aire a ee rigs ts eee ets * bye eal ee Nee ltea se er ens el te es = a iz VU Z = < Zz 4 © —) en, ae *) iy BAD" | dee Pris Kaa Le at 4 _* rr | ; * y¥ ee — Sy WW ton = = = —— SS “ << X SA BAIRD’S SPARROW, NAT ATURALIST’S GUIDE IN COLLECTING AND PRESERVING OBJECTS OF NATURAL mistoRy/ WITH A COMPLETE CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS OF HASTERN MASSACHUSETTS. £3 Ge 03 “a "38 MAYNARD, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS BY E. L. WEEKS. SMITHSON, N JUN 2 7 1997 TAMES R. OSGOOD AND COMPANY, Late TicKNorR & FIELDs, AND FIELDs, OsGoop, & Co. sae eae Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1870, by FIELDS, OSGOOD, & CO., in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. University Press: Wetcu, BicELtow, & Co., CAMBRIDGRF, INTRODUCTION. THE great need of a good illustrated work to guide young naturalists in collecting and preserving objects of natural history has induced me to prepare the present Manual. In this attempt I hope I have been in some degree successful. I have spared no pains to bring to- gether, ina comprehensive form, the results of many years of experience in collecting and preserving objects of natu- ral history, both for private cabinets and for scientific museums. No popular work of this kind has before been published in America. Throughout the present work I have endeav- ored to encourage the young to engage in the ennobling study of Natural History, and to join the band of young naturalists so rapidly increasing in our land. I trust the reader will not by any means keep the teach- ings of this book secret, as some taxidermists are wont to counsel, but spread it broadcast among those who would profit by the information I have herein attempted to con- vey. It is intended for the Naruratuist, whoever and wherever he may be; and as it comes from a colaborer in the common field, it will, perhaps, be well received. iv INTRODUCTION. All of Part First is original. In preparing objects of natural history I have in a great degree invented methods. of my own, and have not given in this work a single one that I have not tested and proved equal to all oth- ers, if not superior. To avoid confusion, I have given only the method which experience has taught me to be the best. ; In this connection my thanks are due to Mr. E. L. Weeks, whose excellent illustrations will be found to add greatly to the value of the work. In Part Second I have thought proper to add a cata- logue of the birds of Eastern Massachusetts, with notes, as tending to enable the collector to obtain the rarer spe- cies more readily, by specifying the localities and peculiar haunts in which they have been found by others. The critical notes may, perhaps, be perused with interest by the more experienced ornithologist. CONTENTS. —_e~— PART: I, SALE AO bad Gl HN a a COLLECTING AND PRESERVING BIRDS. Sect. PaGE I. How To COLLECT : S 5 < - 3 3 vets Il. How To PREPARE SPECIMENS.— INSTRUMENTS, MATERIALS, ETC. 10 III]. MEASURING, SKINNING, AND PRESERVING BIRDS . . Ps IN MEASURING . . * F z : ‘ - : : 18 SKINNING . 3 Z : 4 ‘ ; : : » 22 DETERMINING THE SEX A 3 5 ‘ ‘ ‘ 27 CONTENTS OF STOMACH, ETC. : ; 4 : ot el EXCEPTIONS TO THE USUAL METHOD OF Bl eee F 31 TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS. . - : - : igiow IV. Mountinc SPECIMENS . ‘ ‘ . 5 : . 84 MountTING FRESH BirRDS ‘ 5 : : - - - 34 MOUNTING DRIED SKINS. : / ‘ ; . . 40 MountTine BIRDS WITH THE WINGS EXTENDED . - o Al CHAPTER II. COLLECTING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. Srcr. I. COLLECTING . : : P s ‘ ‘ P : w) AD Il. MEASURING Maurine: : z : ; a 3 E A 45 SKINNING . ‘ * 46 MeEtTHOD OF PREPARING A ee FOR hima carne aelwwdee 47 TABLE OF MEASUREMENTS 3 P r . P : mee 1 II. Mountinc MAMMALS , 2 A 2 ‘ - E - 50 CHAP TH Lip COLLECTING AND PRESERVING INSECTS FOR THE CABINET, BEETLES, OR COLEOPTERA . F : P i s : Per {>> Bucs, on HEMIPTERA : ; . L ° F Ales a5 Paecucondus: CRICKETS, ETC., OR Ganeeuets ° ° ° - 58 vi | CONTENTS. MoTuHS AND BUTTERFLIES, OR LEPIDOPTERA : : . : DRAGON-FLIES, ETC., OR NEUROPTERA . : - - : BrEEs, WASPS, ETC., OR HYMENOPTERA . * ‘ ‘ : FLIES, MOSQUITOES, ETC., OR DIPTERA . ‘ 4 * : CHAP THER. LY. COLLECTING AND PRESERVING FISHES AND REPTILES. SECT. I. Fiswrs . y 3 : , £ ‘ ; k : é ‘ Il. REPTILES . 2 3 a F * P Ne eaten ~ CHAPTER-YV. MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. SEcT. I. CRUSTACEA . « s % : ‘i Z _ , . CoLLECTING MoLuusKs . : : * ‘ ; ‘ PRESERVING SHELLS . 4 : : A - - : Worms, ANIMAL PARASITES, JELLY-FISHES : ; “ Corats, SEA-ANEMONES, Hyprorips AND Bryozoa, STAR- FisHES, SEA-UrcuHiIns, HoLoTHuRIAS, OR SEA-CUCUMBERS, _SPONGES AND SEA-WEEDS . : F : : : - JI. PREPARING SKELETONS . A ; : - és ss 5 MountTING SKELETONS : , , , : 3 . 4 CHAPTER. Ni. COLLECTING AND PRESERVING EGGs J 3 ‘ METHOD OF PREPARING A BOOK FOR Henonanete THE Rigadouer: MENTS OF EGGs : 2 - : s ‘ : x s PARES Le. CATALOGUE OF THE BirDS OF EASTERN MASSACHUSETTS . 3 INTRODUCTION z F ‘ : ‘ - - 5 5 2 APPENDIX : - - - : - ° ’ : - - INDEX . ° e ° ° e . e ° e ° ° 58 60 61 61 63 64 69 69 70 71 72 73 73 76 78 LIST AND EXPLANATION OF PLATES. FRONTISPIECE. Centronyx Bairdii, Baird. — Baird’s Sparrow, taken at Ipswich, Mass. i Puate I.* InstRuMENTS used in preparing birds, etc., and for blowing eggs. Fig. 1, Common Pliers; /%g. 2, Cutting Pliers ; Fig. 3, Tweezers; Fig. 4, Scalpel; Figs. 5 and 6, Egg-drills; Fug. 7, Blow-pipe; F%g. 8, Hook for removing embryos from eggs. PuateE II. — Wines, showing the positions of the different feathers, as follows : — Fig. 1. Wing of a Red-tailed Hawk (Buteo borealis, Vieill.).— a indicates the primaries, or quills; b, secondaries; c, tertiaries; d, scapularies ; g, greater wing-coverts ; f, lesser wing-coverts ; e, spuri- ous wing, or quills. Fig. 2. Wing of a Coot, or Mud Hen (Fulica Americana, Gmelin). — a indicates the primaries, or quills; b, secondaries; c, tertiaries; d, scapularies ; e, spurious wing, or quills. The tertiaries and scapularies are elongated in most of the aquatic birds, and in some of the Waders. They are always prominent, if not elongated, on long-winged birds, such as the Eagles, Hawks, Owls, Vultures, etc. ; while they are only rudimentary on short-winged birds, such as the Thrushes, Warblers, Sparrows, ete. Puate III. Heap or tHe Barp Eac re (Halictus leucocephalus, Savigny), showing the different parts, as follows: —a, the throat; b, chin; c, commissure, or the folding edges of the mandibles; d, under mandible; s, gonys; p, gape; g, upper mandible; h, culmen; i, tip; j, base of bill; k, cere (naked skin at the base of the upper mandible, prominent in the rapacious birds); 1], frontal feathers; m, lores; n, crown; 0, occiput. * Plates I., IV., V., VI., VIII., IX., X., and the frontispiece will be more fully explained hereafter. V1ll LIST OF PLATES. The irides are the colored circles that surround the pupil. The color of these decides the so-called “color of the eye.” PuaTE IV. ILLusTRATES PREPARING SxKins.— Figs. 1 and 2. Corrugated board, used in drying skins; d, skin on the board, in the proper position. /%g.3. A “skin” prepared for scientific use; @, la- bel, on which is marked the number and sex. Puate V. DissecteD Sone Sparrow (Melospiza melodia, Baird), illustrating the sexes in the breeding season, as follows: — F%g. 1. An adult female (Q); 1,1, peculiar yellow glands; 2, ovary; 3, oviduct; 4,lungs. Fig. 2. An adult male ( @); 1, lungs; 2, peculiar yellow glands; 3, 3, testicles. Pirate VI. DissecreD Sone Sparrow, illustrating the sexes of the young-of-the-year, in autumn, as follows:— Fig. 1. A young male ( ¢); 1, lungs; 2, 2, yellow glands; 3, 3, testicles. F%g. 2. A young female (9); 1,1, yellow glands; 2, ovary; 3, lungs; 4, ovi- duct. Puate VII. Ovriine or Grouse, showing the position of the different parts, as follows:—a, the back; b, rump; c, upper tail- coverts; d, under tail-coverts ; e, vent; f, tibia; g, tarsi; h, breast; i, side; j, neck; k, hind neck; 1, abdomen; m, feet; n, throat. Puate VIII. ILLustrates Mountine Birps. — Fvgs. 1,2. Arti- ficial body ; a, bone of leg; b, wire bent; c, wire clenched; f, h, tail wire. %g. 3. Mounted bird; a, perpendicular line, showing the position of the head compared with the feet and base of the stand; b, b, wires for retaining the upper part of the wing in position ; ¢, e. wires for retaining the lower part of the wing in position; e, e, wires for the tail; d, showing the tail-feathers plaited; f, stand. F%g. 4. Stand for mounting birds with the wings extended ; b, b, parallel wires ; c, wires bent; a, block of wood for the bottom of the stand, Fig. 5. Head of Cedar-Bird, to illustrate the elevating of the crest; g, cotton on the pin; b, feathers of the crest in position on the cotton. Puate IX. ILtustrates mountinc Mammats.—Tf%g. 1. A, plank for supporting iron rods; 8, iron rod for supporting head; 14, cap, nut, and screw for fastening the end of the rod in the skull; 7,7,7, 7, iron rods to support the body ; 5, 6, 5, 6, caps, etc. for fastening ° the upper ends of the rods to the plank; 17, 17, 17, 17, caps, etc. for fastening the lower part of the rods to the stand (10) ; 15, wire for supporting the tail; 16, 16,16, 16, 16, 16, 16, 16, artificial sections of LIST OF PLATES. 1x hemp, grass, or plaster used as a substitute for the natural body. Fig. 2. A, nut; B, cap; C, thread. Puate X. SKELETON oF a GrovusE, oR Prarrie Hen ( Cupi- donia cupido, Baird), showing the different bones, as follows: — a, the skull; b, vertebra of the neck; ¢, humerus ; d, forearm; f, pha- langes ; g, furcula; h, sternum; i, marginal indentations; j, thigh; k, tarsus; y, tibia; m, rump ; 0, coccygus; A, ribs; B, lower joint of thigh. MD te A Rai ; pele PA kl: —_@—_ DIRECTIONS FOR COLLECTING, PRESERVING, AND MOUNTING BIRDS, MAMMALS, FISHES, ETcC,, ETC.; ETC. vi ar pine’ Bhs hie ; a ‘ “3 , a . Pank:T. .1. Crease T E.R vb. COLLECTING AND PRESERVING BIRDS. Section I. How to collect.— Personal experience is a good, and in fact the only adequate, teacher we can have in learning any art. The need of such a teacher is felt by none more than by the naturalist who wishes to bring to- gether a complete collection of the birds of even his own immediate district. Hence I trust I shall not be accused of egotism, if, in this section, I endeavor to impart to the reader some things that experience has taught me. It is of first importance for the collector to gain as com- plete a knowledge as possible of the notes and habits of birds, and of the. localities frequented by those he wishes to procure. This knowledge may be gained by carefully studying the writings of men who have paid particular attention to the subject. Zoo much dependence must not be placed on books, as the best of these contain error as well as truth ; besides, birds are very variable in their hab- its in different localities. The collector must then depend mainly upon himself. He must visit every locality, — the mountain-top and the dark swampy thicket, as well as the meadow, the plain, or the open forest, as in each of these localities he will find species that he may no. meet else- where. A little patience will help any one through the worst of places. The quaking bog, where a misstep may plunge the adven- turer into the slimy ooze, is also an excellent locality for 4 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. certain species. But when the collector returns home wet and hungry, fatigued and disheartened, —as he now and then will, —let him not be discouraged. Try again! the next day, and even the next, if need be, until the desired specimen is obtained. After all, the earnest naturalist will be amply rewarded for the exercise of patience and perse- verance by securing a rare specimen. The ¢rwe naturalist never thinks of cold and disappoint- ment, of days of fatigue and hours of patient watching, when at last he holds in his hand the long-searched-for bird. Ample reward is this for all his former trials ; he is now ready to go into bog and through brier.. And thus the enthusiastic naturalist travels on, not discouraged by toil and trouble, laughed to scorn by the so-called “practical ” men, who are unable to appreciate his high motive. This, however, he forgets when in field or study he meets with the cordial greeting of his brother naturalist, as they with mutual interest relate their discoveries and adventures. To the travelling collector a few special hints are neces- sary. While visiting a remote region, but little known, one should not neglect to shoot numbers of every bird met with, even if they are common species at home, as they will not only furnish data on the distribution of the species, but they may present interesting characters peculiar to that locality. Ifa certain species appears common, do not delay collecting specimens, for peculiar circumstances may have brought them together in unusual numbers ; at some future time they may be rare. A well-trained dog is of great value while collecting birds, especially the Quails, Marsh Wrens, Sea-side and Sharp-tailed Finches, —in fact, all birds that are difficult to start in open meadows and grassy places. While search- ing thickets, great watchfulness should be observed, espe- cially in the autumn, when many birds have no conspicuous note, otherwise many of the more wary of the Warblers THE ART OF COLLECTING BIRDS. 5 will escape notice. The slightest chirp should be care- fully followed ; the slightest motion of the branches closely watched. If a bird is seen that is not fully recognized, it should be shot at once, for in no other way can it be de- termined whether it is not a rara avis. By carefully watching the motions of birds, the collector will soon become so expert as to be able generally to dis- tinguish the different species of Warblers, even at a dis- tance. Carefully scrutinize also the tops of tall forest- trees, as I have there taken, in autumn, some of the rarest Warblers. In spring male birds are quite readily found, as they are then in full song; but the same caution must be used in collecting females that is practised in autumn, as they are generally shy and difficult to find. Hence it is a good rule always to secure the female jivst, when she is seen with the male ; for, in spite of all the collector’s efforts, he will find that there will be four males to one female in his collection. During winter some birds may be found in the thick woods that one would hardly expect to find at this season, such as the Robin, Golden-winged Woodpecker, etc. The open fields should not be neglected even during snow- storms, as it is then that such ordinarily cautious birds as the Snowy Owl may be approached quite readily ; or the capture of a Jerfalcon may reward the collector for a disagreeable tramp. The salt marshes and sandy sea- shores are the resort of a great many winter birds, and the collector will perhaps find himself amply repaid for a few visits to these localities at this season. Do not neglect to collect the young of birds; by pro- curing specimens of these from the time they become fully fledged until they attain the perfectly mature plumage, one becomes familiar with all the stages through which a given species passes, and will thus avoid many errors into which some of our eminent ornithologists have fallen, — 6 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. that of mistaking the young of certain well-known birds for a different species from the adult, from not being ac- quainted with the immature stages. All birds should be taken that exhibit any unusual characters, such as unusu- ally large or small bills or feet; or change of plumage, such as very pale, or very bright, cases of albinism, ete. The gun used by a collector should have a small bore, not larger than No. 14, for shooting small birds ; for Ducks, and other large water-birds, one of larger calibre will be found more effectual. The best shot to use for small birds is ‘ Dust shot,” if it can be procured ; if not, No. 12 will answer. No. 8 will do for Ducks and large birds. For Hawks and Eagles, Ealy’s wire cartridges are the best. In shooting small birds, load as lightly as possible. Put in no more shot than is required to kill the bird. As you can approach very near most small birds, you will find, by experiment, that you can kill them with very little shot. If too much powder is used, it will impel the shot with so much force as to send it completely through the bird, thereby making two holes, when less powder, by causing less force, would have made only one, and the bird would have been killed just as effectually. When shot goes into the body of a bird, it generally carries feathers with it, and in a measure plugs the hole; but when it is forced through and comes out, it often carries away a small patch of feath- ers and skin, leaving an open wound, from which the blood flows freely. If the bird is not instantly killed by shooting, the thumb and forefinger should be placed with a firm pres- sure on each side of its body under the wings, when it will soon die. This operation compresses the lungs and pre- vents the bird’s breathing. Besides mercifully ending its suffering, its death causes the flow of blood in a great measure to cease, for this reason it should be killed as quickly as possible. THE ART OF COLLECTING BIRDS. 7 The mouth, nostrils, and vent should now be plugged with cotton or tow. By blowing aside the feathers the shot- holes may be detected ; if they bleed, or are in the abdo- men or rump, a pinch of calcined plaster * should be placed upon them ; this absorbs the blood, or any fluid that may ooze out. When shot enters either the abdomen or rump, it is apt to cut the intestines and set free the fluids con- tained therein. If the blood has already soiled the feath- ers, remove as much as is possible with a knife, then sprinkle plaster on the spot, and rub the soiled feathers gently be- tween the thumb and fingers ; this, if repeated, will gen- erally remove any spots of blood, etc., if the operation is performed before the blood becomes dry. When the blood is dry, it is removed after the bird is skinned, as will be hereafter described. Next make a note of the color of the eyes, feet, and bill of the specimens, also note the color of the cere in birds of prey, and the naked skin of the lores and about the bill of the Herons, also about the heads of the Vultures. After smoothing the feathers carefully, place the bird in a paper cone,f head first, then pin or twist up the larger end, tak- ing care not to injure the tail-feathers. The blood can be washed from the feathers of all the swimmers, but the bird, in this case, should be allowed to dry before packing in paper. If grease or oily matter has oozed out upon the feathers, the bird should not be washed, but the plaster be used as before, only in larger quantities. All traces of blood should be instantly removed from white feathers, as it is very apt to stain them if it remains upon them long. The paper containing the bird should * This is burned plaster or gypsum, and is used by stucco-makers. If it cannot be procured, the unburned plaster or common ground gypsum used by farmers, or air-slacked lime, pulverized chalk, or ashes, — in fact, anything that will absorb the blood, — will answer. + The leaves of an old pamphlet are about the right size for making eones for small birds, and can be easily obtained. 8 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. be placed in a light basket, —a willow fish-basket is the best for this purpose, —suspended by a strap over the shoul- der, and resting upon the hip. If there are but one or two birds in the basket, it should be filled with grass, or loose paper, to keep them steady, as otherwise they might re- ceive injury by rolling from side to side. In packing birds, avoid putting the largest at the top, as their weight will cause the smallest to bleed. Do not hold a bird in the hand any longer than is necessary ; if possible, take it by the feet or bill, for the perspiration from the hand tends to impair the gloss of the plumage. A good collector must practise, in order to become a good shot. He must always keep his gun in readiness, for at. any moment a bird that he desires may start up at his feet, or peer out from the bushes for only an instant before flying away; by being ready, he will thus secure many birds that he would otherwise lose. To be in readiness at all times, the gun should be car- ried in the hollow of the left arm, with the muzzle pointed backwards, or with the stock under the right arm, with the muzzle pointed towards the ground, which is undoubtedly the safest way, especially if you are hunting with a com- panion. Too much caution cannot be used in handling a loaded gun, especially by a professional collector, who may spend two thirds of his time with a gun in his hand. A gun should never be carried in other than three ways, — the two above mentioned and directly over the shoulder. If the collector becomes accustomed to these ways, which are all perfectly safe, he will never think of any other. Surely, this caution is necessary to one who is travelling through all sorts of places, when a slip or a fall with a care- lessly held gun might cripple him for life, by an accidental discharge. While passing through thick bushes, always carry the gun under the arm, as this prevents its accidental dis- THE ART OF COLLECTING BIRDS. 9 charge by the bushes catching the trigger or hammer. Never allow the muzzle of the gun to point at any one, even for an instant. All these things depend upon habit, and will cause a thoughtful man, who has handled a gun for a long time, to be much more careful than a person who seldom takes one in his hands. The thoughtful man prefers rather to avoid accidents to himself and others— by care in advance —than to risk the chance of having to mourn his carelessness afterwards. The various devices for snaring birds are undoubtedly the best ways to secure them without injuring their plumage. But the collector will have to rely mainly upon his gun; and by following the above instruction regarding the light charges, he will find that he will generally kill a bird without injuring its plumage seriously. If he carefully attends to it afterward in the way described, he will save himself much trouble when he wishes to preserve it. In an old French cook-book may be found a receipt for a rabbit-stew, commencing with, ‘“ First, catch your rabbit,” etc., — which rule is applicable to the collector. First, study with attention the art of collecting. Many and long have been the lessons in collecting that I have taken in long tramps through sunshine and storm, in the bracing air among the mountains of Northern Maine and New Hampshire, on sandy islands and rocky shores, amid the luxuriant forests and along the rivers and lagoons of semi-tropical Florida. Hours: of danger and perplexity have been mingled with days of inexpressible pleasure, which all must experience who study from the Great Book of Nature. Not easily, then, I may add, have I learned what I am trying to im- part to others in these pages. Since writing the preceding, I have been informed by my friend, Mr. W. Brewster, of Cambridge, that in collect- ing such small birds as the Warblers, Sparrows, Wrens, etc., he has used a “blow-gun” to great advantage, constructed 1* 10 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. somewhat after the pattern of the celebrated instrument that is used by the natives of some portions of South America to shoot poisoned arrows. His “gun” is made of pine-wood, and is about four feet and a half long; it is bored smoothly the whole length with a quarter-inch hole. For ammunition Mr. Brewster uses balls made of soft putty. These, blown at birds, will hit them hard enough to kill, if the gun be aimed rightly, which art can be acquired by practice. ‘This is certainly the preferable way to collect small birds, as it does the plumage no harm. I would suggest, however, that a tube of thin brass be used in place of wood; if it were longer, say six feet, it would carry with greater force and more accuracy. Glass would be still better, if it could be supported by wood to prevent break- age, as it would be much smoother. The balls of putty should be made to fit moderately tight. I have never tried this method myself, but Mr. Brewster has, in a satis- factory manner, as described above. I only wait an oppor- tunity to test them myself, and trust that others will do the same. Section II. How to prepare Specimens. Instruments, Materials, etc.* The instruments needed in preserving birds and mammals are: a pair of common pliers, Plate I. Fig. 1; a pair of cutting pliers, Fig. 2; a pair of tweezers, Fig. 3; a scalpel, Fig. 4; two brushes, —one soft, the other stiff; a flat file, and needles and thread. The materials needed are: wire of annealed iron of sizes. between 26 and 10, also some very fine copper wire ; common thread, coarse and fine, also some very fine, soft thread from the cotton-factories, — this is wound on what are called “bobbins”; it is used in the manufacture of cloth,—cotton tow or hemp, and fine grass ; for the latter the long tough kind that grows in the woods is the best. * All the instruments and the wire may be procured at the hardware stores in the cities or larger towns. MATERIALS, ETC. Fig. 3 Fig7 Fig 4 fig.6 Plate I. 11 12 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. Arsenic is the best substance that can be used in preserv- ing skins, and the only one necessary. Other preparations are no better, and often much worse. Strange as it may ap- pear to some, I would say avoid especially all the so-called arsenical soaps; they are at best but filthy preparations; beside, it is a fact to which I can bear painful testimony, that they are — especially when applied to a greasy skin — poisonous in the extreme. I have been so badly poisoned, while working upon the skins of some fat water-birds that had been preserved with arsenical soap, as to be made seriously ill, the poison having worked into the system through some small wounds or scratches on my hands. Had pure arsenic been used in preparing the skins the effect would not have been as bad, although grease and arsenic are generally a blood poison in some degree; but when combined with “soap,” the effect — at least, as far as my experience goes —is much more injurious. Arsenic alone will sometimes poison slightly the wound with which it comes in contact, but no more than com- mon salt. There will be a slight festering and nothing more ; but, on the contrary, when combined with fat, a poison is generated that must be carefully guarded against. It sometimes works under the nails of the fingers and thumbs, while one is at work skinning (especially if the birds are fat). Rubber cots should be put upon the fingers or thumbs the instant the slightest wound is detected, whereby much pain may be avoided at a small cost. The ' cots alluded to can be procured of almost any druggist for ten cents each. Arsenic, however, cannot be used with too great care, as it is a deadly poison. In no case should it be left in the way of children. I have a drawer, wide, long, and shallow, in the bench at which I work upon birds, where my arsenic is kept safely, and it is always accessible. But there is probably not so much danger attending the use MATERIALS, ETC. - 13 of pure dry arsenic as people generally suppose. I have been told repeatedly, by competent physicians, that the small quantity taken, either by inhalation while using it, or by numerous other accidental ways, would be beneficial, rather than injurious; but be that as it may, I have used dry arsenic constantly for ten years, and have not yet, I think, experienced any injurious effects from it. It must be remembered that I have, of course, used it carefully. When used with care, in the ordinary manner, it is un- doubtedly the safest and the best material that can be used in preparing skins for the cabinet. I have never yet had a skin decay, or attacked by moths, that was well pre- served by the use of arsenic. Arsenic is very cheap, vary- ing from five to ten cents per pound by the wholesale, and retailed at twenty-five cents by druggists, but when bought by the ounce the price is enormous. There is, however, another poison to which one is exposed while skinning animals, which cannot be too carefully guarded against, for it is much more injurious in its effects than fat ard arsenic. I speak of the animal poison that results from the first stage of decomposition. If on a warm day one skins birds from which an offensive odor arises, and a peculiar livid or purplish appearance of the skin upon the abdomen is seen, and the intestines are distended with an extremely poisonous gas, — which is the source of the offensive, sickening odor,—there is danger of be- ing poisoned. When this gas is inhaled, or penetrates the skin through the pores (which are generally open on a warm day), a powerful and highly dangerous poison is apt to be the result. In a few days numerous pimples, which are exceedingly painful, appear upon the skin of the face and other parts of the person, and upon those parts where there is a chaf- ing or rubbing become large and deep sores. There is a general languor, and, if badly poisoned, complete prostration 14 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. 7” results; the slightest scratch upon the skin becomes a fes- tering sore. Once poisoned in this manner (and I speak from experience), one is never afterwards able to skin any animal that has become in the /east putrid, without ex- periencing some of the symptoms above described. Even birds that you handled before with impunity, you cannot now skin without great care. The best remedy in this case is, as the Hibernian would say, not to get poisoned, — to avoid skinning all birds that exhibit the slightest signs of putrescence ; this is especially to be guarded against in warm weather, and in hot cli- mates, where I have seen a single hour’s work upon putrid birds nearly prove fatal to the careless individual. If you get poisoned, bathe the parts frequently in cold water ; and if chafed, sprinkle the parts, after bathing, with wheat flour. These remedies, if persisted in, will effect a cure, if not too bad; then, medical advice should be pro- cured without delay. It is just as easy to skin fresh birds as putrid ones, and much pleasanter, and in this way the evil will be avoided. If it is necessary to skin a putrid bird, — as in the case of a rare specimen, —a good bath of the hands and face in clear, cold water will entirely prevent the poison from taking effect, provided the skinning is not protracted too long. But generally, if the bird is putrid, I would advise the collector to throw it away, and obtain others that are safer to skin. If birds and mammals are injected, by means of a small glass syringe, with a small quantity of carbolic acid at the mouth and vent, it will prevent decomposition from taking place immediately. After injecting, the mouth and vent should be plugged to prevent the acid from staining the feathers. Birds injected in this way for three successive days will continue fresh for a long time, and, if kept in a dry place, will harden completely without decomposing. MATERIALS, ETC. 15 They may afterwards be skinned, as will be described here- after. Impure carbolic acid will auswer as well as the refined, and it is much cheaper. The cost of this acid is trifling, and it will often prove beneficial in preserving birds in warm weather when they cannot be skinned immediately. But I would not advise its use in preserving birds when it can possibly be avoided, as it dulls the plumage, and is offensive in its odor in con- nection with the juices of the birds while they are being skinned. It is, perhaps, needless to add that this acid is a dangerous internal poison; it also burns the skin badly when allowed to come in contact with it, but all injurious effects may be removed by applying oil to the Spot. As a collector walks much, he must have something on his feet that is easy and at the same time serviceable. I have found that in stony countries like New England the best things are canvas shoes that lace up in front, tightly about the ankles and over the instep, to prevent slipping up and down, which is the worst possible thing that could happen while on a long tramp ; the soles should be broad, so that the toes may have room enough without crowding. With such shoes I have found that’ I could walk farther than with anything else, and be less wearied in the end. If the feet are wet from walking in water, with canvas shoes on them they will soon dry, as the water will all run out upon walking a short time on dry ground. Anything that is water-proof will be much too heavy to travel in, besides being injurious to the feet. In sandy localities, or on marshes, or in winter when the snow covers the ground, Indian moccasons are the easiest and best things that can possibly be worn; but in stony places they are not of sufficient thickness to protect the feet from receiving injury from the hard surface, other- wise they are exceedingly easy. They are not water-proof, 16 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. so that unless the snow is frozen in winter they are of no use. These moccasons can be procured almost anywhere in Maine and New Hampshire, and sometimes in Boston. They are manufactured mostly in Canada. For clothes, perhaps the best that can be worn in summer is a suit of fine canvas of some dark color, to correspond with the foliage; in winter, white, to correspond with the snow; in both cases the wearer is less conspicuous, and can ap- proach his game much more readily. This cloth will not wear out or tear easily, and is every way fitted for travel- ling in the woods. I would next call attention to making stands on which to put birds after they have been mounted, as one of the necessities of the cabinet. Simple stands in the form of the letter T (Plate VIII. Fig. 3, f) are generally wanted. Any carpenter can make them. Different sizes will be needed, from one with the standard two inches high with a cross-piece one inch long, to a foot standard with a six-inch cross-piece, with bottoms to match. If made of pine, these stands may be painted white, of a very pure unchanging color, in the following manner. Buy white zinc at thirty cents per pound, and nice frozen glue at from twenty-five to thirty cents per pound ; dissolve the glue thoroughly in hot water, then strain ; to a pint and a half of water use a quarter of a pound of glue, to this add one pound of zine, stir well, with the vessel that contains it in boiling water, then, with a brush, apply to the stands; put on two coats. If the paint has a yellowish cast, put in a few drops of bluing; it will change it at once. Thus you will find that you have a nice white coat of paint that will remain unchanged longer than oil colors. Any other color can be used, if preferred, in the same manner. Fancy stands are made in the following way. For mossy stands, select a wooden bottom of suitable shape and size, — those with the edges bevelled are generally used, —and MATERIALS, ETC. 17 with the pliers force a piece of wire into it in the centre, then bend the wire in imitation of a branch or small tree, then wind it with hemp to give it the required shape ; additional wires may be fastened on to represent the smaller twigs. The whole is now to be covered with a coating of glue, and sprinkled with pulverized moss, or small pieces of moss are placed upon it smoothly. If the work is per- formed neatly, a perfect imitation of a little tree will be the result, upon which the bird is placed. If artificial leaves are to be used, they may be placed upon the twigs with glue. If, instead of a wire, a twig bent in the required form can be procured, and fastened to the bottom with wire, it may be covered with moss without winding with hemp. The fancy stands seen with dealers in birds are generally made of a substance called papier-maché, that is, manu- factured of paper pulp and glue as follows: Tear paper in small pieces and place it in water, let it stand over- night. Then, as it will be entirely soaked, reduce it to a perfect pulp, either by forcing it through a sieve or by stirring it. When reduced to a pulp, drain the water away. Dissolve a quarter of a pound of glue in a pint of water ; mix with this a pint of pulp, heat it, and stir it well; then it is ready for use. Prepare a stand as de- scribed. Mould the pulp upon it in any shape to suit the fancy. It should have the consistency of putty, in order to work well. If it is too thin, put in more of the pulp . if too dry, more water. With this substance you can imitate almost anything in the shape of miniature trees, with hollows, knots, crooked limbs, etc. By drawing over the whole, when finished, a comb, the bark of a tree can be imitated exactly. When . perfectly dry, the limbs of the tree can be painted brown in the manner described. The bottom of the stand is B 18 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. painted green, and sprinkled with a substance resembling green sand, called “smolt,” which may be procured at the painter’s; over this is sometimes sprinkled thin glass, broken fine, which is called “frosting,” and is also used by painters. Rocks can be imitated well with papier-maché. If stud- ded with small pieces of quartz the effect is heightened; they then may be painted in imitation of granite, sand- stone, etc. The sandstone is easily imitated by sprinkling on sand before the pulp is dry. There are many other things that may be imitated with this wonderful substance, but, having given the preceding hints, I leave the reader to experiment at his leisure upon them. For the scientific cabinet I would advise the use of the plain white stands as being much neater. The others are only fit for ornament. One other thing is necessary. Take a thin board, and at intervals of two inches tack transversely strips of wood (Plate IV. Fig. 1); then cut a strip of paper as wide as the board, and with glue make it adhere at the top of the strips and at the middle of the intervening space, so as to form a corrugated appearance (Fig. 2). These are used in drying skins of birds. Each board should have about twelve such spaces, varying in width from two to four inches, the boards varying in width from four inches to one foot. These boards, with careful use, will last a long time. Section III. Measuring, Skinning, and Preserving Birds. —For measuring, a pair of dividers, or compasses, a steel rule, divided into hundredths of an inch, and a longer rule, divided into inches and half-inches, will be wanted. To measure the bird, proceed as follows: Place the bird upon its back upon the longer rule, with the end of the tail at the end of the rule; the neck is stretched at full length, without straining; the bill must be pointed with EEE sian Fy) i Lope cy 20 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. the rule. Record the number of inches upon a strip of paper ; if there is a fractional part of an inch, measure it with the dividers, and find how many hundredths it con- tains upon the smaller rule, and record it. This is “the length of the bird.” | Stretch the wings out to the full length, with the bird still upon its back; measure these from tip to tip as “the stretch of wing.” Measure the wing from the tip to the carpel joint, or bend, with the dividers (Plate X. d), for “the length of the wing.” The tail is to be measured — also with the dividers—from the tip to the root for ‘the length of the tail.” Measure the tarsus (Plate VII. g) as “the length of the tarsus.” Measure the bill, from the tip of the upper mandible to the base (if the base is not well defined, as in the Ducks, measure to the feathers) ; this is “the length of bill along the culmen” (Plate III. h). Measure from the tip of the upper mandible to the gape (e) for “the length from gape”; also from the tip of the lower mandible to the angle of the gonys (s) for “the length of gonys”(c). In the Hawks, measure to the cere. The color of the eyes, feet, and bill is now observed and recorded, also the date of collection and the locality in which the bird was collected. If the bird is in worn plu- mage, the fact should be recorded, as this will affect the measurements; also if it is moulting or in perfect plu- mage. As the records now made are only temporary, signs may be used to save time, such as X would denote an adult bird in perfect plumage, Y|—— would denote a young bird in worn plumage, YY| | would denote a young bird not a year old and moulting,—this stage in the life of the bird is called the “ young-of-the-year.” By using some such signs as these much time will be saved. When the collector becomes expert at measuring, he will find that all small birds can be measured and recorded in 21 THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. Plate III. a9 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. about three minutes, and the larger ones in a little longer time. Skinning. — First, have plenty of plaster near at hand. Remove the cotton from the mouth and vent, and place a fresh plug in the mouth alone. The method now about to be described is one that will apply to all birds, excepting those to be hereafter named. Place the bird upon its back; with the forefinger and thumb part the feathers on the abdomen, and a bare longi- tudinal space will be discovered, extending from the breast to the vent. With the scalpel divide the skin in the centre of this bare space, commencing at the lower part of the breast-bone, or sternum (Plate X. 0), and ending at the vent. Now peel the skin off to the right and left, and sprinkle plaster upon the exposed abdomen. Force the leg on the right side up under the skin, at the same time drawing the skin down until the joint (p) appears ; cut through this joint and draw the leg out as far as the tarsus or first joint (k); with the point of the knife sever the tendons on the lower part of the leg, then by a single scraping motion upwards they may all be removed, com- pletely baring the bone ; treat the other leg in a like man- ner, leaving both turned out as they were skinned. Place the finger under the rump near the tail, then with the scalpel cut through the backbone just in front of the coc- cygus (n) entirely through the flesh to the skin, —the finger beneath is a guide to prevent cutting the skin. This may be done very quickly after long practice, and there is no danger of severing the skin if proper care be used. Put on a fresh supply of plaster. Now grasp the end of the backbone firmly between the thumb and forefinger, and with the other hand pull the skin down on all sides towards the head, until the joint of the wing, where the last bone, or humerus (r), is joined to the body, appears ; sever the bones at this joint, and draw the skin down THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 23 over the neck and head. When the ears appear, with the thumb-nail remove the skin that adheres closely to the skull without breaking it, pull down to the eyes, then cut the skin off close to the eyelids, taking care not to cut or injure them; but be sure and cut close enough to remove the nictating membrane, as it will otherwise cause trouble. Skin well down to the base of the bill. Re- move the eye with the point of the knife by thrusting it down at the side between the eye and the socket, then with a motion upward it can be removed without breaking ; cut off enough of the back part of the skull to remove the brains easily. Proceed to skin the wings; draw them out until the forearm (Plate X. d) appears, to which the sec- ondaries are attached; with the thumb-nail detach them by pressing downward forcibly. Remove the muscles and tendons— as explained on the leg — to the joint, where the forearm joins the humerus (B), then divide, removing the humerus entirely. Now open the drawer containing the arsenic, and with a small flat piece of wood cover the skin completely with it; be sure that the cavities from which the brains and eyes: were removed are filled. Take up the skin and shake it gently. The arsenic that remaing adhering to it is sufficient to preserve it, provided the skin is damp enough ; if not, it may be moistened slightly. Now fill the eye-holes * with cotton, tie the wing-bones with thread, as near together as the back of the bird was broad, then turn the skin back into its former position. Smooth the feathers of the head and wings with the fingers. With a few strokes of the feather duster, holding the skin up by the bill, remove the plaster and arsenic that may be ad- hering to the feathers. If there is blood upon the feathers, it may be removed — if there is not much of it, and if it is dry — with the * By which I mean the holes occupied by the eyes in the skull. 24 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. stiff brush by continuous brushing, assisted by scraping with the thumb-nail. A living bird cleans blood from its plumage by drawing each feather separately through its beak, thereby scraping off the blood; the thumb-nail performs the part of the bill. If much bloody, with a soft sponge and water wash away al/ traces of blood; then throw plaster upon the wet spot, and remove it before it has time to harden or ‘‘set.” By repeating this opera- tion, at the same time lifting the feathers so as to allow the plaster to dry every part, and by using the soft brush, the feathers will soon dry. In this way any stains may be removed. . ae If the plumage is greasy, wash it with warm water and strong soap long enough. to remove every particle of fatty matter that adheres to the feathers; then rinse thoroughly in warm water, afterwards in cold. Be sure and remove all traces of the soap before putting on the plaster to dry, as the soap will be changed by the plaster into a gummy substance, which will be very difficult to remove. After smoothing the feathers carefully, place the alsin upon its back. With the tweezers take up a small roll of hemp or cotton, as large round and as long as the neck of the body that was taken out, and place it.in the neck of the skin, taking care that the throat is well filled out ; then, by grasping the neck on each side with the thumb and finger, the hemp or cotton may be. held in place; and the tweezers withdrawn. After placing the wings in the same position as the bird would have them when at rest, with the bones of the forearm pushed well into the skin, —so that they may lie down each side, and not cross each other, — with a needle and thread sew through the skin and the first quill of the primaries by pushing the needle through the skin on the enside and through the quill opposite, but be sure that the wing is in the proper place. (If it is too far forward, the feathers of the sides of the breast, that ought to THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 25 lie smoothly over the bend of the wing, will be forced up and backward. If the wing is placed too far back, there will be a bare spot upon the side of the neck, — caused by the wing-coverts, which help, in connection with the feath- ers of the back, to hide the spot, being drawn either down or back too far. If the wing is placed too low, the same spot is seen, only it is elongated and extends along the back between the secondaries and feathers of the back ; if too high, the feathers of the back will appear pushed up, and will not lie smooth for obvious reasons. When the wing is in the right position, the feathers of the wing- coverts and back will blend nicely and smoothly, and the feathers of the sides of the breast will lie smoothly over the bend of the wing; the ends of the closed quills will lie flat upon the tail, or nearly so.) Now draw the thread through so that but an inch is visible inside the skin, then push the needle through the skin from the outside just below the quill that it came out through, draw the thread through, and tie to the projecting end, thereby fastening the wing firmly to the side ; proceed in this way with the other wing. Roll up loosely an oblong body of cotton or hemp of the same size as the body taken out, place it in the skin neatly, then draw the edges of the skin together where the incision was made, and sew them once in the centre; tie the ends of the thread together. Take care to put the needle through the edge of the skin so as not to disturb the feathers. Smooth the feathers on the abdomen. Cross the feet upon the tail (Plate IV. Fig. 3), — which is spread slightly, — then place the skin upon its back in the rounded places of the drying-board, spoken of on page 18 (Fig. 1, d), taking care that the feathers of the back are perfectly smooth. This rounded bed gives the back a natural rounded appearance, which cannot be made easily in any other way. Place the head with the 2 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. 26 Big. 2 Plate IV. THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 27 bill horizontal with the back or bottom of the rounded space, with the culmen (Plate IV., Fig. 1, d) nearly touch- ing the paper. The skin must remain in this position without being disturbed until perfectly dry, which in very warm weather, with small birds, will be in about twenty- four hours. . If this corrugated board cannot be procured, the skin may be placed on its back upon a flat surface, with a little cotton on each side of it to prevent its getting dis- placed. This is what is technically termed “a skin” (Fig. 3), and this method of making them is the best I have ever seen practised, and one that I have used for years as being the most expedient. The skins so made are less liable to injury, being stronger than some others, and are also very easily mounted. I have made in a single day, in the manner described, fifty skins, and with practice almost any one will be able to do the same; ten minutes being ample time for each, including the meas- uring. Before the skin is placed upon the board, it should be labelled (Fig. 3, g) with a number corresponding to the one placed upon the slip of paper containing the meas- urements, etc., marked also for the sex of the bird, which is done by using for the male the sign of the planet Mars, thus @; for the female the sign of the planet Venus is used, thus 9. These signs are used by natural- ists throughout the scientific world, and it is best to be- come accustomed to them. Determining the Sex.—The sex of the bird is determined, hot by the plumage, which will sometimes set the student at fault by its changes, and should never be trusted in de- termining the sex, but by dissection, as follows: Take the body of the bird after it has been removed, and cut with the scalpel through the ribs (Plate X. A) on the sides of the abdomen, thereby exposing the intestines; raise 28 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. these gently with the point of the knife, and beneath them will be seen the sexual organs, which are fully illustrated in the following diagrams. Puate V., Fig. 2, is an adult male ( @) in the. breeding season. 1 shows the position of the lungs, 2 the pecu- liar yellowish glands, — in some birds bright yellow, in the present case — that of a song sparrow (Melospiza melodia, Baird) — they are yellowish white, which, being present in both sexes, if not examined closely, may be easily mis- taken, in the young female, for the testicles of the male. 3, 3, are the testicles, much enlarged in this, the breeding season. The sex of a bird in this stage is easily deter- mined. Puate VI., Fig.-1, is a young, male ( @) in the young- of-the-year plumage. The figures refer to the same parts as explained in the preceding. It will be perceived that the testicles (3) are much smaller. At different seasons, the testicles vary in size between this and the preceding. In some birds they are elongated, and black in color, as in the Herons; but they always occupy the same _posi- tions so nearly as to be readily distinguished. The pecu- liar white glands (2) are in this instance very prominent, but they are readily known in all birds by their being flat, while the testicles are always spherical. Puate V., Fig. 1. This is an adult female (9) in the breeding season. 1, 1, are the same peculiar glands observed in the males; 2 is the ovary, a mass of spheres at this season quite yellow and prominent; 3 is the oviduct, or ege-passage, much enlarged in the present case, as it always is during the breeding season, when it assumes a thick, swollen appearance, while at other times it is translucent, much smaller, and. resembles a narrow, whitish line, not readily perceived. Puate VI., Fig. 2, is a young-of-the-year female in au- tumn. 1,1, the same white glands that at this stage of the THE AR’ OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 29 Acdalt. Plate V. 30 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. Plate VI. THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. a4 bird’s life might at first sight be mistaken for the testicles of the male, but, upon looking closely the ovary (2) can be perceived, very small; upon applying a magnifying-glass it appears granular. With these remarks and diagrams, I think any one with ordinary ability will, with a little practice, be able to de- termine this very important character in the scientific study of birds. Contents of Stomach, etc. —The contents of the stomach must next be examined, which is done by opening the giz- zard and crop. A little practice will enable the collector to state correctly what it contains, although the glass is sometimes necessary, as in the case of small birds. This is then recorded upon the slip of paper, which is put on file, to be copied into a book, in the following manner, — leaving a page, or, if the book is not wide enough, two pages, for each species, — first placing the sczentijic name at the head, as seen on the following page. A book prepared in this manner, carefully indexed and paged, will, when it is filled with the measurements of birds, be of immense value for comparative measurements, besides giving the collector a complete history of each of his specimens. Exceptions to the usual Method of Skinning. — All birds are to be prepared in the preceding manner, with the fol- lowing exceptions. All Woodpeckers with a large head and small neck — of which the Pileated Woodpecker (Hylotomus pileatus, Baird) is an example — should be skinned in the same manner as far as the neck, which should be severed, as it is impos- sible to turn the skin over the head; cut through the skin on the back of the head, making a longitudinal insertion of an inch or more, and draw the head through this. It should be carefully sewn up after the skin is turned back. Such specimens, when laid out to dry, should have the GUIDE. NATURALIST’S THE 32 ‘sualIvg dUIg 94} U0 JOY] spoeg “guolIeg OULg 94} U0 OYE) sattsog ‘PPG B Ur JOYS] sooog ‘ysverq U0 payjodg siete qovurlo} jo syueqyu0g “syIBUIOY ? ” ? | YOoV_ Yyovrq|/uMorg| Ze" 4007 JO 10]OD LP] ? THE JO 0[0D ” ”» ‘sa JO IO[OD G2, -).08" 08" | 6% GO" | Go 0g Go'°G OVS 192°% Gls | SL TL | 09°9 00°F | OSI | 002 96'S | OO'GE | 002 oz'e | 9F°21 | 002 eer | kee Kt Pion: 08 5. sat e | ° Lear) | 5 | B ‘STTRIS BITLIG qoojlog ” & | usoay | WMV LP "xag | qoojleg ‘qseuINn[ d JO 9}%39 area-Jo -suno0 x ‘a0 V ‘ld ‘ol[[Auosyoee]) 0 “0d |FS6T iE) 92 "ssvp_ [U0JMON “ApTTVOO'T | | & Ueer | 6361 “698T 2? ” Go AINE |ZZ0L "8981 THE ART OF PRESERVING BIRDS. 33 head so placed that the bill is turned at right angles with the body, with the head resting on one side, and not on the back as before. All Ducks with large heads should be skinned in the same way, with the exception that the insertion must be made under the head, on the throat. Ducks, Herons, Geese, large Sandpipers, and all other long-necked birds, should, when placed to dry, rest upon the breast, with the head and neck placed upon the back, and the head turned on one side. Herons with very long necks should have them bent once. The bill must be placed parallel with the neck and pointing forward. While travelling it is not always convenient to fill out the bodies of large birds; it is better to pack them flat, with but little cotton in them, —just enough, however, to keep the opposite parts of the skin from coming in contact. The neck should always be filled. When it is impossible to procure stuffing for small birds, they may be packed flat also. | Birds that have been preserved with carbolic acid, even after they have been lying for years, and have become perfectly dry, may be skinned in the following manner: Place wet cotton or hemp under the wings, in the throat, and around the legs, and finally envelop the whole body in a thick coating. Place it in a close box, and let it remain a day or two until it is softened, then take it out and remove the skin as before directed; but more care will have to be exercised than in skinning fresh birds. Alco- _holic specimens may be skinned; but the wet plumage had better be dried in the air without plaster. Mr. A. L. Bab- cock has a number of mounted birds in his collection at Sherborne, Massachusetts, that were preserved in alcohol, and sent from South America. The beginner will find that some birds, such as the Cuckoos, Pigeons, and Doves, are very difficult to skin over 2* Cc 84 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. the rump without loosening the feathers; but this difficulty will be overcome by using particular care while skinning the spot that is tender. Some birds also have tender skin on the breast, and in such cases it almost always adheres so closely to the flesh that it is necessary to cut it away; this operation is somewhat tedious, but it is better than to risk tearing the skin by pulling it. An example of this is sometimes seen in the Wood Duck. The best time to skin a bird is as soon as it is shot, when the muscles are relaxed, as the plumage is then in the best condition. In a short time the muscles become rigid, when it is extremely difficult to remove the skin; but the muscles soon relax again, and then you must skin at once, as this is the first stage— or the state imme- diately preceding the first stage —of decomposition. In very warm weather this rigidness of the muscles sel- dom occurs, then the bird rapidly decomposes. In warm weather, birds should be kept on ice until wanted ; for if a bird remains only an hour in a warm room, or in the sun, it will sometimes spoil, especially if the blow-flies are allowed access to it. There is a species of blow-fly that is viviparous; I have seen such a fly alight upon a fresh bird, and, after introducing her ovipositor into the mouth of the specimen, exude an immense number of liv- ing, though minute, maggots. These maggots spread over the skin in all directions, moistening it with their slimy bodies, and soon render the specimen unfit for use by loosening the feathers. It is difficult to remove the eggs of the common blow- fly when they are once placed upon the feathers. It is much better to prevent the flies from attacking specimens —which, if they are exposed during warm weather, they will do very quickly — by covering them, or placing them immediately upon ice. Section IV. Jounting Specimens. — Almost any one A THE WAY TO MOUNT BIRDS. Plate VIL. 35 36 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. can mount a bird, after receiving proper instruction ; but to make it look lifelike and natural requires constant and unceasing study of birds in their native haunts. The true art, then, can only be acquired by the earnest student of nature. The mere taxidermist, who constantly sits at his bench and works on birds without studying from na- ture, may acquire a certain degree of shzll, but the atti- tudes of many of his stuffed birds will appear awkward and grotesque to the naturalist. | Therefore I say to those who would learn to mount birds in natural attitudes, study nature. Have all attitudes that every bird assumes engraved upon the brain, to be repro- duced in the stuffed specimens; from the one assured by the delicate Warbler, that hops lightly from limb to limb, or swings gracefully from the topmost bough of some tall oak, to that of the mighty Eagle in his eager, down- ward swoop upon his trembling prey. Watch the scream- ing Gull in his almost innumerable positions upon the wing, the nimble Sandpiper running along the shore, and the gracefully floating Duck upon the water. After watching these in their various natural attitudes, work ; but do not cease to study for improvement, for the work of man is yet far from being perfect. In mounting birds, skin as instructed in the preceding section, but do not tie the wing-bones together. Having cleaned and dusted the feathers, proceed to fill the neck to the natural size, without stretching, with “shorts,” or the bran from wheat flour, or with hemp cut fine. Roll up some fine grass moderately hard in the shape of an oblong body (Plate VIII. Figs. 1, 2), then wind it smoothly with thread. This body should be of the same proportionate size as the one taken out, although not exactly of the same shape, for reasons that will be seen when the bird is mounted, but which cannot be easily explained. Have the body perfectly smooth, and the curves regular on every part. THE WAY TO MOUNT BIRDS. 37 Place the body inside the skin. Now cut wires of the right size (that is, large enough to support the bird when mounted ; which can be learned by experience, although I would advise putting in as large wires as can be used with- out splitting the skin of the tarsi) and proper length for the wiring of the following parts: to go through the legs, for the neck, and for the tail. Straighten the wires by rolling them on the bench with a file, then sharpen them by hold- ing the end obliquely against the edge of the bench and filing from you, at the same time twisting the wire ; force the wire cut for the leg up through the sole of the foot, through the tarsus, along the leg-bone into the centre of the side of the grass body (Plate VIII. Fig. 1, a), through this so that the end will protrude for an inch; bend the end down in the form of an L (Fig. 1, b), and again force it into the body (Fig. 1, c), thereby clinching it so that it can have no motion whatever. The wire should protrude out of the sole at least two inches (Fig. 1, d). Proceed in the same manner with the other leg ; if this seems difficult at first, practice will soon overcome the difficulty. Be sure and clinch the wires firmly, as they will otherwise cause trouble. Force the wire cut for the head down through the skull near the base of the bill (Fig. 3, g) through the neck, — but it must not come out through the skin anywhere, — through the body (Fig. 1, e), out the other side, where it is clinched as before (Fig. 1, c). Force the wire cut for the tail through the bone left in the tail, and under the tail, into the body (Fig. 1, f); clinch as usual (Fig. 3, g). Bend the wire — which should protrude about two inches beyond the end of the tail — into the form of a T (Fig. 1, h); the cross-piece is placed about half the length of the tail; on this the tail rests. Pin up the incision by drawing the edges of the skin together and forcing pins through them into the body ; then smooth the feathers over the place. 38 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. Plate VIIL THE WAY TO MOUNT BIRDS. 39 Fasten the bird upon the stand by passing the wires of the feet through the holes in the cross-piece (Plate VIII. Fig. 3, h), then twist the ends of the wire around the ends of the cross-piece (Fig. 3, s) to fasten it firmly. Place the bird in position with the tarsi inclining backward (Fig. 3, i), so that a line dropped from the back of the head, passing through the body, would pass down the centre of the stand (Fig. 3, a, a). This is a natural rule, and one that applies to all perch- ing birds. Next arrange the wings in position by applying the same rules that were given when making a skin; in this case, however, the following additional rule may be of use. The end of the bone of the forearm should reach just half the length and width of the body where it meets the lower end of the thigh (see Plate X. B). Having arranged the wing, pin it near the bend to the body (Plate VIII. Fig. 3, b), also through the first primary quill (Fig. 3, c). The wings should in some cases be placed at a little dis- tance from the body, as is natural with the Thrushes, and some other species. This may be done by lengthening the second wire (Fig. 3, c). Put the head in the proper posi- tion, cut off the protruding wire (Fig. 3, g). Plait the tail- _ feathers by placing the inner web over the outer (Fig. 3, d); then place a piece of fine copper wire across the tail, and fasten it to the ends of the cross-piece (Fig. 3, e). Fix the artificial eyes in their proper position with glue or putty ; then wind the bird with the fine cotton on the breast and shoulders and over the secondaries (Fig. 3, k); this is to keep the feathers smooth while it is drying. To mount a bird with the wings extended, proceed as before explained, but raise the wings, and use longer wires to pin them in position. Then, to hold the quills and sec- ondaries in place, bend a wire over the whole width of the wing, passing on each side of them. In skinning and mounting Ducks, open under the wing. This is accom- plished by making an incision on the side, from the place 40 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. where the humerus joins the sternum (Plate X. B) to just beyond the lower joint of the thigh (p), after which skin as before. If any feathers become twisted or bent, they may be instantly straightened by holding them in steam. If the feathers are to be smoothed, raise them with the fingers or tweezers, and let them fall back in place ; they will gene- rally come down smoothly. If the feathers come out, put a ° drop of glue upon the end of each, and place it in the ‘proper position ; it will stay, when dry. In this way large bare places may be covered. Mounting dried Skins. —To mount dried skins, remove the stuffing with which they are filled, and supply its place. with dampened cotton, also wrap the legs well with it; place the skin in a box, where it must remain until it becomes pliable, but not too soft, as it is then liable to drop. in pieces. It is to be mounted as described, excepting that the neck is filled with cut hemp instead of bran. Birds mounted from dried skins require more care in mounting, and more binding to bring the feathers into proper posi- tion, than fresh birds. Never paint or varnish the feet or bill of a bird; the scales on the feet of birds are one of the most interesting characters in the study of ornithology, and they cannot readily be seen when covered with paint or varnish. In mounting birds larger than a Robin, the muscles of the leg- bone must be supplied by winding the tibia with hemp until the original size and shape is attained. Particular attention must be paid to the legs of the Waders and rapa- cious birds. The exceptions to this rule are all swimming birds ; as the tibia is buried in the body, it does not need winding. In mounting Hummiing-Birds with the wings extended, especially from dried skins, there is no need of wiring the leg. Place a single wire in the back part of the body, with 2% THE WAY TO MOUNT BIRDS. 41 the point firmly clinched, and the end protruding back from the abdomen for three or four inches. This wire will sustain the bird. Always wire the feet in the usual way if the bird is to be mounted in the attitude of rest. In mounting other small birds, this method of wiring will an- swer when the bird is represented as flying. Large birds, when mounted in the attitude of flying, should be wired in the usual manner, with the wires that extend beyond the soles of the feet cut short ; then a wire is forced down through the back and clinched under the body, with the end pointing upward ; cut off this end so that it will pro- trude but a half-inch beyond the skin, then bend it under the feathers into the form of a hook or ring; to this fasten a thread, and suspend the bird. To make the bird incline downward, place the wire well back; upward, farther for- ward, or nearer the head. ‘Fine copper wire will answer to suspend large birds in this manner. In mounting a bird in this position, with the wings fully extended, care should be taken that they are properly arched. While arranging the wings, it is not convenient to keep the bird suspended, as it will not be sufficiently firm. Sharpen two stout wires and fasten them at both ends (Plate VIII. Fig. 4, b, b), perpendicularly in a block of wood (a), parallel to each other, and about two inches apart. These wires should be at least four inches long. Bend about an inch and a half of the ends down, parallel with the block (c). Force these ends into the abdomen of the bird that is being mounted, and it will be firmly held in place while the different parts are being arranged, after which it can be suspended as described. Sometimes it is necessary to mount the skins of rare birds when they are badly decayed. To mount skins in this condition requires skill and patience, as well as a knowl- edge of their different parts. The manner in which I[ have mounted them is this: First, moisten the skin as de- 42 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. scribed, then make a body, as before, and place a wire of the proper size and length in the usual place for the neck, and wind it with hemp to the natural size ; place the head, wings, feet, and tail in the proper position; then, after spreading glue upon the body, place each feather or piece of skin carefully in its proper place, commencing at the tail and working towards the head ; when this is finished, bind the bird as usual. Birds that have been mounted require at least ten days for the skin to dry before the thread is removed, which is done by cutting down the back with scissors, after which cut off all protruding wires, and unplait the tail-feathers and smooth them. To elevate the crest of a bird, or any other naturally elevated feathers, — such as the elongated feathers on the necks of some species of Grouse, etc.,—roll a piece of cotton into a ball, and force a pin or piece of sharp- ened wire through it (Plate VIII. Fig. 5, g). Place this wire or pin in the bird in such a manner that the feathers to be elevated may rest on the cotton in a natural position (Fig. 5, b). After the skin becomes hardened the cotton may be removed, and the feathers will retain the desired position. Cre Pr E.R: . 1. COLLECTING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. Section I. Collecting.— Because mammals are not quite as interesting at first sight as birds, the study of this class of animals has been somewhat neglected; and but comparatively few naturalists are even aware of the ex- istence of some of the smaller mammalia that live about them. They are, however, worthy of special attention, and, if studied, will soon be found particularly interesting. In collecting mammals, excepting some of the larger species, the gun is of but little use; they must be taken almost entirely with traps. Shrews and Moles may be frequently found where they have been dropped by cats, who catch them, but do not eat them. In this way a great many valuable specimens may be obtained. Another way to procure Mice and Shrews is to turn over old logs and stumps, under which these little animals fre- quently hide, and while dazzled by the light’s coming in suddenly upon them, they may be readily seized in the hand. Mice may also be trapped. Squirrels may be shot or caught in traps; Foxes, trapped, shot, or dug out of their holes. Woodchucks are easily _ trapped or dug out. Skunks are very disagreeable animals to handle, but when one once becomes accustomed to capturing them he can do it in perfect safety. The best way is to catch them in a “box-trap” baited with the head of a chicken; when caught, immerse trap and skunk in water until the animal is dead. Treated in this man- ner, they will not emit any of their disagreeable scent. By breaking the backbone with a stout stick, when the 44 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE. animal is caught in a steel trap, the disagreeable emission will be prevented. All animals should be killed either by breaking the backbone or by compressing the ribs, to stop the breath ; never by a blow on the head, as this is liable to injure the skull, which must be preserved entire for scientific investigation. The following animals may be decoyed into traps by means of peculiar scents: Foxes, Fishers, Martens, Minks, Weasels, Wildcats of all species, Otters, Beavers, Bears, Muskrats, and Raccoons. These scents are made of differ- ent substances. The musk of the Muskrat, contained in two glands situated just below the skin upon the back part of the abdomen, will decoy Muskrats and Minks, and perhaps Wildcats. This musk may be procured from the male in early spring. After the two glands spoken of are removed, they may be cut open, when the musk — which is a milky fluid — will appear, and may be squeezed out, mixed with alcohol, and kept for use. This musk is used in the following manner: Cut a stick of pine about six inches long, make a small cavity in one end ; into this drop a little of the musk, fasten the stick in such a position that the animal to be decoyed must place his foot upon the trap in order to reach it. Foxes, | have been informed by old trappers, are read- ily decoyed by using the fetid scent of the Skunk in the same manner. This scent is a greenish fluid, and is con- tained in glands situated in the anal region; it may be obtained in the same manner as the musk, although the -operation is not pleasant. All of the above-named ani- mals may be successfully decoyed by using an excessively fetid scent prepared during warm weather in the follow- ing manner: Take a good-sized eel or trout, and cut it in small pieces ; place it in a quart bottle, cover the top with gauze to keep the flies out, hang the bottle on the south side of a fence or building, and let it remain two COLLECrING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. 45 or three weeks, when the whole mass will become decom- posed ; then on the top will be found a thin layer of a clear liquid having an ineffably disagreeable odor. This fluid should be poured off carefully into a small phial and closely corked ; it is to be used in the same manner as the other scents.* Bats may be shot, or taken during daylight beneath the shingles of buildings, or in hollow trees. One or two spe- cies, however, remain outside, suspended to a branch or leaf of a tree. Plaster may be used to absorb the flow of blood from mammals, as well as from birds. Srotion II. Measuring. —To measure a mammal pre- paratory to skinning: Place it upon its back, then with the dividers measure the distance from the tip of the nose to the front side of the eye, record this as “the distance from the tip of the nose to the eye,” then from the tip of the nose to the ear; this is “the distance from the nose to the ear”; then from the tip of the nose to the occiput, or back of the head, for “ the distance from the nose to the occiput.” With the rule find the distance from “the nose to the root of the tail,” also the distance from “the tip of the nose to the tip of the longest toe of the outstretched hind leg”; then with the dividers find the length of the vertebra of the tail from the root; this is “the length of the tail to the end of the vertebra.” With the dividers, measure the hair on the end of the tail for “the length of the hair.” Measure the length of the hind leg from the knee-joint to the tip of the longest claw of the longest toe for “the length of the hind leg.” Measure the length of the front leg from the elbow- joint to the tip of the longest claw of the longest toe ; this is “the length of the front leg.” The width of the hand is found by measuring the width of the outspread forefoot or * This receipt was kindly given to me by Mr. George Smith of Wal- tham, who has used it successfully, as I have personally witnessed. 46 THE NATURALIST’S GUIDE hand. Now measure the length of the ear on the back side, from the skull to the tip, for “the length of the ear.” Measure “‘the width of the muzzle” between the two nostrils. In animals larger than a gray squirrel, measure the “girth” with a tape-measure, or piece of string, just back of the forelegs. These measurements will answer for all excepting the bats, in measuring which proceed as before ; but, instead of the forelegs, find “the length of one wing,” “the length of the wing to the hook, or thumb,” and “the stretch of wings ” as in birds. Seals also vary slightly; instead of the word “leg” use “flipper,” and find the width of the hind flipper as well as the width of the fore one; also, in addition, “the distance between the fore-flippers.” The sex of a mammal is easily determined without dissecting. These measure- ments are to be first recorded upon a strip of paper, as in the birds, and afterwards copied into a book, as seen on the next page. | Skinning. —'To skin a mammal, place it upon its back ; make a longitudinal incision in the skin over the abdo- men, extending from the root of the tail about one fourth of the length of the body. Peel down each side, as in skinning a bird, pushing forward the leg so as to expose the knee-joint; sever the leg from the body at this place, and clean the bone; proceed in this manner with the other leg. In small animals, sever the tail as close to the body as possible, leaving the bone in; but in large animals it can generally be removed by placing two pieces of wood on each side of the bone against the skin, holding them firmly in place with one hand, and after giving a strong pull with the other the tail will slip out easily. With some animals, such as the Beaver, Muskrat, Skunk, etc., this cannot be done ; then the skin of the tail has to be opened the whole length, and the bone removed. Proceed to draw the skin AT COLLECTING AND PRESERVING MAMMALS. —————————— Locality. | Age. Sex. it * This measurement is taken after the animal is skinned; the width of gest part. | | | | t | | Nose to Tail to : | Ey | 4 3 As! : Date. [No. ee & r= 3 2 4 3 aq By ‘a : aH £ > sn j Sl Ge oO 5 ° 4 +5) ys : é a re) DR | ) 4 as) ° ao uo} ne} >! 3 5 i) 3 q q | <>