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NATURALISTS ASSISTANT
Q Hanvd-Book for the Collector and Student
WITH A BIBLIOGRAPHY OF FIFTEEN HUNDRED WORKS
NECESSARY FOR THE SYSTEMATIC
ZOOLOGIST
BY -Jy S. KENGSEEY
BOSTON
Sob Gets so LNO: oP U BELISHER
[So2°s
Copyright,
BY S. E. CASSINO,
1582,
ELECTROTYPED.
BOSTON STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY,
No. 4 PEARL STREET.
CHAPTER I.
COLLECTING AND PRESERVING SPECIMENS.
Many treatises and papers have been written on the methods
of collecting and preserving zoological specimens ; the more
important of which are enumerated below. Space prevents
giving the various operations in detail in this volume, but it
is hoped that the directions given, although concise, will
prove explicit and valuable. For more extended accounts of
the methods employed in collecting and preserving specimens,
the student is referred to the following works :
Boitard — Manuel du Naturaliste Préparateur. Paris, 1853.
T. Brown — The Taxidermist’s Manual. London, 1859.
Elliott Coues — Field Ornithology. Salem, 1874.
J. B. Davies — Naturalists’ Guide. Edinburgh, 1853.
G. Dimmock — Directions for the Collecting of Coleoptera. Spring-
field, Mass., 1872.
J. H. Emerton — Life on the Seashore. Salem, 1880.
James Lewis — Directions for Collecting Land and Fresh Water
Shells (American Naturalist, vol. ii, 1868).
C. J. Maynard — Naturalists’ Guide. Salem, 1870.
A. S. Packard, jr.— Directions for Collecting and Preserving In-
sects (Smithsonian Institution).
Smithsonian Directions for Collectors.
W. Swainson — Taxidermy. London, 1851.
1 ; (1)
NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
bo
Cc. A. Walker — Hints on Taxidermy (American Naturalist, vol. iii,
1870).
Lord Walsingham — Directions for Collecting Micro-Lepidoptera
(American Naturalist, vol. vi, 1872).
S. P. Woodward — Manual of the Mollusca. London, 1871.
VERTEBRATES.
Mammals and birds are most readily procured by shooting
with a gun, using shot large enough to kill, but not so large
as seriously to injure the specimen. ‘The size of the shot to
be employed cannot, of course, be dogmatically prescribed,
as it varies with the size of the animal, but in general terms
“number 8” shot will be large enough for all birds under
the size of a pigeon, while for birds of greater bulk, “‘ number
5”, or larger, will be required. These remarks apply equally
well to the smaller mammals ; for the larger ones a rifle may
be necessary. It must be insisted on that the collector shoot
at any part of the body rather than at the head. Some col-
lectors use a bow and arrow or a blow gun for the smaller
birds, and with slight practice become very expert. Traps
and snares of various sorts are frequently employed and with
the advantage of obtaining the specimen in an uninjured
condition. ‘ Bird-lime’’ is also used to capture birds alive.
The English method of making this substance is as fol-
lows: the middle bark of the holly, mistletoe or distaff-thistle,
is chopped up and boiled in water several hours. ‘The result-
ing liquid is then strained and concentrated by evaporation
until it assumes a gelatinous consistency, resembling moist
putty. Doubtless the bark of several of our American trees
VERTEBRATES. 3
and shrubs would answer the saine purpose, but the writer is
not aware of any experiments having been tried. A substitute
may be made by taking ordinary wheat flour, placing it ina
bag of fine muslin and washing it in running water, aiding the
process by squeezing until all the starch is washed out, and
only the g/vfen remains behind. This gluten is an adhesive
substance, which is said to answer the purpose well.
A third formula for bird-lime is to take linseed oil and
heat it over a slow fire (carefully watching it to see that it
does not burn), untilit is very thick, then pour it into cold
water. Ifit should prove too thick, the addition of a little
pine tar will readily thin it for use.
The bird-lime should be smeared on the branches of trees,
etc., where birds most do congregate, and by adhering to
their feet, it holds them fast, and renders them an easy prey
to the collector.
No matter how procured, all mammals and birds intended
for stuffing should have the mouth, nostrils, anus and all
wounds, stopped immediately with cotton wool to prevent
any soiling of the fur or feathers. It is also well to place each
bird head first in a cone made of cartridge paper, before
placing in the game bag, as this will prevent disarrangement
of the feathers.
All Vertebrates are really more valuable as alcoholic speci-
mens, than they are when mounted after the usual manner of
taxidermists, as the naturalist is then able at any time to
pursue any desired investigation of their anatomy, a course
from which he is utterly debarred with stuffed specimens.
Before being placed in spirit, the abdominal walls of all Ver-
4 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
tebrates should be cut open, care being taken not to injure
the viscera. This allows the alcohol to readily penetrate the
interior. It is also well to remove a portion of the skull, so
that the preservative fluid can have access to the brain. Al-
coholic specimens of foreign vertebrates thus prepared are
a great desideratum in all museums, and especially in those
where it is realized that science is more than skin deep, and
consists of more than a lot of scientific names.
The art of skinning mammals and birds may be more
readily learned by seeing another perform the operation than
from pages of description. Jor those who do not have an
opportunity of learning the methods employed by observation,
the following directions which are modified from those given
in Davies’ “ Naturalist’s Guide” (by the way a very valuable
little work) may prove of use.
MAMMALS.
The cotton wool is first removed from the nostrils, mouth,
anus and wounds and replaced by fresh plugs. ‘The animal
is then laid on its back, its legs pressed out and the fur
parted on the median line of the ventral surface. An incision
is then made through the skin, at the posterior portion of the
abdomen, care being taken to cut the skin only and not the
underlying muscles, this incision to be continued forward to
near the neck. With the left hand the skin is then raised
first on one side and then onthe other, and at the same time
separated from the adjacent muscles with the Aazdle of the
scalpel, an ivory paper knife or other blunt instrument held in
MAMMALS. 5
the right hand. The portion of the skin thus disengaged is
kept from adhering to the flesh of the body, by being sprinkled
with plaster of Paris. The anus is then cut through, and im-
mediately after, the tail at its junction with the body. The hind
legs are then cut orf at the upper thigh joint, and the posterior
part of the body turned out of the skin. ‘The carcase is now
suspended by the pelvis on a hook supported by a string
from the ceiling of the room, and the skin gently pulled down
from the back, the operation being facilitated by the handle
of the scalpel as before. The fore legs are then disarticu-
lated at the shoulder joint. The neck is then uncovered and
the head proceeded with. In skinning the latter part, great
care must be exercised to cut off the ears as close to the
skull as possible, and to preserve the eyelids, nostrils and lips
uninjured. The neck is now separated from the skull. The
trunk is now removed from the hook and laid aside, and the
legs successively hung on the hook, and the skin drawn down
as far as the toes. ‘The flesh is then removed from the bones
of the legs, care being taken to leave the tendons uniting the
joints entire. In order to skin the tail, the first two or three
vertebree are laid bare and attached to a stout cord. A
cleft stick is then made to embrace this portion already
skinned beyond the cord and gradually forced down toward
the extremity, carrying with it the freed skin.
The skin now being separated is carefully examined and
any flesh or fat removed by the scalpel. The inside of the
skin is then thoroughly rubbed over with the common white
arsenic of the shops (arsenious acid) or if preferred com-
pletely anointed with arsenical soap. ‘The bones of the legs
6 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
are to be treated in the same manner, and, having been
wrapped with tow, are returned to their places. The skull is
next pulled out through the neck and freed from fat and flesh
and the brain removed through the opening behind. In
some cases it may be necessary to enlarge this opening by
breaking away the adjacent bone, but this course should be
avoided as much as possible, as the skull, from a scientific
standpoint, is of as much value as the skin, and should
the latter by any means become destroyed (by no means an
uncommon occurrence), the specimen will still retain a
scientific value. It is well, when possible, to remove the
skuli entirely from the skin and macerate it in water until
the flesh is removed, and the brain so decomposed as to be
readily shaken out of the opening. It is sometimes desirable
to preserve the skull and the skin separately, and at such times
a rough model of the skull may be made of plaster of Paris,
and placed in the skin, while such disposition is made of the
skul! as may be desired. Should the skull be returned to the
head, the place of all flesh removed should be filled by
tow. A wire wrapped with tow may be inserted in the tail,
while the body is distended to something like its original
shape by the same material.
BIRDS.
A paper ring 1s made fitting tightly around the body ; this
is preserved as a measure of the proper size and is us2d
farther on. ‘This ring is then removed, the bird laid on its
back, with the head pointing obliquely from the operator to-
BIRDS. |
ward his left hand. The feathers are then separated in the
median line by the left hand, and an incision is made much
as in mammals, the extent of this slit varying somewhat
with the expertness of the operator, as well as the kind of
bird being skinned. ‘The slit being made, the fingers are in-
serted between the skin and the flesh, and the parts exposed
dusted with plaster of Paris, to prevent any adhesion of the
feathers. In some cases, it is advantageous to sew strips of
cloth to the cut edges of the skin to keep the feathers clean,
and also to prevent the skin from stretching. ‘The legs are
now pushed forward, and divided at the knee joints, after
which the vertebral column is divided, leaving the last joint
in the skin, as a support to the tail feathers. The body is
then suspended from the hook by the rump end, and the skin
separated from the back and sides (as in the case of mam-
mals) until the shoulder joints appear. If the bird in hand
be a water-fowl, it may be necessary to separate the wings at
the shoulder joint, but whenever possible the division had
best be made at the elbow. ‘The neck is next to be skinned,
taking great care not to stretch the skin, especially in the case
of the long-necked birds. ‘Then the head is separated from
the integument as far as the bill. Now remove the tongue
and muscles from the skull, and separate it from the neck,
placing the carcase aside, and remove the brain from the
skull with a quill, enlarging the opening if necessary for the
purpose. Great care should be taken, in skinning the head,
not to injure the external ear and the parts around the eyes.
The bones left in the legs (4#éz@) are now to be skinned,
cleaned, thoroughly covered with preservative (arsenic or
8 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
arsenical soap), and wrapped with tow. After treating the
skin of the leg with arsenic, the bones are to be returned to
their places by being gently pushed in. When the upper
bone of the wing (Awmerus) is retained, it must be treated
in the same manner. Except in the case of large birds, no
treatment is necessary for the bones of the fore wing. In
these, however, the muscles may be removed by making an
incision on the inside of the wing, and then impregnating
with arsenic, and fastening with two or three stitches. Now
remove all flesh and fat from the skull and skin, and impreg-
nate them thoroughly (the skull inside as well as out) with
arsenic. A wire about the length of the neck is then taken,
and one end being fastened in the base of the skull, a little
tow or flax filled with arsenic is wrapped around it, and the
head is pulled out of the neck by means of a string attached
to the bill, bringing with it the tow-covered wire. Next dis-
pose the wings in their proper position, place the paper ring,
mentioned above, around the body, stuff the skin out to its
proper dimensions with tow, sew up the slit, label and dry,
and the speeimen is ready for the cabinet.
The foregoing directions are applicable to the majority of
birds but will have to be modified occasionally. ‘The feet
of the larger birds of prey are frequently fleshy. In these
cases it will be necessary to cut a slit on the under side of
each toe and perhaps up to the back of the tarsus to remove
the muscles and tendons; then rub in the preservative, fill
with tow and close the openings with a few stitches. The
webs on the feet of swimming birds had best be skinned be-
low and in all cases should be thoroughly poisoned.
BIRDS. 9
When the head is of such a size that the skin of the neck
cannot be drawn over it, as is the case with the flamingo
and most web-footed birds, it will be necessary to make an
incision in the neck near the base of the skull and through it
remove the brain, etc. ‘This is an operation of considerable
nicety as the feathers are very liable to get daubed. In case,
however, any blood, brain or feculent matter should get on the
feathers, it should be carefully removed by a cloth dampened ia
warm water. Grebes and other water fowl with white silky
bellies are sometimes skinned from an incision in the back.
In this way the feathers are less liable to be daubed and to be
stained by the oil of the body when in the cabinet.
Humming birds from their diminutive size are not easily
skinned. “They may, however, be preserved by making an in-
cision on the belly and removing as much of the soft parts as
possible with the forceps and scissors. ‘The skin should then
be thoroughly poisoned and filled with cotton wool or tow.
On the label attached to each bird should be information
as to the following points :
Exact locality, date of capture, sex, food (ascertained by
an examination of crop and gizzard) color of the eyes, feet,
bill, gums, membranes, caruncles, etc. Attitude of body when
at rest. Does the bird perch or not? ‘The length in inches
from the tip of bill to the end of tail, the distance between
the extremities of the outstretched wings and the length of
the wing from the carpal joint.
Should it be desired to mount the specimen, information
on the following points will aid the taxidermist in giving the
proper position.
10 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
Position of the wings whether supported or hanging, cross-
ing on the tail or not. Are they continuous, or covered by
the feathers of the back and breast, for the upper half or
third or two-thirds of their length? Do their extremities
reach the tip of the tail, the half or fourth of its length?
Are the heels covered by the feathers of the belly ?
The skins of mammals and birds prepared according to
the foregoing directions are really more valuable for the nat-
uralist than the mounted specimens. ‘They may be kept
systematically arranged in
boxes or drawers. Mount-
ing mammals and _ birds is
the work of a taxidermist
and directions for the op-
erations are foreign to the
purposes of this work. If
it be desired to prepare the
specimens for exhibition
they had better be sent to
the professional taxidermist, as amateur work generally pres-
ents a very slovenly appearance. One thing, however, should
always be insisted on; the stands employed should be of the
simplest character. For birds the form of stand shown in
the adjacent figure is preferable. These stands are usually
painted white. For mammals and many aquatic birds a
board is all that is necessary. By all means avoid the use
of moss, mica sand, artificial leaves, etc., as they not only
afford excellent lurking places for vermin, but also detract
greatly from a scientific appearance of the collection ; they
and not the specimens attract the eye.
COLLECTING NESTS AND EGGS. Il
NESTS AND EGGS.
The nests and eggs of birds are largely collected, espec-
ially by the young, and many a naturalist of note traces his
interest in zoology to h's early cabinet of eggs. It is not
necessary to tell where to lock for nests as every one with his
eyes open can find them. Some are in tail trees, some birds
build in bushes, some on the ground, while others affect the
habitation of man.
When anest is found, great care should be taken to iden-
tify the bird to which it belongs, otherwise both nest
and eggs are scientifically useless. In some cases
and especially with collectors in foreign countries,
it will be necessary to shoot the parent birds to ac-
complish this. All of the eggs should be taken and
labelled at once so as to be beyond a doubt at any Boe
time. The contents should also be extracted. This }
is effected by boring a hole in ove size of the egg with an “egg
drill” (a steel instrument which can be procured of any dealer
in naturalists’ supplies), fig. 2, and through this opening all
contents may be withdrawn. [or this purpose some use a
fine nozzled syringe, while others insert the tip of a jeweller’s
blow-pipe into the opening, and then by Llowing in the egg
the yolk is forced out around the sides of the pipe. If incu-
bation has proceeded to any length it will be necessary to cut
the embryo up with fine pointed scissors and extract it in
fragments with the aid of a bent needle. ‘The interior should
then be thoroughly rinsed, first with water and then with
12 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
arsenical soap. The opening can then be covered with a bit
of zoldbeater’s skin.
Exact labels giving the name of the bird laying the eggs,
the locality and date, the number of eggs in the nest, etc.,
should be kept with each specimen and numbered to corre-
spond with a number placed on the egg.
Eggs of our native birds taken at various stages of incu-
bation, the shell cracked and then the whole placed in 40
per cent. alcohol and in a few hours transferred to fresh and
slightly stronger spirit, and then after a day or two to alcohol
of 70 to 80 per cent., would be very desirable in every
museum of the world. Of course, with each egg’ should be
preserved not only the name of the species, but also the
number of hours since incubation began. ‘Thus the student
will be able to trace more or less completely, according to
the amount of material at command, the deveiopment of the
various forms of which, at present, comparatively little is
known. ‘The same process may be advantageously followed
with the eggs of other animals, and in dissecting mammals
all embryos should be carefully preserved.
- REPTILES AND BATRACHIA.
The collection of snakes, turtles, lizards, frogs, toads,
and salamanders is not accompanied with any special difficulty
though proper precautions should be taken against venomous
serpents. Various species of each group affect certain lo-
calities, some living on land and others in the water. Some
live in the open fields, others in thick woods, while still others
FISHES. 1
are generally found in damp places under decaying timber,
GUC.
All of the lower vertebrates are best preserved as “‘wet
specimens,” and in fact with the exception of the turtles and
a few large forms are spoiled by being skinned and stuffed.
In skinning turtles the lower shell (plastron) should first be
removed with a chisel or saw ; the succeeding steps are essen-
tially the same as pursued with mammals. Alligators and
large lizards are skinned the same as mammals. When it
is desired to put any of the lower vertebrates in alcohol, an
incision should be made in the abdominal walls, so that the
spirit may more readily penetrate the viscera. This is abso-
lutely necessary if it be desired at any future time to investi-
gate any more of the anatomy than the osteology.
FISHES.
Besides the familiar hook and line, fishes may be obtained
by seines, trawls, etc., to be described further on under the
7
head, “Marine Collecting.”” A good way of obtaining many
forms is to visit the fish markets; and also if possible hire
the fishermen themselves to bring in specimens of all sorts
that come up in their nets or on their lines. In this way
many varieties may be obtained which never appear in the
markets, as fishermen are accustomed to throw back all fish
which according to their ideas are not edible.
Fishes are almost universally preserved in alcohol, though
some of the largest ones are occasionally stuffed. At such
times a professional taxidermist had best be employed.
14 NATURALISTS’ “ASSISTANT.
In putting in alcohol the abdominal walls should be opened
so that the spirit may the more readily enter and thus ensure
the preservation of the viscera, some parts of which are very
important even from a systematic standpoint.
Fishes in alcohol do not present a very interesting or
attractive appearance on the shelves of a museum, and only
the ichthyologist is able to decide on the identity of alcoholic
and fresh specimens. Many attempts have been made to
preserve fish dry but the majority of methods employed do
not produce very satisfactory results. The best process
known to the writer is that invented by Dr. H. E. Davidson,
who has not only described his method but has also given
chances to witness the operation which is as follows :
The necessary materials are thin pieces of soft wood about
one-eighth of an inch in thickness ; square sticks measuring
from three-fourths of an inch upwards; plaster of paris,
glycerine, tissue paper, pins, and double pointed carpet tacks:
The outline of the fish without the fins is marked on
two pieces of board which are held together by pieces of the
square sticks tacked across the ends, and then the portion
corresponding to the body is cut away so that we have two
strips of wood one following the dorsal and the other the
ventral contour of the fish. The fish is then placed in this
opening and the various fins are extended and fixed in
position with pins, the board in the meantime being supported
so that one side of the fish can freely extend through the
opening in the joined boards. Strips of tissue paper wet
with glycerine are then laid smoothly over the fish and next
a coating of plaster is poured over the same side. When
FISHES, 5
the plaster is hardened, the boards, etc., are reversed and the
rest of the work is carried on from the opposite side of the
body. All that portion of the fish which projects through
the opening is first cut away, and then all of the muscles,
bones and viscera, are carefully removed until nothing re-
mains but the skin supporting the fins and its plaster backing.
In this condition one side of the skin is entire and on the
other side a narrow strip of skin extends around the median
line of the body from a quarter to half of an inch in width.
The interior of the skin is now dusted with arsenic. The eye
is then placed in position and the skin is filled with plaster
mixed to about the consistency of cream. ‘The double pointed
carpet tacks are then taken, and their points,
having been bent as shown in the adjacent
figure, are hooked into the strip of skin and
the loop embedded in the plaster. A small
strip of wood (previously coated with shellac
to prevent undue expansion from the moisture) is also em-
bedded in the plaster, its upper surface being even with that
of the plaster. ‘The two halves of the board are separated
when the plaster becomes dry, the skin with its plaster interior
is removed from its mould and washed and the fins placed in
clips so that they may dry flat. When thoroughly dry, the
specimen is mounted on a wooden tablet by screws passing
into the embedded block and the whole is ready for exhibi-
tion.
No means have yet been found of preserving the natural
colors of the fish ; and the only way of representing them on
the specimens thus mounted is by means of paints.
16 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
This process which has been thus briefly described, is the
property of Dr. H. E. Davidson of Boston, and to him all
inquiries, as to the rights to use it, should be addressed.
SKELETONS.
Of fully as much importance as skins, and scarcely more
difficult to prepare, are skeletons of vertebrates, and when
from any circumstance it is impossible to prepare the whole
skeleton, the skull can frequently be preserved. The modus
operandi is essentially the same for all vertebrates.
Skeletons are of two sorts, natural and artificial : z. ¢., those:
where the bones are united by the ligaments, and those in
which the ligaments are removed as well as the flesh, and the
bones are articulated with wires and rods. Natural skeletons
can only be prepared when the subject is of small size ; not
exceeding the fox or goose in bulk. Skeletons of larger ani-
mals must be, to a greater or less extent, artificially articulated. ©
The skin is first removed from all parts of the body, the
head separated and the viscera extracted. ‘Then as much of
the flesh as possible is removed with the scalpel, great care
being taken not to cut, scratch or otherwise injure the bones.
The body is then placed in cold water to macerate, some-
times a little caustic potash is added to the water to ac-
celerate the decomposition of the flesh, but except a gain
in time there are no advantages to be gained by the ad-
dition. For the first few days the water should be changed
every day, and when the flesh is partially decomposed as
much as possible is to be removed, taking care, if the skele-
SKELETONS. 17
ton is to be a natural one, not to injure the ligaments.
The partially cleaned skeleton is then returned to the mac-
erating tub, and on succeeding days is subjected to the
cleansing operation until all the flesh is removed. It may
be well, as a final step, to use a stiff nail brush to remove
the last traces of flesh.
The skull is treated in the same manner, and the brain
is broken up and removed with a stick, through the occipital
foramen. It is sometimes desirable to open the skull by
sawing off the top, and thus to remove the brain more care-
fully, preserving the sentorium and falx cerebri uninjured.
Under no circumstances should the bones be boiled as
that operation greases them and gives the skeleton an un-
sightly appearance. If the water is left too long without
changing, the bones are apt to become discolored.
When finally cleansed, the skeleton (if a natural one) has
a wire passed down the spinal canal, its end projecting from
the neck and then, being supported in the desired position by
strings or wires attached to a suitable framework, is left to
dry. When dry, the skull is fastened to its place on the
wire projecting from the neck, by means of copper or brass
wire, the lower jaw is articulated to the skull, and held ina
proper position by spiral springs. ‘The body is then sup-
ported on a couple of upright standards, arising from a hori-
zontal base, and after being duly and fully labelled, the
specimen is complete.
It would be impossible, without occupying much more
space than is allowed, to describe the method of articulating
an artificial skeleton, while on the other hand it can be
2
18 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
readily understood, after a few minutes’ study of one thus
prepared ; and therefore all who wish to articulate artificial
skeletons are respectfully requested to obtain the requisite
knowledge by observation. Great care, however, should
be exercised that none of the small bones be lost in the
process of maceration.
COLLECTING INSECTS.
Insects are the most numerous both in individuals and in
species of any group of the animal kingdom and may be
found almost everywhere
and at every season of the
year. Their beauty, their
numbers, and the ease
with which they may be
collected and_ preserved,
render them great favor-
BiG: 4- ites. Many a naturalist,
who has acquired prominence, traces his studies to the
collections of insects made in his youth.
The insect collector needs certain pieces of apparatus
none of them expensive and all easily made by one possess-
ing an ordinary an ount of mechanical skill, or they may be
readily procured in the shops. ‘Those most essential are
insect nets, means of killing, and conveniences for carrying
the specimens home.
An insect net, fig. 4, is readily made by taking a stout brass
wire (iron rusts too readily) and bending it into a ring about
COLLECTING INSECTS. 19
twelve or fifteen inches in diameter. The ends of the wire
should be bent out and soldered into a ferrule which will fit
on the end of a cane or other handle. The net proper
should be about twenty inches in depth and made of gauze
or mosquito netting. It should not be attached directly to
the ring, as it would then quickly fray out, but to a piece of
strong cotton cloth which in turn is sewed to the ring. Other
more elaborate forms are made in which the ring will fold up
for convenience in carrying, but the saving hardly repays the
additional expense. ‘Those interested will find a good de-
scription and figure in Dr. Packard’s “ Directions for Collect-
?
ing and Preserving Insects, ”’ published by the Smithsonian
Institution, page 4, fig. 2,
where one or two other
forms are also described.
The net is used princi-
pally for collecting the
strong flying insects (¢. g., Butterflies), either on the wing
or while at rest. With a swoop the net is brought over the
insect, and then, by a dexterous twist, easily acquired but
not readily described, the bag is thrown over the ring and
the specimen is securely imprisoned. The insect may then
either be pinned while in the net or transferred to the
cyanide bottle to be described farther on. Lepidoptera may
be killed while in the net by giving the thorax a severe pinch,
of course taking care that the wings are not injured.
A shallow scoop net, fig. 5, made in the same manner as
the insect net above described is useful for collecting aquatic
20 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
insects. It is not necessary to detail the method of using it,
as any one will readily find out for himself.
For collecting stinging insects a pair of forceps, fig. 6, made
of wire, the distal extremities of which are bent into broad
blades covered with netting, will prove very convenient, es-
pecially as there is no danger of being stung. The bee or
other insects are caught between the blades while resting on a
flower, and while a prisoner is pinned ; and then, the blades
being opened, the pin is readily drawn from the meshes of
the netting.
An umbrella is indispensable in collecting certain forms of
insects. It is held spread open
in an inverted position beneath
the branches of some tree or
shrub, then the foliage is beaten
with a stick, and the insects
Fic. 6.
drop and are caught. ‘This is
especially valuable for collecting certain Coleoptera, Spiders,
Microlepidoptera, Psocide, etc.
For killing insects the most convenient plan is to take a
wide-mouthed bottle and place in the bottom a piece of cya-
nide of potassium (a dangerous poison). ‘Then some plaster
of Paris is mixed to a stiff paste with water and poured
over the cyanide. The plaster soon sets and holds the
chemical firmly, while its porosity allows the fumes of prussic
acid to pass readily into the vacant portion of the bottle.
The bottle after thus being prepared should be allowed to
stand open for a day to allow the moisture from the plaster
COLLECTING INSECTS. 21
to escape ; it should then be kept securely corked. One of
these cyanide bottles will answer for a season’s collecting and
is safe for children to use. An older person, however, should
prepare the bottle, as the cyanide is very poisonous and
sometimes produces severe ulcers on the parts of the body
with which it may come in contact.
Some instead of cyanide use ether, chloroform, benzine.
or bisulphide of carbon in the bottle, but the rapidity with
which these evaporate renders them far less convenient than
the cyanide. Dr. Loew recommends moistening the bottom
of the collecting bottle with creosote for killing Diptera.
Lepidoptera may be killed by giving a severe pinch to the
sides of the thorax, though this is very apt to remove many
of the “feathers” from the body. ‘The wings of a butterfly
should never be touched with the fingers and great care
should be taken to avoid mutilation of any insect.
For carrying specimens home the collector should be pro-
vided with wide-mouthed vials and bottles; some empty
and some containing alcohol; a supply of ‘pill boxes” and
a cork-lined box two inches in depth and in its other dimen-
sions as large as can be conveniently carried in the pocket.
Insect pins of various sizes are indispensable. ‘The insects
on being collected may be carried home alive by placing
them in the pill boxes or the empty vials; or they may be
killed by the cyanide bottle or being placed in the alcoho’.
or by pinching. Beetles and bugs may be kept in the ai-
cohol, or with other forms pinned in the field and kept in
the cork-lined box. ‘The writer has found a stiff round
crowned hat a very convenient substitute for the cork-lined
22 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
box, as the insects may be pinned on the inside and thus are
not seen by that class of society who think a naturalist a
little “cracked.” Lepidoptera may be conveniently carried
by folding the wings together and placing them in square
sheets of paper folded into a triangular form.
It is impossible to say exactly where insects may be found.
Ia general terms, gardens, the edges of woods and banks of
ponds and streams are more bountifully supplied than tree-
less meadows or deep forests. In winter the moss and bark
on trees cover many beetles, spiders, Z7mgzds and hymenop-
terous insects, as well as pupze of these and other orders.
In the summer, insects are far more numerous. ‘The open
fields will afford numerous Lepidoptera, beds of flowers will
attract all orders, certain forms affect mushrooms and toad-
stools, and Si/phide, Nitidulide, and Staphyiinide, as well
as various flies, may be found in the vicinity of carrion. Old
boards and logs afford hiding places for various larvee as well
as spiders, myriapods and beetles, while in such places the
Thysanura thrive. In the moist loose earth at the edges or
woods Campodea, Trichopetalum, Scolopendrella and the
Pauropide should be sought. Other species of insects,
notably certain Scarabeide and dipterous larve, live in ex-
crementitious matter. Ponds and streams contain large
numbers of insects; beetles, bugs and the larvz of several
other groups. One may do much for science by studying
the transformations of these aquatic forms. Of the various
stages passed through by our species of dragon-flies, caddis-
flies, may-flies, etc., almost nothing is known. ‘The galls
found on trees and plants may be taken home and the larve
PINNING INSECTS. 23
contained in them reared, and the same course may be pur-
sued with all the larvee and pupz found while collecting.
PINNING INSECTS.
Insects are usually mounted for the cabinet on pins made
especially for the purpose, which can be procured of any
dealer in naturalists’ supplies. Those most generally em-
ployed are brass, silver plated. A good quality should be
used, as with poor pins the specimen is apt to be covered
with verdigris while the pin itself is soon destroyed. To
avoid this, varnished pins, and silver and platinum wire
have been employed. A gold plated pin has been recently
introduced with very satisfactory results while the increase
in price is slight. The best silvered pins are those made
in Berlin by Klager. There are five sizes, of which num-
bers one, three, and five are the most convenient, number
one being the finest. Still smaller pins are made for minute
insects. ‘The insect is impaled with one of these smallest pins
and fastened to a bit of cork which in turn is mounted on
a larger pin and the whole placed in the collection. Most
insects are pinned through the thorax, but beetles should
have the pin inserted through the right wing cover. The
specimens should all be pinned at an equal height, so that
about one-fourth of the pin extends above the insect. On
the pin below the insect should be kept labels, dates and
localities of capture, and all information of value. Very
minute insects are frequently glued to bits of card and
these are in turn pinned. It is most convenient to cover a
24 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
piece of card with eum, place the insects promiscuously
upon it and then when dry cut to suit the specimen. Thin
pieces of mica are also used in a similar manner.
To place the insects in the cabinet, what are known as pin-
ning forceps are frequently used. ‘These are
forceps made after the usual manner, except
that the extremities are bent as shown in fig.
7, and the corrugations of the points are so
arranged as to hold the pin firmly. The pin
is grasped by them about a quarter of an
inch from the extremity and forced into the
bottom of the case with a gentle pressure.
By this method all danger of bending the
pins is averted, a result which frequently fol-
lows an attempt to set them with the fingers.
They may also be set with much greater reg-
ularity with the forceps than without.
SPREADING BUTTERFLIES.
Butterflies and moths should always have
the wings extended and it is frequently de-
sirable to mount other insects in the same
manner. ‘This is accomplished by means of
a “setting board.”
SQ
PD PD bd
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9
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FOODIE
employed.
The surface of the
sea at times Is Cov-
ered with infusoria
CNVectilica, ec.),
jelly fishes, larval E-
chinoderms, Worms
and Crustacea, Cop-
epoda, Salpz, Sa-
gitte, etc. To ob-
tain these the surface
net is employed,
fies oO Chis con-
sists of a ring of
Vic. 15.
brass wire about a
foot and a half in diameter, to which is attached a net of
fine gauze. This is towed through the water, being frequently
40 NATURALISTS’. ASSISTANT.
pulled in and washed in a bucket of water. On placing
this water in the light it will be seen to be filled with
microscopic forms. The best time and place for using the
net are in protected harbors when the surface is smooth and
the sea phosphorescent. A place where two currents meet is
especially productive. Surface skimming was first employed
by Johannes Muller.
After storms, it is well to examine the beaches to obtain
the deep water forms which have been cast on shore.
Among the “roots” of the “ Devils’ aprons” (Laminaria)
Fic. 16
will be found shells and starfish, while on the fronds frequently
occur Sertularians and Bryozoa.
Fish stomachs are another source of obtaining deep-water
forms, and they frequently contain rare shells. The fish
themselves should be carefully examined for external and
internal parasites.
The collections should be cared for as soon as possible, as
many forms soon badly decompose. With each package of
specimens should be placed a label, written with soft pencil
on stout paper, giving exact data of locality, depth, character
MARINE’ COLLECTING, 41
of bottom, date, etc. The smaller specimens should be
placed in homceopathic vials and not mixed with larger forms.
For larger forms the common glass fruit jars are convenient,
both for collecting and as storage jars.
For the majority of marine forms, alcohol is the best pre-
servative. ‘The specimen should be first placed in weak spirit
and after a few hours transferred to stronger and this process
again repeated. By this the water is gradually extracted and all
undue contraction of tissuesiavoided. Crustacea and mollusks
intended for dissection should have the shell cut or cracked
before placing in alcohol so that the spirit may readily pene-
trate the soft parts which otherwise would rapidly decay.
Medusae and some other forms are not readily preserved
without great distortion, owing to the extremely large per-
centage of water in their composition. Various processes
and preparations have been employed, but success is as much
the result of accident as of any especial skill or of any superior
merit in the preservative. Possibly the best method is to
place the jelly-fish for a short time in a one-tenth to one-
twentieth per cent solution of osmic acid, and then transfer
to fifty per cent alcohol and after a few days place in sixty
per cent spirit. Another method is to employ a solution of
bay salt of a specific gravity of 1.148, to each quart of which
two ounces of alum have been added. ‘The specimen is
daily changed to a fresh portion of the solution for a week.
Methylated spirit, 30 under proof, with forty drops of creosote
to the quart has also been recommended.
It is frequently desirable to preserve animals in their ex-
panded condition. So far as the writer is aware no method
3*
42 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
has been found in which gasteropods can be so preserved,
though many experiments have been tried. Sea anemones,
etc., may be readily killed expanded by gradually adding
picric acid to the vessel in which they are contained. An-
other way is to allow them to die in sea water which has
become stale. The former method, however, is the most
successful. Fresh-water Polyzoa, it is said, may be killed in
an expanded condition by adding a few drops of alcohol or
brandy to the water in which they are living.
Should it be desired to preserve the shell of a mollusk
without the animal, the whole may be macerated in water
and the contents carefully washed away. Bivalves should
have the two halves carefully tied together, while care should
be taken to preserve the oferciulum of such gasteropods as
possess it, as it nas considerable systematic value.
The same methods may be employed in collecting fresh-
water invertebrata as in marine. Ponds and lakes can readily
be dredged and a trawl or siene will frequently bring up
numbers of rare forms. The beds of rivers contain numer-
ous shells (Strepomatidz, Viviparide, Limnzeidee, Unionidee
and Cycladidz), for which careful search should be made.
A dipper, with a perforated bottom, on a long stick, is fre-
quently a handy substitute for a dredge, in shallow water.
Land shells are most numerous in a limestone country. A
good place to hunt for them is under boards or fallen leaves.
LABELLING AND MOUNTING,
4
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CHAPTER II.
LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS.
Ir is on these two points, labelling and mounting, that
much of the instructiveness of a museum or collection de-
pends. ‘The labelling conveys the information regarding
the specimen, while the mounting places the specimen in the
best position for observation and study.
LABELLING.
The labels used should, in size, be in proportion not only
to the size and prominence of the specimen, but also in re-
lation to the amount of information to be conveyed. It is
best to have but few sizes and to have a certain amount of
regularity in the labels employed. ‘The most useful size is
one inch by two and one-half inches, but larger and smaller
ones must be occasionally used and the sizes of these must be
selected by those in charge of the collections. The smallest,
except those for insects, should measure not less than one-
half by one and one-half inches. For insects a label of one-
half by three-fourths of an inch is very useful. ‘The labels
of whatever size employed should be as plain as possible and
(45)
46 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
the printing should be confined to a simple border. ‘This
border possibly looks best when printed in red ink, and that
color is employed for the purpose by most museums. Heavy
paper or cardboard is best for the labels. When the label
is to be pasted, paper is preferable, but in all other cases the
cardboard possesses the greater advantages.
As mentioned above, the purpose of the label is to convey
information and this should be expressed in as concise and
plain a manner as possible. In some museums (e. g., that of
the Boston Society of Natural History), all labels are the
product of the printer’s art and several copies of each are
struck off at once, thus affording a supply from which to re-
plenish as those on the specimens become defaced or injured.
The expense for this is far less than would be supposed.
In the majority of cases, however, this plan, cheap as it
has been found to be, is beyond the means of museums and
hence the labels should be written. This writing should
be done with 4/ack ink and in a legible hand, the ordinary
“marking hand” being well adapted for this purpose. For
ink, there is nothing better than India ink ground up in
acetic acid. Windsor and Newton’s liquid India ink is thus
prepared and is handiest for the purpose. When it becomes
thick by evaporation, it can be diluted by the use of acetic
acid. Wo notuse water to dilute it as then the ink is spoiled.
The principal points which are usually to be enumerated
on a label are the generic and specific names, locality, date,
collector and donor. The adjoined label copied from one in
the Boston Society’s museum shows the usual form. The
generic name should always begin with a capital, but opinions
LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS. 47
differ as to the initial of the specific, but with Americans the
weight of authority seems to be in favor of a/ways beginning
the specific name with a small letter whether derived from a
proper name or not. It should not under any view begin
with a capital unless derived from a proper name. Following
the scientific name comes the “authority.” Here again
opinions differ, some claiming that the name of the person
who first described the species should be given, no matter
whether it belong to the genus under which it originally was
described or not. Others claim that the name to be used is
Cat. Ill| Orig. 1557
Nanemys guttata (Sch.) Ag.
SPECKLED TORTOISE.
S. Kneeland. Cohasset, Mass.
Fic. 17.
that of the person who first used the generic and specific
name together. A third party adopt a compromise and give
both names together, that of the describer of the species in
parenthesis, followed by that of the one who first used the
generic and specific combination which is adopted. For in-
stance, Herbst, in 1796, described a hermit crab under the
name Cancer sclopetarius. In 1852, Dana characterized the
genus Cibanarius, and in 1859, Stimpson ascertained that
Herbst’s species should be assigned to Dana’s genus. | Now
according to the first method the name would be written
Chbanarius sclopetarius Herbst ; according to the second
48 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
Chbanarius sclopetarius Stimpson ; while the latter would be
Chbanarius sclopetarius (Herbst) Stimpson. The second
and third methods are most commonly adopted, the third
expressing more than the others. ‘The best authorities omit
any comma between the scientific name and the authority.
Should the specimen be a “Ze, an abnormal form or im-
mature stage, or possess any important features, that fact
should be noticed on the label. The original labels coming
with a specimen should be scrupulously preserved in con-
nection with it, as they give
a a a value and authenticity
which the specimen could
. not otherwise have.
Various methods have
a been devised for affixing
b labels to specimens. When
the object is fastened to
Fic. 18. .
a tablet, it is best to affix
the label with paste or mucilage, or with short pins, one
at each end of the label. A mucilage mace of equal
parts of gum tragacanth and gum arabic in water, to which
a few drops of glycerine and carbolic acid have been added,
is possibly as good as any for fastening paper to wood, glass,
stone or metal. In all other cases the label holder devised
by the late Caleb Cooke is very advantageous. It is readily
made by folding a strip of thin tin one-eighth of an inch in
width in the manner shown in fig. 8. The label is placed in
the folds shown above and below (a and b) which are then
closed with a pair of pincers. The label and holder are then
LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS. 49
fastened to the object holding the specimen. In the case of
a bird stand or wooden tablet, this is effected by perforating
the end ¢ and then using a tack. When applied to a bottle,
copper wire is used. ‘The end ¢ is folded around the wire
and the wire then placed around the neck of the bottle and
the ends twisted tightly. ‘The advantages of this method are
many ; the label is firmly held and at the same time can be
readily removed by loosening the
folds with a knife. All original labels
can_be safely preserved out of sight
by placing between the public label
and the tin strip. The labels are
also kept flat and by bending the tin
at 6 can be readily disposed so as to
be more easily read when on a high
or low shelf.
In the case of alcoholic speci-
mens a label should always be kept
in the bottle, as well as one on the
outside. This label should be
written with a soft lead pencil, or
Fic. 19.
with India ink dissolved in acetic
acid (never with common ink) on parchment or very strong
paper. This label, which is intended only for the student
and curator, should contain every item of information re-
garding the specimens.
Insect labels should be kept on the pin and should be small.
It is usual in arranging insects to place them in rows and
then in the farther left hand corner is placed the family label,
50 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
next comes the generic, and then the specific ; the insects
belonging to the species are then extended in a transverse
row and following them on the left of the case, comes the
next specific label and so on. Some have adopted a method
of showing the geographical distribution of forms at a glance
by the color of the label, and in geological collections the
“age” by the same method, but it is doubtful if it repays
the extra trouble involved.
Labels can be obtained of ‘‘regular’’ sizes of most dealers
in naturalists’ supplies at a cheaper rate than they can be
produced by local printers. | Generic and specific names for
labelling certain groups of insects are also kept on sale and —
well repay the cost.
Catalogues are important, though some of the largest mu-
seums almost wholly dispense with them. ‘The best results
follow the use of the double system employing both books
and cards. Ina book prepared for the purpose, each speci-
men is entered as received, with all possible information.
For this the books should be ruled in columns for the fcllow-
ing entries: original number, current number, number of
specimens, name, sex and age, where collected, when col-
lected, by whom collected, donor, remarks. A number is
then affixed to the specimens corresponding to the entry in
the book catalogue. Sheets of printed numbers for this
purpose are kept for sale by dealers in naturalists’ supplies.
Where possible, parchment numbers should be used and tied
to the specimen. Even better than parchment is the method,
which is now extensively adopted, of stamping the number
on sheet zinc with the steel punches which may be bought at
LABELLING AND MOUNTING SPECIMENS. ~T
any hardware store and then affixing the zinc to the speci-
men with stout twine or small copper wire. It is, however,
difficult by any ordinary method to affix a label permanently
to a fossil or mineral; strings and wires will become loose
and paste and gum will crack off. In such case, the writer
has adopted the method of putting on each specimen (in the
least conspicuous place) a small spot of white paint, and on
this, when dry, the number is written with a pen; there is no
danger of such a label being detached and lost. In the
book catalogue the specimens are arranged simply accord-
ing to. number and without regard to systematic relations,
which are to be found in the card catalogue.
This card catalogue is made of cards arranged alphabeti-
cally or otherwise as may be desired, each bearing at the top
the generic and specific name and below the desired informa-
tion. ‘These cards should be about three by five inches ;
their appearance, etc., are best seen from the following dia-
gram.
ARIUS EQUESTRIS.—BAIRD AND GIRARD.
Cat! | No: : When z
Age. Locality. Nature.) Collected by
No. | Spec. | col! ected.
836 I Adult | Indianola, 18-4 Skull | John H. Clark.}
ex.
1142 4 Young | Brownsville, | April 25, 1858. Al- | Capt.
Tex. coholic | Van Vliet.
By this system of book and card catalogues, it can at
once be seen exactly what specimens the museum contains,
and also, if the number be preserved, any lost labels can be
52 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
duplicated. It is convenient to have the catalogues subdi-
vided into groups corresponding to the larger divisions of the
animal kingdom, others for minerals, fossils, etc. ‘The cards
can then be kept in drawers or trays and any necessary in-
terpolations can be made as desired. Cards suitable for this
can be obtained of standard sizes at the Readers’ and Writers’
Economy stores in Boston, New York and other large cities.
MOUNTING SPECIMENS FOR EXHIBITION.
Mammals and birds designed for exhibition are usually
stuffed and mounted on stands. It does not fall within the
scope of this work to describe the methods employed by the
taxidermist in stuffing skins. It is well enough, however, to
reiterate the advice given on another page that the stand em-
ployed should be as simple as possible and all mica dust,
moss and artificial leaves be discarded as they detract greatly
from the appearance of a collection when viewed from a
scientific standpoint. On the underside of each stand, all
information regarding the specimen should be written with
a soft lead pencil, paint or India ink. Skeletons and skulls
should be supported on wires firmly fixed at their lower end
ina board. Ward’s preparations are models in this respect.
Birds’ eggs may be kept in the nest in which they belong.
Should the nest be wanting, the eggs present a very hand-
some appearance when placed in paper trays lined with pink
cotton wool. ‘The most common method, however, is to
MOUNTING SPECIMENS FOR EXHIBITION. 53
mount on wooden tablets. These wooden tablets, which are
very generally adopted in museums for specimens of all kinds,
should be made of whitewood. The grain of pine shows too
plainly while basswood warps badly. It is best to have them
made with a depression in which to mount the specimen and
an elevated portion on which to affix the label. The form is
shown in section in fig. 20. These can be made in long
FIG. 20.
strips at any planing mill and then sawed up in lengths to
suit. ‘The sizes should be so adjusted that two of the smallest
will equal the next in size and so on. ‘They then readily fit
together and fill up a case without any bad gaps. The
smallest should be one inch wide by two long, the next in
size two inches square, tnen two by four, etc.
These tabiets are usually painted dead black. A cheap
way of accomplishing this is with lampblack mixed with
spirits of turpentine and a very little oil. This, however, is
apt to rub off slightly and soil the hands and cases. A more
expensive paint, which produces the best results, is the ivory
black used by carriage makers. ‘This should be mixed with
a little shellac varnish and applied with a brush. Sometimes
54 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
different colors are used for these tablets; this in the case
of geological collections has its advantages, as different for-
mations may be indicated by the color of the tablet bearing
the specimen. The general effect, however, is not so good as
when a uniform black is employed in all departments of the
museum. Various substitutes for the wooden tablets have
been proposed and each has its advocates. Pasteboard,
slate and glass have all been used, but wood, taking every-
thing into consideration, is the best.
The specimens are affixed to these tablets in various ways.
“e b]
A common method is with “grafting wax.” The grafting
wax, such as Is used by gardeners, is kept melted in a glue
pot over a spirit lamp and a drop taken up with a brush and
placed in the desired spot on the tablet and the specimen
placed on it, and a few moments only are required to set the
wax and hold the specimen firmly. If at any time it be de-
sired to remove the object from the tablet, a knife blade
slightly warmed will accomplish it, and all wax may be cleaned
from the specimen by alcohol or turpentine. Others employ
sealing wax dissolved in alcohol, or common glue, for fasten-
ing the specimens, but while they hold the object securely,
it cannot be as readily removed. .
Many minute forms (shells, etc.) cannot be fastened di-
rectly to the tablets and at such times small homceopathic
vials are used. The specimens are placed in these and the
vials are then stopped with a cork ora bit of cotton wool,
and then cemented to the tablet by wax or glue. A label
should always be placed in each vial. A great desideratum
BOTTLES AND VIALS.
on
U1
for this purpose is a vial of quadrangular outline with clear
flat sides.
In the case of the large branching corals (gorgonias, madre-
pores, etc.), a square box is taken and filled with plaster of
Paris mixed with water; the coral is then placed in this in
an upright position and supported until the plaster sets. ‘The
box is then taken apart and all rough places smoothed witha
case knife, and then the plaster is painted with lampblack
and turpentine. This forms a heavy base which holds the
specimen uprightly. ‘The label may be applied to this base.
The coarse “‘builders’”’ plaster should be used for this pur-
pose, as it is much stronger (as well as much cheaper) than
the fine.
BOTTLES ANT VIALS.
In every museum, vessels of glass are largely employed
and form a considerable item of expense. For exhibition
purposes, pains should be taken to obtain clear glass, free
from bubbles and irregularities producing distortion in the
view of the specimen. Glass stoppered vials and jars also
are preferable as they not only add to the appearance of the
collection, but they are less liable to leak, and permit the
alcohol to escape by evaporation than are those with corks.
The mouth of jars, vials, etc., should be as large as possible
so that specimens proportionate to the size of the bottle may
be readily admitted ; otherwise a larger amount of alcohol is
required than is necessary for the preservation of the specimen,
6 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
5
It is best in the case of minute specimens to place them in
homeeopathic vials with alcohol, then stop the vial with cork
and place the whole, cork downward, in a larger bottle which
in turn is to be filled with alcohol. This renders it easy at
any time to find the specimen which would not be the case
were it loose in a large bottle, while the alcohol in the outer
vial will have to evaporate until the cork of the smaller is
reached before there is the slightest danger of the contents
of the inner bottle being injured.
The best homceopathic vials for museum purposes are
those made with straight sides without any neck or shoulder,
as then the inside can be readily cleansed and all specimens
can be readily taken out for examination. Rubber stoppers
do not answer overwell for museum purposes, as the alcohol
is apt to affect them and to set free the earth with which
they are adulterated, and cover the objects with a dense
white precipitate. ;
In the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge,
oval glass jars with flat sides are used for starfishes and
ophiurians. The mouth of the jar is ground and covered
with a glass plate fastened by cement and also bya strip of
tinfoil extending on both the glass cover and the sides of the
jar. The specimen is spread on glass or mica plates and fas-
tened with thread, bristles or silvered wire, and the whole
placed in the spirit.
Dissections of animal forms are preserved in alcohol by
extending on some substance not affected by the spirit. The
principal ones employed are mica, glass and wax. ‘The ob-
BOTTLES AND VIALS, 57
ject is fastened to the glass or mica by strings passed through
holes bored for the purpose. These holes can readily be bored
in glass, with a three-cornered file moistened with spirits of
turpentine and mounted in a drillstock. When wax is used
the specimen is fixed with insect pins. It is well to blacken the
wax by melting it and stirring in lampblack. This forms a
good background against which all details are readily seen.
Great care should be exercised in selecting the wax, which
should be pure. The common adulterations of wax are water,
tallow and lard, and the presence of either of these produces
a flocculent precipitate in alcohol, which settles on the spec-
imen and ruins it, as it is very difficult to remove.
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Richiardi, S.. Monograph of Pennatulide. 8vo, 14 pls. Boe
logna, 1869. (Ital.)
Sars, M. Memoir on living Crinoids. 4to,6 pls. Christiana,
1868. (Fr.)
Sars, M. Review of Norse Echinodermata. 8vo. Christiana,
1861.
Savigny, J. C Iconographie des Echinodermes, Polypes et
Zoophytes delEgypt, fol. 28 pls. Paris, 1810.
Selenka, E. Anatomy and Revision of the Holothu-
rians. (Zeitsch. Wiss. Zool. xvii.) 1867. 4 pls. (Ger.>
Semper, C. Scientific Results of Travels in Philip-
pene Archipelago. Holothurians. 410,57 pls. Leipzig,
1867-8. (The most valuable work on the subject ever pub-
lished. )
Trywell,G. Manual of British Sea Anemones. 8vo, 7 pls.
London, 1856.
Verrill, A. EK. Revision of Polypes, east coast of Amer-
ica. (Memoirs Bost. Socy. i, 1863.)
Verrill, A. E. List of Polypes and Corals sent by Museum
Comp. Zool. (Bulletin M. C. Z.) i, 1864.
Verrill, A. E. Synopsis of Polypes and Corals of No. Pacific
Exploring Expedition. (Bulletin Essex Inst. iv-vi, 1866-69. )
Verrill, A.E. Noteson Radiata. (Trans. Conn. Acad. i,
1868-71.)
Verrill, A. E. New and imperfectly known Echinoderms and
Corals. (Proc. Bost. Socy. xii. 1869.)
Vogt, C. Siphonophora and Tunicata of Nice. 2 vols., 4to,
27 pls. Geneva, 1854. (Fr.)
* BIBLIOGRAPHY. 228
SPONGES AND PROTOZOA.
Bowerbank, J. Monograph of British Spongiade.
3 vols. 8vo, 129 pls. (Ray Soc.) London, 1864-74.
Bowerbank, J. Monograph of Siliceo-fibrous sponges. 8vo.
London, 1869-76.
Butschli, O. Contributions to a knowledge of the Flagel-
lata. (Zeit. Wiss. Zool. xxviii, 1878.) (Ger.)
Carpenter, W.B. Researches on Foraminifera. 4to
22 pls. London, 1856-61.
Carpenter, Parker and Jones. Introduction to study
of Foraminifera. fol. 22 pls. (Ray Soc.) London, 1862.
Claparede et Lachmann. Studies of Infusoria and
Rhizopoda. 2 vols. 4to, 37 pls. Geneva, 1858-61 (Fr.)
D'Orbigny, A. Foraminifera in dela Sagra’s Cuba. Paris,
1839. (Fr.)
Duchassaing et Michelotti. Sponges of the Caribbean
and Antilles. ito. 25 pls. Harlem, 1864. (Fr.)
Dujardin, F. Natural History of the Infusoria.
(Suites 4 Buffon). 8vo. Paris, 1841. (Fr.)
Ettrenberg, C.G. Organization, Classification and Geograph-
ical Distribution of the Infusoria. 4to. 24 pls. Berlin, 1830-36.
(Ger. )
Ehrenberg, C. G. Die Infusionthierchen. fol. 64 pls.
Leipzig, 1838. (Ger.)
Greene, J R. Manual of the Protozoa. 8vo. London, 1871.
Haeckel, EK. Monographof the Radiolaria. Folio with
atlas, 35 pls. Berlin, 1862. (Ger.)
Haeckel, E. Monograph of Monera. 8vo. Jena, 1868. (Ger.)
Haeckel, E. Monograph of Calcispongize. 3 vols. 4to.
GO pls: Berlin, 1872. (Ger.)
Hertwig R. Studies on Rhizopoda. (Jena Zeitsch., 1877.
Ger.)
224 NATURALISTS’ ASSISTANT.
Hyatt, A. Revision of North American Porifere.
(Mem. Bost. Soe. ii, 1874.)
Johnston, G. History of BritishSponges. 8vo. Edinburg,
1842.
Leidy, J. Flora and Fauna in living Animals. (Smithsonian
Contributions v, 18538.)
Leidy, J. Fresh Water Rhizopoda of North Amer-
ica. (Hayden’s Survey.) 4to, 48 pls. 1880.
Parker and Jones. Nomenclature of the Foraminifera. 10 pts.,
8vo. (London), 1859-72.
Parker and Jones. On some Foraminifera from the North At-
lantic. 4to, 8 pls. (London, 1865.)
Pritchard, A. History of the Infusoria. 8vo. London, 1842.
2edit. 8vo,13 pls. London, 1849.
Quennerstedt, A. Contributions to the Swedish Infusoria
fauna. 4to (Lund), 1866-70. (Swed.)
Stein, Fr. Die Organismus der Infusionsthiere.
3 vols., 4to, many pls. Leipzig, 1859-77. (Ger.)
Williamson. Monograph Recent Foraminifera. (Ray Socy.)
fol. London, 1857.
Aberration . - - .
Acetic acid j 2 :
Adjustment of microscope
Adjustment for cover-glass
Alcohol : >
Alcoholic specimens °
Ammoniacarmine . 5
Angle of aperture . .
Arsenical powder. .
Argentic nitrate - .
Arsenical soap . C
Artificial serum F
Auric chloride . é 4
Batrachia . | r A
Bausch and Lomb micro-
scope : . 5 -
Beam trawl 5 5 :
Beck’s microscopes . .
Beating forinsects . -
Beceeur’s arsenical soap
Bibliography 5
Bichromate of potash
Birdlime . . ° :
Birds. C - = A
Blackening brass : A
Blackening wax -
Blackink . - -
Blow gun. : F
Borax carmine . :
Boring glass : E
Bottom collecting. -
Bottles : :
Brackets for shelves
Brass, to blacken : :
Breeding cage ., :
Breeding larvee :
Bullock’s arsenical pow-
GeVaa. ° < : :
Bullseye. - = :
Butterfly nets. ° °
Butterfly triangles
Cabinets for bottles
Camera lucida
Card catalogues
Care of microscope .
Caring for collections
Carmine - : .
Cases . ° : :
Cases for microscopic
slides : : ,
Cases for small bottles .
Catalogues . °
Cement : : < ’
Chairs . : : = .
Chloride of gold : :
Chromic acid
Clams, dissecting .
Coarse adjustment of mi-
ecroscope .
Coddington lens :
Collecting and preserving,
works on . 5 : 5
Collecting batrachia . :
Collecting equipment
Collecting insects
Collecting net
Collecting reptiles :
Collecting umbrella . °
(225)
a RD
(o #
to
eo |
io 8)
Oo
226
Collecting vertebrates.
College mus@éums
Colors; conventional
Compound microscope
Compressorium
Condenser . 5 -
Conventional colors .
Corrosive sublimate .
Craig microscope
Crustacea
Cyanide bottle
Cyanide of potassium
Destroying pigment .
Diaphragm . ,
Dissecting . 5 c 5
Dissecting insects, etc.
Dissecting microscopes
Dissecting tank .
Dissections preserved
Dissolving paraffine . 4
Drawing 3 8
Drawtube . . ° c
Dredging . - 4
Eggs . : . : 5
Egg drill ° . ° .
Eggs exhibiting . A A
Elder pith . “ C
Electrical cement 2 °
Kosin . : 5 < 5
Equipment, collecting 7
Exhibition cases . : :
Exhibiting birds’ eggs
INDEX.
PAGE
2 Gasteropoda ° . °
64 Gelatineinjections . -
59 Generic names . ; ;
8t Glass,to bore. : -
101 Glass stages é : -
90 Glycerine andgum . A
59, 110 Glycerine jelly . : -
141 Goadby’s solutions ° :
92 Gold chloride ; < 6
118 Grafting wax : : A
20 Gum 5 - : c A
20 Gum arabic : a -
Gumming insects : ¢
125
90 Hematoxylin. A °
115 Hardening tissues. F
116 Hartnack microscopes.
84 Hartnack objectives . :
115 Heliotype . . : .
56 High angle lenses.
129 “Homeopathic” collec-
109 tions . 5 : : a
85 Homeopathic vials. .
35 Horizontal cases wt
Huygenian oculars . -
11 :
Tl Ichneumon parasites . “
52 Illustrations : - 4
18 Imbedding . :
142 Imbedding tray . - =
137 Immersion lenses 5 :
34 Indiaink . : A .
69 Inflating larve . - ,
52 Inflatingoven . : 3
Fine adjustment of microscope 85
Fishes . : : :
Focal length of objectives
Focussing the microscope
Formule “ - ° :
Freezing microtome .
Freezing tissues. “ °
Frey’s fuschine . A .
Frogs . F ° : :
Fruit jars. 4 3
Fuschine . ° . .
13
87
97
135
129
Injecting. : : .
Injecting media . 5
Ink : . é ° .
Ink forlabels . ° .
Insects A é 2
Insect cases 5 : :
Insect forceps. 5
Insect labels 3 4 :
Insect localities . Z -
Insect net . : : z
Insect pins . 5 : -
Insect poison S A
Instruments for laboratory
PAGE
118
121
46
yi
89
139
121, 138
140
137
54, 143
109
. 125, 127
126
87, 97
46
“87
28
120
121
46, 143
46
18
72
24
49
22
23
23
142
107
INDEX.
PAGE
Iodized serum. - . 138
Jars for storage - : 57
Jelly fish - . : . 4]
Killing insects 20
Killing spiders. - : 30
Killing marine forms 41
Kleinenberg’s hamatoxy lin 136
Labels : : : . 45
Labelholders . : : 48
Labels, large 5 : 59
Labelling birds . : = 9
Labelling bottles : : 49
Labelling fossils and mi-
nerals - : ; 50
Labelling insects : : 49
Laboratories : . 67, 105
Laboratory necessaries. 107
Laboratory.tables . . 105
Laboratory work - 115
Lamellibranchs 4 . 118
Land shells - ; - 42
Large labels : . - 59
Larve, breeding ; A 81
Larve, inflating “ : 27
Laurent’s arsenical soap . 141
Leconte’s insect poison . 142
Lenses - 5 : 81
Lens holder ; : 83
Lifting sections - : 129
Lobsters < 5 < 5 118
Locks . - - 69
Logwood (see Hegiatosy lin) 135
Macerating skeletons . 16
Macerating skulls 5 - alr
Mammals. : : : 4
Marine collecting : - 34
Medusze : : ° . 4]
Mending insects - : 26
Microscope . : . . 81
Microscopic slide cases . 75
Microtomes . - 127, 130
Moistenring insects . : 25
Moleschott’s acetic acid . 137
Mounting fishes . “ : 14
227
PAGE
Mounting shells . 53
Mounting skeletons - 17
Mounting specimens . 45
Mounting spiders ‘ 30
Mucilage : - 48, 142
Miillers fluid ; -124, 138
Museum plans 64
Myriapoda 33
Nachet objectives . 89
Natural skeletons - 17
Nests and eggs é 11
Neutral salt solution 138
Nitric acid 125
Nitrate of silver 5 137
Note books : 109
Novelty microscope 92
Objectives 84
Oculars 84
Old aicohol 143
Oniscidze : 34
Osmic¢ acid 124, 137
Ox gall for mending insects — 26
Packing butterflies 25
Packing insects : 26
Packing jars 57
Painting tablets 53
Paper trays 126
Paraffine 125
Peron’sluting . 143
Perosmic acid 137
Photo-illustrations 16h
Picrocarmine 135
Pigment 125
Pill bugs 34
Pinning forceps 24
Pinning insects 23
Plan for museum 64
Poison bottle 5 20
Poisoning insects s 20
Polariscope 91
Polyzoa : 42
Potassic bic nowt 138
Protozoa 117
Printed labels 46
Pumping . . ° 58
228
Quinine bottles
Reagents
Recipes
Relaxing insects 4
Reptiles :
Revolving stages
Rooms 4 . A
Safety cord
Schieck objectives
Scoop nets
Sea anemones
Sea urchins
Section cutters
Section cutting
Section knife
Section lifter
Seilei’s microtome
Serum : : -
Setting insects
Shelf brackets
Shot c ¢
Silver nitrate - .
Simon’s arsenical soap
Skeletons . : -
Skimming
Skimming net
Skinning birds
Skinning mammals .
Skulls 5 ‘
Sledge microtome
Snails . : ° °
Soap for imbedding
Softening tissues A
Solid eye-pieces
Sow bugs. 5 .
Specificnames . *
Spiders : . 5
Spiders, mounting .
Spreading insects
Spreading board :
Sponges . . .
.
INDEX.
PAGE
58 Stands for birds :
Starfish ° .
107 Sterling microtome
135 Storage jars
25 Storing specimens .
12 Stretching paper
101 Substitutes for cork
63 Sugar for moths “
Sunken net 0 :
37 Surface collecting
89 Swainson’s soap
19
117 Tables é 5 5
: 7 Table cases - :
127, 130 Tablets :
122 Tangle 3 n :
128 Teasing tissues :
129 Tightening cases °
132 Tolles’ instruments .
138 Transparentsoap .
24 Transporting insects
70 Trawl . : -
2 Triplets : : .
137 Turtles : “ :
141 Typical collections .
16
39 Use of microscope .
40 Useful hints ; -
9
4
17 Vertebrates 5 5
131 Vertical camera 5
118 Vials. : ; :
127
125 Washing the collections
87 Wing trawl
34 Wooden tablets
AG Work tables 5
33 Works on collecting
30
24 Zeiss microscopes
24 Zeiss objectives .
117 Zenutmayer microscopes
.
PAGE
117
130
2, 119
100
9 09 or
or
oo
ma to mm Od
~
—
94
89
95
NATURALISTS’ ssa
f
We keep constantly on hand an assortment of Instruments used by Natural-
ists, such as
A
il
—=
Le
SCALPELS, BIRD-STUFFING FORCEPS, SCISSORS (curved and straight),
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SCALPELS, Ebony Handle . 3 ; 3 : : : : ; : $ .75
BIRD-STUFFING FORCEPS, : 3 : - 15, 1.25, 1.75, 2:00, 2.25, 2.75
According to length.
SCISSORS, Straight : ; : ‘ : . : : 2 ; ake OD
Scissors, Curved : : ‘ : - - - : : 1.25, 23%, 1-50
EGG DRILLS . : . : : ; : é : : 2 ; -25 to 1.50
SYRINGES . : f s : é - : : - : - 4.00 to 25.00
EGG BLOWERS, Nickeled . ; ; : 3 : , : ‘ : APA D
NATURALISTS’ CASES.
PROF. MARKS’ CASE INSTRUMENTS 5 c ‘ A z 3 : $6.00
PROF. WILDER’S CASE INSTRUMENTS . - : 2 : : 3 10.00
ana
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= Hn) MARICHAL
alll =< WL HH ae
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IMPORTANT BOOKS FOR THE NATURALIST.
Handbook of Invertebrate Zoology.
For LABORATORIES and SEASIDE WoRK. By Prof. W. K. BROOKS, Ph.
D., Director Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins
University. Price, $3.00
This work is published in one large 8vo volume of 400 pages. Illustrated
with 200 entirely new cuts, from drawings by the author, or made under his
direct supervision.
Handbook of Entomology.
By Prof. CHARLES Y. RILEY, U.S. Entomologist, Chief of Entomological
Commission, State Entomologist of Mo., ete., etc. In press. Cloth. &8vo.
Price, $3.00
International Scientists’ Directory.
Containing the Names, Special Departments of Science, etc., ete., of
Amateur and Professional Naturalists, Chemists, Physicists, Astrono-
mers, etc., etc., in America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and Oceanica. Ready
Jan., 1883. 12mo. Price, paper, $2.00; cloth, $2.50
Sea Mosses.
By Rey. A.B. HERVEY. Newedition. 20 Colored Plates. 12mo. Price, $2.00
Check List of Coleoptera.
aes List of Coleoptera of America, North of Mexico. By G. R. CRoTcH,
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Minot’s Birds of New Fngland.
Land Birds and Game Birds of New England, with descriptions of Birds,
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Ferns of North America.
Text by Prof. DANIEL C. EATON, of Yale College. Illustrations by Messrs.
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Life on the Sea-Shore;
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Primative Industry ;
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How to Mount Birds and Animals;
OR, THE TAXIDERMIST’S GUIDE. By C. J. MAYNARD. 12mo. Cloth.
lilustrated. Price, $1.50
This is an entirely new work, just issued, and should be in the hands of
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S. E. CASSINO, PUBLISHER,
32 Hawley St., Boston, Mass.
HANDBOOK
OF
NVERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY,
FOR LABORATORIES AND SEASIDE STUDY.
BY W.. EK. Be OOS,
Associate Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, and
Director of the Marine Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins
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The book contains directions for studying the general anatomy, the micro-
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The structure of Vorticelle,
The reproduction of Vorticellz,
The structure of a Sponge,
The structure and growth of a Campanularian Hydroid,
The structure and development of a Hydro-Medusa,
The general anatomy of a Starfish,
The microscopic anatomy of a Starfish.
The general anatomy of a Sea Urchin,
The embryology and metamorphosis of the Sea Urchin and Starfish,
The general anatomy of the Earthworm,
The microscopic structure of the Earthworm,
The anatomy of the Leech,
The anatomy of a Crab.
The metamorphosis of a Crab,
The structure and development of Cyclops,
The anatomy of a Grasshopper,
The general anatomy of Unio,
The microscopic anatomy of Unio,
The embryology and metamorphosis of Unio,
The anatomy and embryology of the Squid.
Illustrated by nearly two hundred cuts from the author’s draw-
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Nothing of the kind has been published in this eauutnys Harvey’s great work, cum-
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It is a complete Collector’s Guide, giving practical information as to the best times,
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directions are also given of the best methods of studying and identifying these plants.
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The plates, twenty in number, are drawn and colored from nature, and represent
twenty-four of the most interesting, beautiful and characteristic species, in not less
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-The work is issued in elegant binding, 12 mo., over 300 pages, and is printed on fine,
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S@=For sale by all booksellers, or sent, postpaid, on receipt
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