land, about 1000 acres in extent, and of good rich soil. TVe travelled four
miles over this clear plain, and then entered the second or great forest, which, if
possible, is thicker and denser than the first ; on the edge of the forest I found
Charleswoodia stricta, C. indivisa and C. Australis, growing with the greatest
luxuriance, some of them being fourteen feet high.

The path now became very intricate, from the fallen timber, which in many
places obstructed the road ; the late rain having made it slippery, and my two
native guides, being barefoot, were as sure-footed as Chamois, while I with strong
shoes had much to do to get on. After ascending the mountains for about ten
miles, I came to an opening in the trees, from which one of the finest vistas in
the world is to be seen. Far below in the valley the white cottages of the Mis-
sion station, imbedded in the most luxuriant hanging woods ; whilst the rivers
Whimar and Hookeanga wound their course like huge Serpents in the valley, the
distant hills covered with verdure, the high bare perpendicular rocks towering
above added grandeur to the scene. The scene now changed, the ground being

NATURAL HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND. 65

covered with thick spreading roots and other creeping plants, overgrown with
Moss, so as to form a kind of uneven matting which rendered travelling very dif-
ficult. The underwood was very thick, and the trunks of the lofty trees rose
like clusters of columns supporting a canopy of verdant foliage, through which
the sun's rays seldom penetrate. There was no beaten path, and the wide and
dreary solitude of the place was only broken by some lonely bird which chirped
among the bushes, or, startled by our intrusion on its retirement, darted across
our path. This terminated the second forest, the rest of the journey laying
through an open country. We now crossed a vapid stream in a deep gully or ra-
vine ; on ascending the opposite bank a most beautiful view breaks on the eye
of the traveller. A more rich undulating country, or one better adapted for cul-
tivation, is not to be seen. On the right is a fine fresh- water lake of from six to
eight miles long, and from four to five miles broad, with beautiful undulating
hills, gently sloping to the water's edge, the land of which appeared rich and
fertile. Several volcanic hills appeared beyond the lake. The road now turns
to the left, through a large savannah, passing three native villages, round the
foot of a conical hill, which has all the appearance of the crater of a silent vol-
cano, the ground being covered with scoria. I now arrived at Y^himatte, a
settlement under the guidance of the Church Mission, it being their farming
establishment, under the superintendence of Mr. Davi'es. They produce fine
crops of Wheat, Oats, Indian Corn, Potatoes, Red and White Clover. The
establishment does Mr. Davies great credit. They have Sheep, Horses, and
Cattle, all of which are sent to the other settlement for the support of the Church
Missionaries. I remained during the night at Whimatte, and proceeded to the
Bay of Islands next day ; on the way I observed four of those volcanic hills pre-
viously described, about three miles apart. About four miles from Whimatte
we came to the river Kerrekeri ; which is to be crossed, and as there is no bridge,
it must be forded. From the late rains the river was much swollen, and very
rapid ; one of my guides said he could carry me over on his shoulders, to
which I consented. After proceeding about half-way, my sable bearer,
from some unforseen occurrence, stumbled, and away I went, head foremost,
into the stream, to the no small amusement of the Tongatamouris.* After
picking up my gun and other articles from the bottom of the river, we
once more proceeded on our journey. Having ascended a gentle hill, I
crossed an elevated undulating plain covered with large masses of scorea and
other volcanic substances fast going to decay from exposure to the atmosphere.
I also observed that the stream which traversed this plain was much discoloured
by oxide of iron, of which there appeared great abundance. Ascending another

* Tongatamouri is the native name for a Zealander.

66 ON THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF HORNS.

steep hill we crossed a large flat plain, on which I found a species of Andromeda,
with white flowers, and clusters of crimson berries, a species of Gravelia, Epa-
cris exserta and Epacris keteronema ; the ground being covered with a species of
Allium, which scented the air. On the left, the Kerrekeri wound its course,
and now falls over a ledge of perpendicular basaltic rocks, twenty-five feet of
a beautiful crescent form, which had a fine appearance.

I have conducted the reader to the summit of the last hill which over-
looks the Bay of Islands, and a beautiful view is now before him. It was a still
calm evening, the sun just dipping in the Pacific, the bay as smooth as glass,
studded with small islands (from which it takes its name) ; on its bosom lay
twenty-seven vessels at anchor, as still as possible, with just sufficient wind to
unfold the ensigns of England and America, which last predominates in the pro-
portion of twelve to one. I shall now leave your readers on the beach of the Bay
of Islands to contemplate the scene.

Martin Hall, Nottinghamshire,
December 20, 1837.

ON THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF HORNS.
By Beverley R. Morris.

Many animals are supplied with horns as instruments of offence and defence,
in addition to their claws and teeth, which in animals so provided are generally
ill-suited for either of these purposes. In some species the females are not sup-
plied with horns. In others they have horns, though smaller than those of the
males ; while in others again we find the horns of the female larger but less com-
pact than those of the male. Horns are only found on Herbivorous animals,
and although some are without them, as the Horse, yet these are provided with
other means of defence, as in the case of the animal alluded to, which has been
known to defend himself, and successfully too, against the attacks of even the
Lion, by means of his powerful hind legs. These animals also are generally
swift of foot, and are thus enabled to escape many dangers. Horns may be
divided into four classes. Of two of these little can be said, as they are confined
each to a single genus.
They are : —

I. Those which are found on the Rhinoceros. Unlike other horns, they are
placed over the bones of the nose, but are not attached to them ; having con-
nexion only with the skin. They are true horns, being formed entirely of horny
matter, which can be distinctly traced in longitudinal lines, and seem to be a

ON THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF HOKNS. 67

modification of hair. All other horns are placed in pairs, or one on each side of
the median line. One species of Rhinoceros has only one horn, which is placed
over the end of the nose, and exactly in the middle line. The other species has
two horns, hut they are placed one ahove the other, still retaining their central
position. The second or posterior horn is much smaller than the other. They
are not deciduous.

II. Those found on the Giraffe. These are horns of the most simple kind, but
are not true horns, as no horn enters into their composition ; yet from their
situation and shape they have received the name, and therefore I shall consider
them as such. They are simple bony processes from the os frontis, which are at
first a little moveable in bony sockets, but soon become fixed and immoveable.
They also differ from other horns in being covered with skin, and in having little
tufts of hair on their extremities. They are found on both sexes, and are not
deciduous.

III. Those which are found on some of the Ruminants, and which are formed
on bony processes from the os frontis, which are at first moveable, but after-
wards become fixed. These bones are covered with a highly vascular membrane,
which secretes the horn or hard external cuticle. The horny part grows by
lamina which are formed on the inside by the vascular membrane covering the
bone. This horn has no vascularity itself, and cannot be made to receive any
injection. Those animals whose horns grow most at particular seasons, as the
Sheep, have the cuticular or horny matter thrown out most at those times, and
as more is secreted than is necessary for its increase in length, it is disposed of in
thickening the part last deposited, and thus rings come to be formed which bear
a certain relation to the age of the animal. In others, as the Ox, they grow
more regularly, and therefore the fibres appear to be longitudinal. The essential
distinguishing mark of these horns is their being supported on, and being filled by,
bone, and in their not being deciduous.

Many races of sheep have horns on both sexes. Others have them only on the
males. In the Iceland Sheep they vary in number from four to eight. In the
Moufflon, a species of Sheep, the horns are of immense size, the pair sometimes
weighing 20 pounds. In the Goat family horns are found on both sexes, but larger
in males than females. In the Ibex the horns weigh from three to four pounds
each. All the Antelopes have horns of this class, which vary somewhat in form,
and in the direction they assume. These horns are also found in all the Ox family.
In the Common Ox the horns are larger in the female than in the male, but the
texture is less dense and firm. In the Buffalo they are very large, often mea-
suring five feet or more from tip to tip.

IV. Those called antlers, such as are found on the Stag, Deer, &c. These,
besides being weapons of defence, are highly ornamental to the animals]; they are

VOL. III. — no. XVII. L

08 BOTANICAL LITERATURE.

found chiefly on the males, though the Rein deer is an exception, both sexes
being provided with them. Like the second class, they are not true horns, but
consist of very hard bone : its density indeed is nearly as great as ivory. These
animals when very young have no antlers ; soon, however, a thickening and
induration of the skin takes place over two points of the frontal bone, corres-
ponding to the future antlers. These points shortly become adherent to the
subjacent bone, and bony matter is deposited in them. At the time for the
growth of the antlers, the temporal and carotid arteries, which supply the head
with blood, become very much enlarged. The skin over the bony tubercles is
absorbed, and a membrane exceedingly vascular is formed, which is in fact a
kind of periosteum. This grows in the direction of the future antler, secreting
bone from its inside surface ; branches are given off, and lastly the palm. The
grooves which are seen on antlers are caused by the blood-vessels in the mem-
brane, which, as soon as it has performed its part in secreting the bone, dries up
and then peels off. These antlers begin to grow at the early part of winter.
They are deciduous yearly, the manner in which they are detached being very
curious, and well worthy of notice. It is as follows. After the horns have
attained their full size, and the vascular membrane has been removed, the ves-
sels at the lower part — where the tubercles were formerly — still continue secret-
ing, and bone is thrown out ; this presses on the arteries which pass through open-
ings in the bony circle at the base of the antler, and at length obliterates them.
Absorption of the bone immediately below the bur now goes on, and cuts the
antler off. This process is seldom completed, as the horn is generally broken off
by the animal striking it against trees, &c. A little blood is effused, but the
wound soon heals up. The Elk has immense antlers, with very wide palms,
which often weigh fifty or sixty pounds. Antlers are found in both sexes in the
Rein-deer, but larger in the male than in the female.
December 18, 1837.

NOTICE OF THE WORKS MOST INTERESTING TO THE STUDENT

OF INDIGENOUS PLANTS.

By Edwin Lees, F.L.S., M.E.S.L.

When a neophyte enters upon the study of any science, his first inquiry is
for the books that will be of the greatest service to him in the pursuit he has
entered upon. Now although advice is exceedingly cheap, books unfortunately
are not so, and as every student is not a "Prince Maximilian," it becomes

BOTANICAL LITERATURE. 69

obviously unwise to recommend such works only as are of very high price, how-
ever estimable in a scientific point of view. Hence, I fear Mr. Swainson's re-
commended list of ornithological books in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia, amount-
ing to about £400, has met with but few respondents. It is, however, impor-
tant to know what has been accomplished in every science, and as inquiry has
been made for botanical works in The Naturalist (Vol. II., p. 359), I will proceed
to indicate a few of the most curious and remarkable, as well as those absolutely
indispensable to the collector of British indigenous plants. This becomes the
more necessary, as Mr. Lankester, in his mention of botanical books in the
December number of this periodical (Vol. II., p. 470), has scarcely done more
than given his opinion as to the best elementary treatises on the " Natural Sys-
tem." No doubt Professor Lindley is the most learned and able English inter-
preter of that system, but I can neither agree with him or Mr. Lankester that
the Linnaean system is "prejudicial to the advancement of the science of
Botany." Surely there is something unphilosophical in so summarily and almost
petulantly attempting to extinguish a favourite plan of a great master, that still
has its advocates, merely, as appears to me, because in some respects it seems to
offer greater facilities for tempting votaries to the temple of Flora. Hence I
think it but fair to mention Drummond's First Steps to Botany, 12mo., an ex-
cellent and interesting botanical primer, and Sir J. E. Smith's Introduction to
Botany, 7th Edit., 8vo., edited by Hooker, though both these are expounders of
the Linnsean system. Dr. Lindley, in his Ladies' Botany, seems to imply that
the natural system requires " a royal road " to soften its asperities, and he has
there attempted, after the plan of Rousseau's celebrated letters, to familiarize
the subject, but unfortunately he supposes himself to be addressing mere chil-
dren. The plates are very superior, however, and if they were made to illustrate
a short botanical grammar at a less price than is charged for the Ladies'
Botany, it would be of universal application. The Elements of Botany,
by Richard, and translated by Macgillivray, 8vo., is in many respects an
excellent work for the student, but almost every Introduction to Botany is too
lengthy upon Vegetable Physiology, and contested opinions upon various hypo-
thetical points, upon which a beginner, as he can form of course no decided opi-
nion, ought not to be perplexed about, or have his judgment biassed. I should
certainly consider Dr. Lindley's Introduction absolutely necessary to every one
studying botany professionally, and the work in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopcedia,
by the Rev. Professor Henslow, is well deserving of perusal and attention. The
Outlines of Botany, by the late Professor Burnett, is a magazine of Collected
research, but its wearisome and excessively spun-out terminology is unindurable.
Perhaps the most extensive " Explanation of the terms used in Botany," both in
Latin and English, will be found prefixed to Gray's Natural Arrangement of

l 2

70 BOTANICAL LITERATURE.

British Plants, 2 vols. 8vo., which can now be purchased at less than half its
original price in town. There is a work publishing in fasciculi, entitled
Genera Plantarum Florce Germaniccc, by Nees ab Esenbeck, which, as it con-
tains plates with minute dissections of the flowers and fructification of every
genus indigenous to such an extensive tract of country as Germany, at a mode-
rate price, deserves to be in the hands of every British botanist, and to a student
is most valuable. It has, besides, this great advantage, that though arranged
on the natural system, only the characters of the genera, with descriptions of the
plates, are given, in Latin, and no Linnsean will be displeased by any derogatory
remarks, or untoward disputes, for as every genus is referred to its place in the
Linnsean system, the work is of course equally useful to every botanist. It may
be obtained at Bailliere's in Regent-street, which it is perhaps necessary to
mention, lest there should be " none in town."

I shall now suppose that our inquiring botanist, having mastered his elements,
has determined to investigate the indigenous plants of his native country. If he
commence with the Phanerogamia, or flowering plants, the following works are
indispensable : — Sir J. E. Smith's English Flora, 4 vols. 8vo., Hooker's British
Flora, 8vo., Lindley's Synopsis of the British Flora. But all these are without
plates, and in doubtful cases a good representation of a plant is something more
than a luxury. Curtis's Flora Londinensis, folio, or Sowerby's English Bo-
tang, 36 vols. 8vo., should be obtained if the student has £50 or £60 to lay out
in books, or if not, at any rate a new edition of Sowerby is now publishing in
numbers at one shilling. There is also a cheap work by Baxter of Oxford, on
British Flowering Plants,\ery good as far as it goes, and enriched with interest-
ing notes. But the plates, it is to be regretted, are very coarsely engraved. There
is also a Supplement to the English Botany, in 2 vols. 8vo. Numerous local
Floras, as they are denominated, have been published, but they are now mostly
obsolete, and in fact as their results appear in Watsons New Botanists Guide to
the localities of the rarer Plants of Britain, which should be obtained to see what
field has been left unoccupied, they may be dispensed with unless picked up acci-
dentally at a book-stall.

The above, however, will not suffice if the Cryptogamic tribes are intended to
be studied. In this case the second volume of Hooker's British Flora is requi-
site, and Withering's Arrangement of British Plants, 4 vols., contains the
most popular account of the Fungi. Gray's Natural Arrangement, also before
adverted to, contains the Acotyledones. On the Ferns, and their allies, an ad-
mirable little work with plates on a reduced scale of all the British species has
recently been published by Mr. Francis, of London, at a very moderate price
(See Vol. II., p. 226.). On the Jungermannice, the work of Sir W. J. Hooker,
in 4to., is the great authority, or there is a cheaper enumeration of the German
species, by Ekart, with uncoloured plates, entitled Synopsis Jungermanniarum.

BOTANICAL LITERATURE. 71

For the Mosses, Taylor and Hooker's Muscologia Britannica, 8vo., is indis-
pensable, and the intricate tribes of Algce are illustrated in Greville's Algce
Britannica, 8vo., Dillwyn's British Conferva, 4to., and Turner's British
Fuci. These are, however, all expensive books. The Lichens are exceedingly-
difficult to make out by mere description, and those who pay any attention to
this tribe of plants should undoubtedly procure Bohler's Lichenes Britannici,
now publishing in monthly fasciculi, at 3s. Cd. In this work actual specimens
are given wherever possible. The varied tribes of Fungi have been illustrated in
Sowerby's English Fungi, and Greville's Scottish Cryptogamic Flora. Both
must grace the shelves of every extensive botanical library, but their high price
excludes them of necessity from general use. A guide to the study of the British
Fungi, at a moderate price, is much wanted.

If Arboriculture is the object in view, or curiosity is excited by timber-trees,
either natives of or growing in this country, Evelyn's Silva, folio, the same
work by Hunter, 2 vols. 4to., or Gilpin's Forest Scenery, either the original
edition or the new one by Sir T. Dick Lauder, are all full of information and
interest on the subject. Mr. Strutt, in his Sylva Britannica, and Delicice
Sylvarum, has given numerous faithful and striking portraits of many aged and
remarkable trees, though, to the disgrace of the votaries of a science said to be so
very popular, I have understood these works proved a loss to their projector, and
can now be obtained at a third of their original cost. It ought perhaps in con-
clusion to be mentioned, that Mr. Loudon is publishing an Arboretum et Fru-
ticetum Britannicum, containing a vast quantity of information on the culture of
trees and shrubs in Britain, with an immense number of plates, but unfortunately
three-fourths of the latter are, from a want ol character, of no use whatever to a
botanist.

There are many works which a man might choose from curiosity to have in a
library, which, being of no practical use, are almost so much lumber, such as
Hill's Vegetable System, 26 vols, folio, Salmon's British Herbal, 2 vols, folio,
and others of the same class ; but old Gerarde, often quoted from, and containing
many a quaint observation, perhaps deserves to be preserved and examined.
There are no doubt many other good works on Botany that might be mentioned,
but a multiplicity of authorities can only confound a student, who, once master
of his subject, can then judge for himself, and amuse his taste or his fancy
according to the seduction that presents itself. If it be intended to bring bo-
tanical knowledge to bear upon the broken vegetable relics of a former state of
things, the able work of Lindley and Hutton on the Fossil Flora of Great
Britain, 8vo., with numerous plates, must be consulted. This, indeed, will be a
monument of industry and skill when completed.
Dryadville Cottage, near Worcester,
December 11, 183?.

72

REMARKS ON THE BITTERNS.

By Edward Blyth.

The comprehensive genus Ardea, as defined by Temminck, and adopted by
Mr. Jenyns in his Manual of British Vertebrate Animals, is exceeding difficult
to subdivide into minor groups, corresponding to the genera of other recent
systematists. To confine our attention to the few species admitted into the
British Fauna, the distribution of these into Herons, Bitterns, and Nightherons,
may appear sufficiently cogent, as the typical forms are mutually very distinct ;
but numerous exotic species connect these primary modifications of the same
type so intricately, that although in the present state of Ornithology their
separate recognition is absolutely requisite, it is impracticable to furnish respec-
tive definitions that should include all the species, and the only available method
of distinguishing them systematically is to indicate the prevalent distinctions of
the more characteristic species, the dividing lines — of whatever value we choose
to make the subordinate groups — being utterly arbitrary. Indeed, it is hardly
necessary to seek beyond the British (or, more properly speaking, British-killed J
species,' for exemplification of the futility of attempting dichotomous separation.
The Purple Heron, though otherwise a typical Ardea, has the toes and long
claws of a Bittern ; as has also the Buff-backed Heron or Egret (Ardea-egretta
russata), the short and comparatively weak bill of which, I have little doubt,
will sooner or later induce somebody to make a separate division of it. Boje
has already indicated A. ralloides, Auct., and some allied species, under the
designation Buphus, and the Prince of Musignano has distinguished the tiny
Dwarf-bitterns by the term Ardeola; the former having been variously posited,
by different writers, as Herons or Bitterns ; and the latter, also, grouped with
the Bitterns by Mr. Selby, whereas Mr. Jenyns deems them to be more imme-
diately related to the true Ardece. Again, the Cayenne Nightheron (Yellow-
crowned Heron of Wilson) deviates considerably from the type of Nycticorax,
approximating the Boatbills (Cancroma) ; which latter are physiologically as
closely allied to the rest of the group as are either of the previously specified
divisions. Save the American and European Bitterns, therefore, and the greater
and smaller European white Egrets, not two of the various species which have
occurred in Britain are subgenerically altogether identical. Still it is only when
a numerous suite of foreign species are placed in juxta-position, that the nullity
of what many consider to be satisfactory separations becomes palpably apparent.

On the other hand, however, the entire group (comprising the Boatbills, of
which the beak, as stated by Cuvier, is simply that of a Heron or Bittern, very
much flattened and inflated) is as thoroughly distinct from all other groups, even
the most allied — which is that of the Storks and Adjutants — as can well be ;

REMARKS ON THE BITTERNS. H*T 73

there is no indication even of a passage into other forms ; and the essential
characters of the common Grey Heron of this country will apply to the whole
series. The immediately superior group comprises four such distinct, though
nearly allied, types, which, according to my notions, should constitute as many
separate families : of these the Heron, Stork, Spoonbill, and Ibis genera are
respectively typical; and each is distinguishable by anatomical, equally with
external, characters. I am far from being satisfied that the Courlan (Aramus)
appertains to the same major division ; and deem it the wisest plan to refrain
from making any remarks on this singular bird till I know something of its
rudimental anatomy.

The whole of the above minor groups, together, compose the Ardeidce of the
Quinary systematists, and the Grallatores Robustirostres of an arrangement
which I am preparing for publication. They are distinguished from all other
Grallatores by coming into the world helpless and blind, requiring to have food
placed in their mouths. Of moping sedentary habits, they commonly remain a
long while fixed in the same position : and feed exclusively, or very nearly so,
on animal matter, chiefly on small-sized Vertebrata, though, in short, on what-
ever moves that is not too large for being swallowed. The majority perch, and
even nestle on lofty trees, frequently several species together, in numerous
societies ; and, excepting the Spoonbills, I believe they all lay spotless eggs, of
which the yolk is disproportionately small, and the shell thin. The period of
incubation is comparatively brief, which accords with the helpless condition in
which the young are excluded. A large proportion of them do not attain
maturity until they are two years old ; continuing solitarily dispersed in marshy
districts during the first season of propagation. The common British Heron
may again be selected as the general standard of the entire division.

But it is with the first of the four minor groups that we are now more parti-
cularly concerned ; and I shall henceforward speak of it under the term Ardeidce,
from which it will be understood that the Storks, Spoonbills, and Ibises, with
their subordinate genera, are excluded. All four possess a large and membranous
stomach, and very wide gullet ; intestines narrow, and of considerable length ;
the Spoonbills have no caeca; the Storks and Ibises two caecal appendages of
small size, most developed in the latter ; and the Ardeidce, in every instance, a
single minute caecum. The last-named have also the ordinary pair of sterno-
tracheal muscles to the inferior larynx ; of which the Spoonbills, Storks, and I
suspect the Ibises, are devoid, whence these birds are necessarily destitute of
voice, which is the more extraordinary in the instance of the European Spoon-
bill, the trachea of which species undergoes a peculiar convolution. In the
Ardeidce, the inner edge of the middle claw is constantly pectinated ; no trace of
this structure occurs among the Storks and Spoonbills, and only a slight indica-

74 REMARKS ON THE BITTERNS.

tion of it in certain Ibises. All have an amazing spread of wing in proportion
to the weight of their bodies ; but the skeleton is extremely light and frail, more
especially in the three, or in the ultimatum degree in the two, first divisions.
The sternum is short, and singly emarginated behind ; and the furcula is attached
to the anterior portion of its ridge or keel. The Ibises, however, and to a less
extent the Spoonbills, form exceptions to this, in so far as the breast-bone is
doubly emarginated at its posterior edge, and the Ibises otherwise approximate
in their conformation to the Curlews and others of that group, with which
Cuvier associated them, having been induced to do so, probably, from the near
resemblance which is observable in the skeleton ; still we require only to know
the digestive organs, and mode of propagation, of the Ibis group, to assign
immediately its true position in the system. The character of its plumage, again,
at once indicates its affinity to the Stork rather than to the Curlew : and to
mention still another distinction, it may be observed, that all the species brought
together under my term Robustirostres have the hind claw produced, and articulated
on an even plane with those in front, whereas the Scolopacidce on the one hand,
and the Gruidce (or Cranes) on theother, have the hind-claw elevated upon the
tarsus. Moreover, the weight of a Curlew is very nearly double that of an Ibis
of the same dimensions : even their attitude, and carriage, sufficiently indicate
the very distinct divisions to which they respectively appertain. A peculiar and
constant character of the Ardeidce (as here limited) is the tuft of unelastic
cottony down upon the breast, and again to the interior of the thigh. This
causes a singular glandular structure which secretes a powdery matter resis-
tive of moisture, much of which (powder) is retained, as in a powder-
ball, by the down specified. After handling and rubbing the fingers in this
down, they may be dipped into water without being wetted. The powdery
substance is distributed over the plumage by merely shaking it, and of course
tends to keep that portion of it dry which would otherwise be almost in a
soaking condition. The site of its production, moreover, is so ordained as to
protect the muscle of the breast from being chilled by contact with water ; for
a Heron will often strike a fish at so great a distance, that the body inclining
forward upon the pivot of the legs, dips the breast when the bird has stood, as
it often does, in water reaching to the commencement of the bare part of its
tibiae ; the impervious down thus appearing as a very beautiful provision of
Nature. I was led by actual observation to appreciate this use of it, but still
am by no means satisfied that I yet comprehend the final purport of this
peculiar structure, for the Bitterns, which are not habitually piscivorous, possess
it equally with the most piscivorous Herons.

All the members of this family seize, and in many instances transfix, their
prey by an instantaneous stroke, which the great length of the neck enables

REMARKS ON THE BITTERNS. 75

them to do at an unexpected distance. Sir W. Jardine thus popularly describes
the mechanism by which this is effected. He is speaking of the genus Plotus
(or Darter), the members of which, he states, " among the Pelecanidce, exhibit
the extreme structure in the power of darting and suddenly again withdrawing
the head. The Cormorants and Herons possess this power to a great extent ;
and they all possess a peculiar bend of the neck, observed in certain circum-
stances of the bird's economy, and into which that part at once puts itself when
the bird is dead. This is produced chiefly by the action of two muscles ; the
one inserted within the cavity of the breast, and running up with a long tendon
to the vertebra beneath the bend, the other inserted in the joint above the bend,
and running far down with another slender tendon. The action of these two
powers, united by the muscles of the back part, produces the peculiar angular
bend, and enables the head to be thrown forward with great force. The effect
may be easily seen, and produced, by a jointed stick having cords affixed, and
acted on in this way."

The Camel, and some other Mammalians, lower the neck to browse, and
then suddenly raise it again, by an analogous mechanism. The duplicature of
the neck of the Heron should be a great deal more studied than it is by those
who undertake to preserve specimens of this tribe of birds. The lowermost
portion of it is directed downward over the breast, and is devoid of plumage ;
so that the lengthened feathers of the fore-neck, which, while at ease, the bird
frequently allows to droop, when drawn up close appear to be continuous with
those of the breast : the bare hind-part of the neck, also, doubles back upon
itself, the plumage of the fore-part closing over and quite concealing the dupli-
cature in the majority of species : and lastly, the long and spear-shaped bill,
with the head, completes the figure of an S, and in the Spoonbills, Storks, and
Ibises, the beak is ordinarily rested on the fore-neck, in the Storks very com-
monly pointing perpendicularly downward. The trachea, in one part of its
course, proceeds along the back of the neck. Stuffers most frequently err in not
making the lower extremity of the neck bend downward, so much as it ought to
do, close over the breast.

White, of Selborne, and other writers, who assert that these birds retract
the neck, when flying, and extend the legs, for the purpose of counteracting the
forward tendency of the body, should have remembered that the muscles of the
neck attain their equilibrium when in this position, which, consequently, is
simply that of rest. When a Heron or Bittern rises, I have noticed that this is
ordinarily done in a sluggish manner, with the neck often extended, as the bird
surveys the tract of ground over which he passes, and the legs drooping ; forcibly
recalling to mind the unwilling flight of a Rail or Gallinule ; after a while,
however, if nothing tempts him to alight, he contracts the neck, and, stretching

VOL. III. — NO. XVII. M

76 REMARKS ON THE BITTERNS.

out his legs backwards, appears to assume that attitude which is certainly more
convenient for soaring, and which he still retains when he has gained the
wished-for altitude. The Crane family always fly with the neck extended ; and
perhaps the loud cries of these birds, the vocal organs of which are similar to
those of the wild British Swans, require that the neck should be straightened in
order to give them their full intonation. Among the Crane family I do not
include the Agami (Psophia), which pertains to altogether a different division,
being allied to the Tinamus.

It has been said that the Bittern, when it emits its astounding note as it
ascends circling, always stretches out its neck, which is not unlikely. The
booming of this bird is a greater mystery than has been considered ; for there is
nothing in the conformation of its vocal organs at all differing from what occurs in
the rest of the Ardeidce. According to Dr. Richardson, the notes of the American
and European species are precisely similar. Most of the Heron family have a
single unvaried cry, which in the Common Heron may be likened to the sound
qitank.

The general exterior, habits, and deportment of the Grey Heron of Britain
are popularly too well known to require much description ; and it might be
supposed, as quite a matter of course, that its progressive stages from youth to
maturity would be accurately described by every author who has written on
British birds. So far, however, from this being the case, I am unaware of a
single writer who has distinguished its three separate states of plumage, which
are common to the two sexes. The perfectly adult garb of each is detailed by
Montagu as that of the male ; and their second plumage more briefly as that of
the female ; but when he additionally states that the young males resemble for
some time the latter, it is clear that he had never actually compared them, but
wrote at random, which was by no means a common practice with that acute
observer. The young of the year, besides certain terminal pale spots on the
wings, which are lost at the first moulting, have all the back plumage rounded,
not exhibiting even a tendency to assume the acuminate form observable in the
adults ; and in their second plumage the dorsal feathers are considerably less
elongated than in their subsequent attire. Montagu expresses surprise, moreover,
at the great distance from any heronry at which these birds occur during the
season of propagation ; not being aware that the young of the preceding year
continue solitarily dispersed until they attain the fully adult livery, in which
only they are known to breed. I question whether any of the large Ardeidce
propagate before they are two years old ; unless the Bitterns do so, which is
very probable, as I know from observation that these acquire their adult dress
during the first autumn.

The typical Bitterns may be stated to retain permanently that character of

REMARKS ON THE BITTERNS. 77

plumage which is lost at an early age in the genera allied to them. This may-
be exemplified by comparing the adult American Bittern with an immature
Dwarf-bittern (subgenus Ardeola) ; whereupon it will be seen that the rudi-
mental markings of the two species correspond feather by feather, which
markings are temporary only, and characteristic of immaturity in the one, and
permanent in the other. I have reason to believe that the male Dwarf-bitterns
usually acquire the perfectly adult dress at the first moulting, and the females
not till the second ; that the latter breed in their second or intermediate garb, I
can state positively, from dissection ; and I also know that the older females are
undistinguishable from the males.

As a group, the true Bitterns have the legs and neck shorter than in the
Herons : the toes and claws long, the latter but slightly curved ; beak less robust,
and laterally very much compressed ; the ridge of the upper mandible having a
slightly curving outline. Neck densely clothed in front with long and lax
feathers ; and the body- plumage also erectible and long, with the webs connected.
The entire plumage is minutely mottled and blotched over with specks and
broken bars, of black and different shades of brown, assimilating in hue to their
locality. The sexes scarcely differ, and the young are chiefly distinguishable by
their comparative inferiority of brightness. They are very nocturnal birds (at
least it would seem so) when in their wild state, and inactive during the glare of
day ; are solitary in habit ; and while at rest, in their lonesome sedgy retreats,
assume a contracted posture, with one leg commonly drawn up, the neck quite
hidden, and line of the head even with that of the back. The same attitude is
maintained when walking, which is effected stealthily with long strides ; the neck
is always held in readiness to be darted forth on any live object of size not too
large for being swallowed; our native species will readily gorge a Rat, or a
Water Rail. They do not habitually subsist on fish, but on amphibious, and
small warm-blooded animals ; and appear rather to steal unobserved upon their
prey, than to wait for it, in the manner of the Herons. I have seen one gradually
let down its foot, and noiselessly advance upon its prey, with most patience-
tiring slowness; as indeed may be commonly observed of the whole group;
and a very beautiful provision of structure exists with intent to enable them
to move with such excessive slowness. They inhabit secluded wooded marshes,
where they nestle on the ground, being never seen to alight on trees ; and during
the breeding season emit discordant bellowing sounds, of astounding loudness ;
these boomings, as they are popularly termed, being mostly uttered at intervals
during the evening and morning twilight, and both on the ground and as they
spirally ascend to a vast height ; their feeding grounds, I suspect, being com-
monly at some distance from their diurnal abode, in desolate mountain morasses,
where scarcely another living creature is to be found.

m2

78 REMARKS ON THE BITTERNS.

At sight, or perhaps hearing, of. an enemy, they either run off with considerable
speed, threading the interstices of the reeds, and insinuating themselves with ease
through extremely narrow passages, which renders them difficult to flush ; and,
if at length they rise, fly heavily to only a short distance, with neck extended,
and legs drooping ; reminding one forcibly of the Rallidce (though sometimes they
will soar spirally till lost to the view) ; or they lie close, instinctively trusting to
the resemblance of their tints to that of the surface , and, if discovered, boldly
await the attack, crouching and puffing their whole plumage, and opening the
wings, so as to present a complete ball of feathers to their adversary ; the neck
being at the same time retracted, and head held very low, with the beak pointing
upwards, and the smooth feathers of the crown appearing (as usual) continuous
with the back plumage, which latter is raised high. This has erroneously been
represented as their common attitude of rest.* Upon attack, they dart the bill
upward, invariably aiming at the eye of their assailant ; and have many times
been known to blind a Dog with this powerful and sharp-pointed weapon ; when
they run, it is to seek a place of concealment ; and our native species has been
known to turn and stand at bay with a Water Spaniel. Indeed few Dogs will
renew the contest with it after receiving one or two thrusts of its bill. Several
oil paintings (no doubt commemorative of the witnessed fact) represent this
bird, and also the Heron, as having transfixed the Falcon in its impetuous
descent ; and from what I have seen of the Bittern's upward thrust, when on the
ground, I have no doubt whatever that this is its constant endeavour when
pursued by a Falcon ; for which reason the latter, most generally, strikes at the
pinion of its quarry, which, I am fully aware, when gradually descending
wounded, makes no further attempt at defence till it reaches the ground. The
pursuit of the Bittern was eagerly followed in days of yore, not only on account
of the elegant manner in which it endeavoured to soar spirally above its enemy,
but for the excellency of its flesh, which is still held in estimation ; as is also
that of the transatlantic species by the Anglo-Americans. I can myself bear
testimony to its goodness, and freedom from any kind whatever of unpleasant
flavour.

From their size and sluggish flight, when forced to take wing, these birds
present an easy mark to the gunner ; and a small charge of shot suffices to bring
one down, on account of the extreme slightness of its frame, common, as before
stated, to all the Ardeidce ; though at the same time they are very tenacious of
life. If only slightly disabled, however, it quickly throws itself on its back, and
defends itself so desperately with both beak and claws, as to require considerable
caution in the handling ; it never attempts to strike with the former dangerous

* Vide Regne Animal.

REMARKS ON THE BITTERNS. 79

weapon except at the eye ; and I have noticed that the bill is opened while
making the stroke, the bird snapping at, rather than endeavouring to pierce, the
eye of its adversary. I have known two instances of birds of this species, which
I believe could very easily have been taken alive, occurring within a few miles of
the metropolis, when the ground was deeply covered with snow ; at which time
they appeared stupified, or were perhaps dazzled, and on being roused only flew
a few yards and then settled on a slight eminence, and immediately crouched,
puffing their plumage as has been described. Both were shot at, which I conceive
to have been quite unnecessary for the purpose of capture.

The general opinion is, that the Bittern is\>f much more rare occurrence in Britain,
at the present time, than is actually the case ; although the great majority of
those which are now found may be stragglers from the Continent. Plenty of
them are brought every winter to the London markets, where a few days ago a
fine specimen was offered to me for three shillings and sixpence, and I doubt not
that I could have obtained it at a less price. Moreover, these specimens are
exposed at the stalls of poulterers who do not derive their supplies from the
Continent, as is done on a very large scale by several of the market people.

Buffon and subsequent compilers have described the European Bittern as an
untameable species ; the fallacy of which will soon appear on a visit to St.
James's Park. The Ornithological Society had originally, I believe, four Bitterns,
of which only two are now living. One of them was struck with a stick by a
mischievous boy, while feeding with familiarity on what the visitors threw to it,
and died instantly, from the effect of the blow ; the remaining two have not, that
I am aware of, hitherto ventured off the island ; but I have there seen them
come forth from different parts of the thicket of shrubs at the " coop, coop," of
their feeder, and after looking a little to the right and left, with neck upraised,
to see that all was right, walk boldly forward and take small fishes from his
hand. I recommended that poultry-entrails should be given them instead of fish,
and they have since evinced a decided preference for the former diet. My friend
Mr. Bartlett kept four of the little Dwarf-bitterns for a considerable time, and
these also would leave fish to feed on poulterer's refuse. One of this species,
having purposely been kept without food for a few hours, swallowed in succession
seven good-sized Sprats at one meal.

It is remarkable that the Bitterns in St. James's Park never enter the water,
or watch for fish, much less swim across, which the Purple Herons do occasionally ;
they would seem to be more diurnal than in a state of nature ; and at night
regularly go to roost, climbing up to the tops of bushes for this purpose. When
roosting they assume the defensive attitude if approached, pointing the beak
upward ; but the tameness of these birds prevents this remarkable habit being
noticed in them to the extent which I have witnessed in the wild birds. The

80 REMARKS ON THE BITTERNS.

little Dwarf-bitterns assume the same posture on similar occasions, as noticed by
Colonel Montagu, and copied from him by Mr. Selby ; but both these naturalists
have fallen into the prevalent error of supposing that this was the attitude of
rest. All the actions of the Dwarf-bittern are precisely those of the other,
and it runs with the celerity of a Rail. It uses the bill to assist it in clambering
— a fact which I have also noticed in the Corn Crake ; and I doubt which of
either of these two species could insinuate itself through the narrower crevice.
I suspect that the Dwarf-bittern is commoner in Britain than is generally sup-
posed, for it is a species extremely liable to escape observation. The few that
have been shot have mostly been observed when perched on Willows, on which
occasion, at sight of an object of distrust, it will extend horizontally its long
neck to the utmost stretch, and in an instant, if your attention be momentarily
diverted, retract it suddenly; but it will readily allow of being approached
within gunshot, appearing to rely instinctively on its inconspicuousness. The
American Dwarf-bittern has been shot from a heronry upon lofty trees, where
several different species bred in society ; but both the American and European
species would appear most commonly to nidificate on the ground, like the typical
Bitterns.

M. Baillon states, of the large European Bittern, that " during the months
of February and March, the males utter, in the morning and evening, a cry
which may be compared to the explosion of a large musket. The females run to
the sound, sometimes a dozen round one male, the male Bitterns strutting among
their mates, and endeavouring to drive off their rivals." This has often been
quoted, and the opinion consequently advanced, that the birds of this genus are
polygamous. I conceive that M. Baillon must have witnessed a congregating
of these birds for the purpose of pairing, such as Audubon describes of the
Ardea herodias, and such as many observers have had occasion to notice" in
Magpies, and a variety of other species. The European Bittern is no where
sufficiently plentiful, in one place, during the season of propagation, nor is there
that difference in the proportionate size of the sexes, observable in the Ruffs
and other known polygamous birds, to induce the supposition that it is otherwise
than monogamous, like the rest of the Ardeidce. It is a species which, from
time to time, I have had tolerable opportunities of becoming acquainted with, as
I trust the above remarks on it will sufficiently indicate. Next spring, it is
probable that the London ornithologists will enjoy a few samples of its music,
should the Ornithological Society succeed in keeping these interesting live speci-
mens through the cold weather.
North Brixton, Surrey,
Dec. 8, 1837.

81

HINTS TO YOUNG ENTOMOLOGISTS ON CATCHING, KEEPING,
AND BREEDING INSECTS.

By James Charles Dale, Esq., A.M., F.L.S.

Some time ago you requested me to give you, for The Naturalist, a few hints
as to the apparatus used by entomologists, and as some of your friends may be
inclined to climb the mountains or explore the lake country during the next sea-
son, I send the following extracts, &c, for that purpose, and hope your corres-
pondents will give me a fine list of rare captures in return.

The entomologist should first consult Dr. Letsom's Naturalist's and Traveller's
Companion, Donovan's Instructions, Harris's Aurelian and other works,
Graves's Naturalists Pocket-Book, Kirby and Spence, Miss Jermyn's Fade
Mecum, Curtis's Instructions, Samouelle's General Directions and Useful
Compendium, &c. I have Ingpen's Instructions interleaved, and a few blank
leaves at each end for a list of rare insects, with the dates, localities, &c, as a
pocket companion.

The first thing is the dress. — A plain sportsman's fustian jacket, with numer-
ous pockets, not omitting the side or breast pocket for forceps or little bag-net,
which is made of a single wire-hoop bent into a circle, and the ends formed into
a handle, and which I think preferable to the forceps, especially for taking in-
sects in a gravel-pit, where I lost with the forceps the first Chrysis succincta I
ever saw, from a stone getting between the rings of the forceps. Mr. Tuther
formerly told me of a light-green coat with fifteen pockets for nets, &c, but a
large fustian-bag for your nets, umbrella, &c, and an angler's basket for your
boxes, vasculum (for sandwiches), and whiskey-flask (no bad accompaniment
on the mountains) ; Jarvis's India Rubber Polish, for thick shoes, to make them
waterproof, or anti-attrition ; a horn for drinking, or smoking insects ; a tin case
of Cocoa-powder or paste for breakfast ; knee-caps for moss hunting, or a little bit
of board with a cushion to kneel on in damp places. If you intend to ride on
horseback any distance, it would be well to send your heavy luggage with the
large corked box or setting-boards, cages, &c, by coach, to the inn nearest the
locality you mean to collect, to await your arrival. You may then mount your
horse, equipped with your lighter apparatus, such as you may be in want of
before your arrival at the inn. Put your long nets, sticks, &c, into a long
canvass-bag or a tin box like a quiver for arrows, with lock and key and rings,
through which you may sling it on your back like a gun.

All the travelling store-boxes, cages, nets, &c, should be made as portable as
possible, and so as to fit each other in packing into the smallest compass, and it
would be well if one screw or spring clasp fitted all the net sticks.

82 HINTS TO YOUNG ENTOMOLOGISTS.

1. The Clap-net, Bat-fowling net, or Batfolder, may be had at the fishing-tackle

shops (where called Butterfly traps), may be made of Musqueto gauze, and
one of the rods used as a walking-stick. White for day and green at
night.

2. Forceps, a pair of toupee irons or curling tongs, will do very well, with a net

or rackett fixed at the end of each tong with binding wire or small twine
well-waxed. The Germans use a much larger and longer pair of forceps,
having leaves of ten or twelve inches in diameter, for taking Lepidoptera
settled.
In one edition of Peter Pindar, Sir Joseph Banks is represented as hunting
the " Emperor of Morocco" with a net like this.

3. Tongs (called Crane-necked at the Surgeon's Instrument-makers) or Forceps,

for securing insects armed with stings, and for dipping and killing large
Moths, &c. (with the wings up), in boiling water.
Miss Jermyn recommends a " Casting-Net," viz. tie a weight (a halfpenny
for instance) in one of the corners of a piece of gauze (size of a handkerchief),
a lighter weight in the second corner, and a bit of light wood in the third ;
fix a piece of twine a yard or two long at the remaining corner. It may
be thrown and drawn in at pleasure. Harris recommends a large sheet
and long pole for larvae.

4. A Ring or Racket Net is formed of wire about the size of a Raven's quill,

turned round to a circle, bending the ends outwards by way of shanks,
which are made fast in a brass socket ; this ring is covered with gauze and
bound round with ferret ; a round stick of two feet in length serves as a
handle. A pair of these, six inches diameter, is very useful.

5. A Hoop, Sweeping, Water or Landing-Net. — I procured one from Chapman,

York, made of iron-hoop, the net made of white canvass, and fastened with
wire to the middle of the hoop, the sharp edge admirably adapted for cutting
through Thistles, Nettles, &c, in brushing herbage, and thereby not injuring
the canvass as when fastened round by a welt. If a hinge be made it may
be folded up, and the handle may be made like a parasol-handle. If a welt
is used for the water-net, the inside should be painted and made very
stout, to prevent rust, and with a moveable tin tube, or it may be made to
screw on at the end of an umbrella.

6. EltingsaWs Dublin Landing-Nut, used by anglers, is made of Whale-bone,

and net fastened with wire or waxed string to the middle of the Whale-bone
like the last net, the sharp edge not wearing the net by coming in contact
with weeds, Brambles, &c. There should be two nets, one for sweeping,
made of white canvass, and the other of gauze for flying insects. — The
Whale-bone part when shut up is very portable, and one stick may be used

HINTS TO YOUNG ENTOMOLOGISTS. 83

for walking ; the second may be jointed, either by screw like a parasol,
and carried in the pocket, or single, and may be carried in the sling-bag or
quiver. At the end is a small spear to screw in, to fix in the ground, or it
may be used in defence against a furious bull or Dog, which not unfrequently
interrupt the sport.

7. Maclean's Elastic, or Wooley's Spring Net. — Is constructed of two pieces

of steel or split cane, connected by a joint at each end, and with a rod
which lies between them, in which a pully is fixed ; through this a cord (or
Cat-gut), fastened to the canes (or springs), passes ; a long cane with a
ferule receives the lower end of the rod, and forms a handle ; and to the
canes is fastened a net of green (or white) gauze. Taking the handle in your
right hand and the string in your left ; when you pull the latter the canes
bend till they form a hoop, and the net appended to them is open ; when
your prey is in it, relax the cord and the canes become straight, and shut
the mouth of the net, keeping these close with your left hand, take the
insect with the right.

8. Paul's Turnip-fly -Net (of Starton, Norfolk). — For sweeping the grass, &c,

and which Mr. Paul employed to clear his Turnips of Haltica nemorum, &c.
The wider it is the greater space it will brush at once. I have used it, but
it does not meet my approbation, or perhaps in a level light soil it may
answer the purpose better than here — an uneven, hard, clay soil.

9. Bag Net. — The French collectors use a net in which the hoop is formed of

two semi-circular pieces of iron or brass wire, hooked together at one end,
and at the other made to lap over the corresponding piece, and pierced to
receive the screw at one end of your stick. When not employed, they
double the hoop and conceal it under the vest ; and when using it, a certain
twist completely closes the mouth, so as to prevent the captive's escape.

10. A Digger. — A small trowel, dung-fork, and small garden-rake, are useful on
sandhills and sea-shores, where the late Captain Blomer found the larvse
of Actebia prcecox, Agrotis valligera, &c, among Galium or Bedstraw. A
strong clasp-knife, with a saw-blade, &c, will be useful.

11. A Phial, or tin bottle, in which a tube should be introduced and extended a
little way down the bottle, to prevent the insect's escape ; a quill passed
through the cork, with a cork or wood stopper, will be useful for small
insects. If spirits-of-wine be put into the bottle, only dark Beetles should
be put into them.

12. Quills. — Either Swan or Goose quills, with a cork or wood stopper, will be
useful for minute insects ; a little camphor in them, and should be shaken
each time, if another insect be put in. Several of these q«n& will be

vol. m. — so. XVII. N

g) HINTS TO YOUNG ENTOMOLOGISTS.

required, and when filled may be put into the turpentine-box with those
pill-boxes which contain any not likely to injure themselves by fluttering,
such as Tinece, which must be put into the other tin-box to keep cool till
your return home, when they may be killed by the fumes of sulphur. A
number of small phials with their rims ground down, and well corked, and
a piece of hollow Elder, with a plug, and the ends of the quills, should be
secured with waxed silk.

13. Pill-boxes. — As they are liable to be crushed and the covers to come off,
three or four dozen of different sizes should be papered round the edges with
a thin paper, and inside if the covers do not fit well. Holes should be
pierced through them from the inside, to allow the fumes of sulphur without
opening the lid, at the risk of losing the insect. The boxes should be num-
bered, and if a few were made of tin they would not be crushed. They
may be carried in the hat, with a handkerchief over them, to prevent their
rolling about. But the best way is to put those intended for sulphur into —

14. The Tin Box (an old gun-powder cannister with a lid) till you get home,
and the tin box with a double lid, and a strainer near one end, with a
sponge or coarse woollen cloth for spirit-of-turpentine or ammonia (Mr. Deck's
plan), which answers well for small Hymenoptera, &c, and will even kill
Libellulce and Locustce.

15. Pins. — The Swedish and Russian pins are the best made, the heads are
very firm and round, but they are too long and slender. The heads of the
small English pins are very liable to come off (and then the insect runs
great risk of being spoiled). These may be secured by heating their heads
in the flame of a candle, and dipping them in sealing-wax (lead colour, or
as near that colour as possible). Silver pins should be used for those most
liable to grease. The makers are D urn ford, 36, Gracechurch-Street, arid
Hales, 15, Great-Dover-Street, South wark.

ltf. Pin-cushion, should be suspended round the neck, and put under the waist-
coat ; only moderate sizes should be taken out, Tortrix and Tinece will do
at home.

17. Pliers, Tweezers, Setting Needles, Needles and Thread, Scissors and Camel's-
hair pencils, should be carried in (18) a Leather Case like a surgeon's, and
a little (19) Gum-water, or in a wooden ink-horn made secure to prevent
the gum-water from leaking, or like what the Excise-men use, with a glass
tube down the middle.

20. A little isinglass mixed with the gum or Priest's Diamond Cement, and (21)
some fine Card paper cut into small square pieces, will be useful.

22. The Pliers, &c, may be had of Knight, Foster-lane, Cheapside.

HINTS TO YOUNG ENTOMOLOGISTS. 85

23. Braces or Cramps, and Pins (15) bent at their points like bayonets with
(24) the Pincers invented by Mr. Waring, of Liverpool, for setting legs of
Beetles, &c.

25. Setting Boards, lined with cork and washed with flake white and isinglass,
and some lines ruled at right-angles, so as to set the insect true ; also a line
marked into inches and lines, and if a large box were divided, the box or
cage containing the setting boards on one side, and the larva cage on the
other, with a glass partition ; the other sides covered with wire-gauze, and
under this in the travelling box should be

26. The Travelling Store Box, made to fit the size of the two above boxes.
There should be a partition (with a sliding cover) with smaller divisions for
pliers, setting-needles, camphor, matches, a wax candle, Jones's Lucifer-box,
gum- bottle, &c. Also Tortrix and Tineae pins, the places for them being
lined with cork to save their points. Camel's-hair brush, card-paper, &c.

27. Pocket Magnifier. — May be had of Messrs. Bently and Chant, No. 1,
King's-Head-Court, St. Martin's-Le-Grand, opposite the New Post-Office.
It is the common pocket magnifying-glass used by botanists.

28. Pocket collecting Box, should be made or covered with tin, to keep the insects
cool, and prevent their drying too fast on a very hot day. It should contain
a little camphor and muslin.

29. Pocket Larva Box. — It is very objectionable except when well lined with
paper. A tin box perforated with holes is better upon the whole.

30. Breeding Cages. — These should have two bottles for the plants to be changed
alternately, and for the larvae to crawl to the fresh herbs. The late Captain
Blomer suggested (through the Rev. W. Yonge) fresh-cut turf and saw-
dust for the bottom of the cages. They should be kept in a cool moist
place, as in a cellar or out- house, during the winter. The bottom to be
covered with fine mould, sand, and rotten wood from old Pollard trees, to
the depth of several inches, and kept moist. Such Moths as are inclosed in
a hard case or shell, as the Puss, Goat Moth, &c, should be carefully freed
from it, as the aperture which the insect naturally makes is so small as not
to permit it to pass without injury. The late Rev. T. Skrimshire, for the
purpose of rearing insects from the egg to the perfect state, had procured a
number of tin boxes, about two inches square, two sides of which, and also
the top and bottom, are of tin perforated with small holes ; the remaining
two are glazed ; and one of the tin sides constitutes a door which slides in
a groove. Twelve of these are placed in a wooden trough, partitioned off
for each box about a quarter of an inch deep, and made perfectly water-
tight. Only one caterpillar, or a brood, is placed in each of these boxes,

N 2

86 HINTS TO YOUNG ENTOMOLOGISTS.

which are numbered. A book is kept numbered to correspond with the
boxes, and in which is entered the history of the insect from the day it is
placed in the box. A little water is placed in each partition of the wooden
trough, which serves to keep the food moist, as also the earth which is put
into the tin boxes, that the caterpillar may undergo its metamorphosis in
the most natural manner. Pupee lay as deep as twelve or thirteen inches
in the earth. If the boxes be sunk into a bed of earth, or a Cucumber frame,
the heat and moisture may accelerate the change. I had S. ocellata bred
very early in this manner.
After a flood examine the rejectamenta. Mr. Skrimshire took several insects
by carrying home two wheel-barrows full and putting their contents into a
large washing-tub ; amongst others some very rare, as Aplwdius plagiatas,
S. quadridens, &c. The north sides of mountains, or thick short Moss, are
the best localities.

31. Mr. Kirby's Plan of killing Insects. — Fix in a small tin saucepan, filled
with boiling water, a tin tube consisting of two pieces that fit into each
other ; cover the mouth of the lower one with a piece of gauze or canvas,
and place your insect upon it ; then fix the upper one over it, and cover also
the mouth of this with gauze ; and the steam from the boiling water will
effectually kill your insects. — Captain Blomer applies the insect to the
steam from the spout of a Tea-kettle.

32. A large hump of Ammonia put into a tin box will quickly kill any Lepi-
dopterous insect [[including the Moth and Butterfly families, &c. — En.] if.
the box shuts close. A piece of paper should be put between the insect and
the ammonia. Put no pin in or it will corrode. The pins used for setting
should be longer than the others.

33. Mr. Denny, of Cambridge, has a piece of cork with grooves for the body
and legs of Moths, and the wings are then set by braces, &c. Introduce a
stalk of hay or a horse-hair into the abdomens of Libellulce [Dragon-flies. —
En.]], or draw a piece of coarse cotton through with a needle two or three
times till quite clean. Then cut it off at both ends.

A glass tube may be used in killing insects, putting the sharp end into the
thorax, and blowing therein some spirits of wine.

See the Magazine of Natural History, Vol. IV., pp. 145, 436, and Vol. VI.,
p. 155.

Rev. Mr. hockeys Flan of taking Insects. — Finally, to revert once more to
the capturing of insects, I may observe, that Mr. Lockey has a double
casement for taking insects by the lamp, so that even in cold weather he may
sit up late at night, and when a Moth comes against the window, by touch-

CORRESPONDENCE. 87

ing a spring the outer window closes, and the Moth, if common, may be
allowed to escape by re-opening it, or, if rare, the inner window is opened,
and the Moth secured.
3-t. This is a kind of quiver for nets.
Glanville's Wootton, Dorsetshire,
Dec. 12, 1837.

FLOWERING PLANTS FOR FEBRUARY.
By Mr. T. B. Hall.

Common Snowdrop, Galanthus nivalis ; Henbit Dead-nettle, or Great Henbit,
Lamium amplexicaule.

£Mr. Hall having favoured us with a list of the flowering plants for each
month in the year, we propose publishing a portion in each succeeding number,
inserting each list in the number of The Naturalist for the month to which the
plants relate, i. e. in which they flower. The catalogues will of course increase
in length till about the middle of the year, when they will gradually wane till
the return of Christmas again deprives the meadows and groves of the charms
of Flora.— Ed.]

CORRESPONDENCE.

Observations on the Bitterns.
To the Editor of The Naturalist.

My dear Sir, — I have just been examining two Bitterns, in the stomach of
me of which I found two Dace, and in the other the remains of some other fish,
together with those of Coleopterous insects, among which I distinguished parts of
Geotrupus stercorarius ; and therefore these birds are more piscivorous than I
was aware of when writing my paper " On the Bitterns" (p. 72). I was also
wrong in asserting that the tame specimens in St. James's Park had become less
nocturnal having been deceived ^by their coming forth so readily at the call of
their feeder. On subsequent occasions, when I have been by myself on the
island, I could never find them, as they were doubtless sitting crouched among
the bushes.

I may further observe, that the Spoonbills and Ibises, besides possessing the

88 CORRESPONDENCE

doubly emarginated sternum of the Scolopacidce £Snipe family. — Ed.], have
ikewise the facicula of the same arched shape, and not anchylosed with the
sternal crest, whereas the contrary is the case with the Storks and Herons.
These four groups also mutually differ in the number of vertebrae, which in
Ardeidae QHeron family. — Ed.] at least, is constant throughout the group.

I remain, yours truly,
North Brixton, Surrey, Edward Blyth.

Dec. 23, 1837.

Glossary of Botanical Terms.

Dear Sir, — Could your Magazine be made the medium of publication of a
glossary of scientific terms for Botany ? I am not aware of any published that
explains Hooker's terms for the last two volumes of his Flora, containing Mosses,
&c. &c, except at the end of Loudon's large work on English and foreign Botany;
and who would buy that for the sake of the glossary ? but an excellent botanist
informs me that it. is the only published list of the terms now in use. He says
he wrote it all out, but my other engagements preclude me from that task.
Can you, therefore, get any one to furnish you with a list, or can you inform
me if I could procure one, as in Cryptogamia I am quite at a stand-still for
want of it.

I remain, dear Sir,

Yours respectfully,
Woodside, Liverpool, T. B. Hall.

Bee. 23, 1837.

QEach number of Maund's Botanist (Groombridge), published monthly, con-
tains a portion of a glossary of botanical terms. Nevertheless, if any competent
zoologist or botanist who can spare the requisite time, will transmit us a glossary
of the technical terms employed in the illustration of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms, the pages of The Naturalist will, in compliance with our corres-
pondent's request, readily be opened to its insertion. — Ed.]

Ornithological Notes.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Sir, — In the fourteenth number of The Naturalist, published in November
last, Mr. Salmon inquires, in the Chapter of Criticism ( Vol. II., p. 423), whether
the Grey Crow ever builds its nest in this neighbourhood ? I am sorry that, from
unforeseen accidents, his question has remained so long unanswered ; nor am I
aware how the mistake could have arisen, unless the careless hurry in which I
wrote gave rise to that as well as to another slip of the pen to which you have

CORRESPONDENCE. 89

affixed your own remarks. The Hooded Crow (Corvus comix) does not, to my
knowledge, build in Lincolnshire. The Carrion Crow (Corvus corone) is the
species alluded to as sitting on the 10th of April. In the same article read Whist-
ling Plover (Charadrius pluvialis) for Stone Thicknee ((Edicnemus crepitans).
Mr. Salmon is most probably right in his remarks on the structure of the King-
fisher's nest, as the one referred to by myself, at page 274, is the only specimen I
have had an opportunity of examining, and which certainly appeared to me to be
a regularly-formed nest. When remarking that it was not very unlike that of a
Thrush, I alluded to the thickness of the walls of the nest, and the clay inter-
mixed with the fishes' bones, and not to the compactness of the structure. — I
hope, in accordance with Mr. Dillon's wish, some further remarks will be made
by your correspondents on the position of the Goldcrest's nest. That it is open
at the top, that it is built sometimes without the appearance of any cordage
whatever, and also that in some positions it only uses the cord of moss partially
is certain ; but that it never uses it entirely to support the nest, I believe I am
not guilty of saying ; though certainly in the cases that I have examined it has
not been so.

Distribution of the Corn Bunting.

Over every part of the North Wold of Lincolnshire the Bunting (Emberiza
miliaria) may be considered a common bird. And though I agree with Dr.
Liverpool that it is a species much overlooked on account of the brown hue of
its plumage, yet I cannot but differ from him in the effect which this produces.
For as far as I can judge, E. miliaria is more frequently mistaken for Alauda
arvensis (for the name of Lark is universally given to this species ; vide also
Jenyns's Ornithology of Cambridgeshire, p. 16) than other brown birds for E.
miliaria ; and to casual observers this would render the species more scarce than
it is in reality. I cannot think either that any comparison can be drawn between
this and the Yellow Bunting (E. citrinella), in as much as the Corn Bunting
is partially migratory, and in a great degree local. During spring this bird is
numerous, particularly frequenting the cut hedge-rows near road-sides in which
single bushes are left standing. From the top-most branch of one of these the
Bunting may be heard pouring forth his song ; when disturbed he flies, or rather
soars, with his tail and wings expanded, and his legs hanging down until he
approaches the next bush ; when commencing his song he rises slowly until he
alights on the highest twig, where he finishes his short but not unmelodious
strain. During July they become comparatively scarce ; probably they retire to
more unfrequented places to breed, for, as Mr. Salmon observes, " they appear
late in their nidification." In the last week of August and during September
the young collect in flocks, and may be found in almost every field in numbers.

90 CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

Every Turnip-field as well as stubble has its share of them settling on the leaves
of that plant. I am not aware what food they obtain from the Turnip. Perhaps
some of your correspondents can give information on this point. In the depth of
winter, and during severe snow-storms, they almost to a bird disappear. In
answer to Dr. Liverpool's query, I should say that the term " common " is not
unaptly given to this species. E. sc/iceniclus and E. nivalis (in this neighbour-
hood), &c. &c, are certainly less numerous, and, excepting during its partial
migrations, it equals, if not exceeds, in number E. citrinella.

Further Notes on Birds.

On Thursday last, Dec. ?, I procured a specimen of the Common Robin, in
which both the wings and tail were white. I believe it to be the same bird I
mentioned in a former number (Vol. II., p. 327), though at that time only the
wings were white. The Grey Crows, Wild Geese, and Fieldfares are more
numerous this year than usual, and arrived rather earlier. The common Wild
Duck, and various other species of water-fowl, seem almost banished from this
part of Lincolnshire, and which, according to Camden, were once so common.
" All this tract over at certain seasons, good God, what store of fowls (to say
nothing of fishes) is here to be found, &c. &c. ...... I mean such as we have no

Latin names for, the very delicate dainties, indeed of service meates for the
demigods."

I remain, yours truly,

Swinhope House, Lincolnshire, R. P. Alington.

Dec. 0, 1837.

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

Mistake in a Communication by the Rev. F. 0. Morris.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.
Dear Sir, — Mr. Morris has mentioned (Vol. II., p. 490) my authority for a
hybrid between the Pheasant and Grouse in Eyton's Rarer British Birds. If
he can prove that J informed him so, I will make him a present of that book
which I never saw ! ! ! I have White's Selborne, where there is a plate like the
above. I may have told him of that, but deny that I did of Eyton's.

I am, dear Sir,

Yours truly,
Glanville's Wootton, Dorsetshire, J- C. Dale.

Dec. 12, 1837.

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM. 91

Critical Remarks on Mr. Dale's Dorsetshire Fauna.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.
My dear Sir, — I could wish that Mr. Dale, in his Dorsetshire Fauna (Vol^
II., p. 171), had entered more into particulars when he speaks of such rare birds
as the Great Auk, &c, occurring in Dorsetshire. He remarks of the Harvest
Mouse that it is " sometimes reddish." Did he ever see it otherwise ? I suspect
not. — I am of opinion that there are no distinguishable characters between the
Rats and Mice.* Taking the Brown Rat and House Mouse as types, the Black
Rat would pertain to the latter, and the little Harvest Mouse to the former ! —
Respecting the Grey Wagtail (M. boarula), I should be glad to know at what
season it is common at Glanville's Wootton. Some breed in Devonshire and
Cornwall.

Yours truly,
North Brixton, Surrey, Edward Blyth.

July 4, 1837-
[Tor some reason unknown to us, the above letter, dated July 4, only came to
hand on the 19th of November! — Ed.]

Extracts from New English Publications.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Sir, — As a reader and an admirer of your interesting Journal, The Naturalist*
I beg to suggest, as an improvement — supposing it to be^agreeable to yourself and
your subscribers — that you should occasionally introduce extracts from new
English books and periodicals. Leaving this point to your consideration,

I am, Sir,

Your obedient servant,

Taunton, Jan. 1, 1838. G. H. Wynne.

fin Vol. II., pp. 395 and 496, our correspondent will find extracts from
English works, and we are constantly on the look-out for scattered notices of
interest in periodicals and newspapers, for our Chapter of Miscellanies. This we
shall continue to do as heretofore. — Ed.]

Brief Reply to Mr. Sweeting.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Sir, — I must really find fault with you for thinking it possible that I could be
in any way offended with my good friend Mr. Sweeting's letter (Vol. II., p. 367).
I have too great esteem for him to entertain towards him any but the most

* This, it will be perceived, relates to a note of our own. — Ed.
VOL. 111. — NO. XVII. 0

9*2 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

kindly spirit. Nor should I hope' to entertain any other feeling towards any one
else, for freely expressing his opinions, however much they might differ from my
own, particularly when expressed as Mr. Sweeting has expressed his. I cer-
tainly do not think that he has answered my remarks ; but let that pass ; your
readers will be able to judge, if they think it worth while to look and see. I am
only sorry that my few remarks should have been so misapprehended as I fear
that at all events to some extent they have been. I know no where a more
enthusiastic an admirer of Nature than Mr. R. H. Sweeting, nor anywhere a
more diligent and proficient student in all that relates to the glorious wonders
of Creation.

I remain,

Yours faithfully,

Doncaster, Dec. 30, 1837, Francis Orpen Morris.

£We have no reason whatever to call in question the truth of Mr. Morris's
statements as given above ; but they have no power of altering our opinion
respecting certain parts of his letter at p. 367 of our second volume. We doubt
not Mr. Sweeting will be satisfied with the explanation of Mr. M. — Ed.]]

PROCEEDINGS OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.

LEEDS ZOOLOGICAL AND BOTANICAL GARDENS.
The Society formed to promote this great ornament and advantage to the
town met on Monday, Dec. 18, at the Philosophical Hall, to receive the Report
of the Provisional Committee, and to decide upon the laws and elect officers. —
John Marshall, Esq., presided, and the attendance of members was exceedingly
respectable. Mr. Eddison, Secretary, read the Report of the Provisional Com-
mittee, which stated, that they had purchased an exceedingly eligible piece of
land between Headingley and Burley, consisting of about twenty acres, for the
sum of £4,300 ; that the subscriptions now approached to £ 10,000 ; that the
production of plans for laying out the Gardens had been offered to public com-
petition, and that the successful competitors, among seventeen, were Mr. Billin-
ton, architect, and Mr. Davis, gardener, both of Wakefield ; that the estimated
cost of laying out the Gardens on this plan would be more than the sum now
subscribed, but that it was earnestly hoped the subscriptions would be so far
increased as to prevent the necessity of any injurious curtailment of the plan.
In conclusion, the Committee congratulated the Society and the town upon the
formation of an establishment which, while they trusted it would contribute to

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

93

the advancement of science, would at the same time afford to all the means of

innocent and healthful recreation. The Report having been received, Mr.

Eddison read over the proposed laws, which were of considerable length, and

which had been digested with much care by the Secretary and the Committee.

They were* afterwards read again seriatim, and passed with some amendments

proposed by Mr. Bond and others. It was determined that at present there

should be no annual subscribers, and that therefore the only persons entitled to

all the privileges of the Gardens should be the shareholders — the shares being of

the value of £10 each. It was also resolved that visitors should be admitted to

the Gardens on payment of a shilling, and children on payment of sixpence ;

and that the Council should be empowered to admit visitors on still lower terms

on particular days of the week, if they thought proper — this being intended to

facilitate the admission of the working classes. "We believe it is intended

. speedily to publish the laws at length. The following are the names of the

Officers and^Council chosen : —

OFFICERS,

President, John Marshall, Esq.

s James Williamson, M.D.

Vice Presidents, . . .-\John Gott, Esq.

'Rev. James Aemitage Rhodes.

Treasurer, Charles Barr, Esq.

'Thomas Pridgin Teale, Esq.

I Thomas Nunneley, Esq.

n . . t? . f H. C. Marshall, Esq.
Curators in Botany,} ' '

(Edward Bond, Esq.

0 . . (Robert Barr, Esq.

secretaries, -J ' ^

(Edwin Eddison, Esq.

Auditors, (Samuel Jowett Birchall, Esq.

(Joseph Henry Ridsdale, Esq.
COUNCIL.

Curators in Zoology,

Mr. Robert Arthington

Mr. Edward Baines, jun.

Mr. Robert Benson

Mr. Edwin Birchall

Mr. Robert Dennis Chantrell

Mr. Robert Derham

Mr. Sparke George

Rev. Joseph Holmes

AdamHunter, M.D.

Mr. Charles Kirkby

Mr. Chas. Gascoigne Maclea

Mr. Robert Perring

Mr. Richard Pyatt

Mr. Hatton Hamer Stansfeld

Mr. Edward Tatham

Dinsey Lander Thorp, M.D-

Mr. William Watson

Mr. William West

Mr. William Wildsmith

Mr. John Wilkinson

Mr. William Willock.

94 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

TRUSTEES.

William Aldam, Esq.'
Edward Baines, Esq., M.P.
William Beckett, Esq.
Thomas Benyon, Esq.
Thomas Blayds, Esq.
Richard Bramley, Esq.
Wm. Williams Brown, Esq.
William Cadman, Esq.
Thomas Clapham, Esq.
George Goodman, Esq.

Benjamin Gott, Esq.
John Heaton, Esq.
James Holdforth, Esq.
James Garth Marshall, Esq.
James Maude, Esq.
William Perfect, Esq.
John Hope Shaw, Esq.
Thomas Tatham, Esq.
Robert Disney Thorp, M.D.
Thomas William Tottie, Esq.

It is extremely desirable that the sum for carrying out the beautiful plan
obtained by the Committee should be raised. Not less than £20,000 will be
required to execute the plan well, and to leave a proper reserve for expenses.
At Sheffield the sum of £23,000 has been raised for the same purpose ; and
surely Leeds ought not to be behind Sheffield. — Leeds Mercury, Dec. 23.

CHELTENHAM HORTICULTURAL AND FLORAL SOCIETY.

This Society held its annual meeting on Tuesday, Dec. 12, when a statement
of the receipts and expenditure was read to the members by the chairman, Major
Nutt. From this statement it appeared, that the income of the last year had
exceeded that of the preceding one by above £20 ; and that, after defraying the
expenses of the exhibition, and the current gratuities, there remianed £35 to be
apportioned as prizes among the successful exhibitors. A proposition was sub-
mitted to the meeting by the secretary of the Gloucestershire Zoological, Botanical,
and Horticultural Society, for uniting the two Societies, and for holding the future
floral exhibitions under the auspices of, and in connection with, that Society. As
this proposition had, however, been brought forward without any previous
intimation of an intention to do so having been given to the members generally, it
was considered advisable to postpone the decision of the matter to a future
meeting, to be specially convened for the purpose ; and in order to give it that
due consideration which a proposition of such importance required, a committee
was appointed to inquire into its practicability, and to confer with the Committee
of the Zoological Society on the subject. — Cheltenham Looker-On, Dec. 16.

CHELTENHAM LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTION.

On Tuesday evening, Dec. 12, Mr. R.Wolseley delivered the first of a short course
of lectures on the science of Mineralogy. In his introduction, the lecturer en-
deavoured to impress upon the members the necessity of their contributing to the
instruction of each other by making known from time to time those principles
and discoveries of science, for the spread and dissemination of which the Institu-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 95

tion of which they were members had been especially formed. For though all
might not be able to serve up the rich banquet of the professor, yet the humble
fare of the noviciate would oftentimes be found highly acceptable to those whose
appetite for knowledge had not been cloyed by the high-seasoned discourses
of the installed philosopher. Having offered some prefatory remarks on the
study of Mineralogy, Mr. Wolseley proceeded to show its connection with, and
relation to, Geology, which was considered as the primary science, inasmuch as
it embraced the entire mass of the Globe, with all its multiform varieties of earths,
minerals, &c. &c. The lecturer here pointed particular attention to the arrange-
ment of these various substances ; and showed how greatly the researches of
scientific men in this department of knowledge had contributed to the comforts
and enjoyments of mankind, of which Coal was instanced as a striking' and
familiar example. He again adverted to Geology as comprehending the study of
the general arrangement of the earth's crust, and of the various series of rocks,
deposits, &c, Mineralogy taking cognizance only of the component parts of the
general mass. Before any advancement could be made in the latter science, it
was indispensable that its leading features or characteristics should be well con-
sidered and understood. He then proceeded to give divisions of the rock and
mineral masses into four classes : — Earthy — Saline — Inflammable — Metals, and to
treat of them under two heads : — the External or Physical, and the Internal or
Chemical. The former he again divided into twenty characteristics, as form,
structure, hardness, colour, &c. &c. ; and in speaking of the latter, he explained
those crystalline forms of most frequent occurrence in the Mineral Kingdom,
showing, that from a system of four simple forms all the compounds of crystals
were obtained. The method of measuring the various angles of crystals by the
goniometer was explained, and the process of dissection so as to arrive at the
primary crystals fully described. The lecture was illustrated by appropriate
diagrams, and by numerous specimens of the various minerals alluded to.

On Tuesday, Dec. 19, Mr. Wolseley delivered the second lecture of his course
on Mineralogy, and took a rapid view of the leading features of the former lecture,
resuming the consideration of his subject by replying to the queries often pro-
pounded by beginners in Geology — " Whence comes it that primitive rocks are
found on the tops of mountains ? and why the same stratified rocks along the
same line of country are found dipping some north and some south ?" Briefly
explaining these phenomena, Mr. Wolseley next proceeded to elucidate the
physical characters, as lustre, colour, &c, of certain minerals, the accidents and
causes producing which were severally described, and a variety of familiar instances
produced in illustration. The lecturer then proceeded to consider and explain
the methods employed for ascertaining the specific gravity of minerals, entered
into a description of the hydrostatic balance and the areometer, and adverted to

96 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

the uses of the blowpipe, and its application generally to the purposes of Mine-
ralogy. A short analysis of the scientific arrangement of minerals into classes,
&C, was given, and the lecturer concluded with a few remarks preparatory to
entering upon the separate description of each mineral, more particularly those
indigenous to our own country.

Mr. Wolseley delivered his third lecture on Mineralogy at this Institu-
tion on December 26. Resuming his subject at the point at which he closed
the preceding lecture, Mr. W. proceeded to consider the specimens found
in the mineral kingdoms, under a classification of nineteen orders, giving
descriptions separately of such individuals as are indigenous to the country.
He noticed the chief physical characteristics of the whole, and the localities
whence they are principally procured, and with what substances generally
combined and associated. He next gave a detail of the uses of such as are
most commonly available to the comforts and wants of man, and entered
into a description of several, particularly of calcareous spar, and the several for-
mations of the carbonate of lime. He then proceeded to describe the several
orders of Ore Metal, Pyrites, &c, giving a history of the species contained under
each order respectively, and more especially of such as are procured in the mines
of this country, and the various uses to which the metals are appropriated. He
examined also the different orders of Gem, Malactrite, Spar, &c. ; and in con-
clusion directed attention to those species which are most frequently met
with in Great Britain, and briefly adverted to the purposes to which they
are applied.

Jan. 2. — Mr. R. Wolseley completed his course of Lectures on Mineralogy
by the delivery of the fourth lecture of the series.

Having in his three preceding discourses treated of the peculiar characteristics
and properties of various minerals separately, explained their classification, and
analysed their constituent properties; Mr. Wolseley, in his present lecture,
proceeded to describe those vast repositories in Nature, whence the greater por-
tion are obtained, and whence, consequently, so much of the wealth of the coun-
try is derived, namely — the mines. These, after a few prefatory remarks, the
lecturer divided into three kinds — Salt, Coal, and Mines of Metallic Ores. He
entered into an interesting and minute description of the Salt-mines, des-
cribed their general depth, and the relative position which they occupy in the
crust of the earth, their extent, and the sum of their annual produce, and pointed
out the localities of a few of the most celebrated. The general history and des-
cription of Coal-mines were next given, and Lodes or Veins described. A mi-
nute account was then given of the principal Iron, Copper, and Lead-mines, and
of the Mines of precious Metals generally, the strata in which the several ores
were found, and the manner in which the mines were worked ; and the lecturer

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 91

concluded with a description of the various'processes employed in dressing and
preparing the different ores for smelting, and finally for the public market.

The attendance upon these lectures has not been throughout so numerous as
we could have wished ; for though the subject was not, possibly, the most popu-
lar that could have been selected, the information which was conveyed was of
that kind which could not fail of interesting a large class of the population of a

country so rich in mineral productions as Great Britain. Cheltenham

Looker-on.

GLOUCESTERSHIRE ZOOLOGICAL, BOTANICAL, AND HORTICUL-
TURAL SOCIETY.

The first annual meeting of this society took place Jan. 1, 1838, at the Ro-
tunda. H. N. Trye, Esq., the High Sheriff of the County, having been called
to the chair, the Secretary proceeded to read the report of the Sub- Committee of
Management, which took a review of the principal objects which during the past
year had engaged the attention of the Managers, and gave a highly satisfactory
account of the progress that had been made in the various works, and the present
state of the Gardens. The Committee having limited their operations to a por-
tion of the design, speak with great confidence of their hope that this portion
will be in a sufficiently advanced state by Spring to justify the opening of the
Gardens on the 24th of May, the anniversary of their commencement and the
birth-day of the Queen. A circumstance was adverted to in connection with the
quality of the soils composing the Gardens, the report of which is of so much
importance to those who are interested in the success and prosperity of the un-
dertaking that we think it cannot be too generally known ; we therefore feel it
incumbent to give the passage alluding to the subject as near as may be in the
precise words of the official document : —

" The Sub-Committee deem it right to inform the Shareholders in this under-
taking, that while engaged in excavating and cutting through the ground for the
insertion of these various drains and watercourses, they had an opportunity
afforded them of verifying the report of the scientific gentlemen who at the for-
mation of this Society examined the ground, for the purpose of ascertaining its
adaptability to the purposes for which it was designed ; the only important
variation from that estimate which they observed being in the extent of the
underlying sand beds throughout the ground, which, they have great pleasure in
stating, were found upon examination to contain a much larger proportion to the
other soils than was at first expected. In these sand beds a number of springs
were discovered, the streams from which have been carefully collected and con-
ducted into the lake, thus securing to that important feature an abundant supply
of fresh water, and thereby rendering the Gardens in some measure independent

98 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

of the means originally secured from the neighbouring spring in Moorend Grove,
and which it has been provided, in the deed of purchase, shall be conducted
through the gardens."

At the conclusion of the Report an abstract of the Society's receipts and dis-
bursements during the year was submitted to the meeting. By this it appeared,
that the former amounted to £2,115, and the latter to £2,054 10s. 8d., includ-
ing a payment of five hundred pounds on account of the purchase money for the
land.

The reading of these official papers being over, Dr. Baron, in a brief congra-
tulatory speech, in which he also alluded to the importance of carrying out the
designs of the society more extensively than appeared yet to have been done, and
especially in respect to the formation of a museum, moved the first resolution
— " That the Report and Financial Statement should be adopted and printed,"
which, having been seconded by the Rev. C. B. Trye, was carried nem. con.

The second resolution, which was one of thanks to the Committee of Manage-
ment for their valuable and gratuitous services, was moved by Dr. Boisragon,
and seconded by Dr. Cannon, both of whom bore testimony to the zeal and
abilities which the gentlemen constituting the Sub-Committee of Management
evinced in carrying out the designs of the Society. The names of the five re-
tiring members of the Committee were then announced by the Secretary, and the
meeting proceeded to elect others to fill their place, when Dr. Cannon, Mr.
Skillicorne, Mr. C. Baker of Painswick, Mr. Billings, and Mr. Bubb were
proposed, and elected without opposition. The appointment of auditors and
other routine business next followed, and the proceedings of the day closed with
a vote of thanks to the Chairman, who acknowledged it in a short address, at the
close of which the meeting separated.

ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Dec. 1. — Mr. Bartlett exhibited two specimens of Gulls he had lately ob-
tained in the London market, one a male of the year, corresponding to Larus
glaucus, Auct., the other a female of the preceding year, intermediate in size
between L. glaucus and L. Islandicus, but which he conceived to be identical
with the first, although a considerable difference existed in the structure of the
breast-bone, which, in the larger and younger bird, would in the course of a few
weeks have become only singly emarginated at its posterior edge, whereas the
other retained two distinct emarginations, as ordinarily observed in this genus.
He was unwilling, till he had examined more specimens, to come to any decision
respecting the special identity of his two birds, but, judging from the specimens
he had examined in the British Museum and Zoological Society's Museum, he
was very much inclined to think that the European L. Islandicus, Auct., was

EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS. 99

respecting the birds, although the American specimen which he had seen
unquestionably constituted a distinct species. He concluded by calling the atten-
tion of the Society particularly to the subject, wishing that those who had
opportunities would endeavour to ascertain whether the bird corresponding to the
American L. leucopterus of Audubon ever occurred in Europe.

EXTRACTS FROM THE FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

ZOOLOGY.

1. On the Anatomy of Pentastoma tcenioides. — Some entozoaries, observes
M. E. C. Miram, have already been studied under the double relations of Ana-
tomy and Zoology : such, especially, as the Trematodes ; but there is yet a great
number of intestinal Worms known only by their external characters. The
cause of this is, partly, their rarity, and also the difficulty of investigating them
anatomically ; this is particularly the case as regards Taenia, Botryocephalust
and other articulated reptiles.""' Yet certain of these intestinal Worms, which
do not present the same difficulties, as, for instance, Pentastoma tcenioides, have
not yet been the objects of accurate research ; hence I here endeavour to present
an anatomical and zoological account of this Worm, which I have often had
occasion to observe in Dogs.

The external description of this animal is already sufficiently known, and I
can only repeat it ; but its anatomy has hitherto been performed in a manner so
little satisfactory (perhaps because it is very rarely found in other countries),
that a more intimate investigation of its organization has led me to considerations
both new and different from those heretofore generally advanced. It is thus that
we shall be enabled to recognize the intimate relations which connect this ani-
mal with Cistoides and Echinorhynchus, and to assign to Trematodes a more
elevated station in the zoological series. Cuvier described in a few words the
nervous system of this "Worm ; but those parts relating to its intestinal canal,
&c, appear to me inaccurate.

Pentastoma tcenioides (Rudolphi) — or Tcenia lanceolata of Chabert — belongs,
according to Rudolphi, to the order Trematodes.

The colour of the living animal is dirty yellow ; it is white after death, but
regains its natural hue when immersed in alcohol.

* It is not clear in what sense M. Miram here employs the words M vers anneUs," and we there-
fore consider it most prudent to translate them as above, so as to include the four tribes character,
ized in the Regne Animal.— "Ed.

VOL. III. — NO. XVII. T

100 EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

The length of the male is from eight to ten lines. That of the female, on the
contrary, is five — or, according to Cuvier, even six — inches. I have further
observed that specimens taken from Wolves are invariably larger than those ob-
tained from Dogs.

As regards the parts in which the Worm lodges, it has been met with in the
frontal sinuses of Dogs, Wolves, Horses, and Mules. The specimens which I
shall describe were also obtained from the frontal sinuses as well as from the
ethmoidal cells of the Wolf and Dog ; I have found them in considerable num-
bers in both these parts, and even in the month of March in the first, while I
have seen them in the latter only in June. I have collected from a Wolf three
females and four males, and from a Dog four of each sex, a circumstance the
more surprising as it is known that the males of most intestinal Worms are very
rare. Diligently as I have sought this animal in Horses, I have never yet suc-
ceeded in finding it. — Annales des Sciences Naturelles, troisieme Annee.

2. On the Mucous Body, or colouring Tissue of the Skin, in the
Charruan Indian, the Negro, and the Mulatto. — M. Flourens (Acad,
des Sciences, Dec. 12, 1836) has profited by the death of two of the Charruan
Indians brought to Paris in 1832, to study their organization, and the special
6bject of his paper is the structure of the mucous tissue of the skin.

After tracing the history and actual state of science on this delicate anatomi-
cal point, M. Flourens announces that he has discovered, between [the flower
skin and the epidermis four distinct layers ; the first placed on the proper skin,
the second containing the colouring matter, and the fourth layer or third mem-
brane placed between the cuticle and the pigmentum, or coloured tissue.

The first of these membranes, continues M. Flourens, that situated under
the dermis, is cellular, and disposed in coats or in net-work.

The second, of the nature or at least of the consistency of ordinary mucous
membranes, is continuous. Its external surface bears the colouring matter. The
internal surface is studded with prolongations traversing the holes of the cellular
membrane, and attached to the dermis.

These prolongations are very remarkable. They form the sheath of the hairs,
pass under their roots, appear to constitute the internal plate of their bulb, and
■only exist where there are hairs.

It should not be forgotten that, at a certain degree of maceration, the pigmen-
tum detaches itself from the membrane of which I have been speaking, and re-
mains attached to the following, which I am about to describe.

The pigmental membrane itself is nearly of equal consistency throughout, and
sufficiently thick to be divided into two leaflets, one of which may be the plates
of Cruikshank ; for Cruikshank has not characterised his plates, a circum-
stance which renders his fine work incomplete.

EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS. 101

Turned back on its external face, and this face being charged with pigmentum,
the membrane obtains, on its internal surface, a bluish tint ; deprived of the
pigmentum, it is yellowish. The cellular or areolar membrane is also of a yel-
lowish hue, but less intense. The epidermis is ash-coloured. The dermis alone
is white.

I have already said that the pigmentum is only a single layer, a covering, a
deposit, and not a membrane.

The membrane which covers it is a true continuous membrane. It is the in-
ternal layer of the cuticle.

M. Flourens has discovered all these parts in the skin of the negro and the
mulatto, and has succeeded in obtaining them by macerations more or less pro-
longed.

In white men this dissection is much more difficult. M. Flourens has there
found a double epidermis, but all his endeavours to discover a mucous body
have been in vain. Whether this mucous body is wanting in the white race,
whether the maceration should be conducted in a different manner, or replaced
by another process, he has failed in discovering between the dermis and cuticle
any other layer than the membrane of the internal epidermis. — Bibliotheque
Universelle de Geneve, premiere Annee.

BOTANY.

3. Sleep of Flowers. — In our last number (Vol. III., p. 42) we left M.
Dutrochet advancing the following statement : — " It might be concluded, since
the expansion of the flower is owing to the turgescence of the cellular tissue of
its nerves, that its closing or its sleep was due to depletion of the same cellular
tissue; but experience proves that such is not the cause of the sleep of the
corolla." We now proceed to supply his reaspns for the above statement.

I separated a nerve of a corolla about to expand, and immersed it in water..
This nerve (curved slightly inwards, as in the corolla while in bud) is powerfully
forced outwards — the mode of incurvation which effects the expansion. Endos-
mose, then, determines the turgescence of the cellular tissue, the organ of this
incurvation. After an immersion of about six hours the nerve ceased its outward
curvation, and began to curve inwards ; in a short time it was entirely rolled
spirally in this new direction, that of incurvation, to which is due the sleep or
closing of the flower. This succession of phenomena is altogether independent
of the action of light. Thus the nerve of the corolla of Mirabilis takes in water
the incurvation which effects the sleep of the flower, and it then takes, after a
certain time, the incurvation which causes the opening of this same flower. If,
then, it is the turgescence of the cellular tissue of the nerves that produces the
incurvation to which the expansion of the corolla is owing, the incurvation t«

r 2

10'2 EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

which the sleep of the corolla is due must be referred to an entirely different
cause ; for it cannot be admitted that there was depletion of the cellular tissue
plunged into the water. The experiment related above proves that it is the
fibrous tissue contained in each nerve of the corolla whicb is the agent of the
inward curvature, the incurvation which causes the sleep or shutting of the
corolla.

It must therefore be acknowledged, that in the nerves of the flowers of
Mirabilis, the incurvation of sleep, or the incurvation of which the concavity is
directed outwards, and which is due to the turgescence of the cellular tissue,
first carries it by its force upon the incurvation of sleep, or that incurvation the
concavity of which is directed towards the interior of the flower, and which is due
to the action of the fibrous tissue ; and that the incurvation of sleep, due to this
latter tissue, becomes finally victorious.

The incurvation outwards, which affects the cellular tissue during the immersion
of the nerve in water, directs the curvature outwards when the nerve is plunged
into syrup ; this proves that here endosmose is the agent. But when the nerve,
immersed in water several hours, has taken the second incurvation — that of sleep
■ — it by no means loses it when transferred to the sjTup. It is, therefore, not
endosmose which occasions the incurvation of sleep.

By reflecting on this singular phenomenon, I was led to believe that it was not
without reason that Nature had lavished respiratory organs on the fibrous tissue,
which is situated between two series of hollow "organs filled with air. Since it
was not by impletion of fluid that the fibrous tissue attained its state of curvature,
it might be by impletion of oxygen. If this suspicion be well founded, the nerve
which is immersed in aerated water, there first adopts outward incurvation, which
is that of opening, and which afterwards takes the inward incurvation, or that
of sleep, this nerve, I say, plunged into non-aeriated water, should always retain
its first outward curvation, which is that of waking, an incurvation due to the
endosmose of the cells of the cellular tissue ; this nerve Avould thus never
exhibit inward curvature, which is that of sleep, and which I believe to be owing
to the oxygenation of the fibrous tissue.

I ought here to observe, that when a thin vegetable substance is immersed in
non-aeriated water, the latter quickly dissolves the air contained in the pneuma-
tic organs of this vegetable substance, and takes the place of this air, so that
there is no longer an}' oxygen in this vegetable matter.

Experience justified my anticipations. The nerve of a corolla of Mirabilis,
immersed in non-aeriated water, took and always retained its incurvation of
waking. An expanded flower which, plunged entirely in aerated water, adopted
after several hours the dormant state, and did not attain this condition in non-
aeriated water, always retained its expanded or waking state.

MISCELLANY. 103

It might perhaps be imagined, that the air contained in the pneumatic organs
of the nerves of the corolla, would act by virtue of its elasticity to produce the
incurvation of sleep, and not by virtue of the chemical action of the oxygen it con-
tains : hence it would be inferred that the incurvation of sleep would not take
place in a corolla plunged in non-aeriated water, which dissolved the air contained
in the pneumatic organs, and which takes its place. But it is not so : experience
has proved to me, that the air never returns into the pneumatic organs occupied
by the water, in the vegetable portions which remain sub-merged. Now, that
does not prevent the corolla of Mirabilis from closing after two or three days,
when the non-aeriated water in which it had been immersed expanded is allowed
to aerate itself by contact with the atmospheric air. It is therefore undoubtedly
by the chemical action of the oxygen dissolved in the water that the fibrous
tissue acquires the power of incurvation which produces the dormant state.
Thus, in the floAver of Mirabilis, the waking and sleeping — that is the opening
and shutting of the corolla — result from the alternately predominant action of the
two organic tissues situated in the nerves of the corolla, and which curve in
opposite directions, e.g. :• — 1. A cellular tissue which inclines to curve outwards,
by impletion of fluid in excess, or by endosmose ; 2. A fibrous tissue which
tends to curve inwards, by oxygenation. — Annates des Sciences Naturettes.

CHAPTER OF MISCELLANIES.

ZOOLOGY.

Egg of the Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus, Linn.). — How is it that the egg of
the Cuckoo, though large compared with those of the bird in whose nest it is
deposited, takes only the same time for incubation ? This is a curious subject,
and one on which I should be glad to have even the conjectures of others.
Wilson mentions a similar fact with respect to the egg of the Cow Bunting of
America, but does not give any solution of the cause. — B. It. Morris, Charmoutk,
Dorsetshire, Dec. 17, 1837. — [[Although as a general rule the largest eggs require
longest incubation, there are many exceptions to the law. For instance, the eggs
of the Goose and Duck — though differing very considerably in size — are hatched
in a similar period. Probably the relative thickness of the shell, or the quality
of the yolk, may have some influence ; but we merely throw this out, as desired
by our correspondent, in the way of " conjecture." — Ed. J

Notes on Birds met with near Plymouth. — The following birds have been
found near Plymouth, to the mild climate of which neighbourhood the appear-

104 MISCELLANY.

ance of some species is to be ascribed. Such casual notes on species may afford
aid to the more general observers, and help to complete the British Ornithology : —

The Sparrow Hawk (Falco nisus, Linn.) is very plentiful and mischievous.
Kestril (Falco tinnunculus, Linn.) not uncommon in autumn ; it is generally
seen skimming along one side of a hedge, and then in the contrary direction on
the other side, in search of prey. The Hooded Crow (Corvus comix, Linn.),
frequent in winter, but departs in spring. The Cornish Chough \_Fregilus gra-
culus. — Ed.|] is often observed, but is by no means so common as further west-
ward. In the mild January of 1796 (as I am told by one who remembered it)
a Cuckoo was heard repeatedly in the grounds of Mount Edgcombe. The Swallow,
the Bank Swallow, and the Swift are common. I have been told that there is
often seen a species of Wren called the " White Wren,"* but it is a bird of passage
only. The Godwit, or Redstreak £Qu. Limosa rvfa or L. melanura ? — Ed.^], is
common, as well as the Lapwing in the season. The Grey Plover is occasionally
seen. The Dabchick and Dobchick (Grebes) are plentiful. The greater and
Lesser Terns, and the Gannet, are common. The Heron is abundant on the
Tamer. The common sea-birds are in great plenty. The Woodcock is not so
common as further to the westward, but in ordinary seasons is very far from
being scarce. The Ash-coloured Harrier is seen but seldom. The great mildness
of the climate makes this part of Devonshire the resort of species emigrating from
the north in very genial seasons, when many do not perhaps go beyond this part
of England at all. — C. Redding, Lichfield, Nov. 20, 1837.

Notes on the Neighbourhood of Godalming. — The vale of Godalming is
considered to embrace one of the most delightful views in the kingdom ; and from
the few opportunities I have hitherto had of judging, I should think that in the
spring it must realize all that has been said in its favour. The 16th instant
being fine, I was induced to take a ramble, principally with a view of gathering
for my friends in Norfolk specimens of one of our most beautiful native ever-
greens, Ruscus aculeatus, to commemorate the approaching joyous season of
Christmas. As I was pushing my way amidst the briars and brambles, I
chanced to stumble upon an interesting incident in the shape of a little ball of
grass curiously interwoven, lying on the ground. It was about eight inches in
circumference, and on taking it up I soon ascertained, by the faint sound emitted
from the interior (on my handling it), that it contained a prisoner. I bore my
prize homeward for examination, and on making a slight opening, immediately
issued forth one of those beautiful little creatures the Dormouse (Myoxus avel-
lanarius). The heat of my hand, and the warmth of the room had completely

* This is perhaps a provincial name for the Whitebreasted Fauvet {Ficedula garrula), or
"Lesser Whitethroat" of some authors.— Ed.

MISCELLANY. 106

Tevived it from its torpor; it appeared to enjoy its transition by nimbly scaling
every part of the furniture in all directions. It experienced no difficulty in
either ascending or descending the polished backs of the chairs, and when I
attempted to secure it it leaped from chair to chair with astonishing agility for so
small a .creature. On taking it into my hand, it shewed not the least disposition
to resent the liberty ; on the contrary it was very docile. On being set at liberty
it sprang at least two yards on to a table. I was much gratified in witnessing
its agile movements. In the evening I placed my little stranger with its original
domicile in a box, of which on the following morning I found it had taken pos-
session, and again relapsed into a state of torpidity, in which condition I transferred
my unconscious sleeper to a friend. I should think that by some accident its
domicile had been displaced from the original situation, which was the cause of my
finding it upon the surface of the ground, — J. I). Salmon, Godalming, Surrey,
Bee. 23, 1837.

Instances op the Capture op Vanessa antiope. — In Captain Blomer's
Journal, under the date of June 1, 1833, he mentions having met with the Rev.
Mr. Walker, who told him of having seen a flight of Vanessa antiope pass over
near Cheltenham, and that he took a few of them. Mr. Spragge took one near
Chard in 1834, and Mr. Baker another ( $ ) at Bridgewater. One was seen in
company with V. atalanta and V. to, flying over and settling on an empty sugar-
cask in a grocer's yard there. — J. C. Dale, Glanville's Wootton, Dorsetshire,
July 9, 1837.

Remarkable Fact. — In the early part of last week, whilst a servant belong-
ing to Rowland Hibbert, Esq., of Lamb-Hill, near Sheffield, was brushing a
hedge, he took off a bough which supported a Yellow Bunting's nest, and
found four eggs therein in a forward state of incubation. — Doncaster Gazette,
Jan. 12, 1838. — QThat a bird seldom known, by the most experienced observers,
to hatch before the beginning of June, or, at earliest, the latter end of May,
should be possessed of a brood in the middle of a severe January, is indeed a
" remarkable fact " — too remarkable, we think, for our readers to swallow with-
out some doubts. We scarcely know what to make of several other newspaper
accounts of Sparrows and Redbreasts building during the same month, while the
snow was thick on the ground, unless we may suppose it to be a " wise
ordination of providence," to husband the latent heat in their little frames !
These, however, are birds which will always breed early when a favourable
opportunity offers ; but that a species which, like the Yellow Bunting, over
whose family affairs variation of climate has no control, should, all on a sudden,
be possessed with the desire of introducing its offspring into the world for the .
express purpose, as it were, of being starved to death — or, mayhap, of enlivening
th« «olumn9 of a provincial paper at Christmas-time ! — at least requires further

106 MISCELLANY.

confirmation than the above anonymous notice. Man is too apt to judge hastily
of a thing which he has not himself had an opportunity to verify, and to
think that because it is remarkable it must necessarily be absurd — as if nothing
unusual were ever likely to happen. We, however, do not undertake to deny
the truth of the above " remarkable fact," but, finding in our brain no explana-
tion of the circumstance, either practical or theoretical, we trust we shall be
excused if w e remain sceptical for the present. — En.^

The Blood of Quadrupeds poisonous to Birds. — If blood with circular
particles be injected into the vessels of an animal whose blood- corpuscles are
elliptical, the most violent effects are instantly produced ; such blood acts upon
the nervous system like the strongest poisons ; and death usually follows with
extreme rapidity after the injection of a very small quantity. Thus, if a few
drops of the blood of a Sheep be injected into the vessels of a bird, the bird is
killed instantaneously. It is very remarkable that the blood of mammalia should
be thus fatal to the bird. The effect cannot be dependent on an}' mechanical
principle. The injection of a fluid with particles the diameter of which is
greater than that of the papillary blood-vessels, would of course destroy life by
stopping the circulation ; but the blood-corpuscles of the mammalia are much
smaller than those of the bird ; yet the Pigeon is killed by a few drops of mam-
miferous blood ; and the blood of the fish is rapidly fatal to all the mammalia as
well as to birds. — Dr. Southwood Smith's Philosophy of Health, Vol. II., p>. 430.

Prize-Essays on the Turnip-fly. — In Vol. III., p. 45, a correspondent
makes inquiry with regard to prize essays on the Turnip-fly. Last summer
twelvemonths the Saffron Walden Agricultural Society offered two prizes of £50
each, one for the best description of the economy and structure of the Turnip-fly,
the other for the best essay on the mode of destroying this insect. I heard from
a friend at Walden the other day, and he tells me that the prizes have not- yet
been adjudged. Further particulars can be obtained on this subject from Mr.
Joshua Clarke, Saffron Walden, Essex. — Edwin Lankester, Campsall, near
Doncaster, Jan. 12, 1838.

The Hen Harrier near Scarborough. — Specimens of this bird are repeatedly
shot on the moors near Scarborough. They also breed there. One was very
recently brought to me by Mr. Smith, gamekeeper at Hackness. — Patrick
Hawkridge, Scarborough, Aug. 7, 1837.

Wild Swans near Ayr. — On Thursday last, a flock of nearly thirty Wild
Swans were observed flying in a very compact body, and almost within gun-shot
of the town of Ayr, directing their course southward, with the intention, perhaps,
of visiting, during the winter months, some of the farms situate in our inland
mountains. These feathered strangers inhabit the northern regions of the globe,
and seldom leave those inhospitable climes to visit more southern latitudes, un-

MISCELLANY. 107

less compelled by the severity of the winter. The Wild Swan has been poetically
called " the peaceful monarch of the lake," because he does not prey upon any
of the feathered tribe, living wholly upon roots, seeds, and small insects, and
fears no foe that wings the sky. From these birds making their appearance in
our country at this period of the year, it no doubt indicates that winter has com-
menced in their northern home with much intensity, and consequently there is
some probability that we shall experience a very hard and inclement season. In
the winter of 1835, three of these gigantic birds were killed at a single shot by a
person in the parish of Ochiltree. — Ayr Observer, Dec, 1837.

Addition to the Lancashire Faun a. — Mr. Scaife states, in the Magazine of
Natural History for October, 1837, that two specimens of Totanus ochropus [[the
Greenshank Sandpiper. — Ed.] were shot near Blackburn, in Lancashire, in July
and August, 1837- This species was omitted in my " Catalogue of Birds found
in Lancashire" (Vol. II., p. 349). — Peteb Rylands, Bewsey House, near
Warrington, Bee. 26, 1837-

The Season. — Last week, a Strawberry, full ripe, was gathered in the gar-
den of Mr. John Holme, Bellvue, West Derby. — Preston Observer. — As a proof
of the mildness of the season, a Gooseberry bush in the garden of Mr. Bothwell,
Greenbank, is covered not only with buds, but exhibits some well-formed ber-
ries. Many of the bushes in the garden are in the same state. Such a circum-
stance at this season is almost, we believe, without a precedent. — Aberdeen He-
rald.— A Robin's nest with four eggs has been recently discovered in a flue in the
county Lunatic Asylum. The nest, with three of the eggs, is now to be seen at
the Cross Keys Inn. — Bedford Beacon. — A Whin Chat's nest with twelve eggs
was found in Carrock Fell on Christmas-day by two boys. — Cowslips were last
week plucked in the neighbourhood of Norton, Yorkshire, and a Fig-tree at
the Lord Seaham Inn, near Hartlepool, is now bearing fruit, being the third
crop. — A Salisbury correspondent of a local paper relates that whilst walking in
his garden on Christmas-day he observed a very beautiful yellow Butterfly, as
full of activity as in the month of June. — Doncaster Gazette, Jan. 5, 1838. —
[On the very day after the publication of the preceding paragraph in the Don-
caster Gazette, the thermometer fell, according to Mr. Murphy's prophecy, below
the freezing point, and continued to sink for a fortnight, with little intermission;,
at once blighting the hopes of those who, from age, illness, or other circumstances,
had both desired and anticipated an extraordinarily mild winter. All indica-
tions of the mildness of the season have, accordingly, entirely vanished as regards
the animal and vegetable kingdoms. — Ed.]

The Sense of Taste in Birds. — The seat of every sense is variously modi-
fied to suit the habits of the animal. Those birds which obtain their food by

vol. in. — NO. XVII. Q

108 MISCELLANY.

probing the mud — where they cannot see or smell their prey — are probably
guided to it by the sense of taste, which resides in the soft and delicate mem-
brane extended over the bill, and which is very plentifully supplied with nerves.
Such are the Ducks, Snipes, &c, and these birds alone can be said to have a true
sense of taste. Ornithorhynchus paradoxus also has its bill covered with a highly
organized membrane in the same way, and this probably performs a similar
office for it that it does for the birds above-mentioned. — Beverley R. Morris,
Charmouth, Dorsetshire, Dec. 17, 1837.

How to find the Larvae of Tortrix. — The larva? of some species of Tor-
trix may be found in winter by splitting open Teazle-heads. — J. C. Dale, Glan-
ville's Wootton, Dorsetshire, Dec. 12, 1837.

Butterfly seen on Christmas-Day. — On Christmas-day the thermometer
stood at Gl°, and a neighbour informs me that he saw a large coloured Butter-
fly flying about in the church. I do not know what species this was — probably
Vanessa polychloros. I have seen it at a lower temperature in March. — Edwin
Lankester, Campsall, near Doncaster, Jan. 12, 1838.

Phrenological Society of Warrington. — With unfeigned pleasure we take
this early opportunity of announcing the recent formation of a Phrenological So-
ciety at Warrington — especially after the confessions of a learned physician at
the late meeting of the British Association, held in the same county. Phreno-
logy has no longer cause for alarm : it rests on a sure basis, and interested or
blind opposition will but serve to increase, if possible, the zeal of its numerous
advocates. Even the most timid of its supporters no longer fear openly to avow
their belief in this science, and although it can no more be expected that every
man should be a phrenologist, than that we should all be chemists or naturalists,
yet the time rapidly advances when he who still persists — despite the astounding
mass of facts and arguments which court his attention — in opposing its grand
truths, will be considered too ignorant or too bigoted to merit notice. When
Metaphysics issued its mystic theories and vague speculations — alike destitute
of beauty and of truth — when the most ordinary indications of character puzzled
the brains of the wisest philosophers — what wonder if few felt inclined to wander
through a fog so appalling in its density ! But now that almost every difficulty
is cleared away — since there is a system which not only explains anomalies here-
tofore inexplicable, but which can indicate, with the utmost minuteness, every
shade of character — who will venture to affirm that he should not be the better
for an acquaintance with at least the general principles of Phrenology ? A phre-
nologist, in the true acceptation of the term, is not a mere believer in the " ge-
neral principles," but one who has studied it long and ardently, from every source
within reach. We repeat, therefore, that it is impossible for the whole human

MISCELLANY. 100

race to become phrenologists ; but that it is desirable to possess a general know-
ledge of the laws which govern both mind and body — though at present not
generally acknowledged — is, on reflection, too obvious to require enforcement.

We have not yet been favoured with the rules of the Warrington Phrenological
Society ; but we may observe that Mr. Hewett Cottbell Watson, Editor of
the Phrenological Journal, Mr. Neville Wood, and other gentlemen known to
be warm advocates of Phrenology, have been elected Honorary Corresponding
Members. We trust, ere long, to be able to report the proceedings of the Insti-
tution.— Ed.

Crambus aridellus. — In the Linnsean Cabinet is a specimen named C. rosclla
(var. of C. lutulus ?), which is, I think, the same as Mr. Bentley's. Mr. Stone
took it on the ceiling of a house at Darenth Wood, Kent, July 6, many years
since. — J. C Dale, Glanville's Wootton, Dorsetshire, July 9, 1837.

Nidification of the Mabtin Swallow (Hirundo urbica, Linn.) — During
the past summer I observed at Thetford rather a singular deviation from the
general economy of the Martin. A pair of these birds, instead of building their
usual nest of mud, which Shakspeare has so characteristically described in Mac-
beth, occupied a hole in the cornice that ran under the eaves of a house. At no
great distance a pair of Swifts occupied a similar situation. The Martin is there
by no means numerous, and but very few nests are to be seen in that town. Its
congener the Sand Martin, on the contrary, is very abundant ; several hundreds
of pairs may be seen occupying the different chalk-pits, piercing the low sandy
portions of the strata with their numerous perforations. — J. D. Salmon, Godal-
ming, Surrey, Dec. 23, 1837.

Scarcity op the Merlin Falcon (Falco cesalon) near Scarborough. —
This bird is here equally scarce with the Hobby Falcon. The Scarborough Mu-
seum contains one specimen ; and another was shot near Belle-vue on the 1 9th
of last May. — Patrick Hawkridge, Scarborough, Aug. 7, 1837-

Pontia callidice. — When I was at Cambridge, at the meeting of the British
Association, Mr. Power, of Clare Hall, showed me a specimen of Pontia calli-
dice (<i? ?), a variety of the one I had from Dr. Abbott, which was ticketed P.
glacialis, 1844. Mr. Poweb said his specimen was given to him by his uncle,
and that is all he knows about it. —J. C. Dale, Glanville's Wootton, Dorsetshire,
July 9, 1837.

A Species of Calosoma taken in Devonshibe. — I had a Calosoma from the
late Dr. Tuckeb, which was in his cabinet as C. inquisitor, but it is quite dis-
tinct, although unnoticed by the late Dr. Leach, who frequently saw Dr.
Tucker's collection. It was probably taken at Tavistock or Ashburton, Devon-
shire.— Id.

The Dalmatian Kinglet (Regulus modestus, Gould). — Mr. Gould ob-

110 MISCELLANY.

serves, in the twelfth part of his Birds of Europe, — " A single specimen of this
interesting little bird has been sent us by the Baron De Feldegg, of Frankfort,
to whom our acknowledgments are due, not only for this instance of his liberality
in consigning to our care, at the risk of loss and injury, a bird probably unique
in the collections of Europe, but for many similar instances of disinterested gene-
rosity.— The only history of this bird which we have been able to collect, was
that written on the label attached to it by the gentleman above-mentioned, arid
is as follows : — ' I shot this bird, which on dissection proved to be a male, in
Dalmatia, in the year 1829.' Its most conspicuous characters are the three yel-
low stripes which ornament the head ; the brighter and most highly-coloured of
these marks, contrary to what obtains in any of the other lieguli, being that
over each eye, while the coronal stripe is palest, and consists of feathers similar
in length to those which cover the rest of the head." The same bird is, very
judiciously, figured in two different attitudes, " to exhibit more clearly its cha-
racters and colouring." The lower figure is a perfect gem. — Analyst for January,
1838, No. xxii., Vol. VII., p. 261.

• Importance of Phrenology to Naturalists. — We conceive that Compara-
tive (or Animal) Phrenology ought to enter into the plan of every zoological
periodical ; for surely the mental characteristics of animals, as indicated by theii
habits and organization, must afford a subject of study to a philosophical natu-
ralist at least equally interesting as is an examination of the various colours in
the feathers of birds, or the shape and size of their toes and bills ; or an enume-
ration of the number of teeth in the jaws, or bones in the tails of quadrupeds.
But whatever interest Animal Phrenology might afford to philosophical natural-
ists, the fact is that zoologists pay no attention to it as yet ; and the Magazine
of Zoology, as far as we remember, has never alluded to the subject. Still, the
phrenological gleaner may occasionally find a few grains of corn for himself,, and
we have introduced this slight notice of the work for the purpose of presenting
one of these grains to our own readers, as a striking illustration of the influence of
external circumstances in modifying the habits of animals. Every boy in Eng-
land is aware of the shyness or timidity of the persecuted Magpie ; indeed, so
.great is the caution of these birds in some districts, that an inexpert marksman
finds it difficult to approach within his own gunshot distance of them ; yet we
have only to cross a narrow sea, for the opportunity of studying the character of
the Magpie in a totally opposite condition with respect to timidity ; and we
should be glad if any of our ornithological friends could compare the skulls of
English and Norwegian Magpies, so as to ascertain whether the difference of
habit is not accompanied by some difference in cranial configuration. In an ar-
ticle on the Ornithology of Norway, in the number of the Magazine above-men-
tioned, Mr. Hewitson thus speaks of this species : " The Magpie is one of the

MISCELLANY. Ill

most abundant, as well as most interesting, of the Norwegian birds, — noted for
its sly cunning habits here, its altered demeanour there is the more remarkable.
It is upon the most familiar terms with the inhabitants, picking close about the
doors, and sometimes walking inside their houses. It abounds in the town of
Drontheim, making its nest upon the churches and warehouses. We saw as
many as a dozen of them at one time seated upon the grave-stones in the church-
yard. Few farm-houses are without several of them breeding under the eaves,
their nests supported by the spout. In some trees close to houses, their nests
were several feet in depth, the accumulation of years of undisturbed and quiet
possession."

Besides affording us an example of the effect of human treatment in developing
the instincts of birds, there is a second application of this passage to Phrenology.
It will be observed that the writer of the passage alludes to the " sly cunning
habits " of the Magpie in this country, and then, by way of contrast, makes a
statement in proof of less timidity being manifested in Norway, without the
slightest mention of any habit evincing less shyness or cunning. It is obvious
rom this confounding of two very different feelings — cunning and timidity (Se-
cretiveness and Cautiousness) — that a good ornithologist, accustomed to observe
the habits of birds, will blunder in his explanation of them, unless in possession of
some analytical key to the mental faculties, such as is afforded by Phrenology
£and by it alone. — Ed. Nat.~\. We are surprised it should not at once have
occurred to Mr. Hewitson, that the domestic animal, of all others, most habi-
tually the inmate of our houses, is also the most sly and cunning of our tamed
animals : we mean the Cat. We are -disposed to believe that the slyness or
cunning of the Magpie aids the bird in appreciating the amount of danger, and
thus indirectly renders it venturesome where it is safe to venture. The Magpie
is an observant bird ; and its habits, which are usually denominated cunning or
sly, appear to spring from the feeling of Secretiveness combined with intellectual
observation — Individuality or Eventuality. — Phrenological Journal, Dec, 1838,
No. liv., Vol. XI., p. 67—8.

Sayings and Doings of Skaters. — At this frigid season, — when we trust all
such of our readers as are not incapacitated by sickness or other misfortunes —
amongst which we shall class want of leisure — are enjoying the sports of the
ice, we shall be excused for introducing a few observations on that active
species of animal known as the skater. A thorough-bred skater is the
most miserable creature imaginable in a " black frost," or during the inflic-
tion of a week's fall of snow; insomuch that none but the initiated would
believe that the being now crawling, at Tortoise-pace, through the white
mantle overspreading the earth far and wide, could by any possibility quicken
his progression. And, probably, no more he could to-day. But on the mor-
row the thermometer sinks to 14°; then behold him, all activity, on the

112 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

smooth extensive ice, leaving his ' yesterday's host of ridiculing friends to wonder
what in the world could have wrought this wonderful change, and rendered the
ci-devant Tortoise a very Hare on skates ! He who, but a few hours ago, could
scarce prevent his nose from freezing at a temperature of 32°., is now complain-
ing— with the thermometer at 14° in the shade — of the extreme sultriness of the
day, and after vainly seeking a refreshing zephyr in some sheltered nook, throws
himself down upon the first accommodation that meets his view. It is truly sur-
prising to witness the zeal which actuates individuals of all classes on the ice.
Men otherwise considered lazy in a physical point of view, will buckle on their
gkates and glide and twist and whirl away for hours together, with little appa-
rent fatigue. When we consider that such persons scarcely know what it is to
feel cold — that is, as long as the ice lasts — while others are shivering beside
warm fires, we think every healthy man ought to keep his skates in full employ-
ment while he has the opportunity. Regarding the matter of cold, a skating
friend of ours having occasion, once upon a time, when the thermometer stood
many degrees below the freezing point, to walk several miles, observed that he
would postpone his journey till the cool of the evening ! — We might extend our
skating reminiscences almost ad infinitum ; but, having already occupied more
space on the subject than we can well spare, must postpone any further ob-
servations we might be disposed to make upon the physical, moral, and intellec-
tual advantages of this recreation to a future opportunity. — Ed.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

Considerations on Modern Theories of Geology; and their Consistency- or
Inconsistency with the Scriptures. By Thomas Gisborne, M.A., Prebendary of
Durham. London : T. Cadell, Strand ; W. Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh.
1837. 8vo. pp. 61.

We have previously announced the publication of this pamphlet, but have
hitherto had no opportunity of reviewing it — a task we shall now briefly
discharge.

There are three classes of belief as regards the science of Geology. Firstly,
those who abjure it in toto, as altogether subversive of the Scriptures ; secondly,
those who adopt the facts, but reject the theories of geologists ; and thirdly, those
who make every thing give way to their geological theories. To these we
may add the divines who would cause every geological theory to rest upon
scriptural authority, either with or without consulting geological facts. To this
latter class we may refer the author of the pamphlet before us, who wishes all
theories — if he feels such to be desirable at all — to hinge upon scriptural authority ;

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 113

but at the same time he does not disdain to consult the facts of Geology. For
our own part, we uncompromisingly profess to appertain to a fifth and very small
class, namely, that which rests its belief on the test of reason and experience
conjoined. Seeing that it is next to impossible implicitly to believe every thing
advanced in the Bible — considering the metaphorical language in which much of
the Sacred Volume is written, and, above all, the notorious errors of the trans-
lators, we would ask, whether it is more rational to place unconditional reliance
on every passage of the Bible, or to submit the whole to the severe test of reason ?
Doubtless mistakes may occur even in this manner — nay more, they must happen,
since on almost every point there will, in the first instance, be difference of
opinion. But the most powerful intellects will, of course, in the long run, "carry
the day," and convince their inferiors in intellect — not by dogmatism but by
argument — of the rectitude of their views. Men who make it an affair of con-
science to believe all that they read in the Bible, because their clerical instructors
have ordered them to do so, are either little gifted with reasoning powers, or their
education must have lamentably depressed their intellects. Such individuals
cannot truly be said to have any belief of their own — since their " articles of
faith" — for the holding of which they can assign no sufficient reason — are forced
upon them, and this inforcement is not the less arbitrary because it falls insensi-
bly upon an individual unconscious of its baneful effects.

Further, although the New Testament forms an inestimable code of morality,
assuredly the Old Testament was never intended to teach science to this or any
other age. Moses did not write to impart Physics, and the Bible is not the
book to which any sensible man would repair for even the rudiments of science.
Let geologists, if they will, form geological theories from the facts collected by
themselves and their brethren ; no book can so well assist them in their inquiries
as the Book of Nature — the fountain, the pure, inexhaustible source, which can
never be consulted without advantage, because it interprets — so far as we can at
present understand them — the laws of God as applied to Creation.

Even supposing Mr. Gisborne to have shown the falsity of some of the
theories propounded by geologists of eminence — and in some cases we think he
has succeeded — that is no reason why we should not indulge in geological specu-
lation in some degree and in a certain manner. If we make no use of the mass
of facts collected by observers, we inevitably remain ignorant of some of the most
interesting and important circumstances. Rash speculators in Geology ar eas mis-
chievous and as numerous as rash speculators in any other science ; but rational
theories, deduced from a sufficient number of well-attested facts, in process of
time become to be considered undeniable truths ; and if, when a mass of testimony
so convincing and overwhelming that it converts the veriest^sceptic that ever
was born, can be adduced to substantiate what was once considered, perhaps not

114 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS

wholly without justice, a vague speculation, surely the speculative mode of
procedure and of investigation, always amply supported by, and based on, well-
known truths , will not be discarded as dangerous, but must, on the contrary,
by the enlightened and intelligent, be considered as orthodox a process of the
mind as direct observation. Doubtless we are intended thus to act to the extent
of our ability, and the true philosopher will never rest satisfied with discovering
what every one may ascertain for himself, but, soaring immeasurably above
the range of ordinary intellects, discovers the laws by which the universe is
governed.

Shall we be told that such men, self-conceited and arrogant," despise the
Scriptures, lay aside Revelation, or become atheists? We may be answered in
the affirmative, and unquestionably some of the most eminent scientific men have
been called atheists. But we reject the imputation with scorn. A scientific
man may be an atheist, but does it hence follow that his knowledge of science
deprived him of his belief in the Deity ? Assuredly not ; for although an indivi-
dual so organized as to be incapable of conceiving the existence of an Almighty
Governor of the Universe may advance to the first rank in science or literature,
yet, to a mind more happily constituted, every additional fact learned or discovered
only serves to substantiate his belief in the one only true God, and to raise his
thoughts in wonder and admiration to the symmetry and presiding intelligence
observable alike in the minutest and apparently most trifling object in Nature and
the most sublime ornament of Creation.

We do not mean to say that a belief in God and scientific knowledge by any
means necessarily go hand in hand, since the latter may be prosecuted in a
manner altogether independent of the former-; but when they are investigated
jointly, the one will be found to assist the other to a degree on the outset little
calculated.

We object, therefore, both to refusing credence to speculations because they are
such, and to undervaluing all modern theories ; and, with humble and profound
reverence for the Scriptures, properly studied, cannot but deprecate the false phi-
losophy of endeavouring to learn science from the Bible, and, above all, the absurd
method of remaining satisfied with that source alone, while looking down upon
those who advance further, or proceed in a different manner, as atheists and
impostors — terms which, while they frequently and generally fail to injure those
eminent individuals at whom they are aimed, rebound with tenfold force upon
the ignorant multitude ever ready to detract from the justly-earned laurels of
their superiors in intellectual, moral, and physical excellence.

Of Mr. Gisborne's pages we have little further to add ; but we consider them
deserving of perusal, though we would not recommend implicit reliance on any
thing but reason, from whatever quarter emanating.

W0f6 r**- teat^r^s #s^£&

THE NATURALIST.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

With Illustrations and Suggestions.

By Edwin Lees, F.L.S.

I feel disposed on the present occasion to assume the garb of " Dr. Dryasdust,"
and to enter upon a dissertation wherein my opinions may, perhaps, meet with
disapproval by some equally competent to form a judgment as myself, rather than
to journey on at this moment, amidst scenes tenanted by birds, insects, and
flowers, where there could be no jarring string. Good, however, is frequently
effected by the disclosures an argument calls forth, just as a fossil unexpectedly
appears in a rock one might be breaking-up without such an object in view. If,
therefore, I should tempt any abler pen to take up this subject, I shall rejoice,
even if my own ideas should appear to be unsustained.

Among the various oracular dicta that in this teeming age of useful and enter-
taining knowledge have resounded in the public ear, till they have been supposed
unassailable truisms, the " popularity " of Natural History has surely appeared
not the least prominent. It seems, indeed, almost treasonable to doubt it ; but
by what test are we to try the truth of this assumed popularity ? If I am
referred to the various societies formed professedly to promote the study of
Natural History, I answer these are assemblages of its votaries^ formed for the
facility of communication with each other, and, the public being excluded, these
(were they even more numerous than they are) would be by no means decisive
of the universality of the taste for the pursuit in question. If I am referred to
the numerous works published on the subject within the last few years, it must
be distinctly shown, that all these have remunerated their authors and publishers
before I shall feel satisfied that a case has been made out perfectly satisfactory as
to the general approval of works of this description by a " discerning public."
This point may, perhaps, be discussed hereafter.

But surely I think I hear it exclaimed, the objects embraced by Natural
History must be "popular" — they are open to every one, the prince and the
peasant, and present their charms alike to all. Assuredly ! and I admit at once
that the objects taken up by Natural History are popular ; the most insensible
ploughman puts his hand to his hat for a moment to mark the Lark rising to
heaven's gate on the first vernal day — the most rigid votary of 'Change in the
pent-up city, snuffs up with delight the scent of the first delicious odour of the

vol. hi. — NO. XVIII. k

116 ON THE POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

Violet-bed. But the same ploughman would not hesitate to express his surprize
if he saw you near the nest of the Lark with any other intention than that of-
taking it ; and the merchant would stare if referred from his ledger to study
Lixdley's Natural System of Botany for the place of the Violet.

It is within my own experience, and I doubt not of almost every practical
naturalist, whatever branch he may especially favour, that the tables are quite
turned as soon as you leave general assertions of the " beauty of Nature," and
perhaps interesting facts and anecdotes respecting plants and animals, to touch
upon the scientific part of the subject. Not a mortal man exists with whom you
can by possibility come in contact, but bores you with that eternal theme the
state of the weather, its changes and its indications, nay, perhaps the oracular
observation has been made that " the glass has risen," but attempt to discuss
the various forms of cloud, and the minutiae of those phenomena on which the
state of the weather depends, and you soon find all interest subside, and it too
soon appears that Meteorology is considered a dry subject. If Zoology/Ornithology,
Entomology, or Botany, be tested in a similar way with reference to the general
feeling on the subject, how few will be able to comprehend their details, or name
scientifically the animal, bird, insect, or plant presented to their inspection. How
superficial, then, must be this gold-leaf " popularity " which the slightest rub
effaces ; for if Natural History were really popular in the proper sense of the
term, its study would be general, and its terms " familiar as household words."

It becomes necessary then to submit the subject to careful -analysis, that all
incongruities may be removed, and that it may be clearly perceptible what
portion of it really meets the general plaudit, and what rather appertains to the
comparative few, and thus perhaps an intermediate path of utility may be
descried. I shall therefore propose a division of

I. Popular Natural History.

II. Scientific Natural History.

In discussing the first, I must premise that I mean it to include a description
of, or reference to those objects of Nature which meet the universal eye, and of
course must obviously more or less be within the observation of every one, in
language which requires no glossary to unlock its meaning. I shall subdivide
it into

' I. Descriptive.
II. Symbolical.

The description of natural objects in easy but correct language, familiar, yet
not vulgar, must ever give delight to mankind in general, because it appeals to
their best and happiest feelings, and as it refers to past pleasant things, so it
points out a vista to what may occur again — it holds forth objects perhaps before
only cursorily examined, and gives an impulse to their re -examination at the

ON THE POPULARITY OP NATURAL HISTORY * 117

next opportunity. A skilful author who seeks to charm the world, will take
every opportunity of thus introducing sketches of and references to scenes familiar
to his readers, even if they occasionally digress a little from the main purport of
his treatise, because, like an inequality in the bed of a stream, if the current be
momentarily impeded, additional beauty is created by the rough mossy stones
round and over which the chafed waters urge their way with musical reverbera-
tions. N» one ever understood this better than good Isaac Walton, who, if he
had clung closely to his hook and line, might have been forgotten long ere this,
except by the craft, and would surely never have passed through the varied
editions he has done. Let us snatch a quotation from him : — " My friend
Piscator, you have kept time with my thoughts, for the sun is just rising, and
I myself just now come down to this place, and the Dogs have just now put
down an Otter. Look down at the bottom of the hill there in that meadoio chequered
with Water-lilies and La dy- smocks, there you may see what work they make :
look, look, you may see all busy, men and dogs, dogs and men, all busy."""" Now
the charm of this allusion is the sun rising on a glorious summer's mom, with
the brook winding in the meadow at the bottom of the lull, its margin covered
with silver Cuckoo-flowers, and the Water-lilies spreading their broad leaves on
its verge. This is the picture which Walton has animated with an Otter-hunt,
although the taking of an Otter might have been described to the initiated in a
very different manner.

Again, he remarks — " Look, render that broad Beech-tree I sat down, when I
was last this way a-fishing, and the birds in the adjoining grove seemed to have
a friendly contention with an echo, whose dead voice seemed to live in a hollow
tree, near to the brow of that Primrose-hill." Who is not charmed with such a
reference as this, to which, however, angling, though the main subject of the
book, is rendered quite subordinate ? The reason is, that any body may go when
time allows and sit under the broad Beech, and hear the birds, and mark the
echo in the hollow tree, and the Primrose hill, whether they choose to be anglers
or not. If inclined for a meditative day, they may so far follow old Isaak as to
" go to yonder Sycamore-tree," hide their bottle of drink under the hollow root
of it, and " make a brave breakfast with a piece of powdered beef," without any
positive necessity of using rod and line, unless they prefer it.

These general illustrations are the charm of Poetry, which would be utterly
insipid without them, and even when they appear locally particularized, if skil-
fully managed they" become gems of the purest water in the bardic chaplet.
Take this from Wordsworth —

Walton's Angler, in loc.
R2

118 ON THE POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

" Beside the cottage in which Elleh dwelt

Stands a tall Ash-tree ; to whose topmost twig

A thrush resorts, and annually chants,

At morn and evening, from that naked perch,

While all the undergrove is thick with leaves,

A time beguiling ditty, for delight

Of his fond partner, silent iti the nest."*

Bards in general take but a low rank among naturalists, although the latter
are indebted to them for many an illustration ; but surely the above is a sweet
morsel of local Natural History, recorded by an evident observer and lover of
Nature, and though having reference to a particular Thrush and Ash-tree, yet it
interests all, because, to say nothing of Ellen, few persons familiar with the
country are unacquainted with Thrushes resorting, like that of the poet, to some
old tree's " topmost twig."

Many an observer of Nature, competent to the task, has probably never
thought of presenting himself as a professed naturalist, but if his delineation be
correct, it is evident that he understands that truly popular language which
captivates all hearts by its adaptation to the subject depicted, and which is not
the less interesting because it is comprehended by all, and recognized by all who
have an opportunity to make the comparison. I scarcely think the manners of
that pert braggadocio of the farm -yard, the Common Goose, has been better pour-
trayed in any professedly ornithological work, than in the following lines of poor
almost-forgotten Bloomfield —

" He comes, the pest and terror of the yard,
His full-fledg'd progeny's imperious guard ;
The gander; spiteful, insolent, and baldj
At the colt's fetlock, takes his daring hold :
There, Serpent-like, escapes a dreadful blow,
And straight attacks a poor defenceless Cow.
Each booby Goose th' unworthy strife enjoys,
And hails his prowess with redoubled noise.
Then back he stalks, of self-importance full,
Seizes the shaggy foretop of the bull,
Till whirled aloft he falls ; a timely check
Enough to dislocate his worthless neck :
For lo ! of old, he boasts an honoured wound.
— Behold that broken wing that trails the ground."

The following quotations from the same author's " Farmer's Boy," describe
two forms of cloud that have received peculiar appellations from scientific mete-
orologists, which I dare say Bloomfield never knew of, though his appropriate

* Poetic*l Works, Vol. V., p. 260.

ON THE POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 119

description renders it impossible to mistake them, and is indeed so just as to be
referred to in scientific works.

The Cumulo-stratus.
M Now eve o'erhangs the western cloud's thick brow ;
The far-stretch'd curtain of retiring light,
With fiery treasures fraught ; that on the sight
Flash from its bulging sides, where darkness lours,
In fancy's eye a chain of mouldering towers ;
Or craggy coasts just rising into view,
Midst jav'lins dire, and darts of streaming blue."

The poet describes " the slow-winged storm along the troubled skies,'' as follow-
ing this aspect of the cumulo-stratus, and in a scientific enumeration of clouds
now before me, it is observed of this modification of cloud, that " long ranges
often seem to rest upon our hills, where they generally indicate a change of wea-
ther!'

The Cirrocumulus, or Sonder-Cloud.

-" The white-rob'd clouds in clusters driv'n,

And all the glorious pageantry of heaven.

Far yet above these wafted clouds are seen
(In a remoter sky still more serene,)
Others, detached, in ranges through the air,
Spotless as snow, and countless as they're fair ;
Scatter'd immensely wide from east to west,
The beauteous semblance of a flock at rest."

Perhaps a better description could not be given of this lovely form of cloud, so
often the accompaniment of a fine night, when the moon sails majestically along
in the azure heavens, surrounded and followed by milk-white squadrons of these
innumerable guards.

I have purposely selected the preceding examples as being plain yet admir-
able descriptions, unattended (I will not say unincumbered) by any sentiment-
ality, with which poets often mix up — as they have a right to do — their descrip-
tions of, and allusions to, natural objects and scenery, thus giving distaste to
many well-meaning, but somewhat squeamish persons. I shall, however, before
closing this part of my subject, give a specimen of a somewhat more ornate style,
which indeed is not to be objected to, provided the boundaries of truth and pro-
bability are not infringed upon. As this style of description bears the character
of a study, though pleasing to many, it should be entered upon with caution.
The following extract is from Chateaubriand's Genius of Christianity.

" The Bullfinch builds in the Hawthorn, the Gooseberry, and other bushes of
our gardens ; her eggs are slate-coloured, like the plumage of her back. We re-
collect having once found one of these nests in a Rose-bush ; it resembled a shell

/20 ON THE POPULARITY OP NATURAL HISTORY.

of mother-of-pearl, containing four blue gems ; a Rose, bathed in the dews of
morning, was suspended above it ; the male Bullfinch sat motionless on a neigh-
bouring shrub, like a flower of purple and crimson. These objects were reflected
in the water of a stream, together with the shade of an aged Walnut-tree, which
served as a back-ground to the scene, and behind which appeared the ruddy tints
of Aurora. In this little picture the Almighty conveyed to us an idea of the
graces with which he has decked all Nature."

Though perhaps, in this finished sketch, it is a little stretch of imagination to
compare our sprightly " Hedge Coalhood" to a flower, yet as a double picture is
exhibited in it, and either is charming taken alone, the pleasing exhibition may
almost excuse it. For, independently of the Bullfinch, the old Walnut-tree re-
flected in the stream, with the vermillion tinges of the eastern sky, seen through
its foliage, is itself a picture, and the Bullfinch's nest and eggs in the Rose-bush
is an object by itself requiring no adventitious aid to heighten its beauty.

It will now perhaps be perceived that popular Natural History is nothing
more than a description of natural objects so true to Nature that every one admits
the resemblance, being either tested by his own experience or by that of others,
and the information at the same time conveyed in that non-technical language
which may be understood by every person of plain education, although unskilled
in and unacquainted with the myriological vocabulary of scientific formulae. I
have no wish to disparage scientific nomenclature when restricted to legitimate
bounds, but in an appeal to facts it would be absurd to blink^ altogether the
question of phraseology. Scientific names can only be understood by scientific
persons, and it follows as a matter of course that a book that can be interpreted
only by the initiated, will have but a limited range of readers. This ought to
be considered by those authors and editors of periodicals who, as in the Entomo-
logical Magazine, indulge at times in such legions of latin, as I fear to render it
unnecessary to cut-up much of their hot-pressed paper. It is true that certain
subjects, limited in their range, or intended for the learned of all countries,
may with the utmost propriety appear in a latin dress, but surely an Eng-
lish periodical is not the place for them, if that periodical seeks an exten-
sive circulation. By parity of reasoning, any work on Natural History aim-
ing to be read by the public at large, must to some extent be written on the
principle of what I have shown popular Natural History to consist. There
are two especial reasons for this ; a work overloaded with technicalities is
uninteresting, and very few will toil through a work void of interest. The next
point is an important one, though for the most part lost sight of — the newspaper
press of this country is almost wholly ignorant of Natural History, at all events
unacquainted with its details, and hence unable to interpret common occurrences
and common appearances without the assistance of a practised observer. The

ON THE POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 121

greatest mistakes are therefore often made by these vehicles ; they give publicity
to mysterious accounts and seeming wonders that are of no authority, and do not
occupy, as they might do, that position between the scientific publication and the
unlearned observer which would be of the utmost importance to the spread of a
correct taste for Natural History. They may indeed admit a statement as
curious, but, being unable to give the explanation, they resemble an author I
have met with, who, in his catalogue of birds found in a certain spot, mentions
some Gulls seen flying occasionally about a pool, but remarks, to what tribe of
that numerous family they belonged, he " was not prepared to say" ! Till this
be remedied, if the field of Natural History is to be enlarged, and its students
increased, the writers on this subject who address the public through the press,
especially in periodicals, are not to suppose their readers in general to be profi-
cients, but learners. The question then will be, is it expedient to address learn-
ers ? and I repeat it is so if we wish the boundaries of our favourite pursuit to
be extended ; and it follows that the language and allusions we make use of
should be such as even learners may comprehend and take an interest in.

I have felt it necessary to enter largely upon this topic, because nothing runs
more glibly over the tongue than the " popidarity " of Natural History — nobody
disputes it — nobody analyzes the materials of which this cobweb " popularity " is
made, and then when we find ourselves laughed at for devotion to the study, and per-
haps the lucubrations of ourselves or some of our friends not honoured with quite
such a premium as falls to the lot of the successful novelist, it does seem a little
queer to hear the eternal chorus of the popularity of Natural History, from indi-
viduals who perhaps scarcely ever open a scientific work on the subject, and
whom no inducement could persuade to walk half a dozen miles for any other
purpose than to sit down and carouse for the rest of the day ! But how can
Natural History be popidar as a study yet? It must be imbibed young, if much
progress is to be made, and ought to have competent teachers, like any other
branch of education. But there is still a prejudice against this in some quarters
as unnecessary, and in most instances (the medical profession perhaps excepted),
if the men of the present generation know anything about it they have taught
themselves. When I went to school I recollect the only class-book from which
there was the slightest chance of obtaining the rudest rudiments of Natural His-
tory, was Turner's Arts and Sciences, probably obsolete now, in which the
whole tribe of heathen gods and goddesses were stowed like goods in a crowded
vessel, in company with metals, mermaids, falling stars, thunder and lightning,
Lions, and spouting Whales, and cuts of Nightingales and Cuckoos as like the
birds they represented as some I have seen on old glazed tiles and painted win-
dows, which might pass for any thing. No doubt things are improved now : at
any rate books are not deficient, but multitudes still exist who have been

192 ON THE POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

educated under the old system, and how then can the study of Natural History
b% correctly appreciated yet ? how can it be truly popular at present ?

I have alluded to these things that naturalists may not be deceived, — much,
very much, remains to be done before Natural History as a science is popular*
and this ought to be known and acted upon. This really concerns both the
readers of, and the writers in, The Naturalist. As a child who has learned to
walk disdains the leading strings, so the proficient in science is anxious to pro-
claim his acquirements. But if he gets on so far as to be out of hearing, he can
only address the echoes, and perhaps he had better pause a moment for his com-
patriots to get up. To speak plainly, writers must not yet become so obscure as
to be understood only by the learned, and readers ought to consider that if new
facts and discoveries and abstruse dissertations are their delight, there are others
who must be charmed into the path of science by pictures assimilated to their less
soaring ideas, and by language which will not be to them an undeciphered hiero-
glyphic. Sir James Smith complained that Sowerby's beautiful plates of Bri-
tish plants made empirical botanists, as persons turned over the plates to com-
pare with the plant they had found, and neglected the correct method of con-
sulting the generic and specific descriptions.'"' This might be so, for there will
always be lazy fellows in the world ready to pounce upon knowledge in the
easiest way ; but Sir James should have considered that science was surely bene-
fitted, because, as his descriptions were purchased with the plates, they could not
well be got rid of, while in all probability he who commenced with the plates,
examined the descriptions at last. So it is in literature, — a man opening a work
for amusement, shrinks from a catalogue of names that seems to present an aw-
ful appearance to his eye, and looks for a lighter article, and yet probably that
lighter article may, when his attention is once excited, lead him to study and
duly appreciate the once abandoned and formidable catalogue of unknown names.

The enquiry I have broached ought to claim the attention of Natural History
Societies. Many of these have arisen with bright prospects within the last five
or six years. Some have gone to the tomb of the Capulets — others have flou-
rished— a few perhaps maintain a precarious existence. None have, I think,
done what might have been expected from them. They perhaps"' trust to the
" popularity of Natural History." Vain delusion ! it is their duty to make
Natural History popular. What steps have they taken to do this ? Have they
encouraged its votaries ? Invited its friends to state their views to its mem-
bers ? Opened communications with men of science throughout the kingdom ?
Given every encouragement personally and unitedly to publications illustrative
of the subject they profess to appreciate ? Have they published synopses of the

* Preface to hi» English Flora.

SOIREES AT THE LIVERPOOL ROYAL INSTITUTION. 123

productions of their counties, and opened museums at least at stated times to the
public ? for I scarcely recognize the public spirit that admits members only, or
demands a fee for what ought to be open for general benefit. I contend that a
museum open only to certain persons, or on payment of a fee, is in effect a pri-
vate museum, and will never advance the popularity of Natural History. There
is another point — it often happens that votaries of Natural History, men born
with the spirit for the pursuit glowing within them, are poor, nay, occasionally in
very subordinate situations. — I have known many clever fellows in their way, so
situated. Now are these sought out, and brought to bear as they ought to be, or
at any rate admitted gratuitously to the society in return for their ready talent
and manipulations ? This ought to be, if good is to be effected of a permanent
character. The lectures, too, given under the auspices of Natural History
Societies — and all ought to have lectures — should be of a popular character, to
excite attention — engage interest — and awaken thought on the various phenomena
of Nature. Mere professional lectures are ill suited to a mixed audience, and
sometimes alarm and disgust. Occasionally, also lectures free to the public should
be given.

I wish to awaken attention on the subject of this paper, and if my remarks
should be deemed worth consideration, I will at the first convenient opportunity
resume them.

Dryadville Cottage, near Worcester,
January 15, 1838.

ACCOUNT OF THE SOIREES AT THE LIVERPOOL ROYAL
INSTITUTION.

By Mr. T. B. Hall.

I send you the following account of two Soirees or Conversazioni, which have
)een held at the Royal Institution in Liverpool ; it may perhaps be interesting to
some of your readers, and may serve as a model for similar ones that might prove
successful in various towns, wherever there is a museum or rooms suitable for
the purpose. They are part of a series which it is proposed to give during the
present winter, and to continue in succeeding winters if they should be found to
be acceptable to the public. They are under the management of a sub-committee
of the proprietors of the Royal Institution, and a sub-committee of the Literary
and Philosophical Society. Their motives for giving them are to extend the taste
for science, literature, and the arts ; and to impart more fully their influence to
society ; they therefore think it desirable to afford to the inhabitants of Liverpool

YOL. III. — no. xvm. s

124 SOIREES AT THE LIVERPOOL ROYAL INSTITUTION.

and the neighbourhood opportunities of meeting and enjoying conversational dis-
cussion of such subjects, whereby information may be afforded to the lovers of
those pursuits, without the formality of professional displays of science, and which
may lead to deeper research into more perfect sources of scientific information,
and to the cultivation of a purer taste ; and they request that every subscriber
possessing any articles of interest or curiosity, calculated to illustrate or to have
reference to such a subject, will suffer them to be placed in the Institution for
that evening, for the purpose of adding to the amusement and gratification of the
company.

The first Soiree was held -on the 29th of November last, and the number of
tickets issued was 277 for gentlemen, 214 for ladies, and 27 for strangers, it
being the intention of the sub-committees not to exceed 500.

The rooms and museum were thrown open at seven o'clock, and at eight such
of the company as were desirous adjourned to the lecture-room. J. B. Yates,
Esq., president for the evening, in a very able address, explained to the meeting
the object of the Soirees, and expressed his sincere wishes for their success.
William Wallace Currie, Esq., then read an unpublished essay on the advan-
tages of a cultivation of the polite arts, by the late William Roscoe, a very able
and eloquent paper, written at an early age, and containing the germ of that
immortal essay which was delivered (exactly twenty years from that period) at
the opening of the Institution. It negatived the usual opinion that Man can
only reach perfection in one science, and its author was indeed a proof to the
contrary, as he excelled in Poetry, Painting, Botany, and general Literature.
After the discussion to which the paper gave rise, the company adjourned to the
rooms of the museum, tea and coffee were supplied, and the remainder of the
evening was passed in conversation and in the inspection of the museum and
galleries of the Institution.

The Institution was originally erected at an expense of £23,000. It remained
for some time in a state of suspended animation, exciting no interest in the
.public mind, and from the want of arrangement, the difficulty of access, and the
incompleteness of its collections, deserving to excite none. All these faults,
however, have lately been amended ; it has been popularized, and rendered easy
of access, its collections have been greatly enlarged, and arranged with taste and
correctness. A detailed account of the objects would only prove tedious to your
readers, but an outline of them may, perhaps, not be altogether uninteresting. I
will therefore state that they consist of—

Numerous specimens of Natural History in its different branches.

A selection of valuable philosophical instruments.

Specimens of the rude ingenuity and illustrations of the habits and customs of
distant countries.

SOIREES AT THE LIVERPOOL ROYAL INSTITUTION. 125

An extensive and unique gallery of casts from the antique, showing the progress
of Sculpture, from the earliest ages to those of the most refined period of
the art.
A series of curious and interesting specimens of the works of the earliest

Italian painters.
Etruscan, Egyptian, and other antiquities.

Amongst various specimens in Natural History and the Fine Arts that were
placed in the Institution for the gratification of the company, were the fol-
lowing rare plants : — Sinningia guttata, Ceroptopteris tkalictroides, Euphor-
bia pulcherrima, Aerostickum alcicorne, Cereus senilis, Zygopetalum Mackai,
Epidendrum fragrans, belonging to C. S. Parker, Esq. ; several "parts of
Bateman's OrckidacecB, and Professor Agassiz' admirable work on fossil fish,
belonging to the same gentleman ; and many valuable paintings, the property
of Thomas Winstanley, Esq.
In the course of the'evening Mr. R. Adie exhibited a differential hydrometer for
measuring the rate of the sailing of vessels. It is derived from the differential
barometer of the late Dr. Wollaston. The measure of the current of water is
the buoyant force of a column of oil, immersed below the level of the water in
the arm of a glass tube bent nearly double, one half filled with oil and the other
half with water.

The second Soiree was held on the 10th of January. Owing to the disap-
pointment experienced by parties at the last meeting, in not being able to obtain
tickets, and the success which attended it, the sub-committees deemed it expedient
to issue 100 additional tickets.

J. N. Walker, Esq., president for the evening, introduced Dr. Sutherland,
who read a very interesting paper on the connexion between the geological struc-
ture of a country and its natural scenery ; it was originally delivered at the
December meeting of our Natural History Society, and seemed to give great
satisfaction.

They were remarks made during a tour in Switzerland and part of Italy, and
a portion of his remarks applied to England. The following is an extract, which,
if you think proper, you can insert : — Where soft rocks exist, the mountains
assume a rounded appearance. The insinuation of water between masses of
rocks, and the effects of cold on it afterwards, exercise so powerful a degree of
force as to dissever large masses of rock, which cause their downfall and consider-
ably affect the general outline of the landscape. The first or primitive formation
comprehends granite, and is the lowest in the series, but by volcanic and other
powerful agents it becomes broken-up and raised above the surface ; some of the
highest mountains in Europe are of this formation. They are characterised by

s2

126 SOIREES AT THE LIVERPOOL ROYAL INSTITUTION.

their angles and perpendicular precipices, which have a marked smoothness and
nakedness ; many examples of this kind were to be seen in the Alps. The
breaking off of large portions of granite rock was sometimes followed by dangerous
results, in overturning into ruins, and burying all that opposed them, like a
falling avalanche. The scenery of Mont Blanc was described to us in a most
vivid and eloquent manner. The secondary formation included a vast variety of
scenery ; it presented to us what is commonly called landscape seenery, and the
romantic ; boundless plains, mountains, and lovely fruitful vallies. Limestone
surface presented a great variety of surface ; the colour varies very much, some-
times being of a bluish cast, and the mountains are generally conical, the scenery
of Berne affording the finest specimens of it. The Sandstone had a very
extensive range in England ; it was generally distinguished by flowing hills and
fertile vallies, as the beautiful vale of Wharfedale, in Yorkshire. Alluvian
formations ought to be considered rather as a covering to others than as a distinct
class ; the most remarkable specimen of this kind of surface was seen in the
plains of Lombardy, and their fertility was well known. The Basalt formations
of the Giants' Causeway, and the peculiar construction of Basaltic rock pillars,
was alluded to, and the volcanic formation was slightly touched upon. The
whole country round Rome was flat and barren, with occasional hills, the result
of volcanic action, and in the bottoms of extinct craters several lakes occurred.

The south coast of Italy also afforded striking evidence of subterranean action,
appearing as if shaken into fragments. The paper was illustrated by a series of
paintings of different scenery, and of chalk drawings, prepared for the occasion by
one of the pupils of the Institution schools.

We had a great many fresh paintings and works deposited for the amusement
and gratification of the company, principally relating to Ornithology. Amongst
them were Selby's Illustrations of British Birds, Gould's Birds of Europe,
Gould's Century of Himalayan Birds, and some fine engravings of the plants
of Coromandel.

Mr. R. Adie attempted to perform some experiments with the large plate
electrical machine belonging to the Institution, but the evening was unfavourable
for it, and he exhibited to the company the action of a powerful electro-magnetic
apparatus.

Woodside, near Liverpool,
Jan. 1G, 1838.

127

ON THE MIGRATION OP BIRDS.

By Peter Rylands, Esq.

If there were nothing else to lead me to esteem The Naturalist higher than
the other Magazines devoted to the same sciences, the attention paid in its pages
to Comparative Phrenology would be sufficient (see p. 110). Being a subject
of great importance to all zoologists, its neglect by the other Natural History
periodicals manifests either a total ignorance of, or wilful inattention to it, on the
part of the Editors, which cannot be too severely condemned.

The investigation of the mental constitution of the lower animals is highly
interesting and instructive, and cannot, surely, be deemed irrelevant in our ob-
servations of their actions. Phrenology throws a light upon this inquiry which
all naturalists would do well to profit by.

It is evident, when we carefully observe the actions of animals, that they
result from certain propensities, or inclinations, similar in kind to, although from
various causes their manifestations differ from, those of Man. The action of
the propensities in Man is considerably modified by his possession of moral and
intellectual organs ; the former being entirely absent, and the latter very slightly
developed in the lower animals. Two men having the same inclination will
gratify it in different manners, owing to the influence of the organs just men-
tioned. While, on the contrary, each species of animal having definite propensities
—without this modifying influence — all the individuals of such species will
manifest their desires, in most cases, in exactly similar modes of action. This
constitutes only an apparent, and not a real difference between the two. In
both cases the primitive feeling is essentially the same. Philosophers, however,
misled by this appearance of distinctness, have separated them, giving to one the
appellation of reason, and to the other that of instinct. Here allow me to
enter my protest against the use of this term " instinct." Associated with it, in
most instances, are very erroneous and contradictory ideas. The unanimity
shewn by authors in the adoption of it cannot be an argument for its continued
use. An examination of their works will prove that each has given to it a
distinct meaning of his own, and that most have made it a cloak for their ignor-
an«e of the nature of the phenomena which it denoted. In fact, from the use
which has* been made of it, the term " instinct " is now rendered useless. And
if perspicuity of language, or definiteness of argument be desired, it ought to be
at once abandoned by all.

When we consider that Phrenology demonstrates that the propensities of the
lower animals are the same as those of man — that it also points out the organs
of these propensities — its importance in discussing the cause of the migration of

128 ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS.

animals, as well as that of any other of their actions, will be clearly perceived.
Indeed, without the aid of this science, the wisest metaphysician or most expe-
rienced naturalist would alike fail in giving a probable solution. Three points
respecting migration of birds deserve our attention : 1st, the propensity which
prompts it ; 2nd, the periodical excitement of the propensity ; and 3rdly, the
power which directs them in their flight.

1. The Propensity. — Phrenology teaches us that there is an organ in Man
which takes cognizance of the relative position of objects, remembers places, and
gives the desire to travel. It is evidently this last impulse which is the cause of
migration. Phrenologists have named the organ Locality, and if the faculty they
have given to it be the correct one, we may reasonably expect to find it fully
developed in migratory birds. This is actually the case. I have at present
before me several crania of birds, and in the migratory species this organ is
evidently larger than in those that stay with us throughout the year. Dr.
Vimont, after the examination of several hundred skulls of quadrupeds and
birds, states that, in all those that migrate, the organ of Locality is found " form-
ing a projection below the crest of the coronal bone, which joins the orbital
angle."*

2. The Periodical Excitement of the Organ. — Dr. Bushnan states that the
propensity to migration is excited only by a failure of food, and the change of
temperature. As a proof of the correctness of his opinion, he mentions the
following " curious fact, recorded some years ago." " In the neighbourhood of the
Carron Iron Works," remarks the Doctor, " where the temperature of the air, to
a considerable extent around, must be very much above that natural to the
climate, Swallows are said to remain the whole winter."t If Dr. Bushnan
could satisfactorily demonstrate the truth of this statement, his position would
indeed be established. Until then he ought to remember that " It is said" ot
" They say" although wonderful authorities in daily conversation, lose all their
importance when used with respect to matters of science. But the Doctor has
yet another proof, which, he informs us, " puts the question beyond a doubt.'*
This is the experiment of Mr. Pearson, as detailed by Bewick. X On perusing
the account, we find that Mr. Pearson, with considerable care and trouble, was
able to keep several Swallows alive throughout winter. This is all. And this
all, it is scarcely necessary to state, proves nothing in the present question. I
think that after the repeated and uniform experience of naturalists, who have

* Broussais' Lectures on Phrenology.— Lancet (1835-6), Vol. I. p. 852.

t The Philosophy of Reason and Instinct, by Dr. Bushnan, p. 171, — A work containing much
interesting matter, but nothing to merit the title the Doctor has chosen to bestow upon it. It is
very neatly reviewed in the Phrenological Journal for December, 1 837, No. i., New Series.

X Bewick's Birds (Edit. 1832.), Vol. I., 300.

ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 129

confined migratory birds during the winter, we may safely believe that Mr.
Pearson's Swallows manifested, at the usual time, a strong migratory feeling.
This, probably, was either unnoticed, not understood, or thought unworthy of
record, by the experimentalist. The want of ability to gratify a desire does not
prove that such a desire is not felt. Yet on Dr. Bushnan's grounds we must
believe, that because the Swallows could not migrate, they had no inclination to
do so. He might as plausibly contend, that a man after a three- days' fast would
have no sensations of hunger, if he were unable to procure food.

As the excitement of the organ of Locality occurs in birds kept in cages in
& warm temperature, and abundantly supplied with food, another class of
naturalists are of opinion that coldness and scarcity of provision have no influence
whatever in producing periodical migration.

Both these extreme opinions appear to be erroneous. I am inclined to believe
that, at first, the coldness of climate, and want of nourishment, were the only
causes of migration, but that now, this habit, continued through so many genera-
tions, has such an influence over the species, that the involuntary excitement of
the organ, at stated periods, must exist, although the want of food, or change of
temperature, is not felt. I have no doubt, however, that these still continue to
add a great stimulus to the excitement.* Nor is this explanation improbable.
In fact, that peculiar habits, &c, of men are transmitted to their offspring, is so
well known, that it is unnecessary to enforce it here. The same influence is
found also in the animal kingdom. " Abilities," remarks Mr. Jesse, " which
have been kept up by practice throughout several generations, may finally be
propagated as natural propensities. I had a young Pointer which found, and
pointed at game, the first time he was taken into a field. The descendants of a
breed of Terriers, which I have had many years, shew their teeth, and put out
their paw when they are caressed. This is a peculiarity of the breed. Young
South Sea Islanders are said to be able to swim when first put into the water."t

* We are disposed to take a different view of the case, believing, as we do, that all migratory
birds must ever have possessed the organ of Locality — and likewise every other faculty — in the
same degree that they now possess it ; and that, without the innate feeling which now induces
birds to travel, no individual species would ever have quitted its native country, to which it is
naturally wedded by other equally innate powers. This argument is supported by the fact that
the lower animals, like Man, so long as they remain in a wild and savage state, continue unaltered
in their habits. The feeling of hunger or of cold would only impel the animal to seek food, and
would not teach it that by crossing the seas sustenance might be procured. Thus although, by
adverse winds or other accidents, single individuals may occasionally be cast on strange shores (an
occurrence which has, of late years especially, considerably increased the British Fauna), the
laws which govern migration are found to be fixed. That birds were originally, and still are, im-
pelled to migrate by the innate faculty of Locality is, therefore, tolerably certain, though the
feeling which directs their course is not quite so obvious. — Ed.

t Jesse's Gleanings in Natural History, 3d Series, p. 149.

130 ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS.

Dr. Bushnan makes a similar observation. " It is certain," says he, " that ac-
quired qualities, however little it may be the case amongst men, are transferred
to the offspring among the lower animals, and that in no slight or unequivocal
degree." Amongst several others he gives the following fact as corroborating his
opinion. " In some parts of America it is the practice to hunt herds of a species
of Deer with trained packs of Dogs ; the Dogs are taught to attack the herd in
line, and by this method never fail to be successful ; but if any of the Dogs be
led by excessive ardour to break into the herd singly, they are sure to be com-
pletely destroyed. This uniformly happens to untrained Dogs, whatever be their
strength or courage. But the offspring of Dogs which have been fully trained to
this kind of warfare, require no education, but at once fall into the only kind of
attack which can be attended not only with success, but their own personal safety."*

3. The power which guides birds during their migratory flights. — Dr. Gall
mentions several instances of Dogs returning to their homes from a great distance,
without the possibility of their having been guided by smell or sight. " A Dog,"
says he, " was carried in a coach from Vienna to St. Petersburgh, and at the end
of six months returned to his native city. Another Dog was sent from Lyons to
Marseilles, where he was embarked for Naples, and he found his way back by
land to Lyons."f The anecdote, given by Kirby and Spense,J of an Ass re-
turning two hundred miles to a place whence it had been shipped, is so well
known, and has been quoted so often, that I need not repeat it here. Mr. Jesse
states that a Tortoise which had been taken on the Island of Ascension, by the
sailors of a ship on its passage to England, was, on their arrival in the Channel,
thrown overboard. This Tortoise had only three fins, and was marked in the
usual way by having certain initials and numbers burnt upon its under shell
with a hot iron, which marks are known never to be obliterated. Two years
after its being cast into the Channel, this very Tortoise (easily recognised by the
peculiar marks above mentioned) was again taken at its old haunt on the Island
of Ascension. Mr. Jesse adds that the proofs brought forward of the accuracy
of this anecdote place its authenticity beyond a doubt. || Many other anecdotes
of a similar nature might be given, but these are sufficient. Dr. Gall be-
lieves that the power which directs animals, in circumstances such as the above,
belongs to the organ of Locality. Mr. Combe is likewise of the same opinion. IT
It is evidently the same power which guides birds during their migration.

Bewsey House, Warrington,
Bee. 23, 1837.

*Bushnan's Philosophy of Instinct and Reason,pp. 170, 171.
f Combe's System of Phrenology (4th Edit.), Vol. II., p. 507.
X Introduction to Entomology, p. 496. Jesse's Gleanings in Natural History, 1st Series, p. 198.
|| Jesse's Gleanings, 3rd Series, p. 77. «g Combe's System, Vol. II., p. 509.

131

ON THE NATURE, VARIETIES, AND DEVELOPMENT OP TEETH
IN THE CLASS MAMMALIA.

By Beverley R. Mohris, Esq.

The meaning of the term tooth being so very generally known, I need not, I
imagine, give any precise definition of it here : it will be enough to state, that
the term tooth is usually understood to apply to such bones as are naked, and
placed, partially at any rate, within the cavity of the mouth. This is sufficiently
accurate for my purpose, though I am aware that there are deviations from this
rule in some of the lower classes ; with these, however, I have nothing at present
to do. Teeth in general have only two substances entering into their composition,
viz., bone sometimes called ivory, and enamel ; some, however (as the Grami-
nivorous animals), have a third ingredient, called crusta petrosa, which I shall
consider hereafter. I shall not enter into the details of their chemical composi-
tion, as I consider that would be a subject more properly discussed in a treatise
on Animal Chemistry.

Teeth are formed, not like other bones, on cartilaginous masses, but are the
secretions of what are called pulps ; these are vascular bodies placed in the jaw-
bones, and plentifully supplied with nerves and arteries, deiuved from those which
ramify through the jaw or maxillary bones. The mode of their formation is as
follows : — The pulp at the appointed time begins to throw out lamina of bone,
the fibres of which are concentric ; one of these is deposited on the upper part of
the pulp, another layer is added underneath this, and so on, not in but on the
pulp. — The pulp is encircled as far as the part that is to correspond to the crown
of the tooth by a serous capsule, forming a cul-de-sac, and therefore the tooth
is not absolutely within the capsule, though it is encircled by it. From the
side of the capsule next the pulp the enamel is secreted ; this falls on the already
formed bone in lines corresponding to the axis of the tooth, thereby giving it great
strength. The pulp only secretes lamina of bone at the top to a certain thick-
ness, and then proceeds downwards at the sides, and so goes on to form the root,
leaving a hollow space throughout the substance of the tooth ; this is, of course,
filled by the pulp. The root, as it continues growing, presses against the jaw-
bone below, but as it cannot advance in that direction, it pushes upwards and
causes absorption, first of the bone above it, and afterwards of the gum, and thus
at length it is protruded through the skin. When the -tooth cuts the gum it has
broken through its capsule, and remains exposed to the air, and uncovered by
any membrane as all other bones are. Molar or double teeth, as they are not
inaptly called, are formed on three, four, or more of these Pulps, which are
united above but separated below, thus forming the fangs. In the Cow, Horse,

vol. in. — NO. XVIII. T

13*2 ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA.

Elephant, &c, they are separated above and joined below ; the use of this we
shall see when considering the molar teeth. These pulps are enclosed in a
capsule common to all. "When crusta petrosa is present, it is supposed to be
secreted by the inside of the capsule, but little is known respecting the manner of
its formation. Having thus given a brief description of the manner of the growth
of teeth, I shall now proceed to examine each kind of tooth in the orders of
Mammalia, as it is not my purpose to run over their varieties in the other
classes.

Teeth are of three kinds.

I. Incisores, Front or incisor teeth. II. Canini, Corner or Canine teeth. III.
Molares, Back, Grinding or Molar teeth. The term tusk is applied to any tooth
which projects beyond the lips. The substance, texture, and position of teeth
differ considerably from those of other bones. All other bones are covered with
a fibrous membrane called periosteum. This is entirely deficient in the exposed
part of the teeth. The enamel, which does not extend farther than the gum, is
so hard as to strike fire with steel ; there is very little animal matter in it,
though the bony part or ivory has a considerable quantity in its construction.
The tusks of the Elephant, Narwhale, &c, have no enamel, but they have a thin
coating of a substance different from the ivory of the tooth.

There is a circumstance which should, I think, be noticed here, and which if
kept in mind will explain the great loss of substance in the teeth of Herbivorous
animals, t It is as follows. In the Carnivorous animals the lower jaw is con-
fined by the nature of its socket to a simple motion upwards and downwards,
and hence all these animals tear their food and swallow it in large pieces.
Herbivorous animals, on the contrary, not only have the motion upwards and
downwards, but also have the power of moving the jaw backwards and forwards,
and from side to side, as the food they eat requires to be well bruised and
triturated preparatory to its being digested. I now come to the more immediate
subject of this paper, viz., the consideration of — I. Incisores. Front or Incisor
teeth.

Incwor teeth seem to exist in a higher state of development in the Rodentia
(as the Dormouse, Squirrel, &c), than in any of the other orders of Mammalia;
and not only are they more highly developed, but I believe I may say that they
are absolutely necessary to the existence of these animals, which certainly is
not the case in any of the other orders. These teeth are found in all the Carnivora
(as the Lion, Bear, Dog, &c), but modified in their form to suit the habits of these
animals, being in them sharp and angular, and better adapted for tearing than for
cutting their food ; this is very well seen in the front teeth of the Common Cat.
In most Mammalia the incisors of the upper jaw, if they have any, are inserted
into the intermaxillary bone ; the lower ones occupy a corresponding situation

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA. 133

in the lower jaw. In form and number they are subject to considerable variety.
I shall say nothing with respect to them in Man, as I presume every one to be
sufficiently acquainted with the form and uses of his own incisors. In the Roden-
tia (as the Mouse, Squirrel, Dormouse, Lemming, Guinea-pig, &c.) these teeth
have a sharp, chisel-like cutting edge, and penetrate the jaw-bone to a great
depth. In the Rat, Beaver, &c, the lower ones will be found to possess very
long roots. In the Marmot the upper ones are the longest. In this class there
is a very remarkable provision for keeping a cutting edge constantly on the
incisors ; the enamel is found to exist, to any thickness at least, only on the
anterior surface, and as it is very much harder than the bone, it does not wear
out so rapidly, and consequently the tooth is always kept sharp ; indeed the
more the animal uses them the sharper they will become. The tusks of the
Hippopotamus are similarly formed. There is also in this class a wonderful
provision made for the very great wear and tear to which these teeth are subject
in gnawing nuts, trees, &c. They are, as I before stated, very deeply embedded
in the jaw ; the posterior part is hollow, and is filled with a vascular pulp, con-
stantly secreting new bone and enamel, which pushes the tooth forwards, and is
thus always providing a new surface instead of that which has been worn away
by the act of gnawing. This process is continued during the life of the animal,
and if one of these teeth be removed, the corresponding one in the other jaw will
continue growing, and will in time form more or less of a circle. This occasionally
happens to animals in the wild state, as in Rabbits, Hares, &c, so as sometimes
even to destroy the animal in consequence of its being unable to use its other
teeth.''"'

These teeth have no true root, but will be found to be of the same form
throughout. These teeth in the lower jaw extend into the bone as far as the
last, but in the upper jaw only as far as the first molar tooth. In some of the
Rodentia (as the Beaver, Marmot, Squirrel, Dormouse) the incisors are of a
brownish colour on their anterior surface.

The Ruminantia (as the Cow, Sheep, &c.) have no incisors in the upper jaw,
but the gum is formed into a hard and very insensible pad, which answers the

* The teeth of the Rabbit mentioned by Mr. Alington, Vol. II., p. 325, seem to me to have
grown in the manner described, in consequence of an original malformation in the lower jaw, it
appearing from the plate to be bent downwards towards its anterior extremity, which would give
the teeth that direction also, and therefore take them out of the reach of the upper incisors, which
must still continue growing, and would eventually assume the form there shewn. The most
curious circumstance about it is, that the other upper incisor did not grow in the same way :
possibly it may have either been broken off, or else the corresponding tooth in the lower jaw may
have been so situated as to allow of some friction taking place between them. We might, I think,
infer, from the lower teeth not being of so great a length as the upper, that their growth is slower*
and therefore that the chief part of the labour is performed by the upper incisors.

134 ON THE. TEETH OF MAMMALIA.

purpose for which it is intended better than teeth would have done. The Camel
is an exception to this rule ; for though it ruminates it obtains its food in a
very different way from the others of the same order, as it feeds chiefly on the
tops of shrubs, and the young shoots of trees, which require greater force in
breaking off than the blades of grass, to which the pad is beautifully adapted in
the other Ruminants. The Camel may also be considered as the link between
the Solidungula (Horse) and the genuine Ruminants, and therefore some little
difference might be expected in some of its organs, if the former explanation were
not sufficient. In the Solidungula the incisors have processes of enamel running
into their substance. The Sloth and Cape Ant-eater are destitute of front teeth.
The true Ant-eaters and the Manis have no teeth of any kind, but the food they
take requires little if any mastication, and therefore teeth would be of very little
use to them. The front teeth of the Walrus have broad flat crowns. The true
Balsense (Black Whale, and White-nosed Whale) have no teeth, but instead of
them they have a broad fringe or curtain supported by elastic rods, which com-
monly go by the name of Whale-bones, and which is most admirably fitted for
separating the small animals on which they feed, from the water which is taken
into the mouth along with them. The tusks of the Narwhale (Monodon mono-
ceros) are of this class. Its genericname Monodon (/xovos single, and o^ovs a tooth)
is certainly wrongly applied, as well as its specific monoceros (//.ovos- and xs^a* a
horn) ; for although only one, generally the left, is seen, yet the other may be
found within its alveolus.

I shall now proceed to notice the tusks of the Elephant, which, though not
partaking much of the nature of incisor teeth, yet, being inserted into the inter-
maxillary bone, must be considered under this head. These tusks are only
found in the upper jaw, and sometimes grow to an immense size, occasionally
reaching seven or eight feet in length. They are produced in the same manner
as the incisor teeth of the Rodentia, being formed on pulps contained in their
posterior extremities, which continue secreting during the life of the animal.
They are found in both sexes, and begin to appear in the fourth year. There is
no appearance of incisors in the lower law.

II. Canini, Corner or Canine Teeth. — These teeth are very well marked in
the Carnivorous and many other animals. Their situation is next behind the
incisors, from which in some animals they differ little in appearance, while in
others they assume a variety of forms. In Man they are not out of the line of
the other teeth, but lie uniformly with them. The tusks of the Walrus are of
this class, and are used for detaching its food, which consists of shell-fish and
marine plants, from the rocks. Many of the Baboons have these teeth of
enormous size. In the Lion, Tiger, &c, these teeth present a very formidable
appearance, though not projecting 80 as to constitute tusks. In one species of

ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA, 135

Hog (Sua Babirussa), the canine teeth in the upper jaw are curved upwards'so
as to form a semicircle, and often a complete circle. In the common Wild Boar
the tusks are often of immense size, and very powerful weapons of offence and
defence. In the Bear there are two small canine teeth between the large ones
and the molars, and which are also separated from these latter by a considerable
interval. Canine teeth are found in the Solidungula (Horse) under the appella-
tion of tushes, which are also some distance from the molar teeth. Some have
even affirmed that this space was left purposely to receive the bit. The Seals
also possess canine teeth, and all their molars partake considerably of the same
nature, beinw pointed and sharp. In the Ruminanlia we find the camel supplied
with these teeth. The Musk (Moschus -.noschiferus) has a long canine tooth on
each side of the upper jaw, projecting in the male considerably beyond the lips.
The Bat family is provided with four large canine teeth. These teeth in the
Mole have two roots like false molars.

III. Molares, Back, Molar, or Grinding Teeth. — These teeth are found in all
Mammalia that have any teeth ; their form is very various, and adapted to the
food and manners of the animal. Thus we see the crown of the molar teeth in
Carnivorous animals sharp and angular. In the Graminivorous animals, on the
contrary, the crowns are broad and flat, and more or less grooved, as their food
requires to be much bruised preparatory to digestion. In Omnivorous animals
(as Man) these teeth are elevated and more or less angular at the edges, and
depressed in the centre. In all classes they are fully adequate to perform the
part allotted to them in the function of digestion. The Armadilloes, and the
Cape Ant-eater, have molars, but are destitute of incisores or canine teeth.
The Narwhale is the only exception to the rule laid down above, as it has merely
its tusks, which are inserted into the intermaxillary bone, and are therefore
incisors. In Man and the Quadrumana or Monkies, the two front molars are
smaller in the crowns, and more simple in the roots than the more posterior ones.
In these as well as the Camivora (Lion, Tiger, Dog, &c), and some Rodenlia (as
the Marmot) the crown is covered with enamel. In the Horse, Sheep, Cow,
Elephant, &c, bony substance is seen on the upper surface of the tooth, running
in lines of different forms in each order. In all these animals the enamel runs
down into the body of th« tooth to a considerable depth. In Graminivorous
animals that do not ruminate (as the Horse, Elephant, &c.) the crowns of the
molar teeth lie nearly in an horizontal direction with respect to each other. In
most of the Ruminants the surface of these teeth is oblique, the outer margin of
the upper, and the inner one of the lower tooth being most prominent. In the
Camivora (as the Dog, Lion) the crowns of the molar teeth are uneven, and end
in pointed processes with depressions between them ; these lock into the cor-

136 ON THE TEETH OF MAMMALIA.

responding teeth of the other jaw. All the teeth of the Carnivora, and the-
incisors of Euminantia, have the crowns alone covered with enamel, and not
running into their substance. Graminivorous animals have a third ingredient,
viz. crusta petrosa, which I adverted to before, entering into the composition of
their molar teeth. This substance is harder than bone, and softer than enamel,
and as the teeth of these animals suffer a great deal df attrition, the three sub-
stances coming into action at the same time, and being of different degrees of
hardness, wear unevenly, and thereby keep a rough surface constantly on the
tooth ; whereas if one substance alone were engaged, it would soon become
smooth, and the tooth would then be nearly useless. The three substances are
best seen in a vertical section of an Elephant's tooth. It will then appear that
the crusta petrosa is the most external, and entirely surrounds the others ; it is
of a brownish colour. Next comes the enamel, and most internally lies the bone
or ivory. Owing to the pulps of the Elephant's tooth being separated at the
top, each process of bone is surrounded first by enamel, but as that is limited in
thickness, the remainder of the inteival between the pulps is filled up with
crusta petrosa, which is in larger quantity than either of the other substances.
It thus fills up all the hollows which would otherwise be present in the tooth,
and which would be very inconvenient, as affording lodgment for particles of
food, &c. The provision for making up for the wear of the Elephant's grinders
is very curious ; only one grinder and part of another can be seen at any one
time protruded through the gum of the animal. The anterior one is gradually
worn away by constant mastication ; its fangs and alveolus are then absorbed, the
posterior tooth coming forward to supply its place. This process is repeated
seven or eight times during the life of the animal, each new one being larger than
th» one preceding it. This accounts for the teeth of Elephants always appearing
more worn at the anterior than at the posterior part. Respecting the molar
teeth of some of the Rodentia I may refer to the first volume of The Naturalist,
page 48.

In this hasty description of teeth in general, I have purposely avoided going
into the details relative to the numbers of each kind of teeth to be found in the
various animals I have alluded to, as that subject is fully explained in all work*
on the classification of animals.

137

ADDENDA TO MR. MORRIS'S DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN

NAMES OF BRITISH BIRDS.

By Mr. T. B. Hall.

In looking over a list of derivations of the names of our British birds prepared
by me a few years ago, I find the following which are not given in the list
furnished by the Rev. F. 0. Morris, in the second volume of your Magazine
(pp. 24, 70, 140), and I have supplied the omissions as far as I am able, in the
order they occur there.

Buteo. Bvtbuv, from Bvror, food. Buzzard, so named from their rapacity.
Falco. Or from falx a hook. Falcon, so named from their hooked talons

and beak.
tinnunculus. From tinnio, to chirp, so named on account of its noise. The

specific name of the Kestril.
Mihus. Velpotius Miluus, Quasi molliter volans, from its easy flight. Kite.
Strix. Abbreviated from Strinx, which is derived from T£<£y, to shriek. So

named from its noise. Owl.
Noctua. From nox, quia noctua volat, because it is abroad only in the night.

Owl.
Corvus. From kara, Heb., to make a noise. So named from their croaking

noise. Crow.
Pica. Quasi picta, from its various colours. The specific name of the

Magpie.
Upupa epops. Eww^, from mi upon, and o-^ts the face, or from up up, the cry

that it makes. The Whoopo or Hoopoe.
Pyrrhula. Rather wofptsXvi, from iropp red, and apx, a tail. Bullfinch.
Passer. A patiendo, because it was anciently supposed to be subject to

epilepsy ; or from tsipor, Heb. Sparrow.
Turdus. Quasi tardus, from their late appearance. Thrush.
pilaris. From pilus, hair. The specific name of the Fieldfare.
(Enanthe. O/vav0n, from ooos wine, and a*9os a flower. A name given to a

genus of plants (Drop worts), because their flowers smell like the Vine ;

but why given as a specific name to the Wheatear ?
Hirundo. Ab herendo, from their sticking their nests to the eaves of houses.

Swallow.
Columba. From ytoXv^xu to swim. So named from their swimming motion

in the air. Dove.
CEnas. Oiws from oms wine. So called from its colour, which is like the

black grape. The specific name of the Stock Dove.

138 DERIVATIONS OF THK NAMES OF BIRDS.

turtur. From tur, Heb., the Turtle. The specific name of the Turtle Dove.
Perdix. TUf&lt, from vtplu to make a noise. So named from the noise they

make in calling. Partridge.
Tetrao tetrix. Perhaps from the Latin adjective teter, dark, &c, on account

of their colour. The Black Grous.
tetrix. Same derivation. The specific name of the Little Bustard.
Vanellus. Or from vannus a vane, on account of the noise and flutter of the

wings. Lapwing.
Charadrius. XxpzSgios, from yxpx^x, an excavation or fissure, on account of

their inhabiting the fissures of rocks. Plover.
Scolopax. 2xoXot?«|, from <rxoX<>4/ a stake, on account of their long bills.

Woodcock and Snipe.
Ibis. I/3<y or iQxs, from i&w to cry out, because of its noisy cry. Ibis.
Grus. Ttpxvos, from geroa, Heb. Crane.

Ciconia. From the Cicones, a people of Thrace, who hold this bird in vene-
ration. Stork.
Larus. Axpos, from Xxu to covet, because of their rapacity. Gull.
Cygnus. Kvmos, from x.v.uxu to disturb, on account of the great disturbance

they make in the water with their bill in search of food. Swan.
Anser. Anser. From anza, Syr. Goose.
Anas. Anas. Nwo-a, from nu to swim, a nando. Duck.
Querquedula. Named from its cry. The specific name of the Gargany.
The following names occur in my list, but are not given by Mr. Morris ; they
are principally specific names.

Phalacrocorax. $xXxx%o>topxj;, from QxXxxgos bald, and xofa£ a Crow, because

the top of the head is white and appears bald. Cormorant.
argentatus. From argentum, silver.

arquata. Ab acuata rostri forma, from the curved form of the bill.
acutus. Acule, from aeuo to sharpen.
cannabina. From Canna, a Reed.

canus. Xacifos, from vakan, Heb., an old man. Grey-haired or headed.
fistularis. From fistula, a pipe.
ictinus. Ixt'vos, from mrxp, very quick.
igneus. Fiery, bright.
lanarius. From lana, wool. Woolly, &c.
lotor. A washer.

Nisus. Niza, from nazah, Heb., to fly.
Pygargus. Tlvyxpyos, from mvpx the rump, and ecpyos white.
rupestris. From rupes, a rock or hill.
solitaris. From solus alone. Solitary.

DERIVATIONS OF THE NAMES OF BIRDS. 139

trochahs. ) From irocjlus^ ^ top) which is derived from rfoyos a wheel.

trockUus. )

trivialis. Ordinary, trivial, &c.

I have in the foregoing list repeated some names for which derivations have
been given in the former papers ; but it is only in a few instances, and occurs
where I consider the derivations I have given may perhaps be preferable, or that
some little additional light is thrown upon the subject, as is the case with Cygnus,
Scolopax, Pyrrhula, Upupa, Falco, vanellus, tinnunculs, &c. Mr. Morbis
seems to think that some of the derivations supplied through your kindness are
not very good, but I find that in most instances they are the same as in my list,
as, for example, I have Alauda, the same as given by you (a from, and laudo, to
praise, &c), on account of its song. But I think that rubetra and rubeta are
most likely derived from ruber, red. Instead of the one you give for luscinia
(lugens, mournful, and cano, to sing), I think '•'■quod lucis canity because it
sings in woods and groves,'' preferable. As regards Ardea, I have the following
derivations. Blanchard, like yourself, derives it fnm arduus, lofty, because it
flies high. Some from the city Ardea, from whose scattered embers, according
to Ovid, this bird was generated : or from a.*e the air, and cfow to penetrate,
because of its swift flight. Gallinula is the latin for a pullet or little hen, and
gallinago is the diminutive of gallus, a cock. The derivation of spinus is quasi
spiculina, being the diminutive of spica, a thorn.

In making out lists of the derivations of names, I consider it a far preferable
plan to arrange the generic names alone and alphabetically, and then the specific
ones afterwards, which saves much unnecessary repetition, as it will occur to your
readers how often some of the Latin adjectives are repeated as specific names,
such as vulgaris, pratensis, rupestris, communis, marinus, nigra, &c. &c, and to
repeat the derivation of them every time is quite unnecessary.

I trust you will not consider the above remarks entirely out of place. I would
have sent them earlier, but, having mislaid the numbers of The Naturalist con-
taining Mr. Morris's " Explanations," was obliged to defer their transmission till
this time.

Woodside, Liverpool,
Jan. 26, 1838.

VOL. III. — NO. XVIII.

140

BRITISH FLOWERING PLANTS FOR MARCH.

(Continued from page 87.)
Netted-rooted Crocus, Crocus reticulatus ; Purple Spring Crocus, C. vernus ;
Spurge-laurel Mezereon, Daphne laureola ; Common Mezereon, D. mezereum ;
Hare's-tail Cotton-grass, Eriophorum vaginatum ; Early Knappia, Knappia
agrostidea ; Broad-leaved Hairy Wood-rush, Luzula pilosa ; Common Daffodil,
Narcissus pseudo-narcissus ; Annual Meadow-grass, Poa annua ; Sloe, or
Black-thorn, Prunus spinosa ; Two-leaved Squill, Scilla bifolia ; Smooth-leaved
Elm, Ulmus glabra ; Dutch Cork-barked Elm, U. major ; Cork-barked Elrr,
V. tuberosa ; Sweet Violet, Viola odorala ; Common Alder, Alnus glutinosa ;
Maiden-hair Spleenwort, Asplenium trichomanes ; Common Daisy, Bellis peren-
nis; Common Hazelnut, Corylus avellana ; Hairy Ladies'-smock, Cardamine
hirsuta ; Yellow Whitlow-grass, Draba aizoides ; Common Whitlow-grass, D.
verna ; Corn Horse-tail, Equisetum arvense ; Wood Spurge, Euphorbia amyg-
daloides ; Red Shrubby Spurge, E. characias ; ! Stinking Hellebore, Helleborus
foztidus; Rock Hutchinsia, Hutchinsia petrcea ; Henbit Dead-nettle, or Great
Henbit, Lamium amplexicaule ; Strawberry-leaved Cinquefoil, Potenlilla fraga-
riastrum ; White Poplar, Populus alba ; Grey Poplar, P. canescens ; Aspen or
Trembling Poplar, P.tremida; Black Poplar, P. nigra ; Common Butcher's-
broom, Ruscus aculeatus ; Rose Willow, Salix helix ; Boyton Willow, *S. Lam-
bertiana; Olive-leaved Willow, S. olei folia; Prostrate Willow, S. prrostrata ;
Purple Willow, S. purpurea; Auricled Osier Willow, S . stipularis ; Common
Groundsel, Senecio vulgaris; Common Yew, Saxus baccata; Shepherd's Purse,
Thraspi bulsa-pastoris ; Colt's-foot, Tussilago farfara.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Prize-essays on the Turnip-fly.
To the Editor of The Naturalist.
Sir, — The Prospectus of the Prize-Essays for the Entomological Society for the
year 1838 is to the following effect, as already advertised both in the Natural
History periodicals and the London and provincial papers.

Prize Essay on the black grub of the Turnip. — An arrangement has been made
between the Entomological Society of London and the Agricultural Society of

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM. 141

Saffron Walden, whereby the sum of ten guineas has been proposed to be given
to the writer of the best essay (to be drawn up from personal observations) upon
the natural history, economy, and proceedings of the 'insect injurious to Turnips
known under the name of the Black or Nigger Caterpillar (Athalia centifolice),
to be illustrated by figures of the insect in its different states, together with the
result of actual experiments, made for the prevention of their attacks, or the
destruction of the insects themselves. The essays must be accompanied by
testimonials of the success of the remedies proposed by the writers, and must be
forwarded to the Secretary of the Entomological Society, at No. 17, Old Bond-
Street, London, with fictitious signatures, on or before the fourth Monday in
January, 1833, when they will be referred to a Committee, to decide upon their
respective merits, after which, with the permission of the writers, the prize-essays
and any others of value will be published.

The prize-essays must be accompanied by a sealed letter, indorsed with the
fictitious signature adopted by each writer, and including his real name and
address.

I am, Sir,

Yours very obediently,

London, Jan. 16, 1838. J. 0. Westwood.

QFrom the letter with which Mr. Westwood has favoured us, it will be perceived
that the prize-essays could not be received later than Jan. 22, but a3 the com-
munication furnishes the information requested by " Philander " at p. 45, we
have thought it best to publish it. We found it impossible to transmit Mr.
Westwood's epistle in MS. to " Philander " in time to be of any service. — Ed.]

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

Acephalous Mammalia,

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

My dear Sir, — In the fifteenth number of your Magazine (Vol. II., p. 490)
there is notice of a lamb without a head. These lusus natures are not so
extraordinary as your correspondent seems to think. In the process of the
development of the embryo, one part of the system may be stopped in its
growth whilst the rest may go on developing in a normal manner. It is on this
ground that all varieties of monstrous formations can be explained, and thus
those forms which at first sight would appear to be departures from the laws of

u 2

142 CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

Nature, do but confirm its laws. Acephalous monsters of the kind above men-
tioned occasionally occur in the human species.

Errata in a Paper on New Zealand, by T. K. Short, Esq.

In Mr. Short's interesting paper on New Zealand, in the last number of your
Journal, there are a few errors with regard to the names of plants which I beg
to point out. At page 3, " Damara" ought to be Bammara ; " Melicylis"
Melicytus; " Adeantum," Adiantum ; " Agara" Agavia ; " Arracaria" Arau-
caria ; " Psedium," Pselium.

[The proof of the paper alluded to was corrected by its author. — Ed.]

Mr. Crosse's Experiments. '

Perhaps you will allow me to make a remark or two on your review of
Mr. Murray's Considerations on the Vital Principle. I have not seen Mr. M.'s
pamphlet, but I should think, from what lately transpired at the Meeting of the
British Association, with regard to Mr. Crosse's celebrated experiments, that any
further refutation was hardly needed, especially when combined with an attempt
to stigmatise with the name of " atheist " those who hold, probably, the ex-
istence of a Deity with as much if not more regard than their defamers. But
you state that the periodical press has been universally apathetic, and that
scientific men, on account of their aversion to new theories, have been inert with
regard to it. I think, when these experiments were first promulgated, that the
periodical press gave them the widest circulation, for there are few persons who
read at all but what have heard of them. With regard to the inertness of
scientific men, I think this is hardly a fair charge, when we recollect that it was
through the too ready credence that two or three scientific men gave to Mr.
Crosse's experiments at Bristol, that he was ever induced to publish them. Mr.
Crosse undoubtedly suspected that he might have overlooked some source from
which the insects came which he had observed at the poles of his galvanic bat-
tery, and therefore had wisely concluded not to lay his experiments before the
public; and it was the too ready admission of the facts, by some who ought to
have examined them thoroughly, before they ventured on giving their opinion of
the possibility of creating insects, which has been the cause of so much unneces-
sary alarm in certain circles, as also of exposing British science to the charge of
empiricism. In your report of the Proceedings of the British Association will be
found some experiments instituted by Messrs. Children, Gray, and Bird (Vol.
II., p. 425), which I think satisfactorily prove that Mr. Crosse's insects were
obtained from some external source, and not brought into existence by Galvanism.
Some have supposed that the ova of the insects might have been fossilised, and

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 143

developed by the action of galvanism ; but we have no evidence whatever of the
existence of fossil Acari in siliceous rocks (the substance used by Mr. Crosse),
which appears to be the one that generally inhabits cheese in the present condition
of our globe.

I remain,

Yours sincerely,

Edwin Lankester.

£The periodical press certainly did circulate the supposed result of Mr. Crosse's
experiments, as it would have circulated an account of a " sudden death" or other
" mysterious occurrence," but, for all that, we consider apathy to be justly charge-
able upon their pages. Respecting the scientific men, it appears that we were
in some degree mistaken ; and are glad to find that the timely and judicious
experiments performed by Messrs. Children, Gray, Golding Bird, and others,
have succeeded in placing the affair in its proper light. If all new discoveries
were thus promptly put to a fair test, instead of being despised and ridiculed,
the truth could not long remain concealed. But personal interest, as well as
aj&thy and prejudice, too frequently forbid so decisive a mode of procedure.
—Ed.]

Lining of the Wren's Nest.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Dear Sir, — The Wren's nest which I mentioned (Vol. II., p. 131) as not
:*ying any lining, had not, as you supposed, even a lining of other materials
than feathers. It had not an appearance of any thing of the sort. I have
speatedly found the nest of this bird without any feathers, and with only a few
[orse or Cow hairs.

I am, dear Sir,

Your obedient servant,
December 17, 1837- Beverley R. Morris.

PROCEEDINGS OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.

ROYAL SOCIETY.

This Society met on Thursday, Jan. 25, Francis Baily, Esq., vice-president
and treasurer, in the chair. — Bryan Donkin, Esq., and Sir John Hansler were
admitted Fellows of the Royal Society. The following candidates were also

144 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

elected Fellows : — Neil Abnott, M.D., the Rev. William CurEton, M.A.t
Charles Lock Eastlake, Esq., R.A.

A paper was read, entitled " Fourth Letter on Voltaic Combination," addressed
to Professor Faraday, by Professor Daniell.

ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY.

Her Majesty's government have just granted to this Society the sum of £500,
for defraying the expenses of repeating the celebrated and interesting experiment
of the late Mr. Cavendish, for determining the mean density of the earth, and
for considering the practicability of which a Committee was appointed about two
years since. The apparatus is at present in the course of erection at Mr. Baily's
house, and, as soon as it is completed, the experiments will be commenced.

ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY.

A very full meeting of members was held on the 22nd of January, for the
purpose of hearing the report of Captain Alexander, of his late expedition in
the interior of Central Africa, directed towards the north-west coast and the
Damhara country. This expedition, originating with the Society by whom the
expenses were paid, with the assistance of Q grant from government, was delayed
some time till the termination of the Caffre war; but in September, 1836, Capt.
Alexander started on his journey, from which he returned home to the Cape on
the 20th of September, 1837. During this period he traversed an extent of
4,000 miles, of which 2,000 were by walking, 1,000 by Horses, and 1,000 on
the backs of oxen. With the exception of four or five German missionaries, the
whole country was new to Europeans for a distance of 1,000 miles. The paper
was replete with interesting details. The tribes visited were the Namacquas,
Bushmen, and the two great nations of the Plain and Hill Damharas, all of whom
showed a friendly spirit to the members of the expedition, and exhibited a wish
for further intercourse with Europeans. The two latter are negroes, partaking of
all their marked characters, and beyond them resides a nation of red men, whom,
however, it was found impossible to visit, on account of a war which was raging
between the Damharas. From a female belonging to the Hill Damharas he
purchased, for two cotton handkerchiefs and two strings of beads, a little boy,
about seven years of age, who was in a half- starved condition, and employed in
hunting Lizards for food. The appearance of this singular juvenile native in the
room, along with a great variety of their domestic and warlike implements,
excited considerable curiosity and attention. At different periods the expedition
suffered much for want of water, of which they were at one period destitute for
nearly three days, with the thermometer upwards of 100 degrees in the shade,
and losing several of their oxen, Sheeps, and Dogs ; and at one time they were so

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 145

short of food as to be compelled to eat leather. On the coast they also discovered
several points affording good accommodation for vessels, and through which a
beneficial intercourse might be carried on with the interior. Near the mouth of
the Orange River they discovered large quantities of copper ore, a sample of which
had been analyzed by Sir John Herschell at the Cape, and found to contain 75
per cent, of copper, which was also easily accessible, and might either be smelted
with Orange River Wood, or carried up the river on rafts. — Atlas.

SHEFFIELD LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

Early in January the members of this Society held their annual meeting in
the Music Hall, when the report was read and adopted. Besides the ordinary
vote of thanks passed to the officers, gratuitous lecturers, and donors of the
Society, an especial and warm vote of thanks was passed to the family of the
late Hall Overend, Esq., for the munificent donation of his museum. A letter
was read from Mrs. Margaret Stovin, presenting to the Society some botanical
specimens, and offering others, as well as several rare and curious scientific books.
On the motion of Mr. Gainsford, it was unanimously agreed that the Council of
each year should be empowered to provide lectures for the first four months of the
ensuing year. Dr. Favell was elected President for the ensuing year. Vice-
Presidents — Rev. J. Blackburn, Dr. Knight,Wilson Overend, Esq.; Secretaries
— Rev. W. R. Smith, Mr. Boultbee ; Curator — Mr. William Jackson ; Trea-
surer— Offley Shore, Esq. ; Council — T. A. Ward, T. R. Barker, William
Lucas, John Ward, R. J. Gainsford, Henry Jackson, Rev. H. Farish, Rev.
H. H. Piper, Dr. Holland, J. H. Abraham, and T. Greaves.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF THE WEST-RIDING OF YORKSHIRE.

We have received a prospectus setting forth the rules proposed to be enforced
by the Society recently established under the above title. We place the docu-
ment before our readers without alteration or comment.

I. That a Society be formed for collecting and methodising geological and
mathematical information in connection with the Coal-field of Yorkshire; and
that it be called " The Geological Society of the West-Riding of Yorkshire."

II. That the Members of the original Committee, and the gentlemen now pre-
sent, together with all who may apply to the Secretary before the next meeting,
be Members of the Society on their conforming to the rules.

III. That any person who is desirous of becoming a Member after the next
meeting, must be proposed by a Member, in writing, to the Secretary, and bal-
loted for at the ensuing general meeting.

IV. That the annual subscription be half-a-guinea, and that it be due Qn
admission, apd at the annual meeting.

146

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

V. That the officers of the Society be a President, Vice-Presidents, a Com-
mittee of nine (of whom three shall be a quorum), and a Treasurer and Secretary,
who shall be ex-officio a Member of the Committee; and that three of the
Committee retire annually.

VI. That the officers be elected at the annual meeting, and be capable of being
re-elected.

VII. That the following noblemen and gentlemen be requested to accept their
respective offices : —

President :
Earl Fitzwilliam.

Vice-Presidents :

T. W. Beaumont, Esq.,

Earl of Scarborough,
Earl of Mexborough,
Earl of Effingham,
Lord Wharncliffe,
Lord Stourton,
Sir J. L. L. Kaye, Bart.

Rev. S. Sharp,

Mr. J. Charlesworth,

Mr. Jos. Charlesworth,

Mr. Hartop,

Mr. Briggs,

Committee

J. Spencer Stanhope, Esq.,
R. 0. Gascoigne, Esq.,
C. J. Brandling, Esq.,
W. B. Martin, Esq.,
G. L. Fox, Esq.

Mr. Embleton,
Mr. Field,
Mr. Biram,
Mr. Holt.

Treasurer & Secretary :
Mr. Thomas Wilson.

VIII. — That the meetings be held at Wakefield, on the first Thursdays in
March, June, September, and December, at eleven o'clock.

IX. — That at the meetings, each Member be allowed to introduce one or more
strangers.

X. — That the following gentlemen be elected Honorary Members : —
Professor Phillips,
Dr. Smith.

ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

It is really a treat for the ornithologist to spend an hour by the beautiful piece
of water in St. James's Park. Almost all the birds acquired the full use of their
wings at their last change of plumage ; yet none of them— even when their locale
was covered with skaters — left the place ; but clustered dolefully upon the ice,

EXTRACTS TIIOM FOREIGN PERIODICALS. 147

until an opening was broken for them two or three days afterwards ; and ever
and anon a few would rise and wheel about over the heads of the visitors. It is
surprising that they evince so little desire to fly, though it is much to be feared
that some will take their departure towards the breeding season. Probably,
however, they would return, with their broods , if unmolested during their ab-
sence. At present the only species at all inclined to wander are the common Wild
Ducks, Gadwalls, Shovellers, Garganies, Pintails, Teals, Wigeons, Red-headed
and Tufted Pochards, Polish Swans, one or two Gulls, the Bitterns, and one of
the Storks. The latter soars till he is out of sight every morning, and frequently
flies for several minutes at a time during the day. Almost all of the birds are
bo tame as to come and eat readily from the hand. Next autumn others, as the
Spoonbills, will acquire the use of their wings ; but there are many of most of
the above kinds, together with a beautiful Smew, some Golden-eyes, &c, which
have the pinion amputated, and perhaps it is as well to serve two or three pair
of all the more valuable species in a similar manner. There are at present about
thirty species, and of several of these a considerable number of individuals. It
is, however, expected that the collection will be materially enlarged next autumn,
without much expenditure of funds. It is to be hoped that the Society will duly
fulfil their intention of obtaining a complete collection of well-preserved British
birds, and that they will overlook no opportunity of advancing the study of
Ornithology. It is obvious that the Institution may do much for the welfare of
the science, no less than for the amusement and gratification of the public in
general ; but in order fully to carry out their numerous and important objects —
enumerated Vol. II., p. 94 — they must be liberally supported, both by the ac-
cession of members and the donation of specimens, books, &c. Indeed, the
claims the Society possesses on the public will at once point out the propriety of
the funds being amply cared for by all who have the welfare of the Society at
heart.

EXTRACTS FROM THE FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

ZOOLOGY.

1. Anatomy of Pentastoma tcenioides. — From p. 100 of our present volume we
continue our translation of M. Miram's paper on Pentastoma tcenioides.

The organs of suction consist of five openings, as indicated by the name Penta-
stoma. At a half-line of the anterior ridge, on the middle of the head, there is a
rounded tubercle ; it s«ems to correspond to the buccal opening, which I had not

TOL. III. — NO. XVIII. X

148 EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

before noticed with sufficient accuracy. On each side of this tubercle are two
elongated openings, somewhat arched, and crescented : each of these openings
incloses a tooth {crochet) of a light brown colour, the base of which is directed
towards the tail of the animal. These openings enable the worm to suck, and
the teeth are to fix themselves more firmly. In fact, every time that I endea-
vored to detach a living individual from the spot to which it adhered, I found
that the animal's head was severed before it loosed its hold.

The head of the male, immediately after its immersion in alcohol, has the
appearance of a cavity, so that the suction-apparatus is placed upon a hollow
surface. No distinct separation is observed between the head and the rest of
the body, because the smooth membrane which covers the head extends, plaited,
gradually over the whole body. This is again covered by a smooth membrane,
thin and plaited ; but the two sexes differ remarkably with respect to this
plaiting, more so than as regards that of the anterior parts seen across.

In the male, indeed, the plaits extend from the head to the end of the tail, and
the lateral ridges are neither so distinct nor -so well formed as in the female. In
the latter, on the contrary, the plaits disappear entirely at an inch and one-fourth
from the caudal extremity, and do not extend over the whole surface of the back
as in the male. They are only visible at the sides, and vanish altogether in the
region of the ventral cavity. The lateral ridge itself appears not to be wholly
uniform in the female, but at the part where the plaits disappeared, the regular
points which followed immediately after likewise vanish.

The ventral surface of the male presents a large white band, across the skin ;
it takes its origin near the head, [passes over the middle of the body, and termi-
nates close to the tail. It is there the right testicle, for the left is covered by the
intestinal canal, which is not seen here, but only at the caudal extremity. On
the back, immediately behind the head, are two small spots, sometimes visible to
the naked eye ; these are the genital openings, through which the two cirrhi of
the male probably pass. Behind these two openings are seen two white flexuous
organs ; these are the two testicles, one of which is already seen upon the ventral
face. Further back is the anal aperture of the intestinal canal, which is situated
at the end of the tail, and which seems to divide the latter.

In the ventral region of the female, immediately behind the head, are two
indistinct blind vessels, which belong to the sexual apparatus, and not, as
Rudolphi conceived, to the intestinal canal. Between these vessels are others
of a brown colour, describing a sinuous course. They extend nearly to the caudal
extremity, and constitute the oviducts ; they are followed by a simple filament,
the intestinal canal, which here distinctly divides the tail.

On the dorsal surface, at the part where the head is slightly arched, are seen
the two blind vessels before mentioned, and between them an obscure spot, which

EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS. 149

is the stomach. Then the brown flexuous oviducts again part, to join the tail.
Immediately behind the stomach is a vessel divided a little from right to left,
and which passes directly towards the left side; it is the ovary full of eggs. The
intestinal canal again appears near the tail.

Such, says M. Miram, are the outward parts of the body ; I now pass to the
description of the internal organization of this remarkable Worm. In order to do
this with the more accuracy, I will begin with the organs which first present
themselves to sight, on removing the skin, such as the organs of motion ; after-
wards those of digestion, j then those of sensation, and, lastly those of genera-
tion.— Annales des Sciences Naturelles.

[^Unless under extraordinary pressure of other matter, we shall make a point
of continuing the paper of which we have given our readers a glimpse, in future
and early numbers. — Editor.]

BOTANY.

2. On the Connection of the Cells of Plants. — This is an inaugural dis-
sertation by M. Mohl, written in German, and published in 1835. Our extract
is from the Bib. Un. de Gen.

The earlier anatomists considered either the cellules or the vessels as cavities
acting in the midst of a homogeneous substance. This theory became inadmis-
sible after the works of Grew and Malpighi, the discovery of intercellular
passages, and that of a double coat wherever two cells meet. The existence of
vessels and cells, as distinct organs, was generally admitted; but the manner
in which these cells were united still remained a disputed point. The majority
of observers considered them to be intimately united to each other by their coats,
while others described an intermediate substance contained in the interstices.
Moldenhawer supposed he saw this substance in the form of a bundle of very
delicate fibres, surrounding each cell, and enveloping the whole like network ; but
no one has since been able to discern these pretended fibres.

Agardh, in his Organographie (1831), mentions a mucous substance very
abundant in Algae, especially in the lower groups, where it forms the principal
element of the plant. The cells contained in this membrane collect it in their
interstices in proportion as they increase. Agardh believes this mucous sub-
stance to exist in the higher orders of vegetation, and that the cells are connected
by their edges, by the assistance of this same substance, hardened in the shape
of fibre.

M. Mohl, in his Reckerckes sur les Troncs des Fougeres en Arbre (Researches
on the Stems of Arborescent Ferns j, and his work Sur le Pollen (On Pollen J y
is convinced of the existence of this mucous tissue, without, however, agreeing
with Agardh respecting details. He admits in his memoir : — 1st., that the

x2

150 EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

substance which, in Algce, surrounds the cells, is found in higher plants, though
in a smaller quantity ; he names it " intercellular substance" ; 2nd., that this
substance is always homogeneous, and is never seen in the fibrous form.

Illustrations of various organs, as seen under powerful magnifiers, accompany
this work. They explain the point under consideration with great clearness.
Let us follow the author in the account of the observations which led him to the
above conclusions. He there notices the tissue in different plants, passing from
the lowest classes of the kingdom up to the most complicated.

In Nostochinece the intercellular substance forms nearly the whole plant. It
exists in a semi-liquid indeterminate form, and serves as a matrix to the cells
which it connects. In the Oscittatorice the cells are already united at each end,
like beads on a string. Each of these cellular filaments is covered with a case
of more compact cellular substance. The cellular thread may easily be removed,
when the homogeneous structure of the casement, in a single piece, is distinctly
seen. A certain number of chaplets and their envelops are reunited by other
more fluid intercellular matter, and form an aggregate of different structures.

In Scgtomena and Confervce, the organization is similar, except that the
cellular threads and their envelops are no longer united, but form distinct parts.

Passing from those species of Algce where the cells are arranged in a single
row, end to end, to those of a more complicated structure, where the cells are in
many rows, the same substance still occurs, not only on the exterior of the
plant, but also in the interstices of the cellules. If these cellules are few and
distant from each other, the intercellular substance is very abundant, and forms
the greater portion of the tissue. If, on the contrary, the cells are united, it is
collected at the corners, and is only found in very thin layers between the coats
of the cells. These two cases are observed in marine Algce. Intercellular pas-
sages have never been discovered here, on account of the substance which fills all
the voids.

It is found in Lichens, but less abundantly. It must be looked for between
the rounded cells which form the external layer of the thallus.

In higher plants, with distinct leaves, the intercellular substance is less easily
seen, on account of the existence of passages, and because of the greater pressure
of the cells. There is, however, perhaps no plant in which it is not found in one
organ or another.

In Mosses and JungermannicB it is distinctly seen towards the extremity of
the leaves, in the intervals of the cells.

In Fems it is very evident between the elongated cellular tissue surrounding
the vessels. The rhizoma of Pteris aquilina (the Common Brake), and the stems
of arborescent Ferns, furnish excellent examples ; but care must be taken not
to confound with intercellular substance the external layer of cells, which is

EXTRACTS from foreign periodicals. 151

coloured in the same manner. A thickness not its own is therefore sometimes
attributed to the substance. The same precaution must be observed in all the
woods of Dicotyledons. In Coniferce, for instance, the lines of separation be-
tween the substance and the cells are much less cut off than those between the
internal and external layers of these cells. It is, therefore, easy to make a
mistake.

In order clearly to observe this matter in the cellular tissue of wood, the hard
tropical woods, or our Box-tree, should be selected. It is much more difficult to
detect it in the majority of our indigenous trees, because the cells are there
extremely small, and closely connected.

It is well characterised in the elongated cellular tissue of the bark and
petioles of the greater part of phanerogamous plants, as the Elder (Sambucus
nigra.)

In parenchyma, or rounded cellular tissue, the cellular matter is so small in
quantity that it generally eludes observation. Hence the existence of passages
which are but empty spaces caused by the scarcity of this -substance. It is,
however, still obvious in tough leaves, as the Laurel (Laurus nobilis). The
facility with which the cellules can be separated sufficiently proves its existence
in all rounded cellular tissue, even in cases where its extreme tenuity and
transparence prevents its being distinctly seen.

The albumen of many Monocotyledons contains it, whether between the cells
or at the surface, and it covers them with a homogeneous layer (as in Lilium
martagori).

The external membrane which M. Brongniart has detached from the cuticle
by maceration, is but a homogeneous layer of the same substance, which fills
not only the intervals of the cells of the cuticle, but also covers them on the
outside with this pellicle.

Lastly, the external envelop of grains of pollen is almost always composed
entirely of intercellular substance.

These and other observations illustrate the important part which the substance
under consideration performs in the vegetable kingdom. Its study, carried still
further, will one day lead to interesting results on many physiological points.
The theory of the ascent of juices by the intercellular passages is already rendered
little probable, since these passages are only exceptions to the normal state of
the plant.

This substance is semi-fluid, sometimes hard and solid, but never fibrous,
transparent, perfectly homogeneous, and almost always very hygroscopic. Its
chemical properties appear to be analogous to those of the cellular tissue which
it envelops, and vary, consequently, according to the species and the organs in
which it is observed. But M. Mohl has not yet distinctly described its chemical
nature and physical properties.

152

CHAPTER OF MISCELLANIES.

ZOOLOGY.

Prolificacy of the Blackbird. — A pair of these birds built four successive
nests last season upon the island in St. James's Park, and succeeded in rearing
seventeen young ones ; the three first broods consisting of five each, and the last
of two only. There cannot be the least doubt as to the identity of the female,
as she is well known to the person who attends them, and so tame as to take
food from his hand while sitting on the eggs. There were, moreover, no other
individuals of the same species near the place. — Another isolated pair which I
knew of raised, unmolested, three broods in a garden near my residence, so that
the Blackbird would appear to raise as many young as the Partridge, which
produces only one brood in a season. — Edward Blyth, North Brixton, Surrey,
Jan. 21, 1838.

Mode of taking Gbease out of Insects. — Those readers of The Naturalist
who are commencing the study of Entomology have reason to be grateful to Mr.
Dale for his instructive "Hints" in the Feb. No. (p. 81). To these I wish to add
another, which is not generally known, and which I think will be found useful.
Specimens in cabinets are often ruined by the transudation of the oily matter
with which their bodies are charged. This at first appears in spots on the
thorax and abdomen, and afterwards gradually pervades every part of the insect.
Mr. Samouelle recommends his readers to " powder some fine dry chalk on a
heated iron, cover the chalk with a very fine piece of linen cloth, and thereto
apply the under part of the body of the insect : the heat dissolves the grease,
while the chalk absorbs it, and the cloth prevents the chalk from clotting the
insect." — Ent. Useful Comp., p. 320. This is a very troublesome method, to
say the least of it. I should recommend in its stead the following, as far prefer-
able. Dip the greasy specimen into spirits of wine, or turpentine, until it is
well soaked. Then place it in a situation exposed to a current of air — near a
window, slightly opened, will answer the purpose well. The spirit in a short
time evaporates, takes off the oily matter, and the insect is cleansed. — Peter
Rylands, Bewsey House, Warrington, Feb. 3, 1838.

A Child carried away by a Baboon. — Flocks of Baboons are known to infest
the gardens in the suburbs of Calcutta. A native woman of Soorah left a child
about two months old on a little bed in her compound, besmeared with oil (a
native practice), and went away for a minute or two. No sooner had she left
the place, than a large Baboon jumped from a tree close by, and taking the
infant in his embrace, ran up the tree again. The cries of the child immediately

MISCELLANY. 153

brought the mother to the spot, with many others. It was plain the child was
well treated by the Baboon, for he handled it with much kindness. Some
Plantains being placed under the tree, the Baboon came down and secured the
fruit, but did not let go his hold on the child, although the people had hidden
themselves. Soon it grew less sceptical, and, placing the child on terra firma, ate
another Plantain. At this moment the people appeared and shouted, thinking
to terrify the Baboon from his charge ; but the animal was not to be so caught.
It seized the child again, and leaped from one tree to another, and so on, pursued
by the people, screaming and shouting, for a quarter of an hour or more. The
Baboon was then observed to leap over a tree without its victim : this was
alarming, for none could guess what had become of the child, until they heard its
cries. It was then found, uninjured, embedded in the rotten trunk of the tree
on which the Baboon was seen last. — Parbury's Oriental Herald.

Consumptive Animals. — Alluding to the fact mentioned by Mr. Allis in
The Naturalist, p. 28, a cotemporary observes : — We mentioned this singular
case to a friend, who has had the best means of acquiring anatomical knowledge,
and he informs us that he has dissected three Parrots, great favourites, which
had been sent to the late Mr. John Wilson, curator of the Edinburgh Museum,
to be stuffed, in which the lungs were reduced to the same state as that described
by Mr. Allis. He has also dissected two Monkies which, during life, presented
the usual symptoms of consumption, and whose lungs, on dissection, were thickly
studded with tubercules, in every different stage. In one case the upper lobe on
the left side was a mass of matter. Generally speaking, the hard, dry cough to
which the Monkey tribes are subject in this country, depends on what medical
men call bronchitis, or inflammation of the lining membrane of the air tubes, and
which, in its chronic stage, presents many of the symptoms of pulmonary con-
sumption. A return of summer, or removal into a dry, warm place, is in many
instances sufficient to remove the symptoms. — Sheffield Iris.

Severity of the Weather, and Abundance of Birds. — Owing to the con-
tinuance of "the frost, there is a great variety of birds in the Liverpool markets,
and ornithologists are reaping a rich harvest in making great additions to their
collections, or, as a friend of mine observes, " making hay while the sun shines."
The dealers of objects in Natural History have been on the alert in picking up
the rarer species of Ducks, &c, but I am informed that the market people always
make a point of asking them twice their usual price for a bird, well knowing
that unless it was a rare bird, they would not care about purchasing it. The
following list has been furnished me through the kindness of Mr. Henry
Johnson, curator of the Royal Institution, who has added a few rare birds to
their collection. Of the following species he has not noticed in the market more
than a solitary specimen or two : —

154 MISCELLANY.

Canada Swan, Cygnus Canadensis* ; Pintailed Duck, Anas acuta, a very fine
specimen, purchased for the Institution; Common Coot, Fulica atra\ ; Brent
Bernicle, Anser torquatus ; White-fronted Goose, Anser albifrons, shot at Lea-
sowes, and purchased for the Institution ; Goosander, Mergus merganser.

The following species have been rather more abundant : — Scaup Pochard, Fuli-
gula marila ; Teal, Anas crecca ; Oyster-catcher, Hcematopus ostralegus ; Com-
mon Gallinule, Gallinula chloropus ; Water Rail, Rallus aquaticus; Redwing,
Turdus iliacus ; Green Grosbeak, Fringilla chloris ; Yellow Bunting, Emberiza
citrinella; Quail, Perdix coturnix ; Bar-tailed Godwit, Limosa rufa ; Common
Shieldrake, Tadorna Bellonii ; Whimbrel, Numenius phceopus.

The following species have been exceedingly abundant : — Common Mallard,
Anas boschas ; Wigeon, Mareca penelope ; Common Pochard, Fuligula ferina ;
Tufted Duck, Fuligula cristata j Wild Goose, Anser ferus ; Common Curlew,
Numenius arquata ; Redshank Sandpiper, Totanus calidris; Golden Plover,
Charadrius pluvialis ; Grey Plover, Vanellus griseus ; Crested Lapwing, Vanel-
lus cristatus ; Dunlin or Purre, Tringa variabilis ; Blackbird, Turdus merula ;
Song Thrush, Turdus musicus ; Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris ; Missel Thrush, T.
viscivorus; Starling, Sturnus vulgaris ; Sky Lark, Alauda arvensis ; Ring Dove,
Columba palumbus ; Common Linnet, Fringilla cannabina ; Common Pheasant,
Phasianus Colchicus ; Common Partridge, Perdix cinerea. I have had one or two
very fine specimens of the Black-headed Gull, Larus ridibundus, given to me :
they were shot on Bidstone Marsh. — T. B. Hall, Woodside, near Liverpool,
Feb. 1, 1838.

Aerial Augurs. — Countless flocks of birds, having the appearance of Field-
fares in the distance, past over the north-eastern parts of the metropolis, in a
southerly direction, at the end of last week. So numerous were these winged
fugitives from the bleak north that they darkened the air like a cloud, and their
transit occupied several minutes. The weather-wise consider the circumstance
a sure prognostic of a severe and protracted winter. — Doncaster Gazette,

Jan. 19.

Famished Wolves. — In many parts of France, the Wolve3, driven by the
extremity of the cold to ravage the cultivated districts, had become so numerous
and so daring, that the hunting of that animal had superseded the other field
sports. — French Papers.

Wild Ducks affected by the Severity of the Weather. — On Sunday,
Jan. 28, a number of young men met, near Stainborough Park, with several Wild
Ducks which could not fly from the severity of the frost ; they were therefore

* This bird was killed at Southport, and is in the museum of the Royal Institution,
t Surely this bird is not otherwise than abundant near Liverpool.— Ed.

MISCELLANY. , 155

easily secured. — Doncaster Gazette, Feb. 2. QWe conceive that want of water,
and not the severity of the frost, affected these birds.— Ed.]

Cabbage Butterfly abroad in February. — On the 3rd of February, during
a severe frost, we noticed a specimen of the common Cabbage Butterfly (Pontia
brassicce.) — Ed.

Pheasants and Pheasant-hunting in Norfolk. — The Pheasant is very
abundant in the several preserves in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, and is
the cause of serious frays between the poachers and the gamekeepers. I consider
the preserves a curse to these counties, as nothing tends to demoralize the
poorer classes so much as holding out such tempting inducements for them to
pursue these unlawful depredations. It u no unusual circumstance to see, in
some of the extensive parks, several hundreds of these birds out feeding at the
same time. — J. D. Salmon, Godalming, Surrey, Dec. 23, 1837.

Frozen Otter. — On Saturday week (Jan. 20) Captain Maxey found a fine
Otter frozen fast in the ice in the canal, and presented the specimen to the Swan-
sea Institution. — Doncaster Gazette, Feb. 2.

Notes on Tetracnemus diversicomis, Westwood. — This insect is figured in
the Magazine of Natural History, p. 258, with four branches to the antennae.
' When I first saw it I thought it was the same as my Ceraphron ramicornis
(Boehm. ?), being very similar, as far as antennae go; but mine is more like Mr.
Curtis's figure of C. Halidayi, but that has only three branches to the antenna?,
and is scarcely more than half its size. I took my specimen on Knighton Heath,
near Dorchester, Aug. 11, 1835, and Mr. Westwood's T. diversicomis on Oak,
in Coombe Wood, July 3, 1835. — J. C. Dale, Glanville's Wootton, Dorsetshire^
July 9, 1837.

Capture of the Eagle Owl (Strix bubo) off Flamborough Head. — A
specimen of this rare British bird was captured off that celebrated headland
Flamborough Head, after alighting upon the mast of a sloop sailing by, and was
with difficulty secured, after it had actually pinned down with its powerful
talons the cabin boy, who had been sent aloft to seize it. — Patrick Hawkridge,
Scarborough, Aug. 7, 1837.

Birds observed near Doncaster during the Frost. — * * * But than these
rarer objects have presented themselves to the notice of the lover of Ornithology.
Many of them have fallen before the deadly tube of the gunner ; but all of them
have been observed in this neighbourhood : — The Bittern, the Dun Diver, the
Goosander, the Smew, the Green Sandpiper, the Tufted Duck, the Pochard, the
Scaup Duck, the Shieldrake, the Crossbill, the Crested Grebe, the Barnacle Goose,
the Sanderling, the Royston or Norway Crow, &c. A pied Partridge has also
been shot ; and a few days ago four white Swans were seen passing over Balby,
by Mr. Crawshaw, of Warmsworth. — Doncaster Gazette, Feb. 2.

vol. in. — no. XVIII. y

156 MISCELLANY.

Organ of the Communication of Ide.as in Man. — Dr. Elliotson suggests, in
the second part of his Physiology, just published, that there may be a new organ,
the function of which is to communicate ideas. Phrenologists have hitherto teen
accustomed to attribute taciturnity to a large development of Secretiveness, com-
bined with ample Caution, and communitiveness, on the contrary, to these organs
being small. We, however, feel convinced that these qualities depend upon a
separate faculty, named for the present Communication of Ideas. The fact of
many persons having Secretiveness very large and yet being communicative to a
remarkable degree, and vice versa, indeed, clearly proves that Secretiveness is a
much less active agent in the matter than commonly supposed. Some individuals
are wholly unable to keep any idea whatever to themselves, and are instinctively
and most powerfully impelled to communicate every trifling circumstance they
hear to any person with whom they meet, whether or not the circumstances
imparted are likely to be of interest to the friend thus instructed. This is the
abuse of the faculty, which, uncontrolled, frequently leads to unpleasant, and not
seldom to serious consequences. The same organ occasions the well-known
proneness to gossiping amongst women of all classes, which we had before been
unable to explain upon phrenological principles.

The locality of the faculty is not yet known, but it is an intellectual organ,
and will probably range near Language. — Ed.

Hybrids between a Lion and a Tiger. — At page 489 of your Magazine
the Rev. F. 0. Morris notices that a specimen of a Lion- Tiger is preserved in
the museum of Mr. Reid, of Doncaster ; and as many of your readers may not be
aware that the Lion and Tiger breed together so frequently as they do, I send
you the following account, for insertion in The Naturalist.

Mr. Atkins, proprietor of the Liverpool Zoological Gardens, bred the first
litter of Lion-Tigers at Windsor in 1824, and it is, perhaps, a fact worth men-
tioning that this brood was brought up by a terrier bitch, as the tigress did not
evince the slightest affection for her progeny. They died when about a year old.
A second litter was born on Clapham Common, in 1824, but lived only a
short time. In this instance, as well as the following, the tigress took to her
progeny and suckled them ; a third litter was born at Edinburgh in 1826, con-
sisting of one male and two females. A fourth at Windsor in 1828, consisting
also of one male and two females ; a fifth at Kensington in 1831 ; and the last
litter was born in the Liverpool Zoological Gardens in 1833, consisting of two
males and one female. One of the males has since died, but the other two are
still alive, and apparently very healthy.

The Gardens contain a very fine specimen of the Chetah or Hunting-leopard,
which is, I believe, the only specimen alive in this country ; also a specimen of
ihe Indian Rhinoceros, which is rarely seen alive in England. It i« said to

MISCELLANY. 157

have cost Mr. Atkins <£l,000.— T. B. Hall, Woodside, near Liverpool, Feb. 1,
1838.

Mode of Killing Insects. — Mr. Dale, in his "Hints" (p. 81), has omitted
mentioning Mr. Haworth's plan for killing large Moths, which I think de-
serves to be known and practised. " When large Moths must be killed," says
Mr. H., " destroy them at once by the insertion of a strong red-hot needle into
the thickest parts, beginning in front of the thorax. If this be properly done,
instead of lingering through several days, they are dead in an instant." — Peter
Rylands, Bewsey House, Warrington, Feb. 3, 1838.

Curious Locality for the Hedge Accentor's Nest. — Most authors agree
that the place this bird selects for building is a compact hedge. As a departure
from the common rule, it may be mentioned that in the early part of spring,
1836, a [pair of these birds built, and hatched their young, in a Fuchsia in Dr.
Murray's garden, at Belle- Vue. — Patrick Hawkridge, Scarborough, Aug. 7,

1837.

The Veneer, Vanear, or Finear (Crambus). — A variety of C. argyreus (?),
Glanville's Wootton, Enborne, Berkshire, and Hume, Hampshire, May 18 to
July 9. Mr. Haworth mentioned in his letter 13 that he had added quite a
new Fineer (qu. C. deceptor ? Bentley's Cabinet) from Norfolk (Beachamwell ?),
taken June 1823, by H. Scales, Esq. — J. C. Dale, Glanville's Wootton, Dor-
setshire, July 9, 1837.

On preserving Objects of Natural History in Spirits of Wine. — The
following will be found an excellent preparation for covering over the corks of
bottles in which the objects are preserved, and will effectually prevent the
evaporation of the spirit : —

Common resin.

Red ochre, well pulverised.

Yellow wax.

Oil of turpentine.
The quantities of resin and oxide of iron, or of oil of turpentine and wax, must
be regulated according to the degree of brittleness or elasticity that is required.
The wax and resin must be first melted, and the ochre added in small quantities,
at each addition being briskly stirred with a spatula ; when this mixture has
boiled seven or eight minutes, the oil of turpentine may be added, well stirring it,
and the whole boiled for a short period longer. It is necessary to be very careful
that these substances do not take fire, and in case they do, it is as well to be
provided with a lid to cover the vessel and extinguish the flame. The quality of
the luting can be ascertained by putting a little from time to time upon a cold
plate, by which means its degree of tenacity is easily ascertained.

After having carefully corked the bottles, and wiped them well with a dry

y2

158 MISCELLANY.

cloth, the cement must be heated to the boiling point, and well stirred. The
best mode of applying it is with a piece of old linen fastened to the end of a
stick. Sometimes the luting, by penetrating the cork, makes the spirit of wine
evaporate and burst the surface ; this forms small openings, which are stopped by
passing a second coat of luting over the first, having previously allowed it to
cool. If the phials are small, their necks may be plunged into the luting, and by
repeating the process two or three times it acquires the proper degree of thickness.
From what little experience I have had, I find that a mixture of half water and
half spirit answers the purpose equally well, and I have been told that a mixture
of salt and water will suffice, and it is of course much more economical. — T. B.
Hall, Woodside, Liverpool, Feb. 1, 1838.

Occurrence of Apis mellifica on Dec. 31. — On the last day of the year 1837
a Bee flew very briskly by me, which must have been at a considerable distance
from its hive. The weather was beautifully fine, and the thermometer in the
shade stood at 46°. — Peter Rylands, Bewsey House, Warrington, Feb. 3, 1838.

The European Goatsucker {Caprimulgus Europceus) near the Sea-coast.
—This bird is found upon the moors in the neighbourhood, and is occasionally
seen in the evening hawking for food in sheltered situations near the sea-coast. —
Patrick Hawkridge, Scarborough, Aug. 7, 1837.

Helobia brevicollis, var. Portlandica. — Every specimen I take in Portland is
much narrower across the thorax than those I take here, and I think it is as
good a species as H. Marshallana, being apparently intermediate between that
and H. brevicollis, but I am inclined to think that all the Helobice are but one
species, varying from locality and other circumstances. — J. C. Dale, Glanville's
Wootton, Dorsetshire, July 7, 1 837.

Crambus lamellus. — Norfolk, Rev. J. Burrell, Parley Heath, West Hume,
Ramsdown, Catherine Hill, Christ- church Head, and New Forest, in very fine
order, from Aug. 14 to Sept. 6. — J. C. Dale, Glanville's Wootton, Dorsetshire,
July 9, 1837.

The Common Seal (Pkoca vitulina, Linn.). — Pennant, in his British
Zoology, mentions the occurrence of this species on the coasts of Caernarvonshire
and Anglesea. The fishermen also have several times informed me of its occur-
rence. I have never, however, succeeded in obtaining or seeing one. Mr. Bell, in
his History of British Quadrupeds, p. 2C3, mentions, on the authority of Prof.
Nilsson, that the oblique position of the teeth is a constant character in this
species. It is, however, one which appears to vary with the age of the animal.
In the cranium of a specimen in my collection, obtained in Scotland, and of
whose habits, when alive, some account was published in the first number of this
Magazine, the two posterior molars are not oblique, and the third only slightly
so. The fourth and fifth are, however, as represented in Mr. Bell's work, p. 268.

MISCELLANY. 159

The teeth in the lower jaw correspond with those of the upper, although a young
one, which appears from the state of the ossification, and the total length being
only three feet four inches. It has no remains of milk teeth. The following
particulars with regard to the skeleton may perhaps contribute towards the eluci-
dation of the genus. The palatine bones are as figured by Mr. Bell. Vertebrae,
cervical 7 ; dorsal 15 ; sacral 6 ; caudal 8 ; the tip of the tail was slightly
injured, but I believe the enumeration to be correct. — T. C. Eyton, Esq., in the
Magazine of Zoology and Botany for February, 1838, No. xii., Vol. II. p. 541.

Substitute for Cork Lining in Entomological Cabinets. — Having for-
warded the receipt communicated to you by Mr. Morris, to a very excellent
entomologist of Liverpool, A. Melly, Esq., for the purpose of asking his opinion
respecting it, he states that he has always been in the habit of using composition
instead of cork, and that he finds it not only cheaper, but quite equal to cork, and
that on the Continent the plan is generally adopted. The one he employs is
much harder, and is composed of two -thirds of the best Bees-wax and one-third
of the best resin ; but he observes that, in this climate, the addition of tallow
cannot do much harm, and will save something in the cost ; the great point is to
melt it well, and to pass the resin through a sieve before the wax is added. The
same gentleman has the best cases for insects that I have ever seen, and they are
very reasonable in price. They are made by Messrs. Gillow & Co., of Lancas-
ter, who, I believe, have an excellent name both for cases and cabinets. In
Liverpool some collectors are in the habit of using prepared turf for the lining oe
cases, but from the experience that I have had of it, I do not like it at all. It
comes cheaper than cork, but is far inferior to cork or wax. — T. B. Hall, Wood-
side, Liverpool, Jan. 26, 1838.

Carabus agrestis, C. hortensis, and C. nemoralis. — Weaver writes to me
that a Mr. Walker had taken six specimens of Carabus agrestis in a Corn-field
in the north of England. In the Linnsean Cabinet Carabus hortensis and C.
nemoralis are mixed up as one species. — J. C. Dale, Glanville's Wootton, Dorset-
shire, May 15, 1837.

The Natterjack. — The Rev. Leonard Jenyns, in his excellent Manual of
British Vertebrated Animals, gives a very good description of this animal, under
the name of Bufo calamita, Laurent. Among other particulars he states, that
it was first observed near Revesby Abbey, Lincolnshire, by the late Sir Joseph
Banks. It has since been met with in plenty on many of the heaths about
London, as well as on Gamlingay Heath, Cambridgeshire, and in two or three
localities in Norfolk. It is of much more rare occurrence than the Common
Toad, and its pace is a kind of shuffling run. It spawns later in the season, and
appears to affect dry sandy districts. — T. B. Hall, Woodside, Liverpool, Jan. 26,
1837.

160 MISCELLANY.

The Siskin {Carduelis spinus) near Scarborough. — Several specimens were
procured from a small flock found in the plantation at Barrow Cliff; and some
others in the Fir plantation leading from the Mill Cottage to the Bridlington-
road. — Patrick Hawkridge, Scarborough, Aug. 7, 1837.

Sayings and Doings of Skaters. — We have had more skating than even Mr.
Murphy gave us reason to expect, and more, in fact, than is often obtained in
this country. Consequently persons who had never before been on the ice in
their lives now flock to the frozen lakes and meres in all directions, and scarce an
old man or an urchin barely able to walk but has his daily slide, or his uncouth
rusty skates. It is amusing to witness the infinite variety of these instruments,
from the highly-finished guinea patent skates down to the blade of an old knife
stuck into an equally rude piece of wood, and bound round the feet of the sturdy
skaters with rotten straps, cordage, or other delectable contrivances. If the im-
plements are thus diverse in character, of course so also are their wearers.

To such a degree has the " professional skater " become inured to his art or
science — call it which you please — that he is out the first thing in the morning
and the last at night. A " general observer" is all amazement at him, when he
speaks of the intense heat of rooms icy cold to every one else, when he hears that
his skating friend has been out eight or nine hours every day, when an exercise
of four or five hours in the twenty-four constitutes with him a "day of rest"
when the skater not only dreams of his craft at night, but almost fancies himself
skating across the carpet in broad day-light, and when, finally, he declares that
he can scarcely keep on his legs save when perched upon his darling skates.

Such are the feelings of this " active animal." We know we have many
zealous skaters amongst our readers, in various parts of the kingdom. May they,
each and all, live to skate many a day and many a year as in 1838 ! — Ed.

BOTANY.

Species of Nuts indigenous to Britain. — At p. 169 of the second volume
of The Naturalist the Rev. F. 0. Morris has a query respecting the British
species of Nuts indigenous to this country, and asks if the Filbert is not
indigenous. The Common Hasel-nut of our hedges {Corylus avellana) is the
only one enumerated in our Floras as indigenous in this country, but of this
species in Loudon's Hortus Britannicus there are enumerated the following five
varieties, — alba, rubra, grandis, glomerata, and crispa, which are natives of this
country, and found in woods. There are four which are natives of Spain, viz.>
Barcelonensis, variegata, ovata, and pumila. There are also the following five
additional species, C. tubulosa, native of the south of Europe ; C. Americana,
C. humilis, and C. rostrata, natives of North America, and C. colurna, from
Constantinople. C. mongolica has been very lately discovered in Russia by

MISCELLANY. 161

Professor Ledebros, near the Black Sea. In speaking on the subject to Mr.
Henry Shepherd, the present curator of the Liverpool Botanic Gardens, he
states that some few years since, being in one of the alpine woods of Lancashire,
at the time Nuts were ripe, he found one tree bearing fruit very much like the
Filbert, both in shape, and also in its covering ; the shell was also equally thin.
Mr. Shepherd brought some of them home and planted them, and when he left
that part of the country the trees were three feet high, since which period he has
not seen them. The place is about fifteen miles north-east of Lancaster, in the
parish of Tatham, near Longill. — T. B. Hall, Woodside, Liverpool, Feb. 1, 1838.
Clematis vitalba. — I can confirm Mr. Hall's statement, at p. 27, of Clematis
vitalba occurring in Essex ; it grows in considerable abundance in the lanes near
Saffron Walden. It seems to prefer a chalky soil, and I think I never saw it in
such profusion as in the chalk districts near Fareham in Hampshire. Many of
your readers may not be aware of the great variety of form the leaves of this
plant assume, giving very different characters to the whole plant. Sometimes
they are quite entire, without any appearance of dissection, while at others they
are divided completely down to the mid-rib, and specimens are found in all the
intermediate grades of development. — Edwin Lankester, Campsall, near Don-
caster, Jan. 12, 1838.

Blood Bed Wheat. — An instance of the prolific nature of the "Wheat bearing
this name has lately been produced, and is deserving of being placed on record
amongst our agricultural memorandums. The produce of a piece of old cultivated
land, belonging to Mr. William Cowlishaw, of Carlton in Lindrick, which
barely measures one acre, has been winnowed during the last week, and the result
is 6G bushels of the best, and 3 bushels of hinder-ends — being somewhat more
than 23 loads per acre ! The best weighs 14 stone 2 lbs., and is sold to Mr.
Baxter, of the Worksop steam mill, for 22s. 6d. per load. Many instances
might be produced of the great yield of this Wheat (often confounded with the
golden drop), exceeding that of almost any other — and the prejudices which
existed against it in the minds of some millers, on its first introduction, are
gradually on the decline. The price, as stated above, given by a well-known
good judge, and careful buyer, is also an evidence that its quality is not inferior.
We are indebted for its introduction into this neighbourhood to Mr. St. John
Cartwright, of Worksop, who purchased it (being the prize Wheat) at one of
the agricultural meetings in Scotland about three years ago. — Doncaster Gazette,
Feb. 2.

Common Butcher-broom. — The leaf of the Common Butcher-broom (Ruscus
aculeatus), late in autumn, presents a very curious appearance, all the fleshy
parts of the leaf having been removed by the action of the rain upon it. The
strong fibrous part, commonly called the nerves, alone remains. This is beauti-

162 MISCELLANY.

fully arranged in elliptical lines, which inosculate with each other, that is, are
joined by cross branches. These fibres appear to possess a good deal of strength,
and might, I should think, if they are long enough, be put to some useful purpose.
Whole stalks at a time present this net-like appearance. — Beverley R. Morris,
Ckarmouth, Dorsetshire, Dec. 17, 1837.

Common Butcher-broom. — In the neighbourhood of Godalming this beautiful
erergreen, with its splendid scarlet berries, grows in the greatest profusion, on
the slopes of the hills amongst the underwood, and it is only when in the shade
that the berries come to the greatest perfection, for when exposed the plants
scarcely bear fruit. In some of the specimens I gathered, almost every leaf was
studded with its brilliant ruby berry. Is it not a little singular that the majority
of our native plants which perfect their seed in winter, should bear scarlet
berries ? — J. D. Salmon, Godalming, Surrey, Dec. 23, 1837, in a letter to Neville
Wood, Esq.

Kohl Rabi. — A very fine specimen of this vegetable, weighing nearly 5 lb.,
was exhibited at the Black-Swan Inn, on Saturday last, by Mr. Bluck, of
Dinedor. A medical gentleman present stated that he had tested its qualities,
and found it to contain a very large quantity of saccharine matter, and had no
doubt of its nutritious properties, as food for cattle, Sheep, &c. Mr. Bluck ob-
served that it was a very hardy plant, heavier than the Swede Turnip, and
seldom or never^touched by the fly, and that, no doubt, if generally cultivated,
would be found very profitable to the farmer. — Hereford Times.

New Wood for lining Entomological Cases. — I inclose you a small piece
of wood which I procured from a friend who has a piece about two feet by one
foot, and an inch thick. A gentleman of this town has all his entomological cases
lined with this wood from Brazil. The ease with which the most slender pin
comes out and enters is beautiful, and the substance would, if imported in suffi-
cient quantity, do away with cork, wax, and all other lining. — T. B. Hall,
Woodside, Liverpool, Feb. 7, 1838.

The Fuchsia. — Situated as we are on the eastern part of the island, and
exposed to piercing cold winds, it may not be amiss to state the very great
perfection the Fuchsia has been brought to in Dr.JMuRRAy's garden at Belle- Vue;
many of them (standards) measure between four and five feet in height, and the
principal stems of some are five inches in circumference. — Patrick Hawkridge,
Scarborough, Aug. 7, 1837.

Tobacco. — It appears, from the following account, that this " delicious weed "
was deemed worthy of being praised so early as the time of Elizabeth, about
the middle of whose reign it was introduced by Sir F. Drake, who, " being
instructed by the Indians, used it against crudities of the stomach, and certes
since that time it is grown so frequent in use, and of such price, that many, nay

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 16$

most, with an unsatiable desire do take it, drawing into their mouths the smoke
therof, through a pipe made of earth, making the nose serve for an Indian
chimney ; some for wantonness, or rather fashion's sake ; others for health's
sake ; insomuch that shops are set up in a greater number than either ale-houses
or taverns." — Annates of Elizabeth. Paul Hentzner, who visited this country
in 1598, confirms the above account, and concludes by observing that "they draw
the smoke into their mouths, which they puff out again through their nostrils, like
funnels !" — Cheltenham Looker-On, Jan. 20.

Clinopodium vulgare. — This is certainly not a common plant. I do not
remember seeing it at Saffron Walden, in Essex, nor have I met with it at
Campsall, or in the neighbourhood of that place. I make no doubt of its ex-
istence in both these localities, but it is not plentiful. — Edwin Lankester,
Campsall, near Doncaster, Jan. 12, 1838..

GEOLOGY.

The Principal Works on Geology. — Your correspondent Mr. Tatum has
inquired (Vol. II., p. 481), what are the best works on Geology? As this ques-
tion has not been answered, perhaps I may be allowed to refer him to a list of
works on the subject of Geology in Professor Phillips's Guide to that science.
If any of your contributors who are competent to the task would take that list
and make a few remarks on those works which it would be most desirable for the
student to possess, I am sure it would be acceptable to many of your readers.
As the list stands in Phillips's work, it is of but little use to a beginner. — Edwin
Lankester, Campsall, near Doncaster, Jan. 12, 1838.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

The Weather Almanac for the Year 1838. By P. Murphy, Esq., M.N.S.
London : Whittaker Sf Co. 43rd edit.

Although Meteorology is not included in the objects of The Naturalist, as
specified in the title-page, yet the amazing sale of Mr. Murphy's Almanac, and
the great importance of his discovery, if true, to the human portion of the animal
kingdom, will, we think, justify the introduction of the subject at this time.
The doors of Messrs. Whittaker & Co.'s house have latterly been guarded by
armed men, editions of the work have been sold off in a few minutes, and two or
three batches printed in a single day. Supposing that the fiftieth edition has been

VOL. III.— no. xvin. z

164 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS,

reached by the 1st of March, and that each edition consists of 5,000 copies, the
gross income from those fifty editions will amount to j£l8,750. Such being the
state of affairs, it is not, of course, to be expected that the work should be
forwarded for review, and we shall, therefore, like the rest of our editorial brethren*
in this case notice a purchased copy.

Judging by the sale of this almanac, the majority of the public must place
almost implicit reliance on Mr. Murphy's prognosticating powers, and many, we
know, are determined to make him right at all events, while others, on the con-
trary, ridicule his pretentions altogether, and charge him with guessing, &c.
The first class we have shown to be exceedingly numerous, the second and third
very much less so, while those who candidly and impartially investigate the
accuracy of the Almanac are indeed few. The only paper or periodical known to
us which can be placed in this fourth division, is the Cheltenham Looker-On, a
weekly paper which often contains articles of considerable interest. Mr. Moss, of
Cheltenham, is now in course of testing Mr. Murphy's anticipations, placing
these and the actual state of the weather in juxta-position.

That Mr. Murphy has always been right from the 1st of January up to this
time (Feb. 16), we are not prepared either to prove or to admit; but we think it
must be clear to every impartial and reasoning mind, — 1st., that the weather is
governed by certain fixed laws ; 2nd, that these laws are not beyond human ken;
and 3rd, that Mr. Murphy has in part discovered those principles. Be it, how-
ever, observed that a single error is not to be supposed to militate against these
three positions ; on the contrary, to us the exceptions prove either, 4thly, that Mr.
Murphy is not in possession of the entire secret, or, 5thly, that accurate predica-
tions of an extensive tract of country cannot be attained by observations in a
single spot. We say accurate, because doubtless the general course of the weather
may be prophesied for the whole of Britain by observations in a given spot,
but the rain, the snow, the frost, or the calm, may arrive a day later or sooner
according to the variations of locality, surface, &c. While, then, these apparent
errors, without pointing out either the impossibility of predicating the weather at
all, or the entire accuracy of Mr. Murphy, only prove, what every one knows,
that rain does not descend exactly at the same time over the whole country.

Our weather-prophet succeeded in January in a most remarkable manner.
His anticipations of the thaws and frosts were fulfilled, and, what is more, after
the intensely cold night of the 20th (" Probably the lowest degree of temperature'.'
— Murphy), when there was every likelihood of a long-continued frost, Mr. M.
promised that it would be " changeable" as actually proved to be the case. He
has occasionally erred in his prognostication of " wind and rain," but never, w«
believe, in that of " fair " weather.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. WIS

If report may be credited, our author's predications for 1837 proved egregiously
incorrect, and doubtless time will still further perfect his system and the useful-
ness of his almanac in future years.

Mr. Murphy, however, is not the only weather-wise prophet in the field, but
he is certainly, and justly, " the favourite." Lieutenant Morrison, of Chelten-
ham (or " Zadkiel," as he styles himself), and the author of the Howden
Almanac have aspired to similar honours, though apparently with less success.
Nevertheless we have no desire whatever to check inquiry into the matter,
believing, as we do, that the only satisfactory mode of predicating the weather
in Britain throughout the year, will be to publish a weather almanac purposely
and solely for each district. For the present, however, all thoughts centre in
The Weather Almanac before us, and the comparison of its statements and the
actual state of the weather during the spring and summer months, will be
matter of the most lively interest to hundreds and thousands of individuals in
this fair realm. In the mean while let us wish success and long life to Patrick
Murphy, Esq., M.N.S.

A History of British Birds. Illustrated by a Wood-cut of each Species, and
numerous Vignettes. By William Yarrell, F.L.S., Sec. Z.S. London : John
Van Voorst, Paternoster-Kow. Part iv. Jan. 1, 1838.

This number contains Tengmalm's Owl, the Shrikes, the Flycatchers, the Dipper,
and the Thrushes. — Most of the figures are finely and faithfully executed, but we
do not admire that of the Gray Flycatcher. In his description of the Dipper, our
author has the following remark : — " Never having seen this bird alive, I must
be indebted to the recorded observations of those who have ; and one of the
most complete and perfect accounts that I am acquainted with is that by Mr.
MacGillivray, published in the first volume of The Naturalist, p. 105." A
drawing of a nest of the same bird, transmitted to the author by our corres-
pondent, Mr. J. D. Salmon, is supplied at the close of the biography.

From the account of the Missel Thrush we make the following extract : —

" The Missel Thrush is one of the largest of the British species of Thrush, and though not very-
numerous any where, i? yet very generally diffused, as its range in this country, to be hereafter
quoted, will evince. It is rather a shy bird, frequenting small woods, and the high trees in hedges
bounding large meadows ; but during the breeding-season it becomes bold and quarrelsome, driving
away the smaller birds in all directions from its haunts, so much so as in Wales, according to Pen-
nant, to have acquired the name of Penn y llwyn, or master of the coppice. It is resident in this
country all the year, and the male commences his song very early in the season, sometimes in February.*
His strain, which is something like that of the Blackbird, but not so good in quality of tone, is

* We have-heard him on the 1st, of January.— Ed.

166 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

cpeated many times in succession, and generally from the top of 6ome lofty Oak, Beech, or Fir tree ;
but he has been occasionally observed to sing while on the wing, and from a habit of giving his song
both before and during the occurrence of wind and rain, the name of Storm-cock is a well-known
appellation for the Missel Thrush. It is also called the Holm Thrush, probably owing to its partia-
lity to the Oak, from the top of which this Thrush will sometimes continue to repeat its song for an
hour together, and occasionally also has its nest in the Oak —

" ' The fruitful Olive, and the Platane round ;
The carver Holm * ; the Maple seldom inward sound. Spenser.

" A good botanist has reminded me that the red berries borne by the plant named Butcher's-broom*
Huscus aculeatus, which grows on bushy commons, are called Holm-berries; and as the Missel
Thrush is a decided feeder on berries generally, it may have acquired the name of Holm Thrush
from feeding on the Holm-berry." — p. 181.

This work proceeds very successfully in every respect.

British Oology ; being Illustrations of the Eggs of British Birds, with Figures
of each Species, as far as practicable, drawn and coloured from Nature : accom-
panied by Descriptions of the Materials and Situation of their Nests, Number
°f Eggs, &c. By William 0. Hewitson. Newcastle-upon-Tyne : Published
for the Author, by Currie and Bowman ; W. Edwards, London. No. xxxvi.
Jan. 1, 1838. Royal 8vo.

The first plate in this part is intended to be substituted for the before-pub-
lished Plate cxix., some ot the copies having been spoilt in colouring. The next
plate contains an excellent figure of the egg of the Dotterel Plover ( Charadrius
morinellus). This bird was positively ascertained to breed in some of the higher
districts of Cumberland, by Mr. Heysham, in the summer of 1835, as related
in the Magazine of Zoology and Botany, in a communication quoted by Mr.
Hewiison. The Dotterel, it appears, generally lays four eggs.

One illustration of that of the Avocet is faithfully represented. The ground-
colour of some specimens in the collections of our correspondent, Mr. Allis, and
of Mr. Baines, said to belong to this bird, is nearly white, marked with small
spots of dark brown and neutral tint. The colour termed " neutral tint" is a
mixture of black, blue, and red (commonly Indian-ink, Prussian-blue, and lake),
combined in a certain proportion.

The fine egg of the Great Auk ( Aha impennis) is then figured. This bird has
only once been met with on the British coast, and our author's drawing is from a
specimen in the rich collection of Mr. Yarbell.

The egg of the Common Rotch (Mergulus melanoleucos) appears on the same
plate. This bird breeds in the bleak and dreary polar regions, and is abundant

" * The Holm Oak, Querent ilex/

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE. 167

•on the shores of Greenland, " whence," says Mr. Hewitson, " specimens are
brought home by the sailors employed in the Whale fishery." The only egg seen
by our author was obtained from one of the Greenland ships.

The egg of the Osprey {Pandion kalicetus) is beautifully figured on the next
plate, as is also that of the Jer Falcon (Falco Islandicus). The former species
frequently breeds in Scotland, and Mr. Hewitson has received specimens from Sir
William Jardine and Mr. Yarrell. Of the Jer Falcon our author observes : —

" Two eggs of this rare bird are in the collection of Mr. Yarrell, by whom they have been
kindly forwarded to me. They are the only specimens I have heard of, with the exception of one in
the museum at Leyden, a drawing of which was, with the greatest kindness, sent me by Professor
Temminck, through the instrumentality of Mr. Hoy.

"The Jer Falcon breeds in rocks, in those countries •which are rendered difficult of access from the
severity of their climate.

" We were not so fortunate as to meet with it in Norway, although we were told that had time
permitted, we might have done so, by penetrating, for some days' journey, into that part of the
country which was covered with snow."

The British Oology will close with the next number, with a complete list of
subscribers. Those who desire to include their names in this list will therefore
do well to forward them without delay. We trust Mr. Hewitson will in time
collect a sufficient number of the eggs of rare birds to induce him to publish a
supplementary part.

The British and Foreign Medical Review ; a Quarterly Journal of Practical
Medicine and Surgery. Edited by John Forbes, M.D.,F.R.S., and John
€onolly, M.D., &c. No. ix. Jan. 1838. London: John Churchill, Princes-
Street, Soho.

This ably-conducted and scientific journal frequently contains notices and
reviews of interest to the zoologist and botanist. If we may be allowed to judge
by the general appearance of the work, we should pronounce that it has attained
the circulation its merits so well deserve. The subjects treated of in the number
before us are exceedingly various.

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

Lately published, in Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia, Animals in Menageries,
by William Swainson, Esq.

It is proposed in future to combine the Magazine of Zoology and Botany with
the Companion to the Botanical Magazine, under the title of Annals of Natural
History, to be issued monthly. The conductors state that they cannot speak

163 OBITUARY.

highly of the support they have received from naturalists, and, with every wish
for their success, we consider it very questionable whether the work will pay its
expenses in its new form. We have always felt a pleasure in recommending this
periodical to our readers, and in impartially pointing out its merits and defects,
even while told that it was a rival, and ought to be treated as such. Has the
conduct of the Editors of the Mag. Zool. and Bot. been equally ingenuous
towards cotemporary publications ? "We regret to believe that it has not.

OBITUARY.

Died, at Stapleford, Herts., Dec. 28, 1837, Mr. William Griffin, aged 8.5.
He was for 22 years gardener to the late Samuel Smith, Esq., of Woodhall,
in this county ; and author of a Treatise on the Fine-apple ; also a paper
" On the Management of Grapes in Vineries," published in the Horticultural
Transactions, Vol. I., p. 98. He was a native of Leicestershire, in which county
he commenced business ; and after filling various situations in that and the neigh-
bouring counties, with the greatest credit to himself and satisfaction to his
employers, he arrived at Woodhall, where I first became acquainted with him ;
and, by practising under his direction for some time, I found in him the real man
of business, and one who acted the part of a father and friend to all the young
men who, like myself, had the good fortune to receive a part of their instruction
from him. I believe him to have been a first-rate horticulturist of his day ; and,
up to the last day of his practice, his anxiety was as great as ever ; although his
faculties had become somewhat impaired, and consequently business was not
carried on with the same degree of succes as formerly. He had retired to the
village above mentioned about four years before his death, which was occasioned
by a fall in his bed-room, which brought on inflammation, and which, in eight
days, put a period to his sufferings. He has left an only daughter to lament his
loss. — Correspondent of the Gardener's Magazine for February.

On Friday last, at Scrooby, Mr. George Shepherd, aged 76 years. He was
highly respected by his employers, having with fidelity served in the capacity of
head gardener for nearly twenty years respectively in the families of the late
Viscount Galway, of Serlby Hall, and the late H. T. Mellish, Esq., of Blyth
Hall, near Bawtry. — Doncaster Gazette, Feb. 16.

I ,

THE NATOMLIST.

ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS.

Delivered before the Members of the Ornithological Society ofTjONB-on.
The Monthly General Meeting of this Society was held on Friday, Feh. 2,
J. R. Gowen, Esq., in the chair. — The attendance, notwithstaanding the severity
of the weather, was more numerous than on any former occasion. A great
number of ladies occupied the front seats.

The Report of the Council stated that Mr. Blyth had been appointed
Assistant-Secretary and Curator of the Museum, the latter office being rendered
necessary by the munificent loan of the Hon. W. T. Fiennes. Several donations
were announced : among them was a collection of anatomical preparations, pre-
sented by Mr. Bartlett. It was stated that the collection of living birds in
St. James's Park had sustained very little injury from the severity of the weather,
and that arrangements had been made for procuring a great number of rare and
beautiful species in the course of the ensuing spring.

Professor Bell, Robert Blagden Hall, Esq., M.P., and Anthony White,
M.D., were elected members of the Society.

The report having been approved, the Chairman called upon Mr. Blyth to
open the discussion of the day, on " The geographical distribution of Birds."

Mr. Blyth then came forward and delivered an elaborate discourse on the
geographical distribution of birds, pointing out how a variety of groups, as well as
species, are altogether confined to particular regions, whereas other groups, and
some of comparatively trivial value, are diffused over the greater portion of the
world. The important revolutions which, in the course of ages, have gradually
taken place in every locality, not only as regards the succession of inhabitant
species, but also, in many instances, in the types of form on which these have
been respectively modified, were descanted on at considerable length : exemplifi-
cations of some of the more prominent of these changes being necessarily, how-
ever, adduced from other departments of Natural History ; as the known fossil
remains of birds are proportionally extremely few, sufficient merely to awaken
curiosity, without leading to any special conclusions ; the reliques of this class
of animals being, for obvious reasons, much less liable to become entombed in
deposits, than those of the other divisions of Vertebrata. Taking the "vertical
series," however, as it is termed, or the succession of races which inhabited the
same locality during different eras, and what is known as the " horizontal
vol. in. — NO. xix. 2 A

170 ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS.

series," or the cotemporaneous habitants of diverse regions, Mr. Blyth regarded
the respective distribution of types of form as. strictly analogous ; and contended
that neither in the one case nor in the other was it possible to deduce universal
laws, though of course it was highly necessary for the naturalist to possess a
general knowledge of the vast accumulation of facts that had been elicited on
the subject, if only that he might be effectually guarded against any delusory
hypothesis, which a too hasty or insufficiently extensive generalization might
otherwise lead him to fall into. A number of instances were then t brought for-
ward of types peculiar to certain eras, just as, at the present time, we find that
others are confined to particular regions ; the location of which latter, however,
was shown in some instances to be of comparatively recent date, species framed
upon them having formerly been diffused over a more extensive area ; while in
other instances it would seem that the geographical limitation has remained the
same from a very remote period, if not from the time of their original introduc-
tion, of which the Kangaroos of Australia, and Lamas of South America, afforded
illustrative examples. Cases were also adduced of groups of species, modified
upon particular types of structure, to perform an especial office in the economy of
Nature, which office, at another period of the earth's history, appears to have
been fulfilled by other groups, modified upon very different types of structure ;
precisely as, at the present time, the Humming-birds, which are peculiar to
America, are represented, in the tropical and southern regions of the old Continent
and its islands, by analogous groups of nectar-feeding birds, of which the
rudimental anatomy is widely dissimilar. It was thus that the Cetacea, though
possessing all the essential characters of Mammalians, are modified to pass their
lives after the manner of fishes : on the same principle, again, that corresponding
groups in the different classes are observed, the part allotted to which in the
grand scheme of the universe is absolutely the same.

Mr. Blyth then proceeded to explain the important difference subsisting
between what he designated the rudimentary and adaptive, or the intrinsical, as
opposed to the superficial, characters of organized, races ; the former of which he
affirmed to imply affinity, or physiological proximity, the latter merely what is
understood by the term analogy. He decidedly opposed the popular theory of
universal gradation (which supposes a concatenation of intermediate races, in
which the rudimentary characters of distinct types are blended), however
outward appearances might sometimes favour such a notion : the Rain-fowl
C Scytkrops) of New Holland, for instance, had been deemed a connecting link
between the Toucans and the Cuckoos; but the Toucans and Cuckoos differ
materially in the form of the skeleton, and in other details of their anatomy ;
and Scytkrops, Mr. Blyth asserted, is in every essential particular a true Cuckoo,
with merely a larger bill than usual, this very superficial character constituting

ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS. 171

its sole resemblance to the group of Toucans. In Nature, Mr. B. contended, we
are presented with a succession of mutually distinct groups, rather than a con-
tinuous series ; with successively subordinate types of form, of every degree of
value and of mutual affinity, on each of which may be framed an indefinite
number of species, variously modified to suit any particular mode of life ; the
adaptive characters, however, consequent on such modification by no means
affecting their intrinsical or physiological systematic relations. He was of opinion
that the most approximate modifications of distinct types are not more nearly
related by affinity, than are the more characteristic representatives of the same ;
while, on the other hand, the most dissimilar modifications of the same possessed
a higher degree of mutual affinity than either could have for any outwardly
resembling species modified upon any other type. The group of Raptorial birds
was cited in illustration, as comprising two principal subordinate types, distin-
guished constantly by strongly marked differences in the structure of the skeleton
and digestive organs ; and not the slightest trace of a gradation, or transition, in
these rudimentary characters was stated to be observable, either in the most
Owl-like Hawks or the most Hawk-like Owls, however in their superficial or
merely adaptive characters they may reciprocally approximate. In like manner,
to descend another grade, the Osprey was represented as being organized on a
distinct minor type to that on which the rest of the European Falconidce are
alike framed ; and although it had been customary to regard the peculiarities of
that genus as simply adaptive, yet it remained to be shewn, that any gradation
towards those peculiarities is exhibited; for the Ernes, or Sea-eagles (Haliceetus),
which subsist to a considerable extent on similar food, were described to be as
widely separated in their internal structure from the Ospreys, as are the Hawks
and Falcons. Pluck forth a single feather even, it was added, from an Osprey,
and a corresponding one from an Erne, and their comparative structure will be
found to corroborate strongly what has just been advanced.

It was the especial province of the zoologist to distinguish, in every instance,
the intrinsical from the simply adaptive characters of animals ; to disentangle
and discriminate affinity from analogy; to cease confounding those superficial
resemblances which still induced the vulgar to style the Whale a fish, with those
far more important and rudimentary characters on which the true station of that
animal had been determined by naturalists. In Ornithology, Mr. Blyth re-
gretted, too little attention had been paid to those more essential distinctions on
which only a sound and permanent classification can be founded ; and it was
this that rendered it necessary for him to digress to enter into the foregoing
details, on the present occasion, in order to explain what he meant by asserting
that particular types of form were represented only in certain regions, or during
especial periods of time : otherwise, it was added, the statement that the Toucani

2a 2

172 ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS.

are entirely confined to South America, might be met with the fallacious remark,
that the nearly allied Scythrops existed in Australia, and Pkcenicopkeew in
Africa ; neither of which, Mr. Blyth asserted, manifested any especial relation-
ship to the group in question, except in extremely superficial characters. It
was amusing to listen to the complaints of some who held that Anatomy
was invading the province of Zoology proper ; as if it were not more likely to
lead to just conclusions to comprehend the whole than a part; but the knowledge
of the entire structure of animals sometimes sapped the foundations of systems
based solely upon adaptive characters, and hence the obnoxiousness of investiga-
tions carried below the surface. He trusted that the Ornithological Society
would exert their energies to procure actual birds for their museum, in addition
to the mere husks on which so many applied their exclusive attention ; not that
he wished to undervalue distinctions derived from the mere exterior, when no
opportunity occurred of penetrating deeper ; but he could only regard the position
assigned to any isolated group as provisional, until information had been obtained
relative to the principal details of structure.

Mr. Blyth then adverted to the attempts which have been recently made to
divide the world into what have been designated " zoological provinces," or regions
severally characterised by peculiarities in the aggregate amount of their respective
faunas; and proceeded to comment more especially on that of Dr. Richardson,
who, while justly regarding South America, which possesses so many peculiar
forms, as constituting an extremely distinct zoological province, considers Europe
and North America as composing one only, the animals of these regions being
mostly framed on the same generic types. He stated, as a highly curious fact,
which he was unaware had been remarked previously, that those North American
birds which possess no European generic representative (as the numerous group
of Tyrant-flycatchers, the Sylvicolce, &c), and also those European races which
belong to genera that contain no species proper to America (as the group of
small Dentirostral birds proper to this region, together with the Oriole, Roller,
Bee-eater, Hoopoe, and others), were almost without exception migratory, apper-
taining to types especially and prominently characteristic of those countries to
which they retire in winter : which circumstance was adduced as possibly indi-
cating that the aboriginal habitat of migrant races was their winter abode,
rather than their breeding station ; whence, contrary to what might have been
expected, they should perhaps be regarded as more strictly belonging to the
fauna of the former, being accounted as seasonal visitors only where they rear
their broods. It was further remarked, that several migratory races visit coun-
tries both northward and southward of the equator, though restricted to a narrow
meridional range ; whereas stationary species are commonly confined within
certain parallels of latitude, their distribution ex/ ending eastward and westward,

ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS. 173

or rather, according to the range of a particular climate. Several European birds
are thus met with at a particular altitude on the mountains of India, and thence
onward to China and Japan ; and, indeed, the European types of form are so
prevalent in those regions, though gradually mingling, of course, on the southern
confines, with others proper to the adjacent countries, that there appears to be no
reason why the entire circuit, northward of about the 30° parallel, might not be
included as a single zoological region, on the same principle that North America
and Europe have been so ranged. We know but little, at present, of the animal
inhabitants of the extreme eastern portion of Asia, though it is probable that
their general character does not differ materially from that of the races which
inhabit the opposite coast of America ; in some instances, indeed, we find North-
American forms extending even to the mountains of India; as is exemplified by
the existence of a Blue Jay (pertaining to the division Cyanurus, Swainson)
in the Himmalayas, all the other species of which group are exclusively natives
of North America.

Attention was next called to the Ornithology of the southern hemisphere,
which was stated to be considerably more tropical in its general character than
that of corresponding latitudes of the northern : this was especially shewn by
the much greater proportion of frugivorous and nectar-feeding species, among
which the Parrot family bore a conspicuous station. Several forms, as the Pen-
guins, were indicated as peculiar to that hemisphere ; and instances of congenerous
species adduced as inhabiting South Africa and New Holland ; while that extra-
ordinary and gigantic Dentirostral bird, the Australian Menura, found its nearest
systemati c relatives in the Megapodii, from the neighbourhood of Cape Horn.
Of the intertropical genera, comparatively few were represented in both the Old
world and the New ; and many were confined to rather circumscribed localities.
The Trogons, of which several species occurred both in South America and in
the Oriental Isles, possessed, in each locality, certain discriminating characters,
which were curiously combined in the only species known to inhabit Africa. It
was affirmed that a multitudinous host of diversified facts might be enumerated,
which, however, would not admit of being generalized into a definite system ;
and Mr, Blyth accordingly proceeded to consider the laws which tend to regulate
and limit the dispersion of particular species. He dwelt on the minute adapta-
tion of each to its indigenous locality, removed from which it was little else than
a disjointed fragment, and this in proportion to the exactness with which it was
modified for any peculiar mode of obtaining subsistence ; and he insisted much on
the efficacy of what he denominated the ** localizing principle," that which impels
a Pigeon homeward from a distance of many hundred miles, a Bee towards its
hive, and by means of which migratory species of birds revisit, both in winter
»nd summer, the exact same haunts which they had formerly occupied ; of which

174 ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF BIRDS.

fact a variety of surprising instances were detailed. It was on this principle, he
Btated, that colonies are sometimes formed, the posterity of an accidentally
straggling pair remaining in or regularly returning to a neighbourhood, occasionally
insulated, and remote from other haunts of the species ; an exemplification of
which he adduced from personal observation, and suggested that the limited and
peculiar range of the Pied Flycatcher in England was in all probability thus
explicable. He considered that the operation of the mysterious and remarkable
instinct, which he had been dilating on, had been a great deal too much over-
looked by those who have written on the subject of the dispersion of animals ;
although decidedly the most .influential of the many causes which tend to
circumscribe their geographical range. Mr. Blyth was heard throughout his
discourse with the greatest attention, and received considerable applause at its
termination.

N. A. Vigors, Esq., M.P., then rose, and having stated that he hoped this
highly interesting and important subject would be followed into its subdivisions at
ensuing meetings of the Society, proceeded to make a few remarks upon some
of its more striking points — such as the correspondency, or geographical representa-
tion, of groups and of species inhabiting different localities ; as, for example, the
Ostrich, of the African deserts, which is represented in Asia and its islands by the
Cassowary, in Australia by the Emeu, in the Pampas of South America by the
Rhea, and in Europe, as he conceived, by the Great Bustard. It was his opinion,
that every prominent group has thus an analogue, or representative, in each of
the principal divisions of the world ; or that, if in any case such representative
be wanting, the deficiency is invariably occasioned by some adequate and equally
harmonious cause. As an example, the Starling family was represented as inhabit-
ing all parts of the world except Australia ; the explanation of which exception
is, that they seek their food principally on the backs of cattle, and in Australia
there are no indigenous ruminant quadrupeds. It was thus that, in numerous
instances, the diffusion of animals is regulated by that of their prey — this, again,
by that of particular vegetables, which, in its turn, is dependent on the soil.—
Before Mr. Vigors concluded, he expressed a hope that, at the next meeting,
there would be laid on the table a greater number of specimens to illustrate the
subject of discussion.

Mr. Chester stated, that if the gentlemen who proposed to favour the Society
with any scientific observations at future meetings, would apprise the Council of
the specimens which would be desirable for illustration, every possible exertion
should be used to obtain them.

1?5

ON THE RELATIVE ADVANTAGES OF THE LINN^EAN AND
NATURAL ARRANGEMENTS OF PLANTS.

By Edwin Lankester,
Member of the Royal College of Surgeons.

In your last number (p. 68) your talented contributor, Mr. Lees, has furnished
a notice of botanical works, which I should have been glad to have found occupy-
ing the place of my brief communication in your December number (Vol. II.,
p. 470). I should not have troubled you with any remarks on Mr. Lees' paper
but that he has asserted that the rejection of the Linnsean system is "unphiloso-
phical," and that the reason of it appears to him to be " merely because in some
respects it seems to offer greater facilities for tempting votaries to the temple of
Flora." In making the remark I did, in my communication of December last,
on the Ladies Botany, I stated that Dr. Lindley discarded the artificial system
as prejudicial to the science of Botany, and gave no opinion of my own on the
subject ; therefore Mr. Lees was premature in disagreeing with me on that point.
As, however, many of your readers may wish to know why so competent a
botanist as Dr. Lindley deems the Linnsean system prejudicial to the advance-
ment of the science of Botany, I will endeavour to state a few objections to that
system ; and, whatever may be their force or value, I hope they will find the
Doctor, and those who adopt his views, at least " not guilty " of the charge
brought against them by Mr. Lees.

It cannot be supposed that Mr. Lees or any other botanist would deny the
superiority of the natural over the artificial system in a scientific point of view.
In every department of knowledge the value of a natural arrangement of its objects
is acknowledged, and the most eminent naturalists have laboured to improve
this department of science. The question at issue must then be, whether the
adoption of the Linnsean system at all is injurious to the interests of Botany
as a science ?

In the first place, it must' be admitted, that the general adoption of any system
which excludes a better from being brought into use must be prejudicial to
science. It is not certainly necessary that the natural system of Botany should
be neglected because the Linnsean has been adopted, but unfortunately this is
too often the case, and systems are frequently adopted and adhered to as matters
of feeling and not as matters of judgment. Hence it is of importance to science
that those commencing their career should not have their prejudices enlisted on
the side of false theories or exploded systems, especially when the means of
obtaining correct views are easily attainable.

By the study, also, of an artificial system the mind is apt to suppose itself

176 LINNiEAN AND NATURAL ARRANGEMENTS OF PLANTS.

in possession of an extensive knowledge of the subject ; and by the facility
with which it has been acquired, it is unfitted or gets a distaste for the more
thorough investigation that natural systems require. The former, Dr. Lindley
observes, " skims only the surface of things, and leaves the student in the fancied
possession of a sort of information which is easy enough to obtain, but which is
of little value when acquired"; the latter, the same writer continues, "requires
a minute investigation of every part and every property known to exist in plants,
but when understood has conveyed to the mind a store of information of the
utmost use to man in every station of life. Whatever the difficulties of becoming
acquainted with plants according to this method, they are inseparable from
Botany, which cannot be usefully studied without encountering them." Sir John
Herschel quotes this passage in his Discourse on Natural Philosophy, and
remarks that it " characterises justly the merits of natural and artificial systems
of classification in general." The same author observes, with regard to the
subject before us, that "the classifications by which science is advanced are widely
different from those which serve as bases for artificial systems of nomenclature."

If, then, the natural system is the only mode by which the science of Botany
can be advanced, and the adoption of the Linnsean system leads to its rejection,
I think it is but a fair conclusion that the adoption of the Linnsean system is
" prejudicial to the advancement of the science of Botany."

But the advocates of the Linnsean system say, that it is so easy, and the
natural system so difficult, that whilst the one attracts, the other repels the
student of Botany. The best argument that Sir W. J. Hooker offers for
arranging his British Flora according to the Linnsean system, is that it enables
the student to discover the name of a plant with more facility than the natural
system. Now, undoubtedly, the acquiring the names of the classes and orders
is much easier in the Linnsean, than the natural system ; but I have no hesita-
tion in saying, that a person who understands the distinctions of the classes and
orders of the latter, will with much greater facility discover the genus and species
of a plant than when he has attained the same amount of information in the
former system. For in studying the orders of the natural system he will have
made himself acquainted with many points of structure that are afterwards taken
into consideration in the distinctions of genera and species. But how different is
the case with the artificial system ! when the classes and orders are understood
little more than a knowledge of the stamens and pistils has been acquired, and
this will help a student but a very small way towards finding the name of a
plant. If the knowledge of the number of the pistils and stamens would enable
the botanist to find the genus and species of a plant, it would indeed be an easy
way of discovering its name ; but as this is a very secondary department in
Botany, such a plan could only be valued on this account, and even then it§

LINNyEAN AND NATURAL ARRANGEMENTS OF PLANTS. 177

practical application would not be much easier than the analytical tables of the
French botanists.

But granting that the Linnoean system enables a person to find the name of a
plant easier than the natural system ; is this the ultimatum of the science of
Botany ? or is this the only delightful part of the study of Botany ? that for the
sake of it the system of Linnteus, although wholly inadequate to the purposes of
science, must not be condemned ? It may be pleasant to run about the hills and
vales of our own islands, and find a name for every blade and tiny weed that springs
beneath our feet ; but is it not just as pleasant, or much more so, to walk into our
gardens, nursery-grounds, or green-houses, and be able to know something of those
provisions in the vegetable kingdom which the Creator has made for other parts of
the world besides our own ? By studying Botany on the natural system we
may do this. We need not restrict our observations to plants indigenous to our
own soil, but may look upon the vegetable world as a whole, and instead of
learning the name and properties of a single plant, as by the Linnsean system, we
may, with the same labour, ascertain the structure and properties of a group of
plants, every individual of which may be recognised, from whatever part of the
world it may come. Now, if the name, structure, and properties of a family of
plants can be ascertained as easily by the natural system as the same particulars
of an individual plant by the Linnsean, and this information is as interesting in
the one case as in the other (the greater utility of the former cannot be doubted),
on what grounds can the latter system be said to offer " greater facilities for
tempting votaries to the temple of Flora V

Another objection to the Linnaean system, is, that its advocates belong to a
school whose views are very far behind the advance made by the science of
Botany. Dr. Lindley observes, of the books written by them, that " the
technical language in which these works are written is far from accurate ; terms
are applied in them vaguely and erroneously, and they so abound with mis-
takes, most of which are at variance with all correct notions of the structure of
plants, that they are totally unfit to be placed in the hands of students." Now
if these charges are true, and no one who makes the science of Botany a study
can doubt it, it must be admitted, as a fair conclusion, that the system which
lies under them is " prejudicial to the advancement of the science of Botany:"

No doubt many of the books of Linnaean botanists are written in a pleasing
style, and are calculated to allure to the study of Botany ; but this arises from
the authors of the works, and not from the system they are intended to explain.
Till within the last few years these were the only books that could be put into
the hands of a student, and before that time it was undoubtedly better that they
should be studied than none at all. But now that we have books explaining
the natural system, and adapted to the advanced state of the science, it is surely
vol. hi. — no. xix. 2 B

178 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE NEW ZEALANDERS.

better that these should be recommended, than those which contain erroneous
views. Besides, if there have been any deficiency of books on the natural
system, it has been for the want of demand, and by exciting attention to the
subject we may expect to see volumes as interesting and as well adapted for
learners on this system as on the Linnsean.

I have extended these remarks to a greater length then I originally intended ;
but I hope they will not be found longer than the interest or importance of the
subject demands.

Campsall, near Doncaster,
February 19, 1838.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE NEW ZEALANDERS.

By Thomas Kier Short, Esq.

(Continued from p. 66.)

The natives of New Zealand are fine, tall, and robust, generally superior in
stature to the British, broad-chested and powerful, and their limbs as muscular
and sinewy as if • they had always been occupied in laborious employment.
They are of a lighter colour than the American Indians, with good regular fea-
tures, and a profusion of curly hair. They are shrewd, cunning, and sarcastic,
and, where Christianity is not known, dirty, thievish, and revengeful, and
some horrible accounts are recorded of their disposition to cannibalism, murder,
infanticide, and other crimes revolting to human nature.

Polygamy is maintained by the chiefs, and there is no government; slaves
and gentlemen associate together without any distinction or respect. Their
houses are low and mean, and the inhabitants nestle together more like a herd of
Swine than human beings. In their rude native state they may be ranked
among the most degraded of our species. I believe they scarcely ever cut or
clean their hair (except chiefs), nor wash their garments, but some apparently
wear them till they drop off or are worn out. They make a kind of square piece
of what we call mats, of the fibre of Phormyum tenax, variously ornamented,
according to their ideas, with bits of coloured worsted, when they can get it, and
long strings of black, brown, and red of their own dying. This is fastened over
their shoulders, and is all the covering they generally have. The women wear
another kind of mat, which is fastened round their loins, and extends to their
knees. When they sit they squat upon their heels and posteriors like Monkies,
just letting their noses peer above their mats. The slaves (or, as the New Zea-

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE NEW ZEALANDERS. 170

landers call them, " Kookes") cannot afford the above mats ; they accordingly
manufacture a covering of flax, which gives them the appearance of having
their backs thatched ; one end of the flax is secured in a band of wove matting,
the other hanging down twelve or sixteen inches, and forming a secure covering
against the rain : this they call a Kokoho.

They are subject to many diseases, induced by their bad mode of living ; con-
sumption is very prevalent among them, but the most destructive is a species of
venereal which is hereditary in many families, and a virulent kind of itch, which
if not dangerous, is very infectious, especially among Europeans.

Some have represented them as being virtuous and happy in the native state,
but the missionaries have had to dispel ignorance of the blackest and darkest
kind. He has had to assault systems which have descended from generation to
generation, most revolting to humanity, a depravity grown inveterate by ages of
continued and unrestrained iniquity.

When Cook first landed, some unhappy quarrels with the natives occasioned
the shedding of much blood on both sides, and for years caused the island of New
Zealand to be looked upon with horror by Europeans. Even the natives of the
unfrequented island of Tucopee are acquainted with their savage acts of canni-
balism. Since Cook's visit the habits of these people have undergone a great change;
then it was requisite, when a vessel anchored, that the boarding netting should
be up and all on the alert, in case of surprise. Their principle was to make the
captains of the vessels believe themselves secure, and then to rush on the crew and
murder them and plunder the vessel. Too often have they succeeded, and as
often have they paid dearly for their cruelty and deceit. In the case of the ship
Boyd (Captain Thompson), in 1809, at Wangarrae, when they so thoroughly
attained their object in murdering the crew and plundering the vessel, which was
richly laden, many of the plunderers paid the penalty of their lives for the act,
the vessel having a considerable quantity of powder on board, and from their
utter ignorance of its power, by some means caused it to ignite, which blew up
the vessel, killing or maiming for life all on board ; nor did their suffering end
here, for they brought down upon themselves the vengeance of every vessel that
visited the coast for years after.

I was assured by some of the natives whose fathers assisted in murdering the
crew of the French vessel commanded by Marion, that the attack was unpre-
meditated ; it was from Marion's ignorance of the customs, and particularly of
the religious prejudices of the New Zealanders, that he lost his life and crew, as
no act is more likely to cause the displeasure of the natives than the use of the
seine*, for most of the best beaches are tabooed or sacred. The natives entreated

* Those who are not acquainted with the loss of the French ve«el commanded by Marion, may

2b S

180 MANNER8 AND CUSTOMS OF THE NEW ZEA LANDERS.

the crew not to draw the seine on shore, but either from obstinacy or ignorance
they persisted ; the result of this act was, that the natives plundered the vessel,
and murdered the whole of the crew ; and then cooked the crew and devoured
them. When I was at the Bay of Islands in 1836, a French surveying vessel
came into the bay, which caused some commotion among the natives, who thought
that they had come to revenge the massacre of Marion and his crew, which
happened twenty-seven years previous ; thinking that other nations were as
revengeful as themselves, and sure of resenting an injury after the expiration of
so many years.

The last massacre was that of the Boyd's crew, and all must acknowledge that
the unfortunate captain was to blame. This event took place about twenty-five
years back, since which time they know us better and respect us more ; in proof
of which it may be mentioned, that ten years since the brig Mercury was taken
possession of by the natives, after which the crew endured a series of offences and
ill-treatment which, compared with the fate of the Boyd, shows that the temper
and ferocity of the natives are much harmonized and improved. I believe not
one of the crew of the Mercury was murdered; but, being terrified, they
abandoned the vessel, and she became a wreck. If we carefully examine the
catalogue of dreadful massacres they have been charged with, it will be found
that the Europeans have always been the aggressors ; and can we be surprised
that after they have received a series of offences a savage should seek revenge ?

I am quite satisfied that the conduct of these islanders is very superior to that
of any other natives in the South Seas. When you speak to them on the
subject of the murders that they have committed on the British, they will tell
you that " they did not invite you to their island for plunder and murder,' but
that you came and ill-used them ; that you broke into their taboos or sacred
grounds ; and that the Atua or God gave you into the hands of their fathers." —
But from what I know of the New Zealanders, I am convinced that they desire to
cultivate our acquaintance, since they wish to possess our manufactures, as mus-
kets, powder, blankets, &c, and that an Englishman, if he is at all acquainted with
their peculiarities, may live in peace and safety.

As I hare stated that polygamy is carried on to a great extent, a description
of their method of courtship may be amusing to your readers. A man seeing a
woman whom he would like for his wife, asks the consent of her father, which,
if he obtains, he carries her off by force, she resisting with all her strength ; and
as the New Zealand girls are very strong, sometimes a dreadful struggle ensues.
Both are soon stripped to the skin, and it is not unfrequently the work of hours

be informed that its destruction was attributed to the use of the seine for fishing on some of the
sacred ground after being requested not by the natives.

DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF PLANTS. 181

to remove the fair prize a hundred yards. If she breaks away she instantly
hastens from her antagonist, and he has his labours to commence again. Some-
times she secures her retreat in her father's house, and her lover loses all chance
of obtaining her ; but if he carry her into his own house she immediately be-
comes his wife.

The women have a decided dislike to marriage, which scarcely can be wondered
at, when we consider how they are circumstanced; whilst single they can enjoy
all the privileges of the other sex ; they can rove where they please ; they are
entirely beyond restraint and control, and are at liberty to bestow their favours
on whom they please ; but when married their freedom is all at an end ; they
are then no better than slaves, but must submit themselves to labour and
drudgery to their husbands, who have the power of life and death over them.
In a group of New Zealanders you may easily recognize the slaves, who look
both dejected and miserable, and are often maimed from the ill-treatment of their
masters ; and it not unfrequently happens that at the death of a chief most of
his slaves are sacrificed. A male slave is not allowed to have connection with a
female on pain of death.

I made several excursions into the interior of the country, all of which tended
to confirm my good opinion of the natives. The next paper will contain a
description of their mode of warfare, and their funeral ceremonies. Some of your
readers may consider that I am filling your pages with useless trash ; but I am so
interested in the people and country that I have more to say if you find me room
in your valuable pages. When you think any of my papers are without interest,
I trust you will not fail to intimate the same, and I will desist.

Martin Hall, near Bawtry,
January 28, 1838.

[To the sequel of Mr. Short's series we — in common, doubtless, with our
readers — look forward with pleasure for a rich store of interesting and valuable
information relative to New Zealand. — Ed.]]

DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS.

By T. B. Hall.

(Continued from page 63.)

Agrostis. — From aypos, a field, because common therein ; certain species being
worthy of cultivation.

Agrostis spica-venti, Silky Bent-grass. — It is liable to be smutted. Horses
and Goats eat it, Sheep refuse it. After the spring-sown corn has vegetated,

182 DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF PLANTS.

until the harvest, flocks of Pigeons may be observed, with the most patient per-
severance picking a precarious sustenance from the immature seeds and panicles
of the grasses, justly remarked in the old couplet —

" The Pigeon never knoweth woe
Until a benting she doth go."

Sheep never touch the stalks of grasses in general ; and it may be here observed,
with White, of Selborne, that Rabbits make incomparably the finest turf, for
they not only bite closer than larger quadrupeds, but they allow no Bents to rise :
hence warrens produce much the most delicate turf for gardens.

Agrostis vulgaris,F'me Bent-grass. — The earliness of this grass appears,according
to Mr. Sinclair's observations, to be its chief agricultural value, the produce being
far from abundant. Swayne observes that it is disliked by cattle, as are the
Bents in general. In the sterile Hebrides, however, it is deemed valuable. The
straw yields an excellent plat for the manufacture of hats and bonnets.

Agrostis setacea, Bristle-leaved Bent-grass. — On a sunny day the panicle is
beautifully spreading, but it collapses very quickly in cloudy weather, or on
being gathered.

Agrostis alba, Marsh Bent-grass. — The variety stolonifera is the famous Fiorin-
grass of Dr. Richardson and the Irish agriculturists, so much lauded on account
of its abundant produce.

Aira. — From atpu, to destroy, or take away. So named because it ought to be
removed. Hooker observes that this name was anciently applied to Lolium
temulentum (Bearded Darnel), on account of its injurious effects : and now
removed to the present genus of grasses, though having little in common with it.

Aira ccespitosa, Turfy Hair-grass. — It is very apt to grow in tufts, and occa-
sions irregularities in the surface of meadows. The leaves of this grass are the
roughest and coarsest of all the grasses growing in pastures or meadow grounds,
and therefore cattle will seldom touch them, unless forced by hunger. It produces
an abundant quantity of leaves, and few flowering straws; has a very disagreeable
appearance in meadows, and often occupies much ground which might be made to
produce better grasses. To get rid of it, the land should first be drained, and
then the tufts of the noxious weed should be pared up and burnt. The ashe3
will be a good manure. Called by the common people, " Hassocks," " Rough-
caps," " Bull-faces."

Aira caryophyllea, Silver Hair-grass, — The whole plant is soon dried up, and
can yield nothing but a little early food for Sheep.

Aira prcecox, Early Hair-grass. This trifling grass is of no agricultural

use. It withers away as summer comes on.

Aira canescens, Grey Hair-grass. — Withering observes that the structure of
the awn is remarkable ; the lower half is thicker, opake and yellow brown, the

DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OP PLANTS. 183

upper half very fine, whitish, semi-transparent, fixed to the centre of the broad
top of the opake woody part, which is encompassed with very minute teeth
(pi. 24-, c). The anthers are purple, giving a cast of colouring to the panicle.

Ajuga. — Said to be an alteration of abigo, to expel or drive away. The Latins
attributed emmenagogue qualities to a plant called Ajuga, which is believed to be
our Teucrium chamcedrys.

Ajuga reptans, Common Bugle, Sickle-wort, Herb Carpenter. — This plant
has been considered by the old writers as an excellent vulnerary, both internally
and externally ; hence the French had this expression : — " Those who have Bugle
and Sanicle need no surgeon." The Rev. R. Walkek observes, in his Flora of
Oxfordshire, that almost any other leaf would probably answer the same purpose
of excluding the air, and healing a wound, by what surgeons call the first inten-
tion. It is numbered amongst cooling and gently astringent vegetables, but its
virtues are as yet but slightly ascertained. In sore throats, without much
constitutional derangement, it is said to be a specific; and some foreign physicians
of eminence have recommended a decoction of it in the quinsy. A white variety
abounds in the Isle of Wight, and a flesh-coloured one has sometimes been
observed. In dry mountainous situations the plant acquires a considerable degree
of hairiness. The English name Bugle appears to be a corruption of bugula, a
contractive diminutive of buglossum, which the plant resembles in medical
qualities.

Ajuga Chamcepitys, Yellow Bugle, Ground Pine. — This plant has a degree of
bitterness and acrimony, but its real use is far from being accurately ascertained.
It stands recommended in the gout, jaundice, and intermitting fevers.

Alchemilla. — Named from the Arabic alkemelyeh, Alchemy, from its pretended
alchemical virtues.

Alchemilla vulgaris, Common Lady's-mantle. — Loudon observes that it is
readily eaten by Horses, Sheep, and Goats, and is considered a good herbage-
plant where it abounds in upland pastures. The foregoing statement, however,
does not accord very well with the following from Withering. The Rev. S.
Dickenson gives the ensuing curious account of its pernicious effects on Cows : —
I Being lately on a visit at Somerford, the Hon. E. Moncton requested me to
examine the herbage of a meadow near the river Penk, in which he had the
misfortune, a few years ago, to have five milking Cows die suddenly at once, and
several more were with difficulty recovered. The symptoms of the disease,
which he attributed to some noxious plant, were irremediable obstruction in the
bowels. Upon examination, I found a very unusual abundance of Alchemilla
vulgaris in every part of the field ; and am inclined to believe this plant the
cause of the fatality, as it is known to be of a very astringent quality. It was
the aftermath the herd depastured ; and the survivors, upon being introduced

184 DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OP PLANTS.

into the same field the summer following, were immediately affected with similar
symptoms, but removed in time to prevent the fatal consequences ; since which
Mr. Moncton has never hazarded the depasturing of it by neat cattle." The
English name ought to be in the singular ; being so named especially of the
Virgin Maby, " Our Lady,'' whose paraphernalia was rendered complete by the
misapplied ingenuity of cloistered devotees, as diffused through the ancient
herbals.

Alchemilla Alpina, Alpine Lady's -mantle, Cinquefoil Lady's-mantle. — Nothing
can be more beautiful than the silvery splendour of the under sides of the leaves,
especially in exposed and barren situations, when agitated by the wind. No
figure can do them justice. The upper surface is smooth and naked, of a fine
green. It is common on many of the Highland mountains, and supposed by
Lightfoot and others to aid considerably in giving the peculiarly excellent flavour
to Highland mutton.

Alchemilla arvensis, Field Lady's-mantle, Parsley-piert. — It was formerly
eaten raw or pickled ; and thought serviceable in cases of gravel and stone.
Camden, in his Britannia, supposing it a much rarer plant than it really is,
either in England or other countries, describes it as " Percepier" (q. d. break-
stone), growing wild about Keynsham, in Somersetshire. The barbarous word
Parsley-piert, Gerarde observes, " must have been given by some simple man,
who had not well learned the true term."

Alisma. — Derived from alis, water, in Celtic, because the species fgrow in
watery places.

Alisma plantago, Water Plantain, Greater Thrum-wort. — Withering has the
following remarks respecting this plant. It is acrimonious and blistering, and
said to resemble Crowfoot in its general qualities. Cattle are sometimes much
injured, if not killed, by it, as atrophy and paralysis supervene. Gray states
that the juice is used for drying up milk in the breast. The tubers are farinace-
ous, and recommended in hydrophobia ; especially in Russia, where its use was
(in 1820) sanctioned by the College of Physicians of Moscow. The practice was
subsequently made known in North America ; and though specifics are not
latterly in repute with the more enlightened of the medical faculty, it seems desir-
able to afford publicity to whatever may by possibility relieve so dreadful a disorder.
We, therefore, insert the following notice by Mr. C. Whitlaw, of Great-Russel-
Street, London, who reports that — " a remedy for the poison of the Rattle-snake
was purchased by the Assembly of South Carolina, of a negro, by giving him his
freedom, and an annuity of £ 100 for life." This remedy was derived from Alisma
plantago, and the same writer adds — " in order to induce the faculty to give its
virtues a fair trial, as as anti-spasmodic, I may observe that I have frequently
seen cattle who have eaten the Alisma completely paralysed, so that they could

DERIVATIONS OF THE LATIN NAMES OF PLANTS. 185

not stand. As death ensues from the excessive stimulant action of the poison of
the Rattle-snake, and of the saliva of a rabid animal, upon the muscular system,
I consider that a cure is effected by the peculiar sedative power of the Alisma,
or anti- spasmodic, relaxing the spasms ; and I believe it will be found to be an.
effectual specific for the cure of these two dreadful maladies, and also of tetanus.
The best mode of administering it, when the difficulty of swallowing comes on,
is to scrape about an ounce of the solid root, and let it be eaten between two
slices of bread. The dose to be repeated in an hour, if the spasms are not
relieved. It is called Water Plantain on account of the resemblance between
its leaves and those of the Common Plantain {Plantago major).

Allium. — From oleo to smell, on account of its disagreeable odour; or from
*\tv, to avoid, as being unpleasant to most people ; or, according to Hooker,
from the Celtic all, which signifies acrid, burning. It is a genus of strongly
scented bulbous plants, all of them edible, and some of them of the greatest
antiquity as pot-herbs.

Allium ampeloprasum, Great Round-headed Garlic. — The bulbs are white and
globose, increasing rapidly in a garden, by lateral offsets, till they compose a mass
as big as a man's head, resembling a bunch of grapes ; whence the old Greek name
of the plant, Ampeloprasum, vine-garlic, might have originated ; but a name of
similar construction has been applied to several species from their being prevalent
in the Vineyards of some countries. In this luxuriant condition it seldom pro-
duces flowers. Withering observes that the trivial name may have been
derived from u^nnXos, a Vine, and npxo-os, leeky ; alluding to the root, and its
appendages. It is eaten along with other pot-herbs. It communicates its flavour
to the milk and butter of Cows that feed upon it.

Allium arenarium, Sand Garlic. — As a curious instance of viviparous produc-
tion and retentive vitality, it is recorded, on authority of a writer in the Mag.
Nat. Hist., that the seeds in specimens of this plant, which had been kept for
two years, were found germinating in the calyx, and some had even put forth
their cotyledons. The flowers are deep red and intermixed with dark purple,
ovate pointed bulbs, by which, as well as by the root, the plant is increased ; but
Sir J. E. Smith remarks, that such species as bear these bulbs among their flowers
seldom perfect any seed.

Allium carinatum, Mountain Garlic. — This plant has but little of the Garlic
smell. Sir J. E. Smith doubts if it is really distinct from A. oleraceum, though
it differs in the flatter form of its leaves and somewhat in size.

Allium vineale, Crow Garlic. — The young shoots are eaten in salads, or boiled
as a pot-herb.

Allium oleraceum, Wild Garlic, Streaked Field Garlic— The whole plant has
an unpleasant smell, and is a very troublesome weed, difficult of extirpation,

vol. in. — no. xix. 2 c

186 HOURS AMONG THE ROCKS AND CLOUDS.

though not of common occurrence. Withering observes that the tender leaves
are very commonly boiled in soups, or fried with other herbs. Cows, Sheep, and
Swine eat it. The smell of Garlic is said to be so inimical to Moles, that to get
rid of them it is sufficient to introduce a few heads of this plant into their sub-
terraneous walks.

Allium ursinum, Bear's Garlic, Broad-leaved Garlic, Ramsons. — Every part
of the plant, when trodden under foot or otherwise bruised, exhales the strong
odour of its genus ; and if Cows feed upon it, ever so sparingly, the milk is
rendered nauseous, and the flavour is communicated to butter, so as to be
offensive, if not unwholsome ; the pretty flowers are therefore viewed with disgust
by those who wish in vain to eradicate such a troublesome weed from their
pastures. In Khamschatka it is used as a principal antiscorbutic, as well as for
culinary purposes, and is gathered in large quantities for winter service. Pliny,
who first recorded the specific name, does not account for its application. The
coarseness of its qualities, like the manners of some human beings, may justify
the comparison.

Allium schcenoprasum, Chive Garlic. — It is preferred for early spring salads
and soups, being very hardy, and milder than the other species. The roots are
considered beneficial to cold, phlegmatic constitutions.
Woodside, Liverpool,
Feb. 7, 1838.

C To be continued.)

HOURS AMONG THE ROCKS AND CLOUDS.

No. I. — Plinlimmon.

By Edwin Lees, P.L.S., M.E.S.

Gloomy as a phantom emerging from the womb of night — hideous as a cloaked
hag in a wintry storm — and cheerless and desolate as the blast of November,
sweeping from the boisterous south-west — sits solemn Plinlimmon, cowering in
the eternal seclusion of fog and cloud. Few besides the lone shepherd penetrate
into his turbaries and defiles, few venture upon his treacherous quagmires, and
still fewer attain the eminence of his grey loose cams. There is nothing to repay
the danger — nothing to invite the inquiry, and the stranger who hurries past the
base of the mountain, strains his eyes in vain amidst the descending deluge to
behold the grim monarch of the bogs and floods. Sulky, obstinate, unconquered,
passive, and yet revengeful, he personifies the rude race that hang upon his skirts,

HOURS AMONG THE ROCKS AND CLOUDS. 187

and penetrate his weeping labyrinths, without the energy or industry to unlock
his chasms and subject his slopes to the power of enterprize and culture. In the
whole wilderness of the dismal ravines environing the five-beaconed mountain,
is neither tree or shrub, nor the fragment of a hut to shelter the wanderer
within two or three long miles of the summit. Mists take a long and deep
slumber upon the mossy hollows, and are only roused when a blast from the
north, thundering upon the broken cams, clears for a moment the wild table
ridges, and the clouds lazily roll into the deep hollows below, speedily to re-ascend
and prowl round their old positions. But there is no prominent mark to assure
the wanderer of his bearings ; the five summits of the mountain, all nearly of
equal height, circle round a flat expanse and assume the same monotonous aspect,
each crowned with a similarly -formed dreary earn ; and still wherever the turf
or moss has been laid bare by the storm, the same black bog-mud, or the same
pavement of snowy quartz-rock meets the wearied eye. Even the eager sports-
man, who once a year fires upon the scattered and almost annihilated Red
Grouse, warily takes his shepherd-guide and bag of rations for the long-protracted
expedition ; and woe to the luckless wight who, confiding in his map, becomes
inextricably involved in grave-like turbaries, and deep ravines, where no skill
can avail to push forward through impassable quaking-bogs, or overcome the
interminable deviations they occasion ; where to go on is dangerous, and to
retreat impossible. Amidst his efforts, perhaps, the sun goes down, engulphed
amidst the darkest masses of vapour that fill up the west, and the deepening
shadows usher in confusion and despair.

But there is, after all, a charm in the very risk a desolate series of quaking
bogs and labyrinthal defiles offers to the foot of the naturalist. To be involved
in the embrace of the fleecy cloud, levelled prostrate by the rude north wind at
the base of a earn, chase a scudding hat or sketch-book down a steep declivity
into the splashing stream, or, seated on the soft moss, discussing sandwiches and
brandy, are enjoyments which exercise and imagination will always seek, even
at the risk of that almost wished-for consummation of losing one's way, or leaving
a solitary carcase well fixed in a bog, to be exhumed some centuries hence for the
benefit of science ! But then it is requisite to have company in order to be
pleasingly lost. To sink midleg in water — to scale a fearful crag for an observa-
tion which the gloom allows not — to trace in twilight the threadings of a stream,
now deep and silent beneath black towering rocks, and now suddenly gliding
down a slippery barrier, and raving and roaring amidst huge bouldery obstruc-
tions, all uncertain whither the defile tends, and which of its now diverging forks
leads soonest from the wild hills — or to plunge at random into bog and gulley
over mound and roaring waters for some phantom light or supposed cottage
window that disappears at length while in mid-chase — all this and more than

2c 2

188 HOURS AMONG THE ROCKS AND CLOUDS.

this, nay a midnight bivouac amidst the Heath and Parsley -fern, with exhausted
supplies and a wet pillow to boot, may be enjoyed and laughed at with a com-
panion to laugh with, to say nothing of its future importance as an adventure,
with additio n and corrections at the social feast, or to be reserved up in an
afternoon dose before a December fire ! But alone upon the grey hills, when
" the spirit of the mountain shrieks," and the red crescent of the young moon
swims for a moment and is then drowned in the rushing deluge of on-sweeping
clouds that at once obliterate rock, fell, and flood, is scarcely enviable. For if in
etern reality night closes in, and from every gully in the mountain a succession
of gusts howl as they burst maddening from their iron dungeons, and the water-
spouts of heaven crashing upon the rocks, urge every torrent into winged
messengers of desolation — the silent and despairing wanderer looks around for
succour and assistance in vain, all glee is repressed, and even the hoarse " dim
saesnach,"* would now be music to his ear. But he must move on in his dubious
and difficult course, in Ossianic language " slow as a gathered cloud when the
winds drive it from behind."

Is this all fancy ? Try it then, young enthusiasts of Nature, in an autumnal
day in the wolds of Scotland, or on the mountains of Wales, but take no com-
panion, not even a Dog ; choose, a misty day, when " the sun retires red and slow
behind his cloud," and think of him who perished on the Red Tarn Crag in
Cumberland, whose obsequies were sung by the Grey Plover flying, and whose
memory has been embalmed by the muse of Scott —

" Dark green was that spot, midst the brown mountain heather,

Where the pilgrim of Nature lay stretch'd in decay,
Like the corpse of an outcast abandon'd to weather,

Till the mountain winds wasted the tenftntless clay."

Plinlimmon, too, has had its victims, and the spirit of " Catrin Gwyn," or White
Kitty, is still talked of by the shepherds, as haunting a rocky glen by the Bygeilyn
Pool, where an unfortunate woman, overtaken in a tempest at night, mistook her
path, and was lost in a quagmire.

This autumn I first awoke to the idea, and yet only to the idea, of the utter
desolateness of heart and keen despair he must feel, who amidst the pitiless war
of elemental strife, wakens to the fearful thought that he is in danger, and may
probably perish. The courage of the battle-field is unavailing here, for the object
is to retreat, danger on every side, but uncertainty and apprehension adding
dismay and confusion. I was on the Glyder-Vawr, the steepest and most dan-
gerous of the Snowdonian satellites, but I must needs cross its broken pillars to
skirt Llyn Idwal in my way from Llanberris to Capel Curig. Snowden, gloomy

* N» English ! the usual gruff reply of the peasantry in Walef, to a Granger's inquiry.

HOURS AMONG THB ROCKS AND CLOUDS- 189

as a demon, had for a week past shown nothing higher than his red shoulder,
Crib Coch. The sun was invisible, and evening hurrying on, as by bog and
lichened rock rising at intervals like stones of memorial, we scaled the precipitous
Glyder. But I had a guide, for the track was unknown to me, and mist on the
summit of every mountain and hill. We paused, wearied, and leant on some
mossy masses of stone. Still it was partially clear, but in a moment a grey
volume of clouds, volley after volley, shot past us by an opening in the rocks,
filled up the whole scene, and, slowly curling round, coldly encircled us in their
damp embrace, and deeper and deeper curtained us round. But it was without
a sound ; not a whisper of wind or water was heard, not a cry from a Plover or a
Raven mixed with the heavy atmosphere. The fog rolled and heaved in denser
volumes, and seemed to bring the utter solitude and silence of death. We
seemed alone in a world of vapours, before untrodden and unknown, and beyond
their solemn shade a new creation seemed concealed from view. On we wandered,
silent as the scene around us, ever and anon a pinnacle of grey stone like a half-
demolished cromleck or desecrated circle suddenly darkening to view in the fog ; and
I thought we were ascending a rocky staircase that had no termination but in the
heaven above us. Still my guide progressed before me, his gaunt figure often
disappearing entirely from view and sometimes mistaking an oblique rock for him,
ere I again recovered him. At length he paused — in a fog who can make every
movement true ? and as the best may fail, so my guide had lost his clue, was out
in his bearings, and was unable to proceed with certainty. I had enjoyed the
cold sullen solemnity — the world of ghosts and vapours we were communing
with ; but knowing we were seven or eight miles from quarters, with night im-
pending and short rations, I sounded a parley, and called a council. But vainly
on Crib Discyl, Moel Siabod, and Cam Davydd did I call to withdraw their
forces ; fresh squadrons still pushed on from Wyddva, the Snowdonian praetorium,
and nothing remained but a retreat in the face of the enemy, if possible before
night fall. We found we were on the verge of a steep precipice, and my com-
panion approaching to its very verge, rolled down mass after mass into the deep
profundity, and stood listening to its fall — but there was no reply. He then
said he must venture the descent alone, and if he found the passages practicable
he would give me notice by shouting ; if not he would return when he had
examined the vicinity as well as he could. So saying he left me, and his dark
figure disappeared instantaneously below the face of the rock. I wrapped my
cloak about me, sat on my collecting-book, and long anxiously listened. But
there was no sound, and I now began to consider the probability that from the
depth below no sound teould reach me, that he might wander on unconsciously,
be unable to ascend again, or be altogether uncertain of the exact spot where he
left me. Thought crowded upon thought, and anxiety urged me to make an

190 HOURS AMONG THS ROCKS AND CLOUDS.

effort on my own behalf, but, unpleasant as it was thus to linger, I felt that it
was more dangerous to stir, where one incautious step might plunge me into
endless night. I sat, therefore, surely in suspense of no enviable kind, till, after
long lapse, a sound, hoarse as a huge branch sundered by the gale, came upon
my ear as if toiling up the precipice. — It was repeated like a stone bounding again
and again upon the hollow ground, but came up to me faint as a distant echo !

It was more like a summons to execution than a note of encouragement, but
I shouted answer, and prepared to obey its summons. It was no easy task.
Loaded with my cloak and folio of plants I approached the precipice. It was all
slippery with moisture, and there was no certain footing upon the friable rock^
while the depth of the gulph into which I was lowering myself it was impossible
to fathom. A prill wept down the face of the dark cliff, and at some distance
below had scooped itself a deep gullet down which the water, as it gathered and
gained an impetus, foamed and gurgled, and fretted and bounded. Letting my
folio speed its way as it best could, I called in the full power of legs and arms to
aid my descent, and with some difficulty screwed my way down into the bed of
the rivulet, which I groped along for some distance, till the increasing declivity
and foaming of the water warned me of a precipitous plunge, and I defiled again
laterally to the face of the rock. Here I gave notice of my progress by a loud
hallo, and while I paused for a reply, looked about my lithological perch. All
was still gloomy and dubious beneath me, and I clung tightly within a hollow
cranny, lest the space beneath me should offer no resting place but the thin air to
interpose between myself and the horrid rocks hurled in many an avalanche to
the base of the precipice. Yet the charm of vegetable beauty was even there — j
Saxifraga stellaris studded the wet stones with its verdant stars and red capsules
on long stalks; the Alpine Rue (Thalictrum Alpinum) spread its delicate little
leaves upon the rock, Lycopodium selaginoides lifted up its agglomerated club-like
fructification, and the elegant Bartramia fontana dripping with moisture, claimed
attention to the microscopic elegance of the peristomes of its numerous fairy urns.

But again in nearer tones sounded my guide's voice, directing my downward
progress by rock and gully, till, after many a slip, I found myself emerging from
the fog, and within view of Clyn Cams at the very base of the rocks, below a
roseate hue faintly tinging the east, and the awful brow of Carnedd David
solemnly rising in the twilight. We had still a long pull to Llyn Idwall, and as
we emerged to the lake side from among the enormous detached boulders below
the black rocks of Twll Ddu, or the Devil's Kitchen, and crossed the rushing
torrent, night had steeped in sable the solemn vista before us, and we could barely
trace the caitiff Heron flagging silently away high in air.

I looked up the ravine, upon the enormous sable rocks split and shattered by
many a wintry tempest, down which the torrent muttered its malediction and

H0TJR8 AMONG THE ROCKS AND CLOUDS. 191

buried itself deep in gloom, with mingled feelings. All was dark and horrific
above, and from the tempest of ruin scattered round, it was evidently unsafe to
penetrate too far into the demon's den, many of whose weighty masses of cliff
seemed to hang tremblingly in the air, among the vapours that veiled their ser-
rated pinnacles, and I was not sorry to be safe at their base, instead of treading
the dizzy verge of their summits to seek an outlet. Below me Llyn Idwat
lay pillowed still as death in his mountain tomb, a pall of excessive darkness,
impenetrable to the eye, spread over its uncertain boundaries from the over-hanging
precipices, above which the kingly crest of Carnedd David, rising with stately
grandeur in the ebon sky, seemed to exercise a solemn guardianship. As we
descended the slippery rocks I seized specimens of the Cambrian Poppy (Meco-
nopsis Cambrica), starting forth from the gaping crevices, tbe beautiful Saxifraga
oppositifolia, S. hypnoides, and its affinities, here profusely carpetting the masses
of rock by the splashing torrent, and the red-tinged foliage of that constant rock-
lover Rhodiola rosea. We now skirted the black Llyn to where, amidst stones of
all shapes and sizes —

" Ai if the moon had shower M them down in spite j"

its waters reluctantly growled with hoarse voice a sad adieu to their mountain
cradle. A bridge, rough and rugged as the scene about it, now offered its last
churlish aid, and my guide, who had told of travellers perishing without hope on
Moel Siabod and other mountains about Capel Curig in storm, cold, and snow,
having now emptied his budget, and scenting the termination of his duties, though
yet afar off, sped on far in front to light his pipe at the next dwelling near Llyn
Ogwen, and left me to my meditations.

Yet even in summer, bright, fervid, and glorious, without a cloud to check the
insufferable brightness, one may incautiously get entangled in the woody vallies,
as in antumn upon the mountains. One afternoon, straying on the margin of an
extensive wood, bordered with showering Roses, bright Orchidece and numerous
other plants, now watching the progress of a marbled Butterfly (Hipparchia
galatkea), among the pink Trefoils, now following the devious flight of a " chalk-
hill blue" (Polyommalus Corydon), among the scattered bushes, I imperceptibly
got involved in " the navel of this hideous wood." To find path where path was
none, was a tedious process, till, all inlet and even outlet failing, I was fairly
made a captive in the thorny maze. Wherever the least opening appeared it
was sure to terminate in a dense thicket of thorns and brambles, while the foliage,
just deep enough to smother one over head and ears, but offering no large timber
for an observing climb, was peculiarly tantalizing. I turned, stopt, pushed on,
crept, — dashed franticly among the underwood till I was covered with thorns —
all was vain ; the sun rapidly descending to his evening couch, now shot vividly

19*2 HOURS AMONG THE ROCKS AND CLOUDS.

his level rays upon the foliage, but could not penetrate their interior. As a last
resource, I drew a large clasp-knife from my pocket, and in the direction of the
west cut down all before me, till I was tired of slaughter, but without apparently
bettering my condition. I began to prepare for a night vigil in the wood, and —

" Under the greenwood tree
Who loves to lie with me,"

presented itself as a very apt quotation adapted to my present circumstances,
only that unfortunately no one could respond to my call. At last, towering
afar-off like a turreted cloud rising in the western horizon, a mighty Oak met my
view, and my knife was again put in requisition to hack my way towards his
dominance, meaning from his high head to take a keen survey of my forest
position. He seemed surrounded with a triple guard — on one side the dwarf
Blackthorns, with ten thousand multiplied spines, presented a barrier utterly
impenetrable to my scanty means of offence, even had the day and not the night
been before me — on another side Brambles ramified thicker than snow-flakes
wound around each other, arching and inarching with curved spines, enough to
terrify an Indian — here and there flanked by a dwarf spreading Hawthorn or
Holly-bush, — while a crowd of tiralleurs in the shape of Thistles, rampant Net-
tles, and Furze, swarmed in the advance. Round this rampart I slowly wheeled,
now and then attempting a charge upon the enemy, but to very little purpose,
finding them too anxious to retain me among them ! While thus engaged in a
recognizance, Fortune, ever faithful to the brave, led me stumbling against a
mound which stopped my progress — and no poor captive flying from a dungeon
ever felt more pleasure than I did, when, on scaling this mound, I perceived only
a rude ditch between me and a scattered vista of trees leading to the termination
of the wood. ; j

But I began about Plinlimmon, its rocks, and its waters ; I got among its
clouds, and whither have they led me ? They have whirled me like the umbrella
I have heard of, that left its master's hand on the top of Cader Tdris, and was
found the next week on Plimlimmon, only that in this case I have been swept
from the mountain. Well, I have only in this case to borrow another umbrella
to get to it again, and I shall do so forthwith, for I have not done with the " Rocks
and the Clouds" yet. — Plinlimmon has only been looked at, certainly not ascended :
there I just catch his gloomy outline in the west as he slowly blankets himself
up for the night. He is a good twelve miles off, for I am only now pausing at
Llanidloes, below that bold Cat's-back ridge that struts up the Clydach glen
whose wier increases its sullen thunder with the increasing gloom. Gloomy as
the landscape now becomes, one flask of light, as if forgotten, settled on the
heathy ridge now in glorious blossom, but has it in a purple glow of radiance,

FLOWERING PLANTS FOR APRIL. 193

now changing into lilac, that even night seems unable to dispel. But I have
raised my eyes for a moment to mark that low ranging Buzzard who seems
to have just captured a young Rabbit — and all the glorious tints are gone. So
over the young Severn and through the silent timber-hutted streets of Llanidloes,
and beneath its low-tumbling town-hall, to my quarters at the Throttle-puppy
Arms.* In Wales, certainly, " Arms" are ever open to take in the stranger,
and the cry of " Arms" is for ever in his ear ! From the child to the dotard, all
are presumed to be in " Arms," and certainly extortion places " arms" in all
hands, from the urchin who runs after every carriage crying " penny," to the
matured ewmry who thinks the Sasenach gold hardly pays his important services
in leading the stranger to a rock or waterfall, that but for the stranger he himself
would have never regarded. The fact is, after all, whether one travels with
*' arms" or without them, in the desert or turnpike-road, tribute must be paid —
and it is all the same whether one hands out to the Arab or the inn-keeper.
Here, boots, send the chamber-maid, and call me up at five precisely, for to-mor-
row sees me in the clouds with Plinlimmon !

LIST OF FLOWERING PLANTS FOR EVERY MONTH IN THE

YEAR.

April.

(Continued from page 140.)
Tuberous Moschatell, Adoxa mosckatellina ; Yellow Bugle, or Ground-pine,
Ajuga chammpitys ; Common Alder, Alnus glutinosa ; Mountain Anemone, Ane-
mone Apennina ; Wood Anemone, A. nemorosa ; Pasque-flower Anemone, A.
Pulsatilla ; Common Wall-cress, Arabis thaliana ; German Madwort, Asperugo
procumbens; Maidenhair Spleenwort, Asplenium trichomanes ; Early Winter-
cress, Barbarea prcecox; Common Daisy, Bellis perennis ; Common Birch,
Betula Alba ; Common Turnip, Brassica rapa ; Common Box-tree, Buxus
sempervirens ; Vernal Water-starwort, Callitriche verna ; Bitter Ladies'-smock,
Cardamine amara ; Hairy Ladies'-smock, C. hirsuta ; Meadow Ladies'-smock,
C.pratensis ; Round-headed Carex (or Sedge), Carex pilulifera ; Vernal Carex,
C.prsecox; Great Common Carex, C. riparia ; Glaucous Straight-leaved Carex,
C. stricta ; Loose Pendulous Carex, C. strigosa; Little Mouse-ear Chickweed,

* Among the thousand-and-one " Arms " spread in every direction to catch the poor wandering
Saesnach in the Principality, I noticed " Vulcan's Arms" at Aberystwith, though I should feel
dubious of trusting myself within their brawny grasp !
VOL. III. — NO. XIX. 2 D

ID 4 FLOWERING PLANTS FOR APRIL.

. Cerastlum semidecandrum ; Broad-leaved Chickweed, C. vulgatum ; Smooth
Cow-parsley, Chcerophyllum sylvestre ; Horse-radish, Cochlear ia armoracia ;
.Common Hasel-nut, Corylus cwellana ; Spurge-laurel, Daphne laureola ; Common
Spurge-laurel, D. mezereum ; Bulbiferous Coralwort, Dentaria bulbifera ; Com-
mon Whitlow-grass, Draba verna ; Corn Horse-tail, Equisetum arvense ; Great
Water Horse-tail, E. fluviatile ; Branched Wood Horse-tail, E. sylvaticum ;
Alpine Cotton-grass, Eriaphorum Alpinum; Common Cotton-grass, E. angusti-
folium ; Broad-leaved Cotton-grass, E. polystachyon ; Downy-stalked Cotton-
grass, E. pubescens ; Wood Spurge, Euphorbia amygdaloides ; Red Shrubby
Spurge, E. characias ; Common Beech, Fagus sylvatica ; Common Corn-salad
or Lamb's-lettuce, Fedia olitoria; Common Ash, Fraxinus excelsior ; Simple-
leaved Ash, F. heterophylla ; Chequered Daffodil or Snake's-head, FritiUaria
meleagris ; Solid Bulbous Fumitory, Fumaria solida ; Spring Gentian, Gentiana
verna ; Common Dove's-foot Crane's-bill, Geranium molle ; Common Ground-ivy,
Glechoma hederacea ; Stinking Hellebore, Helleborus Foztidus ; Green Hellebore,
H. viridis; Umbelliferous Jagged Chickweed, Holosteum umbelkatumj Rock
Hutchinsia, Hutchinsia petrcea; Early Knappia, Knappia agrostidea ; Great
Henbit, Lamium amplexicaule ; Spotted Henbit, L. maculatum ; Greater Tooth-
wort, Laihrcea squamaria; Common Dandelion, Leontodon taraxacum; Field
Wood-rush, Luzula campestris ; Broad-leaved Hairy Wood-rush, L. pilosa ;
Perennial Mercury, Mercurialis perennis ; Water Chickweed, Montiajimtana ;
Trailing Hairy Water Scorpion-grass, Myosotis intermedia; Yellow-and-Blue
Water Scorpion-grass, M. versicolor ; Pale Narcissus, or Primrose Peerless, Narcis-
sus biflorus; Early Purple Orchis, Orchis mascula ; Early Spider Orchis, Ophrys
aranifera ; Yellow Star-of- Bethlehem, Ornithegatum luteum ; Common Star-of-
Bethlehem, 0. umbettatum ; Common Wood-sorrel, Oxalis acetosella ; Annual
Meadow-grass, Poa annua ; Common Knot-grass, Polygonum aviculare ; Aspen,
or Trembling Poplar, Populus tremula ; Strawberry-leaved Cinque-foil, Potentilla
fragariastrum ; Spring Cinque-foil, P. verna ; Oxlip Primrose, Primula elatior ;
Cowslip' Primrose, P. veris; Common Primrose, P. vulgaris ; Wild Plum, Prunut
domestica ; Wild Belluce, P. institia; Sloe, or Blackthorn, P. spinosa ; Wild
Service, Pyrus torminalis ; Common British Oak, Quercus robur ; Sessile-fruited
Oak, Q. ' sessilijlora ; Wood Crowfoot, Ranunculus auricomus ; Pile wort Crow-
foot, or Lesser Celandine, R.Jicaria; Tasteless Mountain Currant, Ribes Alpi-
num ; Common Gooseberry, R. grossidaria ; Common Butcher's-broom, Ruscus
qculeatus ; Long-leaved Willow, Salix acuminata ; Almond-leaved Willow, S.
amygdalina; Green Mountain Willow, S. Andersoniana ; Water Willow, S.
aquatica ; Little Tree Willow, S. arbuscula ; Rpund-eared or Trailing Willow,
S.aurita; Shining Dark-green Willow, S.bicolor; Great Round-leaved Willow,
S. caprea; Folded-leaved Willow, S. carinata ; Grey Willow, S. cinerea;

CORRESPONDENCE. < 195

Quince-leaved Willow, S. cotini/olia ; Broad-leaved Monadelphous Willow, S.
Croweana ; Broad-leaved Mountain Willow, S. Dicksoniana ; Fine Basket Osier
Willow, S. Forbyana ; Crack Willow, S.fragilis; Rose Willow, S. helix ; Hairy-
Branched Willow, S. hirta; Boyton Willow, S. Lambertiana ; Sharp-leaved
Triandrous Willow, S. lanceolata ; Apple-leaved Willow, S. malifolia ; Dark
Broad-leaved Willow, S. nigricans ; Shining-leaved Willow, S. nitens ; Dark
Long-leaved Willow, S . petiolaris ; Early Prostrate Willow, S.prostrata; Plum-
leaved Willow, S. prwiifolia ; Rosemary-leaved Willow, S. rosmarinifolia ;
Green-leaved Osier Willow, S. rubra ; Bedford Willow, S. Russelliana ; Silky-
leaved Willow, S. Smithiana ; Withered-pointed Willow, S. sphacelata ^Bilberry-
leaved Willow, S. vaccinifolia ; Veiny-leaved Willow, S. venulosa ; Common
Osier Willow, S. viminalis ; Wulfenian Osier Willow, S. Wulfeniana; Purple
Saxifrage, Saxifraga oppositifolia ; Two-leaved Squill, Scilla bifolia; Vernal
Squill, S. verna ; Scaly Hart's-tongue, Scolopendrium cetrach ; Common Ground-
sel, Senecio vulgaris ; Blue Moor-grass, Sesleria ccerulea ; Common Stickwort,
Stellaria media ; Common Yew, Taxus baccata ; Common Shepherd's-purse,
Thlaspi bursa-pastoris ; Perfoliate Shepherd's-purse, Th. perfoliatum ; Channel-
leaved Trichonema, Trichonema bulbocodium ; Wild Tulip, Tulipa sylvestris ;
Colt's-foot, Tussilago farfara ; Butter-bur, T. petasiter ; Common Small-leaved
Elm, Ulmus campestris; Broad-leaved or Wytch Elm, U. montana; Bog
Whortle-berry, or Great Bilberry, Vaccinium uliginosum ; Procumbent Field
Speedwell, Veronica agrestis ; Ivy -leaved Speedwell, V. hederifolia ; Blunt-
fingered Speedwell, V. triphyllos ; Vernal Speedwell, V. verna ; Spring Vetch,
Vicia lathyroides ; Dog's Violet, Viola canina ; Hairy Violet, V. hirta ; Sweet
Violet, V. odorata; Marsh Violet, V. patustris.

CORRESPONDENCE.

Anecdote op a Snake and a Toad.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.
My dear Sib, — If the following notice is worth your attention, I shall be
happy in its meeting your approval.

A few summers ago, when walking across a field of newly-cut Clover, my
attention was arrested by seeing a Common Snake (I call it common in distinc-
tion from the Adder or] Viper), busily employed swallowing a Toad of con-
siderable size. The Snake was so intent upon the business that it allowed me to
approach within two or three yards, and I was thus enabled to witness its efforts

2d2

19G CORRESPONDENCE.

in passing so large a body into its stomach. It appeared to me more like drawing
the skin of the Snake over the Toad than the action of swallowing. The means
by which this was accomplished seemed to be by the jaws getting a considerable
quantity of loose skin arranged in folds around the body of the Toad, and then by
a convulsive jerk advancing the head forwards. The poor Toad seemed perfectly
aware of the danger of its situation, and offered all the obstruction in its power,
by swelling its body and cheeks, and extending its fore legs at right angles to the
jaws of the Snake.

My anxiety to obtain a closer view alarmed the Snake, which ceased its
attempts to swallow its victim, which it disgorged by two or three smart jerks,
and then made the best of its way to an adjoining copse : but I killed it before
it reached the wood.

On turning to examine the unfortunate Toad — which had hobbled off to the
extent of its ability — I found that it had received no further injury than a
few scratches on its belly, caused evidently by the action of the Snake's lower
jaw passing over the body. I carried the poor creature beside a hedge, and
there left it to ruminate upon its escape from the jaws of death.

Very truly yours,

W. H. Bensted.

Maidstone, Feb. 7, 1838.

Formation of the Bark and Wood of Trees.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

My dear Sir, — The " fact for naturalists" inserted in Vol. II., p. 492, of your
Magazine, quite confirms the views of botanists on the formation of the bark and
wood of trees. The tree being brought together by the chain, after being shivered
by lightning, would still derive nutriment from the earth which would enable its
leaves to send downwards a new formation of wood ; this latter would, in the
course of a few years, not only cover the chain, but also consolidate its broken
parts.

I remain,

Yours sincerely,
Campsall, near Doncasler, Edwin Lankester.

Jan. 12, 1838.

197

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

Reply to Mr. Hall's Queries respecting certain Plants.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Dear Sir, — In answer to the queries of T. B. Hall, Vol. III., p. 26, none of
the four plants mentioned are in Loudon's Hortus Britannicus. I have Malope
grandiflora, but with no other name. As for Nigella Romana, I have it also.
I think it is Nigella damacena, but am not sure. It is figured in one of the
early volumes of Curtis's Botanical Magazine. Of the other plants alluded to
by your correspondent I know nothing.

Mr. Hall must not place implicit reliance on Loudon, as I find his list of
Opuntice very incorrect. Should this meet his eye, I suppose I shall bring upon
myself the vengeance of the colossal book-maker, but " that peril rests upon my
single head."

T. K. Short.

Martin Hall, Feb. 1, 1838.

£In books of such " colossal" dimensions as those of Mr. Loudon, it is scarcely
surprising that numerous errors should occur, notwithstanding all the care and
labour that may have been bestowed on the productions. The fact of a book's
being compiled is certainly not enough to damn it, and Mr. Loudon's works
have evidently been printed on the " high -pressure" principle. Botanists and
naturalists generally are, beyond all question, deeply indebted to Mr. L. for his
unremitting labours for the advancement and diffusion of Natural History : but,
even supposing this were not the case, the candid and impartial spirit in which
he is at all times ready to attend to notices of his errors — whether supposed or
actual — is alike deserving praise and imitation. — Ed.]

On Mr. Lankester's Remarks respecting Christmas-Day, 1837.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Bewsey House, Feb. 3, 1838.
My dear Sir, — Mr. Lankester seems to have fallen into an error, at p. 108,
respecting the temperature on Christmas- day. The thermometer here was no
higher than 52°, and this, considering the time of year, manifested a remarkable
degree of warmth. Mr. Watson, in his Geographical Distribution of Plants,
has given several tables, illustrative of the distribution of heat in Britain, at
various periods of the year. From these it appears that at Manchester the average

198 PROCEEDINGS OP 80CIETIES.

temperature in December is 41.10., and in January 36.90. The mean temperature
of winter at the same place Mr. Watson states to be 39.00. — of spring 47.00. — and
that of summer 59.03. The result of observations made at other places raries
little from the preceding. That Mr. Lankester has experienced a lower tem-
perature than 61° in March will, therefore, not appear improbable. In fact if
the thermometer was really the height stated (61°), Mr. L. must have had the
pleasure of witnessing a warm summers day (pardon the Hibernianisiri) in
December ! The mean March temperature is, however, much lower than 52°.
The "large coloured Butterfly" noticed was most probably Vanessa urticce.
Unimpregnated females of the last brood of this common species often exist
through the winter, and may frequently be observed flying about on mild days
in February and March (see p. 155). Vanessa polychloros is a much rarer
insect.

I am,

Yours very faithfully,

Peter Rylands.
To Neville Wood, Esq., &c.

PROCEEDINGS OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.

With a view of putting our readers in possession of the progress of Natural
History both at home and abroad, we intend, as opportunity offers, to publish
complete reports of the various Societies dedicated entirely or in part to that
science, supplying every particular likely to be of interest or importance. In
furtherance of this object, we shall always be happy to receive reports- of
Societies, metropolitan, provincial, and foreign, with the rules, lists of officers,
&c, accounts of the proceedings at the periodical meetings, and, where desirable,
copies of the papers read. These will be received, as hitherto, from the
respective Secretaries, or from any other individual interested in the various
Societies.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

On Thursday, Feb. 1, the ordinary meeting was held, Mr. W.Sharp Macleay
in the chair. — The report of the Council announced the total receipts of the past
month as ,£2,373 10s. 8d. ; and of expenditure, to the farm for rent £30, to the
gardens £ 1,048, and the museum £138 5s. 2d. There had also been invested in the
Three-per-Cents. £197 16*. due to the composition account, and £200 had been

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 199

invested in Exchequer-bills a» part repayment of the loan. The number of
visitors to the museum was 353, from whom £2 3s. was received ; and to the
menagerie 2,861, and the sum received £68 17*. The present number of speci-
mens in the gardens was 1,077, of which 287 were mammalia, 773 birds, and
17 reptiles. In pursuance of a recommendation by Dr. Gamble passed at the
last meeting, the Council had adopted a series of resolutions relative to the issue
and regulation of ivory tickets, to prevent that abuse to which their circulation
has been exposed. Mr. Chester proposed the erection of a new gate of entrance
at the south-east corner of the gardens, by which a much nearer approach with
greater facility would be given to the admission of visitors, and the inconveniences
resulting from the extensive intercourse at one gate, particularly on Sundays,
would be obviated. This motion was seconded by Mr. Vigors, and after some
discussion carried by a large majority ; the latter gentleman contending against
the false spirit of economy practised by the Council, which had led to a very
serious defalcation in the receipts the last two or three years. In reply to a
question by Mr. Vigors, it was stated that Capt. Bowles, R,N., had been elected
in the Council in the place of Mr. E. S. Hardisty, recently deceased.

YORKSHIRE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

On Tuesday last, Feb. 6, the annual meeting of the Society was held at the
Yorkshire Museum, in this city. There was a numerous attendance of members,
B. Wake, M.D., one of the Vice-Presidents, in the chair.

The minutes of the last annual and monthly meeting were read by W. Gray,
jun., Esq.

The following gentlemen were admitted members of the Society : — the Rev.
W, J. Wilkinson, Mr. Caleb Fletcher, Rev. Wm. Hey, Hon. J. C. Dundas,
M.P., Mr. E. R. Anderson, Mr. R. Watson, and Mr. Caleb Williams.
, Donations of books and specimens of Natural History, &c, were received from
G. L. Fox, Esq., M.P., Miss Phillips, Wm. Hatfeild, Esq., John Prest, Esq.,
Thomas Meynell, jun., Esq., and the Rev. J. D. J. Preston : Mr. Fox's dona-
tion consisting of many interesting birds, the Eagle Owl, &c. ; Miss Phillips a
case of twelve humming birds ; Mr. Hatfeild a Wild Swan.

Professor Phillips then read the report of the Council. It stated that in the
number of its members, the state of its finances, and the condition of its museum,
the Society has never been more fortunately circumstanced ; and that from the
measures now in progress there was reason to conclude that this prosperous con-
dition may be prolonged. It would depend upon the decision of the meeting
whether other facilities of access, already enjoyed by the public, should be further
augmented, and new attempts made to enlarge the power and efficiency of the
institution. The donations to the museum and library have been numerous and

200 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

valuable ; and the Council, encouraged by the admission of many now members,
had ventured to add a considerable number of specimens by purchase on favourable
terms. The collection of quadrupeds now amounts to 120 ; of birds, 1,200 ; an
entirely new arrangement of British insects has been begun ; the valuable
herbarium of the Society is in process of arrangement ; a small stove is being
constructed for the cultivation of tropical orchideous plants ; the Roman and
Monastic walls have been repaired ; and a most interesting addition made to the
antiquarian collections, in the cast of a Chaldean figure, sculptured on the rocks
of Beyrout, in Syria. More than eight hundred volumes have been given to the
library of the Society, by the late G. Hodgson, Esq., of Bridlington. The
Council proposes, ere long, to select for publication such parts of the many valuable
memoirs which have been read at the monthly meetings, as by their bearing on
the antiquities and Natural History of Yorkshire, appear worthy of being placed
in the hands of members, and offered to the public at a very moderate price. The
expenditure of the year has been great, yet in consequence of the addition of no
less than 22 new members during the year, and other favourable circumstances,
there is a balance in favour ot the Society, on the general account of the year, of
£86, and though the Manor Shore property has been a source of expense, above
the income derived from it, this cannot happen again. The Council has made
arrangements to purchase Mr.' Allis's beautiful collection of skeletons for the sum
of £350, of which no less than £230 has been already received by voluntary
subscription among the members, and the supply is not yet exhausted. It was
stated that some additional cases were required to contain the zoological collection,
and the meeting, after inspecting the treasurer's accounts, and hearing the ex-
planation of Professor Phillips, unanimously decided to authorize the Council
of the ensuing year to construct cases for the object proposed, to the extent
of £200.

On the motion of the Rev. J. Graham, the report was unanimously adopted,
and ordered to be printed.

Three important propositions were considered by the meeting — first, a plan for
the holding of horticultural exhibitions in the museum grounds, under the direction
of the Council ; secondly, a proposal to continue the regulation by which strangers
are admitted to the museum grounds ; thirdly, a proposal to authorize the Council
to open the grounds and museum on certain days of the year freely to all persons
whatsoever, without payment or requiring orders from members. All these
propositions, after having been fully discussed, were, with some verbal amend-
ments, adopted. Thus the facilities which the public already enjoy will be
considerably augmented, and the success of the Society, we trust, will be
promoted.

The members then scrawled for the officers and Council for the ensuing year ;

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 201

Earl Fitzwilliam was re-elected president. New Vice-Presidents — C. H. Elsley,
Esq. ; W. Gray, jun., Esq. ; Rev. C. Wellbeloved ; and R. J. Thompson, Esq.
New Members of Council— W. Hatfield, Esq. ; Thomas Meynell, jun., Esq. ;
Dr. Goldie ; Henry Smales, Esq. Treasurer — R. Davies, Esq., in the place of
the late lamented Alderman Gray ; Mr. W. Gray retiring from the office of
Secretary, Mr. Henry Robinson was elected Joint-Secretary with Professor
Phillips.

The thanks of the meeting were given to Mr. William Gray, for his valuable
services during eleven years, and to the officers and members of the Council. —
York Herald.

ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.

This Society met on Saturday, Feb. 3, the Right Hon. C. W, Williams
Wynn, M.P., the president, in the chair. — Henry Laver, Esq., was elected a
resident member. Among the donations laid upon the Society's table, was a MS.
Persian catalogue, accompanied by a letter from Professor Forbes, the donor,
explanatory of its contents. The catalogue was principally valuable from con-
taining the names of several works unknown or believed to be lost, such as the
Chronicles of Talari in the original Arabic, and the Mustafa Nama, containing
104,000 couplets in the metre of the Shah Nameh ; and although the name of
the possessor, as well as the place and date, is nowhere stated, there is reason to
conclude that the books existed within forty or fifty years in the library of some
Indian prince ; this inference may be drawn from the circumstance of " His Sublime
Highness" being named in the catalogue, and from many of the books being in
the Hindustani language, and of recent date. — A paper by Lieut. Postans, " On
a Sect of Yogis in Cutch, known by the name of Kanphatis," was then read
to the meeting. The Kanphatis reside in an extensive range of buildings near
Danodhar, where their creed and practice is to give food and shelter to all persons
demanding it, of whatever caste or sect, and without limit as to time and quan-
tity. Their numbers are few, and they bind themselves to a life of celibacy,
but their charities are large, and they have considerable revenues to enable them
to comply with the very liberal rules of their order. The chief of the Kanphatis
is understood to derive great dignity from his office, and he is not obliged to return
a salute or answer a question from any one, not even from the Raja of Cutch.
This sect has its peculiar name from the immense ear-rings which its members
wear, by which their ears are nearly burst. The words khan and phati meaning
" ear-burst." Lieutenant Postans was received by these people in the most
obliging manner, and was shown every thing of interest in their establishment.
A portrait of the present chief of the Kanphatis, and a drawing of one of the
immense cauldrons in which rice is boiled for the numerous applicants upon their

vol. in. — NO. xix. 2 E

202 ^ PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

bounty, accompanied the paper. On this memoir Professor Wilson remarked,
that the Kanphatis were once a powerful body ; that they were probably the
founders of the cave temples of that part of India ; and that the figures in those
temples were all represented as wearing enormous ear-rings like those worn by
the Kanphatis. Other sects in India had similar establishments, having much
resemblance to the monastic institutions of continental Europe, with the exception
of there being no personal restraint on any of the members ; all parties went
away and returned whenever they pleased. — The reading of " An Account of
the Ruins of Gumlf, the capital of Jetwar," by Captain Jacob, closed the meeting.
These ruins, which are a short distance from Poorbunder, on the coast of Gugerat,
are of considerable antiquity, and contain remains of sculpture and architecture
of great beauty. One of the traditions of the natives attributes the ruin of the
place to the powerful imprecations of Sona Kusarin, a beautiful woman who
was betrothed to a brave warrior named Rakhayit. The sovereign of the
country, smitten with love for the bride, caused Rakhayit to be put to death.
The inconsolable Sona Kusarin, to avoid the hated solicitations of the royal
assassin, after uttering a fearful curse upon him and his capital, devoted herself
to the flames. This event is stated to have happened in the year 1113 a.d.
The authentic cause of the fall of Gumli was the invasion of a Mahommedan
army from Sinde, which took place two centuries later than is stated in the above
tradition. The most recent date discovered among the ruins answers to the year
1229 of the Christian era.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY.

This Society, established Nov. 29, 1836, holds its meetings at 75, Newman-
Street, Oxford-Street. The following is part of the first annual report, read Nov.
29, 1837, with a list of officers for the current year.

Officers for 1838 : — President — J. E. Gray, Esq., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents —
Dr. Macreight, F.L.S. ; Charles Johnson. Treasurer — John Reynolds.
Curator — D. Cooper, A.L.S. Secretary — G. E. Dennes. Council — Dr. Bossey;
E. Charlesworth, F.G.S.; W. M. Ciutterley; T. W. Greene, B.C.L. ;
Joseph Freeman ; ^Eneas MacIntire, L.L.D., F.L.S. ; Dr. Ranking ; James
Rich; W. H. White. Local Secretaries — W. Baxter, A.L.S.; C. Conway;
T. Bodenham; J. A. Brewer ; Edwin Lees, F.L.S. ; R. Leyland; Arthur
Wallis ; Dr. Bell Salter.

The Botanical Society of London is instituted for the promotion and diffusion
of botanical science, by the formation of an herbarium, the exchange of specimens
with other Societies, or with individuals, the reading of original and other papers,
the formation, also, of a library and museum, and by the establishment of a
botanic garden, as soon as the funds of the Society will permit.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 208

The number of members amounts to sixty-five, of which th« new members
elected for the ensuing session far exceeds the expectations of the Council, who
are at the same time happy to state that they have received but ten notices of
secession of members. The Council refer with pleasure to the list of donors to
the library, herbarium, and museum, and hope that the several donors will not
cease either their favours or their exertions.

The number of British plants received amounts to 4,819 specimens, including
Ferns; 767 species, including 1,313 specimens, have been arranged in the
herbarium, according to the system of De Candolle. The remaining 3,506
duplicates, including 515 species, will be distributed to those persons who have
favoured the Curator with lists of desiderata for that purpose. This distribution
will take place under the direction of the Council, in the months of January and
December every year, when each member will receive such of his desiderata as
may be contained among the duplicates in the herbarium, in proportion to his
contributions; those gentlemen who have not contributed to the herbarium
receiving their duplicates after the distribution to the contributors has taken
place. The Council beg also to inform the members, that in order to afford every
facility for examining the herbarium and library, the Rooms of the Society will
be open one hour and a half previous to the ordinary meetings of the Society,
when the Curator and Secretary will attend to render any assistance that may be
required, and to circulate the books. In addition to the extensive and valuable
collection of British plants, the Council beg to announce the receipt of a large
collection of French plants, supposed to be a portion of the herbarium of Jean
Jacques Rousseau, together with some plants from Mahon, Minorca, presented
by the Secretary. Another collection of foreign plants from America, collected
by the officers of the Hudson's Bay Company, has been presented by Mr. Joseph
Freeman. Also specimens of Lycopodium cireinnatum, from the President, sent
by Dr. Forbes, of Chichester. Specimens of three new British plants have been
received, viz. Claytonia alsinoides, from Mr. W. Baxter, of Oxford ; a Moss new
to Britain, Cinclidium stygium, from Mr. Leyland, of Halifax ; and specimens,
of which there are many duplicates, of Spartina alternifolia, from Itchin Ferry,
Southampton, presented by Dr. Macreight, V.P.

The Society have also received, from Mr. R. H. Schomburgh — now travelling
in British Guiana — papers, accompanied by drawings, on the two following
interesting plants, which were read before the Society, viz. Victoria regina and
Loranthus Smyihii. Likewise donations of seeds from the Cape of Good Hope,
presented by M. Schmidt.

The Society is much indebted to the following gentlemen for their interesting
communications : — Dr. Bossey, Dr. Mac Intirb, Messrs. Schomburgh, G. E.

SbI

201 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Dennes, M. Hopkins, J. Reynolds, H. A. Meeson, A. Lewis, W. M. Chat-
terley, J. Freeman, D. Cooper, A. Irvine, A. Wallis, &c.

The meetings of the Society are held every first and third Friday of the month,
from November to June ; and on the first Friday of every other month, at eight
o'clock, p.m. Communications are received at the rooms, 75, Newman-Street.

Ladies are eligible as members, upon the same terms as gentlemen, and possess
similar privileges.

The annual subscription for resident members is one guinea; corresponding
members, half-a-guinea. Admission fee, half-a-guinea.

Feb. 2. — Mr. W. H. White in the chair. — A large collection of French plants,
supposed to have formed part of the herbarium of the celebrated botanist, J. J.
Rousseau, and presented by Mr. James Rich, was exhibited. The first part of
this splendid collection was presented last year. A paper by the Curator,
Mr. D. Cooper, was read, " On some new Species of Corallines described by
Ferdinand Krauss, Ph.D.," translated from the German. Baron Von Ludwio
— a Wurtemberg noble much attached to Natural History — presented to the
Museum of his country, some months since, a large collection of natural objects
from the Cape of Good Hope, amongst which Dr. Krauss discovered three new
species, viz. Amathia biseriata, Acamarchis tridentata, and Flustra marginata.
These were described in relation to their order, classes, and families, also as
regarded their relative distinctions ; together with many interesting particulars.
It was announced that the Curator would deliver a course of lectures on practical
Botany in the early part of March, commencing one hour previous to the chair
being taken at the ordinary meetings.

FRENCH SOCIETY FOR THE DIFFUSION AND ADVANCEMENT
OF NATURAL HISTORY.

A new Society has just been formed in France, entitled the Societe Francaist
pour la Propagation et le Progres des Sciences Naturelles. Those who belong ti
it take shares, and its objects are, — 1st., to generalize and facilitate the public
instruction of Natural Science ; 2nd., to render the taste for these sciences an
object of popular study ; and 3rd., to assist even savans in their pursuits, by
regulating classification and nomenclature. The principal centre of this Society
will be Paris, but it will have auxiliary Societies in Marseilles, Nantes, Havre,
Strasbourg, Clermont, and the Pyrenees. — Athenaum, Feb. 3, 1838, communicated
by T. B. Hall.

PROCEEDINGS OP SOCIETIES. 205

WARRINGTON PHRENOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Since the insertion of our brief notice (p. 108) of this Institution -—established
Oct. 4, 1837 — we have received a printed copy of its rules, &c, which we now
proceed to lay before our readers.

Address. — The claims of Phrenology to be numbered amongst the exact
sciences have now been before the world upwards of forty years. During this
period it has been subjected by its opponents to the bitterest invective and the
most unsparing ridicule : and has passed through as searching an ordeal as their
acuteness and severity could devise. So far, however, from effecting its ruin,
Phrenology, by the innumerable facts which its advocates have collected and
published to the world, has forced itself upon the public mind, and at present, in
this kingdom, there are not less than thirty societies, numbering upwards of one
thousand members — at once studying and extending the knowledge of its princi-
ples amongst all classes of the community. In France and the United States of
America its success has been equally great. So rapid an extension of principles,
once so decidedly unpopular, unaided by adventitious support, is without a parallel
in the History of Philosophy. It may reasonably excite astonishment amongst
the incredulous, and general curiosity amongst all classes to become acquainted
with its doctrines. Professing as it does to render the most speculative of all
sciences — that of mind — the most practical, by the establishment of universal
principles from the most rigorous induction of innumerable and well-observed
psychological facts : — and to submit to the evidence of the senses the mental and
moral character of individuals of all classes, and under all kinds of circumstances —
its value, if true, cannot easily be over-estimated. The fact of so many individuals
in this and surrounding nations, eminent for their knowledge in all the various
branches of art and science, becoming converts to its principles, gives probability
of its truth, and fully justifies if it does not demand, the careful consideration of
all who have leisure to examine, and a capacity to profit by its discoveries.
Under these circumstances it is considered that no further apology is required to
introduce to public notice a society which has been formed for the purpose of
affording its members an opportunity of examining the subject of Phrenology in
all its relations, and who, without pledging themselves to all that has been written
or published by phrenologists, may avail themselves of the facilities afforded by
mutual association to inform themselves of all that is practicable and demonstra-
ble in this New Philosophy : and who, without subjecting themselves to the
imputation of a weak credulity, may examine the facts upon which its principles
are founded and the uses to which they are applicable.

President — John Davies, M.D. Vice-President — William Grierson, Sur-
geon. Treasurer — Robert Gaskell. Corresponding Secretary — William

206 EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

Robson. Secretary — S. M. Webster. Curator — J. P. Lane, Surgeon. Libra-
rian— Peter Rylands, Esq.

Corresponding Members — H. C. Watson, Esq., F.L.S., Editor of the Phreno-
logical Journal, Thames Ditton ; Neville Wood, Esq., Editor of The Naturalist,
and of The Analyst, Campsall Hall, near Doncaster; D. Noble, M.R.C.S.,
President of the Manchester Phrenological Society ; William Weir, M.D.,
Glasgow.

Rules.

1. That this Society be called the Warrington Phrenological Society; 2. That
it shall consist of resident and corresponding members. All members to be
elected by ballot ; 3. That the subscription — to be paid by resident members
only — shall be 10s. annually, in advance. A donation of £5 to constitute a life
member; 4. That the officers shall consist of a president, vice-presidents, trea-
surer, corresponding secretary, secretary, curator, and librarian; who shall be
elected annually the first Thursday in October ; 5. That the meetings shall be
held each Thursday fortnight. The chair to be taken at seven o'clock precisely.

The library has already been commenced, and several casts, busts, &c, have
been obtained. A complete set of busts, &c. &c. (in all 95 pieces), has also been
ordered. The number of resident members amounts to twenty-four, with an
immediate prospect of addition. Papers have been read by Dr. Davies, Peter
Rylands, Esq., and Messrs. Grierson, Lane, and Robson. The Society pros-
pers far better than the founders expected, and there is every probability of its
firm establishment. This is the more remarkable as Warrington is an illiterate
unscientific place. There is not another scientific Society in the town, and two
or three which have been attempted to be established, have failed after a brief
existence. A few years ago a Literary and a Botanical Society existed, but both
h°ve long been defunct.

EXTRACTS FROM THE FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

ZOOLOGY.

1. Hereditary Tendency of certain Faculites in Animals; by Thomas
Andrew Knight, Esq. — In support of the princi ole which he maintains with
regard to Bees — viz. that the innate desire of act omplishing certain actions is
transmitted, independently of education, from parent to offspring — the author cites
many facts which he has observed during experiit ?nts commenced sixty years
ago, and continued up to the present time,

EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS. 207

He states that a young terrier,* whose parents had been trained to destroy
Fitchet Weasels (Polecats), and a young spaniel, whose ancestors had for genera-
tions been bred to seek Woodcocks, were brought up together as companions, and
that each, on seeing for the first time the prey towards which it was guided by
its hereditary instinct, pursued it with avidity, without noticing that which
attracted its companion. He further remarks, that young spaniels, wholly
destitute of experience, were almost as expert at Snipe-hunting as their parents,
trained with care to the sport. The Woodcocks themselves have, in the course
of the last sixty years, altered considerably in their habits. Their fear of Man
has become, during this period, much more powerful in transmission through
several successive generations.

The author believes that, by the effect of education long persevered in, these
hereditary inclinations may be destroyed, and replaced by others. Thus spaniels
would never have acquired the art of hunting had not Man followed the sports of
fowling. A young Dog of the variety termed ckien d 'arret (setter), whose parents
had been trained to seek and fetch wounded game, performed the same office as
well as the best-bred Dog, although it had received no instructions. It would
seem that the influence of the father and of the mother, in the transmission of
these hereditary inclinations, is the same, except in the case of hybrids, in which
the author believes the influence of the male to be decidedly predominant.-—
Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve, Aout, 1837. — £It is a well-ascertained fact,
that strongly-marked peculiarities — whether mental or corporeal — are transmitted
from parent to offspring, both in Man and in the lower animals. Thus in the
cases alluded to by Mr. Knight, it will not appear surprising that the faculties
which had been so continually exercised in terriers and spaniels should be more
than ordinarily developed in the descendents of those individual animals. —
Ed. Nat.]

BOTANY.

2. Comparative Estimate of the meteorological Circumsta .ices under
which Corn, Maize, and Potatos grow at the Equator and under tht Tempe-
rate Zone. — In comparing the results which he has collected, M. Boussingault
arrives at this conclusion : — The number of days which separate the commence-
ment of the growth of an annual plant from its ripening, is, in every climate, in

* We may here seize the opportunity of replying to the question proposed to us, why we com-
mence the English names of only some animals with capital letters ? Our rule is as follows : — 1.
The names of all species and genera commence with capitals; 2. those ox varieties, as terrier,
spaniel, &c, are not so distinguished, being of inferior value ; 3. The lame applies to the indica-
tion of sex, as bull, ewe, drake, gander, &c. ; 4. Also to the indication of age, as calf, lamb, foal,
Be «-?. — F,t>.

208 EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

inverse ratio of the mean temperature under the influence of which the vegetation
takes place, so that the produce of this number of days by the temperature is
constant. This result, says M. Boussingault, is not only important as indicating
that the same annual receives throughout, in the course of its existence, an equal
portion of heat ; it further points out the possibility of naturalizing a plant in any
country, provided the mean temperature of the month is known.

All the results of M. Boussingault's researches are condensed in a table
published in our foreign cotemporary the Bibliotheque de Geneve, to the fourteenth
No. of which (for Feb., 1837) we beg to refer our readers.

3. Saccharine Nature of Beet-root. — The second]supplement to the General
Catalogue of the Royal Botanico- Agricultural Society, published by Messrs. Bur-
den, Sen., & Co. (Turin, 8 vo., 1837), written in Italian, contains instructions for
the cultivation of Beet-root, and of plants used as food in general. The author
considers the Beet-root first as a nutritive root and then as a sacchariferous plant.
We observe, in a note, that M. Falcoz, of Chambery, obtained 60,000 kilogr.
of roots per hectare, that M. Bonafous estimates the average produce at 20,000
kil., and that it may be regarded as between these two numbers.

4. Expansion and Sleep of Leaves. — The movements, observes M. Dutrochet,
by which leaves take the alternate positions of waking and sleeping, have their
seat exclusively in the peculiar curves situated at the base of their petioles,
and which constitute to them alone the short petiole of their leaflets. These
curves are sufficiently large in the Kidney-bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) to render
the study of their internal structure easy. The leaves of this plant display the
phenomena of expansion and of sleep in a very remarkable manner ; their leaflets
lower their points at night, and their limbs regain the horizontal posture during
the day.

The curvature which constitutes the entire petiole of a leaflet of the Kidney-
bean, displays, under the epidermis, a thick layer of cells arranged in longitudinal
series, and which generally decrease in size from within outwards, so that when
the turgescence of the tissue which they form by their junction takes place, this
cellular tissue would curve by directing the concavity of the curvature outwards.
This is also proved by experience ; for by plunging into water a thin blade" raised
longitudinally upon this cellular tissue, it curves powerfully in the direction above
indicated. If the blade, thus curved, be removed into syrup, it curves in the.
opposite direction. Thus this cellular tissue is incurvable (i. e., is capable of
curving inwards) by endosmose ; it represents, by its disposition, a hollow cylinder
of which all the longitudinal portions, if separated from each-other, would tend
towards a natural position, by curving outwards. The cells of the two or three
innermost layers of this cellular tissue only contain air ; under these pneumatic
cells is found a layer of fibrous tissue, -composed of transparent fibres, of great

EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS. 200

tenuity, and intermixed with globules disposed in longitudinal series. A blade
raised longitudinally upon this fibrous tissue being plunged into aerated water,
directed its curvature towards the centre of the petiole ; if this blade be placed
in non-aerated water, it will not curve at all. Thus this fibrous tissue is
incurvable by oxygenation ; under this is found a woody substance with medul-
lary rays, and principally composed of sap-vessels and of a considerable quantity
of large pneumatic tubes. In the centre of the petiole there is a bundle of fibrous
tissue similar to that described above, and taking the place of the pith in this
petiole which represents a little stalk. When this is exposed, we find that the
petiolary bending of the leaflet of the Kidney-bean contains the two incurvable
tissues which I have already described in flowers capable of closing after expansion,
namely, the cellular tissue incurvable by endosmose, and the fibrous tissue in-
curvable by oxygenation. The two cylindrical layers inclosed one in the other
which form these two tissues, would be represented sufficiently accurately by
the reunion and attachment in a cylindrical bundle of a certain number of nerves
of the flower of Mirabilis. I have pointed out, that near these nerves the
cellular tissue curves outwards by endosmose, and that the fibrous tissue curves
inwardly by oxygenation ; which produces in the first case their state of expan-
sion, and in the second that of sleep. The same would happen in the petiolary
curvature of the leaflet of the Kidney-bean, if we suppose that the two
cylindrical layers, the one exterior to the cellular tissue, the other interior to the
fibrous tissue, are divided at the same time into fine longitudinal bundles. Each
of these bundles is analogous to a nerve of the flower of Mirabilis ; there will be
in it, and arranged in this nerve, the two incurvable tissues capable of effecting
the expansion and the closing. Supposing these bundles reunited by a mem-
branous tissue, that would form a corolla susceptible, by turns, of expansion and
closing, or of waking and sleeping. But this state of separation of longitu-
dinal fasciae does not exist in the petiolary curvature ; these fictitious fascia?
are intimately united, and form a hollow cylinder composed of two layers ;
the cylindrical layer of fibrous tissue is inclosed in the cylindrical layer of
cellular tissue. Let us suppose each of these cylindrical layers divided into
longitudinal threads, joined to each other. The longitudinal threads of cellular
tissue would dispose all to direct their curvature outwards. Now it is evident,
that if their power of incurvation is equal, the cylindrical layer which they
form by their junction will remain straight and equal ; but if the longitudinal
threads of one side of the cylinder force it by the power of incurvation to] the
threads of the opposite side, these would be impelled in the direction of incurva-
tion effected by the threads which antagonise them. The same reasoning may
be employed in relation to the cylindrical layer of fibrous tissue subjacent to
the cylindrical layer of cellular tissue ; thus each of these cylindrical layers
vol. in. — no. xix. 2 r

210 EXTRACTS PROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

of incurvable tissues acts in this case as if the only side of the cylinder
whose force predominates alone existed in each of them. The opposite side
of the cylinder, whose antagonising power of incurvation is overcome, would
only act here as a moderator of the action ; it is precisely what happens. —
Experience has convinced me that in leaves, as in flowers, the tissue incurvable
by endosmose is the sole agent of the expansion, and that the tissue incurvable
by oxygenation is the exclusive agent of sleep.

These two incurvable tissues, arranged, as I have described, in two cylindrical
layers inclosed one within the other, doubtless act throughout the mass of the
cylindrical layer or of the hollow cylinder which they form. But only the
strongest of each of these hollow cylinders manifests its action exteriorly, and
that by the excess of its force on that of the other sides of the same hollow
cylinder. I have observed that the expansion of leaves always takes place by
the action of the strongest part of the cellular tissue of the petiolary curvature.
Hence this cellular tissue incurvable by endosmose is the undoubted agent of the
expansion of leaves. Their sleep is certainly owing to the sole action of the
fibrous tissue incurvable by oxygenation, contained in the same petiolary curva-
tures, for I have ascertained that by depriving leaves of respiratory oxygen their
sleep is prevented ; they remain always expanded, as I have also proved to be
the case as regards flowers. Then the fibrous tissue incurvable by oxygenation,
and the unassisted agent of sleep, is paralysed.

The phenomena of the expansion and closing of leaves, at first sight ap-
parently very] complicated, are thus subject to the simple laws which cause the
sleeping and waking of flowers.

The petiolary curvatures of the leaflets of Robim la pseudo-acacia, and the leaf
of the Licorice {Glycyrhiza glabra) present sufficiently accurately the same
organization as that described in the Kidney-bean. The petiolary curvature
situated at the base of the petiole of the Sensitive-plant (Mimosa pudica, Linn.)
is different. Its fibrous tissue, the agent of sleep, directs its concavity towards
the centre of the petiole, which takes place in the same manner as in the other
plants mentioned. But, contrary to what happens in these same plants, its
cellular tissue, the agent of expansion, directs the concavity of its curvature
towards the centre of the petiole, like the fibrous tissue. Since expansion is a
straightening action, as in the leaves of the plants alluded to, there should be, in
the petiolary curvature of the Sensitive-plant, an inversion in the position of the
predominant side of its cellular tissue, the agent of expansion ; this is also what
takes place.

This fibrous tissue, incurvable by oxygenation, being, in the Sensitive as in
other plants, the agent of sleep, and the incurvation of sleep being in it the same
as the incurvation taken under the influence of stimulants, it follows that it is

MISCBLLANT. til

this tissue which acts when excited, insomuch that what ia termed u vegetable
irritability," is found to belong to a fibrous tissue which acts by oxygenation and
by curvature. The word irritability, which has no precise meaning, ought there-
fore to be here replaced by incur vability, adding that this power of incurvation is
associated, in the case under consideration, with excitability, or the power of
receiving the influence of stimulants, which govern the action of the incurvable
fibrous tissue. — Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Tome Siziime, pp. 185 — 9.

CHAPTER OF MISCELLANIES.

As notices on Natural History published in provincial newspapers are only locally
read, and meet the eyes of very few naturalists, we consider them almost equal
in value to similar paragraphs supplied by our correspondents, if properly
authenticated, or bearing the stamp of truth. We therefore take every oppor-
tunity of collecting these scattered facts, invariably acknowledging the source*
from which they are obtained. — Ed.

ZOOLOGY.

Oological Cabinets. — At page 167 of the second volume of The Naturalist,
your valuable correspondent, Mr. J. D. Salmon, is so kind as to give us some
instructions on mounting birds' eggs. It would impart much additional value to
his communication if he would inform us of the relative depths that he has his
drawers, as it would give the tyro considerable assistance, in ordering a cabinet.
I have seen a small collection in Liverpool, in which the eggs were placed on
mahogany sawdust, which can be procured from the cabinet-makers. It is very
fine, and I thought the colour gave great effect to the eggs ; and by forming in it
a slight depression for the specimen, the security is materially increased. — T. B.
Hall, Woodside, Liverpool, Feb. 3, 1838.

Rare Birds captured during the late Frost. — The late severe weather has
given our townsman, Mr. Henry Bluett, an unusual opportunity of adding to
his fine collection of birds. Last week a female Goosander (Mergus merganser)
was brought to him, and within two days after he was furnished with the Red-
breasted Merganser and the Blue-winged Shoveller, deemed by ornithologists the
most beautiful of the Duck tribe. They are all rare birds, especially the Red-
breasted Merganser. — Taunton Courier, March 7, 1838. [" Blue Shoveller" is
merely a provincial name for the Common Shoveller (Spathulea clypeata), and
the Red-breasted Merganser is the well-known Mergus serrator of Lhumeus.

SfS

51 '2 MISCELLANY.

Although specifically termed " Common," the Taunton Courier is perfectly cor-
rect i n stating the Shoveller to be a rare British bird ; and the designation is
only applied in this, as in too many other instances, from the supposed or actual
■want of a better appellation. — Ed. Nat.~\

Weaver's Museum at Birmingham. — Some years ago we had the pleasure of
inspecting this fine collection, brought together by the zeal and assiduity of a
poor tradesman, who opened his museum to the public daily for a small sum.
Great, however, as was his ardour in the cause of Natural History, and arduous
as must have been the task, to a man in his station of life, of collecting and
preserving the numerous, beautiful, and frequently valuable objects which filled his
large room, Mr. Weaver appeared in many respects but ill satisfied with his
altered mode of existence, and even then contemplated, if we mistake not, dis-
posing of his museum. Since the collection not only formed one of the many
" lions " of Birmingham, was not only an ornament to the town and an honour
to himself, but became celebrated over the whole country, Mr. Weaver's towns-
men would naturally feel desirous of making an arrangement for permanently
retaining the museum in their possession. From whatever cause arising, it seems
that Mr. Weaver has disposed of his collection, as appears by the following
announcement in the Leamington Chronicle of Feb. 8, 1838 : —

" We sincerely congratulate the public that Weaver's valuable museum will
be preserved entire to the town and neighbourhood. Through the exertions of
Mr. Sands Cox, arrangements have been made to connect the whole with that
belonging to the Royal School of Medicine and Surgery, and the two combined
cannot but form one of the most interesting and unequalled collections in the
Provinces."

We have pleasure in recording the names of those individuals who have
honoured themselves by assisting Mr. Cox in his laudable endeavours : — Earls of
Stamford and Warrington, Dartmouth, Howe, Bradford, Mountnorris ;
Lord Calthorp ; Sir J. Mordaunt, Bart., M.P. ; Sir F. Lawley, Bart. ; Sir C.
Throckmorton, Bart. ; Sir E. E. Wilmot, Bart., M.P. ; Evelyn Shirley, Esq.,
M.P. j W. S. Dugdale, Esq., M.P. ; J. Scholefield, Esq., M.P. ; the Dean of
Lichfield ; the Rev. Chancellor Law ; the Rev. Egerton Bagot ; the Rev.
T. Gisborne ; the High Bailiff ; John Gough, Bolton King, James Taylor,
E. Johnstone, and J. E. Piercy, Esquires.

Some time since, Dr. Shirley Palmer, of Birmingham, published a catalogue
of Mr. Weaver's museum. We should be glad if any correspondent could inform
us the reason of Mr. W.'s secession from the proprietorship of a collection which
reflected such credit on himself as an individual, and on Birmingham as a town. —
Editor.

How to drown a Fish. — Although the bare idea of drowning a fish may

*

MISCELLANY. 213

appear to many an utter absurdity, the thing is not only possible but easy. It
is true that fish are perfectly helpless when out of their proper element, and will
not drown when afloat if left to the guidance of their own instinct ; but if a
Grilse, Salmon, or Trout, or in short any other species of fish, when newly taken
from the net, is held with its tail up and its snout down the stream, it drowns,
we understand, almost immediately. This experiment has been often tried, and,
but that a thump on the head is easier, would be resorted to by piscators, for the
purpose of putting finny captives to death. — Dumfries Courier. — Were it not
for the risk of the Salmon escaping, it would be well to drown them all after
they are taken ; for it is a well-known fact that the " thump on the head " tends
very much to deteriorate the quality of the fish. — Taunton Courier, March 7,
1838.

The Hooper Swan. — Last week a fine specimen of the wild Swan {Anas
cygnus) was shot by A. Bosville, Esq., at Thorpe, near Burlington ; it was
seen quarrelling with the tame Swans, and was approached with difficulty. — •
Doncaster Gazette, Feb. 23, 1838.

Last week a flock of twelve or thirteen Swans passed over Runcorn, and
alighted in the river. They were very low, and a most beautiful sight to those
near. — Id., March 2.

Mr. Reid, of this town, has now under his hands more than a dozen wild
Swans, which have been shot chiefly in the surrounding neighbourhood, besides
a great number of other rare birds, of various descriptions, killed during the
storm . — Id.

Last week a wild Swan, weighing 22 lb., and measuring eight feet five inches
from the extremities of the wings, and five feet from the beak to the tail, was
shot near Bawtry. — Id.

Considerable numbers of wild Swans have been shot during the recent winter
in almost every part of the kingdom, these birds being always comparatively
abundant with us in long and severe seasons. We have ourselves noticed several
small flocks in this neighbourhood ; and on the night of March 14, two indi-
viduals were observed to attack the tame Swans on the water in Campsall Park.
The majority of the specimens recently captured doubtless belong to the species
termed the Hooper or Whistling Swan (Cygnus ferus, Ray); and although we
have not been positively informed of the occurrence of Bewick's Swan in the
early part of the present'year, we feel very little doubt but several have visited us,
and probably at this time ornament the museums of some mere collecting
naturalists. We shall be happy to receive any notice of the appearance of Cygnus
Bewickii, which is at once distinguished from its British congener by being very
considerably inferior in size. — Ed.

Entomological Notes.— I have got a Moth from Dover which I cannot make

SI 4 JrtSCELLAXY.

out whether a Cr ambus or a Pkycita. The shape inclines me to think the latter,
but in colour it is very similar to Crambus argyreus and C. lythargyrellus. My
pair of Russian Colias europome agree with those in the Linnean Cabinet. Mr.
Reid, of Doncaster, has several foreign specimens of both sexes, but quite distinct
from Colias pkilodice. Hesperia comma is plentiful near Hull, and at Gogmagog
Park. Tkecla pruni is common near Doncaster, according to Messrs. Reid and
Simmonds. Two specimens of Th. virgaurece ( $ ) were taken in Horningsea
Fen four or five years ago. Mr. Fox had one and Mr. Wenman the other. —
J. C. Dale, Glanville's Wootton, Dorsetshire, July 9, 1837.

Effect of the Drainage of Fens. — The Ancholme Cars were once famous
for wild fowl, but (thanks to the drainage) of late years we have seen corn grow
and Sheep graze where they used to swim, and began to think that we should
have to convert our fowling-pieces into shepherd's crooks and reaping-hooks. The
severity of the season, however, has brought back an abundance of the feathery
tribe to their " watery hunts," and every old firelock has been called into requi-
6ition, and several Swans as well as other birds have been shot and captured, to
the no small gratification of our lovers of shooting. — Doncaster Gazette, Feb. 23,
1838. — \_Mere ornithologists are apt to make bitter complaints of the natural
effects of drainage and tillage on their favourite pursuit ; but the really philoso-
phic naturalist, while regretting the disappearance of a few of his feathered friends,
otherwise views the changes in his native soil with unmixed satisfaction, as
pointing out the progress of wealth, civilization, and happiness. — Ed. Nat.~\

Royal Poacher. — Much devastation has been caused among the Hares and
other game in the neighbourhood of Beningborough, Newton, &c, for upwards
of a week past, by the sportive flights of a large Golden-crested Eagle, which
during the storm had forsaken his more elevated domains to exercise his sovereign
rights in these parts. Royalty, however, was not considered sufficient to give
him a legitimate claim to the game of these manors, and, besides, sundry other
acts of rapacity were attributed to him, perhaps not strictly accordant with truth,
such as occasionally diversifying the provisions of his royal table with a Goose, a
Sheep, and (so far did exaggeration go) that it was also gravely averred he made
too free with a calf. In consequence a pretty close look-out has been kept, and
various methods have been tried to secure the royal stranger. Guns were pointed
against him, but in vain — none had within their barrel the charmed bullet that
could bring him down as he soared in his pride of place. Traps of different kinds
were set, but they were too weak to keep him in their toils. At last, however —
as man still asserts his right to dominion over the beasts of the field, and the
fowls of the air — a person in the neighbourhood of Newton bethought himself of
an old man-trap, which had been for some time out of use. This was duly set,
and having a Hare fastened to it as a lure, the Eagle pounced upon it on Sunday

MISCELLANY. 215

evening last, and the spring closing upon him, broke his thigh, and thus the royal
captive was detained, until Mr. Tindal, the head keeper, was sent for to take
possession of him. He is a fine bird, and though not particularly large in the
body, measures across the wing, from tip to tip, eight feet all but two inches. It
is now at Beningborough Hall, the seat of Viscount Downe, where it will be
preserved. — York Courant, Jan., 1838. — [From the size of the bird here alluded
to, and from the name given it, we presume it to be the Golden Eagle, Aquila
aurea of Willughby, A. chrysaetos of Linnaeus and succeeding naturalists.
The Golden Eagle has very rarely been observed in England, and therefore it is
highly desirable that such a notice should not be anonymous. — Ed. Nat.']

Thb Dromedary breeding in England. — The female Dromedary (Camelm
dromadarius), one of a pair of about five years of age, and which have been in this
collection for nearly two years, has recently bred at the Zoological Gardens, being
the only instance of the kind in Europe. The young one, which is a female, is now
five weeks old, stands about five feet high at the top of its hump, and is remark-
ably vigorous and healthy. The arrangements for protecting the Giraffes from
the inclemency of the winter are complete, and most of the other animals have
been removed to their winter quarters. The former animals enjoy good health,
and are in remarkably fine condition. They appear to ;have become almost
acclimatised, and one of them has grown nearly three feet taller since their
arrival in this country. — The Guide, Oct. 11, 1837.

Red-necked Grebe in Cumberland. — A Red-necked Grebe \Fodiceps rubri-
collis. — Ed. Nat.], a fowl of the Diver tribe, was shot on Tuesday last, in the
sea, near Ulverston. The Grebe is very rarely met with in this part of England.
— Carlisle Journal, as quoted in the Doncaster Gazette, Feb. 23, 1838.

Grouse near Richmond during the Frost. — In conseqence of the inclemency
of the season a quantity of Grouse [[Which species? — Ed. Nat.] have been seen
near Richmond, in search of provender. Last week one of these birds was shot
near that place, in a thorn bush, whilst picking the haws. — Doncaster Gazette,
Feb. 23, 1838.

Singular Mode of Taking the Stork. — On Saturday week, a beautiful wild
Stork was discovered upon the Park House estate, near Haversham, by Mr. John
Dobinson, sen., who having heard it authenticated that the Stork, though very
wild, had been taken by fright, thought proper to try the experiment. He
therefore endeavoured to keep out of sight until more near his game. When
he uncovered his head, the bird became as it were petrified and motionless, and
allowed Mr. Dobinson to take it up. — Westmoreland Gazette, as quoted in Man-
chester Times, March 10, 1838.

Albinism in a Swallow. — One of our Magazines announces that there is
preserved in the museum of Carcassone, a young Swallow of the purest white,

216 MISCELLANY.

without a feather of any other colour, and which was recently killed in that city
This bird was one of a brood of four, of which the three others were of the
common kind. It presents in the most perfect manner all the characters of
albinism : the claws and beak are red, and the same colour surrounds the eyes. —
T. B. Hall, Woodside, Liverpool, March 1, 1838.

Occurrence of the Garrulous Roller (Coracias garrula) near Scarbo-
rough.— In 1 832 one of these accidental stragglers — a bird of exquisite beauty —
was shot while feeding upon a heap of manure in a Turnip-field at Seamer, four
miles from Scarborough, and was purchased for the museum of that town. —
Patrick Hawkridge, Scarborough, Aug. 7, 1837.

The Hooper Swan. — On Tuesday last, at Crabbet Park, Sussex, -the seat of
F. S. Blunt, Esq., fourteen wild Swans came and settled upon the lake in front
of the house. Mr. Blunt, with a single ball in his gun, levelled and killed two
of them; one measured eight feet across the wings, and weighed 19 lbs. ; the
other weighed 13lbs. — Star in the East, Feb. 10, 1838. — £Dr. Fleming gives the
weight of the adult Hooper Swan as 25 lbs. The difference between the weight
of the two individuals mentioned in the above extract is remarkable. The frozen
state of the lakes and meres in every part of the country would account for a
certain loss of flesh, but so considerable a discrepancy in two individuals shot out
of the same flock seems inexplicable, unless — which is scarcely probable — the
smaller bird should turn out to be Bewick's Swan. — Ed. Nat.~\

Pigeon frozen on its Perch. — A circumstance perhaps unprecedented in the
annals of freezing, was discovered here last week. A person found in this neigh-
bourhood (Crieff) a wild Pigeon literally frozen to the branch of a tree, and so
intense was the freeze, that the individual cut the branch, and carried the Pigeon
home in that state alive. — Scotch Paper, Feb. 13, 1838.

Kingfisher frozen to Death. — On Saturday last, a Kingfisher, handsomely
feathered, was discovered with its claws frozen to the bough of a tree on the
canal side, near this town. It was quite dead ; and attached to each claw was a
piece of ice. — North Derbyshire Chronicle, Feb. (?), 1838.

Red-breasted Merganser. — A fine specimen of the Dun Diver was shot at
Rossington, on Friday last, by John Elvidge, the game-keeper of the Rossington
manor, and may be seen at Mr. Hodgson's, game-dealer, in St. Sepulchre-gate. —
Doncaster Gazette, Jan. 19, 1838. £By the "Dun Diver" we presume the Red-
breasted Merganser (Mergus serrator) is meant. — Ed. Nat."2

Instance of extraordinary Fecundity in the Sheep — Mr. Rawlings, of
Stogursey, Somersetshire, had a ewe that last year produced six lambs, and all
lived ; this year the same ewe produced Jive lambs, but all of which, as well as
the ewe, died. — Taunton Courier, Feb. 14, 1838.

The Death's-head Moth. — One of these monsters of the insect world was

MISCELLANY. 217

captured on Thursday evening last, near Close House, the residence of Mrs.
Bewick, near Newcastle, and has been presented by that lady, in a state of the
finest preservation, to the Natural History Society, Newcastle, to be deposited
in the museum. The Moth, about eight o'clock in the evening, probably attracted
by the light of the fire, flew into the house of Mr. Clarke, the gardener. When
on the wing it resembled, in size, a Bat, its body being of considerable circum-
ference, and upwards of two inches long ; whilst its wings, when extended, are
upwards of five inches across. — Mrs. Clarke and her family were much alarmed,
but Mr. Clarke shut the door, and set to work to capture the intruder. When
pursued, its scream resembled that of a Mouse, but it was eventually taken
without having received the slightest injury. It proved to be a fine specimen of
the Death's-head Moth, so called from its having, immediately behind its head, a
large and perfect figure of the head of a human skeleton. The representation of
the "Death's-head" is bone-coloured, surrouri*ded by a black ground, which brings
the colour out prominently. The place of the " lack-lustre eye-holes " of the
skull are represented by black spots, and the sunken cheeks of this natural
memento mori are rendered prominent by a darker shading. The body and
wings of the insect are beautifully marked, and such perfect specimens of the
Death's-head Moth as the one under notice are, we believe, in this country very-
rare. — Tyne Mercury, Oct. 1837-

Crenilabrus rupesiris found in the Frith of Forth. — The storm of the 24th
and 25th of February, although productive of disastrous consequences in several
places, has afforded many rare marine productions to the active naturalists. In
the vicinity of Leith especially, and for many miles down the Frith of Forth, the
whole beach above tide-mark was completely covered with the wrecks of the
bottom of the ocean. The number of shells — principally the common Solen
slliqua — was really wonderful. Among the Crustacea, which might have been
gathered by barrow-fuls, I observed several specimens of Galathea strigosa and
G. rugosa. But perhaps the rarest object which I picked up was a specimen of
what appears to be Jago's Goldsinny (Labrus — Crenilabrus — rupesiris; Serranus
rupestris of Bloch), a fish which I believe was first satisfactorily proved to be a
British species by Mr. Selby, from an examination of three specimens procured
in February, 183G, one on the coast of Bamborough, the other two in Berwick
Bay, and described by that gentleman in the Magazine of Zoology and Botany.
Since then Mr. Thompson, of Dublin, has recorded, in the same periodical, the
capture of two others, taken in September, 1835, at Bangor, in the sister Isle,
In Mr. Yarrell's admirable British Fishes, a figure is given of a very small
specimen which appears to belong to this species. These are the only instances
of its occurrence which I can find recorded. My specimen measures 6J inches in
length, corresponding in size with that figured by Selby, with which it otherwise
vol. III. — NO. xix. 2 G

218 MISCELLANY.

agrees, although the transverse ' bands represented in his plate are not present in
it, resembling in this respect those examined by Mr. Thompson, which, however,
were of much smaller dimensions. The present species is readily distinguished
by the presence of a black spot at the upper part of the base of the caudal fin,
and another at the anterior part of the dorsal fin. The specimen which I pro-
cured appeared to have been thrown up from a rocky bottom. This, indeed, is
the favourite haunt of the species forming the Labridce, to which family the
animal belongs. For its description I would refer to the Magazine of Zoology
and Botany, Vol. I., p. 167, and Vol. II., p. 445. — John MacGillivray, Edin-
burgh, March 12, 1838.

Six-spot Burnet (Anthrocerajilipendulce) near St. Andrews. — This beauti-
ful little Moth appears to be rare in this neighbourhood. I only know of four
specimens having been taken in the district, two by myself and two by a friend.
I captured one of mine in 1836, and the other in 1837 (on July 13), not far
from the spot where I noticed the first specimen. — Henry Buist, Law Park,
near St. Andrews, March 12, 1838.

Insects found in Turpentine. — It will doubtless be in the recollection of
many of your readers that some very fine specimens of Coleopterous insects,
found in turpentine, were exhibited at the Bristol meeting of the British
Association; and as it may be in the power of some of your subscribers to
procure specimens from that source, I have copied, verbatim, the directions for
cleaning them that Mr. W. A. Leighton, of Shrewsbury, has been so kind as to
forward at the request of my friend B. Tudor, Esq. " When the raw turpen-
tine is boiling previous to distillation, it should be skimmed carefully, as all the
insects are found in the skimmings. These skimmings are to be placed in a
common earthenware or pickle jar capable of being corked ; the jar, however,
ought to be completely filled. The jars must then be filled up* with common
spirits of turpentine, which will dissolve the raw turpentine. The good specimens
may now be selected, and the bad ones, if common, thrown away. Those
intended to be preserved should be placed in the best spirits of turpentine for
about twenty-four hours, and corked up. In this as in the former stage, a gentle
warmth maybe applied, not exceeding 150°. When all the raw gum is dis-
solved, place them in common ammonia for a few hours, according to the species ;
those with hard wings bearing it better than those with soft. When removed
from the ammonia, they may be set and treated as recent specimens." Mr.
Tudor forwarded to Mr. Leighton , three jars full for the Shropshire and North
Wales Natural History Society, and which were treated in the above-mentioned

* We thought that the jars were to be " completely filled " for, to use the words of the MS.
« filled full") with the skimmings.— Ed.

MISCELLANY. 219

manner. Many of the specimens proved very excellent. Since commencing the
above notice, I have perceived that a fine collection of North- American Coleoptera,
obtained from raw turpentine, was exhibited by Mr. Shipster to the Entomo-
logical Society on the 5th of February. — T. B. Hall, Woodside, Liverpool,
March 1, 1838.

The King Pigeon (Columba palumbus) during the Frost. — This species —
always gregarious in winter — congregated in immense flocks during the late
severe and protracted frost, remaining in company up to the close of February,
long before which time they usually separate. Notwithstanding the large num-
bers which have fallen by the deadly tubes of gunners of all descriptions, the loss
to the farmers by these associations for the acquisition of food has been very
considerable in many places. Up to this day (March 16) we have not once this
year heard the plaintive note of the Ring Pigeon echo from the grove. — Ed.

BOTANY.

Aspidium loncliitis. — In Mr. Francis's excellent little work on the British
Ferns and their Allies (noticed Vol. II., p. 226) it is stated, that the Rough
Alpine Shield-fern (A. lonchiiis) is " scarce in England." " Nor," adds the
author, " have I seen it here." I have had specimens from Settle, given to me
by Mr. Benjamin Thompson, to whose kindness I am indebted for the following
particulars : — " This rare and most distinct Fern grows on an elevated range of
limestone hills, two miles to the north-east of Settle, Yorkshire. In this locality
it is very sparingly distributed, occurring generally in small patches, each con-
taining from two or three to a dozen fronds ; its place of growth being in the
fissures of rocks, or more usually among the accumulated debris or loose stones
which occupy the mountain declivities in the neighbourhood alluded to. In very
bleak and exposed situations it assumes a stunted dwarfish appearance, but when
sheltered in a hollow, or beneath an overhanging rock, the fronds become luxuriant,
and are by no means inelegant." — T. B. Hall, Woodside, Liverpool, March 1,
1838.

The Water-lily. — Nymphcea lutea, like Nymphcea alba, or White Water-lily
of Europe, closes at sunset, and opens on the following day, the object being to
exclude the humidity that is deposited from the air, and which, if it had access
to the pollen while yet in the anther, would rupture it prematurely, and prevent
the fertilization of the ovules, thereby hindering them from becoming perfect
seeds. This regularity in the opening and closing of the flowers, dependent upon
the intensity of light, caused LiNNiEUs to place the Water-lily on his Dial of
Flowers, and has been frequently remarked by poets as the most noted example
of those plants which " dedicate their beauty to the sun." — The Guide, Nov. 26,
1837.

2g2

2*20 - MISCELLANY.

Flowers. — We have seen • an estimate of the profusion of flowers which
decorated the rooms in the Hotel de Ville, at the fete given there in honour of the
marriage of the Duke d'Orleans. 11,793 plants, in pots, boxes, and vases,
besides 2,500 nosegays presented to ladies, were furnished by one individual, and
that individual a female, Madame Augustine Copin. who is at the head of an
establishment on the Boulevard St. Jacques, where her gardens are situated. —
Athenaeum, as quoted in the Star in the East, Feb. 10, 1838 ; and subsequently
communicated in a letter from Mr. Hall.

The Season. — The following extracts as to the mildness of the season, from the
provincial papers, contrast strongly with the state of the weather during the last
few days : — There is at this time, in the garden of Mr. G. Robinson, of Bramp- '
ton, near Northallerton, a large Pear-tree in full blossom. — Leeds Intelligencer. —
A posy, consisting of Daisies, Primroses, Snowdrops, and other flowers, was
gathered at Kirklees, on New Year's-day. — Halifax Excess. — In a hedge at the
outskirts of this town there is a Hawthorn-bush part of which is in leaf, and
which wears in appearance all the freshness of summer. In the village of
Smalesbury a friend of ours a few days ago gathered some full-blown Primroses.
— Preston Chronicle. — Sheffield Mercury, Jan. 13, 1838.

Extraordinary Increase of a Pea. — Mr. G. Gale, of South Petherton, has
a sort of Pea grown in his garden this season which proved extraordinarily pro-
ductive. One Pea produced 177 pods, and on an average each pod produced six
peas, thus a single pea produced 1,062 of its kind, equal to 1,062 bushels out of
one bushel of seed. — The Guide, Oct. 14, 1837.

Cultivation of the Cranberry. — In the Transactions of the Horticultural
Society, Mr. Milne recommends the more extended cultivation of the Cranberry.
He observes, " I have been long convinced that both species may be grown with
much advantage in numberless situations in this island, and have been surprised
that cottagers and others, living on or in the neighbourhood of moors and heaths,
covered with soils suitable to their growth, have not been advised to cultivate
them for profit." According to Lightfoot, twenty or thirty pounds weight of the
berries are sold by the poor people each market day, for five or six weeks together,
in the town of Longtown, on the borders of Cumberland. This is a considerable
sum for berries picked up from barren wastes, and in a district so thinly inhabited;
and it is remarkable that the ready sale for them has not tempted some person
to make the trial to supply the market in a more certain and more regular way;
if they could not be consumed or disposed of in the neighbourhood where they
may be grown, they could easily be sent to a great distance without being spoiled.
There is one strong argument in favour of their cultivation, which is, that they
may be made to grow with little trouble in places and on soils where few other
useful plants yet known will grow to advantage. It may be said that the

MISCELLANY. 221

demand for them will be limited and uncertain ; but that may have been said of
a number of other things of a similar nature, which now meet with a regular
sale, and which the growers, of course, endeavour to cultivate according to the
demand they have for them. The American Cranberry would be the easier
managed, and most productive for general use ; but, as many prefer the flavour
of the English Cranberry, there would also be a demand for it. — Id.

The Alder Tree. — The Alder is much valued in Germany for its great use-
fulness. Its flowers constitute the panacea of the country and town people over
the whole north of Germany. They are carefully dried in airy rooms, but so
that the rays of the sun cannot fall upon them. Two flowers, upon which a pint
of boiling water is poured, give a tea of an agreeable taste and flavour, which,
for its diaphoretic qualities, is considered as the best remedy for all disorders
of the stomach, of colds, coughs, hoarseness, influenza, and all rheumatic com-
plaints.— Id.

Agave Americana. — We understand that the fine specimen of this magnificent
exotic, in the ladies' flower-garden, at Clowance, the seat of Sir John St. Aubyn,
Bart., is now in a state of blossoming, and upwards of 200 of the flowers are
expanded ; and so richly are these blossoms supplied with honey, that it actually
drops from them. From the vast number of flower-buds, there is no doubt but
this most curious and interesting flower will continue in bloom for the space of
five or six weeks. No fewer than 1,360 persons have already seen and admired
this most beautiful plant, and we have every reason to believe many hundreds
more will be added to the number. — Id.

GEOLOGY.

Visit to the Salt-mines at Northwich. — Through the medium of The
Naturalist (Vol. II., p. 476) we have been furnished with very interesting
details of the excursions to Knowsley and Leasowes, by a " Member of the
British Association." Could not some of your correspondents also supply the
readers of your Journal with an account of the visit to the Salt-mines at North-
wich ?— T. B. Hall, Woodside, Liverpool, March 1, 1838.

Teredo in Fossil Wood. — In my collection of fossils from the Iouanodon
Quarry, Maidstone, I have a group of Teredo in fossil wood, and in some of the
valves is seen a spiral shell of, I believe, an unknown species. It appears much
like the mealden formation. Their occurrence is very remarkable, as I never met
with a specimen of this spiral shell detached from fossil wood in the green sand,
and I have no other way of accounting for their presence than supposing, that
they had inserted themselves when the wood which contained the Teredo was
floating towards the sea, the exuviae of which surrounded the fossil in question.
An elucidation of this opinion presented itself to me last summer, when inspect-

222 MISCELLANY.

ing some Barnacle-shells upon the starlings of Rochester Bridge. Upon looking
closely I found that many of them contained within their valves a small spiral
shell — the Common Periwinkle \_Turbo littoreus, Linn. — Ed.] — and it appeared
to me that they had either destroyed the Barnacle and taken possession of its
shell, or had crept into those which had died from natural causes. — W. H.
Bensted, Maidstone, Feb. 7, 1838.

Petrescent Tree. — On Tuesday last, the stone-getters at the Oak Bottoms
Stone-delph, Breightmet, near Bolton, discovered a tree about thirty feet long and
forty inches in circumference, in a petrescent state, in a solid rock, about forty
feet from the surface of the earth, and at least thirty feet beneath the strata of
rock. The inside of the tree is completely petrified, and covered with an incrust-
ation of carboniferous matter. — Sheffield Iris, March 13, 1838.

METEOROLOGY.

Meteors on the Nights op Nov. 12 — 14. — It has now been observed for
nearly forty years that an astonishing number of meteors are always to be seen
during the nights of the 12th, 13fch, and 14th of November. Alexander Von
Humboldt has inserted an advertisement in the Berlin papers, suggesting to
scientific men in different parts of the world a variety of observations, with a view
to ascertain whether this phenomenon is not in some way connected with telluric
magnetism. — The Guide, Oct. 14, 1837. — [These are the peculiar meteors termed
'• shooting stars." — Ed. Nat.~]

Patrick Murphy, Esq. — The Sumbeam, No. vi., for March 10, contains a
portrait and brief notice of Mr. Murphy, the gentleman after whom thousands
and hundreds of thousands of persons went mad a few short 'weeks ago, and who
is now all but forgotten. If Mr. Murphy's theory should yet prove true, the
history of his scientific career will only add another to the already numerous and
instructive instances of the neglect and contempt with which new discoveries—
however important — are treated as well by the learned as the ignorant. We are
glad to find that the Cheltenham Looker-On continues steadily to compare the
prophecies of Mr. M. and the actual state of the weather. The Monthly Chroni-
cle for March contains some specious objections to Murphy's nomenclature, and
which, did we think they could mislead any reflecting individual — we should not
fail to expose. — Editor.

223

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

Observations on the Meteoric Shower of November, 1837- By Denison Olm-
sted, Professor of Astronomy and Natural Philosophy in Yale College. New-
haven : R. L. Hamlen. 1837. 8vo. pp. 16.

This treatise appeared originally in the thirty-third volume of the American
Journal of Science and Arts. Whether or not it is thus early brought to a
second edition at^the " request of friends," or for more recondite purposes, does not
transpire ; but the great interest of the subject, and the manner in which Professor
Olmsted and his pupils have conducted their joint researches, appear to us
sufficiently to warrant the republication of the facts. As the essay is already
tolerably condensed, and as it would scarcely be fair to analyse our author's
observations too minutely, we shall, instead of supplying a third edition of his
paper, content ourselves with noticing a few of the most interesting circumstances
mentioned by the writer and his correspondents.

Professor Olmsted and his young friends appear to have seen more shooting
stars on the night of Nov. 12 than were noticed in other quarters, on which sub-
ject our author observes : — " To some who have averred that there were on that
night few or none to be seen elsewhere, but have ascribed the favours so much
more freely bestowed here to the courteous attention paid them on former visits,
we would respectfully recommend, that hereafter they use the ceremony to meet
these celestial visitants out of doors, and in full dress. A constant gaze with the
neck bent backwards, for six hours or more, in a frosty night, is the kind of
etiquette they exact."

No shooting stars were observed till five minutes after one o'clock, and from
that time till seven o'clock 230 were noticed, or, deducting four meteors which —
as was afterwards found — had been counted twice, the exact number was 226.
The greatest number were seen in the south-east, and the fewest in the south-
west, the proportion being as three to one. On the whole the largest number
occurred from four to five o'clock, although this was not the case invariably, when
the several quarters were -examined separately. The maximum of the shower has
in former years invariably been at about four o'clock. Frequently several meteors
started at the same time and from the same part of the heavens, falling,
however, in different directions.

Seven meteors were observed to rise. All the meteors, except ten or twelve,
proceeded in directions diverging from the constellation Leo. Those which did

224 REVIEWS OP NEW PUBLICATIONS.

not follow this course were marked by the professor as unconformable. They had
generally a slower motion than the others, particularly when moving horizontally
from west to east.

A full moon was shining so brightly that no stars below the third magnitude
were visible, and therefore only very brilliant meteors could be seen at all.
About forty were of such size and splendour that they might be compared to
Venus and Jupiter, and in a dark night they must have been splendid fire-balls.
Many, on the contrary, were mere momentary flashes. Most of the meteors
were followed by trains. In most instances these appeared to be merely the
continued impressions of light on the eye, just as we often fancy we perceive the
flame of a candle after it is extinguished, in a dark room ; but in many cases the
train remained visible so long as to leave no doubt of its being an actual deposit
of luminous matter.

The velocity of most of the meteors was surprising, their transit frequently
occupying not more than a quarter of a second, and seldom exceeding a second.
It has previously been stated that those which passed horizontally from west to
east had a comparatively slow motion, in corroboration of which we may observe,
that on the evening of Nov. 16, at lOh. 25m., Professor 0. saw a large dull red
meteor sailing along the southern sky from west to east, at an elevation of 20°,
which occupied ten seconds.

Thus far the personal observations of our author and his young friends. At
New York no shooting stars were seen till two o'clock, from which time till sun-
rise 70 were counted, many of them extremely brilliant, and followed by trains.
The point of radiation was nearly, if not quite, the same as in 1836. Another
observer counted from 40 to 50 meteors between the hours of two and six. Many
of the fainter kind were excluded from the estimate. The display continued
until all the stars were swallowed up in the broad light of day.

At Emmittsburgh (Maryland) the first meteor was seen at twelve minutes
past one, the number gradually increasing up to half-past four, when they
were most numerous. From a quarter to four till five o'clock 52 meteors were
counted.
u At Buffalo (New York) the heavens were entirely obscured by dense clouds.

At Western Reserve College (Ohio) the view was interrupted by the same
misfortune till a quarter before three, when the sky was clear until twenty-three
minutes before five. During this interval 74 shooting stars were counted, the
greatest number being seen in the south-east, and the least in the north-west.

Shooting stars are generally supposed to occur chiefly between the 13th and
15th of November. Hear Professor Olmsted on this point : —

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 225

" It is granted that shooting stars occur in greater or less number at all seasons of the year, and
that they are usually frequent in every clear night in the autumnal months ; and before we are
authorised to infer any remarkable exhibition of them on the morning of Nov. 13 of the present
year (1837), it is necessary to compare the phenomena as observed on that morning with such as
were observed on the mornings preceding and following that." — p. 9.

A comparison is then instituted between the meteors of Nov. 13 and those of
the preceding and subsequent days, illustrated by a table. But for this and all
further particulars we must refer our readers to the pamphlet itself, or to the
paper in the American periodical.

A History of British Birds. By "William Yarrell, F.L.S., V.P.Z.S. Il-
lustrated by a Wood-cut of each Species, and numerous Vignettes. London :
John Van Voorst, Paternoster-Row. Part v., March, 1838.

The part before us contains the Song and Redwing Thrushes, the Ouzels, the
Golden Oriole, the Dunnocks {Accentor), the Robin Redbreast, the Blue-throated
Fantail, and the Common Redstart. The figures of the Black Ouzel and the
Robin Redbreast are the best in the number, and the vignettes are very good.

We have received a letter from a correspondent respecting the character of the
wood-cuts in this work. We shall place the epistle before our readers next
month, until which time we postpone all further observations on the publication.

The Phrenological Journal, and Magazine of Moral Science. Vol. XI. — No.
lv. New Series, No. ii. March, 1838. Published quarterly. London: Simp-
kin, Marshall, $ Co. ; Maclachan fy Stewart, Edinburgh.

Amongst the numerous periodicals of one kind or another transmitted to us
weekly, monthly, and quarterly, there are very few in which we have time or
inclination to read more than a few pages, or rapidly to skim their contents.
But the Phrenological Journal has always been a favourite with us; and we
cannot more forcibly express our approbation of the present number than by
stating that we have attentively perused every paragraph of its contents. Ever
a valuable and an interesting work, we cannot but think that it has improved in
more ways than one under the conductorship of Mr. H. C. Watson. In the first
place, the Journal has ceased to be the organ of a party ; 2nd., the arrangement
of the contents is superior to that of former Nos. ; and 3rd., there is considerably
more unity of style and sentiment in both the editorial articles and the general
tone of the periodical. Under these circumstances it is not surprising that the
work should prosper, and that. the first edition of No. i. (N. S.) should have dis-
appeared shortly after publication.

Phrenology still continues to have its retarders, as well among its would-be

TOL. III. — NO. XIX. 2 H

226 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

friends as its declared enemies.' Such retarders as those of the latter class must
be are truly too contemptible to merit more than a passing notice of pity. Some
eighteen or twenty years ago there was some excuse for the anti-phrenologists.
Phrenology being at that time opposed by the great bulk of eminent scientific
men, and almost unknown, even by name, to the majority of our country-men,
original observations and careful deductions were required to test its truth, and new
and apparently plausible objections might be raised against its pretensions. But
at the present day the face of affairs wears an entirely different, and, to the lover of
truth, afar more cheering aspect. Now that the phrenologist can adduce thousands
of facts in support of his system, and capable at the same time of demolishing
every argument against it, no one is excusable for remaining wholly ignorant of
so important a branch of knowledge, or for attempting to overthrow it — like too
many of our opponents — without consulting either the facts of friends or the
fancies of foes to the doctrine. In short, those who propose reiterating the stale
and vapid arguments against Phrenology for the thousand-and-first time, might
receive satisfactory replies to each and all of their objections from the merest tyro
in the science — replies that would render a man of ordinary candour and strength
of mind desirous of making every amends for having so long opposed the assist-
ance of so clear and pure a source of light.

The Phrenological Journal has probably contributed little to popularize the
science to which its pages are devoted, but that it has turned many bitter
opponents into zealous adherents and ardent admirers of Phrenology, and that it
has greatly advanced the subject as a science, and proved a valuable chronicle of
passing events connected with the subject, during a period of fifteen years, can,
we think, admit of no reasonable doubt. The new series, as we have already
intimated, bids fair to eclipse even the old, and we trust that the present Editor
will not relax his judicious and hitherto highly successful endeavours to render
his journal as worthy of its title and objects as possible.

Numerous as are the subjects treated of in the number lying on our table, the
work contains little that would be interesting to the mere zoologist, that is, to the
zoologist who feels no pleasure in investigating the natural history of the highest
of the animal series — Man. He who prides himself upon studying Nature (». «.,
animals, plants, minerals, &c. &c), and who despises the occupations of the
schoolmaster, the psychologist, and the novelist, never dreams that their study is
Nature as well as his own, but in a higher department, and that it is not the less
so because modified by various and almost infinite circumstances. While the
principal business of the majority of naturalists is to observe facts, a good school-
master or a first-rate novelist has need of an ample development of the same
faculties in addition to others which are far more important. In making thi3
statement, some may suppose that we are depreciating Natural History commonly

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 227

so-called, and thereby lowering our own dignity. Such an argument may hold
with those who consider their dignity to consist in upholding their favourite
pursuits at all hazards ; but we conceive that the man of true dignity will lose
nothing by openly facing the truth, which, in fact, ought to be his main supporter
on every occasion, whether or not such conduct may apparently militate against
his interest, falsely so named. If a man's interest consist solely in getting money,
or in obtaining the applause of mankind, then indeed he need be no lover of
truth ; but he who has the true interests of his fellow-creatures at heart, will not
fail, on any account whatever, fearlessly to publish his sincere opinions to the
world, and by so doing he will be insuring what ought to be the interest of every
one. Thus Natural History requires no garbled statements or adventitious assist-
ance to prove either its uses or its importance. What we oppose is the assumption
that there can be nothing loftier than that study.

Whilst on this subject it may not be amiss, or altogether unprofitable, to make
a few observations upon two editorial passages which occur at p. 221 of the
Journal before us. In justly reprehending the omission of all notice of Phrenology
in the Penny Cyclopedia, Mr. Watson remarks : — " But who can doubt the
existence of these defects, if aware, that while the sciences of Entomology,
Ornithology, and others comparatively of little value, are largely entered upon,
the most important of all sciences — that of the human mind — is scarcely spoken
of?" Again : — " We know not whether it is from contempt of the Society itself,
or from contempt of the science to which it relates, that the Phrenological Society
of London has been omitted by the compilers of the British Annual. Some other
of the London scientific societies have been equally passed over ; but the omission
of the Phrenological Society becomes more remarkable by contrast with the
admission of another whose objects are comparatively contemptible — the Entomo-
logical Society; which is introduced into the Annual for 1838, with lists of a
President, four Vice-Presidents, and a host of other officers." Now we have
freely and fully acknowledged the superior importance of Phrenology to Natural
History ; but, for all that, we never could bring ourselves to designate either
Ornithology or Entomology even comparatively " contemptible." It is, certainly,
an ungracious mode of expressing the relative importance of the studies.

Zoology, for example, is unquestionably a higher department of Natural His-
tory than Botany, since it treats of living beings, higher in the range of created
things than the latter science ; but so zealous a botanist as Mr. Watson would
probably be surprised were we to stigmatize Botany as contemptible in comparison
to Zoology. And justly so. For although the study of the vegetable creation
may not assist us in money-getting or in obtaining food, it cannot, when properly
investigated, but lead to the best results. Many persons consider the Fine Arts
" comparatively contemptible" — " mere ornaments and baubles fit alone for the

228

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

weak minds of young ladies,"' when in fact it is the development of the object-
or that is really contemptible, as being unable to appreciate what may perhaps be
regarded as the most ennobling, soul-inspiring and civilizing pursuits that can
engage the mind of man — pursuits that have occupied the attention of some of
the most gifted and philosophical men of all ages and all countries — that ever
have and ever will prove a source of the purest and most thrilling pleasure to
thousands of individuals in every part of the world. These pursuits may indeed
be stigmatized as useless, contemptible, or pernicious, by those who believe that
to gain everlasting happiness hereafter we must be miserable here, or that only
those occupations can be advantageous which stimulate and exercise our inferior
faculties. With such men we confess we have nothing in common. We enter-
tain a loftier idea of the beneficent Creator than to believe that he delights
beholding our misery, or that he intended us to deny ourselves the due exercis
of any of those faculties which have been assigned to each and all of us, and the
enjoyment accruing therefrom. We hold, that whatever tends to minister to 01
real happiness in this fleeting world, equally ensures the attainment of that whicl
will be enduring. Now the study of the wonderful and endlessly-varied works
of Nature, abounding as they everywhere do with proofs of the wisdom and all-
prevailing intelligence of the Artificer of the Universe, cannot but tend to improve
our minds and add to our happiness both in this spot of earth and in the fa
more glorious state of existence in which, by reason of the superiority of 01
organization, sickness and sorrow will be alike unknown, when the interests
one will be those of all, and when both friends and foes shall meet to part

With this high aim in view, we object to the term contemptible, as applied tc
the study of any part of Nature's works ; and although Mr. Watson, naturally
carried away by the ardour of his feelings in the cause of Phrenology, probably
intended no disrespect to Natural History, we would rather that the appearance
conveyed by his expressions had been avoided, especially as there is no necessity
of proving the utility of one branch of knowledge at the expense of the credit
another department.

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

A work entitled the Coleopterist's Manual, containing descriptions of the
Lamellicorn insects, has, we understand, lately been published, by the Rev. F. W.
Hope.

We have received a critical notice of Sir W. Jardine's Raptores from a corres-
pondent ; but as the work itself has not been forwarded to us, the review must
not expect admission to the exclusion of reviews of publications which have beer
received. We hope to publish the critique next month.

Fig.

Fig. 8. Fig. 3. Fig- 4-

Fig. 5. Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8.

*s /

THE NATURALIST.

VOL. III., No. XX.— MAY, 1838.

ON THE PHYSICAL POWER OF INSECTS AS LABOURERS, AND
ON THEIR ARCHITECTURE.*

By R. Adie.

My object in bringing before the Society these pages, is chiefly to direct its
attention to a branch of Natural Science that has always to me proved replete
with objects for contemplation, where there still reign in an extensive field
many conflicting opinions to be set at rest, and where the environs of the most
crowded spots present us with a good supply of materials to work with. I allude
to the labours of the insect race.

In conversing, some years ago, with an accomplished entomologist, well known
as an author on that branch of Natural History, he assured me that at that time
we were almost wholly ignorant of the functions required from many of the
organs in the insect economy. He viewed them as fanciful forms ; but, looking
to the beautiful adaptation of the means to meet the end required, every where
seen in the science of Comparative Anatomy, and thus reasoning from the analogy
of the higher animals, I think it cannot be doubted, that a more intimate know-
ledge of insect organization will prove that all their parts have important duties
to perform in the economy of the creature on which they are bestowed.

The variety and ingenuity displayed by so many of the different species of
insects in their labours, have given rise to the appellation of Insect Architecture,
as employed to designate this portion of their economy ; and though it may seem
inconsistent to term an insect's boring holes or. galleries through earth or wood
architecture, yet, if we look on the other hand, such a title, we must allow, is
often well merited, as, for instance, in the geometrical precision of the works of
the Hive Bee, the durable paper made by the Wasp, the trap constructed by the
wary Ant-lion, or the beautiful life-boat formed by the Common Gnat for the
preservation of its species ; the latter showing a knowledge of naval architecture
that men for their safety have for many ages stood in need of, but who have only
recently enjoyed its benefit.

* Read before the March Meeting of the Liverpool Natural History Society.
VOL, III. — NO. XX. 2 t

230 OH THE PHYSICAL POWER OF INSECTS.

We find, in history, frequent instances of useful ideas drawn from a careful
attention to the works of the insect race. — The Wasp, it will be seen, was
practising precisely the art of paper-making, on a small scale, long ages ago, when
men for the want of it wrote on tables of lead, on skins, on the barks of plants,
&c. I am not aware that the labours of the Wasp served to instruct us in the
paper-manufacture, as they certainly might have done, but in all probability in
the earlier ages of the world, when the history of the arts was hidden in obscurity,
Man was often indebted to the examples set him by a large portion of the animal
kingdom in their works for the preservation of themselves or their offspring. At
the same time it is certain they have gathered nothing from us, unless I may be
allowed to pass to a kindred branch of Natural History, to cite a singular instance
mentioned by Wilson, in his American Ornithology, where we are informed of a
bird that used to weave an intricate nest of minute fibres and roDts of plants; but
since the settlement of that country they have found the thread, put out to bleach
by the careful American housewives, so much better fitted for their purpose,
that, disregarding all the rights of property, they had become notorious for
pilfering it.

Mr. Beunel, when he planned his tunnelling shield, frankly acknowledged he
had borrowed the idea from a mining Beetle, whose success and industry in
cutting tunnels or galleries through the earth had some time before arrested
his attention.

The late Mr. Smeaton, also, in sketching the design for Eddystone Light-
house, one of the most indestructible fabrics of human labour, was indebted to his
observations of Nature's works for the external shape of his tower.

Again, to shew the necessity for the exercise of caution in proceeding with the
study of natural phenomena, where we seek to ascertain for what end the worl
going on is designed, I may mention an error of the ancients in considering the
pellets of clay, with which they often observed the Mason Bee loaded, as ballast
carried by the insect to steady it against the wind. The pellets, I need scarcely
say, are for no such purpose, but are solely used for the construction of the
creature's nest. Cicero has left on record an equally great error in Natural
History, though not immediately connected with this branch, when he speaks of
the Barley-grains as surrounded by a rampart of spears to defend them from the
ravages of the lesser birds — a very probable reading in Natural History for
martial age like his, but which in our times could not be passed without ridicule,
save for the exquisite language in which his opinions are clothed.

The labours of insects taken collectively are of great importance to Man-
not so much as his assistants, like many of the higher animals (although
numerous instances are recorded to shew where he does receive essential benefit
from them), but as grievances, blastingshis prospects from the tender plants to which

ON THE PHYSICAL POWER OF INSECTS. 231

he looks forward for his harvest crops, ruining his orchards, annoying his domestic
animals, and in the wanner latitudes not even sparing himself. It may seem
strange that such reasons should be brought forward to urge the necessity of our
making ourselves acquainted with the works of insects, but I believe it is per-
fectly legitimate to do so ; for it is to be remembered, that here, as elsewhere,
knowledge may be power, and that with the power derived from a knowledge of
their economy we may frequently see these destroyers overcome.
• In primeval forests, and in countries where vegetation remains as yet unchecked
by the hand of man, the labours of insects seem often as if appointed as a curb
on luxuriant vegetation. In Europe, and in other parts of the world under his
care, no such check is now needed ; nevertheless they return as originally ap-
pointed in the order of the universe. Their appearance is often at distant
intervals, and quite inexplicable ; every effort is made by the sufferers from their
ravages to put a stop to their devastations ; and it is only by a careful attention
to their economy that this can be attained. Knowing from example, as we now
do, how to destroy a large proportion of the eggs of the Corn Weavel, that insect
is no longer the dreadful scourge of the granary that it once was.

In the vicinity of London, in St. James's and the Green Park, a few year3
back, the trees were observed to be stripped of their bark ; at first some wanton
mischievous persons were supposed to be the cause of the injury ; the Ranger
launched his edicts against them, jtnd appointed a watch to lead to their detection »
the evil increased — in vain did the anxious watchman try to bring to light the
offenders ; it was not until an entomologist had explained the cause of the injury
and how to proceed to remove it, that the trees were restored to their wonted
health. It is not always, however, that the labours of entomologists in this
sphere have been so successful.

A gentleman in Liverpool, well known for his zeal in this department of science,
has informed me of two interesting cases that have recently occurred in France
and Germany, where the utmost skill of the naturalists of both these countries
.has been baffled. The Vines of Burgundy had received much injury from the
attacks of the larva of a small Moth. At the urgent request of the proprietors
of the Vine-yards, the French government employed Professor Audouik, of the
Jardin des Plantes, to see if he could provide an antidote for the evil. After a
thorough investigation of the Vines, he found that the only mode of removing the
insects was by placing a number of lamps on the ground at sunset, surrounding
them by shallow basins of oil. The Moths, while moving about to deposit their
eggs, flew to the light, and were destroyed in immense numbers among the oil ;
still the few that escaped possessed such powers of reproduction that the damage
' It to be very little alleviated.
The other case occurred in the Hartz Forest, in Germany. During the early

2 i 2

$52 ON THE PHYSICAL POWER OF INSECTS.

part of the summer of 1832, the Pines failed to put out their usual fresh shoots,
and presently their branches were seen every where dying. Specimens of the dis-
eased trees were forwarded to various professors throughout Germany, with urgent
letters requesting them to use their best endeavours to explain the cause of the
injury, and to suggest any remedy for its prevention. After some time it was
found that the evil arose from an insect, scarcely visible to the naked eye, being
imbedded at the root of each leaf. It will be remembered that the leaves of the
Pine are small and very numerous ; consequently the number of these insects
requisiteto produce the decay of a branch or a tree may be imagined. Where
they came from, or how they could be removed, were questions for which no one
offered any solution.

The physical power of insects as labourers, employing the term in its fullest
sense, may be said to be one of the most destructive living agents in the present
era of our planet. Sir Humphrey Davy, in alluding to the physical power of
insects, has said, " The most insignificant creatures triumph as it were over the
grandest works of man." Also, " As the Worm devours the lineaments of his
mortal beauty, so the most humble and insignificant insects shall undermine and
sap the foundations of his colossal works, and make their habitations among the
ruins of his palaces, and the falling seats of his earthly glory."

Insects thus serve an important part in the third step for fulfilling the gradually
progressive adaptation of the materials of our world for sustaining a more luxu-
riant vegetation and a greater amount of animal life.

The co-operative power of Ants, as labourers, enables them to perform works
of a magnitude surpassed only in the lower departments of the animal kingdor
by the coral animalcule.

The habitations reared by the White Ants (Termes bellicosus) of tropical
countries have been by some naturalists compared with the Colossal Pyramids of
Egypt, to shew that the works of this insect bear a greater ratio to its size than
the most lofty works of man do to his magnitude. So far as dimensions go the
comparison will hold good, but when durability — -which cannot be fairly excluded
from such an estimate — is taken into consideration, the labours of the White Ants
sink into comparative insignificence.

Bishop Heber, in his travels in Hindostan, describes Ant-hills five or six feet
high, and seven or eight feet in circumference. Other travellers mention them as
high as twenty feet. Thus, these erections appear to exceed in size those of any
other of the higher members of the animal kingdom.

The White Ants are omnivorous, but seem chiefly to direct their ravages
against dead vegetable matter. They employ their power not only in rearing
their huge encampments, but also in making covert ways in every direction
leading to the objects for their attacks ; and so assiduous are they in their labours

ON THE PHYSICAL POWER OF INSECTS. 233

that they baffle the ingenuity of Man to save from them his valuables, pushing
forward their architectural designs to the very heart of well-fumished habitations,
where they without fail destroy all that is of vegetable or animal origin. Thus
in the tropical regions of South America Humboldt states that it is extremely
rare to obtain a paper fifty or sixty years old, owing to the difficulty of excluding
the White Ants.

Painful as it must be for the inhabitants of such latitudes to have to contend
with an enemy they can see no hope of removing, these little creatures can only be
looked upon as active and useful labourers in the work of disintegration, where
the fertility of the climate calls for a more rapid conversion of dead animal or
vegetable matter into the elements of reproduction.

The Ants (Formica ccespitum) of our own island are industrious co-operative
labourers, endued with a power suited to the wants of a temperate region. The
greater part of their masonic labour is performed during the night, or at least in
gloomy weather; it is well ascertained that they use no other cement than
water in the construction of their varied habitations ; hence in dry weather many
of their operations are abandoned.

In a sandy soil I found that the favourite resort for their encampments was
under large thin flat stones. Galleries led in every direction from under the stone
through the soil ; and this covering, while it protected the nest from rain,
was quickly heated by the sun's rays. The eggs are invariably placed close
under it ; on suddenly raising these stones, a scene of much bustle ensues, and
great solicitude is displayed by the workers for the safety of the eggs and grubs, the
latter being rapidly carried away through the galleries under ground. These pro-
ceedings leave a pleasing impression on the mind of the observer ; and it is striking
to see such tender care exercised in so small a circle. I have always found
the Ants of Britain more omnivorous than their tropical brethren. In the early
part of spring they attack animal matter with great avidity ; any small animal
placed in a large nest is soon reduced to a skeleton ; and as this experiment is
frequently tried, with a view to obtain a preparation of bones too tender and
fragile to be easily cleaned by the ordinary methods, I may mention that I have
rarely seen it succeed ; for the Ants in eating away the flesh seldom spare the
tenderer parts of the bone.

The Mason Ants are frequently seen dragging to their hills loads of provisions
far exceeding their own size and weight. The perseverance they display in
overcoming the difficulties of very rough roads has arrested the attention of
observers in all ages. Hence, in the fables of old, the Ant is made to figure as a
pattern of industry, frugality, and foresight.

The more strict observations of latter days have proved that Ants stand in no
need of such stores of food. They pass the whole winter in a torpid state. I

234 ON THE PHYSICAL POWER OF INSECTS.

have many a time searched Ants' nests in the hope of finding some kind of store-
house, to serve as a reserve in the event of a continuance of wet summer weather,
but have invariably been disappointed, save in one solitary instance, where 1
came on a gallery filled with the debris of insects of all sorts ; a closer examina-
tion of these proved that they were only the refuse, the nutritive parts being
already consumed. The small pieces of bread, grains of corn, Flies, &c. &c,
which at some seasons the Ants freely take from the hand, are removed to the
nest for the food of the young.

Honey seems the most favourite delicacy with all of the species, more parti-
cularly that produced by the Aphides, and called honey-dew. The Ants, on
removing this from the leaves of the plants on which it is deposited, materially
help to preserve the health and vigour of vegetation.

The younger Huber devoted much of his attention to the labours of the Ants
of Germany and Switzerland. Some of his observations are so very remarkable
that, though supported by his high character for veracity, they still appear
[[arguing a priori. — Ed.]] scarcely credible. Subsequent investigations, however,
all tend to confirm his accuracy, although no later observers have entered into or
seen so much of the detail as he has.

Huber. discovered two new species, one of which he termed the Amazon Ant,
the other the Sanguinary Ant. Both of these consist of communities of warriors,
which make war against Ants of a different species from their own ; not at all tc
gratify a mere love for combat, but, strange to say, for a far more mercenary
purpose, viz., to make slaves of the vanquished, to be afterwards trained to
do the drudging domestic work of the conquerors. The ingenuity they display
in effecting this calls for the utmost stretch of our credulity. Should the observa-
tions of later years fully establish and confirm what Huber has said on this head,
it will form by far the most remarkable proceeding in the co-operative labours
of insects.

After a contest is decided — which the warlike Ants contrive always to end
in their own favour— they do not make captives of the grown-up part of the
vanquished community — -no doubt because they well know these to be of a spirit
too refractory to be ever available for much good — but carry off the eggs and
cocoons, to rear a race in bondage that have never known the benefits of freedom.
Other naturalists have not as yet had the good fortune to witness these slave-
capturing engagements, but so far have they been confirmed, that the slaves are
frequently seen at work in the habitations of the warlike Ants their masters.

The Hive Bee (Apis mellifica) affords one of the most striking examples of the
skill and power of the insect architects ; their wonderful proceedings have long
engaged the attention of the curious. The instructions given by Virgil for tlie
choice of a situation for an apiary, are considered at the present time quite as

ON THE PHYSICAL POWER OF INSECTS. 235

useful as any of the directions given by more modern writers. But it is to
observations commenced in the last century only that we owe our knowledge of
their internal economy. The works of Bees are well able to bear, and quite
consistent with, the rigorous character of all modern inquiries, which are now
rapidly driving from the field many fabulous accounts that had their foundation
in objects of Natural History.

The most satisfactory account of the habits of Bees is grounded on investiga-
tions conducted by M. Huber — observations which, for exactness, are inferior to
none, and which would of themselves be sufficient to send down the name of their
author honorably to posterity ; but when it is remembered, that he who guided
them was deprived of what seems the very first requisite for making observations,
viz. eye-sight, M. Huber's name will always stand forward in the page of
history to cheer on the labourer in the cause of science for the accomplishment of
a task which at first may seem far beyond his reach.

No branch of insect architecture has called forth so much admiration as the
cells of the Hive Bee. Two of the ancient philosophers are said to have devoted
nearly their whole lives to their study. It is but in recent times, however, that,
with the aid of the most refined mathematical inquiries, we have been enabled
fully to value their skill. It was first shown by the calculus, and subsequently
MacLaurin, with a truly felicitous skill, as Lord Brougham expresses it, has
succeeded by means of Geometry to prove, that the Hive Bee works with ma-
thematical precision to construct a cell uniting the greatest strength and capacity
with the least possible expenditure of materials. It is true the angles of the cell
differ very slightly from the form of the calculated shape, but it is confidently
expected that future inquiries, or a more perfect knowledge of the economy of
insects, will assign a cause for the difference.

In conversing with those who are much accustomed to observe Bees, it will
frequently be found that they have very little to say in favour of their architec-
ture. The Bee is guided by an unerring instinct, which, acting, as in the other
lower animals, without any discretionary power, forces it to work in all cases in
one way.

The wax- workers secrete the wax and lay the foundations of the cells, by first
forming a thick piece of wax ; as soon as this is done, another class of Bees,
called the " sculptors,'' proceed to excavate the bottom of a cell ; sides are
subsequently added to it by the wax- workers. Wherever a sculptor Bee finds a
thick piece of wax, it is sure to hollow out the form of a rudimentary cell,
whether or no the situation in which the wax is placed be capable of permitting
the cell to be finished.

From this arrangement they frequently appear lavish of their hexagonal figures
where we can see no use for them. Thus, when any foreign matter is introduced

236 OS THE PHYSICAL POWER OF INSECTS;

into a hive, which the Bees are quite unable to remove, its decay and corruption
might prove a source of much injury to the hive. To prevent this it is carefully
shrouded with a thick coat of wax, on which the sculptors form their accustomed
foundations for a hexagonal cell ; the end sought for calls for no such display of
geometrical skill ; but that this should lessen our admiration of the wonderful
instinct implanted in these tiny creatures, to guide them on the most correct
principles through the great bulk of their works, can only proceed from taking a
very narrow view of their economy.

In observing Bees through glass windows in their hives, I have had many
opportunities of confirming the truth of M. Huber's observations, as to their
secretion of wax, mode of working their cells, &c &c. As an instance of their
combined exertions, I may mention that I have seen a hive weigh 31bs. more after a
single very fine summer day's labour. Of this weight each of the out-door workers
will have to contribute at least one grain, a quantity, it will be evident, that a
Bee can have no difficulty in gathering from the choicest flowers in the course of
a long day's sunshine. The average of their day's labour, however, must be
taken very much lower than the weight above mentioned, and in an unfavourable
wet month of summer they will sometimes be even found to lose weight.

Connected with the economy of Bees, though not relating to their architecture;
is the curious noise of one of the queen Bees for two or three evenings previous
to the swarm coming off; the sound is sufficiently loud to be easily heard
through the sides of the hive, on a still evening, to a person close behind, listen-
ing attentively. As the sounds made by Bees and other insects have been ex-
plained (see Vol. II., p. 45) as proceeding from different parts than those of
voice, as in the higher animals, viz. by the wings or other organs beating or
fretting on some vibratory substance, I can only explain this singular sound by
referring it to the convulsive effort made by the young queen with its- wings
while detained a captive in its cell for two or three days after it has attained
maturity.

There are many other Bees remarkable for the architecture of their habitations ;
those of the Solitary Bee are next in instinct to the Hive Bee, but as none of
them display the same beauty in their combs, I have preferred to confine myself
entirely to the latter. The social Wasp ( Vespa vulgaris) is an architect scarcely
less worthy of the naturalist's attention than the Hive Bee. The regularity in
the depth of the cells gives to the interior of the nest a uniformity that is wanting
in the Bee. The cells of the Wasp are hexagonal, but as the greatest possible
capacity with the least possible expenditure of materials is not so requisite for
the habits of an insect which only uses the cells for breeding, and which has not
to secrete the matter of which they are formed, the Wasp has been taught to
work its cells with flat bottoms, which are placed uppermost.

ON THE PHYSICAL POWER OP INSECTS. 237

The most curious part of the Wasp's nest is the material of which it is made,
the whole1 being constructed of a very durable kind of paper, made by the Wasp
from the raspings of decaying wood. Early in summer I have frequently watched
them on wooden rails and fences exposed to the weather for two or three years,
busily engaged scraping the surface with their powerful mandibles. It thus
collects a small pellet of matter, which it reduces into fine fibres (after the man-
ner of our paper-makers), and then mingles with it a gum which it secretes for
the purpose ; a substance is thus formed which, when spread out in thin layers,
hardens, and becomes a paper well fitted to withstand the changes of the summer
weather. The Wasp was thus certainly practising the art of paper-making ages
before men were acquainted with this valuable process.

Spiders, although not strictly speaking insects, are still often associated with
them. Their works are well deserving the attention of the lover of Nature.
The geometric net of Eperia diadema, although framed for no very benevolent
purpose, is one of the most beautiful works produced by the labours of any of
the lower animals. When carefully examined it will be found that not one of
the numerous stays that stretch them out are superfluous. They have engaged
the attention of naturalists with a view to explain their mode of projecting those
fine threads (see Vol. II. , p. 376) ; when it was found that their emission could
not be accounted for by a projectile force in the spinner, the aid of electricity
was called in to answer for the cause, as it has often before been employed to
explain what was imperfectly understood ; but a few well-conducted experiments
have shewn that the Spider possesses no power of shooting a thread unless aided
by a current of wind ; this any one may prove experimentally, by placing a
Spider on a small straw fastened only at the lower end, and surrounded \p
water ; put a bell glass over the insect to keep off" air, and it will be found alto-
gether unable to escape ; but when a current of air passes over the Spider it
immediately elevates itself and gives out a thread which is rapidly drawn along
by the wind. From time to time the Spider tries with its foot to see if the
thread has caught any object ; when it does find the end of this thread fastened,
it immediately makes use of the bridge of rope thus formed to escape, or if the
current be sufficiently strong it will commit itself to it when the rope is long
enough to bring the insect up.

Spiders have the credit of possessing a good foresight as to the changes of the
weather ; it is remarked, that many more long streaming webs are found in fine
settled weather than when the weather is changeable, but it is evident that much
of this may be due to the bad weather destroying more rapidly the works of these
little labourers, than to their foresight in meteorological matters.

The labours of the numerous varieties of caterpillars are extremely interesting ;
they are also often very destructive. The time of their entering into the pupa

VOL. III. — no. xx. 2 K

238 PECULIAR MECHANISM IN THE TRACHEA OF BIRDS.

state is the most curious part of their history — a state that belongs more strictly
to insect transformations than to their labours. I may, however, just mention
that many of them, previous to this change, spin silk, of which only the cocoon
of the Common Silk-worm is available for useful purposes to man. The value
of this insect is much enhanced by domestication, and a careful attention to their
wants. The universal application made of the material derived from it places
it at the head of the direct contributors to the wants of man among insect
architects.

In every branch of the works of insect labourers we perceive an infinite variety
of beautiful contrivances, both offensive and defensive, all tending towards the
preservation of the insect on which they are bestowed or the continuance of their
species. They are guided by an unerring instinct, which instructs them in every
thing necessary for fulfilling their part on this earth. " They learn nothing, they
forget nothing." Such arrangements cannot but fail to strike the careful observer
with the highest reverence for the Being who has implanted them in creatures
individually so feeble ; and in this corner of science, as in every other branch
of it, we are impelled to rise with admiration to the contemplation of Nature's
Author.

EXPLANATION OF A PECULIAR MECHANISM IN THE TRACHEA

OF BIRDS.

By William MacGillivray, A.M., F.R.S.E., M.W.S., &c. &c.

Having lately submitted to a rather minute examination a great variety of
tracheae, with reference to a second volume of my History of British Birds, I
have made some observations which, I trust, will be found of considerable interest,
and among them the following. The trachea of birds is formed of rings con-
nected by elastic membranes. These rings, which are generally bony, but
sometimes, as in the Golden Eagle, Ostrich, and Emu, cartilaginous, differ from
those of the Mammalia in being complete (excepting from two to five at the
upper, and sometimes one or two at the lower extremity), although they are
seldom of uniform breadth in their whole extent, the back part being usually
narrower. The bronchial rings, on the other hand, are generally incomplete, and
frequently cartilaginous, although in many cases they are osseous, as in Swans,
and in a few complete and rigid, as in the Grebes. It is not, however, my inten-
tion here to describe the trachea in detail ; but to point out a circumstance
relative to its structure which I have not seen noticed in any book, although,
having for same time back studied from Nature alone, I may be describing what

PECULIAR MECHANISM IN THE TRACHEA OF BIRDS. 239

has been already observed by others. In Carus's Traite d' Anatomie Comparee,
it is stated that " not unfrequently, for example in the Heron and Swan, the
left half and the right half of the rings of the trachea are alternately broader,
which produces an appearance somewhat of this nature before and behind" (See
Plate, fig. 1.). Mr. Owen also says,— " they are generally of uniform breadth,
but in some species are alternately narrower at certain parts of their circum-
ference, and broader at others, and in these cases the rings are generally closely
approximated together, and, as it were, locked into one another. This structure
is most common in the Grallatores, where the rings are broadest alternately on
the right and left sides : the French Academicians have given a good illustration
of this structure from the trachea of the Demoiselle Crane." I mention these
authors because they are the only ones at hand, and because I hold them in
great estimation ; but, nevertheless, I am obliged to assert that they and the
" French Academicians" have been deceived. Not having examined the tracheas
of all the birds in the world, I cannot, of course, say that such a structure does
not exist ; but I have not met with it in anv bird hitherto examined by me, and
am certain that it is not to be found in the Cranes, Herons, or Swans, as alleged.
The real state of the matter is this : —

Owing to the frequent and extensive alternate contractions and elongations
of the neck, the trachea requires to have a structure allowing it to undergo
corresponding alterations, and this without any great change in its diameter.
Solid rings connected by elastic membrane might, by the contraction of the latter,
approximate so closely as greatly, to diminish the length of the tube ; but so
great does this diminution occasionally require to be, that, to effect it in this
manner, the rings would be too slender or too distant to maintain the calibre
of the tube in a perfectly pervious state, and therefore a contrivance was neces-
sary by which strength and a great degree of contraction, with a uniform
diameter in all cases, might be combined ; and this has been effected in the
following manner.

Fig. 2 in the plate represents a portion of a windpipe in a state of relaxation ;
while Fig. 3 represents a portion in a state of contraction. In the former state,
Fig. 2, the rings, which are equal, or nearly so, stand free, being separated by an
intervening space occupied by elastic membrane. In the latter state, Fig. 3, the
rings appear as if incomplete, or the trachea seems to be formed of alternate
lateral half rings, presenting at their meeting in front and behind a zigzag line.
In other cases, as in Fig. 4, the rings appear as if complete, but alternately
broader on either side ; in other words, each ring seems to have one lateral half
broad, and the other half narrow. And it is thus that the rings of the trachea
in many birds have been usually represented. But let us examine the matter

2k 2

240 PECULIAR MECHANISM IN THE TRACHEA OF BIRD?.

more closely ; and, for this purpose, let us take the trachea of a large bird,
Wild Swan for example.

A portion of the trachea of that bird, one inch in length, when contracted tc
the utmost, Fig. 5, appears to be composed of alternating half rings ; or, if less
contracted, of entire rings alternately broad and narrow. But the same portion
drawn out to its full extent, and then measuring two inches in length, Fig. 6, has
a very different appearance, being evidently composed of equal rings, each how-
ever having a contraction, or two opposite notches, in the middle, in front, as
well as behind. Now, if the rings be gradually brought together, we find that
one overlaps the other in a peculiar manner, so as to produce the appearance
represented by Fig. 5. Fig. 6 represents two rings, the membrane between
which has been removed. The ring marked 1, is seen to be narrowed in the
middle, and the portion of it to the right is plain or flat, while that to the left
has a slight ridge running along its centre. The ring marked 2, is similar, but
has the plain portion to the left, and that with the ridge placed to the right.
In Fig. 7, these two rings are brought close together, when it is seen that N. 1
has overlapped N. 2 on the right side, as far as the right, while N. 2 has over-
lapped N. 1 on the left side to the same extent. N. 1 has thus passed within
N. 2 on the left side, and over it to the right ; and in this manner has been
produced the appearance exhibited by Fig. 4. Without the contraction or double
notch in each ring, this effect could, of course, not be produced, for it is there
that the rings cross each other.

Thus, then, the trachea in its extreme state of contraction, when it is reduced
one-half or one-third of its greatest length, undergoes but a very slight dimi-
nution in its diameter. The elastic membrane passes from the edge of one ring,
over the next, to be inserted into the edge of the third. The intermediate ring
thus slips in behind those on each side of it ; while its other lateral half slips
before those on each side. This mechanism I have observed in almost all the
tracheae which I have examined, although the rings vary much in breadth and
thickness in different species.

In some birds the rings of the trachea are very narrow, and their intervals
proportionally wide ; and sometimes the rings are cartilaginous, or but partially
ossified. All these circumstances are observed in the trachea of the Golden
Eagle, the White-tailed Sea-eagle, the Peregrine Falcon, and the Grebes. Often,
on the other hand, as in Cranes, Herons, Swans, and Mergansers, the rings are
very broad, with very small intervals. As to the extensibility and contractility
of the trachea, I may state that the windpipe of a Golden Eagle, when contracted
to the utmost by the overlapping of its rings, measured 5^ inches, but when
extended to the utmost, 9£ inches ; that of^Curlew was 4 inches long when

LOWEST TEMPERATURE OF JANUARY, 1838. 241

contracted, and 6§ inches when extended ; and that of a Cormorant, in the
former case 9£ inches, and in the latter 151 inches. But as, in these cases, the
bones of the upper larynx and lower larynx, which do not slip over each other,
are included, a better idea of the extensibility of the trachea is obtained from a
fragment of it taken from the middle. Thus, a portion of the trachea of a Rook,
1 inch long when contracted as much as it can be, measures 2| inches when
extended to the utmost ; and a portion of that of a Wood Pigeon 1 inch long
when contracted, may be extended to 2f inches. But the greatest range known
to me is exhibited by the dilated portion of the trachea of the Golden-eyed
Duck, which may be contracted to a quarter of an inch, and extended to two
inches and a quarter. This, however, is effected by a mechanism different from
that usually exhibited ; for although the rings cross each other in front, in the
ordinary manner, they are narrower behind, and gradually fall within each
other upwards.

Edinburgh, March 12, 1838.

THE LOWEST TEMPERATURE OF JANUARY, 1838.

By Hewett Cottrell Watson, Esq., F.L.S.
Editor of the Phrenological Journal.

According to the Meteorological Journal of the Royal Society, regularly
published in The Athenceum, the minimum of the thermometer in January last
was on the ICth, when the mercury fell very slightly below 11|- degrees, the
point to which it sunk on the 20th. Upon the faith of the Royal Society's
Journal, the Monthly Chronicle, for March, has called in question the accuracy
of the register at the Horticultural Gardens, Turnham Green, where the thermo-
meter is said to have fallen 4> degrees below zero on the night following the
19th. Struck by the rapid sinking of the temperature, in the early part of that
evening, I paid particular attention to my thermometers, and can bear testimony
to the accuracy of the observations at the Horticultural Gardens, so far as a still
lower temperature at a few miles distance can do this. At six o'clock on the
evening of the 19th, a thermometer (made by Dollond), in a glass cylinder,
fifteen feet above the ground, stood at 12 degrees. By eight o'clock the mercury
had disappeared from the tube, which is graduated down to three degrees above
zero. A short space intervening between the lowest line marked and the bulb,
the mercury must have been at least down to zero at this time. I immediately
suspended a common ivory thermometer (made by Adie) on a nail in the out-

242 LOWEST TEMPERATURE OF JANUARY, 1838.

side wall of my house, five feet above the ground. In one hour the mercury of
this thermometer had disappeared from the tube, which is graduated to eight de-
grees below zero. Some observations which I was making on the rale of cooling
within doors prevented me leaving this thermometer outside. Next morning at
eight o'clock the mercury of Dollond's thermometer was just rising from the
tube. I again put out Adie's thermometer, which had fallen to two degrees above
zero by nine o'clock, and it then commenced to rise again. From these observa-
tions, I am entitled to say, that in the country within fifteen miles of London,
the cold was below zero of Fahrenheit, and probably continued so for at least
twelve hours ; and that the temperature of four degrees below zero was even
exceeded in this parish of Thames Ditton. The circumstance of thermometers
sold by our first makers of instruments of this kind, for the purpose of meteor-
ological observation, not being graduated low enough to indicate the exact
temperature of this night, is strongly indicative of the unusual severity of the
cold. Indeed, from the facts stated, it is probable that on the night of the 19th
of January, we had here a lower temperature than has been recorded in the
vicinity of London. It may be fancied that the very low temperature is an
indirect evidence of some inaccuracy in the observations, or in the graduation of
the instruments. But in regard to the first supposition, I may add that the
instruments were examined at intervals for some hours, so that there could be no
mistake in reading the figures ; and the agreement between the two instruments,
made by different persons, both of whom are of high reputation, is presumptive
proof of accuracy ; beside which they have been compared with other thermome-
ters by the same makers, and have been tried in various ways during several
years in which they have been in my possession. A third themometer (a
minimum register, by Adie) also fell below zero, and became useless; but the
index-pin was left at zero, the oil having adhered to the tube and separated.
A farmer informed me that his thermometer fell to 14 degrees within doors.
Hence we must conclude, either that London was many degrees warmer than the
surrounding country on this night, or that the record at the Royal Society is
inaccurately kept. Probably both circumstances occurred ; at least no one can
look over the tables published in The Athenaeum without being convinced that
the minima are incorrectly given; the temperature at a fixed hour being some-
times entered as lower than the loicest degree for the whole twenty-four hours of
the same day.

In driving into town, on the morning after nights of frost in spring, I have
frequently observed that the vegetation has suffered much more in this neigh-
bourhood than has been the case nearer to London, which is presumptive proof
of greater cold here ; and our crops are always a few days later than those of
Kent and Middlesex, in the parts near London. I will shortly send, for The

LOWEST TEMPERATURE OF JANUARY, 1838. 243

Naturalist, some notes on the effects of this extreme cold upon vegetation ; at
present it is impossible to ascertain the injury done to many species whose time
of growth is not yet come. In my garden hundreds of evergreen shrubs appear
to be destroyed, unless the main stems or roots may be still alive.

The paper in the Monthly Chronicle, which has called forth these remarks, is
occupied with observations on Mr. Murphy's predictions of the weather, which
are so frequently altogether erroneous. The fixing the day of lowest temperature
was certainly a very lucky guess, if a guess only ; but there is an explanation
which I have not seen referred to by his critics. Taking the average of a long
series of years, the coldest weather of London occurs in the three days following
the lS'h of January. Hence the probability that the lowest temperature may
^ occur on the night between the 19th and 20th. The day of actual greatest cold
in single years is not uncommonly remote from the 20th of January ; although
in a series of years we shall find that it falls most frequently between the 13th
and 23rd of January. According to Howard on the Climate of London, first
edition, in the ten years following 1806, the lowest temperature occurred seven
■times in January; and six of these seven times were between the 13th and
23rd ; the other being on the 29th. From this and other evidences I am disposed
to think that Mr. Murphy's prognostications are partly founded upon the em-
pirical averages from past observations ; that they are predictions a posteriori,
and not really derived from principles which enable him to determine weather
a priori. Most enthusiasts in science start from a few ascertained facts ; and
having imagined a theory in correspondence with these facts, they can never be
wholly destitute of coincidences in favour of their imaginary principles.

The insertion of these remarks in The Naturalist will have two useful results ;
first, that of correcting an error published on influential authority ; and secondly,
it will show that prognostications of temperature may be made as probabilities,
without thereby proving the prognosticator to have discovered any new and cer-
tain principles for calculating this beforehand.

Thames Ditton, Surrey,
March 4, 1838.

244

FURTHER HINTS TO YOUNG ENTOMOLOGISTS.

Observation. — Collection, and Arrangement of Specimens.
By Peter Rylands, Esq.

The essay of Mr. Lees on the "cob-web popularity" of Natural History
(p. 115) deserves every attention, and I trust that it will excite a discussion on
the question, which will in the end insure a substantial popularity for the science.
Much, in the attainment of this object, may be effected by zoological and
botanical Magazines. These ought not to be entirely devoted to abstruse, and
to the student uninteresting, because unintelligible, articles. Papers ought to be
inserted expressly for the benefit of those commencing the study of science. It
is no argument against this to say that introductory works are plentiful, and
easy to be procured. Many who would with pleasure peruse elementary articles
in a periodical, would hesitate, or feel it a task, to read through a volume. And
the fact is so obvious that it need not be dwelt upon, that he who learns with
avidity and interest, will learn far better and far more than he who shrinks
from the means which are used to instruct him. The student requires initiating
by degrees, and this can be effected the best by short instructive articles in
Magazines. I am pleased, therefore, that such are to be found in The Naturalist.
To those which have already been inserted for the entomological student, the
following will furnish a continuation.

On entering his career, the entomologist must seek information from three
sources — books, observation, and the collection of specimens. The first of these
has already been adverted to (p. 19), and I shall therefore pass to the considera-
tion of the second.

No one has a claim to be considered as a true naturalist who is content with
book-learning alone. Although much useful information may be gleaned by an
assiduous perusal of publications, observation ought never to be neglected.
Diligent reading will do much for the student — diligent observation will do
more. Both are important — both necessary. The desire to investigate Nature
should be stimulated as much as possible, as in it consist some of the most plea-
sant enjoyments of the naturalist. Huber selected as a motto to his work
" Cherchez, et vous trouverez," and its truth, in this peculiar application, his
admirable and highly interesting Recherckes sur les Fourmis, fully manifests.
This work constitutes a monument of indefatigable research, and persevering
observation which will always insure its author a high place amongst genuine
naturalists. Let all the readers of this paper choose the same motto, and ex-
emplify it as Huber did, and the most important benefits both to themselves and
the science would be the result. No fact should be taken for granted the in-

PURTHEli hints to young entomologists. 245

Yestigation of which is within our reach — no statement, however high the autho-
rity from which it emanates, should be admitted without its being first verified by
our own observation, if such verification is possible. The student has ample means
for informing himself. Each walk in the country might be made a source of
instruction. Every insect that wings its way past him, crawls at his feet, or
buzzes near his person, should fix his attention and furnish material for
thought. A system of diligent and persevering research should be cultivated.
He will soon find the bsnefit of this course. His observation the more exercised,
will be the more penetrating and the more accurate — his mind will be stored
with facts — his information extensive and correct. He will be a naturalist in
the genuine meaning of the term. And who that merits it may not be proud
of the appellation ?

Nor will the line of conduct just described be of benefit to the individual only.
The science will also be benefited, and that not a little. The student deceives him-
self if he thinks that no new fact, no new illustration of the wonderful economy
of Nature, can be discovered. In Entomology especially much remains to be
accomplished. A wide untrodden field of discovery lies open for investigation.
The hal.its of some even of our commonest insects are but little known, and of
the rarer species scarcely any thing besides their colour and structure has been
brought to light. Those insects which destroy the products of the labour of the
agriculturist and horticulturist require still much attention, in order to determine
their habits, &c. ; and a remedy for the evil has yet to be suggested. These three
important considerations — his own acquirement of information — the increase of
human knowledge — and the welfare of the country at large — will, I trust, lead
each of your readers to enter at once, and with zeal, on the only true method
of studying Natural Science.

As an assistance in his studies, a collection of specimens is absolutely neces-
sary to the entomologist. He will derive considerable advantage and pleasure
from having them at hand for reference. Indeed, in order to become well
acquainted with the structure, &c, of insects, and with the relation they bear to
each other, he must often and carefully examine and re-examine them. This he
will be enabled to do by having a cabinet well stored with preserved specimens.
In the attainment of this important object, Mr. Dale's paper (p. 81) on the
apparatus used by entomologists, will be found very useful. A i'ew additional re-
marks on the time, place, and mode of collecting, may perhaps be deemed necessary.

During winter the entomologist can do little, although, perhaps, mcire than is
generally believed. The bark of tree3 may be examined with advantage, as"
under and in it many species hybernate. The digger will be found useful in
raising and separating the bark. Dromii, Halticce, and a variety of other small

vol. in. — no. xx. 2 L

246 FURTHER HINTS TO YOUNG ENTOMOLOGISTS. , .

Coleopfera, often occur in this situation. Mr. Samouelle remarks* that, at this
season, " the entomologist should not omit to collect a quantity of Moss from the
roots of trees, which may be carried home in a pocket-handkerchief, and ex-
amined by shaking it over a sheet of paper, upon which the insects will fall, and
are easily discovered.'* Carabacea, Staph ylinacea, &c, may thus be obtained ;
together with a goodly admixture of Scolopendrce, Centipedes, Juli, &c, which,
not being now considered genuine insects, and having little interest attached
to them, may be dispensed with by the entomologist. During winter also, dig-
ging at the roots of trees, for pupse of Lepidoptera, may be recommended.

With the opening of spring commences the main business as well as pleasure
of the naturalist. From April to August, a diligent " insect-hunter" will scarcely
allow a day to pass without adding to his stores. During these months insects
will be found plentifully in the following situations : —

Woods may always be frequented with advantage. The bark of trees must
still be examined, as also the Moss at the roots. Many rare insects are obtained
by beating the branches over a net — the larger for this purpose the better.
Hedges may also be profitably?" beaten in the same manner. I have often obtained
rare species by shaking branches which over-hung a ditch. The insects fall into
the water, and may then be readily captured.- In the evening hedges are mucr
frequented by Phaloenacea, &c. Fields, Gardens, &c, abound with insects. It
these habitats the Papilionacea will be obtained. A great number of Dipfert
Hemipfera, and Coleopfera may easily be captured by dragging a strong net over
the long herbage. The roots of grass ought also to be well examined. Man;;
valuable species may be found in flowers, &c. Nettles, Docks, and leaves of
other indigenous plants, are always inhabited by quantities of Curculiondice,
Chrysomelidce, Halticce, &c. &c. Heaths, Commons, Sand-pits, &c, are fre-
quented by many species not found elsewhere. 'The same may be said of the
Banks of rivers, Margins of ponds, and Sea-shores. On the latter the rejecta-
menta will find good employment for the entomologist. Ponds must be dragged
for the Dyticidce, &c.,.with the net described at page 82 (5). Rushes, and other
aquatic plants are inhabited by the Donacece, &c, and therefore deserve attention.
In the same habitats Libellulacea will be met with. Decayed wood furnishes
food for numerous Cerambycidce, Stapkylinacect, &c. ; these often penetrate tc
the depth of several inches, and must therefore be obtained by the digger.
have always considered Church-yards as excellent hunting-grounds for the ento-
mologist. Hosts of insects may be captured in a few hours by removing the
Moss, Grass-roots, &c, at the foot of the grave- stones. At the risk, therefore,

* Entomologist's Useful Compendium, p. 314 (1st. Edit.).

FURTHER HINTS TO YOUNG ENTOMOLOGISTS. 247

of being considered as a " solitary," poet, or " body-snatcher" the entomologist
will do well to spend a portion of hi3 time amongst the tombs. Dead animals,
dung of cattle, bones, &cM are classed together in this summary, as some probably
may feel little inclination to meddle with them. If such is the case, it will most
assuredly be to their loss. The entomologist who conquers his disgust, will, by
the examination of these substances, add many valuable captures to his collection.
During the autumnal months insects are far less plentiful. Dyticidse- may be
obtained from the ponds, and a few llymenoptera and Thalcenacea may still be
met with. The winter occupation described above must again be resorted to.

I cannot conclude this part of my subject without earnestly cautioning the
student against suffering a passion for collecting to choke the desire of investiga-
ting Nature. From this results the misfortune which Mr. Swainson justly
regrets, "that nearly all naturalists (?) are more bent npon increasing the contents
of their cabinets, than on studying the economy of those living objects which are
perpetually crossing their path."* If such a state of things continue, Natural
History may well decline in Britain.

Were the student to .place his insects in the cabinet without any order or
classification, they would be of as little use to him as a dictionary in which words
were mixed in utter confusion, would be to the scholar. It is necessary, there-
fore, that he proceed on some fixed and regular plan. The station which his
specimens hold in the insect kingdom, and the names by which they are known
in the scientific world, must be determined. He may obtain this knowledge,
either by reference to plates, bavins: the names supplied by a friend, or by care-
fully examining published descriptions. The first two methods are by far the
easiest — and the worst. They cannot be too severely condemned. If they are
usee, that power of perception and just discrimination of differences, which is of
the first importance to every naturalist, will never be obtained. Plates- may be
necessary sometimes, and the assistance of friends at the onset may be beneficial,
but neither should be depended upon for the determination of species. Mr.
Swainson has some excellent remarks on the acquisition and improvement of
the habit of perception and discrimination. " Accuracy of observation," says he,
Vis one of the first qualifications which the student should acquire. A quick and
discerning eye, accustomed by practice to distinguish differences which an ordinary
observer would overlook, is absolutely essential. The most perfect acquaintance
with all the systems that were ever invented, and with all the theories that have
ever been promulgated, will never compensate for the want of this primary

requisite This tact for observation, like every other habit, is to

be acquired by practice ; and the more it is exercised the more acute it becomes.

* Treatise on the Geogr. and Classif. of Animals (Lardn. Cab. Cyc.% p. 309,

Zl 2

248 FURTHER HINTS TO YOUNG ENTOMOLOGISTS.

The student would derive much advantage, in this respect, from placing before
him ten or a dozen species of insects very closely resembling each other ; such,
for instance, as those composing the genus Harpalus £or Amara~\ (B.-etles of
easy acquisition, and which any entomological friend will point out to him), and
then endeavouring to find out and define in writing, in what manner each species
may be characterised, Occasional exercises of this sort will soon give him a
keenness of perception, and a tact for discriminating, which he will be long in
acquiring by other means."*

I have already recommended (p. 19) to beginners the use of the Linnaean
system. It is necessary that, before proceeding further, the student should have
a general knowledge of classification. For this purpose he may, at the nset,
arrange his specimens under the Linrsean genera, paying no attention to the
specific names, In order to do this, the characters of the Linnsean orders and
genera must be well studied, and compared seriatim with the insects possessed.
An acquaintance with some of the types of the most extensive divisions of
modern systems will thus be obtained, and the study of them afterwards much
facilitated. When he is tolerably acquainted with the outlines of the Linnoean,
he may proceed to the modern arrangement. In this he will find much greater
complexity. Before arriving at the species, orders, tribes, families, sub-families,
genera, and in some instances sub-genera, must be passed through. How-
ever difficult the, attainment of a knowledge of these numerous divisions may
appear, it will be found in the end a very useful auxiliary. Let the student take
any insect. By a comparison of its structure with the characters annexed to
each of the orders, he will be able to determine to which it belongs. The tribes
contained in the order selected, must next in like manner be proceeded with#
Then the families in the tribes, and so on, until the descriptions of the species
are arrived at. Lastly, the points in each description must be carefully compared
with the specimen, and the species to which it. belongs determined. At the com-
mencement this course will be attended with considerable trouble ; but each
succeeding investigation will render the difficulty less. By assiduity and per-
severance the student may obtain, in this manner, a perfect acquaintance with,
and acute perception of, the structure, &c, of the insects that fall under his
notice ; together with a sound and extensive knowledge of classification, in all
its ramifications.

The system which is adopted must of course be followed in arranging the
specimens in the cabinet. '• The modern practice, which is far the best," says
Samouelle, "is to arrange insects in columns, with the generic name fastened by
a pin above, and the specific below them Males and females should be-

• Ibid, pp. 305—307,

GROWTH AND LONGEYITY OF TREES. 249

procured as far as possible Varieties should be procured, as they frequently

tend to decide the species; mutilated specimens should [[may] b^ rejected; but
as we cannot always replace them by perfect ones, it is much better to retain
them. There is a vile practice in use among collectors, to mend such specimens
by parts from other insects. / cannot sufficiently express my abhorrence of such
ways, but I should hope that no naturalist who is a lover of truth, and an admirer
of Nature, will ever disgrace his cabinet by such paltry specimens, as they can he
of no use in a se'entife view, and only serve to had to errors."*

In the characters of the genera, &c, and descriptions of the species, many
technical terms occur, which are not a little puzzling to the student. Were these
abolished, the attainment of a knowledge of the science would be greatly facili-
tated, but they are absolutely necessary. Mr. Swainson remarks, that " they
constitute, in fact, the language <f Zoology, since they are employed to express
ideas which cannot be conveyed by words in ordinary use."t In order to enable
the student to understand this *' language," I purpose, with the Editor's permis-
sion, to give some " Further Hints" on. Orismology, &c, in a future number.

Beicsey Home, Warrington,
March >Z% 1838.

ON THE GROWTH AND LONGEVITY OF TREES.

The instructive and generally-interesting character of the following article
induces us to give it a place in The Naturalist. It appeared originally in the
Buckinghamshire Gazette, and we feel happy in possessing the opportunity of
giving it a more extensive circulation.

Trees may be considered under two heads : — first, those trees which, on
account of the mode of their growth, cannot live beyond a certain period; a
second, those whose mode of growth admits of a possibility of their existing an
indefinite period.

The first mentioned class increase, when young, in diameter rather than in
height, until a certain magnitude is attained, when they shoot up a stem, the
diameter of which is never much altered. This is the mode of growth of the Palm
tribe, and other intratropical plants ; and it prevents them from attaining a great
longevity. All the new woody matter produced by the leaves is insinuated down
the centre of the stem. The effect of this is the displacing of the pre-existing

* Samouelle's Entom. Useful Compend. (1st Edit.), p. 322.
+ Treatise on the Geogr. and Class, of Animals, p. 316.

250 GROWTH AND LONGEVITY OF TREES.

w,oody matter, which is pressed out towards the circumference. By the con-
tinuance of this process, the stem becomes so compressed that it is not capable of
any further compression. Thus there is no space left for the introduction of new
woody matter from the leaves. The consequence is, that the full action of the
functions of the leaves is prevented. The tree, therefore, perishes, because its
vitality is dependent upon the full action of all its parts. Trees belonging to this
class cannot exist beyond a definite period, which is seldom found to exceed 200
or 300 years.

The other class of trees increase principally in length, when young. They
afterwards extend in diameter by means of longitudinal fibres being insin-
uated by the leaves under the bark, on the outside of the wood. The bark
being capable of indefinite extension, it is evident that nothing independent of
accident can put an end to the existence of such trees. Eminent botanists see
nothing unplausible, and no one can point out anything impossible, in the idea
that some trees of this kind at present existing may have been spectators of
the flood.

The age of trees belonging to this class can be ascertained by counting the
number of rings into which they are divided. Every one of these rings must
have been produced in neither more nor less than a year ; and this is the ground
upon which botanists have arrived at such precise conclusions concerning the
longevity of some trees. We shall notice the ages of a few ascertained in
this manner.

Decandolle mentions an Elm 335 years old; a Cypress, about 350; a
Cheirostemon^ about 400; an Ivy, 450 ; a Larch, 576 ; an Orange-tree, 530;
an Olive-tree, 700.; an oriental Plane, ?20 ; a Cedar of Lebanon, about 800;
Oaks, 870, 1,080, and 1,500; Limes, 1,076, and 1,147; Yews, 1,214, 1458,
2,280, and 2,588 !

At Ellerslie, the birth place of Wallace, near Paisley, there is an Oak-tree
which is said to have concealed under its branches Wallace and 300 of his
followers. However doubtful this may be, it is certain that " the Wallace
'Oak" cannot be much less than 700 years old.

Eight Olive-trees still grow in the garden at Gethsemane, near Jerusalem,
"which can be proved to have been there more than 800 years ago, and which are
alleged to have been witnesses of the Saviour's agony.

Such great antiquity, however, is small when compared to the age of the Baobab,
some specimens of which, growing in Africa, Adanson found to be 5,000 years
old ! Even this great age is surpassed by that assigned to the Taxodium by
Decandolle, who makes some specimens -which he discovered in South America
to be 5,840 years old ! Adanson ascertained some Banian trees to be of equal
antiquity.

251

LIST OF FLOWERING PLANTS FOR EVERY MONTH IN THE

YEAR.

May.

(Continued from page IDB.)
Common Maple, Acer campestre ; Greater Maple, A. pseudo-platanus ; Herb
Christopher, Actcca spicata ; True Maidenhair, Adianlum capillus-reneris ; Corn
Pheasant's-eye, or Adoms-fiower, Adonis autumnalis ; Tuberous Moschatell, Adoxa
moscJiatellina ; Smooth Alpine Hairgrass, Aim Alpina ; Water Hairgrass, A.
aguatica ; Early H., A. precox; Yellow Bugle, or Ground-pine, Ajuga chamce-
pitys ; Pyramidal B., A. pyramidal) s; Common B., A.reptans ; Field Ladies'-
mamle, Alchemitta arvensis ; Broad-leaved Garlic, Allium ursinum ; Meadow
Fox Tailgrass, Alnpecurus pratensis ; Evergreen Alkanet, Anchum sempervirens ;
Pasque-flower Anemone, Anemone puhatilla ; Sweet-scented Vernal-grass, An-
thoxanthum cdoratum ; Common Beaked Parsley, Anthriscus vulgaris ; Ivy-
leaved Snapdragon, Antirrhinum cymbalaria ; Hairy Wall-cress, Arabis hirsuta;
Bristol W., A. stricta; Tower W., A\ turrita ; Black Bear-berry, Arbutus
Alpina; Plantain-leaved Sandwort, Arenaria trinervis ; Vernal S., A. verna ;
Common Cuckoo-pint, Arum maculatum ; Common Asarabacca, Asarum Euro-
pium<■; German Mad wort, Asperugo procumbens ; Sweet Woodruff, Asperula
odnrata; Rough Alpine Shield-fern, Aspidium lonckitis ; Common Maidenhair
Spleenwort, Barbarea prcecox ; Early Winter-cress, B. tulgaris ; Common Daisy,
Belli s perennis ; Common Barberry, Berberis vulgaris; Common Birch, Betula
alba; Dwarf B., B. nana; Rape-seed, Brassica napus ; Sea Cabbage, B.
oleracea ; C. Quaking-grass*, Briza media; Red-berried Bryony, Bryonia
dioica ; C. Earth-nut, Bunium fiexuosum ; Vernal Water-starwort, Callitriche
verna ; C. Marsh-marigold, Caltha palustris ; Bitter Ladies'-smock, Cardamine
amara ; Hairy L., C. kirsuta ; Impatient L., C. impatiens; Meadow L., C
prate nsis ; Slender Spike Sedge, Carex acuta ; Slender Bsaked Bottle S., C. am-
pulla cea ; Axillary Clustered S., C. axillaris; Dwarf Silvery S., C. clandcsfina ;
Tufted Bog S., C.ccBspitosa; Prickly Separate-headed S., C. Davalliana ; Starved
Wood S.', C. depaupetata ; Fingered S., C.digitata ; Creeping Separate-headed S.,
C. dioica ; Bracteated Marsh S., C. ditisa ; Grey S., C. divuha ; Yellow S.,
C. flava ; Hairy S., C. hirta; Soft Brown S., C. intermedea ; Smooth-stalked
Beaked S., C. laevigata; Greater Prickly S., C.muricata; Pale S , C.pallevcens;
Lesser C. S., C.paludosa; Pink-leaved S., C.panicea; Great Pendulous SM C.
pendula ; Round-headed S., C. pilulifera ; Glaucous Heath S., C. recur ca ; Re-

* C. stands for Common.— Ed.

t5c2 FLOWERING PLANTS FOR MAY.

mote S., C. remota ; Great C. S., C. riparia ; Little Prickly S., Cstellulata ; Loose
Pendulous S., C. strigosa; Pendulous Wood S., C.sylvatica; Lesser Panicled S.,
C. teretiuscula ; Short Spiked Bladder S., C. vesicaria ; Great Compound Prickly
S., C. vulp'na; C. Hornbeam, Carp>'nus bztulus ; Field Chickweed, Cerasiium
arvense ; Little Mouse-ear Ch., C. semidecandrum ; Four-cleft Ch., C. tentran-
drum ; Narrow-leaved Ch., C. viscosum ; Broad-leaved Ch., C. vulgalum ; Wild
W ■<x\\-$o\v<:V,C/teira)ithus fniticulosus ; C. Celandine, C/ielidon'um ma jus ; Mercury
Goosefoot, Chenopodium Bonus-Henricus ; Wild Chervil or Cow- parsley, Charo-
pby'lum sylcestre; Alternate-leaved Golden Saxifrage, Chrysorpleuium alternifo-
lium; Opposite-leaved G.^Ch. op posit i folium; Mountain Fleawort, Cineraria in/e-
grifdia ; Hoary Dwarf Cistus, Cistus mariftlhts; English Scurvy-grass, Ccclileai'ia
Anglica ; Horse-radish, C. armoracia ; Danish Scurvy-grass, C. officinalis;
Lily-of-the-valley, Convallaria majalis ; C. Solomon's-seal, C. mvltiflora ; An-
gular S., C. polyyonatum ; C. S., Coralhrrhiza innata ; Sea Kale, Crambe
maritima ; Bulbiferous Coral-wort, Dentaria bulbifera ; Great Leopard's-bane,
Doronicum pardalianches ; Simple-haired Whitlow-grass, Draba hirta; Hoary
Wh., D. incana ; Speedwell-leaved Wh., D. muralis ; Black Crow-berry,
Empetrum nigrum ; Alpine Barrenwort, Epimedium Alpinum ; Branched Wood
Horse-tail, Eqnisetum sylvaticum ; Alpine Cotton-grass, Eriophotum Alpinum j
Downy-stalked C, E. pubescent; Sea Stork's-bill, Erodium maritimum ; Garlic
Treacle-mustard, Erysimum alliaria ; C. Spindle, Euonymus Europceus; Cypress
Spurge, Euphorbia cyparissias ; Caper S., E. lathyris : Sweet Chesnut, Fayus
caslanea ; C. Beech, F. syloatica ; C. Corn-salad, Fedia olitoria ; Wood Straw-
berry, Frayaria vesca ; C. Ash, Fraxinus excelsior; Simple leaved A., F.-hete-
rophi/lla ; Yellow Fumitory, Fumaria lutea ; C. F., F. officinalis; Solid Bulbous
F.,F.solida; Yellow Weasel-snout, Galenbdolon luteum ; Coose-grass Beclstraw*
Galium aparine ; Crosswort B., G. cruciatum ; Needle Greenweed, Genista
Anglica ; Hairy G., G.pilosa; Dwarf Gentian, Gentiana acaul's ; Jagged-leaved
Crane's-bill, Geranium dissectum; C. Dove's-foot C, G.lucidum; Shining C,
G. mofle; Knotty d, G. nodosum ; Dusky C, G. phxum ; Stinking C, G'
Robertianum ; P. Avens, Geum urban um ; Violet Horned-poppy, Glaucium
molcceum ; C. Grourd-ivy, Gkchoma hederacca ; C. Dcrre's-violft, Ecrjeris
matronal' s ; C. Mouse-ear Hawkweed, llieracium pilosella ; Northern Holy-
grass, Hierockloe Borealis ; Tufted Horse-shoe-vetch, Hippocrepis comosa ; C»
Sallow-thorn, Hippopkae rhamnoides ; C. Mare's-tail, Hippuris vulgaris ; Starch
Hyacinth, Hyacinthus racemosus ; Marsh Pennywort, llydrocotyle vulgaris ;
Tunbridge Filmy-fern, Ilymenophyllum Tunbridgense; C. Holly, Ilex aqu'fo-
lium; European Squill-wort, Isoefes lucustris; Dense-headed Rush, Junius
capitatu* ; C. Juniper, Jun'perus communis ; Dwarf Alpine J., J. nana ; White
Dead-nettle, Lamium album; Henbit D., L. amplcxicaule; Cut-leaved D., L.

:

FLOWERING PLANTS FOR MAY. 253

incision ; Red D., L. purpureum ; Crimson Vetchling, Lathyrus nissolia ; C.
Dandelion, Leontodon taraxacum ; Summer Snowflake, Leucojum cestivum ; C.
Privet, Ligustrum vulgare ; Two-flowered Linnzea, L. Borcalis; Bird's-nest
Listera, Listera nidus-avis ; Corn Gromwell, Litkospermum arvense ; C. Grom-
well, L. officinale; Creeping Gromwell, L. purpuro-cccruleum ; Perfoliate Honey-
suckle, Lonicera caprifolium; Slender Bird's-foot Trefoil, Lotus angustissimus ;
Field Wood-rush, LuzuJa campestris ; Narrow-leaved Hairy W., L. Forsteri ;
Great W., L. sylcatica ; Red or White Campion, Lychnis dioica ; Catchfly C,
L. viscaria ; Yellow Pimpernel, Lysimachia nemorum ; C. Mallow, Malva syl-
vestris ; Wild Camomile, Matricaria chamomilla ; Shrubby Stock, Matthiola
incana ; Black Nonesuch, Medicago lupulina ; Spotted N., M. maculaia ; Wood
Medick, Melica uniflora ; Purple-and- white Bastard-balm, Melittis grandiflora ;
Reddish B., M. melissophyllum ; Perennial Mercury, Mercurialis perennis ; C.
Medlar, Mespilus Germanica ; White-thorn or Haw-thorn, M. oxyacantha ;
Spignel, Meum atkamanticum ; Upright Moenchia, Mosnchia erecta ; Water
Blinks, Montia fontana ; Tufted Water Scorpion-grass, Myosotis ccespitosa ;
Trailing S., M . intermedia ; Yellow-and-blue S., M. versicolor ; C. Mouse-tail,
Myosurus minimus; Dutch Myrtle, Myrica gale; Sweet Cicely, Myrrhis
odorata ; Pale Narcissus, Narcissus bifiorus; Poetic N., N. poeticus ; C. Gout-
weed, Mgopodium podagraria; C. A dder's-tongue, Ophioglossum vulgatum ;
Drone Orchis, Ophrys fucifera ; Great Brown-winged 0., Orchis fusca ; Marsh
Palmate 0., 0. latifolia; Early Purple 0., 0. mascula; Military 0., O.mili-
taris ; Green-winged 0., 0. morio ; Monkey 0., 0. tephrosanthos ; Drooping
•Star-of-Bethlehem, Ornithogalutn nutans ; C. S., O. umbellatum; C. Bird's-foot,
Ornithopus perpusillus ; Wood Bitter- vetch, Orobus syhaiicus ; C. B., 0. tuler-
■osus ; C. Wood-sorrel, Oxalis acetosella ; Yellow Procumbent W., 0. corniculata ;
-Herb Paris, Paris quadrifolia; Dwarf Burnet Saxifrage, Pimpinella dioica;
Large-flowered Butterwort, Pinguecula grandiflora ; C. Butterwort, P. vulgaris ;
Scotch Fir, Pinus syloestris ; Buck's-horn Plantain, Plantago coronopus ; Greater
P., P. major; Hoary P., P. media; Annual Meadow-grass, Poa annua ; Bulbous
., P. bulbosa ; Smooth-stalked M., P. pratensis ; Entire-leaved Piony, Paonia
rallina ; Four-leaved All-seed, • Polycarpon tetraphyllum ; C. Knot-grass, Poly~
gonum aviculare ; C. Polypody, Polypodium vulgare; Three-tooth Cinque-foil,
Potentilla tridentata ; Spring C, P.verna; C Cowslip, Primula veris ; Wild
Cherry, Prunus cerasus ; Bird Cherry, P. padus ; Narrow-leaved Lungwort,
Pulmonaria angustifolia ; C. L., P. officinalis ; Mountain-ash, Pyrus ancuparia ;
White Pear, P. aria; Iron Pear, P. communis ; True Service, P. domestica';
Wild Apple, P. mains ; Bastard Mountain-ash, P. pinnatifida; Wild Service,
P. torminalis ; Sessile-fruited Oak, Quercus sessiliftora ; Alpine Crowfoot, Ra-
nuncidus Alpestris; White Floating C, R. aquatilis ; Wood C, R. auricomus ;
VOL. III. — no. xx. 2 M

264 FLOWERING PLANTS FOR MAY.

Bulbous C, R.bulbosus; Grassy C, R. gramineus; Ivy C, R. kederaeeut ;
Small-flowered C, R. parviflorus ; C. Buckthorn, Rhamnus catharticus ; Alder
B., Rh. frangula; Mountain Rose-root, Rhodiola rosea; Tasteless Mountain
Currant, Ribes Alpinum; Black Currant, R. nigrum; Rock C, R. petrceum ; C.
©., R- rubrum ; Acid Mountain C, 7?. spicatum ; Cinnamon Rose, Rosa cin-
namomea; Dwarf Crimson Bramble, Rubies Arcticus; Raspberry, R. idceus-;
Small-flowered Pearl wort, Sagina apetala ; Sea P., S. maritima ; Procumbent
P., S.procumbens; C. White Willow, Salix alba; Broad-leaved Triandrous W.,
S. amygdalina ; Downy Mountain W., S. arenaria ; Silky Sand W., S. argentea ;
Green Mountain W., S. Andersoniana ; Round-eared W., S. aurita ; Shining
Dark -green W., S. bicolor ; Dark Upright W., S. Borreriana ; Broad-leaved
Monadelphous W., S. Croieeana; Davallian W., S. Davalliana ; Varnished W.,
S. decipiens; Rusty-branched W., S.Doniana; Fishy W., S.fcetida; Glaucous
Mountain W., S. Forsteriana; Crack W., S.fragilis; Brownish Dwarf W., S.
fusca ; Glaucous Mountain W., S. glauca ; Hairy-branched W., S. hirta ; Short-
leaved Triandrous W., S. Hoffmanniana ; Trailing Silky W., S. incubacea ;
Sharp-leaved Triandrous W., S. lanceolata; Green Whortle-leaved W., S.
myrsinites ; Tea-leaved W., 5. phylicifolia ; Plum-leaved W., S. prunifolia ; C.
Dwarf W., S. repens ; Green-leaved W., S. rubra ; Silky Rock W., S. rupes-
tris ; Bedford W., S. Russelliana ; Silky-leaved W., S. Smithiana ; Thin-leaved
W., S. tenuifolia ; Four-ranked W., S. telrapla ; Long-leaved Triandrous W.,
S. triandra ; Veiny-leaved W., aS'. venulosa ; C. Willow, S. viminalis ; Yellow
W., S.vitellina; Wulferian W., S. Wulferiana; Wood Sanicle, Sanicula Euro-
p%a ; Involute Alpine Saxifrage, Saxifraga offinis ; White Meadow S., S. gra-
nulata ; Mossy S., S. hypnoides ; Mossy Alpine S., S. muscoides ; Web-footed-
leaved S., S. pedatifida ; Rue-leaved S., S. tridactylites ; Harebell Squill, Scilla
nutans ; Scaly Hart's-tongue, Scolopendrium ceterach ; Yellow Figwort, Scro-
phularia vernalis ; C. Groundsel, Senecio vulgaris ; Blue Sherardia, Sherardia
arvensis ; Wild Charlock, Sinapis arvensis ; Least Water-parsnep, Sium inun~
datum ; C. Alexanders, Smyrnium olustarum ; C. Broom, Spartium scoparium ;
Lesser Stitchwort, Stellaria graminea ; Greater S., S. holostea ; C. S., S. media ;
Wood S., S. nemorum; C. Comfrey, Symphytum officinale; Naked-stalked
Teesdalia, Teesdalia nudicaulis; C. Shepherd's-purse, Thlaspi bursa-pastoris ;
Perfoliate S., Th. perfoliatum ; Mossy Tillaea, Tillcea muscosa ; Knotted Hedge-
parsley, T or His nodosa ; Purple Goat's-beard, Tragopogonporrifolius; Short-styled
Bristle-fern, Trichomanes brevisetum ; European Wintergear, Trientalis Euro-
pcea ; Honeysuckle Trefoil, Trifolium pratense ; White T., T. repens ; Rough
T., T. scabrum ; Subterraneous T., T. subterraneum ; Sea Arrowgrass, Trig-
lochin maritimum ; Mountain Globe-flower, Trollius Europeeus ; Black Bilberry
Vaccinium myrtilius ; Great B., V. uliginomm ; Procumbent Field Speedwell,

CORRESPONDENCE. 255

Veronica agrestis ; Wall S., V. arvensis; Germander S., V. chamadrys; Ivy-
leaved S., V. hederifolia ; Mountain S., V. montana ; C. S., V. officinale ; Smooth
S., V. serpyllifolia ; Mealy Guelder-rose, or Way-fairing- Tree, Viburnum lan-
tana ; Spring Vetch, Vicia lathyroides ; C. V., V. sativa ; C. Bush V., V.
sepium ; Greater Periwinkle, Vinca major ; Lesser P., V. minor ; Dog's Violet,
Viola canina ; Dwarf Yellow V., V. Jlavicornis ; Cream-coloured V., V.lactea;
Yellow Mountain Violet, V. lutea; Pansy V., V. tricolor ; C. White Misseltoe,
Viscum album.

CORRESPONDENCE.

The British Swans.
To the Editor of the Naturalist*

Honored Sir, — I was glad to see (p. 213) that you had drawn the attention of
your readers to the probability of the occurrence of Bewick's Swan during the
recent extremely severe winter — a circumstance which I beg to impress still
further. I have not myself met with any species but the Hooper Swan (Cygnus
ferus) ; but from the various paragraphs which I have noticed in the newspapers,
as well as from the information received from friends, I consider it all but
certain that specimens of Bewick's Swan have been shot, both in England and
Scotland, during the last few months. If any of your readers would come
forward and state what they know on the subject, through the pages of The
Naturalist, I should feel obliged to them. I am inclined to think that Bewick's
Swan will eventually prove to be a more frequent visitor to our shores than is at
present recorded by ornithologists ; but of course I offer no positive opinion on the
subject, wishing merely to draw the attention of abler naturalists than myself
to the question.

I am, Hon. Sir,

Your most obedient servant,

G. L. Lister,

Edinburgh, April 1, 1838. Game-dealer, &c.

'2b6

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM,

The Organ of Locality, and the Migration of Birds,
To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Bewsey House, March 2, 1838.

My dear Sir, — In the note at p. 129, annexed to my paper on the " Migra-
tion of Birds," you have evidently mistaken my meaning. I do not mean, nor
did I state, that in the first instance the organ of Locality was absent in migratory
birds. I fully agree with you in the opinion that " birds were originally, and
still are, impelled to migrate by the innate faculty of Locality," and that " the
feeling of hunger or of cold would only impel the animal to seek food, and would
not teach it that by crossing the seas sustenance could be obtained." My argu-
ment was merely to prove that, primarily, coldness of climate and want of
nourishment were the only causes of the periodical excitement of the organ — not
that they originated the organ itself. It was not the propensity, but the excite-
ment of it, at stated periods, which was the object of discussion. A reference to
the paper will, I think, make this evident. If it does not, the fault is mine, for
not having expressed my sentiments more clearly. 1 am obliged to you for
having called my attention to it, as this explanation will prevent others com-
mitting the same mistake.

Yours very truly,

Neville Wood, Esq., &c. Peter Rylands.

[]Our criticism referred chiefly to our correspondent's opinion (p. 129) that, "at
first, the coldness of climate, and want of nourishment, were the only causes of
migration." This is the opinion of many naturalists, but Phrenology satisfac-
torily demonstrates its utter impossibility. Taken separately, the passage we
have quoted justified our note ; but, in conjunction with the rest of the paragraph,
Mr. Rylands's meaning is probably sufficiently obvious. We are glad to find
that there is actually no difference of opinion between Mr. R. and ourselves, and
beg to thank him for his kindness in pointing out our misapprehension of the
passage alluded to. — Ed.]

Strictures on the Wood-cuts in Yarrell's " British Birds."

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Dear Sir,— You have in The Naturalist (Vol. II., pp. 281, 379 ; Vol. III.,

pp. 57, 165, 225) reviewed the parts of Mr. Yarrell's BritishBirds as they have

appeared; and as I do not think that you have sufficiently deprecated the falling-

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM. 237

off in the wood-cuts subsequent to the first, I wish to address a few remarks for
the consideration of your readers. In reviewing the third part, at p. 57, you
certainly hint at something of the kind, and " trust that this falling-off is only
temporary, and that subsequent publications will not tend to justify the doubtless
erroneous suspicion — which has already reached our ears — that so much pains
were taken with the wood-cuts in the first part merely to ensure a large sale for
the work." If your readers will take the trouble critically to examine parts iii.,
iv., and v., I fear this suspicion will be too strongly confirmed by the inferiority
of some of the wood-cuts, and unless subsequent numbers improve, it will greatly
deteriorate the sale of the work. Those illustrations which your readers will
doubtless on close inspection find to be extremely faulty, are the following : — the
Montagu Harrier, p. 100; Red-backed Shrike, p. 154; Spotted Flycatcher, p.
164 (Is this the Grey Flycatcher, which you mention as exceptionable at p. 165
of The Naturaliit?*); Fieldfare, p. 189; Golden Oriole, p. 212; Hedge Acn
centor, p. 223 ; Redstart, p. 237 (very bad).

Perhaps the wood-cut which is the freest from that stiffness which unfortu-
nately pervades them is the Blackbird, p. 202 ; to coin a phrase, it is the most
Beieickian. There are many other birds in which anything but excellence is
visible, but I only wish to draw the attention of your readers to the most faulty,
as it would ill become one who is merely a student in the paths of Nature to be
too critical. That Mr. Yarrell's wood-cuts are much inferior to those of
Bewick in the position and natural character of the birds, I have heard more
than one ornithologist confess ; in point of engraving, the advantage is certainly
with Mr. Yarrell ; but which is of the most consequence to the ornithologist I
will leave to your readers to determine. The public may be dazzled and led
away by the superior style and finish of the engravings, but the lover of Natural
History should never lose sight of what is certainly of infinitely more conseqence to
him — a correct representation of the object. Many of Mr. Yarrell's birds are
apparently drawn from badly stuffed specimens, which is indicated by the stiffness
of those that I have pointed out. Those of your readers who wish to be informed
on the present state of wood-engraving (which is not so palmy as the public
imagine), will find much interesting and valuable information in the second and
third chapters of the second volume of Howitt's Rural Life in England, a work
invaluable to all lovers of the country. If you think these remarks worth insert-
ing in The Naturalist^ I may on a future occasion say a word or two on Mr.
Bell's Quadrupeds.

I am, Dear Sir, &c. &c. &c,

Woodside, March 1, 1838. T. B. Hall.

* It is tbe same.— Ed.

258 CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

£We agree with some of Mr. Hall's observations, and should be glad to notice
an improvement in several of the illustrations ; but every ornithologist extensively-
acquainted with illustrated publications on Natural History, is fully aware of the
small proportion of first-rate engravings which they commonly contain, and that
in works of an inferior grade tolerable cuts are quite the exception. With these
facts in view, and gratified with the admirable character of the letter-press, we
could not but speak highly of so spirited an undertaking as that under considera-
tion, but at the same time considered it requisite to give a hint with regard to
the character of the wood-cuts, as a suggestion for future improvement. We
consider the engravings in Mr. Yarrell's numbers, on the whole, superior to
those of most works of a similar character, whether containing wood-cuts or
coloured plates. To Bewick's they at least bear a very fair comparison, the
rough style of that artist's work in many cases alone sufficing to carry off the
otherwise obvious defects of position, &c. Thus while the modern finished style
of wood-cutting takes in the public in general, Bewick's off-hand and frequently
coarse workmanship — in addition to the partiality naturally felt for an old
favourite — tends, we doubt not, in many instances to veil similar defects from
more critical observers. Many of BEWick's figures {i. e. as regards outline, &c.)
would at once be unmasked if finished by an artist of our own day. — The modern
wood-cutters are, beyond all question, advanced far beyond Bewick in their art;
but in the case of works on Natural History they either copy bad drawings or
specimens, or else lack all knowledge of and taste for Natural Science ; and in
neither case are the artists to blame. Who that is acquainted with the birds in
their native haunts, and after inspecting the engravings on India-paper in the
second volume of The Naturalist, will venture to affirm that we possess no
ornithological artist to be compared to Bewick ? The engraver ought not merely
to be eminent as a wood -cutter, but as an engraver of birds, should copy from good
specimens or drawings, and be superintended by a competent artist The parties
concerned in the publication of the work which has given rise to these observa-
tions, know all this as well as we do, but then comes the question, would the
sale of the book remunerate for so much trouble and expense ? We believe that
it would not, and that the majority of the public are perfectly satisfied with the
engravings as they at present get them. Why, then, need the publisher put
himself to an expense which will prove a loss to him, merely to please a few
•ornithologists ? The reply is obvious : he need not, and therefore will not, saddle
any such trouble or expense upon himself. Mr. Hall, however, believes that
the deterioration will greatly diminish the sale of the work. All we can say is,
we wish it would, and should hail with pleasure so powerful a demonstration of
the progress of Natural History in Britain. Our correspondent wrote with the
riew of exposing the character of the wood-cuts in Mr. Yarrell's work, and

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM. 259

possibly he may complain of our having pointed out the ignorance of the public
as regards matters of this nature, and, by thus "letting the Cat out of the
bag," of having defeated the result which his epistle might otherwise have had,
of improving the illustrations. But we beg to observe that in this, as in every
other matter, we desire alone to sift and obtain, if possible, the truth — before
which all other considerations ought to shrink into insignificance. — En.]

The Vernacular Names of Totanus ochropus and T. glottis.
To the Editor of Ike Naturalist.

My dear Sir, — There appears to be some confusion in the vernacular names
of Totanus ochropus and T. glottis, as given in The Naturalist. At p. 73, Vol.
II., Mr. Morris denominates the former " Greenshank" and the latter species
" Green Sandpiper." Mr. Dale (II., 179) has, on the contrary, T. ochropus
" Green Sandpiper." The vernacular name given to T. glottis in my " Catalogue"
(II., 354) is " Greenshank," which you have again applied to T. ochropus. I
should like this confusion avoided. The authority of naturalists favours the
nomenclature adopted by Mr. Dale and myself. Montagu, Bewick, Selby,
Jenyns, &c, unite in denominating T. glottis the Greenshank, and T. ochropus
the Green Sandpiper. As the plumage of the former is not green, it has no right
.to that appellation ; but, its feet being of that colour, it may appropriately be
termed the Greenshank. And yet some would claim this name for T. ochropus,
because of the derivation of its specific appellation, from w%foj (yellowish-green)
and wovs (foot). This difficulty may be removed by considering ochropus as de-
rived from t»xeo* and u\ (aspect). This will give us T. ochropus, Green Sandpiper,
and T. glottis, Greenshank Sandpiper, which is in my opinion the correct nomen-
clature. Perhaps the above may be considered " much ado about nothing," but I
doubt not, Mr. Editor, your love for precise nomenclature will lead you to think
otherwise. Believe me,

Very faithfully yours,

Peter Rylands.

Bewsey House, March 2, 1838.

[Our correspondent will find, on reference, that Selby names both T. ochropus
and T. glottis " Greenshank," and certainly the appellation would in some mea-
sure suit both. But we believe the plan proposed above to be the best. — Ed.]

260

PROCEEDINGS OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.

HULL LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
At the meeting of this society on March 6, Mr. Adams, of London, read a
paper on an apparatus for solidifying carbonic acid, which he illustrated by a
number of drawings. In the course of the lecture he gave an account of the
various experiments which he had made both to liquify and to solidify carbonic
acid. — W. H. Dikes, Esq., read a very interesting paper written by a gentleman
now deceased, on the subject of the " Geography of Botany," or the consideration
of plants with reference to climate, and the endeavour to refer the phenomena of
their growth and distribution to external causes. After slightly sketching the
history of the science, Mr. Dikes proceeded to give an account of its present state,
and to demonstrate some of those points which make its details valuable. With
this view he first noticed the influence which the elements of heat, light, moisture,
soil, and atmosphere, produced on plants ; and then proceeded to illustrate the
laws of climate which he had laid down, by tracing, in a cursory manner, the
progress of vegetation from the Poles to the Equator. The paper concluded by a
number of interesting observations on the causes which have contributed to pro-
duce the distribution of plants. — A vote of thanks was given to Mr. Dikes for
his valuable communication.' — Hull Packet^ March 9, 1838.

UNION OF THE CHELTENHAM HORTICULTURAL AND FLORAL
SOCIETY, AND THE GLOUCESTERSHIRE ZOOLOGICAL, BO-
TANICAL, AND HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The Cheltenham Horticultural and Floral Society has become one with the Glou-
cestershire Zoological, Botanical, and Horticultural Society. This union was com-
pleted at an adjourned meeting of the members of the former Society, which took
place on Tuesday, January 30th, at which meeting the report of the Committee
appointed at the annual general meeting, in December, to consider the proposition
made by the Secretary of the Zoological Society for that porpose, was received
and adopted. From this report, and the recommendations and provisions which
it contained, it was evident that the Committee had bestowed considerable atten-
tion upon the subject in all its details, and had, after mature deliberation, come
to the conclusion that the objects of the Floral Society would henceforth be hest
promoted and secured by its becoming identified with the Zoological Society.
The privileges of the present members of the former Society are to be strictly
preserved to them, and they are in addition to enjoy the advantage of admission
to the gardens of the latter on the days of floral exhibitions. These will take

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 261

place on the same plan as heretofore, the first, for the show of spring flowers, being
held in April, and the second on the 24th of May, the day upon which it is pur-
posed to open the Gardens. The arrangements for these exhibitions, under the
auspices and direction of the Zoological and Botanical Society, are expected soon
to be completed, and we doubt not they will prove such as will ensure increased
eclat for all the flower-shows of future years. — Cheltenham Looker-On, Feb. 10,
1838.

CHELTENHAM LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTION.

The following reports are extracted from various numbers of the Cheltenham
Looker-On.

The weekly meetings of this Institution were resumed on January 30, when
Dr. Theodore Boisragon delivered a lecture on Meteorology before a numerous
and highly respectable audience, consisting of the members of the Society and
their friends. The learned gentleman commenced his discourse by an elaborate
introduction, in which the objects proposed by Literary and Philosophical Insti-
tutions were described to be " the bringing before the public subjects in science
and arts generally, so as to lead the mind to recognize, through all the media of
! science, those principles pervading and connecting phenomena very little related
to each other, yet constituting the chain which links all Nature.'' In exemplifi-
cation of this, Meteorology was referred to, and its principles briefly stated. The
precise import of the terms principle, philosophy, and wisdom was inquired into,
and illustrated by reference to the relations subsisting between the facts incident
to the various phenomena of Meteorology; the effects produced by heat on
confined air being selected as an example. The nature of a philosophical truth
was explained in its connection with the Fine Arts, Science, Morals, and Religion ;
adverting to its connection with the last, the lecturer remarked : —

" Even religion itself, and of course the adoption of the best form of it, may
according to this view be said to be a proof of sound philosophy in the person
embracing it, when founded according to the truth of the relations on which its
evidence is based ; and that form of it of course which, in its adaptation both to
the infirm nature of the dependant, though immortal, being for whom it was
designed ; and the glorious object it was intended to fulfil, is the truest, and thus
the most philosophical. In short, examples in philosophy are almost innumerable
m every relation of life ; — in fact, wherever the term relation can be admitted,
and we have to frame our conduct by reason, we may be said to be philosophi-
cally engaged. But true philosophical training of the mind has also this one
great advantage. It is the part of a true philosopher to see how finite the
human mind shows itself in relation to the wonderful mysteries of creation, and
this reflection has a most beneficial influence upon his judgment in cases where
TOL. III. — no. xx. 2 N

262 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

he has to form an opinion on points which are not demonstrable ; for, although
he does not take anything for granted till he has satisfied himself at least of
the probability of its truth, yet, knowing the great difference there is between
reason actually contradicting, and reason not being able to explain, because he
cannot demonstrate to the contrary of what is set forth in any doctrine, as in-
volving no absurdity, suspends his judgment as far as regards demonstration, till
he [can prove either for or against. On looking around us, and beholding the
great predominance of good over evil, should we cast our eyes upon this apparent
anomaly in Nature, viz. — that animals prey upon each other as necessary to their
existence, might we not at first be inclined to doubt universal benevolence, till
philosophy comes to our aid, and says — ' human nature is finite, God all-powerful,
Nature profound, and shall Man dare to dispute the goodness of the Almighty
because he cannot explain all its manifestations V I trust not : as true philoso-
phers we should suspend our judgment.

" This, it may be said, is taking a very comprehensive view of philosophy ; but
is it not so ? — Is noj that an extended, elevated, and ever gratefully-exciting
philosophy which constantly unfolds to our delighted eyes that beautiful con-
nection ever existing between our truest — and therefore purest — sources of real
and lasting enjoyments here, and our eternal happiness hereafter? What a
foundation — what a preparation of the mental soil, wherein to sow the seeds
which are to bring forth the fruits of a sublime religion I

" So much for the real philosophy. This term has, however, been allowed to
slip rather from its original meaning; because, taken collectively, it has been
sometimes used to signify a class of studies or supposed reasonings, which, although
they originated in the observation of facts, went further than Nature and just
reason warranted them ; of this kind, says Professor Playfaib, called by Bacon
the sophistical, were almost all the physical systems of antiquity. And this is
the philosophy (so called) of many of the ancients, who vainly supposed that
reason (that power which enables [us only to perceive relations founded on facts,
and confirmed by other facts, the foundation of the Baconian philosophy) was,
from a few imperfectly observed phenomena, to conjure up a system, which, as it
pretended to explain, was exactly to represent that Nature with which the pro-
pounders had not even condescended to compare it.

" Well might this, which was no philosophy at all, be opprobriously termed
the pride of Man's philosophy, as distinguished from that which Bacon beautifully
terms the interpretation of Nature ; and truly cautious should we be not to con-
found this with philosophy, so that by avoiding the one we discard the other ; lest
we insult the Deity by the abuse of that reason with which he has blest us, and
through the help of which we gain both the knowledge of his true glory, and the
hope to possess it. As the Apostle says, ye shall give a reason for the faith that

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 26$

is in ye. I have dwelt a little on this principle of connection, in order that I
might illustrate both the mode and the importance of taking general and not par-
tial views of Nature."

Resuming the immediate subject of his lecture, Dr. Boisragon proceeded to
point out the importance of Meteorology, viewed in connection with the various
pursuits and occupations of men, and gave a full and comprehensive definition of
the term itself. The chief elements comprised in the science were ranged under
three general heads, viz. — air, water, and luminous meteors, connected with the
operation of which were to be considered their four chief agents — gravitation,
light, heat, and electricity. The peculiar properties of air were described, and
many of the phenomena which result from its weight, transparency, electricity,
and refraction were briefly adverted to. The effects of heat upon the atmos-
phere or air were explained, as were the construction of the various philosophical
instruments invented for the purpose of ascertaining and determining temperature.
With the description of these instruments the lecturer was compelled to close his
discourse, the time allowed having expired. The further discussion of the subject
was accordingly postponed till Friday.

On Friday evening, February 2, Dr. Boisragon delivered his second lecture on
Meteorology. After recapitulating the leading points of the first lecture, a brief
description was given of the various instruments employed for meteorological
observations, and the principles of their construction explained. In speaking of
the aethrioscope, the nature of hot and cold pulses was inquired into. " The hot
pulse, or aerial wave (observed the lecturer), commences from some body or sub-
stance imparting a portion of heat to a contiguous particle of air, which thereupon
expands ; the next particle does the same, depriving the former of its heat, which
again contracts ; and so on successively, — forming pulses continued into the
upper regions, and originating at the surface of the earth. The cold pulses, which
are by some thought to be positive cold sent from above, are nothing more than
the air deprived of its heat : these also commence at the surface of the earth,
being caused by the successive contraction and expansion of the particles of air, as
each deprives the particle above it of its caloric." After explaining other phe-
nomena incident to the effects of heat upon the atmosphere, Dr. Boisragon
proceeded to speak of this powerful agent as producing the operation of land and
sea breezes, which was illustrated by an ingenious experiment. Adverting to
the affections of the barometer from aerial currents, mention was made of Kir-
wan's beautiful theory of partial accumulations of air being caused by the higher
column at the Equator gravitating towards the Pole, and thereby influencing the
course of the currents described — the objections of Lieut. Morrison to Kirwan's
theory were stated, and that gentleman's views of atmospheric electricity briefly

2n 2

264 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

explained — reference being made to the electrometer recently invented by hinl,
which was produced for inspection.

The nature of evaporation was next explained, and the various phenomena
identified with this important agent — as the formation of dew, fog, clouds, rain,
&c. &c. — severally pointed out; and the various instruments, constructed for
measuring and determining the quantities of each, minutely described. The
effects of cold and electricity upon the atmosphere were considered, and a brief
review taken of the various natural phenomena included in the science of Mete-
orology. The lecturer concluded his discourse with some apposite remarks on
the importance of philosophical studies in general, and appealing to the fairer and
gentler portion of the audience, urged upon iherti the importance of looking " upon
philosophy with a kindly eye — not considering it as a difficult or uninteresting
pursuit, beyond the reach of their capacity, but regarding it as the sure guide to \
thinking and acting, and esteeming the power of taking a rational or philosophical
view as essential to real education ; for," continued the lecturer, " it is not neces-
sary that a person should be what is termed scientific to be a philosopher, for aj
poor person, and even a child give proofs of a philosophical mind when, as they .
sometimes do, they observe and act truly according to the relations in which they jj
are placed. Besides, who that has once felt the emotion excited by the per-
ception of a grand or beautiful principle in Nature will deny, that this state of
the mind, elevated to the contemplation of a sublime first cause, is not in itself*
an homage — a tacit hallelujah V This lecture, like the former, was illustrated
with a number of interesting experiments.

On the motion of Dr. Conolly, a vote of thanks to the lecturer was carried by
acclamation.

On Tuesday evening, Feb. 6, Mr. T. Wright delivered the first of a course of
lectures on Fossil Organic Remains. We were glad to see the subject attract so
numerous an audience as was present upon the occasion, and we doubt not, as
the subject will necessarily increase in interest as it proceeds, that the entire
course will prove extensively popular.

In his introduction, which was most eloquently written throughout, Mr.
Wright glanced at the rapid progress which physical science had made -within
the last half century. The discoveries in Chemistry, Electricity, and Magnetism,
with those more connected with the subject of his proposed course of Lectures,
namely, Geology, and Comparative Physiology, were all briefly alluded to, as
themes inspiring sentiments of exalted admiration. Had our limits permitted,
we should have been glad to have availed ourselves of Mr. Wright's permission,
and extracted largely from this portion of the lecture. As it is, however, we
tnust confine ourselves to one or two of the most striking passages.

PROCEEDINGS OP SOCIETIES. 266

*' The philosophic mind, in contemplating these triumphs of Man's noblest
powers, discovers a wonderful and mysterious relation established by his adorable
Creator, between the material universe and his intellectual nature ; the noble
faculties of his mind, which are his highest and best gifts, and the sources of his
purest and most exalted feelings, have been conferred upon him for cultivation ;
the prospective design of their education ; the grand final cause of their confer-
ment, was to constitute him what he is, a moral, intellectual, and religious being ;
the great object of whose existence ought to be adoration and duty to his God,
and love to his fellow men.

" The wonderful mechanism of the Universe, the grandeur and surpassing
beauty every where displayed in the external world, kindle in his mind a thirst
for inquiry, and arouse to action his noblest faculties ; the planet we inhabit, by
a long series of eventful changes, is sumptuously stored and wonderfully provided
for the reception of our species, and every thing is formed in the strictest relation
to our nature, and all admirably adapted to call forth the slumbering energies of
intellectual powers, and afford Man the fullest scope for exercise of his proud
prerogative — reason.

" That the study of the truths of science should in any way be supposed to be
at all calculated to lead the mind astray from its first and most sacred duties, —
worship to God, and the contemplation of His revealed Word with all its sub-
limities, and assurance of a life of peace and rest beyond the grave, — is a paradox
that I humbly confess myself incapable of comprehending ; for what (let me
inquire) are the arrangements of the universe, but the expression of the will of
their Almighty Architect ? — what the discoveries of science, but a superficial
knowledge of those laws by which the fiat of Omnipotence is maintained ? Let
not, therefore, our ardent pursuit of truth be checked by any false fears that we
may penetrate too deeply into the hidden mysteries of Nature ; for, believe me,
in all such investigations, if conducted with an anxious desire to behold truth in
all its loveliness, and to develope those mysterious faculties of the mind which it
has pleased a Bountiful Providence to confer upon us, and with an humble heart
to read Nature's vast volume so liberally thrown open for our instruction, is, next
to the worship of its Divine Author, an intellectual duty worthy of the heirs
of immortality the performance of which calls into healthy activity the soul's
noblest powers, and leads to more lofty conceptions — more sublime contemplations
of their glorious and beneficial Author."

Referring next to the wonders recently brought to light by the study of Fossil
Zoology, the lecturer continued — "Were a superficial observer told that th«
stone, which records the memory of some dear departed friend, was itself the
silent monument left by myriads of animals, whose calcareous parts were incor-
porated with its constituent particles at the time the rock itself was forming at

266 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

the bed of an ancient sea; were he not shewn that no inconsiderable portion of*
the surface of the earth was originally derived from the skeletons of its former
population, that extensive plains and lofty mountains are but the tombs of tens of
thousands of being* who spent their happy day upon its surface, and whose re-
mains are the only record of their existence extant, he would be lost in awe and
in wonder, seeing that the rocks which support his footsteps — that the mountain
chains, which rear in awful majesty their lofty summits to the sky, are but
stupendous monuments upheaved from the bosom of the deep, in which lie en-
tombed, as in a vast cemetery, the exuviae of myriads of animals that tenanted
our planet during immeasurable periods of past time, although these domiciles of
ancient life now lie piled together in one rude confused mass, yet by a Providence
that is .truely wonderful, have these relics of death slowly undergone those che-
mical changes by which they are converted into the limestone that forms the
humble cottage of the peasant, or the marble that adorns the gorgeous palace of
the prince."

On Feb. 13, Mr. Wright delivered his second Leture on Fossil Organic Re-
mains before a numerous audience ; the Rev. G. Bonner, one of the Vice-
Presidents of the Institution, being in the chair.

The lecturer commenced by making some general observations on the tertiary
strata of our island, showing, by well-executed diagrams, their relative position.
The basins of Hants and London were shown to have been once continuous, but
subsequently separated from each other by the rising of the chalk — the plastic
clay and London clay in both retaining the same relative position to the
cretaceous rocks on which they repose. From a beautiful section of the north-
west coast of the Isle of Wight, Mr. Wright demonstrated the disturbance which
took place during the deposition of the tertiary system. The singular manner in
which the plastic clay and London clay formations, with then- accompanying
sands, and the chalk and marl beds at Alum Bay, had been uplifted from the
horizontal position in which they were deposited to the vertical position which
they now occupy, was adduced as a striking illustration of the disturbance which
our own island had experienced during this period of the earth's history, and
anterior to the deposit of the marine and fresh- water formations first noticed by
Mr. Webster at Headon Hill; the similiarity between these deposits and those
of the Paris basin was pointed out, and the singular character first observed by
that geologist, Brongniart's section, namely, their formations being referable to
fresh and salt water, the marine deposits yielding the remains of Whales and
marine Mollusca ; and the fresh- water beds abounding with the bones of qua-
drupeds, land and fresh- water shells. The age of the crag of Norfolk and the
Faluns of Touraine were indicated, and the remains of the newest tertiary strata
were shown to belong to extinct species of living genera, — whereas the quadrupeds

PROCEEDINGS Or SOCIETIES, 867

of the older tertiary rocks were described as animals belonging to extinct genera.
The erratic blocks, scattered over the surface of all continents, were adduced as
evidence of the Noakian deluge recorded in the inspired narrative. Having made
these general observations, Mr. Wright proceeded to describe the Mammalia
whose remains abound in the older tertiary rocks, the discovery of which was
due to the late Baron Ctjvier ; the genius and industry of this great philosopher
was in none of the departments of animated nature more strikingly illustrated
than in his laborious and successful researches into the laws that regulate the
development of animal structure, by which he dispelled, as it were, the mists
that had enshrouded his predecessors in the same path of inquiry.* The unity
of organic structure was exemplified by a train of reasoning intended to show
that every part of animated bodies has an invariable and constant relation to all
the other parts of their economy, and that any deviation in one organ or system
produces a corresponding modification in all the others ; this was strikingly
illustrated by a general sketch of the organization of a carnivorous and of a
herbivorous quadruped. The lecturer said that the same laws pervaded the most
simple as well as the most complicated animals ; they were the same in the "Worm
as in Man himself; but that the limits of his present lecture would not permit
him to enter at greater length on this fascinating branch of philosophical Zoology.
The extinct genera of the first fresh- water formation were described, and the
generic characters of Palceotkerium, Anoplotherium, Antkracotherium, Ckiropo-
tamus, and Adapts, illustrated by beautiful plaster-casts of the skulls of some
of these animals, which had been presented to the Institution by Dr. Chi-
chester. Of the new genus established by Professor Kaup, the Dinotherium*
the remains of which were discovered at Epplesheim, in Hesse Darmstadt, Mr.
Wright gave a general sketch, and of the supposed form and habits of this
animal, from Kaup's restoration, together with Dr. Buckland's conjectures.
From the opinions of these professors the lecturer however dissented, and adduced

* The lecturer here introduced the strikingly grand passage from this great zoologist's introduc-
tion to his description of the hones from the fresh water strata of Mont Martre : " I found

myself placed as in a great charnel house, surrounded by the mutilated fragments of a hundred
■keletons, belonging to more than twenty diiferent kinds of animals, piled confusedly around one ;
itjwas required that every one should be joined to its fellow ; it,'was a resurrection in miniature, but
the immutable laws prescribed to living beings were my directors. At the voice of Comparative
Anatomy — each bone — each fragment of a bone resumed its place. I have no expressions to describe
the pleasure experienced in observing as I discovered one character, how all the consequences which
I predicted from it were successively developed. The feet were in accordance with the character
announced by the teeth — the teeth in harmony with those indicated beforehand by the teeth —
the bones of the legs and thighs, and every thing that ought to unite these two extreme parts, were
conformable to each other precisely as I had arranged them before my conjectures were verified
by the discovery of the parts entire—in a word, the animal was reconstructed, as it were, from a
single bone of its component parts."

268 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

ample anatomical evidence from Kaup's figure of the nearly-perfect skull, dis-
covered in the same locality in 1836, to show that it could not have been supported
on the spine of a terrestrial animal ; seeing that the superior and posterior parts
of the cranium wanted those compensative contrivances which exist in the crania
of terrestrial Mammalia which possess ponderous skulls. This was exemplified by
referring to the crests and prominences already alluded to, which characterize the
skulls of the Elephant, Horse, Boar, Tiger, and Dog. The lecturer then alluded
to the condyles in the skull of the Dinotkerium, which were placed in the
direction of the longitudinal axis of the head ; this he compared with the same
articulating processes in the Dugong, Lamantin, and Porpoise, and showed the
striking affinity which exists between the Dinotkerium and the skull of the
Dugong. Similar opinions had been recently expressed by some of the most
eminent comparative anatomists of the French School. He next described the ■
character of the molar teeth, showed their affinity to those of the Tapirs and other
Pachydermes, and their near approximation to the Cetacea ; the wonderful form
of the lower jaw was described as a unique specimen of organic structure, and the
singular manner in which its anterior third is arched downwards, to carry two
enormous tusk incisors demonstrated, — the nearest analogy to which exists in the
Dugong; these were viewed in reference to the probable aquatic habits of thefl
animal, and were regarded as rakes for tearing up submarine vegetation. From
8 minute anatomical review of its singular organization, the lecturer infered
that the Dinotkerium was a marine animal, nearly allied to the Dugongs and
Lamantins, which inhabit the seas of the Torrid Zone, and could not be supposed
to have any affinities with the lacustrine quadrupeds as stated by Kaup and
Buckland; these opinions he had formed anterior to the publication of DumerilJ|j
and De Blainville's views — to which he had been led by a similar process of
reasoning.

The Mammalia of the Elephantoidal period of the tertiary strata next engaged
the lecturer's attention, a large proportion of which belong to the Pachy-
dermes, as the Elephant, Hippopotamus, Rhinoceros, Horse, and numerous
ruminants, on the inordinate increase of which Carnivora of the order of Lions,
Tigers, Hysenas, Wolves, and Bears roamed through the forest, or lurked in the
dens and caves, to desolate the then existing animal kingdom. The general
character of the earth's surface during this epoch, he observed, must have been
very different from that of the present day, for we can adduce the most conclusive
evidence to shew that the extreme regions of the North, and the shores of the Icy
Sea, possessed a temperature nearly equal, and a vegetation as luxuriant, as that
which now clothes the dry land of the Torrid Zone. In support of this opinion
the lecturer adduced the fossil Elephant, which was found sealed up in a block of
ice near the mouth of the Lena, with its skin and flesh so well preserved that it

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES, 269

was employed for feeding the Dogs of its discoverers. The abundance of Mam-
moths, bones, teeth and tusks which occur throughout the diluvium of Russia,
Eastern Siberia, and the Arctic Marshes was described as evidence of the last
great catastrophe recorded in the inspired narrative. The superficial strata of
Poland, Germany, Bohemia, France, Italy, and of almost every country in the
British Islands were shewn to contain the fossil bones of Elephants. The ossi-
ferous caves of Europe were next alluded to, and the specific characters of the
extinct species of this gigantic genus, now confined to Asia and Africa, pointed
out, from which examination it appeared that the fossil Elephants approached
more closely to the Asiatic than to the African species. From the various cha-
racters of fossil teeth, it was supposed that we possess at least the remains of six
distinct species. The dental formula of the Mastodon and the organization of its
skeleton was compared with that of the Elephant.

The gigantic Mastodon, the remains of which are peculiar to the American
continent, was first described, and its generic characters distinctly pointed out ;
remains of the smaller or narrow-toothed Mastodon are common to both hemis-
pheres ; the characters of this genus repose on the form which the worn surfaces
of their teeth present, and on some osteological modifications which the lecturer
demonstrated. The zoological peculiarities of fossil Rhinoceroses were next
alluded to, and their affinities indicated as forming interesting links that connect
the present isolated species of this gigantic genus with each other, and the entire
group with other Pacht/dermata, and the lecture concluded by demonstrating the
singular organization of the Megatherium.

Mr. Wright resumed his lectures on Fossil Organic Remains on Feb. 20, when
he delivered the third lecture of the course. The lecture table was crowded with
illustrative specimens, and a great number of very beautifully-executed drawings
of the various remains to be described covered the wall above.

The lecturer gave a sketch of the relative position of the secondary strata,
described the formations which compose the saliferous, oolitic, and cretaceous
systems, and made some allusion to the probable condition of the globe during
the deposition of the secondary rocks, and shewed that the animals which tenanted
the air, the land, and the waters of these periods of the earth's history were
altogether different from any thing that we are at present acquainted with. Mr.
W. described the leading features of the class reptiles, and demonstrated the
modification of the structure on which their classification into Chelonians (Tor-
toises), Saurians (Lizards), Ophidians (Serpents), and Batrachians (Frogs) repose.
Fossil reptiles, he said, had been grouped by Von Meyer into marine, terrestrial,
and aerial, &c. He intended to follow this arrangement in the present lecture.
The Ichthyosaurus, or Fish-lizard, being the most singular of all the marine Sau-
rians, was first described. The lecturer entered fully into the peculiarities of its

vol. in. — no. xx. 2 o

270 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

structure, and showed the singular compound character of its skull, which com-
bines the cranium of a Lizard with the jaws of a Porpoise, armed with the teeth
of a Crocodile, and described the series of bony plates which surrounded the
sclerotic coat of the immense eye of that creature, and stated that he had first
described their affinities to the sclerotic plates of Tortoises and Iguanas and other
reptiles, and their use in the mechanism of the organ of vision, adapting that
wonderful instrument to receive the rays of light through media of varied density,
in a lecture he delivered upwards of two years ago before the members of this
Institution, a full report of which was contained in the Cheltenham Chronicle of
the 10th of December, 1835. He thought it was but justice to himself to be
somewhat particular about dates, as Dr. Buckland had received a vast deal of
credit for having pointed out, by a similar train of reasoning, the probable uses of
the plates. The lecture alluded to was delivered upwards of twelve months anterior
to the publication of the Doctor's treatise, and if merit was due to any one it was
assuredly due to him (Mr. Wright). The mechanism of the spine was next
described, and the singular character of the vertebra compared with those of
fishes, which they most closely resembled. The disposition of the several pro-
cesses was viewed in reference to the aquatic habits of the animal, and the
evidence of prospective design which the entire column afforded clearly pointed
out. The form of the thorax and the disposition of the ribs next engaged the
lecturer's attention, and he gave a luminous exposition of the wonderful me-
chanism of the extremities, and showed by numerous examples that the paddle
of the Ichthyosaurus, which at first sight so closely resembled a tesselated pave-
ment, was composed of precisely the same elements that we recognize in the
human arm, fore-arm, and hand, and so far from being a monstrous production,
affords a fine example of that harmony of composition which we everywhere
discover in the mechanism of organic forms. The entire structure of this wonder-
ful reptile showed that it was admirably adapted for swimming with great
rapidity through the sea, and from the armature of its jaws, that it was highly
carnivorous in its habits. From the demonstration of its skeleton the lecturer
proceeded to describe the probable character of its digestive organs, which from
the form of the petrified contents of the intestinal canal, called coprolites, found
with its shattered skeleton, were conjectured to resemble that of the Dog-fish.
This opinion was founded on the fact that some coprolites presented a peculiar
spiral form, which was supposed to be occasioned by the inner membrane of the
canal in which they were contained being provided with a spiral valve, like
the spiral valve of the Dog-fish, or the corkscrew disposition of that canal in the
Sword-fish.

The Plesiosaurus was described as a creature which approached existing Lizards
still more closely than the preceding ; it was distinguished from all other animals

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 271

in the wonderful development of its neck, having in this region of the spine no
less than thirty-five bones, being one-third more than is found in any other living
or extinct animal. This enormous neck, which resembled the body of a Serpent,
was capable of being flexed into the elegant S-shaped curvature so beautifully
shown in our Swans : the paddles of this reptile were between the Cetaceous
character of the preceding genus and those of existing Lizards, and supply us
with interesting links in the series of organic forms. The spine is arranged with
a view to give greater solidity to this region of the body, and the tail is extremely
short, affording a striking contrast to that of the Ichthyosaurus. From the
solidity of the articulations of the spine, the length of the neck, the shortness of
the tail, and the development of the extremities, the Plesiosaurus is supposed to
have frequented shallow seas and estuaries, from being incapable of braving the
open main.

The Mosasaurus was described, and its affinities to the Monitors demonstrated ;
in reviewing the history of the marine Saurians, the lecturer observed, that the
Carnivorous reptiles were the ruling despots of the ocean, during the periods the
oolitiferous sea rolled its wilderness of waves over our present continents, before
whose power of speed, whose weapons of destruction, and whose cunning and
predaceous habits, all the tenants of the deep, when brought within their grasp,
were alike constrained to yield.

But the dry land, as well as the waters of those middle ages, was tenanted by
grange gigantic forms of the same class, organized for subsisting upon a vegetable
regimen. The lecturer described the enormous terrestrial herbivorous reptile dis-
covered by Mr. Mantell, in the Wealden beds, which he called the Iguanodon,
from the circumstance of its teeth resembling those of our modern Iguanas. This
wonderful reptile was supposed by that gentleman to have attained the enormous
length of seventy feet, and the proportion of its several parts, obtained by a
rigorous comparison between the volume and dimensions of the fossil bones and,
teeth with those of the Iguanas of our day, were as follows : —

Iguanadon — the length 70ft. Oin.

Length of the head 4ft. 6in.

Length of the body f 13ft. 6in.

Length of the tail 52ft. Oin.

Height from the ground 9ft. Oin.

Circumference of the body.... > 14ft. 6in.

Length of the thigh and leg 8ft. 2in.

Circumference of ditto 7ft. 6in,

Length of the hind foot 6ft. 2in.

The lecturer here compared the dental formula of the Iguana with that of the
Iguanodon, and stated that the teeth of the latter appeared to be but magnified

2o %

272 , PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

representations of the former ; and described the general character of this enormous
Lizard, which once roamed through the primeval forests that clothed the southern
regions of our island.

The Hyloeosauriis (Lizard-of-the- Weald) is another genus discovered by Mr.
Mantell, and supposed to have been between twenty and thirty feet in length,
and to have been furnished with a large erectile fringe, supported by bony spines,
seventeen inches in length, which rose from the centre of its back. The Mega-
losaurus, discovered in the Stonesfield slate, was a terrestrial Carnivorous reptile,
intermediate in its organization between the Crocodiles and Monitors. This
creature is supposed to have attained fifty feet in length, and to have waged
a fierce war on the Plesiosauri, Crocodilidce, and other Reptilia : the colossal
character of the skeleton, and the formidable structure of the sabre-shaped teeth
which armed its jaws, were demonstrated, and its organization was shown to have
been well adapted to its sanguinary habits.

Mr. Wright's fourth lecture on Fossil Organic Remains was delivered on Feb.
27, in the lecture-room of the Institution, before a numerous audience.

In resuming the consideration of Fossil Reptiles Mr. Wright glanced briefly
at the leading facts which he had explained in his last lecture, regarding the
adaptation of their structure to their habits ; he next entered upon the history of
the Flying Saurians, which he described as the most singular forms of animal life
yet discovered among the ruins of the ancient earth. " To mould and adapt the
typical structure of reptiles," said he, " into a form capable of soaring through
the higher regions of the air, centres such a variety of contrivances, and produces
a form so anomalous, that when the nearly-perfect skeleton of a Pterodactyle
(or wing-toed animal) was exhumed from the calcareous cemetery which had
enshrouded it for ages, the most learned naturalists were at a loss to decide to
what class it in reality belonged ; thus, Blumenbach regarded it as a bird, and
Soemmering as a Bat ; but the structure of its dentiferous jaws, the form of its
breast-bone and scapular arch, with the organization of its members, alike showed
that it was a reptile which had once winged its way through the liquid air. The
remains of six species have been found in the lithographic limestone of Aichstadt
and Solenhofen, and two species in the lias of Lyme Regis and the Stonesfield slate
near Oxford." The lecturer detailed the wonderful mechanism displayed in the
skeletons of these reptiles, and drew an interesting comparison between them
and the skeletons of other vertebrated animals destined for an aerial life, as the
Bats, birds, Flying-dragons, and Flying-fishes. It appears, from Mr Wright's
description, that the Pterodactyle differs from all other animals, either living or
extinct, in the compound character of its anterior members, — the inner fingers
of the hand being armed with sharp claws, like other Lizards ; whilst the outer
finger is enormously developed, — its length equalling that of the entire body.

PROCEEDINGS OP SOCIETIES. 273

This rod-like finger formed the framework which supported a membranous
wing, by which this wonderful creature was enabled to fly in pursuit of the
myriads of insects that fed on the honeyed nectar of the flora of the ancient land.
In concluding his description of this family, he remarked that their structure
formed the passage, in a most remarkable manner, from the low organization of
the cold-blooded Vertebrata to the more complicated mechanism of birds and
Mammalia ; and that the peculiarities of structure, by which these creatures
were linked with them, were neither few, nor difficult to demonstrate ; these the
lecturer pointed out in a most satisfactory manner, by reference to numerous
anatomical specimens and diagrams. He next proceeded to the consideration of
Fossil Crocodiles, and dwelt upon the curious fact first observed by Cuvier, and
confirmed by subsequent discoveries, that the fossil Crocodilidce, found in the
saliferous, oolitic, and cretaceous systems, were allied to our modern long-nosed
Gavials, whilst those found above the chalk approached the broad-muzzled Alli-
gators and Crocodiles. The lecturer drew some interesting inferences from these
facts regarding the character of the animals, on the too rapid increase of which
these fossil Crocodiles were destined to keep a vigilant check. In reviewing the
history of the reptile age, Mr. W. gave some satisfactory physiological reasons for
supposing that the arctic land, during those periods of the earth's history, enjoyed
a much higher temperature than it does now. The history of fossil fishes was
next introduced, and the lecturer remarked that this branch of Paloeontology was
rapidly advancing through the zeal and industry of Professor Agassiz, the great
master of this department of Fossil Zoology. He described the condition in
which the remains of the finny tribes were found, and the localities in
which they occur ; and the interesting facts which had been revealed by Agassiz'
labours, that none of the many hundreds of genera now existing are found in any
formation older than the chalk ; that in the upper members of this system there
are among the many extinct genera only five which are now living ; that of the
fossil fishes, discovered in the older tertiary strata, one half belong to existing
genera, the other half to kinds that are now unknown. These discoveries har-
monize in the most interesting manner with similar results obtained from an
investigation of fossil reptiles and Mammalia ; and show, in a satisfactory man-
ner, the close affinities which exist between the tertiary period and the existing
order of Nature. The lecturer then explained the peculiar features of that
learned naturalist's classification, and showed how intimately the scaly covering
of fishes is related to the other parts of their economy, and how peculiarly
adapted his views are to the advancement of Fossil Ichthyology; seeing that, in
a vast number of instances, it is the scaly covering of these animals alone that
has resisted the rude destroying hand of time. He detailed, from specimens and
diagrams, the character of the fishes found in the different formations, from which

274 PROCEEDINGS OP SOCIETIES.

it appeared, that in proportion as we rise from the ancient to the more modem
systems of strata, the ichthyoid reliquiae approximate in their form and dermal
covering the fishes of the present epoch. The change which appears to have taken
place in the form of the tail of fishes after the deposition of the magnesian lime-
stone was particularly dwelt upon ; namely, that in those found in the Silurian
and carboniferous strata the tail was unequally bilobed, whereas those entombed
in the upper formations of the saliferous, oolitic, and cretaceous systems have
the tail equally bilobed. As the large Lizard-like fishes were the dominant class
in the seas anterior to the creation of the reptiles, they attained enormous
magnitude during the carboniferous era ; into the waters which had deposited
the magnesian limestone, however, reptiles were for the first time introduced,
and these took the place of their ichthyoid predecessors. The lecturer described
some of the striking forms which characterize the different systems of strata, and
showed that important changes had taken place in the family of Sharks, certain
sub-families being confined to particular formations ; and how that the present
forms of that voracious family, with lancet-shaped teeth, had been created about
the period that the last of the long line of marine reptiles had become extinct.
In entering upon the consideration of Fossil Invertebrata, Mr. W. observed that
it would be impossible to describe, as minutely as he wished, the organization of
this highly-interesting division of his subject, seeing that his course was limited ;
he would therefore select those fossils which the student is most likely to encounter
in his rambles. The lecturer gave an outline of the organization and classifi-
cation of molluscous animals, and described the most important traits in the
structure of the Cephalopodes, or those which have their arms or tentacules
disposed around the head, like the Cuttle-fish. Before describing the fossil genera
of this class, he observed that it would be desirable to impart a correct notion of
the peculiar structure of the living representative of the testaceous group of this
class, which in byepast ages had fabricated and inhabited those singularly
abundant fossil shells, called Ammonites, Baculites, Scaphites, &c. The Nauti-
lacece, he said, were once an extensive family, and the last descendant of this
line was the constructor of that elegant shell called the Pearly Nautilus, now on
the table. This shell is a conical tube, which is coiled upon itself; internally
it is divided into a series of air-chambers by transverse partitions. Through the
centre of each division is a small hole, which in the recent state communicates
with a pipe that runs through all the chambers. This pipe terminates in a sac
or reservoir, which surrounds the heart of the creature. Dr. Buckland, in his
late treatise, founds a theory upon the action of this pipe or siphuncle, which may
be thus briefly stated. He supposes that the undulation of the fluid from the
bag to the pipe, by compressing the air in the chambers of the shell, so alters the
specific gravity of the animal, that by these means it is enabled to ascend or

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 275

descend into the water. That this is erroneous must be evident to any one who
reflects that this theory allows only of a change of place in the balancing fluid,
consequently the aggregate weight of the animal and its shell remains the same.
The error into which the Doctor has fallen arises from his having overlooked
the fact that the pericardial bag communicates before by two openings with the
branchial cavity, into which the sea-water is constantly flowing to bathe the
gills; whilst posteriorly there proceeds from the sac a membranous tube that
passes through all the air-chambers of the shell. Thus, when the animal is
creeping upon its fleshy foot at the bottom of the sea, the water, admitted by the
openings just alluded to, distends the bag, and then flows through the entire
tube ; it is clear, therefore, that the weight of the sea-water contained in the bag
and siphuncle is the amount of ballast necessary to retain the animal at the bot-
tom, by rendering it specifically heavier than the ambient fluid ; but supposing
the Nautilus desires to rise to the surface, all that is required to render it spe-
cifically lighter is to get rid of its watery ballast. This it accomplishes by
contracting the bag, and ejecting the fluid through the openings that communicate
with the branchial cavity ; a partial vacuum being thus produced in the bag, —
that portion of the water which had distended the pipe now flows into it, and a
second contraction is all that is requisite in order to render the animal and its
shell specifically lighter ; and thus it is enabled to rise to the surface. When it
wishes to descend it admits the sea-water, bscomes heavier, and gradually sinks
to the bottom.

The concluding lecture of Mr. Wright's course on Fossil Organic Remains was
delivered on March 6, to as numerous an audience as had attended either of the
four preceding lectures.

Mr. Wright demonstrated the organization of the Nautilacece, and described
the mechanism by which these syphoniferous mollusks are enabled to ascend and
descend in the water. From the consideration of the living representative of
this once-extensive group, he proceeded to describe the fossil Nautili of our
neighbourhood, each system of rocks having forms peculiar to them. The Ortho-
ceratite and Lituite were shown to be genera of this family, that commenced and
terminated their career in the waters that deposited the transition series. The
Ammonitidm are an extensive fossil family, composed of five genera, each of which
have received names from their supposed resemblance to particular objects. The
Ammonites have the shell-discoidal more or less compressed, and the spine rolled
upon the same plane ; the partitions terminate in flower-like ramifications upon
the surface, and the last chamber is very capacious, and lodged the body of
the animal ; the surface of the shell is ornamented with an immense variety of
forms, as ribs, flutings, tubercles, &c, which are disposed with exquisite sym-
metry over the entire shell. These are so many mechanical contrivances fof

276 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

increasing the strength of the arch, and compensating for the lightness and
delicacy of the materials that composed the frail habitation of this ancient Mol-
lusca. This genus has been divided into fifteen sub-genera, including, in all,
about three hundred species, — their size varying very much : some are not more
than a line in diameter, whilst there are some found as large as a cart-wheel ; the
specimen on the table, from the lias of Badgworth, is upwards of two feet in
diameter. Baculites are straight Ammonites, just as the Orthoceratites are
straight Nautili : the six species of this genus are altogether confined to the
chalk. Hamites, so called from their hook-shape, are found in the upper oolitic
and cretaceous systems : of the thirty species known, twenty-eight belong to the
latter, and only two to the former. Scaphites are boat-shaped Ammonites, and
their singular form is owing to the shell having taken a particular direction at a
certain period of its development : they are found in the upper formations of the
secondary strata. Turrilites have a spiral shell, curled round like a winding
tower, and gradually diminishing in diameter from the base towards the apex.
Of the seven species of this genus, one is found in the coral rag, three in the
green sand, and three in the chalk ; thus the Ammonitidce may be traced through
all the fossiliferous strata up to the close of the secondary period. The Ammo-
nites extend through all the formations included between the transition limestone
and the superior members of the cretaceous system : other genera, however, were
introduced and terminated their career with particular systems or formations.
The Orthoceratites are found only in the transition rocks, the Scaphites and Tur-
rilites in the upper oolite and chalk, and the Baculites are confined to the latter
formation : the Ammonitidce are entirely absent from the the tertiary strata.
After describing numerous fossil genera of naked Cephalopodes, nearly allied to
the Cuttle-fish, the lecturer proceeded to describe the internal organization of the
Loligo, showing the relation of the horny internal rudimentary skeleton ; he next
entered upon the history of those singular fossils which are so abundant in our
locality, called Belemnites, and which once formed the internal skeleton of a naked
mollusk, probably not unlike the Calmar (or Pen-and-ink-fish) of our coasts.
He demonstrated the complicated structure of these singular fossils, and showed
how they were composed of three distinct portions — first of an elongated cone,
which is more or less compressed, and, when fractured, is seen to be composed of
a remarkable calcareo-fibrous structure, which, when burned, gives out a strong
smell : the fishes radiate from the centre. Secondly, of an alveolus or chambered
shell, embedded in the substance of the fibrous cone. Thirdly, of a delicate
sheath, which expands from the base of the elongated cone, and was destined to
lodge and protect the ink-bag which has been found in situ in some specimens
obtained from the lias. The Belemnitidce were introduced into the seas that
deposited the oolitic system : seventy-five species are found in the lias and oolites,

PROCEEDINGS OP SOCIETIES. 277

and eight species are peculiar to the chalk. After the deposition of the secondary
rocks they all became extinct. As illustrative of the history and organization of
the Foraminiferous Cephalopes, the lecturer described the nummulite which was
so abundant in some localities ; a limestone rock, composed almost entirely of this
fossil, was that of which the Pyramids are built. Mr. Weight gave a general
sketch of the organization of the Casteropoda and Conchifera, and explained the
character of some of the genera of these classes, which are so very abundant in
our neighbourhood ; and he detailed the striking disparity between the Herbivo-

, rous and Carnivorous trachelopodes in the older rocks, and showed that the part
which was once played by the Cuttlefish tribe, in checking their increase, was,
after the extinction of the Ammonitidce, performed by Carnivorous Casteropods,
singularly adapted to wage war upon the almost defenceless Herbivora. The
lecturer gave a general sketch of the organization and classification of the Arti-
culated animals, and observed that, although above a hundred thousand species

I of insects are deposited in our museums, and which number was supposed to be

| far short of the number existing, yet this extensive class were almost altogether
absent in the stratified rocks ; fossil insects are found in the coal formations and

| in the oolitic system ; and above sixty genera are known to exist in the tertiary
strata. The class Crustacea next engaged the lecturer's attention, and he demon-
strated the fossil Crabs, which are found in such abundance in the London clay
of the isle of Sheppey, from numerous specimens on the table, from that locale.
The genus Astacus was described, and the species from our neighbourhood shown

- which had lately been figured in the Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire. The
singular and ancient family Trilobitidce were described, and their organization
and classification amply illustrated by numerous specimens and drawings, repre-
senting some of the most interesting genera. The faculty which Calymene
enjoyed, of rolling itself into a ball like the Glomeris and Armadillo, was alluded
to; and the affinities which exist between the Trilobites and other isopod-
ous Crustacea satisfactorily demonstrated. The fossil Cypris was described,
and the history of the species abundant jn our neighbourhood detailed, to
explain the wonderful abundance of the horny shells of these microscopic
Entomostraca in some tertiary fresh-water formations. The character of the
genus Limulus was described, and the lecturer entered upon the history of Fossil
Radiata. He demonstrated the organization of the Echinodermata, and showed
the interesting gradations of structure observed in this class, from the globular
shell of the Echinus to the radiated form of the Starfish : this was rendered very
familiar by dividing the skin of an orange into five segments, which, retained in
situ, produced a form analogous to the Common Urchin ; but which, when folded
down, assumed the characteristic shape of the Starfish. The gradations of struc-
ture presented by the different genera of the Stellirida were next described, and
VOL. III. — no. xx. 2 p

278 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

the connecting links between this family and the Ananchytes demonstrated ; the
only living representative of which is the Pentacrinus ( Caput Medusa) of the

West-Indian Seas. The lecturer gave the history of this ancient family of fixed
radiate animals, and explained their singular structure, and showed the affinities
between them and the Starfish, Ophiura, and Euryale of our seas. In conclusion,
Mr. Wright observed, " In reviewing the vast number of facts I have submitted
for your consideration, I trust I have succeeded in convincing you that the study
of fossil remains, and of the strata that contain them, can no longer be supposed
to lead the mind astray from its first and most holy duty — the worship of its
Adorable Creator. Is is possible that the Christian's fondest and dearest hopes
can be at all weakened by surveying the stupendous grandeur of the material
world ? — that his assurance of a future can be at all weakened by contemplating
the immensity of the past ? No, it cannot be. Geology, so far from being
opposed to the religion of the Bible, is the only science that is capable of demon-
strating that a special Providence alike directs the fiery vomit of the volcano and
the development of the zoophyte ; it teaches Man that there was a time when
no living thing animated the primeval ocean ; that there was a starting point —
a beginning ; it shews him that the regulating hand of Omnipotence has, through
all the immensity of the past, adjusted and maintained the economy of our
planet ; that peculiar forms of animal life were created, to perform a certain part
in the " police of Nature ;" and that, when that part was no longer required, they
were annihilated, to give place to others better adapted, by some new feature
in their organization, to the character of the changing scene they were for a brief
span destined to animate ; and finally, Geology shows that, when the appointed
time had arrived, Man — stamped with the image of his God — was placed upon
its surface, just at that period when the external world had been prepared, by a
long series of eventful changes, for his reception ; with the furniture of the
universe wonderfully adapted to his nature, and calculated to arouse to action
his noblest faculties. It is thus the brilliant discoveries of modern Geology
become the handmaids of natural theology, and show, in the most striking and
satisfactory manner, the unity of the stupendous design and creative intelligence
of the Great First Cause ; for whilst the crust of our planet was destined by
its Creator to pass through a series of successive though turbulent changes, still
do we find the structure and functions of the myriads of animals that have lived
and died upon its surface, through all the periods of geological chronology, to
present the same exquisite organization — the same perfect adaptation to sur-
rounding nature, and to their varied habits and instincts, as the countless
numbers of happy beings that fill, with life and activity, the air, the earth, and
the waters of the present day.

At the close of the lecture the President of the Institution (Dr. BoiSRAf.ox)

MISCELLANY. 279

addressed the meeting, and took a brief review of Mr. Wright's very able and
beautiful course of lectures, just concluded. He then glanced at the progress of
the Institution during the past year, and announced that the Annual General
Meeting of the Society would take place on Tuesday evening next, when the
Officers and Committee for the year ensuing would be elected.

CHAPTER OF MISCELLANIES.

ZOOLOGY.

The American Wigeon taken in Lincolnshire. — A specimen of the Ameri-
can Wigeon, taken in the Lincolnshire Fens, was exhibited at the last meeting
of the Zoological Society, by Mr. Blyth, being the first known instance of the
occurrence of this species in Europe. — Ed., April 11, 1838.

Submarine Wood at Bootle. — By order of the Corporation, a sewer has
lately been making at a place called Beacon's Gutter, the boundary line of
Liverpool on the north shore ; and the men in digging have found a great quan-
tity of hazel-nuts imbedded in a sort of peat formed of decayed wood. They were
found about eight or ten feet below the surface. Between high and low water
mark large pieces of Oak have been found in a very good state of preservation,
the interior being quite hard, and fit for fire- wood. Many of the nuts appear
to have been gnawed by Squirrels or Mice ; some of them crumble to pieces on
being handled ; but the shell of a great many is tolerably firm. Large quantities
are in possession of different individuals. — T. B. Hall, Woodside, near Liverpool,
March 1, 1838.

Occurrence op the Otter (Lutra vulgaris) near Cupar. — No less than
five of these piscatorial quadrupeds have within these three weeks been taken in
the Eder, near Cupar, and of some the stuffed skins, in others the skeletons, are
being prepared for the museum of the Literary and Antiquarian Society. One
fine animal having been caught with a stamp, and being but slightly injured,
was last week sent off to the Zoological Society's collection, Regent's Park, Lon-
don, which has been for some time past without any specimen of a live Otter.
The anatomy of the head of the Otter is in some respects peculiar. The jaw-
bone, instead of working with a simple joint or condyle and capsule, as in other
Mammalia, is fastened by a ball and socket joint, the ball being so far inclosed
by the socket that, without fracture of the bone, dislocation is impossible. The
teeth, again, are sharp and clasping, so that when the jaw is shut, their outline
presents an acute angled zig-zag. From these causes, few animals give a more

•80 MISCELLANY.

savage bite, or take a firmer hold, than the Otter, Nature having thus adapted
it for the seizure and retention of its smooth-skinned powerful finny prey, when
sweeping through the water, or struggling in the agonies of death. — Fifeshire
Journal, Jan. 25, 1838, communicated by Mr. Henry Buist, Law Park, near
St. Andrews.

BOTANY.

Proportion op Forests to the Rest of the Soil in Europe. — According
to a statement in the French papers, the proportion which forests bear to the rest
of the soil in Russia, Sweden, Norway, and Germany is one third ; in Austria
and Prussia, one fourth ; one-fifth in Belgium ; one-sixth in Switzerland ; one-
seventh in France; one-ninth in Italy; and one-twelfth in Spain. The British
Islands have only the twenty -fifth part of their territories covered with forests. —
Athenaeum, April 7, 1838.

Enormous Mushroom. — A Mushroom, attaining the almost incredible size of
three feet one inch in circumference, and from which very nearly a pint of ket-
chup was extracted, was last week gathered in a field belonging to P. J. P. J
Burman, Esq., Henley-in-Arden, "Warwickshire. — Guide, Oct. 14, 1837.

Effects of the Frost in the Horticultural Gardens. — The late severe
winter has caused considerable devastation amongst the hardy and semi-hardy
plants. There is scarcely a New Holland or Chili plant that has escaped, and
many that have for years stood constant exposure to the weather, have this
year been totally destroyed. Amongst these are several fine Arbutuses, of all
the specimens in the garden only one remaining ; several Acacias, and also Juni-
pers, many of which it was imagined would have borne a climate like that of this
country. These results must be considered as very unfortunate by the horticul-
turist, as fatal to many experiments for acclimitizing plants which are natives o*J
warmer regions in this country. A great devastation has also taken place
amongst the Boses, but many which were considered dead show fresh signs of
vitality from the improved genial state of the weather. As a proof of the va-
riable state of the weather, it may be stated, that whilst on March 29, at the
gardens, the thermometer stood at 62° Fahrenheit, on April 1, it was as low
as 16°. — Morning Chronicle.

Effects of the Winter. — The different agricultural reports give deplorable
accounts of the destruction of shrubs and evergreens by the frosts ; even the Ivy
has been affected by them. In one part of the county of Berks there is only one
garden that contains any Brocoli alive, and what is remarkable, it is situated on
the top. of one of the most exposed chalk hills in the county ! The occurrence is
accounted for by the fact that at some periods the frosts are more severe in the

MISCELLANY. 281

vallies than on the mountains. — Gloucestershire Chronicle, April 14, 1837.
[We have seen and received many notices of a similar nature to the above. — Ed.
Nat.]

GEOLOGY.

Antediluvian Remains. — A specimen of an antediluvian monster of the
Ichthyosaurus tribe has this week been discovered in a quarry at Twerton, the
property of C. Wilkins, Esq. It is a petrified skeleton embedded in lias, of
which the huge jaws, teeth, vertebrae, and ribs are perfect. — Bath Journal, as
quoted in the Derby Reporter, March 26, 1838.

Carbonized Tree. — A tree in a complete state of carbonization has been
found at Guadaloupe, buried in the midst of volcanic substances. There was no
vestige of leaves ; it was broken seven feet below the first branches, and the
fracture resembled that of trees destroyed by a hurricane ; it was at intervals
surrounded by a parchment-like cylindrical substance, the colour of a dead leaf,
which was the remainder of a vegetable, called in that country the " burning
Liana," which is as succulent as the Cactus, and which, being suddenly exposed
to a violent heat, lost its aqueous particles without the entire destruction of its
bark. The whole was found in a stratum of red puzzolanum mixed with pu-
mice. The charcoal to which it was reduced, was the same as that used for
domestic purposes, except that a slight smell of coal was exhaled from it during
combustion. Six different strata laid above this tree ; the uppermost, of vege-
table earth, proved the antiquity of the whole, and this, combined with the dis-
tance from the present active volcano, makes it probable that the irruption which
covered it proceeded from the Hue'lmont group, of which the Cara'ibe forms the
principal summit. — Athenaeum, March 24, 1838.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis ; sive Enumeratio contracta
Ordinum, Generum, Specierumque Plantarum hue usque cognitarum, juxta
Methodi Naturalis Normas digesta. Auctore Aug. Pyramo De Candolle.
Pars sexta : sistens Compositarum continuationem. Parisiis : Treuttel et Wurtz.
—London: Henry Kernot, 59, Greek-Street, Soho-Square. 1837.

282 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

Here we have the sixth volume — containing nearly 700 pages — of De Can-
dolle's elaborately-composed Prodromes. The characters of the various groups
and species of the vast order Composites are given in Latin, in a concise and
comprehensive manner. The volume is, of course, not calculated for the pur-
poses of the reviewer ; and both the work and its learned author are so well-
known and justly appreciated by the botanical world, that further criticism
appears needless.

The Naturalist's Library. Vol XX. Birds of Great Britain and Ireland.
Part i. Birds of Prey. By Sir William Jardine, Bart., &c. London : S>
Highley. 1838.

The volume before us opens with a brief memoir of Sir Robert Sibbald.
After working through the pages devoted to his pedigree, &c, we are informed
that he was born at Edinburgh, April 15, 1641. He received the rudments of
his education at the High School of Edinburgh, and in due time entered the
University of the same city, where we learn that " he studied hard, shunning all
plays and amusements." On March 23, 1660, Sibbald embarked in a Dutch
frigate, and proceeded to Leyden, where he remained a year and a half, pro-
secuting his medical studies. He took his degree of M.D. at Angiers, on July 17
1662, and returned to the Scottish metropolis in October of the same year.
About the year 1666, the return of Dr. Andrew Balfour from France was the
means of exciting Dr. Sibbald to more particular attention to the study of
Natural History. A short time after, Sibbald, Balfour, and Murray — the
Laird of Livingstone, " a great botanist" — established a Botanic Garden at Edin-
burgh. On April 25, 1677, Dr. Sibbald married Anne, second sister of Mr.
Lowes, of Merchison, and two or three years afterwards he formed an intimacy
with the Earl of Perth. By the influence of this nobleman, he obtained a patent
from Charles II., constituting him his Majesty's geographer for Scotland,
together with another appointing him his physician there. In 1681, Dr. Sibbald
was highly instrumental in the establishment of the Edinburgh College of Physi-
cians, and at the commencement of the succeeding year received the honour of
knighthood. In 1684 appeared his " Scotia Illustrata, sive Prodromus Historise
Naturalis," which is his principal work on Natural History. After a narration
of the surprising convertion and reconversion of Sir Robert, we are furnished
with several interesting letters to his friends. The exact period of his death is
not known, but is presumed to have occurred in the year 1722. At the conclu-
sion of the memoir a list of Sibbald's works, with dates of publication, &c, is
furnished.

OBITUARY. 283

We must now take a glance at that portion of the volume devoted to the
British birds of prey. The Introduction is interesting, and contains a short sketch
of the progress of Ornithology in Britain. The birds are arranged according to
the quinary system, and the characters of the genera are illustrated with wood-
cuts. We are sorry to observe these badly executed. As in the former volumes,
the present, contains thirty-four coloured engravings. Several plates are devoted
to the eggs of the species. This is a new feature in the work, and will most
likely be considered an addition to its value. On the whole, the plates are
tolerably well executed, although faults both of the engraver and colourer might
readily be pointed out.

We wish, in conclusion, every prosperity to Sir William and his Library, and
doubt not that his Raptores will be gladly welcomed by the student of British
Ornithology. — R.

The India Review ; and Journal of Foreign Science and the Arts. Edited by
Frederick Corbyn, Esq. No. xvii., Aug. 15, 1837. Calcutta : G. Woollaston,
.No. 49, Cossitollah.

This number — the only one we have seen — contains several interesting original
communications on Natural History, some of which we shall probably extract at
an early opportunity. The English Journals are frequently laid under contribu-
tion in the work before us.

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE,

Mr. Waterton's Essays in Natural History are at length published. If
favoured with a copy for review, we hope to give the volume early notice. — ■
Messrs. Longman & Co. announce a work On the Doctrine of the Deluge, by the
Rev. L. Vernon Harcourt. — Likewise a Popular Introduction to the Modern
Classification of Insects, by Mr. Westwood. It is intended as a sequel to the
entomological woi*k of Kirby and SpEnce, and will be issued in monthly parts.

OBITUARY.

I regret to announce the death of Jabez Gibson, Esq., banker, Saffron Walden,
Essex, Feb. 22, 1838. Although perhaps not known to any of your readers by
the prosecution of scientific researches, he was still one who claims the especial

284 OBITUARY.

notice of The Naturalist, on account of the liberal manner in which, by his purse
and influence, he encouraged, science, especially Natural History. I believe it is
owing chiefly, if not entirely, to his zeal, that the town of Walden is possessed
of so many valuable institutions, which alike reflect credit on their founders and
those who support them. In connection with the name of Mr. Gibson I can
but introduce to your readers some of the institutions above alluded to, and I do
so as the spread and advancement of Natural History has ever been a prominent
feature in them. And first of the Agricultural Society, which has now been
established four or five years, and is in a very prosperous condition ; its success
has been beyond the anticipation of its founders, and Agriculture has already
been considerably raised in the neighbourhood through its means.* The
Horticultural is also a flourishing society, and of much earlier date than the last ;
by the encouragement it has given to the cultivation of the garden allotments so
extensively (and, I believe, originally) adopted in this parish, it has succeeded
in giving a new aspect to the poorer population. Both these societies have libra-
ries, in which will be found some of our best works in every department of 1
Natural History. The Society for Mental Improvement, is one in which the late
Mr. Gibson took great interest, regularly attending its meetings ; taking part in
the discussions, and delivering occasionally a lecture to its members. It was
after attending one of these meetings that he was attacked with the fatal
stroke which so speedily and painfully removed him from the midst of his friends.
But the institution which I believe is most indebted to Mr. Gibson, and which
I look upon with the most interest, and consider the highest honour of the town,
is its Natural History Society. In connection with this society, by the exertions
of five or six individuals, a museum has been formed that would do credit to any
town in the kingdom. By the industry of the Curators, and the liberality of
Mr. Gibson, some of the rarest objects in Zoology have been placed there, and
the collection especially of British birds and that of British and Foreign insects,
is very excellent. I hope soon to be able to furnish your readers with a more
full account of the rise and present state of this museum. In the mean time it
is to be hoped that the example of Mr. Gibson will not be lost upon your more
wealthy readers, seeing how much it is in their power to promote the diffusion
of science, and by this means to increase the happiness and welfare of the great
mass of mankind. — E. L.

* This Society, in conjunction with the Entomological Society of London, lately offered a prize
for the best essay on the Turnip-fly, as announced by Mr. Westwood, p. J40. The statement of
Mr. Lankestkr (p. 10G), relative to the amount of the prize, is probably a mistake. — Ed.

Fig. 1. Restored figure of Alcyonia monilia. Half the natural size.
No. xx i. Piute 1.

Fig. 2. Tentaculum running through the upright stem of Alcyonia monilia.— Casts of branches, apparently
proceeding from stem, a ; upright stem, b, b. — Natural size.

Fig. 3. Two large lobes of Alcyonia monilia, connected by a beaded tentaculum. Half the natural size.

No. xxi. Plate 2.

Fig. 4. Oological Cabinet.

THE NATURALIST.

VOL. III., No. XXL— JUNE, 1838.

A SKETCH OF THE NEW RED SANDSTONE FORMATION.*
By the Rev. Thomas Dwyer, M. A., and Geoege Thompson, Esq.
The New Red Sandstone in its composition consists entirely of the abraded
and disintegrated fragments of older rocks, the harder and less worn portions of
which abundantly occur as pebbles of larger or smaller size, rarely if ever exceed-
ing^ in dimensions a diameter of about six inches. The New Red Sandstone
strata are generally inclined to the horizon at very small angles, and form hills
of but inconsiderable elevation. In these two latter circumstances it is peculiarly
and remarkably distinct from all older formations, which are almost always
found inclined to the horizon at very high angles, and which attain the greatest
elevations about the level of the sea.

In the neighbourhood of Liverpool the dip of the New Red Sandstone varies
from about 6 to 7 degrees to from 10 to about 13 degrees ; in the peninsula of
Wirral the dip is very uniformly about 6 or 7 degrees ; on the east side of the river
Mersey it varies more considerably, and we think we may say without exception
that this dip is always to some point of the compass between N.E. and S.E.
At the time the New Red Sandstone was formed, the relative positions of land
and water were undoubtedly exceedingly different from what they are now. The
whole area of England south of the Cumberland and Westmoreland hills and east
of the Welsh mountains, together with an extensive portion of the adjoining
continent of Europe, must at this ancient period have been the bed of the ocean ;
and yet there must at the same time have been great and extensive tracts of
land of primary formation above the level of the ocean, to account for the
millions upon millions of cubic yards of materials which were then' constantly
being abraded and worn away from the main land, and embedded in the ad-
jacent seas, to the accumulation of strata of many thousand feet in thickness.
Yet we find now no traces of such extensive tracts of land : the only primary
formations at present existing in these neighbourhoods are of an isolated character,
extremely limited in geographical extent, and incapable of furnishing anything

* These pages are extracted from a paper read at the January meeting of the Liverpool Natural
History Society. — Ed.

VOL. ill. — NO. xxr. 2 Q

286 NEW RED SANDSTONE FORMATION.

like an extensive formation. We are therefore driven to the conclusion, that
there were at one time extensive tracts of land of primary formation where now
is nothing but sea. And it almost seems as if in the lapse of time a nearly total
change of sea and land has taken place. If a chief portion of the Continent was
once the bed of the sea — of which we think there is undoubted evidence — and
if also a chief portion of the continent of North America was once and probably
at the same geological era similarly situated, why may there not in the Atlantic
Ocean, which now rolls its vast waves uninterruptedly from continent to con-
tinent ? Why may there not have been large islands and tracts of land with
their mountains, hills, vallies, and other phenomena, which have been worn away
and destroyed by the powerful action of the elements which then, in all pro-
bability, acted with much greater intensity than now ? And at the time the
present dry land was gradually being raised from below the level of the sea,
other portions of the earth's surface may have as gradually been subsiding ; of
the one we have positive evidence, but of the other we can only have, from the
nature of the case, negative evidence.

Immediately prior to the deposition of the New Red Sandstone formation,
extensive and sudden changes seem to have taken place with respect to the then
relative position of the sea and land. The sea seems to have acted on the land
with great turbulence and violence, and the turbid and muddy waters have
deposited with considerable rapidity the lower beds of the New Red Sandstone
formation. Under circumstances of this kind, where we find the hardest rocks
have been ground down into fine debris, there is little or no probability that
there would be any preservation of the delicate fabric of organized beings ; not
but that they may have been fully as abundant then as they were both before
and subsequently. The waters seem to have acted with irregular degrees o:
violence, often coming apparently in floods or flushes, bearing with it a quantity
of stones and pebbles, and then depositing upon these latter finer materials, as
may be seen most frequently in the strata of the New Red Sandstone, in quarries
and other localities, where the lower part of a stratum will be a kind of con
glomerate, and the upper part of it a fine-grained Sandstone. Sometimes the
water would come with such force as to work up what had already been deposited,
and redeposit it, so that we have pebbles of the New Red Sandstone itself, ai
well as pebbles of the older rocks occurring in its strata. At other times the
rock has been deposited so finely that it is laminated in seams almost as thin as
the leaves of a book ; in this case the pebbles are rare and very small. There
would also, no doubt, be partial eddies and currents of water, accompanied with
smoothness and stillness, to which may be owing the minute and fine grained
appearance of the rock in some places. In many strata of the New Red Sand
stone may be traced ripple marks precisely the same as those which are formed

ORNITHOLOGY OP ST. ANDREWS. 287

by the sea on our shores at the present day. There are some other facts con-
nected with the New Red Sandstone which are worthy of notice. The extreme
rarity of argillaceous materials in the lower beds of the New Red Sandstone
formation, and its great abundance in the upper. The lower beds are altogether
pebbly or arenaceous, with a few nodules of clay, whereas the upper beds con-
tain strata of clay many feet in thickness, and there seems to be a gradual
increase of argillaceous deposit as we rise in the scale of the strata. Many of
these strata of Marl appear to have been deposited much thicker than they are
now, for the upper surface of them is ridged and furrowed as if strong action of
water had passed over them and carried a good deal of their materials away.
And this is probably the origin of the great number of nodules of Clay which
exist in the New Red Sandstone strata.

All these conditions which have been mentioned serve to shew under what
circumstances the New Red Sandstone was deposited, and they also render it
little remarkable that traces (for they are but traces) of organized beings are so
extremely rare. It is true that some fossils from the New Red Sandstone were
exhibited by the Rev. James Yates at the late meeting of the British Associa-
tion in this town, but these were entirely the fossils of the Coal measures, which
were discovered in some of the New Red Sandstone in Worcestershire ; and we
think it likely, that the circumstances of their being discovered would be either,
first, that they were in embedded masses and fragments of the Coal measures
which had been torn from the places where they were in situ, and so mixed with
the pebbles and other ingredients of the New Red Sandstone, which is not at all
unlikely, for pebbles from the Coal measures are abundant in some beds of the
New Red Sandstone, as we ourselves have seen ; or, secondly, that in that part
of England the causes which had tended to produce the Coal measures and the
Coal measure fossils and plants, had not altogether ceased to act when the causes
which produced the New Red Sandstone had come into operation.

NOTES ON THE ORNITHOLOGY OF ST. ANDREWS.
By Henry Buist.

The Dipper, Cinclus aquaticus. — This active little bird is by no means com-
mon in the immediate neighbourhood of St. Andrews, although it is occasionally
noticed on the banks of the Kinnes-burn close to the town. It may, however, be
seen in abundance at the Kenlie, a small stream about four miles distant.

The Fieldfare, Turdus pilaris. — Visits us regularly every year. In The
Naturalist, Vol. II., page 326', an instance is recorded of this bird breeding in

2q2

288 ORNITHOLOGY OF ST. ANDREWS.

Scotland, and I have now much pleasure in recording other two instances.
A t>air of these birds built their nest here in the summer of 1835, in the cleft of
a Beech-tree, about twenty feet from the ground. It was, however, unfortunately
destroyed after four eggs had been laid. The nest was very like that of the
Garden Ouzel. The other instance is that of a pair which built last summer in a
garden in the West of Fife. This nest was built in an Apple-tree, four or five
feet from the ground. The female displayed a great degree of boldness when on
her nest. She actually allowed herself to be lifted from her nest (which was
frequently done), the eggs and nest to be examined, and again replaced, looking
all the while as if nothing had happened.

Garden or Common Thrush, Turdus horlensis. — Very abundant. They destroy
great quantities of almost all kinds of fruit. Strawberries, Gooseberries, Currants,
Cherries, Apples and Pears, the berries of the Holly, Alder, and Mountain-ash
being greedily devoured by them. They do not spare the berries of the Mountain-
ash around the house here so long as they do with you* (British Song Birds,
page 18), for no sooner are they fully ripe than this bird and the Garden Ouzel
commence eating them, and in a short time devour the whole. The favourite
site of the Thrush's nest here is in evergreen shrubs, young trees, and hedges ; but
last year I found a nest containing five eggs in a hole on a grassy bank at the
side of a small stream ; this must, however, be considered a very uncommon
locality for the nest, especially as it was close to a plantation of young trees
abounding in the ordinary situations that are selected.

Spring Oatear, Budytes verna. — Common. My observations on this bird agree
with those of your correspondent Mr. Salmon (Vol. II., page 103), as I have
found it at all times frequenting the Kinnes-burn. Some of them remain with
us during the winter. I observed a single individual flying about the streets of
St. Andrews on the 21st of January this year — one of the most stormy days we
had during the winter.

Sky Lark, Alauda arvensis. — Very abundant except during the winter months,
when great numbers of them leave us for the south. Owing to the great quantity
of snow on the ground during the months of January and February this year, the
Sky Lark was very late in beginning to sing. The first one I heard singing was
on the 4th of March, but on the 5th of the same month (which I may say was
the first spring day we had this season — a gentle wind blowing from the west,
with bright sunshine) the air resounded the whole day with their song. On the
same day the Redbreast, Chaffinch, Yellow and Corn Buntings, and the Hedge
Dunnock, were busily engaged with their respective songs. Last year I heard the
Lark singing as early as the first of February. I have frequently heard them

* Our remark chiefly holds good in districts where the Mounta:.n-ash is very abundant.— Ed.

ORNITHOLOGY OF ST. ANDREWS. 289

singing on the ground, when I think there is a greater variety of notes than when
soaring in the air ; but this may be in consequence of their notes being more
distinctly heard.

Com Bunting, Emberiza miliaria. — Very common here at all seasons, although
not quite so abundant in winter as at other times. During the spring and sum-
mer it may be seen perched on the most prominent twig of a hedge or bush, or as
frequently on the top of any strong weed (such as the Common Dock) in the
Corn-fields that may be higher than the Corn. There seated, he goes over his
song, if song it may be called. He is not, however, easily disturbed, for he will
generally allow you to be close upon him before he flies off, and he seldom flies
far if there is any prominent twig near, on which he alights, and again resumes
his song.

Yellow Bunting, Emberiza citrinella. — This beautiful Bunting is very plentiful
in this district, and may be seen in abundance at all seasons. During the win-
ter they generally fly in large flocks along with the Chaffinch, Whin Linnet, and
Green Grosbeak. In the British Song Birds, page 195, it is stated that its song
is first heard in April. This is evidently a mistake,* as I heard it singing this
year (in which all the birds have been late in commencing to sing) on the 3rd
of March, and you mention in The Naturalist, Vol. II., page 54, having heard it
last year on the 13th of February. The most common situation for its nest here
is the sides of ditches, the bottoms of hedges, and Whin-bushes, but I have also
frequently found it in Strawberry-rows.

Chaffinch, Fringilla cozlebs. — This pretty little bird is very common here at all
seasons. It is stated in the British Song Birds, page 350, that the nest " is
rarely met with in hedges of any kind."t This is by no means a rare occurrence
here, for I find every year a great many of their nests in a hedge (composed of
Beech, Hawthorn, Privet, and Holly) surrounding the garden. The nest in this
hedge is most frequently built on the Beech. I have frequently found it on
Hawthorn hedges. It often builds on the Alder and Apple trees ; I have seen
its nest on a wall fruit-tree, and once found one between fifteen and twenty feet
from the ground, on a large Beech-tree, close to the main stem.

Goldfinch, Carduelis elegans. — Not a common bird here, but may occasionally
be seen. A few of them remain with us during the winter, when they may be
seen in pairs flying about the heads of withered Thistles, picking the seeds that
may still remain in them.

* Like many other of our native songsters it resumes its notes with the first indications of a
return of spring weather ; and, like them, frequently again becomes mute in case of, a relapse of
rude north or east winds. The regular setting-in of its song for the season therefore depends
mainly upon the weather. — Ed.

tvWe have found it in hedges, but certainly not commonly.— Ed.

290 ORNITHOLOGY OF ST. ANDREWS.

Ivy Wren, Anorthura troglodytes. — Very abundant. Its song is very similar
to that of the Redbreast, but more shrill and lively. A pair of these interesting
little birds build annually among the Raspberry-bushes in the garden. We have
also every year two or three of their nests built of withered Beech-leaves in the
Juniper and other bushes, which however are never inhabited. I have always
observed the nest to be lined with feathers. In one of the many severe days
which we have had during the past winter, I saw five or six of these little birds
in the afternoon creep into a Swallow's nest built on the house here, where they
would probably remain during the night, protected from the stormy blasts.

Kingfisher, Alcedo ispida. — A single specimen of this splendid little bird (the
only one that I know of having been seen in this neighbourhood) was shot on the
Kinnes-burn (see p. 43) about half a mile from St. Andrews, in the spring of
1834. The specimen, which was stuffed, is still in the possession of the person
who shot it.

Ring Pigeon, Columba palumbus. — Very common. During the late storm,
when the ground was covered with snow, immense flocks of this Pigeon visited
the gardens here, and made great havoc among the vegetables which were above
the snow, and the leaves of which they devoured. But when the snow began to
melt they betook themselves to the Turnip-fields, where they were equally, if not
more destructive, as they not only devoured the leaves but hollowed-out the sides
of many of the Turnips also.*

Peewit Lapwing, Vanellus cristatus. — Abundant during the summer months.
I first observed it here last year on the 27th of March, on which day there was a
considerable fall of snow, and it took its departure about the beginning of
November. This year I saw one on the 12th of February, when the ground was
covered with snow, and on the 5th, 8th, and 12th of this month I saw flocks of
them flying north.

Chimney Swallow, Hirundo rustica. — I first observed the Swallows here in
1836 on the 25th of April, and last year they were three days later in making
their appearance, namely, on the 28th of April. On the 30th of September last
year I observed them congregating in great numbers, as if preparing to take their
departure for a warmer clime. I did not see them after that day.

Corn Crake, Crex pratensis. — Heard the cry of this bird for the first time in
1836 on the 16th of May. I however heard him some days sooner last year,
namely, on the 13th of May.

Hooper Swan, Cygnus ferus. — Several flocks of this large and magnificent bird
were seen passing over the river Eden during the late storm. One particularly
numerous flock was observed very close on shore and near the ground, about

* Is our correspondent certain of this ? If so, the fact is new to us.— Ed.

POPULARITY OP NATURAL HISTORY. 291

three miles from St. Andrews^ These magnificent birds have occasionally been
shot on the Eden, but are, comparatively speaking, unless in cases of severe and
long-continued storms, strangers to our shores.

Common Teal, Anas crecca. — A great many specimens of this beautiful bird
have been shot during the past winter.

Northern Diver, Colymbus glacialis. — A beautiful specimen of this large bird
was caught alive a few years ago at the mouth of the river Eden. The specimen
was preserved by, and is now in possession of, a gentleman residing in St. Andrews.

Law Park Cottage, near St. Andrews,
March 12, 1838.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

No. II. With Illustrations and Suggestions.

By Edwin Lees, F.L.S.

(Continued from page 123.)

I wish to be distinctly understood as not taking up a position inimical to
the scientific naturalist — whose interests I shall be enabled to touch upon here-
after— but as inquiring into plain matters of facts. If any assertions I make are
incorrect they can be easily disproved, and my inferences and conclusions are of
course thrown down in the open arena of opinion. I desire, therefore, to bring
the subject to the test of reflection, as some suggestions may possibly arise in the
course of the inquiry, productive of service to the extension of the study of
Natural History, which I confess I ardently desire, rather than to blockade its
avenues of approach with a still more dense array of terminological boulders than
already barricade its confines.

I have already shown the confusion of ideas generally entertained with regard
to the alleged " popularity of Natural History," while the fact really is, that
though the objects embraced by the pursuit are in themselves of general interest,
and, when described or alluded to in non-technical language, " popular" in the
common acceptation of the term, yet their scientific study is by no means so
general as to warrant the application of the term in question to it. The idea
seems to have arisen from the fact, which has often excited attention, that per-
sons in the very lowest grades of society and in the most dependent situations
have been found employing the little leisure the laborious avocations assigned
them by poverty allowed, in making collections of insects, or from some half
dozen broken pots or smoke-environed narrow strip of ground raising for the
horticultural exhibition " the glorious flower which bore the palm away." The

292 POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

weavers of Lancashire and Norfolk, the glovers of Worcester, and the mechanics
of Birmingham — not to mention numerous other localities — have been long noted
for cultivating these predilections, and Crabbe, in his well-known " Borough,"
has made his " friend the Weaver," familiar to every body. This circumstance,
however, only entrenches me the firmer in my position that, while the objects
embraced by Natural History command almost universal attention, their detailed
anatomy, as materials for scientific study, is scarcely at all attended to, few out
of the thousands among artizans who have reared flowers for display, or collected
insects for amusement or sale, having really benefited science or the world by
any remarks upon the manners, habits, economy or arrangement of the tribes
whose beauty or diversities of structure have commanded their attention. No
doubt this arises on the one hand from the absence of competent guides, the
deficiency or expense of books to consult, and on the other from the pursuit being
taken up merely as the amusement of the hour, with the same zest that others
would seize upon the bowl or the quoit —

"Whether the call-bird yield the hour's delight,

Or, magnified in microscope, the mite;

Or whether tumblers, croppers, carriers seize

The gentle mind, they rule it and they please." Crabbe.

But the disadvantage of engaging the acquaintance of Natural History on such a
principle as this is (however praiseworthy in itself) that as it acts unfettered by
the terms of science, so it is compelled to invent a vernacular dialect still more
barbarous and absurd than the pedantic names often foisted upon objects, appar-
ently with the charitable view of choaking the neophytes who may be compelled
to pronounce the cabalistic words. And independently of the absurdity of
imposing such names as " Grim the Collier," " Lancashire hero," &c, upon plants
or their products, and finding " Purple Emperors," " Queens of Spain," " Bed
Admirals," and Elephants, Tigers, Leopards, Magpies, &c, among insects, a
feeling of rivalry often amounting to malignity is engendered between exhibitors
and collectors, entirely marring all the delightful and amiable feelings one might
have expected to arise from the contemplation of some of Nature's fairest works,
and leading to bitter disputes, heart-burning detraction, and deception and nar-
row selfishness absolutely degrading. All this true science and correct feeling
disclaims, but it is fully demonstrable therefrom that it is a very different thing
to cultivate a few plants in pots, make an arrangement of pictured wings, or tap
a tame Squirrel on the head, and from actual knowledge and study be competent
to rank with the botanists, entomologists, and zoologists who have devoted their
lives to the pursuit. It follows that the objects comprised in any" study may
charm superficial notice without the study itself being generally attended to,
or at all philosophically considered — just as a set of clowns in an autumnal

POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 293

evening, may gaze upon the Aurora Borealis delighted with the " merry dancers,"
and retire without a single reflection arising in their minds as to the cause of the
phenomenon, beyond the superstitious remembrance that some grandmother of the
village had recollected to have seen a similar display before poor Tom Stiles was
killed at the Battle of Bunker's Hill.

Having already pointed out those descriptions of natural objects which, from
their fidelity and beauty, and their smell of earth and air, are at once recognized
by all, I must allude to those symbolical references to the works of Nature which
have been used by all nations and in all countries, more especially where pastoral
or venatorial habits have not, from the rapid advance of population, fallen into
disuse. These are similes taken from natural objects which are supposed to
accord with the narration of the writer or speaker, and to illustrate his meaning
more fully, or at all events, by the introduction of pleasing imagery, to offer an
episodic pause in or contrast with the subject treated upon. They are so com-
monly applied, though perhaps not always properly, that any one who looks for
illustrations in authors, may find them thick as fallen leaves in autumn. It
may not be amiss, however, to classify them into —

I. References to the aspect of Nature generally.
II. Similes drawn from particular animals or objects.
III. Sentimental or moral deductions.

In illustration of these I must of course make a few quotations, as it is of
importance to bear in mind, that such images would never have been referred to
had not their familiarity and truth rendered them obvious to all who heard them.
I shall take instances from both Homer and Virgil, though, for the sake of the
general reader, the garb of translation will be sufficient here.

A Snow Storm.

■ Their ardour kindles all the Grecian pow'rs ;

And now the stones descend in heavier show'rs.

As when high Jove his sharp artillery forms,

And opes his cloudy magazine of storms ;

In winter's bleak uncomfortable feign

A snowy inundation hides the plain,

He stills the winds, and bids the skies to sleep,

Then pours the silent tempest thick and deep ,

And first the mountain tops are covered o'er,

Then the green fields, and then the sandy shore ;

Bent with the weight the nodding woods are seen, -

And one bright waste hides all the works of men." Pope's Homer.

A snow-storm of this description, unattended with wind, it would be impossible
for the most ardent lover of Nature better to describe ; though, critically speak -
vol. nr. — no. xxi. 2 R

294 POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

ing, it scarcely answers the purpose intended, as showers of stones from hostile
armies, however thick they might fill the air, were not intended, and could
scarcely be expected, to fall quite so soft as snow. The following is very
beautiful, as displaying not the still life of the snow-storm, but the husbandmen
running about in all directions for shelter from the hail, and as they all contrive
to crouch somewhere, the image is perfect in reference to ^Eneas, whom the
writer has in view, as the hero sustains safely the entire galling efforts of his
adversaries, and tires them out : —

Hail Storm.

* As when the clouds in battering hail rush down,

The lab'ring hinds fly diverse o'er the fields.

And ev'ry swain ; while couch'd beneath a bank

Or high projecting crag, the traveller lurks,

Till the rude fury of the blast be o'er,

And the bright sunbeams bless again the day.

Just so jEneas, overwhelm'd by foes,

Sustains their onset." Virg. JEn., x., 803 — 10.

Pictures of this description are not limited to time, age, or country ; they
speak a universal language, and are worth a hundred books of blood and slaughter.
The following passing look at the lightning is admirable, short as it is, and could
scarcely have been struck off so exactly but by the hand of a Shakspeare : —

Lightning in a dark night.

" Brief as the lightning in the collied night,

That in a spleen, unfolds both heaven and earth ;

And, ere a man hath power to say — Behold!

The jaws of darkness do devour it up :

So quick bright things come to confusion." Shak. Mids. Night's Dream.

Similes drawn from particular objects in Nature, or from the habits of well-
known animals, have a peculiar charm, because in fact the reference, if correct,
is characteristic of the animal, or descriptive of the object mentioned, and as in
such a case a colloquial name is sufficiently identifying, a scrap of Natural
History is in fact served- up almost before the reader is aware of it. If the
simile be just, it marks the author's powers of observation, and the pursuits of
the inhabitants of the country, too, where he is writing : Virgil, one may be
sure, had chased a Wolf before he penned the following graphic sketch of the
prowling caitiff: —

" So ere the hostile darts beset his way,
Conscious of crime, the Wolf forsakes his prey,
Bullock or shepherd villainously slain,
And by neglected coverts, from the pkin

POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

295

Hath reached the lofty mountains ; still he cowers,
Hiding his slunken tail as to the woods he scours."

Virg. ^En.,xi, 809—13.

Not to be too diffuse on this head, I shall merely subjoin a few more specimens
taken at random from authors which appear apposite to me, though of course, as
recollection serves, hosts of others may occur to the reader.

A Warrior compared to a Bear.

" Or as a Bear, encompass'd round with Dogs ;

Who having pinch'd a few, and made them cry,

The rest stand all aloof, and bark at him." Shakspeare.

Owl and Mouse.

" And as an Owl that in a barn

Sees a Mouse creeping in the corn,

Sits still, and shuts his round blue eyes,

As if he slept, until he spies

The little beast within his reach,

Then starts and seizes on the wretch ;

So from his couch the knight did start

To geize upon the widow's heart." Butler's Hudibras.

In the grasp of a foe.

" Nought booted it the paynim then to strive :

For as a Bittern in the Eagle" s clawe,

That may not hope by flight to 'scape alive,

Still waytes for death with dread and trembling aw :

So he now, subject to the victor's law,

Did not once move, nor upward cast his eye." Spenser.

Perseverance of Flies.

" Or as a swarm of Flies in vintage time,

About the wine-press where sweet must is pour'd,

Beat off", returns as oft with humming sound." Milton.

A Sly old Fox.

" As when a gaunt and hungry Fox is found,
Entrapp'd alive in some rich hunter's ground;
Fed for the field, although each day's a feast,
Fatten you may, but never tame the beast ;
A house protects him, savoury viands sustain,
But loose his neck, and off he goes again;
So stole our vagrant, from his warm retreat
To rove a prowler, and be deemed a cheat," Crabbe.
2r 2

296 j POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

Old Hawthorn.

" The Hawthorn I will pu', wi' its locks o' siller grey,
Where like an aged man it stands at break o' day." Burns.

The beauty of these descriptions is apparent, though made by authors who
never professed to be naturalists, and as their truth is obvious, they cannot be
the worse for being in a poetical dress, though many persons abhor the intro-
duction of poetry, however true to life, though the images here embodied would
remain the same were the words composing them reduced to the plainest prose
imaginable. However, it must be evident that such notices of the habits of
animals and representations of familiar objects please the general taste, or they
would not occur in the profusion they do in works not professing to describe
objects of Natural History particularly, or be valued as gems when they occur, as
they undoubtedly are.

But pictures of Nature and images of natural objects are most frequently made
use of by poets and allegorical writers, for the sake of the sentiment connected
with or founded upon them ; and here ingenuity and invention have ample room
to dilate themselves. The deduction from the pictorial image may be forced or
natural, and agreeably described, it cannot fail to charm, while the inferences
skilfully managed may lead to the most sublime views, or be conducted so as to
call up a rich treasury of moral or religious thought, and they often give rise to
reflections the poignancy of which pierces to the innermost recesses of the soul.
A few instances of this kind of imagery must here suffice, though the subject is
not easily exhausted.

On a Wild Nosegay. — Clare.

" The yellow Lambtoe I have often got,

Sweet creeping o'er the banks in summer time,
And Totter-grass in many a trembling knot ;

And robb'd the Mole-hill of its bed of Thyme :

And oft with anxious feelings would I climb
The waving Willow-row, a stick to trim

To reach the Water-lily's tempting flower
That on the surface of the pool did swim :

I've stretch 'd, and tried vain schemes for many an hour ;

And scrambled up the Hawthorn's prickly bower,
For ramping Woodbines and blue Bitter-sweet.

Still summer blooms, these flowers appear again ;
But ah ! the question 's useless to repeat,

When will the feeling come I witness'd then P*j

Thorns no annoyance.

" The untutored bird may found, and so construct,
And with such soft materials line her nest,

POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 297

Fix'd in the centre of a prickly brake,

That the thorns wound her not, they only guard.

Powers not unjustly liken'd to those gifts

Of happy instinct, which the woodland bird

Shares with her species, Nature's grace sometimes

Upon the individual doth confer,

Among her higher creatures born and trained

To use of reason. <

********

Blest with a kindly faculty to blunt

The edge ot adverse circumstance, and turn

Into their contraries the petty plagues

And hindrances with which they stand beset." Wordsworth.

I have now shown, in its various phases, that reference to the objects of Nature
which is acceptable to all persons of common reading and education ; and as it
makes no pretence to any thing that may not from observation be accessible to
any one, so it is, correctly speaking, popular. I have next shortly to consider
Natural History when assuming a scientific form.

Scientific Natural History comprehends the classification of the whole of
animate and inanimate Nature, and the necessary attendant terminology. Hence
of course, the student, if he intends to become a practised naturalist, has an
ordeal of study to pass through which no ingenuity or tact of observation can
enable him to dispense with. I must here refer to the very appropriate and
valuable observations of Mr. Swainson, in Part iv. of his Geography and Classi-
fication of Animals, in the Cabinet Cyclopcedia, which every young naturalist
would do well to reflect upon.

But the tenour of my discourse has little reference to the regular student,
who, consigned to the hands of the professor, will doubtless in due time possess
acquirements to observe and classify for himself, or at least to choose out of the
numerous systems that demand his attention. I am anxious to consider the
interests of those who are not professionally devoted to the study of Nature ; but
who, as amateurs or collectors, wish to enjoy the charms of their favourite
pursuit as much as possible. These form a considerable class, and as they are
the readers and purchasers of works on Natural History, every effort should be
made to increase their numbers, and supply their wants. Many persons have
but a limited time that they can devote to the pursuit they love ; they naturally
wish to give the greatest part of this time to the woods and fields, and when they
attempt to study their acquisitions in detail, and to obtain a scientific name for
them, they too often find the systematist has prepared such a puzzle for them,
that they abandon the attempt in despair, and feel inclined to indulge the idea
that u ponderous tomes of cramp technicalities" deserve no attention.

At the present moment excessive analysis has so cut up every department of

298 POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

Natural History, that, to become a perfect adept in any single division, demands
the untiring study of a life, and, however anxious an observer may be to master
the difficulties around him, they become at last almost insuperable. The num-
ber who from ability or inclination can devote their whole time to any study,
must always be very limited, because ardour and enthusiasm, however active,
must of necessity have bounds prescribed them by duty. Consequently authors,
instead' of perpetually coining new terms, and throwing confusion and uncertainty
around them, should not forget to have the interests of those in view who,
anxious for knowledge, are yet utterly unable, from want of time, to follow the
professor into all the labyrinths his minute investigations may have led him.

The result is obvious : empirical knowledge must be seized, as the enquirer
finds no other path open before him, and a disgust for technical nomenclature is
engendered, which it may be afterwards difficult to get rid of. " To discover the
name of a species, is the ultimate object which all amateurs," says Mr. Swain-
son, " and many professed naturalists have in view.* To do this by merely
turning over the plates of a zoological work is manifestly a short and easy road
to knowledge ; but the superficial acquaintance thus obtained, however convenient
and useful upon many occasions, will not satisfy the true naturalist."t It is re-
markable that almost every "true naturalist" inveighs against this " short and easy
road to knowledge," as if there was something almost criminal in recognizing a
bird by its figure in a good plate, and an insect or plant by an accurate coloured
representation. I never could perceive the wisdom of this deprecation, for a
figure often gives information where language is found quite inadequate. Some
naturalists affect to think that to ascertain the name of any object is quite a
secondary thing, but it is really the first step, and nothing can be done satisfac-
torily without it. A novice might justly think light of an observer of whom he
demanded the name of a plant or insect, if he could only answer in general terms
that it belonged to some particular group, but what species it was he could not
say. Yet Mr. Swainson admits that, " in the present paucity of good elementary
books," if a young inquirer into Entomology " succeeds so far as to ascertain the
genus of his insect, he may consider himself very fortunate." With such

* This is not quite correct, but it must be obvious, that until the name of an object be made
out, no information can be given respecting it, and a perplexing dubiousness rests upon the mind.
Many naturalists seem strongly to object to the name of a species being discovered by the student
in an " easy way," as if a person was not more likely to pay attention to the minutia: of an object
whose inamo he was certain of, rather than to direct his attention to what he was entirely un-
acquainted with. How often in the works of non-scientific travellers one has to lament that they
could not tell us the names of objects they saw, instead of a mysterious and tantalizing statement
as to quadrupeds, birds, plants, &c, the species of which want of knowledge rendered them unable
to determine, and which their imperfect descriptions will not permit us to unravel.

f Swainson's Geog. and Classific, of Animals, p. 353.

POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY. 299

hindrances in the way, such obstacles, and such uncertainties, who can wonder
that so few venture into the intricacies of Entomology, though more than ten
thousand British insects have been named ? Doubtless, were aids to study more
numerous and accessible, there would be a considerable increase of entomologists.

Into every other department I need not enter, nor will space allow ; all have
not the same difficulties around them, and yet the zoologist may perceive, each in
his own province, some bar or obstacle obstructing progress, which it would be no
disadvantage to remove. The multiplication of new terms without explanation
is a perpetual source of annoyance and disquietude in scientific works, which
thus, instead of forwarding the student, keep him oscillating to and fro to no
useful purpose. As an instance I may take Mr. T. B. Hall's complaint in the
present volume of The Naturalist (p. 88), where he says he is "quite at a stand-
still," for want of a glossary to the terms employed in the two last volumes of
Hooker's British Flora. Mr. Lankester, at p. 1 77 of The Naturalist, in his paper
on the " Linnaean and Natural Arrangements of Plants," admits, I perceive, that
many of the books of Linnaean botanists " are written in a pleasing style, and
are calculated to allure to the study of Botany ;" — then why object to them with
this obvious utility about them, and the following ominous confession : — " If
there have been any deficiency of books on the natural system, it has been for
the want of demand." Just so. If works are written adapted only for the
studious few, however learned the author, the demand must be limited. If the
author, not satisfied with his own claims, captiously assails other systems that
have enjoyed a deserved popularity, he must expect opposition, for those who
have found the utility of their own course of study will hardly abandon it at a
first summons, at the ipse dixit of those who are interested in its suppression.

There are two parties to be addressed by writers on Natural History ; the first
are professional students, or those whose leisure and resources enable them to
dedicate their chief time to their favourite subject ; and the second are those
whose pleasure is in the " poetry of Natural History," and whose intervals of
relaxation from commerce or professional duty enable them only to glance with
rapidity upon the condiments presented to their view. These are thus alluded
to by Professor Henslow : — " All who feel an unaccountable delight in contem-
plating the works of Nature, who admire the exquisite symmetry of crystals,
plants, and animals ; and who love to meditate upon the wonderful order and
regularity with which they are distributed ; Qhese] possess a source of continued
enjoyment within themselves, which is capable of producing a most beneficial
effect upon their temper and disposition, provided they do not abuse these
advantages by making such studies too exclusively the objects of their thoughts
and care."* In advocating the claims of this numerous class, I am only con-

* Principles of Descriptive and Physiological Botany, 12mo., p. 4.

300 POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORY.

tending for the more effectual spread of a taste for Natural History. The
thing itself is inherent in every human breast. " Almost every one," says Mr.
Swainson, in the work I have before quoted, " having the least taste for Natural
History, will peruse with pleasure a well-written account of an animal whose
habits and manners, and modes of living are not generally known, although they
may have no idea of studying Natural History as a science." But scientific
Natural History might easily be simplified and rendered more intelligible to all,
if its professors were less intent upon building systems and discussing wire-drawn
points, which pass away into obscurity with the current that drew them forth.
I object not to the learned labours of the closet naturalist, but they cannot be
sufficiently appreciated if he disregards the humble efforts and toils of those who
labour in the fields to muster up stores which may eventually prove of consider-
able utility. Let the systematist aim to attract the popular observer to his cell,
and he will find his efforts not thrown away in the additional zeal which will
animate the former when he finds the utility of scientific language.

Museums in every principal city, if properly arranged, and their specimens
correctly named, may become great auxiliaries in the cause of science, and facilitate
study greatly to those who may be unable to purchase very expensive books.
For I must again observe, that if knowledge be gained, it can be of little moment
whether it be due to the pencil, the graver, or the labelled subject in the cabinet
or museum. There is no talismanic power in technical language — on the con-
trary, its inadequacy and obscurity often leaves the inquirer in a cloud of doubt,
and whenever that doubt can be removed, I see no reason why " easy" facilities
for the acquisition of knowledge should not be made available. But at any rate,
if Natural History is to become truly popular, it must not rest like a mere stuffed
figure — a thing without life or motion, made up of uncouth words, and offering
only a charm to the anatomist — it must speak in language that all may under-
stand, and present a sacrifice at which all may assist.

The dignity of science is considered by many to be sacrificed by any attempt
to soften its asperities, and ornament and imagery are thought inconsistent with
the plain facts and stern deductions of research and inquiry. In some instances
this may be correct. But the field of Natural History is placed before Man as a
charm to diversify the bitter endurances that ever throw their shadows upon
human life and action. As presented by the Deity it is all enchanting, and Man
only arrays it in a respulsive dress. Let us try to keep it still in its simplicity
and purity, with at least some vestiges of life and^loveliness — let not all be trans-
formed into dry bones. I desire the popularity of Natural History in its fullest
extent, and for this reason I urge upon authors the display of its beauties in their
most attractive dress.
But then, it is said, we shall only have a race of superficial naturalists who

POPULARITY OF NATURAL HISTORT. 301

will add nothing to our knowledge, and leave the depths of science wholly unex-
plored. This, however, is a false idea. The individual who enters upon a
pursuit only as an amusement, and is charmed with it, is more likely to proceed
to higher attainments, than one who began as a crabbed student, and, looking
with averted eye upon his task, becomes at last disgusted with his abortive
efforts.* It by no means follows that, because a Linnsean botanist does not choose
to follow a Lindley in all his admirable details of structure, he undervalues
those labours ; nor can I think that an ornithologist who may not have time or
ability to examine and classify with the minuteness of a Temminck or a Swain-
son, would at all despise the exertions of those learned systematists. For if all
; were instructors, where would be the audience ? Why, then, should the en-
deavours of popular writers be sneered at by systematists as unworthy attention ?
Why should this "easy way" to knowledge be attempted to be put down?
There is an old proverb, that, let pleasure be the motive, and no toil will be
thought severe — and so if science only first tempt her votary into the path of
enjoyment, no thorns or obstructions will afterwards prevent the upward progress
of the neophyte.

In ascending a mountain, I have frequently noticed young aspirants despise
the easy winding way, and scale the steepest ascent, laughing at the timidity of
their friends. But they seldom gained any thing thereby. Their companions,
beguiling the way by observation and remark, reached the top almost without
experiencing fatigue, while the undaunted scalers of the precipices, panting and
tired, had but just out-stripped their friends, who had enjoyed an excursion which
the former had converted into a trial of skill only to harass and distress themselves,
without any concomitant benefit. And so in science, those who take the
Toughest track, and would fain think nothing of those who may prefer an easier
path, may after all meet on the same height those who with humbler appliances
had yet, by determined perseverance, continued looking upward, and marching on
in the same direction.

Dryadville Cottage, near Worcester,
April 20, 1838.

* This is an excellent remark, and one of practical importance. — E».

VOL. III.— NO. XXI. 2 8

302

ACCOUNT OF A FOSSIL ZOOPHYTE, Alcyonia monilia, DISCOVERED
IN THE LOWER GREEN SAND OF THE IGUANODON QUARRY,
MAIDSTONE, KENT.

By Mr. W. H. Bensted.

Few objects are more perplexing to the naturalist than those which compose
the numerous and protean class of zoophytes — creatures which appear to form a
connecting link between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. The difficulty of
determining the character, construction, habits, and economy of even recent species,
is so considerable as to demand an accuracy of observation which belongs to
few, and an intimacy of acquaintance not easily attainable. What, for instance,
can be more puzzling than the changes observable in the Actinea, or Sea-mari-
gold, whose external form is so repeatedly changing that it presents in succession
the several appearances of an amorphous mass of jelly, a flower, and an open
Oyster ?

But when our investigations are confined to fossil specimens — the forms of
which are stereotyped and unalterable, and whose relics occur only in detached
portions — this difficulty is increased a hundred fold. And even when the
remains are abundant and well preserved, although a tolerably correct idea may
be formed of the ordinary figure of the original, it is still difficult to trace it
through all its metamorphoses, or to identify it under the varied appearances it
presents. A familiar example of this fact may be found in the ventriculites of
the chalk formation, so well described by Dr. Mantell in his Geology of the
S.E. Coast of England. The specimens enveloped in flint are usually funnel-
shaped ; but those occurring in " every intermediate form between that of a
simple elongated cone, and a flat circular disk," are evidently congenerous. In a
similar manner we shall find the family of Alcyonia — which are nearly allied to
both the species of Polypi referred to — differing much in form and external
character. The new species which I am about to describe, has been named
Alcyonia monilia, and abounds in the Rag-stone, Shanklin, or lower Green-sand
formation of the district in which I reside ; a brief geological sketch of which
will serve to introduce my remarks upon it.

The neighbourhood of Maidstone has much to interest the geologist. The
Chalk, which lies uppermost, may be explored in the pits, situate within a morn-
ing's walk from the town, which afford many specimens of great rarity.

The Gault or Folkstone Marl immediately below it, is cut through by the
Medway, and presents a fine opportunity to the student for collecting specimens.

Beneath this occur extensive beds of Rag-stone, in which are faults of con-
•iderable extent, filled with beds of Red Loam, or Brick Earth, containing

ACCOUNT OF A FOSSIL ZOOPHYTE, ETC. 303

remains of the Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse, and Deer, and fragments of eeveral
bones of other Mammalia.

This Rag-stone bassetts out above the Weald Clay, about four miles to the
south-east of the town, and thus a great variety of formations may be visited
with great ease and convenience, offering such facilities for geological research
as are not often to be met with.

Alcyonia monilia (Plate 1, Fig. 1) is furnished with a cylindrical stem,
attached by ramose fibres to the sands on which it grew. It has several lobes
upon the stem, at irregular distances, and generally terminates in an expanded
head, often of considerable size, and in shape resembling the Flint-nodules of the
Chalk. The stem and lobes have a rough uneven surface, covered with papillae.
A spinous or tuberous structure has been detected in but few specimens. The
peculiarity of this zoophyte consists in the beaded tentacula, proceeding from the
stem, lobes, and head, which are sometimes attenuated into cylindrical threads.
From their great variety of shape and size, they had probably considerable
powers of extension and contraction. The large expanded head contains, in
some instances, part of the stem, lobes, and beaded tentacula, folded within it,
and I conjecture, that in some specimens the whole economy of the zoophyte is
withdrawn within it, in a similar manner to that of the recent Actineae. In
such cases, the specimens appear externally like variously-shaped nodules, but
en being broken, the tentacula, stem, and lobes may sometimes be seen within.

This zoophyte is evidently analogous to the Polypi, discovered by Mr. Web-
ster, in the Green-sand of the Isle-of- Wight, and closely assimilates with the
Polypothecia from the neighbourhood of Warminster, described by Miss Bennett ;
but Mr. Webster mentions only the simple lobated specimens " in which from
two to five or six lobes, closely united together, are found."

This is the common appearance, and it is only by a large assortment of speci-
mens that the varieties of shape and figure, described above, can be connected
so as to justify the conclusion that all belong to the same class.- Mr. Webster,
who inspected some specimens in my collection, instantly recognized the similarity
of the simple lobated stem with the Isle-of- Wight zoophyte, but the tentaculum,
he said, was a new discovery, and expressed much interest in it, particularly in
the folding of the lobes, stem, &c, in the superior head.

I find them principally in the upper strata of the Rag-stone, which is arranged
in alternate layers of arenaceous Lime-stone and a siliceous coarse Sand; the
fossil occurs in various shapes and states of preservation, depending on the
stratum in which it is imbedded. The Lime-stone contains the most clearly-
defined specimens, as the stem is seldom well preserved in the Sand, although the
large heads are frequently procured from it by their possessing a great portion

2s 2

304 ACCOUNT OF A FOSSIL ZOOPHYTE, ETC.

of Silex, and being consequently harder than the surrounding beds. The surface
of these heads is always smooth and round, probably from their distended state ;
and presents a strong contrast to the stem and lobes, which are studded with
papillae.

The layers of stone are from ten inches to two feet in thickness, and frequently
the stem in the stratum of hard Limestone finishes in the layer of Sand next
above. It is impossible to get a complete specimen, as the zoophyte is so closely
blended with the stone ; four lobes upon one stem is the most I have yet seen.

I am not certain that it should be classed as an Alcyonium. Dr. Mantell
favoured me with his opinion upon some specimens which I sent to him in 1835,
which was that, " in all probability, the fossil belongs to different genera of
zoophytes allied to the Sponges and Alcyonia, but differing from both."

The accompanying drawings will, I trust, assist in conveying a tolerable con-
ception of the originals. Fig. 2 (Plate 2) is a remarkable specimen, with the
beaded tentaculum running through the stem, and with a correct representation
of the stone which contains it.

Fig. 3 represents two large lobes connected by the beaded tentaculum ; the
stem of this specimen is not clearly defined, as the mass of stone is not broken in
the part through which it runs.

Since my discovery of the unique specimen of the Iguanodon* I have paid
great attention to the collection of other specimens from the same quarry, and
have been successful in procuring some particularly interesting. The vegetable
remains are very abundant, consisting of fragments of stems of coniferous trees,
sometimes much water-worn, and filled with Teredines, I have a beautiful cone
of a species of Fir — exceedingly delicate, but very perfect ; at present I cannot
decide on several which I conjecture to be fruits. I have a fine tooth of the
gigantic Plesiosaurus, and one of a Crocodile, the surface of each being striated.
Three mandibles of the Ckimcera have been procured, with vertebrae of fish, and
numerous teeth of Squalus.
Maidstone^ April 23, 1838.

•Mantell's Wonders of Geology, Vol. I., p. 358.

305

ON THE HABITS AND PECULIARITIES OF BRITISH PLANTS,
AND ON THE DERIVATIONS OF THEIR LATIN NAMES.

By T. B. Hall.

(Continued from p. 186.)
Alnus. — From al, near, and Ian, edge of a river, Celt., on account of its habitat.
Alnus glutinosa, Common Alder, Owler, Scotch Eller. — The Alder flourishes
best in low marshy situations, in which it is frequently planted to make hedges.
It will not live in a chalky soil. It is easily propagated by seeds, but not by
slips or cuttings. Grass grows well beneath its shade. The wood is soft and
brittle ; endures a long time under water, and therefore is used for pipes and
piles, and to lay under the foundations of buildings situated upon bogs. According
to Vitruvius, the ancients were well acquainted with the imperishable nature
of this timber, when used for piles in swamps or under water ; in such situations
it becomes black as ebony, and almost as hard as iron. The Rialto of Venice is
thus founded ; nor has its use been neglected in the Netherlands. The branches
may be cut for poles every five or six years. Women's shoe-heels, ploughmen's
clogs, cogs for mill- wrights, various articles of the turner, and in the High-
lands handsome chairs, are made of it. The bark yields a red colour, and, with
the addition of copperas, a black. It is also used to dye brown, particularly
thread. It is principally used by fishermen to stain their nets. The country
people in Scotland often make their own shoes ; and, following the example of
their forefathers, to avoid the tax upon leather, privately tan hides with the bark
of Birch and Alder. Various passages in the ancient classics seem to intimate
that the trunks of Alder-trees were among the first converted into boats.
Martyn ingeniously surmises that one of these trees, hollowed by age, might
have fallen into the water, and so given the first idea of navigation. In the
Highlands of Scotland, near Dundonald, says Pennant, the boughs cut in the
summer, spread over the fields, and left during the winter to rot, are found to
answer as a manure. In March the ground is cleared of the undecayed parts,
and then ploughed. The fresh-gathered leaves are covered with a glutinous
liquor, which concretes into a spurious manna. They are sometimes strewed upon
floors to destroy Fleas, which are said to be entangled in the tenaceous fluid, as
birds are by birdlime. The catkins dye green. The whole plant is astringent.
It affords food to many kinds of Moths and other insects, as Orchestes Alniy
Psylla Alni, Adimonia Alni, Livia Alni, and Tenthredo luctuosa Alni, of which
latter Barbut says : — " this pretty, quiet, melancholy fly is often fatally en-
tangled in the clammy juice that oozes from the leaves. Its colours are chiefly
yellow and brown, body black." Of vegetable parasites, Erineum alneum,
Grsv. Scot. Crypt., 1 57,2. ; " convex, dotted, in irregular patches ; white, chang-

306 HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS.

ing to purple and brown," is frequently found on the leaves ; also Xyloma alneum,
" single, roundish, crowded, black ;" and Dothidea alnea, figured in Grev. Scot.
Crypt, 146,2. Horses, Cows, Goats, and Sheep browse on Alder. Swine refuse
it. The leaves, when eaten by Cows, are reputed to increase their milk. If
planted in a low meadow, the ground surrounding it will become boggy ; whereas
if Ash be planted, the roots of which penetrate a great way, and run near the
surface, the ground will become firm and dry. In Japan the cones are used to
dye black, and sold ready dried. The branches serve to make charcoal, and the
knots of the trunk are beautifully veined, and used by cabinet-makers. Theo-
phrastus mentions the uses of the bark for dying skins, as does Pliny the
durability of the wood for piles and water-pipes. Mr. Gray asserts the inner
bark to be purgative. Some of the largest trees of this description in England
are reported by Gilpin to grow at Bishop's-Aukland, Durham. From their
indestructibility in moisture, and natural situation, few trees are more frequently
discovered beneath the surface of the earth than the Alder. The wonderful
appearances of prostrate forests of different kinds of trees occasionally presented
to view, have induced many interesting speculations as to their history.

Alopecurus. — AKwrn^v^os, from A\wm%, a Fox, and a§x, a tail, in allusion to
the form of the spike.

Alopecurus pratensis, Meadow Fox-tail Grass. — This is one of our very best
Grasses for permanent pasture, being early, plentiful in produce, and grateful to
cattle in general. It has the power of vegetating very quickly, and will bear to
be cut twice a year to advantage. It naturally prefers a moist soil, and is best
adapted for the improvement of such wet meadows as have been drained of their
superfluous moisture, where, if due attention be paid in its introduction, it soon
forms itself into a close thick turf, and from its rapidity of growth will maintain
itself against many of the more powerfully creeping kinds. Mr. Sinclair informs
us, in his very excellent and valuable work, Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis,
that this Grass forms part of the produce of all the richest pastures he had
examined in Lincolnshire, Devonshire, and in the Vale of Aylesbury ; and that
he found it still more prevalent in Mr. Westcar's celebrated pastures at Creslew
than in those of Lincolnshire and Devonshire.

For a curious account of the larva of a species of Fly which feeds upon the
seeds, and is again fed upon and kept within bounds by Cimex campestris, see
Withering's note, and Baxter's British Flowering Plants.

Alopecurus agrestis, Slender Fox-tail Grass. — A very troublesome weed in
many places amongst Wheat, and execrated by the farmers under the name of
u Black Bent," or " Spear-grass." It is most prevalent in beggared soils, and will
bear to be cut down repeatedly in the same season. The best remedy is careful
husbandry, and bringing the land into " good heart." The herbage is compara-

HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS. 307

tively of no value, and appears to be left untouched by every description of cattle.
A large portion of the seeds of this plant are yearly destroyed by a minute
orange -coloured maggot. The seeds are also acceptable to Pheasants, Partridges,
and smaller birds.

Alopecurus bulbosus, Bulbous Fox-tail Grass. — This plant seems by Nature a
meadow Grass, and Dr. Anderson suggests that, as its matted roots give an
unusual firmness to the surface of the ground, it may be serviceable to prevent
soft and moist soils from being poached by the feet of cattle.

Alopecurus geniculates, Floating Fox-tail Grass, Geniculate Fox-tail Grass. —
In dry situations, as on walls, &c, the leaves and stem are greatly diminished
in size, and the roots become bulbous, with excessively long fibres. This trans-
mutation has sometimes occasioned A. geniculates to be mistaken for the real
A. bulbosus.

Alopecurus Alpinus, Alpine Fox-tail Grass. — This plant seems quite unknown
to botanists abroad, and is very rare indeed in this country. It is, however,
plentiful in North America and Spitzbergen.

Althcea. — AxOxtx, from «x(W, to heal. So named from its healing qualities.

Althcea officinalis, Marsh-mallow, Mymote. — The whole plant, particularly the
root, abounds with mild mucilage. The root, boiled, is much used as an emollient
cataplasm, and an infusion of it is very generally prescribed in all cases wherein
mild mucilaginous substances are useful. Of several officinal preparations from
this herb, the syrup alone is now retained. Mallows have not only been long
celebrated for assuaging wounds, but were used to decorate the graves of our
ancestors ; and so indispensable were they deemed to each domicile of the living,
that, as a matter of decided ill omen, the poet exclaims — ■

" Alas, when Mallows in the garden die."

Alyssum. — From a, neg., and \vavx, the bite of a mad Dog ; it formerly being
considered efficacious against hydrophobia.

Alyssum maritimum, Sweet Alyssum. — It is commonly cultivated in gardens,
for its agreeable honey-like scent ; and is considered a valuable acquisition to the
apiarian border.

Amaranthus. — From a, not, and (Axpxiiu, to decay. Flowers which do not
fade, commonly called " everlasting flowers.''

Ammophila. — Named from x^os, sand, and <pt\os, a lover, on account of its
locality.

Ammophila arundinacea, Sea Mat- weed, Marram, Sea-reed (Starre or Bent, in
Scotland). — This Grass grows only on the very driest sea-shores, and prevents
the wind from dispersing the sand over the adjoining fields, which is not unfre-
quently the case where this plant is wanting. Many a fertile acre has been

S08 HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OP BRITISH PLANTS.

covered with sand and rendered useless, which might have been prevented by
sowing the seeds of this plant. The Dutch have profited by the knowledge of
this fact. Queen Elizabeth on this account forbade the extirpation of it. It is
planted on some of the flat coasts of Norfolk to repel the sea, and is also suitable
to the light lands of that country. Mr. Winch remarks that this plant, together
with a few others which seem designed by Nature to bind the loose sands
of the sea-shore by their creeping roots, is the means of forming the low
round-topped hills, called " Binks," along a considerable part of our northern
coast. A legislative enactment, 1742, for the preservation of this plant, extends
generally to the north-west coast of England ; but such persons as claimed pre-
scriptive right of cutting it on the sea-coast of Cumberland are said to be exempt
from its operation. The Scottish parliament likewise protected this plant,
together with Elymus arenarius, by a penal statute.

Anagallis. — The etymology of this word is exceedingly vague. Blanchard
derives it from xvx; and yxXXos, a capon ; because it scatters fruitless seed. —
Dioscorides from uvxyu, to draw from, because it was anciently used to draw
thorns or other substances out of the flesh. Pliny from xvx, and yxXx, milk,
because it has the property of coagulating milk ; or from «v«, and yxXXis, a river,
in Phrygia, upon whose banks it grew in abundance. Some from yxXXis, the
Hyacinth, because it is like it in colour; and some from xyxXXu, to adorn,
because it beautifies and adorns hedges and the banks of highways, or from
avxysXxu, to laugh ; because, by curing the spleen, it disposes persons to be cheer-
ful. The flowers of this genus are elegant, scarlet, blue, or pink.

Anagallis arvensis, Scarlet Pimpernel, Poor Man's Weather-glass. — It closes
on the approach of rain ; and from its susceptibility has acquired the name of
Shepherd's or Poor Man's Weather-glass ; nor has this property escaped the
observation of the Musce Rusticce —

" Clos'd is the pink-eyed Pimpernel :
'Twill surely rain. I see, with sorrow,
Our jaunt must be put off to-morrow."

" And Pimpernel whose brilliant flow'r

Closes against the approaching show'r

Warning the swain to sheltering low'r

From humid air secure."

The flowers in finer weather only continue open from about eight, a. m., til
towards four, p.m. Hence distinguished by Linn^us as one of the Flora
Solares, admissible in constituting the Horologium Flora, the " Herbat horarut
indices" of Pliny ; that

" Trace with mimic art the march of time."

HABITS AND LATtN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS. 309

and is elegantly alluded to by Felicia Hemans in her Dial of Flowers, for an
extract of which see Baxter's Flowering Plants ; in which is also an account of
the delicacy of the structure and elaborate formation of jthis elegant little plant.
Small birds are fond of the seeds. Sir J. E. Smith remarks that it is very rarely
found of a brilliant white.

Anagallis tenella, Purple flowered Moneywort, Bog Pimpernel. — It yields to
none of our wild plants in elegance, and, being scarcely known on the Continent
except in the south, is a welcome present to German, Swiss, and Swedish
botanists. In Withering are the following appropriate lines —

" Of fairer form and brighter hue
Than many a flower that drinks the dew
Amid the garden's brilliant show."

Anchusa. — From «y%w, to strangle, on account of its astringent qualities, or
from ctyxpvtrx, paint, the roots of one species, A. tinctoria, yielding a red dye
formerly used to stain the face, and for other purposes.

Anchusa sempervirens, Evergreen Alkanet. — This is one of our prettiest native
plants, and well deserves a place in the flower garden. Dr. Withering observes
that the Alkanet-roots produced in England are very inferior for yielding a fine
red colour to those of A. tinctoria grown in the Levant. The cortical parts only
give the dye.

Andromeda. — From the constellation so called ; these plants prevailing in
northern latitudes ; or rather, perhaps, from a fanciful allusion to the fate of the
princess of that name, whose beauty was doomed to pine on a desolate rock,
surrounded by the monsters of the ocean ; as her vegetable prototype hangs its
drooping head, suffused with blushes, while possessing in solitude the turfy
hillock, in the midst of swamps and loathsome reptiles.

Andromeda polifolia, Marsh Andromeda. — An elegant evergreen shrub, scarcely
a span high, whose rose-coloured drooping flowers are a good deal concealed among
the terminal leaves. A very interesting account of this charming plant is given
in LinnjEus's Lapland Tour, I., 188. See also Hooker, Scot., 12£.

Woodside, near Liverpool,
Feb. 7, 1838.

C To be continued. J

vol. in. — no. xxi. 2 r

310

ON LISTS OF FLOWERING PLANTS FOR THE MONTHS.
By the Editor.

At page 87 of the present volume we announced our intention of publishing
lists of plants for every month in the year, which catalogues were kindly supplied
by a correspondent. In abandoning this plan, therefore, a few words of explana*
tion may be necessary. Our chief reason for discontinuing the lists was the great
length to which some of them would ha ye extended, and we were, moreover,
unwilling to divide them. Further, the plan adopted by our correspondent
appears less complete than desirable. To be of much use to either the student
or the proficient botanist, the lists should be framed from actual observation, and
not compiled from published works. Then, again, it should be distinctly stated
whether they are intended for an extensive or only for a limited tract of country,
adding, where necessary, the part of the month in which the plants flower. In
most cases b (beginning), m (middle), e (end), would designate this with suffi-
cient accuracy.

A series of catalogues, thus arranged, might, we think, prove of considerable
service to the student, and would aid even the more advanced botanist, whose
observations, at the same time, would correct any errors and supply any deficien-
cies noticed in the lists.

Although we have finally determined on declining the publication of the further
articles on the same plan in our possession, we cannot regret the insertion oi
those which are already before our readers, relating to the flowering plants of
February, March, April, and May, since these are less likely to contain numerous
and glaring inaccuracies than those of greater length. In an average season,
they may probably prove generally correct in the midland counties, Yorkshire
and Lancashire ; and possibly the deficiencies of the present lists, now pointec
out, may induce the same esteemed correspondent, or some other botanist, tc
supply our readers with a complete list of flowering plants for every month in the
year, on an improved method. Such a series, if practicable, might be published
next year, beginning with The Naturalist for January, 1839.

Campsall Hall, May 1, 1838.

311

CORRESPONDENCE.

Plan for an Oological Cabinet.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Godalming, April 16, 1838.

My dear Sir, — I have great pleasure in complying with the wishes of your
correspondent Mr. Hall (p. 211), and I trust that the wood-cut (Plate 2, Fig. 4)
will give the necessary information ; it represents the oological cabinet belonging
to the Norfolk and Norwich Museum, made under my direction. The cases
are 15 inches by 12 inches, and of various depths; the first pair, commencing
from the bottom, being 3<| in., the next four pair 2f in., and the remaining four
2 in. The arrangement to commence at No. 5, with the first order, Raptores
(Preyers), which will occupy this and the next case, No. 6. The second
order, Insessores (Perchers) will occupy Nos. 7 to 12; the third order, Easores
(Scratchers), Nos. 13 and 14; the fourth order, Grallatores (Waders), Nos. 15
to 17, and 18, if required; the remainder, No. 1 to 4, for the fifth order, Nata-
tores (Swimmers). The cases at the Norwich Museum are lined with coloured
paper, and the specimens placed in rows, the bottom having been first divided
with black lines to separate the species. In my cabinets they are separated with
thin wooden partitions, and the specimens laid upon green Moss. Several of my
friends use small card-paper trays, and their specimens are placed upon pink
cotton, which has a very pleasing effect. These little trays are easily removed
to make way for the introduction of a new species from time to time, as they
are obtained. This cabinet is only capable of containing a collection of British
Oology, as figured in Mr. Hewitson's beautiful work. I strongly recommend
that the cases should be glazed, which contributes much towards the preservation
of the specimens.

I remain, my dear Sir,

Yours very truly,
Neville Wood, Esq. J. D. Salmon.

The Peewit Lapwing's Mode of taking its Food.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Catherine Villa, near Worcester^
March 1, 1838.

Sir, — Should you think the following facts relative to the Lapwing worthy of
insertion in your Magazine, they are at your service.

2t 2

312 CORRESPONDENCE.

At a gentleman's house in Upton-upon-Severn, I lately saw one of these birds
running about his garden, and which was caught when quite young* upon a
common in the neighbourhood. On observing the bird standing upon a grass plot
in the garden, and shaking as if it had the ague, I inquired the cause, and was
told that it was the manner in which it obtains its food. This I observed it to
effect in the following manner : — It advances four paces, then stands firm on one
foot, and, with the other in advance, it agitates the grass by moving the knee of
that foot backwards and forwards ; it looks intent all the while on the ground, to
see if there is any motion in the grass ; on perceiving any, it immediately plunges
its beak therein, to catch any unfortunate insect or Worm that may be attempt-
ing to make its escape. It then proceeds four other paces, beginning with the
advanced foot, which brings the other foot at the fourth step in advance, with
which it agitates the grass as before, and so on, alternately.

I am, Sir,

Your most obedient servant,
Neville Wood, Esq. Jabez Allies.

Suggestions for a Work on the Localities op British Insects.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Bewsey House, near Warrington,
April 3, 1838.

My dear Sir, — I beg to draw the attention of naturalists to a desideratum in
our entomological literature, which I wish much to be supplied. Mr. Watson
deserves the thanks of all botanists for his Guide to the Localities of the Rarer
British Plants. Why should there not be a similar guide to the localities of the
rarer insects ? The importance and advantage of such a work to entomologists is
obvious. And were any competent individual to attempt the task, he would
undoubtedly receive much assistance. To this end the work might appear
periodically ; and its success would be further insured by the price being moderate.
The localities of the rarer species only would be necessary. A list of all such
as are plentifully and generally distributed, might be given at the conclusion.
The extent of the work would thus be considerably diminished, as the repetition
of the same species under each of the counties would be rendered needless. Fur-
ther suggestions need not be given here, and I conclude by hoping that attention
will be paid to this subject, as I feel convinced it deserves and demands it.

Yours very truly,
To Neville Wood, Esq., &c. Peter Rylands.

• When covered with down, this bird utters the same " peewit" cry as the adult, but, of course,
in a more chicken-like tone.— Ed.

proceedings of societies. 313

Occurrence of the Pied Flycatcher in Nottinghamshire.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Sir, — Being unknown to you, and moreover quite a tyro in Ornithology, you
may consider it presumption in me to trouble you with this letter. I merely
wish to call your attention to a bird which I believe is generally considered very
scarce, viz., the Pied Flycatcher, of which species I was fortunately enabled to
obtain a specimen the other day. It was shot by a gardener at Rufford Hall,
near Ollerton, Nottinghamshire, on the 19th of April, 1838. It had been observed
by him, with its mate, flying about the trees in the orchard. The other bird, I
believe, was not seen afterwards.

If you can inform me in what part of Britain and in what quantities these birds
are found, in your valuable Magazine, you would greatly oblige

Your obedient humble servant,

Harrow, Middlesex, H. J. T.

May 4, 1838.

[[The Pied Flycatcher (Muscicapa luctuosa, Temm.) is in Britain a very rare
and local bird. It is supposed to be indigenous, but we feel little doubt of its
being a summer visitant, appearing in spring and departing in autumn. The
counties in which it chiefly occurs are Yorkshire — especially the West Riding —
Cumberland, Westmoreland, Lancashire, Staffordshire, and Derbyshire. Mr.
Selby has seen specimens from Dorsetshire. The Pied Flycatcher of course breeds
with us. — We thank our correspondent for the above notice, and are happy to
give it insertion, although it is preferable, in every possible case, that notices of
the occurrence of facts should not be anonymous. Where reasoning alone is
concerned, this is of ho importance ; and it is certainly far better that anonymous
facts of interest or importance should be published than that they should be
altogether lost to science. — Ed.]

PROCEEDINGS OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.

ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

There is a nest of the Bean Goose in St. James's Park, containing seven eggs,
being the first known instance of the species propagating in domestication, if
domestication it can be called, for the Society's birds are under no restraint
whatever, enjoying the full use of their wings, of which, at times, they do not

314 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

forget to avail themselves. The Bean Goose is never seen near its nest except
when laying, and it covers its eggs before leaving them, like a Duck. The nest
is placed under a thick Box-bush, in a place similar to that which a Duck would
choose. The eggs are very pure white, and of a large proportional size. A
Canada Goose has a nest within half-a-dozen yards ; it is guarded at all hours
by the two birds, which are noisy and fierce, contorting their necks singularly
on the approach of any person. This species invariably selects an open, uncovered
situation, merely scraping a slight hollow in the ground. The large China
Goose, however — like the domestic breed — prefers an artificial box in which to
retire. We are confident the Smew would breed if it had a mate. It has a
curious manner of throwing back the neck, uttering at the same time a very
peculiar low rattling note, evidently expressive of its desires. The Shoveller
raises and lowers its neck several times successively, accompanying the movement
by a low thick sound ; this it does particularly after driving a rival from its
mate. We have often seen a pair of Shovellers with their bills quite immersed
vertically downwards, sail round and round in a small circle for perhaps a quarter
of an hour together, thus causing a small eddy, and straining floating particles
from the water by means of their bill-laminae.

Few spots are more interesting to the ornithologist than St. James's Park.
The superiority of its arrangements over those of most other collections of a similar
nature is both striking and considerable.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY.

March 16. — J. E. Gray, Esq., F.R.S., Pres., in the chair. — Mr. D. Cooper,
A.L.S., delivered his second lecture on the practical part of Botany. — The
Secretary announced a splendid donation of foreign plants found in different parts
of Europe, comprising 1,000 species, presented by H. B. Fielding, Esq., Corresp.
Memb. of the Soc, and Local Sec. for Lancashire. — Dr. Robert J. N. Stree-
ton was elected a Corresponding Member. — A paper from J. Riley, Esq.,
was read, being remarks on a paper lately read before the Society by Mr. White,
" On Hybridity in Ferns," translated from a paper by M. Martens, of the Royal
Academy of Brussels. — Specimens of Gymnogramma colomelanos, G. chrysophilla,
and G. sulphur ea, were exhibited.

April 6. — J. E. Gray, Esq., in the chair. — The Secretary announced donations
of books from Mr. W. Baxter, A.L.S., and also of some plants from Mr. Edwin
Lees, Corr. Memb., and Loc. Sec. for Worcestershire. — Mr. Cooper delivered his
third lecture on practical Botany. — A leaf of Victoria regina, sent to the Society
by Mr. Schomburgk, was exhibited.

The Secretary read a paper from R. H. Schomburgk, Esq. (still in British
Guiana), on Triplaris Americana, the Ant-tree of Guiana. The trunk is

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 315

slender, grows up straight, and its erect branches form a pyramid. It is uni-
sexual ; and the flowers of both sexes are insignificant ; those of the male last only
for a few days, when they dry up ; this is likewise the case with the petals of
the females. The segments of the calyx, however, continue to grow, changing
in their growth from green to white and vermillion, and become so attenuated
that the branched nerves are easily perceptible. In that state they are three
times as large as the fruit, which is still protected by the tube of the calyx : and
the whole might, in appearance, be compared to a shuttlecock. The risps are
dense, and the tree presents now a most elegant appearance. One unacquainted
with the contrary, would consider the tree covered with white blossoms tinged
with red, among which the dark green leaves have only occasionally room to
make themselves visible. The incautious botanist Who, allured by the deceptive
appearance, should approach the tree to pluck the blossoms, would rue his
attempt. The trunk and branches are hollow, like those of the Trumpet-tree
(Cecropia), and provided between space and space with partitions, which answer
to the position of the leaves on the outside. These hollows are inhabited by a
light brownish Ant, about two or three-tenths of an inch long, which inflicts the
most painful bites, causing swelling and itching for several days. If they find
themselves captured, they attack and kill one another like Scorpions. The
Aramah Indians call the tree " Jacuna," and the Ant, " Jacuna sae."

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

March 5. — J. F. Stephens, Esq., F.L.S., President, in the chair. — The
memoirs read at this meeting were, — 1st, Observations upon the habits and
other peculiarities of Brachelytra (genus Staphylinus, Linn.), by F. Holme, Esq. ;
2nd, Description of a new Strepsipterous insect, found in Brazil, and inhabiting
the body of one of the Sand Wasps, Spkegidce, by R. Templeton, Esq. ; 3rd,
Description of Platyrhopalus angnstus, a new species of Paussidce, brought from
the interior of India by Assistant-Surgeon Downes, by J. O.Westwood, Sec. E. S.
— Mr. Saunders exhibited a specimen of the splendid Urania Rhipheus, which
had been captured in the channel of Mozambique, many leagues from land. —
Mr. Bainbridge communicated a method for ridding insects saturated with a
greasy matter, which occasionally exudes from them when placed in the cabinet, by
immersing them in petroleum. — Messrs. Hope and Raddon made some observa-
tions upon the distinctions between the two gums, anime and copal, which have
been respectively considered to contain insects, and the latter member stated
that the singular noise emitted by the Death's-head Hawk-moth (Acherontia
atropos), and which has so much perplexed physiologists, is sometimes produced
by the insect whilst in the chrysalis state.

April 2 — J. F. Stephens, Esq., President, in the chair Mr. Babker com-

316 PROCEEDINGS OF 8OCIETIE8.

municated a method of driving away the minute Ant which had recently become
so troublesome in houses in the neighbourhood of London. — Mr. Bainbridgk
exhibited a singular monstrous individual of Clivina fossor, one of the small
ground Beetles. — Notes were read from Dr. Buckland and the Rev. M. E,
Berkeley, on the vegetable nature of various excrescences occasionally observed
upon insects, the disease to which the House Fly is subject in the autumn, being,
according to Mr. Berkeley, caused by the presence of a minute Fungus, and not
being a plethoric kind of disease, as supposed by some writers. The Secretary
communicated various observations recently made upon this subject, and upon
the analogous parasitism of insects on the bodies of insects : stating the occurrence
of one of the Strepsiptera in Ammophila sabulosa, one of the Sand "Wasps. — A
large larva of one of the Lamellicorn Beetles, was also exhibited, from the col-
lection of the Rev. F. W. Hope, from which a Fungus nearly two inches long had
been produced. — The memoirs read were, 1. On the destruction of the black
caterpillar of the Turnips by poultry, by Mr. Sells ; 2. Monograph on the genus
Holoptilus, by J. 0. Westwood, Sec. E. S. ; 3. Conclusion of a memoir on the
different species of insects employed in various parts of the world as food, by the
Rev. F. W. Hope.

SHEFFIELD LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.

On Friday night, April 6, the regular monthly meeting of the Philosophical
Society was held in the rooms at the Music Hall, Charles F. Favell, M.D.,
President, in the chair. — Several books were presented, from Mrs. Stovin,
including Stillingfleet's Facts on Natural History, Ray's Discourses and Let-
ters, Martyn's Plantce Cantabrigienses, Linn^eus's Flora Lapponica, and
Henslow's Botany. There was likewise laid on the table, by Mr. Moss, a large
specimen of the ** Alleghany Coal," which, though by no means equal in appear-
ance to much of the bituminous Coal of this country, belongs, nevertheless, to the
same geological era, and will doubtless become, in course of time, of vast
importance to that quarter of the United States in which the formation occurs. —
The oft-repeated subject of the erection of a Philosophical Hall was again mooted,
and a set of beautiful architectural drawings, relative to what such a structure
should be, was exhibited. The gentleman who moved that this subject should
be referred to the Committee, remarked, that while he had long been convinced
that the Society would never be in a position to build out of its own funds, nor
able to beg the money requisite for such a purpose, he had latterly entertained
the opinion that a hall might be advantageously raised in shares, even if it might
not be to the interest of some individuals, of competent means, to erect, on private
speculation, such a building with the requisite accommodations, in the certainty of
finding a satisfactory tenant. — Dr. Holland read an elaborate and interesting

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 317

paper on the powers which move the blood in the veins. The subject was of too
professional a nature to justify more than a brief notice in this place. It may be
stated, however, that the main drift of the reader, in his examination of a great
number of theories, was to prove, contrary to the opinion of several eminent
physiologists, Dr. Arnott in particular, that the motion of the blood through the
veins is not due to the impulse of the heart, which impels sanguineous fluid
through the arteries, but rather to the contractibility of the capillaries — that
immense system of minute vessels, which lie between the aorta, by which the
arterial blood goes from the heart, and the vena cava, by which it is returned from
the veins. A highly interesting conversation followed the reading of Dr. Hol-
land's paper. — Sheffield Iris, April 10, 1838.

OXFORD ASHMOLEAN SOCIETY.

March 20. — Dr. Buckland in the chair. — Mr. Holme, of C.C.C., read a paper
on the early accounts of the Natural History of the Giraffe. A representation of
this animal occurs amongst the monuments of Thebes, where the chiefs of four
nations bring tributes to the Egyptian king, Thothmes III., who is supposed to
be the Pharaoh in whose reign the Israelites quitted Egypt. It seems doubtful,
however, whether the animal was known to the Israelites. It was certainly
unknown to Aristotle. Timjeus (b.c. 2G0), the historian of Sicily, as quoted
by Kazarine, the Arabian, was evidently acquainted with it. Agatharidos
(b.c. 180) mentions its name as originating from its combining the spots of the
Panther with the size of the Camel, and states that its neck was sufficiently long
to enable it to feed upon trees. From this time till the reign of Julius Cesar
no mention of this animal eccurs. Pliny says that the earliest specimens seen
in Europe were exhibited by that emperor ; from which fact it may be inferred
that the animal was not at that time found in the regions of Africa north of the
Zahara. Henceforward, the Giraffe was not unfrequently exhibited in Rome-
Strabo gives a detailed account of it, which is the more valuable, as from his
extensive travels in Upper Egypt it is probable that he had seen the animal in
its native state. Horace and Pausanias allude to it. Pliny's account is
remarkably meagre. The name of Nobis, by which he says it was known
amongst the /Ethiopians, corresponds exactly with the Hottentot term Naip.
It is curious that he should have taken no notice of its horns. Oppian, who had
probably seen some of the specimens brought over by the Gordians in the third
century, gives an accurate description of it in the third book of his Cynegetica.
After the removal of the seat of empire to Constantinople, the Giraffe was but
rarely seen in Europe. After Heliodorus, no author, for several centuries,
notices it, as the Arabian conquest of Egypt had probably cut off all com-

vol. m. — no. xxi. 2 u

318 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

munication between the Greeks and ^Ethiopia. Arab authors, however, acr
cording to Bochart (1G63), frequently mention it. It seems to have been
reintroduced into Europe at the time of the Crusades ; but the only notice of it
known to the author occurs a.d. 1260, amongst the presents sent by the Mame-
luke Sultan of Egypt to the Emperor Michael Pal^eologus. This was probably
the last specimen seen at Constantinople previous to the Turkish conquest, and
with the exception of two sent over by the Sultan of Egypt, in the fifteenth
century — one to the Emperor Frederick III., the other to Lorenzo de' Medici,
the author has not found any allusion to its having been seen alive in Europe-,
from that time to its recent introduction. Frequent notices, however, of it are
given by European travellers who visited the courts of Oriental sovereigns. The
animal was found, towards the end of the 18th century, at the Cape of Good
Hope ; and, its skin having been brought to Europe by Patterson and Gordon,
enabled Buffon to describe it ; and a complete account of its habits was furnished
by Le Vaillant. It is only within a few years that it has been re-discovered
in its original known habitat of Abyssinia and Kordofan, from which countries,
since their conquest by the Pacha of Egypt, the beautiful specimens now at Paris
and London have been introduced to the notice of Europeans.— •Athcnceum,
April 7, 1838.

BRISTOL, CLIFTON, AND WEST OF ENGLAND ZOOLOGICAL

SOCIETY.

The Annual General Meeting of this Society was held on Wednesday. The
report was satisfactory. It appeared that £925. 18s. had been taken at the
gate, £102. 16s. from subscribers, and at the Fetes, £797. 6s. 4<d. had been
received. The expenses of the Fetes amounted to £46. 16s. lOd. — Gloucester
Chronicle, April 14, 1838.

CHELTENHAM LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL INSTITUTION.

April 24. — The business of the evening being over, it was announced that the
last meeting of the session would take place on Tuesday evening, May' 2, when a
paper " On the Study of Natural History" was to be read by Mr. Buckenan,.
preliminary to receiving the report of the Sub-Committee appointed to consider
the best course to be pursued for the purpose of establishing a section for the
cultivation of Natural History in immediate connexion with the Institution, and
to be entitled the Natural History Section. — Cheltenham Looker-On, April 28,
1838.

319

EXTRACTS FROM THE FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

ZOOLOGY.

I. On the Proboscis of the Elephant; by Dr. Campbell. — The powers of
this organ are so wonderful and various, that an inexperienced dissector must fail
in elucidating its composition. Barring Man, the Elephant must surely be
considered as the lord of the animal kingdom ; largely endowed with intelligence,
sagacity, and power, it remains chief among the desert wilds, and among the
numerous creatures devoted to the service of Man. Where is its equal ? Among
all the organs of sense and motion, the trunk is the most indispensable to the
preservation of the individual. Eyes, ears, a limb, and generative organs could
be dispensed with, but deprived of the proboscis, the Elephant in its free state
could no longer preserve its being ; purely herbivorous, and that in the largest
sense of the word, the formation of the animal is such that he is deprived of
the mouth as a means of grasping the aliment on which alone he can live. The
shortness and immobility of the neck prevents him from bringing the mouth
downwards to seize vegetables little raised from the surface of the earth, and
the same cause prevents his applying it to the purpose of furnishing himself with
the leaves of trees and shrubs. Independent of this shortness and limited action
of the neck, his system of dentition is such as to preclude the possibility of his
cutting or pulling Grass with the mouth from the ground. The lower jaw with
incisor teeth sloping outwards, by which the Ruminants are enabled so freely to
cut their herbivorous food on the ground, is widely different in the Elephant.
At its inferior part, the lower jaw is narrow and sharp, and without incisor teeth ;
the lower lip projects considerably beyond the jaw, and the upper jaw is also
destitute of incisors. All these circumstances show that he never could exist Unas-
sisted, without some other means being given to him by which he could bring his foo4
under the action of his grinder teeth. This means is the proboscis, and perhaps
throughout animated nature, it is without a superior, and scarce has an equal among
corporeal organs ; in it are concentrated the organs of touch, the channels to the
internal olfactory apparatus, the prehensile powers of a noble and huge animal,
and added to this, it is the external organ of respiration, and is used as a
pump and reservoir for drawing up and containing the fluid part of its food, then
passing it into the pharynx. With the proboscis, he is enabled to swim the
deepest rivers, to bathe and fan himself, and with it he can with equal ease pick
a pin from the infant fingers of his keeper's child, or fell a forest tree. The
wonderful propensities of this organ have been long known and acknowledged in
: the east, and the polytheists of India have seldom made such a happy choice o'

2u J

320 EXTRACTS PROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

emblems as that one in which wisdom and universal power, or the deity GanessA,
is characterised by the Elephant's trunk. It arises by strong muscular fibres
from the interior part of the os frontis, the essa nasi, and superior maxillary
bones, and may be characterised as a flexible fleshy process, extending from its
origin to the ground, being longer or shorter, smaller or larger, according to the
height and size of the individual Elephant it belongs to. It is covered by the |
common integuments, and tapers gradually from the attachment with the skull,
to its point ; where it is terminated on its anterior side by a finger-like process
jutting beyond the posterior termination. The inner side of this finger is not
covered by the common integuments, and in it seems to be concentrated the
whole sense of touch belonging to the animal, and that to a most exquisite extent.
The trunk is divided along its mesial line by a strong and thick membranous
partition into two equal-sized cylindrical canals, which communicate with the
nares and throat, and are each lined by a membrane similar to that forming the
partition between them ; this membrane does not appear to be furnished with
any secretory apparatus, and the walls of each canal are ever apart, owing to the
strong nature of the centre partition and lining membrane. The canals are not
true cylinders, being flat on their lower side, and arched on the upper, precisely
in the same manner as is the trunk itself. Through these canals the animal
breathes and smells, and with them he raises water by suction, and transfers it
to the pharynx through the mouth to be swallowed. I could not discover the
means by which the water is prevented from passing directly into the throat ; if
this apparatus exists in the canals of the trunk, it must be immediately at the
external orifice of the nares, for throughout the entire length of the trunk proper,
there is no means for bringing the sides of the canals in opposition. — India
Review, August, 1837.

2. Sagacity of Animals. — A late number of the Bibliotheque UniverscUe
contains some remarkable and well-ascertained instances of animal sagacity, from
. which we select the following : —

A person lodging in one of the fauxbourgs observed daily, for several weeks,
six Dogs, who used regularly to come at the same hour, and assemble in an
adjacent meadow, where they sported and amused themselves. The motive of
their assembly was as obviously the purpose of sport as that of persons who go to
a ball or a spectacle, at an appointed hour.

An attempt was made to teach a Dog to mount a ladder ; but the animal was
soon fatigued with the exercise, and escaped. But the next day he was seen to
return to the ladder alone, and voluntarily endeavour to succeed in mounting it,
as if the motive of ambition impelled him to renew the attempt.

A milkman who used to go before the break of day in winter to fetch milk
from a farmer who. supplied him, had a Dog whom he employed to carry his

EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS. 321

lantern. One morning this Dog was accidentally locked up at the time his
master departed. The moment he was liberated, however, he followed him ; and
when he overtook him, finding that his master had not the lantern, immediately
returned home ; and, seizing the lantern, followed his master with it.

A tame Pigeon who had been domesticated in a kitchen, happened to see a
Fowl killed ; on witnessing this, the bird immediately took flight, and never
returned to the kitchen. — Monthly Chronicle, March, 1838.

BOTANY.

3. Phosphorescent Vegetables. — In consequence of the observations made
on the phosphorescence of the Agaricus of the Olive-tree, M. Vallot has been
making some researches concerning those plants which have been mentioned by
the ancients as exhibiting the same phenomenon. The descriptions of plants in
those days were so imperfect, that it would be difficult to state anything positively
on their authority ; but M. Vallot thinks there is every reason to believe that
this phosphorescence proceeded from certain Fungi.

GEOLOGY.

4. Fossil Teeth op Oran. — M. Duvernoy has submitted several fossil teeth to
the French Academy of Sciences, which he received from Oran, together with a
piece of osseous breccia. The latter confirms the existence of these brecciae on
the African shores of the Mediterranean, as well as on those of Europe. If it
Were possible to demonstrate that the osseous breccia of Africa contains the same
species of animals as that of Europe, their identity as to cause would be con-
firmed, as well as their extent. A further study of both would also, in. all
probability, throw great light on the epoch in which the Mediterranean was
formed. The osseous breccia of Oran, like that of Gibraltar, &c, is a calcareous
concretion, of a fine rust-colour, and of earthy fracture, and may be compared to
brick clay, well baked, and full of small irregular cavities. Most of the isolated
teeth in it are those of fishes. It is remarkable, that all those examined by M.
Agassiz, and mentioned by him in the Voyage dans la Regence d' Alger, belong
to the Shad, or genus Alosa (Alosa elongata, Agassiz), as if entire banks of the
fish had been enveloped in one common catastrophe. M. Duvernoy has only
found detached teeth, and no fragments of the skeleton of the fish, and therefore
is unable to do more than conjecture to what they belong. He thinks he has
recognized those of the Chrgsophris globiceps, and neighbouring species. Besides
these, is one belonging to the Sargus of Cuvier, an incisor, composed of enamel
of different colours. Two other teeth, he presumes, belong to a marine animal
hitherto unknown, and bearing nb resemblance to those of any living or fossil
Mammalia.— Athenaeum, March 31, 1838.

322

CHAPTER OF MISCELLANIES.

ZOOLOGY,

Chrysomela polita. — Three specimens of this beautiful Beetle were taken
here last summer, June 16, by my brother, who found them sitting on the
leaves of Geum rivale £the Water Avens. — Ed/], at the side of Kinnes-burn.
The male of this insect is considerably smaller than the female. — Henry Buist,
Law Park Cottage, near St. Andrews, March 12, 1838.

CONCHOLOGY OF THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF LIVERPOOL. The following list of

shells, with remarks on the localities of some of the species, has been furnished me
through the kindness of Thomas Glover, Esq., of Manchester, and may perhaps
be useful to such of your readers as reside in this neighbourhood : —

Helix nemoralis, about a dozen varieties ; Succinea amphibia ; Limnceus
pereger ; L.stagnalis; L. elongatus ; L.palustris; Physa fontinalis ; Aplexa
hypnorum ; Planorbis carinatus / P. vortex ; Turritella terebra ; Cingula
ulvce ; Scalaria clathrus ; S. Turtoni ; Paludina vivipara, Southport ; P.
impura ; Natica glaucina ; Fasus antiquus ; Rostellaria pes-pelecani ; Pecten
opercularis ; P. varius ; Nucula nuclea ; Mytilus edulis ; M. pellucidus ;
Modiola vulgaris; Anodon cygneus ; Cardium edule; Mactra solida; M.
subtruncata ; M. stullorum, two varieties ; Amphidesma compressum ; Donax
trunculus ; Psammobia Ferroensis ; P. solida ; Cyprina Islandica ; Venus
gallina ; Cyclas cornea ; Pholas crispata ; Ph. candidus ; Solen ensis ; Mya
truncata ; M. arenaria ; Pandora inequivalvis ; Echinus, several species.

" The arrangement," observes Mr. Glover, " is Fleming's, except as regards
the land and fresh-water shells, for which I have adopted Dr. Turton's names.
I would wish to observe that no shell ought to be accounted as native which is
not found alive in its natural situation. You instance Rostellaria pes-pelecani,
specimens of which I picked up last summer near Formby ; also Turritella,
Scalaria, Fusus, and many others, inhabitants only of deep waters, and most pro-
bably washed up from Conway Bay. Many of the interesting varieties of Helix
nemoralis are to be found amongst the sand- hills at Wallasey and Leasowes ;
Succinea amphibia on the low grounds near Leasowes ; Limnceus pereger in the
ponds about Wallasey; L.stagnalis, L. elongatus, and L.palustris, in the ponds
round Liverpool ; Physa fontinalis, Aplexa hypnorum, Planorbis carinatus, and
P. vortex, in the same localities. Cingula ulvce is very common at Southport,
and sometimes gets washed along the coast. Paludina impura in the Leeds and
Liverpool Canal. Mytilus pellucidus in prodigious quantities near the Light-
house, westward. Anodon cygneus occurs in many of the ponds. Cardium
edule occasionally on the banks, but probably plentiful a mile or two from shore.

MISCELLANY. 323

Mactra solida is found at low- water mark (of spring tides only), opposite New
Brighton, inclining westward ; M . stultorum in the same locality, where also
occur Natica glaucina, Donax trunculus, Solen ensis, and occasionally Venus
gccllina and Mactra subtruncata. This last is plentiful about the lighthouse
southward. Amphidesma compressum is very common about Formby. Cyclas
eornea is in almost all the ponds. Pholas candidus is found in the clay at
extreme low- water mark, near the lighthouse, westward ; also in the peat opposite
Leasowes, near the lighthouse, westward, inside the muscle bank, and difficult to
get at without a boat, the ground being dangerous to wade upon. I found it once
only, and my subsequent attempts all failed ; but if the place can be hit upon
it is plentiful enough, and may be considered a rare shell ; it appeared exactly
opposite New Brighton. Pholas candidus is very abundant there, and it is
surprising how seldom a live shell is seen in any cabinet. I never met with one
that I have not supplied from your neighbourhood." — Thomas Glover, Man-
chester.

I have ascertained two of the Echini found with us to be E. spatagos and E.
esculentus. We have about twenty species of Sertularia, and a few Turbularice
and Flustrce with us, a list of which I will forward when I get my specimens
named by some competent person. At the same time I hope to be able to send
some remarks on the Molluscous animals of the neighbourhood of Liverpool.

In conclusion, I may mention that Thomas Glover, Esq., has liberally sup-
plied the museum of the Royal Institution with most of the shells which he found
in this neighbourhood, as well as some from other localities. — T. B. Hall,
Woodside, Liverpool, April 9, 1838.

Turtle Dove Shot near Scarborough. — A young Turtle Dove was shot
near this town in October, 1834, and is now in my possession. — Patrick Hawk-
ridge, Scarborough, Aug. 7, 1837.

Mshna versus Mschna. — Mr. Stephens states, in his Catalogue, p. 303, that
Mr. Curtis was in error in employing Mschna for Mshna ; but, in Nom., 2nd
edition, he (Mr. Stephens) adopts it also ! — J. C. Dale, Glanville's Wootton,
Dorsetshire, July 9, 1837.

Sparrow's Nest in January. — "We have had brought to our office a Sparrow's
nest containing four eggs, and found in the roof of a cottage in Portlandfold. —
Sheffield Mercury, Jan. 13, 1838. £We presume it was the frigid character of
the weather during the second week in January which induced the Sparrow in
question to build a nest at so unseasonable a period ; or perhaps the frost acted in
some way unknown to us, upon the brain of one of the penny-a-line writers for
the Sheffield Mercury. If we might be allowed to speculate upon the matter,
we would suggest, either that the cold had rendered the said reporter liable to

324 MISCELLANY.

waking dreams, or, possibly, that it had stimulated him to exercise his craft — his
notorious love of invention — with a view to the improvement and multiplication
of his Christmas comforts ! — Ed. Nat.~]

Specimens of the Bohemian Waxwing (Bombycilla garruld) shot in York-
shire.— A few specimens of this elegant bird have been taken with us, and others
seen during the winters of 1830, 1832, and 1835, The pair in my small col-
lection was shot in the latter year, near Scarborough, and kindly given to me by
Mr. Benjamin Shaw. — Patrick Hawkridge, Scarborough, Aug. 7, 1837.

Nyssia zonaria. — -At the meeting of our Natural History Society on Tuesday,
specimens of the above interesting addition to our Fauna were exhibited to the
members by Mr. F. Taylor, several eminent entomologists having been over
from Manchester a few days before, and captured a large quantity. Mr. Cooke
has also had great success in meeting with a good supply. A single specimen of
the male was taken on the Rushes about half a mile below the Black Rock, at
New Brighton, near Liverpool, in September, 1832 ; and about the middle of the
same month, in the following year, from twelve to twenty specimens of the same
insect, both males and females, were taken in the same locality. The discoverer
was Mr. Nicholas Cooke, of Liverpool. Mr. Eveleigh, then President of the I
Banksian Society of Manchester, supposing it to be an entirely new species, took
three specimens to London, for the purpose of having them described in the
Entomological Magazine. Mr. Newman submitted them to the notice of Mr.
Stephens, who had never seen anything like them before. Mr. Newman then
applied to Mr. Children, whose entomological library stands unrivalled in this
country, and who informed Mr. N. that the insect was Nyssia zonaria of both
Hubner and Duponchel. The following description is copied from the Ento-
mological Magazine : —

" Antenna?, with cilia?, black, the shaft white ; pilosity of mesothorax very
long, dark brown, with two longitudinal white lines, and a dash of white at the
base of each wing ; body nearly black, with six delicate rings, of a pinkish-yellow
colour; fore wings brown, with two oblique, transverse, white lines nearly
parallel with the exterior margin, and within these are irregular white markings
on the disk ; hind wings white, with two broad bands, and the nervures brown ;
legs black, the tarsi annulated, with white. The female apterous, with seven
rings on the body. The size is, as nearly as may be, that of Nyssia hispidaria!'
— T. B. Hall, Woodside, near Liverpool, April 4, 1838. — fJThe genus Nyssia
belongs to the order Lepidoptera, and contains three British species. — 'Ed.]

Animals eat in proportion to their Temperature. — Warm-blooded animals
are continually eating ; birds, whose temperature is the highest, incessantly, if
they can obtain food ; whereas the cold-blooded little and seldom. Some make

MISCELLANY. 325

a meal only once in three or four months ; Dr. Stevens saw a large Rattlesnake,
plump, active, and venomous, which was said not to have tasted food for nine
months. — Human Physiology, by John Elliotson, M.D., Part I., p. 242.

White Moles. — David Grant, Mole-catcher, residing at the Bridge of Moniack,
lately caught three Moles of a pure white colour in a trap in the garden at
Relig. Can the severe frost have changed the coat of these " miners of the earth,"
as it transforms the plumage of the fowls of the air ? Grant has got two of the
Moles stuffed, to preserve as curiosities. — Inverness Courier, as quoted in the
Morning Chronicle, March 12, 1838, communicated by Peter Rylands, Esq.

The first Swallow seen near Worcester in 1838. — On Monday last, the
1 6th, I saw the first and only Swallow that has met my view this bleak season.
At about four, p. in., there was a most violent storm of snow from the N.W.,
lasting nearly an hour, and as I was watching its conclusion from my window,
to my pleasure and surprise a lone Swallow appeared struggling with the storm,
and making head as it best could against the driving snow-flakes. It remained
long enough to enable me to be certain of it, and then disappeared, still progress-
ing northward. — Edwin Lees, Dryadville Cottage, near Worcester, April 20,
1338, in a letter io Neville Wood, Esq.

Birds, etc., noticed in April, 1838. — We have lost all our Thrushes from
the late hard winter. — The Nightingale and Redstart visited us on the 13th of
this month ; and a single Swallow is seen flying about. The 13th was very
cold, with a strong wind, but the Nightingale was in full song, having secured to
himself a sheltered situation. — On the same day I saw from twenty to thirty
Porpoises \_Delphinus phoccena. — Ed.] in the Medway as high as Hailing, about
five miles above Rochester-bridge. They were exceedingly active, and in full
pursuit of their prey, which, no doubt, had led them so far from the sea. — W. H.
Bensted, Maidstone, Kent, April 23, 1838.

Harmless Nature of the Slow-worm. — I was not aware, until I had seen
Mr. Bell's beautiful number of the British Reptiles, that the Slow-worm was so
inoffensive. I have since met with several, and had no hesitation in handling
them. I find them perfectly harmless, not showing the least disposition to resent
your liberties. What a groundless prejudice exists against this poor innoxious
being ! Fortunately, its colour tends much to its preservation, for when coiled up
upon a sunny bank it has considerable resemblance to a Hazel-root grown above
the surface of the ground, and would by most persons be passed unobserved. I
find that when placed on a dry foot-path free from Grass, it experiences great
difficulty in progressing forward. — J. D. Salmon, Godalming, Surrey, April 16,
1838.

White Crow. — We have seen an extraordinary specimen of the Crow tribe,
which was shot at Rossie (Fifeshire) on the 9th instant. The wings and tail

VOL. III. — no. xxi. 2 x

326 MISCELLANY.

are of a pure white, the rest of the bird of a beautiful French black. It has been
presented to the Fifeshire Literary, Scientific, and Antiquarian Society. For
some years past it has been observed in the neighbourhood of Rossie, but all
attempts to get within shot of it proved abortive till the present severe storm
rendered it less cautious. — Fifeshire Journal, Feb. 15, 1838, communicated by Mr.
Henry Buist, Law Park, near St. Andreics.

Manna. — This is believed to be an insect secretion, and collected from a
shrub called Gavan, two feet high, bearing a resemblance to the Broom. It is
collected in cloths spread beneath them at night, and it wears the form of large
crystal drops of dew, such as are seen on plants in England early in the morning.
It is found near Mount Sinai, and regarded with peculiar interest, in consequence
of its connection with one of the most striking events recorded in Scripture. It
falls during the. heat of the day, is collected early in the morning, and after
straining it through cloths, it is placed in skins and gourds : a considerable
quantity is consumed by themselves, a portion is sent to Cairo, and the monks of
Mount Sinai retail it to pilgrims, who receive it with much reverence as an incon-
testible proof of the event to which it refers. It is held as a luxury, and used
for all the purposes of honey, and when taken in any large quantity, proves a
mild laxative. — Wellstead's Travels in Arabia.

Important Article of Food for Horses, Dogs, etc. — When the duty on.
Sago was two guineas per cwt., and the import price from two to six guineas in
addition, it was merely used as a delicacy, and as food for invalids. Of late the.
duty having been reduced to one shilling per cwt., and the import price from ten
to seventeen shillings, it costs only half the price of Carolina rice, goes twice as
far, and is very superior. As part substitute for milk in feeding calves, it is
found very valuable : the method of using it is to sprinkle one pint of pearl sago
into three quarts of boiling water on the fire, keep stirring, and in less than ten
minutes you have a strong jelly, which, mixed with the same quantity of milk,
is found to be a saving of half the milk, and the calves do better with it.
Several gentlemen are now feeding their greyhounds upon it, boiled as above, then
poured over biscuit or bread, instead of broth or jelly made from meat, and find
it very superior, saving three-fourths of both expense and trouble, at the same
time keeping their greyhounds in much better condition. — To those who keep
packs of hounds this will be found a most important discovery. One of the
largest Horse proprietors in the kingdom is using it as food for them with great
satisfaction. — Cheltenham Chronicle, April 19, 1838, communicated by Peter
Rylands, Esq., Bewsey House, Warrington.

Death of a valuable black Tigress. — Wombwell's Menagerie left this
town on Friday last. Previous to its departure it sustained a serious loss by the
death of a black tigress, which died while giving birth to three still-born cubs.

MISCELLANY. 327

The animal was said to have been worth GOO guineas. — Taunton Courier,
April 18, 1838.

Extraordinary Lamb. — On the farm occupied by Mr. Read, of Okers, may be
seen a lamb with six legs. The additional fore-leg is quite separate from the
other and perfect in its shape, having a distinct blade-bone, and the same length
as the others. What renders this lusus Naturce the more extraordinary is, that
it continues quite healthy, and is as strong as those unencumbered with such
superfluities. — Preston Chronicle, April 14, 1838.

Further News of the Bonite. — M. de Blainville has received further news
of the Bonite, in a letter addressed to him from the Isle de Bourbon, by M
Cydoux, and dated July, 1837. From the statements made by this naturalist,
it would appear that, notwithstanding the shortness of the various sojourns of
the Bonite, an ample harvest in Natural History has been gathered. Several of
the animals are living, and intended for the menagerie of the Jardin des Plantes.
More than 1,000 birds have been collected, many new reptiles, 200 species of
fishes, most of which were found near the Sandwich Islands and in the Chinese
seas. But the number of Mollusca exceeds all the rest. The causes of the
phosphorescence of the sea have been carefully investigated, and constant ex-
periments made on the temperature of the human body under divers circum-
stances.— Athenaeum, March 17, 1838.

Flight of Locusts. — A correspondent of the Calcutta Courier, in a letter dated
Benares, Nov. 28, says : — " A remarkable flight of Locusts passed over this dis-
trict a few days ago, and left behind them a scene of desolation pitiful to behold :
the oldest inhabitants declare they never before witnessed such a flight of devouring
things, and from the bottom of their hearts hope they never will again. The
flight appeared to come from the east, and in the distance resembled a column of
smoke ; but, from such information as I can gather, it does not appear that the
column, in its approach to this devoted district, committed any great devasta-
tion ; but when the whole flight had fairly settled down upon the country, then
commenced the work of destruction ; and you will be astonished, Sir, when 1
tell you, that they ate up not only vegetables, but every living thing — Sheep,
Fowls, kids — nothing escaped. A mournful silence prevails over the land, and
is only broken by the discordant screech of a wild Parrot, or the dismal croak of
a Raven contemplating the desolation around." — Asiatic Journal.

Invertebrata of the Coast of Norway. — A residence of several years at
Bergen, in Norway, has enabled M. Saars to obtain some new results concerning
invertebrate animals. Among the Mollusca, M. Saars has found that several of
the Nudibranchice, which are remarkable for having no shell, possess one while in
an embryo state, and even some time afterbirth ; it is external, like the Nautilus
in shape, thin, horny, and transparent. The genera, he has observed, are Eolidio,

2x2

328 MISCELLANY.

Doris, and Tritonia, which in this state differ from the adult species in form.
M. Saabs has found three new species in the genus Spio of Otho Fabricius, and
thinks that this hitherto misunderstood group should be referred to the Nereids.
The genus Ophelia he believes to have been described in an inverse sense by the
learned naturalist M. Savigny, and that it also belongs to the Nereids. M.
Saars has also found a new species of Apodal Worm on the branchiae of 'Lamp-in
gutlatus, and an unpublished species in the stomach of a Beroe. Among the
zoophytes, M. Saars says that the Asterice, when first hatched, differ in form
from the adult animals. The singular animal before designated by him as the
Strobila, proves to be a young Medusa. The coasts of Bergen present many
new and singular genera, and, although so far north, are remarkably rich in marine
animals, several having been found there which have been hitherto seen only in
warmer regions. Surely our naturalists on the opposite shores of Scotland have
the same opportunities as M. Saars ; and might enlighten us concerning this
extraordinary part of creation if they were sufficiently encouraged, and the
expense of publishing could be defrayed for those who have other objects to which
their incomes must be devoted. — Athenaeum, April 14, 1838.

Organic Changes in Nature. — The sluggish Cow pastures in the cavity of
the valley ; the bounding Sheep on the declivity of the hill ; the scrambling Goat
browses among the shrubs of the rock ; the Duck feeds on the water plants of
the river ; the hen, with attentive eye, picks up every grain that is scattered and
lost in the field ; the Pigeon, of rapid wing, collects a similar tribute from the
refuse of the grove ; and the frugal Bee turns to account even the small dust on
the flower. There is no corner of the earth where the whole vegetable crop may
not be reaped : those plants which are rejected by one, are a delicacy to another ;
and even among the finny tribes contribute to their fatness. The Hog devours
the Horse-tail and Henbane ; the Goat the Thistle and the Hemlock. All return
in the evening to the habitations of Man, with murmurs, with bleatings, with cries
of joy, bringing back to him the delicious tributes of innumerable plants, trans-
formed, by a process the most inconceivable, into honey, milk, butter, eggs, and
cream. — St. Pierre.

New Animals. — Two new genera of Mammalia have been found in the East

Indies, which border upon the Paradozurus ; one, called the Hemigalus, seems

to connect the Genets to the above animal, and the other, under the name of

Ambliodon, approaches these two and the Civet ; in consequence of which, MM.

de Blainville and Isidore Geoffroy St. Hilaire propose to form a family, as

follows : —

/- Genus Civet.
Family \ Genet>

Hemigalid*. \ Hemigalus.

MISCELLANY. 329

"Family ( Genus Paradoxurus.

Hemigalidce. \ Ambliodon.

These have been known since 1814, but M. Jourdan, of Ligon, has recently
^examined them in the museum of that place, the results of which we now give.
— Athenceum, as quoted in the Cheltenham Chronicle, April 19, 1838, communi-
cated by Peter Rylands, Esq.

Mode of repelling the Wolf. — A few days ago, a boy ten years old, was
gathering sticks in a wood near Sauqueville, in the Seine Inferieure, when he
observed a she Wolf carry one of her cubs in her mouth into some bushes, and
hide it. As soon as the animal had departed, the boy went and took the cub,
but the mother heard him and returned upon him. The bold boy, instead of
being intimidated, made a stand, and drew his knife, which he flourished in the
eyes of the assailant, who, either from fear, or, which is more probable, from care
of her remaining young ones, retreated and suffered her antagonist to carry off
the prize. For this trait of courage the mayor of his commune has given him a
reward of 30fr.— Bath Post, April 28, 1838.

Arrow Head. — The head of an arrow, made of iron, and from its singular
shape appearing to have belonged to some of the savage tribes of Africa, has been
found in the body of an Eagle which was killed in Laconia. — Athenaum, quoted
in Chelt. Chron., Ap. 19, 1838, communicated by P. Rylands, Esq.

BOTANY.

Numerical Estimate of the British Flora. — Having occasion to make an
estimate of the British Flora, in connection with a paper which I am preparing
for our Natural History Society, it has occurred to me that it might be both
useful and interesting to the readers of The Naturalist. The Phaenogamous
plants are taken from the Flora of Berwick, as quoted in Mr. Watson's Geo-
graphical Distribution af British Plants ; the Ferns and their allies from Mr.
Francis's work, and the remaining orders from the second volume of Sir W. J.
Hooker's British Flora. Of course the latter orders are not so complete or
numerous as they will be when the various naturalists who have been investi-
gating those tribes, since the publication of the last-mentioned work, shall have
made known their discoveries. I believe that the Rev. M. J. Berkeley has
published descriptions of some new genera and species of Fungi in the Magazine
of Zoology and Botany which I have not included in this estimate.

Polypodiacece, 35 ; Gleicheniacece, 3 ; Osmundacece, 1 ; Ophioglossiacece, 2 ;
Lycopodiacece, 7 ; Marsileacece, 1 ; Equisetacece, 8 ; Musci, 309 ; Hepaticce, 93 ;
Lichenes, 420 ; Characece*,8 ; Algae, 516 ; Fungi\, 1,383. The great division

* This has most probably been included in the estimate of phaenogamous plants.
+ Agaricus alone contains 333 species ; Pesiza has IOfi ; and Spheeria 201.

330 MISCELLANY.

Dicotyledones contains 1,158 species; and Monocotyledones, 359. The total num-
ber of British plants, as estimated above, is, therefore, 4,303., — T. B. Hall,
Woodside, Liverpool, April 4, 1838.

Sea Kale Beet, or Silver Beet. — This plant is totally different from the
White Beet, and is of recent introduction. It is entitled, by its wholesomeness
and delicacy, as well as by its amazing produce and facility of cultivation, to a
portion of every domestic garden. Unlike the Mangel-wurzel and Red Beet,
which are of the same family, this plant has its produce above ground, the root
being small and unimportant. The whole of the leaf is used. The leaf-stalk,
which is of an ivory whiteness, is separated from the green part, and boiled as
Sea Kale, for which it is an excellent substitute, and whence its name ; the
remaining part of the leaf, when boiled, can hardly be distinguished from the
finest Spinach ; and, having the same virtues in a high degree, has been recom-
mended by medical men as purifying and wholesome. It has besides this
advantage, that one sowing, whatever be the season, will yield an abundant
supply every day for at least six months. The great difficulty in the growth of
summer Spinach is to prevent its running up to seed. This plant being biennial,
does not flower till the second year, by which much useless labour and expense,
incident to the growth of the Common Spinach, are prevented. Early in April
procure one ounce of seed for a bed of the richest soil, 30 feet by 6 feet, make
holes 1^ inch deep, and one foot apart, in quincunx order; into each put three or
four seeds, and if more than one come up, withdraw all except the finest plant.
About the first week in June the leaves will be from two to three feet in length ;
they may then be broken off close to the root for use. — Gardener's Gazette,
May 5, 1838, communicated by Peter Rylands, Esq.

Effect of Carbonic Acid on Vegetation. — It is stated by M. Traviranus,
in his Physiologie Vcgetale, that vegetation is not so active near springs where
carbonic acid is disengaged, but M. Schleiden has proved to the contrary.
According to the latter, the numerous springs in the valley of Gottingen contain
a great quantity of disengaged carbonic acid gas, and some carbonate of lime in
solution, whilst the vegetation of their waters, and on their sides, is always very
vigorous, and more advanced in spring and prolonged in autumn than in other
situations. Amongst the plants growing in the water, was Sium angustifolium ;
and among those growing on the sides of the springs, were Ranunculus lanvgi-
nosus, the Pilewort, the Marsh Marigold, and Primula elatior. From all these
facts it appears that carbonic acid, either when disengaged or absorbed by water,
exerts a beneficial effect upon vegetation. — Athenaeum, April 14, 1838.

Importance of Azote to Plants. — It is generally supposed that the alimen-
tary substances derived from the vegetable kingdom greatly owe their nutritious
properties to the azote which they contain. M. Gay Lussac has recently

MISCELLANY. 331

detected it in a great many seeds, and M. Boussingault, in his late experiments^
has found it to exist in large proportions. Vetches and Lentils furnish from 4 to
5 per cent., and the seeds of Trefoil 7 per cent. — Mining Journal, April 28,
1838.

Progress of Vegetable Life. — First, upon the burning sand, or naked rock,
the simplest structure of vegetable life, the Lichen, almost invisible to the eye,
fixes itself, blown possibly by the breeze. Its generation is scarcely understood —
it boasts no flowers which require time for their development, or food for their
secretion. They struggle through their ephemeral existence either upon the
confines of eternal snow, or upon the scorching regions of the torrid zone ; they
fulfil the general law of Nature — they die, but in their death are the harbingers
of life ; they decompose ; the particles of which they are formed unite with the
oxygen of the air ; an acid is the result, which eats its way into the crevices of
the rock, or insinuates itself amid the sand, when its other particles form new
combinations, and, burying themselves, become a first layer of vegetable mould ;
cracks and crevices thus are formed, in which moisture is deposited ; these be-
come enlarged, either by the expansion produced by heat, or by frost ; the granite
mass is burst asunder, or slow disintegration occurs. In the thin stratum of
mould a tribe a little higher in the scale of vegetable life is developed, probably
some elegantly formed Moss, which bears a miniature resemblance to the trees
and shrubs ; these, too, run through their remains for the birth-place of some
more perfect plants, such as the Grasses, the Saxifrages, the Wormwood, and
plants with small leaves and low slender stems. The vegetable mould now
deepens, generation succeeds to generation, plants of more complex structure, of
a higher stature, such as shrubs and bushes, begin to rise upon the rock, or the
sand, now no longer an inhospitable mass ; at last the loftiest monarchs of
the forest are developed, and spread over an immense surface, for perchance a
single seed, wafted by the wind, borne by some bird, washed by some flood, or
swallowed by some animal, and thus prepared for germination, is the means by
which new generation bursts into birth, and changes the face of Nature. There
is an uninterrupted circle of events on which the preservation and the gradual
improvement of all the productions of Nature hangs, and there is an endless
source of inquiry for Man. — Dr. Sigmond.

The Cedar Mountains of South Africa. — They are a fine primitive range,
the peaks of which rise from 1,600 to 5,000 feet above the sea, and have a very
picturesque outline. The vallies between the hills are rich in a dark-coloured
vegetable mould, which is exceedingly productive. Corn, tobacco, and some
wine, are here produced ; whilst there is a constant and abundant supply of
water, which is more or less chalybeate. I was particularly interested about the
Cedar-trees, "the glories of Lebanon," which formerly covered this beautifnl

332 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

range of mountains, and which in part still do so. They occupy ravines in the
higher parts of the range, perhaps as high as 3,000 feet, and one cut down in
1£3G, measured 36 feet in girth, whilst 1,000 feet of plank were sawn out of its
giant arms. No care has hitherto been taken of these valuable trees; the
farmers, the Bastards, and Hottentots, living in the neighbourhood, cut them
down without leave or license, and burn the Grass to improve the pasture, by
which many old trees, and thousands of young plants, are annually consumed.
As the Cedar-trees might, if preserved, become of great advantage to the colony
generally, I represented, in the proper quarter, the manner in which they are
constantly and wantonly destroyed ; and it is to be hoped that means will be
taken for preventing the future waste of that most valuable and imperishable
timber with which the temple of Solomon was built. There are many Boschman
caves in the Cedar mountains ; they are generally at some height, vary from 300
to 1,000 feet above the valley, and are not of any great depth, say 30 or 40 feet,
but they are very interesting, as containing the drawings in ochre of a wild people
who have for some years disappeared in this locality. In one cave there is a
spirited representation of a combat with bows and arrows ; and in another, a
flock of large-tailed Sheep and lambs are accurately delineated. — Transactions of
the Royal Geographical Society.

GEOLOGY.

Fossil Shells on the Western Railway. — A vein of fossil shells has been
met with by the labourers at Sonning-Hill, on the Great Western line, being the
first yet discovered ; it was found 21 feet beneath the surface of the old London-
road, in the gravel. This vein was very thin, and very similar in appearance,
and description of shell, to the marine deposits at Woodley, Earley, and the
neighbourhood of Bob's Mount. — Reading Mercury.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

A Treatise on Geology ; forming the Article under that head in the Seventh
Edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica." By John Phillips, F.R.S.,F.G.S.,
Prof, of Geol. in King's Coll., London, &c. &c. Edinburgh : A. and C. Black,
1837. Demy 8vo. pp. 295.

We have already (pp. 112 — 14) put our readers in possession of our opinions
respecting the proper foundation for the science of Geology, and it will, therefore,
be unnecessary to repeat them here, except so far as may be called for by passages
which have occurred to us in the perural of Professor Phillips's treatise.

•REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 333

The following extract respecting the rational mode of inquiry is excellent : —

" The laws of Nature are constant, but so adjusted to the material world that the effects thoy
produce are proportioned to quantity and kind of matter, situation and direction of action, and
other circumstances. A precise knowledge of the effects, and a correct view of all the agencies
concerned, will lead us to the determination of the conditions under which the laws operated. In
no other way than this has any one of the problems of organic and inorganic Nature, as we now
behold her, been solved ; no other process can possibly lead to real knowledge of the prior condi-
tions of the globe. Geology can only pretend to the rank of science in proportion as it proceeds
upon the principles of the Inductive Philosophy, and is aided by the advance of collateral inquiries.
* * * Born in our own days, — based on modern observation?, — interpreted by modern phi-
losophy,— why should we seek rational Geology in the monstrous systems of Astronomy and
Cosmogony which once satisfied Greece and Egypt ? Why attempt the vain task of tracing the
various errors of those writers of later days, who, knowing nothing of chemical and vital laws,
and little of mechanical science, proposed hypotheses instead of collecting facts, and referred
phenomena, which they had not correctly observed, to forces which they had never truly ascer-
tained ; resigned the beautiful monuments of ancient life, the fossil remains of animals and plants,
to a plastic force of Nature, and attributed the regular and orderly structure of our planet to a
general destruction and ruin of an earlier sphere ?" — p. 2.

In another chapter it is satisfactorily demonstrated that the average tempera-
ture of the whole earth is on the decrease — a fact which has been made the basis
of somewhat unwarrantable conclusions. The trifling difference alluded to would
certainly not account for the quondam growth of tropical plants in even those
portions of the world now termed temperate — much less where the same order of
vegetation flourished in the polar regions.

Mr. Phillips, as will already have been anticipated, makes no reference to the
mosaic writings in support of his arguments. Had he done so, he must either
have been no geologist at all, or have sacrificed truth by twisting acknowledged
facts so as to suit the traditional records of the Scriptures. Let any impartial
and competent person, for instance, read the mosaic account of the creation of
the world and the geological view of the case, attentively, and let him then
believe either one or the other, but not both. In order to render the point in
dispute clear to the student, with a view of throwing open the arena, so as to
allow all to judge the correctness of our views, it will be necessary to mention a
few of the leading and generally-acknowledged principles of Geology.

The crust of the earth consists of stratified and unstratified rocks, the former
being subaqueous deposits, and the latter — the crystalline or other unstratified
rocks — being of igneous origin. The world is supposed to have been originally
filled with gas, from which every variety of matter has proceeded ; but the truth
or falsity of this is at present of little importance. Stratified rocks are divided
into primary, secondary, tertiary, and supratertiary. The primary strata rest on
unstratified granitic rocks, which form the limits to our investigations in the
bowels of the earth. On the primary strata no organic remains are found.
Superimposed upon the primary strata are those termed secondary, being

vol. in. — NO. xxi. 2 Y

S34 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

siliceous, argillaceous, or calcareous, and containing some organic remains. —
Lastly, the uppermost layer is formed of the tertiary and supratertiary
deposits, in which the vast mass of fossil remains occur. Whether the duration
of time occupied by the formation of these various strata will ever be ascertained,
remains doubtful ; but at present we have no means of successfully comparing
geological and historical periods. Nor can the various orders of strata be accu-
rately defined. In Nature's plans we find no abrupt terminations : every thing
is so blended as to form one beautiful and harmonious whole. Our division of
the crust of the globe is as artificial as the disposition of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms into orders, tribes, genera, &c, and serves the same purpose, viz., that
of assisting our minds to seize and recollect the endless varieties of form and
structure occurring in the strata. We commonly find that strata lie parallel to
each other, but remarkable exceptions occur, in their meeting at various angles
of incidence, or even crossing each other. Thus much, however, is known,
namely, that the formation of the strata by sediment from water must have
occupied countless ages — a period before which the few thousands of years con-
stituting the history of Man fall into perfect insignificance.

Since we discover no organic remains in the primary strata — and of course
none occur in the granitic formation on which they lie — and, as compared with
the tertiary, but few in the secondary, those few being, moreover, among the
lowest marine plants, and animals, as Conchifera, Mollusca, zoophytes, &c,
it follows, as an incontrovertible position, not only that the world existed a fear-
ful time without the presence of anything containing the " breath of life," but that
long ages rolled along between the period when the lowest vegetables and animals ',
opened their existence and the time when Man first entered the world. Taking
the subaqueous origin of stratified rocks for our basis, this admits of no doubt.
Thus, the Snowdon Rocks of the primary strata are 3,000 feet thick in Cumber-
land. The deposition of that single formation, it is certain, must have occupied
a number of ages which it requires powerful nerves to contemplate. But before
this the granitic rocks below the primary strata had to be formed, and subse-
quently the massy depositions lying above and below the Snowdon Rocks, to
which we have alluded by way of example. All this time not a creature
breathed, not a footstep ever disturbed the formations, and when at length low
forms of animal and vegetable life existed, it is certain that the lapse of ages was
again necessary before the world, by a series of slow and gradual changes, was
fitted for the reception of the " lords of the creation," the highest of God's mighty
works.

Having now brought the reader to the desired point, let us briefly advert to the
account of the creation contained in the first chapter of Genesis.

" In the beginning," we learn, " God created the heaven and the earth." When
this " beginning" was, does not transpire : probably it was a few hours previous

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 335

to the first recorded day ! At this period, however, the earth was without form
and void. The labor of creation was thus disposed : — On the first day the dis-
tinction between light and darkness was formed ; on the second the waters which
were under the firmament were divided from those which were above the
firmament ; on the third dry land appeared ; vegetables, likewise, were created,
with powers of reproduction ; on the fourth lights were established in the firma-
ment to divide the day from the night, and to be " for signs and for seasons, and
for days and years ;'' on the fifth appeared birds, and marine animals ; and on
the sixth land, animals and Man.

Our readers now have, in juxtaposition, two accounts of the creation as opposite
and as contradictory as can be well conceived. But we must here inquire, are
you a geologist, or are you not ? — a puzzling question, truhy, for those whose
veneration for authority triumphs over their reason, but one for which the more
plausible of even this class will not fail to find a ready reply, in the assertion
that " day" in the Bible is a mistranslation for " age" or " period." We fully
believe that " day" is a correct version of the Hebrew word. But let us suppose,
for the sake of argument, that we are mistaken. It appears, then, that so long as
the mosaic records remained undisturbed by geological facts and inferences, they
were not only considered unimpeachable in their correctness, but the hardy lover of
truth who should venture to impugn their accuracy was denounced, with christian
zeal, as an Infidel — a name, as frequently applied, honourable in the extreme ;
but no sooner are the facts produced, than this or some other equally mean
subterfuge is conjured up to assist the decaying cause ! Thus, whether it be days
or thousands of years, matters not ; it must be found correct if published under
authority.

By the mosaic account, moreover, we are led to infer that matter, both organic
and inorganic, was created by a direct fiat of the Almighty. Here again the
Bible and Science are at issue, since the whole course of our researches in the
latter study tends to point out that the world has ever been governed by
fixed and immutable laws ; that the world " in the beginning" and the laws are
of God's ordainment, and that only thus far the Creator interferes with the
progress of the earth and its countless inhabitants. We have related the manner
in which, as geologists, we should explain the deposition of the eai-th's crust.
The creation of Man and other animals is far from being equally clear, and in
fact Science has hitherto proved unable to grapple with the point. But neither,
on the one hand, is this cause for dismay, nor, on the other, can it induce the
rational geologist to adopt, even temporarily, a view alike opposed to facts and
to reason.

Lastly, prior to quitting this highly interesting question, let us briefly advert

to a circumstance tending to cast doubt upon the accuracy of the first chapter

of Genesis, and thereby supporting our argument. On the first day we are told

2 y 2

336 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

(v. 3) that " there was light." Yet on the fourth it appears that it is necessary to
re-create light, by establishing "lights in the firmament." We should be glad to
know how there could have been " light" prior to the existence of " lights in the
firmament." The actual process of creation infinitely surpassed the idea conveyed
by the mosaic description, or we are greatly mistaken. Before concluding, we
shall probably return to the above question, but must now proceed to offer a few
remarks on the Treatise before us.

At p. 118 our author briefly discusses the circumstances supposed to have
favoured the growth of the immense mass of vegetation imbedded in the Coal
formation. The tropical nature of the plants suggests the hypothesis — otherwise
probable — that the climate of England was formerly considerably warmer than
at present. In fact the temperature of the entire globe would seem to have been
constantly on the decrease, and the diminution, however slow, would in course of
time attain a considerable amount. Brongniart supposes that the air in
by-gone ages contained abundance of carbonic acid gas, and was thus more
calculated than at present to favour the growth of such vast and dense forests as
must at that period have encumbered the then limited portions of land.

Professor Phillips states that, drawing a line through Cheshire and Derby-
shire, it is only on the western side of the boundary that plants have been
found in Red Sandstone, near Liverpool and Manchester, referring in the
former case to Lindley and Hutton's admirable Fossil Flora, the testimony
of which has in this case, we believe, been questioned. A supposed fossil has
recently been discovered in Cheshire in the Red Sandstone formation ; but as
some obscurity hangs over the fine specimen alluded to, further detail on the
subject would here be out of place.

Those who would account for all phenomena on the score of a universal deluge
will do well to peruse our author's pertinent remarks at p. 146. Geology unques-
tionably favours the theory of a partial, though probably not of a universal, deluge.
Moses affords us no assistance in this inquiry, for the scriptural version is silent
respecting the extent of the inundation. How Noah contrived to introduce the
number of animals requisite to fulfil the desired purpose into his limited ark,
might form a subject for separate investigation, and is well calculated to stagger
the inquiring reader, unless, indeed, the question be settled by the very philoso-
phical mode of affirming that "cubit" is assuredly a mistranslation for "furlong"!

As regards the rule that peculiar characteristic forms always occur in certain
rocks, we must bring modern Zoology and Botany to our assistance. Now, only
a small proportion of the animals found in Europe are met with on the other side
the Atlantic, and vice versa. Quite a different kind of catalogue, again, is that
of Africa or New Holland. The generalization respecting characteristic forms
being found in certain rocks, can, therefore, only apply to the various zoological
districts. Within the limits of each of these, peculiar forms may be found in

REYIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 337

certain rocks, but the geologist must be prepared to meet with a different order
of animal and vegetable remains extra limites, since each district differs from the
other in many important particulars.

Our author places the probable appearance of Man in the world somewhere in
the supracretaceous period ; but, with the requisite caution ever present in the
rational geologist, declines pointing to what part. He "cannot undertake to
decide so important a problem upon the mere evidence of the absence of human
remains from tertiary deposits, because such negative applies only to the European
and North-American tertiaries, none other being explored." It is, therefore, not
for us to decide that human remains will not be found in the tertiary deposits of
some other portion of the globe. " Or," continues Prof. P., " if never in Euro-
pean regions this result should arrive, who is to assure us that, in countries more
early peopled than these ' far western isles,' neither lakes nor estuaries of the
tertiary era received and preserved some remains of Man, or traces of his works ?"
—p. 193.

It is inferred that bones have entered the fissures and caves in which they are
found in one of the three following modes : — 1. Some of the caves were occupied
by predaceous animals; 2. Quadrupedal reliquiae were drifted into other caves
and fissures by water ; 3. Other caves, again, communicating with the surface,
have received the bodies of quadrupeds which fell into them, or their bones removed
from small distances (p. 219). For several interesting instances of these modes
of imbedding bones we must refer our readers to the subsequent pages of the
work under notice.

The close connexion between earthquakes and volcanoes is very generally
admitted, and Mr. Phillips adds that " it is also capable of sufficient proof that
earthquakes generally precede volcanic eruptions." Modern disturbances, however,
sink into insignificance when compared with the awful eruptions which in former
cycles must have taken place to form the various " faults," and the contortions
of strata causing the undulation of surface constituting the immense variety of
hill and dale, mountain and valley, and their concomitant geological basins.
The ordinary effect of an earthquake is displacement of the solid mass of the
ground, and violent agitation of the liquid parts (p. 244) ; and in recent times its
effect is merely to produce a yawning of the ground, or a slight elevation of
certain parts. But this is no argument against the volcanic origin of mountains ;
since volcanic eruptions have probably been decreasing in vigour ever since the
beginning of the world.

" In corroboration of a cooling globe" says our author, " we might here quote the phenomena
of ancient organic life, which certainly agree with it, so far as to show that vegetation of a tropical
character, corals, and other zoophyta, Crocodiles and other reptiles analogous to the animals of hot
climates, formerly inhabited the land and sea near the polar circles ; and indicate that the surface
of these now cold zones was then of a temperature explicable only by a greater heating influence
communicated from within the earth."— p. 284.

338 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

The explanation of this vast alteration in climate, from the ardent sun of a
tropical climate to the deadly cold of the polar regions, is, however, puzzling in
the extreme.

Having thus briefly explained a few of the more important laws propounded
by Geology, and discussed other points suggested by a perusal of Professor Phil-
lips's book, we shall proceed to comment upon the state of geological inquiry,
and upon our individual opinions thereon.

Some persons will probably blame us for the opinions promulgated in the pre-
sent article, and for the supposed blasphemy of questioning the accuracy of any
part of the Scriptures. Were we, in reply, to advance that our views are in
many respects similar to those fearlessly taught by Reverend Professors, we
should err equally with our opponents in an overweening attachment to authority.
We, however, make no plea of the kind : our only appeal is to reason — the
noblest gift of God to Man. But reason, we are told, is impious when applied to
the Scriptures ; and equally impious is it to test the latter by an impartial
observation of Nature — impious in the former case because the authors of the
Bible were inspired, in the latter since our observation of Nature may freqently
fail in accuracy, both as mere observation, and in its application. — Of the inspi-
ration of the mosaic writings, we reply, we see no adequate proof, but rather the
contrary, and therefore we are but discussing the writings of one whom we
believe to have written as little directly inspired as any author of the present day.
The account given by Moses of the creation, e.g., appears to us nothing more than
a tradition : in no other way can we explain its numerous errors. The writers of
the New Testament undoubtedly were inspired : that invaluable book every
where abounds with indisputable testimony of the inspiration of reason. When
it shall be proved that the authors of the Bible were directly inspired, then it
will be time to accuse those of blasphemy who venture so far to -outstrip the
majority of Mankind as to venture to apply the test of reason and common
sense to this as well as to other works. Thus, were we informed by one of
the so-called " inspired writers" (Joshua, chap, x., v. 1 2i) that, instead of the
earth's moving round the sun so as to produce the alternate states of light and
darkness, the contrary took place, should we believe him ? Certainly not, any
more than a really philosophic geologist would credit the mosaic account of the
creation. When so much doubt hangs over the question of inspiration, it cer-
tainly appears the safest plan to submit every thing to the scrutiny of reason ; and
if the opponents of Science should eventually be convinced that they have been
reverencing, as divine, works simply human, their position would be any thing
but enviable.

The second question, respecting the impiousness of preferring observation of
Nature to implicit reliance on the Bible, yet remains to be considered. Some
persons seem to believe that the Bible is the only work of God, and that there

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 339

alone his attributes can be studied to advantage. Even granting, for the present,
that the Scriptures are the work of God in the manner sometimes supposed, we
fearlessly declare our firm conviction, that the study of Nature, in the most ex-
tended sense of the term, is not only the best but the sole method of attaining a
true, though necessarily imperfect, knowledge of his wisdom and goodness.
Every one acknowledges the world and all that therein is to be the mighty work
of the one true God. Why then resort, for scientific information to a source
which may be, and probably is, incorrect, or at least which admits not of implicit
reliance ? The world is open before us, and we have the faculties requisite to
discover, in a great measure, the nature of its architecture, and the endless
instances of means to an end observed therein. Some writers are ever on the
look-out for such " surprising instances," seeming perfectly astonished at the
circumstance, and pointing it out to their benighted readers, apparently, as an
unusual occurrence, whereas the real wonder would be the discovery of a fact of
an opposite tendency. It is hardly necessary to observe — what must be in the
knowledge of most persons — that such writers are far from being always among
either the best or most " religious" men. Respecting the probable inaccuracy of
natural-historical observation, and the various application of which it admits,
surely the objection applies, with ten-fold force, to the perusal of the scriptures ;
for not only is our " authorised translation" notoriously incorrect in many places,
but almost every passage in some chapters admits of half a dozen or more
different versions.

Of the wisdom or piety of those who denounce as blasphemous the profound
deductions of some of our most learned men from careful observation of the vast
repository of God's undoubted work, we have but a low opinion. Men bred and
nurtured in orthodoxy, or in the noxious influence of sectarian bigotry, and whose
reason has ever been shackled by authority, are not those whom we should select
as proper judges of truth in any shape. Commonly furnished but with the vicious
morality of ancient classical writers, and by courses of "reading" in the Bible —
which they have been taught to worship as the neplus ultra of christian truth —
and educated with the sole view, not of enabling them to judge respecting the
relative advantages of the various sects, but of blinding them to the merits of
everything save orthodoxy, shall they dare to compete with those eminent men
so immeasurably their superiors in knowledge and true piety whose services to
Mankind will consecrate their names in the memory of all succeeding ages —
names which will be uttered with reverence when those of their opponents (once
triumphant in the eyes of the world) shall have long ceased to be remembered ?
Shall a man suffer for his humble butfprofound and ineffaceable attachment to the
sublime works of that Almighty Being which can never be contemplated without
improvement — never studied without advantage ? Yes : thus it has ever been.
The best men of all ages and all countries have, for the time, fallen martyrs to

840 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

their unalterable love of truth. But such a deplorable state of affairs, we con-
fidently hope, will not, cannot last for ever. No : in the language of the prophet,
" the knowledge of the Lord," through his works, will one day " cover the earth
as the waters cover the sea." In that day men will no longer be persecuted for
their opinions, or for the grievous offence of preferring the knowledge of the Lord
obtained immediately from his works to that imparted, partially, if not incorrectly,
by men altogether ignorant of science, or even of the very nature of scientific
inquiry. Pitiable is the philosophy of those who teach that salvation is alone
attainable by an empty belief in their creeds, and that all others shall '' without
doubt perish everlastingly." Vengeance is mine, saith the Lord ; and shall frail
mortals arrogate to themselves the right of judging their fellow-mortals ? We
believe they cannot do it with impunity. Be this, however, as it may, they have
their reward.

In the discussion of this point, we wish it to be distinctly understood that we
only so far object to the study of the Bible as relates to scientific inquiry, where
its accuracy or otherwise may be mathematically proved. The invaluable code
of morality imparted by the Sacred Volume will be the unerring guide and safe-
guard of Mankind as long as the world exists ; and, when time shall be no more*
and the precincts of eternity shall be open before us, then will men be happy or
miserable in proportion as they have fulfilled or neglected its everlasting precepts.
At that awful moment, or we are greatly deceived, no one will receive punishment
for opinions honestly held — in other words, for the result of the exercise of the
highest faculties : rather would those suffer who have permitted their talents to lie
dormant : rather will those be unhappy whose words and faith have been fair, but
whose works have been lamentably deficient.

It were unfair to conclude without a few observations on the execution of the
Treatise which has given rise to these remarks. Its plan is lucid, the descriptions
are wholly free from verbosity or confusion, and the spirit pervading the whole is
excellent. Destitute of those factitious attractions commonly deemed requisite to
render scientific works " popular," the subject and the manner in which Professor
Phillips has treated it appear to us well calculated to ensure the attention of all
classes of readers. Under these circumstances, we congratulate the public on the
reappearance of the treatise, originally printed in the Encyclopedia Britannica,
in the present portable form. It is embellished with two good engravings of
Fingal's Cave.

THE NATURALIST.

VOL. III., NO. XXII.— JULY, 1838,

^ 1 — ,

SOME REMARKS ON SPECIFIC DISTINCTIONS.

By Peter Rylands, Esq.

At p. 20 of the second volume of The Naturalist, noticing the difficulty of
testing the validity of certain presumed species of insects, I remarked that " should
there be found specimens which vary in such a manner as to form a connecting
link between the supposed species and the established one, the true value of the
former is at once understood" — believing that, in such a case, it ought to be
considered a mere variety. Mr. Blyth, doubting the correctness of this opinion,
favoured the readers of The Naturalist (Vol. II., pp. 288, &c.) with some obser-
vations on the subject, the general tenor of which was sufficiently gratifying to
me to induce a feeling of indifference to, if not forgetfulness of, the cause which
led to their publication. After this long interval the subject would not have
been recurred to on my part, did I not believe that good must result from a
calm and candid discussion of the question at issue, and that it well merits further
consideration.

Cuvier defined a species to be " the assemblage of individuals, descended one
from the other, or from common parents, or from such as resemble them as
strongly as they resemble each other ;" and varieties, " the accidental sub-
division of species."

Kirby and Spence remark that " a species is a natural object whose differences
from those most nearly related to it had their origin when it came from the hands
of its Creator ; while those that characterize a variety have been produced since
that event."

Notwithstanding these strict definitions, naturalists have long been puzzled to
discover some certain diagnostic whereby a variety may be distinguished from a
species. The authors last quoted (Introduction to Entomology, Vol. IV., p. 397)
state that, " in general, where there is no difference in form, appendages, and
organs, proportions, sculpture, and larvae; — colour alone, especially in insects
inhabiting the same district, only indicates a casual variety." Dr. Burmeister re-
marks [Handbuch der Ent., p. 588) that " one important character which especially
identifies the sub-species [ov variety] with the species is, that they are fertile
VOL. III. — NO. xxii. 2 z

342 ON SPECIFIC DISTINCTIONS.

together. This is a very definite character, and which is subject to no divarica-
tion." If the Doctor's position admitted of* no divarication (which it does and
greatly so), it could benefit us little, as the information necessary for the applica-
tion of the test is, in the vast majority of cases, entirely deficient.

To pass on to the opinion given above, viz., that if two presumed species are
so connected together by intermediate varieties, that not a single perpetual and
invariable (however slight) distinction can be discovered, they must be considered
identical. As the habits of many species have not been observed, and others
present no difference whatever in this respect, the general marks of distinction
are taken from the structure, colour, and size.

As examples of closely-approximating yet distinct species, I shall select some of
those given in Mr. Blyth's excellent paper on the Mealy Linnet (Vol. II., p. 453).
Thus, for instance, we find that Elanus melanopterus (African species) and E.
dispar (American sp.) approach each other so closely in size and colour as to be
indistinguishable in these respects ; but the former has the outer feather of the
tail rather the longest, which in the latter species is more than half an inch
shorter than the next. This peculiarity in the structure is always present. The
Bullfinch (Pyrrhda modularis ; P. vulgaris, Auc.) is represented in Japan by a
species from which it differs very slightly but permanently in the colour of a single
feather. Almost as slight, though quite as invariable a peculiarity of colour
forms the only point of distinction between Budytes flava and B. neglecta (B.
cyanocephala, N. Wood); Motacilla alba, Linn., and M> maculosa, (M.Yarrellii,
Gould) ; Garrulus glandarius, and the allied Jays of Asia-Minor and Japan ;
and between numerous others. Then again, Pyrrhula modidaris, which agrees
exactly in all points of colour and structure with the Great Bullfinch, is yet
distinguishable by an invariable inferiority in size. In all the above instances —
and numerous similar ones might readily be added — it will be noticed that there
exists, notwithstanding an approximation even to entire similarity in other
respects, some peculiarity which is invariably present in one species, and absent
in the others; and the importance of which as a distinctive character is
never destroyed by intermediate modifications. Consequently we find that such
species are classed as distinct ; and in many cases a diversity of habits, &c, fully
warranting their being considered genuine species, has been observed.

On the contrary, let us examine one or two forms in which no single distinctive
character is preserved through their various modifications. Take, for instance,
Pontia chariclea of Stephens. The claims of this insect to rank as a species
must, as in the preceding examples, be furnished by its structure, colour, or size.
In the first particular it is exactly similar to P. brassicce, and the differences
observable in its colour and size arc entirely lost in the intermediate varieties.
It does not) in fact, possess one constant distinctive characteristic. The same

A HISTORY OE THE NIGHTINGALE. 843

remarks will apply to Pontia metra (Steph.) ,• and in neither has there been
observed any diversity of habits'"' which would warrant the separation of the
former from P. brassicce, and the latter from P. rapes.

But Mr. Blyth seems to think that intermediate forms such as these may have
been produced by the admixture of races originally distinct. I cannot admit
the probability of this being the case in a natural state ; it appears, on the
contrary, highly improbable. And although Mr. Blyth's belief that the offspring
of very nearly allied species might be fertile, may be correct, yet it ought to be
remembered that the generality of alliances sufficiently close for this purpose,
are of species inhabiting distinct geographical ranges, and which are therefore
debarred by natural causes from thus intermingling ; and that such closely- allied
races, when inhabiting the same locality, " manifest" (to use Mr. B.'s own expres-
sion) " no disposition to intermix and blend, as is uniformly the case with even
the most distant of true varieties." (Vol. II., p. 457.) It seems probable that,
in order to preserve consistency and regularity throughout the animal kingdom,
each species has implanted within it an aversion to interbreed with others, which
only fails when the influence of natural causes is lost, and that of artificial ones
substituted. And when such an intermixture does take place, " the highly
curious physiological fact may be borne in mind — which possibly has for its object
the continued separate existence of each primitive race — that very closely-allied
species, and (as an apparent consequence of the same law) similar varieties, also,
less frequently produce, on intermixture, offspring of blended character, than
progeny resembling one or the other parent." (Blyth, Vol. II,, p. 457). These
facts strongly militate against the possibility of any original races having become
blended together. At all events, "probandum est" as Mr. Blyth observes ; and
indeed there exists very slight foundation for the theory, which consequently ought
not to be allowed any weight in discussing the present question.

Bewsey House, Warrington,
May 19, 1837.

A HISTORY OF THE NIGHTINGALE.t

By Edward Blyth,
Curator of the Ornithological Society.

This celebrated and handsome bird (notwithstanding the unobtrusiveness of its
colour) is rather longer and more slender than a Robin, which it otherwise much
resembles in its figure and proportions. Its colour is plain russet -brown above ;

* The belief in the existence of a different period of appearance has, I think, been clearly
proved to be erroneous; see Vol. II., pp. 128, 129.
t Read before the Ornithological Society, May 5, 1838, J. R. Gowen, Esq., in the chair.

2z2

344 A HISTORY OF THE NIGHTINGALE.

the tail more rufous ; under parts, and obscure eye-streak, pale greyish-brown.
The sexes are scarcely distinguishable ; but the young have a terminal pale spot
on each feather of the upper plumage, and the under parts are slightly edged
with dusky. They moult once in the year, and the young acquire their adult
dress previous to their departure in autumn, but retain their nestling primaries
until the second renewal of their others.

In its systematic relations, the Nightingale may be considered as an ultimate
ramification of the great Thrush genus, in a particular direction, an unbroken
series of intermediate species ranging from the more characteristic Thrushes unto
this noted songster. It is but distantly related to the Fauvets, and the other
small insect-eating birds with which it is generally placed ; and, excepting the
small solitary Thrushes of North America, which display the gradation adverted
to, I am aware of no genus approaching it so nearly as that of the Robin. The
Nightingale and Robin have indeed been known to produce hybrids in a state of
confinement.

It may be worth while here to remark, that the Robin also ranges in a series
of birds that grade in another direction from the radiating genus of Thrushes.
The division Geocincla of Mr. Gould includes the species that inteiwene. A
contiguous section — Petrocincla — passes into the Redstarts and Wheatears, and
the other equivalent divisions are comprehended under the term Saxicolince, ; all
the members of which are little else than small-sized Rock-thrushes, and agree in
possessing a mottled nestling plumage, as well as in many details of habit. They
are chiefly birds of open unsheltered localities, which habitually perch, conspi-
cuously, on the summits of objects ; but the Nightingales, like those Thrushes
from which they directly grade, are inhabitants of woodland districts, and rather
shy of observation. Two species are recognized, the larger of which (a native
of eastern Europe) is every way more Thrush-like than that of Britain, and has
even an obscurely spotted breast. In one of the Nightingale-like Thrushes of
North America, the breast-spots appear as if half obliterated ; and in another of
them the tail is rufous, as in the Nightingales.

Our renowned, chorister arrives in the south of England about the middle of
April, and departs for warmer climates in September, though a straggler is now
and then seen in the following month. The poet Cowper addresses some stanzas
" To the Nightingale, which the author heard singing on New Year's day, 1792" ;
and Mr. Newman, in the Magazine of Natural History, records that " On
Dec. 12, either in 1823 or 1824," he "heard the Nightingale singing clearly and
distinctly, although not very loudly, at Godalming, Surrey" ; and he adds, that
in the neighbourhood, he has " frequently seen the Nightingale in October, and
once in November." In a state of captivity, this species commonly begins to sing
about Christmas, sometimes so early as in November, and comes into full song

A HISTORY OF THE NIGHTINGALE. 815

gradually in about three weeks : wherefore, if it ever do remain in this country
through the whole winter, it is difficult to conceive how its melody should
escape notice during the earlier months of the year ; in the cage it certainly
never sings more delightfully than at that period.

The male arrives ten days or a fortnight sooner than the other sex, and both
immediately repair to the locality which they left the preceding autumn ; travel-
ling only by night, as the voice of the male is often heard, at intervals, for a
whole day, and only for one day, in places which individuals pass in their
progress northward. In autumn they also migrate solitarily, though the contrary
has been asserted. It would be at variance with the whole tenour of the
Nightingale's habits, and also of those of the birds to which it is most nearly
allied, for it to assemble in small societies at any season. Not even the Robin is
more quarrelsomely disposed towards others of its kind, than is this famed
" leader of the vernal song." The Hon. and Rev. W. Herbert mentions that
" a Nightingale, which had lived two years in a cage full of birds, and even
suffered the common Wrens to jump and rub themselves on its back, instantly
attacked, in the most violent manner, another Nightingale which was placed in
the cage." All who are in the least familiar with the habits of this noted song-
ster, must have frequently remarked the extreme jealousy of its disposition.

It retires in winter, *in common with the rest of our summer visitants, to
northern Africa, where M. Le Marie (as quoted by Montbeillard) heard them
in full song. At Smyrna Mr. Strickland noticed their re-appearance on April
5 ; and Gilbert White, in his " Naturalist's Calendar," extends the period of
their first arrival in Selborne, Hants, from April 1 to May 1 ; so that their return,
throughout the extent of their breeding range, is probably nearly simultaneous ;
that is to say, they loose but little time on their passage. Each pair, in summer,
appropriates a small district, attacking, with the utmost fury, any bird of their
own species that trespass on their territory. la general, however, the Nightingale
is rather a sedentary bird, habitually retiring from observation ; and it puffs its
plumage very much, even when hopping about, at which time the tail is mostly
raised higher than the points of its wings. It is remarkably fond of bathing, and
frequently soaks its plumage so completely as to fly with much difficulty.

Nightingales, like many other birds, dislike cold and especially windy weather,
but seem to be quite indifferent about rain. Thus, in uncongenial seasons, their
music is but little heard ; but if the weather prove favourable they burst forth
into loud song immediately on their arrival in the woods. It is then that they
sing, habitually, with the greatest vigour ; for the song slackens a little, and is
delivered les3 frequently, after they have mated. Towards the close of May it
becomes less and less frequent, till it ceases altogether ; but it is continued for a
rather longer period by night than by day. Notwithstanding all that has been

316 A HISTORY OF THE NIGHTINGALE.

asserted to the contrary, the Nightingale is a frequent diurnal vocalist, insomuch
that to one that may be heard singing during the night, at least a dozen may be
remarked in the same locality by day, in places where they are numerous. They
sing more frequently at midnight than in the evening ; for at about eight or nine
o'clock not a single Nightingale will perhaps be heard, when', an hour or two
later, the woods resound with their music.

The surpassing song of the Nightingale is totally unlike that of every other
British bird ; and its characteristic trait is the brilliancy of its execution, the
articulate manner in which it repeats the most inimitable passages, often with
inconceivable rapidity. It is a bird

" That crowds and hurries and precipitates
With fast thick warble his delicious notes,
As ever fearful that an April night
Would be too short for him to utter forth
His love chaunt, and disburthen his full soul
Of all its music * * *

* * * Far and near
To wood and thicket over the wide grove
They answer and provoke each others songs,*
With skirmish and capricious passagings,
And murmurs musical, and sweet 'jug, jug,'
And one low piping sound more sweet than all,
Stirring the air with such an harmony,
That should you close your eyes you might almost

Forget it was not day."

Coleridge.

But the Bard of Avon, availing himself of the acknowledged licence of a poet,

affirms that

" The Nightingale, if she should sing by day,
When every Goose is cackling, would be thought
No better a musician than the Wren."

And the Scottish ornithologist of America, Alexander Wilson, seizes on this
deprecatory passage in order to extol the Mocking-bird at the Nightingale's
expense. It is in the day-time, however, according to my judgment, that the
Nightingale is heard to the most advantage. He is the loudest songster of the
wood, and one of which the notes, at once, arrest the attention over every other.
That singular " low piping sound more sweet than all" takes a stranger to its song
quite by surprise ; he wonders what he hears ; and the rapidly-delivered passage
that follows perhaps first apprises him that the sound proceeded from a bird.
Slow, plaintive, rising in crescendo, dwelt on till the listener pauses in astonish-
ment,—-again repeated in another key, even a third time,— -how very different is this

* A conspicuous habit, in which this bird further resembles the Robin.

A HISTORY OF THE NIGHTINGALE. 347

most peculiar lay from the inimitably rapid, and distinct, often long-continued
repetition of a monosyllabic sound, that perhaps succeeds — rattled forth with
truly marvellous perspicuity of utterance, and melody of tone. " One would
hardly imagine," remarks Montbeillard, " that so varied a song as that of the
Nightingale is confined within a single octave ; yet this is the result of the
attentive observations of a man of taste (M. le Docteur Raymond). He remarked,
indeed, some sharp tones which formed the double octave, and which were
emitted like lightning j but this happened rarely, and when the bird by a power-
ful effort raised his voice to the octave."

In the first instance, I have observed that the song of the Nightingale sur-
prises, sometimes, rather than pleases ; but it rapidly improves in estimation.
A writer in the Court Journal, however, who signs himself Anti-Philomel, is
of a different opinion. " In point of fact," says this reviler, " there is nothing
either sad or sentimental in the song of the Nightingale. It is an incessant
tinkling, trilling, monotonous, yet laboured effort of execution ; and, with the
exception of the 'jug, jug, jug,' which occasionally interrupts the thin and
Rossinian character of its strains, there is notja poetical note in its whole gamut.
Philomel is the Henrietta Sontag of the woods — unimpassioned, artificial, but
miraculous in point of delicacy of execution ; and the fact of her being a night
vocalist, instead of establishing her claims to sentimentality,

' Most musical, most melancholy,'

proves only the self-conviction of the bird, that its strains are incompetent to
vie with those of its fellow-choristers — or, perhaps, an invidious desire of dis-
tinction. The ancient apologue, of the Nightingale expiring in the successful
effort of rivalship with the poet's lute, proves that it has even been suspected of
a paltry and narrow jealousy of competition.

" Who," it is contended, " that has ever listened to the mellow vesper hymn
of the Blackbird, or the Thrush-notes gushing in bursts of gladness from the
heart of a Hawthorn-bush, but must acknowledge that there dwells more poetry
in their music than in all the demi-semi-quavers of the ' plaintive Philomel.'
What lover of poetical justice but longs to transpose the line of Petrarch —
' E garrir Prague,— e piangcr Filomele,'

and distribute the garrizitura (chatter) to the tinkling Nightingale ?" Why,
with every due appreciation of the undoubted merits of the two songsters
appealed to, I have only to add, De gustibus nil est disputandum. I prefer the
loud, cheering, animated burst of liquid melody of the gay Blackcap, to either
the deep-toned warble of the one, or the discontinuous broken music of the
other.
The lack of continuity is unquestionably the principal failing of the Nightin-

348 A HISTORY OF THE NIGHTINGALE.

gale's stanzas ; but he may sometimes be heard warbling most deliciously in a
lower tone than usual, and without those frequent pauses of which we have some
reason to complain. In common, however, with some other birds, and particularly
the Blackcap and Reed Warbler, the Nightingale never sings so pertinaciously
as when it instinctively thus endeavours to absorb the attention of an intruder
near its nest. Thus, Mr. Conway narrates : — " I was diverted from my object
by the melodies of a Nightingale almost close at my sides. The singing was in
one continuous, incessant, and uninterrupted melody ; there were none of those
frequent breaks, which are so characteristic of the song of the Nightingale, when
heard at a little distance ; it was one incessant warble. I can hardly call it a
warble either ; it was an unceasing effort ; so much so, that I stood perfectly
astonished, and at a loss to conceive how it was possible for so small a creature
to exert itself so mightily. I began, however, to think that the nest of the
melodist could not be far off; and, as I had never yet seen the nest of the bird,
I determined to watch him closely, in order to discover it. But I was nearly
giving up the search as useless ; for as soon as I entered the copse, no matter at
what part I made my entrance, the warbler was at my side, delighting me with
its melody, and hopping from spray to spray, and from bush to bush, and thus
leading me the round of the wood at pleasure. When, however, all hope of
finding the nest had nearly vanished, I fell in with it by pure accident ; and I
then discovered that the singing of the bird had always led me in a direction
from the nest." The Blackcap, and common Thrush, however, will occasionally
thus sing, even while sitting on the eggs, and so occasion the discovery of the
object of their anxiety. But the Nightingale ordinarily pours forth his bewitch-
ing music at some distance from where his mate is incubating, whence this toit
in his character is comparatively seldom witnessed. His song ceases about the
period of the exclusion of the young, or early in June, but, as before stated, is
continued somewhat longer by night than by day, as in the instance, likewise, of
the Reed Warbler's hurried chirrups ; and from this time a very plaintive cry
(resembling the sound kweep), which is common to both sexes, together with their
usual harsh croak, is reiterated on all occasions when they apprehend danger.

" The croaking of the Nightingale in June and the end of May," remarks Mr.
Knapp (the observant author of the deservedly popular Journal of a Naturalist),
" is not occasioned by the loss of voice, but by a change of note — a change of
object. His song ceases when his mate has hatched her brood ; vigilance,
anxiety, caution, now succeed to harmony, and his croak is the hush, the warn-
ing of danger or suspicion, to the infant charge and the mother bird." Now all
this is wrong ; for the Nightingale croaks at all seasons ; and captive Nightin-
gales, which have no nestlings to provide for, invariably discontinue singing at
precisely the same period as the wild birds. They naturally breed once only in

A HISTORY OF THE NIGHTINGALE. 349

Ihe season — at least as a general rule ; and the true cause of the cessation of tfceir
melody is very evident on dissection. Should the male bird, however, be deprived
of his mate, he will sometimes (as proved by an experiment of Montagu) endea-
vour to attract another by resuming his strains ; but I am disposed to regard
this as an exception rather than the rule. I know, from direct observation in the
case of the Robin, that birds do not always try to win a second mate when the
first is destroyed ; and the instance to which I allude is the more remarkable, as
the death of the female happened early in April.

In ordinary circumstances, when the Nightingale is pouring forth his music,
concealed in a bush, he will not suffer himself to be approached too near ; and
though he does not immediately fly, he ceases to sing, and signifies his displeasure
by emitting the peculiar harsh croak already spoken of, and which resembles the
sound err, or carre, pronounced with a rolling of the r's ; and if upon his repeating
this three or four times, the intruder should not retire, he flits to another bush,
where he immediately recommences his abrupt stanzas ; yet if we advance
gradually, and by slow degrees, so that he should not be startled (and he will
oftentimes thus permit of a closer approach than the generality of singing birds),
he will then sometimes shew himself; and warble loudly within a couple of
yards of the spectator, when the considerable dilatation of his throat will be very
obvious, and when it is impossible not to admire the lightness and elegance of
his form and movements, particularly as shewn by the amazingly long hops
which, with effortless ease, he takes from bough to bough.

The song-notes of the Nightingale are less innate than in the generality of
singing birds, in consequence of which those individuals which are raised in
captivity are far less musical than the birds which are captured wiid in spring —
that is, unless they are brought up under a wild- caught bird of their species.
Mr. Sweet remarks, that " a young Nightingale is apt to catch all that it hears,
and to be deficient of many of the ordinary notes of its species. I had one," he
continues, " for three years, and it never sung a stave worth listening to ; at
length I turned it out \jt may be presumed about the end of summer, when it
had discontinued singing, for earlier in the season it would undoubtedly have
proceeded northward], and it remained in the gardens round the house till it left
the country in autumn ; it returned to the same place the following spring, where
I instantly recognized it by its bad song ; and it continued in the neighbourhood
all the summer, and bred up a nest of young ones."* This case will suffice to

* The individual observation of the author bf British Warblers may doubtless be extended to
the whole species, but we entirely disagree with Mr. Blyth in his inference from the circumstance.
We believe the song-notes of the Nightingale to be as innate as those of any other feathered
chorister ; the only difference being, in our opinion, in the relative development of the faculty
bf Imitation, which, exercised early, causes the bird to acquire strains which modify or wholly
absorb its more natural melody Ed.

VOL. III. — NO. XXII. 3 A

350 A HISTORY OP THE NIGHTINGALE.

intimate, what is familiar to all practical observers, that birds of passage return
to their former place of abode ; and it further incidentally hints that the superb
song of a Nightingale is formed while the bird is young, and that it cannot after-
wards be improved.

Mr. Sweet continues : — * A female that I had been keeping for six years, I
also turned out along with him ; this bird I kept four years, and it never attemped
to sing ; the fifth year it sang frequently, a pretty, soft, Nightingale's note. I
have found this to be the case with several female birds ; they do not sing till
they become aged ; but it is not an unexceptionable rule, as I have had a female
Willow-wren that sung when quite young." — The father of Natural History,
Aristotle, remarks, of the singing birds generally, that " some females sing like
their males, as appears among Nightingales, but the female gives over song when
she hatches." Lord Bacon, too, observes " that the males, among singing birds,
are ever the better songsters;" which is as qualified a statement as that of Buffon,
to the effect that " the females are much more silent than the males, song being
generally withheld from them." — " In Nightingales," says Montbeillard, " as in
other species, there are some females which enjoy certain prerogatives of the male,
and particularly participate of his song. I saw a female of that sort which was
tame ; her warble resembled that of the male, yet was neither so full nor so
varied ; she retained it until spring, when, resuming the character of her sex, she
exchanged it for the occupation of building her nest and laying her eggs, although
she had no mate." Aldrovandus, however, in deducing lessons of morality
from this bird, most gallantly observes that the female ought to be imitated in
her silence by women, who, " in his time,'' on the contrary, were (I must not
venture to translate it) " loquaculce, argutulce, verhosce, dicaculce, linguaces, gar-
rulce, et arcanorum minimal tenaces !!!" — I have known an instance of a eage
Song Thrush, a remarkably fine songster, which was accordingly always considered
a male until it was two years old, when one morning an egg was found in its
cage, and a day or two afterwards another. In some birds, as the Common
Bullfinch, and Cardinal Grosbeak of North America, both sexes sing alike ; but
most generally, as in the instance of the common Linnet, the song of the female
is weaker and less varied than that of the male.

Concerning the longevity of Nightingales, Bechstein remarks that " in con-
finement, after these birds have reached six years, they begin to sing less
frequently, and with less brilliancy and ornament. A Nightingale," he adds,
" may, by proper management, be kept in confinement fifteen years. I even
know an instance of one attaining the age of twenty-five years in captivity." —
It is therefore impossible that he can be correct in assigning so early a limit to
the full powers of this splendid vocalist.

Mr. Salmon (Naturalist, Vol. II., p. 52) records an instance of a pair gf

A HISTORY OF THE NIGHTINGALE. 351

Nightingales breeding in captivity, some of the young of which were reared; and
Bechstkin relates that — " It is said that a Nightingale and female Robin, turned
loose into a room, will sometimes produce hybrids ; but," he adds, " I have no
experience on the subject." A friend of mine succeeded in pairing a Nightingale
and Robin, which latter produced four eggs, but unluckily died, egg-bound, when
about to produce a fifth. I regret that these were not deposited in the nest of
some other species.

In the wild state, the nest of the Nightingale, which is extremely difficult to
find, is most commonly placed on the ground, often against a bank, among the
fallen leaves of which it is principally or wholly composed ; sometimes, however,
it is situate in a heap of faggots or Pea-sticks, on a low stump, or in the centre of
a thick bush. Not uncommonly it is too frail to admit of removal ; but, m
general, it is not quite so loose ; and I have seen some constructed of dead but
undecayed Oak-leaves, stems, and a little Moss on the outside, which were
tolerably compact, indeed very much so. Others are built exclusively of skeleton
leaves, which usually (but not always) constitute the lining ; and they appear
to have been laid on wet, that they might adhere the better together. Occa-
sionally a small quantity of Horse-hair is added to the lining. The eggs are
from four to six in number (and not unfrequently these are not all hatched), of a
dark greenish or brown colour, which is sometimes broken into small spots,
commonly most numerous at the large end, which are of course darker on a lighter
ground than when they are uniform ; they vary considerably in size.

The young are hatched after a fortnight's incubation ; and quit the nest very
early, as is the case with most other ground-building birds, while those that incubate
in holes, more particularly, remain much longer : both sexes warble to them-
selves, even before their tails are full grown ; and the young females generally
continue to do this, but in a weaker and more unconnected strain than the young
males, till the following spring, when they gradually leave off recording, as this
desultory mode of singing is termed by the bird-fanciers, while the notes of the
male sex rapidly increase in volume and loudness. The cry of nestling Nightiw-
gales is particularly harsh and disagreeable.

In the Analysis of the Proceedings of the Academic des Sciences pendant le
Mois de Juin, 1836, there is a letter from M. Nervaux, in which he reports
that he has seen a pair of Nightingales remove their eggs from the nest, when
this was threatened to be inundated, and that the eggs, placed in a new nest,
were afterwards hatched. How the removal of them was effected — a matter
surely possessing its full share of interest — is not stated ; but we may presume
that the feet were the instruments of prehension.

That assiduous observer, the late Col. Montagu, has ascertained that the

3a 2

352 A HISTORY OF THE NIGHTINGALE.

young Nightingales are fed by their parents chiefly on small green caterpillars,
probably, as Mr. Selby suggests, those of a Tenthredo. The adult birds seek
their subsistence mainly on the ground, among decaying leaves, hopping about
like a Thrush or Robin, and feeding on insects of all descriptions, more parti-
cularly the larvse of Beetles ; in autumn they evince a partiality for Elder-berries,
but are much less frugivorous than the different Fauvets ; attacking only those
smaller fruits and berries which they are able to pluck and swallow entire,
When in confinement, they are easily kept on a mixture of bread and hard-boiled
eggs, chopped up together ; but the more insect-food is given to them the better,
and if they can be brought to feed in part upon bread and milk — which they will
not always do readily at first, though they afterwards become extremely fond
of it — they will thrive and sing upon this mixed diet to perfection. Indeed, the
principal art of keeping cage-birds healthy, conjoined with due attention to clean-
liness, is to vary their food judiciously, or the digestive energies, as in ourselves,
become soon impaired. All that is not salt, or pungent, which is brought to a
dinner-table, will suit the appetites of the generality of insectivorous birds.

It remains only to offer a few remarks on the geographic distribution of the
Nightingale, which appears to be confined to Europe and northern Africa. In
Britain they only occur occasionally beyond the third meridian of western longi-
tude, a line that cuts off Devonshire and Cornwall, Wales, Ireland, and the greater
part of Scotland ; while, on the Continent, they visit Denmark and even Sweden.
From the facts I have learned relative to their absence or presence in particular
districts, I infer that their seasonal migrations are performed almost due north
and south, deviating very little indeed either to the right or left. The most
western locality where they are known to arrive regularly on the English coast,
is Portland in Dorsetshire, from which point they are found to extend northward,
without spreading towards the west. Near the metropolis they are not uncom-
mon, in all suitable districts, and indeed are perhaps no where more numerous
than along the whole valley of the Thames. They resort to the coppices, and
shrubby gardens and plantations, and in the open country are only found where
the hedges are high and straggling. It does not appear that the geological
structure of the soil exerts any marked influence on their diffusion.

North Brixton, Surrey,
May 15, 1838.

353

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.
Gould's " Birds of Europe," Part XV.
By Neville Wood, Esq.

In several recent numbers of The Analyst, have appeared articles under the
above title, purporting to be analyses of Mr. Gould's splendid work. With this
view the first four parts were criticised by a correspondent. Subsequently,
however, it occurred to the writer of the present paper that something more than
a mere review was required, in order to render the plan of extended benefit to
the student. We accordingly, in many instances, added facts and opinions of
our own, and in others greatly abridged or entirely altered the original of Mr.
Gould, both in order to ensure fairness to the author, and to suit our own con-
venience. The work is now completed in twenty-two parts, folio ; and it not
only forms the best history of European birds in existence, but is unquestionably
the most splendid and perfect ornithological publication ever issued in this or any
other country. Analyses of the remaining parts will appear in future numbers
of The Naturalist, upon a plan similar to that now presented to our readers. At
the conclusion a complete list of European birds will, if desirable, be supplied. It
only remains to be added, that our desire of bestowing increased care and atten-
tion on The Naturalist, mainly induced us to secede from the editorship of the
quarterly periodical which appeared for some time under the joint-conductorship
of Mr. W. Holl and Mr. N. Wood ; and hence the publication of the concluding
portion of the present series in The Naturalist.

Part XV. — The Booted Eagle, Aquila pennata, — Aigle botte, French. The
figure is of the natural size, and quite as excellent as we can desire ; it represents
an adult. This is the smallest of the Eagles, and though Mr. Gould is quite
right in regarding it as an Aquila, yet it has some points in common with the
Buzzards. " The eastern portions of Europe, and the adjacent districts of Asia,
constitute its native habitat, whence it migrates annually as far as Austria,
Moravia, and the eastern parts of Germany. It feeds on small quadrupeds and
birds, and, according to our author, on insects." Temminck informs us that it
breeds in Hungary, near the Carpathian Mountains. The eggs are unknown.
Young birds have " narrow transverse bars of sandy yellow across the breast and
thighs." This bird is the Booted Falcon of the late venerable Dr. Latham.

Rustic Bunting, Emberiza rustica, — Bruant rustique, Fr. The plate con-
tains spirited representations of a male and female of this rare and handsome
bird. Inhabits Siberia, Kamtschatka, and the adjacent islands, and is said to be
frequently met with in the north-east of Europe ; neither Mr. Gould nor M.
Temminck appear to have received recent specimens. Though probably a true

354 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

Bunting, this bird is not so typical as some of our common British species. The
female wants the black on the head and ears of the male, but the sexes are nearly
similar in other respects. Too little is ascertained of the habits of this species to
enable us to furnish any authentic or interesting information on that head.

Common Oystercatcher^ Hcematopus ostralegus, — Huiterier pie, Fr. — Ges-
chackte Austernfischer, G. Indigenous throughout Europe, frequenting low
muddy places near the sea-coast. This lively and somewhat singular-looking
bird runs, swims, and flies with equal ease and rapidity, although it seldom
remains long in the water. Common on the coast of Lincolnshire, Norfolk, &c>
and becomes gregarious in winter. '• While the female is engaged in incubation,
the male keeps assiduous watch, and gives notice of the approach of danger by a
sharp and peculiar kind of whistling cry. The young quit the nest on the day
of their exclusion from the egg, and are assiduously attended by the parents,
which continually sweep round any intruder, and assail him with loud cries
The young attain at an early age the adult livery, without undergoing any inter-
mediate gradations of plumage. The sexes are alike, and the only difference in
their summer and winter dress consists in the presence of a white crescent-shaped
mark half round the throat during the latter season/' Lays, among the shingles
on the sea-shore, four light olive-coloured eggs blotched with black. Feeds on
bivales, Crustacea, marine Worms, &c. The plate represents an adult male in
the summer plumage, and natural size ;. it is entirely to our liking.

Azure Tit, Varus cyanus, — Mesange azuree, Fr.< — Lazur Meise, G. A male
and female are given of the natural size ; the figures are pretty enough in many
respects, but lack the sprightliness so universally found among the Tits. Inhabits
Siberia,, whence it strays into the north of Europe, and occasionally as far as
Germany. " Like the rest of its family it dwells in woods and forests, generally
in the most retired parts ; it is not so much to be wondered at,, therefore, that
its history is shrouded in obscurity, when we consider how little intercourse
naturalists have hitherto had with the remote countries which it inhabits ;," but,
adds Mr. Gould, " were we to judge from analogy, we might reasonably conclude
that its manners and disposition are in strict unison with those of its near
relative the Blue Tit of England." The sexes, as in the other Tits, offer no
difference, and the peculiar admixture of blue and white at once distinguishes
the species.

Black Guillemot, Uria grijlle^ — Guillemot a-miroir-blanc, Fr. — Schwarze
Lumme, G. The plate contains an adult and a young bird of the natural size.
" The northern parts of Scotland and the Orkney and Shetland Islands form a
place of general rendezvous for the Black Guillemot. Although a few pairs
oa»sionally breed on the kle of May, in the mouth of the Frith of Forth, it is
evident that the high northern latitudes- form its most congenial and natural

SKETCHES OP EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 355

habitat. It appears to abound in the arctic circle, being equally common in the
polar regions of both Continents." Feeds on small fish, Crustacea, &c. Deposits
its single white egg, spotted with black, on the ledges of rocks ; the young are
hatched in three weeks, when they are probably carried down to the water in
the bills of the parents, as some other species are known to do. The sexes are
similar. In winter adults have the whole plumage black, with the exception of
a white patch in the centrfc of the wing. Young birds and adults in winter are
mottled with grey and white.

Hyacinthine Porphyrio, Porphyrio hyacinthinus, — Taleve porphyrion, Fr.
The plate contains a fine representation, natural size, of an adult male. " The
birds forming the restricted genus Porphyrio may be readily distinguished from
the Gallinules by the greater depth and richness of the colour of their plumage,
by the extraordinary development of the feet, and by the robust form of the bill.
Although the number of species is somewhat limited, they are widely distributed
over the tropical portions of the old world." " Like the Common Gallinule, it
dwells on the borders of rivers and in all marshy situations. In its food it is
partly herbivorous, feeding on various kinds of marine vegetables ;" also on seeds,
Snails, Frogs, &c. It runs with ease, even on muddy ground ; but although its
actions on land are graceful, it flies with difficulty. Breeds in marshy spots,
forming its nest of aquatic plants, and laying three or four white roundish eggs.
Thus both the shape and number of eggs differ remarkably from those of the
Gallinules, Coots, Crakes, &c. Sexes similar.

Common Crossbill, Crucirostra vulgaris, — Bec-croise commun, Fr. — Fichten
Kreuzschnabel, G. The habits and changes of plumage of this species must be
familiar to our ornithological readers. Mr. Gould informs us that these birds
are exposed for sale in the markets of Vienna in great numbers, and that they
are in considerable request. The plate represents an adult, and a young bird of
the year ; we have no fault to find with them.

Greenshank Sandpiper, Totanus glottis, — Chevalier aboyeur, Fr. — Pantana
verderello, It. — Grunfussiger Wasserlaufer, G. A very fair figure, natural size,
and winter plumage. Widely spread over Europe, India, and Africa ; also found
lately, by Audubon, in America. Common on the British coast and the mouths
of large rivers during its vernal and autumnal migrations. Abundant on the
coast of Holland, and occurs in France, Switzerland, Germany, &c. It probably
breeds in northern latitudes. Feeds on various marine animals. The chest and
flanks, mottled in summer, become white in winter.

Snowy Surn, Surnia nyctea, — Chouette Harfang, Fr. — Schnee Kautz, G. The
figures, of an adult and a bird of the second year, about one-third of the natural
size, are splendidly executed. The plate is one of the best in the present Part. —
This robust and hardy bird is a native of the Arctic regions. In America it

356 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

appears to extend further south than in the old world, seldom advancing bey6nu
the north of Germany, and being occasionally met with in the Orkneys. It
preys on Alpine Hares, Rabbits, Lemmings, Grous, and even, says Mr. Gould,
on Foxes. It hunts in the day, as might be inferred from an inspection of the
bird, and is a dexterous fisher, seizing hold of its finny victim by a sudden clutch
of the foot. " It is so shy as to be approached with great difficulty. In the
woody districts it shows less caution, and, according to Hearne, has been known
to watch the Grouse-shooters a whole day for the purpose of sharing in the
spoil. ' On such occasions it perches on a high tree, and when a bird is shot,
skims down and carries it off before the sportsman can get near it.' " Sometimes
breeds on the ledges of precipitous rocks, and sometimes on the ground, " laying
three or four white eggs, of which only two are in general hatched." For the
first three years the Snowy Sum is more or less barred with brown, which gra-
dually disappears afterwards, and the old males are pure spotless white. The
sexes are similar in plumage, but the female is considerably larger than the male.

Red Ptarmigan, Lagopas Britannicns, — Tetras rouge. Fr. The British
ornithologist feels a peculiar interest in this species, as it has never been known
to occur out of the British islands ; but since, as every sportsman knows, it is so
abundant on the heaths of Cumberland, Westmoreland, Yorkshire, Wales, and
many parts of Ireland, surely we cannot encourage the monopoly of our northern
brethren by continuing the name L. Scoticus. The plate is beautiful, and repre-
sents a male and female of the natural size.

Black Kite, Milvus ater, — Milan noir, Fr. — Schwartzer Milan, G. • The
figure of an adult, two-thirds of the natural size, is in many respects very fine.
Common in the south of Europe, but we are not aware of its having ever occurred
in Britain. Still, considering the wandering habits of the members of this family ^
and the great powers of flight possessed by the Kites, Mr. Gould thinks it may
one day be met with in the southern counties* Also inhabits India and North
Africa. Our author has noticed this bird in its natural state, and finds its habits
similar to those of the Common Kite. Builds on trees, laying three or four yel-
lowish white eggs thickly spotted with brown. The sexes and also young birds
are similar.

Bar- tailed Godwit, Limosa rufa, Barge rousse, Fr.- — Dikfussiger Wasser-1
laufer, G. Two pretty figures> representing the summer and winter plumage,
and of the natural size. Breeds in Iceland, Lapland, and the regions within the
Arctic circle, but only visits Britain on its vernal and autumnal migrations, thus1
merely considering our island a convenient resting-place on its passage. Frequents
marshy places and rivers near the sea, and feeds on aquatic insects, Worms, and
mollusca. " They run with great facility over the oozy ground, and fly, when
roused, to a considerable distance, uttering as they rise on the wing a hoarse deep'

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 357

note. Both sexes assume the red attire in spring, but the female is larger than
the male, and more dusky in colour.

Alpine Dunnock, Accentor Atpinus, — Accenteur des-Alpes, Fr. — Alpen
Fluevogel, G. The figures, of a male and female, are of the living size, and
perfectly characteristic. Inhabits the bleak and mountainous parts of the Con-
tinent. " It is extremely common in Switzerland and the Tyrol, ascending in
summer to their most elevated portions, and seeking shelter, as winter advances,
in their vallies and central regions." This bird has now claimed a place in our
fauna several years, and not a few specimens have been met with in Britain.
Subsists on Worms, insects, &c, and is said to destroy Locusts and Grasshoppers.
Breeds in the fissures of rocks, laying four or five greenish blue eggs, only differing
from those of our Hedge Dunnock in size. The sexes do not differ.

Mountain Linnet, Linaria montana, — Grosbec de-montagne, Fr. — Ark-
tische Fink, G. One figure, of an adult male in summer, is given ; we find no
fault with it. This bird is intermediate in size between the Whin Linnet (L.
cannabina) and the Redpoll Linnet (L. minor). It is abundant in the north of
Europe, and within the Arctic circle. Common with us in winter, and breeds in
the uplands of Scotland, the Orkneys, &c, but in limited numbers. The female
has no pink on the rump, and is somewhat smaller than the male.

Short-toed Lark, Alauda brachydactyla, — Alouette a-doigts-courts, Fr. —
Kurzehige Lerche, G. The plate contains figures of a male and female; we
greatly prefer that of the former ; the other has too much the appearance of a
young bird. Abounds on the hot sandy plains of Spain, and is found along the
whole of the borders of the Mediterranean. Never occurs further north than the
south of France, and there but seldom. Breeds on the ground, and lays five eggs
of an isabelle yellow. The plumage of the female only differs from that of the
male in being duller ; and young birds during the first autumn " have the outer
edges of each feather margined with buff." Although the hind claw is somewhat
produced, and although the whole foot is essentially that of a Lark, it differs
remarkably from that of our Sky Lark. The bill is also slightly more robust.

Dalmatian Pelican, Felecanus crispus. — An adult and a young bird, about
one-fourth of the size of life, are figured in E. Lear's usual bold and excellent
style. Mr. Gould commences by expressing just surprise that so large and
striking a bird should so recently have become known to the ornithologist* The
individuals from which the figures are taken were sent to the author by Baron
De Feldegg, who has killed as many as twenty-four on the shores of Dalmatia.
" P. crispus differs from the Common Pelican in possessing a beautiful crest and
mane of narrow, elongated, silky feathers ; in the naked space around the eye
being smaller ; in the feathers of the breast being stiff, lanceolate, rounded at the

yol. hi. — no. xxii. 3 B

358 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

points, and of a firm elastic texture ; in the body being more bulky, and larger
in all its proportions, in the tarsi being stouter, of a different colour, and consider-
ably shorter." Baron De Feldegg, however, observes that adults may be found
at all seasons both with and without the crest. " The young, which are very
seldom seen, are wholly brownish grey, the feathers being much finer and closer
in texture, and more silky in appearance than in adults." This bird appears to
have been discovered, by the above-mentioned gentleman, in Dalmatia in 1828.

Yellow-breasted Bunting, Emberiza aureola, — Bruant oreole, Fr. The
Buntings have ever been favourites with us, and the present species appears even
to surpass the others of its genus, which we have long been wont to admire, in
the tasteful distribution of its rich tints. Beautiful figures of the male and
female are given. Its native habitats are Kamtschatka, Siberia, and the Crimea,
but it has occasionally been found within the eastern confines of Europe. The
female lacks the bright hues of the male, but, like the females of all the Buntings
with which we are acquainted, is nevertheless a handsome creature, " A speci-
men of the male, one of the very finest we have ever seen, was obligingly lent to
us by T. B. L. Baker, Esq., of Hardwicke Court, Gloucester," who some years
ago published a general catalogue of birds.

Whistling Swan, Cygnus ferus, — Cygne a-bec-jaune, Fr. — Cygno salvatico,
It. — Sing Schwan, G. Mr. Lear has represented an adult, one-third of the
living size, in rather a difficult position, namely, standing on land ; but he has
acquitted himself admirably. This bird is confined to the north of Europe and
Asia; its more particular habitat being within the Arctic circle. In severe
winters it is not uncommon in England, but it seldom occurs here in mild seasons.
A few pairs used formerly to breed in the north of Britain. Mr. Gould observes
that the Whistling Swan is kept in a half-domesticated state in the parks of some
noblemen, though we never met with it anywhere. Its habits and economy appear
closely to resemble those of the Mute Swan. The eggs are four inches in length,
and two and three-quarters in breadth. The adult female is smaller than the
other sex. " Its usual call-note resembles the sound of the word hoop, loudly and
hoarsely uttered several times in succession."

Black Scoter, Oidemia nigra, — Canard macreuse, Fr. — Trauer Ente, G<
A lovely and very characteristic figure of the adult male, natural size. Common
on the shores of England and the Continent, subsisting " almost entirely on
bivalves, such as the Common Mussel, &c. ; and they especially abound where
large beds of these shell-fish afford them an unfailing supply of favourite diet,
their close adpressed plumage and great power of diving admirably fitting them
for their destined mode of life. It passes southward when the lakes and rivers in
its summer haunts become frozen. Of its nidification nothing is ascertained. This

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 359

bird undergoes no seasonal changes of plumage, but the males are somewhat
richer in hue than the females, and have the bill brighter.

Green Sandpiper, Totanus ochropus, — Chevalier cul-blanc, Fr. — Culbianco,
It. — Punktierte Strandlaufer, G. Dispersed widely over Europe, Asia, and
Africa. It is chiefly met with in this country on its spring and autumnal migra-
tions, though a few appear to breed in Wales and other mountainous districts.
Frequents ponds, rivulets, and ditches, instead of, like most of its congeners, the
sea-shore. " The snow-white rump of the Green Sandpiper renders it a con-
spicuous object when flushed, at which time it utters a shrill whistling note : it
runs with great activity, but generally flies low, skimming over the smface of the
water, and following the bends and angles of the stream. It differs from the
Wood Sandpiper in its larger size, its shorter tarsi, and in the more diminutive
spotting of the upper surface." The sexes are nearly similar. The nest is made
beside a stream, and the eggs are greenish white blotched with brown.

Wood Sandpiper, Totanus glareola, — Chevalier sylvain, Fr. — Wald Strand-
laiifer, G. " This species has been so frequently confounded with the preceding,
that we are induced to figure both on the same plate, in order to enable our readers
more readily to distinguish their differential characters. There is no difference
in the colouring of the sexes of either species, and as their plumage is not
influenced by the seasons or other causes, we trust our plate will illustrate every
feature necessary to render their distinctness sufficiently apparent. The Wood
Sandpiper is still more rarely seen in the British Islands than its near ally, but
in every other particular the history of the preceding species is applicable to the
present ; it is, however, even more widely dispersed, as is proved by its being
found not only over the whole of the Asiatic continent, but in most of the islands
of the Pacific Ocean also, which we believe is not the case with -the Green Sand-
piper." Both figures are admirable, and scrupulously exact.

Here, then, we close for the present ; but hope, with the approval of our readers,
to continue these Sketches at at early opportunity.
Campsall Hall, Yorkshire,
May 29, 1838.

2b2

360

HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS,
Plinlimmon. — Day the Second.
By Edwin Lees, F.L.S. ,

(Continued from page 193.)

" I seek the birth-place of a native stream

All hail, ye mountains ! hail, thou morning light !

Better to breathe upon this aery height

Than pass in needless sleep from dream to dream."

Wordsworth.

There is something extremely stimulating to the feelings in the din and bustle
preparatory to a jaunt. As the skies, the Horses, or the baggage are successively
examined, and one messenger rapidly succeeds another, a fidgetty excitement
urges on the limbs to supererogatory movements, which it would be wisdom to
restrain were that within the bounds of possibility. Then, just as every thing is
ready, something is forgotten, and all is again thrown into confusion — anything
but the right comes first to hand, and at last Patience herself feels inclined to
imagine that a personage ever hovering strangely about on such occasions, has
put his paw — or his hoof upon it ! Such things will occur at home under the
best regulations ; and, with a dozen assistant " aids to reflection," they will occur
even at an inn.

I shall not stop to discuss the merits of a breakfast which I shall suppose eaten,
but at once prepare for a bivouac upon the breast of a mountain, for the landlord
(an authority above all books upon such a subject) recommends a lunch to' be
taken as a counterpoise to the levity of the atmosphere among the bogs and rocks,
while a pocket-pistol is indispensable in a territory where every inhabitant reeks
with a superabundant distillation of mountain dew. I had found, on inquiry,
that it was nearly twelve miles from Llanidloes to the summit of Plinlimmon,
and therefore engaged a Welch pony to shake me to the foot of the mountain,
with another bearing a guide-post beside me, as I concluded it would be occa-
sionally necessary to point him (he could scarcely do more) in the route I wished
to take up the course of the Severn to its primary fountain. In spite of every
protestation and objurgation, though comparatively fine in the valley, I perceived
a distant mist lurking about and ambulating upon the tops of the farther hills, and
consequently, leaving nothing to chance, held my macintosh in reserve, should
an encounter with the chill videttes of the tempest be unavoidable ; and, thus
" prepared for squalls," slowly progressed round the heavy, dark, and turreted
market-hall that seems thrown stupidly in the way for travellers to tumble against
in the dark, and left Llanidloes over the one-arched bridge that bestrides the
Severn below the wier and mill at its western extremity.

HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS. 361

The river above the wier is reduced to a mere rural brook, where little of the
romantic is presented to view, the stream being shallow and flowing through green
meadows fringed with Alders. At the eastern end of the town is a stone bridge
of three arches, just above which a brook called the Clwidd disembogues itself into
the Severn, with a stream almost superior to that of the latter, so that I think a
stranger would be inclined to trace the Clwidd as the more legitimate origin of
the Severn. Here, on the bank, is a large old umbrageous Sycamore, a favourite
tree in Wales, and opposite to it, on the southern bank, is the plain church of
Llanidloes, with its low pent-house tower and battered Yew-tree.

We proceeded by the road up the acclivity that leads to Felindref-gate, leaving
the Severn and another tributary called the Dylais, that here breaks into its
southern bank, on the left. On reaching the top of the hill a somewhat pleasing
scene presents itself — a bold eminence opposite is well-clothed with Oaks, on the
left rise some Heathy hills planted partially with Larch, and in the depression
below appears the infant Severn here termed " Hafren," almost hidden from view,
and fretting itself over several wiers that obstruct its course. Many pleasing
cottages half hidden[in rising shrubberies, and mills for the manufacture of flannel,
now present themselves to view, and in various spots long lines of railing are
white with flannels exposed to bleach in the open air.

A little beyond is Melin Felindre mill, and a wooden bridge over the river, and
on the right a farm-house called Old Hall. At rather more than three miles is
another old farm-house on the left called Glyn Hafren, with a tottering wooden
bridge across the stream, which here begins to assume an Alpine aspect, brawling
over stones and rocks, though within very narrow dimensions. The view now
improves considerably, the southern eminences putting on a bolder aspect, and
being much dotted with wood. Birch now appears on the side of the river, inter-
mixed with Alders and Aspens. A natural Birch-wood some distance farther
on the sloping southern bank has a very picturesque effect, many of the trees being
deeply furrowed at their bases from age, grey with Lichens, and bearded with
Mosses, and the silver colonnade stretches up the hill in peculiar beauty.

The road at four miles enters upon rocky scenery, though the mountain is not
very lofty, but the disjointed masses of several of the cliffs, decorated with Ivy
by the hand of Nature, seem to invite attention. I here observed a mass of
rubbish on the side of the hill, and found a Lead-mine was in progress by a level
driven into the heart of the rock. This I understood had been lately commenced,
A vein had evidently been arrived at, for I picked up several specimens of Copper-
ore and Quartz. The fundamental rock is Slate, in the mass of which the veins
of ore are interspersed, probably by the agency of Trap throwing up the Slate,
and forming the various romantic eminences here unfolding themselves in con-
tinued succession ; for a little farther on several Trappoid rocks appeared, and

362 HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS.

various disjected masses seemed poised as if ready to fall on the slope of the
mountain. An eminence called the Gyess, evidently Trappean, rises about two
miles beyond and mounts to the height of about 800 feet perpendicular with a
sublime effect. As I returned in the twilight, I thought this scene, where the
sprightly Severn foams among the rocky fragments, and dashes on as if thus
early to attest her " swift" career, approaching even to grandeur. It is certainly
the best between Llanidloes and Plinlimmon.

The road now winds at the foot of a hill which appears a natural Oak-forest,
and, contrasted with the purple Heath peering out at every ^interval, and the bare
or golden Gorsy hills beyond, although very dwarf, presents a verdant and
extremely refreshing appearance to the eye, intermixed as it is with glowing
wild flowers of several species, and the bright ruby berries of the Alpine
Bramble.

We now enter upon a series of barren uplands, interspersed with spots of bog
and marsh, here and there crossing a rocky cwm whose Rushy prill splashes down
among the Ferns and underwood, and occasionally passing patches of road little
better than quagmires. The pleasing view, however, repays the trouble of the
ride, for Plinlimmon, sullen, black, and surly, with his long array of frowning,
bleak, barren and cloud- wreathed promontories, now appears full in front, while
the Severn, reduced to a mountain torrent, is seen chafing the stones in the deep
hollow below ; and here and there she timidly pauses in a deep silent pool with
ferruginous-tinged rocks about her, as if considering her future destnvy, or anxious
to retrace her steps to the Heathy turbaries waving with downy Cotton-grass.

Having ridden more than nine miles, we approached close to the margin of the
river, here extremely shallow among masses of stones, and a low dismal shealing,
called Blaen Hafren, presented itself to view. At this farm it was necessary to
leave our Horses, for here Plinlimmon actually commenced, and no vestige of
shelter in any other form or shape is to be met with on this side of his kingdom
of bog and mist. We therefore braced up our nerves for the ascent. Just above
Blaen Hafren the infant Severn passes a barrier of Schistose rock penetrated with
Trappean veins, about thirty feet high, in a picturesque manner which deserves
to be delineated, as it might make a very pretty sketch. The stream, concen-
trated almost to a spout by continued attrition, has wrorn a deep gully in the
rock, down which it falls for some feet, and then plunges into a singular black
and deep circular hollow, caused by the incessant whirling and agitation of the
water. From this hollow, which seems like the track left by some monstrous
Leviathan in the stone, the waters gently emerge, and in a silver stream roll
dulcetly over the lower ledge of the rock, forming a small cascade, which breaks
upon and curls round gigantic masses of Trappean rock hurled from the steeps
above at some ancient period, and now lying mementoes of the furious water-

HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS. 363

strife that then raged. Ail was now of a soft and mild character, and the
descending current urged its silver spray as if unwilling to disturb the repose of
the stony masses that contributed their deep solemn intonations to the aqueous
concert. A pair of Dippers (Cinclus aquaticus) dashed swiftly through the hol-
low as we were gazing at the falling waters.

Above the fall the river winds among the rocks, retaining now only the character
of a mountain rivulet hardly to be distinguished from its sisters, each rolling its.
tiny tribute down the dark cwms. The last bridge now appeared-r-made for
Sheep : a couple of sticks stretched from side to side and covered with turf,
formed the simple but precarious structure over which we now stepped, and it
tottered beneath us. Just above the bridge, close to the stream, I gathered some
luxuriant specimens of Saxifraga stellaris, as well as in another spot higher up
the mountain, where the river, in the vigour of its youth, tumbled in a sounding
cascade over some large masses of rock. A little higher up, a bog on the verge
of the stream was adorned very profusely with the pale blue flowers of the beau-
tiful and delicate Campanula hederacea.

I strongly recommend the visitor to Plinlimmon to trace the course of the
Severn from Blaen Hafren to its rise — the scene varies at every step so as to
prevent tediousness, while the jutting ribs of the hill are insensibly surmounted,
and the occasional crossing and re-crossing of the little struggling and whimpering
Severn is really amusing. At last the rocks cease, the banks of the glen rise
high, and a dreary turbary, grimy with black bog earth, presents itself, with
stubby masses of Heath and Rushes. Here the water in the bed of the stream,
not half way up the shoe, trickles silently and almost imperceptibly, and on one
side is a coagulated mass of ferruginous mud, tinted with the iron deposited from
the water here stealing from the bank, which is dignified by the appellation of
the head of the Severn. There is no pond, as stated by some writers, and
generally supposed, though the hollow continues much further up the turbary,
subdividing into several divarications, each bringing down a trickling rill, but
none depositing any ferruginous stain on the mud, except the small chalybeate
spring I have mentioned. This, therefore, I presume is the badge of distinction.

Of course I quaffed a cup of the Severn water from its accredited fountain
head, and then, sitting down on the Moss, resigned myself to reflection. Here
was a striking instance of the power of association. From a boy I had long
desired to see the source of the Severn. — I now looked down upon a barren and
sullen boggy hollow, deformed with unsightly Rushes, from which not even a
ripple or a murmur emanated, its dingy sides sable with bog-mud, and altogether
apparently unworthy a momentary glance. Undoubtedly whoever came igno-
rantly in contact with it, would hardly feel inclined to do otherwise than rush
from the spot with all possible speed. But stop ! from that humble initiatory

364 HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS.

spring, the majestic — the powerful — the expansive Severn, that reflects in its
stream the spires of Shrewsbury, Worcester, and Gloucester, and on whose
splendid estuary the fleets of India repose after their voyage to the isles of the
new world — the Severn ! on whose banks Hotspur and " Harry the king" at
Shrewsbury, Edward and Margaret at Tewkesbury, and Charles and Crom-
well at Worcester, have fought, and dyed the fields and the waters with gore —
the Severn ! on whose shore the roofs of Berkeley have rung with the shrieks of
an agonizing king — here has its origin. The Severn, renowned in legendary and
poetical lore, here has its outlet into the world. Sabrina, " virgin daughter of
Locrine," is here made goddess of the river, and

" By the Rushy-fringed bank"

here takes her stand with her rustic urn, amidst clouds, tempests, and continued
rain, winging the thought to Comus and his " monstrous rout," and Ludlow's
massy towers ; and preparing, as her subject tributaries defile from their Spongy
morasses, to pour with her increasing waters commerce, enterprise, the fruits of
industry and the stores of trade upon her tidal wave.

Several other rivers issue from the deep recesses of Plinlimmon, of which the
Wye and the Rhydol are the most remarkable. The former weeps from a
desolate turbary among the southern ravines of the mountain, and, joined by a
hundred nameless prills, gallops madly into the vales of Radnor, spinning round
and round in long circuits with the most exuberant and playful wildness.
The Rhydol flows more soberly from a small lake in a punch-bowl hollow, sur-
rounded by black precipices on every side but the one that opens to admit the
vagrant stream, that soon enters upon a short but most romantic course into
the sea at Aberystwith, mingling in its way with the foaming waters of the
Monach in the profound abyss below the Devil's Bridge. The scenery about the
head of the Rhydol pool is the most striking in the Plinlimmon defiles, the
frowning rocks dripping with moisture, verdant with Mosses and Saxifrages,
rearing their craggy masses almost perpendicularly, and throwing the lake they
surround into the deepest and blackest shadow.

In a hollow at the northern base of the mountain is a winding lake of dreary
and desolate aspect, called the Begalyn Pool. It receives a number of plashy
rills into its embrace from the redundancy of the weeping Mosses above it, and in
its turn pours forth a stream that becomes a tributary to the Severn below Llanid-
loes. A mass of black rocks hem it in on one side, with a rocky inlet a short
distance in advance of them, torn doubtless from their embrace by some elemental
crash. Trailing along the margin of the shallow waters of the Llyn near its head
I noticed an abundant growth of the curious little Ranunculus reptans. There
is an anecdote respecting this Begalyn Pool, which, as it bears upon the changes

HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS. 365

that are continually taking place in the aspect of Nature, and may perhaps serve
to explain other anomalies that are very puzzling to the observer, is I think worth
recording, particularly as it has by accident met my view in a periodical now
extinct, call the " Cambrian Magazine, or Celtic Repository" (1829), into which
I opine few naturalists are likely to dip. The author, who appears to have been
one of the angling fraternity, though he has concealed his name, thus mentions
the occurrence.

" There is a circumstance respecting the Bygeilyn (Shepherd's Pool), contrary
to the general laws of Nature. Twenty years ago there were no fish in it. A
writer has observed, that all bodies of water produce fish ; some of the Alpine
lakes, situated amid almost inaccessible glaciers, have invariably been found to
contain Trout ; and he sensibly adds, that no doubt the spawn was originally
carried up through the agency of birds ; which fact I am prepared to support,
having myself shot a wild Mallard in the bill of which I found the ova of fish.
About twenty years ago some gentlemen were Grousing on Plinlimmon; the
conversation turned upon the peculiarity of Bygeilyn being destitute of the finny
race, and the possibility of stocking it from a neighbouring rivulet ; a staff net
was procured, and some dozens of small Trout, caught in the river Rheidol, were
turned into the lake. At that time myriads of Horse Leeches swarmed in its
water. Some of the Trout, when placed in the pool, lay upon their sides faint
and exhausted. Strange as it may appear, the rapacious Leeches attached them-
selves to the sick fish, and actually devoured them. Others of the Trout were
more vigorous ; these, and their progeny, having enforced the lex talionis with a
vengeance, and not a Leech is now to be seen. The late Captain Jones, R.N., of
Machynllaith, and another gentleman now living, were the parties alluded to." Thus
far the facts of Mr. " Cambrian," who then enters upon a theory to account for the
" former non-existence of fish" in Begalyn, which he supposes might have arisen
from mineral particles having poisoned the water, now rendered wholesome by a
thick deposit of black earth over the bottom from the turbary. But with these
conjectural matters I shall not meddle, and therefore, leaving the pool to its
repose, must now wade through the bogs up the mountain again — pausing, how-
ever, one moment on the soft turf to refresh wearied Nature with a sandwich
and a draught of brandy. Barren and naked as the scene is, it certainly now
stands forth in brighter relief. And here (as the opportunity presents itself) let
me give a friendly warning to all wanderers never to trust an absent friend with
the pocket-pistol, and above all never to take it without a case. A few weeks
after the excursion I am now describing, I was induced, in an evil hour, to join
a small party in ascending to the apex of the hill from the Cardiganshire side.
One gentleman had a bottle of sherry in his pocket, with which in imagination
we had toasted the misty mountain till all its grey cairns rattled their piled

vol. m. — NO. xxii. 3 c

366 HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS.

heaps in clamourous exultation, and the hollow glens had hoarsely echoed their
thanks in exulting reply. Alas ! we were indeed reckoning without our host,
who seized upon the Lion's share for himself. Scarcely had we mounted the
higher ridges, than conflicting blasts shook us about like Thistle-down, and vain
for some time were our efforts to get on. At last, in close phalanx we pressed
along for a huge cairn we saw rising before us, and, tacking about towards its
leeward side, laughed at the baffled blast. Down, in the thoughtlessness of the
moment, fell two or three upon the side of the cairn, and amongst the rest the
sherry-bearer. The wine was now called for — when, with dismay and confusion,
our companion produced from his pocket the sealed neck of the bottle, but its
nether part, to our sad mortification, had sustained a compound fracture as he
flopped down upon the pointed stones, and the wine was thus " left behind," a
libation to the Crows.

At a distance Plinlimmon appears to constitute a long abrupt ridge, which on
a nearer view seems to have five or more distinct points rising a little higher
than the general mass — these were formerly used as beacons, and are now covered
with carneddau (piled heaps of stones) — hence the origin of the Welch name Per
Lumon, or the five beacons. This name, however, would appear not to be verj
ancient, as in Giraldus Cambrensis these ridges, with other subject masses
that stretch on to the Teivy lakes, bear merely the general name of the Elennitl
mountains. Having once entered upon the outworks of Plinlimmon, all definite
shape disappears, and a series of dismal winding defiles and dark Hog's-bacl
ridges appear in wearying succession, without a single rising pile of uncovered
rock to break the monotony, while treacherous bogs, concealed within the tur
plunge the heedless stranger in their plashy embrace as he urges on his wearj
way. Add to this, a wreathy mist descending in a moment obscures ever
object, and confuses the ideas of a stranger to the ground to such a degree, that,
vainly attempting to note his devious progress up the dark and deep defiles, he
would be likely to attempt a return in the very opposite direction from that
which he sought ; while wind and rain, almost constant concomitants of this
aquarian district, might complete a scene of disaster difficult to escape from.
Hence a guide becomes indispensable on this mountain, and the difficulties of
access to it enabled Owain Glundwr to maintain himself here with a small
force for a considerable time.

I can only compare Plinlimmon to a number of hills with their subject ridges
and passes penetrated by a Serpent-host of streamlets. These gloomy mounds
are piled confusedly around a wide central depression or elevated plain, now con-
stituting a moss or turbary, covered with Heath, Rushes, and various species of
Vaccinium and Lycopodium. This is intersected by the hand of Nature with
deep gulfs and an endless series of ditches and hollows, formed by the powerful

HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS. 367

action of water upon the loosened soil. Hence it is toilsome work to cross this
turbary from one eminence to another, and amidst rain and mist confusing and
confounding. No lady tourist should suffer herself to be tempted to an eminence
where the roughest gales are eternally battling with each other, for assistance is
scarcely available in some places, and I was witness, on my last ascent, to the
unpleasant incident of a lady being violently hurled to the earth by the fierce
wind, in spite of every effort, while her veil and bonnet sailed, beyond the ken
of vision, over the precipice. Blood profusely flowed from her head, meeting the
sharp rocks in her descent, and though little beyond fright eventually ensued,
such disasters to females are not very pleasant.

The great mass of Plinlimmon consists of primary Slate, which has, however,
been subjected to an unpleasing process by the vicinity of Trappoid rocks, and
their injection into its strata from beneath. Hence, though the masses in situ
are mostly concealed by turf and Sphagni, the inequalities of the surface, and
the Quartzose fragments scattered around, give abundant evidence of the process
that has taken place in the magnificent crucible of Nature. Schistose piles occur
in various places on the ridge, vertically elevated and serrated sharp as a needle,
whilst at intervals, amidst the elevated plain and turbary, broad masses of
Quartz appear like heaps of snow starting from the Moss. The elevated points
around the turbary are mostly Trappean Quartz, the loosely-crystallized pre-
dominating ; and close to the highest point I found a beautiful slab of Siliceous
crystals on Greenstone. The whole mountain, therefore, must be considered as
modified by igneous agency, although the mosses and bogs that conceal its
rocks derogate from that magnificent regal aspect which most hills of eruptive
character assume. The sides and buttresses of the mountain betray the
same origin as the summit, for I noticed, close to Blaen Hafren, huge masses
of indurated rock in the infant Severn, penetrated with Quartzose veins, and
a rock of similar appearance presented itself higher up the stream. By the
side of the Rhydol Pool I also observed a mass of Breccia, the pebbles composing
which were very smooth, as if subjected to the attrition of water ; but the con-
nection of this mass with the Schistose strata Was not apparent. A dome of
Whinstone of enormous size is mentioned, by the anonymous writer in the
Cambrian I have before referred to, as occurring in the ascent of the hill from
Machynnleth, but this did not come under my notice. The dependent buttresses
of the mountain towards Pont Herwid on the Aberystwith-road abound with
Lead-ore, interjected probably into the rock when in a fluid state by the igneous
action from below ; and so great is the quantity this vicinity has yielded, that it
bears the appellation of the Welch Potosi.

Every elevated point on Plinlimmon is crowned with cairns, which are con-
tinually increased by the hands of idle shepherds, so that some of them form

3c2

368 HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS.

considerable accumulations, though rather dangerous to tread upon. Yet when
the wind blusters in its fury, it is by no means unpleasant to pause for a few
minutes on the leeward side of these wind-shields. The materials of them,
being all taken from the rocks around, present a fund from whence the geologist
may draw ad libitum, and the numerous fragments of pure white Quartz among
them, mark the character of the mountain.

I can say but little as to the prospect afforded from the peaks of Plinlimmon,
on account of the all but perpetual fogs that surround them, and of which I have
had the full benefit on every occasion. Ere I could scale one of the ridges at the
time I here refer to, a squadron of clouds had occupied them for a review day,
. nd they kept the ground so well, that though I squeezed in among them as well
as 1 could, it was to little purpose, for it is as hopeless to wait on a mountain top
for the clouds to pass off, as to stand in a door-way in London while the crowd
goes by ! One single break in the array occurred, however, in one direction,
where, far beyond a long-extending rank and file of beaming hills and shining
vallies, Craig Breiddin, like a fairy isle, and Moel-y-Golfa, like a distant pyramid,
crested the horizon ; — but in no other quarter would the envious clouds disperse,
though retreating in thick order to the bases of Cadir Idris and the hills beyond
Machynnleth, they showed the intervening country, cumulus upon cumulus
shining bright in the rays of the descending sun ; while the vapours revealing the
valley of the Lery, and bringing a focus of light upon its bounding promontory,
that little river was seen as a winding vein of silver lightning up its emerald glen,
and twining its rapid but romantic course to the yellow Sands of the sea. South-
ward, among the turbulent mountain indentations that seemed like upreared
piles of rapid waves, a few lakes faintly gleamed in the scalloped concavities —
all else but the occasionally revealed rocks, and the rhimy Sedges and Heaths,
were entirely concealed from view, and father ocean was closely mantled in his
misty robe.

Red Grous inhabit the extensive wilds of this region, though a single one only
occurred in the course of this day's perambulation, which was, however, at the
close of August, after they had been pretty well attended to by sportsmen.
Scarcely any other bird was visible, except a very numerous flock of Golden
Plovers (Charadrius pluvialis), near the summit, whistling as they flew round
in wide circles ; and an occasional Kestril poising on out-stretched wing.

Twilight was now rapidly approaching, involving the deep perforations of the
mountain, its cwms, and its acclivities in purpureal solemnity. We hastily made
our way, therefore, through the plashy bogs, Whin, and Heath, and scrambled
down the rocks the shortest way to Blaen Hafren. Here I took a last glance at
the infant Severn dashing down the rock into its deep circular basin, and emerging
in a playful waterfall, with the Dippers still quivering their plumage there, and

HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS. 369

flying to and fro through the crevice — then mounting our Horses, and again
plunging and floundering amidst the stones and morasses we could now scarcely
descry, we started at a sharp pace for Llanidloes, the Severn wailing a shrill
farewell to us, and foaming down its rapids into the deep Birch-shaded valley
below, with a vain effort to overtake us in our flight.

It may perhaps be thought by some readers, that my remarks are not always
very closely limited to the subject of Natural History, as they ought to be ; but
I reply, that the naturalist in his excursion is by no means obliged to abandon
his reflective powers, but should rather improve and enlarge them. And if, as
will sometimes happen to the keenest hunter of specimens — nulla viam fortuna
regit* — success is not quite as one could wish, the landscape puts on a dark
robe, and a black frown ; then, undoubtedly, if imagination weaves in her busy
loom a varied tissue of amusive thought, it prevents the gloom of disappointment
corroding the dejected mind. However, that I may not give colour to rebellious
wandering from the legitimate objects of The Naturalist, too far, I shall here
subjoin a list of the plants deserving record, that I gathered in the vicinity of
Llanidloes and Plinlimmon for the few days I was located there.

Plants gathered in the vicinity of Llanidloes, Montgom.
August, 1837.

Ranunculus reptans. — In one spot on the shore of the Begalyn Pool, Plin-
limmon. The extremely minute flowers of this plant, and its prostrate
filiform stems rooting at every joint, give it a very peculiar and interesting
aspect, whether it be really esteemed a species or not. Certainly when
compared with a luxuriant lowland specimen of R. flammula, the dif-
ference is very obvious. One of my specimens grew almost erect upon
the bank of the Llyn, throwing out abundant beard-like roots, which
however were useless, as they did not come in contact with the soil.

Trollius Europceus. — By the side of the bog at Can Coed, above the wooden
bridge over the Severn, about a mile and a half from Llanidloes, towards
Plinlimmon.

Corydalis claviculata. — In several hedges on the heights above the town, par-
ticularly near the Felindref turnpike-gate.

Fumaria capreolata. — On the side of the Machynnleth-road.

Viola palustris. — In a boggy field at Can Coed.

V. tricolor ? — Some fine-flowered specimens of this occurred at the base of a
romantic range of Heath-clad hills, overlooking the Clwddach valley, but
I rather feel inclined to regard them as varieties of V. lutea.

* Virg. Mn., xii., 405.

370 HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS.

Hypericum dubium. — On the Aberystwith-road, and in a natural Birch-wood
in the Clwddach valley.

H. elodes. — In a bog in the hollow of the Heathy hills before-mentioned.

Androscemum officinale. — In the woods at the Devil's Bridge.

Arenaria rubra. — Abundant on the Machynnleth-road.

Stellaria glauca. — In various moist hedges.

Acer campestre. — Extremely common, more particularly near Welchpool.

Sedum Anglicum. — On the Schistose rocks above the three-arched bridge, and
on the banks of the Rhydol, near its fall. ,

S. Forsterianum. — In moist crevices below the Rhydol fall, but not very
abundantly.

Saxifraga stellaris. — Side of the Severn above Blaen Hafren, and on the drip-
ping rocks above the Rhydol Pool on Plinlimmon, a few specimens still
beautifully in flower.

Ulex nanus. — Hills on the Machynnleth-road, where one was completely
golden with this plant.

Ornithopus perpusillus. — On the Slate hills.

Rubus idceus. — Very common in rocky and woody spots about Llanidloes, in
every direction.

R. suberectus. — This beautiful Bramble is an invariable accompaniment of the
moist sub-alpine tracts of Wales, and, whether displaying its pure white
flower, or bright red fruit, cannot fail to attract attention and admiration.
I gathered many fine specimens in the thickets on the Machynnleth-road,
and it gems the woods to the very base of Plinlimmon.

R. affinis ? — I am afraid this Bramble can hardly be satisfactorily distin-
guished from R. suberectus. At all events botanists seem much puzzled
with it. It is R. nitidus of Smith, and, according to Dr. Lindley, R%
plicatus of Mr. Bobrer in Supp. to English Botany. Some of the varieties
of R. rhamnifdius, too, so nearly resemble it, as to deceive the most
careful observers.

R. Kohleri ? — I met with a glandular Bramble here, which I must leave in
the uncertainty that still envelops the members of this difficult genus.
It seems different from R. rudis, though the latter is combined by Mr.
Borrer with R. Kohleri.

Rosa spinosissima. — In some abundance by the side of the road, just beyonc
the one-arched bridge on the way to Glyn Hafren.

R. villosa. — Further on in the same direction.

R. canina Forsteri. — In a hedge on the same road.

Pyrus aucuparia. — Several fine old trees glistening with red berries in the
lanes round the town.

HOURS AMONG ROCKS AND CLOUDS. 371

Prunus padus. — In woody spots towards Plinlimmon.

Vaccinium vitis-idcea. — In the turbary on Plinlimmon, above the source of the
Severn.

Campanula hcderacea. — Very abundant on the moist bank in an Oak-wood
close to the Machynnleth-road, about two miles from Llanidloes ; in a
bog in a hollow of the hills above the Clwddach, nearer the town on the
same road ; and on the Plinlimmon bogs above Blaen Hafren. Exqui-
sitely beautiful wherever it appears.

Hieracium maculatum. — On the Slate-hills above the Chaddach.

H. umbellatum. — Very common on the Heathy declivities around.

Myosotis repens. — In ascending Plinlimmon from the Begalyn Pool I caught a
glimpse of some clusters of light blue flowers in the middle of a quaking
bog, to which they gave an aspect of beauty, though almost inaccessible
from the deep waters around them; by baring my arm, however, I
managed to obtain a handful, which, on examination next morning, proved
to be the above. The base of the stem is decumbent, throwing out
numerous stolones with roots, which multiply the plant abundantly.
Stem and stolones with numerous spreading hairs. Leaves Ungulate,
hairy, especially at the base, the lower ones attenuated into a channeled
footstalk, the rest sessile, often decurved. Racemes not leafy in my
specimens. Flowers on long pedicels, with close adpressed hairs, recurved
when in fruit, and thrice as long as the calyx. The latter is deeply
divided, with adpressed hairs, the apices of the sepals connivent upon the
very smooth fruit. Petals azure, light purple towards the base, with a
brilliant yellow eye. Not so large as in M. palustris. I have given the
above particulars, taken down at the time, that no mistake might be
imagined with regard to- my plant, which was first distinguished by Mr.
Don, in Scotland, and since found in Sussex by Mr. Boerer, by Mr. Don
in Kent, and Mr. Backhouse in Yorkshire. The sketch I made of the
Plinlimmon specimens agrees precisely in character with the plate in Eng.
Bot., Supp., t. 2703, but my stolones are far more numerous.

Calluna vulgaris, var. — With pure white flowers, in a natural wood above
Can Coed on the Severn.

Anagallis tenella. — A common concomitant of the bogs in the vicinity.

Scutellaria minor. — Bog on the hills above the Clwddach, plentifully.

Empetrum nigrum. — Birch-wood on the Machynnleth-road.

Platanthera chlorantha. — In the same wood.

Narthecium ossifragum. — Very abundant in various bogs.

Triodia decumbens. — Plentiful on the Slate-hills about Llanidloes.

Hymenophyllum Wilsoni. — On some rocks near the Rhydol, at a plank over a
dangerous gulph of the river called Pont Bren.

372 HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS.

Lycopodium clavatum, L. alpinum, and L. selago, all covering the banks of
the turbaries on Plinlimmon.

Splachnum mnioides. — I picked up a small tuft of this Moss in fruit, on one
of the stones of the highest cairn, whither it had been wafted by the
blast, but how far it had travelled I cannot say.

I found an old Birch-wood on the Machynnleth-road,full of venerable furrowed
trees, and elegant pensile foliage, a favorite locality of the Lichens and Fungi,
and I doubt not some rare species might be found here. I noticed among the
former, Evernia prunastri, with apothecia, which is of uncommon occurrence in
this state; Variolaria griseo-virens ; Parmelia saxatilis, with apothecia; and
some beautiful specimens of Usnea fiorida. Stereocavlon botryosum occurred on
the bleak heights of Plinlimmon, with several curious species of the Scyphophori,
or Cup-lichens. Among the Fungi, I gathered Agaricus pantherinus in the
Birch-wood, and Scleroderma vidgare was very plentiful on banks near an Oak-
wood in the same vicinity, but nearer Llanidloes.

ON THE HABITS AND PECULIARITIES OF BRITISH PLANTS
AND ON THE DERIVATIONS OF THEIR LATIN NAMES.

Bv T.B.Hall.

(Continued from p. 309.)

Anemone. — From au/xos, wind ; being readily agitated, or its petals easily
scattered, as noticed in Ovid, Met. ; and hence the poetical allusion of Sir W.
Jones —

" Youth, like a thin Anemone, displays

His silken leaf, and in a morn decays."

Or from many of the species growing in exposed situations.

Anemone nemorosa, Wood Anemone, Wood Nymph, Wind-flower. — The
flowers fold up in a curious manner, and bend downwards against rain. The
whole plant is acrid. Goats and Sheep eat it, but it is apt to disorder the latter
violently. Horses, Cows, and Swine refuse it. The recent flowers are poisonous,
and the plant yields an acrid, volatile principle, so corrosive as to be used exter-
nally instead of Cantharides. It is also serviceable in head-aches, tertian agues,
and rheumatic gout. A leaf of this plant, with Puccinia anemones growing or
its under surface, was mistaken by Dr. Dillenius for a species of Fern, and was
by him figured and described as such, in his edition of Ray's Synopsis, p. 124,
t. 3, fig. 1., under the name of Filix lobata, globulis, pulveridentis undique aspcrsa.
The original specimen, from which the drawing was made, is still preserved in

HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS. 373

the Bobartian Herbarium, in the Library of the Oxford Botanic Garden. The
roots are sometimes attacked by a minute Fungus, Peziza tuberosa, which is
very destructive to them. By garden culture the stamens become transformed
into supernumerary petals, and thus it attracts the admiration of the florists more
than when in its natural shades it merely affects the " simplex munditiis." As
the Wood Anemone is one of our early spring plants, I cannot help extracting
the following lines from Dr. Withering on this subject : — " The love of flowers
seems a naturally-implanted passion, without any alloy ; but, perhaps, it is the
early flowers of spring that always bring with them the greatest degree of pleasure,
and our affections seem immediately to expand at the sight of the first opening
blossom, however humble its race may be. It is not intrinsic beauty, or splendour,
that so charms us, for the fair maids of spring cannot compete with the grander
matrons of the advanced year ; they would be unheeded, perhaps lost, in the
rosy bowers of summer and of autumn ; no, it is our first meeting with a long-
lost friend, the reviving glow of a natural affection, that so warms us at this
season : to maturity they give pleasure as a harbinger of the renewal of life,
a signal of awakening Nature, or of a higher promise : to youth, they are expand-
ing being, opening years, hilarity, and joy. With summer flowers we seem to
live as with our neighbours, in harmony and good- will; but spring flowers
are cherished as private friendships." Though the most splendid varieties of
Anemonies or Wind-flowers are derived from exotic species, which beautifully
enamel the meadows of Greece, our native ornament of the lonely thicket cannot
fail to engage a due degree of admiration —

• Where thickly strewed in woodland bowers
Anemonies their stars unfold."

Anemone pulsatilla, Pasque-flower Anemone. — Gerarde expressly informs
us that he himself was " moved to name" this the Pasque-flower, or Easter-flower,
because of the time "of its appearance. There is, therefore, no occasion to seek
an explanation of this name in the reported use of the flowers for colouring the
Paschal eggs of the Catholics, or the Scotch ; especially as the flowers are said to
yield a green, not a purple dye. The root is sweet according to Haller, though
the herb itself is highly acrid, and blisters the skin. Goats and Sheep eat it.
Horses, Cows, and Swine refuse it. It is sometimes. admitted into gardens, the
flowers being very handsome, purple, and externally silky.

Anemone Apennina, Blue Mountain Anemone. — This is at least as worthy of
the florist's attention as some other species. Its elegant bright blue flowers would
prove ornamental to the shrubbery.

Angelica. — Named Angelic front* its cordial and medicinal properties.

Angelica Archangelica, Garden Angelica, Candied Angelica. — A well-known

vet. in. — NO. XXII. 3 D

374 HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS.

article in confectionary consists of the prepared stalks of this plant, and in that
state is agreeable ; otherwise, the flavour, though aromatic, is too powerful and
pungent to be pleasant. It is called Archangelica, a-gyv implying its imagined
superiority in virtue over the following species. Of the antipestilential virtues
of the root, those who wish to be informed, will find amusement, at least, in
old Gerarde.

Angelica sylvestris, Wild Angelica. — It is warm, acrid, bitter, and aromatic ;
but the cultivated kind possessing these properties in a higher degree, this has
been long neglected. Cows, Goats, and Swine eat it. Horses refuse it.

Anthemis. — A»0e/*<r, from a*Qos, a flower, because it bears an abundance of
flowers.

Anthemis maritima, Sea Chamomile. — The flowers smell like Tansy; the
leaves like Mugwort.

Anthemis nobilis, Common Chamomile, Sweet Chamomile. — The leaves and
flowers have a strong, not ungrateful, aromatic smell, and a bitter nauseous
taste, probably arising from an essential oil. Chamomile (which may be easily
propagated by slips planted about a foot apart from each other) was formerly used
as a cover for walks, odoriferous to the tread, and which, when mowed and rolled,
looked well for some time, but, being subject to decay in large patches, they
have been abandoned as unsightly. Varieties with double flowers, whose yellow
tubular florets are, entirely or partially, transformed into white ligulate ones,
are common in gardens ; the discoid variety, destitute of rays, is more rare.
The latter, perhaps, ought to be preferred for medical use ; the double white
flowers being now acknowledged to be weaker than in a natural state. Every
part of the plant is intensely bitter, and gratefully aromatic, especially the
flowers, whose stomachic and tonic powers are justly celebrated. Chamomile is
derived from xa^a'» dwarf, and ja*jXov, an Apple, because the plant, smells like
Apples, or rather like Quinces.

Anthemis arvensis, Corn Chamomile, White Ox-eye. — The herbage has little
or no smell, but the flowers are pleasantly scented.

Anthemis cotula, Stinking Chamomile or Mayweed. — Toads are said to be
partial to this plant. It is very ungrateful and displeasing to Bees. Goats and
Sheep are not fond of it. Horses, Cows, and Swine refuse it. It frequently
blisters the skin of reapers, and of children who happen to gather it ; the acri-
mony is occasioned by an exudation from minute glands perceptible with a
microscope. It is one of the troublesome weeds that overrun Corn-fields, and
ought to be extirpated by more diligent husbandry.

Anthemis tinctoria, Ox-eye Chamomile, Yellow Ox-eye. — The flowers afford
a remarkably clear and good yellow dye. Those of Chrysanthemum segetum
resemble them much in appearance, but experience proves that they will not

HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OP BRITISH PLANTS. 875

answer the same purpose. Horses and Goats eat it. Sheep are not fond of it,
Cows and Swine refuse it.

Anthericum. — Avflejwxor, from avQot, a flower, and p*j%oy, a wall or precipice,
applied by the Greeks to the stem of the Asphodel.

Anthericum serotinum, Mountain Spiderwort. — The specific name, which is
incorrect for a plant blossoming in June, seems to have originated in a confusion
of synonyms between this Anthericum and Narcissus serotinus of Clus. Hist.,
Vol. 1., 162, f. copied in John Banhin's Historia, and there placed with our
Anthericum.

Anthoxanthum. — From avQos avQuv, flower of flowers ; from its agreeable fra-
grance ; or from avOos, a flower, and l~xiQos, yellow ; from the yellowish hue of the
spikes, especially in age.

Anthoxanthum odoratum, Spring-grass, Sweet-scented Vernal-grass. — This is
one of our earliest Grasses, and principally occasions the delightful smell so
peculiar to neW-mown hay ; hence its name of odoratum, or sweet-scented. If
the leaves are gathered and held in the hand a few minutes, they exhale a grate-
ful odour, similar to that of Woodruff (Aspertda odorata). Boccone states that a
distilled water may be prepared from it as the vehicle of some perfumes. If it
be gathered while in flower, wrapped in a paper, and carried in the pocket, it
retains the smell of new-mown hay for a long time. This fragrance depends,
according to Vogel, upon the presence of benzoic acid. Mr. Thompson ingeni-
ously observes, that as the odours of leaves depend chiefly on the exhalation of
their essential oil, they are often regulated by circumstances affecting the excretory
ducts of the follicular1 glands. Thus the duct being closed by the pressure of the
cells, turgid with sap, in the fresh stem and leaf of Anthoxanthum odoratum, no
odour is perceived ; but it opens when these cells shrink, as the Grass dries, and
then the agreeable perfume peculiar to new hay is exhaled. Cows, Goats, Sheep,
and Horses eat it. It abounds chiefly in wet lands, flourishing in a peculiar
manner on peat bogs. Mr. Sinclair, one of the highest authorities on this
subject, states that " its merits in respect to early growth, continuing to vegetate
and throw up flowering stalks till the end of autumn, and its hardy and permanent
nature, sufficiently uphold its claim to a place in the composition of all permanent
pastures. The superior nutritive qualities of its lattermath are a great recom-
mendation for the purpose of grazing, the stalks being of but little utility, as
they are generally left untouched by the cattle, provided there is a sufficiency of
herbage." The valves of the blossom adhere to the seed when it is ripe, and the
jointed awn by its spiral contortions through the alternate moisture and dry-
ness of the air, assisted by the awn and the hairs which cover the valves,
which from the same cause act as so many levers, separates it from the receptacle*

3d 2

370 CORRESPONDENCE.

and lifts it out of the calyx, at a time when the spike is necessarily kept in an
erect situation by a throng of taller Grasses surrounding them. A most beautiful
and curious contrivance of Nature, without which, or some similar provision, the
seed in wet seasons would be apt to vegetate in the husks, and the young plants
in consequence become abortive. — Rev. J. Swayne.

Anthriscus. — AvQpio-xos, from avfyno-x*, flowers.

Anthriscus vulgaris, Common Beaked Parsley, Hough Chervil. — Miller tells
us there have been some instances of serious ill effect from this plant when taken
in soups by mistake. Curtis obverves that when luxuriant, as in moist situa-
ions, it affects somewhat the appearance of Hemlock (Conium maculatum), but
may be distinguished from it by its leaves being slightly hairy, more finely
divided and of a paler green ; the absence of the dark spots on the stem, and also
the absence of a general involucrum, will serve readily to distinguish this plant j
the seeds in Hemlock are smooth, but in this plant rough, nor has it the strong
disagreeable smell of Hemlock, but more resembles that of the Common Chervil,
to which it is in habit somewhat allied.

Anthyllis. — From euiQos, a flower, and iovXos, a beard or down ; from the downy
calyxes ; or from avOvXXu, diminutive of «»0or, a flower.

Anthyllis vulneraria, Kidney Vetch, Ladies'-finger, Lamb- toe. — As a vulnerary,
its utility is at least problematical ; though in Threlkeld's time (1727) it was
regularly sold in Dublin market " by the name of Stanch, being astringent." A
yellow dye may be obtained from it. Where the soil was a reddish Clay,
LinNjEUS remarked the blossoms to be red, but in white Clay, white. In Portugal
Withering states to have always found them red. In England, most commonly,
as the rustic poet observes, —

" The yellow Lamb toe I have often got,
Sweet creeping o'er the banks in sunny time.''

Goats and Cows eat it, and the herbage is said to afford good pasturage for Sheep.
Though not in cultivation, Mr. Salisbury considers it well worth attention, as,
where it flourishes most (in calcareous soil), Cows produce better milk and in
greater quantity. Gesner, it appears, first raised the report of the vulnerary
properties of this plant, which perhaps, like other soft and downy applications,
may, on an emergency, staunch the blood of a rustic wound, and give Nature
and a good constitution time to effect a cure.

377

CORRESPONDENC E.

Notes on the Habits of the Dormouse.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Sir, — The little Dormouse {Myotus avellanarius) alluded to by my worthy
friend Mr. J.D. Salmon, in the February number of The Naturalist (p. 104), is
yet alive and well. It came to me from him in Sussex, on the 23rd of December
last, a distance of 140 miles, apparently but little disturbed by the long and
tedious ride. From that time till the 1st of April, 1838, it slept in its snug
dormitory — a deal box lined with wood — when it awoke, and readily ate of
apples and nuts. It is easily alarmed, being more timid than tame, but shews
no signs of anger on being taken in the hand. As it sleeps the greater part of
the day, I cannot then closely watch its habits ; but towards evening it wakes
up, and is very lively and frolicsome, running, on being let out of its cage, up the
bell-rope, where it will sit for hours in the folds of the knot, timidly watching
our movements.

Habits of the Red-throated Diver.

On Friday, the 20th of April, a villager brought me a very fine specimen of
the Red-throated Diver, or " Rain Goose," which he caught floundering — or
"flopping," as he termed it — in a ploughed field in the parish of Boughton.
Though uninjured, it was easily captured, not being able to take flight from the
ground. Wishing to keep it alive a few days, till I could dispatch it to a friend,
I placed it in a wide shallow tub of soft water, and gave it some live fish. It
appeared very lively and perfectly at ease, swimming about, diving, and preening
its feathers^ It was very fierce on being approached, darting its sharp beak at
every thing that came near. Two or three of my Fowls occasionally jumped on
the sides of the tub, when it quacked loudly, and flew over the edge of its bath
in its efforts to punish the intruders. A little Dog was made to repent indulging
its curiosity, and to retreat from my strange pet much more nimbly than it came.
On Saturday night it died. Since then another specimen has been taken in a
field seven miles from this place. Is it not an unusual thing for these aquatic
birds to be seen so late, and here at all, as we are thirty or forty miles from the
sea ? — My bird answered to Bewick's description, except that the neck-feathers
were not so dark as his figred supecimen.

Query respecting The Oozing of Water from the Walnut-tree.
On Thursday last I observed, varying from four to six feet from the trunks of

378 CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

two very fine Walnut-trees, little risings of moisture, like small springs issuing
from the Gravel. Between the trees, about twenty feet from each, one much
larger than the rest induced me to ascertain the cause, when, on digging down
about eighteen inches, I found the bark of the root had given way, and the sap
was rapidly oozing out. I counted from the two trees no less than nine springs,
some more copious than the others, yet all flowing freely. On Sunday the spots
were still very moist, but did not show signs of being on the increase. Can you
oblige me, in one of your future numbers, by stating a remedy for this dangerous
draining of two fine old useful and ornamental friends ?

As a constant reader and admirer of your periodical, I take the liberty of
forwarding you the preceding communications. Should they be worthy a place
in the pages of The Naturalist, I shall feel pleasure in having added a mite to so
excellent a Journal. Should they be considered inadmissible, I must request the
favour of your pardon, and with all due submission subscribe myself as

Yours, most respectfully,

Stoke Ferry, Norfolk, Richakd Pigott.

May 14, 1838.

[^The eruption alluded to as observed in the trunks and roots of the Walnut-
trees, probably arises from a disease scarcely to be subdued by local applications,
a method, however, which would be as well tried, since no harm could ensue.
An adhesive fluid or plaister might answer the purpose, but it is impossible to
supply definite information on this head without inspecting the invalids. We
should be glad to learn the experience of any correspondent in the matter. — For
the above interesting communications we beg to return thanks, and to express a
hope that Mr. Pigott will become a frequent contributor to the pages of The
Naturalist. — Ed.]]

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

On the Formation of Pearl.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Doncaster, May 17, 1838.

Dear Sir, — At the conclusion of a very interesting lecture by Mr. Edwin
Lankester, at our Lyceum, the chairman, Mr. Morey, complimented him on
its originality, and in particular for the novelty and importance of his remarks

MAPTER OF CRITICISM. 879

on the formation of Pearl. I consider the lecture very talented, and that it was
delivered in a masterly manner ; yet on the subject of the process by which
Pearls are formed, I am not aware that Mr. Lankester promulgated any thing
new. His statement was to the effect that the Pearl was produced when tfee
shell was injured, and that, therefore, this beautiful and delicate gem, so highly
prized, is the result of disease. This, I believe, is the generally-received opinion ;
but I have never met with a sufficiently clear account of the process of the
formation of Pearls, to explain their peculiar structure. I admit that they are
a secretion of gelatine mixed with nacreous or pearly matter, which, when com-
bined, impart to this substance its hardness, smoothness, and delicate brilliant
whiteness, rendering it so fit an ornament for the fair daughters of Eve, and
emblematical of the purity and chastity of their minds — the beings whom
Nature has formed in her choicest mould ! or, as the rustic poet has expressed it —

" Her 'prentice hand she tried on Man,
And then she made *.he lasses, O.''

But to proceed. I have examined many Pearls, both from the Oyster and
the Muscle, making sections from them, in order to ascertain the modus operandi;
and before giving my own opinion on the subject, I would premise, that when the
Pearl is sawn through, the surfaces show a number of concentric laminae, beginning
with a small nucleus, and enlarging each successive layer, like a number of watch-
glasses, the smallest being the central one. These spherical laminae are all of similar
thickness, and in some instances may be easily separated. It is asserted by
naturalists, that the object of the fish in producing the Pearl, is for the purpose
of repairing the shell ; unfortunately for their theory, the Pearl is generally
found lying snugly under the lower portion of the Muscle which connects the
hinges of the shells ; and if produced early, prior to the full growth of the Oyster,
&c, the Pearl is often found imbedded in the flesh. From these facts, it seems
probable that the formation of Pearl bears a strong analogy to that of calculi,
and that they owe their peculiar beauty to their locality, being formed of
a similar substance (but in a more concrete and compact manner) as the inner
surfaces of the shells of both the Oyster and Muscle. It is possible — as I have
seen three or four different-sized Pearls from one Oyster — that they are the result
of some solvent secreted by the fish, which acts on the nacreous portion of the
shell, liquifying it ; and as all fluids assume a spherical shape, more or less, the
dissolved pearly matter, obeying this law, takes a similar form, and, when hard,
retains the partially spherical shape. Analogy is strongly in favour of this
theory, as we find the biliary calculi in the human gall-bladder often nearly
spherical, and they are nearly hollow ; but even when so, their edges indicate

380 CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

a crystalline structure, and appear as if the inspissated bile had suddenly con-
creted.

I am, dear Sir, yours truly,
To Neville Wood, Esq. J. L. Levison.

The Scientific Name of the Pied Wagtail.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.

My dear Sir, — I perceive that Mr. Thompson, in the Annals of Natural
History (p. 181), appears to believe that the Linnsean appellation, Motacilla
alba, should be retained for our Pied Wagtail, because " the two characters which
form the description of M. alba in the Systema Natures are found in our bird.
These are, * pectore nigro, rectricibus duabus lateralibus dimidiato oblique albis.' "
I cannot see the force of this argument. It is pretty evident that ours was not
the Wagtail Linnaeus described under the name of M. alba ; and therefore, how-
ever near it may approach to the true M. alba, if it be really" a distinct species,
it ought certainly to loose that appellation. Mr. Gould appears certainly correct
here ; but why he has deemed it necessary to coin a new name (M. Yarrellii), I
know not. The British species has been described more than once (previous to
Mr. Gould's truly laudable discovery) under the name of M. maculosa, which,
being perfectly appropriate, I see no reason for altering. Our nomenclature is
already sufficiently stocked with synonyms.

Believe me, yours sincerely,

Bewsey House, Warrington, Peter Rylands.

May 4, 1838.

Relative Advantages of the Linn^ean and Natural Systems of Botany.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.

My dear Sir, — When I sent you a notice of the most remarkable works of the
present day on British Botany (p. 68), I had no intention of provoking Mr. Lan-
kester into a discussion of the merits of the natural system, though I could
almost swear, from the list of books he had given you, that he must have been
pupil of Dr. Lindley's. I should not shrink from taking up the gauntlet he noA
seems to have thrown down for me, if it were possible to reply at length without
allusion to living authors. But Dr. Lindley is brought forward so prominently,
and being, as is well known, the great champion of the natural system in Britain,
while I was apparently combating with Mr. Lankester, I should in reality be
attacking Dr. Lindley ; and thus my literary spear, if good for any thing, must

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

881

be long enough to pierce through not only the " six tough bull-hides " of Mr.
Lankester's shield, but also the "solid brass" (I mean no sarcasm) of the
learned professor's. In fact I should of necessity have to make extracts from
Dr. Lindley's botanical works, and comment on the unnecessary severity of
language he has employed towards the Linnsean system and its advocates on
various occasions, infusing what I consider to be the same unjust, and, I still
think, unphilosophical spirit into his pupils. Inquiry into the merits of the
Linnsean system is not once thought of by the modern botanist of a certain
school, who is taught to despise it as worse than useless. Thus Mr. Lankester,
in giving a notice of the works published in the present day for the botanical
student — in which, surely, impartiality required that Linnsean publications,
written, as he himself says, " in a pleasing style, calculated to allure to the study
of Botany," should not be placed below zero — huddles a few of them together in
a sort of postscript, and goes out of his way to intimate that the system of
Linn^us must be discarded, as "prejudicial to the advancement of the science
of Botany." in his more recent paper in The Naturalist (p. 175), Mr. Lan-
kester still labours to show that the Linnsean system is " exploded," and that
u its advocates belong to a school whose views are very far behind the advance
made by the science of Botany." This style of astounding assertion is only
exceeded by the great master himself, who, in his Synopsis of the British Flora,
says : — " It Qhe Linnsean system] is repudiated every where by the rising gene-
ation ;" that is, I presume, if they learn Botany at the London University ; he
adds that it " ought to be excluded from all courses of public instruction by every
governing body in this country." Then, after all, it does linger somewhere.
Surely it is not countenanced by the Regius Professor of Botany at Glasgow !*
But seriously, where is the evidence of the injury that the interests of Botany
have sustained from the promulgation of the Linnsean system ? Botany has an
army of votaries now, but Burnett tells us that in his younger days the
medical student was a laughing-stock to his compeers if he troubled himself
with Botany. From the moment that the herbarium of Linn^us touched this
country, it must be obvious to all acquainted with the subject, that the study
of Botany received an impulse which, by increasing its admirers on all sides, has
led to its present prosperity. Did Sir James Smith injure the interests of
Botany when he brought this valuable collection to England ? and has the use
he made of its stores, in the publication of his English Botany, and his hitherto
unequalled English Flora, been so injurious to the spread of the science? Are
we also meekly to admit as a fact, that Sir W. J. Hooker, in disseminating over
the country three editions of his British Flora, arranged on this " discarded" and

* Sir Wm. Jackson Hooker, L.L.D., &c— Ed.
VOL. III. — NO. XXII. 3 R

382 CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

" exploded" system, which is " every where repudiated,'' has really, according to
Dr. Lindley's dictum, interfered with the public good ?* The student of the
natural system may affirm this if he pleases, but. I still contend that his constant
assumption and querulous repetition of the injurious tendency of the Linnsean
system is " unphilosophical," since it is no sound argument that because on
certain points the Linnsean system may be defective, therefore the natural system
must be its superior in all. Has the natural system no hope of success unless
it break ground by constantly impugning the Linnsean ? It is indeed passing
strange that while Dr. Lindley affirms that the latter is " repudiated every
where," and Mr. Lankester argues that it is "injurious," and has therefor
been " exploded," both these gentlemen should think and act as if they had a
living and not a dead Lion at their feet. This seems incomprehensible, unless
Mr. Lankester has let the Cat out when he hints that there is a " want of
demand" for the works on the natural system. Be this as it may, something
seems wrong ; and I am led to infer, that in practice the disciples of the natural
system find it rather unmanageable; for even Mr. Lankester appears to shrink
from " the hills and vales of our own island," and rather unbotanically — he will
excuse me for saying so — talks disparagingly of the " tiny weed that springs
beneath our feet." He seems to prefer the grander and more specious grovps
of the green-house and conservatory, where I agree with him he will find the
system he espouses of most service.

If you like to print what I have written above — which is all the reply I feel
disposed to make — in the Correspondence or Criticism of The Naturalist, you
are at perfect liberty to do so. I have no time at present to enter into an exten-
sive review of the natural system ; and if I had, it would take up more room,
probably, than you could spare, and heartily tire the majority of your readers
before the inquiry was terminated. You see I say not a word against the
natural system — I leave it to stand or make its way on its own merits. I admire
the energy of its champions, and applaud their untiring researches into structure
and affinities ; but I must reprehend the tone of contempt in which they almost
invariably allude to those botanists who, like Dr. Johnston, in his interesting /
and excellent Flora of Berwick, still presume to hope that the Linnsean system
will yet continue something more than one of those nonentities of which all but
the semblance of its existence has passed away. I do not say that this lan-
guage is applied personally, but the implication is perpetually displayed — that
a system so trifling and superficial as we are thus, vi et armis, compelled to
suppose the Linnsean to be, can only be supported by trifling and superficial
observers. This mode of conducting the argument is uncourteous, and has the

* See Syn. Brit. Flora, Preface, p. vii.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 383

effect of creating a prejudice which precludes all cool investigation, and at once
converts the botanical student into a flaming partizan.

Believe me,

Yours very troly,
Dryadoille Cottage, near Worcester, Edwin Lees.

May 4, 1838.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

The Natural History of Quadrupeds and Whales ; being the Article " Mam-
malia," from the Seventh Edition of the " Encyclopaedia Britannica." With above
150 illustrations. By James Wilson, F.H.S.E., M.W.S., &c. Edinburgh: A.
and C. Black; Simpkin and Co., London; John Cumming, Dublin. 1837. 4to.
pp. 120.

In our last number (p. 332) we reviewed, at some length, Professor Phillips's
geological treatise, as republished from the Encyclopcedia Britannica. We here
have a reprint of another article from the same valuable work, from the pen of a
well-known zoologist. Our retrospect of the volume must be as rapid as the
author's review of the animal kingdom, but the work is too excellent and too
carefully written to be discharged with a mere passing notice of general com-
mendation.

After furnishing a synopsis of a few of the more important mammalogical
systems, our author enters fairly upon his subject, with the arrangement of Cuvieb.
In stating (p. 86), as a general characteristic of the Mammalia, that their colour
is lighter underneath than above, it is by no means intended to affirm, we
presume, that the circumstance is confined to the class, or even to the animal
kingdom. The same may be said of the leaves of plants, which are always
darkest on the side most fully exposed to the light. Whether the same cause
operates in animals to produce a similar effect, must be considered very doubtful.
At p. 86 it is stated, that the young of Mammalia are frequently more elegantly
attired than adults, which is perfectly true ; but the rule placed in juxta-position,
that " the early plumage of birds is always more dingy and obscure than that of
adults," is not without its exceptions. The young of some Woodpeckers, for
instance, have bright scarlet feathers in parts where the adults are perfectly
destitute of them. " Melanism [[black varieties] is more frequent in warm
countries, albinism £ white varieties] in cold ones, and the former is much rarer
than the latter." Doubtless ; although we have seen whole parks stocked with
black Rabbits in England, and have known Coalhoods (or " Bullfinches") and
Goldwings (" Goldfinches") turn black in a temperate climate, from feeding too
profusely on a heating diet. It seems most probable that the seasonal changes

3e2

384 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

of colour occurring in the Alpine Hare, the Ptarmigan, and other Arctic animals,
are the effect of temperature ; and in our opinion the existence of pure white birds
in the tropics, and jet-black Ravens in the bleak north, is no argument to the
contrary, but merely proves — what every one knows — that all birds are not
organised alike.

From those authors who would class Man among the brutes, and technically
characterise him as differing in mere external points, we entirely dissent. It
is by the possession of moral and especially of reflective faculties, that the human
race so transcendentally surpasses all other portions of the animal kingdom — by
the addition of those alone that Man is enabled to become lord of the earth. We
cannot but smile when we see him characterized, in two lines, as " walking erect,"
" possessing hands to the anterior extremities only," &c, and must pity those who
take so low a view of human nature — of a race which on this earth deserves the
deepest attention, and which will hereafter, we confidently believe, continue to
advance in wisdom and in happiness through all eternity.

Father Vincent Marie states that the Wanderou (Macacus silenus) " is
easily trained to the performance of a variety of ceremonies, grimaces, and affected
courtesies." In reply to this our author, with a touch of the quiet humour which
frequently enlivens his pages, observes that he never had the pleasure of knowing
more than one living individual of the species, and that u the only piece of ' affected
courtesy' it ever exhibited, consisted in nearly biting off the calf of a negro's leg."
— p. 93. The younger St. Hilaire informs us that the Sapajous (Cebus) in-
dulge in abstract ideas, his proof being that he once observed one of these animals
which had met with an unusually hard nut, descend from the top of a wobder
cage, and crack the said nut by bruising it against an iron bar. For the same
reason, we put in a claim for the Garden Tit's " indulging in abstract ideas,"
since, when it meets with an unusually hard nut, it places it in a chink, and there
hammers at it till it arrives at the kernel ! " It is delightful," remarks Mr.
Wilson, " to find Metaphysics thus combined with Natural History." — p. 95.
Whether, in recording that the physiognomy of the Saimiri, or Squirrel-monkej
(Saguinus sciureics), is "extremely like that of a human infant, but much more
pleasing than that of many," our author intended any compliment to the taste of
the ladies, we must leave to the sagacity of our female readers to determine. The
same animal is remarkably attached to its offspring, and Geoffroy St. Hilaire
observes that the large development of the posterior lobe of the brain corresponds
with the affection.

The Lemur family is next treated of; but as these animals have been described
minutely in an early part of our second volume (pp. 1 — 13 and 189 — 203), we
shall not tarry here. — The Hedgehog, according to Pallas, feeds on the Blister-
ing-beetle (Cantharis) with impunity, and, adds Mr. Wilson, it has been known

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 385

to resist large doses of Prussic acid. — Moles are extremely voracious. Their
appetite for food, says St. Hilaire, amounts to actual phrensy : —

" When kept for a time in a state of abstinence they become outrageous, and will dart with
violence upon whatever prey is then presented, — plunging their heads into the abdomen of birds
and other animals, and satiating themselves with blood. They have been observed to refuse
Toads, but to seize upon Frogs with avidity. With such violent propensities it may be easily
conceived that they soon die when debarred from food. At the same time their appetites are not
entirely carnivorous ; at least several authors allege that they occasionally eat various tender and
succulent roots, and the bulbs of Colchicum. Though deemed very injurious in gardens, and per-
secuted by farmers even in the open grounds, they do not want advocates who espouse their cause
as useful agents in the economy of Nature ; and their undoubted destruction of grubs and Mole
crickets must prove beneficial to Agriculture. The female, indeed, while furnishing her nursery,
is a somewhat too active reaper,— 402 young stalks of Corn, with the leaves entire, having been
counted in her nuptial chamber." — p. 104.

The animals called Tanrecs (Ce?itenes), and which are partially covered with
prickles, are said to become torpid in summer — an anomaly, certainly, to be
accounted for on no known principles. Speaking of the food of Bears, we learn
(p. 105) that " Sir Stamford Raffles possessed a Malay Bear (Ursus Malay-
anus) which gave proof of its refined appetite, by refusing to eat anything but
mangosteens, or to drink any other wine than champagne."

In discussing the nomenclature of the Weasel family, our author justly remarks,
that " whenever a Linnsean genus is raised to the rank of a family, the original
generic title should still be retained as indicative of one of the restricted groups."
To this we beg to move an amendment, viz. that that restricted genus be invari-
bly the typical one.

Into the investigation respecting the original stock of the Dog we cannot enter,
further than to observe that our author believes it to have been either the Wolf
or the Jackal, or perhaps both. Professor Bell is in favour of the former animal.
It is said that Wolves kept amongst Dogs soon learn to bark, and, on the other
hand, that Dogs, run wild, lose the talent in an equally short time.

Bruce informs us that about Libanus, Syria, Northern Asia, and the vicinity
of Algiers, Hysenas live chiefly on large succulent bulbous roots, especially those
of Fritillarias, &c, and that he has known large patches of fields turned up by
them in searching for Onions and other plants. He adds, that these were selected
with such care, that, after having been peeled, if any small decayed spot became
visible, they were refused. The above-mentioned author one day locked up a
Goat, a kid, and a lamb, with a Barbary Hyaena which had fasted, and in the
evening he found the intended victims not only alive but quite uninjured. " He
repeated the experiment, however, on another occasion, during the night, with a
young Ass, a Goat, and a Fox, and the next morning he was, not unreasonably,
astonished to find the whole of them not only killed, but actually eaten, with the
exception of some of the Ass's bones ! This was pretty well for an animal so
curious in bulbous roots." (pp. 119 — 20).

386 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

Mr. Wilson agrees with Temminck in believing the Gloved Cat (Felts mani-
culata) of Northern Africa to be the origin of our domestic breed, contrary to the
general opinion in favour of the Wild Cat (F. catus) of Britain. — Of the Opossums
it is remarked, that " their intelligence is limited, a fact in curious conformity with
the entire absence of all folds or convolutions of the brain, and according with
the theory of M. Desmoulins Qmt which originated with Dr. Gall. — Ed.] that
[ccetet'is paribus. — Ed.] the intellectual faculties are in the direct ratio of the
extent of the cerebral surfaces." (p. 127). — The Hamster (Cricetus vulgaris),
like other hybernating animals, is very fat on the approach of winter, and becomes
sadly emaciated when it awakes in spring. During that period of inactivity,
the pulsations of the heart are " few and far between," the intestines are wholly
devoid of irritability, and the fat of the creature has the appearance of being
coagulated. In this, as in other cases where no food is taken in the ordinary
way, no doubt the fat affords ample nourishment to the animal in common sea-
sons ; but if the rigours of winter should ever be prolonged considerably beyond
their due bounds, so as to exhaust the fat, the animal would assuredly sleep to
wake no more.

The flesh of the Capybara or Water-hog (llydrochcerus capybara) of South
America, says our author, is excellent, and was eaten by the missionary monks
during Lent with their Turtle, " on the score, it was presumed, of its amphibious
habits. Precise views of the exact nature of all Mammalia are sometimes in-
convenient."

A specimen of the Malay Tapir (Tapir Indicus) described by Sir Stamford
'Raffles, " was frequently observed to enter a pond and walk along the bottom
under water, but without any exercise of the ordinary mode of swimming." (p.
151). What, then, becomes of the much-talked-of impossibility of the Dipper's
walking at the bottom of the water ? If the above fact neither proves the occur-
rence of the latter phenomenon, nor causes every argument on the opposite side
to " vanish into thin air," it at least deprives the idea of its supposed absurdity.

Speaking of the equine race, Mr. Wilson observes : —

" A remarkable distinction is said to exist between the temper of the South- American and
Asiatic wild Horses. It is this. At whatever age the former are caught, they may be rendered,
in a measure, fit for the service of Man almost in a few days, whereas the latter can only be tamed
when taken young, and frequently show themselves in after life to have been but half subdued.
Does not this go far to prove that the one is the genuine original — the other but a rebel race ?'' —
p. 152.

In our opinion it does not. We should make exactly an opposite induction,
namely, that the Asiatic are the genuine originals — an opinion supported, we
may observe, by the scriptural account of the peopling of the world. •

The descriptions of Cetaceous animals (Whales, &c. &c.) finish the volume, but
we must now hasten to a close.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 387

Tli is work, instead of being published uniform with the other treatises of the
series, is merely a fresh impression of the types as set up for the Encyclopedia,
obviously for the convenience of inserting the quarto plates. The higher groups
and the genera are amply characterized, and a few of " the more interesting
species" of each genus are described. The book is written in a popular and
attractive manner, and is well calculated to impart a sound elementary knowledge
of the subject treated. The plates are very superior to the common run, being
evidently executed with a view to scientific accuracy, and being generally devoid
of that stiff formal expression so common in engravings of a similar kind, where
the originals might indeed be supposed to be alive, but aware that they were
sitting for their pictures. We shall shortly have the pleasure of returning to Mr.
Wilson as an author on another branch of Natural History.

Introduction to the Modern Classification of Insects. By J. 0. Westwood,
F.L.S., &c. Parti. May, 1838. London: Longman and Co.

When we consider the vast number of species of insects which have already
been discovered, and the extent and complexity of the divisions and sub-divisions
under which it has been found necessary to arrange them, we shall readily admit
the importance of works written to facilitate the acquirement of a knowledge of
classification. For this end, Roomer's Genera Insectorum Linncci, et Fabricii,
iconibus illastrata, Curtis's British Entomology, Wood's Illustrations of the
Linncean Genera of Insects, &c, have been published. But whilst there has
been no scarcity of works illustrative of the genera, we have not at present any
devoted more particularly to the orders and families. A good introduction to the
Classification of Insects (which must of course include the characters, &c, of the
higher divisions) has long been wanted. Mr. Westwood has determined to
supply this desideratum, and perhaps there is no other British naturalist into
whose hands we should as readily confide the execution of such a task. In a
work which will require numerous figures for the illustration of the characters
upon which a system is based, Mr. Westwood's long experience in the investiga-
tion of the structure of insects, and his excellent capacity as a delineator, give
him an advantage over others that cannot be appreciated lightly. The first Part
has not disappointed our expectations. It opens with " observations upon insects
in general," in which the definitions proposed for this class of animals are discussed.

Linn je us defined Insecta — the fifth class of his Systema Naturce — as comprising
those animals " with a simple heart, white blood, and jointed antennae." These
he divided into seven orders, the last of which, Aptera, contained the Spiders,
Crabs, Scorpions, Centipedes, Wood-lice, &c. &c, having no other claim to be
thus associated together than the negative one upon which he based the order ;

388 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

namely, being destitute of wings. Fabricius classed the Linnsean Aptera in
various sections, but still considered them genuine insects. Cuvier was the first
naturalist who held a different opinion. By his elaborate researches in Com-
parative Anatomy, he demonstrated that the Crabs and other allied genera
(Cancer, Oniscus, and Monoculus of Linn.) "could not be retained amongst
insects, inasmuch as they possessed a totally distinct system of respiration,
breathing by means of bronchiae, or gills ; as well as a complete system of circu-
lation : of these, therefore, he formed the class Crustacea, which has been regarded
as distinct by all subsequent entomologists." — Westw., Intr., p. 2.

Lamarck established on similar grounds another class, which he denominated
Arachnida, and which included the Linnsean genera Aranea, Scorpio, Phalangium,
Acarus, Scolopendra, Julus, Lepisma, Podura, and Pediculus.

Latreille (in his last system) regarded the Centipedes (genera Scolopendra,
Jidus, Linn.) as constituting a distinct class, which he denominated Myriapoda.
He adopted Cuvier's Crustacea, and Lamarck's Arachnida, with the exception
of Podura and Lepisma (ord. Thysanura, Latr.), and Pediculus (ord. Parasita,
Latr.), which he considered as true insects, and raised to the rank of orders.

Dr. Leach's system, with regard to the animals in question, differed little from
Latreille's. Under his Insecta Ametabola he classed Thysanura (Latr.) and
Anoplura (Parasita, Latr.). Leach considered the Mites as a distinct class,
which he named Acari.

Kirby and Spence divided the sub-kingd. Annidosa into three classes : Crus-
tacea (Cuv.), Arachnida (Lam.), and Insecta (Linn.), and included under the
last the Lepismce, Pediculi, Acari, and Centipedes ; joined together under the
single order Aptera, and characterised by respiring by tracheae, and having no
system of circulation. This classification is so objectionable, that it was likely
to attract Mr. Westwood's notice : he remarks, accordingly, that

" The incongruous character of the groups thus associated together; the possession of the pul-
monary sacs by Thelyphonu's, which is thus placed amongst the Mites; the recent researches of
M. Duges on the respiratory organs of Dysdera and Segestria (clearly demonstrating that the
respiratory system in Arachnida is not entitled to pre-eminence as a character of this class) ; and,
lastly, the admission of Messrs. Kirby and SrEXCE themselves, that their order Aptera is not a
natural, but merely a provisional one, and that the hexapod insects are to be regarded as more
peculiary entitled to the denomination of insects, will, I trust, be considered as sufficient to au-
thorise me in not adopting their views." — p. 3.

" Our system," says Dr. Burmeister, " is not acquainted with an order
Aptera, which we have found in the majority of the others, as in every case it is
artificial, and must embrace insects of the most dissimilar orders. The most
distinct proof in support of this assertion is furnished by the circumstance that
we find in the same family, winged and apterous genera contiguous together, and
indeed, in many genera, the males winged, and the females apterous." He has

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 389

consequently placed the suctQrial Lice (Pediculidce) in the order Hemiptera, and
the mandibulated Lice (Nirmidce) and Spring-tailed insects (Lepismidce) in
Neuroptera! Mr. Westwood justly objects to this unwarrantable innovation.
He is of opinion that Dr. Burmeister "has been led to adopt this arrangement
by giving too slight a weight to the organs of flight ;" and in the proofs cited in
favour of his system, Mr. Westwood '• can see but exceptions to a general rule,
for which allowances ought to be made, and, consequently, as not warranting the
introduction of entire groups of apterous animals into the class." — p. 6.

We now arrive at Mr. Westwood's classification. He considers that insects
may be defined to be

" Annulose animals breathing by trachea? ; having the head distinct ; and provided in the adult
state with six articulated legs ; subject also to a series of moultings, previous to attaining perfec-
tion, whereby wings are ordinarily developed." — p. 1.

He thus excludes the entire Arnetabola, Auct. (Myriapoda, Thysanura, and
Parasita of Latr., &c), which he considers, with Mac Leay, as constituting a
distinct class, " having no metamorphosis, in the usual sense of the word, or only
that kind of it the tendency of which is confined to an increase in the number of
feet." In thus adopting Mac Leay's classification, he wishes to be understood as
having done so

"Because it leaves the true winged metamorphotic insects as distinct from the other groups,
and without expressing any opinion upon the quinarian views of Mr. Mac Lkay, or upon the
introduction of the Vermes amongst the Arnetabola.n — p. 4.

After having determined (and we think justly) the limits of the class Annulosa,
he proceeds to the structure of insects. The chapter devoted to this subject
contains much interesting and well-condensed matter. We have not space to
discuss the questions touched upon in his remarks on the " Distribution of Insects
into Orders," but consider them well worthy of attention, although by no means
convinced of their correctness in every respect. Then follows a list of works
devoted to Coleoptera, and remarks on Ijhat order. We can only give a very
brief summary of this part of the subject. Linnaeus divided Coleopterous insects
into the three following sections : — Antennis clavatis extrorsum incrassatis ;
Antennis filiformibus ; and Antennis sctaceis. Olivier distinguishes the pri-
mary sections of the order by the variations in the joints of the tarsi. The tarsal
system was rejected by Mac Leay, who proposed divisions founded upon the
peculiarities of the larvae. The application of this theory throughout the entire
order, Mr. Westwood considers impossible. In this opinion he is supported by
Kirby, who in the Fauna Boreali Americana considers that Mr. Mac Leay's
system cannot be adopted through the " mazy labyrinth " of Nature, and regards
it as impossible " either to conceive or delineate it so as to maintain all its con-
nexions undisturbed and unbroken. We must do it in a series, which can only

YOL. III. — NO. XXII. 3 F

390 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

be a series of mutilations and dislocations'." Mr. Westwood therefore adopts the
tarsal system ; in which, however, he proposes several alterations. The following
are his primary sections of the order Coleoptera : —

" 1. Pentemera, in which all the tarsi are 5-jointed, the 4th being of ordinary size.

2. Heteromera, in which the four anterior tarsi are 5-jointed, and the two posterior 4-jointed.

3. Pseudotetramera, in which the tarsi are 5-jointed, but the 4th joint is exceedingly diminu-

tive, and concealed between the lobes of the preceding.

4. Pseudoirimera, in which the tarsi are 4-jointed, the 3rd joint being very diminutive, and

concealed between the lobes of the preceding." — p. 44.

A few pages of a " Generic Synopsis" are given, which is to be continued
(separately paged) at the end of each monthly part, until complete. We do not
doubt its being found useful, but are sorry to observe the defective system of
nomenclature (in the families, &c.) which Mr. Westwood has adopted. The
terminations used to distinguish the rank of the groups are idee, ides, and idea,
which are manifestly too little varied to be of much service for the purpose
intended.

The plate at the commencement is beautifully and accurately executed ; and
the work generally well got-up. We must, however, notice an evident negligence
in the correction of the press ; owing to which several errata (and some important
ones) disfigure the pages. Thus at p. 3 we are informed that " by Latreille
the Spring-tailed insects and Mites have been constantly regarded as belonging to
the class of insects"; which is not true, as the Acari (Mites) are arranged by
that author in his Arachnida. We presume that Lice are here meant ; respect-
ing which the above remark would be correct. Thus also at pp. 33 — 35 -two
sentences as they at present stand are intirely destitute of meaning. We are
informed that " in the earlier editions of the Systema Naturce it Qhe structure
of the elytra] was even employed as its sole characteristic \j. e. of the Order] ; so
that the Grasshoppers, Cockroaches, and Earwigs were included in it ; and crown
of the head, which he considered to be ocelli, but Latreille, in the last edition of
this work, &c. &c." And again : — " The simple ocelli are here wanting, except
in Paussus bucephalus, and some of the small Stapkylinidce, in which Delman
observed two tubercles on the considered them as mere tubercles." It is evident
that the part we have italicised in the first sentence ought to have been inserted
between " on the" and " considered" in the last. We trust that such blemishes
will be avoided in future.

We have given Mr. Westwood's Introduction the above lengthy notice, as it
afforded an opportunity for bringing under the view of our younger readers some
of the first general details of entomological classification ; and also as we think
that the work well deserves being prominently reviewed. — P, R.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. .391

A Geographical and Comparative List of the Birds of Europe and North
America. By Charles Lucian Bonaparte, Prince of Musignano. London :
John Van Voorst, 1, Paternoster-Row. 1838. pp. 67. 8vo. Cloth, lettered.

The pages in this book are printed in double columns, with the European birds
on one side, and the transatlantic species on the other, the whole being so arranged
as to afford a distinct comparative estimate of the Ornithology of the two dis-
tricts. The classification is the author's own, about to be brought more fully
before the public at an early period. His divisions are into subclasses, orders,
families, subfamilies, and genera. We must, however, postpone all criticism of
the system till the appearance of the noble author's promised work.

As regards nomenclature, the specific names are those of Linn^us, or of the
first describer after the learned Swede. Although our author makes it a rule,
when in want of a name, always to ascertain whether an appropriate denomina-
tion is to be found in the writings of the older naturalists, he does not consider
others bound so to do; and in no case does he deem it right to take any of the names
of older authors, however great may be their merits, in preference to those given by
Linnaeus (preface, p. vi.). Thus far we agree with Prince Bonaparte ; the
nomenclature of Linnaeus is so universally familiar to every naturalist worthy
the name, and, on the other hand, the works of older authors — whether fortu-
nately or otherwise — are comparatively so little known, that to adopt the terms
of the latter in preference to those of the former, would but beget confusion .
When, however, the author's preface proceeds to observe that " we owe this
compliment to that great man," we are entirely at issue with the prince. Lin-
naeus, with a spirit which ought to be wholly unknown in science, refused to
employ the names of his predecessors where they were good, and otherwise failed
to do justice to those eminent naturalists who had so materially assisted his
labours. We would, therefore, adopt the nomenclature of the learned Swede npt
as a compliment to that great man, but as a matter of convenience to ourselves. —
It may be observed that the author has commenced all the specific names with
capitals, in opposition to the usual custom. Capitals should be reserved to
distinguish terms derived from proper names. — English names are altogether
absent from the list.

We regret, with our author, that zoologists in general should have been so
remiss in their attention to Ornithological Geography. In this department,
however, the name of Swainson stands prominent. Prince Bonaparte has
published comparative lists of the birds of Rome and Philadelphia, in the Nuovo
Giornale de Letterati, afterwards printed as a separate tract at Pisa, in 182?.
The present is likewise a welcome contribution to the same section of ornitholo- <
gical science. Whether considered as a comparative estimate, or as forming the

3p 2

392 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

most complete catalogues extant of the birds of Europe and America, it is
equally valuable to the ornithologist.

Essays on Natural History, chiefly Ornithology. By Charles Waterton,
Esq., author of " Wanderings in South America." With an Autobiography of
the author, and a View of Walton Hall. London: Longman and Co. 1838.
pp. lxxxiii., 312. l2mo. Cloth, lettered.

These essays are reprinted from the old series of the Magazine of Natural
History, formerly edited by Mr. Loudon, and are published at his expense. The
only original portion of the volume, therefore, is the detailed, and of course highly
interesting, biography of the author. This is valuable on account of the faithful
manner in which circumstances are recorded which delicacy would have prompted
a friend to omit, in writing the biography of a living author. For instance, at
p. xiv., Mr. Waterton observes that on looking at himself in the glass, he can
see at once that his face is anything but comely, and adds in a note : — " A late
worthy baronet in the North-Riding of Yorkshire, having taken up the Wander-
ings, and examined the representation of the nondescript with minute attention,
' Dear me ! ' said he, as he showed the engraving to his surrounding company, ' what
a very extraordinary -looking man Mr. Waterton must be !' "

The family of the Watertons, once influential, has resided at Walton Hall
some centuries, and previously dwelt at Waterton in. the Isle of Axeholme, in
Lincolnshire. In their independence they seem determined to be islanders, the
present family mansion being situated upon an island. The same spirit has
determined Mr. W. not to take Sir Robert Peel's oath respecting the Church
Establishment.

" I don't believe that Sir Robert cared one fig's end whether the soul of a Catholic went up,
after death, to the King of Brightness, or descended to the king of brimstone : his only aim seems
to have been to secure to the Church hy law established, the full possession of the loaves and
fishes. But as I have a vehement inclination to make a grab at these loaves and fishes, in order
to distribute a large proportion of them to the poor of Great Britain, who have an undoubted
claim to it, I do not intend to have my hands tied behind me : hence my positive refusal to swal-
low Sir Robert Peel's* oath."— p. xix.

Mr. Waterton possessed an inherent love of Nature almost from his earliest
days, and his attachment appears to have grown with his years. He was born
at Walton Hall, some five-and-fifty years ago. We have visited his beautiful
and extensive Park, which is walled all round, and in which the sound of a gun
is never heard ; and consequently a more delightful spot for the true naturalist
can hardly be conceived.

*•* I do hereby disclaim, disavow, and solemnly abjure any intention to subvert the present
Church Establishment within this realm," &c. (See Sir R. Peel's oath.)

REVIEWS OP NEW PUBLICATIONS. 393

The essays are ever fresh, and will bear reading almost any number of times.
We had marked several passages for criticism, but are obliged to conclude the
present notice without further comment. We may, however, observe that we
scarcely know any author better calculated to write on Natural History for all
classes of readers than our amiable neighbour Charles Watebton, Esq.

The Bee-Keeper's Manual; or Practical Hints on the Management and com-
plete Preservation of the Honey Bee, and in particular in Collateral Hives. By
Henry Taylor. London : R. Groombridge, 6, Panyer- Alley, Paternoster-Row.
1838. pp. 78. 12mo.

We have been much gratified by the perusal of this unassuming little volume.
It is no compilation "got up" to fill the pocket of either author or publisher,
being, on the contrary, a manual of the author's apiarian experience, supported,
where desirable, by the opinions and facts of the most accredited writers on the
subject. Every particular that can be desired by the young Bee-keeper, relative
to the humane system, as developed in Nutt's collateral hives, will here be
found in a compact and readable volume, illustrated by wood-cuts. It emanates
from the press of Messrs. Taylor, of Red- Lion- Court.

Manual of British Botany ; in which the orders and genera are arranged and
described according to the Natural System of De Candolle ; with a Series of
Analytical Tables for the Assistance of the Student of the Plants indigenous to,
or commonly cultivated in, Great Britain. By D. C.Macreight, M.D., F.R.C.P.,
&c. &c. London: John Churchill, Princes-Street, Soho. 1838. pp.296, post 8vo.

It always gives us sincere pleasure to meet with new books for the assistance
of the student — books which, without advancing Natural History immediately,
will undoubtedly effect the same desirable object indirectly. Since, however,
Dr. Macreight, by the copiousness of his title-page — transcribed above — has
judiciously abridged the labour of the reviewer, we need not expatiate on the
volume further than by observing that, being a convenient pocket-volume, neatly
printed, and carefully composed, it cannot but prove a valuable guide to the
student of British'plants. It is dedicated to Earl Stanhope, President of the
Medico- Botanical Society.

A Flora of the Neighbourhood of Reigate, Surrey ; containing the Flowering
Plants and Ferns. By George Luxford, A.L.S., F.B.S.E. London : John Van
Voorst, Paternoster-Row ; W. Allingham, Reigate. 1838. pp. 118. post 8vo.

39 J REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

Though mainly of local interest, this Reigate Flora is not entirely so ; for,
consisting exclusively of the results of the author's observation, or of that of
friends on whom he can depend, it will be valued by every botanist interested in
the geographical distribution of plants. It is beautifully printed, bound and
lettered (by the author), and will be followed, in due time, by a supplement,
containing plants collected about Reigate subsequent to the publication of the
present catalogue. Mr. Luxford (formerly of Reigate, but now of London,
printer) appears to be an ardent lover of Botany, and we are glad to find that he
has received considerable literary and pecuniary support in his labours. Among
the subscribers we notice the names of Countess Somers, Viscount Eastnor,
Lady Cocks, Capt. Alsager, M.P., Mr. D. Cooper, Professor Don, Mr. Francis,
Mr. J.E. Gray, Lady Jolliffe, Henry Kemble, Esq., M.P., Mr. G. B. Knowles,
Mr. J. De C. Sowerby, Mr. N. B. Ward, Mr. F. Westcott, &c. &c. The
volume is accompanied by a neat map, and is dedicated to the Linnrean Society.

A History of British Birds. By Wm. Yarrell, F.L.S., V.P.Z.S. London :
Van Voorst, Paternoster-Row. Part vi., May, 1838.

This new number of Mr. Yarrell's work contains the Tithys Bedstart, the
Chats, the Locustell, the Reedlings, the Nightingale, and the Blackcapt and
Garden Fauvets. Some of the wood-cuts are very excellent, but others much
less so. The letter-press fully sustains the character for which we have before
commended it.

The Tithys Redstart, according to Robert Ball and Wm. Thompson, Esqrs.,
occurs in Ireland, in addition to the other British localities mentioned by ornitho-
logists. Our author is of opinion that the Whin Chat is decidedly migratory in
Britain. He says : —

" Pennant thought they did not migrate, only shifted their quarters ; but I
am not aware of more than two authentic instances of the Whin Chat being seen
here in winter. Mr. Neville Wood, in his British Song Birds, quotes the
following communication : — ' My correspondent, Mr. H. Barlow, of Cambridge,
informs me, that during the remarkably mild winter of 1833, he observed the
Whin Chat hopping about near some Furze-brakes in his neighbourhood. The
bird was seen on Jan. 15 and Feb. 20, but only on those two occasions, though
the Common was visited every clear day in those two months.' Among various
notes sent me by the Rev. Robert Holdsworth, of Brixham, is the following : —
' In a path near my residence, situated at the entrance of the river Dart, in one
of the warmest spots in England, I found a Whin Chat dead during a very severe
frost, Jan. 20, 1829. Wind N.E.'"— p. 250.

Mr. Yarrell observes, that though the Nightingale is not included by Mr.

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE. 305

Rylands in his "Catalogue of the Birds of Lancashire" {Naturalist, Vol. II.,
p. 349), it has been heard on the north-west side of England as high up as
Carlisle, but no further.

Although we could otherwise but ill afford it, and although we must be exceed-
ingly brief, we cannot resist the temptation of recommending each individual part
of this work on its first publication.

The India Journal of Medical and Physical Science. Edited by Frederick
Corbyn, Esquire. Nos. ix — xii. Calcutta : G. Woollaston, 49. Cossitollah«
1837.

The India Review ; and Journal of Foreign Science and the Arts. Edited
by Frederick Corbyn, Esq. Nos. xviii — xx. Calcutta: Woollaston. 1837-

The former of these Journals is issued on the 1st of every month, the latter
on the 15th. We have already (p. 283) recommended previous numbers to our
readers, as occasionally containing notices of interest on Natural History. The
works consist chiefly of reviews, original and extracted communications, notices
of recent patent inventions, &c. Wood-cuts, and sketchy full-lengths of indi-
viduals— the latter mostly of local interest — are given with each number.

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

Mr. Van Voorst announces that Professor T. R. Jones, of King's College,
has in preparation A General Outline of the Animal Kingdom, with 300 engrav-
ings, to be published in 15 monthly parts, the first to appear in July. The work
is intended to exhibit the structure and internal economy of every class of living
beings, and their adaptation to the circumstances in which they are designed to
exist. — Mr. T. B. Hall intends to publish in the autumn, by subscription, a
Flora of Liverpool, with a map. The plan, as set forth in the prospectus, is so
excellent, and Mr. Hall's zeal and knowledge as a botanisi are so creditable, that
we have no doubt of its proving a valuable flora. The Editor of this Journal
will be happy to receive the names of such intending subscribers as may not find
it convenient to address their letters to the author at Woodside. — The following
and other new books and periodicals have been received for review, and will
receive early attention : — The Connexion of Natural and Divine Truth, by the
Rev. Professor Powell, M.A., F.R.S., &c. ; A Treatise on Insects, by James
Wilson, F.R.S.E., M.W.S. ; A Treatise on Molluscous Animals, by the Rev.
Dr. Fleming; A Treatise on Mineralogy, by Professor Jameson.

396

OBITUARY.

We regret to announce the departure from this life of Thomas Andkew Knight,
Esq., of Downton Castle, Herefordshire. Our notice of this gentleman is extracted
from an article written, as Mr. Loudon justly observes, in an excellent spirit, by
Dr. Lindley, and published in The Athenceum.

Mr. Knight was born at Wormsley Grange, near Hereford, Oct. 10, 1758,
being the youngest son of a clergyman of the Church of England, whose father
had amassed a large fortune in the iron trade. He lost his father early, was sent
to school at nine years of age, and afterwards entered Baliol College, Oxford.
He soon showed great powers of observation and reflection ; and acquired his first
love of botanical science in the idle days previous to his entrance at Ludlow
school. We follow Dr. Lindley in calling them "idle"; though possibly, had
his active mind been early vitiated by ordinary scholastic training, it might have
been depressed beyond the power of subsequent good management. In 1795
Mr. Knight began to be publicly known as a vegetable physiologist. " The
great object which he set before himself, and which he pursued through his long
life with undeviating steadiness of purpose, was utility. Mere curious specula-
tions seem to have engaged his attention but little." He accordingly studied to
improve, by his indefatigable scientific researches, the various kinds of fruits and
vegetables used at table, an object in which his labours have been crowned with
perfect success ; " and if henceforward the English yeoman can command the
garden luxuries that were once confined to the great and wealthy, it is to Mr.
Knight, far more than to any other person, that the gratitude of the country is
due." In social life he was full of benevolence, and his loss will be severely felt,
not only by his family, but by his numerous tenantry and dependents ; and he
bore with philosophic resignation one of the severest of trials — the loss of an only
and much-beloved son. "His political opinions were as free from prejudice as
his scientific views ; his whole heart was with the Liberal party, of which he was
all his life a strenuous supporter. — It is no exaggeration to add, that no living
Man now before the world can be said to rank with him in that particular branch
of science to which his whole life was devoted."

Mr. Knight's services to various scientific Societies are well known. He con-
tributed to them several valuable papers, and suceeeded his friend Sir Joseph
Banks in the presidency of the Horticultural Society. — He died in London, at
the house of Mrs. Walpole, one of his daughters, after a short illness, on the 11th
of May, 1838, in the 80th year of his age.

WW

Mic'

ORGANIC MATTER.

THE NATURALIST.

VOL. III., NO. XXIII.— AUGUST, 1838.

Remarks on the general structure and habits of
invertebrate animals.*

By Edwin Lankester, M.R.C.S., &c.

In making the following observations on a department of Natural History, it
is perhaps hardly necessary that I should define what is meant by that term ',
still as it is used in more senses than one, a word or two upon it may not be
deemed inappropriate. In its most extended sense, Natural History means the
history of Nature ; and therefore whatever objects or phenomena present them-
selves to our minds in the world around us, must be included in it. It is thus
a name comprehending all human knowledge. But there is a more limited sense
in which it is used popularly, and which will not admit of accurate definition*
In fact, in this sense it is applied to any thing generally interesting about animals,
plants, and minerals, belonging, speaking correctly, to the sciences of Anatomy,
Physiology, Zoology, Botany, and others.

In its most extended meaning, this term is undoubtedly most correctly used,
but custom having sanctioned the latter sense, it is that which had better be
adopted.

In looking over the catalogue of all our knowledge of external objects, we shall
find it may be reduced to two great divisions, the first being the knowledge we
possess of objects in Nature as mere existences, and the second the knowledge
we possess of things in action, and requiring time for the performance of these
actions. The former comprehends the external properties of bodies, as their
colour, size, form, shape, &c. ; the latter comprehends the changes that may
take place in bodies with regard to any of these properties. Now all objects in
Nature ought to be observed under these two points of view, and I have men-
tioned them here, as such a distinction becomes important, for every natural
object possessing, first, certain general properties, as form, size, colour, weight,
and place ; and secondly, being capable of undergoing certain changes in these

* Being the substance of a lecture delivered at the Doncaster Lyceum, April 30, 1838, Mr*
M0RKY, Surgeon, in the chair.

vol. in. — no. xxiii. 3 a

398 ON THE STRUCTURE AND HABITS

properties, requires to be studied in this manner before we can obtain a correct
knowledge of its Nature. These two conditions of an object are constantly
considered in Natural History. As an instance, let us take a plant : I may
know its colour, size, form, weight, and the place in which it grows, but unless
I know the changes which are undergone by the plant with regard to its size,
form, weight, colour, and so on, I cannot be said to know its natural history.

Although these remarks will extend to but a small portion of the objects of
Natural History, yet a few observations on the relation they bear to other objects
in Nature will not be unnecessary.

All objects in Nature are arranged in three great divisions, which may be
respectively represented by a mineral, a plant, and an animal ; and the collections
of objects in Nature bearing the characters of these things are called the mineral,
vegetable, and animal kingdoms. Now the basis of every thing in Nature is
matter, and the only difference between a stone and a plant is, that the latter
form of matter is endowed with properties the former does not possess. Whilst
the matter, again, of which an animal is constituted differs from the matter of
the plant, in being endowed with properties denied to the plant. The Mineral
Kingdom, then, the lowest of these divisions, is universally subject to what are
called the laws of matter, or physical laws, but when we ascend to the Vegetable
Kingdom we shall find a new property added to matter, which to a great extent
controls and modifies the mere physical laws to which minerals are subject ; this
is the principle of vitality. On ascending higher, and entering the Animal King-
dom, we find other properties added . to matter which exercise a controlling
influence over the properties it possesses as a mineral or a plant. The laws which
minerals obey in common with plants and animals are called physical laws ; the
laws which the principles of vitality in plants obey, and which they have in
common with animals, are called the laws of organie life, or organic laws ; whilst
the laws which the animal machine obeys, distinguished from the two others, are
called the laws of animal life. Each of these departments comprehends an almost
countless number of objects, and the attention of scientific men has been directed
at all times to the means of distinguishing these from each other. Hence have
resulted those systems of classification, the permanence of which being secured
by the art of printing, have been gradually improving up to the present day. In
this manner upwards of 80,000 plants have been described, so that a botanist
can easily distinguish one from another. In the Animal .Kingdom, 20,000
species of insects alone have been described as indigenous to Britain. Our know-
ledge of the objects of Nature is thus every day increasing, and we are furnished
with the means of deducing those great principles or laws by which the Deity
upholds all things, and by a knowledge of which Man can alone expect to ensure

of invertebrate: animals. 399

all that happiness and delight which his existence in this world is calculated to
confer.

There are two ways of arranging the objects in these kingdoms in a systematic
manner. By one way, particular properties or qualities of objects are made the
basis of arranging them into a system. This method is artificial, and although
founded on natural properties, yet, taking only single properties into considera-
tion, objects are often brought together which are very dissimilar in their real
nature. Such systems are called artificial. The celebrated botanical system of
Linn^us is " a good illustration" of this mode of arranging natural objects,
exhibiting both its advantages and defects. The other mode of classifying natural
objects is by considering all the properties and qualities they may present, and
by giving a proper relative value to each, to bring those objects together which
most resemble each other in their real nature. These are called natural systems,
and are the only ones by which science can be advanced.

In looking at the three kingdoms of Nature, we find that they do not pass into
each other by an ascending line, but that there is a central point from which
each appears to start, and the further any individual of one kingdom may be
removed from this point, the less does it resemble individuals in the other king-
doms. But close to this central point it is very difficult to determine to which
kingdom the objects belong. It is at this part of our plan that we must station
those minute and, to the naked eye, invisible particles which are constantly
moving about in water, and which may or may not be inanimate matter, or the
germs of vegetables or animals. It is here we must refer those inscrutable beings
called "first plants" and "first animals" {Protophyta and Protozoa), which have
caused so much perplexity to scientific observers, some thinking them all plants,
others considering them all animals, whilst some again believe they begin their
existence as plants, and finish as animals ; and others conceive they commence
life as animals, and finish as plants.

Amongst those beings which seem to claim a situation amongst animals on
account of their movements is the Oscillatoria. There are, however, among the
tribe of plants called Confervce many others which exhibit, both in their embryo
and perfect state of existence, motions as singular as the Oscillatoria. Ulva
bullata is one of these ; and the peculiarly fantastic movements of its germs or
ovules are calculated to excite the greatest interest in this obscure part of the
dominions of Nature.

In tracing up the line of succession in the Animal Kingdom, it is difficult to
know exactly at what point to begin, two or three of the lower groups of animals
claiming in some characters a close relation to the Vegetable Kingdom.

However,without entering into the various claims of these groups to be considered
the lowest in the animal scale, I shall commence my observations on the Animal

3o2

400 rON THE STRUCTURE AND HABITS

Kingdom by a tribe of beings which have generally been considered as the simplest
form of animals.*

If, at this season of the year, we have recourse to any pond, brook, or exposed
piece of water, and take but a single drop of their contents, we shall find by the
aid of the microscope, though invisible to the naked eye, we have secured a
little world full of life and motion teeming with inhabitants, endued with
instincts and functions as calculated to afford happiness as those we see possessed
by the more complicated tribes of beings that cover the surface of the immense
globe we live upont,

* In the following observations I have adopted in some measure the arrangement of Mr. Kirbv
in his Bridgewater Treatise, as being the most popular work on the subject ; but since this differs
considerably from the classifications of recent writers, I have drawn up a list of the classes with
their sub-kingdoms, as far as I intend to illustrate them, and given a familiar example of each,
according to the views of Dr. Grant, Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy in the
London University : —

Sub-kingdom I.— Radiated or Cyclo-neurose Classes.

Class.

Example.

1. Polygastrica

Vinegar EeJ, Monas, Volvox.

2. Poriphera

Common Sponge.

3. Polypiphera

Coral, Madrepores.

4. Acalepha

Jelly-fish, Portuguese Man-of-War,

5. Echinoderma

Star-fish, Sea-urchin.

Sub-kingdom II.-

—Articulated or Diplo-neurose Classes,

6. Entozoa

Tape-worm, Fluke, Hydatid,

7. Rotifera

Wheel-animalcule.

8. Cirrhopoda

Barnacle-shell, Sea-acorn.

9. Annelida

Earth-worm, Leech.

10. Myriapoda

Hundred-leg, Millipede.

11. Insecta

Fly, Beetle, Bug.

12. Arachnida

Spider, Scorpion.

13. Crustacea

Crab, Shrimp, Lobster.

Sub-kingdom III.-

-Molluscous or Cyclo-gangliated Classes.

14, Tunicata

Pyrosome.

15. Conchifera

Cockle, Oyster.

16. Gasteropoda

Snail, Whelk, Periwinkle,

17. Pteropoda

Hyalea.

18. Cephalopoda

Nautilus, Cuttle-fish.

These sub-kingdoms are founded on the different arrangements of the nervous system in the
various classes which they comprehend. In the first the nervous matter is either diffused through-
out the whole animal in a molecular form, or in a circular form, as Fig. 6. In the second the
nervous matter is arranged in two parallel lines as in Fig. 5. In the third the general arrange-
ment of the nervous system is circular, but its continuity is interrupted by little swellings called
ganglions, as in Fig. 7.

f We presume Mr. Lankester here intends merely to state that every animal, however low in
the scale, is so organised as to possess a certain degree of happiness, and to prevent its being

OF INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 401

Amongst the class of animalcules which are called Infusoria, on account of
their being found so abundantly in vegetable infusions of all kinds, we have
many of different shapes and sizes, habits and instincts. I have here a repre-
sentation of one of the smallest that is seen by ordinary microscopes, called
Monas termo, and which is not more than the Yoooii °f an mcft m diameter-
They are found to possess in their interior several little bags for the purpose of
receiving their food ; they are in fact stomachs, and on this account they have
received the name of Polygastrica. Monas termo is figured in the plate, Fig. 2.

The propensities of these little creatures do not at all belie their structure ;
they are most destructive and voracious beings. Every drop of water they
inhabit is a constant scene of confusion and carnage, on account of their fero-
ciously preying on each other. This, however, is not their only food, for they
partake abundantly of the vegetable particles that float about in the water with
which they are surrounded. A singular point in the economy of these little
animals is their power of retaining their vitality ; although they die in their
natural element in the course of a few weeks, yet if allowed to become dry, they
will assume their activity on the addition of wrater for years after. They are
found in all kinds of fluids, imparting life and activity to the pink dew-drop,
sparkling in the morning sun, and giving to every drop of the water of the ocean
millions of inhabitants.* They are found in almost every fluid taken up by
plants and animals as nutriment ; and in the fluid portions of plants and animals
themselves they exist in abundance,

I have before observed that no-where in Nature do we find an exact ascending
scale of organisation, and accordingly, in the classification of the Animal King-
dom, we are frequently obliged, for convenience, to group its objects according to
their general properties. Now, then, if by taking the single property of being
invisible to the naked eye, I group together all animals possessing that property,
I should expect to bring together animals very dissimilarly formed, for the
Creator, in the exhibition of his power, does not display to us the most design in
the largest forms of created beings, but generally treasures up the most brilliant

miserable; for the proportion of positive happiness must, we conceive, be in direct ratio to the
degree of development possessed by each animal. It follows, throughout the kingdom, that the
more organs appertain to the species, and the more complete these organs are, the more will the
creature enjoy itself, as long as it has the power of employing its organs in the manner intended
by Nature. The same law which holds good as regards physical matters, is strikingly illustrated
in mental nature. Thus Man excels all the lower animals in the number and quality of his
cerebral faculties, and has, therefore, a greater capability for happiness than the brutes. Those
men, moreover, who act rationally by the greatest number of faculties, and chiefly by the higher

faculties, are, ceteris paribus, the happiest Ed.

* Ehrenberg calculates that a single drop of water may contain 400,000,000 of some of these
Infusoria.

402 ON THE STRUCTURE AND HABITS

proofs of His wisdom in the least attractive objects. It is thus that we find
more evidence of the existence of a God in the structure of an animalcule than
in the pompous movements of the physical universe.

In this group, then, I have included the Wheel-animalcule (Rotifera), in
order to show how complicated a structure may exist in an almost invisible par-
ticle of organic matter. Hydatina senta, common in ponds of fresh-water,
possesses a strong masticatory apparatus, supplied with powerful muscles, a long
alimentary canal, and a highly developed nervous system.

Perhaps nothing is more astonishing than the varieties of forms presented by
these little animals ; there is a little Eel-like animal called a Vibrio, which, being
introduced into the sap of the stems of Wheat, at last gets into the fruit, and
there produces such destruction as renders the grain useless. Hundreds of them
are contained in a single grain of Wheat, and they constitute the disease known
to farmers by the names of " ear-cockle" or " purples."

Dalyell, the translator of Spallanzani, who devoted many years of his life
to the investigation of these animals, sums up their forms and other characters in
the following words : — " One is a long slender line ; another an Eel or Serpent ;
some are circular, elliptical, or triangular ; one is a thin flat plate ; another like
a number of reticulated seeds ; several have a long tail almost invisible ; or their
posterior part is terminated by two robust horns ; one is like a funnel ; another
like a bell, or cannot be referred to any object familiar to our senses. Certain
animalcules can change their figure at pleasure, sometimes they are extended to
immoderate length, then almost contracted to nothing ; sometimes they are curved
like a Leech, or coiled like a Snake ; sometimes they are inflated, at others
flaccid ; some are opaque, while others are scarcely visible from their extreme
transparence. No less singular is the variety of their motions ; several swim
with the velocity of an arrow, so that the eye can scarcely follow them ; others
appear to drag their body along with difficulty, and move like the Leech ; and
others seem to exist in perpetual rest ; one will revolve on its centre or the
anterior part of its head ; others move by undulations, leaps, oscillations, or
successive gyrations ; in short, there is no kind of animal motion, or other mode
of progression, that is not practised by animalcules."

Infusoria have been lately recognised in a fossil state by Ehrenberg, a sum-
mary of whose observations appeared in The Analyst for October, 1837.

The next group" of animals is very different from the last in size, structure,
and functions. They are called Polypiferous animals, on account of their being
supplied with an abundance of peculiar organs called polypi. These organs are
not only used for the purpose of prehension, but also by their constant movement
they serve to agitate the water in which these animals live, and thus bring their
food near them. This is quite a necessary arrangement for this class of animals,'

OF INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 403

or, urllike almost all others, they are unable to move from place to place. The
form of their tentacula will be seen in Fig. 4. Every animal body must possess
some kind of solid basis or framework, in order to form a support for its softer
parts, called its skeleton, and although in some animals this is of a very slight
nature, in others we have a remarkably strong and complicated apparatus for
this purpose. In this class of animals the skeleton is very simple, being nothing
more than a large branched mass of inorganic matter, wbich either covers its soft
parts or supports them, and varies exceedingly in texture, shape, and size, accord-
ing to the requirements of each particular kind of animal. The skeletons or
organs of support of these animals are known as objects of ornament, by the
names of Corals, Madrepores, Millepores, &c. The size to which these attain is
sometimes very great ; each of these masses must not, however, be regarded
as the skeleton of a single animal, but rather as the work of a community.
Although it is very difficult to say whether we ought to consider each polype
as an entire animal, yet on account of the facility with which they are enabled
to maintain an independent existence, the collected masses have generally been
considered as an aggregate of animals. These animals generally inhabit the
depths of the ocean, where the branched forms of their organs of support, and the
varied colours and shapes of their tentacula, give them the appearance of a forest
of trees. In fact it is not yet a hundred years since naturalists mistook many
of these curious animals for plants ; and even now they bear a name, zoophytes,
which would indicate that they belong both to the animal and vegetable king-
doms. These animals exist in such enormous numbers at the bottom of some
seas, that the collections of matter forming their skeletons are often brought almost
to the surface of the ocean, where they form formidable reefs that frequently seal
the fate of the unwary mariner who navigates his bark upon their unseen
summits. But more than this, these reefs are sometimes thrown above the level
of the sea by volcanic or other changes, and thus these animals have been supposed
to be the chief agents employed by the Creator in forming those delightful islands
scattered so abundantly throughout the Southern Sea.

I cannot here enter into any particulars concerning all the varied forms these
creatures assume, nor indeed of any of the other classes of animals to which I
allude, but there is one form which, as it is so well known, I cannot but refer to.
I allude to the Common Sponge. This is not a vegetable production, as often
supposed, but is the organ of support or skeleton of an animal belonging to this
class. It differs from those I have just mentioned in not possessing tentacula,
and may indeed be considered as the simplest form of animal life. In all Sponges
we find several pores or holes, the smaller of which are destined for the purpose
of receiving the sea- water in which they live, which, being filled with animalcules,
the Sponge appropriates them as food ; and the water, thus deprived of its

404 ON THE STRUCTURE AND HABITS

nutritious particles, is driven out by the larger orifices. The large and small
orifices, with the tubular passage intervening, are represented at Fig. 3. — The
discovery of this singular fact — which entitles these objects to be considered
as animals — is due to Dr. Grant, in whose beautiful language I cannot do better
than give you an account of the discovery : — " I put," says he, " a small branch
of the Spongia coalita with some sea- water into a watch-glass, under the micro-
scope, and on reflecting the light of a candle through the fluid, I soon perceived
that there was some intestine motion in the opaque particles floating through the
water. On moving the watch-glass, so as to bring one of the apertures on the
side of the Sponge fully into view, I beheld, for the first time, the splendid
spectacle of this living fountain, vomiting forth, from a circular cavity, an im-
petuous torrent of liquid matter, and hurling along in rapid succession opaque
masses, which it strewed every where around. The beauty and novelty of such
a scene in the animal kingdom, long arrested my attention, but after twenty-five
minutes of constant observation, I was obliged to withdraw my eye, from fatigue,
without having seen the torrent for one instant change its direction, or diminish,
in the slightest degree, the rapidity of its course. I continued to watch the same
orifice at short intervals for five hours, sometimes observing it for a quarter
of an hour at a time, but still the stream rolled on with a constant and equal
velocity."

The Sponges assume a variety of forms and shapes, some of them very singular
and beautiful. They are, however, best known to us in the form of Common
Sponge.

The next group of animals on which I shall remark are called Radiata, on
account of the manner in which their parts are arranged. This section of the
Animal Kingdom is divided into two parts, the Gelatinous Radiaries and the
Spiny-skinned Radiaries. Of the former the Jelly-fish is an instance, of the
latter the Star-fish. Amongst the Jelly-fish we find a little lucid creature.
This animal is very abundant in the ocean, and literally crowds it in some places ;
they are, however, so lucid as to be seen during the day ; but in tropical climates
they are phosphorescent, and it is when the light of the day is retiring that these
creatures frequently present a brilliant spectacle to the delighted eye of the
traveller of the ocean. First one is seen and then another, then hundreds, and
thousands and tens of thousands, till the whole ocean is covered with an unin-
terrupted blaze of phosphorescent light.

The Common Jelly-fish or Sea-nettle (Medusa) is another form of this class of
animals, and must be well known to those who have been in the habit of sailing
or rowing on our seas and estuaries. The elegant contractions and expansions of
its lucid body, as it gracefully moves along the waters, excite alike our curiosity
and admiration.

OF INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 405

Some other forms of these gelatinous animals are worthy attention, on account
of their beautiful colour, and the circumstance of their being capable of elevating
themselves to the surface of the ocean, and riding proudly over its heaving billows.
One species of this kind is called the Portuguese Man-of-War (Rhizostoma).

The divisions of these animals represented by the Star-fish are composed of a
skeleton constituted of several hundred separate pieces, and covered over with a
thick coriaceous skin, on which are placed a number of tubercles, the tubercles
being surmounted by spines. The pieces or plates of which the skeleton is
composed are beautifully fitted into each other, although not all of the same
size, and are arranged so as easily to allow of the growth of these parts. Dr<
Grant has calculated that in the edible Echinus there are not less than ten
thousand separate pieces composing its skeleton.

The principal forms of these animals are very well represented by the common
Star-fish, the Sea-urchin, and the Sea-anemone, or Actinia*. The mode of
progression amongst these animals is effected by means of suckers, with which
they are abundantly supplied ; on applying these organs to any object, they have
the power of exhausting the air from within them, and they are thus fixed to a
particular spot by the pressure of the atmosphere and water from without. It
is also by means of these instruments that they lay hold of their prey, which
seldom escapes them, if once they touch it with only one of these suckers.
These animals — contrary to what we see generally in the Animal Kingdom —
prey upon beings higher in the scale of organisation than themselves; they
attack small Crabs, Lobsters, and even fish ; and to enable them to consume
such food some of them are supplied with a remarkably complicated apparatus
of mastication, as in the Echini.

The Sea-anemonies are perhaps the most interesting of these animals, on
account of their shape and colour resembling the beautiful forms of the flowers of
plants. They are generally attached to rocks at the bottom of the sea, and
whilst expanded the)7' assume the appearance of a richly- variegated bed of flowers,
which would vie with the gayest and brightest ornaments of the parterre.

With these animals one of the larger sub-divisions of the Animal Kingdom
ends ; they are called Radiated or Cycloneurose Classes. The next sub-division
I shall refer to is that of the Molluscous or Cyclo-gangliated Classes. These are
familiarly known on account of the greater proportion of the animals possessing
an external skeleton, the study of the forms of which has given rise to the
interesting science of Conchology.

The first among these animals is a little group called Tunicaries, and they
seem to form a transition from the aggregated animals we have been considering,
to those which are provided with external shells*

These tunicated animals are more perfect in their organisation than any

VOL. III. — no. xxiii. . 3 H

406 ON THE STRUCTURE AND HABITS

hitherto considered, possessing a mouth, stomach, heart, and other organs in a
high state of development. We have here two kinds of animals ; the one may be
represented by the Pyrosome, which is an aggregated floating animal, whilst the
other will be represented by the Cynthia, a single animal, and fixed for life to the
same spot. The Pyrosome has a large tubular base, upon which are fixed
hundreds of little animals. This tubular base varies in size from three to
twelve inches, and it is by the passage of the sea-water through its hollow
interior, as it passes to supply the animals with air and food, that it is kept in
constant motion. This animal has also the property of phosphorescence, and is
one of the most brilliant of the numerous tribes of lower animals that gild the
ocean with their sub-marine fires. The single form of these animals is not
uncommon on our own coasts, where they are known from the singular fact that
when caught by fishermen they squirt from their bodies a large quantity of water
in the face and eyes of their luckless captor, so as often to prevent him securing
his prey. These being single, and having a thick fibrous covering over them,
lead us by an easy transition to the next group of animals, which are the Shell-
fish ; animals in general living in shells and called Molluscous.

These animals are divided into three kinds ; those with a single shell called
Univalve, those with two shells called Bivalve, and those with more than two
shells Multivalve.* These may be respectively represented by a Snail, an
Oyster, and a Barnacle. To begin, then, with the Univalves, of which the Snail
is the type. All the classes previously examined are inhabitants of the water,
but a small proportion of those we have entered on live upon the land. The
most common of these are the various kinds of Snails {Helix), but there are
several kinds which assume a variety of interesting forms.

Many of them inhabit the ditches and fresh- water ponds in the interior of the
country ; they are very numerous in many districts, and as their forms are easily
studied, and their collection is not difficult, they form a good subject for the
initiatory studies of a young naturalist.

The most attractive and curious part of the Mollusca is certainly their shell,
and in this organ we have a beautiful exemplification of the way in which
creation gradually passes from a simple to a more complicated form. Now
belonging to this class is the Common Slug, which, though often looked upon as
an object of disgust, is endowed with a structure, functions, and instincts as
elevated as the princely inhabitants of those gorgeous shells that so often orna-
ment the halls and rooms of our dwellings. The Common Slug has no shell, but

* I have used this division as the most convenient, although, anatomically, the Multivalves differ
greatly from the two former, and are placed amongst the articulated classes in scientific arrange-
ments.

OF INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS. 407

many persons when walking along the roads, on a fine summer's evening, after
the fall of a refreshing shower of rain, will have observed, amongst the numerous
species of Snails and Slugs that then appear slowly gliding over the moist foliage,
a very large Slug (Limosella), variegated like Tortoise-shell. In the back of
this Slug there is a shell, a very simple one, but it may be looked upon as the
commencing or vanishing point of shells amongst these animals. If we now go
to some lake or pond, and pluck a leaf of the Water-lily, it is a great chance but
we find upon it the fresh-water Limpet (Patella J. This animal will supply us
with a shell almost flat, but still a little concave. In some other forms of
Limpets we shall find the shell more concave, and presenting the form of a cone
with a very enlarged base. From this we may trace shells which gradually
present more acute cones, as in the Bonnet and Chambered Limpets {Patella
nereitoidea and P. Chinensis). A curve now begins to take place, and is well
seen in the Tooth-shell (Dentaliurri). In some of the Worm-shells (Serpulce) we
have the commencement of the spire. The spire may be next seen in a simple
form in the Sea-ear (Haliotis). It becomes more developed in the Nereides
(Nereidce). In the Snails and Periwinkles it is still more developed, and when
we have arrived at these forms we may yet trace its complication through the
Common Whelks (Buccinum) to the elegant forms of the Dippers (Bullce) and
Cowries (Cyprcea).

The shells of the Univalve Mollusca are many of them very highly prized ;
there is one in a museum at Paris belonging to the Cone tribe, which is not more
than two inches long, and has been A'alued at three hundred guineas ; many
others exist, valued at from twenty to two hundred guineas. In some parts of
the world they are employed as a medium of circulation, instead of coin. The
Cowries are mostly used for this purpose. But. many of them serve for more
useful purposes. In France a large species of Snail (Helix pomatia) forms a
delicious article of diet ; whilst the Periwinkle and the Whelk are esteemed in
our own country.

The Bivalves, of which we have many familiar examples, as in the Oyster, the
Cockle, the Muscle, &c, may be divided into two sections ; first, those which
bore or live in rocks, wood, mud, &c, and those which live free in water, and
are enabled to walk about by^ the aid of a foot, which projects from between
their shells.

Among those which bore we find the Ship- woi*m (Teredo navalis). These
animals are supplied with two little shells, which, acting like rasps, enable it to
penetrate wood. They attack wood wherever it is found in the' ocean, and seem
to occupy it more as a resting place than for any other purpose.

Another kind of these Bivalves attack even a harder material than wood, and

3h2

408 ON THE STRUCTURE AND HABITS

are found introducing themselves into the substance of the hardest rocks, and
are called Rock-borers (Pkolades).

Of the other borers the Stone-eater, the Common Cockle, and the Razor- shell
(Solen) are examples. The Common Cockle buries itself in the sand, and is
always found in this position on the margins of our rivers, waiting for the return
of the tide, when it opens its shell for the purpose of admitting the water, which
is charged with matters necessary to its subsistence.

Amongst the Bivalve shells that creep about with the aid of a foot is the
Clamp-shell, which is sometimes four or five feet long, and weighs as much as
4001bs. From its weight some idea may be formed of the powerful nature of
the muscular power by .which this animal perambulates the mountains and vallies
at the bottom of the sea.

The best-known and most useful of this group of animals is the Oyster ; and it
is the only one that is cultivated by Man. They are found at the bottoms of the
ocean and rivers. When cultivated they are placed in what are called " beds" in
rivers, where the salt-water has access only during the flow of the tide.

But of all shell-fish that which perhaps has excited greatest attention is the one
that produces pearls. This is a kind of Muscle (Mytilus margaraliferus), and
the pearl is produced on the inside of its shell. The pearls are not a natural but a
diseased production, so to speak, for it is only after the shell of the Muscle has been
pierced by some external intruder, or when it has been irritated by some annoying
substance, that this costly jewel is produced. Sometimes some of the boring animals
of the preceding section are the cause of this ; in attempting to penetrate the shell
of the Pearl Muscle, that animal has the power of secreting from its mantle this
peculiar, hard and precious substance,* which thus excludes the entrance of the
borer, and saves the Muscle from destruction. Off the coasts of Ceylon, the
Persian Gulf, and the Sea of New Holland, this animal is found in abundance.
At Condatchy, in Ceylon, is the largest fishery, where, for thirty days in the
year, not less than 6,000 boatmen and attendants are engaged in the business.

On looking at these shells we should hardly suppose that they were intended
to swim, much less to sail ; yet many of them have the power of elevating
themselves to the surface of the ocean, and there opening themselves ; one of their
shells serves for a boat, and the other is hoisted for a sail, and thus they glide
merrily over the waves of the sunny ocean. — This is said to be the case with the
Cockle and the Venus-shell.

Most persons who know the Common Oyster will probably have observed on

* On the question of the manner in which Pearl is formed, in reply to Mr. Lankester's
remarks, see Mr. Leviso.n's letter in The Naturalist, Vol. III., p. 378 — En.

OF INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS, 409

the outside of their shells some little white acorn-shaped bodies, looking some-
thing like young Oysters ; but they are not young Oysters ; they are, however,
animals belonging to the third section of the Molluscous class, and are called
Sea-acorns (Balanus). These, then, may be taken as the representatives of the
Multi valve Mollusca. This tribe is not very large, but it is interesting as con-
taining the Barnacle, a curious shell-fish, about which some singular opinions
have been entertained. If one of these animals be examined, there will be found
projecting from the shells a number of long slender organs called arms, which
are clothed with hairs or ciliae, so as to give them the appearance of feathers.
Now these organs — whose real use is to produce currents of water to enable the
animal to seize its prey — were at one time supposed to be the feathers of a young
Goose, which in due time would become fitted for a very different state of
existence. This wonder was perfectly believed by men of science a few centuries
back. The following is the account given of this " woonder of England," as it was
called, by Gerarde in his Historic of Plants : — " Having travelled," says he,
" from the Grasses growing in the bottome of the fenny waters, the woods, and
mountaines, even unto Libanus itself: and also the sea and the bowels of the
same, we are arrived at the end of our historie, thinking it not impertinent to
the conclusion, to end with one of the marvels of this land (we may say of the
world) ; the historie whereof, to set forth according to the woorthiness and rarity
thereof, would not only require a large and peculiar volume, but also a deeper
search into the bowels of Nature than my intended purpose will suffer me to
wade into, my insufnciencie also considered ; leaving the historie thereof rough
hewen unto some excellent men, learned in the secrets of Nature, to be both fined
and refined. In the meane space take it as it falleth out, the naked and bare
truth, though unpolished. There are found in the north parts of Scotland, and
the islands adjacent, called Orchades, certain trees whereon do grow certain shell-
fishes, of a white colour, tending to russet, wherein are contained little living
creatures ; which shells in time of maturitie doe open, and out of them grow those
little living things, which falling into the water doe become fowles whom we call
Barnakles, in the north of England Brant Geese, and in Lancashire Tree Geese ;
but the others that do fall upon the land perish, and come to nothing. Thus much
from the writings of others, and also from the mouths of people of those parts,
which may very well accord with truth." " But what our eies have seen and
hands have touched we shall declare.'' Our author then goes on to describe, in
all the minuteness of detail, the various stages of this strange transformation
from the time of the shell first opening to the period of the young bird dropping
into the sea, " where," he says, " it gathereth feathers and groweth to a fowle
bigger than a Mallard and lesser than a Goose."

The last group of animals in the Molluscous division is that which contains

410 NOTES ON A TOUR IN ICELAND.

the Pearly Nautilus. Every body has heard of this wonderful sailor, who steers
about upon the ocean with all the skill of an accomplished mariner. The shell
which contains this animal is very large, and is divided into several compart-
ments, in the external of which only does the animal live. The animal which
inhabits this shell is a very curious-looking one, and resembles in some measure
one of its congeners, the well-known Cuttle-fish. On account of their organs of
progression being fixed in their heads, they are called Cephalopods. These, then,
are the organs which the Nautilus uses when sailing along upon the wide and
open sea. Two of its long legs it stretches in the air for a sail, whilst the others
are occasionally used as oars.

I have here some fossils which are very abundant in the strata of Yorkshire,
called Ammonites ; they look like Snakes curled up, with their heads cut off; and
there is a tradition at Whitby, where these fossils are very abundant in the sea,
that formerly that town was overrun with Serpents, and that some good Catholic,
whose sanctity permitted him to perform miracles, in one day cut off all their
heads and drove them into the sea, where they became petrified. Be this as it
may, they are found at other places besides Whitby, and some of them are
enormously large, being as much as six feet in diameter. Now when one of these
is cut across, we find that it presents the same appearance as the shell of the
Pearly Nautilus, divided into several compartments ; and there is no doubt that
these fossilised bodies were once the abodes of animals similarly constituted ; and
were probably the only mariners that navigated those seas, which geologists tell
us existed, not days but ages, before Man inhabited the earth.

C To be continued. J

NOTES ON AN ORNITHOLOGICAL TOUR IN ICELAND IN THE
SUMMER OF 1837.

By W. Proctor,
Subcurator of the Durham University Museum.

On my return home, a few days ago, I found your letter, and am sorry that I
had not an opportunity of giving it earlier attention. With great pleasure I send
you some observations I made on the birds in Iceland last summer. I will
transmit them as I made them at the time, and you can correct them as you
think proper, if worthy inserting in your valuable Journal.

How beautifully are the works of Nature carried on in those remote regions !
It would strike every beholder with surprise to see the different species all breed-

NOTES ON A TOUR IN ICELAND. 411

ing and rearing their offspring, and to observe the instinct that is displayed
amongst them ; but in none more than in the Sclavonian Grebe(Podiceps cornuttis),
which, in the rearing and preservation of its young, displays an instinct truly
wonderful. This bird frequents the fresh-waters, and breeds amidst the Reeds
and other rank herbage. The nest is large, and floats on the surface of the water,
with which it rises and falls. It is composed of a mass of Reeds and other dry
aquatic plants. The eggs vary in number from two to four, and are when just
laid of a bluish- white colour ; but they soon become stained by the materials of
which the nest is composed. The size of the egg is one inch three-quarters long
and three inches three-quarters round, being a little larger than that of a Pigeon.
The young birds, when first hatched, are covered with grey-coloured down. No
sooner does the old bird perceive danger from any intruder, than she instantly
dives, and emerges at thirty or forty yards distance. One day during my sojourn
in Iceland, having observed one of these birds dive from its nest, I placed myself,
with my gun at my shoulder, waiting its re-appearance. As soon as it emerged
I fired and killed it, and was surprised to see two young ones — which, it seems,
had been concealed beneath the wings of the parent bird* — drop upon the water.
I afterwards shot several other birds of this species, all of which dived with their
young under their wings. The young were placed with their heads towards the
tail, and their bills resting on the back of the parent bird.

The Red-necked Phalarope or Lobefoot {Tringa //yperborea, Linn.) breeds on
little hillocks among the marshes. The nest is composed of a few stems of dried
Grass. The eggs are four in number, of an oil-green colour, thickly spotted with
black ; in dimensions one inch and an eighth long, and two inches three-quarters
round, or about the size of that of a Common Thrush. The young birds leave the
nest as soon as hatched. On the approach of danger the old bird runs among the
aquatic herbage, spreading her wings, and counterfeiting lameness — for the pur-
pose of deluding the intruder, and after leading the enemy from her young, she
takes wing and flies to a great height, at the same time displaying a peculiar
action of the wings ; then descending with great velocity, and making simultane-
ously a noise with her wings. On her return to her young she uses a particular
cry, for the purpose of gathering the young together. As soon as she has collected
them, she covers them with her wings like the Domestic Hen.

I visited Grimsey, a small island, which lies about forty miles from the main

* Occasionally when a brood of newly-hatched aquatic birds enters the water for the first time,
one or two of the little creatures will contrive to climb on the mother's back, or under her wings.
The latter feat, especially, is easily performed by cygnets, on account of the well-known habit of
the Swan of sailing with its ample wings half-open, and arch shaped. In the case of the Horned
Grebe, however, the concealment undoubtedly took place with the cognizance of the parent, if
not with her assistance. — Ed.

4 12 RARE BIRDS KILLED IN THE WINTER OF 1837-8.

land, on the north side of Iceland, for the purpose of collecting the egg of the"
Little Auk (Alca alle, Linn.).. This bird makes no nest, but deposits its solitary
egg among the large stones above high water mark ; and not on the ledges of
precipitous rocks, as has been stated. Rocks of that description were observed at
the same place, but they were not occupied by a single bird. The female
suffered me to remove the stones, and take it off its single egg ; this is of a bluish-
white colour, two inches long and four inches and a quarter round, or about the
size of that of the Common Teal.
Durham, May 21, 1838.

[J Mr. Proctor visited the interesting island which forms the basis of the pre--
ceding observations, not so much for the purpose of gaining intelligence respecting
the habits of birds, as with a view of obtaining the skins of rare specimens, and
eggs, for the Museum of which he is Curator. He has, however, at our request,
kindly communicated some notes on the habits of a few British species noticed
by him on his tour in Iceland. — We could wish that this island were explored by
a competent naturalist, with a special view to recording a general summary of its
Natural History ; and should be happy to make The Naturalist the medium of
such a memoir. — Ed.]

NOTICE OF RARE BIRDS OBTAINED DURING THE WINTER OF

1837-8.

By Edward Blyth,
Curator of the OrnithoJogical Society.

Considering the severity of the past season, and the unusual continuance of
the frost in January and February, but few rare birds found their way to the
London Market. I purpose to enumerate those which have fallen under my
observation, with some others of which I have received intelligence from my
friends ; and may premise that I believe I know of very nearly all that have
occurred at the poulterers' stalls in the metropolis. A few comments on some of
the species also, I trust, will not prove unacceptable.

During the very cold weather,* several species of ordinary occurrence disappeared
altogether, while others, generally less common, were brought in great abundance.
Among the former may be instanced the Bernacle and White-fronted Geese, and
the Pintail Duck ; among the latter, the Bean and Brent Geese, which were
exposed for sale literally by thousands, adult Mergansers of the three common

RARE BIRDS KILLED IN THE WINTER OF 1837-8. 413

European species, and Hooper Swans. I observed no other Anatidce whose
numbers were materially affected.

Mr. Hoy informs me that a beautiful male Hooded Merganser {Mergus cuculla-
tus), in thoroughly mature plumage, has been [secured in the county of Norfolk ;
being the first known instance of this bird occurring in its adult garb in Britain.
It is indeed remarkable that very nearly all the Mergansers, of each species, were
old birds in their final livery ; the younger individuals having been driven further
southward. This was especially remarkable in the instance of the female Smew,
adult specimens of which are of rare occurrence in collections ; those obtained in
ordinary seasons being almost without exception the young of the year, of which
the plumage is exactly similar to that of the young male : in the mature females
the sides of the face are black, as in the male, and the markings of the wings
much purer and better contrasted ; many such specimens appeared in the markets
during the severe weather, and when the frost broke up, and the communication
with tLe low countries was renewed, I saw a heap of Swans, from Holland, con-
taining many females, all of which exhibited this handsome state of plumage.

The adult male of the Smew Merganser may be procured, every winter, more
or less plentifully in the London markets ; and the reason that only the young
of the other sex is commonly obtained, becomes obvious on consideration. A
bird very like the female Smew is the same sex of the Common Garrot (Clangula
vulgaris) ; and the London reader may repair to St. James's Park, and observe
how very conspicuous is the brilliantly white plumage of the male Smew at a
considerable distance, in comparison with the dark sober livery of the female
Garrot. Now birds, as they advance in age, are taught by increasing experience
to become more wary ; and accordingly the mature Smews, more vigilant than
the young, do not generally suffer an approach near enough to render the female
readily discoverable; besides which, if the gunner should succeed in stealing
within shot, the adult birds being commonly in pairs, the beautiful male is sure
to attract his attention, to the exclusion of its mate. To judge, however, from
the broken necks'"' of some of those which are brought to market, it would appear
that this species is occasionally taken in the decoys ; but here, again, the majority
of the birds so taken are the young of the year.

It should be remarked, that the livery in which both sexes of the different
Mergansers appear during their first winter, is not that which immediately
succeeds the down; for I have obtained specimens early in the season, incom-
pletely moulted, in which a few of their first feathers were consequently
observable, indicating that the tertiaries at least, if not all the upper parts, had

* This would be a sufficient proof of their being decoyed birds, if there are no marks of shot in
the body.— En.

VOL. III. — NO. XXIII. 3 I

414 RARE BIRDS KILLED IN THE WINTER OF 1837-8.

been mottled, each feather having a large terminal pale spot. A curious particu-
lar in which the Smew differs from the others, consists in the presence of only
one small ccecum to the intestine, instead of two, proportionally much larger :
this character I have found to be constant in nearly a dozen specimens. The
Bay-breasted Merganser (M. serrator) is less frequently brought to market than
the large species, indeed in the proportion of one to six or seven ; but, as already
stated, all three were plentiful during the severe weather of last winter. It is
worth knowing, that the rich fulvous tint on the breasts of the two large Mer-
gansers may be preserved, in all its beauty, by very carefully secluding the
specimens from light for a period of two or three months, after which it is much
less liable to fade from exposure ; we rarely see a stuffed specimen which retains
much of this depth of colouring.

Wild Swans, of the Hooper species, have occurred in most parts of the country
in very considerable numbers ; and they have been cruelly and wantonly per-
secuted. On their first arrival, they scarcely manifested distrust, but were at
length rendered as timid as they had been fearless ; though not till their numbers
had been much reduced by insatiate butchering. In one place, on the Thames,
I have information of a flock settling among a number of tame Swans,* and
readily coming to feed on bread, &c, that was thrown to them ; it was conse-
quently hoped that they would have been induced to remain in the locality ; but
at the breaking up of the frost they all disappeared, after a sojourn of some
weeks. At Manningtree, in Essex, however, a number appear to have taken up
their abode, and it is expected will breed there.

It is remarkable that no Bewick's Swans occurred at the time of the long
frost. Among the multitudes of wild Swans that were seen almost everywhere,
and particularly in the eastern counties of England, this smaller species has been
much sought for in vain; the endeavour to obtain it has indeed caused the
destruction of very many Hoopers. A single young specimen appeared in one
of the markets early in the season, and one young bird, and several adults,
towards the close ; one specimen only was obtained the preceding winter, and
this also very late in the season ; so that Bewick's Swan, I think, may be
inferred to be a bird of passage, generally, rather than a winter sojourner, in the
British Islands.t All the examples of it adverted to, passed into the hands of

* Several wild Swans used to visit two tame individuals kept on the lake in Campsall Park, in
the night-time. During the day we have seen several flocks pass over the same lake in majestic
flight. Numbers of these birds have been indiscriminately shot wherever they could be met
with ; and we understand that during the stay of the Swans with us, more specimens of the
Hooper Swan than of any other bird were sent to the various birdstuffers in the West-Riding
of Yorkshire to be preserved Ed.

+ In the winter, I think, of 1832-3, or perhaps the following winter, I saw a very considerable

RARE BIRDS KILLED IN THE WINTER OF 1837-8. 415

my friend Mr. Bautlktt, of Museum-Street, to whom I am much indebted for
allowing me to examine them. I dissected most of them, and arrived at the
result that there is no external difference whatever by which the sexes may be
constantly distinguised ; old females having every character of the male. It is
remarkable that several years must elapse before the trachea elongates, forming
the horizontal loop backward ; for only one specimen (a female) out of six purely
white birds exhibited this structure. In general, the sternal apparatus, with the
trachea and its accessories, is chiefly distinguishable from that of the Hooper
Swan by its smaller size, and the very different form of the bronchi.

The number of tail feathers I have found in both species to be singularly
variable, and not unfrequently uneven, while the closest internal scrutiny has
failed to detect that any were accidentally deficient. In the Hooper the numbers
are 20, 21, and 22 ; and in the Bewick's Swans 18, 19, and 20.

At the time of the first appearance of these birds the young were wholly grey,
but as the winter advanced a few white feathers made their appearance, chiefly
among the scapularies ; the tendency to moult, however, appeared to be checked,
probably from want of sufficient nourishment, rather than in consequence of
reduced temperature ; for I can hardly conceive that birds so well protected by a
close covering of exquisite down as the different Trumpeting Swans are,* can be
much affected by cold. An immature Hooper, which was added to the collection
of living water-fowl in St. James's Park, has only lately recommenced the renewal
of its feathers, but is now moulting rapidly ; at the time it was captured, late in
January, there was not the slightest sign of yellow upon its bill ; a trace of this
hue became noticeable about the beginning of April, and at present (May 8) all the
basal portion has become conspicuously yellow, though not so bright as in the
old birds in winter. In the summer this portion becomes of a very brilliant
gamboge-yellow in the adults ; there is little doubt but that this young bird, of
the preceding season, will become undistinguishable from older specimens by
about midsummer.

My friend Mr. Hoy assures me, that a very large male Hooper that was
brought to him alive, had a distinct and conspicuous black band crossing the
yellow near the base of the bill ; a trace of which he has remarked in one other
specimen. This character must be of extremely rare occurrence.

Respecting the rufous tinge which is sometimes visible on all the white Swans,
I may remark, that this is no sure indication of youth, as generally considered.
It is more prevalent, perhaps, though still not universal, in young birds, but it is

number of Bewick's Swans at a stall in Newgate Market ; probably there were not less than
thirty, all of this species.

* The down of a Hooper Swan is worth about four times that upon an individual of the Mute
species, which it far exceeds in quantity as well as quality.

3 l2

416 RARE BIRDS KILLED IN THE AVINTER OF 1837-8.

also sometimes observable in old specimens. A Hooper on the lake in the
Regent's Park, where it has lived for at least six years, has the crown more
deeply rust-coloured than in any other that I have yet seen ; and a friend informs
me that one of the common domestic species, in his possession, which also is,
at the least, six years old, is very deeply tinged with rust-colour all over. A
male Polish Swan, also, in St. James's Park (which was purchased as the parent
of the female, with which it appears likely to breed this season, and therefore
cannot be much under that age, as Swans do not reproduce before they are two
years old), is tinged on the head and neck with rust- colour. I could cite addi-
tional instances if necessary.

The Polish Swan {Cygnus immutabilis) is an accession made this Avinter to
the British fauna; and considering the numbers which have been killed along
the range of the eastern counties, from Aberdeenshire to Kent, I have been
surprised that none have been sent to the London market. Mr. Leadbeater
had several sent to him for stuffing, and one, out of four that had been shot from
a flock near Maidstone, was lent by him to Mr. Yarrell, for the purpose of
exhibition before the Zoological Society, when the species was characterized.
This bird scarcely differs from the ordinary Mute species, all the characters of
which it presents in an inferior degree of development ; but it is smaller, and
pure white at all ages, even in its first downy covering. As a distinct race, it
has long been recognized by several of the dealers, who have designated it — I
know not for what reason — the Polish Swan. The Ornithological Society pur-
chased an adult pair, with a young one, of which the old female soon died, early in
last year. At first, I am told, all three were equally remarkable for the very pale
colour, almost whiteness, of the legs and feet, by which only they were obviously
distinguishable from the common tame Swan ; but at present, although this
pallid hue still continues to distinguish conspicuously the young female, the male
has the feet as dark as any specimen of C. olor. Assuredly, however, the com-
mon tame Swan has dark-coloured feet at every age and season.

It is probable that the opinions of naturalists will continue to be divided
respecting the validity of C. immutabilis to be considered a species. In its
anatomy it does not differ from C. olor ; but I should not on this account infer
their specifical identity — that is, their descent from the same aboriginal parentage
— as many obviously distinct species, wherever the arbitrary line of demarcation
may be drawn, resemble each other so closely that it becomes impossible to
assign the limits of approximation ; and we do not know why there should, of
necessity, be any difference whatever between the most nearly-allied of all,
though aboriginally separate, races. At any rate, the occurrence of C. immuta-
bilis in large flocks, in a true state of Nature, would seem to point it out as a
genuine species ; and let it be remembered, that so close a similitude exists in

RARE BIRDS KILLED IN THE WINTER OF 1837-8, 417

the peculiar stern o-tracheal conformation of C. Bewickii and C. Americanusy
that on this ground alone, until the external characters of these two species were
compared, they were confidently assumed to be identical — and this notwith-
standing the analogy afforded by the admitted separateness, and corresponding
distribution, of C. buccinator and C. musicus. This instance is very valuable,
as administering a due amount of caution to those engaged in the endeavour to
identify fossil remains ; as it conclusively proves that absolute similarity does
not, in every case, constitute specific identity.

Another addition to the catalogue of British-killed birds will probably be soon
made public by Mr. Hoy, who obtained two Geese in Norfolk, from a flock of
seven, it would appear of an undescribed species. Two shot Canada Geese
were brought, which possibly may have been wild birds from America ; but it is
not unlikely that they were partially domesticated, and perhaps bred in this
country.*

The American Wigeon is a novelty which was obtained by Mr. Bartlett.
He selected it from a row of Common Wigeons, deeming it, at the time, to be
only an accidental variety of the species ; there was a female along with it,
which, after some hesitation, he unfortunately left, considering it also as a variety
but insufficiently diverse to be worth preserving ; he has since, however, posi-
tively recognised the female of the American Wigeon to be identical with the
bird he thus passed over, hesitatingly, in the market. The dimensions of the
male were 19 inches in length, and 32J inches in extent of wing ; Wilson's
admeasurement of the species being palpably erroneous, as will appear on com-
parison with those which he has given of the Mallard. The beak is rather
narrower than in its European relative, and nearly a quarter of an inch longer ;
the tracheal labyrinth, or rather osseous vesicle, considerably smaller ; scarcely
exceeding in magnitude that of a Teal. The specimen now enriches the collection
of E. Maude, Esq., of the Temple.

While penning the preceding paragraph, my indefatigable friend, Mr. Bartlett,
has opportunely called upon me, to shew me a magnificent fresh-killed specimen
of the Squacco Heron, which he has just purchased ; it is said to have been sent
up from Suffolk, and its appearance plainly shews that it cannot have been dead
above a day. From the point of the beak to the extremity of the tail it measures
21 inches, and 32^ inches in extent of wing. Bill livid at base, darker towards

* The Canada Goose, we know, from personal observation, exists in considerable flocks in
many parts of England, but invariably in a semi-domesticated state. We have repeatedly found
its nest close to the lake at Foston Hall, Derbyshire ; and noticed it sailing about with its brood.
It is, moreover, little likely that foreign individuals should visit Britain. The Canada Goose is
an extremely ornamental bird in a park, and its singular habits must have attracted the notice of
every one at all familiar with the species in its natural state. — Ed.

418 RARE BIRDS KILLED IN THE WINTER OF 1837-8.

the ridge of the upper mandible ; the distal half blackish, abruptly defined. Cere
and space around the eyes pale greenish yellow. Iris very pale yellow, almost
yellowish-white. The legs and feet pale flesh-colour, with a tinge of yellow,
the joints of the toes darker above; the tarsal joints, and especially beneath the
toes, more distinctly yellow. The plumage is thoroughly mature, and most
exquisitely delicate and beautiful ; crest of considerable length ; though perhaps
not quite so long as in some stuffed specimens which I have seen, still it is longer
than usual, even among the adults.'"'

I have information of a specimen of the Great Auk ( Alca impennis) having
been obtained last winter in Wexford Bay. Being in hyemal aspect, its cheeks,
throat, and fore-neck are consequently white. It now adorns the collection of
Dr. Birkett, of Waterford.

The same gentleman has also an Irish specimen, it would appear, of Surnia
funerea. At least my informant so described the bird that I have little doubt of
its being this species, and upon my shewing him Gould's plates of the European
Owls, he immediately fixed upon it, and again, when I exhibited to him a skin.
He was evidently too well acquainted with all the common species to have mis-
taken one of these.

Mr. Bartlett lately obtained a recent specimen of the Parrot Crossbill. Its
length was 7| inches; extent 12 inches. Mr. Yarrell will figure the sternum
of this bird, together with that of the Common Crossbill, which latter has been
tolerably plentiful in the eastern counties of England, and also in the north of
Ireland, during the past winter. The Parrot Crossbill adverted to was sent from
Holland.

Another interesting continental bird recently purchased by the same industrious
collector, is that beautiful little bantam of a Grouse, Tetrao bonasia. Two
specimens of it were obtained, both of which had their crops and stomachs filled
with Birch-catkins ; hence (from the supposition that they feed on Hazel-catkins)
has probably originated the name of Hazel Grouse, by which it is known to the
poulterers. It rarely appears in the market, where it commands a rather high
price, being esteemed a particular delicacy ; its flesh is remarkably white, con-
trasting in this respect with all its European relatives.

* Since writing the above, I have examined this beautiful bird more minutely, when it appeared
that the feathers of the crest were new, and not full-grown. It had only just acquired its final
livery, and had still a few intermixed old feathers, characteristic of the second state^of plumage.
Its anatomy presented all the usual characters of the Herons ; it proved on dissection to be a
male, and its stomach contained two small Newts and various water insects. At.ithe divarication
of the bronchi were placed two fatty glandular yesicles, the size of a small pea, which possibly
may be a seasonal development. All the Herons agree precisely with the Bittern in the
conformation of the tracheal apparatus.

RARE BIRDS KILLED IN THE WINTER OF 1837-8. 4 If)

An exotic species which is brought very abundantly to the London market, is
the Willow Ptarmigan {JLagopus saliceti), a larger and Jstouter^ bird than the
White Ptarmigan of Britain, for which it is often substituted, undesignedly, in
collections. In their summer plumage, these two species are very readily dis-
tinguished ; and in winter, also, the great majority of specimens may be told, at
the first glance, by a practised eye ; but a few occasionally occur (I am told) of
intermediate character, which are not so easy to identify. In all that I have
seen, however, in their winter costume, the superior size and bulk of L. saliceti,
its more densely-clad feet and tarsi, thicker bill, and the absence of black between
the bill and eyes, have afforded ready means of discrimination.

A season or two ago, Mr. Bartlett obtained, in the market, a recent specimen
of Salicaria turdoides, which is still in his possession. This bird, which is very
like S. arundinacea, but on a larger scale, is rather common in the low countries,
and may occur, it is not unlikely, now and then in the markets of Essex, where
there is considerable chance of its being overlooked. Its size (but this only) has
caused it to be ranged among the Thrushes by superficial naturalists.

Were I to enumerate the acknowledged British species, of moderately rare
appearance, which have been met with at different London poulterers during the
past twelvemonths, my list, already tolerably long, would be considerably ex-
tended. It must suffice, for the present, to advert very briefly to one or two
others, selected from among the most interesting.

A young Black-throated Loon (Colymbus Arcticus) occurred in the autumn,
and an old specimen early in January, 1836. The former measured 2 feet 3^
inches in length, and 3 feet 8<| inches in spread of wing.

An Avocet, and a Greenshank, in full summer aspect, both very seldom to be
purchased here, were brought in the spring ; and two Dusky Sandpipers ( Totanus
fuscus) at the end of August. In September, twenty Curlew Tringas were
obtained together, all young birds of the year except one ; and about half a dozen
of Tringa minuta.

Astonishing numbers of the Pomarine Skua ( Lestris pomarinus) appeared in
November, both on the eastern and southern coasts of England ; many of these
were brought to market, and as many as eight or ten of them alive ; but they
did not prosper in confinement, and generally died, almost suddenly, in the
course of a few weeks. They were all in immature plumage, which varied some-
what in different individuals ; the males were, on an average, rather smaller than
the other sex, and were further distinguished by having the central tail-feathers
somewhat elongated. A single young specimen of the Common Skua (L. catarr-
kactes), also, was purchased in the market, but neither of the other species.

The only rare Gulls which I have seen were two specimens of Larus glaucus,
one a bird of the year, the other of the preceding year, but still unmoulted.

420 A LIST OF BIRDS FOUND IN MIDDLESEX.

A Velvet Scoter, in a very emaciated state, was obtained during the severe
frost ; and about the same time Mr. Hoy procured two in Suffolk, in equally re-
duced condition. This bird I never previously knew to occur in the London
market, except during the winter, I believe, of 1832-3, when it was not uncom-
mon. A few seasons ago, Mr. Bartlett received a recent Surf Scoter {Oidemia
perspicillata) for the purpose of stuffing ; and he has also seen an immature Red-
crested Pochard exposed for sale.

I shall conclude this notice by recording the fact of eleven Greylag Geese (Anser
cinereus) having been brought in the course of the winter; three of them occurred
in November, five in January, and the other three in March. Few naturalists
are aware how rare in Britain, and how little known to the majority of British
ornithologists, even of those who think they are acquainted with it, is this species
of " Wild Goose." One constant character by which it may be recognized is the
pale grey colour of the rump, which in the other species is always very dark brown.

A LIST OF BIRDS FOUND IN MIDDLESEX.

By H. J. Torre.

I beg to thank you for the kind manner in which you noticed my letter (p. 313)
of last month, and fully perceive the error I committed in concealing my name.
Following the example of some of your other correspondents, I subjoin a list of
birds which have been found in this neighbourhood during the last seven or eight
years . I think it may be considered correct, as by far the greater part I have
myself observed; and the remainder — to which a mark (f) is prefixed — I have
received from a respectable animal-preserver of this town. Should you have
already received an ornithological list from Middlesex, or find deficiencies in this,
you will of course have no scruples in dispensing with it.*

Order I. Raptores, Preyers.

Falcon family, Falconidce. — Kestril Falcon, Falco tinnunculus ; tMerlin
Falcon, F. cesalon; Hobby Falcon, F.subbuteo ; Sparrow Hawk, Accipiter nisus;
tCommon Buzzard, Buteo vulgaris.

* As Mr. Torre has done us the honour of adopting the nomenclature of out British Song Birds
as regards the native choristers, and since he had employed that of M. Temminck for the other
species, we have taken the liberty of substituting more modern names for the latter, and of adding
the family designations, both English and Latin — an arrangement, sve trust, which will meet the
approbation of our correspondent. — Ed.

A LIST OF BIRDS FOUND IN MIDDLESEX. 421

Owl family, Strigidce. — +Long-eared Madge, Otus vulgaris; Short -eared
Madge, 0. brachyotus; Tawny Hooter, Ulula stridula ; Barn Owl, Strix
Jlammea.

Order II. Insessores, Perchers.

Swallow family, Hirundinidce. — Chimney Swallow, Hirundo rustica ; House

Swallow, //. urbica; Sand Swallow, H. riparia ; Common Swift, Cypselus apus.

Nightjar family, Caprimulgidce. — European Nightjar, Caprimulgus Euro-

pCBUS.

Halcyon family, Halcyonidce. — Common Kingfisher, Alcedo ispida.

Flycatcher family, Muscicapidce. — Spotted Flycatcher, Muscicapa grisola.

Shrike family, Laniadce. — tGrey Shrike, Lanius excubitor ; Red-backed
Shrike, L. collurio.

Thrush family, Turdidce. — Missel Thrush, Turdus viscivorus; Fieldfare
Thrush, T. pilaris ; Garden Thrush, T. hortensis ; Redwing Thrush, T. Iliacus ;
Garden Ouzel, Merula vulgaris ; Ring Ouzel, M. torquata.

Warbler family, Sylviadce. — Fallow Chat, Saxicola mnanthe ; Whin Chat,
S. rubetra ; Stone Chat, S. rubicola ; Robin Redbreast, Rubecula familiaris ;
Tree Redstart, Phcenicura albifrons ; Sedge Reedling, Salicaria phragmites ;
r_Brake Nightingale, Philomela luscinia. — Ed.] ; Blackcapt Fauvet, Ficedula
atricapilla ; Garden Fauvet, F. hortensis ; Whitethroated Fauvet, F. cinerea ;
Garrulous Fauvet, F. garrula ; Wood Warbler, Sylvia sibilatrix ; Willow War-
bler, S. melodia ; Golden-crowned Kinglet, Regulus auricapillus ; Garden Tit,
Parus hortensis; Blue Tit, P. cceruleus; Marsh Tit, P. palustris ; Coal Tit,
P. ater ; Longtailed Tit, P. caudatus ; Hedge Dunnock, Accentor modularis ;
Pied Wagtail, Motacilla macidom ; Spring Oat ear, Budytes verna; Tree Pipit,
Anthus arboreus ; Meadow Pipit, A. pratensis.

Finch family, Fringillidce. — Sky Lark, Alauda arvensis ; Wood Lark, A.
arborea ; fSnowy Longspur, Plectrophanes nivalis ; Corn Bunting, Emberiza
miliaria ; Yellow Bunting, E. citrinella ; Reed Bunting, E. schosnicidus ; Cirl
Bunting, E. cirlus ; House Sparrow, Passer domestic us ; fTree Sparrow, P.
arboreus ; Chaff Finch, Fringilla ccelebs; Bramble Finch, F. montana ; Siskin
Goldwing, Carduelis spinus ; Common Goldwing, C. elegans ; Whin Linnet,
Linaria cannabina ; Mountain Linnet, L. montana; Redpoll Linnet, L.pusilla;
Green Grosbeak, Coccothraustes chloris ; Haw Grosbeak, C. crat&gus; Common
Crossbill, Crucirostra vulgaris ; Hedge Coalhood, Pyrrhula vulgaris.

Starling family, Sturnidce. — Spotted Starling, Sturnus varius.

Crow family, Corvidce. — Carrion Crow, Corvus corone ; fHooded Crow, C.
cornix ; Rook Crow, C. frugilegus ; Jackdaw Crow, C. monedula ; Common
Magpie, Pica melanoleuca ; Common Jay, Garrulus glandarias.

vol. in. — no. xxiu. 3 K

42'2 A LIST OF BIRDS FOUND IN MIDDLESEX.

fa 1

Woodpecker family, Picida. — Green Woodpecker, Picus viridis ; Pied
Woodpecker, P. major; | Barred Woodpecker, P. minor; Zigzag Wryneck,
Yunx torquilla.

Nuthatch family, Sittidce. — European Nuthatch, Sitta Eurhpcea.

Creeper family, Certkiadce. — Common Creeper, Certhia familiaris ; Ivy
Wren, Anorthura troglodytes.

Cuckoo family, Cuculidce. — Grey Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus.

Order III. Rasores, Scratchers.

Pigeon family, Columbidce. — Ring Pigeon, Columba palumbus ; Rock Pigeon,
C. livia ; Turtle Dove, Perislera turtur.

Grous family, Tetraonidce. — Grey Patridge, Perdix cinerea ; Common Quail,
Cotumix vulgaris.

Order IV. Grallatores, Waders.

Heron family, Ardeidce. — Common Heron, Ardea cinerea ; f Common Bittern,
Botaurus stellaris.

Snipe family, Scolopacidce. — Common Curlew, Numenius arquata; Wood
Snipe (or "Woodcock"), Scolopax rusticola ; Common Snipe, iS. gallinago ;
fGreat Snipe, S. major ; Jack Snipe, S. gallinula.

Rail family, Rallidce. — fWater Rail, Rallus aquaticus; Corn Crake, Crex
pratensis ; Common Gallinule, Gallinula ckloropus ; Common Coot, Fulica atra.

Plover family, Charadriadce. — Peewit Lapwing, Vanellus cristatus ; Golden
Plover, Charadrius pluvialis.

Order V. Natatores, Swimmers.

Duck family, Anatidce. — White-fronted Goose, Anser erythropus; Greylag
Goose, A. palustris ; Mallard Duck, Anas boschas ; Common Teal, Querquedula
crecca ; Common Wigeon, Mareca Penelope ; fTufted Pochard, Fuligula cris-
tata ; Hooper Swan, Cygnus ferus.

Diver family, Colymbidce. — Little Grebe, Podiceps minor ; fCrested Grebe,
P. cristatus.

Auk family, Alcadce. — f Black Guillemot, Uria grylle.

Gull family, Laridce. — Common Gull, Larus canus ; Kittiwake Gull,
L. rissa.

The above catalogue includes 113 species.
Harrow, June 4, 1838.

4-23

CORRESPONDENCE.

Geology and Scripture.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Esholt Hall, near Leeds, June 1 1, 1838.
1)ear Sir, — Yesterday I duly received your present of The Naturalist for
June, for which I return you my sincere thanks ; and beg to say that I have been
highly gratified in the perusal of the articles therein — especially by your remarks
on Professor Phillips's Treatise on Geology ; for, having read some works on
Geology by authors of different opinions, who all seem desirous of promulgating
their own favourite theories, I have been forced to the conclusion that Geology
can only be profitably studied on the distinctive principle as regards science and
sacred history.

On the Formation of Charcoal from Plants embedded in Sandstone.
We have good, specimens of the Cactuses in the Caitlaird of this neighbourhood.
I found the matrix of one some time ago, which clearly shews the footstalks of
the leaves. We have likewise several specimens of Arundinaceous plants [Reeds,
&c. — Ed.]] in the Sandstone, which, when taken out of the stone, are generally
found embedded in Charcoal. As to the process which the bark of the tree
would have to undergo in being converted into Charcoal, I most respectfully beg
leave to ask you the following question : — Is it possible that Charcoal can be the
result of a slow and gradual chemical decomposition of the bark under the waters
of the ocean, or has it been converted into Charcoal by the action of the heat ?

I shall take an opportunity of introducing The Naturalist to some of my
friends in this part of the country who are likely to take an interest in the work.

I have the honour to remain,

Dear Sir, yours respectfully,
To Neville Wood, Esq., James Pringle.

Campsall Hall.

[The query propounded to us is of difficult solution without a more accurate
idea of the situation, &c, of the plants alluded to than has been imparted to us.
We believe, however, that the intervention of heat would not be required in the
case alluded to. The Sandstone strata consist of subaqueous deposits. It must,
therefore, in all probability have been by a gradual chemical action that the
change from bark to Charcoal has been formed. There is very little doubt but

3k2

4*24 CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

that the world has once been of a considerably higher temperature than at present.
Now this high temperature affected fluids as well as solids, and would unques-
tionably accelerate the carbonization. We may, then, safely conclude that
subaqueous chemical decomposition, assisted by heat, effected the change. — En.]

Difficulty of Framing an Entomological Glossary.
To the Editor of the Naturalist.

My dear Sir, — In a recent letter I stated that I should not be able to
furnish the promised (p. 249) articles on Orismology, and take the earliest oppor-
opportunity of explaining the reason of my having abandoned the project. The
plan I laid before you was feasible enough in theory ; but when I came to
apply my views practically, I soon found that they would not answer. A
repetition of terms would have been unavoidable ; and if I were to proceed on
the plan of giving general and partial Orismology, the extent of the glossary
would be such as I think could not properly be allowed in The Naturalist. I feel,
therefore, compelled to relinquish my design.

Believe me, yours most faithfully,

Bewsey House, Warrington, Peter Rylands.

May 19, 1838.

Qlf, after this explanation, any of our readers are particularly in need of such a
glossary, and would be greatly assisted by it, we doubt not Mr. Rylands will
kindly contrive to vanquish the difficulty alluded to. — Ed.]]

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

Observations on Mr. Wood's " British Song Birds," passim.
To the Editor of The Naturalist.

Dear Sir, — I must apologize for having so long neglected to send you the few
remarks I had to make on the perusal of your Brit. Song Birds ; but want of
leisure, not want of inclination, must plead my excuse. The said remarks were
never committed to paper, and I merely made notes in pencil on going through
your pages. However, let me now begin without further preface. I will take
things as they occur.

1. P. 22, speaking of the song of the Thrush, you say " the top branch is in-
variably chosen for the vocal performance.'' Surely this is not exactly correct,

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM. 425

at least not with our Warwickshire Thrushes, which 1 have often observed.
They generally sit high in the tree, but not on the " top branch."

2. P. 64. " Containing fruit which are of course unattainable to its tender
beak." Not clearly expressed, and surely not correct in fact, is it? Why do
you call it the Tree Redstart ?

3. " Brake Nightingale." Are there really more than one species in England ?
This bird sings as much by day as by night ; but at night he has it all to himself,
and so is more remarked. When at Oxford I observed a Nightingale singing on
the bough of a tree which hung over the turnpike-road from Kedington Hill, in
the middle of the day.

4. P. 99. The Blackcap "arrives in the middle or towards the end of April."
Earlier generally. I have heard him even in March ; he is among our first sum-
mer visitants.

5. P. 165-6. From what Dr. Liverpool states, we might infer that the Tits
do not crack nuts, and you yourself (in the foot-note) do not seem to be aware of
the fact. I have often observed them here striking nuts with their beaks, as
the Nuthatch does.

6. The Longtailed Tit on my premises sometimes builds in Gorse ( Ulex) and
Box, and frequently in Blackthorn. I never saw more than one hole to the nest ;
certainly two are not usual.

7. You have some excellent remarks at p. 220, under the head of " Spring
Oatear," about "birds which actually do good where they are supposed to be most
mischievous." But are you not going too far in saying that the Nightjar " leaps
up at the Cows' udders and legs, in order to obtain the insects and larvae lodged
in the poor animal's skin" ? I much doubt its taking any insects but such as are
on the wing.

8. P. 267. " Though I never heard this bird Qhe Wood Lark] make any
attempt at a song in winter," &c. It does sing beautifully in winter, as I used
often to hear it when a boy, before the Christmas holidays were expired ; it also
sings very much in autumn.

9. P. 346. " In the middle of March **** the ChafFFinch commences its merry
and oft-repeated strains." Long before this time — in February, and sometimes
in January ; I have even heard him in December, but always, I think, before the
middle of March. I consider him to afford one of the very first indications oi
spring, and accordingly he is a great favourite with me, notwithstanding his
mischievous propensities in the garden.

10. P. 371- The generic name Linaria is inadmissible, being preoccupied as
such in Botany for several species of Toadflax.

1 1. P. 379. You speak of the Redpoll as a shy bird. I well remember, when a
very young sportsman, or rather a young carrier of a gun, falling in with a flock

4*26 CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

of Redpolls feeding on the seeds of the Alder ; after firing at them, I found that
they returned to the very same tree (though I was standing under it) before I
could reload my gun. This they did many times, and with a perseverence which
I shall not easily forget.

12. P. 405. You speak of the Starling as being a " difficult bird to shoot." No
bird of its size (as it appears to me) is more easy to approach within gun-shot,
either in summer or winter. I don't believe they suck Pigeons' eggs ; do you ?
They are amusing birds, and you describe their winter concerts admirably at
p. 405.

13. I forgot to say, when speaking of the Nightjar, that / would not discard
the old name Caprimulgus, because it seems to record, as it were, historically,
the superstitious notions that have been entertained respecting it. No one in
these days, I should suppose, except, perhaps, the very ignorant, could believe
that it really did suck Goats, Cows, or anything else ; and such persons — if such
there be — would not understand the meaning of the word Caprimulgus. " Night-
jar" (an excellent name) I much prefer to " Goatsucker."

14. Why did you not refer to Bewick's figures, as contained in his popular
work? For though his letter-press is no very good authority, his admirable
wood-cuts must always be held in estimation.

15. I have also a "Crow to pick" with you for not having enumerated the
Swallows among your British song birds. That title is, of course, to be under-
stood in a large and liberal sense, for you include under it many birds that have
no pretensions to song; but surely the Swallow (Hirundo rustica) is, bond fid-e,
a legitimate songster. He has, ere now, kept me awake at day-break, or before,
by his persevering music, which is moreover highly agreeable. And the harsh
scream of the Swift, too, delights me as much as the note of any bird whatever.
I am not certain that I do not prefer it even to the sweet melody of the Night-
ingale himself; but here comes the association of ideas.

I have written as briefly as possible, in order to come within the compass of a
single sheet.

Believe me, dear Sir,

Very truly yours,
Allesley Rectory, near Coventry, W. T. Bree.

May 9, 1838.

Q. We believe the remark of Mr. Bree to be generally, though not universally
correct. We have noticed both cases. — 2. Orchards do not commonly foster trees
producing fruit softer than cherries, which would probably be inaccessible to the
tender beak of the Redstart. This is what we have stated in other words at the
passage alluded to; and if the expression was obscure, we can only regret the

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM. 427

circumstance. The name " Tree Redstart " did not originate with us ; and was
only adopted for its superiority over " Common." If, however, English names
are of any importance in a scientific point of view, both " Tree" and " Common"
ought to be discarded. — 3. Had there been two British Nightingales, we should
not have been backward in announcing England's good fortune in this respect.
The addition of an English specific name is only in accordance with the uniform
plan pursued throughout the volume. — 4. This depends very much upon season
and latitude. — 5. This of course settles the matter. — 6. The remark accords with
the experience of almost every naturalist, and likewise with our own. Two
holes have, however, been seen in the nest. — 7. Our observation is supported by
that of Charles Watebton, Esq., in his Wanderings, 2nd edit., p. 143. — 8.
The observation is valuable. — 9. The season here has a remarkable effect. Pro-
tracted winds will silence every chorister of the grove for weeks together. We
have heard many birds sing in December and January which, nevertheless,
commonly commence and regularly set in for the season in April. The Chaff
Finch is, however, an early singer. — 10. Whether Botany or Ornithology has
priority in this instance, we are not at present prepared to decide. — 1 1. Had Mr.
Bree taken the subsequent paragraph into consideration {Song Birds, p. 380),
he would have found that no difference exists between us on this head. While
feeding, Cautiousness is absorbed, as it were, by Gustativeness. — 12. In winter
we find it shy, in summer not. In the latter season Philoprogenitiveness becomes
more powerful than Cautiousness. That this bird sucks eggs, is contrary to our
entire experience. — 13. This is a new view of the case. Perhaps the balance
is in favour of retaining the old name. — 14. This might have been useful to the
student, although we do not chime in with the indiscriminate admirers of the
great artist. — 15. Our Preface ought to have explained that our book was written
before it was christened ; and that the least objectionable of several titles was
then selected. The Swallows, accordingly, did not enter into the original plan ;
further, had the Swallow been included on the score of musical ability, the Jay
would put in a claim of at least equal force. The casual observer who has
merely noticed the harsh scream of the Jay, may probably be inclined to split his
sides with laughter at the thought of its being called a " song bird ;" but Mr. Bree
must have heard its soft and singular melody.

We have to thank Mr. Bree for the kind and candid manner in which he has
penned the above remarks ; and may perhaps be allowed to congratulate ourselves
upon the circumstance that in a volume of upwards of 400 closely-printed pages,
containing no trifling mass of observations and opinions, so excellent a practical
naturalist as our amiable correspondent has found so little to find fault with. — Ed.]

428

EXTRACTS FROM THE FORFIGN PERIODICALS.

ZOOLOGY.

1. Hybernation of Swallows. — M. Isidore Geoffroy, in his zoological in-
structions, drawn up for the new scientific expedition to the north, calls upon
naturalists to observe any facts which they may meet with concerning the hyber-
nation of Swallows. In consequence of this, M. Dutrochet communicates to
him, that he found two of these birds in a state of torpor, in a recess, formed in
the wall of a building. On being warmed by the hand they flew away, proving
thereby, that Swallows are occasionally capable of wintering in a northern climate.
To this M. Larrey adds, that in the valley of Maurienne he saw a deep grotto
in a mountain, called L'Hirondelliere, because it is covered with Swallows at the
beginning of winter. In this the birds were suspended, like swarms of Bees, in
the corners of the roof.

2. Sponges. — M. Dujardin having repeated his observations on Spongillce, or
fresh-water Sponges, as well as others on marine Sponges, thinks he has proved
that these ambiguous beings are positively groups of animals, capable of con-
traction and extension. If a piece be detached from a living Sponge, and
submitted to a microscope, it will be seen to group itself into irregularly rounded
masses, and change the form of its edges incessantly ; isolated portions, detached
from the general mass, move slowly in the liquid, and creep along by means of
their alternate contraction and expansion.

3. Extravagant feathered Architect. — Dr. Coko, of Westchester, recently
took a bird's nest which was entirely framed of silver wire. It was the nest of
a Hanging-bird, found on a Sycamore tree, the extravagant little builder having,
probably stolen some young lieutenant's epaulette to form his future nursery
with. — New York paper.

4. Silkworms. — The experience of M. Bonafous proves the efficacy of the
Chinese method of feeding Silkworms on Rice flour ; and he has even gone fur-
ther, and discovered that these caterpillars will eat various kinds of farina, and
even the fecula of Potatoes.

5. Malayan Albino. — On landing at Gressik I was struck by the singular
appearance of a Malay lad, an albino, standing under the shade of a tree on the
river bank. His skin was of a reddish white, with blotches here and there, and
thinly covered with short white hairs. The eyes were small and contracted ; the
iris of a very light vascular blue ; the lids red, and fringed with short white
lashes ; the eyebrows scant and of the same colour ; the pupil much contracted

EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS. 429"

from the light. On calling him to come near he appeared to be ashamed. He
evinced an extreme sensibility to the stimulus of light, from which he almost
constantly kept his eyes guarded by shading them with his hands. He told me
he could see better than his neighbours in imperfect darkness, and best by moon-
light, like the " moon-eyed" albinos of the Isthmus of Darien. He is morbidly
sensitive to heat : for this reason, and on account of the superstitious respect
with which the Malays regard him, he is seldom employed by his friends in
outdoor labour, although by no means deficient in physical strength. The
credulous Malays imagine that the Genii have some furtive share in the produc-
tion of such curiosities, though this they tell as a great secret. To this day the
tomb of his grandfather, who was also an albino, is held sacred by the natives,
and vows (nigats) are made at it. Both his parents were of the usual colour. His
sister is an albino like himself. Albinos, I believe, are not common on the
peninsula, nor are there any tribes of them, as according to Voltaire, existing in
the midst of Africa. In the only two instances I recollect observing, the eyes
were, in both, of a very light blue ; the cuticle roughish and of a rosy blush, very
different from that of the two African albinos seen and described by Voltaire,
and quoted by Lawrence. — Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.

BOTANY.

6. On Vegetable Acids. — It is very probable that the acid of Turnips,
Cucumbers, &c, is simply acetic acid. Many other plants exist in which parti-
cular acids have been discovered, the composition of which is unknown ; but it
may be affirmed, with much probability, that, if all those acids were carefully
examined, they would be reduced to a very small number. M. Liebig, in his
Annal. der Pharm., for Nov. 1837, recommends " naturalists to examine this
subject ; reminding them that the acid of fruits changes after their arrival at
maturity ; that, for example, the fruit of the Mountain-ash contains, during the
first month, tartaric acid ; later, tartaric and citric acid ; and, finally, malic acid
only. — Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve.

GEOLOGY.

7. Fossil Salamander. — M. Paravey has written to the French Academy of
Sciences, that a fossil Salamander, in the collection of Prof. Van Breda, at
Leyden, about three feet long, contains, in the part corresponding with the
abdomen, the fragments of Frogs, Eels, &c, thereby affording a proof that ante-
diluvian species fed upon the same substance as the Salamanders of our times.
A large Salamander brought by M. Siebold, from Japan, still lives in the
museum at Leyden, and is principally fed with Frogs. The above-mentioned
traveller brought the male and female into Europe, but the latter was devoured

vol. m. — NO. xxiii. 3 L

430 EXTRACTS FROM FOREIGN PERIODICALS.

by the former, after he had been for some time without food. This Salamander
is described in the Japanese Encyclopedia, and M. Paravey finds in this work
the same fables which exist in Europe concerning this animal, namely, its insensi-
bility to fire. The same stories concerning the Chameleon are also found in this
Encyclopedia, and bring further conviction to M. Paravey, that a very ancient
centre of civilization has existed, whence come the ideas concerning art and
science which have been transmitted to us by the Greeks and Romans, and
which are to be found in Chinese books.

8. Narrow-toothed Mastodon. — At least half a skeleton of the Narrow-
toothed Mastodon has been found by M. Lartet, at Gers, in excellent preservation.
The half of the lower jaw distinctly presents the socket of a powerful incisor, of
which also a fragment has been found. The existence of incisors in Mastodon
angustidens does not accord with the observation of Cuvier, and it becomes a
matter of discussion whether a new species exists, or whether this anomaly is a
sexual distinction.

9. Tombs in Santorini. — Some tombs discovered in the island of Santorini by
M. Bory St. Vincent, give an importance to this island beyond that of its
volcanic celebrity. We pass over ruins of temples, cities, cyclopean walls,
cisterns, &c, to the account of vases found in some of the ancient tombs, which
have been laid bare by the torrents of rain, and so deprived by the mass of Tufa
Pumice, &c, under which they have for ages lain hidden. One was about
sixteen inches high, and nine in diameter, with a narrow neck, the orifice of which
was formed of the head of an Eagle or Griffin ; a graceful and light handle was
beautifully adapted to the body of the vase ; the colour was that of Blood-stone,
and, apparently, a Lynx devouring a Stag with branching horns, was designed
upon it in black. This was discovered in the least ancient of the tombs (for
there are some of much greater antiquity than others, apparently formed by an
unknown race), and contrasted, in richness of ornament and shape, with the older
pottery. This latter is of a hard, sonorous material, full of grains, perhaps Sand-
stone. The largest vase is two feet five inches high, and one foot nine inches in
diameter in the middle, and it had four handles ; a second had only two handles,
and probably contained a provision of grain for the deceased. The stone has not
been artificially coloured except with bands of a chocolate brown, and on one
side only have been sketched an imperfect meander, circles, zigzags, cranes, &c.
&c. ; the other side has no ornament, as it was intended to stand close to
the wall.

431

PROCEEDINGS OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.

ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

May 7. — J. F. Stephens, Esq., Pres., in the chair. — Mr. Sells exhibited speci-
mens of the rare Copris lunaris, and of the curious cocoon in which it passes the pupa
state. Mr. Ashton presented a figure of a specimen of Notonecta furcata, infested
by a minute parasite which attaches itself to its leg; and Mr. Aldous presented
his highly -magnified figure of the head of the Flea, as represented under the
solar microscope, exhibiting all the parts of the mouth, respecting which so much
uncertainty had pre vailed. — Various other exhibitions were made by members, and
a discussion took place as to the nature of the food of the Bot of the Horse ; Mr.
Sells maintaining that it was nourished upon fluids from the vascular structure
of the Horse's stomach, in opposition to the opinion of Mr. Bracy Clark, that
they fed upon chyle or chyme. — The Rev. F. W. Hope communicated a table of
the genera and species of insects infested by Filarice and other parasitic Worms.
— The commencement of a monograph on the Coleopterous genus Popillia,hy Mr.
Newman, was read.

ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

May 5. — J. R. Gowen, Esq., in the chair. — The report of the Council stated
that the Hon. P. C. Scarlett, M.P., the Hon. J. Y. Scarlett, M.P., C. B.
Brown, Esq., and Mr. E. Mammatt, had been elected members of the Society.
A donation of specimens had been received from the Lady Rolle ; and it was
announced that the Commissioners of Her Majesty's Woods and Forests had
caused some ponds and shallows to be made on the larger island in St. James's Park,
in compliance with a request to that effect made to them by the Council of the
Society. — The Council had not had time to act upon the system determined on in the
recently-passed bye-laws for the renroval and election of officers and members of
the Council ; but they proposed to act upon it as fully as the time would allow.
They had, therefore, to announce that they propose the Duke of Buccleugh to
be elected President in the room of the Earl of Liverpool, Mr. W. Holl to be
Secretary, and F. B. Long, Esq., to be Treasurer ; the following noblemen and
gentlemen to retire from the Council : — his Grace the Duke of Bedford, W. G.
Chapman, Esq., the Earl of Liverpool, Capt. Mangles, R:N., and Sir J. D.
Paul, Bart. ; and the following to be elected in their stead : — his Grace the Duke
of Buccleugh, the Hon. P. C. Scarlett, M.P., F. B. Long, Edward Jesse, and
0. Morgan, Esqrs.

Mr. Blyth then exhibited specimens of the three wild British Geese allied to

3l2

432 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

the domestic breed, viz., the Grey Goose (Anser cinereus), the Bean Goose (A.
segetuni), and the White-fronted Goose (A. albifrons) ; all which are promiscu-
ously sold in the markets under the general name of " Wild Geese." The first
of them was stated to be the primitive stock of the domestic Goose, and to have
become of exceeding rare occurrence in the British Islands, although it formerly
bred plentifully in the fens. Until very recently, no specimen of it existed, that
he could learn of, in any of the London museums ; but aged examples of the Bean
Goose, that had the terminal nail of the beak white, were commonly ticketed
with its name. It differed, however, in various particulars, which were pointed
out, and might always be at once told by the pale grey colour of the rump, which
in both the others is very dark brown. The Bean Goose was mentioned as the
ordinary " Wild Goose" of these islands, which it annually visits in large flocks,
frequenting upland pastures, where neither of the others are ever seen. It was
the only species of the three brought to market during the continued severe
weather of last winter, when thousands of them were daily exposed for sale.

A paper on the Natural History of the Nightingale (published in our number
for July, p. 343) was afterwards read by Mr. Blyth.

The anniversary meeting was held en Friday the 18th of May, N. W. Ridley
Colborne, Esq., in the chair. — The Council, in their report, congratulated the
members on the position which the Society had already attained. The number
of its members was stated to be 205; a number probably unprecedented in the
first year of any other scientific society. Beference was then made to the greet
injury which the collection in St. James's Park at first sustained, from the
children and other frequenters of the Park : but the Council had now the satis-
faction of reporting, that a marked improvement in this respect might be observed;
and they are convinced that the gratuitous exhibition of living birds will have a
powerful effect in combating the childish propensity to tease and torture animals,
and in substituting an intelligent interest in their welfare. Little more than a
nucleus of the museum and library has as yet been formed ; but the Council
expressed a confident hope, that, with the valuable services of the curator, Mr.
Blyth, a sufficiency of specimens for the illustration of the monthly lectures will
very shortly be obtained. The accounts of the Society for the last year had been
audited, and the balance in hand was <£ll. 16s. The sums then owing by the
Society were £36. 17s. 9d. ; and the sums owing to the Society were £42. The
bye-laws have been printed and distributed.

Some admirably-mounted specimens of rare birds were afterwards exhibited by
Mr. Blyth, which had been obtained in the London markets. Among them was
the elegant Squacco Heron (Ardea ralloides), an exquisite specimen in fully adult
plumage, and which had recently been shot in Suffolk ; and the little Hazel
Grous (Tetrao bonasia) of Continental Europe, the old-world analogue of the

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 433

well-known Ruffed Grous of North America, forming with it a distinctly-cha-
racterized genus, with partly naked legs. Mr. Blyth then discoursed at some
length on the general structure of the class of Birds, and exhibited analogous
portions of the skeletons of various groups, to illustrate the variations which they
presented. He dwelt especially on the importance of studying all parts of an
animal's structure, in order to attain a just idea of its systematic relations. The
necessity of a knowledge of Anatomy in the investigation of zoological classifica-
tion is so obvious, that it seems surprising that its utility should ever have been
questioned ; but probably the too exclusive use made of this valuable assistant
by some naturalists may have" induced the obloquy into which it has sunk even
among some of our leading zoologists. — Mr. Blyth expressed a wish that the
museum of the Society should be select rather than extensive, affirming that a
comparatively small number of species, illustrative of the principal types or
models of structure, would amply suffice for scientific purposes, if exhibited in all
the progressive stages of their outward covering, and also in the various dif-
ferential details of their anatomy. — N. A. Vigors, Esq., M.P., D.C.L., followed,
with some observations to the same effect, remarking how necessary it is for those
who wish to advance scientific Zoology, to penetrate somewhat deeper than the
mere surface. Of course no classification could be relic*! on which was founded
only on one system of organs, whether they were external or internal ; it was on
the totality of character that the natural system reposed, upon the whole rather
than upon a part ; and an arrangement based on the entire conformation
must necessarily be permanent, and constitute a secure foundation on which to
generalize.

GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

Feb. 21. — Rev. Wm. Whewell, Pres., in the chair. — A paper was read on
part of Asia-Minor, by W. J. Hamilton, Esq., Sec.G.S. This memoir gave a
detailed account of the author's observations on the geological structure of the
country from Mount Hassan Dagh, near Akserai (lat. 38° 20v N., long, about 34°)
to the great salt lake of Toozla, Kodj-hissar, and thence eastwards to Ceesarea
and Mount Argaeus.

March 7. — The Pres. in the chair. — A notice, by H. E. Strickland, Esq.,
F.G.S., of Cracombe House, was read, on some remarkable dikes of Calcareous
Grit, which intersect the Lias Shale, on the shore at Ethie, in Ross-shire.
These dikes were noticed by Mr. Murchison, in 1826. Mr. Strickland offered
no explanation of their origin, but wished to draw the further attention of
geologists to the phenomena which they present. — A paper by Charles Darwin,
Esq., Sec.G.S., was then read, " On the connection of certain volcanic phenomena,

434 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

and on the formation of mountain chains, and on volcanos as the effects of Con-
tinental elevations."

March 21. — The Pres. in the chair. — A paper was read by Mr. Owen, on the
dislocation of the tail, at a certain point, in the skeletons of many Ichthyosauri, —
An essay on the primary formations of England, by the Rev. Adam Sedgwick,
V.-P.G.S., was then commenced.

April 4. — The Pres. in the chair. — A description of Lord Cole's specimen of
Plesiosauncs. macrocephalus, by Mr. Owen, was read.

April 25. — R. I. Murchison, Esq., V.-P., in the chair. — Three communications
were read : — 1. A notice of the occurrence of Wealden strata at Linksfield, near
Elgin, by Mr. Malcolmson, F.G.S. ; 2. Notes on a small patch of Silurian rocks
to the West of Abergele, Denbighshire, by Mr. J. E. Bowmall; 3. On the origin
of the Limestones of Devonshire, by Mr. Austen, F.G.S.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY.

April 20. — Dr. MacIntyre, F.L.S., in the chair. — The Secretary read a
paper from A. Wallis, Esq., on the genus Myosotis. Myosotis arvensis is most
usually found in Corn-fields, or other highly-cultivated land, where it sometimes
reaches a considerable height. Myosotis sylvatica is mostly found in shady
places, where it assumes a stouter form than M. arvensis ; the bristles of the
stem are shorter, and the leaves will generally be found longer than those of M.
arvensis. But would not the difference of soil and situation account for the more
luxuriant growth of the one than of the other ? There is another distinction,
also, for which neither soil nor locality would account ; it is, that the calyx of
M. sylvatica is more deeply cleft than that of M. arvensis, and the tube of the
corolla is longer in the former than in the latter ; but Mr. W. was inclined to
doubt whether these were sufficient to justify a specific distinction, and the
more particularly so when we recollect that many plants are subject to slight
variations in their structural minutioe. Admitting then that a difference of soil
operates so powerfully in producing such varied and perhaps permanent distinc-
tions of character, it will become a subject worthy attention how this peculiar
operation takes place, and whether by close observation on the soil as well as
locality, we may not be able to establish geological laws relating to it.

HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

May 1. — Dr. Henderson, V.-P., in the chair. — A letter was read from Mr.

Disney, of Chelmsford, on the cultivation of Strawberries. — A considerable

number of fine fruits, flowers, and vegetables, jjvere exhibited by Mr. Luscombe ;

Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ; Mr. Ferguson;' gardener to P. C. Labouchere, Esq. ;

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 435

Mr. Sprengal, gardener at Taplow Lodge, Bucks. ; Mr. Naylor ; Messrs. Brown ;
Mrs. Lawrence ; Mr. Spence, gardener to R. Durant, Esq. ; Miss Garnier ;
Mr. Beaton, gardener to T. Harris, Esq. ; Mr. Harrison, of Aigburgh, near
Liverpool; Messrs. Chandler; Mr. Crayshaw (Esq.), through W. H. Pepys,
Esq. ; Mr. Niemann, the Dutch gardener to P. C. Labouchere, Esq. ; Sir Simon
Clark, Bart. ; and Mr. Hartb^g, the Society's collector.

The Anniversary Meeting was held on May 1, Mr. George Bentham in the
chair, who announced that the President, T. A. Knight, Esq., had arrived in
London, the day previous, for the purpose of presiding, but that his attendance
had been prevented on the grounds of indisposition. (See Obituary, p. 396.)

The following is an extract from the report of the Auditors : — " The Auditors
have the pleasure to present to this Annual Meeting of The Horticultural Society
of Lond on, being the twenty-ninth since its incorporation by Royal Charter, an
abstract of the accounts for the past year, showing a surplus of income over
expenditure to the amount of £,1,551. 15s. 2d."

METROPOLITAN SOCIETY OF FLORISTS AND AMATEURS.

The Auricula Show was held on May 2, in the rooms of the Royal Society of
Horticulture, at the Egyptian Hall, and it was announced that several extra
prizes for other objects of exhibition would be distributed. This had the
effect of bringing together a very interesting collection, as the show, instead
of being confined to the amateur of this interesting individual plant, was
one of a general nature. The room is decidedly the best in town where any
floral exhibition could be held, and from the arrangement of light in the building,
the flowers looked well, and displayed every perfection. Since our last visit, we
find another addition to the embellishments in the shape of a looking-glass of ex-
traordinary magnitude, which occupies nearly the whole breadth of the room, and
being placed opposite the one at the bottom of the stairs, presents to the eye the
interesting and singular delusion of an almost interminable series of floral corridors.
— Mining Journal, May 5, 1838.

ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY.

April 30. — The Right Hon. the Earl of Derby in the chair. — The anniversary
meeting was held this day, at the Museum, 28, Leicester-square. The report
(for which see the Gardeners Gazette, Supplement, May 5)£appeared on the
whole favorable, although there was a considerable falling off in the receipts for
some departments. This was ascribed, by N. A. Vigors, Esq., M.P., to a want
of liberality on the part of the council. — The following officers were elected : —
Treasurer — Charles Drummond, Esq.; Secretary — Rev. John Barlow, F.R.S.;
Council — Dr. Bostock, Hon. Sir Edward Cust, George Dodd, Esq., Bishop of

436 MISCELLANY.

Norwich, Lord Seymour ; Committee of Publication — Rev. F. W. Hope, Lieut.-
Col. Sykes, N. A. Vigors, Esq., M.P., D.C.L.

BATH ROYAL HORTICULTURAL AND BOTANICAL SOCIETY.

The first show of the season took place on the 27th of May, under quite as
favourable auspices as could have been expected.

WOLVERHAMPTON AND STAFFORDSHIRE HORTICULTURAL
AND FLORAL SOCIETY.

This Society held its first exhibition for the present season on Tuesday last,
at the Star and Garter Hotel, and, notwithstanding the ungenial spring, many
fine specimens were exhibited. Those that attracted particular notice were Azalias
and Panseys. The day being very unfavourable, the visitors were not numerous,
but highly respectable.

SALOP HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY.

The first exhibition in 1838 took place on the 30th of April, when the prizes
were awarded.

DONCASTER LYCEUM.

We regret the non-appearance of a report of this Society for 1837- Did not
the report for 1836 succeed, or is the Institution going down hill ? We are well-
wishers of the Lyceum ; and therefore we throw out the above hint, thinking
that the state of the Society should be announced annually to its subscribers and
the public.

BRITISH ASSOCIATION.

The Meeting will take place this year at Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, in the week
commencing with the 20th of August.

CHAPTER OF MISCELLANIES.

ZOOLOGY.
Additional Locality of the Red Grous. — I omitted mentioning, in my
" Catalogue of Birds found in Lancashire" (Vol. II., p. 353), that the Red Grous
(Lagopus Scoticus) occurs not uncommonly upon Woolston Moss, near Warring-
ton.— Peter Rylands, Bewsey House, Warrington, May 19, 1837.

MISCELLANY. 437

Occurrence op Velia rivulorum, Jan. 5, 1838. — On Jan. 5, this year, I
observed two specimens of this interesting little insect, swimming about quite
briskly in a small stream here. — Henry Buist. Lavs Park Cottage, March 12,
1838.

The Nightingale to the North of DoNCASTEit.^-Almost all ornithological
works concur in informing their readers that Doncaster forms the northern limit
of the Nightingale in England. This, however, is incorrect. We have ourselves
heard it near Campsall, and in a wood adjoining Owston Hall, both several miles
north of Doncaster. Wm. H. Rudston Read, Esq., of Frickley Hall, in this
county, informs us that several of these nocturnal choristers visit Hooton Pagnell
Common; and Charles Waterton, Esq., of Walton Hall, near Wakefield, that
they occur in his beautiful park every spring. It has been seen near York ; and
lastly, Mr. Yarrell notices its occurrence so far north as Cumberland. — Ed.

Singular Locality for the Nest of the Robin Redbreast. — A few days
since, at Londsborough Park, near Market Weighton, Yorkshire, on the premises
of James Matthison, Esq., there was found an old tea-kettle exposed on bare
ground, and on examination it was found to be inhabited by a Robin Redbreast,
with four young ones, which are all doing well. — York Herald, May 24, 1838.

In the garden of Mr. Evans, florist, of Rotherham, a Eobin Redbreast built
her nest in an old tin tea-kettle, in which she has laid six eggs, and young ones
will undoubtedly appear in a few days, as she has been sitting more than a week .
— Sheffield Iris, April 24, 1838.

Lophius piscatorius. — When walking along the Sands one day last spring, I
observed a large fish lying at the mouth of a small fresh-water stream, the
Swelkin-burn. Its appearance struck me so much at the time that I took a
sketch of it, and afterwards, on procuring Yarrel.l's invaluable work on British
Fishes, I discovered it to be the fish there named Lophius piscatorius, the " Sea
Devil." — Henry Buist, Law Park Cottage, St.Andrews, March 12, 1838.

Remarks on Bats. — M. de Blainville comes to the following conclusions
concerning Bats, in a memoir recently laid before the French Academy of Sciences :
— 1st, that they existed before the formation of the tertiary strata of northern
countries, as they are found in the gypsum of the neighbourhood of Paris ; 2nd,
that these Cheiroptera were, very probably, cotemporary with Anoplotherium
and Palaeotherium ; 3rd, that they have continued to exist from that time to the
present without interruption, as they are found in the diluvium of caverns, and in
osseous breccia ; 4th, that the ancient Cheiroptera differed but little from the
species now inhabiting the same countries. — Athenceum, June 2, 1838.

New Herring found on the Coast of Iceland. — Among the natural curi-
osities brought last summer from Iceland by Mr. Proctor, Sub-curator to the
Durham University Museum, is a fish belonging to the abdominal Malacoptery-

VOL. III. — NO. XXIII. 3 M

438 MISCELLANY.

gian order, and appai*ently to the family Clupeidse. Mr. P. discovered this
species on the northern coast, near Oifiord, in pools left by the retiring tide, his
attention being excited by the Gulls which were preying on it. We have been
induced to notice this fish in consequence of being unable to identify it with any
of Cuvier's genera, in his Regne Animal. In length it varies from five to five
and a half inches ; the back olive brown; under parts and lateral line silvery ;
head compressed; jaws elongated — the under being the longer; teeth on the
maxillaries and tongue, but so small as to be almost imperceptible ; body more
cylindrical and longer in proportion than that of the Common Herring ( Clupea
harengus) ; the number and position of the fins the same as in C. harengus,
excepting that the first ventral is a little more in advance ot the dorsal, and its
having a slightly adipose dorsal, which clupea has not. Branchiee, as usual, 4 ;
brancheostegous rays 8 ; of the dorsal fin 13 ; pectoral 17 ; ventral 8 ; anal 20 ;
caudal 20 ; vertebrae 69. It contained several intestina. Mr. Yarrell, in his
History of British Fishes, alludes to a small variety of the Herring, which,
according to Crantz, is found on the northern coast of Greenland, and he states
that this small variety, or species, was found by Sir John Frankland on the
shore of the Polar basin, on his second journey. We have never seen a specimen
or a description of this Herring, but we are inclined to suppose that it is a
distinct species from Mr. Proctor's, because it does not appear to be met with
southward of the last-mentioned localities. Should our opinion be well founded,
and Mr. P.'s fish prove to be an undescribed species, we would propose that the
specific name of Proctori should be applied to it — a just and proper compliment, to
one who has been so indefatigable in the pursuit of natural science. — Durham
Advertiser, April 27, 1838, communicated by Mr. W. Proctor.

Occurrence of Amara ovata. — This insect, which is stated in my " Notes on
the Amarce" (Vol. II., p. 240) to be rare near London, Warrington, &c, occurred
rather frequently in this neighbourhood during last month, and the commence-
ment of the present. — Peter Rylands, Bewsey House, Warrington, May 19,
1838.

The Scarce Swallow-tail (Papilio podalirius).— -In the first volume of
The Naturalist, p. 32, and also in a then recent number of Curtis's British
Entomology, it is mentioned that a specimen of the Scarce Swallow-tail had
been taken near Windsor, by W. H. R. Read, Esq., F.L.S., Z.S., E.S., O.S., &c,
of Frickley Hall, near Doncaster. We have, however, seen Mr. Read on the
subject, and he expresses himself not quite certain as to its being actually a
British specimen. " Others have lately been purchased as British, by Mr. G.
Robertson, Dr. Bromfield," and Mr. Allis (see Naturalist, I. c, and Vol. II.,
p. 38). It would seem, then, that this beautiful and rare insect still holds a
doubtful place in the British Fauna. — Ed.

Miscellany. 439

Pied Wagtail's Nest on a Railway Line. — On Monday week the nest of
a Pied Wagtail, containing six eggs, was discovered underneath one of the
switches on the line of the Newcastle and Carlisle Railway. The bird seems
not at all disturbed, but continues to sit upon its nest, and is frequently seen to
go in and out of it. — Doncaster Gazette, June 8, 1838.

Mode of restoring Frozen Potatoes. — In consequence of some careful expe-
riments made by himself, M. Payen recommends that frozen Potatoes should be
exposed to a violent heat, in order to be perfectly dried. In this case their
alimentary properties are preserved, and they may be rasped or bruised in a
mortar, as food for cattle. — Athenmum, June 2, 1838.

New Shell allied to Cyclo&toma. — A curious shell has been found in Bengal,
which has been erected into a new genus by M. Troschet, of Berlin, under the
name Steganotoma. It approaches the genus Cyclostoma, but is distinguished by
the peculiar form of its aperture. Its spire is but little prominent, but consists
of six whorls^ separated by sutures ; its lip presents a deep notch, close to the
spiral part, which forms a rounded tube, touching the last whorl but one ; it has
an operculum, and is encircled by a brown band, spotted and striated in a zig-zag
manner. — Id.

Pippin Cros&bill {Crucirostra cinerea, Ryl.) in Cheshire. — A flock of Cross-
bills was observed last February in the neighbourhood of Tarvin, Cheshire. —
Peter Rylands, Bewsey House, Warrington, May 12, 1838.

An Electrical Lady. — A respectable physician, in the last number of S Hit-
man's Journal, gives the following curious account of an electrical lady. He
states, that on the evening of Jan. 28, during a somewhat extraordinary display
of the northern lights, the person in question became so highly charged with
electricity, as to give out vivid electrical sparks from the end of each finger to the
face of each of the company present. This did not cease with the heavenly
phenomenon, but continued for several months, during which time she was
constantly charged, and giving off electrical sparks to every conductor she
approached. This was extremely vexatious, as she could not touch the stove
nor any metallic utensil without first giving off an electric spark, with the
consequent twinge. The state most favourable to this phenomenon was art
atmosphere of about 80 Fahr., moderate exercise, and social enjoyment. It dis-
appeared in an atmosphere approaching zero, and under the debilitating effects
of fear. When seated by the stove, reading, with her feet upon the fender, she
gave sparks at the rate of three or more in a minute ; and under the most favourable
circumstances a spark that could be seen, heard, or felt, passed every second !
She could charge others in the same way, when insulated, who could then give
sparks to others. To make it satisfactory that her dress did not produce it, it
was changed to cotton and woollen, without altering the phenomenon. The lady

3m2

440 MISCELLANY.

is about thirty — of sedentary pursuits, and a delicate state of health, having for
two years previous suffered from acute rheumatism and neuralgic affections, with
peculiar symptoms.

Cure of Cancer. — At the sitting of the Academy of Sciences, Paris, Jan. 13,
1838, MM. Baupherthuy and Adelbe-Roseville addressed to the academy a
detailed note on the animalcule which are found in the contiguity of cancerous
ulcers. These observations have proved the presence of animalcule in all the
cancers which they have examined. These gentlemen have sought the means
which are best fitted to destroy the animalcule, and their experiments have led
them to the following results : — brandy, the tincture of iodine, concentrated
solutions of the double chloride of mercury, of the chloride of gold, of arsenic, of
the salts of copper, of the nitrate of silver, the laudanum of Sydenham and
Rosseau, kill the animalcule instantaneously. Solutions of the same agents, in
the dose of two grains to the ounce, do not make their action felt on the animal-
cule before the end of a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes, but destroy them
insensibly after a space of time more or less long. — Journal de Paris.

Mode of Destroying Snails. — These creatures are passionately fond of bran,
or the outward skin of Wheat. When this food is placed out for them they
leave it as seldom as possible, and when they do retire for a time they return
most eagerly again to feed on it. This suggests a mode of freeing any piece of
ground of the insect. You have only to place over it little heaps of bran, pieces of
broken pipes, or pots, or vessels of any kind, which may shelter the food from the
rain, and your work is done. The Snails will congregate below, and you can in
a short time destroy multitudes of them. — Blackburn Gazette, June 13, 1838.

Arcturus Sparshalli taken at Horning. — Another Arcturus Sparshalli was
taken last year, having settled, I believe, on the outside of a boat there ; it was
crushed before it was noticed. — J. C. Dale, Glanville's Wootion, Dorsetshire,
July 9, 1837.

The Snow Bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis) occurs near this town in its varied
plumage. — Patrick Hawkridge, Scarborough, Aug. 7, 1837-

Osprey shot near Bury. — A few days since, Mr. Th»mas Bridge, farmer,
Pilsworth, near Bury, shot an Osprey or Sea-eagle in a field near his own
house. Its expanded wings measure five feet seven inches, and from head to
tail one foot ten inches. It is a male bird, and had in its crop a fish weighing
six and a half ounces. It is now being stuffed at Mr. Robert Turner's, top of
Hebers, Middleton.— York Herald, May 26, 1838.

New Birds. — Three new genera of birds, hitherto entirely unknown to science,
have been sent from Madagascar by M. Bernier, to the Museum of Natural
History in Paris. M. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire has named them Phi'
lepitta, Oriolia, and Mesites. The latter is the most curious, as it bears affinity

MISCELLANY. 441

to Pigeons by its feet, to the Gallinaceous birds by its wings, and by its beak and
nostrils approaches a genus of Palmipedes. Philepitta belongs to the Passeres,
and bears the specific name of sericea ; Oriolia Bernieri to the Orioli among the
Passeres ; and Mesites will probably form the type of an entirely new family. —
Athenteum, May 26, 1838.

Scientific Expedition. — We have frequently had to report the progress of the
Bonite during her voyage round the world, in order to take out the consular
agents of France to different colonies. The following is a brief summary of the
scientific labours of the officers on board. The voyage was completed in 631
days, during which the corvette only anchored 151 days ; it has therefore been a
matter of surprise that so much should have been done for Zoology, for among a
considerable collection of rarities five have been added which form types of new
genera, and of which there was either no vestige in museums, or only imperfect
specimens ; and besides these there are many new species. Among the fishes
are several which tend to confirm the truth of Chinese drawings, in many
instances reckoned fabulous. The class of insects has been equally enriched, and
particular attention has been paid to those orders which have been hitherto
neglected. The Arachnidce and Crustacea have received important augmenta-
tions ; the numerous drawings of Mollusca, extending even to the microscopic
orders, prove that in the open sea there has been equal activity ; and 4,000
observations on the temperature of the human body attest the fact that it rises
and falls with that of the atmosphere. The phosphorescence of the sea has been
an object of continual research, and the organized beings which cause it have been
carefully preserved in spirits-of-wine. To all this wealth in Natural History
may be added a portfolio of more than 200 drawings, and numerous accurate
descriptions. With respect to Physics, observations with the barometer, thermo-
meter, and other instruments, have been made at every hour of the day and night.
Seven experiments made with the apparatus of M. Biot, to ascertain the com-
position of sea-water at a great depth, have produced some unexpected results ;
and among other things, Terrestrial Magnetism has been carefully studied. M.
Gaudichaud has been equally indefatigable with respect to Botany, and has
brought back an immense collection of woods, plants, fruits, seeds, drawings and
notes. A Tree-fern, Cyathea arborea, from which some of the pieces of the
trunk were taken, measured 40 feet, and was not the largest which M. Gaudi-
chaud observed in Bourbon. He has sown several seeds, and has also brought
three young plants of the Dragon-tree (Dracoena draco), three of the Chili Balm
( Cocos Molinii), besides several other palms. — Id.

BOTANY.

Effects of the Winter of 1838 on Vegetation. — The late severe weather has

44*2 MISCELLANY.

made sad havock among evergreens. The greater portion are quite killed. None
have suffered so much as the Laurestine (Viburnum tinus). I believe scareely
a plant has escaped in this neighbourhood. Most of the Laurels have suffered
dreadfully, and even the Holly has felt the effects of the frost. Many of our fine
plants are almost denuded of their leaves. The Common Furze in exposed
situations is yet quite black, with scarcely a flower or a bud to be seen, whilst its
more humble companion, Ulex nanus, has not suffered in the least, and has
already put forth its beautiful blossoms, the two species exhibiting a great con-
trast.— J. D. Salmon, Godalming, Surrey, April 16, 1838. — [7n many instances
where irreparable injury is supposed to have been inflicted on plants by frost, we
take the effect to be temporary rather than permanent. This, e.g., is the case
with the Common Furze ( Ulex Europeans), mentioned by Mr. Salmon. In this
neighbourhood these plants are even now (June 1 3), mostly bare of leaves and
flowers ; but they everywhere display indisputable testimony of returning vitality.
We would recommend caution in casting away shrubs apparently killed by the
frost. It is always as well to wait till May or June before they are rejected.
—Ed.]

Effect of Carbonic Acid on Vegetation. — At p. 330 of this Journal, " it is
stated by M. Travibanus that vegetation is not so active near springs where
carbonic acid is disengaged." In inserting this extract from The Athenaeum, we had
then no space for commenting on the above assertion. But surely the learned
author of Physiologic Vegetale cannot be unacquainted with the fact, admitted by
all the best vegetable physiologists, that plants not only flourish in soil containing
carbonic acid, but cannot become vigorous without it, and that they are healthy
in direct proportion to the abundance of carbonic acid existing in the growing
medium. In fact it is clearly demonstrable that the most valuable manures are
those which yield carbonic acid most steadily and abundantly. — Ed.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

The Wonders of Geology ; or, a familiar Exposition of Geological Phenomena ;
being the Substance of a Course of Lectures delivered at Brighton. By Gideon
Mantell, LL.D., F.R.S., &c. &c. &c. From Notes taken by G. F. Richardson,
Curator of the Mantellian Museum, &c. London : Relfe and Fletcher, Cornhill,
1838. Two Vols., post 8vo.

The name of Dr. Mantell is not new to our readers. On the contrary, he
has long been familiar to the scientific world for his geological discoveries, his
works, and his extensive collection, generally known as the Mantellian Museum.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 443

But for the zeal of the editor, Mr. Richardson, perhaps the work before us would
never have been published. Wherefore, although he merely claims to have strung
together the pearls which lay before him, we certainly owe him no small debt of
gratitude.

We shall not attempt any abstract, however brief, of these volumes. Indepen-
dently of the impossibility of effecting this in the few pages which can be devoted
to the review, such abstracts are too apt, from their very nature, to be unfair to
the author and unsatisfactory to the reader. Our remarks will, therefore, be '
critical, or confined to the notice of strikingly interesting circumstances.

Our author opens his first lecture by premising, that Fossil Comparative
Anatomy has, for many years, formed his principal relaxation from an extensive
medical practice, during which period he formed the collection now celebrated
among the savans of every civilized land. This collection was thrown open for
the gratuitous admission of the public. The necessity at length foreseen of closing
the museum, led to the establishment of the Sussex Royal Institution. For the
benefit of this Society, the doctor delivered the course of lectures now offered to
the public. " And permit me to observe," says he, " that my career as a lecturer
will begin and end in Brighton ; for at the termination of this session, should
Providence allot me life and health, I shall remove to a less public, but not less
important sphere of usefulness."

That in the whole range of the sciences there is not one more interesting, or
more wonderful in its disclosures than Geology, we fully agree with Dr. Mantell.
A study which can, as it were, bring past ages before our ravished view, and give
importance and meaning to every pebble and grain of sand we meet with, is not to
be despised. All this is effected by Geology. But it has done much more.
By proving that Moses did not know quite as much of the earth as Dr. Buckland
— that he did not exactly teach all that was required respecting our globe — and
that he was not altogether so accurate as a Mantell, a Sedgwick, or a Lyell,
and testifying that the Scriptures do not call for that indiscriminate faith and
reliance once demanded in their behalf, it has contributed not a little to the
advancement of free inquiry. A hundred years ago, a man who should openly
have declared his disbelief in the first chapter of Genesis, and have rendered
reasons for so doing, would have been deemed mad — if indeed he escaped a more
severe punishment for his heresy. As science has progressed, the divines, as a
body, have uniformly opposed its conclusions so far as they were in contradiction
to the Bible — alarmed, it would seem, lest science might convince them of the
truth, that the Bible may err as well as any other human work ! The learned,
however, were desirous of effecting an impossibility — or an absurdity, if pos-
sible— viz. reconciling the unerring results of modern investigation with the
attempted scientific records of an individual altogether a stranger to scientific

444 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

investigation. These, again, have given way to other men of science, who study
the undoubted works of God without traditionary assistance. They, too, have
occasionally attempted so to twist the scriptural records as to suit their own
scientific views. The attempt has proved a gross failure ; but even supposing a
more specious case to have been made out, we cannot but arrive at the following
conclusions respecting the Bible so far as science is concerned : — That without
science, the Bible is valueless, because its truth must be tested by natural-
theological testimony ; and that when we have the aid of science, the Bible is
superfluous — superfluous if true, because incomplete, and unimprovable ; and
absolutely pernicious if not true. We are glad to find that a nearly similar view
has been taken by the Rev. Professor Powell, of Oxford. Out of the question
of Scripture and Geology Dr. Man tell has crept in a very easy, and, we must
confess, most ingenious manner. Probably alarmed at the idea of discussing the
point before a fashionable audience in Brighton, he has " contented himself" with
an abstract from a sermon by the Bishop of London ! Such a course may please
the worthy prelate alluded to, but whether it will satisfy an enlightened public
must be considered very doubtful. *

We have before explained the geological arrangement of the strata ; but as this
is the basis of the science, and ought to be kept distinctly in view, we shall here
repeat it, with a few additional observations, the primary rocks are crystalline,
and consequently it is inferred, that they owe their origin solely to igneous
agency. They consist of lavas of various ages, — granite, sienite, porphyry, &c.
They are the lowermost rocks, and contain no organic remains. — The transition
rocks are superimposed upon the preceding, and are more or less distinctly strati-
fied, being, in fact, strata modified by the combined effects of great heat and high
pressure. They contain remains of Corals, shells, plants, &c. — Above these
lie the secondary rocks, formed from the destruction of the more ancient beds —
not, like them, by igneous agency, but being subaqueous deposits in hollows and
depressions. They accordingly originally lay in horizontal layers or " strata,"
but have since for the most part been more or less dislodged by various means.

* We may here observe, that both before and after the publication of The Naturalist for June,
we were duly warned that our remarks on this topic would injure the sale of the Journal. We
could only reply, that we had a better opinion of the good sense of our readers than to believe,
a priori, that they would object to any discussion instituted with the view of advancing the great
cause of truth; that if they did object to it, it would but prove the more forcibly the necessity of
such inquiries; and, lastly, to advert to an entirely minor consideration, chat the more subscribers
we lost, the greater the honour for us. We leave it to those who can reconcile such a course with
their consciences, to repress or distort truth with the view of obtaining a circulation. But, in
justice alike to the public and to ourselves, let us state, that half a hundred more copies were
sold of the June than of any other number. The advice of our kind friends was, therefore, a
little misplaced.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 445

They abound in fossil remains, 'which ascend from the ancient zoophytes and
plants in the lower strata to the gigantic and long-since extinct reptiles in the
upper, viz. the chalk. — The tertiary rocks — which, like the preceding, consist of
subaqueous deposits from the detritus of ancient formations — lie in the basins
of the chalk-beds. " They abound in shells, plants, zoophytes, Crustacea, &c. ;
and in them, with but one exception, the bones of Mammalia first appear." —
Lastly, the supra-tertiary strata form the surface of the country, consisting of
alluvial or water-worn matter* Here again we find the fossil remains of extinct
animals, but likewise, in addition, those of existing species.

In a former article we adverted to the theory, that the world was originally
filled with gas — -an hypothesis supported by " Sir John Herschel, Bart.,'* and other
astronomers. Thus some of the heavenly bodies are mere clouds of attenuated light,
While others are curdling into separate masses, and others again present an
appearance more nearly resembling the structure of our own globe ; and every
variety exists between the states to which we have alluded.

It has been argued, from the presence of tropical vegetation in British rocks,
that our country must once have possessed a tropical climate ; and although the
existence of streams whose regular office it is to convey the products of tropical
climes to temperate regions, may well serve as a caution against rash and hasty
conclusions, we think the existence of tropical vegetation in this island in all
probability not thus drifted, seems strongly in favour of the theory — now tolerably
certain — that districts in our day temperate have in past cycles experienced the
ardour of a tropical sun.

At p. 66, Dr. Mantell describes the singular and highly interesting discovery
— first announced in the American, Journal of Science, in 1822 — of two perfect
impressions of human feet in Sandstone, observed in a quarry at St. Louis, on the
western bank of the Mississippi. They were at first supposed to have been
carved in the stone by the Indians ; but the anatomical accuracy of the im-
pressions, which, it is said, would have done honour to the chisel of a Chantbey,
is strongly opposed to this conclusion. They are of average size, and in the
position of the feet of a man standing " at ease." " No doubt exists in my
mind," observes our author, " that these are the actual prints of human feet in
soft sand, which was quickly converted into solid rock by the infiltration of cal-
careous matter." Without the slightest desire of invalidating this argument, we
may mention the difficulty involved in these being the only two impressions. If
they were actually unique, and unless the man who has thus unwittingly excited
the interest of posterity, possessed wings, how did it happen that no other prints
were discovered ? Dr. Mantell, however, promises us further enlightenment ori
the point at a future opportunity.

Those interesting phenomena the geysers of Iceland are alluded to in a subse-

VOL. III.- NO. XXIII. 3 N

446 REVIFAVS OF NKW PUBLICATIONS.

quent par-agraph. They are intermittent thermal springs. First, water is thrown
up from the volcanic bowels of the earth to a great height ; and when the fluid
is exhausted, steam continues to ascend for some time. The well-known phre-
nologist, Sir G. Stuart Mackenzie, Bart., has propounded a highly ingenious
and probable explanation of these gushing fountains. Iceland may be considered
almost exclusively one mass of volcanic matter. Now water percolating from
the surface of the earth through various crevices, is quickly converted into steam
by the burning lava below. Heated steam, rising from beneath the basin of
water in the rock, becomes partially condensed ; water rilling the lower part of
the cavity attains the boiling temperature, while steam under high pressure
occupies the upper portion of the chasm. The expansive power of the steam rises
until it propels the water through a fissure or pipe in the rock, and a great dis-
tance through the open air. When the water is exhausted the steam escapes, as
previously explained.

In a former number we stated that horizontal sedimentary strata have fre-
quently been raised into mountains by sudden volcanic eruptions ; but it has
been shown, by means of the pyrometer, that the central heat of the earth acts in
another way to produce the same effect. The expansion of a bar of metal by
heat, and its subsequent contraction on cooling, are facts familiar to the chemist ;
and Col. Totten has proved, by careful experiments on granite, marble, &c, that
the expansion or contraction of large masses of these substances from variations of
temperature, would account for the elevation and subsidence of extensive tracts of
country (p. 81). An interesting and remarkable instance of this, apparently
resulting from the above-mentioned cause, is afforded by the celebrated remains of
the temple of Jupiter Serapis, at Puteoli, an engraving of which, from Lyell's
Principles of Geology, is supplied by Dr. Mantell. Such changes, it appears,
have been taking place from the earliest ages, and are still in operation in our
times. Thus the tract of country in Scandinavia, lying between Frcdenekshal,
in Sweden, and Abo, in Finland, or even further, is slowly and visibly rising ;
while on the other hand, the adjacent coast of Greenland is gradually sinking. —
This fact was noticed long ago by Celsius, and has recently been confirmed by
Mr. Lyell. Here, observes Dr. Mantell, is " an instance in which the eleva-
tion of a country, with the whole burden of its people and its cities, is actually
taking place, unheeded by the busy multitude, and known only by the researches
of the natural philosopher !" — p 92.

Further on, the singular circumstance is noticed of ^entire animals, bones, flesh,
and skin, having been found in frozen gravel and in ice-bergs.

"In 1774, near Vilhoui, tlie carcase of a Rhinoceros was taken from the frozen sand, where it
must have been concealed for ages, the soil of that region being always frozen to within a few
inches of the surface. The carcase was a complete natural mummy, part of the skin being still
covered with long hairs, and forming a warmer covering than that of the African Rhinoceros.—

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 447

The discovery of a Mammoth, under similar circumstances, is still more interesting. Towards the
close of last century, a Tungusian fisherman ohserved, in a cliff of ice and gravel, on the banks of
the Lena, a shapeless mass, the nature of which he was unable to determine. In the course of
nextyearit was more visible, and on the third, a large tusk was seen projecting from the ice-cliff,
and at length became detached. On the fifth year an early thaw set in, and the entire carcase of
a Mammoth was exposed, and at length fell upon the ground. It was nine feet high, and about
sixteen feet in length ; the tusks were nine feet long. The flesh was in such a state of preserva-
tion, that it was devoured, as it lay, by Wolves and Bears, and the hunters fed their Dogs with
the remains. The skin was covered with hair, consisting of black bristles, thicker than horse
hair, and fifteen inches in length ; wool of a reddish brown, and hair of a fawn-color, and with a
mane on the neck. Upwards of 301bs. of hair were collected, and specimens of it are preserved
in the Hunterian Museum. The ear remained dry and shrivelled ; the brain, and even the cap-
sule of the eye were preserved ! the bones and part of the integuments, and a considerable quantity
of the hair, are in the Museum of Natural History at St. Petersburg." — p. 126.

All cold-water springs proceed from subterraneous rivers which have forced
their way to the surface; but thermal springs and geysers are supposed
to originate in the manner already explained. It is in general only a branch of
the river that ascends from its gloomy repositories, where it has continued to
flow, calmly or rapidly, from day to day, from year to year, and from
age to age, and where it may yet pursue its darkling course for cycles in-
numerable.

The curious tribe of Foraminiforous animals is briefly alluded to at a subsequent
page, and the internal, coin-like, shell of these animals explained. The use of
this internal shell was doubtless to form a support for the soft part of the animal,
and was used a.s a buoy, by which means the proprietor could sink or swim at
pleasure.

From the immense numbers of fossil fish, of different species, found in Monte
Bolca, on the Venetian frontier, and from the volcanic nature of the district, it
is supposed that the Limestone in which they were imbedded was erupted into the
sea by volcanic agency ; and that the calcareous matter which suffocated the
fishes, afterwards surrounded them with a solid crust. Hundreds of species and
thousands of specimens have already been discovered. They all belong to extinct
kinds. The above hypothesis is by no means unsupported by modern observa-
tions ; for, only a few years ago, the appearance of a volcanic island in the Medi-
terranean quickly caused the death of multitudes of the finny tribes in that sea ;
hundreds were seen dead and putrid, floating on the surface of the water (p. 235).

In another part allusion is made to the gigantic Moscesaurus of Maestricht, in
Limburg, originally secured by M. Hoffman, on the grounds belonging to the
Canon of the Cathedral. M. H. had actually borne the precious relic home, when
the Canon, by a tedious and expensive law-suit, succeeded in regaining the fossil.
Some years afterwards, in the French Revolution, the armies of the Republic ad-
vanced to the gates of Maestricht ; the town was besieged; but, by desire of the
savans who accompanied the troops, the artillery was ordered to refrain from

3n 2

448 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

damaging the part of the city where the specimen was known to be deposited.
The Canon, suspecting the cause of this favor, secreted his treasure in a vault ;
but when the city was taken, the French authorities compelled him to surrender
his prize, which was conveyed to the Jardin des Plantes, at Paris, where it still
remains. Whatever may be thought of the Canon, we cannot but consider that
he had a perfect right to this celebrated fossil ; and that he, and not M.
Hoffmann, was unfairly treated. Dr. Mantell appears to be of a different
opinion.

Professor Ehrenberg, of microscopic celebrity, computes that the Tripoli of
Bitin, in Bohemia, consists almost exclusively of the silicious remains of In-
fusoria, of a species so minute, that a cubic inch of stone, weighing 220 grs.,
contains upwards of 41,000,000 of these skeletons! (p. 300.) The Purbeck
Limestone of the Wealden abounds in organic remains ; and the marble is a con-
glomerate of small fresh-water Snail-shells (Paludina), &c. " How interesting,"
exclaims our author (p. 331), " is the reflection, that the beautiful cluster columns,
the richest ornaments of Chichester Cathedral, are entirely composed of the shelly
coverings of Snails, which lived in the river of a country inhabited by colossal
reptiles !"

The teeth of the Crocodile, as represented at p. 352, consist of several im-
bricated cones ; and when the outer tooth wears away, a new one supplies its
place. The patriarchs of the race are, therefore, just as well off in this respect
as the youngsters. Unfortunately for the majority of our own species, but hap-
pily for the individuals ycleped dentists, no such provision exists in Man !

The discovery of some bones of the Iguanodon, by our correspondent, Mr. W.
H. Bensted, is subsequently detailed. They were found in a stone-quarry be-
longing to that gentleman, near Maidstone, and were mistaken by the workmen
for petrified wood.

Dr. Mantell's sketch of the Wealden, that interesting fresh-water deposit
lying on marine formations, is masterly ; but we have no room for enlarging upon
the subject to any advantage.

We have now cursorily glanced at a few of the wonders contained in the four
first lectures, as published in Vol. I., and shall conclude with a few general ob-
servations on the plan of the work. The volumes are liberally illustrated with
"neat wood-cuts." The method adopted of furnishing what are technically
termed " side-headings" to the paragraphs where a new branch of the subject
commences, and of numbering these paragraphs, is excellent ; and we must
especially applaud the plan of supplying a glossary of scientific terms at the end
of the volume. In short, nothing can be more complete than the editorial " get-
ting-up" of the work, the credit of which, we presume, is due to Mr. Bichardson.

Dr. Mantell has very appropriately termed his work the Wonders of Geology.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 449

It is replete with interesting matter, and contains much that may instruct even
the experienced geologist. If we are to notice the second volume — which it will
give us pleasure to do, if practicable, — it must be in a future number. The book
is inscribed to the Earl of Munster.

Molluscous Animals, including Shell-fish ; containing an Exposition of their
Structure, Systematical Arrangement, Physical Distribution, and Dietetical Uses,
with a Reference to the Extinct Races. Forming the Article " Mollusca" in the
Seventh Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. By John Fleming, D.D.,
F.R.S.E., M.W.S., &c. &c. &c. Edinburgh: Adam and Charles Black. 1837.
8vo. pp. 246.

The study of part of the subject treated of by Dr. Fleming has long formed
a popular amusement. What ! exclaims the reader, those Snails and other
"nasty creatures" to which ladies at least must surely object. No: not these,
but their calcareous coverings, called shells. Molluscous animals have been
divided into two classes : those with shells, and those which are destitute of such
appendages. The study of the former has been termed Conchology, that of the
latter Molluscology. Thus persons who would turn from the naked Mollusca
with disgust, collect with enthusiasm all the marine and fluviatile shells they can
meet with, and view with rapture or complacency their burnished surfaces in the
museum. Who can fail to admire the gaudy or lovely hues of certain shells
which vie in splendour with the feathered and vegetable gems of tropical climes,
or with the precious stones so prized in every land ? Where is the man of taste
who can notice and not admire the elegant forms of others, and the almost
endlessly-diversified shapes presented by these singular domiciles, and the variety
of purposes to which they are adapted ? But the mere collector or admirer who
flatters himself that he is a naturalist, grossly deceives himself. The pursuit,
however, is innocent and pleasing in itself, and therefore useful ; and it may lead
to something better. It has, further, this advantage, that rare shells are thereby
occasionally obtained which might otherwise have remained unnoticed. But
beauty, rather than rarity, is the principle aim of all such collectors, and science
can scarcely be said to benefit from their exertions. Dr. Fleming very judici-
ously unites the shelled and the shell-less animals under his class Mollusca, and
writes with no view of presenting the reader with a conchologist's vade mecum.
Such books may already be procured in abundance.

Molluscous animals are divided, according to their haunts, into three groups,
termed terrestrial, fluviatile, and marine. The land mollusca belong exclusively
to the order Gasteropoda, as Snails, &c. ; some frequenting open pastures, others
preferring the rubbish of old walls, while many reside in woods and among

450 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

decayed leaves. — The fluviatile Mollusca, including many Gasteropoda, and some
Conchifera, reside in fresh waters. Some frequent shallow ponds, breathe by
means of a pulmonary cavity, and come to the surface to respire. Others reside
,in waters of different depths, since they respire by gills, and are less dependent on
the shallowness of the water. — Marine Mollusca include genera of all the classes.
Some, termed littoral, burrow in the sand, or adhere to the rocks between high
and low water mark. Others, named pelagic, dwell in the deep, and are only
obtained by diving and dredging, or by storms which cast them on shore, (p. 20.)
All the terrestrial conchiferous animals have the power of passing into torpidity,
or at least they do frequently enter this state, independently of temperature. This
is the case with the common Garden Snail ( Helix nemoralis), when placed in a
box without food in midsummer ; in a day or two they attach themselves to the
side of their prison, and become torpid, in which state they will remain for years
if undisturbed. The temperature does not act in this case as with hybernating
animals ; indeed it is in the hottest weather that, in their natural state, they
most frequently assume the condition alluded to. This circumstance, and the
fact that the Snail speedily revives if plunged into water, or even slightly
moistened,leads us to the conclusion that its cause must be sought in the unnatural
absorption of fluid from the body in long-continued drought. A caged Snail kept
in succulent herbage would in all probability retain the full use of its powers.

In the second chapter Dr. Fleming treats of the progress of Molluscology, of
the various systems propounded by early and recent authors, and of the import-
ance of the characters on which they are severally founded. No one conversant
with the most celebrated classifications in the different branches of Natural Science,
or who reflects upon the subject, can doubt that the only way of arriving at
anything like a natural or rational system, is to take into consideration every
part of the animal, whether external or internal. Those who have fixed upon
any one artificial character (Linnaeus, Vieillot, &c, for example) have fre-
quently framed very useful and ingenious arrangements ; but these are never to be
compared, for accuracy, with the " natural systems." The case is strikingly
analogous to the celebrated physiognomical system of Lavater. This philosopher,
instead of estimating the moral and intellectual character of Man from the
development of the brain, the fountain-head, selected the features of the face
as his index. Now such a mode is productive of some advantage, inasmuch as
the cerebral development exercises a certain influence over the muscles of the
face ; but, for obvious reasons, errors must abound even respecting the few pre-
dications which can be made ; while the development of the encephalon* affords

* Ev, in, and *i<p*X>?, the head, a scientific term employed for the brain ; used by some, im-
properly, for the cerebrum only.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 451

an unfailing test of mental power. Even so it is with zoological systems. One
part depends upon another ; and therefore even a subordinate part might form a
character for an artificial system ; but many absurdities would be involved in
carrying it out ; while by attention to the most important characters, or to the
whole combined, comparatively little difficulty would be experienced, and the
result would be a far more perfect arrangement. In Molluscology, however, as
in other branches of Zoology, we are not always allowed our choice in this respect,
for many species of shells, both recent and fossil, are never found with the animals
which once resided in them. The naturalist must, therefore, be fully prepared to
classify much of his material with more scanty data than he would desire.
Systems have been formed from the consideration of the habits of mollusca, of their
external or internal plates, called shells, from the inhabiting animals, and from the
combination of these characters.

The genus Bulla of Linnaeus, with a few of his Murices, constitute the generic
group Pt/rula of Lamark. Now this latter name is familiar to our readers as a
genus in Ornithology. In instituting new names, care should be taken that the
appellation is not already occupied in any branch of Zoology. In the present case
perhaps it may not be worth while to alter the name ; but the Coalhood's scientific
designation might be spelled as at present, Vyrhula (which we take to be the
proper method), and Lamark's genus might also remain Pt/rula. The distinction,
it is true, is slight; and naturalists are not always careful in correcting their proofs ;
but it appears to us the smaller of two evils. And here, as we have entered upon
the subject, let us notice another circumstance, which, though not of first-rate
importance, yet, as it is often overlooked, may as well be alluded to. It is the
plan of prefixing the article to Latin names, as "the Clio Borealis" "the Helix
pellucida," &c. In Latin the substantive includes the article ; and therefore " the
Argonauta Arctica" is just as absurd as "the I'Aigle tachete," "the I ' Aquila com-
mune," " the die Sperber" or " die the Sparrow Hawk," in French, Italian, and
German. Want of attention to this gives a slovenly air to a scientific work. Nor
ought we to pass in silence the typographical errors which disfigure this volume ;
the odium of which may probably be divided between the Rev. Dr. Fleming and
the " Printer's Devil."

At the conclusion of his retrospect of molluscological systems, our author ob-
serves, that the reader, perhaps, is astonished at the changes which have taken
place since the arrangement of Linnaeus reigned paramount ; and adds, very
justly, that the Linnsean genera, though in general sufficiently numerous and
commodious to embrace all the then known species, are perfectly inadequate to
contain the greatly-increased number now familiar to the naturalist. The im-
plicit followers of Linnaeus, in still retaining his genera, without the necessary
additions, act in a manner which their great master, if now alive, would certainly

45'2 LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

Hot sanction. The same remark applies, more or less, to other departments of
Zoology.

We do not think, with our author (p. 122), that the abundant distribution of
herves in molluscous animals, sufficiently proves these animals to possess a con-*
siderable degree of sensibility, but rather the contrary ; for besides the (so to
speak) lymphatic nature of the brain in these animals, the very diffused character
of the nerves that do exist, rather tends to point out an inferior degree of sensi-
bility. On comparison of Mollusca with creatures somewhat above them in the
scale, our remark will find ample confirmation.

In the genus Aplasia a purple fluid is secreted under the free side of the dorsal
plate, in a spongy tissue, by a gland connected with the cellular reservoir. This
gland is supplied by a large branch of the glandular aorta, and sends out two veins
to the left vena cava. The fluid has never undergone careful investigation. It is
readily ejected in fresh water, and often stains the nets of unsuspecting fishermen
to a considerable extent, especially when the animal is squeezed in the meshes.

The third chapter descants on the uses of molluscous animals. This is a very"
engaging portion of the volume, especially to the gourmand ; but space forbids us
to enter upon its details. Here, however, are laid forth the excellencies of various
shell-fish well known to "the amateur," in the shape of stews, soups, sauces, &c. &c. ;
the good qualities of some little creatures at present abandoned to the prof anum
vulgus ; and we learn how animals now unheeded by the epicure might, on trial,
and with the assistance of the art of cookery, and other " aids to digestion," be
found highly palatable and wholesome. — Dyes are likewise obtained from Mollusca
— black, purple, red, &c. The brown tint obtained from the Cuttle-fish (Sepia)
is familiar to every one. Pearls are furnished by the same class of animals, as
likewise is a kind of thread used in the manufacture of garments. Dr. Fleming
also includes among the "uses" the amusement afforded to collectors in procuring
and preparing shells for the museum — and rightly, in our opinion.

Here, then, we draw to a close. We are much pleased with the manner in
which our author — a veteran in science — has performed his task. The illustra-
tive wood-cuts will prove a considerable assistance to the student, though cer*
tainly shells do not appear to advantage in this kind of engraving.

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

A new edition of Dr. Bevan's Hone?/ Bee has just appeared. Critical notices
of this work, of Professor Powell's masterly work, of Mr. Wilson's Treatise on
Insects, and a whole host of other new publications, received for review, are un-
avoidably postponed. A desire to bestow more attention on some of these
volume?, and a pressure of matter, will amply demonstrate the propriety of such
a procedure.

VARIETY OF THE COMMON FOWL, FEMALE.

THE NATURALIST.

VOL. III., NO. XXIV.— SEPTEMBER, 1838.

EFFECT OF THE WINTER OF 1838 ON VEGETATION IN THE
NEIGHBOURHOOD OF THAMES DITTON, SURREY.

By Hewett Cottrell Watson, Esq., F.L.S., &c.

Editor of the Phrenological Journal*

In The Naturalist for May last (p. 241) are some observations oh the lowest
temperature of January, 1838. During one night of twelve hours, following the
1 9th day, the thermometer indicated a temperature below zero of Fahrenheit,
the lowest point observed being eight degrees below zero, that is, forty degrees
below the freezing point. On the morning of the 15th it had been as low as five
degrees above zero. The ground being thinly covered with snow, and these very
low temperatures enduring only for a few hours, the roots of plants must have
been in a much higher temperature ; but the soil was hard frozen to the depth of
half-a-yard and more, unless in places where dead leaves or other covering formed
a protection. On the 22nd the thaw was rapid on the surface of the ground, the
sun shining brightly, and the thermometer rising to forty-six. Much of the snow
melted, and the water remained on the ground, the ice underneath preventing it
sinking into the earth. On the night of the 23rd, the frost again set in, but the
thermometer here did not sink below nineteen degrees after the 20th of January.
On the 29th we had the thermometer at forty-seven and a half, and on the 8th
of February as high as fifty ; frost again following these high temperatures. I
mention these particulars, in the supposition that much of the injury to vegeta-
tion was owing to the rapid and temporary thaws of the surface of the ground.
In time, we shall probably have many reports published, showing the effects of
the cold, in its different degrees of intensity, in various places. If these reports
are collected together, much valuable information may be obtained, for the pur-
poses of the botanical geographer, the vegetable physiologist, and the practical
gardener. In offering my quota, I shall limit my observations chiefly to plants
(particularly evergreen shrubs) in my own garden ; because continued observa-
tion was necessary to judge accurately of the extent of injury to several species;
some not exhibiting signs of life until midsummer; others lingering alive for

vol. in. — no. xxiv. 3 o

454 EFFECTS OF SEVERE COLD ON PLANTS.

months, and then dying. I can scarcely say , that any evergreen tree or shrub
escaped injury altogether, though some few species suffered very little. Perhaps
the more convenient method of stating the extent of injury to different species1
will be to group them in accordance with it.

1. Killed. — Fuchsia globosa, Fuchsia coccinea, Calceolaria integrifolia, Cistus
ladaniferus, Reseda fruticulosa, Malcomia maritima, the latter of various growth,
from the smallest seedlings up to plants in bud. Ixia crocata, Common Myrtles
of two years growth, raised from seeds, and several species of Mesembryan-
themum, all under hand-glasses, with the protection of a few dry leaves. These
were all killed ; and the Cauliflowers, young and old, shared the same fate ; as
did also every root of Celery.

2. Not wholly destroyed. — The Common Laurestinus suffered greatly, a few
shrubs died, and out of nearly a hundred not one of them had a stem left alive
above ground; but nine-tenths shot vigorous suckers from the root early in
spring. Of Erica Mediterranea and Erica Australis, old plants were completely
killed ; one young specimen of each of these Heaths had about an inch of the
lower part of the stem above ground left alive, which shot young branches ;
but the stem of E. Mediterranea being split, the branches died away in June.
Almost all the Common Stocks and Wall-flowers, except very young plants, were
killed; Vines in pots, of one and two summers' growth, were all injured in the
wood, and some of them killed ; the pots were half sunk in the ground. I think
these Vines died from the root upwards. Of Broccoli only five per ce.nt. sur-
vived. The rest of the Cabbage tribe escaped better, but several plants of the
different varieties died immediately after the frost ceased. Half the Turnips
were killed ; the roots of the Garden Turnip, the leaves of the Swedish, suffer-
ing most.

3. Destroyed, excepting the roots or main-stems. — This was the fate of most of
the evergreen shrubs. Many of them were killed to the surface of the ground,
only the subterranean portions remaining alive. Others were killed nearly to
the ground; but healthy and strong shoots broke from the lower part of the
stems, a few inches above the soil. A few plants were killed entirely. These
different degrees of injury were seen in shrubs of the same species. Amongst those
injured in this way we may enumerate the Common Laurel, Common Strawberry-
tree, evergreen Oaks, Phillyreas, Common Myrtle (raised by cuttings a»d under a
hand-glass), Common Bay, Common Lavender, Rosemary, Vaccinium arctostaphy-
los, Aucuba Japonica, several Roses (monthly, China, and noisettes), Tussilago
fragrans, Tamarix Gallica, Cytisus albus, Spartium scoparium, Ulex Europceus.

Two kinds of Fuchsia, namely, Fuchsia conica, and another, probably a seedling
variety, survived, though all the branches above ground were destroyed, as usual.
Out of about three hundred Laurels, only four retained any leaves alive till April.

EFFECTS OF SEVERE COLD ON PLANTS. 455

These were layers of the preceding summer, transplanted in autumn. The leaves
were iot destroyed on a few branches cut off before the frost, and left lying
upon the ground. The Laurels died from within outwards, the bark remaining
green and fresh after the wood became brown inside. Many produced young
leaves in April, but all died away as the weather became warm, with one
exception, in a shrub of four years old, transplanted the preceding autumn, the
stem of which remained alive for two feet above the ground, and grew vigorously.
The hardy Heaths, as Erica multiflora, E. vagans, E. ciliaris, E. stricta, suf-
fered remarkably. I do not think the cold destroyed vitality in their stems at
once ; but they were split into fibrous cordage, bearing some resemblance to a
rope untwisted by use, or maceration in water. The same thing happened with
E. Auslralis and E. Mediterranean their leaves and shoots being also seared, and
turning brown and brittle in the sun ; whilst those of the species before men-
tioned remained green, and apparently alive, for some weeks, many of their lower
branches escaping with little injury, and growing well in the following summer.

4. Leaves and young wood destroyed; the larger branches and stems more or
less injured. — The Portugal Laurel, Daphne laureola, variegated Holly, Euphor-
bia amygdaloides, Kalmia glauca, Corckorus Japonicus, Pceonia Moutan, Hyperi-
cum androscemalh, Helianthemum vulgare, Common Southernwood, Irish Ivy,
Common Broom, Sage, White and Yellow Jasmines, and white variety of Pyrus
Japonica, come under this head.

5. Leaves, buds, or young wood partially destroyed. — Common Ivy, Andromeda
polifolia, Azalea nudiflora, Lyonia racemosa, Erica cinerea, Common Holly,

and Thuja Orientalis may be named as examples of this amount of injury ; some
of the smaller branches or twigs dying. The flower-buds of the common Rhodo-
dendrons, Azalea Pontica, Pyrus Japonica, and Corckorus Japonicus were mostly
destroyed ; a few of the middle flowers of the umbels escaping in some of the
buds of the Rhododendrons and Azalea Pontica, and expanding late in the spring.

6. Scarcely injured, in foliage or branches. — Juniperus Virginiana, Thuja
Occidentalis, Erica tetralix, Kalmia latifolia, Kalmia angustifolia, Ledum lati-

folium, and the commoner species of Pinus. Young Peas, just through the
ground, escaped injury, being covered with snow.

It may be worth while to mention, that many Potatoes, accidentally left in
the ground, survived and sprouted. The same occurred with two Dahlias. One
Spanish Chesnut died, but it was previously in an unhealthy condition. The
same may be said of a Magnolia purpurea. Much of the young wood of the
Walnut was killed. Vines against the house escaped injury ; but much of the
young wood of those against a wooden paling was destroyed. Artichokes were
almost killed, but a few feeble suckers appeared in June, from about one-third

3o2

456 EFFECTS OF SEVERE COLD ON PLANTS.

of the roots. Many weeds were destroyed, such as usually survive the winter
as young plants, springing from seed late in the autumn. Paparer rhaas and
Fumaria officinalis are examples of this. The leaves of the Common Parsley
were killed; those of Common and Lemon-scented Thyme mostly escaped,
excepting where the snow thawed hy day and froze upon them at night. Cactus
opuntia, under a hand-glass, escaped serious injury.

In a general way, these remarks will apply to a tract of country extending
along the banks of the Thames, from Kingston to Walton, constituting a level
plain of about six miles long, and varying from a quarter of a mile to two miles
in width, on the Surrey side of the Thames. This plain is probably not more
than twenty to fifty feet (according to situation) above the highest tides of the
Thames. To the south of it, the surface rises in undulations, gradually becoming
higher until we reach the Chalk hills some ten or twelve miles distant. In
whatever direction we quit this plain, and ascend the low hills which bound it,
the injury to vegetation is found much less. At a hundred feet of elevation, the
Laurels escaped with slight injury ; but the Bays and Laurestinuses were cut
down. In the sheltered gardens of Hampton Court, on the opposite side of the
Thames, the injury was almost as great as in my own garden ; although the
night frosts of spring affect the latter much more, as it lies on the side of a large
common (formerly a marsh), from which the radiation of heat is very rapid
during severe nights.

The conditions which appeared to have been most favourable to plants, during
the cold, were exposure to the north, dryness of soil, recent transplantation,
layering of the branches, and absence of shade during the preceding summer.
Many gardeners believe that recently-transplanted shrubs suffer more from the
winter's cold ; and this may be the case where they are not rooted afresh, and
during windy weather. I am certain, however, that the most recently-planted
escaped the best ; and the advantage was not confined to those removed in the
autumn preceding, but could be distinctly traced in those which had stood two^
three, or more years ; others of the same age suffering to a greater degree, where
longer fixed without transplanting.

The preceding remarks apply to plants in the open ground, not protected in
any way, unless so mentioned. I may add further, that the frost penetrated a
cold-frame for half-hardy plants ; the soil in the pots being hard frozen for ten
days or upwards. They were thawed very slowly in the dark. Some were lost,
but several Cape Heaths, Oxalides, Pelargoniums, Mesembryanthemums, and
Fuchsias escaped with slight injury. Alee veviucosa, Petunia nyctaginiflcra.
Cyclamen conm, Eccrcmocarpus scaber, Saxifraga sarmentosa, Salvia splendens,
Calla jEtkinpica, Ixia crocata, Primula sinemis, Oranges, Myrtles, Scarlet Ver-

ON THE SOURCES OF MEAT WHICH INFLUENCE CLIMATE. 457

benas, and others usually treated as greenhouse plants, survived the frost, some of
them being scarcely affected by it. Flowering roots of Cyclamen Persicum were
lost, but seedlings raised the preceding summer escaped. Old plants of the
Pelargoniums and Mesembryanthemums survived, though young ones of the
same species were killed.
Thames Ditton, Surrey,
July 18, 1838.

ON THE SOURCES OF HEAT WHICH INFLUENCE CLIMATE.*
By a Member ok the Liverpool Natural History Society.

My attention was first directed to the laws which govern the existing tem-
perature on the surface of our globe, through a desire to know how far the recorded
observations made at the greatest depth to which we have yet penetrated — all of
which shew a greater or less increment of temperature as we descend — could be
accounted for by known causes, before they are assigned to a source where some
difficulties still demand explanation.

In pursuing these incpuiries, I have imperceptibly found myself in a much more
extensive investigation than I at first contemplated, with the evidence often not
a little perplexing ; but as some of the points from which I have received the
existing theories, referring to the central mass of our globe, suggest to me doubts
as to the consistency of those theories with the observed phenomena, I have
thought that it might not be unworthy of the attention of this Society to state
where the difficulties occurred to me. My doing so is not from any desire to see
shaken the conclusions of some of the most distinguished men of our day, but in
the hope that its members, in discussing the subject, may be able to elucidate
more correct views, and assist in the promotion of an inquiry to remove objections
which have still to be met.

Further, when it is remembered that the heat at the earth's surface is a mean
between two opposite extremes, it naturally becomes an object of interest to us
to know on what basis the stability of the temperature allotted to the surface of
this planet rests ; the more so since modern researches tend to prove that, before
the historic era, our climates were much warmer than they now are ; and also

* We regret that the able author of this paper (read at the June meeting of the Liverpool
Natural History Society) will not permit the ensuing pages to appear under the sanction of his
name. This, however, by no means weakens the cogency of his arguments, which, we are requested
to observe, he is willing to discuss, through the medium of The Naturalist, with any one who
may question the justness of his positions. — Ed.

458 ON THE SOURCES OF HEAT WHICH INFLUENCE CLIMATE.

since it is established, beyond the possibility of a doubt, that the heat of the
central matter of the earth, or the cold that pervades the regions through which
our globe revolves, would be alike destructive to the existing organization.

The variations of the atmosphere, and its temperature from day to day, form of
themselves subjects of almost universal interest. In all ages and nations they
furnish a never-ending topic for those who wish to exchange a few words in
conversation with strangers or passing friends. And we have very recently seen
how, in this advanced age, a few fortunate predictions as to the cold of winter
have called forward the public most liberally to patronise their author.

Meteorological changes are powerfully influenced by whatever governs the tem-
perature of the atmosphere. The influence of the solar rays at once presents to us
a most active agent; yet it will be seen that the sources of heat which must greatly
control such fluctuations, are not in the present state of our knowledge easily
determined in value. They appear as yet quite unassignable to any precise law.
To be well forewarned of the general character of approaching seasons would be of
the utmost importance in a domestic point of view ; for this purpose many general
rules have been given that are not without their value, though to all of them the
exceptions are numerous. Thus an abundant crop of fruit on the plants indigenous
to our island, and which grow without any cultivation, is said to precede a severe
winter, as for instance the fruit of the Common Hawthorn. Such a belief has
been long entertained. Admitting it to be well founded, it only presents to us
another beautiful proof of the careful provisions of Nature, as it is during a pro-
tracted winter that the spontaneous productions of the wild plants will be most
wanted to maintain the numerous classes of wild animals dependent on the food
they can procure by their daily search.

Careful attention to the winds at the vernal equinox, noting the date of their
occurrence, their direction and their force, are by some believed to afford data for
predicting whether we shall have a wet, a cold, a dry, or a warm summer. In
Dr. Rees' Encyclopaedia a table of Dr. Kerwin's is given, by which you may
foretell without erring oftener than one in three.

The height of the line of perpetual snow, above the level of the sea, is by much
the most easily-fixed standard for judging of the power of the sun's rays under
different latitudes. This for the northern hemisphere is well ascertained ; but
for the equinoctial and southern latitudes we require further data before it can be
accurately traced. At a short distance from the North Pole the line of perpetual
frost leaves the earth, and ascends till it reaches two or three degrees south of the
northern tropic. The ascent was long believed to continue onwards until under
the equator. More recent inquirers do not admit this, since they can shew that
for two months the solar rays fall as perpendicularly at noon on countries lying
between 20 and 23^ latitude, as they do on places directly under the equator, for

ON THE SOURCES OF HEAT WHICH INFLUENCE CLIMATE. 459

the short period of six days at the autumnal and vernai equinox. In June and
July the sun, being nearly vertical over the extreme limit of the northern tropic,
gives to that latitude the greatest temperature the solar rays are capable of
imparting. This necessarily elevates the snow line to its highest point above
the level of the sea. On the Andes, at a distance of 17 degrees from the equator,
it is found at an elevation of 17,000 feet ; directly under the equator it is said to
be 1,000 feet lower, but this appears to me to want confirmation ; for though the
limits of the tropics have nearly two months or more of vertical sun's rays than
the equatoi-, it is to be remembered that for all the rest of the year countries
under the equator have the solar rays less obliquely than those near the tropics.
Since high table-lands have a more elevated temperature than isolated mountains
of the same height, it requires caution in the choice of the situations for deter-
mining by measurement the snow line. The Himalaya mountains afford a
remarkable instance of this on the southern side ; where we should expect the
sun's rays to have far the more influence, we find the snow line at an elevation
3,000 feet lower than on the northern side, where, in addition to the slope of the
ground being most unfavourable for the reception of the solar heat, the station is
a degree further from the equator than that of the southern side. An immense
table-land of 10,000 feet elevation, stretching from the northern basis of the
Himalaya range, thus appears comparatively to reduce the altitude of places on
this side of the mountains.

Some observations made on the Andes would certainly seem to support the
belief that at the equator the snow-line is depressed below the elevation assigned
to it nearer the tropics ; but since we have, as yet, no proof that the mean tem-
perature of the year is greater at the limits of the equinoctial regions than under
the equator, I think we cannot safely assign a depression of 1,000 feet to the
snow-line as it crosses this parallel. — After leaving the southern tropic, we find
it descend much more rapidly towards the earth than in the northern hemisphere.
Those parts of New Zealand corresponding in latitude to Bordeaux, do not enjoy
a warmer climate than the north of England, while Terra del Fuego, though as
distant from the South Pole as the country which lies between London and
Edinburgh is from the North, has the climate of Norway. The snow-line is
elevated only 3,000 or 3,500 feet above the level of the sea, while with us it is
not to be found at an elevation under 5,000 feet. The statements of our
mariners also prove the severity of southern winters, as they frequently expe-
rience difficulty and detention while doubling Cape Horn, from fields of ice
extending as far south as the 54th parallel.

It was my wish, from some of the empirical formula? which have been con-
structed by Meyer, Sir D. Bkewster and others for climate, to ascertain the

460 ON THE SOURCES OF HEAT AVHICH INFLUENCE CUMATK.

mean temperature of the whole earth's surface. These formula determine with
moderate exactness the temperature of places under the temperate zone, but
Mayer's begins entirely to fail for the higher latitudes, while all of them are
uncertain in their application to places within the tropics, and to the whole
southern hemisphere; also since the computations of Fourier give to high
latitudes a degree of cold far greater than these empirical formulas, I despaired of
being able to assign a tolerably true mean temperature to the globe's surface ; but
this mean temperature will be higher than at first sight might appear, from the
circumstance of a degree of latitude and longitude within the tropics enclosing an
area so much larger than the same degrees when nearer the Pole. The value of
a degree of latitude is invariably sixty geographical miles; but those of longitude
regularly diminish from sixty miles on the equator, to fifty-two miles at latitude
30, to thirty miles at latitude 60, or half what they were on the equator, and one
mile at 80 latitude. Hence it follows that a large proportion of the superficies of
the globe is exposed to a tropical climate ; one half of the earth's surface is con-
tained within 30 degrees of north and south latitude ; therefore its mean tem-
perature at the level of the sea greatly exceeds that of our climate. Meyer's
formulas would give it at 65, Farhenheit, but this is certainly too high. .As
already stated, it is in vain in the present extent of our meteorological know-
ledge to endeavour to arrive at it correctly ; but assuming 60, Fahrenheit, as
the mean — which is as high as our data will warrant — then let us also suppose
the earth free from all central heat, and that it had existed a sufficient time for
its mass to attain the mean temperature of its surface ; then in penetrating into
the earth, under any latitude, and being careful to prevent the heat evolved by
the compulsion of the air from affecting the experiments, we should find the
temperature slowly to approximate to the mean of the central mass, which in
such a case would be the mean temperature of the whole superficies ; thus in high
latitudes the heat would increase as we descend, while under the equator a
diminution of heat would be expected.

The latent caloric in the air, being reduced by its increased density, tends also
greatly to elevate the temperature as we descend under every parallel, particularly
where currents of air are circulating ; but the increment of temperature, as we
deepen our mines, is so great that it exhausts both of these recources, and, being
further confirmed by experiments conducted with the greatest care, where no
currents could vitiate the result, the elevation of temperature must be admitted
as altogether independent of solar rays ; and we have only left, to account for it,
the existence of central heat coeval with the earth's creation.

The profound computations of M. Fourier led to this result ; the experimental
researches of M. Cordier and M. De La Reene tend towards similar conclusions ;

ON THE SOURCES OF HEAT WHICH INFLUENCE CLIMATE. 461

but after admitting the existence of central heat, it will be seen that much doubt
prevails as to its intensity, and still more to the existence of a large mass of
fluid matter.

The difficulties of the experimental inquiries will be well illustrated by citing
those of M. De La Reeve. At G80 feet below the surface he found, in the first
instance, an increase of 22 degrees of Fahrenheit above the mean of the climate ;
continuing his experiments until he obtained constant and uniform results, the
amount of elevation of temperature was reduced to 13| degrees for 680 feet; and
the great error of 8| degrees was solely due to a small quantity of air lodged in
the upper part of the cylindrical case containing the thermometer. This air
was much compressed as it descended, from the pressure of the superincumbent
column of water ; and its latent caloric evolved. M. Cordier also found, in
mines not two miles apart, that the rate of increment of temperature varied
exceedingly, being nearly double in one mine what it was in another. This
might be partly due to the many sources of error to which experiments made in
mines open to the atmosphere are subject, but M. Cordier, fully aware of these,
used his best exertions to avoid them. De La Reeve's experiments, conducted
with much exactness, and persevered in till various sources of error were dis-
covered and removed, are worthy of great confidence. He found the increase
to advance strictly by an arithmetical progression ; he gives it at 1^ degrees,
Fahrenheit, for every 100 feet, being not so rapid as the mean augmentation of
temperature assigned by M. Cordier, whose results were one degree, centigrade,
for 15 metres in France, and one degree in every 25 metres for the earth's surface
generally.

If we admit the experiments of M. De La Reeve, confirmed by those of
Arago, Fox, and many others, to prove an increase of temperature to proceed on
an arithmetical ratio, as we descend below the earth's surface, the heat will
ultimately reach a point sufficient to fuse all the materials with which we are
acquainted. The spheroidal form of our planet is a strong proof in favour of the
primitive incandescence of its mass ; but the fusion and recomposition of certain
rocks by any artificial means long stood in the way of this hypothesis, until a
distinguished German chemist, M. Mitscherlich, succeeded to fuse the most
refractory, and also to recompose, from the substances found in them by analysis,
crystals of the same form and character as those that were natural. As Cuvier,
in a discourse on the progress of Chemistry, has treated fully of this valuable
discovery, with its influence on the theory of central heat, I gladly avail myself
of the words of this extraordinary man : — " It seems," says he, " almost to carry
at last to a rigourous demonstration a celebrated hypothesis, advanced without
proof by Descartes, Leibnitz, and Buffon, and to which the recent labours of
Laplace had already given a high degree of probability ; we may regard it,

VOL. III.- no. xxiv. 3 P

KiJ OX THE SOUHCKS OF HEAT WHICH INFLUENCE CLIMATE.

th'.'ii, as a circumstance nearly completely proved, that the earth possesses a heat
of its own, independent of what it receives from the sun, and being the remains
of its original heat. This return to ideas long since put forth by our greatest
men, shews that it is never safe to slight even the boldest conjectures of men of
genius ; it is one of their privileges that truth often appears to them in their
dreams." Since we then have a central temperature sufficient to fuse all the
materials we meet with on the earth's surface, it must necessarily follow that the
mass of heated matter in the centre is in a fluid or incandescent state — unless
we can shew that the enormous pressure which can be demonstrated to exist on
the matter in the interior of our planet retards or prevents its fusion. There is
no chance of our being able to experiment with matter under a pressure any
thing at all approaching that to which it must be subjected at depths consider-
ably below the earth's surface. No experiments, that I am aware of, go to prove
solid matter to be of more difficult fussion when under a heavy superincumbent
weight ; but the certain knowledge of the existence of these great pressures
inclines me to the belief that matter may there possess properties of which we
know nothing.

It can be demonstrated that the attraction at any point within a sphere of
equal density, or of successive concentric strata of uniform but unequal densities,
is always as the distance from the centre. Therefore the whole pressure of a
column of homogeneous matter from the circumference of the earth to its centre,
will be half what the same pressure would be if the attractive force were uniform
throughout. This will give for matter of the mean density of our planet a force
equal to a million and a half atmospheres exercised by the superincumbent mass
at the earth's centre. Water at the centre would be under a pressure of 330,000
atmospheres. Such a force might retain it as a solid, though even at a high
temperature ; but here, also, we are left to conjecture, as we have no experiments
made on fluids under great pressures to guide us.

Arago and Dulong have given an empirical formula for ascertaining the
temperature at which water begins to assume a gaseous state under pressure.
This is verified by experiment only so far as 5| atmospheres ; there is therefore
a difficulty in extending it to great weights ; the furthest it has been attempted
by its authors is to 1,000 atmospheres, where it may not greatly err. Water at
the depth of six miles below the level of the sea is nearly under this pressure,
though Arago's formula shews that it will require a temperature above a red
heat, and higher than that of melted Zinc, to bring it to the boiling point. This
sufficiently demonstrates how different may be the state of matter at depths in *
the earth from what we know of it on the surface.

The late Sir John Leslie concluded, from an inquiry into the elasticity of solid
bodies, that at a distance of a few miles below the earth's surface, a specific

ON THE SOURCES OF HEAT WHICH INFLUENCE CLIMATE. 403

gravity would be obtained greater than that which, from astronomical data, we
know our globe to possess ; and as their density would go on increasing as we
continue to recede from the surface, he was led to conjecture that the terrestrial
sphere had a hollow centre. He further came to the striking result, that air will,
at considerable depths, from its higher elasticity, become heavier than water ; if
we then grant that water at the greatest depths of the ocean contains air in
solution, as we find it to do on the surface, Leslie's theory will tend to the
conclusion that the ocean rolls on a bed of air. He adopts this view, and
endeavours to connect it with some of the phenomena of volcanoes.

To suppose the seats of volcanic fire at the depths Leslie has done, would
bring us to internal pressures on parts of the crust of our globe exceeding, on
the most moderate scale of computation, 20,000 atmospheres. This appears to
me to render it extremely improbable that the seats of volcanoes are deep in the
earth's surface. In practice we know of no pressures equal to 100 atmospheres ;
we also find how difficult it is to construct metallic vessels able to resist the force
of a few atmospheres ; the materials of the crust of the globe are, moreover, of
a composition not well calculated for the resistance of pressure. Yet there is no
doubt, from the data furnished us by volcanic eruptions, that during such events
a small portion at least of the earth's crust must be capable of overcoming a con-
siderable force.

We have only to suppose the centre of volcanic fire to be 2,100 feet below the
orifice of a crater in activity, to have there an internal pressure of 100 atmos-
pheres- There are on record many eruptions where lava was discharged in large
quantities that must have proceeded from depths greater than this ; but I am
much inclined to assign to the centres of volcanic eruptions a position as near the
earth's surface as is consistent with recorded phenomena. I am very hostile to
connecting them with the incandescent matter occupying the earth's centre,
chiefly from the consideration that they would then communicate when in an
active state an enormous force over every point of the interior of the inclosing
crust ; there are other reasons that render such an hypothesis extremely im-
probable.

Fluids, wherever situated, must be influenced by the all-pervading law of
gravitation. The attraction of the sun and moon will develope tidal waves in
every considerable mass of fluid matter ; hence, in the event of a crater com-
municating with such a mass, we should look for its discharge being varied by
tides ; from this circumstance I think it can be proved that they are not in
connexion with any great quantity of fluid.

The existence of internal tides bears on another question. If the solid surface
of the earth be comparatively only a thin crust, Ave should have a powerful
diurnal tide, which would occasion violent dislocations in the strata. This view

3 p 2

464 ON THE SOURCES OF HEAT WHICH INFLUENCE CLIMATE.

well accords with the remote era when the earth was yet uninhabited, and
covered only with a thin stratum. It helps to explain the great revolutions to
which those periods were subject ; but since the historic era, the crust must either
have acquired sufficient strength to overcome the force of these internal tides, or
we may suppose the matter to have viscidity enough to resist the diurnal attrac-
tive influence of the sun and moon. In every view there appear to me strong
reasons for believing that the volcanoes have their origin at no great depth, and
are entirely due to local causes. Further, admitting the existence of a primitive
central heat, its power to retain the central mass of our earth in a fluid state
appears to me very problematical.

A distinguished French philosopher, M. Fourier, has made the influence of a
central heat on the temperature of our climates the subject of rigorous mathema-
tical investigations. He has shown its existence to be perfectly consistent with
a uniform temperature of climate since the commencement of the historic era.
The planetary mass will require a period of 4,000 years to lose by spotaneous
cooling one-sixth of a degree of Fahrenheit, while the loss of heat through the
cooling of a century is much less than the loss of solar heat as we pass from season
to season.

Fourier has further shewn, that the influence of the primitive heat in our
planet is scarcely felt by the climates on its surface. Their temperature cannot
on an average be raised above one-sixth of a degree of Fahrenheit through this
source ; so that local improvements may elevate the temperatures far more than
they can ever be deteriorated by any loss of primitive heat, if indeed that source
be at all capable of ever sensibly affecting them. These results of Fourier are
of great value, since they restore confidence where the researches of Buffon and
Leslie made the permanent stability of our climate doubtful. History is also
strongly in favour of a fixed standard for our climates ; where there is a change,
it is an improvement ; for we know the climate of modern Greece and Italy to
have much milder winters than those assigned them by the ancient Greeks and
Romans.

Jefferson was of opinion that the climate of the United States was rapidly
improving; but more recent observers would seem to say, that the clearing
of that country has the effect of elevating the summer heat, while it equally
depresses the cold of winter.

The effect of the temperature of the regions of space on the climates of the
globe is a question that originated entirely with M. Fourier ; for what we know
of the subject we are indebted to him. He has assigned the temperature of
minus 58, Fahrenheit, or colder than freezing mercury, as the heat of the planet-
ary space. Of its influence on our climates it will be best to quote his own
words, as given in a memoir in the Annates de Chimie et Physique. He says : —

ON THE SOURCES OF HEAT WHICH INFLUENCE CLIMATE. 465

14 If the terrestrial globe and all the bodies which compose the solar system, were
placed in an inclosure devoid of all heat, phenomena would be observed entirely
contrary to those which we now know to exist. The polar regions would endure
an immeasurable cold, and the decrease in the temperature, from the equator to
the poles, would be incomparaby more rapid and extensive.

" Upon the hypothesis of the absolute cold of space, if it is possible to conceive
it, all the effects of heat, such as we observe them on the surface of the globe,
would be owing to the presence of the sun ; the least variations of distance from
that orb would occasion very considerable changes of temperature in the earth. —
At the commencement of night the surfaces of bodies would be instantaneously
exposed to an infinitely intense cold, and organic bodies would not be able to
withstand the equally sudden action of a contrary description, which would take
place on the rising of the sun."

Thus we perceive that this low temperature assigned to the celestial regions
through which our planet moves, has a most vigorous effect on the climate at the
earth's surface ; its power will be invariable for every point of the globe, whether
placed under the torid zone or within the polar circle, whether on a level with
the sea or in elevated mountain ranges.

That the rays from the moon are totally devoid of any calorific effects, seems
to have been recently finally set at rest, from experiments made by the beautiful
thermo-multiplier of Melloni ; this leads to the conclusion that the surface of that
luminary possesses only the temperature of the planetary spaces, and there, in
the absence of the solar rays, cold will be experienced of minus 58, Fahrenheit.
From this it may be inferred that organic bodies, such as we are acquainted with,
cannot exist on the moon's surface.

Only one other source of heat known to us remains to be spoken of. It is
the caloric, either given out or absorbed in every process, whether natural or
artificial, which involves change from one state to another. This cause will act
on climates generally chiefly through the spontaneous variations in the hygro-
metric state of our atmosphere ; and it will be through this indirect channel that
the artificial processes of cultivation are capable of improving climate. Other
artificial means, derived from the works always carried on in densely-peopled
districts, or in cities, modify the temperature to an extent of one or two degrees
of Fahrenheit.

The climate of London is considerably changed through this, the mean annual
temperature exceeding that of the surrounding country by half a degree ; the
difference would be greater were it not that London, always veiled by smoke
from the full power of the sun, has a colder mid-day temperature than its
environs, while the nights of mid-winter are nearly four degrees higher than the
heat of the surrounding country.

4G6 OX THE SOURCES OF HEAT WHICH INFLUENCE CLIMATE.

We have now seen that the heat which influences our climates may be traced
to the four following sources :

1. The calorific power of the solar rays, which are well known to vary directly
with the latitude.

2. The temperature of the planetary spaces, which apply equally to every
portion of the earth's surface.

3. The heat of the central mass of our earth.

4. The caloric changed by every variation from one state to another.

Of these sources of heat the two first govern, for the most part, our various
climates; besides their influence, it is scarcely necessary to add that other cir-
cumstances have much effect on climate, as, for example, the hygrometric state
of the atmosphere, the proximity of other continents, the prevailing winds, the
character of the soil, and several others that form of themselves a distinct branch
of inquiry, but which it is not necessary for me now to enter upon. Their effects
are at once made obvious by referring to the isothermal lines, or lines of equal
temperature traced by Humboldt, which can be shewn to deviate much from the
parallels of latitude.

In Europe the position of places with the same annual heat does not differ more
than eight or nine degrees, but the difference of those having the same winter
temperature is not less than 18 or 19 degrees. The winter of Scotland is as mild
as Milan in North Italy. Ireland is remarkable for mild winters and cold sum-
mers. The mean temperature in Hungary for the month of August is 71 -^
degrees ; while in Dublin for the same month it is only 60| degrees. New York
has the summer of Rome and the winter of Copenhagen. Quebec has the
summer of Paris and the winter of St. Petersburg. In the same manner, at Pekin,
which has the mean temperature of Britain, the heat of summer is greater than at
Grand Cairo in Egypt ; and the cold in winter as severe as at Upsal, in Sweden.

These inequalities are due to a complex set of phenomena which regulates the
machinery of climates. It is uncertain if we shall ever be permitted to view
this machinery ; but there can be little doubt that we should there see the same
system of compensation for apparent irregularities as the imperishable labours of
Newton and La Place have shewn to us in the movements of the heavenly
bodies ; and which there are ample reasons for our supposing to extend to all the
other works of Nature.

[The object of The Naturalist, as expressed in the title-page, and as carried
out in the body of the work, is to illustrate the animal, vegetable, and mineral
kingdoms. But we feel assured that neither our readers nor ourselves can object
to an occasional digression into collateral branches of Natural Science. Or did
such a scruple exist, surely it would altogether vanish on perusal of any paper so
interesting and so ably written as the preceding. — Ed.]

4(i7

ON THE EXCITING CAUSES OF VARIETIES IN BIRDS AND
OTHER ANIMALS.

By Neville Wood, Esq.

In various numbers of The Naturalist, correspondents have recorded instances
of varieties in birds and other animals which have fallen under their observation,
or come to their knowledge. In the present paper we propose briefly to explain
our views respecting the exciting causes of these curious modifications.

The Common Fowl (Gallus domesticus, Auct., Phasianus gallus, Linn.),
originally derived from Asia, is now scarcely known in its native haunts ; but
has long been extensively cultivated as a domestic bird in almost every country.
What influence may be drawn from these facts ? Now we are of opinion, that,
ceteris paribus, the more thoroughly and the longer any animal is domesticated,
and the more the domesticated differs from the wild state, the more subject will
that animal be to variety, and the more remarkable will the varieties be. Both
arguments and facts fully support this theory ; and what we at first considered a
mere hypothesis, has at length ripened into a matter of demonstration.

Thus, varieties of birds inhabiting extensive tracts of fen-land, wide and arid
plains, or the summits of bleak mountains, little frequented by Man, are seldom
noticed, because they rarely occur. The ordinary changes of plumage, termed
moulting, there take place with almost unerring regularity, as, for instance, in
the various Ptarmigans of the hill-top, the Waders ( Grattatores) of the moist
and sedgy river-side, the Petrels, Ducks, and Gulls of the " wild unbounded
sea," &c. All these, and many others, live strictly according to their nature.

A second class furnishes the collecting naturalist with occasional varieties.
Thus the Wild Duck ( Anas boschas, Linn.), which abounds throughout the year
in the fresh waters of Britain, is necessarily partially, though but little, under
the jurisdiction of Man. Varieties are accordingly occasionally met with, from
the dark rich colour of the natural state to a chocolate hue, or even pure white.
The Partridge belongs to the same division, and yields an occasional variety.
The Pheasant and the House Sparrow depend still more upon our bounty and
our works, and hence varieties are tolerably frequent in these species, though not
very much so, considering the great abundance of these birds in almost every part
of the country. Sparrows occur black, white, and cream-coloured, and the
varieties of the Pheasant — an imported species, and half domesticated — are still
more frequent and diverse.

Lastly, we come to the wholly-domesticated races of birds. In the two
former classes the varieties form the exceptions to a general rule ; but here the

468 CAUSES OF VARIETIES IN BIRDS.

modifications are endless; and not only do they in time become to the full as
frequent as the normal state, hut in the course of successive generations it in
many cases actually becomes impossible to ascertain which is the natural plumage
of the bird. In most instances some of the descendents of domesticated breeds
retain nearly their original aspect, but they are always larger, and of a heavier
and duller appearance. As regards size, and quality of flesh, the domesticated
breeds have a decided superiority, and the quality of the latter may be greatly
modified by food, &c. But it is in plumage that the change is first noticed.
Normally-coloured Ducks, Pintados, and Fowls, for example, often produce milk-
white offspring in the second and third generation, if the parents have been reared
in captivity ; and similar departures from the natural state are not slow to appear
in the descendents of wild-caught birds.

To these general rules exceptions will occasionally occur. Thus we have seen
a white variety of the Coalhood (or " Bullfinch"), of the "Whin Linnet, the
Golden-crested Kinglet, the Common Snipe, the Corn Bunting, and other per-
fectly wild birds. But " the exception," in a certain sense, " proves the rule."

If, however, modifications of size and shape are more tardy of appearance,
they are at least as interesting to the reflecting naturalist as those of plumage,
and infinitely more perplexing. Who can question this after endeavouring to
ascertain the original stock of the Horse, the Dog, and the Cat amongst the
Mammalia, and of the Bantam, game, dunghill, Polish, French, Malay, and an
infinity of other Fowls among birds ? It is not mere colour that forms the
puzzle. Were this the case, the difficulty would at once vanish. But the
singular discrepancies of size, and the still more extraordinary modifications of
general shape and other characters, seem to defy science. And yet these very
varieties — so called because we cannot find their analogues in the woods and
wilds — would unquestionably, and very justly, be considered distinct species if
found in a state of Nature. That these varieties, despite their natural and
artificial intermixture, should still remain distinct — that the offspring of half-
Bantams and Bantams, for instance, instead of forming new varieties, should, in
the end revert to the true Bantam type, is singular. But it would have been
passing strange, had these really been distinct races, that no notice should have
been taken of them by the diligent naturalists of a former day. We can only
gain intelligence of one species in the country from whence all our Fowls
originally came ; and therefore, though the point can scarcely be considered as
proved, it is the smaller of two difficulties to refer all the modifications of Fowls
to a common stock.

One of the most remarkable varieties — and one not commonly observed in a
marked degree — is the assumption by the female of male attire, aspect, and
habits. Hens occasionally make a faint attempt at crowing — a circumstance

CAUSES OF VARIETIES IN BIRDS. 4G0

considered so dangerous by the farmer's wife, that she generally contrives
stealthily to put the obnoxious birds out of the way The most remarkable hen
of this kind which we remember to have seen, is that of which we have attempted
a delineation at the commencement of our present number. It was purchased
amongst many other Fowls, and was kept several years in the poultry -yard at
Scampston Hall, near Malton, in this county. We believe it was never known
to crow. It is generally believed that these " cock-hens " are barren ; but this
we are enabled most distinctly to deny. It is an interesting fact that the hen
figured in our current number not only laid eggs, but hatched them, and took
every possible care of her brood? This fine bird was at length chased into a
Duck-pond, and drowned, by two of those quarrelsome creatures the Pintados
This latter bird, though peaceable enough with its own species, is a perfect terror
to other kinds of poultry. We have even known it attack and drive away a
well-trained pointer Dog ! Fowls, on the contrary, extremely quarrelsome among
themselves, never molest other birds unless first attacked by them, or when dis-
turbed at feeding-time.

The beautiful specimen to which we have alluded was stuffed by an amateur of
the art of animal-preserving, Matthew Hayes, Esq., of Pickering. It is of the
size of a very large cock, and had the brilliant metallic tints, the waving tail-
feathers, and the long pendent neck-feathers characteristic of the male. The
comb is intermediate between the average of the ordinary cock and hen. The
rudiments of hard and powerful spurs may be observed ; the plates of the tarsi
are large, but as they are neither loose nor much imbricated, this must be con-
sidered rather as another indication of approach to the male than as a sign of age.
Indeed the character of these plates, and of the spurs, induces us to consider it a
middle-aged individual. The bird is well proportioned, but very muscular in all
its parts. It has much the air of a cock between the game and dunghill breeds,
but the head is smaller, and the neck thinner. Unfortunately this hen was
moulting when it died, and has therefore less of the male character than would
otherwise have been the case. In all probability, each of the unusual characters
noticed above would have been increased had the bird lived a few years longer.
Undoubtedly its spars would have grown very considerably. We have seen old
hens, with the ordinary plumage and general aspect, and very good sitters, with
long sharp spurs like a cock.

It would be interesting to notice the changes induced by age and moulting on

these " cock-hens." Perhaps they become barren at an earlier period than other

hens. If so, the notion respecting their unconditional sterility is partially

accounted for. The specimen figured in the plate died some twelve or fourteen

years ago, and still remains in our collection.

Game cocks which have fought often and desperately sometimes change colour
vol.. in. — no. xxiv. 3 Q

470 HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OP BRITISH PLANTS.

from white to the true game-breed hue, and vice versa, three or four times in their
lives. The cause is over excitement of the passions, and too much exercise. The
effect of these and other stimuli in Man is to turn the hair white, or to cause it
to fall off, partially or entirely.
Campsall Hall, July 28, 1838.

ON THE HABITS AND PECULIARITIES OF BRITISH PLANTS,
AND ON THE DERIVATIONS OF THEIR LATIN NAMES.

By T. B. Hall.
(Continued from p. 376.)

Antirrhinum. — Avnppivov, from am, resembling, and ptv, a nose, from the
appearance of the flowers of some of the species resembling a calf's snout.

Antirrhinum majus, Great Snapdragon. — In Russia this plant is said to be
cultivated for its seed, which yields an oil little inferior to that of Olives.
Though the seeds vegetate on the ground, it is only in dry soils and situations
that the plant continues to live long enough to produce flowers. It is probably
not originally indigenous, but certainly a valuable acquisition even to the flower-
garden, into which several striking varieties have been introduced, with blossoms
of finely-contrasted red and white, or altogether of the richest crimson. " The
flowers of these plants are perfect insect-traps. Multitudes of small creatures
seek an entrance into the corolla through the closed lips — which upon a slight
pressure yield a passage — attracted by the sweet liquor found at the base of the
germen ; but when so admitted there is no return ; the lips are closed, and all
advance to them is impeded by a dense thicket of woolly matter, which invests
the mouth of the lower jaw—

' Smooth lies the road to Pluto's gloomy shade ;

But 'ts a long unconquerable pain,

To climb to the sethereal realms again.'

But this Snapdragon is more merciful than'most of our Muscicapce. The creature
receives no injury ; but having consumed the nectareous liquor, and finding no
egress, breaks from its dungeon by gnawing a hole at the base of the tube, and
thus returns to liberty and light. The extraordinary manner in which the corolla
is formed, the elastic force with which the lower limb closes and fits upon the
projection of the upper, manifest the obvious design of the great Architect,
' whose hands bended the rainbow ;' and the insects are probably the destined
agents whereby the germen is impregnated ; for as soon as this is effected, the

HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS. 471

limbs become flaccid, lose their elasticity, and are no longer a place of confine-
ment. The Ant is a common plunderer of this honey." — Journal of a Naturalist.
See also note to Drosera. The ingenuity of Bees has been remarkably exemplified
in this species of Antirrhinum, and also in the Yellow Toadflax (Linaria vul-
garis), and some other plants whose flowers, from their long tubular formation,
deny admission to the broad head and thorax of the insect. Well knowing the
exact position of the prize he vainly seeks to obtain by usual means, he pierces J
the calyx as well as the tube with his horny proboscis, inserting it into the orifice,
and thus readily abstracting the honey. All the varieties of Snapdragon have
the power of maintaining a state of vegetation in great droughts, and their usual
stations are peculiarly exposed to the influence of the sun. Dr. ThrElkeld
assures us that during the prevalence of Popery, " many frivolous superstitious
fables were reported of the power of this plant against spectres, charms, and
witchcraft, rather savouring of rank heathenish magic, than comporting with
sound reason ; for the use of reliques, Agnus Deis, &c, are wicked trumpery,
and defending against the Devil's sword with the Devil's buckler." The whole
capsule has been compared to the skull of a calf; but the old name Calf's-snout
rather applies to the mouth of the corolla. A rude figure of this Snapdragon,
but which cannot be mistaken, exists in the famous Vienna manuscript of
Dioscorides, under the name of YLvvone^xXm, or Dog's-head, and is engraved in
Diosc. Ic, t. 103.

Antirrhinum orontium, Lesser Snapdragon. — The capsule is ovate, with three
pores, each opening by a lid, and when nearly ripe it resembles the face of a
Monkey or Bat.

Apargia. — Name of uncertain origin. Anxey"* was applied to some plant
of this tribe.

Apargia autumnalis, Autumnal Hawkbit. — This has not been applied to any
particular use, nor is it, though common, a very troublesome weed. It varies
much in luxuriance, and is often found thriving in extremely poor land newly
turned up.

Apium. — Isidore says it is so called from apex, the top, on account of its
head of flowers. Others, from Apis, a Bee, because they frequent it ; or from
■mtios, Dor., aitios, mild. According to Hooker, from apon, water, in Celtic ; be-
cause it usually grows in watery places.

Apium graveolens, Smallage Parsley, Wild Celery. — The whole plant, in its
native ditches, is acrid and dangerous, with a peculiar, rank, coarse taste and
smell. The effects of cultivation in producing from this plant the mild and
grateful Garden Celery, are not a little remarkable ; for which, and its name, we
are indebted to the Italians. Celery has now supplanted our native Alexanders,
Smyrnium olusatrum. According to the observations of Linnaeus, Sheep and

3q2

472 HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS.

Goats eat this plant ; Cows arc not fond of it ; Horses refuse it. The seeds yield
an essential oil.

The larvae of Alysia Apii (Curt. Brit. Entom., Vol. III., t. 141) feed on the
leaves of the cultivated varieties of this plant.

Aquilegia. — From aqua, water, and lego, to gather ; from the shape of the
leaves, which retain water; or, according to Hooker, from Aquila, an Eagle,
whose claws the nectaries resemble.

Aquilegia vulgaris, Common Columbine. — The beauty of its blosspms has
long introduced the Columbine into our flower-gardens. Goats eat it. Sheep are
not fond of it. Cows, Horses, and Swine refuse it. The elongated and incurved
nectary of this flower seems to bid defiance to the entry of the Bee in search of
the hidden treasure ; but the admirable ingenuity of the sagacious insect is not to
be thus defeated, for on ascertaining the impracticability of effecting his usual
admission, with his proboscis, he actually penetrates both calyx and blossom
near the depot of the honey, and thus extracts the latent sweets without further
difficulty. Cultivation produces various colours ; and Mr. Phillips observes, in
Flora Historica, the singular circumstance that it has three distinct modes of
doubling its flowers, viz., by the multiplication of its petals, to the exclusion of
the nectaries ; by the increase of the nectaries, to the exclusion of the petals ;
and frequently by the multiplication of the nectaries while the proper petals
remain.

Arabis. — Originally from Arabia, but this name is not very precise, as the
species of the genus are found in many parts of the world, in arid, stony, and
sandy places, in cold and mild climates.

Arabis turrita, Tower Wall-cress, Tower Mustard, Great Turkey-pod. — The
whole plant is of a light green colour ; it is a native of Spain, France, Switzer-
land, Italy, Sicily, and Transylvania, on mountains, in hedges, and coppices.
In Britain it is one of our rarest natives, and may, probably, have escaped
from gardens. It is said to have been observed by Professor J. Martyn, before
the year 1732, on a wall at Lewisham, in Kent. Many of the exotic species
of this genus, especially the perennial ones, are interesting little plants to the
botanist, and are well adapted for rock-work.

" ■ The fall of kings,

The rage of nations, and the crush of states,
Move not the man, who from the world escaped,
In still retreats, and flowery solitudes,
To Nature's voice attends, from month to month,
And day to day, thro' the revolving year,
Admiring sees her in her every shape,
feels all her sweet emotions at his heart,
Takes what she libVal gives, nor thinks of more."

TaoMrsoN.

HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS. 473

Arbutus. — Minshew says it is so called quia crescit inter arbusta, because it
growes in shrubby places. Theis derives it from ar, rough, or austere, and
boist, a bush, in Celtic. Or it may be diminutive of arbor, a tree ; as resembling
a tree in miniature. It is the badge of the Highland Clan Ross.

Arbutus Alpina, Mountain Strawberry-tree, Black-berried Alpine Arbutus,
Black Bear-berry. — The berries are smooth, black, of the size and somewhat the
flavour of black currants, but are not so good. Goats refuse it.

Arbutus unedo, Common Strawberry-tree. — It is a beautiful evergreen orna-
ment to our shrubberies (where also may be observed pink, and double varieties,
but the latter are scarcely desirable, as they are incapable of forming the more
interesting berries), not only on account of its foliage and flowers, but of its fruit,
which is pleasing to the eye, though not grateful to the taste. The pitcher-shaped
blossoms contain a delicious repast for Butterflies of various kinds. Frequently
may they be observed busily engaged with their long and elegant proboscis,
rifling its hoarded sweets. It has been remarked by Mr. Salisbury, that the
fruit taking twelve months to come to maturity, this plant exhibits simultane-
ously, and during the depth of winter, the singular phenomenon of lively green
leaves, beautiful flowers, and brilliant fruit : thus realising the exuberant picture
of Tasso —

" Co Jtori eterni, eterno il frutto dura
E mentre spunta Pun, Valtro matura ,•"*

fit emblem of that perpetual spring which, in original perfection, pervaded the

whole earth, when

" Green all the year ; and fruits and blossoms blush 'd,
In social sweetness, on the self-same bough."

Wheeler observed the fruit in the market at Smyrna ; and at Constantinople it
is offered for sale threaded on a straw or blade of Grass. The country people,
however, in Ireland, eat it, but always drink water after it. A warmer climate
may possibly render the berries more palatable, though the testimony of the
ancients is not in favour of their being wholesome food ; see Pliny, Dioscorides,
and Galen. The leaves may be usefully employed in tanning leather. Virgil
alludes to the young branches as winter food for Goats —

— i •' jubeo frondentia Capris,

Arbuta siifficere ;"

and to its use for making agricultural implements, or basket-work —

" Arbutece crates ;"

while Ovid celebrates its blushing fruit —

* With never-fading flowers, and evcr-during fruit ; while the one expands, the other matures.

—Ed.

474 HABITS AND LATIN NAMES OF BRITISH PLANTS.

*• pomoque onorata rubenti

Arbutus ;"

yet so bitter withal, that Pliny is supposed to have denominated it in Unedo be-
cause only one can be eaten at a time. Tournefort informs us that a spirituous
liquor is distilled from the fruit, especially in the Isle of Andros. The old Italian
poet Sannazaro, in his Arcadia, represents this truly classical evergreen as
employed by the Roman shepherds to decorate their flocks, on the festival of the
goddess Pales. It is generally supposed to thrive most luxuriantly in a moist
situation. We learn from the Bon Jardinier of M. Pikolle, that Arbutus trees
raised from English seed are hardier than those produced from the seed of warmer
climates. In the Levant it attains to a great size : in our pleasure grounds
sometimes to twenty feet in height ; and we can imagine no tree to afford a more
refreshing canopy in its luxuriant growth ; for we may presume that even Horace
(no incompetent judge of luxury) occasionally sought repose beneath its shade —

•' Nunc viridi membra sub Arbuto
Stratus."

The right of this plant to be considered an aboriginal,

" Arbutus, with his scarlet grain,
That richly crowns Irene's plain,"

has been contested by Mr. Smith in his History of the County of Kerry, in which
he conjectures it may have been introduced by the monks of St. Finnian, who
founded the Abbey in the sixth century.

Arbutus uva-ursi, Red Bear-berry, Red-berried Trailing Arbutus. — The berries .
are insipid, pulpy, and mealy, but afford excellent food for game. The plant is
much used in Sweden to dye an Ash-colour, and to tan leather. Horses, Cows,
Goats and Sheep refuse it. The coccus uva-ursi, which, with alum, affords a
crimson dye, is now neglected.

Arctium. — Agxriov, from Ag ktos, a Bear ; so named from its roughness, and the
coarse texture of the involucres.

Arctium lappa, Common Burdock, Bur, or Clot-bur. — The calyx, when in
seed, easily breaks from its stalk, and is well known by the name of a bur, stick-
ing to the coats of animals, and the hair or clothing of young rustics, which can
hardly be cleared of such incumbrances without breaking the scales asunder and
scattering the seeds. The surface of the herbage leaves a slightly viscid, very
bitter, exudation on the fingers. The plant itself, a cumbrous weed, is removed,
the first year of its growth, by stubbing, like other things comprehended by
farmers under the name of " Docks," and paid for accordingly to the weeder. Dr.
Withering states that before the flowers appear, the stems, stripped of their
rind, may be boiled and eaten like Asparagus. When raw they are palatable
with oil and vinegar, The seeds are recommended as diuretic : and are accept-

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 4 75

able to birds. Boys catch Bats by throwing the prickly heads into the air.
These hooked points tend to the dispersion of the seed, by adhering to the coats
of animals, &c. Cows and Goats eat it. Sheep and Horses refuse it. Swine
are not fond of it. The larva? of the Ghost Moth (Hepialus Humuli) feed upon
the roots, and the larvae of the Mottled Orange Moth upon the stems : within
which the chrysalis may be found about the month of August, especially in
stunted specimens.

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

Gould's " Birds of Europe," Part XVI.

By Neville Wood, Esq.

(Continued from p. 359 of this Volume.)

Since the appearance of The Naturalist for July, we have received The Analyst
for the same month, and are glad to find that the articles on Mr. Gould's work,
commenced by ourselves, will be continued in that Journal, as we consider it due
to its subscribers that the series should not be left unfinished. The paper in The
Analyst for July, however, appears to be a mere condensed analysis, and is
probably not written by a practical naturalist. At all events the errors it con-
tains have an awkward appearance ; the same attention is paid to the most
common as to the rarer species, and important particulars are often passed in
silence. Our aim is to impart to the student, and to our readers generally, a
correct knowledge of the rarer British birds, and of exotic species, conceiving that
Sparrows and Sparrow Hawks must be familiar to any one Who desires to learn
their history. We wish, moreover, by interspersing remarks of our own, and
those of other authors, among those which we distinctly acknowledge, by marks of
quotation, to be obtained from our author, to render the papers still more useful, less
servile, and more satisfactory both to Mr. Gould and to our subscribers. There-
fore, while applauding the spirit which has induced the present Editor of The
Analyst to continue the critical articles in his Journal, yet, for the reasons above
cited, as well as on account of the desire expressed to that effect by several of our
most esteemed correspondents, we shall, as before proposed (p. 353), conclude the
present series in the pages of The Naturalist.

Part XVI. — Gorget Calliope, Calliope Lathamii, — Calliope, Fr. — Our au-
thor has constituted a new generic group for this species, which appears to hold
an intermediate station between the Thrushes and the Nightingales, having many
points in common with the members of both those genera. " In naming this

47G SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY,

species after the venerable Dr. Latham, we are influenced by a desire to render
a tribute of respect to one who has laboured much in the science of Ornithology,
and who at an extremely advanced age is now cheerfully passing the remainder
of his days in the enjoyment of every domestic felicity, universally honoured by
his cotemporaries,"* We can heartily participate in the feelings of our author
towards his illustrious predecessor, though at the same time we are inclined to
question the propriety of naming the species after Dr. L. — The figures, of a male
and female, are excellent. Inhabits Siberia, Kamtschatka, and Japan, and has occa-
sionally been taken within the boundaries of Europe. Of its habits little is known,
" It is said to have have an agreeable song, which it utters while perched on the
topmost branches of trees." The female is altogether of a lighter colour than the
male, but differs from the other sex most remarkably in the absence of the beau-
tiful scarlet gorget.

Barrow's Garrot, Clangula Barrovii. — An admirable figure of a male,
natural size. This bird was discovered in America by Dr. Richardson and Mr.
Swainson, and was first met with in Europe by T. C. Atkinson, Esq., of
Newcastle-on-Tyne, when on a visit to Iceland a few years since. " Notwith-
standing," observes Dr. Richardson, " the general similarity in the form and
marking of this bird and the" Goldeneyed Garrot, Barrow's Garrot " is distinguished
by the purer colour of its dorsal plumage, and the smaller portion of white on its
wings and scapulars. Its long flank feathers are also much more broadly bordered
all round with black. The bases of the greater coverts in the Goldeneye are
black ; but they are concealed, and do not form the black band so conspicuous in
Clangula Barrovii. The specific appellation is intended as a tribute to Mr.
Barrow's varied talents, and his unwearied exertions for the promotion of
science." The male is at once distinguished from the other sex by the white
patch on the cheek, and also by other characters.

Blackthroated Thrush, Turdus atrogularis, — Merle a-gorge-noir, Fr. —
The plate represents, in an extremely beautiful manner, a male, and a young
male or the female, of the natural size. The plate is well worthy the fame of
Mr. Gould as an ornithological painter. " Although Temminck states that it is
a native of Hungary and Russia, but rare in Austria and Silesia, we have only
seen two native-killed specimens, which are in the collection of Vienna, and one
of them was, we believe, killed in the neighbourhood of that city : young birds
are also said to have been taken in Germany. From the circumstance of most of
the collections from the Himalaya mountains containing examples of this bird,
the fact is clearly established that the northern and higher regions of Asia

* See The Naturalist, No. vii., for April, 1837, for a brief memoir of Dr. Latham, who departed
this life the 4th of February, 1837. We hope, at an early period, to present our readers with a
portrait and more extended biographical notice of this celebrated man.

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 477

constitute its native habitat. Our knowledge of this species is so limited that we
are unable to state with certainty whether the black gorget is characteristic of
the summer plumage, or whether, when once acquired, it is permanent : we
suspect the latter to be the case, as we have received specimens in various stages
of plumage, some of which were totally devoid of the black throat, while others
had it partially developed ; in all probability these last were females or imma-
ture birds."

Yellow Bunting, Emberiza citrindla, — Bruant jaune, Fr. — Gold Amraer,*
G. — A male and female are represented : the former being a very pleasing figure
of this beautiful bird. Confined to Europe, where it is everywhere indigenous
and extremely abundant. We need proceed no further with its history.

Maksh Harrier, Circus rufus, — Busard de-marais, Fr. — Falco albanella, It.
— Sumpf Weihe, G. — Lear has here displayed his talents to great effect in
figures of an adult and a young bird about three-fourths of the natural size.
Inhabits the low marshy portions of Europe, Africa, and a considerable part of
Asia. From the circumstance of most of the individuals of this species shot in
Britain being young birds, our author opines that but few Marsh Harriers breed
in our Island. Being a conspicuous bird, and many years attaining its mature
attire, the adult is very rarely found with us. " It is certain that it breeds
while yet in the deep chocolate-coloured plumage," which it retains during many
of its earlier years. The tail-feathers and secondaries are grey in the adult.
" Like the rest of the Harriers its flight is buoyant and sweeping, but generalty
at a low elevation : it traverses over the moors and marshes in search of its prey,
which consists of Frogs, Lizards, Mice, insects, and even fish. The nest is placed
on the ground among low bushes or Reeds, generally near the edge of the water :
the eggs are four in number, white, and rounded."

Barred Fauvet, Curruea nisoria, — Becfin rayee, Fr. — Gesperbter Gras-
miicke, G. — A male of the natural size, and apparently a good figure. We feel
pretty well assured that it will be found necessary to institute a new genus for
the reception of this species, as no generic group with which we are acquainted in
the Warbler family (SylviadcB) could find a place for it. " Temminck informs
us that it inhabits bushes and thickets, is abundantly spread throughout the
north, occurring in Sweden and in the provinces of the north of Germany and
Hungary : it is of more rare occurrence in Austria, and is also found in Lombardy.
Its food consists of insects, caterpillars, Worms, and berries. It builds in tufted
HawthQrn-bushes, and lays four or five eggs, of a whitish colour, blotched with
purplish-ash or pure ash-colour." " The young, before their first moult, have the
whole of the body marked with minute transverse rays of ashy brown ; irides

* Ammer is the German for Bunting, whence our " Yellow Hammer" as provinciallv applied to
E. citrinella.

VOL. III.- NO. XXIV. 3 R

478 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

brown." Mr. Gould and M. Temminck do not agree as to the amount of
difference between the sexes, and we are unable to throw any light on the point,
not being acquainted with the species in its native haunts.

Sabine's Snipe, Scolopax Sabini, Vigors. — The first specimen of this bird
known to have occurred in the British Islands, was killed in Queen's county,
Ireland, in Aug., 1822,' and was sent the same day to N. A. Vigors, Esq., M.P.,
D.C.L. Several individuals have since been shot in various parts of Britain.
"It is at once distinguished," says Dr. Vigors, "from every other European
Scolopax by the total absence of white from its plumage, or any of those lighter
tints of ferruginous yellow which extend more or less in stripes along the head
and back of them all. In this respect it exhibits a strong resemblance to S.
saturata, from which, however, it differs in general proportions ; and I find no
description of any other extra-European species which at all approaches it in this
character of its plumage. In the number of its tail-feathers, again, which
amount to twelve, it differs from S. major, which has sixteen, and S. gallinago,
which has fourteen ; it agrees, however, in this point with S. gallinula ; but it
can never be confounded with that bird, from the great disproportion between
the essential characters of both, the bill alone of S. Sabini exceeding that of the
latter species by one-third of its length. The tarsi, although stouter than those
of S. gallinago, fall short of them by Jtths of an inch ; they are much weaker, on
the other hand, than those of S. [major, although they nearly equal them in
length." Its habits are at present unknown.

Common Snipe, Scolopax gallinago, — Becassine ordinaire, Fr. — Beccacino
reale, It. — Heer Schnepfe, G. — This and the preceding species are finely repre-
sented, on the same plate ; both are males, and of the living size. " Although
the contrary has been long recorded by naturalists, we conceive that the natural
range of the Common Snipe is comparatively limited, and that the Snipes from
India, Africa, and North America, that have been regarded as identical with
our bird, will be found to be specifically distinct ; in the character of their
plumage they are indeed somewhat similar; but they nearly all present a
different form in the feathers of the tail, and also a difference of number."

Lanner Falcon, Falco lanarius, — Faucon lanier, Fr. — Faultless figures of an
adult male and a young bird, rather under the natural size. Native habitat the
east of Europe and the adjacent parts of Asia and Africa. " It rarely passes
further westward than the central parts of the European continent ; is scarcely
ever seen in France or Holland, and never in Britain." Our author's figures are
taken from specimens lent to him by his friend M. Temminck. The Lanner is
intermediate between the Jer and Peregrine Falcons, but differs considerably in
plumage from both those species. " The young of the year differs from the
adult in having the cere and legs blue instead of yellow," &c. While at Vienna

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 479

Mr. Gould noticed an individual perfectly reconciled to captivity, " although it
is known to be extremely bold and daring in capturing its prey when in a state
of nature."

House Sparrow, Passer domesticus* — Grosbec moineau, Fr. — Haus Sperling,
G. — A male and female are figured, in their very best plumage, and truly
admirably executed. This bird is extensively distributed over Europe, North
Africa, and the hilly districts of India. In The Naturalist, Vol. II., the House
Sparrow is stated to be comparatively scarce in the neighbourhood ofDoncaster.

On the same beautiful plate is figured, in an equally excellent and commend-
able manner, an adult male of the Tree Sparrow, Passer arboreus, — Grosbec
friquet, Fr. — Feld Sperling, G. — " Unlike the preceding species, which loves to
dwell in the streets of our towns, this affects the open country, where every field
and wood affords it food and a congenial habitat. In the British Islands it is
extremely local, being scarcely known in some counties, while in others, Essex,
Cambridgeshire, &c, it is tolerably abundant. It is found in most parts of
eentral and southern Europe, and we have received it from the Himalaya moun-
tains and from China. The food consists of seeds, grains, and insects. Like all
the other members of the genus, it is devoid of song. The nest is constructed in
the holes of stunted trees and pollards, and very closely resembles that of the
Common (or House) Sparrow, as do the eggs also, except that they are smaller."
There is no sexual difference of plumage. The Tree Sparrow is at once distin-
guished from the House Sparrow by its small size, by the black patch on its
ear-coverts, &c.

Naumann's Thrush, Turdus Naumannii, — Merle Naumann, Fr. — The
representation, of an adult, size of life, is very creditable. This bird, interme-
diate between the Fieldfare and Redwing Thrushes, is abundant in Japan, but
in Europe occurs only, at irregular periods and in small numbers, in the eastern
portions. Habits unknown. The female is a trifle smaller and less bright in
tint than the other sex.

Mallard Duck, Anas bosckas, — Canard ordinaire, Fr. — Anatra salvatica, It.
— Gemeine Ente, G. — A male and female, rather less than the natural size. As
a work of art we should pronounce this plate the ne plus ultra of excellence, but
there is too much of the character of the tame breed about the drake quite to
please the field naturalist. " The range of the Common Wild Duck extends over
the whole of the temperate portion of the globe ; and although we believe it is
scarcely ever found in a wild state south of the equator, its extreme limits
approach within a few degrees of the meridian. It is dispersed throughout this

* Our author adopts Cuvikb's generic name Pyrgila, given solely, we presume, on account of
its Greek derivation. We prefer retaining Passer.

3 R 2

480 SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY.

vast extent of country, and every where shows the same instinct, and the same
disposition to become domestic and familiar."

Reed Locustell, Locustella fluviatilis. — Becfin riverain, Fr. — Fluss Sanger,
G. — The figure, of an adult male, is much too heavy and sombre, and looks as if
engaged in very deep Betrachtungen !* It is very rare in the west of Europe,
but plentiful in Austria and Hungary, and also in the island-gardens in the
Danube, near Vienna. In habits, nidification, note, structure, and length of the
hind claw, it closely resembles the Sibilous Locustell, L. sibilans, of Britain.
" Although it resorts to low situations, it does not confine itself to Reed-beds,
but rather prefers swampy coppices and thickets." The sexes do not differ.

Redbreasted Goose, Anser rufi,collis, — Oie a-cou-roux, Fr. — Roth-hals Gans,
G. — A lovely figure of the male, somewhat under the living size. Very rare in
Britain, as also on the continent, except in the most north-eastern portions, where
it is more plentiful. " The countries to which it habitually resorts are doubtless
the extreme northern parts of Asia and Siberia, its migrations in summer extend-
ing to the shores of the Frozen Ocean, where it breeds and rears its young." It
only approaches temperate climes in extraordinarily severe seasons. The first
British specimen we are aware of was killed in 1 776 ; a few others have since
been taken, and, says Mr. Stephens, several were captured in the severe winter
of 1813, in Cambridgeshire. It agrees in habits with the rest of the genus, with,
of course, slight modifications. Feeds on vegetable matters, and its flesh is
considered good eating. We imagine, with our author, that the sexual differences
of plumage, if any, will be slight.

Honev Pern, Pernis apivorus, — Buse bondree, Fr. — Wespen Busard, G. — A
figure of the bird in the plumage of the first year, with which we cannot find a
single objection. Rather sparingly distributed over Europe, including Britain,
and occurs also in India. It differs from the Common Buzzard " in possessing a
feebler and softer bill, which is wider in the gape, and in having shorter and less
powerful tarsi and toes, the claws of which are straighter and less retractile : it
may also be distinguished from the members of the genus Bateo by the small
and closely-set feathers which cover the space between the bill and the eye, which
space in all the rest of the Falconidon is either bare or thinly covered with fine
hairs or bristles. — Its favourite food appears to be insects, Wasps, Bees, and their
larvae, to which are added Lizards, small birds, Mice, and Moles. It builds in
lofty trees, constructing a nest of twigs lined with wool and other soft materials ;
the eggs are small, of a yellowish white, marked with numerous spots of reddish
brown." " Its flight is easy and graceful, and, like its near ally, the Common

* This is a most expressive German word, for which we have no exact analogue in English. It
conveys the idea of observation and reflection combined.

SKETCHES OF EUROPEAN ORNITHOLOGY. 481

Buzzard, its great size readily attracts the notice of the keeper and sportsman,
to whom it soon becomes a prey when it takes up its abode in our woods or
parks." The sexes do not differ.

Common Nighthern, Nycticorax Europceus, — Bihoreau a-manteau-noir, Fr.
— Sgarza nitticora, It. — Nacht Reiher, fif. — An adult and a young bird, of the
natural size, are well figured. Dispersed over the whole of Europe, Asia, and
North Africa, and perhaps, also, North America ; but it is not certain whether
the Nightherns of Europe and America are identical. " In form it is interme-
diate between the Herons and the Bitterns, and partakes of the habits of both,
for although it affects more reedy and secluded situations, it frequently resorts
during the day to high trees and woods, where it may be seen perched on the
topmost branches. On the approach of evening it retires to the marsh or the
river-side,T which never fail to afford it a plentiful supply of food : when fish
cannot be obtained it feeds upon Frogs, insects, and Mice. It breeds in society,
much after the manner of the Common Heron ; and constructs a nest, composed
entirely of sticks, on the topmost branches of trees, or, where, no suitable woods
are near its accustomed haunts, among Reeds ; the eggs are four in number, of a
pale greenish blue." The synonyms of this species, in different stages, are very
numerous. Young birds in nestling plumage have no plumes at the back of
the head.

Spotted Zapeun, Zapornia porzana, — Poule-d'eau marouette, Fr. — Gallinella
sutro, It. — Punktiertes Rohrhuhn, G. — A very characteristic figure, natural size,
of an adult. Abundant in the northern and eastern parts of Europe, the north
of Asia, &c, and is a spring visitant with us. The Spotted Zapern and its
congeners are strictly aquatic, and although not web-footed, they swim with the
greatest facility. " The dense vegetation along the borders of marshes and pools
is the situation to which they are particularly attached : they are rarely seen on
the wing, and are scarcely ever flushed unless closely pursued by a Dog." " Its
nest," says Mr. Selby, " is built among the thick Sedges and Reeds of the
marshes, and from the foundation of it being frequently placed in water, is com-
posed of a large mass of decayed leaves interlaced, with the hollow neatly formed,
and comfortably lined. The eggs are eight or ten in number, of a yellowish-grey
colour, with a tinge of pink, and with round spots of umber-brown of various
sizes, and with other secondary colours of a lighter Bhade. It feeds on Worms,
aquatic insects, Slugs, seeds, &c. ; and its flesh is sweet and well-flavoured. In
autumn it becomes loaded with fat, a layer of nearly a quarter of an inch in
thickness covering the whole surface of its body." The sexes and young'offer no
remarkable differences of plumage.

Meadow Pipit, Anthus pratensis, — Pipit farlouse, Fr. — Wiesen Pieper, G. —
A pair of these birds — male and female — are prettily figured, with the exception

482 CORRESPONDENCE.

of being somewhat constrained in attitude. Distributed throughout Europe ; also
found in North Africa, and a great part of Asia. Very common with us. " In
September and October," observes Mr. Selby, " after their autumnal or general
moult, the renewed plumage differs considerably from that laid aside, the green
of the upper parts being of a much brighter tint, and the whole of the under parts
more deeply tinged with yellow."

Blacktailed Gannet, Sula melanura, Temm. — A splendid figure, three-
fourths of the natural size. This bird agrees in every respect with the Solan
Oannet, except in having a black tail, which is white in the adult of the latter
species. The specimen figured was killed in Iceland, and lent to our author by
M. Temminck, who believes it to be a true species. Mr. Gould expresses some
doubts on the matter ; but as the specimen obtained in Iceland is unquestionably
fully adult, we feel assured it is distinct from S. alba.

Jack Snipe, Scolopax gallinula, — Becassine sourde, Fr. — Beccacino minore,
It. — Moor Schnepfe, G. — Very fair representations of two birds, living size.
Distributed throughout the marshy districts of England and the continent. Its
habits are sufficiently familiar to many of our readers. We must therefore pass
on to make way for the —

Mutable Lark,* Alauda Tartarica, — Alouette negre, Fr. — The upper figure
is one of great beauty. Inhabits the high northern regions of the old Continent,
being dispersed over the whole of Siberia, Northern Russia, Lapland, &c. It
spreads, in autumn, over the provinces of European Russia, where it sojourns in
small flocks. In winter the plumage is much thicker and o a considerably
lighter hue than in summer. The female is rather smaller than the male. It is
no difficult matter to perceive that this species is out of place among the Larks.

Campsall Park, Aug. 1, 1838.

CORRESPONDENC E.

General Remarks on "The Naturalist" and on Natural History.

To the Editor of the Naturalist.

Dear Sir, — Your very friendly notice of my last communication (p. 377) has
been the means of bringing a little more trouble upon you in the shape of a few
further remarks on one or two more of my pet subjects. Should any part of the
present letter be acceptable for some future number of your Journal, pray make

• This is the name employed in the late Dr. Latham's General Synopsis.

CORRESPONDENCE. 483

use of it in any way you please. If not of sufficient import, I beseech you not
to occupy its excellent pages with what possibly my vanity, as well as my ardent
love for Natural History, has prompted me to send. Were a motive wanting in
me to endeavour as far as lies in my power to increase the circulation of The
Naturalist, your prompt and flattering attention to my poor contribution would
have supplied one. But no such lack is in me : its well-chosen subjects form
its chief recommendation to every lover of Natural History. No greater zest is
requisite to render it a monthly treat to all who " through Nature's works look up
to Nature's God," than its well-seasoned pages afford.

With you I exceedingly regret the paucity of "hedge-side strollers" and
*' Butterfly-hunters," as the many term the few who

" Wander through the forest walks,
Beneath th' umbrageous multitude of leaves."

" Few and far between" are the dwellings of the sober-minded naturalist; and
yet what spot is there in this our sea-girt island that does not present to the
inquiring mind plentiful sources of real pleasure ? What season fails to usher in
glorious changes in Nature's varied scenes ? The months, as they onward glide,
offer to our gaze a panoramic view of the Creator's Universe. The rolling year
is full of Him who has spread out Nature's ample lap with blossoms bright
and fair.

For my own part, I consider the pleasures of rural life to consist less in the
boasted freedom from the noise and bustle of crowded cities, than in the quiet
enjoyment of the country. The constant watching, as it were, of Nature's
varied stores, as they rise from " the death of winter" to the life of loveliness in
the opening spring — the vegetable kingdom, from the humble " Daisy pied" to the
stern monarch of the forest, especially present a world of delights to him who-
meditates in the " Book of Nature," ever open — who " sees good in every thing ;"
and calms his spirit as he contemplates the work of an Almighty hand, displayed
not more fully in the perfect development of the giant trees, than in the gentle
up-rearing of the fragrant Violet and the tender Grass.

Capture of a Butterfly by a Dragonfly.

While strolling along the margin of the river* the other day, I noticed a singular
capture of a Tortoiseshell Butterfly ( Vanessa urticce) by one of the very brilliant
Dragonflies (Libellula depressa). The fierce creature soon overtook and pounced
upon its prey, and quickly tore it to pieces on the spot, close to where I was
standing. I have often kept the larvae of the Dragonfly in a glass vase, feeding
them on aquatic insects, fresh-water Leeches, &c.

* The river Stoke, we presume.— E».

484 chapter of criticism.

Impropriety of wantonly shooting Birds.

A fine specimen of the Wryneck ( Yunx torquilla) was shot last week on a
Pfear-tree, and brought to me, for which I rewarded the bearer with anathemas ;
for I cannot bring my mind to thank the idle youngsters who thus wantonly
destroy our beautiful summer visitants, merely because they are possessed of
wings. I verily believe a winged seraph would be considered fair game by these
mischievous gunners.

Believe me, with all due apologies for thus intruding upon your attention, to be,

Dear Sir, most respectfully,

Your obedient servant,
Stoke Ferry, Norfolk, Richard Pigott.

June 15, 1838.

QThe remainder of Mr. Pigott's interesting letter is alone postponed until we
can insert the sketch which accompanies the portion omitted. — Ed.]]

CHAPTER OF CRITTCISM.

To the Editor of The Naturalist.

My dear Sir, — I observe in your July number, that I am unfortunately the
subject of animadversion to two of your correspondents ; and although I should
be sorry to see your pages open to any thing like useless controversy, I hope you
will allow me a few words in reply to them.

On the Formation of Pearl.

To begin, then, with Mr. Levison, who has made some comments (p. 378) on
a lecture I delivered before the members of the Doncaster Lyceum, and the first
part of which you have published in your Journal (pp.397 — 410). I do not
recollect the nature of the complimentary remarks made by the Chairman that
evening ; but at any rate, if what he said induced the audience to believe that I
had been conducting any original or elaborate experiments on the formation of
Pearl, it was very right of Mr. Levison to point out the error. Mr. Levison is
also right in his letter in adding that on that subject I had not " promulgated any
thing new." The theory that I advanced to account for these productions, was,
I believe, that of Cuvier ; it is that of Carus ; I have heard it advanced by
our own great comparative anatomist, Grant ; and it is the one adopted by the
author of the able article " Conchiferce" in the Cyclopaedia of Anatomy ; nor do

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM. 485

I see any thing opposed to the validity of this theory in what Mr. Levison has
advanced. In the first place, Mr. Levison, in his remarks, has not fully stated,
or has misapprehended, the view 1 gave in the lecture, of the formation of pearl.
I said, that in all cases it was looked upon as the result of secretion depending
upon irritation, produced either by a foreign substance — as a particle of sand —
being introduced into the shell, or the attacks of some of the boring Annelides.
(see p. 408). Now the sections that Mr. Levison has made u in order to ascer-
tain the modus operandi" of Nature in the formation of pearl, confirm this
view. If they are formed by a secretion from the mantle, they must present a
series of " concentric lamince beginning with a small nucleus, and enlarging, each
successive layer, like a number of watch-glasses, the smallest, being the central
one." Mr. Levison states that, " unfortunately for the theory of the pearls
being formed to repair the shell, they are often found imbedded in the flesh of
the animal ;•' it is not, however, asserted that this is the only mode of forming
pearls, but that they may be formed around any foreign substance. Still in this
case there is some difficulty in accounting for such a situation of the pearl ; and
I will give the explanation of the phenomenon in the words of Demiayes. The
loose pearls, he observes, " are met with more especially in the substance of the
adductor muscles ; now if it be remembered that these muscles shift their place
in proportion as the animal grows, it may readily enough be allowed that a
pediculated pearl, developed on the surface of the muscular impression itself,
might be detached from its connection with the shell, by the advance of the
muscle, become free in the substance of this muscle, and there continue to
increase with more or less rapidity." With regard to Mr. Levison's theory of
their being formed in a similar manner to calcidi, there can be no doubt that these
bodies are formed by the deposition of successive particles of matter, secreted from
the fluids of the animal in which they are found, in the same manner as calculi ;
and it is on this account that they must with those bodies be regarded as dis-
eased productions.

I cannot, however, subscribe to Mr. Levison's supposition that these bodies are
formed by deposition from a solution of the nacreous portion of the shell. There
is no evidence to give the shadow of a probability to such a theory. All analogy
in the functions of the Animal Kingdom are opposed to it ; and the physical
principle on which he builds his hypothesis can never take place in the vital
economy.

LINN.EAN AND NATURAL SYSTEMS OF BOTANY.

I must now beg a few lines for your intelligent correspondent Mr. Edwin Lees,
who opened his letter (p. 380) with so warlike an aspect, that I began to tremble
for the consequences. However, his kindly feelings appear to have prevailed,

vol. in. — no. xxiv. 3 s

486 CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

and the fear of " allusion to living authors " seems to have converted his " literary
spear" into what he might esteem merely a peaceful pruning-hook.

As Mr. Lees has not attempted to reply to my paper, I shall only remark on
what I deem his misapprehensions. He seems to have fallen into the error of
supposing that the advocates of the more extensive cultivation of the natural
system condemn the system of Linn^us per se ; but nothing can be more
erroneous ; they can appreciate, and admit in their writings, the simplicity and
adaptation of the Linnaean system ; they respect and admire its great and
philosophic inventor ; and are ready to allow that it has been a most powerful
means of advancing the pursuit of Botany. But this is not the question ; it is
not who has invented the artificial system ? or what has it done ? The inquiry
ought to be, is it adapted to the requirements of the advanced state of the science
of Botany at the present day ? This is the question, I think every one will
allow, to which attention ought to be directed, and which formed the basis of the
remarks I made in your Journal a month or two since (p. 175).

No one was more perfectly aware of the deficiencies of his system than Lin-
naeus himself. He asserted, in his writings, that the great end and aim of every
botanist must be the arrangement of plants according to their natural relations
and affinities. He attempted this great work himself, in his Fragments of a
Natural System ; and there can be little doubt that sincere would be his regret,
if he could lift his head from the grave, to see men calling themselves his
disciples upholding his imperfect and artificial system as the acme of botanical
wisdom.

Mr. Lees has repeated his assertion that the rejection of the Linnsean system
by botanists is " unphilosophical." If the endeavour to advance the knowledge
of the structure or affinities of plants ; to direct the mind to the laws that regulate
the distribution of plants over the globe ; to enlarge the sphere of botanical
knowledge by presenting to the student groups instead of individuals ; to exercise
the highest powers of observation by a minute attention to structural analogies,
be " unphilosophical," then I must admit that botanists, in insisting on the
adoption of the natural system and the rejection of the Linnsean, must plead
guilty to the charge of Mr. Lees.

But those who admire and advocate the Linnsean should, in fairness, recollect
that it is not rejected because it has no merits, but because as a system it has
been superseded. The books written to explain that system are condemned
because the authors have failed in giving a correct view of the science of Botany.
If the system be found easier as a means of analysis, let it be adopted by those
who find it so ; but those who use it for this purpose, must submit to be told
that that is not the ultimate end of Botany ; and if they remain satisfied
with it, they must submit to the " implication of being trifling and superficial

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 487

observers." Would Mr. Lees or any other botanist recommend a student in
Chemistry to begin by studying the physica subterranea of Becher and Stahl,
or would he recommend him to commence Zoology by reading Aristotle and
Pliny. Would he not much rather put into his hand the chemical treatises
of Turner and Thomson, and the zoological works of Cuvier and Grant ? If,
then, he would adopt such a plan in one science, where is the reason for acting
differently in Botany ?

Let not, however, Mr. Lees suppose that because he is the advocate of the
Linnaean system, I cannot admire the enthusiasm and elevated feeling he throws
into his pursuit of science, or that I would wish in the least manner to depreciate
or prejudice exertions like his. I feel, in common with him, an anxious wish to
extend widely an increased desire for a knowledge of the various branches of
Natural History, and feel pleasure in being a fellow-labourer in the same field
with such a man as himself; and if I have differed from him in the point under
discussion, it has been very far from my wish either to treat him " uncourteously,"
or in the remarks I have made to act the part of a " flaming partizan." He
must also remember that, in this case, I was not the aggressor ; and although he
might not in his communication (p. 68) have had any intention of provoking
discussion, yet I should certainly have passed over his letter uncommented on,
had he not made a direct attack on an incidental expression of my own.

I remain,

Yours very sincerely,

Campsall, near Doncaster, Edwin Lankester.

July 28, 1838.

PROCEEDINGS OF NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETIES.

LIVERPOOL NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

July 13. — Mr. T. B. Hall read a short paper on the natural system of Botany,
accompanied by some interesting remarks on the geographical distribution of
British plants, principally in reference to an intended Flora of the neighbourhood
of Liverpool, which Mr. Hall is about to publish (see p. 395). The paper was
illustrated by some excellent drawings and synoptical tables of the different
natural systems, which were supplied through the kindness of Dr. Dickinson.

The Society then took into consideration the interesting geological discovery
lately made at Storton-hill. The following is an abstract of the information
elicited during the discussion : —

3s 2

488 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Two or three weeks ago the workmen at Storton-hill Quarry, situated about
four miles south-west of the Mersey, discovered a large slab of Sandstone, thirty-
five feet below the surface of the ground, having upon its lower face a number of
casts of feet in high relief, and in a beautiful state of preservation. Several of
these have a very close resemblance to the palm of the human hand, and were
at first taken by the workmen for casts of that organ. Two sets of feet are
visible along the slab and running in the same straight line. One of these sets
consists of highly-relieved casts of the hind feet of the animal, and the other of those
of the fore feet. The hind feet are nearly nine inches in length by about four in
breadth across the toes, and the smaller four inches long and about the same in
breadth. The hind feet are plantigrade, and consist of four strong toes, with
short stout conical claws on each, and a large thumb bent backward, and appar-
ently without a claw. The toes are rather less than one-half the length of the
foot, and the sole appears to have been as well covered with soft parts as a
thick hand ; and, from the strong marks of muscular development it presents, was
evidently intended for grasping. The round muscular prominence at the root of
the thumb is very large, as well as that at the root of the fourth toe. The toes
appear each to have been formed of three phalanges ; and they, as well as the
whole sole of the foot, appear to have been covered with a rugose skin, the folds
of which are distinctly visible in one of the casts. The fore feet are small in
proportion to the hind ones. They are plantigrade, and consist of five separate
toes, apparently armed with short claws. The length of the step of the animal
has been twenty-two inches, which is the distance between the casts ; and in
walking the hind feet have come close up to the fore.

We have said that these casts were found thirty-five feet below the surface of
the Sandstone. At that depth there exists a thin bed of steatitic clay, varying
from the smallest thickness to about one inch and a half. This bed is of con-
siderable extent, and dips towards the Mersey, at an inclination of about one foot
in ten, and it runs downwards under that part of the rock that has not been
quarried hitherto. It appears to have occupied a tract frequented by several
kinds of animals, and to have, in consequence, received the impressions of their
feet. These impressions have become filled up with sand, which has been subse-
quently indurated; and it is the casts taken from these footmarks which are now
visible on the slab of stone presented to the Society. The size of the slab, which
has been lifted off the clay, is very considerable ; it is sixteen feet long by four
feet in breadth, and four inches thick ; and the track of one animal is visible over
its whole length, in a straight line ; and in walking the animal has crossed the
feet over each other about three inches. This large slab has been broken into
three pieces ; but there is one of these above seven feet long.

Besides the track alluded to there are casts of the feet of other animals, appar-

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES. 48 9

ently of the same species, crossing the ctone in different directions ; and several
casts of the feet of a reptile are also visible.

The rock consists of a member of the New Red Sandstone series ; and it is a
fact worthy of notice, that the only other impressions of this same animal
that have hitherto been discovered exist also in the New Red Sandstone of
Hilburghausen, in Saxony, and, what is remarkable, they are accompanied by
the footmarks, apparently, of the same reptile which has left its traces in the
stone at Storton-hill. The slab bearing these footmarks is now in the British
Museum, and a particular account of them has been given by Prof. Buckland, in
his Bridgewater Treatise. They were first noticed by Prof. Kaup, who gave
the animal which made them the name Ckirotherium, which we shall retain, and
he placed it among the Marsupialia. In this specimen the footmarks are only
sixteen inches distant from each other, while in that before the Society they are
twenty-two inches, showing a great difference in the size of the two animals.

This animal, of which we have no remains but the impressions of its feet,
appears to have belonged to the order Marsupialia. The hind feet bear a
stronger resemblance to those of the animals of this family than to any other ; and,
indeed, they look somewhat like enlarged models of one of the species — Didelphis
Virginiana. In some respects the animal seems to have been allied to the
Opossums, though in others it appears to have approximated to the Kangaroos,
especially in shape. This is deducible from the disproportionate size of the feet.
The hind feet are large and strong, and show that the back part of the animal
was very large and heavy ; while the comparatively small size of the fore feet
seems to indicate that the head, neck, and chest were small and light — or, in
other words, the animal appears to have been of a conical shape, and in this
respect approximating to the Kangaroo tribe, although differing widely from it in
the structure of its hind feet, which, as we have already stated, bear a resem-
blance to those of Didelphis (the Opossum). There are, also, two other points of
difference deducible from the footmarks of this animal, namely, that its fore legs
were long and slender, and that it had no tail for leaping. The first of these
appears from the fact that the length of the step of the fore feet is exactly that of
the hind feet — to wit, twenty-two inches — which is as large as the step of a
Cow ; and the fact of the absence of a leaping tail is shown by the non-occurrence
of any mark on the stone which could indicate its presence, and which would
probably have been the case if it had existed. In both these respects the animal
has differed from the Kangaroo. There are many strong points of difference
between the characters of Ckirotherium and those of the other genera of the order
Marsupialia ; so that taking all the circumstances in connexion, it may perhaps
have occupied a place between the genera Didelphis and Kangurus — resembling
the former in the structure of its hind feet, and the latter in the shape of its

490 PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

body and its slender fore legs ; but in a subject beset with such difficulties nothing
very positive can be determined. In estimating the size of Chir other ium we
have no means of comparison except those furnished by known genera. The
present species of Didelphis are comparatively small, whereas this animal appears
to have been of gigantic size. The Virginian Opossum, to which it seems to
have approximated most closely in the structure of its feet, is about twelve inches
long, and its foot is about one inch in length ; while in the animal before us we
find the hind feet nine times that length, and the body was probably of a pro-
portionate size. If we take this as our standard, we should have an animal about
four feet high, and six or seven feet in length, probably with a long prehensile
tail, nearly the length of the body. And this size will agree very closely with
all that we know of the gigantic scale on which the inhabitants of the old world
were constructed. Pursuing the investigation still further, we find that the
opposable thumb of the hind foot is intended to fit the Opossum tribe for scaling
trees, in search of food, and to find a place of repose ; and when we conceive an
animal of the magnitude laid down possessed of the same habits, it affords us a
new evidence of the enormous size of those vegetable productions which must
have been necessary to support such a weight on their branches, and which were
formerly natives of these regions.

In the course of the evening a large drawing of the supposed restoration of the
animal was exhibited.

Since the meeting of the Society several new and interesting facts have been
discovered; these will be embodied in a report, with illustrative engravings,
which the Society is about to publish.

BOTANICAL SOCIETY.

July 6. — J. E. Gray, Esq., F.R.S., Pres., in the chair. — The Secretary read a
paper from R. H. Schomburgk, Esq. (dated Curassawaka, Lower Prussunung,
Feb. 22, 1838), "On Bertholletia excelsa" a tree of the first size. The trunk is
straight, the bark deeply furrowed, and of a dark grey colour ; it reaches to the
height of from ninety to a hundred feet before it divides into spreading alternate
branches. The locuments which the green fruit possesses are only thin mem-
branous bodies, scarcely to be recognized when it has come to maturity. The
nuts are placed around the quadrangular spermaphorunse, in four rows, one over
the other. There are generally from twenty to twenty-four nuts — seldom more.
Many are opened by Monkeys, Peccarys, and other animals, who appear to be
very fond of them. The bark is easily separable, like all Lecytkidece, and the
liber is beaten by the Indians into a mass, which they use in lieu of tinder. The
wood is bitter, soft, and inside generally hollow. The Canbees call the fruit and
tree Batonka, the Wapishanas Menga, and the Macousis Imprema. The paper

MISCELLANY. 491

was accompanied by drawings sent to the Society by Mr. Schomburgk. — Mr.
Johnson, V.P., exhibited specimens of the rarer British plants; and Mr. D.
Cooper exhibited specime s of Cynoglossum sylvaticum, from Mickleham, Surrey.

CHAPTER OF MISCELLANIES.

ZOOLOGY.

The Capelin (Mallotus Grcenlandicus, Cuv. — In The Naturalist for August
you refer (p. 437) to a fish brought from Iceland by Mr. Proctor. I had two
specimens put into my hands ; and if your specimen is the same as mine, it is
the Capelin of authors, Mattotus Grcenlandicus of Cu vier's Regne Animal, Vol.
II., p. 305, edit, of 1829, Salmo Grosnlandicus of Bloch, plate 381. No true
Herring has a second dorsal fin, either rayless or rayed. — William Yarrell,
London, Aug. 4, 1828.

BOTANY.

Localities of Plants in the Neighbourhood of Liverpool. — The following
list of plants, extracted from Withering's Botany (ed. 1830) I send for the
purpose of obtaining confirmation of such localities as may have been noticed by
any of your subscribers ; those marked with an asterisk may be presumed to be
extinct, as my friend Mr. Tudor, who has diligently examined the Botany of the
north shore of Liverpool, does not now find them in the localities mentioned,
which may easily be accounted for, when the great alterations and improvements
which have taken place within the last few years in the neighbourhood of Liver-
pool, are considered. They were inserted by Dr. Withering on the authority of
Dr. Bostock, who formerly resided in Liverpool, and of the late Mr. Shepherd.

* Pinguicula vulgaris, Crosby Marsh. Dr. B. — * Utricularia minor, Sparingly
near Bootle, and Little Crosby. Dr. B. May not U. vulgaris have been mistaken
for this, as it is found in that neighbourhood ? — Ophrys spiralis, Allerton, and
woods at Ince. Dr. B. — Crocus nudiflorus. One mile and a half from Liver-
pool on the road to Allerton. S. — * Schoenus compressus. Bootle, north shore.
Dr. B. Is it possible that S. rufus has been mistaken for it, as it is found about
there ? See Vol I. of the New Botanists' Guide, p. 303. — Carex intermedia,
and C.pilulifera. The Park. Dr. B. I suppose Toxteth Park, now built upon. —
Littorella lacustris. Crosby Marsh. Dr. B. I have not put an asterisk against
this, as Mr. Shepherd, the present curator of the Botanic Gardens, told me it

4J)2 MISCELLANY.

grew there, but I am doubtful if it can now be found there. — Vinca minor. Tox-
teth Park, and in profusion at the Nut Woods, near Hale. Dr. B. I should
doubt if it was really wild in the first-mentioned locality. — Statice limonium.
Garston. Dr. B. — Narcissus pseudo-narcissus. Bank Hall. Dr. B. Mr. Tudor
says this is a very suspicious locality, and that it has the appearance of once being
a garden. — Chrysosplenium oppositi folium. Gateacre. Dr. B. — Cotyledon um-
bilicus. On old walls about Liverpool. Dr. B. — Sedum villosum. Bootle. Mr.
James Roscoe. — Rosa tomentosa. Bootle. S. — Nuphar lutea. In the river Alt,
by Formby. S. This I have never seen in the neighbourhood of Liverpool, or in
Cheshire, though the White Water-lily (N. alba.) is very common. — * Ranun-
culus par vijlor us. Bootle. Dr. B. Crosby. S. — Orobanche major. Near Aller-
ton Hall, on the road to Liverpool. R. Roscoe. — * Geranium sanguineum.
Sand hills, north shore. Dr. B. — * Trifolium scabrum. Tide Milldam. Dr. B.
This is destroyed. — T. B. Hall, Woodside, Liverpool, May 4, 1838.

Clinopodium vulgare. — At p. 27 of The Naturalist, I stated that Clinopodium
vulgare was mentioned in the New Botanists' Guide, but I find that it is an
error on my part, as it is not mentioned there. I discovered my mistake on read-
ing Mr. Watson's Geography of British Plants, where it is included in the
catalogue of species occurring in twelve local floras, and consequently excluded by
Mr. Watson's test. — Id.

Possibility of cultivating Tea in Northern Countries. — In a letter from
the Abbe Voisin to M. Stanislas Julien, we find a statement which proves that
the Tea-tree may be cultivated in our northern climates. The former has resided ■
twelve years in China, near the frontiers of Thibet, in which country all the spe-
cies of Tea are successfully cultivated in the plains, as well as on the mountains ;
although the degree of cold there much exceeds that of our winters, and the snow
never melts before the end of April. Twenty-four treatises concerning Tea have
been composed in China from the seventh century to the present time, and which
contain all the requisite instructions for the culture and preparation of this plant,
and which will be translated by M. Voisin, if required in Europe. — Athenceum,
May 26, 1838.

Cultivation of Vanilla in France. — M. Charles Morren has succeeded in
raising the Vanilla in France, and making it produce fruit. He placed the plants
in Coke, strewn with the remains of rotten Willow-wood. In this situation the
same plant bears fruit only every alternate year, and twelve months elapse between
the fecundation of the flower and the maturity of the fruit. — Id.

Power of Lightning. — A very fine Oak-tree, in the park of the Duke of Buck-
ingham, was shivered into shreds by lightning, lately ; every particle of the outer
bark was torn off the trunk and larger branches, and scattered to a distance of
sixty yards from the tree. The fibres of the wood itself were separated into

MISCELLANY. 493

fragments like thread. A Partridge was found dead within forty yards of the
trunk, and had evidently been killed by the explosion. — Star in the East, July
14, 1838.

Ancient Oak. — Few connected with Monmouthshire are unacquainted with the
celebrated Gelynos Oak, near Newport, the contents of which were upwards of
forty-eight tons ! Probably few are acquainted with the Cse Rheidr Oak standing
above the river Usk, about two miles from Caerleon, on Pencreeg farm, the pro-
perty of Colonel Mackwoeth. This most venerable and gigantic Oak-tree,
which has been lithographed, is very much of the same description as that at
Gelynos, and probably nearly as old, and of little less dimensions. They who
take a pilgrimage to the old Roman ground of the Isca Silurum, and the ancient
mansion of the accomplished Lord Herbert, of Cherbury, at St. Julian's, should
extend their walk two miles further, to Llanhennock Church, near which they will
find this magnificent surviver. — Merthyr Guardian.

GEOLOGY.

Submarine Volcano. — On the 25th of last November, the Captain and pas-
sengers of the brig Ccesar, from Havre, on passing the bank of Bahama, saw an
enormous fire, which increased till it had tinged the whole of the sky and part of
the horizon. It was kept in sight for four hours, and could only be accounted
for as proceeding from a submarine volcano. On the 3rd of January, the Captain
of the Sylphide, also from Havre, being on the same spot, found the sea disturbed,
and whitish in colour, which he attributed to the same cause. To these notices,
conveyed to the French Academy of Sciences, M. Moreau de Jonnes adds, that
on the 30th of the same November, an earthquake took place at Martinique.
The shock was violent, and the heat very great. — Athenceum, May 12, 1838.

New Fossils. — The indefatigable M. Lartet continues his researches, and
fresh discoveries will now enable naturalists to complete the osteology of the Dog
called Amphicyon. The half of another jaw of a Monkey has also been dis-
covered.— Id.

Colossal Remains. — A Wiltshire paper states, that within these few days
some remains of a huge animal, to all appearance of the Ox kind, had been
discovered in the Avon, at Melksham. In casting a net it became entangled in
a deep pool, and after getting clear, brought up an immense horn. This led to
further search, and after much trouble the skull and the other horn were brought
up. The horns are stated to be finely formed, 39 inches in length, 17J inches in
circumference near the base, and separated in the skull by 12 inches. . A rib of
corresponding size has since been fished up. How long they have been in the
water it is impossible of course to conjecture, but appearances, it is said, indicate
that it must have been centuries.

VOL. III.- NO. XXIV. 3 T

494

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

The Connexion of Natural and Divine Truth ; or, the Study of the Inductive
Philosophy considered as subservient to Theology. By the Rev. Baden Powell,
M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., of Oriel College, Savilian Professor of Geometry in the
University of Oxford. London: John W. Parker, West Strand. 1838. 8vo.
pp. 313.

This volume reached us some months ago ; our notice of it has not been thus
long delayed because it emanates from the pen of a Rev. Oxford Professor, and
because it must therefore be " flat, stale, and unprofitable," but because, in spite
of its birth-place, it appears to us a model of sound unpretending liberality, and
hence demands a careful perusal. The Rev. Prof. Powell, M.A., is fully aware
of his " grievous heresies," but testifies no false alarm at the thoughts of publish-
ing them to the world. He relies on Man's natural love of truth too confidently
and too justly to believe that the promulgation of it will be a cause of alarm.
If he errs, it is an error of judgment and not of. intention. To blame any one
for his opinion is really very ridiculous. For instance, some one conscientiously
believes that there is no God : we consider that he is mistaken, and endeavour to
convince him of it ; but never can we blame him for boldly declaring his belief.
It would be time enough to blame him when, disbelieving the existence of the
Deity, he should, from whatever motive, attempt to maintain an opposite opinion
in the face of the world. Let no one think himself liberal or charitable so long
as he can confer the epithets " atheist," " infidel," &c, as terms of contempt.
We are none of us infallible ; and in a point shrouded in the utmost perplexity
to the deepest thinker, it is possible the " atheist" may be right. Let us no
longer discuss these high, these difficult subjects with fear. If the world be really
governed by one Almighty Power — which we firmly believe — the more the
point is investigated, the more likely shall we be to arrive at the truth ; but if
we shrink from reason through fear of upsetting favourite theories, where is our
safeguard? If, again, the Scriptures are directly inspired — if the "Song of
Solomon" (a love-song which, published in any modern novel, would be denounced
immoral), the writings of Moses, and the Epistles, are alike the immediate
emanations of God's boundless wisdom, fear not that the employment of our
reason will weaken our respect for them. Did God give us our highest faculties
in order that they should lie dormant, be termed " proud," " vain," and never be
exercised to decipher His noble works ? That the majority of our spiritual
advisers think thus is very clear — that our author is of an entirely opposite
opinion, we are happy to find. To prove that the preachings and the practice of

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS. 4Q5

the former are at variance with each other, and that neither, taken separately, is
in accordance with reason, but merely in obedience to blind impulses, were no
difficult matter ; but space, and a sincere desire to do our author some kind of
justice, as well as the objects of our Journal, forbid it.

Our author divides his book into the following sections : — 1. the evidence of
physical truth ; 2. the nature of physical truth ; 3. the relation of physical truth
to Natural Theology ; 4. the relation of Physical Science and of Natural Theology
to Revelation. The subject is so extensive, that we shall select one section for
consideration, and briefly glance at some of its principal contents. It shall be
the fourth, as there, we find, we have made the greatest number of marks on
perusal.

Natural Theology, says Prof. Powell, is decried at one time as weak ; at
another, as dangerous ; despised by those ignorant of its nature, and " dreaded by
those who tremble at the dawn of truth and free inquiry, for their dogma?,
whether of atheism, fanaticism, or orthodoxy." (p. 218.) The history of past
ages supplies us with familiar examples of this position. And although the
particular points which now agitate the world are different from what they then
were, the grand question still is, " whether we are to adhere to the letter of
Scriptural representation in opposition to the testimony of inductive research, or
whether it is safe, rational, or consistent with an enlightened and well-grounded
faith, to stake the reception or rejection of Christianity on the credit of these
particular expressions." (p. 236.) Mr. Powell believes Scripture to be inspired,
but that, seeing the contradictory nature of many of its own statements, and of
these compared with the results of modern science, it is absolutely necessary to
test the whole of the Bible by reason and experience. Alluding to the Mosaic
account of the creation, he says : —

" From the time of Moses downwards, no one has ever imagined the secret meaning of the
description to the present day, and, when disclosed, it affords no instruction, since it cannot be so
much as understood till the facts have been learnt from geological study, and when they have
been, it is superfluous." — p. 249.

For a nearly similar opinion of our own see our present volume, p. 444. — The
claims of the Bible on our attention, justly observes our author, must rest on
natural-theological testimony ; he adds, that those who would construct systems
of philosophy from the Bible, and " the Bible-geologists of the present day, who
attempt to force its language into accordance with philosophical results," pursue
this " mistaken principle of reasoning," and " make revelation the guide to philo-
sophy." (p. 238.) These gentlemen build their houses upon the sand, and fail to
anticipate the consequences. " Scriptural Geology is as preposterous in principle
as statutable Geometry. By the same rule we ought to criticise Poetry on the

3t 2

496 REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

grounds of Metaphysics ; and establish the processes of Chemistry by the precepts
of Rhetoric." (p. 240.)

" Too many nominal Christians entertain only the most miserable idea of the
nature of the gospel they profess to believe ; their only notion consists in a con-
fused general impression of a. certain sacredness in Scripture," which causes them
to be alarmed lest its sanctity should be invaded either by themselves or by
others. " Adopting their creed blindly from education, too many hold their religion
by a most loose and uncertain tenure, and are so lamentably confused in their
notions of its nature, that they dread a formidable shock to Christianity in every
physical discovery" (p. 242.), as though, if the Bible were infallible, a knowledge
of God's works would bring proof of the falsity of His word. " There are some
who join most vehemently in the cry against science in general, and Geology in
particular, as dangerous to religion, upon no sincere grounds of religious con-
viction." (p. 244.) We may add, there are many who, professing to believe
Geology, refuse to receive its results save where they square with preconceived
notions : these, too, have not, necessarily, any sincere religious conviction for
their basis. But far greater is the number of those who, comprehending neither
Bible nor Science, uphold the one because sanctioned by education, party, or
custom, and reject the other upon grounds equally rational. " The one party
seeking to support religion by the propagation of falsehood, the other by the
suppression of truth, both agree in treating truth as if it were falsehood, and thus
give its enemies the fairest ground to think it so." (p. 245.)

Still considering Science in relation to the first chapter of Genesis, Mr. Powell
remarks : — ■

" It is matter of sincere regret still to see some excellent writers keeping up this temporizing
system, when it would be so much more worthy a course boldly to front the difficulty, and avow
the contradiction in plain terms ; but instead of this, we observe them exerting their utmost
ingenuity to elude the contradictions, either by disguising the facts, or glossing over the words with
the most flimsy interpretations. * * * The subject, when simply and calmly considered, is
plain, and hardly open to misapprehension ; but men cannot be brought to consider it simply and
calmly."— p. 247.

After discussing more minutely the Geology of Moses, and the various inter-
pretations it has received, Prof. Powell concludes the chapter by " assuming that
the inquirer and interpreter are both sincere seekers of truth." (p. 253.) Is it,
then, possible that those who profess to obtain their morality from the Bible, and
who believe that the Bible is inspired, can need to be reminded that they ought
to be lovers of truth ? Alas ! they have yet to learn that what is true is of God,
and must, therefore, be beneficial.

Our author distinctly allows the falsity of the Mosaic account j but at the same
time he attempts to justify it, on the score of " adaptation to the ideas of the

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE. 41)7

Jews." We cannot agree with him on this point, thinking as we do that the
anticipation of ultimate truth can never justify even the temporary promulgation
of falsehood. Is it. that truth in general can best be arrived at by factitious
means ; or that this falsehood of Moses in particular has so greatly promoted the
cause of truth during a period of eighteen hundred years ? These expedients,
fortunately, on whatever authority based, cannot produce permanent evil. But
the lapse of centuries is often necessary to dispel a single error, when supported
by bigotry and apparent interest.

Prof. Powell then proceeds to observe that " to those whose views are such as
to amalgamate all the different parts of the Bible into one, a difficulty found in
one part will assume the character of an objection to all other parts, and seriously
endanger the stability of the whole." (p. 265.) That the discovery of an error
in one part does not prove the falsity of the whole, either in the Bible or any
other book, we perfectly agree with our author ; but it obviously and at once
deprives the volume of its supposed infallibility.

But we must here, unfortunately, close our difficult and tantalizing task.
Were we to impart a satisfactory idea of this work to our readers, it would be by
presenting them with a copy of the volume itself. Rarely have we met with a
book so truly candid, so logical, and so clear; but our pleasure increases ten-fold
when we consider the sect, profession, and titles of our author. Nominally he
belongs to the Church of England — actually he upholds no creed, sect, or party.
Add to this his extensive knowledge and reading, and we at once admit him to be
ably competent to the composition of such a work.

But we must not part without a word to the Oxonians. Either the worthy
inhabitants of the time-honoured city must have been firmly locked in the arms
of Somnus when they suffered the elevation of such a man as Professor Powell to
enter the chair of Geometry in their hallowed University, or else they elected, him
wholly ignorant of his religious opinions, and his unconditional devotion to truth.
Will he be suffered to retain his dignity after writing such a book ?

To the public generally we would respectfully hint, that it were indeed the
" eighth wonder of the world" should it so happen that the rest of mankind is
alarmed at the uncompromising liberality and love of reason displayed by a
Reverend Professor, A.M., in the University of Oxford.

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

We understand that the thirty-seventh number of Hewitson's British Oology,
completing that beautiful and accurate work, has been published. — It gives us
pleasure to announce the appearance of a second edition of Dr. Mantell's Won-
ders of Geology.

493

PORTRAITS, MEMOIRS, AND AUTOGRAPHS OF LIVING AND

RECENTLY-DECEASED NATURALISTS, BRITISH AND

FOREIGN.

We have long had in contemplation a series of the above nature, and have
at length so far completed our arrangements as to be enabled to announce the
appearance, in our next number, of a portrait, memoir, and autograph of the late
Dr. Latham, celebrated as an ornithologist wherever Natural History is a study.
The consent of several eminent naturalists to appear in " The Naturalist's
Portrait Gallery," has likewise already been obtained, so that there will be no
interruption in the series. We natter ourselves it will be admitted that no
difficulties, however great, have been allowed to hinder the performance of any
plan proposed by the present Editor, relative to The Naturalist. This ought to
assure us some confidence for the future. But at the same time our readers may
desire definite information respecting the proposed addition.

It may, then, be observed that a portrait will be issued every alternate month,
without any advance in price, and without interfering with the necessary illus-
trations in Natural History. Further, let it be distinctly understood, that no
commercial speculation is intended ; but that the plan, having appeared desirable
to ourselves, and having received the approbation of many present subscribers,
as well as of several who on that account intend to become subscribers, we have
no hesitation in commencing it.

Our subjects will in most cases be living naturalists, but a few exceptions will
be made in favour of those who have recently quitted the world. In almost every
instance the portraits will be original. Thus when an indifferent portrait of any
individual is already on paper,we should on no account republish it on the score of
economy, but would either take an improved copy from it, or procure an altogether
fresh likeness. There are, for example, portraits of Audubon,Wilson,Kirby, &c,
before the world ; but they are both mediocre in execution, and scarcely known out
of London, except where they are inserted as frontispieces to the authors' own works.

A memoir will in every possible case accompany the portrait, and will consist
either of a memoir of the life of the individual, and of a notice of his scientific
labours and official stations, or of the latter only.

Thirdly, an autograph will appear with the portrait.

Our aim, therefore, is to render the public more intimately acquainted with the
labours and lives of those individuals whose exertions have best answered the ends
of Natural Science ; and it is anticipated that at the close almost every name of
eminence will be included. The series will comprise scientific naturalists, popular
naturalists, and patrons of Natural History ; but of course no " artificial classifi-
cation" will be attempted in the execution of the plan.

In fine, the series itself will best testify to the manner in which our views,
here briefly stated, will be carried out.

Campsall Hall, near Doncaster, Aug. 15, 1838.

END OF THE THIRD VOLUME.

INDEX.

ORIGINAL PAPERS.

Page.

Remarks on the Natural History, Scenery, and
Manners of Ne«- Zealand. By Thomas Kier
Shout, Esq 1

List of Diurnal Lcjtidoptera captured in the
Neighbourhood of St. Andrews in 1837- By
Henry Buist 4

Account of a young Cuckoo. By W. H. Ben-
ste d 7

Habits of the Natterjack (Ranarubetra^istt.).
By R. Tudor, Esq 8

Some Account of an Excursion to the Subma-
rine Forest, Leasowes, Cheshire. By A Mem-
ber of the British Association 10

Catalogue of Coleopterous Insects found in Dor-
setshire. By James Charles Dale, Esq.,
A.M., F.L.S 12

Some Account of the principal Works on Ento-
mology. By Peter Rylands, Es.q 19

Derivations of the Latin Names of British
Plants. By T. B.Hall 22

Derivations of the Latin Names of British
Plants. ByT. B.Hall 59

On the Natural History, Scenery, &c, of New
Zealand. By T.K. Short, Esq 63

On the Growth and Development of Horns. By
BevKbley R. Morris, Esq <3G

Notice of the Works most interesting to the
Student of British Plants. By Edwin Lees,
F.L.S., M.E.S.L 68

Remarks on the Bitterns. By Edward Blyth. 72

Hints to young Entomologists on catching,
keeping, and breeding Insects. By J. C.
Dale, Esq., A.M., F.L.S 81

Flowering Plants for February. By T. B Hall 87

Observations on the Popularity of Natural His-
tory. By Edwin Lees, F.L.S 115

Account of the Soirees at the Liverpool Royal
Institution. By T. B. Hall 123

On the Migration of Birds. By Petbr Ry-
lands, Esq 127

On the Nature, Varieties, and Development of
Teeth in the class Mammalia. By Bever-
ley R. Morris, Esq ]3l

Addenda to Mr.MoRRis's " Derivations of the
Latin Names of British Birds." ByT. B.Hall 137

British Flowering Plants for March 140

On the Geographical Distribution of Birds. By
Edward Blyth, Curator of the Ornitholo-
gical Society 169

On the relative Advantages of the Linnaean and

Pagt.
Natural Arrangements of Plants. By Edwin

La.vkester, M.R.C.S 175

Manners and Customs of the New Zealanders.
By T. K. Short, Esq 178

Derivations of the Latin Names of British
Plants. By T. B. Hall — 181

H ours among Rocks and Clouds. By Edwin
Lees, F.L.S., M.E.S 186

British Flowering Plants for April 193

On the Phj sical Power of Insects as Labourers,
and on their Architecture. By R. Adik 229

Explanation of a peculiar Mechanism in the
Trachea of Birds. By William MacGil-
livray, A.M., F.R.S.E., M.W.S 238

The lowest Temperature of January, 1838. By
Hewett Cottrell Watson, Esq., F.L.S. . 241

Further Hints to young Entomologists. By
Peter Rylands, Esq 244

On the Growth and Longevity of Trees 249

British Flowering Plants for May 251

A Sketch of the New Red Sandstone Formation.
By the Rev. Thomas Dwyer, A.M., and
George Thompson, Esq 285

Notes on the Ornithology of St- Andrews. By
Henry Buist 287

Observations on the Popularity of Natural His-
tory. By Edwin Lees, F.L.S .". . . 891

Account of a Fossil Zoophyte, Alcyonia moni-
lia, discovered in the lower Greensand of the
Iguanodon Quarry, Maidstone. By W. H.
Bensted 302

On the Habits and Peculiarities of British
Plants, and on the Derivations of their Latin
Names. By T.B.Hall 305

On Lists of Flowering Plants for the Months
By Nevillk Wood, Esq 310

Some Remarks on Specific Distinctions. By
Peter Rylands, Esq 341

A History of the Nightingale. By Edward
Blyth, Curator of the Ornithological Society 343

Sketches of European Ornithology. By Ne-
ville Wood, Esq 353

Hours among Rocks and Clouds. By Edwin
Lees, F.L.S 360

On the Habits and Peculiarities of British
Plants, and on the Derivations of their Latin
Names. By T. B. Hall 37*

Remarks on the general Structure and Habits of
Invertebrate Animals. By Edwin Lankes-
ter, M.R.C.S 397

500

INDEX.

Page.
Notes on an Ornithological Tour in Iceland in

the Summer of 1837. By W. Proctor, Sub-
curator of the Durham University Museum . .' 410
Notice of Rare Birds obtained during the Win-
ter of 1837-8. By Edward Blyth, Curator

of the Ornithological Society 412

A List of Birds found in Middlesex. By H. J.

Torre 420

Effect of the Winter of 1838 on Vegetation in
the Neighbourhood of Thames Ditton, Sur-
rey. By H. C. Watson, Esq.. F.L.S 453

On the Sources of Heat which influence Cli-
mate. By A Member of the Liverpool

Natural History Society 457

On the Exciting Causes of Varieties in Birds

and other Animals. By Neville Wood, Esq. 467
On the Habits and Peculiarities of British
Plants, and on the Derivations of their Latin

Names. By T. B. Hall 470

Sketches of European Ornithology. By Ne-
ville Wood, Esq. . . . '. 475

CORRESPONDENCE.

Queries and Notes respecting certain Plants, T. B.
Hall, 26 ; Promiscuous Notes on various To-
pics, Thomas Allis, 28; Observations on the
Bitterns, Edward Blyth, 87; Glossary of Bo-
tanical Terms, T. B. Hall, 88 ; Ornithological
Notes, Rev. R. P. Alington, 88 ; Distribution
of the Corn Bunting, Id., 89; Further Notes on
Birds, Id., 90; Prize-essays on the Turnip-fly, J.
O. Westwood, F.L.S., 140; Anecdote of a Snake
and a Toad, W. H. Bensted, 195 ; Formation of
the Bark and Wood of Trees, Edwin Lankes-
ter, M.R.C.S. ; 196; the British Swans, G. L.
Lister, 255; Plan for an Oological Cabinet, J.
D. Salmon, 311; Peewit Lapwing's Mode of
taking its Food, Jabez Allies, Esq., 311 ; Sug-
gestions for a Work on the Localities of British
Insects, Peter Rylands, Esq., 312; Occurrence
of the Pied Flycatcher in Nottinghamshire, H. J.
T.,313; Notes on the Habits of the Dormouse,
Richard Pigott, 377; Habits of the Red-throat-
ed Diver, Id., 377; Query respecting the Oozing
of Water from the Walnut-tree, Id., 377 ; Geo-
logy and Scripture, James Pringle, 423; On
the Formation of Charcoal from Plants embedded
in Sandstone, Id., 423 ; Difficulty of framing an
Entomological Glossary, Peter Rylands, Esq.,
424 ; General Observations on The Naturalist and
on Natural History, Richard Pigott, 482 ; Cap-
ture of a Butterfly by a Dragonfly, Id., 483 ; Im-
propriety of the wanton Destruction of Birds,
Id., 484.

CHAPTER OF CRITICISM.

On Ornithological Nomenclature, R. H. Sweet-
ing, Surgeon, 29 ; Query respecting Mr. Mac-
Gillivray's Articles on Anatomy, Medical
Student, 31 ; Mistake in a Communication by
the Rev. F. O. Morris, J. C. Dale, Esq., A.M.,
F.L.S., 90 ; Critical Remarks on Mr. Dale's Dor-
setshire Fauna, Edward Blyth, 91 ; Extracts
from New English Publications, G. H. Wynne,
Esq., 91; Brief Reply to Mr. Sweeting, Rev.
F. O. Morris, B.A.,91; Acephalous Mammalia,
E. Lankester, M.R.C.S.,141; Errata in a Paper
on New Zealand, by T. K. Short, Esq., Id.,
142; Mr. Crosse's Experiments, Id., 142; Lining
of the Wren's Nest, B. R. Morris, Esq., 143; Re-
ply to Mr. Hall's Queries respecting certain
Plants, T. K. Short, Esq., 197 ; On Mr. Lan-
kkster's Remarks respecting Christmas-day,
1837, Peter Rylands, Esq., 197; the Organ of
Locality, and the Migration of Birds, Id., 256 ;
Strictures on the Wood-cuts in\ arrkll's British
Birds, T. B. Hall, 256; Vernacular Names of
Totanus ochroptis and T. glottis, Peter Rylands,
Esq., 259; Formation of Pearl, J. L. Levison,
378 ; Scientific Name of the Pied Wagtail, Peter.
Rylands, Esq., 380 ; Relative Advantages of the
Linnaan and.Natural Systems of Botany, Edwin
Lees, F.L.S., 380; Observations on Mr. Wood's
British Song Birds, Rev. W. T. Bree, 424 ; For-
mation of Pearl, E. Lankester, M.R.C.S., 484;
Linriffian and Natural Systems of Botany, Id.,
485.

PROCEEDINGS OF NATURAL HIS-
TORY SOCIETIES.

Ornithological Society, 32; Medico-Botanical So-
ciety, 35 ; Linnaean Society, 36 ; Zoological Gar-
dens of Cheltenham, 36; Zoological Society, 37;
Botanical Society, 38 ; Leeds Zoological and
Botanical Gardens, 92; Cheltenham Horticultural
and Floral Society, 94; Cheltenham Literary and
Philosophical Institution, 94 ; Gloucestershire Zoo-
logical, Botanical, and Horticultural Society, 97 ;
Ornithological Society, 98; Royal Society, 143;
Royal Astronomical Society, 144; Royal Geogra-
phical Society, 144 ; Sheffield Literary and Phi-
losophical Society, 345; Geological Society of the
West-Riding of Yorkshire, 145 ; Ornithological
Society, 146; Zoological Society, 198; Yorkshire
Philosophical Society, 199; Royal Asiatic Society,
201 ; Botanical Society, 202 ; French Society for
the Diffusion and Advancement of Natural His-
tory, 204 ; Warrington Phrenological Society, 205;
Hull Literary and Philosophical Society, 260;

INDEX.

501

Union of the Cheltenham Horticultural and
Floral Society and the Gloucestershire Zoological,
Botanical, and Horticultural Society, 260 ; Chel-
tenham Literary and Philosophical Institution,
261 ; Ornithological Society, 313 ; Botanical So-
ciety, 314; Entomological Society, 315; Sheffield
Literary and Philosophical Institution, 316; Ox-
ford Ashmolean Society, 317 ; Bristol, Clifton, and
West of England Zoological Society, 318; Chelten-
ham Literary and Philosophical Institution, 318 ;
Entomological Society, 431; Ornithological So-
ciety, 431 ; Geological Society, 433; Botanical
Society, 434 ; Horticultural Society, 434 ; Metro-
politan Society of Florists and Amateurs, 435;
Zoological Society, 435; Bath Royal Horticul-
tural and Botanical Society ,436; Wolverhampton
and Staffordshire Horticultural and Floral Society,
436; Salop Horticultural Society, 536; Doncaster
Lyceum, 436; British Association, 436; Liverpool
Natural History Society, 487 ; Botanical Society,
490.

EXTRACTS FROM THE FOREIGN
PERIODICALS.

Zoology.— Anatomy of Pentastoma Uenioides, 99 ;
Mucous Body, or Colouring Tissue of the Skin,
in the Charruan Indians, the Negro, and the Mu-
latto.100; Anatomy of Pentastoma Umioides, 147;
Hereditary Tendency of certain Faculties in Ani-
mals, 206; Proboscis of the Elephant, 319; Saga-
city of Animals, 320; Hybernation of Swallows,
428 ; Nature of Sponge, 428 ; Extravagant Fea-
thered Architect, 428; Food of Silkworms, 428;
Malayan Albino, 428.

Botany.— Introduction of the Culture of Rice in
the Centre of France, 38 ; Vegetables used as Food
for the Horse, 40; Sleep of Flowers, 41; Corolla
of Cistace(r,12 ; Sleep of Flowers, 101 ; Connexion
of the Cells of Plants, 149; Comparative Estimate
of the Meteorological Circumstances under which
Corn, Maize, and Potatoes grow at the Equator
and under the Temperate Zone, 207; Saccharine
Nature of Beet-root, 208 ; Expansion and Sleep of
Leaves, 208; Phosphorescent Vegetables, 321;
Vegetable Acids, 429.

Geology.— Fossil Teeth of Oran,321 ; Fossil Sala-
mander, 429 ; Narrow-toothed Mastodon found at
Gers, 430 ; Tombs in Santorini, 430.

CHAPTER OF MISCELLANIES.

Zoology. — Kingfisher shot near St. Andrews, 43;
Virginia overrun with Partridges, 43; Frog sitting
on a Fish's back, 43; Anecdote of a Robin Red-

breast, 44 ; Query respecting Prize- essays on the
Turnip-fly, 45 ; Deaths from eating Fungi, 45;
Female Ourang Outang, 45 ; Sagacity of a Horse,
46; Curiosities in Natural History, 46; Habits of
the Spring Oatear, 46; Reply to Critical Observa-
tions by Peter Rylands, Esq., 46; Rough-leg-
ged Buzzard near Scarborough, 47; White Variety
of the Garden Ouzel, 47; Toads imbedded in
Stone, 47 ; Snowy Owl shot in Dorsetshire, 48 ;
Capture of an Eagle by a Boy, 48 ; Capture of a
Whale, 48 ; Addition to Mr. Dale's List of Dor-
setshire Insects, 48; Large Ray-fish found off
Ferroe, 48 ; Changes of Colour in the Plumage of
Birds without Moulting, 48; Haunts of the
Darklegged Warbler (Sylvia loquax), 49; Land
Crab of Jamaica, 49; Size of the Cuckoo's Egg,
103; Notes on the Birds of Portsmouth, 103;
Notes on the Neighbourhood of Godalming, 104 ;
Instances of the Capture of Vanessa antiope, 105 ;
Remarkable Fact, 105; the Blood of Quadrupeds
poisonous to Birds, 106; Prize-essays on the Tur-
nip-fly, 106; Hen Harrier near Scarborough, 106;
Wild Swans near Ayr, 106 ; Addition to the Lan-
cashire Fauna, 107 ; the Winter of 1837-8, 107;
Sense of Taste in Birds, 107 ; How to find the
larvae of Tortrix, 108 ; Butterfly seen on Christ-
mas-day, 108; Warrington Phrenological Society,
108 ; Crambus aridellus, 109 ; Nidification of the
Martin Swallow, 109; Scarcity of the Merlin
Falcon near Scarborough, 109; Pontia callidice,
109; a Species of Calosoma taken in Dorsetshire,
109; Dalmatian Kinglet (Reauhts modeslus) , 109;
Importance of Phrenology to Naturalists, 110 •
Sayings and Doings of Skatets, 111; Prolificacy
of the Blackbird, 152; Mode of extracting Grease
from Insects, 152 ; Child carried off by a Baboon,
152; Consumptive Animals, 153; Severity of the
Winter, and Abundance of Birds, 153 ; Aerial Au-
gurs, 154; Famished Wolves, 154; Wild Ducks
affected by Frost, 154; Cabbage Butterfly abroad
in February, 155; Pheasants and Pheasant-hunt-
ing in Norfolk, 155; Frozen Otter, 155; Note*
on Telracnemm diversicornis, 155; Capture of
the Eagie Owl offFlamborough Head, 155 ; Birds
observed near Doncaster during the Frost, 155;
Organ of Comrounication-of-Ideas in Man, 156;
Hybrids between the Lion and the Tiger, 156 ;
Mode of killing Insects, 157; Curious Locality
for the Hedge Dunnock's Nest, 157; the Finear
(Crambus), 157; Preserving Natural Objects in
Spirits of Wine, 157 ; Occurrence otApis meWfica
on Dec. 31, 158; Goatsucker near the Sea-coast,
158; Ildobia brevicollis, var. Portlandiea, 158;
Crambus lamellus, 158 ; Common Seal, 158; Sub-
stitute for Cork Lining in Entomological Cabinet*,

VOL. III. NO. XXIV.

o U

502

INDEX.

159 ; Carabus agrestis, C. horteiisis, and ft nemo-
ralis, 159; Natterjack Toad, 1*9; Siskin near
Scarborough, 160; Sayings and Doings of Skaters,
160; Oological Cabinets, 211; Rare Birds taken
during the late Frost. 211; Weaver's Museum at
Birmingham, 212; How to drown a Fish, 212;
Hooper Swan, 213; Entomological Notes, 213;
Effect of the Drainage of Fens, 214; Royal
Poacher, 214 ; Dromedary breeding in England,
215; Red-necked Grebe in Cumberland, 215;
Grousnear Richmond during the Frost, 215; Sin-
gular Mode of taking the Stork, 215 ; Albinism
in a Swallow, 215 ; Garrulous Roller near Scar-
borough, 216 ; Hooper Swan, 516 ; Pigeon frozen
on its Perch, 216; Kingfisher frozen to Death,
216; Red-breasted Merganser, 216; Instance of
Extraordinary Fecundity in the Sheep, 216;
Death's-head Moth, 216; Crenilabrus rupestris,
in the Frith of Forth, 217; Six-spot Burnet near
St. Andrews, 218; Insects in Turpentine, 218;
American Wigeon taken in Lincolnshire, 279;
Submarine Wood at Bootle, 279; Occurrence of
the Otter near Cupar, 279 ; Chrysomela polita,
322 ; Conchology of the Neighbourhood of Liver-
pool, 32«J; Turtle Dove shot near Scarborough,
323; JEshna versus Eschna, 323 ; Sparrow's Nest
in January, 323 ; Bohemian Waxwing in York-
shire, 324 ; Kyssia zonaria, 324 ; Animals eat in
Proportion to their Temperature, 324; White
Moles, 325; First Swallow near Worcester in
1838, 325; Birds, &c„ noticed in April, 1838,
near Maidstone, 325: Harmless Nature of the
Slow-worm, 325 ; White Crow, 325 ; Manna, 326 ;
Important Article of Food for Horses, Dogs, &».,
326; Death of a valuable black Tigress, 326; Ex-
traordinary Lamb, 327 ; Further News of the
Bonite, 327; Flight of Locusts in Benares, 327;
Invertebrata of the Coasts of Norway, 327 ; Or-
ganic Changes in Nature, 328; New Animals,
328 ; Mode of repelling the Wolf, 329 ; Arrow-
head in the Body of an Eagle, 329 ; Additional
Locality of the Red Grous, 436; Occurrence of
Velio, rivulorum, Jan. 5, 1838, 437; Nightingale
to the North of Doncaster, 437 ; Singular Locality
for the nest of the Robin Redbreast, 437 ; Lophius
piscatorius, 437; Remarks on Bats, 437; New
Herring found on the Coast of Iceland, 437; Oc-
currence of Amara ovata, 438; Scarce Swallow-
tail {Papilio podalirivs) a doubtful British Butter-
fly, 438; Pied Wagtail's Nest on a Railway Line,
439 ; New Shell allied to Cyclostoma, 439; Pippin
Crossbill in Cheshire, 439; Electrical Lady, 439;
Cure of Cancer, 440; Mode of destroying Snails,
440 ; Arcturtis Sparshalli at Horning, 440 ; Snow
Bunting near Scarborough, 440; Ospreyshot near

Bury, 440; New Birds, 440; Scientific Expedi-
tion, 441 ; the Capelin (Mallotus Gramlandicus),
491.

Botany.— Large Apples, 50; Extraordinary Cab-
bage-, Potato-, and Turnip-roots, 50, 51 ; Propa-
gation of Apple-trees, 51 ; Result of cutting down
Forests, 51 ; Species of Nuts indigenous to Bri-
tain, 160; Clematis vitaTba in Essex, Hampshire,
&c, 161 ; Blood-red Wheat, 161 ; Common But-
cher-broom (Ruscus aculeatut,) 161, 162; Kohl
Rabi, 162; New Wood for lining Entomological
Cases, 162; Hardy Natureof the Fuchsia, 162; In-
troduction of Tobacco into Britain, 162 ; Clinopo-
diumvulgare not a common Plant, 163; Locali-
ties for the Rough Shieldfern (Aspidhtm lonchitis),
219; Expansion and Closing of the Corolla of the
Water-lily, 219; Mad. Copin's Taste for Flowers,
220; Mildness of December, 1837, 220; Extraor-
dinary Increase of a Pea, 220 ; Cultivation of the
Cranberry, 220 ; Uses of the Alder-tree, 221 ; Spe-
cimen of Agave Americana at Clowarce Park,
221 ; Proportion of Forests to the Rest of the Soil
in the various Countries of Europe. 280 ; Enor-
mous Mushrooms, 280; Effects of the Frost in the
Horticultural Gardens, 200; Numerical Estimate
of the British Flora, 329; Sea-Kale Beet, or Silver
Beet, 330; Effect of Carbonic Acid on Vegetation,
330; Importance of Azote to Plants, 3RQ; Pro-
gress of Vegetable Life, 331 ; Cedar mountains
of South "Africa, 331 ; Mode of restoring frozen
Potatos, 439; Effects of the Winter of 1838 on •
Vegetation, 441 ; Effect of Carbonic Acid on Vege-
tation, 442; Localities of Plants in the Neigh-
bourhood of Liverpool, 491 ; Possibility of Cul-
tivating Tea in Northern Countries, 492; Cultiva-
tion of Vanilla in France, 492; Power of Lightning,
492 ; Ancient Oak, 493.

Geoi.ooy. — Bemains of Mammalia in Cheshire,
52; Minerals in Jamaica, 52 ; Interesting Remains
on the Bristol Road, 52t Antediluvian Remains
in Jackson County, Ohio, 52: Principal Works
on Geology, 163; Visit to the Salt-mines at
Northwich, 221 ; Teredo in Fossil Wood, 221 ; Pe-
trescent Tree, 222; Skeleton of Ichthyosaurus
found at Twerton, 281; Carbonized Tree, 281 ;
Fossil Shells on the Western Railway, 332 ; Sub-
marine Volcano, 493 ; New Fossils, 493 ; Colossal

. Remains found in the Avon, 493.

Meteorology.— Meteors on the Nights of Novem-
ber 12—14, 222 ; Patrick Murphy, Esq., 222.

REVIEWS OF NEW PUBLICATIONS.

The New Potanist's Guide to the Localities of the
Rarer Plants of Great. Britain, by Hkwett Cot-

INDEX.

503

trell Watson, Vol.11., Scotland, 53; Sacred
Philosophy of the Seasons, Vol. IV., Autumn, by
theEev. Henry Duncan, D.D., 54; Considera-
tions on the Vital Principle, by John Murray,
F.S.A., F.L.S., &c, 55; A Descriptive Account
of the Palo-de-Vaca, or Cow-tree of the Caracas,
by John Murray, F.S A., F.L.S., &c, 57; A
History of British Birds, by William Yahrell,
F.L.S., Sec.Z.S., Part iii., 57; The Phrenologi-
cal Journal, No. liv., 58 ; Considerations on Mo-
dern Theories of Geology, by Thomas Gtsborne,
M.A., Prebendary ofDurham,U2; The Weather
Almanac for the Year 1838, by P. Murphy, Esq.,
M.N.S., 43rd edit., 163; A History of British
Birds, by William Yarrell, F.L.S., SecZ.S.,
Partiv., 165; British Oology, by William C.He-
witson.No.xxxvl, 166; The British and Foreign
Medical Review, edited by John Forbes, M.D.,
F.R.S., and John Conolly, M.D., &c, No. ix.,
167; Observations on the Meteoric Shower of No-
vember, 1837. by Denison Olmsted, Professor
of Astronomy and Natural Philosophy in Yale
College, 223; A History of British Birds, by
William Yarrell, F.L.S., V.-P.Z.S., Part v.,
225; The Phrenological Journal, No. lv., New
Series, No. ii., 225 ; Prodromus Systemaf is Natura-
lis Regni Vegetabilis, auctore Aug. Pyramo Dk
Candolle, Pars sexta, 281 ; The Naturalist's Li-
brary, Vol. XX., Birds of Great Britain, Part i.,
Birds of Prey, by Sir William Jardine, Bart.,
&c, 282; The India Review; edited by Fre-
derick Corbyn, Esq., No. xvii., 283; A Treatise
on Geology, by John Phillips, F.R.S., F.G.S.,
Professor of Geology in King's College, London,
332 ; The Natural History of Quadrupeds and
Whales, by James Wilson, F.R.S.E., M.W.S.,
&c, 383 ; Introduction to the Modern Classifica-
tion of Insects, by J. O. Westwood, F.L.S., &c,
Part i., 387 ; A General and Comparative List of
the Birds of Europe and North America, by
Charles Lucian Bonaparte, Prince of Mu-
signano, 391 : Essays on Natural History, by
Charles Watkrton, Esq., 392 ; The Bee-
keeper's Manual, by Henry Taylor, 393; Man-
ual of British Botany, by D. C. Macreight,
M.D., F.R.C.P., &c. &c, 393; A Flora of the
Neighbourhood of Reigate, Surrey, by George
Luxford, A.L.S., F.B.S.E., 393 ; A History of

British Birds, by William Yarrell, F.L.S.,
V.-P.Z.S., Partvi., 394; The India Journal of
Medical and Physical Science, edited by Fre-
derick Corbyn, Esq., No. ix. — xii., 395; The
Wonders of Geology, by Gideon Mantell,
LL.D., F.R.S., &c. &c.&c.,442; Molluscous Ani-
mals, including Shell-fish, by John Fleming,
D.D., F.R.S.E., M.W.S., &c. &c. &c, 449; The
Connexion of Natural and Divine Truth, by the
Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., of
Oriel College, Savilian Professor of Geometry in
the University of Oxford, 494.

LITERARY INTELLIGENCE.

Bechstein's Cage Birds, new edit., 58; SirWM.
Jardine's British Birds, Vol. I., 58; Mantell's
Wonders of Geology, 58 ; Watson's New Bo-
tanist's Guide, 58 ; Swainson's Animals in Me-
nageries, 167; The Magazine of Zoology and
Botany, 167 ; Hope's Coleopterist's Manual, 228 ;
Sir William Jardine's Birds of Prey, 228 ; Wa-
terton's Essays on Natural History, 283; Har-
court On the Doctrine of the Deluge, 283;
Westwood's Introduction to the Modern Classi-
fication of Insects, 283; Jones's General Outline
of the Animal Kingdom, 395; Hall's Flora of
Liverpool, 395; Powell On the Connexion of
Natural and Divine Truth, 395 ; Wilson's Trea-
tise on Insects, 395; Fleming's Treatise on Mol-
luscous Animals, 395 ; Jameson's Treatise on
Mineralogy, 395; Bevan's Honey Bee, new edit.,
452; Powell On the Connexion of Natural and
Divine Truth, 452 ; Wilson's Treatise on In-
sects,452; HF.wiTSOX'sBritishOology,497; Man-
tell's Wonders of Geology, second edit., 497.

OBITUARY.

Mr. William Griffin, 168; Mr. George Shep-
herd, 168; Jabez Gibson, Esq., 283; Thomas
Andrew Knight, Esq., 396.

EXTRA.

Announcement of the proposed series, in The Na-
turalist, of Portraits, Memoirs, and Autographs
of eminent living and recently-deceased Natural-
ists, British and Foreign, 498.

504 INDEX.

LIST OF ENGRAVINGS.

Illustrations of Entomological Apparatus, J. C. Dale, Esq., del., Greenwood sc, pp. 59 and 115.— Illus-
trations of a curious Mechanism in the Trachea of Birds, W. MacGillivray del., Branston sc, p. 229. —
Restored Figure of Alcyonia monilia; Tentaculum running through the upright Stem of A. monilia,- Two
large Lobes of A. monilia, connected by a beaded Tentaculum, half the natural size; W. H. Bensted del.,
Branston sc, p. 285. — Oological Cabinet, J. D. Salmon del,, Branston sc, p. 385.— Tabular View of the
Disposition of Matter throughout Nature ; Monas termo magnified ; a Sponge, with its oral and fcecal Orifices,
and tubular Structure, exposed ; Tentaculaof Polypipliera ; Nervous System of Talitrus locusta ; Nervous
System of Beroe pileus ; Nervous System of Bulla lignaria,- E. Lankester del., Branston sc, p. 3,97. —
Singular Variety of the Common Fowl, female, Neville Wood, Esq., del., Branston bc, p. 453.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS.

Adie, R., Liverpool, 229.

Alington, Rev. R. P., Swinhope House, Lincolnshire, 88.

Allies, Jabez, Esq., Catherine Villa, near Worcester, 311.

Allis, Thomas, York, 28.

Bensted, W. H., Maidstone, Kent, 7, 43, 47, 195, 221, 302, 325.

Blyth, Edward, North Brixton, Surrey, 48, 49, 72, 87, 91, 152, 169, 343, 412.

Bree, Rev. W. T., Allesley Rectory, near Coventry, 424.

Buist, Henry, Law Park Cottage, near St. Andrews, 4, 43, 118, 287,322, 437.

Dale, James Charles, Esq., A.M., F.L.S., Glanville's Wootton, Dorsetshire, 12, 46, 48, 81, 90, 105, 108,
100, 155, 157, 158, 159, 213, 323, 440.

Dvvyer, Rev. Thomas, A.M., Liverpool, 285.

E. L>, 283.
, Glover, Thomas, Esq., Manchester, 422.

Hall, T. B., Woodside, Liverpool, 22, 26, 59, 87, 88, 123, 137, 153, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 162, 181, 211, 216,
218,219, 221, 256, 279, 305, 322, 324, 329, 372, 491

Hawkridge, Patrick, Scarborough, 47, 106, 109, 155, 157, 158, 160, 162, 323, 324, 440.

Lankester, Edwin, M.R.C.S., Campsall, near Doncaster, 106, 108, 141, 161, 163, 1/5, 196, 397,482.

Less, Edwin, F.L.S., Dryadville Cottage, near Worcester, 68, 115, 186, 291, 325, 360, 380.

Levison, J. L., Doncaster, 378.

Lister, G. L., Edinburgh, 255.

MacGillivray, John, Edinburgh, 217.

MacGillivray, William, AM., F.R.S.E., M.W.S., Edinburgh, 238.

Mbdical Student, London, 31.

Member of the British Association, 10.

msmber ok the liverpool natural history society, 457.

Morris, Beverley R., Esq., Charmouth, Dorsetshire, 66, 103, 107, 131, 143, 161.

Morris, Rev. Francis Orpen, B.A., Doncaster, 91.

Philander, Doncaster, 45.

Pigott, Richard, Stoke Ferry, Norfolk, 377.

P. R., 387.

Pringle, James, Gardener to W. R. C. Stansfield, Esq., M.P., Esholt Hall, near Leeds, 423.

Proctor, W., Durham, 410.

R., 282.

Redding, C. Lichfield, 44, 103.

Rylands, ,Pkter, Esq., Bewsey House, Wan inglon, 19, 46, 107, 127, 152, 157, 158, 1!>7, 244, 256, 2E9. 312,
341, 380,424,436, 433,439.

INDEX. 505

Salmon, John D., Godalming, Surrey, 104, 109, 165, 162, 311,325, 441.
Short, Thomas Kier, Esq., Martin Hall, Nottinghamshire, 1, 63, 178,197.
Sweeting, R. H., Surgeon, Charmouth, Dorsetshire, 29.
Thompson, George, Liverpool, 285.
Torre, H. J., Harrow, Middlesex, 313, 420.
Tudor, R., Esq., Bootle, near Liverpool, 8.

Watson, Hewett Cottrell, Esq., F.L.S., Thames Ditton, Surrey, 241, '453.
Westwood, J. O., F.L.S., Sec.E.S., London, 140.

Wood, Neville, Esq., Campsall Park, Yorkshire, 48, 108, 111, 155, 156, 160, 212, 213, 219,222, 279, 310,
353, 437, 438, 442, 467.

Wynne, G. H., Esq., Taunton, Somersetshire, 91.
Yarrell, William, F.L.S., V.-P.Z.S., London, 491.

ERRATA.

P. 3, 1. 8, for " Damara" read Dammara.— P. 3, 1. 9, for " Melicytis," Melicytus.—P . 3, 1. 11 from bottom, for
"Adeantum," Adiantum.—P. 3, 1. 3 f. b., for " Agara," Agavia.—P. 3, 1. 2 f. b., for Arracaria," Araucaria.—
P. 3, 1. 2 f. b., for " Psedium," Pselium.—P. 4, 1. 2 f. b., for '• 43°," 48°.— P, 5, J. 2, for " ten," two.— P. 15, L 6,
for " pinniperda," piniperda. — Passim, for "Mr. Benshed," Mr. Bensted.—P. 27, 1. 1, for " aryophyllum,"
caryophyllum.—P. 27, 1. 3, for '* bitalba," vitalba.—P. 27, 1. 7, for " Fielvedon," Kelvedon.—P. 37, 1. 2 f. b., for

" Hippotami," Hippopotami. — P. 48, 1. 26, for " Coleoptera,'' Insects. — P. 52, 1. 7, for " Colombtis," Columbus

P. 60, 1. 1, dele " that."— P. 63, 1. 26, for " or," on.— P. 87, 1. 8 f. b., for " Geotrupus," Geotrupes.—P. 92, L 8,
dele "an." — P. 98, 1. 3 f. b., for "special," specifical. — P. 106, 1. 17, for "papillary," capillary. — P. ill, 1. 16,
for "shyness," slyness.— P. 130, 1.3, for " unequivooal," equivocal— P. 138, 1.28, for " acuata,'' arcuata. —
P. 138, 1.29, for " Acule," Acute.— P. 139, 1. 8, for " tinnunculs," tinnunculus.—P.HO, 1.23, for " Saxus,"
Taxus. — P. 140, 1. 24, for " Thraspi bulsa-pastoris," Thlaspi bursa-pasloris.—P. 164, 1. 9 f. b., for "accuracy,"
inaccuracy.— P. 190, 1. 9 f. b., for " Clyn Cams," Llyn Cum.— P. 191, 1. 6, for " ldwat," Idwal.—P. 192, 1. 4 f. b.,
for " struts," blocks.— P. 192, 1. 2 f. b., for "flask," flash.— P. 192, last 1., dele •' but."— P. 193, 1. 10, for
" eumry," cwmry.— P. 215, 1.12, for •' dromadaritts," dromedarius.— P. 221, 1. 6 f . b., for " mealden," Weal-
den. — P. 238, 1. 14, dele " but." — P. 426, 1. 13 f. b., for "Curculiondice," Curculionidce.—P. 252,1. 5, for '* tentran-
drum," tetrandrum. — P. 277, 1- 6, for " Gasteropoda" , Gasteropoda. — P. 335, 1. 9, for "land, animals," land,-
animals. — P. 367, L 12, for " unpleasing," upheaving.— P. 371 , 1. 9, for " Chaddach," Clwddach. — P. 371, 1. 6 f.b.,
for " Empetrum nigrum," Epipactis latifolia. — P. 390, 1. 4, for " Pcntemera," Petamera. — P. 403, 1. 1, for " or,"
for.— P. 404, 1. 11 f. b., after " however" insert not.— P. 438, 1. 26, for " ovata," obtusa. — P. 449, 1. 9 f. b., for
" principle," principal. — P. 467, 1. 11, for "[influence," inference. — P. 504, after Dale, Jas. Chas., Esq., for " 100,"
109: after Glover, Thos., for "422," 322.