et aca GREET (| anit ull i | i FORSHEE Ciebeneerenssereenees o> annie Poy) ——s—sc— i lmrLrllmhCUmrll(C lc Om TtCt— ae ca = 75S ee SS * = == = = E as rd = rd : — os = ——= = —= ee Sarr 5s / i Hin gis al Ca { si CN Dee! t card OE PA) at iF iS i at wir Nae : att 5 i i. ult ary abet Tes ute ' FARES | pi t Wie es Tis a ; Pea e h Re ay ) LS fh ’ cost Li in i in L i nat HAMEL aah H Pam ee i li HH ai ois ar.) " pitt U aa ‘ Oh } ays! BY Ph AH asek ] ey J rice wie >, (3 ‘ft A Het . t ¥ | tL U Wa } ' | i ee aa oe a ee. = ~~ oumrnemmenee ————S ——— = ——— eS Se aaa ESS —De]asSSssSS= - === aS SS SSSaoasaasssS= ES 5 Pe a i C =) Smithsonian Institution Libraries | GEE OE Marcia a Tucker iy Re te ee ee 4 Le ae ; DR 7 Pat: i val Hit ue ee Re i Ri Ce ae Ze THE NATURALISTS LIBRARY; CONTAINING SCIENTIFIC AND POPULAR DESCRIPTIONS OF MAN, QUADRUPEDS, BIRDS, FISHES, REPTILES AND INSECTS; COMPILED FROM THE WORKS OF CUVIER, GRIFFITH, RICHARDSON, GEOFFREY, LACEPEDE, BUFFON, GOLDSMITH, SHAW, MONTAGUE, WILSON, LEWIS AND CLARKE, AUDUBON, AND OTHER WRITERS ON NATURAL HISTORY. ARRANGED ACCORDING TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF STARK EDITED, BY WALA) GOULD SM 7M WITH FOUR HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS. BOS TON : PHILLIPS, SAMPSON, AND COMPANY. 1852. ae Entered according to the Act of Congiess, in the year 1833, BY ,CARTER , HEN DEE... & CO; in the Clerk’s Office of the District Court of Massachusetts. WRIGHT AND HASTY, PRINTERS, 3 WATER STREET, BOSTON & X ADVERTISEMENT Tue study of Natural History has become so extensive as to cail for a great multiplication of books upon the subject. A few years ago, the translation of Buffon, which appeared under the title of ‘‘ Goldsmith’s Animated Nature,’’ was almost the only work in popular use. Even when its utter want of accuracy and adaptation to the improved state of science, was generally known, it still con- tinued to be reprinted, and was probably the instrument of dissemi- nating nearly as much error as truth. But within a short period, several excellent works have appeared in Europe, combining in a good degree, popular and pleasing descriptions of animals, with scientific accuracy. In the present volume, an attempt has been made to compile from these a more complete and comprehensive body of popular and scientific Zoology than has heretofore appeared, in any form accessible to common readers. This work is arranged according to the classification of Stark, which is based upon that of Cuvier. Although it embraces scientific names and descriptions, yet these are made to occupy as little compass as possible, and are placed at the foot of the pages in the form of notes. The subject of Zoology is one of great utility, and should be extensively read. The grand object has been to render the work acceptable to general readers, by devoting a large portion of it to lively and entertaining sketches of the habits and instincts of animals; and a large number of books of travels, have been surned over in search of their illustrative traits. The original compiler having made arrangements to depart fox Europe, the manuscript was submitted to the present Editor, who is responsible for the accuracy of the press, for the correctness of the facts selected, and for their arrangement according to the system proposed. The work is now submitted to the public, and though as a systematic work it may not be entirely such as might be *, ADVERTISEMENT. desired, yet the editor is confident that the abundance of authentic facts, and of useful and entertaining matter contained in its pages, will amply repay the reader for the time spent in its perusal. It has been remarked by an elegant writer, that ‘‘ the pursuit of Natural History in almost any way, as a study or an amusement, is both indicative and productive of gentleness, refinement and virtue.” This we believe to be strictly true, and if the present volume shal. be instrumental in diffusing a taste for knowledge, the influence of which is so salutary, we shall deem the labor bestowed upon the compilation as abundantly rewarded. THE EDITOR. OR ey DIFFERENT RACES OF MEN. ** Naturalists,” says Dr. Good, ‘‘ reckon five races of men.” Vhese differ in many features of person and character, as well as complexion, and we will point out the most striking distinctions. First. The Evrorzan, or wuITe RACE, is fair, having the cheelis more or less red; the head globular; the face straight and oval; the forehead slightly flattened; the nose narrow, and slightiy aquiline; the mouth usually small; the chin full and rounded; the eyes blue or gray, oftener than dark; and the hair, yellow or brown, of different shades, and flowing. The most perfect of this race may be found in Asia Minor The Circassians and others who live south of the Caucasian moun- tains, are the most beautiful persons in the world; and it should be remembered, that in this spot of the globe, man was first created This circumstance is of some weight in the conjecture that the original color was white. Second. The Astatic, or BROWN MAN, is yellowish brown or olive; the head is nearly square; the cheek bones wide, and the face flat; the eyes are small and black; the chin rather prominent, and the hair blackish and thin. Third. The American, or RED MAN, is of a copper color; the head is less square, the cheek bones less expanded, and the face less flattened than in the Asiatic; the eyes are deeply seated, and the hair is black, straight and thick DIFFERENT RACES OF MEN. Fourth. The Arrican, or BLACK MAN, varies from a deep tawny to a perfect jet. ‘The head is narrow; the face projecting towards the lower part; the forehead arched; the eyes projecting; the nose thick and flat; the lips, particularly the upper one, very thick; the jaws prominent; the chin retracted; the hair black, frizzled and woolly. The countenance of the negro is more unlike the European, and more like the monkey, than that of any other variety. Fifth. The AusTRALian, or TAWNY MAN, is of a mahogany color; the head is narrowed at the upper part; the forehead somewhat expanded; the upper jaws slightly prominent; the nose broad, but distinct ; ‘and the hair harsh, coarse, long and curly. This variety inhabits New Holland, and seems to form a middle point between the European and the African. In this general classification of mankind, two circumstances must be remembered. First, the distinctive characters will not apply to every individual of the particular division to which they belong; swarthy or copper colored persons are often found among the genuine white race; and European features, and sometimes even a fair skin are to be met with in the black and tawny tribes. In the second place, we must recollect that the frequent migra- tions among some of the divisions, particularly the Europeans, gould cause this race to be widely scattered, and often prominently intermixed with the other races in their own particular divisions of the globe. Consequently, we are more likely to meet with Asiatics and Africans possessing European features, than to find among the white race the wide cheek bones and flat face of the brown manand the flat nose and thick lips of the negro. PARTS OF A BIRD. The external parts of a bird, which require to be noticed and distin- guished by the naturalist, are the head, neck, body, wings, tail and legs ; which parts again are subdivided more or less minutely, according to the taste of various writers on the subject. The above outline engraving is to assist young naturalists in naming these. J. Maxizzta Superior, the upper mandible of the bill. 2. Maxiiia Inrertor, the lower mandible of the bill. 3. Cunmen, the ridge of the bill. 4. Gonys, the angle or point of the under mandible. 5. Dertroum, the hook of the bill. 6. Nares, the nostrils. 7. Mesorurnrom, the upper ridge of the bill. 8. Lorum, the bone, a naked space at the base of the bill. 9. Mentum, the chin. 10. Frons, the forehead. os | 1]. Vertex, the crown of the head. 12. Stxcrpur, the hinder part of the head. 13. Caristrum, the face. 14. Suprreiiivum, the eyebrow. 15. Reeio OputTHaxmica, the re- gion of the eye. 16. Tempora, the temples. 17. Gena, the cheek. 18. Recto Parorica, the parts above the ear. 19. Cottum, the neck. 20. Crrorx, the hinder part of the neck. PARTS OF A BIRD. 21. Nucua, the nape of the neck. 22. AucHENIUM, the under nape of the neck. 23. Gurror, the throat. 24. Guta, the gullet. 25. Jucuium, the lower throat. 26. Pecrus, the breast. 27. Epigastrum, the stomach. 28. ABDOMEN. 29. Hypocuonprra, the sides of the abaomen. 30. VENTER; the belly. 31. Crissum, the vent. 32. Dorsum, the back. 33. Inrerscapuum, the space be- tween the shoulders. 34. Tercum, the middie cf the back. 30. 36. 37. wing. 38. AXILLA, the arm-pit. 39, ‘Axa, the wing Unopyaium, the rump. Hument, the shoulders. Fiexura, the bend of the 40. Tecrrices, the wing coverts. 41. Tecrrices Masorgs, the larg- est wing coverts. 42. Trectrices MunoreEs, smallest wing coverts. 43. Tecrrices Menta, the mid dle wing coverts. 44, Remices, the rowers. 45. Primarta, the quills. 46. SECUNDARIA, secondaries. 47. Caupa, the tail. 48. Rectrices, the tail feathers, divided into, 49, InTERMEDIAE, the middle, and, 50. Larerates, the side feathers. 51. Tigra, the thigh answering to the leg in quadrupeds. 52. Pianta, or Pes, foot, divided the ‘into 53. Tarsus, the shank, answering to the heel in quadrupeds. 54. Acrorarstium, the shin. 55. Hauux, the great toe. 56. Dierti, the toes se € ELEMENTS OF NATURAL HIS-TORY. INTRODUCTION. Tue object of Natural History is the material world, and the various classes of organized and inorganic bodies which form its component parts. ‘To examine and arrange these in connection with the laws by which they are governed, to investigate their structure, their history, and their uses, is the province ofthe Naturalist. In its most extended sense, Natural History embraces all the visible creation, and includes every object in that creation, from the most magnificent of the celestial bodies, to the smallest insect or particle of dust, which is found in the globe inhabited by men. A field so extensive, compared with the limited powers of the human faculties, is too vast for the subject of individual research ; and in detail its objects are so numerous, that to possess a knowledge of even a small portion of these, has been considered a competent task for a life spent in investigation. For this reason it has become matter of necessity to subdivide and arrange the objects of the material world into portions, suitable to the powers and the intelligence of those whose province and interest it is to investigate the wonders of creation. One great branch, termed Narturat Puttosopuy, has thus been divided into numerous depart- ments, of which Dynamics, or the doctrine of the laws of motion and its effects, and its subsidiary divisions, Statics, Hydrostatics, &c., offer a wide field to investigation. The observation of the positions and revolutions of the heavenly bodies has become the province of that branch of Natural Science denominated Astronomy: the nature, mo- tion, and qualtties of light, form the science of Optics: the changes that take place in the atmosphere, as they are perceived by the senses, or indicated by instruments, is the object of MetEoroLocy: and it is the province of Curmistry, another great branch of Physical Science, 2 X INTRODUCTION. to investigate the mutual agencies of the elementary principles of mat- ter upon one another, their composition, and the laws by which they are regulated. These divisions of the great field of Natural Science have, from the universality of their influence, been called General Physics ; while Natural History, in its limited sense, and as confined to the examination of what have been called the three kingdoms of Nature, viz: the Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral, has received the name of Particular Physics. Natural History, besides, is distinguished from the other branches of science now named in this, that while Dy- namics is a science chiefly of calculation, and Chemistry of experi- ment, the basis of this science rests chiefly on observation. In the limited sense in which Natural History is thus to be under- stood, as confined to the three great divisions of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals, a System of Nature is a grand catalogue of the objects in these kingdoms, in which each individual has a distinctive charac- ter and an appropriate name. ‘These individuals, for the sake of ar- rangement, are collected into groups, which have something im com- mon, and which are termed Genera; genera are further combined into other groups, which form in systems what are called Orders; and or- ders are finally arranged under one great head, which is termed a Class. This scale of divisions, of which the highest contains the least, is, as Baron Cuvier remarks, a kind of dictionary, where the properties of things are investigated to discover their names, and which rz veises the usual order of such works, where the names are indicated az de- tailing the qualities of the things named. But though method and arrangement form the first step to th. ruow- ledge of the numerous objects which claim the attention of ti. "atu- ralist, Natural History is by no means confined to a list of names. If the method be a good one, and the subdivisions arranged con./oraably to the fundamental and natural connections of bodies, the very arrarze- ment and classification of names of beings which have som :thing in common, leads to the knowledge of their connection and di yendence upon one another, and to their comparative importance in th? scale of existence. Were it possible to arrange all the classes of organized ana inorganized existence in such a manner that the individuals of the same genus should be more nearly connected with that genus than with any other—the genera of the same order more nearly connecteu with that order than with ali the other orders, and so on,—little rnore would be necessary to make the method, so far as depends on arrange- ment, camplete. But it has not hitherto been found in practice, that INTRODUCTION. xi ° characters sufficiently uniform, and, at the same time, easily cogniza- ble, can be found for arranging all the groups of individuals into closely connected families. Aware of this, Linneus, in his Systema Nature, employed one system of organs in his division of its various objects; while those who attempt to class individual species according to what is called the natural method, take the whole structure of the objects into consideration. The last of these methods, it is evident, could it be carried into effect, would be the most philosophical ; but either system followed exclusively, is found to produce the most heterogeneous combinations. That system, then, is to be considered the best, which, in addition to short and clear diagnostic characters, affords the greatest facility in investigating the productions of Nature. The term Nature, it may be remarked, bears various significations. It is sometimes used to signify the properties which a being derives from original conformation, in opposition to those which it has acquir- ed from art ; sometimes te express the whole objects which compose the universe; at other times, the laws which regulate this universe ; and these laws being, in point of fact, the will of that beneficent and omnipotent Being, who formed all this “gay creation,” the word Nature is frequently employed, by:a figure of speech, to designate its Great Author. The first great division of natural objects, is into oRGANIZED and INORGANIC bodies; the first, including animals and plants—the second, minerals. These distinctions are easily understood, and have been universally acknowledged to be conformable to nature. Vitality dis- tinguishes the one—the want of vitality characterizes the other. The objects of Natural History are further arranged into three great divisions, which have appropriately enough been called king- doms, viz: the Animat—the VeceTasBLe —and the Minerat kingdoms. These divisions are not less proper than convenient; and althoug’a some writers believe it possible to trace a continuous but progressive connection, from the most perfect animal in the scale to the inert and lifeless rock, yet there seems no good reason for supposing that such a chain exists, or, if existing, that all the links shall ever be discovered. The works of the Author of Nature are, indeed, all in consistent harmony with one another, and there is a mutual dependence, advan- tageous to all, among the various classes of organized beings: but between the lowest form of vegetable or animal life, and the most symmetrically disposed crystal in the mineral kingdom—between a living body and inert matter—-there is an immeasurable distance; and m1 INTRODUCTION. between the highest of the lower animals and Man, of all beings, alone endowed with the power of reason and the faculty of speech, a dis- tance still more incalculable. Animals have been defined to be organized bodies, which have life and sensation, and are capable of voluntary motion ;—Vegetables. organized bodies, endowed. with a vital principle, but wanting sensa tion ;—and Minerals, unorganized bodies, without life, and, of course, without sensation. It has been found impossible to give a satisfactory definition of Lefe ; and physiological writers have therefore limited their efforts to com- municate some idea of the vital principle, by remarking its effects. Life, where its effects are most easily recognized, seems to consist in the faculty with which certain corporeal combinations are endowed, of existing for a certain period under a determinate form, and assimi- lating to their substance a part of the surrounding bodies; at the same time restoring to the elements part of their own substance. This vital principle, which, when allied to matter, controls its affinities and directs its forms, is not palpable to the senses in an uncombined shape ; and it is only from its effects on material substances, that its existence is demonstrated. Baron Cuvier compares the mechanical action of life on matter to a vortex, more or less rapid, more or less complicated, where the supply and the waste of particles occasion a constant move- ment. While this movement subsists, the body which exercises it lives; when the movement is stopped beyond recall, the body dies. After death, the elements which composed it, delivered to the ordi- nary chemical affinities, soon separate, to form other and new com- binations. All living bodies die, after a period, of which the limit is determi- nate for each species; and death, indeed, appears to be a necessary result of vital action, which insensibly alters the organic structure. The living body, which derives its mysterious birth from another living body which has preceded it, at first enlarges in dimensions, according to certain proportions and limits fixed for each species, and for each of its parts; these parts gradually increase in density; the fibres and vessels which compose them, imperceptibly acquire a rigid- ity, which: unfits them for the discharge of their functions ; the vital impulse ceases, and the body naturally dies. In short, absorption, assimilation, exhalation, developement, and generation, are functions common to all living beings; their birth and their death, the universal terms of their existence. INTRODUCTION. Xl Organization pre-supposes life, and the organization of each being, ) nplies the life proper to that being. Life, indeed, is never seen, but in connection with an organized body; and all the ingenuity of the materialist has failed to show, that particles of matter can organize themselves, or be organized by any combination known in chemistry In fact, vitality exercises upon the elements, which form at each instant part of the living body, an action contrary to what the ordi- nary chemical affinities can produce, without this master agent; and no power in Nature is known, capable of reuniting again, in the same manner, the atoms which have been disjoined by death. Animal life is distinguished from vegetable life, by the power of locomotion and sensation; the first is active—the other passive. The nourishment of plants is derived through the medium of their roots ; that of animals, through a central organ of digestion, destined to receive the food. The organization of this cavity and its appur- tenances, varies according to the nature of the aliments, and the alte- rations which they undergo, before furnishing fluids proper to be absorbed ; while the atmosphere and the earth supply vegetables with juices, ready for absorption. Animal bodies, besides, at least those classes higher in the scale of existence, possess a circulating system, muscles for voluntary movements, and nerves for sensation. Respira- tion is another essential function in the animal constitution ; and in proportion as the respiratory system is complete, the animal functions are more fully exercised. In addition, also, to the chemical elements, which enter into the composition of vegetables—oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon—a fourth substance, azote, seems almost peculiar to the animal constitution. ‘To complete the distinction between animal and vegetable life, Hedwig has ingeniously remarked, that in vegetables, the sexual organs fall each year, or at each production, while animals preserve them through the whole course of their existence. As nutrition is the most general function of living bodies, under the name of organs of nutrition, are comprehended all the parts of the body by which alimentary matters are introduced for its support ; or which are employed in preparing the food for that purpose. The materials of nutrition penetrate, by various means, into organized bodies. They may either be introduced under the form of elastic fluids, by the pores, or imperceptible interstices, in all living bodies, or they may be conveyed by a particular organization for this purpose, ito an internal organ of digestion. Sometimes this internal canal, or algestive cavity, has the form of a tube with two orifices the one for X1V INTRODUCTION. the entrance of food, the other for the exit of matters unfit for the purposes of life; others have only a single opening, destined to this double use; and a few which are found in water, absorb their nourish- ment in the manner of vegetables, with this difference, that the canals which run from their numerous mouths, end in a common cavity. The solid matters introduced into the digestive cavity, or stomach, are converted by an internal process, first, into a pulpy mass, named chyme, and afterwards, into a semi-fluid substance, denominated chyle, which is finally taken up, or absorbed, by appropriate vessels, and conveyed to the great centre of circulation, the heart. The movement communicated by the action of the heart to the internal fluids, now mixed with other animal liquids, and termed blood, by which they are impelled through the body, is known by the name of circulation. The vessels which conduct the blood or chyle to the heart, are called veins; those which conduct it from the heart to the other parts of the body, are called arteries; and the alternate dilatation and contraction of this important organ, is the mechanism by which this object is accomplished. In certain classes of animals, in which the circulation is simple, the venous blood terminates in a kind of reservoir, or appendage to the heart, named auricle. A muscular apparatus, attached to this sinus, propels the blood, which it receives through an orifice, into the cavity of the heart. The ventricle, com- posed of thicker and stronger muscular walls, is furnished with move able valves, which prevent the blood from returning into the auricle, while it is impelled by the contraction of the ventricle, into the artery. This arrangement varies much, both in the mechanism and in the number of auricles and cavities in the heart, in different classes, and even in families of the same class of animals. The liquid, prepared by the process of digestion, requiring to be submitted to the action of the atmosphere, or water containing air, to absorb the oxygen and deprive it of certain principles, the function by which this is accomplished is called respiration. The organ which performs this service is the lungs, through which the blood is forced by the action of the heart. In animals doomed by their organization to live constantly in water, respiration is effected by means of mem- branous lamine, called gills, (branchie,) which separate the air from the water, as it passes over their multiplied surface. Among animals which appear to have no true circulation, there exists another mode of respiration, by trachee, or air-vessels, by which the air is conveyed through the body in elastic canals; and in these INTRODUCTION. KV animals, it is through their integuments, which are soft and easily permeable, or on their surface, that the respiratory function is exercis- ed, as in vegetables. In many animals, the mode of generation is not known. Of others, fixed to solid bodies, like vegetables by their roots, the power of re- production seems to be by buds, or gemme, or by means of a separa- tion, which operates naturally or accidentally, of some parts of their bodies, in which are ultimately developed the organs which at first vere wanting. In all other animals, there are organs specially des- tined to generation. These organs distinguish the males from the females. In the greater part of animals, the sexes are distinct and separate, in two different individuals of the same species; but in some cla3ses, the individuals are at once males and females. In this case, these beings are termed androgynous. Sometimes, the individuals possess both sexes, like the greater number of vegetables, and they are then called hermaphrodites. The animals which have the sexes separate, differ, also, among themselves. Those are termed oviparous, in which the germ of the young individual is separated from the parent for a time before birth, under the form of anegg. Viviparous animals, on the contrary, are those in which the young are nourished in an organ, termed the uterus, and are not excluded from the mother till they have taken the form which they afterwards preserve. Other modifications are noticed among the oviparous animals, or those which deposit eggs. In some, the egg is impregnated within the animal, and then the shell, or covering, is generally solid or corne- ous. In others, such as fishes, frogs, some insects, and many mol- lusca, the impregnation of the ovum does not take place till after extrusion. ‘Two remarkable circumstances have been further observ ed, among oviparous animals. The one is, that in some species the ova are not truly excluded, but hatched in the parent animal, who thus preserves the imperfect beings, till they have acquired the requi- site solidity for being deposited in a place adapted to their further deve- lopement. ‘These species, which are met with in very different classes are termed ovo-viviparous. The other singular fact to be noticed in regard to oviparous animals is, that in a very great number of species, the young, when hatched, have neither the form, the structure, nor the manners of the parent animal; and many live in altogether a different medium. These animals undergo, in the course of their limited ex- istence, many organic transformations, or successive metamorphoses. XVl INTRODUCTION. Such, in particular, are the frogs, and connected genera, and the whole class of insects. The moving power is another characteristic of animal organization. It is seated in the muscular fibre, which is formed of filaments of ex- cessive tenuity, capable of contraction, and of moving the parts upon which they are fixed. These fibres are distributed over the body, and produce all its exterior and interior motions. When they are unitea in a bundle, of which the mass co-operates in the same action, this bundle is termed a muscle. In animal bodies, there are as many different muscles as there are simple movements; and besides, there are generally, for the purpose of bringing back the parts to their original position, other bundles of fibres, destined to produce a con- trary effect, and which have been accordingly termed antagonist muscles. The element of the muscular fibre, chemically considered, appears to reside in a matter called fibrine. The other organs destined to the purposes of movement, are alto gether passive. Sometimes they are disposed outwardly, under the appearance of membranes, or integuments, more or less solid; some- times under the form of crusts or sheaths, in the interior of which the muscles are placed. The solidity of these parts, their structure, their articulation, and movements, correspond to the animal’s mode of life ; and these crusts, shells, scales, or sheaths, are of a calcareous or horny nature, and adapted to the efforts they are destined to sustain,—the more soft coverings of this kind, as may be conceived, being only calculated for motion in fluids. In the higher classes of animals, the solid articulated parts which form the frame-work of the body and modify its form, are almost always placed internally, and-serve the purpose of jointed levers, and as a fulcrum for their muscular coverings. These parts are the dones of animals, and when arranged as a whole, they are termed the bony skeleton. All these bones meet in a central stalk, or hollow and moveable column, called the spine, of which the pieces, more-or less solid and numerous, are termed vertebra. Among those which are, on this account, named Vertebrated Animals, the column is terminated at one end by the cranium, a bony cavity, inclosing the mass of cere. bral matter which gives sensation, and is the seat, generally, of four organs of sense. In the head is also placed the mouth, an instru- mont capable of prehension, and provided with organs for mechanical- Jy dividing the aliment; and often, also, in this important part of animals, the organs are placed which produce or facilitate the-action INTRODUCTION. XVil of respiration. The spine is generally prolonged behind, and forms the tail in many animals. The mechanical apparatus by which animals acquire the know- ledge of what is around them, are termed organs of sense; and the impressions made on these by external objects, sensations. 'The medium by which these sensations are conveyed to the brain, the great centre of nervous energy, is through nerves; and the whole apparatus of sensation is termed the nervous system. In animals not possessed of a brain, or spinal column, cords, or threads of nervous matter, with thickenings, or ganglions, at certain distances, form their medium of sensation; and although in some groups of animals, com- posed of soft parts, or of extreme tenuity, the presence of nerves has not been satisfactorily traced, yet there seems little reason to doubt the existence, in a greater or less degree, of the faculty of sensation, in even the lowest of the animal races. The material substance of animal bodies, in an anatomical view, may be divided into solids and fluids. The solid portions are named t¥sswes, and are united, or combined in various degrees, in the animal organs. These tissues have been distinguished by anatomists by their forms, or by the chemical elements which enter into their compo- sition. They are chiefly the following: 1. The cellular tissue, form- ing in the greater number of animals the connecting medium of all their organs, and enveloping and penetrating them by a reticulation, of a spongy nature, which takes the form of cells, capable of disten- sion by the fluids which it includes. 2. The jibro-gelatinous tissue is a collection of solid, tenacious, and resisting fibres, in their longitudi- nal direction, flexible and elastic across, whose use seems to be to com- municate movement, and resist the efforts of exterior force. It is so named, from dissolving in boiling water, to the consistence of a jelly. 3. The membranous tissue is a disposition of thm, membranous, flexible lamine, extended like a web, and various in structure and uses. The cutaneous membrane envelopes the superficies.of the body, and per- mits absorption and exhalation. It is formed of many layers, and produces the hair, feathers, nails, scales, &c., of the animal body. Other membranes are called mucous, or folliculous, because they secrete a viscid fluid, which lubricates their internal surface ; and serous membranes are those so named from their internal smooth and polished surface, exhaling a very liquid humor. They form thin and transparent sacs, without openings, which facilitate the reciprocal movements of the organs. 4. The vascular tissue is formed of con- 3 XVIil INTRODUCTION. tinuous, membranous, branched tubes, to receive, contain, and direct the nutritive juices, from the organs where they are prepared, till they are required for the purposes of nutrition, respiration, vr the secretions. 5. The glandular tissue includes those secreting organs which pro- duce fluids for internal use, or to transmit them out cf the body, by means of excretory canals. These organs have a granular or lobated form. 6. The bony tissue, or cartilaginous, calcareous, and corneous, is formed by the mucous, or gelatinous parenchyma, in which are deposited the hardest and most resisting parts, which protect the body and contribute to its motion. 7. The fibrinous or muscular tissue is composed of filaments disposed in bundles, which, from their power of contraction, produce all the movements which characterize animals. 8. The zervous tissue is a net-work of filaments and tubes, in the interior of which are found prolongations of the cerebral matter. This tissue, extending from the centre to the circumference, like radii from a centre, is the medium of sensation,—actuates every member through the medium of volition, and connects all the parts of the body by a mutual sympathy. The animal fluids are found in the body under the form of gases, or liquids, of various consistence. The first being absorbed, or exhaled, are but momentarily under this form. The fluids are the chyme, the chyle, the lymph, the blood, and the serous, albuminous, mucous, saline, and other humors, peculiar to different parts of the body. The simple chemical elements which are found in the animal struc- ture, are among the imponderable agents, caloric, light, and the electric fluids. Among the simple gases, azote, which enters into the composition of many of the tissues; hydrogen, which is one of the elements of lymph, bile, &c.; oxygen, which all animals absorb in the act of respiration; carbon, lime, sulphur, iron, &c., which serve as the base of many salts, formed by carbonic and phosphoric acid. The instincts and habits of the different classes of animals will be hereafter detailed, in the descriptions of the individual species, whose manners have been most accurately observed. It is sufficient, in tnis place, to state, that all their motives to action, their migrations, and their instincts, may be traced to the desire of self-preservation, and the impulse of reproduction. The Vecretaste Kinepom is sufficiently distinguished from the animal, as before remarked, by its passive character, by the wavt of spontaneous motion, and of sensation. Vegetable life is. therefore supported by absorption ; and its functions, like those of animals, are INTRODUCTION. X1X exercised in nutrition, developement, and reproduction. ‘The principal part of the nourishment of plants, is derived from their roots; and their texture is composed of tissues and vessels formed for absorbing, retaining, and elaborating the nutritive juices, drawn from the soil and atmosphere. The vegetable kingdom, likewise, has this analogy among others, with the animal; that the function of reproduction is performed through the medium of sexual organs. These organs are protected by the cerolla, or flower; and all the display of color and form in this essential part of vegetables, is, like the notes of many birds, connected with the important purpose of the continuation of the species. The number, form, and situation of these organs, has afford- ed to Linneus the chief characters in his simple, though artificial arrangement of the classes and orders of plants, in consequence termed the sexwal system; while what is called the natural system, proposed by Jussieu, is founded chiefly upon the presence or absence, and the nature of the seed, or germ—the relative position of the stamina— and upon the absence or presence, and form, of the corolla. The Minerat Kinepom is distinguished from the other two great divisions, by the absence of vitality and organic structure. Forming the solid crust of the globe, the mineral kingdom, in its various com- pounds, affords support and sustenance to the organized beings existing on its surface. The constitution and arrangement of the mineral strata have given rise to various theories, to account for their present appearance ; but facts have not yet been sufficiently multiplied to afford a satisfactory solution. One great line, however, is drawn be- tween those mineral strata which have been termed primitive, in which no organized remains occur, and those of posterior formation, in which the remains of plants and animals are discovered. The principal external characters of the mineral kingdom are taken from their specific gravity, as compared with water, —hardness,—crystalli- zation, when it exists,—and cleavage, or the direction of the lamelle, which, in many minerals, is regulated by the relation of the external surfaces to the primary crystal, or form. Of a less constant kind are color, degree of transparency, fracture, and the streak which many minerals show, when scratched. The physical characters are fusibi- lity, solubility, phosphorescence, electricity, magnetism, and refraction. Linneus, in his Systema Nature, arranged the Animal kingdom into six classes, the Vegetable kingdoin into twenty-four, and the Mineral kingdom into three. As this arrangement, though now modified and extended in many of its parts, as will be detailed else- XX INTRODUCTION. where, forms the basis of modern classification, and was the first suc- cessful attempt at arranging in intelligible order, the various objects of Natural History, its principal divisions are subjoined.* CLASS FIRST—MAMMALIA. CLASS FOURTH—PISCES. Orver JI. Primates, Orver Jf. Apodes, sc If. Bruta, oH II. Jugulares, “ 6oTT- Fere, «Tie Dhoracrei, « JV. Glires, « TV. Abdominales. a V. Pecora, “ VI. Belluz, CLASS FIFTH—INSECTA. cr. Valley Cete. Orver I. Coleoptera, % Il. Hemiptera, CLASS SECOND—AVES. ee Tu Gepidapiers: Orver I. Accipitres, « IV. Neuropiera, ss II. Pice, ie V. Hymenoptera, JIT. Amseres, «MI. Diptera, s. DV. Gralle, “« VII. Aptera. ae V. Galline, “ VI.. Passeres. CLASS SIXTH—VERMES. Orver I. Intestina, CLASS THIRD—AMPHIBIA. “ II. Mollusca, Orver I. Reptilia, « III. Testacea, “ II. Serpentes, « IV. Lithophyta, «III. Nantes. s V. Zoophyta. THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM is divided into twenty-four classes, according to the number and posi- tion of the stamens; the greater part of the orders, from the number of pistils in the flower; others, by the situation of the seeds, and form of the seed-vessels ; in compound flowers, from the arrangement of the florets; and the great class of cryptogamic plants, or plants without conspicuous flowers, form four orders, divided into Fvices, Musci, Alge, and Fungi. THE MINERAL KINGDOM is divided inte three classes, viz: I. Petra; II. Miner#; III. Fossi1a; and numerous subdivisions. But, as the mineral kingdom had attract- ed but little of the attention of Linneus, and the progress of chemistry ns * Systema Nature ed. 12. Holmiz, “65. INTRODUCTION. XXI has since changed the whole science of mineralogy, it is not necessary here, to give the inferior details. Such is the “field of realities,’ as M. Lamarck terms it, which the study of Nature offers to the intelligent mind. Life, in all its aspects, is exhibited in countless forms, and the regular succession of organized beings, present the creation in the attractive features of perennial youth. Without herbivorous races, the vegetable kingdom would soon encumber the surface of the globe ; without carnivorous animals, the others would multiply beyond their means of support; and provi- sion is made in those tribes, whose food is decomposing substances, to free the earth from dead animal remains. By no conceivable means, could the same amount of existence and happiness be attained ; and the whole system is so wonderfully arranged, that among the number- less existences which people the earth, the air, and the waters, there is a constant harmony between the means of existence and the existing beings. While animals, useful to others, are produced in amazing numbers, the fecundity of others, whose physical powers might other- wise give them a superiority, are limited, and species apparently the most defenceless, ate provided with means of protection, which insure » their perpetuity. To Man alone, as the intelligent head of the whole, is given the dominion over the inferior creatures; his reason has enabled him to apply to his use the whole of the organized and morganic bodies around him, and left him, within certain limits, the accountable Master of the creation. On the utility of a knowledge of the objects of Nature, to a being depending on her productions for the supply of all his conveniences and wants, it is scarcely necessary to insist. No species of human learning is so well calculated to form habits of attention and correct observation, as the study of the different branches of Natural History ; and none is more admirably adapted to the feelings and capacities of the young. Besides the improvement of the intellectual powers, which the examination of the structure and habits of any class of organized beings is calculated to produce, and the associations likely to be thereby awakened, there is something in the study of Nature which approaches to philosophy of a higher kind—something ‘that, while it teaches man his place in this Creation of Wonders, infallibly leads him to admire the wisdom, and power, and goodness, displayed by «ts Great Author. Gs pan 1} ae Aet Ls FIRST—THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. Accorpine to Cuvier, there are four principal forms, after which all living beings seem to have been modelled. The basis of these distinctions is laid in the organization of the creatures themselves. Sensation and move- ment are the characteristics of animals. The heart and the organs of circulation, seem a kind of centre for those functions which may be called vegetative, while the brain and the nervous system, form the principal source of the functions more exclusively animal. Descending from the higher to the lower races of animals, both these systems are found gradually to become more imperfect, and finally to disappear altogether. In the lowest tribes in the scale, where nerves are no longer visible, the muscular fibre also ceases to be distinct, and the organs of digestion are reduced to a simple cavity in the homogeneous mass. In insects, the vascular system disappears, even before the nervous system; but in general, the dispersion of the medullary masses is connected with the agents of muscular motion: a spinal marrow, upon which knots, or ganglia, represent as many brains, or seats of sensation, corresponding to the structure of a body divided into numerous rings, and supported by pairs of limbs, distributed along these annulations. This relative proportion in the structure of general forms, which results from the arrangement of the organs of motion, from the dis- tribution of the nervous masses, and from the energy of the circulating ‘system, constitutes the basis upon which M. Cuvier has founded the princi- pal divisions of the Animal Kingdom. In the first of these general forms, which is that of Man, and the animals which resemble him most nearly, the brain and the principal trunk of the nervous system are inclosed in bony cases; the first called the cranium, the second the vertebre. To the sides of the vertebral column, as to a centre, are attached the ribs, and the bones of the members which form the frame-work of the body. The muscles, in general, cover the bones, which they put into action, and the viscera are inclosed in the head and trunk. Animals of this form are called VerTEBRATED AntmALs, (Animalia Vertebrata.) They have all red blood, a muscular heart, a mouth with two horizontal jaws, distinct organs of vision, hearing, smell, and taste, situated in cavities of the head, and never more than four limbs. The sexes are always separate and the distribution of the medullary masses and the principal branches of the nervous system, is nearly the same in all. On a close examination ef any of the characters of this leading division, some analogy of conformation is always found, even in the species the most 24 THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. remote from each other; and the gradation of the same general plan is to be traced from Man down to the lowest of the fishes. In the second conformation, peculiar to animals, there is no internal frame- work, or skeleton. The muscles are simply attached to the skin, which forms a soft and contractile covering, from which proceed, in many species, stony plates or envelopes, denominated shells, of which the position and produc- tion are analogous to that of the mucous body. The nervous system is, with the viscera, included in this general covering, and is composed of many scattered masses, united by nervous threads. The principal of these, placed upon the wsophagus, is denominated the brain. Of the senses, properly so salled, the organs of taste and sight are alone to be distinguished, and even these are sometimes wanting. One family alone exhibits the organs of hearing. This division, however, is always characterized by a complete circulating system, and particular organs for respiration; and the organs of digestion and secretion are litile less complicated than those of the verte- brated animals. Though the general plan of their organization be not so uniform in regard to external configuration, as the preceding division, yet even between these parts, there is always an analogous resemblance in structure and functions. This division is termed Moriuscovs AnNIMALs, (Animalia Mollusca.) The third general form is that which is observed in insects, worms, &c. Their nervous system consists of two long cords, extending along the belly, swelled out at intervals, and uniting into knots, or ganglia. The first of these, placed upon the esophagus, though held analogous to the brain, is but little larger than the others. The covering of the body is divided by trans- verse folds, into a certain number of rings, of which the teguments are in some hard, in others soft, but to the interior of which the muscles are always attached. Articulated limbs are often attached to the sides of the annulated portions of the trunk, but it is also frequently destitute of those organs of movements. To these animals, Cuvier has given the name of Arricu- LATED ANIMALS, (Animalia Articulata.) In this division is observed the transition from the circulating system in closed vessels, to a nutritive process, by simple imbibition; and also a cor- responding transition from respiration, by circumscribed organs, to respira- tion performed through the medium of trachee, or air-vessels, dispersed through the body. The organs of taste and sight, are very evident in the animals of this division. Their jaws, when they have any, are invariably lateral. One family alone possesses the organ of hearing. The animals comprehended under the fourth general form, are usually known by the name of Zoopuyres. They approach, in structure, to the homogeneous character of plants. Neither a distinct nervous system, nor particular organs of sense, are perceptible, and but obscure vestiges of cir- culation. Their respiratory organs are almost always on the surface of their bolies The intestines of the greater number consist merely in a Dsl VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. Q5 cavity, without an outlet. The lowest in the series, which are also the fast of the animal tribes, exhibit nothing but a homogeneous pulp, possessed of motion and sensibility. In the preceding divisions, the organs of move- ment and sense are disposed symmetrically, on both sides of an axis; but in this, they have a circular arrangement, around a common centre. This form of existence Cuvier arranges under the head of Raprarep ANIMALS, (Animalia Radiata.) The term Zoology, includes the whole of the Animal kingdom; besides waicn, different departments have received particular names; such as Orni- thology, for the birds; Ichthyology, for the fishes; Entomology, for insects ; and Conchology, for the testaceous Mollusca. FIRST DIVISION. VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. Tue body of vertebrated animals is sustained by a skeleton, composed of many pieces, connected together and moveable upon one another. The body is composed of a head, a trunk, and limbs. The head is formed of the cranium, which incloses the brain, and of the face, composed of two jaws. In the face are the organs of sense. The trunk is sustained by the spine and ribs. The spine is composed of vertebree which move upon one another, all of which have a cylindrical opening in the centre, forming together, a ca- nal, containing the portion of nervous matter called the spinal marrow. The ribs are semicircular, and protect the sides of the cavity of the trunk. They ‘are generally articulated, by one extremity, to the vertebral column, and by the other, to the sternum. In some species, they are scarcely perceptible. The vertebrated animals have never more than two pair of limbs; some- umes, indeed, one or other of these pairs is deficient, and sometimes both. According to the motions to which these limbs are destined to be subser- vient, the anterior ones assume the form of hands, feet, wings, cr fins; the posterior, of feet or fins. The blood of the vertebrated animals is always red, and seems, by its composition, adapted to sustain energy of sensation and muscular vigor. The correspondence of the blood with the respiration, necessary to the several species of these animals, has suggested their division into classes. The external organs of sense, in all vertebrated animals, are two eyes, two ears, two nostrils, the teguments of the tongue, and the teguments of the whole body. The nerves unite with the nervous matter in the vertebra, and terminate in two medullary masses, in the cranium, the volume of which is generally proportioned to the extent of the intellectual capacity. There are always two jaws, an upper and under one. The principal motion exists in the lower, which has the power of elevation or depression. 4 2 26 VERTEBRATED ANIMALS. In the greater number, the upper jaw is completely fixed and motionless. Both are generally provided with teeth, excrescences of a peculiar nature, similar in chemical composition to bone, but which grow from the jaws by a process or secretion. The jaws of one entire class, however, (that of birds,) and tne genus Testudo, in that of reptiles, are invested with a horny substance. The intestinal canal extends from the mouth to the anus, in various degrees of expansion or contraction. It possesses certain appendices, and receives liquids of a solvent nature, viz: saliva, from the mouth, the secre- tion of the gland denominated pancreas, and the bile, which is produced by another large gland, the liver. In the passage of the food through the alimentary canal, the part of it adapted to the purposes of nutrition, and termed the chyle, is absorbed by the lacteal vessels, and conveyed into the pulmonary artery, where, in combination with the blood, it undergoes a certain change; and after each portion of the body has received its proper supply, the remainder is carried back into the veins, by a set of vessels analogous to the lacteals, and which, together, form what is usually called the lymphatic system. The veins carry back to the heart the blood which has served the purposes of nutrition. This blood, however, must pass either wholly or partially into the organ of respiration, for the purpose of resuming its arterial character, before it is carried back by the arteries, to the different parts of the body. In the three first classes of vertebrated animals, the organ of respiration consists of lungs, an assemblage of small cells, permeable by the external air. In fishes alone, respiration is performed by gills, or branchie—a series of lamine, between which the water passes. In all vertebrated animals, the blood which furnishes to the liver the materials of the bile, is supplied from the venous blood which has circulat- ed in the intestines, and which, after being reunited in a trunk called the vena porte, is again divided at the liver, and distributed in ramifications through its substance. The sexes in this division are always in separate individuals; but the mode in which fecundation is performed, is different in the various classes. Though, in all these points, the vertebrated animals have a general resem- blance, yet the various beings of which this division is composed, present peculiarities, which are the foundation of their arrangement into classes. These differences depend upon the nature and energy of their movements, which again are always proportioned to the quantum of respiration ; for upon the perfection of this function, in a great measure, depend the irritability of the muscular fibre, and the energy of the muscular action. The quantity of respiration depends upon the relative portion of blood, contained at every given instant of time, in the lungs, and the amount of oxygen which enters into the composition of the fluid. The quantity of blood is altogether determmed, by the peculiar disposition of the organs of respiration and circulation. MAMMALIA. oF The organs of circulation may be double, so that all the blood conveyed Sy the veins from the different parts, must undergo a process of circulation, before 1t can be returned by the arteries; or they may be simple, in which case, only a portion of the blood which returns to the body, passes through the lungs. This last is the case with reptiles. The quantity of their respiration, and the qualities depending on it, vary with the relative propor- tion of blvod, returned at each pulsation, into the lungs. Fishes have a double circulation; but as they respire through the medium of water, and their blood only receives the portion of oxygen in that medium, their quantity of respiration is, perhaps, less than that of reptiles. In the Mammalia, the circulation is double, and the respiratory process simple. The quantity of their respiration is superior to that of reptiles and fishes. But the quantity of respiration in birds is still greater than that of quadrupeds, because they also respire by various other cavities, as well as the lungs. The air penetrates through their whole body, and acts upon the branches of the aorta, with the same efficiency as upon those of the pulmonary artery. From these circumstances result four different kinds of motion, among vertebrated animals. Quadrupeds, in whom the quantity of respiration is moderate, are formed for walking and running, and their predominant characteristic is vigor. Birds, whose respiratory system is more extensive, possess the lightness and strength of muscles necessary to support them in their flight. Reptiles, which respire more feebly, creep upon the earth, and many of them pass more or less of their existence in a state of torpor. And fishes, which move ina fluid almost as specifically heavy as themselves, are enabled io execute their movements, by an arrangement altebether different from the others. Every peculiarity of organization proper to each of these classes, and especially such as belong to motion and external sensation, have a close and necessary relation with the characters now enumerated. CLASS FIRST—MAMMALIA. Vertebrated Animals, with red and warm blood, breathing through lungs, vivi- parous, and suckling their young with milk formed in their breasts, or mamme. Tue class Mammalia is placed at the head of the Animal kingdom, not only because it is the class to which Man, considered in his animal structure, belongs, but also bec use the Mammalia enjoy the most numerous faculties, the most delicate sensations, and the most varied powers of motion. As the quantity of respiration is in mammiferous animals moderate, taey are generally formed for walking, and, in consequence, all the articulations of the:r frame have defined forms, which determine their motions. 28 MAMMALIA. Some of the Mammalia, however, can raise themselves in the air, by means of elongated limbs connected by extensible membranes; others have their imbs so much shortened, that they can move with facility only in water; but these cireumsvances by no means exclude them from the cluss to which they are allied, by other essential characters. All the Mammalia have the upper jaw fixed to the craarum; the lower is composed of two pieces, articulated by a projecting condyle to a fixed temporal bone. The neck is composed of seven, and, in one species, of nine vertebre. The anterior ribs are attached to a sternum, formed of a number of pieces, placed vertically. Their anterior extremity commences at the scapula, which is not articulated to any other bone, but simply suspended in the muscular attachments, and often resting on the sternum, by an interme- diate bone, denominated the clavicle. This extremity is ccntinued by an arm, a fore-arm, and a hand, which last is formed of two rows of little bones, called the carpus, of another row named the metacarpus, and of fingers, each composed of two or three bones, called phalanges. With the exception of the Cetacea, all this class have the first part of the posterior extremity fixed to the spine. This part, in the form of a girdle, or basin, is named the pelvis. In youth, it is divided into three pairs of bones,—the os iliwm, which is attached to the vertebral column; the os pubis, which forms the anterior part; and the ‘ischium, which forms the posterior portion. At the junction of these three bones, is the cavity where the bone of the thigh is articulated, to which again is joined the leg, com- posed of two bones, the ¢idia and the fibula. This extremity is terminated by the foot, which is composed of parts analogous to the hand, viz; a tarsus, metatarsus, and toes. The head, in the Mammalia, is always articulated by two condyles. spon the atlas, or first vertebra. The brain is composed of two hemispheres, united by a medullary lamina, called the corpus callosum, and contains two ventricles, inclosing four pairs of tubercles, called corpora striata, the thalami optici, nates, and testes. Between the thalami optici is a third ventricle, com- municating with the fourth, situated beneath the cerebellum. The crura of the cerebellum form always under the medulla oblongata, a transverse prominence, called pons Varoli. The eye, always lodged in its orbit, is protected by two eyelids, and a vestige of a third. Its crystalline lens is fixed by the ciliary processes, and its cellular sclerotic coat. In the ear there is always found a cavity, shut up by a membrane, called the tympanum, with four little bones; a vestibule, at the entrance of which one of these bones is placed, and which communicates with three semicir- cular canals; finally, a spiral canal, termed the cochlea, which terminates by one of its canals in the tympanal cavity, and by the other into the vesti- bule. The cranium is divided into three compartments. The anterior part is formed of the two frontal bones and the ethmnoid; the intermediate, by the parietal and the sphenoid bones; and the posterior, by the occipital bone. MAMMALIA QQ Between the occipital, the parietal, and the sphenoid, are inserted the tem- poral bones, which, to a certain extent, belong to the face. In the fmtus the occiput is divided into four parts, the body of the sphenoid into two, and three of its pairs of ale are separate; the temporal bone into three, of which one serves to complete the cranium, another to enclose the labyrinth of the ear, the third to form the walls of its cavity, &c. These portions of the cranium unite more or less quickly, according to the species, and end by perfect union in the adult. The face is formed by the two maxillary bones, between which the nasal canal passes. Before these, are two intermaxillary, behind two palate bones, and between them descends the single plate of the ethmoid bone, named the vomer. At the entrance of the nasal canal are the bones which form the nose. The molar or cheek bone of each side, unites the maxillary to the temporal, and often to the frontal bone; and finally, the lachrymal cavity occupies the internal angle of the orbit, and sometimes part of the cheek. The tongue, in the Mammalia, is always fleshy, and attached to the hyoid bone, which bone is suspended by ligaments to the cranium. Their Jungs, two in number, are composed of a mass of small cells, inclosed without adhesion in a cavity formed by the sides of the diaphragm, and lined by the pleura. Their organ of voice is at the upper extremity of the trachea or windpipe; and a fleshy continuation, named velwn palati, establishes a direct communication between their larynx and the back part of their nostrils. Living on the earth’s surface, as do the greater part’ of the Mammalia, hey are exposed to alternations of heat and cold, and their bodies have, in consequence, a covering of hair, which is thicker in the colder, and more scanty in the warmer regions. The Cetacea, which inhabit the sea, are, however, totally destitute of this covering. The intestinal canal of the mammiferous animals, is suspended by a fold of the peritoneum, called the mesentery, which contains numerous con- globate glands for the lacteal vessels. Another production of the perito- neum, named the epiploon, hangs before and beneath the intestines. The generation of the Mammalia 1s essentially viviparous. The fetus, after conception, descends into the uterus, to the inner surface of which it ‘gs attached by means of an arrangement of vessels, termed the placenta, ‘through the medium of which, nourishment is derived. The young, for some time after birth, are nourished by a particular secretion of the mother, ‘milk,)} produced in the mammiferous animals, after parturition, and drawn ay the young from mamma, or teats. It is from this last character that the cerm Mammalia has been applied to this class—a character exclusively proper to them, and by which they are more easily recognized than by any other external distinction. The essential characters of the Mammalia are taken from the organs of touch, and the organs of mastication. On the first, depend the power and dexterity of the animal; and from the second 30 MAMMALIA. may be deduced the nature of its food, and the ccusequent structure cf its digestive apparatus. On these characters are founded the division of mam- miferous animals, into orders. The degree of perfection of the organs of touch, may be estimated accord- ing to the number and mobility of the fingers, and according to the greater or less depth with which their extremities are covered by the nail or hoof. A hoof, for instance, which envelopes that part of the extremity which would otherwise touch the ground, blunts the feeling, and renders the foot incapable of seizing. The opposite extreme is, when only a single lamina covers the upper surface of the end of the finger or toe, leaving to the other all its sensibility. The nature of the food may be judged of by the appear- ance of the molar teeth, to the form of which the articulation of the jaws always corresponds. For cutting flesh, the teeth require to be edged like a saw, and the jaws to close vertically, like scissors. To bruise grains or roots, it is requisite that the molars have a flat crown; that the jaws should move horizontally, as well as vertically ; and that the teeth should be composed of parts of unequal hardness, to give them the necessary inequalities for this operation. ‘The hoofed animals are all necessarily herbivorous, and possess teeth of this description, since the structure of their feet precludes them from seizing living prey. . Animals with unguiculated toes or fingers, on the contrary, are suscepti- ble of more variety in their modes of subsistence; for, besides the form of the molar teeth, they differ materially among themselves in the mobility and delicacy of their toes or fingers. There is one characteristic, however, which exercises a mighty influence on the dexterity of the animals possess- ed of it, and which multiplies or greatly varies their modes of action. This is the faculty of opposing a thumb to the other fingers, and of thus being enabled to seize with facility the most minute objects. This opposition of a fifth member to the other four, constitutes what is properly called the hand, an organ which is carried to the highest degree of perfection in man, in whom alone the anterior extremities are free. These various combinations strictly determine the nature of the different mammiferous animals, and afford the characteristics from which orders are formed. Jn the following pages, the Mammalia will be arranged unde: the following orders: Orver I. BIMAWNA, OrverR VI. GLIRES, “« =6IT. QUADRUMANA, fo Vel. EDEN TAT A, “TT. CCHEIROPTERA, “« VIII. PACHYDERMA. eS WV EA 2, . IX. RUMINANTIA, « —V. MARSUPIALIA, by X. CETACEA. The total number of mammiferous animals described, according to Des- marest, is about eight hundred and fifty, including, however, many species imperfectly ascertained, and the fossil Mammalia; of which, belonging t¢ the order Quadrumana, are one hundred forty-one,—Cheiroptera, ninety MAMMALIA—MAN. 21 seven,—Fere, one hundred seventy-six,—Marsupialia, forty-seven, — Glires, one hundred forty-nine,—Edentata, twenty-four, —Pachyderma, fifty-five, —Ruminantia, ninety-seven, —Cetacea, sixty-two. Of these about three hundred and thirty are frugivorous, or herbivorous; eighty omnivo- rous © one hundred and fifty, insectivorous, and two hundred and forty, carni- vorous, in a greater or lesser degree. The number of terrestrial species domesticated by man, (but perhaps including all that are really ~aseful,) amount only to thirteen. ORDER FIRST—BIMANA.! MAN.? Man stands alone in the order and genus to which Naturalists have eferred his species. Differing widely in physical conformation from al. 1 The order Bimana embraces animals with teeth of three kinds; the posterior extre- nities proper for walking; the anterior furnished with hands ; nails flat; body vertical , ~vo pectoral mammz ; stomach simple; orbital and temporal fossz distinct. * Homo sapiens. The genus Homo has four upper and four lower incisor teeth; two pper and two lower canines, one on each side; molers. five above and five below, on ach side. The whole number of his teeth, thirty-tvro. a2 MAMMALIA—MAN. other classes of animated beings, and distinguished by reason and the yowe: of speech, this wonderfully constructed being seems the bond of connection between the material and immaterial worlds. Possessed of mental powers which raise him beyond the level of the surrounding creation, and connect him with higher orders of existences, man is the only heing who-looks forward to futurity, and intuitively perceives his connection with and depen- dence upon the great Source of Intelligence. While the inferior animals enjoy unalloyed the blessings of life and present enjoyment, man combines the past, the present, and the future in his calculations of happiness ; and while some parts of his organization connect him with creatures around him, and sober his rule over beings with animal feelings of pleasure and pain as acute as his own, his intellectual powers, unfettered by the material organs which are their instruments, trace the Divinity in all the parts of creation. Hence has arisen the religious feeling among every tribe’ of human beings, however rude; and man alone, seems to connect himself with the Great Author of his being, through the medium of intellectual homage and worship, according to his conceptions of that Almighty Being, the Creator and Preserver of all. While reason places man at such an infinite distance from the inferior animals, the faculty of articulate speech, and an artificial language, widen the barrier still further ; for although some of the animals possess the power of articulation in a considerable degree, and can communicate by natural signs, significant to those of their own species, they totally fail in those powers which enable man to classify objects, and to employ sounds or signs as an instrument of thought. Brutes possess, indeed, the powers of sensation, perception, and memory, and seem to be capable of intellectual operations to a certain extent; but their action is extremely limited, and bounded to the supply of their bodily wants; and, though susceptible of a species of education, their imitative powers are neither subservient to the improvement of the individual nor his species. The faculty which seems to direct the inferior animals, in most of their operations, essentially different from any thing like human intelligence, is called instenct. This wonderful faculty, surer in its limited aims than rea- son, bears, however, no proportion to the general intelligence of the animals which exercise it; for it has been remarked, that those in whom the in- stinctive propensity displays the greatest seeming wisdom and contrivance, apon some occasions, are upon others, remarkably deficient in sagacity. The physical structure of man, also, widely separates him from the otner portions of the mammiferous class. But these variations, in form and pro- portion, are neither so prominent, nor so totally different in character, from the other animal structures, as to account for the superiority which he enjoys. Destined to be nourished on substances used in common with other animals, the mechanism of his frame must so far correspond with theirs, as to be MAMMALIA—MAN. 33 able, like them, to convert these substances to the fluids which support his animal life; and his organs ef sensation must necessarily be analogous, in some degree, to those of beings on whom the material world is destined to make similar impressions. But no material organs which man possesses, abstracted from the mind of which they are but the instruments, can account for this intellectual supremacy; and those hypotheses which would trace man’s intellectual] and moral powers to the absolute or relative size of the brain or other material organs, have miserably failed in connecting mind with matter, or thought with organic structure. The structure of the human frame, however, is wonderfully adapted to the various purposes for which it is destined ; and even physically consider- ed, seems the worthy habitation of a being placed at the head, and with the control of animated nature. Man, indeed, considered as an animal, is the only one which walks erect in a vertical position; the only one with hands at the anterior extremity, distinct from the organs of locomotion, and free for executing his purposes. Contrary to what is found in any other mam- miferous animal, the structure of his body demonstrates that man is destin- ed to walk erect. The foot is entirely different from the posterior hand of apes, and furnishes a larger and firmer base than that of any other animal. It would be impos- sible for man, even if he desired it, to walk on the four extremities, his feet being almost inflexible, and the great length of his thigh would bring his knee to the ground. His shoulders, also, being too much separated, and his arms too far extended from the central line, would produce a very ineffectual support for the upper part of the body. The arteries which supply the human brain, not being subdivided, as in most quadrupeds, the blood necessary for an organ of such volume, would be poured in too copiously and rapidly, if he should assume the horizontal position. According to Cuvier, no quadruped is comparable to man, for the magni- tude of the hemispheres of the brain in proportion to the size of the face. Though the external senses of man are less energetic than in some other animals, they are, however, extremely delicate. His eyes ire directed forwards, and thus, though he does not see to both sides of him at once, like most quadrupeds, there is a greater unity in the result of the visual opera- tion. Of all animals, he can best distinguish the various degrees of sound, and he appears to be the only creature whose sense of smell is sufficiently delicate to he affected by unpleasant odors, Fruits, roots, ant succulent vegetables, appear to be the natural food of man. His hands aford him facility in procuring these, and his short and comparatively weak jaws, his canine teeth, scarcely projecting beyond the line of the others, and his tuberculous molar teeth, are little calculated to ‘eed on herbage, or devour flesh, unless those aliments are previously pre- pared by fire. The organs of digestion in man, are in conformity with 5 34 MAMMALIA—MAN. those of mastication. The stomach is simple, the intestinal canal of mode- rate length, and the large intestines well marked. The vertebral column, or spine, is composed of thirty-two vertebra, sever of which are denominated cervical, twelve dorsal, five lumbar, five sacral and three coccygeal. Of the ribs, seven pairs are attached to the sternum, or breast bone, by cartilaginous productions, and are called true ribs. The other five pairs are called false ribs. The male of the human species seldom exceeds six feet in height; the female is generally a few inches less. At his birth, the mrant is exposed to a new element, the air. What the sensations are on the admission of this element into the lungs, it is impossi- ble to guess; but from the cries of the infant, we may conjecture that it 1s attended with pain. The eyes of an infant are indeed open, but they are dull, and appear to be unfitted for the performance of any office whatever ; and their outward coat is wrinkled. The same reasoning will apply te most of the other senses. It is not till after forty days that it begins to smile; nor is it till then that it begins to weep: its former sensations of pain are unaccompanied with tears. The length of an infant, at birth, is twenty-one inches, though some do not exceed fourteen; and it generally weighs eight, and sometimes fourteen pounds. The form of the body and limbs of a new-born infant, are by no means perfect. Formerly, infants as soon as born, were injudiciously and unnaturally laced with bandages ; so that they were not able to move a single joint. Nations which we call barbarous, act more rationally and more humanely in this respect. The Siamese, the Indians, the Japanese, the negroes, the savages of Ame- rica, lay their infants naked in hanging beds of cotton, or in cradles lined with fur. The eyes of children always seek the light, and if only one eye be directed to it, the other will prebably become weak; both eyes ought, therefore, to be equally shaded or equally exposed. Squinting is commonly the effect of injudicious treatment in this respect. In teething, the cutting of the first set generally commences about the sixth or seventh month, and ends between the second and third year. The order of cutting is generally as follows :—First, the two middle incvsors, or cutting teeth of the lower jaw; then, after an interval of three or four weeks, the upper corresponding incisors follow. The two canine, or stomach teeth below, one on each side, next declare themselves ; and these are followed by the eye teeth, in the upper jaw. Soon after, the two first molars, or grind- ers, one on each side, succeed to the canine, in the lower jaw; those above chem follow. After the lapse of from four to six years, four more grinders are added in each jaw; these are permanent. At the age of puberty or later, the dentes sapientie, or wisdom teeth appear. The hair of most infants is exceedingly light, almost white. The body, durmg infancy, is said (perhaps erroneously) to be less sensible of cald than MAMMALIA—MAN. oD during any other season of life. The pulse is certainly strong, and it is therefore fair to conclude, that the internal heat is considerabie. Till the age of three years, the life of infants is extremely precarious ; in the course of the ensuing second and third years, it becomes more certain, and at six or seven, a child has a greater probability of living than at any other period of life. It is remarked, that of a certain number of children born at the same time, above a fourth die in the first year, above a third in two years, and at least one half in three years. By other calculations, it appears that one half of the children born at the same time, are not extinct in less than seven or eight years. At twelve or fifteen months, infants begin to lisp. The broad sound of A, is the first sound which they articulate with most ease. Of the consonants, B, M, P, T, are most easy. In every language, therefore, baba, mama, papa, are the first words that children learn. Some children pronounce distinctly in two years, though the generality do not talk for two years and a half, and frequently not so early. Some persons cease growing at fourteen or fifteen, while others continue their growth to twenty-two or twenty-three. In men, the body attains its perfect proportion at the age of thirty, and in women sooner. The persons of women are, indeed, generally complete at twenty. The distance between the eyes is less in man than in any other animal ; in some creatures, in fact, the eyes are at so great a distance, that it is impossible they should ever view the same object with both eyes at once. Men and apes are the only animals that have eyelashes on the lower eyelid. Other animals have them on the upper, but want them on the lower lid. The upper lid rises and falls, the lower has scarcely any motion. The ancients erroneously considered the hair as a kind of excretion, and believed that, like the nails, it increased by the lower part putting out the extremity ; but the moderns have discovered that every hair is a tube, which fills and receives nutriment, like the other parts of the body. The roots, they observe, do not turn gray sooner than the extremities, but the whole changes color at once. Instances have been known, of persons who have grown gray in one night. There is little known exactly with regard to the proportions of the human figure ; and the beauty of the best statues is better conceived by observation than by measurement. Some, who have studied after the ancient masters, divide the body into ten times the length of the face, and others into eight. They tell us that there is a similitude of proportion in different parts of the body: thus, that the hand is the length of the face; that the thumb is the length of the nose; that the space between the eyes is the breadth of the eye ; that the breadth of the thickest part of the thigh is double that of the thickest part of the leg, and treble the smaliest; that the arms extended are as long as the figure is high. 86 MAMMALIA—-MAN The strength of man is very considerable, when matured by practice. We are assured that the porters of Constantinople carry burthens of not less weight than nine hundred pounds; and Mr Desaguliers tells us of a man, who by distributing a certain number of weights, in such a manner that every part of his body bore its share, was able to support a weight of two thousand pounds, in an upright posture. The strength of a man may Le still farther estimated by the continuance of his labor, and by the agility of his motions. Men who are exercised in rurning, outstrip horses, or at least continue their speed for a greater length of time. In a journey, also, a man will walk down a horse; and after they have proceeded together for several days, the horse will be quite tired, and the man will be as fresh as at the beginning. The royal messengers of Ispahan, who are runners by profession, go thirty-six leagues in fourteen or fifteen hours. Travellers assure us that the Hottentots outrun lions in the chase; and that the savages who hunt the elk, pursue with such speed this animal, which is as fleet as a stag, that they at last tire it down and take it. When the constitution of the body is sound, it is probably possible, by moderation in the passions, temperance, and sobriety, to lengthen out the period of tire for a few years. But even of this there seems an uncertainty. Men no doubt there are, who have passed the usual period of human exist- ence; and, not to mention Parr, who lived to the age of one hundred and fifty-two, and Jenkins, to that of one hundred and sixty-nine, as recorded in the Philosophical Transactions, we have many instances of the prolongation of life to one hundred and ten, and even to one hundred and twenty years Yet this longevity was occasioned by no peculiar art or management. On the contrary, it appears that the generality of such long livers were peasaats, accustomed to the greatest fatigues, huntsmen, or laborers; men, in fact, who had employed their whole bodily strength, and even abused it, if to abuse it be possible, otherwise than by continual idleness and debauchery. If, in the duration of life, there is any difference to be found, it ought seemingly to be ascribed to the quality of the air. In elevated situations, it has bern ovserved, there are commonly found more old people than in such as are low. The mountains of Scotland and Wales, of Auvergne and Switzerland, have furnished more instances of extreme longevity, than the plains of HoJland or Flanders, of Germany or Poland. In general, however, the period of human existence may be said to be the same in every country. If not cut off by accidental diseases, man 1s found to live to the years of ninety ora hundred. Beyond that date our ancestors did not live; nor hag it in any degree varied since the time of David. From a careful inspection of the registers of burials, in a certain number of country parishes in France, compared with the mortality of Paris, the following tab'e has been made out, of the probable duration of hurnan life MAMMALIA--MAN. OW TABLE OF THE PROBABILITIES OF THE DURATION OF LIFE. Age. Duration of Life. —_—_—— | ———_—___ —______ _____ Age. Duration of Life. ——_—— Age. Duration of Life. ———— | — Years Years. Months. Years. Years. Months. Years.| Years. Months, 0 8 0 29 28 6 \| 58 12 3 1 33 0 30 28 0 59 11 8 2 38 0 31 27 6 60 11 1 3 40 0 32 26 11 61 10 6 4 41 0 33 26 3 62 10 0 5 41 6 34 25 7 63 g) 6 6 42 0 35 25 0 64 9 0 7 42 3 36 24 5 65 8 6 § Al 6 37 23 10 66 8 0 9 40 10 38 23 3 67 7 6 10 40 2 39 22 8 68 a 0 11 39 6 40 22 al 69 6 Ul 12 38 9 41 21 6 70 6 2 13 38 u 42 20 11 71 5 8 14 37 5 43 20 4 a2, 5 4 15 36 9 44 1g 9 73 5 0 16 36 0 45 19 3 74 4 9 17 35 4 46 18 9 7d 4 6 18) ,), 34 8. camellpvany ia8 2 76 4 Sh dud 19 34 0 48 ‘lig; 8 77 4 1 20 3o 5 | 49 17 2 78 3 11 21 3 11 50 16 Uf 79 3 9 22 32 4 51 16 0 80 3 7 23. 31 10 52 15 6 81 3 5 24 31 3 53 15 n 82 3 3 25.| 30 9 54 14 6 | 83 3 2 20) oU 2 55 14 0 84 es 1 97 | 29 7 56 | 13 5 | er ae 0 28 29 0 oO 12 10 | By this Table it appears, that it is reasonably to be expected, or, in other words, that we may lay an even wager, that an infant newly born, will live eight years longer; that an infant of one year, will live thirty-three years longer; that an infant of two years, will live thirty-eight years longer; that a man of twenty, will live thirty-three years and five months longer; that a man of thirty, will live twenty-eight years longer; and so proportionally of every other age. Ideas of external things are conveyed to the soul of man by means of the five Senses for seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, and smelling. The organs through which the senses act are the nerves, which are small thread-like fibres, distributed all over the body, and all of them connected with the brain. The eyes seem to be formed very early in the human embryo. In the chicken, also, of all the parts that are double, these are the soonest produc- ed; and it is observed from the eggs of several sorts of birds, as well as from those of lizards, that the eyes are much larger and more early in the 38 MAMMALIA—MAN. expansion than any other parts of the two-fold growth. Though in vivipa: rous animals, and particularly in man, they are, at first, by no means so large in proportion as in the oviparous classes, yet they obtain their due formation sooner than any other parts of the body. Thus it is also with the organ of hearing. The little bones that help to compose the internal parts of the ear, are entirely formed, before any of the other bones have acquired any part of their growth and solidity. Hence it is evident, that those parts of the body which are furnished with the greatest quantity of nerves, are those which appear the soonest, and which are the soonest brought to perfection. Mr Cheselden having couched for a cataract a boy of thirteen years of age, who had been blind from his birth, and having thus communicated to him the sense of sight, was at great pains to mark the progress of his visual powers. ‘This youth, though hitherto incapable of seeing, was not, however, absolutely and entirely blind. Like every other person whose vision is obstructed by a cataract, he could distinguish day from night, and even black from white, or either of them from the vivid color of scarlet. Of the form of bodies, however, he saw nothing; nor of colors themselves, unless the light was strong. At first, the operation was performed only upon one of his eyes; and when he saw for the first time, so far was he from forming the smallest conception of distances, that he supposed, (as he himself expressed it,) that every thing he saw touched his eyes, in the same manner as every thing he felt touched his skin. The objects that pleased him most were those of which the surfaces were plane, and the figures regular; though as yet he could in no degree judge of their different forms, or assign a reason why some were more agreeable to him than others. The ideas he had entertained of colors during his former dark state, were so imperfect, that when he saw them in reality, he could hardly be persuaded they were the same. When such objects were shown him as he had been formerly familiar with by the touch, he observed them with earnestness, in order to distinguish them a second time. As of these, however, he had too many to retain all at once, the greatest number were forgotten ; and for one thing which he knew, after seeing it, there were a thousand things, accord- ing to his own declaration, of which he no longer possessed the smallest remembrance. He was very much surprised to find that those persons and those things which he had loved best, were not the most pleasing to the eye; nor could he help testifying his disappointment in finding his parents less handsome than he had conceived them to be. Before he could distin guish that a pic.re resembled a solid body, about two months elapsed. Ti) then, he only considered it as a surface, diversified by a variety of colors . but when he began to perceive that these shadings actually represente/ human beings, he also began to examine by the touch, whether they had not the usual qualities of such bodies; and great was his surprise to fiad smooth and even, what he had supposed a very unequal surface. He was MAMMALIA—MAN. ; 39 then shown a miniature portrait of his father, which was contained im his mother’s watch-case ; and though he readily perceived the resemblance, yet he expressed his amazement how so large a face could be comprised in so small a compass. To him it appeared as strange as that a pint vessel should contain a bushel. At first, he could bear but a very small quantity of light, and he saw every object much larger than life; but in proportion as he observed objects that were in reality large, so in proportion he conceived the others to be diminished. Beyond the limits of what he saw, he had no conception of any thing. He knew that the apartment he occupied was only a part of the house; and. yet he could not imagine how the latter should appear larger than the former. Before the operation, he formed no great expectations of the pleasures he should receive from the new sense he was promised. That he might be enabled to read and write, was his grand object. He said, among other things, that he could enjoy no greater delight from walking in the garden, with this sense, than w*thout it; because there he already walked at his ease, and was acquainted with all the walks. With great truth he also remarked, that his blindness gave him one advan- tage over the rest of mankind; an advantage which, indeed, he preserved for a long time after he had obtained the sense of seeing; namely, that of being able to walk in the night with confidence and security. No sooner, however, had he began to enjoy this new sense, than he was transported beyond measure; and he declared that every new object was a new source of delight to him; that his pleasure was so great, he had not language to express it. About a year after, he was carried to Epsom, where there isa very beautiful and a very extensive prospect; with this he seemed greatly charmed ; and the landscape before him, he called a new method of seeing. He was couched in the other eye a year after the former, and of both opera- tions the success was equally great. When he saw with both eyes, every object appeared to him twice as large as when he saw with but one eye, though he did not see double, or at least he showed no marks from which any such conclusion might be drawn. There is now a living instance of Cheselden’s blind man, of whom a curious account has just been published. This person, whose name is Caspar Hauser, was by some foul means kept confined in a cell, from infancy to the age of about seventeen, and never had seen any object but the walls of his cell anda few toys. When directed to look out of the window upon a wide and extensive prospect, in all the glory of summer, he drew back with visible horror, exclaiming, ugly! ugly! About two years afterwards, in 1831, he was shown the same prospect, and asked why he called it ugly when he formerly saw it. He replied, “what I then saw was indeed very ugly. For when I looked at the window, it always appeared to me as if a window shutter had been placed close to my eyes, upon which a wall painter kad spattered the contents of his different brushes, filled with white, blue, green, yellow, and red paint, all mingled together. Single things, 40 MAMMALIA—MAN. as I now sce things, I could not at that time recognize and distinguish from each other. ‘This was shocking to look at; and besides, it made me feel anxious and uneasy; because it appeared to me, as if my window had been closed up with this party-colored shutter, in order to prevent me from looking out into the open air. That what I then saw, were fields, hills, and houses ; that many things, which at that time appeared to me much larger, were, in fact, much smaller; while many other things that appeared smaller, were, in reality, larger than other things, 1s a fact, of which I was afterwards con- vinced, by the experience gained during my walks; at length I no longer saw any thing more of the shutter.” He stated that in the beginning, he could not distinguish between what was really round or triangular, and what was only painted as round or triangular. The men and horses represented on paper, appeared to him precisely like those that were carved in wood, but that in the packing and unpacking of them, he had soon found the difference. We judge of distance only by experience, otherwise, when experience dues not set us right, the more distant an object is, the smaller it appears. When, from particular circumstances, we cannot form a just idea of dis- tance, and when we cannot judge of objects but by the angle, or rather the image, which they form in our eyes, we are then necessarily deceived as to the size of such objects. Every man has experienced how liable we are, in travelling by night, to mistake a bush which is at hand, for a tree which is at a distance, or indeed a tree which is at a distance, for a bush which is at hand. In the same manner, if we do not distinguish objects by their form, and if thereby we cannot judge of distance, the same fallacy will still remain: in this case, a fly which is passing rapidly, close before our eyes, will appear to be a bird at a considerable distance ; and a horse which may be in the middle of a plain, without motion, and in an attitude similar, for example, to that of a sheep, will appear no larger than a sheep, till we have once discovered that it is a horse. Whenever, therefore, we find ourselves benighted in an unknown place, where no judgment is to be formed of distance, we are every moment liable to deceptions of vision; hence originate, in part, the dreadful anecdotes of spectres, and of those strange, hideous, and gigantic figures, which so many persons tell us they have seen. Though such appearances, it is com- monly asserted, exist solely in the imagination, yet it is highly possible that they might appear literally to the eye, and be in every respect seen as described to us. The deception arising from the eye misjudging of magnitudes and dis- tances, is not, however, the only source of spectral illusions. Disease, particularly of the head, and violent excitement of the nervous system, often produce the most singular and vivid phantasms. Of this kind, many cases are on record in the annals of medicine. One of the first that was brought to public notice, and one of the most remarkable, is that of M. Nicolai, the MAMMALIA—MAN. 4l celebrated German bookseller, and member of the Royal Society of Berlin, It is related by himself. Nicolai had for years been subject to a congestion mm the head, to relieve which, he was frequently blooded by leeches. “Tn the first two months of the year 1791, (says he,) I was much affected in my mind, by several incidents of a very disagreeable nature; and on the 24th of February, a circumstance occurred which irritated me extremely. At ten o’clock in the forenoon, my wife and another person came to console 12; I was in a violent perturbation of mind, owing to a series of incidents which had altogether wounded my moral feelings, and from which I saw no possibility of relief, when suddenly I observed, at the distance of ten paces from me, a figure—the figure of a deceased person. I pointed at it, and asked my wife whether she did not see it. She saw nothing, but being much alarmed, endeavored to compose me, and sent for the physician. The figure remained some seven or eight minutes, and at length I became a little more calm; and, as I was extremely exhausted, I soon afterwards fell into a troubled kind of slumber, which lasted for half an hour. The vision was ascribed to the great agitation of mind in which I had been, and it was supposed I should have nothing more to apprehend from that cause; but the violent affection having put my nerves into some unnatural state, from this arose further consequences, which require a more detailed descriptiun. “Tn the afternoon, a little after four o’clock, the figure which J had seen in the morning, again appeared. I was alone when this happened; a cir- cumstance which, as may be easily conceived, could not be very agreeable. I went, therefore, to the apartment of my wife, to whom] related it. But thither, also, the figure pursued me. Sometimes it was present, sometimes it vanished; but it was always the same standing figure. A litile after six o’clock, several stalking figures also appeared; but they had no connection with the standing figure. I can assign no other reason for this apparition than that, though much more composed in my mind, I had not been able so soon entirely to forget the cause of such deep and distressing vexation, and had reflected on the consequences of it, in order, if possible, to avoid them; and that this happened three hours after dinner, at the time when the diges- tion just begins. “At length I became more composed, with respect to the disagreeable meident which had given rise to the first apparition; but though I had used very excellent medicines, and found myself in other respects perfectly well, yet the apparitions did not diminish, but, on the contrary, rather increased in number, and were transformed in the most extraordinary manner. “After I had recovered from the first impression of terror, I never felt myself particularly agitated by these apparitions, as I considered them to be, what they really were, the extraordinary consequences of indisposition ; on the contrary, | endeavored as much as possible to preserve my com- pesure of mind, that I might remain distinctly conscious of what passed within me. J observed these phantoms with great accuracy, and very often 6 42 MAMMALIA—MAN. reflected on my previous thoughts, with a view to discover some law in the association of ideas, by which exactly these or other figures might present themselves to the imagination. Sometimes I thought I had made a dis- covery, especially in the latter period of my visions; but, on the whole, J could trace no connection which the various figures that thus appeared and disappeared to my sight had, either with my state of mind, or with my employment, and the other thoughts which engaged my attention. After frequent accurate observations on the subject, having fairly proved and maturely considered it, I could form no other conclusion on the cause and consequence of such apparitions, than that, when the nervous system is weak, and at the same time too much excited, or rather deranged, similar figures may appear, in such a manner as if they were actually seen and heard; for these visions, in my case, were not the consequence of any known law of reason, of the imagination, or of the otherwise usual association of ideas ; and such also is the case with other men, as far as we can reason from the few examples we know. “The origin of the individual pictures which present themselves to us, must undoubtedly be sought for in the structure of that organization by which we think; but this will always remain no less inexplicable to us, than the origin of those powers by which consciousness and fancy are made to exist. “The figure of the deceased person never appeared to me after the first dreadful day; but several other figures showed themselves afterwards very distinctly ; sometimes such as I knew; mostly, however, of persons I did not know; and amongst those known to me, were the semblances of both living and deceased persons, but mostly the former; and I made the obser- vation, that acquaintances with whom I daily conversed never appeared to me as phantasms; it was always such as were at a distance. “When these apparitions had continued some weeks, and I could regard them with the greatest composure, I afterwards endeavored, at my own pleasure, to call forth phantoms of several acquaintance, whom I for that reason represented to my imagination in the most lively manner, but in vain. For however accurately I pictured to my mind the figures of such persons, I never once could succeed in my desire of seeing them eternally ; though I had some short time before seen them as phantoms, and they had perhaps afterwards unexpectedly presented themselves to me in the same manner. The phantasms appeared to me in every case involuntarily, as if they had been presented externally, like the phenomena in nature, thoush they certainly had their origin internally; and, at the same time, I was always able to distinguish with the greatest precision phantasms from phenomena. Indeed, I never once erred in this, as I was in general pei- fectly calm and self-collected on the occasion. I knew extremely well, when it only appeared to me that the door was opened, and a phantom entered, and when the door really was opened, and any person came in. MAMMALIA—MAN 43 “Tt is also to be noted, that these figures appeared to me at all times, under the most different circumstances, equally distinct and clear. Whe- ther I was alone or in company, by broad daylight equally as in the night- tme, in my own as well as in my neighbor’s house; yet when I was at another person’s house they were less frequent, and when I walked the public street they very seldom appeared. When I shut my eyes, sometimes ths figures disappeared, sometimes they remained, even after J had closed muy eyes. If they vanished in the former case, on opening my eyes again the same figures appearea which I had seen before. “T sometimes conversed with my physician and my wife, concerning the phantasms which at the time hovered around me; for in general the forms appeared oftener in motion than at rest. They did not always continue present— they frequently left me altogether, and again appeared for a shorter or longer space of time, singly or more at once; but, in general, several appeared together. For the most part, I saw human figures of both sexes ; they commonly passed to and fro as if they had no connection with each other, like people at a fair, where all is bustle; sometimes they appeared to have business with one another. Once or twice 1 saw amongst them persons on horseback, and dogs and birds; these figures all appeared to me in their natural size, as distinctly as if they had existed in real life, with the several tints on the uncovered parts of the body, and with all the different kinds uf colors of clothes. But I think, however, that the colors were somewhat paler than they are in nature. “None of the figures had any distinguishing characteristic; they were neither terrible, ludicrous, nor repulsive: most of them were ordinary ap- pearances—some were even agreeable. “On the whole, the longer I continued in this state, the more did the number of phantasms increase, and the apparitions become more frequent. About four weeks afterwards, I began to hear them speak: sometimes the phantasms spoke with one another, but for the most part they addressed themselves to me: those speeches were in general short, and never con- tainei! any thing disagreeable. Intelligent and respected friends often appe ured to me, who endeavored to console me in my grief, which still left deep traces in my mind. This speaking I heard most frequently when I was alone; though I sometimes heard it in company, intermixed with the conversation of real persons; frequently in single phrases only, but some- times even in connected discourse. “Though at this time I enjoyed rather a good state of health, both in tcdy and mind, and had become so very familiar with these phantasgns, that at last they did not excite the least disagreeable emotion, but on the contrary afforded me frequent subjects for amusement and mirth; yet, as the disorder sensibly increased, and the figures appeared to me for whole days together, and even during the night, if I happened to awake, I had recourse to several medicines, and was at last again obliged to have recourse to the application of leeches. : 44 MAMMALIA—MAN. “This was performed on the 20th of April, at eleven o’clock in the fove- noon. I was alone with the surgeon, but during the operation the room swarmed with human forms of every description, which crowded fast one on another; this continued till half past four o’clock, exactly the time when the digestion commences. I then observed that the figures began to move more slowly ; soon afterwards the colors became gradually paler, and every seven minctes they lost more and more of their intensity, without any alteration in the distinct figure of the apparitions. At about half past six o’clock, all the figures were entirely white, and moved very little; yet the forms appeared perfectly distinct ; by degrees they became visibly less plain, without decreasing in number, as had often formerly been the case. The ficures did not move off, neither did ‘they vanish, which also had usually happened un other occasions. In this instance they dissolved immediately into air; of some, even whole pieces remained for a length of time, which also by degrees were lost to the eye. At about eight o’clock, there did not remain a vestige of any of them, and I never since experienced any appear- ance of the same kind. Twice or thrice since that time, I have felt a pro- pensity, if I may be so allowed to express myself, of a sensation, as if I saw something which in a moment again was gone. I was even surprised by this sensation, whilst writing the present account, having, in order to render it more accurate, perused the papers of 1791, and recalled to my memory all the circumstances of that time. So little are we sometimes, even in the greatest composure of mind, masters of our imagination.” As the sense of sight is the effect of the action of light upon the eye, it is well known that too much light as well as too little, is extremely prejudi- cial. Travellers, who cross countries covered with snow, are obliged to wear a crape before their eyes. Persons, therefore, who read or write much, should accustom themselves to a moderate light. There are many reasons to induce us to suppose, that such persons as are short-sighted, would see objects larger than others; and yet it is a certain truth that they see them smaller. Error is however not confined to any one sense; and that of HEARING is liable to similar mistakes with that of sight. This sense conveys no distinct . intelligence of the distance whence a sounding body is heard: a great noise far off, and a small one very near, produce the same sensation; and, unless we receive information from some other sense, we can never distinctly tell whether the sound bea great ora small one. It is not till we have, by experience, become acquainted with any particular sound, that we can judge of the distance when we hear it. When, for example, we know the tone of a bell, we are then at no great loss to determine how far it is from us. The air is the principal means of conveying the sound.* Sound is in SS eee * The strokes of a bell give no sound, when it is placed under the receiver of an ait pump, which is exhausted of its air. MAMMALIA—MAN. 45 effect always a vibration, or wave-like motion, communicated by other bodies to the air, and to our senses, by the air striking on our auditory nerve. Every body that strikes against another, produces a sound, which is sim ple in such bodies as are not elastic, but which is often repeated in such as are. If we strike a bell, for instance, a single blow produces a sound, which is repeated by the undulations of the sonorous body, and which is multiplied as often as it happens te undulate or vibrate. These undulations succeed each other so fast, that the ear supposes them one continued sound ; where- as, in reality, they form many sounds. Sounding bodies are, therefore, of two kinds; those unelastic ones, which being struck return but a single sound; and those more elastic, returning a succession of sounds, which uniting together form a tone. This tone may be considered as a great number of sounds, all produced, one after the other, by the same body, as we find in a bell which continues to sound for some time after it is struck. A continuing tone may be also produced from a non-elastic body, by repeat- ing the blow quick and often, as when we beat a drum, or when we draw a bow along the string of a fiddle. To know the manner in which musical sounds become pleasing, it must be observed, that no one continuing tone, how loud or swelling so ever, can give us satisfaction; we must have a succession of them, and those in the most pleasing proportion. The nature of this proportion may be thus conceived. If we strike a body incapable of vibration with a double force, or, what amounts to the same thing, with a double mass of matter, it will produce a sound that will be doubly grave. Music has been said, by the ancients, to have been first suggested by the blows of different hammers on an anvil. Suppose then we strike an anvil with a hammer of one pound weight, and again with a hammer of two pounds, the two pound hammer wiil produce a sound twice as grave as the former. But if we strike with a two pound hammer, and then with a three pound, the latter will produce a sound one third more grave than the former. If we strike the anvil with a three pound hammer, and then with a four pound, it will likewise follow, that the latter will be a quarter part more grave than the former. Now, in comparing all those sounds, it is obvious that the difference between one and two is more easily perceived than between two and three, three and four, or any numbers succeeding in the same proportion. The succession of sounds will be, therefore, pleasing in proportion to the ease with which they may be dis- tinguished. That sound which is double the former, or, in other words, the octave to the preceding tone, will among all others be the most pleasing narmony. ‘The next to that, which is as two to tree, or, in other words, the third, will be most agreeable. And thus, universally, those sounds whose differences may be most easily compared are the most agreeable. Sound has, in common with light, the property of being extensively liffused. Like light, it also admits of reflection. The laws of this reflec- 46 MAMMALIA—MAN. tion, it is true, are less distinctly understood than those of light: all we know is, that sound is principally reflected by hard bodies, and that their being hollow also sometimes increases the reverberation. The internal cavity of the ear, which is fashioned out in the temporal bone, like a cavern cut into a rock, seems to be fitted for the purposes of echoing sound with the greatest precision. One of the most common complaints in old age is deafness ; which proba- bly proceeds from the failure of the nerves, in the labyrinth of the ear. This disorder also proceeds sometimes from a stoppage by the wax, which art may easily remedy. In order to know whether the defect be an internal or an external one, let the deaf person put a repeating watch into his mouth, and if he hears it strike, he may be assured that his disorder proceeds from an external cause, and may be in some measure cured. It often happens that people hear better with one ear than the other ; and these, it is observed, have what musicians call a bad ear. Buffon made many trials on persons thus circumstanced; and he always found that their defect in judging properly of sounds, proceeded from the inequality of their ears, and their receiving, by both at the same time, unequal sensations. In like manner, as such persons hear false, they also, without knowing it, sing false. They also frequently deceive themselves with regard to the side whence the sound comes, generally supposing the noise to come on the part of the best ear. Hearing is a much more necessary sense to a man than to animals. In these it is only a warning against danger, or an encouragement to mutual assistance. In man, it is the source of most of his pleasures; and with- out it the rest of his senses would be of little benefit. A man born deaf, must necessarily be dumb; and his whole sphere of knowledge must be bounded by sensual objects. We have a singular, and perhaps an unex- ampled instance of a young man, who, being born deat, was restored, at the age of twenty-four, to perfect hearing. The account, which is given in the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, 1703, page 18, is in substance as follows: “A young man of the town of Chartres, between the age of twenty-three and twenty-four, the son of a tradesman, and deaf and dumb from his birth, began to speak all of a sudden, to the utter astonishment of the whole town. {le gave them to understand that, about three or four months before, he had heard the sound of the bells, and was greatly surprised at this new and un- known sensation. After some time, a kind of water issued from his left ear and he then beard perfectly well with both. During these three months he was sedulously employed in listening, without saying a word, and accus- toming himself to speak softly, so as not to be heard, the words pronouncea by others. He labored hard also, in perfecting himself in the pronunciation, and in the ideas attached to every sound. At length, having supposed him- self qualified to break silence, he declared that he could now speak, though MAMMALIA—MAN. 47 as yet but imperfectly. Soon after, some able divines questioned hin con- cerning his ideas of his past state; and principally with respect to God, his soul, the moral beauty of virtue, and deformity of vice. The young man, however, had not directed his solitary speculations into that channel. He had gone to mass indeed with his parents, had learned to sign himself with the cross, to kneel down, and to assume all the grimaces of a man in the act of devotion. But he did all this without any manner of knowledge of the intention or the cause; he saw others do the like, and that was enough for him. He knew nothing even of death, nor did it ever enter into his mind. He led a life of pure animal instinct; and though entirely taken up with objects of sense, and such as were present, he did not seem to have made such reflections even upon these, as might reasonably have been expected. The young man was not, however, deficient in understanding ; but the un- derstanding of a man, deprived of all commerce with others, is so very con- fined, that the mind is in some measure totally under the control of its immediate sensations.” Itis highly possible, nevertheless, to communicate ideas to deaf men, which they previously wanted, and even to give them very precise notions of abstract and general subjects, by means of signs and of letters. A person born deaf, may, by time and application, be taught to read, to write, and even, by the motions of the lips, to understand what is said to him; a plain proof how much the senses resemble, and may supply the defects of each other. It is probable, however, that, as most of the motions of speech are made within the mouth by the tongue, the knowledge from the motion of the lips can be but very confined. The sense of FEELING is spread over the whole body, but it employs itself differently in different parts. The sensation which results from feeling, cannot be excited otherwise than by the contact and immediate application of the superficies of some foreign body to that of our own. If we apply a foreign body against the breast, or upon the shoulder of a man, he will feel it; that is, he will know that there is a foreign body which touches him: but he will not have a single idea of the form of this body, because the breast touching the body in a single plane or surface, he cannot gather from it any knowledge of this body. It is the same with respect to all other parts of the body, which cannot adjust themselves upon the surface of foreign bodies, and bend themselves to embrace, at one time, many parts of their super- ficies. These parts of our body cannot, therefore, give any just idea of their form ; but those which, like the hand, are divided into many small, flexible, and moveable parts, and which, consequently, can apply themselves, at one and the same time, upon the different planes of the superficies of the body, are those, wich, in effect, give us the ideas of their form and of their size. It is not, therefore, only because there isa greater quantity of nervous tufts, at the extremity of the fingers than in any other part of the body—it is not, as it is vulgarly pretended, becanse the hand has the most delicate 48 MAMMALIA—MAN. sense —that it 1s in effect the principal organ of feeling; on the contrary, We can say, that there are parts more sensible, and where the sense of feel- ing is more delicate, as the eyes, the tongue, &c.; but it is merely because the hand is divided into many parts, all moveable, all flexible, all acting at one and the same time, and all obedient to the will; it is because the hand is the only organ which gives us distinct ideas of the form of bodies. Ani- mals which have hands, appear to be the most acute: apes do things so resembling the mechanical actions of man, that it seems as if they had the same succession of corporeal sensation for the cause of them. Animals which are deprived of this organ, cannot have any knowledge distinct enough of the form of things; as they cannot grasp any object, and as they have not any part divided and flexible enough to be able to adjust itself upon the superficies of bodies, they certainly have not any precise notion of the form, any more than of the size of them. It is for this reason that we often see them in suspense, or frightened, at the aspect of objects with which they ought to be the best acquainted, and which are the most familiar to them. The principal organ of their feeling is the muzzle, because this part is divided in two by the mouth, and because the tongue is another part, that serves them at the same time to touch bodies, which we see them turn and turn again, before they take them between their teeth. It is, therefore, to the sense of feeling, that we are indebted for the power of usefully exercising all our other faculties. One man does not, perhaps, possess more ingenuity or capacity than another ; but because in his earliest infancy he made a greater and a readier use of this sense. As soon as children are indulged with the liberty of their hands, they presently bring them into action, and are fond of touching whatever is presented to them. They are seen to amuse themselves, and take pleasure in handling every thing they are capable of grasping: they seem as if they were endeavoring to find out the form of bodies, by touching them on every side; and, fora considerable time, they amuse themselves in this manner, or rather they inform themselves of new objects. In the rest of our life, we ourselves, it we reflect upon it, amuse ourselves ina different method, in doing, or in seeking to do, any thing that is new. Of the senses of smELLING and TasTING, there is little to be said worthy of observation. It is evident, that, with respect to the first of these, there are animals which are infinitely superior to man; and perhaps there may exist creatures which, in delicacy of taste, may as much surpass the volup tuary, as the beagle does in acuteness of scent. Of the numerous varieties of the human race, Cuvier mentions three only as eminently distin:t, viz: the white, or Caucasian; the yellow, or Monge: lian; and the negro, or Ethiopian. Blumenbach conceives they may be divided into five distinct varieties, viz: the Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethio- pian, American, and Malayan; and other writers have farther subdividec these as their family characteristics were more or less marked. MAMMALIA—MAN. 49 1. The Caucasian variety includes all Europeans, with the exception of the Laplanders, and the inhabitants of the western and northern parts of Asia. They have the face oval; facial angle eighty-five degrees ; forehead high, and expanding cheeks, colored red: hair long, brown, but varying from white to black. 2. The Mongolian variety inhabits eastern Asia, Finland, and Lapland, in Europe; and includes the Esquimaux of North America. They have a broad and flat olive colored face, with lateral projections of the cheek bones; facial angle seventy-five degrees; oblique and narrow eyes; hair hard, straight, black ; beard thin. 3. The Ethiopian variety, inhabiting the middle parts of Africa, are black in a greater or less degree, with black woolly hair, jaws projecting forward, thick lips, and flat nose ; facial angle seventy degrees. 4. The American variety, comprising all the aboriginal Americans, except the Esquimaux, are mostly tan or reddish copper-colored, with prominent cheek bones, short forehead, flattish nose, straight, coarse hair, and thin beard. 5. The Malayan variety includes the inhabitants of the islands in the Indian Ocean, and Polynesia. They are of a brown color, from a clear mahogany, to the darkest clove or chesnut brown, with thick, black, bushy hair, a broad nose. and wide mouth. In considering the peculiarities which distinguish man from the bruft creation, his capability of inhabiting every climate, and sustaining every degree of heat and cold, deserves to be noticed. While the geographical range of most animals is extremely limited, the physical and intellectual powers of man enable him to create a climate of his own in every degree of latitude: and while the Indian of Canada may sleep upon the snow with impunity with the thermometer at forty degrees below ztro, the natives of Sierra Leone suffer, unhurt, the heat of a vertical sun, with the thermometer above one hundred degrees. And as the physical powers and intellectual resources of man enable him to occupy the whole surface of the globe, his capacity of living on every species of food renders him, in the widest sense of the word, omnivorous. The continued use of animal food is as natural and wholesome to the inhabitants of the Arctic regions, where it is impos= sible to raise vegetables, as a mixed diet is to the Englishman ; and vegeta- ble food within the tropics is necessary from the exuberance of this part of the creation, and the comparative scarcity of those gregarious animals on which man subsists .n other latitudes. There are many causes which contribute to the producing of an apparent variety, between the different nations of the globe. Climate, food, manners, and customs, produce not only a difference in sentiment, but even in the external form of a different people. In examining the surface of the earth, and beginning our inquiries from the north, we find in Lapland, and in the northern parts of Tartary, a race vA 50 MAMMALIA—MAN. of small-sized men, whose figure is tncouth, and whose physiognomy is as wild as their manners are unpolished. Though they seem to be of a degen= erate species, they yet are numerous, and the countries they occupy are extensive. The Larianvers, the Danes, the Swedes, the Muscovites, the inhabitants of Nova Zembla, the Samoyedes, the Ostiacs of the old continent, the Green- landers, and the savages to the north of the Esquimaux Indians of the new continent, appear to be of one common race, which has been extended and multiplied along the coasts of the northern seas, and over deserts considered as uninhabitable by every other nation. In these countries, the visage is large and broad, the nose is flat and short, the eyes are of a yellowish brown melining to black, the eyelids are drawn towards the temples, the cheek tones are extremely prominent, the mouth is very large, the lower part of the countenance is very narrow, the lips are thick and turned outward, the voice is shrill, the head is bulky, the hair is black and straight, and the skin is tawny. ‘The Laplanders are small in stature, and, though meagre, they are yet of a squat form. In general, their size is about four feet, nor do the tallest exceed four feet and a half; and among these people, if there -s any difference to be found, it depends on the greater or less degree of deformity. In winter the Laplanders clothe themselves with the skin of the rein-deer, Sind in summer with the skins of birds. To the use of linen they are utter strangers. The women of Nova Zembla have their nose and their ears pierced, in order to have them ornamented with pendants of blue stone; and, as an additional lustre to their charms, they also form blue streaks upon their forehead and chin. Those of Greenland dress themselves with the skin of the dog-fish: they also paint the visage with blue and yellow colors, and wear pendants in the ears. They all live under ground, or in huts almost entirely covered with earth, and with the bark of certain trees, or the skins of certain fishes ; and some form subterranean trenches, by which one hut communicates with another, and by which, during the winter months, they enjoy the conversation and society of their neighbors. A con- tinued darkness for several mronths, obliges them to illuminate their dreary abode with lamps, which they keep alive with that very train oil they use as drink. Under all these hardships they are subject to few diseases, and live to a prodigious age. So vigorous indeed are the old men, that they are hardly to be distinguished from the young. The only infirmity they experience, and it is an infirmity common to them all, is that of blindness. Dazzled as they perpetually are, by the strong reflection of the snow in winter, and enveloped in clouds of smoke in autumn and spring, rarely, when advanced in years, are they still found to retain the use of their eyes. The Tartar country, taken in general, comprehends the greatest part of Asia, and in fact extends from. Russia to Kamtschatka. All the Tartar uations have the upper part of the visage very large and wrinkled, even MAMMALIA—MAN. . 5] while yet in their youth. Their nose is short and flat, their eyes are little, and sunk in the head; their cheek bones are high; the lower part of their visage is narrow; their chin is long and prominent; their teeth are long and straggling ; their eyebrows are so large as to cover the eyes; their eye- lids are thick ; their face is broad and flat; their complexion is tawny; and their hair is black. They have but little beard, have thick thighs, and short legs, and, though but of middling stature, they yet are remarkably strong and robust. The ugliest of them are the Calmucks, in whose appearance there seems to be something frightful. They are all wanderers; and their only shelter is that of a tent made of hair or skins. Their food is horse- flesh and camel-flesh, either raw, or a little sodden between the horse and the saddle. They eat also fish dried in the sun. Their most common drink is mare’s milk, fermented with millet ground into meal. They all have the head shaved, except a tuft of hair on the top, which they let grow sufficiently long to form into tresses on each side of the face. The women, who are as deformed as the men, wear their hair, which they bind up with bits of copper, and other ornaments of the same nature. Some travellers tell us, that the limbs of the Curvese are well proportion- ed, that their body is large and fat, their visage large and round, their eyes small, their eyebrows large, their eyelids turned upwards, their nose short and flat; that, as for their beard, which is black, upon the chin there is very little, and upon each lip there are not more than seven or eight prickles: that those who inhabit the southern provinces of the empire are more brown and tawny than the others; that, in color, they resemble the natives of Mauritania, and the more swarthy Spaniards; but that those who inhabit the middle provinces are as fair as the Germans. Le Gentel assures us, that the Chinese women do every thing in their power to make their eyes appear little, and oblong; that, for this purpose, it is aconstant practice with the little girls, from the instruction of the mother, forcibly to extend their eyelids; and that, with the addition of a nose thoroughly compressed and flattened, of ears long, large; open, and pendant, they are accounted complete beauties. He adds, that their com- plexion is delicate, their lips are of a fine vermilion, their mouth is well proportioned, their hair is very black; but that, by the use of paint, they so greatly injure their skin, that before the age of thirty they have all the appearance of old age. So strongly do the Japanese resemble the Chinese, that we can hardly scruple to rank them in the same class. They only differ from them in being more yellow, or more brown. In general, their stature is contracted, their face as well as their nose is broad and flat, their hair is black, and their beard 1s little more than perceptible. They are haughty, fond of war, tull of dexterity and vigor, civil and obliging, smooth-tongued, and courte- ous, but fickle and vain. With astonishing patience, and even almost regardless of them, they sustain hunger, thirst, cold, heat, fatigue. and all 52 MAMMALIA—MAN. other hardships of life. Their ceremonies, or rather their grimaces, in eating, are numerous and uncouth. They are laborious, are very skilful artificers, and, in a word, have nearly the same disposition, the same man- ners, and the same customs as the Chinese. One custom which they have in common, and which is not a little fantas- tic, is, so to contract the feet of the women, that they are hardly able to support themselves. Some travellers mention, that in China, when a girl has passed her third year, they break the foot in such a manner, that the toes are made to come under the sole; that they apply to it a strong water, which burns away the flesh; and, that they wrap it up in a number of bandages, till it has assumed a certain fold. They add, that the women feel the pain of this operation all their lives; that they walk with great difficulty ; and that their gait is to the last degree ungraceful. Other travel- lers do not say that they break the foot in their infancy, but that they only compress it with so much violence as to prevent its growth; but they unani- mously allow, that every woman of condition, and even every handsome woman, must have a foot small enough to enter, with ease, the slipper of a child of six years old. The Mocuts, (Hindoos,) and the other inhabitants of the peninsula of India, are not unlike the Europeans, in shape and in features; but they differ more or less from them in color. The Moguls are of an olive com- plexion ; and yet, in the Indian language, the word Mogul signifies White. The women are extremely delicate, and they bathe themselves very often : they are of an olive color, as well as the men; and, contrary to what is seen among the women of Europe, their legs and thighs are long, and their body is short. The inhabitants of Persia, of Turkey, of Arabia, of Egypt, and of the whole of Barbary, may be considered as one and the same people, who, in the time of Mahomet, and of his successors, invaded immense territories, extended their dominions, and became exceedingly intermixed with the original natives of all those countries. The Persians, the Turks, and the Moors, are to a certain degree civilized; but the Arazrans have, for tke most part, remained in a state of independence, which implies a contempt of laws. a The Ecyprran women are very brown; their eyes are’ lively; their stature is rather low; their mode of dress is by no means agreeable; and their con- versation is extremely tiresome. But though the women of Egypt are com- monly rather short, yet the men are of a good height. Both,. generally speaking, are of an olive color; and the more we remove from Cairo, the more we find the people tawny, till we come to the confines of Nubia, where they are as black as the Nubians themselves. “The women of Circassia,” says Struys, ‘are exceedingly fair and beau- tiful. Their complexion is incomparably fine; their forehead is large and smooth ; and, without the aid of art, their eyebrows are so delicate, that . MAMMALIA—MAN. 53 they appear as threads of silk. Their eyes are large, soft, and vet full of animation; their mouth is small and expressive of a smile, and their chin. what it ought to be, in order to form a perfect oval. Their neck and breasts are admirably formed; their stature is tall, and the shape of their body easy ; their skin is white as snow, and their hair of the most beautiful black.” The Turks, who purchase a vast number of those women as slaves, are a people composed of many different nations. From the intermixture, during the crusades, of the Armenians, the Georgians, and the Turecmans, with the Arabians, the Egyptians, and even the Europeans, it is hardly ressi- Sle to distinguish the native inhabitants of Asia Minor, of Syria, and of the sest of Turkey. All we can observe is, that the Turkish men are generally robust, and tolerably well made; that it is even rare to find among them persons either hump-backed or lame; that the women are also beautiful, well proportioned, and free from blemishes; that they are very fair, because they seldom stir from home; and that, when they do go abroad, they are always veiled. Before the Czar Peter I., we are told, the Muscovires had not merged from barbarism. Born m slavery, they were ignorant, brutal, cruel, without courage, and without manners. Men and women bathed promiscuously in bagnios, heated to a degree intolerable to all persons but themselves; and on quitting this warm bath, they plunged, like the Laplanders, into cold water. They are now a people in some degree civilized, and commercial, fond of spectacles, and of other ingenious novelties. From the regions of Europe and Asia, our attention is now to be directed to a race of people differing more from ourselves in external appearances, than any that has been hitherto mentioned. In the seventeenth or eighteenth degree of north latitude, on the African coast, we find the Necroes of Senegal and of Nubia, some in the neighber- hood of the ocean, and others of the Red Sea; and after them, all the other nations of Africa, from the latitude of eighteen north, to that of eighteen south, are black, the Ethiopians, or Abyssinians excepted. It appears, then, that the portion of the globe which nature has allotted to this race of men, contains an extent of ground, parallel to the equator, of about nine hundred leagues in breadth, and considerably more in length, especially northward of the equator. Beyond the latitude of eighteen or twenty, there are no longer any negroes, as will appear when we come to speak of the Caffres and of the Hottentots. By confounding them with their neighbors the Nubians, we have been long in an error, with respect to the color and the features of the Eruioprans. Marmol says, that the Ethiopians, (Abyssinians,) are absolutely black, that their visage is large, and their nose flat; and in this description the Dutch travellers agree with him. The truth, however, is, that they differ from the Nubians, both in color and in features. The skin of the Ethiopians is trown, or olive colored, like that of the southern Arabians, from whom, it 54 MAMMALIiA—MAN. is probable, they derive their origin. In stature they are tall; the features of their countenance are strongly marked; their eyes are large and beauti- ful; their nose is well proportioned; their lips are tnm; and their teeth are white. Of the inhabitants of Nubia, on the contrary, the nose is flat, the lips are thick and prominent, and the countenance 1s exceedingly black. These Nubians, as well as the Barbarians, their western neighbors, are a species of negroes, not unlike those of Senegal. The first negroes we meet with, are those who live on the south side ef Senegal. These people, as well as those who occupy the different terri- tories between Senegal and Gambia, are called Jalofes. They are all very black, well proportioned, and of a size sufficiently tall. Their features are less harsh than those of the other negroes; and some of them there are, especially among the female sex, whose features are far from irregular. Among them, to be perfectly beautiful the color must be exceedingly black, and exceedingly glossy: their skin, however, is highly delicate and soft ; and color alone excepted, we find among them women as handsome as in any other country in the world. They are usually very gay, lively, and amorous. Father du Tertre says expressly, that, if the negroes are for the most part flat-nosed, it is because the parents crush the noses of their children; that in the same manner they compress their lips, in order to render them thick- er; and that of the few who have undergone neither of these operations, the features of the countenance are as comely, the nose is as prominent, and the lips are as delicate as those of the Europeans. It appears, however, that among the negroes in general, thick lips anda nose broad and fiat, are gifts from nature, by which was originally introduced, and at length established, their custom of flattening the nose and thickening the lips of such as at their birt discovered a deficiency in these ornaments. Though the negroes of Guinea are in general very healthy, yet they seldom attain what we term old age. , The negroes in general are a remarkably innocent and inoffensive people. If properly fed, and unexposed to bad usage, they are contented, joyous and obliging; and on their very countenances may we read the satisfaction of their souls. If hardly dealt with, on the other hand, their spirits forsake them, and they droop with sorrow. Mr Kolben, though he has given so minute a description of the Horren- Tots, is strongly of opinion, however, that they are negroes. . Like that of the latter, he assures us, that their hair is short, black, frizzled, and woolly ; nor in a single instance did he ever observe it long. Though of all the Hottentots, the nose is very flat, and very broad, yet it would not be of that form, did not their mothers, considering a proniinent nose as a deformity, think it a duty incumbent upon them to crush it pre- sently after their birth. Their lips are also thick, and their upper lip is particularly so; their teeth are very white ; their evebrows are thick; their MAMMALILA—MAN. 5 oy head is large ; their body is meagre; their limbs are slender. ‘Tiley seldom live longer than forty years; and of this short duration of life, the causes doubtless are, their being so fond of filth, and residing continually in the midst of it; as also their living upon meat which is tainted or corrupted, of which indeed their nourishment chiefly consists. We might dwell longer upon the description of this nasty people ; but as most travellers have given very large accounts of them, to their writings we refer. One fact, however, related by Tavernier, we ought not to pass in silence. The Dutch, he says, ence took a Hottentot girl, soon after her birth; and after bringing her up among themselves, she became as white as an European. From this circumstance he presumes, that all the Hottentots would be of a tole- rable whiteness, were it not for their custom of perpetually begriming themselves. Though in America, we observe less variety in the human form than might be expected in so extremely extensive a continent, it cannot yet be supposed, but that, in such a diversity of climates and situations, a conside- rable diversity of inhabitants must also be found. In beginning our inquiries, then, we find in the most northern parts of America, a species of Laplanders, similar to those of Europe, or to the Samoyedes of Asia; and though, in comparison to the latter, they are few in number, yet they are diffused over a considerable extent of ground. Those who inhabit the land of Davis’ Strait are of a diminutive size, of an olive complexion, and their legs are short and thick. They are skilful fishers ; they eat their fish and their meat raw; their drink consists of pure water, or of the blood of the dog-fish; they are, moreover, very strong, and gene- rally live toa great age. Here we see the figure, the color, and the man- ners of the Laplanders ; and, what is truly singular is, that, as among the Laplanders of Europe, we meet with the Finlanders, who are white, comely, tall, and tolerably well made; so, in like manner, among the Laplanders of America, we ineet with another species of men, tall, well made, tolerally white, and with features exceedingly regular. Of a different race from the former, seem to be the savages of Hudson’s Bay, and northward of the land of Labrador: they are, however, ugly, diminutive, and unshapely; their visage is almost entirely covered with hair, like the savages of the country of Yesso, northward of Japan. In summer they dwell under tents made of skins of the rein-deer; in winter they live under ground, like the Laplanders and the Samoyedes, and, like them, sleep together promiscuously, and without the smallest distinction. They likewise live to a great age, though they feed on nothing but raw meat and fish. The savages of Newfoundland have a considerable resem- blance to those of Davis’ Strait; they are low in stature; they have little or no beard; their visage is broad and flat; their eyes are large; they are generally rather flat-nosed ; and, upon the whole, are far from being unlike the savages of the northern continent, and of the environs of Greenland. 56 MAMMALIA—MAN. Besides these savages, who are scattered over the most northern parts of America, we find others more numerous, and altogether different, in Canada, and in the vast extent of land to the Arctic sea. These are all tolerably tall, robust, vigorous, and well made; they have hair and -eyes black, teeth very white, a complexion tawny, their beard scanty, and over the whole of their body hardly a vestige of hair; they are hardy, indefati- gable walkers, and very nimble runners. They are alike unaffected by excesses of hunger, and of repletion; they are by nature 5o.d and fierce, grave and sedate. So strongly, indeed, do they resernble the Oriental Tar- tars in the color of the skin, the hair, and the eyes, in the scantiness of beard, and of hair, 4s also in disposition and in manners, that, were they not separated from each other by an immense sea, we should conclude them to be descended from that nation. In point of latitude, their situation is also the same; and this still farther proves how powerfully the climate influences not only the color, but the figure of men. If, however, in the whole of North America, there were none but savages to be met with, in Mexico, and in Peru, there were found nations polished, subjected to laws, governed by kings, industrious, acquainted with the arts, and not destitute of religion. In the present state of these countries, so intermixed are the inhabitants o:/“Jexico and New Spain, that hardly do we meet with two visages of the same color. In the city of Mexico, there are white men from Europe, Indians from the north, and from the south of America, and negroes from Africa, &c., insomuch, that the color of the people exhibits every different shade which can subsist between black and white. The real natives of the country are of a very brown olive color, well made and active; and though they have little hair, even upon their eyebrows, yet upon their head their hair is long and very black. In surveying the different appearances which the human form assumes in the different regions of the earth, the most striking circumstance is that of color. This circumstance has been attributed to various causes; but experience justifies us in affirming, that of this the principal cause is the heat of the climate. When this heat is excessive, as at Senegal and in Guinea, the inhabitants are entirely black; when it is rather less violent, as on the eastern coasts of Africa, they are of a lighter shade; when it begins to be somewhat more temperate, as in Barbary, in India, in Arabia, &c., they are only brown; and, in fine, when it is altogether temperate, as in Europe, and in Asia, they are white; and the varieties which are there remarked, proceed solely from varieties in the mode of living. All the Tartars, for example, are tawny, while the Europeans, who live in the same latitude, are white. Of this difference the reasons seem to be, that the former are always exposed to the air; that they have no towns, no fixed habitations; that they sleep upon the earth, and in every respect live coarsely and savagely. These circumstances alone, are sufficient to rende MAMMALIA—MAN. 57 them less white than the Europeans, to whom nothing is wanting which may render life comfortable and agreeable. Why are the Chinese whiter than the Tartars, whom they resemble in all their features? It is because they live in towns, because they are civilized, because they are provided with every expedient for defending themselves from the injuries of the weather, to which the Tartars are perpetually exposed. When cold becomes extreme, however, it produces some effects similar to those of excessive heat. The Samoyedes, the Laplanders, the Green- landers, are very tawny; and it is even asserted, as we have already observed, that, among the Greenlanders, there are men as black as those of Africa. Here we see two extremes meet: violent cold and violent heat produce the same effect upon the skin, because these two causes act by one quality, which they possess in common. Dryness is this quality; and ‘t is a quality of which intense cold 1s equally productive as intense heat; so by the former, as well as by the latter, the skin may be dried up, altered, and rendered as tawny as we find it among the Laplanders. Cold compresses, shrivels, and reduces within a narrow compass, all the productions of nature ; aha thus it is, that we find the Laplanders, who are perpetually exposed to all the rigors of the most piercing cold, the most diminutive of the human species. The most temperate climate is between the degrees of forty and fifty. There we behold the human form in its greatest perfection ; and there we ought to form our ideas of the real and natural color of man. . Situated under this zone, the civilized countries are, Georgia, Circassia, the Ukraine, European Turkey, Hungary, South Germany, Italy, Switzerland, France, the north of Spain, and the northern part of the United States of America; of all which the inhabitants are the most beautiful, and the most shapely, in the world. As the first, and almost the sole cause of the color of mankind, we ought therefore to consider the climate ; and though upon the skin the effects of nourishment are trifling, when compared with those of the air and soil, yet upon the form they are prodigious. Food which is gross, unwholesome, or badly prepared, has a strong and a natural tendency to produce a degeneracy in the human species; anc in all countries where the people fare wretched- ly, they also look wretchedly, and are uglier and more deformed than their neighbors. Even among ourselves, the inhabitants of country places are less handsome than the inhabitants of towns; and we have often remarked, that in one village, where poverty and distress were less prevalent than in another village of the vicinity, the people of the former were, at the same time, in person more shapely, and in visage less deformed. The air and the soil have also great influence, not only on the form of men, but on that of animals, and of vegetables. Let us, after examining the peasants who live on hilly grounds, and those who live embosomed in the neighboring er compare them together, and we shall find that the ye 53 MAMMALIA—MAN. former are active, nimble, well shaped, and lively; the women commonsy handsome; that, on the contrary, in the latter, in proportion as the air, food, and water are gross, the inhabitants are clumsy, and less active and vigorous. From every circumstance, therefore, we may obtain a proof, that mankind are not composed of species essentially different from each other ; that, on the contrary, there was originally but one individual species of men, which, after being multiplied and diffused over the whole surface of the earth, underwent divers changes, from the influence of the climate, from the difference of food, and of the mode of living, from epidemical distempers, as also from the intermixture, varied ad infinitum, of individuals more or less resembling each other. Of AccIDENTAL VARIETIES IN THE HUMAN SPECIES. Besides those great varieties proceeding from general causes, which have just been noticed, says Buffon, and which serve as marks of distinction to the nations of the earth, there are others, which affect only individuals, which appear casual and often unfortunate deviations from the general standard. The Blafards, Or WHITE NEGROES, (if this expression may be admitted,) are among the first of these extraordinary deviations which attract our attention. They are found occasionally in all parts of the East Indies, at Madagascar, in Africa, at Carthagena, and most parts of South America. They are a weak, imbe- cile class of human beings, and are in general barren. The negresses at Carthagena and Panama, more frequently than any others, are known to produce Blafards ; and it is to be observed, that the climate there 1s more debilitating to the human frame. ‘“ Those of Darien,” says a modern travel- ler, “have so marked a resemblance to the white negroes of Africa, that we cannot but assign them the same origin. Their color is dead white, like that of paper or muslin, and without the least appearance of red on any part of the surface of the body. They are born white, and their skin never darkens. In Africa their hair is white and woolly, like that of the genuine negroes ; and in Asia it is long, and as white as snow, dr reddish inclining to yellow. Their eyebrows and eyelashes resemble the skin of the eider- duck, or rather the soft down which is about the throat of a swan, The iris is sometimes of a pale blue, and sometimes of a lively yellow inclining to reddish. They are in general remarkably feeble and low of stature.” A white negress, of the name of Genevieve, was born of black parents in the island of Dominica, in the year 1759. Her father and mother were brought from the Gold Coast in Africa, and were perfectly black. Genevieve was white in every part of her body. She was about four feet eleven inches high, and her body was well proportioned. Every feature was completely correspondent to those of the negroes. The lips and the mouth, however, though perfectly formed like those of other negroes, had a singular appear- ance for want of color; they were as white as the rest of her skin, with no appearance of red. Her skin in general was of a tallow color; when she MAMMALIA—MAN. 59 approached the fire, however, there was a slight tinge of red appeared in her cheeks. Her head was well covered with wool of about an inch anda half in length. It was harsh, thick, and frizzled; it was white at the roots, and reddish at the extremity. The eyebrows were just marked by a light white down, and the eyelashes were rather more apparent. Her eyes ap- peared of a dull blue. This white negress endured the full light of the sun without winking, or any apparent inconvenience. She was, what is called, short-sighted: but she could distinguish the smallest objects at two or three inches from her eyes. But the most singular circumstance respecting her eyes, was a continual motion, or oscillation, by which they alternately turned from and towards each other; and this motion she was not able to stop. Her teeth were well arranged, and finely enamelled; there was no disa- greeable smell about her, nor any oiliness upon the skin, as is often the case with common negroes. Her hands were large but well formed, and were covered with wrinkles, like those of an old person. Her feet and her ancles were also wrinkled. Her parents produced only this girl white; the rest of their children were all perfect negroes. It has been said that these white negroes, if united with blacks, would produce a pied race; but however this be, it is certain that pied or spotted Negroes are not uncommon. It arises evidently from some defective organi- zation in the skin; and we have instances even in this climate of a similar deviation from the ordinary course of nature. The Albinoes are, among the whites, that which the Blafards, as Buffon denominates them, are among the blacks. This name was originally given by the Portuguese to Moors who were born white, and has since been appropriated to similar individuals in our own race. The best accoun which has yet appeared of Albinoes is the following, which was sent by Dr Traill, of Liverpool, to Nicholson’s Journal. “Robert Edmond and his wife Anne are both natives of Anglesey, in North Wales. He has blue eyes, and hair almost black ; her eyes are blue, and her hair of a light brown. Neither of them have remarkably fair skins. They have been married fourteen years. Their first child, a girl, had blue eyes and brown hair. The second, a boy, (now before me,) has the charac- teristics of an Albino; viz: very fair skin, flaxen hair, and rose-colored eyes. The third and fourth children were twins, and both boys; one of them has blue eyes and dark brown hair; the other was an Albino. The former is still alive: the Albino lived nine months, though a very puny child. The fifth child, a girl, had blue eyes and brown hair. The sixth, and last now here, is a perfect Albino. “The oldest of these Albinoes is now nine years of age, of a delicate constitution, slender, but well formed both in person and in features; his appetite has always been bad ; he frequently complains of a dull pain in his forehead ; his skin is exce2dingly fair; his hair flaxen and soft; his cheeks 60 MAMMALIA—MAN. have very little of the rose in them. The iris and pupil of his eyes are of a bright rose-red color, reflecting in some situations an opaline tinge. He cannot endure the strong light of the sun. When desired to look up, his eyelids are in constant motion, and he is incapable cf fixing the eye steadily on any object, as is observed in those laboring under some kind of slight ophthalmia, but in him is unaccompanied by tears. “His mother says, that his tears never flow in the coldest weather; but when vexed they are shed abundantly. The white of the eye is generally bloodshot. He says he sees better by candle than by daylight; especially at present, when the reflection from the snow on the ground is extremely offensive to him. He goes to school, but generally retires to the darkest part of it to read his lesson, because this is most agreeable to his eyes. In my room, which has a northern aspect, he can only distinguish some of the letters in the pages of the Edinburgh Review; but, if the light is not permitted to fall full on the book, he is able to read most of them. He holds the book very near his eye. His disposition is very gentle; he is not deficient in intellect.” Among the sports of nature, with respect to the human race, not one of the least singular was the rorcurINE MAN. He was born in the county of Suffolk, England, in 1710. ‘The skin of his body was covered with ex- crescences like thorns, or prickles, and about the thickness of a packthread. His face, the palms of his hands, and the soles of his feet, were the only parts which were free from these singular warts. They were of a reddish brown, and had such a degree of hardness and elasticity, as to rattle when the hand was moved over the body. They were half an inch long in some parts, and were shorter in others. They did not appear till two months after his birth; but, what is most extraordinary, they dropped off every winter, and were renewed in the spring. In other respects the man enjoy- eda good state of health. He had six children, all of whom, like their father, were covered with these excrescences. Among these varieties of nature in the human species, we may reckon dwarfs and giants. Deceived by some optical illusion, the ancient histo- rians gravely mention whole nations of pigmies, as existing in remote quarters of the world. The more accurate observations of the moderns, however, convince us that these accounts are entirely fabulous. The existence, therefore, of a pigmy race of mankind, being founded in error or in fable, we can expect to find men of diminutive stature only by accident, among men of the ordinary size. Of these accidental dwarfs, every country, and almost every village, can produce numerous instances: there was a time when these unfavored children of nature were the peculiar favorites of the great; and no prince, or nobleman, thought himself com- pletely attended, unless he had a dwarf among the number of his domestics. These poor little men were kept to be laughed at, or to raise the barbarous pleasure of their masters, by their contrasted inferiority. Even in England, as late as the time of King James the First, the court was at one time MAMMALIA—MAN. 61 furnished with a dwarf, a giant, anda jester. These, the king often took a pleasure in opposing to each other, and often fomented quarrels among them, in order to be a concealed speetator of their animosity. It was in the same spirit that Peter of Russia, in the year 1710, celebra- ted a marriage of dwarfs. This monarch, though raised by his native genius far above a barbarian, was, nevertheless, still many degrees removed froin actual refinement. His pleasures, therefore, were of the vulgar kind; and this was among the number. Upon a certain day, which he had ordered to be proclaimed several months before, he invited the whole body of his courtiers, and all the foreign ambassadors, to be present at the marriage of a pigmy man and woman. The preparations for this wedding were not only very grand, but executed in a style of barbarous ridicule. He ordered, that all the dwarf men and women, within two hundred miles, should repair to the capital; and also insisted, that they should be present at the cere- mony. For this purpose, he supplied them with proper vehicles; but so contrived it, that one horse was seen carrying a dozen of them into the city at once, while the mob followed shouting and laughing from behind. Some of them were at first unwilling to obey an order, which they knew was calculated to turn them into ridicule, and did not come ; but he soon obliged them to obey; and, as a punishment, enjoined that they should wait upon the rest at dinner. The whole company of dwarfs amounted to seventy, beside the bride and bridegroom, who were richly adorned, and in the ex- tremity of the fashion. For this company in miniature, every thing was suitably provided; a low table, small plates, little glasses, and, in short, every thing was so fitted, as if all things had been dwindled to their own standard. But the most complete history of a dwarf is preserved by M. Daubenton, in his Natural History. This dwarf, whose name was Baby, was well known, having spent the greatest part of his life at Luneville, in the palace of Stanislaus, the titular king of Poland. He was born in the villsge of Plaisne, in France, in the year 1741. His father and mother were peasants, both of good constitutions, and inured to a life of husbandry and labor. Baby, when born, weighed but a pound and a quarter. We are not inform- ed of the dimensions of his body at that time, but we may conjecture they were very small, as he was presented on a plate to be baptized, and for a long time lay ina slipper. His mouth, although proportioned to the rest of his body, was not, at that time, large enough to take in the nipple; and he was, therefore, obliged to be suckled by a she-goat that was in the house, and that served as a nurse, attending to his cries with a kind of maternal fondness. He began to articulate some words when eighteen months old; ind at two years he was able to walk alone. He was then fitted with shoes that were about an inch and ahalf long. He was attacked with several acute disorders ; but the small-pox was the only one which left any marks behind it. Until he was six years old, he ate no other food but pulse, 62 ; MAMMALIA—MAN. potatoes, and bacon. His father and mother were, from their poverty, incapable of affording him any better nourishment; and his education was little better than his food, being bred up among the rustics of the place. At six years old, he was about fifteen inches high ; and his whole body weigh- ed but thirteen pounds. Notwithstanding this, he was well proportionea and handsome: his health was good, but his understanding scarcely passed the bounds of instinct. It was at that time that the king of Poland, having heard of such a curiosity, had him conveyed to Luneville, gave him the name of Baby, and kept him in his palace. Baby, having thus quitted the hard condition of a peasant, to enjoy all the comforts and conveniences of life, seemed to receive no alteration from his new way of living, either in mind or person. He preserved the good- ness of his constitution till about the age of sixteen, but his Mody seemed to increase very slowly during the whole time; and his stupidity was such, that all instructions were lost in improving his understanding. He could never be brought to have any sense of religion, nor even to show the least signs of a reasoning faculty. They attempted to teach him dancing and music, but in vain; he never could make any thing of music; and as for dancing, although he beat time with tolerable exactness, yet he could never remember the figure, but while his dancing-master stood by to direct his motions. Notwithstanding, a mind thus destitute of understanding was not without its passions; anger and jealousy harassed it at times ; nor was he without desires of another nature. At the age of sixteen, Baby was twenty-nine inches high; at this he rested; but having thus arrived at his acme, the alterations of puberty, or rather, perhaps, of old age, came fast upon him. From being very beauti- ful, the poor little creature now became quite deformed ; his strength quite forsook him; his back bone began to bend; his head hung forward; his legs grew weak; one of his shoulders turned awry; and his nose grew dispro- portionably large. With his strength, his natural spirits also forsook him ; and, by the time he was twenty, he was grown feeble, decrepid, and marked with the strongest impression of old age. It had been before remarked by some, that he would die of old age before he arrived at thirty; and, in fact, by the time he was twenty-two, he could scarcely walk a hundred paces, being worn with the multiplicity of his years, and bent under the burtnen of protracted life. In this year he died; a cold, attended with a slight fever, threw him into a kind of lethargy, which had a few momentary intervals ; but he could scarcely be brought to speak. However, it is asserted, that in the last five days of his life, he showed a clearer understanding than in his times of best health: but at length he died, after enduring great agonies, in the twenty-second year of his age. Baby, it is evident, was a creature calculated rather to excite pity or dis- gust than any other feeling,—a being as stunted in mind as in body. But to these diminutive beings nature does not always forget to give intellectual ; MAMMALIA—MAN. 63 faculties. Jeffery Hudson, to whom Buffon alludes as the dwarf of the English court, was a brave and intelligent man. He killed, in a duel, Mr Cutts, who had insulted him; and he served as a captain in the royal army. In modern times, we have an instance of a dwarf possessed of every mental and personal accomplishment. Count Borulawski was the son of a Polish nobleman attached to the party of King Stanislaus, and who lost his property in consequence of that attachment. His father had six children, three dwarfs, and three of the ordinary stature; and it is a singular circum- stance, that they were born alternately, a big and a little one. The Count’s youngest sister, who died at the age of twenty-three, was of a much more diminutive size than he was. He grew till he was thirty, when he was three feet two inches in height. The proportions of his figure were perfect- ly correct, which is rarely the case with dwarfs, and his look was manly and noble. His manners were full of grace and politeness ; his temper was good; and he possessed a lively wit, united with an excellent memory and a sound judgment. Till the age of forty-one, he lived in the enjoyment of perfect health, and of all the comforts of life, under the patronage of a lady, who was a friend of the family. He then married a lady, of the mid- dle size, by whom he had three children, none of whom were dwarfs. a procure the means of subsistence for his family, he at first gave concerts in the principal cities of Germany; on which occasions he played upon the guitar, of which instrument he was a perfect master. At Vienna he was persuaded to turn his thoughts to England, where it was supposed that the public curiosity would in a little time benefit him sufficiently to enable him to live independent in a country so cheap as Poland. Borulawski accor- dingly visited England, where he was admired, and extensively patronized, by the nobility and gentry. He exhibited himself in London, Edinburgh, Dublin, Bath, and most of the principal cities and towns, and wherever he went he gained friends. Borulawski died a few years since. He published his own memoirs. Of ciants we have several accounts from mariners, that a nation actually exists ; and mere speculation should never induce us to doubt their veracity. Ferdinand Magellan was the first who discovered this race of people along the coast, towards the extremity of South America. Magellan was a Portu- guese of noble extraction, who having long behaved with great bravery, under Albuquerque, the conqueror of India, he was treated with neglect by the court, upon his return. Applying, therefore, to the king of Spain, he was entrusted with the command of five ships, to subdue the Molucca Islands; upon one of which he was slain. It was in his voyage thither, that he happened to winter in St Julian’s Bay, an American harbor, forty- nine degrees south of the line. In this desolate region, where nothing was seen but objects of terror, where neither trees nor verdure dressed the face of the country, they remained for some months without seeing any human creature. They had judged the country to be utterly uninhabitable, when 64 MAMMALIA—MAN. one day they saw approaching, as if he had been dropped from the clouas a man of enormous stature, dancing and singing, and putting dust upon his nead, as they supposed in token of peace. This overture for friendship was, ‘ by Magellan’s command, quickly answered by the rest of his men; and the giant approaching, testified every mark of astonishment and surprise. He was so tall, that the Spaniards only reached his waist; his face was >road, his color brown, and painted over with a variety of tints ; each cheek nad the resemblance of a heart drawn upon it; his hair was approaching to whiteness ; he was clothed in skins, and armed with a bow. Being treated with kindness, and dismissed with some trifling presents, he soon returned with many more of the same stature; two of whom the mariners decoyed on shipboard: nothing could be more gentle than they were in the begin- ning ; they considered the fetters that were preparing for them, as orna- ments, and played with them, like children with their toys; but when they found for what purpose they were intended, they instantly exerted their amazing strength, and broke them in pieces with a very easy effort. This account, with a variety of other circumstances, has been confirmed by suc- ceeding travellers.* To these varieties in the human species might be added a considerable catalogue of Monsters; but as few of these have survived the hour of their birth, and as the detail of most of them can serve but to disgust, we shall only trouble the reader with a few instances. The first is an affecting account of the most singular production of this kind that stands recorded in the History of Nature. On the 26th of October, 1701, at Tzoni, in Hungary, two female children were born, which were united together at the loins. They lived to the age of twenty-one years. At seven years of age they were carried into Holland, England, Italy, Russia, and into almost every country of Europe. At the age of nine they were purchased by a pious clergyman, in order to place them in a convent at Petersburgh, where they remained till the 25th of February, 1723, when they died. One of these twins was named Helen, and the other Judith. Helen grew tall, and was straight. Judith was less, and a little crooked. As they were united at the loins, they could only see one another by turning their heads. They in general agreed well together, and loved each other affectionately. At six years of age Judith was affected with a palsy on the left side; and though afterwards she appeared cured, she always retained a strong impres- sion of that malady, and her mind was always heavy and weak. Helen, on the contrary, was handsome and gay. She had a good understanding, and some wit. They had the small-pox and the measles at the same time; but * The soberer narratives of recent travellers have reduced the stature of the Patago- nians to a more reasonable standard ; though still leaving them the character of being a tall race. From five feet ten, to six feet seven inches, appears to be the height of the individuals of this tribe. MAMMALIA--MAN. 65 they had other maladies or indispositions separately: for Judith was subject to a cough and a fever; Helen, on the contrary, enjoyed good health. When they were nearly twenty-one years of age, Judith took a fever, fell into a lethargy, and died; the unfortunate Helen was obliged to follow her lot. Three minutes before the death of Judith, she fell into an agony, and died almost at the same moment. A pair united in a similar manner, has recently been exhibited in the United States and England. They, too, were born in the east, and are known as the Siamese youths. A fleshy band, of from four to six inches long and two broad, proceeding from the pit of each stomach, connects them together. The entire band admits four fingers to pass freely behind it, when the boys stand shoulder to shoulder, and its width and thickness allow the thumb to meet the fingers on the front aspect. The vestiges of one common navel are visible at the lower and middle part of the band, and it is equidistant between the two bodies. The band is hollow, except about an inch in the centre, and there is evidently a hernial protrusion into it from each of the boys, in the action of coughing. Their appearance is healthy, their dispositions cheerful, and their attitudes and motions graceful. They move across the room with all the ease and grace of a couple skilfully waltzing, and seem never to have any difference of intention or purpose which can give pain to their band of union by making them draw different ways. The natural position of the youths, or that which seems to place the connecting ligament in its natural form, is that of face to face. This position, as must be obvious, is extremely inconvenient, and the boys have consequently accustomed themselves to stand or move side by side. Their persons are thus drawn mutually closer, which makes it necessary for one to place his arm about the neck or waist of the other. The position may be varied—that is, the ligament may be made an axis, upon which the youths can turn and bring in contact the two opposite sides, instead of thase which were first in collision. Their identity of purpose, and unity of move- ment, combined with a general similarity of tastes, dispositions, and habits, has created in some a suspicion that their organization was more intimately eonnected than at first sight appears. They eat, drink, and sleep simulta- neously ; their health is affected alike; and on being conveyed through the streets in a coach, so perfect is their unity of action, that they could not be prevailed upon to look out of its opposite windows. These circumstances many have been disposed to attribute to something more than the power of habit; but there can be no doubt that the youths are perfectly distinct beiags, having each his organization totally independent of the other. This is placed beyond a doubt by various circumstances. No one can fail to be touched with the perfect harmony that subsists between them. At- tempts have been made to create jealousies between them, but without the slightest success. Any gift which they receive capable of division, is shared between them; and any description of present passes from one to the 9 66 MAMMALIA—APES. other as a joint possession. It would perhaps be more just to say, that they recognize no difference between themselves. A very attentive observer, however, will not fail to discover, between these two boys, who certainly bear the strongest possible resemblance to each other, a marked distinction. One seems to bea little more robust than the other, and even to possess an intellectual superiority over his brother. Perhaps this notion acquires plausibility from the circumstance that the former generally acts as the organ of communication on the joint part with the interpreters. It is ob- served, that this superior brother yields on all occasions to the impulses of the weaker, giving up his own choice, and preferring the course intimat- ed by the other. The inferior brother then playfully leans against his mate for support, or the one pats the cheek, or presses the forehead, or adjusts the shirt collar of the other, in such a way as betrays the kindliest feelings in each, and the tenderest affection for each other. A still more wonderful dusus nature lately existed in the person of a bicephalous girl, born of Sardinian parents. She died recently at Paris. Ritta, or the right side of the infant, had been ill for three days, and her illness did not appear in any degree to influence the health of Christina, the other side; so that at the moment when Ritta had given up the ghost, Christina was hanging to the breast of her mother, and playing with her face. But suddenly she let go, heaved a sigh, and expired. On dissection, two hearts, touching at the upper surface, but perfectly free at the base, were found in one pericardium. There was only one liver, which was evidently formed by the juncture of two; but there were two stomachs, and two small intes- tines, the latter of which joined ten or twelve inches above the cecum. The cecum was single, and all below was the same. In the pectoral cavity there was only one diaphragm, which had evidently been formed out of those of two subjects. ORDER SECOND—QUADRUMANA|.! Tue order Quadrumana is divided into two families, the Simize or Apes, and the Lemures. APES? Ir the conformation of the body always implied corresponding intellectual attributes, the apes should approach the nearest to man in intellect. But 1 This order embraces animals with three kinds of teeth, incisors, canines, and molars; four extremities, terminated by hands, with the thumb separate from the other fingers, and more or less opposable to them; fingers long and flexible; two or four pectoral] mamme ; clavicles complete; bones of the arm and leg distinct, and suscentible of the motions of pronation and supination: male organs of generation external; stomach mem- branous, simple; intestines of medium length; a small ceeum; orbital and temporal! fossce distinct. 2 This family is distinguished by a form approaching more or less to that of man; four inclined incisors in each Jaw; nose more opie prominent; nostrils more or less sepa- rated from one another; two pectoral mamme ; orbital and temporal fossz distinet. MAMMALIA—APES. 67 this is not found to be the case: and though the family of apes have, like man, their anterior hands free, and their thumbs opposable, though in a less degree, yet itis not found that their sagacity is superior or even equal to that of some other tribes of mammiferous animals. The structure of their body indeed enables them to perform many movements similar to those of man; but these, when they approach the usages of the human race, are in general the effect of mere education or imitation, in individuals with- drawn from their kind. Possessed of hands at both extremities, capable, were they directed by intelligence, of turning the soil or the inhabitants of the forests to their use, they are inferior in sagacity to the beaver and many other animals which live in society. The social instinct of the apes, indeed, seems limited to the tendency which frugivorous animals have in general to live in wandering troops, for the purposes of mutual protection. The whole structure of apes marks them as essentially formed for climb- ing trees, and it is in forests, accordingly, that they are chiefly found. Their gait on‘the ground, and on all fours, as quadrupeds, is awkward and by leaps; and their head not being placed in equilibrium on the spine as in man, their pelvis being small, and the muscles of the thigh being attached lower in the leg, prevents their assuming the erect posture. Their very long arms and hands at both extremities, are, on the contrary, admirably calculated for their mode of life. The apes are lively, petulant, and extremely lascivious. They possess the talent of imitation to a great degree, and have the ancient generic denomination of Simie, from Simulare, to imitate. Condamine and Bou- guer, when making their observations, in South America, on the figure of the earth, were annoyed by domesticated apes, looking through their tele- scopes, planting signals, running to the pendulum, taking the pen to write, and imitating all the actions of these learned astronomers. Their intelli- gence is not, however, greater than that of the dog, though their imitative actions appear advantageously from their particular conformation. Their senses of touch, of smell, and of taste, are particularly acute, and seem to direct all their appetites, which are sensual and gross in almost all the species. Apes bring forth one or two young ata birth, after a gestation of from five to seven months, according to the species. The females carry their young in their arms or upon their backs, offer them suck, amuse them, and sometimes strike or bite them, when they are dissatisfied. Among the Sapajous, or American apes with prehensile tails, the young seat themselves upon the haunches of the mother, preserving their equilibrium by their tail. The males are polygamous in the smaller species, but often monoga- mous in the largest. Their geographical range is extremely limited, an¢ they are only found under the tropics in both hemispheres. 68 MAMMALIA—CHIMPANSE. THE CHIMPANSE.! Cuvier thus describes this remarkable species of ape. “It is covered with black or brown hairs, less thickly in front. If we can trust to the relations of travellers, this animal approaches, or even surpasses, the human stature. But we have not yet seen in Europe any specimen confirmatory, or even indicative, of the truth of: this assertion. It inhabits Guinea and Congo—lives in troops—constructs huts of leaves and branches of trees— arms itself with stones and clubs, and employs them to repulse from its dwelling both elephants and men—pursues and carries off the negro wo- men, &c. Naturalists have constantly confounded this animal with the orang outang. In a domesticated state, it becomes gentle enough to be taught to walk upright, and to sit and eat after our manner.” The chimpansé approaches the human form more nearly than any other animal. Unlike the orang outang, it has no intermaxillary bone. It has also the last joint of the great toe perfect. That it has greater facility for the biped or upright mode of locomotion than the orang outang, is alsc apparent, by its possessing the round ligament of the thigh bone, which the orang has not. Griffith closes his account of this animal in the following words: “Of the intellectual properties of this species, as we can add little new, we shall not \ Troglodytes niger. The genus T'roglodytes comprises Simic with four incisor teeth above, and four below; two canines above, and two below; ten molars above, and ten below—in all, thirty-two teeth. Canines little projecting: contiguous to the incisors and molars, as those of man; head rounded; raze little projecting; superciliary ridge prominent; facial angle, fifty degrees; arms almost proportioned to the legs, reaching ta the bottom of the thighs; thumbs long and opposable; no tail gheek pouches, intermaxil lary bones, nor callosities on the buttocks. MAMMALIA—ORANG OUTANG. 69 say much. If the account of Grand Pré, and other travellers, can be relied on, its intelligence seems to surpass that of the orang outang. Docility, submissiveness, and an apparent melancholy, have marked the characters of the few young specimens brought to Europe, rather than any mental acuteness, surpassing that found in most of the species of the quadrumanous race in general.” This animal has been frequently taken, on the coast of Africa, and carried to Europe. % THE. OR ANG. O;,U) TA WG — Ne Wt ZA ot OF A wR AMA SZaSS ci a . wah b| MG AF S Tue average height of the species is from three to four and a half feet. The body is covered with coarse red hairs. The forehead equals in height 1 Pithecus Satyrus. The genus Pithecus embraces Simiz, with four incisor teeth above and four below; canines two above, and two below; molars ten above, and ten below. Canine tecth a little longer than the others; molars more square than in man, with tuber- cles more prominent; head rounded; no superciliary ridge, at least in young individuals ; facial angle fifty to sixty-five degrees; arms excessively long; thumbs pretty short; no tail, or cheek pouches; callosities on the buttocks in some species; ears rounded, similar to th: se of man. hal 2 70 MAMMALIA—ORANG OUTANG. one half of the rest of the visage. The face is bluish. There are neither pouches in the cheeks, nor callosities on the posteriors. The hinder thumbs are remarkably short. This celebrated ape resembles man more nearly than any other animal, in the form of the head and the volume of the brain. The natural history of the orang outang has been miserably disfigured by the mixture of it with that of other apes of the larger size, more especially with that of the chimpansé. Upon a critical examination, (says Cuvier,) I have ascertained that he inhabits the most oriental countries only, as Malacca, Cochin China, and particularly the great island of Borneo, whence he has been brought to Europe by way of Java, though but rarely. He is gentle, easily tamed, and capable of attachment. From the character of his physical conformation, he can arrive at some facility in the imitation of several human actions; but his intelligence by no means equals the exag gerated accounts we have received of it, nor does it appear to surpasz znuch that of the canine species. Camper has discovered, and ably desciied, two membranous sacs, which produce a thickness and hoarseness in tae voice; but he was wrong in believing that the nails are always w.'ing on the hinder thumbs. We are in possession of some very minute and labored des¢~iptions of this animal, especially by M. Cuvier, Professor Camper, Tiles+4s, and Dr Abel. The last we shall present to the reader in the author’s o¢« words, as scien- tific, useful, and highly interesting. “The hair of the orang outang is of a brownish red color, and covers his back, arms, legs, and outside of his hands and feet. On the back it is in some places six inches long, and on his arms five. It is thinly scattered over his hands and feet, and is very short. It is direzted downwards on the back, upper arm, and legs, and upwards on the fore arm. The face has no hair except on its sides, somewhat in the manner of whiskers, and a very thin beard. The shoulders, elbows, and knees, have fewer hairs than other parts of the arms and legs. ‘The palms of the hands and feet are quite naked. “The prevailing colo: ot the animal’s skin, when naked, or seen through the hair, is a bluish gray. “The head, viewed in front, is pear-shaped, expanding from the chin upwards, the cranium leing much the larger end. The eyes are close together, off an oval form, and dark brown color. The eyelids are fringed with lashes, and the lower ones are saccular and wrinkled. The nose is scarcely raised above the level of the face, except at the nostrils, which are but little elevated: their upenings are narrow and oblique. The mouth is very projecting, and of a roundish mammillary form. Its opening is large and when closed is marked by little more than a narrow seam. The lips are very narrow, and scarcely perceptible when the mouth is shut. The chin projects less than the mouth: below it, a pendulous membrane gives the appearance of a double chin, and swells out when the animal is angry MAMMALIA—ORANG OUTANG. i | or much pleased. Each of the jaws contains twelve teeth; namely, four incisive teeth, the two middle ones of the upper jaw being twice the width of the lateral; two canine, and six molar teeth. The ears are small, closely resembling the human ear, and have their lower margins in the same line with the external angles of the eyes. “The chest is wide compared with the pelvis: the belly is very protube- rant. The arms are long in proportion to the height of the animal. The legs are short, compared with the arms. “The hands are long, compared with their width and with the humar hand. The fingers are small and tapering: the thumb is very short, scarce, ly reaching the first joint of the fore finger. All the fingers have vert perfect nails, of a blackish color, and oval form, and exactly terminating with the extremities of the fingers. The feet are long, and resemble hands, in the palms, and in having fingers rather than toes, but have heels resembling the human. The great toes are very short, are set on at right angles to the feet close to the heel, and are entirely without nails. “The orang outang of Borneo, is utterly incapable of walking in a perfect- ly erect posture. He betrays this in his whole exterior conformation, and never voluntarily attempts to counteract its tendency. His head leaning forward, and forming a considerable angle with the back, throws the centre of gravity so far beyond the perpendicular, that his arms, like the fore legs of other animals, are required to support the body. So difficult, indeed, is it for him to keep the upright position for a few seconds, under the direction of his keeper, that he is obliged, in the performance of his task, to raise his arms above his head, and throw them behind him, to keep his balance. His progressive motion on a flat surface is accomplished by placing his bent fists upon the ground, and drawing his body between his arms: moving in this manner, he strongly resembles a person decrepit in the legs, supported on crutches. Ina state of nature he probably seldom moves along the ground; his whole external configuration showing his fitness for climbing trees, and clinging to their branches. The length and pliability of his fingers and toes enable him to grasp with facility and steadiness, and the force of his muscles empowers him to support his body for a great length of time by one hand or foot. He can thus pass from one fixed object to another, at the distance of his span from each other, and can opviously pass from one branch of a tree to another, through a much greater interval. In sitting on a flat -surface, this animal turns his legs under him. In sitting on the branch of a tree, or on a rope, he rests on his heels, his body leaning forward against his thighs. This animal uses his hands like cthers of the mon- key tribe.” : The individual described by Dr Abel, “on his arrival in Java from Bata- via, was allowed to be entirely at liberty, till within a day or two of being put on board the Cesar to be conveyed to England; and whilst at large, made no attempt to escape: but became violent when put into a large 72 MAMMALIA—ORANG OUTANG. railed bamboo cage, for the purpose of being conveyed from the island. As soon as he felt himself in confinement, he took the rails of the cage into his hands, and shaking them violently, endeavored to break them in pieces; but finding that they did not yield generally, he tried them separately, and, having discovered one weaker than the rest, worked at it constantly, till he had broken it, and made his escape. On board ship, an attempt being made to secure him by a chain tied to a strong staple, he instantly unfastened it, and ran off with the chain dragging behind; but finding himself embarras- sed by its length, he coiled it once or twice, and threw it over his shoulder. This feat he often repeated; and when he found it would not remain on his shoulder, he took it into his mouth. “After several abortive attempts to secure him more effectually, he was allowed to wander freely about the ship, and soon became familiar with the sailors, and surpassed them in agility. They often chased him about the rigging, and gave him frequent opportunities of displaying his adroitness in managing an escape. On first starting, he would endeavor to outstrip his pursuers by mere speed; but when much pressed, eluded them by seizing a loose rope, and swinging out of their reach. At other times, he would patiently wait on the shrouds, or at the mast head, till his pursuers almost touched him, and then suddenly lower himself to the deck by any rope that Was neax him, or bound along the mainstay, from one mast to the other, swinging by his hands, and moving them one over the other. The men would often shake the ropes by which he clung with so much violence, as to make me fear his falling; but I soon found that the power of his muscles could not be easily overcome. When ina playful humor, he would often swing within arm’s length of his pursuer, and, having struck him with his hand, throw himself from him. “Whilst in Java, he lodged in a large tamarind-tree, near my dwelling, and: formed a bed by intertwining the small branches, and covering them with leaves. During the day, he would lie with his head projecting beyond the nest, watching whoever might pass under; and when he saw any one with fruit, would descend to obtain a share of it. He always retired for the night at sunset, or sooner if he had been well fed, and rose with the sun, and visited those from whom he habitually received food. “Of some small monkeys on board from Java, he took little notice, whilst under the observation of the persons of the ship. Once, indeed, he openly attempted to throw a small cage, containing three of them, overboard, be-_ cause, probably, he had seen them receive food, of which he could obtain no part. But although he held so little intercourse with them when under our inspection, I had reason to suspect that he was less indifferent to their society when free from our observation ; and was one day summoned to-the top-gallant yard of the mizen-mast to overlook him playing with a young male monkey. Lying. on his back, partially covered with a sail, he for some time contemplated, with great gravity, the gambols cf the mankey, MAMMALIA—ORANG OUTANG. No which bounded over him; but at length caught him by the tail, and tried to envelope him in his covering. The monkey seemed to dislike his confine- ment, and broke from him, but again renewed his gambols, and although frequently caught, always escaped. The intercourse, however, did not seem to be that of equals, for the orang outang never condescended to romp with the monkey, as he did with the boys of the ship. Yet the monkeys had evidently a great predilection for his company ; for whenever they broke loose, they took their way to his resting place, and were often seen lurking about it, or creeping clandestinely towards him. There appeared to be no gradation in their intimacy; as they appeared as confidently fami- liar with him when first observed, as at the close of their acquaintance. “But although so gentle when not exceedingly irritated, the orang outang would be excited to violent rage, which he expressed by opening his mouth, showing his teeth, and seizing and biting those who were near him. Some- times, indeed, he seemed almost driven to desperation ; and, on two or three occasions, committed an act, which, in a rational being, would have been called the threatening of suicide. If repeatedly refused an orange when he attempted to take it, he would shriek violently, and swing furiously about the ropes; then return and endeavor to obtain it: if again refused, he would roll for some time like an angry child upon the deck, uttering the most piercing screams; and then suddenly starting up, rush furiously over the side of the ship and disappear. On first witnessing this act, we thought that he had thrown himself into the sea; but, on a search being made, found him concealed under the chains. “This animal neither practices the grimaces and antics of other monkeys, nor possesses their perpetual proneness to mischief. Gravity, approaching to melancholy, and mildness, were sometimes strongly expressed in his countenance, and seem to be the characteristics of his disposition. When he first came among strangers, he would sit for hours with his hand upon his head, looking pensively at all around him; and when much incommoded by their examination, would hide himself beneath any covering that was at hand. His mildness was evinced by his forbearance under injuries, which were grievous before he was excited to revenge; but he always avoided those who often teazed him. He scon became strongly attached to those who used him kindly. By their side he was fond of sitting; and getting as close as possible to their persons, would take their hands between his lips, and fly to them for protection. From the boatswain of the Alceste, who shared his meals with him, and was his chief favorite, although he some- times purloined the grog and the biscuit of his benefactor, he learned to eat with a spoon; and might be often seen sitting at his cabin door, enjoy- ing his coffee, quite unembarrassed by those who observed him, and with a grotesque and sober air, that seemed a burlesque on human nature. ““Next to the boatswain, I was, perhaps, his most intimate acquaintance. He would always follow me to the mast-head, whither I often went for the 10 74 MAMMALIA—ORANG OUTANG. sake of reading apart from the noise of the ship; and, having satisfied him- self that my pockets contained no eatables, would !ie down by my side, and pulling a topsail entirely over him, peep from it occasionally to waten my movements. “His favorite amusement in Java, was in swinging from the branches of trees, in passing from one to another, and in climbing over the roofs of houses ; on board, in hanging by his arms from the ropes, and in romping with the boys of the ship. He would entice them into play by striking them with his hand as they passed, and bounding from them, but allowing them to overtake him, and engage in a mock scuffle, in which he used his hands, feet, and mouth. If any conjecture could be formed from these frolics, of his mode of attacking an adversary, it would appear to be his first object to throw him down, then to secure him with his hands and feet, and then wound him with his teeth. “On board ship, he commonly slept at the mast-head, after wrapping him- self ina sail. In making his bed, he used the greatest pais to remove every thing out of his way, that might render the surface on which he intended to lie, uneven; and, having satisfied himself with this part of his arrangement, spread out the sail, and lying down upon it on his back, drew it over his body. Sometimes I pre-oceupied his bed, and teased him by refusing to give it up. On these occasions, he would endeavor to pull the sail from under me, or to force me from it, and would not rest till I had resigned it. If it were large enough for both, he would quietly lie by my side. If all the sails happened to be set, he would hunt about for some other covering, and either steal one of the sailors’ jackets or shirts that happened to be drying, or empty a hammock of its blankets. Off the Cape of Good Hope, he suffered much from a low temperature, especially early in the morning, when he would descend from the mast, shivering with cold, and running up to any one of his friends, climb into their arms, and clasp- ing them closely, derive warmth from their persons, screaming violently at any attempt to remove him. “His food in Java was chiefly fruit, especially mangostans, of which he was extremely fond. He preferred coffee and tea, but would readily take wine, and exemplified his attachment to spirits by stealing the captain’s brandy botile. Since his arrival in London, he has preferred beer and wilk to any thing else, but drinks wine and other liquors. “In his attempts to obtain food, he afforded us many opportunities of _ judging of his sagacity and disposition. He was always very impatient to receive it when held out to him, and became passionate when it was not soon given up; and would chase a person all over the ship to obtain it. I seldom came upon deck without sweetmeats or fruit in my pocket, and could never escape his vigilant eye. Sometimes I endeavored to evade him by ascending to the mast-head, but was always overtaken or intercepted in my progress. When he came up with me on the shrouds, he would secure MAMMALIA—ORANG OUTANG. 75 fumself by one foot on the rattlings, and confine my legs with the other and one of his hands, while he rifled my pockets. If he found it impossible to overtake me, he would climb to a considerable height on the rigging, and then drop suddenly upon me. Or if, perceiving his intention, I attempted to descend, he would slide down a rope, and meet me at the bottom of the shrouds. Sometimes I fastened an orange to the end of a rope, and lowered it to the deck from the mast-head ; and as soon as he attempted to seize it, drew it rapidly up. Aftet »eimg several times foiled in endeavoring to obtain it by direct means, he altered his plan. Appearing to care little about it, he would remove to some distance, and ascend the rigging very leisurely for some time, and then, by a sudden spring, catch the rope which held it. If defeated again by my suddenly jerking the rope, he would, at first, seem quite in despair, relinquish his effort, and rush about the rigging, screaming violently. But he would always return, and again seizing the rope, disregard the jerk, and allow it torun through his hand till within reach of the orange; but if again foiled, would come to my side, and taking me by the arm, confine it while he hauled the orange up. “T have seen him exhibit violent alarm on two occasions only, when he appeared to seek for safety in gaining as high an elevation as possible. On seeing eight large turtles brought on board, whilst the Cesar was off the Island of Ascension, he climbed with all possible speed to a higher part of the ship than he had ever before reached, and, looking down upon them, projected his long lips into the form of a hog’s snout, uttering at the same time a sound which might be described as between the croaking of a frog and the grunting of a pig. After some time, he ventured to descend, but with great caution, peeping continually at the turtles, but could not be induced to approach within many yards of them. He ran to the same height, and uttered the same sounds, on seeing some men bathing and splashing in the sea; and since his arrival in England, has shown nearly the same degree of fear at the sight of a live tortoise.” This animal survived his transportation to England, from August, 1817, (when he arrived,) to the 1st of April, 1819, during which interval he was in the custody of Mr Cross, at Exeter Change, as much caressed for the gentleness of his disposition, as he was noticed for his great rarity. There was no need of personal confinement, and little of restraint or coercion; to ‘his keepers, especially, and to those whom he knew by their frequent visits, he displayed a decided partiality. During his last illness, and at his death, his piteous appearance, which seemed to bespeak his entreaties to those about him for relief, did not fail to excite the feelings of all who witnessed them; an excitement evidently heightened by the recollection of human suffering under similar circumstances, which the sight of this animal so strongly brought to mind. He was shedding his teeth at the period of his death, which was probably promoted, if not caused by it. 76 MAMMALIA—GIBBON. Of the many attempts to transport the orang outang alive to Europe, we believe only one or two have been successful. In 1825, one was brought to Boston, from Batavia, by Captain Blanchard, but unfortunately it died in the harbor before landing. Captain Shirley, who arrived there from Batavia, in June, 1831, was more fortunate. He brought a young orang outang, which is now in good health, and has every prospect of enduring the climate. Ic isa female of about three years old, and was procured origi- nally in Borneo. The interest excited in respect to this animal, as well by its own extraordinary characteristics, as by the variety of accounts that authors have given of it, has induced us to examine it with some care. We have also caused a correct likeness to be taken, which is the one at the head of the present article. In comparing this animal with the preceding description, by Dr Abel, we find it remarkably accurate and complete. We observe that the thumb of the hinder hand has no nail, and it seems that in nine cases mentioned by Dr Abel, the same fact existed. Two instances to the contrary, how- ever, are cited; one by Tilesius, the other by Cuvier. We also remarked that the thumb is placed nearly at right angles to the hand, inclining a little toward the wrist. THE GIBBON, OR LONG-ARMED APE,! : i Auways keeps in an erect posture, even when it walks upon all fours; its arms being as long as its body and legs put together. We have seen one of these animals alive. It had no appearance of any tail’; it had a circle of gray, bushy hair, all round the face, which gave it a very remarkable appear- ance. Its eyes were large, and sunk in its head; its face resembling that of aman, tanned, and its ears well proportioned. This ape appeared to us to be of a gentle and tractable disposition ; its motions were neither rash nor precipitate. It was fed on bread, fruit, almonds, &c., and calmly received 1 Pithecus lar. The gibbons, of which there are several, have the long arms of the orang, the low forehead of the chimpansé, and -allosities on the buttocks. They have no tail or cheek pouch. MAMMALIA—SIAMANG. i the fruit that was presented to it; it was very averse to cold and wet weather, and did not long live after being brought from its native country. It isa native of the East Indies, and particularly, found along the coasts of Coromandel, Malacca, and the Molucca Islands. TH ELS DACA Gt TueEsE animals are black all over, and have two naked folds of skin on the neck, which are occasionally inflated. The hair is long and soft. They ~ are very common in Sumatra. They are generally found assemb.ed in large troops, conducted, it is said, by a chief, whom the Malays believe invulnera- ble. Thus assembled at sunrise, and again at sunset, they vie with each other in making the most dreadful cries, perfectly stunning to those accus- tomed to them, and frightful in the highest degree to strangers. At all other times they appear to be perfectly quiet, as long at least as they are undisturbed, Maternal affection will triumph over every other passion, and the mother of a young one, which has been wounded, will immediately throw away her life in an attack on an enemy. This affection is also displayed under more pleasing circumstances, and their care of the persons of their young — 3} Pithecus syndactylus, 78 MAMMALIA—MALBROUCK. by washing, rubbing, and drying them, in spite of the pettish cries and resistance of the infant siamang, is highly ludicrous and amusing. THE MALBROUCK. Turse animals are found in Bengal,* where travellers inform us they plunder whole fields of grain, and plantations of sugar-canes ; and while one stands sentinel on a tree, the others load themselves with the booty. But if the owner of the field or plantation appears, to interrupt their depre- dations, their faithful companion on the look-out, gives notice, by crying out, houp, houp, houp, which the rest perfectly understand; and, all at once, throwing down their plunder which they hold in their left hands, they scamper off upon three legs, holding the remainder in their right, and save themselves from their pursuers by climbing up trees, where they have their general abode. The females, even loaded with their young ones, clasp them close to their breast, leap like the others, from branch to branch, and escape with the rest. When it happens that they cannot find any provision in the fields, they get on the tops of houses, and, having pulled off the tiles, do great damage to the inside. They do not eat a single thing, without smelling at it for a long time beforehand; and when they have satisfied their hunger, they put the remainder in their cheek pouches, for the next day: they destroy the nests of birds, and never fail to throw the eggs on the ground, when they want appetite or inclination to eat them. The most formidable enemy these animals have, is the serpent; no other animal of the forest being able to surprise them, as they are so exceedingly swift and subtle, and easily climb up and seat themselves on the tops of the highest trees. The monkey, (says a traveller,) has it in his power to be master of the forest; for there are neither tigers nor lions which can dispute the possession with it. The chief animal it has to fear, and which attacks it both night and day, is the snake. There are some snakes in those forests of a prodigious size, which wind up the trees where the monkeys reside, and, when they happen to surprise them sleeping, swallow them whole before the little animals have time to make a defence. The malbrouck has pouches on each side of its cheeks, and callosities on 1 Cercocebus cynosurus. The Cercocebus is a sub-genus of the Cercopithecus, which includes Simie with four ppeet and four lower incisors; canines, two upper and two Jower; molars, ten upper and ten lower. Canines a little projecting, with intermediate spaces for their reception; posterior molars with only four tubercles. Head rounded ; facial angle, forty-five to fifty degrees ; ears sometimes rounded, sometimes shghtly angu- lar; thumbs distinct, more or less approaching to the fingers; cheek pouches; eallosities on the buttocks, with the exception a3 one species; tail as long at least as the body, often tuned up on the back. ‘ * Some later naturalists are of opinion, that the malbrouck is not a native of India, but of Africa. Be MAMMALIA—MAIMON...MAGOT 19 its posteriors ; its tail is very nearly as long as the body and head put together. The eyelids are of a fleshy, and the face of an ash color; the ears are large, thin, and of a flesh color; they have a list of gray hairs above the eyes but in other parts are of a uniform color, approaching towards a brown on the upper parts of the body, and towards a gray on the lower. It goes on all fours, and is about a foot or a foot and a half long, from the snout to the insertion of the tail. ~ THE MAIMON, OR PIG-TAILED BABOON,! Wuicu is a native of the banks of the Ganges, has pouches on each side of its cheeks, and callosities on its posteriors; its tail is naked, curled up, and about the length of five or six inches; the canine teeth are not much longer in proportion, than those of men; the face, ears, hands, and feet, are naked, and of a flesh color; the hair on the body is of a beautiful greenish gray, each hair being gray and black, tipped with yellow; the extremities are gray; the region of the loins isa golden yellow; and the thighs are of a lively red. It sometimes walks erect, and at other times upon all fours: it is about two feet or two feet and a half tall, when erect. It is a spiteful animal. THE MAG OT, OR BAR BAR Y:AcP E 2 Tus animal is generally known by the name of the Barbary ape. Of all the apes which have no tail, this animal can best endure the temperature of a northern climate. Buffon kept one for many years. In the summer it remained in the open air with pleasure; and in the winter might be kept in aroom without any fire. It was filthy, and of a sullen disposition: it equally made use of a grimace to show its anger, or express its sense of hunger ; its motions were violent, its manners awkward, and ‘ts physiogno- my rather ugly than ridiculous. Whenever it was offended, it grinned and showed its teeth. It put whatever was given it into the pouches on each side of its jaws, and commonly eat every thing that was offered it, except raw flesh, cheese, and other things of a fermentative nature. When it slept, it was fond of roosting on a wooden or iron bar. It was always kept 1 Macacus rhesus. 'The genus Macacus, consists of animals with four upper and four lower incisors; two upper and two lower canines; ten upper and ten lower molars. Canine teeth very strong, above all in the males; the first and second molars have two tubercles on their crown ; the three others have four, with the exception of the last of the lower jaw, which has five, and which is terminated by a heel; facial angle, forty to forty-five degrees ; superciliary ridges much developed; muzzle broad and projecting ; eyes approaching ; nostrils oblique; ears naked, close to the head, angular; cheek pouches; lips thin and extensible ; callosities on the buttocks. 2 Magot inuus. The Magot is a sub-genus of the Macacus, characterized by having a simple tubercle, in place of a tail. 80 MAMMALIA—MAGOT. chained, for, notwithstanding its long subjection, it was neither civilized, nor fond of its keeper: apparently, it had been but badly educated, for J have seen others of the same kind, who were more sagacious, obedient, gayer, and so tractable as to be taught to dance, and suffer themselves quietly to be clothed and dressed. This ape is about two feet and a half, or three feet high, in its erect pos- ture; but the female is not so large as the male. It is completely covered with a light gray brown hair.’ It rather chooses to walk on all fours, than erect. When it sleeps, it is almost always sitting. There are two very prominent callosities on its posteriors. It abounds in Barbary, and in the forests of India, Arabia, and Africa. In Barbary, the trees are sometimes nearly covered with them. This ape is said to have become naturalized in the most inaccessible parts of the rock of Gibraltar. It is probably this kind of monkey, which Robert Lade speaks of, in the following terms: ‘We travelled over a great mountain at the Cape of Good Hope, where we diverted ourselves with hunting the large apes, which are there in great plenty. Iam not able to represent all the tracta- bleness of these animals which pursued us, nor the swiftness and impudence with which they returned to us after we had driven them away. Some- times they suffered us to approach so near them, that, stopping almost close to one of these animals to take my observations, I thought myself certain of securing him, when, taking a sudden leap, he sprang above ten paces from me, and climbed up a tree with the greatest agility.. They remained afterwards very quiet, looking on us as though they were pleased with our astonishment. There were some so exceedingly large, that if they had been of a ferocious nature, our number would not have been sufficient to secure us from their attacks. As it would have been useless to kill these animals, we made no use of our guns; but the captain, thinking to wound one of them, which was seated on a tree, after a long pursuit, had no sooner presented his piece, but the animal, probably from the remembrance of the execution of some of his companions in the same manner, was so greatly terrified at it, that it fell almost motionless at our feet, and being stunned in the fall, we had not the least trouble to secure it: however, when it revived, we had occasion for all our strength and address to keep it, defend- MAMMALIA—BABOON. 81 ing itself by biting those who were near it, which obliged us to bind ou handkerchiefs over its head.” Tavernier tells us that some of the inhabitants of India adopt a ludicrous mode of avenging themselves on these monkeys, who not unfrequently attack the women who are going to market, and rob them of their provi sions. In an open space, near the retreat of the apes, they place five or six baskets of rice, forty ot fifty yards asunder, and near the baskets, a num- ber of stout cudgels, each two feet in length. They then hide themselves, to watch for the result. Thinking that no one sees them, the apes hasten towards the baskets. Fora while they grin angrily at each other, then approach, then retire, and seem to dread coming @o action for the prey. More daring than the males, the females at length advance to the baskets, and as they thrust in their heads to eat, the males on the one side rush forward to prevent them. This brings on a general engagement, and the cudgels are lustily plied till the weakest party is compelled to seek for shelter in the woods. The victors then quietly fall to, upon their hard- earned meal. TH EYP. Gah A Ce Dee BR ACB O:O N 2 Tus animal, which is also called the chacma, is a native of Africa, and was formerly exceedingly troublesome to the settlers in the neighborhood 1 Cynocephalus porcarius. The genus Cynocephalus comprises Simiz, with four upper and four lower incisors; two upper, and two lower canines; ten u per, and ten lowe molars. Canines very strong; last molar of the under jaw on anh side with a heel; head and muzzle much elongated; nostrils placed at the extremity, like the dog; facial angle, thirty to thirty-five degrees ; superciliary, sagittal, and occipital ridges, much de- veloped ; orbit hollow; maxillary bone much produced; face eeled with longitudinal striz; ears flat and angular; cheek p,‘aches; members of nearly equal length, and very robust; large callosities. 11 32 MAMMALIA—MANDRILL. of the Cape of Good Hope. It is a proper baboon. Its general color is a dusky hue, bordering upon black. The body is from two to three feet in length, and the tail is so short, that, when the animal stands on all fours, it does not reach the ground. The adult has a large mane. The fore- head of this species is remarkably depressed; the nose is much prolonged. The voice of the pig-faced baboon has a near resemblance to the bark of a dog. : THE MANDRIEL! SSS SES Tus baboon, which also bears the name of the ribbed-nosed baboon, 1s an ugly, disgusting animal. It is found on the Gold Coast, and in other southern provinces of Africa, where the negroes call it dogg0, and the Euro- peans, mandrill. This animal is the largest of the baboon kind. Smith relates, that a female mandrill was given to him, which was not above six months old, and had then attained the size of an adult baboon. He like- wise acquaints us, that these animals always walk erect; that they sigh and cry like the human species; that they have a violent passion for the female sex; that they never fail to overcome them if they come within their reach. This animal is equally remarkable for its variety of color, its singularity of appearance, its immense strength, and its unconquerable savageness: _-- 1 Cynocephalus mormon MAMMALTIA—COAITA. 83 Under its projecting forehead, (says Mr Bingly,) are*two small and vivid eyes, situated so near to each other, that their position alone gives to the physiognomy an air of ferocity, An enormous muzzle, indicative of the most brutal passions, terminates in a broad and rounded extremity of a fiery red color, from which continually oozes a mucous humor. The cheeks, greatly swollen and deeply furrowed, are naked, and of a deep blue color. A narrow, blood-colored ridge extends down the middle of the face, and. terminates in the nose. Round the neck the hair is very long. On the sides of the head it joins that at the top, and the whole terminates in a somewhat pointed form. Each hair of the body is annulated with black and yellow ; so that the whole fur has a greenish brown hue. One of these animals was exhibited at Charing Cross, London. He some- times sat in a chair, smoked a pipe, drank spirits and water, and appeared to understand every look and gesture of his keeper. He had a very con- tented look, and passed under the name of “Happy Jerry.” When standing upright, the mandrill is in height from three feet anda half to five feet. It is to be found on the Gold Coast, in several other parts of Africa, and also in the East Indies and the Indian Archipelago. Its voice bears some resemblance to the roaring of a lion. No art or kindness ean in the least subdue its brutal propensities; and its great strength renders it an object of perpetual dread to its keepers. Yet it is not, strictly speaking, a carnivorous animal; for, though it will eat meat that has been cooked, its usual food is fruit and nuts. apes © 0) ATT At Next to the warine, and the alouato, the coaita, or four-fingered monkey, is the largest of the sapajous.* There was one alive at the Duke of Bouil- lon’s, where, by its familiarity and forward caresses, it merited the affection of those who had it under their care; but in spite of the good treatment and attention paid to it, it could not resist the winter of the year 1764. It differs greatly in disposition from the warine and the alouato, which are wild and untameable. It also differs from them in having but four fingers, and no thumb to the fore paws: by this character alone, and its holding tail, it is 1 Ateles paniscus. The genus Afeles has four upper and four lower incisors ; two upper and two lower canines ; twelve upper and twelve lower molars. Canines a little projecting, crossing one another, conical; molars with blunt crowns, as those of man; head round; face perpendicular ; facial angle, about sixty degrees; ears hardened ; extremities very long and slender; the anterior ones, generally tetradactyle; thumb, none, or only replaced by a wart, or extremely short, and armed with a little sharp nail; posterior pentadactyle ; nail, convex and short; tail extremely long, strongly prehensile, having a part without hair, and covered with a delicate skin toward its extremity. * The sapajous are apes peculiar to the American continent, hating long, prehensile tails. : ie ted 84 MAMMALIA—HOWLING MONKEY. easily distinguished from the monkey kind. In the use of their tail these animals are singularly dexterous. They can pick up with it even straws and bits of wood; and M. Audebert tells us, that he saw one of the species carry hay in its tail to make its bed, and move and spread it about as easily as an elephant could have done with his trunk. In climbing, too, this member is of great use. There are, (says Dam pier,) in the Isthmus of America, numbers of monkeys, some of which are white, but the most part black—some have beards, others none. These monkeys are very droli, and performed a thousand grotesque postures as we traversed in the woods. When they are unable to leap from one tree to another, on account of the distance, or the tree being separated by a river, their dexterity is very surprising. The whole family form a kind of chain, locking tail in tail, or hand in hand, and one of them holding the branch above, the rest swing down, balancing to and fro like a pendulum, until the undermost is enabled to catch hold of the lower branches of some neighbor- ing tree. When the hold is fixed below, the monkey lets go that which was above, and thus comes undermost in turn; but creeping up along the chain, attains the next branches of the tree like the rest; and thus, they all take possession without ever coming to the ground. " They have the address to break the shell of oysters to eat them. They generally produce only one or two young ones at a time, which they carry upon their backs; they feed upon fish, worms, and insects, but fruit is their general food, and they grow fat when it is ripe, when, it is said, their flesh is good and exquisite eating. The coaita is about a foot and a half long, and its tail is longer than the head and body measured together : it goes on all fours. Tol By Weak RON Be AND T Eee AG OUAT 0, OR HOWLING MO NE Yt Are the largest of these animals, belonging to the new continent: they surpass the size of the largest monkey, and approach the size of the baboon. They have a long tail, and are moreover of the sapajou family, in which they hold a very distinct rank, not only with regard to size, but also to voice, which sounds like a drum, or as others say, like the screaming of immense herds of swine, and may be heard at a very great distance. From the exces- sive noise which they make, they have obtained the name of the howling monkey. Maregrave informs us, “that every morning and evening the warines 1 Mycetes seniculus. The genus Mycetes has four Upper and four lower incisors ; two upper and two lower canines; twelve upper and twelve lower molars. Canines well de- veloped, triquetrous; head pyramidal; countenance oblique; facial angle, thirty degrees ; hyoid bone ventricose, apparent externally, and cavernous. Four extremities pentadac- tyle; tail very long; strongly prehensile, nied under its extremity ; nails convex and short MAMMALIA—WEEPER. 85 and the alowatos assemble in the woods; that one among them seats himself on an elevated place, makes a sign with his hand to the rest to seat them- selves round him; as soon as he sees them all seated, he begins an oration with so quick and loud a voice, that, at a distance, it might be imagined they were all making a noise together. During the whole discourse, the rest keep a profound silence, and when it is ended, he makes a signal to the rest to answer him, and immediately they all set up a cry together, till by another sign with his hand he orders them to be silent; when they are immediately obedient and quiet. Then the first renews his discourse, or his song, which when finished, and the others have paid the utmost atten- tion to it, the whole assembly breaks up and separates.” This singular noise is made by the instrumentality of a long bony process in the throat. According to the same author, “the face of the warine is broad, the eyes black and sparkling, the ears short and round, the tail naked at the extremi- ty, with which it holds firmly whatever it encircles ; the hair of the body is black, long, and glossy; itis much longer under the chin, which forms a kind of round beard: the hair on the hands, feet, and a part of the tail, is brown. ‘The male is of the same color as the female, and only differs from it in being a little larger. The females carry their young on their backs, and thus loaded leap from branch to branch, and from tree to tree. The young one clasps the narrowest part of the body of the mother with its hands and arms, and thus holds itself firmly fastened, whatever motion its parent makes. In other respects, these animals are wild and mischiey- ous: they can neither be tamed nor subdued, and bite dreadfully. As they live only on fruit, grain, and some insects, their flesh is not bad eating. It is like that of the hare, but a little sweetish, for which reason a good quan- tity of salt is put to that which is roasted: the fat is the color of its hair. They are both lively, active, and very pleasing by their tricks and nimble- ness. They are, however, fantastical in their tastes and affections: they seem to have a strong inclination for some people, and as great an aversion for others. They are natives of French Guiana. They usually live in troops of from twenty to forty individuals. They often whistle, and when they are enraged they shake their heads violently, and utter, in a ferocious toné, the syllables, P7, ca, row.” THE SAT One ower P EVR! TraAveLters have described these animals by the name of howlers, fron their plaintive moan. Others have called them musk monkeys, from their 1 Cebus apella. The genus Cebus has four upper and four lower incisors ; two upper and two lower canines; six upper and six lower molars. Superior incisors larger than the mfertor ;! canines more or less strong, those of the males being much more so than the females; head round, muzzle short, forehead a little prominent; occiput projecting behind ; facial angle, about sixty degrees; ears rounded; hyoid bone, not projecting; tail prehen- sile, but entirely covered with hair. 86 MAMMALIA—OUISTITI. having, like the macaque, that peculiar smell. They belong to the sapajou’ family, as they have a holding tail; they have only two teats, and bring forth but one or two atatime. ‘They are gentle, docile, and so timorous, that their common cry, which resembles that of the cat, is dwindled down to a kind of sighing, when they are threatened. Their food, in this climate, 1s principally snails and beetles, which they prefer before any other; but in their native country of Brazil, they chiefly live upon grain, and the wild fruit they pluck from trees, whence they very seldom descend till they have stripped their habitation of its treasure. THE STRIATED, MONKEY,. OB OULSTITI 1 ' Tue name of this animal is taken from the sound of its voice. It is not above six inches long, and its tail more than double that length, which is annulated black and white, like the macauco. Its face is naked, and of a flesh color. It has two very singular tufts of long white hair on the fore part of the ears, which, although very large, cannot be seen by looking at the full face of this animal. Mr Edwards says, that, when it is in good health, it has much hair and tufted; that one of those which he saw, and which was healthy, fed on several things, as biscuits, fruit, pulse, insects, snails; and, being one day unchained, he struck at a little gold fish which was ina glass globe, killed it, and devoured it with the greatest avidity; that afterwards, some small eels being put before him, he was frightened when they twisted about his neck, but that he soon conquered and ate them, It is a great enemy to cats. These animals, when young, have an ugly appearance, having scarcely any hair on their bodies. They cling closely to the teats of their dam; and as they grow older, they fix themselves on 1 Jacchus vulgaris. This genus: has four upper and four lower incisors; two upper and two lower canines; six upper and six lower molars. Incisors and canines variable in their dimensions. Molars with a crown, furnished with sharp tubercles; head round, muzzle short; occiput prominent; tail longer than the body, soft, and entirely covered with hair; feet pentadactyle; thumb of the anterior hands not opposable; nails very long, compressed, arched, and pointed. MAMMALIA—MACAUCO. o7 her back or shoulders; when she 1s weary of carrying them, she releases herself by rubbing against the wall. The striated monkey is of a hardy nature, and has sometimes produced young ones in Europe, even as far to the north as Paris. Most of the individuals have a somewhat musky smell. The voice isa kind of shrill, hissing whistle. FAMILY II.—LEMURS. THEsE animals are characterised by a general form, approaching to the quadruped, properly so called: incisors varying in both jaws, in number, form, and situation. Nostrils at the extremity of the muzzle; posterior extremities longer than the anterior; first finger of the hind feet after the thumb, terminated by a sharp, turned-up nail; two or four pectoral mamme; tail, when it exists, not prehensile. THE MACAUCO.1 THE macauco, (which is the ring-tailed lemur of Shaw,) is a beautiful animal, remarkable for the largeness of its eyes, and the length of the ninder legs, which by far exceed those before; by its beautiful and long tail, which is continually elevated and in motion, and upon which are upwards of thirty rings, alternately black and white, all very distinct and separate one from the other. It is gentle; and, although it greatly resembles the monkey in many particulars, it is not so malicious in its nature. It isa gregarious animal, commonly found in company in its natural state; in Madagascar, thirty or forty are seen herding together. It sleeps in a sitting posture, with its snout resting upon its breast; its body is no thicker than that of a cat, but is longer; and it appears larger, as the legs of the animal are very long. The hair is soft, and stands upright. 1 Lemur catta. The genus Lemur is characterized by four upper and six under incisors. One canine on each side, in both jaws; molars five above andl four below, on each side. Superior incisors, united in pairs, inferior, inclined, long. Superior canines, long, com- pressed, crossing the inferior ones before; inferior canines, or first molars, compressed, triangular; molars with blunt, tuberculous crowns; two pectoral mamme; head, long and triangular; muzzle slender; ears short and rounded; fourth toe of the feet largest- tail longer than the body, cc vered with hair, not prehensile; hair soft and woolly. 88 MAMMALIA—MONGOOS. THE MONGOOS.) —— | Sli THE mongoos is less than the macauco; but its hair is, like that, ot a short and silken nature, but a little curled; the nose is also thicker. Buffon had a mongoos in his possession for several years; its coat was of a brown color, the eyes yellow, the nose black, and the ears short. It had a custom of playing with and biting its tail, and had, by this method, lessened it by four or five of the last vertebre. Whenever it got loose, it visited the shops in the neighborhood, and would make free with fruit, sugar, sweetmeats, &c.5 to obtain which it would open the boxes. At such times, it was difficult to retake it; and it would bite those that attempted it, even its keeper. TEE ESD) ACN DD Bora Kh wi BA sy MTT OS Tus is not only one of the most beautiful of the group to which it Ve Lomi mongoor. 2 Lemur ruber. MAMMALIA—LEMUR. 89 belongs, but it also possesses the additional recommendation of being unquestionably the rarest known species. Very little was known of it till a living individual was brought to Europe, and figured by M. Cuvier, in his splendid work. A specimen in the collection at Exeter ’Change has since been noticed by Mr Griffith. The color of this animal is of a bright rufous brown above, and that of ihe under parts a deep black. The tail is perfectly black. The hair of the upper parts and tail is extremely long, soft, and woolly. The eyes are lively and expressive. From the nose to the root of the tail, it measures about sixteen inches, and the tail itself is still longer. THE SLOW LEMUR, OR. BENGAL LORIS.} Tis animal is so sluggish in its motions, that some have been errone- ously induced to consider it asasloth. It is about the size of a small cat, and has a flattish face, a nose rather sharp, and extremely prominent eyes; it is of a pale brown or mouse color; round the eyes is a circle of dark brown, and along the middle of the back runs a stripe of the same color. During the greatest part of the day it sleeps, or at least lies without motion. 1 Nycticebus Bengalensis, Geoff. Lemur tardigrada, Lin. The genus Nycticebus has two or four upper, and six ower incisors; two upper and two lower canines ; twelve upper and ten lower molars. Intermediate incisors separate; lateral, small or none; anterior molars with one point; those at the bottom with a large crown, hollow in the centre, and tubercles at the angles; body thick; members robust; head round; muzzle short, not turned up; eyes very large, approaching, and directed forward; ears short and hairy; two pectoral mammz; a very short tail; bones of the leg and arm distinct; tibia longer han the feniur ; tarsus and metatarsus of equal length. Inhabits Bengal, Ceylon, and Java 12 90 MAMMALIA—LEMUR. One of these animals is described by the late Sir William Jones, in the fourth volume of the Asiatic Researches. ‘In his manners,” says he, “he was for the most part gentle, except in the cold season, when his temper seems wholly changed; and his Creator who made him so sensible of cold, to which he must often have been exposed, even in his native forests, gave him, probably for that reason, his thick fur; which we rarely see on animals in these tropical climates. To me, who not only constantly fed him, but bathed him twice a week in water accommodated to the seasons, and whom he clearly distinguished from others, he was at all times grateful , but when I disturbed him in winter, he was usually indignant, and seemed to reproach me with the uneasiness which he felt, though no possible precautions had been omitted to keep him ina proper degree of warmth. At all times he was pleased at being stroked on the head and throat, and he frequently suffered me to touch his extremely sharp teeth: but his temper was always quick; and when he was unseasonably disturbed, he expressed a little re- sentment, by an obscure murmur, like that of a squirrel; or a greater degree of displeasure by a peevish cry, especially in winter, when he was often as fierce, on being much importuned, as any beast of the woods. “From half an hour after sunrise to half an hour before sunset, he slept without intermission, rolled up like a hedgehog; and, as soon as he awoke, he began to prepare himself for the Jabors of Azs approaching day, licking and dressing himself like a cat; an operation which the flexibility of his neck and limbs enabled him to perform very completely : he was then ready for a slight breakfast, after which he commonly took a short nap; bu: when the sun was quite set, he recovered all his vivacity. “His ordinary food was the sweet fruit of this country; plantains always, and mangoes during the season; but he 1efused peaches, and was not fond of mulberries, or even of guiavas: milk he lapped eagerly, but was content with plain water. In general, he was not voracious, but he never appeared satiated with grasshoppers; and passed the whole night, while the hot season lasted, in prowling for them. When a grasshopper, or any insect, alighted within his reach, his eyes, which he fixed on his prey, glowed with uncommon fire; and having drawn himself back, to spring on it with greater force, he seized the prey with both his fore paws, but held it in one of them while he devoured it. For other purposes, and sometimes even for that of holding his food, he used all his paws indifferently as hands, and frequent- ly grasped with one of them the higher parts of his ample cage, while his three others were severally engaged at the bottom of it; but the posture of which he seemed fondest, was to cling with all four of them to the wires, his body being inverted. In the evening, he usually stood erect for many minutes, playing on the wires with his fingers, and rapidly moving his body from side to side, as if he had found the utility of exercise in his unnatural state of confinement. MAMMALIA—BAT. 91 “A little before day-break, when my early hours gave me frequent oppor- tun ties of observing him, he seemed to solicit my attention; and if I presented my finger to him, he licked or nibbled it with great gentleness, but eagerly took fruit when I offered it, though he seldom ate much at his morning repast: when the day brought back his night, his eyes lost their lustre and strength, and he composed himself for a slumber of ten or eleven aours. “My little friend was, on the whole, very engaging; and when he was found lifeless, in the same posture in which he would naturally have slept, I consoled myself with believing that he died without much pain, and lived with as much pleasure as he could have enjoyed in a state of captivity.” ORDER THIRD—CHEIROPTERA. ° THESE animals are in their general form disposed for flight. Their inci- sors are variable in number; canines more or less strong; molars some- times covered with points, sometimes furrowed longitudinally ; a fold of skin between the four members and the fingers of the anterior feet; two pectoral mamme; very strong clavicles; scapule large: fore arms not capable of rotation. THE, BAT. Aw animal, which, like the bat, is balf quadruped and half bird, and which, © in fact, is neither the one nor the other, is a kind of monster. In the bat, the fore feet are, properly speaking, neither wings nor feet, though the animal uses them for the purpose of flying, and occasionally of moving along upon the ground. They are, in fact, two shapeless extremities, of which the bones are of a monstrous length, and connected by a membrane, not covered with feathers, or even with hair, like the rest of the body: they are a kind of winged paws, or hands, ten times larger than the feet, and in all, four times longer than the whole length of the body of the animal: they are, in a word, parts which have rather the appearance of a capricious and accidental, than a regular and determined production. To these incongruities, these disproportions of tne body and members, may be added the still more striking deformities of the head. In some species, the nose is hardly visible, the eyes are sunk near the tip of the ear, and are confounded with the cheeks; in others, the ears are as long as the body, or else the face is twisted into the form of a horse-shoe, and the nose covered with a kind of crust. Averse, likewise, to the society of all other creatures, they shun the light, inhabit none but dark and gloomy places, to which, after their nocturnal excursions, they are sure to return by break of day, and in which they remain, fixed, as it were, to the walls, till night again approaches 92 MAMMALIA—BAT. Their motion in the air is with less propriety to be termed a flight, than a kind of uncertain flutter, which they seem to execute by struggles, and in an awkward manner. ‘They raise themselves from the ground with difficul- ty, never soar to a great height, and are but imperfectly qualified to accele- rate, or even to direct, their flight. This, far from being either rapid or very direct, is performed by hasty vibrations in an oblique and winding direction; and in passing along they do not fail to seize all the gnats, moths, and other nocturnal insects that come in their way. These they swallow entire; and in their excrements we meet with the remains of wings and the other dry parts, which they have not been able to digest. Like quadru- peds, the bat brings forth its young alive, and like them it has teeth and nipples. From the observations of Spallanzani, 1t appears that many of the bats possess an additional sense, by which, when deprived of seeing, they are enabled to avoid any obstacles that may be in the way of their flight. It is affirmed that these animals do not produce more than two at a birth, and that these they suckle, and even carry along with them as they fly. They unite in numbers to defend each other from the cold; they pass the winter without awaking, without stirring, and without eating, from the end of autumn till spring. Though they can more easily support hunger than cold, and can even subsist a number of days without food, they yet belong to the number of carnivorous animals; for, when opportunity serves, they will devour bacon, and meat of all kinds, whether raw or roasted, whether fresh or corrupted. * VAMPIRE BATS. Dae ROUsS flies TA E BOGE ET EB 2 AND TEE! (S Pe, CT. RE, BAL. Tue roussette and the rougette seem to form two distinct species, which, however, are so full of resemblances to each other, that they ought not to be presented asunder. The latter differs from the former solely in the size 1 Pteropus vulgaris, Georr. The genus Pteropus has four upper and four lower incisors; two upper and two lower canines ; ten upper and twelve lower molars. Molars with the crown truncated obliquely, and marked with a longitudinal furrow; head, long and conical; ears short, simple, with auricles; no crest or nasal appendage; tail short,or none; interfemoral membrane sloped off. An additional phalanx and nail on the index finger of the wings; tongue papillous. 2 Pteropus stramineus, GEOFF. 3 Phyllostoma spectrum, Lix. The genus Phyllostoma has four upper and four lower incisors ; two upper and two lower canines ; ten upper and ten or twelve lower molars. Lateral incisors very small, the intermediate ones feaier; head, long and conical ; nose with two nasal crests, one like a leaf, the other of a horse-shoe form; ears large, naked, not united. Auricle internal, dentated ; eyes small and lateral; tongue rough with horny papillee ; tail and interfemoral membrane more or less developed. MAMMALIA—BAT. 93 of the body and the colors of the hair. The roussette, whose hair is of a reddish brown, is in length nine inches from the tip of the nose to the inser- tion of the tail, and in breadth three or even four feet, when the membranes, which serve it for wings, are fully extended. The rougette, whose hair is of a reddish ash-color, is hardly more than five inches and a half in length, and two feet in breadth; and its neck is half encircled with a stripe of hair of a lively red, intermixed with orange color, of which we perceive no ves- tige on the neck of the roussette. They both belong nearly to the same hot climates of the old continent. We meet with them in Madagascar, in the island of Bourbon, in Ternate, in the Philippine and other islands of the Indian Archipelago, where, indeed, they seem to be more common than in the neighboring continents. The smell of these creatures 1s ranker than that of a fox, yet the Indians consider them as delicious food, and the French who reside in the Isle of Bourbon, even boil them in their soup to give it a relish! The hair of the vampire bat, interwoven with threads of cyperus squamosus, is used by the natives of New Caledonia for making ropes and the tassels of their clubs. In the hotter countries of the New World, and in some of the islands of the Pacific Ocean, we likewise meet with another flying quadruped, of which we know not the American name, but to which we will affix the denomination of spectre, because it sucks the blood of men, and of animals, while they are asleep, without causing even suflicient pain to awake them. The spectre is smaller than the rougette, which is itself smaller than the roussette. The former, when it flies, seems to be of the size of a pigeon; the second, of the size of a raven; and the third, of the size of a large hen. Of both, the roussette and the rougette, the head is tolerably well shaped ; the ears are short, and the nose is very round, and nearly in form like that of adog. Of the spectre, on the contrary, the nose is more elongated; the aspect is as hideous as that of the ugliest bats; the head is unshapely, and the ears large, very open, and very straight; its nose is disfigured ; its nos- trils resemble a funnel, and have a membrane at the top, which rises up in the form of a sharp horn, or cock’s comb, and greatly heightens the deformi- ty of its face. There is no doubt, therefore, but that the species of the spectre is different ‘rom those of the roussette and the rougette. It is an animal not less mis- cshievous than it is deformed ; it is the pest of man, the torment and destruc- uon of animals. In confirmation of this truth, a more authentic testimony cannot be produced than that of M.de la Condamine. ‘The bats,” says he, “which suck the blood of norses, of mules, and even of men, when they do not guard against it by sleeping under the shelter of a pavilion, are a scourge common to most of the hot countries of America. Of these there are some of a monstrous size. At Borja, and several other places, they have entirely 94 MAMMALIA—BAT. destroyed the large cattle which the missionaries had brought thither, and which had begun to multiply.” The roussette and rougette are larger, stronger, and perhaps yet more mischievous than the spectre; but it is by open force, and in the day as well as in the night, that they commit hostilities. owls and small animals are the objects of their destructive fury; they even attack men, and bite their faces most cruelly. All these bats are animals carnivorous, voracious, and possessed of an appetite for every thing that offers. Ina dearth of flesh or fish, they feed on vegetables and fruits of every kind. As they are fond of the juice of the palm tree, so it is easy to take them by placing in the neighborhood of their retreat a few vessels filled with palm tree water, or any other fermented liquor, with which they intoxicate themselves. They fasten to, and suspend them- selves from trees, with their claws. They are usually seen in troops, and more so by night than by day ; places which are much frequented they shun ; and their favorite residence is in the deserted parts of islands. I have frequently thought it worth while to examine how it is possible that these animals should suck the blood of a person asleep, without causing, at the same time, a pain so sensible as to awake him. Where they cut the flesh with their teeth or with their claws, the pain of the bite would effectu- ally rouse any of the human species, however soundly asleep. With their tongue only, then, it is possible for them to make such minute apertures in the skin, as to imbibe the blood through them, and to open the veins without causing an acute pain. { The tongue of the spectre I have not had an opportunity to observe; but that of several roussettes, which Mr Daubenton has attentively examined, seems to indicate the possibility of the fact. It is sharp, and full of prickles directed backward; and it appears that these prickles, or points, from their exceeding minuteness, may be insinuated into the pores of the skin, may MAMMALIA—BAT. 95 enlarge them, and may penetrate them so deep, as to command a flow of blood by the continual suction of the tongue. But we can only conjecture upon a fact of which all the circumstances are imperfectly known to us, and of which some are perhaps exaggerated, or erroneously related, by the writers who have transmitted them to us. Captain Stedman, while sleeping in the open air in Surinam, was attack- ed by one of the spectre bats. On awaking, about four o’clock in the morning, he was extremely alarmed to find himself weltering in congealed blood, and without feeling any pain. Having started up, he ran to the sur- geon with a firebrand in his hand, and all over besmeared with gore. The cause of his alarm was, however, soon explained. After he had applied some tobacco ashes to the wound, and had washed the gore from himself and his hammock, he examined the place where he had lain, and observed several small heaps of congealed blood upon the ground; on examining which, the surgeon judged that he had lost at least twelve or fourteen ounces. Captain Stedman says, that these animals, knowing by instinct that the person they intend to attack is ina sound slumber, they generally alight near the feet; where, while the creature continues fanning with his enormous wings, which keeps the person cool, he bites a piece out of the tip of the great toe, so very small that the head of a pin could scarcely be received into the wound, which is consequently not painful. Yet, through this orifice, he sucks the blood until he is obliged to disgorge. He then begins again, and thus continues sucking and disgorging till he is scarcely able to fly; and the sufferer has often been known to sleep from time into eternity. The spectre bat generally bites in the ear, but always in places where the blood will flow spontaneously. The following extract is from Waterton : “We will now take a view of thevampire. As there was a free entrance and exit to the vampire in the loft, where I slept, I had a fine opportunity of paying attention to this nocturnal surgeon. He does not always live on blood. When the moon shone bright, and the fruit of the banana tree was ripe, I could see him approach and eatit. He would also bring into the Joft from the forest, a green round fruit, about the size of a nutmeg. There was something also in the blossom of the sawarri nut-tree that was grateful tc him; for on coming up Waratilla creek in a moonlight night, I saw several vampires fluttering round the sawarri tree, and every now and then the blossoms, which they had broken off, fell into the water. So I concluded that the vampires pulled them from the tree, either to get at the incipient fruit, or to catch the insects which often take up their abode in flowers. “The vampire, in general, measures about twenty-six inches from wing to wing extended, though I killed one which measured thirty-two inches. He frequents old houses and hollow trees; and sometimes a cluster of them may be seen in the forest, hanging head downwards from the branch of a (re>. 96 MAMMALIA—BAT. “The vampire has a curious membrane, which rises from the nose, and gives it a singular appearance. There are two species of vampire in Guiana, a larger and a smaller. The larger sucks men and other animals; the smaller seems to confine himself chiefly to birds. I learnt from a gentleman high up on the river Demerara, that he was completely unsuccessful with his fowls on account of the small vampire. He showed me some that had been sucked the night before, and they were scarcely able to walk. “Some years ago, I went to the river Paumaron with a Scotch gentleman, by name Tarbet. We hung our hammocks in the thatched loft of a planter’s house. Next morning, I heard this gentleman muttering in his hammock, and now and then letting fall an imprecation, just about the time he ought to have been saying his morning prayers. ‘ What is the matter, Sir,’ said I softly; ‘is any thing amiss?’ ‘What’s the matter? answered he sullen- ly; ‘why the vampires have been sucking me to death.’ As soon as there was light enough, [ went to his hammock, and saw that it was much stained with blood. ‘There,’ said he, thrusting his foot out of the hammock, ‘see how these infernal imps have been drawing my life’s blood!) On examin- ing his foot, I found the vampire had tapped his great toe: there was a wound somewhat less than that made by a leech; the blood was still oozing from it: I conjectured he might have lost from ten to twelve ounces of blood. Whilst examining it, I think I put him in a worse humor by remark- ing, that an European surgeon would not have been so generous as to have blooded him without making a charge. He looked up in my face, but did not say a word; and I saw he was of opinion that I had better have spared this piece of ill-timed levity.” Of American bats there are five kinds noticed by Godman, viz: the Carolina, hoary, cuneated, subulate, and New York bats. ORDER FOURTH—FERE. Tus order embraces animals with four extremities proper for walking ; three kinds of teeth: mamme abdominal, varying in number, stomach simple, membranous, intestines short. FAMILY I.—INSECTIVORE. Turse have the feet flat, armed with stout nails; those of the hind feet always with five toes, having their sole entirely bearing upon the ground, fore feet generally with five toes; molar teeth crowned with pointed tuber- cles; canines sometimes very long, sometimes very short; incisors variable in number; body covered with hair or prickles. MAMMALIA—HEDGEHOG. OF THE HEDGEHOG.} Tuts animal varies in length from six to ten inches; and has the power of defending itself from an enemy without combating him, and of annoying without attacking him. Possessed of little strength, and of no agility by which it might escape its foes, it has received from nature a prickly armor, with a faculty of rolling itself up into a ball, and of presenting from every part of its body a poignant weapon of defence. Even from its fear this animal obtains another engine of security; the smell of its urine, which, when attacked, it generally sheds, being sufficient to disgust its enemy with the contest, and to keep hin: at a distance. Thus, the generality of dogs are content with barking at the hedgehog, when it falls in their way, with- out discovering any inclination to seize it. Of these, however, there are some, which, like the fox, have had the address to master it, though of the marten, the polecat, the ferret, the weasel, or any of the birds of prey, it has no dread. When at large in the country, they are generally found in woods, under the trunks of old trees, as also in the clefts of rocks. It is not probable that they climb up trees, as some naturalists have affirmed, or that they make use of their prickles to carry off the fruit; it is with their mouth they seize it. They always remain at the foot, in some hollow space, or under moss. They remain in a state of inactivity all day; they only venture abroad by night, and seldom approach human habitations. They sleep during the winter; and therefore every thing that has been said of their laying up pro- visions for that season, must be false. They at no time eat much, and can subsist very long without any food whatever. Hedgehogs are occasionally eaten, and their flesh is said to be delicate food ; their skin is not now con- verted to ‘any use, though the ancients used it for the purpose of a clothes brush. The hedgehog may be rendered domestic, and in that state is very useful in destroying cockroaches and beetles, which he pursues and devours with great activity. He is believed also to destroy mice, nearly if not quite as well as acat. A hedgehog belonging to the proprietor of an inn at Felton, in Northumberland, Eng., was taught to perform perfectly the duty of 9 turnspit dog. Itran familiarly round the house, and was very obedient. “In the month of June, 1782,” says a correspondent in the Gentleman’: Magazine, ‘“‘a full grown hedgehog was put into a small yard, in which was a border of shrubs and annuals. In the course of a few days he formed, beneath a small holly tree, a hole in the earth sufficiently large to receive 1 Erinaceus Europeus,Lrx. The genus Erinaceus has six upper and six lower incisors . two upper and two lower canines; ten upper and eight lower molars ; intermediate wppe: incisors separate, cylindrical ; canines smaller than the molars; body thick, covered wit! prickles above and stiff hairs below, capable of rolling up into a ball; muzzle pointed - ears medium size, or very short and rounded; toes armed with strong nails; tail short «; none; ten mamme, six pectoral, and four ventral; no coreum 5 clavicles complete. 13 98 MAMMALIA—MOUSE. his body. After a while a small shed was built for him in the corner of the yard, and filled with straw; but the animal would not quit its former situa- tion unti. it was covered with a stone. He then took possession of the shed, and every morning carried leaves from a distant part of the border, to stop its mouth. His principal food was raw meat and mice. Of the latter, he would eat six at a time, but never more; and although these were thrown to him dead, he bit them all in the neck before he began to eat any. He would also eat snails with their shells; but would leave any thing for milk, which he lapped exceedingly slow. To this, even if set six or eight yards distant from his shed, he would almost always come out half an hour before his usual time. If the person who usually fed him neglected to do so, he would follow him along the yard; and if the door was open he would go into the house. If meat was put near the mouth of his shed in the day time, he would sometimes pull it in and eat it. As the weather became colder, he carried more leaves into his shed; and sometimes he would not come out for two or three days successively. About the end of November he died; from want of food, as was supposed, but most probably from the severity of the weather.” THE SHREW MOUSE! Is smaller than the domestic mouse: it has a strong smell, which is peculiar to itself, and so offensive to cats, that, though they will cheerfully chase and kill the shrew mouse, yet they will not eat its flesh, like that of the domes- tic mouse. It is evidently this noisome odor, this aversion of the cat to it, that gave rise to the notion, that the shrew mouse is a venomous animal, and that its bite isso dangerous to cattle of all sorts, and particularly to horses. The truth, however, is, that it is neither venomous nor capable of biting ; for it cannot open its mouth sufficiently wide to seize the double thickness of the skin, which is absolutely necessary, in order to bite. The distemper among horses, it is farther to be observed, which the vulgar attri- bute to the tooth of the shrew mouse, is a swelling which proceeds from an internal cause, and has no connection with any bite, or rather scratch, that this little animal may give. In winter, especially, the shrew mouse generally fixes its residence in some hay-loft, stable, or barn, where it feeds on grain, insects, and putrified 1 Sorea arancus, Lin. The genus Sorex has two upper and two lower incisors; six o1 eight upper and four lower spurious canines, or lateral incisors; eight upper and six lower. true molars; upper middle incisors hooked and dentated at base; molars crowned with points; head much elongated; nose prolonged and moveable; ears short, rounded; eyes small, but perceptible ; tail more or less long, often angular; feet with weak toes, sepa- rated, furnished with crooked nails; teats six or eight; sebaceous glands on the sides. MAMMALIA—MOLE. 99 flesh. Itis hkewise found in the woods and fields, where, living on corn, \t sometimes conceals itself under moss or leaves, sometimes under the tranks of trees, sometimes in holes abandoned by moles, and sometimes in holes of a smaller size, which it forms for itself by digging with its claws and snout. The shrew mouse produces, it is said, as many at a birth as the domestic mouse, though less frequently. It has a squeak much more sharp and piercing than the latter. In point of nimbleness, however, it is far inferior ; and as it both sees imperfectly, and runs slowly, there is little difficulty in taking it. The usual color of the shrew is brown, with a mixture of red; others of them are ash-colored; and in all there is a greater or less degree of white- ness upon the belly. They are very common throughout Europe; and in America there are several species of a small’size. Among them are the small shrew, and the short-tailed shrew. The first is found on the Missouri, and the latter on the Rocky Mountains. Godman mentions a third species, and Richardson notices two others, the American marsh shrew, and Foster’s shrew mouse. ‘ THE MOLE) Wirxovut being blind, has such small eyes, and these so concealed, that it was formerly supposed to be able to make but little use of the sense of seeing ; but it is now known that its eyes possess all the qualities necessary to dis- tinct vision. It enjoys also the senses of hearing and feeling in an eminent degree. Its skin is soft as silk; and its paws, which are furnished with five claws, are very different from those of other animals, and almost like the hands of a human being. Proportioned to the size of its body, its strength is great ; it possesses the mild habitudes of repose and of solitude ; the art of securing itself, of forming, instantaneously, as it were, an asylum for itself; or extending it, and of obtaining, without the necessity of relin- quishing it, an abundant subsistence. The mole shuts up the entry to its retreat, which it seldom deserts, unless forced to it by heavy rains in summer. It is fond of cultivated grounds, and is never to be found in those which are either muddy, hard, compact, or stony. It requires a soft soil, well supplied with esculent roots, and witn insects and worms, of which, indeed, its principal nourishment consists. 1 Talpa Europea, Lin. The genus Talpa has six upper and eight lower incisors; two upper and two lower canines; fourteen aus and twelve lower molars. Body thick ; lead elongated, pointed ; muzzle with a cartilaginous button; eyes very small; no external ears ; pentadactylous; fore feet very large, with toes united to the nails, which are strong and slightly arched. , 100 MAMMALIA—MOLE. In skinning the larve of insects, which it always does before it eats them, it displays much expertness ; stripping off the skin from end to end, and squeezing out the contents of the body. As these animals very seldom come above ground, they have put few enemies; and very readily evade the pursuit of animals swifter and stronger than themselves. The chief calamity which befals them is an inundation ; and when this happens, they are seen in numbers attempting to save them- selves by swimming, and using every effort to reach the higher grounds. The greater part, however, perish, as well as the young, which remain behind in their holes. Were it not for such accidents, from their great — ‘eeundity, they would become extremely troublesome. They generally have four or five at a time; and it is easy to distinguish, among other mole hills, that in which the female has brought forth her young. These are made with much greater art than the rest; and are usually larger and more elevated. It is probable they produce oftener than once a year. Thus far, indeed, is certain, that new-born moles are found from the month of April to the month of August; a circumstance which, however, may be owing to their having been engendered and brought forth sooner or later in the year. The hole in which they produce their young is formed with singular skill, and deserves a particular description. The female begins by erecting the earth into a tolerably spacious apartment, which is supported within by partitions at proper distance, to keep the roof from falling. All around this she works, and beats the earth very firm, so as to make it capable of ‘eeping out the rain, let it be never so violent. As the hillock, in which the “apartment is thus formed, is raised above ground, the apartment itself is sonsequently above the level of the plain, and therefore less subject to acci- lental slight inundations. The place being thus fitted, she procures grass ind dry leaves as a bed for her young. There they lie secure from wet, and she continues to make their retreat equally free from danger; for all round this hill of her own raising, are holes running into the earth, which go off from the middle apartment, like rays from a centre, and extend about fifteen feet in every direction. These resemble so many walks or chases, into which the animal makes her subierraneous excursions, and supplies her young with such roots or insects as she can provide; but they contribute still more to the general safety; for as the mole is very quick of hearing, the instant she perceives her little habitation attacked, she takes to her burrow, and unless the earth be dug away by several men at once, she an¢ her young always make good a retreat. Moles live in pairs, between which a warm attachment subsists. They are, however, said to be ferocious, and occasionally to tear and eat eack other. Some authors have said, but without foundation, that the mole and the badger sleep the whole winter. As a proof that the latter quits its hole in MAMMALIA—MOLE. 10] winter as well as in summer, we have only to view the traces it leaves upon the snow. As for the mole, so far is it from sleeping, during the winter, that it continues its subterranean operations then as well as in summer ; and the peasants of France even proverbially remark, that, “when moles are at work, a thaw is at hand.” They are indeed fond of warm places; and the gardeners often catch them round their beds, in the months of Decem- ber, January, and February. In pasture lands, and in nurseries of forest trees, they do considerable mischief. In 1740, M. Buffon planted sixteen acres with acorns, the greater part of which were speedily carried away by the moles. Not less than a bushel of acorns was found in some of their burrows. The common mole of Europe is supposed not to inhabit America. THE SHREW MOL By Is found in abundance in North America, from Canada to Virginia. It lives principally under ground, in which it burrows with great quickness, by means of its strong and broad hands, armed with sharp claws. These bur- rows are sometimes very deep, and hills of loose earth are generally found over them. Sometimes one of these creatures shows his head from the centre of one of the hills at mid-day, for the purpose of enjoying the sun- shine. They form galleries under ground, by which they can travel in any direction. It is said, that they come to the top of the ground daily, at twelve o’clock. This animal is covered with a soft, glossy fur; its head is destitute of external ears, though its sense of hearing is very acute. The eyes are so small as scarcely to be perceived. It has great strength and speed, 1 Scalops Canadensis. The genus Scalops has two incisors above and four below; three conical teeth, and three molars, on each side, in both jaws. Lower incisors conical, straight, with two very small intermediate incisors; first and third upper conical teeth on each side, larger than the second ; molars crowned with sharp tubercles; muzzle prolong- ed and cartilaginous ; ke very small; external ears, none; feet short, pentadactyle, the interior very broad ; nails lorg, fattened, proper for digging ; tail short. 10% MAMMALIA—MOLE...BEAR. even on the surface of the earth, its movement being the same as when burrowing. +. THE GOPHER MOLE, OR CAMAS RAT. Tus animal is found on the Columbia and Missouri rivers. It lives beneath the surface of the earth, and eats roots. The head appears large and clumsy, owing to its cheek pouches. The root of the camas plant is its favorite food, from which it derives its name. It is said by Schoo.craft, to employ its pouches in carrying dirt out of its hole, and Richardson adopts this account as true; but an intelligent individual, who has spent much time in the country which it frequents, assures us that he has often seen the gopher at work, and that it brings up the dirt with its broad feet. The quantity that it will throw out in a short space of time, is truly astonishing. FAMILY I1I.—CARNIVORA, TuesE animals have six incisors in each jaw; molars generally edged ; sometimes tuberculous, never rough, with pointed tubercles on their crown; . te canines very strong. ; THE BROWN BEAR Tue bear is not only a savage, but a solitary animal; he takes refuge in the most unfrequented parts, and the most dangerous precipices of uninhab- ited mountains. He chooses his den in the most gloomy parts of the forest, in some cavern that has been hollowed by time, or in the hollow of some enormous old tree. Thither he retires alone, and passes a part of the win- ter without provisions, or without ever stirring abroad. He is not, however, entirely deprived of sensation, like the dormouse or the marmot, but seems rather to subsist upon the exuberance of his former flesh, and only feels the calls of appetite when the fat he had acquired in summer begins to be con- siderably wasted. When this happens, which we are told it generally does at the expiration of forty or fifty days, the male forsakes his den; but the fernale remains confined for four months, by which time she has breught forth her young. 1 Ursus arctos. The genus Ursus has six upper and six lower incisors; two upper and two lower canines ; four to seven upper, and the same number of lower molars. te cisors of the lower jaw on the same line; posterior molars very strong, with a square crown and blunt tubercles; feet pentadactyle, armed with strong nails; body thick; tail short; mamme six; two pectoral and four ventral. > al MAMMAL{A—BEAR. 103 That the latter should not only be able to subsist, but even to nurse her offspring, without receiving herself any food for such a length of time, is highly improbable. When with young, however, it is allowed that they are exceedingly fat, as also that, being covered with a very thick coat, sleep- ing the greater part of their time, and giving themselves no exercise or motion, they must necessarily lose very little by perspiration. Though the males of the brown species devour their new-born little ones, when they find an opportunity for it, yet the females seem, on the contrary, to love them with a ferocious distraction. When once they have brought forth, their fury is more violent, as well as more dangerous, than that of the males. Before the young leave the womb, their formation is perfect - and if the foetus of the bear appears at the first glance unformed, it is merely because there is a want of proportion in the body and members even of the grown bear, and because, which is well known to be the case in all animals, the foetus, or the new-born animal, is always more disproportioned than the grown animal. i hagas Dis Ni == Se Aig. The voice of the bear is a kind of grow], a harsh murmur, which, when enraged especially, is heightened by a clashing of the teeth. Highly susceptible of anger, that anger is always furious, and often capricious. However mild he may appear before his master, and even obedient when tamed, he ought still to be distrusted, still treated with circumspection ; nor, on any account, must he be struck on the tip of the nose, or touched on © the parts of generation. 104 MAMMALIA—BEAR. This animal is capable of some degree of instruction. There are few who have not seen him stand on his hind legs, or with these dance in rude and awkward measure, to tunes either sung or played on an instrument. But, even in thus tutoring him, it is necessary, in order to succeed, that the animal should be taken young, and be held in constraint ever after. The bear which has passed his youth, is not to be tamed, nor even held in awe, and shows himself, if not actively intrepid, at least fearless of danger. The wild bear turns not from his path, nor offers to shun the sight of man; and yet, it is said, by a certain whistle he may be surprised, and so far charmed as to step, and stand upon his hind feet. This is the time to shoot, or by one method or other to destroy him; for, when only wounded in an attack, he darts with fury at his foe, and, clasping him with his fore paws, is sure to stifle or strangle him, unless immediate assistance be given. The bear enjoys the senses of seeing, hearing, and feeling, in great per- fection; and yet, compared with the size of his body, his eye is very small ; his ears are also short; his skin is coarse; and his hair very thick. His smell is exquisite; more so, perhaps, than that of any other animal, the internal surface of his nose being very extensive, and excellently calculated to receive the impression of odors. He strikes with his paws as a man strikes with his fists; but in whatever particulars he may bear a rude kind of resemblance to the human species, he is only rendered the more de- formed by them; nor do they give him the smallest superiority over other animals. In no part of the world, perhaps, are bears more numerous than at Kam< stchatka, and no where are they so gentle. They rove about the plains in large droves, yet they never disturb the women and girls, who gather roots and herbs, or turf for fuel, in the very midst of them; nay, they will even eat out of their hands. Their mildness, however, does not preserve them from being persecuted by mankind. For this ingratitude man has, indeed, some excuse in the great utility of the spoils of the bear. The Kamstcha- dale would find it much more difficult to subsist, did not the bear supply him with many necessary articles. Beds, coverlets, caps, gloves, shoe- soles, and collars for sledge dogs, are made of the skin; the fat is savory and nutritious as food, and when melted is used as oil; the flesh is highly esteemed; the shoulder blades are converted into sickles for cutting grass the intestines, when prepared, are worn by the women as masks, to protect the face from the sun, and are also converted into excellent panes for win- dows; and the heads and haunches are hung on trees, around the dwellings, as ornaments, or as trophies. To the bear the Kamstchadale is likewise indebted for his scanty knowledge of physic and surgery, which he acquires by noticing what herbs the animal applies to his wounds, or eats when he is laboring under disease; and to the bear, too, he owes all his ideas of MAMMALIA—BEAR. 105 danemg; his bear dance, as he calls it, being nothing more than a close imitation of his shaggy quadruped instructors. Th« brown bear is upwards of four feet long. He inhabits Europe and the mperate parts of Asia. / THE GRIZZLY BEAR. =f $9 =i ae Tuts animal inhabits the northern part of America, and is, perhaps, the most formidable of all bears in magnitude and ferocity. He averages twice the bulk of the black bear, to which, however, he bears some resemblance n his slightly elevated forehead, and narrow, flattened, elongated muzzle. His canine teeth are of great size and power. The feet are enormously large; the breadth of the fore foot exceeding nine inches, and the length of the hind foot, exclusive of the talons, being eleven inches and three quarters, and its breadth seven inches. The talons sometimes measure more than six inches. He is, accordingly, admirably adapted for digging up the ground, but is unable to climb trees, in which latter respect he differs wholly from every other species. The color of his hair varies to almost an indefi- nite extent, between all the intermediate shades of a light gray and a black brown; the latter tinge, however, being that which predominates. It is always in some degree grizzled, by intermixture of grayish hairs, only the brown hairs being tipped with gray. The hair itself is, in general, longer, finer, and more exuberant than that of the black bear. The neighborhood of the Rocky Mountains is one of the principal haunts of this animal. There, amidst wooded plains, and tangled copses of bough and underwood, he reigns as much the monarch, as the lion is of the sandy wastes of Africa. Even the bison cannot withstand his attack. Such is his muscular strength, that he will drag the ponderous carcass of the animal ‘9 a convenient spot, where he digs a pit for its reception. The Indians 1 Ursus ferox, Lewis & Clarke. 14 106 MAMMALIA—BEAR. - regard him with the utmost terror. His extreme tenacity of life renders him still more dangerous; for he can endure repeated wounds which would be instantaneously mortal to other beasts, and, in that state, can rapidly pursue his enemy. So that the hunter who fails to shoot him through the brain, is placed in a most perilous situation. One evening the men in the hindmost of one of Lewis and Clark’s canoes perceived one of these bears lying in the open ground about three hundred paces from the river; and six of them, who were all good hunters, went to attack him. Concealing themselves by asmall emimence, they were able to approach within forty paces unperceived ; four of the hunters now fired, and each lodged a ball in his body, two of which passed directly through the lungs. The bear sprang up and ran furiously with open mouth upon them ; two of the hunters, who had reserved their fire, gave him two additional wounds, and one breaking his shoulder-blade, somewhat retarded his mo- tions. Before they could again load their guns, he came so close on them, that they were obliged to run towards the river, and before they had gained it the bear had almost overtaken them. Two men jumped into the canoe ; the other four separated, and concealing themselves among the willows, fired as fast as they could load their pieces. Several times the bear was struck, but each shot seemed only to direct his fury towards the hunter; at last, he pursued them so closely that they threw aside their guns and pouches, and jumped from a perpendicular bank, twenty feet high, into the river. The bear sprang after them, and was very near the hindmost man, when one of the hunters on the shore shot him through the head and finally killed him. When they dragged him on shore, they found that eight balls had passed through his body in different directions. On another occasion, the same enterprising travellers met with the largest bear of this species they had ever seen; when they fired he did not attempt to attack, but fled with a tremendous roar, and such was his tenacity of life, that although five balls had passed through the lungs, and five other wounds were inflicted, he swam more than half across the river to a sand bar, and survived more than twenty minutes. Mr John Dougherty, a very experienced and respectable hunter, who accompanied Major Long’s party during their expedition to the Rocky ' Mountains, several times very narrowly escaped from the grizzly bear. Once while hunting with another person on one of the upper tributaries to the Missouri, he heard the report of his companion’s rifle, and when he looked round, beheld him at a short distance endeavoring to escape from one of these bears, which he had wounded as it was coming towards him. Dougherty, forgetful of every thing but the preservation of his friend, hasten- ed to call off the attention of the bear, and arrived in rifle-shot distance just in time to effect his generous purpose. He discharged his ball at the ani- mal, and was obliged in his turn to fly; his friend, relieved from immediate danger, prepared for another attack by charging his rifle, with which he “ MAMMALIA—BEAR. 107 again wounded the bear, and saved Mr D. from further peril. Neither re- ceived any injury from this encounter, in which the bear was at length killed. Mr Dougherty, the hunter before mentioned, relates the following in- stance of the great muscular strength of the grizzly bear :— Having ki led a bison, and left the carcass for the purpose of procuring assistance to skin and cut it up, he was very much surprised on his return to find that it had been dragged off, whole, to a considerable distance, by a grizzly bear, and had been placed in a pit, which the animal had dug with his claws for its reception. THE AMERICAN BLACK BEAR. Tuts animal is found in considerable numbers, in the northern districts of America. In size and form he approaches nearest to the brown bear; but his color is a uniform shining jet black, except on the muzzle, where it is fawn colored; on the lips and sides of the mouth it is almost gray. The hair, except on the muzzle, is long and straight, and is less shaggy than in most other species. The forehead has a slight elevation, and the muzzle is elongated, and somewhat flattened above. The young ones, however, are first of a bright ash color, which gradually changes into a deep brown, and ends by becoming a deep black. The American black bear lives a solitary life in forests and uncultivated deserts, and subsists on fruits, and on the young shoots and roots of vegeta- bles. Of honey he is exceedingly fond, and, as he is a most expert climber, he scales the loftiest trees in search of it. Fish, too, he delights in, and is often found in quest of them on the borders of lakes and on the sea-shore. —s 1 Ursus Ameri anus, Des. 105 MAMMALIA—BEAR. When these resources fail, he will attack small quadrupeds, and even ani mals of some magnitude. As, indeed, is usual in such cases, the love of flesh in him grows with the use of it. As the fur is of some value, the Indians are assiduous in the chase of the creature which produces it. ‘‘ About the end of December, from the abund- ance of fruits they find in Louisiana and the neighboring countries, the bears become so fat and lazy that they can scarcely run. At this time they are hunted by the American Indians. The nature of the chase is generally this: the bear chiefly adopts for his retreat the hollow trunk of an old cypress tree, which he climbs, and then descends into the cavity from above. The hunter, whose business it is to watch him into his retreat climbs a neigh- poring tree, and seats himself opposite to the hole. In one hand he holds his gun, and in the other a torch, which he darts into the cavity. Frantic with rage and terror, the bear makes a spring from his station; but the hunter seizes the instant of his appearance, and shoots him. “The pursuit of these animals is a matter of the first importance to some ot the Indian tribes, and is never undertaken without much ceremony. A principal warrior gives a general invitation to all the hunters. This is fol- lowed by a strict fast of eight days, in which they totally abstain from food ; but during which the day is passed in continual song. This is done to in- voke the spirits of the woods to direct the hunters to the places where there are abundance of bears. They even cut the flesh in divers parts of their bodies, to render the spirits more propitious. They also address themselves to the spirits of the beasts slain in preceding chases, and implore these to direct them in their dreams to an abundance of game. ‘The chief of the hunt now gives a great feast, at which no one dares to appear without first bathing. At this entertainment, contrary to their usual custom, they eat with great moderation. The master of the feast touches nothing; but is employed in relating to the guests ancient tales of feats in former chases; and fresh invocations to the spirits of the deceased bears conclude the whole. “They then sally forth, equipped as if for war, and painted black; and they proceed on their way in a direct line, not allowing rivers, marshes, or any other impediment, to stop their course, and driving before them all the beasts they find. When they arrive at the hunting ground, they surround as large a space as they can; and then contract their circle, searching at the same time every hollow tree, and every place capable of being the retreat of a bear; and they continue the same practice till the chase is expired, ~ “ As soon as a bear is killed, a hunter puts into his mouth a lighted pipe of tobacco, and blowing into it, fills the throat with the smoke, conjuring the spirit of the animal not to resent what they are about to do to its body, or to render their future chases unsuccessful. As the beast makes no reply, they cut out the string of the tongue, and throw it into the fire. Ifit crackle and shrivel up (which it is almost sure to do,) they accept this as MAMMALIA—BEAR. 109 a good omen; if not, they consider that the spirit of the beast is nct appeas- ed, and that the chase of the next year will be unfortunate.” In the Tower Menagerie of London, there isa very tame and playful American bear, which was presented to it in 1824. He was originally in the same den with the hyzna, and, except at feeding times, was on good terms with his companion. A piece of meat, however, would occasiunally produce a temporary dissension between them; in which the hyena, though the smallest of the two, had usually the upper hand. On such occasions, the defeated bear would moan most piteously, in a tone somewhat like a sheep bleating, while the hyena devoured the remainder of his*dinner.* ? en EW Beer OR) PO AR BE AR Tae polar bear is distinguished by his tremendous ferocity. It some- times reaches the length of twelve feet. Its head and neck are more * When our forefathers first settled in America, bears were common in all parts of the country along the Atlantic. Many adventures with them took place, some of which are ores in the histories of the times. The following is said to have occurred at a later period : Some years since, when the western part of New-York was in a state of nature, and wolves and bears were not afraid of being seen, some enterprising pilgrim had erected and put in operation a saw-mill, on the banks of the Genesee. One day as he was sitting on the log, eating his bread and cheese, a large black bear came from the woods towards the mill. The man, leaving his luncheon on the log, made a spring, and seated himself uu a beam above ; when the bear, mounting the log, sat down with his rump towards the saw, whicn was in operation, and commenced his appetite on the man’s dinner. After a little while, the saw approached near enough to interfere with the feathers on Bruin’s back, and he hitched along a little and kept on eating. Again the saw came up, and scratched a little flesh. The bear then whirled about, and throwing his paws around the saw, held on till he was mangled through and through, when he rolid off, fell through into the flood, and bled to death. ? Ursus maritimus, Lu. 110 MAMMALIA-—BEAR. lengthened than that of the brown bear, and the body is longer in proportion to its bulk. In the Polar seas it may literally be said to swarm. There, it is seen not only on the land and fixed ice, but on floating ice several leagues out at sea Inthe latter manner, white bears are sometimes conveyed to Iceland, wnere they are so much dreaded by the inhabitants that a crusade is immediately commenced against them. At sea, the food of this animal is fish, seals, and the carcases of whales; on land, it preys upon deer and otaer animals, and will eat various kinds of berries. In winter, it beds itself deeply under the snow or eminences of ice, and awaits, in a torpid state; the return of the sun. It suffers exceedingly when exposed to great heat. ¥ Of the ferocity of the Polar bear, Barentz gives a striking proof. In Nova Zembla they attacked his sailors, carried them off in their mouths with the utmost facility, and devoured them in sight of their comrades. A few years ago, some sailors in a boat, fired at and wounded one. In spite of his receiving another shot, he swam after the boat, and endeavored to climb into it. One of his feet was cut off with a hatchet, but he still pursued the aggressors to the ship. Numerous additional wounds did not check his fury; mutilated as he was, he ascended the ship’s side, drove the sailors into the shrouds, and was following them thither, when a mortal shot stretched him dead on the deck. But even this formidable animal is not without its good qualities. Itisa faithful mate and an affectionate parent. Hearne tells us that, at certain seasons of the year, the males are so much attached to their mates, that he has often seen one of them, on a female being killed, come and put his paws over her, and rather suffer himself to be shot than abandon her. “While the Carcase frigate, which went out some years ago to make discoveries towards the North Pole, was locked in the ice, early one morn- ing the man at the mast-head gave notice that three bears were making their way very fast over the frozen ocean, and were directing their course towards the ship. They had, no doubt, been invited by the scent of some blubber of a walrus that the crew had killed a few days before; which had been set on fire, and was burning on the ice at the time of their approach. They proved to be a she bear and her two cubs; but the cubs were nearly as large as the dam. They ran eagerly to the fire, and drew out of the flames part of the flesh of the walrus that remained unconsumed, and ate it voraciously. The crew from the ship threw upon the ice great lumps of the flesh of the sea horse, which they had still remaining. These the old bear fetched away singly, laid every lump before her cubs as she brought it, and dividing it, gave to each a share, reserving but a small portion to her- self. As she was fetching away the last piece, the sailors levelled their muskets at the cubs, and shot them both dead; and in her retreat they wounded the dam, but not mortally. It would have drawn tears of pity from any but unfeeling minds, to have marked the affectionate concern ex- MAMMALIA—BEAR. lil pressed by this poor beast in the last moments of her expiring young ones. Though she was herself dreadfully wounded, and could but just crawl to the place where they lay, she carried the lump of flesh she had fetched away, as she had done others before, tore it in pieces and laid it before them ; and when she saw that they refused to eat, she laid her paws first upon one and then upon the other, and endeavored to raise them up. When she found she could not stir them, she went off, and when she had got to some distance, she looked back and moaned. Finding this to no purpose, she returned, and, smelling round them, began to lick their wounds. She went off a second time as before; and, having crawled a few paces, looked again behind her, and for some time stood moaning. But still her cubs not rising to follow her, she returned to them again; and, with signs of inex- pressible fondness, went round pawing them and moaning. Finding at last that they were cold and lifeless,-she raised her head towards the ship, and uttered a growl of despair, which the murderers returned with a volley of musket balls. She fell between her cubs, and died licking their wounds.” Mr Scoresby mentions a singular circumstance with respect to a part of this animal. ‘The liver, I may observe, as a curious fact,” says he, “‘is hurtful, and even deleterious ; while the flesh and liver of the seal, on which it chiefly feeds, are nourishing and palatable. Sailors who have inadver- tently eaten the liver of bears, have almost always been sick after it: some have actually died; and the effects on others has been to cause the skin to peal off their bodies. This is, perhaps, almost the only instance known of any part of the flesh of a quadruped proving unwholesome.” Dae LAR GS EPP ED BEAR! Tuis animal, which was first brought from India about forty years ago, was at first misnamed the five-fingered, or ursine sloth. It has, however, 1 Ursus labiatus, Desm. 112 MAMMALIA—BEAR. nothing in common with the family of the sloths, but is a genuine bear. This curious quadruped is said to have been brought from the interior part of Bengal, where it burrows in the ground. It is covered with black, shag gy hair, which on the back is twelve inches long, where it divides ana forms a kind of bunch. The hair on its head is short, and the snout is of a yellowish white. The tail is so short as to be scarcely visible. Its lips are thin and very long, and furnished with muscles, by which it can protrude them in a most singular manner. Its legs and feet resemble those of the common bear, and on each foot it has five long, crooked, white ciaws, which it uses either together or separately, like fingers to break its food, and convey it to the mouth. It has no cutting teeth, but two very strong canine teeth, and six grinders in each jaw. It isa gentle but sluggish animal, and feeds on bread, fruit, nuts, honey, or fat; but refuses roots, and the lean and muscular parts of flesh. in general, its motions are slow and languid; but when disturbed or irritated 1t appears rather lively, and utters a kind of short, abrupt roar THE BORNEAN BEAR.! In one point, this native of Borneo differs strikingly from the other bears. Its head, instead of being flattened, is nearly hemispherical above, rising in a strong arch, immediately behind its obtuse and gradually attenuated nose. Its mouth is very expansible, and hasa long, narrow, extensile tongue, which the owner can protrude nearly a foot, and then curve spirally is- wards ; a process which it frequently performs. The claws are very long, 1 Ursus malaianus, Horsr. MAMMALIA—BEAR. 113 firmly arched, tapering gradually to the point, and well calculated for digging the earth. Its short, glistening fur, rather rigid, yet soft to the touch, is a fine jet black on the body, head, and extremities. The muzzle is of a yellowish brown, and the anterior part of the neck has a large, broad patch, of a more bright and nearly orange tint, and an irregular quadrangu- lar form, deeply notched above. From the muzzle to the tail, one individual measured three feet nine inches. “Tt arrived in this country,” says the author of the ‘Tower Menagerie, “about four years ago; and formed, until lately, one of the most attractive and interesting spectacles, among the animals confined in the menagerie. It was brought from Borneo when very young, and during its passage was the constant associate of a monkey, and of several other young animals. It was thus domesticated in early life, and its manners in confinement greatly resembled those of the Malayan bear, observed by Sir Stamford Raffles, to which it was probably not inferior in sagacity or intellect. It could rest entirely on its posterior feet, and could even raise itself without difficulty, to a nearly erect posture; but was more generally seen in a sitting attitude at the door of its apartment, eagerly surveying the visiters, and attracting their attention by the uncouthness of its form, and the singularity of its motions. When amorsel of bread or cake was held at a small distance beyond its reach, it would thrust forward its upper lip as a proboscis, in a most ludicrous manner, at the same time making use of its paws to seize the object. After obtaining it and filling its mouth, it would place the re- mainder with great calmness on its posterior feet, and bring it in successive portions to its mouth. When craving for food, and also while consuming it, it emitted a coarse, but not unpleasant, whining sound, accompanied by a low, grunting noise; but if teased at this time, it would suddenly raise its voice to a harsh, grating tone. It was excessively voracious, and appeared disposed to eat almost without cessation; a propensity which finally cost it its life, having overgorged itself at breakfast one morning in the summer, during the hot weather, and dying within ten minutes afterwards. On seeing its keeper, it would often place itself in a variety of attitudes, to court his attention and caresses, extending its nose and anterior feet, or, suddenly turning round, exposing its back and waiting for several minutes in this posture with its head placed on the ground. It delighted in being patted and rubbed, even by strangers; but violently resented abuse and ill treatment. Its principal food was bread.” 15 114 MAMMALIA—BEAR. THE THIBET, BEARS Tuts species, unless Cuvier and others are in error, is also to be found in Sumatra. It is particularly distinguished from the Malay and the large lipped bears, by the thickness of its neck, and the flatness of its head. It has a compact body and heavy limbs, and its claws are little more than aalf as long as those of the other Indian bears. The ears are very large © The muzzle is moderately thick, and somewhat lengthened; the upper par! black, with a slightly reddish tint on the sides; the edges of the lips flesh colored, and the hair smooth. From the back part of the head, however, the hair becomes shaggy. A uniform jet black is its invariable color, except on the lower lip, which is white ; and so also is a patch on the front of the neck, shaped like the letter Y, the oblique lines of which pass in front of the shoulders, while the lower line occupies the middle of the chest. M. Duvaucel considers the Thibet bear to be somewhat ferocious. But the animal from which the cut was drawn, was tolerably tame, and was exceedingly fond of play in his own uncouth manner. He lived on bread and fruits, and nothing could induce him to taste flesh, either raw or cooked. 1 Ursus thibetanus, Cuv. MAMMALIA—RACCOON. 15 THE RACCOON. THE raccoon is a native of most parts of North America; but it,has never yet been found on the Old Continent. Buffon asserts that it is common in South America, but we believe it has never been found farther south than Mexico. It is an animal of about the same size as a small badger; its body is short and bulky; its fur is fine, long, thick, blackish at the surface, and gray towards the bottom ; its head is like that of the fox, but its ears are round and shorter ; its eyes are large, of a yellowish green, and over them there is a black and transverse stripe; its snout is sharp; its tail is thick, but taper- ing towards a point, and marked alternately from one end to the other with black and white, and brownish rings, and is at least as long as the body: its fore legs are much shorter than the hind ones, and both are armed with five strong, sharp claws. It inhabits the southern parts of the fur districts, being found as far north _as Red river, in latitude fifty degrees, from which quarter about one hundred skins are procured annually, by the Hudson’s Bay Company. [If there is no mistake as to the identity of the species, the raccoon extends farther north on the shores of the Pacific than it does on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains. Dixon and Portlock obtained cloaks of raccoon skins from the natives of Cook’s river, in latitude sixty degrees; and skins supposed to be of the raccoon, were also seen at Nootka Sound, by Captain Cook. Lewis 1 Procyon lotor, Lrxy. The genus Procyon has six upper and six lower incisors; two tipper and two lower canines; twelve upper and §alvellwer molars. Lower incisors on the same line ; the three posterior molars tuberculous ; feet pentadactyle; nails sharp; muzzle pointed ; ears small; tail long; six ventral mamme. 116 MAMMALIA—RACCOON. and Clarke expressly state that the raccoon, at the mouth of the Columbia, is the same with the animal so common in the United States. Desmarest says that the raccoon extends as far south as Paraguay. It is an animal, with a fox-like countenance, but with much of the gait of a bear, and being partially plantigrade, it was classed by Linneus in the genus Ursus. In the wild state, it sleeps by day, comes from its retreat in the evening, and prowls in the night in search of roots, fruits, green corn, birds, and insects. It is said to eat merely the brain, or suck the blood of such birds as it kills. A lew water, it frequents the sea shore to feed on crabs and oysters. It is fond of dipping its food into water before it eats, which occasioned Linneus to give it the specific name of lotor. It climbs trees with facility. The fur of the racoon is used in the manufacture of hats, and its flesh, when it has been fed on vegetables, is reported to be good. He may be tamed without difficulty, and is then very good-natured and sportive, but is as mischievous as a monkey, and seldom remains at rest. Of ill treatment he is extremely sensible, and never forgives those from whom he has received it. He has also an antipathy to sharp and harsh sounds, such as the bark of a dog and the ery of a child. We shall insert here, the greater part of a letter written by M. Blanquart de Salines, to Count de Buffon, on the correctness of which full reliance may be placed. “My raccoon was always kept chained before he came into my possession, and in this captivity he seemed sufficiently gentle, though not caressing ; all the inmates of the house paid him the same attention, but he received them differently ; treatment he would submit to from one person, invariably offended him when offered by another. When his chain was occasionally broken, liberty rendered him insolent; he took possession of his apartment, suffering no one to approach him, and was with difficulty again confined. During his stay with me, his confinement was frequently suspended ; with- out loosing of him, I allowed him to walk about with his chain on, and he expressed his gratitude by various movements. It was otherwise when he escaped by his own efforts: he would then ramble for three or four days together over the neighboring roofs, and only descend at night into the yards, enter the hen-roosts and destroy the poultry, especially the Guinea fowls, eating nothing but their heads. His chain did not render him less sanguinary, though it made him more circumspect: he then employed stratagem, allowing the poultry to familiarize themselves with him by par- taking of his food; nor was it until he had induced them to feel in perfect security, that he would seize a fowl and tear it in pieces; he also killed lattens in the same manner. “Tf the raccoon be not very grateful for favors received, he 1s singularly sensible of bad treatment; a servant one day struck him some blows with a stick, and often afterwards vainly endeavored to conciliate him, by offering eggs and shrimps, of which the animal was very fond. At the approach of MAMMALIA—COATI. Lai this servant, he became enraged, and with sparkling eyes would spring towards him, making violent outcries; under such circumstances, he would accept of nothing, until his enemy had with drawn. The voice of the raccoon, when enraged, is very singular, sometimes resembling the whistling of a curlew, and at others the hoarse barking of an old dog. When struck by any one, or attacked by an animal stronger than himself, he offered no resistance ; like the hedge-hog, he hid his head and paws, by rolling his body in form of a ball, and would have suffered death in that position. I have observed that he never left hay nor straw in his bed, preferring to sleep on the boards; when litter was given, he threw it away immediately. He did not seem very sensible to cold, and passed two out of three winters exposed to all the rigors of the season, and did well, notwithstanding he was frequently covered with snow. Ido not think he was solicitous to receive warmth; during some frosts, I gave him separately warm water and water almost frozen, to soak his food in, and he always preferred the latter. He was at liberty to sleep in tke stable, but often ~preferred passing- the night in the open yard.” THE. BROWN COAT IAS a "ae 5 2 vue SSE OOS oe a ae Tus animal, of which we are now about to treat, many authors have called coatimundi. It is very different from the animal described in the pre- ceding article. It is of a smaller size than the raccoon; its body and neck, its head and nose, are of a more lengthened form; its upper jaw is an inch, or an inch anda half longer than the lower one, and its snout, which is moveable in every direction, turns up at the point. The eyes of the coati are also smaller than the eyes of the raccoon, and are surrounded by three 1 Nasua fusca. The genus Nasua has six upper and six lower .acisors; two upper and two lower canines; twelve upper and twelve lower molars. Lower incisors on the same line; three posterior molars, tuberculous ; feet pentadactyle, armed with strong nails; nose much prolonged and moveable; tail long; six ventral mamme. 118 MAMMALIA—BADGER. white spots; its hair is longer and coarser, its legs are shorter, and its feet longer; but, like the raccoon, its tail is diversified with rings, alternately black and fulvous; and to all its feet there are five claws. This animal has a practice of eating its own tail, which, when not muti- lated, is longer than its body, and which it generally rears aloft, and can move with ease in any direction.* As for the coati in other respects, it is an animal of prey, which subsists on Mesh and blood, which, like the fox, destroys small animals and poultry, huts for the nests of little birds, and devours their eggs; and it is probable fre-a this conformity of disposition, that some authors have considered the ca «iasa species of smal! fox. It inhabits the woods of South America. li pursuit of its prey, it climbs trees with much agility. When tamed, w chit easily is, it is fond of being caressed, but does not become much 3 ched to its owner. THE EUROPEAN: BADGE Rt Wi any x BENS SAL MWA Hay) WN ; ; i oa \ yy 7i\\) Murai iN \\ Sea wall 1 ol SS 1) we is a lazy, distrustful, solitary animal, that retires far from the approach oi * Godman says, “It has been considered very wonderful that this animal should eat its ewn tail, which certainly appears to be the fact. ‘The extreme length of its tail, in which the blood circulates but feebly, exposes it to the influence of the cold or frost; and the exceedingly tormenting irritation produced thereby, leads the animal to gnaw and scratch the tail to relieve the excessive itching. The disease spreads, and the anguish induces the coatimundi to gnaw more furiously, and eventually his life is destroyed by the exten- sion of the inflammation and irritation to the spine, &c.”, 1 Taxus vulgaris. The genus Tarus has six upper and six lower incisors ; two upper and two lower canines: ten upper and twelve lower molars. The first molar very sma.l, MAMMALIA—BADGER. 119 man, and digs a subterraneous residence, where it spends, at least, three tourths of its existence, and never ventures forth but in search of food. it burrows in the ground with particular facility, as its body is rather of an oblong form, and its claws, those especially of the fore feet, are very long und compact. The hole which it thus forms often proceeds to a great depth below the surface of the earth, and the passage to it is always oblique and winding. The fox, who is less expert at such excavations, often appropriates to his own convenience the labors of the badger. Unable to compel him from his retreat by force, it drives him from it dy stratagem, often remains a fixed sentinel at the mouth of the passage, disturbs it, and, as an infallible expedient, it is said, emits his ordure. The badger gone, he immediately assumes possession of it, enlarges it, and every way accommodates it to his own purpose. Though forced to remove to another habitation, this animal does not, however, remove to another coun- try. Ata little distance from its old burrow, it forms a new one, from which it never stirs but at night. ‘The dogs easily overtake it when it is at any distance from its hole, and then, using all its strength, and all its pow- ers of resistance, it throws itself upon its back, and defends itself with desperate resolution. It has one single advantage over its assailants. The skin is so thick, and especially so loose, that the teeth of the dogs can make little impression on it, and the badger can turn himself round in it, so as to bite them in their tenderest parts. The young badgers are easily tamed; they will play with young dogs, and, like them, will follow any person whom they know, and from whom they receive their food; but the old ones, in spite of every effort, still remain wild. They are neither mischievous nor voracious, as the fox and the wolf are, yet they are carnivorous; and though raw meat is their favorite food, yet they will eat any thing that comes in their way, as flesh, eggs, cheese, butter, bread, fish, fruit, nuts, roots, &e.. They sleep the.greater part of their time, without, however, being subject, like the mountain rat or the dormouse, to a torpor during the winter; and thus it is that though they feed moderately, yet they are always fat. Their hole they keep exceedingly clean, nor are they ever known to void their ordure in it. The male is rarely to be found with the female. In summer she brings forth, and her usual number at a birth is three or four. These she feeds at first with her milk, and afterwards with such petty prey as she can surprise. She seizes young rabbits in the warren, robs birds of their young, while yet in the nest, finds out where the wild bees have laid up their honey, where field-mice, lizards, serpents, and grasshoppers are to the second and third pointed, the fourth cutting on the external side, the fifth tuberculous and large; body low upon the legs; pentadactyle; nails robust; tail short; an anal pouch, containing a fetid secretion. 120 MAMMALIA—BADGER. be met with; and carries all to her expecting brood, which she frequently prings forward to the mouth of her hole. These animals are naturally of a chilly temperament. Such as are rear ed in a house seem to be never more happy than when near a fire. They are likewise very subject to the mange; and, unless carefully washed, the dogs that penetrate into their burrows are seized with the same distemper The hair of the badger is always filthy; between the anus and the tai there is an opening, which, though it has no communication with any inte rior part, and is hardly an inch deep, continually emits an oily liquid This the animal is fond of sucking. Its flesh, when the animal is well fed, makes excellent hams and bacon; and of its skin are made coarse furs, col lars for dogs, and trappings for horses. The hair is used for painters brushes. THE AMERICAN BADGER. ae - = = ~ SS ceo — ae S Tue American badger, as compared with the European, is generally less in size, and of a lighter make; the head, though equally long, is not so sharp towards the nose, and the markings on the fur are remarkably diffe- rent. A narrow white line runs from between the eyes towards the back, the rest of the upper part of the head is brown, the throat and whole under jaw are white, the cheeks partly so; a semicircular brown spot is placed between the light part of the cheeks, and the ears. The American badger frequents the sandy plains or prairies, which skirt the Rocky Mountains, as far north as latitude fifty-eight degrees. It abounds on the plains watered by the Missouri, but its exact southern range has not, as far as I know, been defined by any traveller. The sand prairies, in the neighborhood of Carlton-house, on the banks of the Saskatchewan, and also on the Red River, that flows into Lake Winnipeg, are perforated by innumerable badger-holes, which are a great annoyance to horsemen, particularly when the ground is covered with snow. Whilst the ground is covered with snow, the badger rarely comes from its hole; and I suppose that in that climate it passes the winter from the neginning of November to April, in a torpid state. Indeed, as it obtains he small animals on which it feeds by surprising them in their burrows, it 1 Taxus Labradorica. MAMMALIA WOLVERENE. 121 has little chance of digging them out at a time when the ground is frozen into a solid rock. Like the bears, the badgers do not lose much flesh dur- ing their long hibernation; for on coming abroad in the spring, they are observed to be very fat. As they pair, however, at that season, they soon become lean. This badger is a slow and timid animal, taking to the first earth it comes to, when pursued; and as it makes its way through the sandy soil with the rapidity of a mole, it soon places itself out of the reach of danger. The strength of its fore feet and claws is so great, that one which had insinuated only its head and shoulders into a hole, resisted the utmost efforts of two stout young men, who endeavored to drag it out by the hind legs and tail, until one of them fired the contents of his fowling piece into its body. Early in the spring, however, when they first begin to stir abroad, they may be easily caught by pouring water into their holes; for the ground being frozen at that period, the water does not escape through the sand, but soon fills the hole, and its tenant is obliged to come out. The American badger appears to be a more carnivorous animal than the European one. EEL EAN A Oe Is a tall, beautifully formed animal, usually of a reddish or brown color, which was anciently in high esteem in England. His employ was to recover any game that had escaped wounded from the hunter, or had been stolen out of the forest; but he was still more serviceable in hunting thieves and robbers by their footsteps. For the latter purpose they are now almost disused in that country; but they are still sometimes employed in the royal forests to track deer stealers, and on such occasions they display an extraordinary sagacity and acuteness of scent. In the Spanish West India islands, however, they are constantly used in the pursuit of criminals, and are accompanied by officers called chasseurs. 1 C, domesticus. MAMMALIA—DOG. 141 THE AFRICAN BLOOD-HOUND. Two males and a female of this species—a species which is remarkaole for its elegance and its sagacity, were brought to England, from Africa, by Major Denham. While he was in that country he frequently employed them in hunting the gazelle; in performing which they displayed infinite skill. After a lapse of an hour and a half, or even two hours, they would follow the scent ; and they would often quit the line of it, to cut off a double, or, in other words, to shorten the distance, and would recover it with the greatest ease. This dog is used in Africa to track a flying foe to his retreat. Captivity has rendered the female surly, and has deprived the whole of them of the desire to perpetuate their race. THE HY ANA DOG! Bo Tus dog is a native of Southern Africa, and isa serious nuisance to the frontier settlements at the Cape. It hunts in packs, generally at night, and is exceedingly fierce, swift, and active. Sheep, it unhesitatingly attacks, but it is less daring with respect to the horse and the ox, and, accordingly, —_——- 1 Canis pictus, Desm. 142 MAMMALIA—WOLF. ww it waits till the animal is asleep. The injuries which it inflicts are usually mortal. To bite off the tail of the ox seems to be its delight. The hyena dog is smaller and slenderer than the hyena, or the wolf. In color it is of a reddish or yellowish brown, variously mottled, along the sides of the body, and on the legs, in large patches of intermingled black and white. From its completely black nose and muzzle, a strong black line passes up the centre of the forehead to between the ears, which are very large, black on both surfaces, and furnished with a broad and expanded tuft of long, whitish hairs, filling a considerable part of their concavity. Its tail, of moderate length, is covered with long bushy hair, divided in the middle by a ring of black. Its ferocity seems to be untamable. Mr Burchell, who first carried it to England, kept one for twelve months, at the end of which veriod even its feeder did not dare to lay his hand upon it. THE WOLF.! WELL 46 2 AOR™ ‘Tne wolf, as well externally as internally, so nearly resembles the dog, that he seems modelled upon the same plan; and yet he only offers the reverse of the image. If his form be similar, his nature is different; ana indeed they are so unlike in their dispositions, that no two animals can have a more perfect antipathy to each other. A young dog shudders at the sight of a wolf; a dog who is stronger, and who knows his strength, bristles up at the sight, testifies his animosity, attacks him with courage, endeavors to put him to flight, and does all in his power to rid himself of a presence that is hateful to him. They never meet without either flying from, or fighting with each other. Ifthe wolt is the stronger, he tears and devours his prey ; the dog, on the contrary, is more generous, and contents himself with his victory. The dog, even in his savage state, is not cruel ; he is easily tamed, and continues firmly attached to his master. The wolf, when taken young, becomes tame, but never has an attachment. Nature is stronger in him than education ; he resumes, with age, his natural dispositions, and returns, 2s soon as he can, to the woods whence he was taken. Cuvier, however. ~_—— -— 1 Canis lupus, Lin. MAMMALIA—WOLF. 143 gives a remarkable instance, in which a wolf manifested for his master all the devoted attachment of a dog. The gentleman who brought him up from a puppy, and who was going to travel, presented him to the Paris menagerie when he was full grown. For several weeks the wolf was inconsolable; but at length he contracted new attachments with those about him, and seemed to have forgotten his former owner. At the end of eigh- teen months, however, that owner returned, and, as soon as the wolf heard the well known voice in the gardens of the menagerie, he displayed “he most violent joy, and, on being set at liberty, he hastened to his friend. An absence of three years next took place, and the wolf was again disconsolate. The master once more returned, and though, it being evening, the wolf’s den was shut up, yet the moment the tones of his friend met his ear, he uttered the most anxious cries. On the door being opened, he darted towards the long absent person, leaped upon his shoulders, licked his face, and threatened to bite the keepers when they attempted to separate them. When the man left him, he fell sick, rejected all food, was long on the verge of death, and would thenceforth never suffer a stranger to approach him. Dogs, even of the dullest kinds, seek the company of other animals; they are naturally disposed to follow and accompany other creatures ; the wolf, on the contrary, is the enemy of all society; he does not even keep much company with those of his kind. When they are seen in packs together, it is not to be considered as a peaceful society, but a combination for war: they sestify their hostile intentions by their loud howlings, and by their fierceness ‘iscover a project for attacking some great animal, such as a stag or a bull, or for destroying some formidable dog. The instant their military expedi- tion is completed, their society is at an end; they then part, and each returns in silence to his solitary retreat. There is not even any strong attachment between the male and female; they seek each other only once a year, and remain but a few days together. The difference in the duration of the pregnancy of the she wolf, who goes with young above a hundred days, and the bitch, who does not go above sixty, proves, that the wolf and the dog, so different in disposition, are still more so in one of the principal functions of the animal economy. The wolf generally brings forth five or six, and sometimes even nine, at a litter. The cubs are brought forth, like those of the bitch, with the eyes closed. The dam suckles them for some weeks, and teaches them betimes to eat flesh, which she prepares for them, by chewing it first herself. They do not leave the den where they have been littered, till they are six weeks or two months old. It is not, however, till they are about ten or twelve months old, and till they have shed their first teeth and completed the new, that the dam thinks them in a capacity to shift for themselves. Then, when they have acquired arms from nature, and have learned industry and sourage from her example, she declines all future care of them, being again mgaged in bringing up a new progeny. These animals require two or 144 MAMMALIA—WOLF. three years for their growth, and live to the age of fifteen or twenty years The body of the wolf is about three and a half feet long. The wolf grows gray as he grows old, and his teeth wear, like those ot most other animals, by using. He sleeps when his belly is full, or when he is fatigued, rather by day than night, and is always very easily waked. He drinks frequently ; and in times of drought, when there is no water to ve found in the trunks of trees, or in pools about the forest, he comes often, in the day, down to brooks or lakes in the plain. Although very voracious, he yet supports hunger for a long time, and often lives four or five days without food, provided he is supplied with water. The wolf has great strength, particularly in his fore parts, in the muscles of his neck and jaws. He carries off a sheep in his mouth, without letting it touch the ground, and runs with it much swifter than the shepherds who pursue him, so that nothing but the dogs can overtake him, or oblige him to uite his prey. He bites cruelly, and always with greater vehemence in proportion as he is less resisted; for he uses precautions with such animals as attempt to stand upon the defensive. He is cowardly, and never fights but when under the necessity of satisfying his hunger, or of making good his retreat. When he is wounded by a bullet, he is heard to cry out; and yet, when surrounded by the peasants, and attacked with clubs, he never howls, but defends himself in silence, and dies as hard as he lived. If he happens to be caught in a pit-fall, he is for some time so frightened and astonished, that he may be killed without offering to resist, or taken alive without much danger. At that instant, one may clap a collar round his neck, muzzle him, and drag him along, without his even giving the least signs of anger or resentment. At all other times, he has his senses in great perfection. He smells a carcass at the distance of more thana league; he also perceives living animals a great way off, and follows them a long time upon the scent. Whenever he leaves the wood, he always takes care to go out against the wind. When just come to its extremity, he stops to examine, by its smell, on all sides, the emanations that may come either from his enemy or his prey, which he very nicely distinguishes. He prefers those animals which he himself kills to those he finds dead ; and yet he does not disdain these, though ever so much infected, when no better are to be had. He is particularly fond of human flesh ; and, perhaps, if he were sufficiently powerful, he would eat no other. Wolves have been seen following armies, and arriving in numbers upon the field cf battle, where they devoured such dead bodies as were left upon the field, or but negligently interred. These, when once accustomed to human flesh, ever after seek particularly to attack mankind, choose to fall upon the shepherd rather than his flock, and devour women, carry off their children, &c. The color of this animal differs according to the different climates in which he is bred, and often changes even in the same country. Besides the common wolves which are found in France and Germany, there are others MAMMALIA—WOLF. 145 with thicker hair, inclining to yellow. In the northern climates, some are found quite black, and some white all over. The former are larger and stronger than those of any other kind. THE CLOUDED BLACK WOLF. Tuis animal is a native of the extreme northern regions of America. It is a much nobler looking creature than the eommon species, and is alse much arger and more robust. The ears are remarkably short, and the tail is shorter in proportion than that of the wolf. The hair is mottled with various shades of black, gray, and white, and is of considerable length, par- ticularly along the middle of the back and shoulders, where it forms a sort of ill defined mane. On the sides the coloring is somewhat lighter, and is of a still lighter shade beneath. From the top of the nose to the origin of the tail, this animal measures about four feet and a quarter. Its ferocity remains undiminished by protracted confinement. THE AMERICAN WOLF. Ture common wolf of America is considered to be the same species as the wolf of Europe, and, in regard to habits and manners, gives every evidenze ef such an identity.* : 1 Canis Lycaon, Lin. * Richardson remarks that he has travelled over thirty degrees of latitude in America, and has never seen there any wolves which had the gaunt appearance, the comparatively long jaw and tapering nose, the high ears, long legs, slender loins, and narrow feet of the Pyrenean wolf. He adds, that the American animal has a more robust form than the European wolf. Its muzzle is thicker and more obtuse, its head larger and rounder, and there is a sensible depression at the union of the nose and forehead. He notices six varie- ties of the wolf in North America :—common gray wolf, white, pied, dusky, black, and praine. ‘Lhere is little reason to doubt that all the wolves of America are of one species ; and -he variations of size,color, and habits, are to be referred to diversities f climate which have been gradually impressed upon these animals. 19 146 MAMMALIA—WOLF. Like all the wild animals of the dog kind, they unite in packs to hunt down animals which individually they could not master, and, during their sexual season, engage in the most furious combats with each other for the possession of the females. In the regions west of Hudson’s Bay, wolves are often seen, both in the . woods and on the plains, though their numbers are inconsiderable, and it is | not common to see more than three or four ina pack. They appear to be very fearful of the human race, but are destructive to the Indian dogs, and frequently succeed in killing such as are heavily laden, and unable to keep up with the rest. The males are not so swift as the females; and they seem to lead a forlorn life during the winter, being seldom seen in pairs until the commencement of spring. They bring forth their young in bur- rows, and though it might well be inferred that they are fiercer at those times, than under ordinary circumstances, yet Hearne states that he has frequently seen the Indians take the young ones from the dens and play with them. They never hurt the young wolves, but always replace them in their dens, sometimes painting the faces of these whelps with vermilion or red ochre. At the highest northern latitudes which have yet been explored, tle wolves are very numerous and very audacious. They are generally to be found at no great distance from the huts of the Esquimaux, and follow these people from place to place, being apparently very much dependent upon them for food, during the coldest season of the year. They are frequently seen in packs of twelve or more, prowling about at a short distance from the huts of the Esquimaux, lying in wait for the Esquimaux dog, which they are successful in killing, if he wanders so far as to be out of reach of assistance from his master. When the aboriginal Americans first gave place to European adventurers, and the forests, which had flourished for ages undisturbed, began to fall be- fore the unsparing axe, the vicinity of the settler’s lonely cabin resounded with the nightly howling of wolves, attracted by the refuse provision usually to be found there, or by a disposition to prey upon domestic animals During winter, when food was most difficult to be procured, packs of these famished and ferocious creatures were ever at hand, to run down and destroy any domestic animal found wandering beyond the enclosures, which their individual or combined efforts could overcome, and the boldest housedog could not venture far from the door of his master without incurring the risk of being killed and aevoured. The common wolf was then to be found in considerable numbers throughout a great extent, if not the whole of North America; at present, it is only known as a resident of the remote wooded and mountainous districts. MAMMALIA—WOLF 147 THE PRATRIE, ORGRBARRING WOLF Tus wolf frequents the prairies or natural meadows of the west, where troops or packs, containing a considerable number of individuals, are fre- quently seen following in the train of a.herd of buffalo or deer, for the purpose of preying on such as may die from disease, or in consequence ot wounds inflicted by the hunters. At night they also approach the en- campment of travellers, whom they sometimes follow for the sake of the carcasses of animals which are relinquished, and, by their discordant howlings close to the tents, effectually banish sleep from those who are unaccustomed to their noise. According to Say’s observation, they are more numerous than any of the other wolves which are found in North America. The barking wolf closely resembles the domestic deg of the Indians in appearance, and is remarkably active and intelligent. Like the common wolf, the individuals of this species frequently unite to run down deer, or a buffalo calf which has been separated from the herd, though it requires the fullest exercise of all their speed, sagacity, and strength to succeed in this chase. They are very often exposed to great distress from want of food, and in this state of famine are under the necessity of filling their stomachs with wild plums, or other fruits no less indigestible, in order to allay in some degree the inordinate sensations of hunger. In confirmation of the sagacity of this wolf, we shall quote from Say, to whom we owe all that has yet been made known on this species some anecdotes respecting it. ‘‘ Mr Peale constructed and tried various kinds of traps to take them, one of which was of the description called a ‘live trap," a shallow box reversed and supported at one end by the well known kind of trap-sticks usually called the ‘ figure four,’ which elevated the front of the trap upwards of three feet above its slab ecriner the trap was about six feet long, and nearly the same in breadth, and was plentifully baited with offal. Notwithstanding this arrangement, a wolf actually burrowed under the flooring, and pulled down the bait through the crevices of the floor. 1 Canis latrans, Say. 148 MAMMALIA—JACKAL. tracks of different size were observed about the trap. This procedure would seem to be the result of a faculty beyond mere instinct. “This trap proving useless, another was constructed in a different part of the country, formed like a large cage, through which the animals might enter, but not return; this was equally unsuccessful; the wolves attempted in vain to get at the bait, as they would not enter by the route prepared for them. A large double ‘steel trap’ was next tried; this was profusely baited, and the whole, with the exception of the bait, was carefully concealed beneath the fallen leaves. This was also unsuccessful. Tracks of the anticipated victims were next day observed to be impressed in numbers on the earth near the spot, but still the trap with its seductive charge remained untouched. The bait was then removed from the trap, and suspended over it from the branch of a tree; several pieces of meat were also suspended in a similar manner from trees in the vicinity. The following morning the bait over the trap alone remained. Supposing that their exquisite sense of smell warned them of the position of the trap, it was removed and then covered with leaves, and the baits being disposed as before, the leaves to a considerable distance around were burned ; and the trap remained perfectly concealed by ashes; still the bait over the trap was avoided. It was not until a log trap was used that an individual of this species was caught. This log trap is made by raising one log above another at one end by means of an upright stick, which rests upon a rounded horizontal trigger on the lower log.”— Godman. THE JACKAL} Is one of the commonest wild animals in the east, yet there is scarcely any one less known in Europe, or more confusedly described by naturalists. It 1C. aureus Lin. MAMMALIA—JACKAL. 149 inhabits the warmer parts of the old continent, and seems to occupy the place of the wolf, which is not there so common. “In size,” says Mr Ben- nett,-“‘he is about equal to the common fox, but he differs from that equally troublesome animal in the form of the pupils of his eyes, which correspond with those of the dog and of the wolf; in the comparative shortness of his legs and muzzle; in his less tufted and bushy tail; and in the peculiar marking of his coat. The coloring of his back and sides consists of a mixture of gray and black, which is abruptly and strikingly distinguished from the deep and uniform tawny of his shoulders, haunches, and legs ; his head is nearly of the same mixed shade with the upper surface of his body, as is also the greater part of his tail, which latter, however, becomes black towards its extremity; his neck and throat are whitish, and the under surface of his body is distinguished by a paler hue.” The yellow which is about him is the reason why many authors have called the jackal the golden wolf. As the species of the wolf approaches that of the dog, so the jackal finds a place between them both. The jackal, or adil, as Belon says, is a beast between the wolf and the dog. To the ferocity of the wolf, it joins, in fact, a little of the familiarity of the dog. Its voice is a kind of a howl, mixed with barking and groaning ; it is more noisy than the dog, and more vora- cious than the wolf; it never stirs out alone, but always in packs, of twenty, thirty or forty ; they collect together every day, to go in search of their prey ; they make themselves formidable to the most powerful animals, by their number; they attack every kind of beasts or birds, almost in the presence of the human species; they abruptly enter stables, sheepfolds, and other places, without any sign of fear; and when they cannot meet with any other thing, they will devour boots, shoes, harnesses, &c., and what leather they have not time to consume they take away with them. When they cannot meet with any live prey, they dig up the dead carcasses of men and animals. The natives are obliged to cover the graves of the dead with large thorns, and other things, to prevent them from scratching and digging up the dead bodies. The dead are buried very deep in the earth; for it is not a little trouble that discourages them. Numbers of them work together, and accompany their labor with a doleful cry; and, when they are once accustomed to feed on dead bodies, they run from country to country, follow armies, and keep close to the caravans. This animal may be styled the crow of quadrupeds ; for they will eat the most putrid or infectious flesh: their appetite is so cons.ant and so vehement, that the driest leather is sa- vory to them; and ski: flesh, fat, excrement, or the most putrefied animal, is alike to their taste. {50 MAMMALIA—FOX DEE, JOR Is one of the most widely distributed animals, and is found in all the tempe- rate and northern regions of the old and new world. With one exception, the structure of the eye, the organization of the fox and dog are similar. Hence the fox preys by night. He has always been famous for his cunning ; he generally fixes his residence at the edge of a wood, and yet not far re- moved from some cottage or some hamlet. He listens to the crowing of the cock, and the cackling of other domestic fowls: even at a considerable distance he scents them, and seizes his opportunity. If he be able to get into the yard, he begins by levelling all the poultry without remorse. This done, he carries off a part of the spoil, hides it at some convenient distance, and again returns to the charge. Taking off another fowl in the same manner, he hides that also, though not in the same place; and this method he practises for several times together, till warned by the approach of day, or the noise of the family, he finally retires. The same arts are observed when he finds birds entangled in springs laid for them by the fowler ; with whom the fox, taking care to be beforehand, very expertly snatches the birds out of the snare, conceals them in different places, leaves them there some- times for two or three days, and is never at a loss to recover his hidden treasure. He is equally alert in seizing the young hares and rabbits, before they have strength enough to escape him; and when the old ones are wounded and fatigued, he is sure to come upon them in the moments of distress, and to show them no mercy. In the same manner he finds out the nests of the partridge and the quail, and seizes the mother while sitting. 1 C. vulpes, Lin. MAMMALIA—FOX. 15] The fox is so voracious, that, when deficient of better food, he devours rats, mice, lizards, toads, and serpents. Insects and shell-fish he is like- wise sometimes known to eat. In vain does ine hedgehog roll itself up into a ball to oppose him: this determined glutton teases it till it is obliged to appear uncovered, and then devours it. The wasp and the wild bee are attacked by him with equal success. Though at first they fly out upon their invader, and actually oblige him to retire, yet this repulse is but for a few minutes, till he has rolled himself upon the ground, and thus crushed such as may have stuck to his skin: he then returns to the charge, and at length, by dint of perseverance, obliges them to abandon their combs, which he greedily devours, both wax and honey. The young foxes are born blind, like dogs; like them, too, they are eighteen months or two years in coming to perfection, and live about thirteen or fourteen years. They are nursed with great affection by the mother, who has been known to run with them in her mouth several miles when hunted. The senses of the fox are as good as those of the wolf; his scent 1s more acute, and the organ of his voice is more supple and more perfect. The wolf is never heard but by dreadful howls, while the fox only yelps, barks, and sends forth a mournful sound, resembling the cry of the peacock. His tones, too, are different, according to the different sentiments with which he is affected. He has one sound expressive of desire, another of murmur, another of sorrow, and another of pain: the latter is never heard from him, unless in the instant that he is wounded by shot, and has lost the use of some member ; for, like’ the wolf, when attacked with cudgels alone, he never murmurs, but will defend himself with obstinacy, and fight in silence to the last gasp. He bites dangerously, and with such deter- mined fury, that, in order to make him relinguish his hold, ponderous wooden and even iron bars are necessary to be forced between his jaws. The flesh of the fox is not so bad as the flesh of the wolf. Dogs, and even men, eat it in autumn, especially if the animal has fed on grapes; and, in winter, good furs are made of his skin. He sleeps so sound, that, however closely approached, there is no great danger of awaking him. When he only means to rest himself, he stretches out his hind legs, and remains flat on his belly. In this posture he watches for the birds as they perch on the hedges; who no sooner perceive him, than they give each other warning of their approaching danger. The jackdaw and the magpie, m particular, often follow him along to the distance of some hundred paces, still towering beyond his reach, and, with their cries and notes of hostility, apprise other animals to beware. Of all wild animals, the fox 1s most subjected to the influence of climate, and there are found nearly as many varieties in this species, as in that of any domestic animal. The generality of foxes in Europe are red ; of some, however, the hair is of a grayish cast; and, of all, the tip of the tail is white In the northern countries foxes of all colors are found. 152 MAMMALIA—FOX PE. AR Coe er Once {wn its full winter dress, is entirely of a pure white color, except at the tip of the tail, where there are a few black hairs intermixed. Before the eyes, and on the lower jaw, the hair is short and sleek ; on the posterior part of the cheeks, and on the forehead, it becomes longer, and on the occiput and neck it equals the ears in length, and is intermixed with soft wool. There is so much wool on the body, that it gives the fur the character of that of the American hare. In the months of April and May, when the snow begins to disappear, the long white fur falls off, and is replaced by shorter hair, more or‘less colored. The head and chin are then brown, having some fine white hairs scattered through the fur. A similar brown color ex- tends along the back to the tail, and down the outside of all the legs; the under parts of the body being of a dingy white. The perfect similarity of habits, and the series of variations in their fur, may lead us to conclude that the arctic foxes of the New and Old World are of the same species. They are inhabitants of the most northern lands hitherto discovered, and in North America they are numerous, on the shores of Hudson’s Bay, north of Churchill, and exist also in Bhering’s Straits. The brown variety of the Arctic fox breeds on the sea-coast, within the Arctic circle. They form burrows in sandy spots in little villages, twenty or thirty burrows being constructed adjoining each other. Towards the middle of winter they retire to the southward, evidently in search of food, keeping as much as possible on the coast. Captain Lyon, who has studied the manners of the Arctic fox with atten- tion, says, “that it bears a great resemblance to the European species, though it is considerably smaller. The general time of rest is during the daylight, in which they appear listless and inactive, but the night no sooner sets in, than all their faculties are awakened: they commence their gam- bols, and continue in unceasing and rapid motion till morning. Their bark is so modulated, as to give you an idea that the animal is at a distance, although at the very moment he lies at your feet. They feed on eggs, young birds, blubber, and carrion of any kind; but their principal food seems to be lemmings of different species. A confinement of a few hours often sufficed to quiet one of them; and some instances have occurred of their being perfectly tame although timid, from the first moment of their captivity. Their fur is of small value in commerce.” 1 C. lagopus, Lix. MAMMALIA—FOX. 153 Tuts animal is very rare, a greater number than four or five being seldom taken in a season in the fur countries. The fur is six times the value of any other fur produced in North America. It is sometimes found of a shin- ing black, the tip of the tail being white. It is commonly found of a black color, intermixed with hairs tipped with white. It inhabits the same’ districts with the red fox. It is not yet clearly proved that it is of the same species as the black fox of Europe, though it bears a strong resem- blance to it. PH EASE RICAN EO xX? from the red fox of Europe. It inhabits all parts of the United States. It 1 C. argentatus, Desm. 2 C. fulvus, Desm. 20 154 MAMMALIA—FENNEC. is of a bright red color on the head, back, and sides ; on the throat and neck of a dark gray; and pale red on the under parts of the body. It bearsa strong resemblance to the common European fox, but differs from it in the breadth and capacity of its feet for running on the snow; and the quantity of long hair, clothing the back part of the cheeks, with the shorter ears and nose, give the head a more compact appearance. It has a much finer brush ‘han the European one, and is altogether a finer animal. It is very plenti- ful in the wooded district of the fur countries, about eight thousand being annually imported into England from thence. Red foxes prey much on the smaller animals of the rat family, but they are fond of fish, and reject no kind of animal food that comes in their way. They hunt their food chiefly in the night, though they are frequently seen in the daytime. They are taken in steel traps, but much nicety is required in setting them, as the animal is very suspicious. THE FENNEC. Tuts beautiful and extraordinary animal, or at least one of this genus, was first made known to European naturalists by Bruce, who received it from his dragoman, whilst consul genera] at Algiers. Bruce kept it alive for several months. Its favorite food was dates, or any other sweet fruit; it was also very fond of eggs; when hungry it would eat bread, especially with honey or sugar. His attention was immediately attracted if a bird flew near him, and he would watch it with an eagerness that could hardly be diverted froma its object: but he was dreadfully afraid of a cat, and endeavored to hide himself, the moment he saw an animal of that species, though he showed no symptoms of preparing for any defence. Bruce never 1C. Brucei, Burr. MAMMALIA—CIVET. 155 heard that he had any voice. During the day he was inclined to sleep, but became restless and exceedingly unquiet as night came on. Bruce describes his fennec as about ten inches long, and of a dirty white color; the hair on the belly being softer, whiter, and longer than on the rest of the body. There has been great diversity of opinion among naturalists concerning this animal. Cuvier treats Bruce’s account as scarcely worthy of credit ” but Denbam and Clapperton, on their return from Central Africa, brought : ski= of the animal, and thus placed its existence beyond doubt. Twi CIV ET! i ae Saas SG eee =i Is from two to three feet in length, stands from ten to twelve inches high, and has a tail half the length of its body. The hair is long, and the ground color of it is a brownish gray, interspersed with numerous transverse, inter- rupted bands or irregular spots of black. Along the centre of the back, from between the shoulders to the end of the tail, is a kind of mane, which can be erected or depressed as the animal pleases, and which is formed of black hairs, longer than those of the body. The sides of the neck and the upper lip are nearly white. The legs, and the greater part of the tail, 1 Viverra civetta, L*x. The genus Viverra has six upper and six lower incisors; two upper and two lowe, canines; twelve upper and twelve lower molars. Three fal molars in the upper Jaw, conical and Ce ie a large carnivorous bicuspid tooth, an two tuberculous ones ; in the lower, four false molars, one bicuspid and one tuberculous ; head long; muzzle pointed; feet pentadactyle; claws semiretractile ; anal pouch more ot less deep, 156 MAMMALIA—CIVET. are perfectly black; there is a large, black patch round each eye, whick passes thence to the corner of the mouth; and two or three bands of the same color stretch obliquely from the base of the ears towards the shoulders and neck, the latter of which is marked with a black patch. The perfume of the civet is very strong ; and though the odor is so strong, it is yet agreeable, even when it issues from the body of the animal. The *perfune of the civet we must not confound with musk, which is a sanguine- ous humor, obtained from an animal altogether different from either the civet or the zibet. The civets, though natives of the hottest climates of Africa and of Asia, are yet capable of living in temperate, and even in cold countries, provided they are carefully defended from the injuries of the air, and provided with deli- cate and esculent food. In Holland, where no small emolument is derived from their perfume, they are frequently reared. The perfume of Amster- dam is esteerned preferable to that which is brought from the Levant, or the Indies, which is generally less genuine. ‘That which is imported from Guinea, would be the best of any, were it not that the negroes, as well as the Indians and the people of the Levant, adulterate it with mixtures of laudanum, storax, and other balsamic and odorous drugs. Those who breed these animals for the sake of their perfume, put them into a long and narrow sort of box, in which they cannot turn. This box the person who is employed to collect the perfume, opens behind, for this purpose, twice or thrice a week; and, dragging the animal which is con- fined in it, backward by the tail, he keeps it in this position by a bar before. This done, he takes out the civet with a small spoon, carefully scraping with it, all the while, the interior coats of the pouch under the tail, which secretes and contains it. The perfume thus obtained, is put into a vessel, and every care is taken to keep it closely shut. The quantity which a single animal will afford, depends greatly upon its appetite, and the quality of its nourishment. It yields more in proportion as it is more delicately and abundantly fed. Raw flesh hashed small, eggs, rice, small animals, birds, young fowls, and particularly fish, are the food in which the civet most delights. As to the rest, the civet is a wild, fierce animal, and, though sometimes tamed, is yet never thoroughly familiar. Its teeth are strong and sharp; but its claws are feeble and blunt, It is light and active, and lives by prey, pursuing birds, and other small animals, which it is able to overcome. It generally attacks at night, and by surprise. They are sometimes seen stealing into yards and out-houses, like the fox, in order to carry off poultry. Their eyes shine in the night; and it is very probable that they see better by night than by day. When they fail of animal food, they are found to subsist upon roots and fruits. They very seldom drink; nor do they ever inhabit humid ground; but in burning sands, and in arid mountains, they cheerfully remain. There is another animal called MAMMALIA—CIVET. 157 THE -ZIBET} Wincn differs from the civet, in having a body longer and less thick, a snoyt flatter, more slender, and somewhat concave at the upper part; its hair is much shorter and softer; it has no mane, no black under the eyes, or upon the cheeks. All these characteristics are peculiar to, and very remarkable in, the civet THE JAVANESE CIVET®? DrrFers considerably from the common civet. The body, narrow, com- pressed, and higher behind than before, is from fifteen to eighteen inches long. ‘The back is strongly arched. The muzzle is narrow and tapering; the ears short and rounded; the profile forms a perfectly straight line; the tail, tapering gradually to the tip, is as long as the body, and is marked with eight or nine broad, black rings, which alternate with as many of a grayish hue. A much lighter gray than that of the civet composes the ground color; there is a broad, longitudinal dorsal line of black, and on each side two or three narrower black lines, consisting of confluent spots. Over the rest of the body these spots are thickly but rather irregularly scat- tered, so as to constitute a series of flexuous, dotted lines. The side of the aeck above is occupied by a deep, longitudinal black line, and, below, there is a second, which is more obliquely placed. The head is grayish, and has no spots; and the legs are externally black. . ’ 1 ¥, zibetha, Lis. * V. Rasse, Honsr. 158 MAMMALIA—GENET:..1ICHNEUMON. THE GENET} is an animal smaller than the civets. It has a long body, short legs, a sharp snout, and a slender head. Its fur, which is exceedingly smooth and soft, is of an ash color, glossy, and marked with black stripes, which are separate upon the sides, but which unite upon the back. It has, also, upon the neck, a kind of mane, or longish hair, which forms a black streak, from the head to the tail, which last is as long as the body, and is marked with seven or eight rings, from the insertion to the tip, which are alternately black and white. , The genet has under the tail, and in the very same place with the civets, an opening, or pouch, in which is separated a kind of perfume resembling civet, but less strong, and apt sooner to evaporate. It is an animal some- what larger than the marten, which it strongly resembles, not only in the form of the body, but also in disposition and habit, and from which it seems chiefly to differ in being more easily tamed. It is a native of Spain, Africa, and the south of Asia. THE ICHNEUMON? From the tip of the nose to the end of the tail, is from twenty-four to forty- two inches in length; nearly half of which is occupied by the tail. At the base, the tail is very thick; 1t tapers gradually towards the point, which is 1 V. Genetta, Lin. 2 Herpestes Pharaonis. The genus Herpestes has six upper and six lower incisors; two upper and two lower canines; ten upper and ten lower molars. Body elongated ; anal pouch large ; feet pentadactyle, semi-palmated, with nails partly retractile. MAMMALIA—ICHNEUMON. 159 slightly tufted. The eyes are of a bright red; the ears almost naked, smail and rounded ; the nose is long and slender. The legs are short. The hair is hard and coarse, and of a pale reddish gray, each hair being mottled with brown or mouse color. This animal is domestic in Egypt, like our cat; and, like that, is service- able in destroying rats and mice ; but its inclination for prey and its instinct are much stronger and more extensive tham the cat’s; for it hunts alike, birds, quadrupeds, serpents, lizards, and insects. It attacks every living creature in general, and feeds entirely on animal flesh: its courage is equal to the sharpness of its appetite; it is neither frightened at the anger of the dog, nor the malice of the cat, nor even dreads the bite of the serpent. It pursues them with eagerness, and seizes on them, however venomous they may be. As soon as it begins to feel the impressions of their venom, it immediately goes in search of antidotes, and particularly a root that the Indians call by its name, and which, they say, is one of the most powerful remedies in nature against the bite of the viper. It sucks the eggs of the crocodile, as well as those of fowls and birds; it also kills and feeds on young crocodiles, when they are scarcely come out of their shell; and, as fable commonly accompanies truth, it has been currently reported, that, by virtue of this antipathy, the ichneumon enters the body of the crocodile, when it is asleep, and never quits it till he has devoured its entrails. It was formerly deified by the Egyptians, for its serviceable qualities. It lives commonly by the sides of rivers, inundations, and other waters, and is reported to swim and dive occasionally, like an otter, and to remain for a considerable time beneath the liquid element. It quits its habitation to seek its prey near habitable places. It sometimes carries its head erect, fore-shortens its body, and raises itself upon its hind legs; at other times, it creeps and lengthens itself like a serpent: it often sits upon its hind feet, and often springs upon its prey: its eyes are lively and full of fire. Its aspect is beautiful, the body very active, the legs short, the tail thick and very long, and the hair rough and bristly. Both male and female havea remarkable orifice, independent of the natural passages. It isa kind of pocket, into which an odoriferous liquor filters. They pretend that it opens this bag, or pocket, to refresh itself when too hot. Its nose is very sharp, and its mouth narrow, which prevents it from seizing and biting any thing very large; but this defect is amply supplied by its agility, courage, and by its power. It very easy strangles a cat, although much larger and stronger than itself; it often fights with dogs, and, of whatever size they are, it com- monly gets the better of them. It may easily be domesticated, and is then more tame, obedient, and affectionate than a cat. 160 MAMMALIA—HYAENA. THE STRIPED BY @ZNAS So striking, and even so singular, are the characteristics of the hyena. that it is hardly possible to be deceived by them. It is, perhaps, the only quadruped which has but four toes to either the fore or hind feet: like the badger, it has an aperture under the tail, which does not penetrate into the interior parts of the body ; its ears are long, straight, and nearly bare; its head is more square and shorter than that of the wolf; its legs, the hind ones especially, are longer; its eyes are placed like those of the dog; the hair and mane of a brownish gray, with transverse dark brown or blackish bands on the body, which stripes become oblique on the flanks and the legs. The coat is of two sorts; fur or wool, in small quantity, and long, stiff, and silky hair. Its height varies from nineteen to twenty-five inches, and its usual length, from the muzzle to the tail, is three feet three inches. The striped hyena is a native of Barbary, Egypt, Abyssinia, Nubia, Syria, Persia, and the East Indies. It generally resides in the caverns of mountains, in the clefts of rocks, or in dens, which it has formed for itself under the earth. It lives by depredation, like the wolf; but it is a stronger animal, and seemingly more daring. It sometimes attacks man, carries off cattle, follows the flocks, breaks open the sheepcotes by night, and ravages with a ferocity insatiable. By night also its eyes shine; and it is main tained that it sees better than in the day. If we may credit all the natural- ists who have treated of this animal, its ery is very peculiar, beginning with something like the moaning of a human being, and ending in a sound which resembles the sobs or reachings of a man in a violent fit of vomiting ; | Hyena vulgaris. The genus Hyena has six upper and six lower incisors; two upper and two lower canines ; ten upper and eight lower molars. Feet tetradactyle ; nails net retractile; legs long; eyes projectine; ears large ; a glandular pouch at the anus. MAMMALIA—HYZENA. 16] hut, according to Kempfer, who was an ear-witness of the fact, it sounds like the lowing of a calf. When at a loss for other prey, it scrapes up the earth with its feet, and devours the carcasses both of animals and men, which, in the countries that it inhabits, are interred promiscuously in the fields. THE SP OT ED sit-¥ a NTA! FS ZZzj~. = Tuts animal is a native of Southern Africa, and abounds in the neighbor- hood of the Cape of Good Hope, where it is called the tiger wolf. It is somewhat inferior in size to the striped hyena, but, in its wild state, has the same manners and propensities. Its short muzzle is less abruptly truncated, and its ears, short and broad in form, are of a nearly quadrilateral figure. The general color of the hide is a dirty yellow, or yellowish brown, and the whole body is covered with spots of a blackish brown, excepting the under part of the belly and of the breast, the inner surface of the limbs and the head. The muzzle is black, and the tail covered with long bushy hair of a blackish brown. Like the striped hyena, the spotted species has jaws of enormous strength, with which it easily breaks to pieces the hard- est bones. It isa common but erroneous idea, that the hyena is wholly savage and untamable. Both species have been tamed, and instances are recorded of individuals having manifested all the attachment of adog. The striped hyena has recently been domesticated in the Cape territory, and is consider- ed one of the best hunters after game, and as faithful and diligent as any of the common domestic dogs. The truth is, that the hyena hes a very 1 H. capensis, Desn. 21 162 MAMMALIA—HYANA. natural aversion to close confinement, and when exhinited, as he generally is, in a narrow cage, he is miserable, and consequently irritable. In a man, similarly situated, the expression of anger would be praised as a generous hatred of slavery. The hyzna was undoubtedly once an inhabitant not only of the European continent, but also of the British islands. His bones have been found in various parts of England and Wales, and particularly ina cave at Kirby Moorside, in Yorkshire. The depredations of the hyena are not confined to the remains of the dead. There are periods when they become bold from extreme hunger, and will carry off very large animals, and even human beings, with the most daring ferocity. Major Denham says, “at this season of the year,” (August,) “there are other reasons, besides the falls of rain, which induce people to remain in their habitations. When the great lake overflows the immense district which, in the dry season, affords cover and food, by its coarse grass and jungle, to the numerous savage animals with which Bornou abounds, they are driven from these wilds, and take refuge in the standing corn, and sometimes in the immediate neighborhood of the towns. Ele- phants had already been seen at Dowergoo, scarcely six miles from Kouka, and a female slave, while she was returning heme, from weeding the corn, to Kowa, not more than ten miles distant, had been carried off by a lioness. The hyenas, which are every where in legions, grew now so extremely ravenous, that a good large village, where I sometimes procured a draught of sour milk on my duck-shooting excursions, had been attacked the night before my last visit, the town absolutely carried by storm, notwithstanding defences nearly six feet high of branches of the prickly tulloh, and twe donkies, whose flesh these animals are particularly fond of, carried off, in spite of the efforts of the people. We constantly heard them close to the walls of our town at night; and ona gate being left partly open, they would enter and carry off any unfortunate animal that they could find in the streets.” With this strong desire for food, approaching to the boldness of the most desperate craving, the hyena, although generally fearful of the presence of man, is an object of natural terror to the African traveller. Bruce relates, that one night in Maibsha, in Abyssinia, he heard a noise in his ‘ent, ana, getting up from his bed, saw two large blue eyes glaring upon him. It was a powerful hyzena, who had been attracted to the tent by a quantity of candles, which he had seized upon, and was bearing off in his mouth. He had a desperate encounter with the beast, but succeeded in killing him. In ihe neighborhood of the ruins of those cities on the northern coast of Africa, which, in ancient times, were the abodes of wealth and splendor, and witnessed the power of the Ptolemies and Cesars, the hyzna is a constant resident, and increases the sense of desolation by the gloorniness of his habits. At Ptolemeta, where there are many remains of former architectural MAMMALIA—LION. 163 magnificence, the fountains which were constructed for the accommodation of an enormous population are now useless, except to the wandering Arab, and to the jackal and hyzna, who stray amongst these ruins after sunset, to search for water at the deserted reservoirs. Seldom does the hyena molest the traveller in these solitudes; but his howl, or the encounter of his fierce and sullen eye, is always alarming. Captain Beechey says, ‘although we had very frequently been disturbed by hyenas, we neve) found that familiarity with their howl, or their presence, could render their hear approach an unimportant occurrence ; and the hand would instinctively find its way to the pistol, before we were aware of the action, whenever either of these interruptions obtruded themselves closely upon us, either by night or by day.” Such encounters are generally without any fatal results, if the man does net commence the attack. The hyena sets up a howl, and doggedly walks away, with his peculiar limping motion, which gives him an appearance of lameness, but when he is attacked, his resistance is a: fierce as it is obstinate. : Pi Ew ECON A ~<41alky, wenwere gre 1 HE outward form of the lion seems to speak the superiority of his in- ternal qualities. His figure is striking, his look confident and bold, his gait proud, and his voice terrible. His stature is not overgrown, like that of the elephant, or the rhinoceros; nor is the shape clumsy, like that of the hippopotamus, or the ox. He is in every respect compact and well-propor- tioned, a perfect model of strength joined with agility. 1 Felis Leo, Lix. The genus Felis has six upper and six lower incisors; two upper and two lower canines ; eight or six upper and six lower molars; five toes on the fore feet hind feet tetradactyle ; nails retractile; head short ; four molars on each side of the upper raw, the last tuberculous and very small; three in the lower jaw; ears pointed. 164 MAMMALIA—LION. His force and muscular power he manifests outwardly by his prodigicu: leaps and bounds ; by the strong and quick agitation of his tail, which alone is sufficient to throw a man on the ground; by the facility with which he moves the skin of his face, and particularly that of his forehead, which adds greatly to his physiognomy, or rather to the expression of fury in his counte nance; and lastly, by the facility he has of shaking his mane, which is not only bristled up, but moved and agitated on all sides, when he is enraged. The largest lions are about eight or nine feet in length, from the snout to the insertion of the tail, which is of itself four feet long; and these large lions are about four or five feet in height. Those of the small size are about five feet and a half in length, and three anda half in height. In all her dimensions, the lioness is about one fourth less than the lion. The lion is furnished with a mane, which becomes longer in proportion as he advances in age. The lioness, however, is without this appendage at every age. Both the ancients and the moderns allow that the lion, when newly born, is in size hardly superior to a weasel; in other words, that he is not more than six or seven inches long ; and if so, some years at least must necessa- rily elapse before he can increase to eight or nine feet. They likewise mention, that he is not in a condition to walk till two months afier he is brought forth ; but, without giving entire credit to these assertions, we may, with great appearance of truth, conclude that the lion, from the largeness of iis size, is at least three or four years in growing, and that, consequently, he mast live seven times three or four years, that is, about twenty-five years. J: is usually supposed that the lion is not possessed of the sense of smell inz n such perfection as most other animals of prey. It is also remarked that too strong a light incommodes him ; that he seldom goes abroad in the middle of the day ; that he commits all his ravages in the night; and that when he sees a fire kindled near a herd or flock, he will not venture near it; that though his sight is bad, it is not, however, so faulty as his smell ; and that, unlike the dog or the wolf, he rather hunts by the former than by the latter. The lion, when hungry, boldly attacks all animals that come in his way ; but, as heis very formidable, and as they all seek to avoid him, he is often obliged to hide, in order to take them by surprise. For this purpose he crouches upon his belly, in some thicket, or among the long grass, which is found in many parts of the forest. In this retreat he continues, with patien expectation, until his prey comes within a proper distance; and he ther springs after it with such force, that he often seizes it at the first bound. h he misses the effort, and in two or three reiterated springs cannot seize hr prey, he continues motionless for a time, seems to be very sensible of his disappointment, and waits for a more favorable opportunity. He devours a great deal at a time, and generally fills himself for two or three days to come. His teeth are so strong that he very easily breaks the bones, and swallows them with the rest of the body. Itis reported that he sustains MAMMALIA—LION. 165 hunger a very long time; but thirst he cannot support in an equal degtee, his temperament being extremely hot. He drinks as often as he meets with water, lapping like a dog. He generally requires about fifteen pounds of raw flesh in a day ; and seldom devours the bodies of animals when they oegin to putrefy ; but he chooses rather to hunt for fresh spoil than return to chat which he had half devoured before. While young and active, the lion subsists on what he can obtain by the chase, and seldom quits his native deserts and forests ; but when he becomes old, heavy, and less qualified for exercise, he approaches the habitations of man, to whom, and to domestic animals, he then becomes amore dangerous enemy. It is observed, how ever, that when he sees men and animals together, itis always on the latter, never on the former, that he vents his fury; unless indeed he should be struck, and then, at no loss to know whence the blow came, he instantly deserts his prey, in order to obtain revenge for the injury. The flesh of the camel he is said to prefer to that of any other animal. He is likewise exceedingly fond of that of young elephants, which, from their inability to resist him till they have received the assistance of their tusks, he easily dispatches, when unprotected by the dam; nor are there any animals able to oppose the lion, but the elephant, the rhinoceros, the tiger, and the hip- popotamus. However terrible this animal may be, it is not uncommon, with dogs of a large size, and well supported with a proper number of men on horseback, to chase him, dislodge him, and force him to retire. But for this enterprise it is necessary that the dogs, and even the horses, should be previously disciplined ; since almost all animals tremble and fly at the very smell of the lion. Though the skin of the lion is firm and compact, it is not, however, proof against a musket ball, nor even a javelin; but he is seldom known to be dispatched with one blow. Like the wolf, he is frequently taken by strata- gem; and for this purpose a deep hole is dug in the earth, over which, when slightly covered with earth and sticks, some living animal is fastened as a bait. When thus entrapped, all his fury subsides; and if advantage is taken of the first moments of his surprise, or his disgrace, he may easily be chained, muzzled, and conducted to a place of security. The flesh of the lion is of a strong and disagreeable flavor; yet the negroes and the Indians do not dislike it, and it frequently forms a part of their food. The good qualities, and particularly the courage and magnanimity of the lion, have been the theme of panegyric to Buffon, and other writers on natural history. Later naturalists, however, are disposed to estimate his merits at a lower rate. “The ‘lordly lion,’” says Godman, “conceals himself near the places where deer and other animals come to drink, and springs upon them from his ambush, like the veriest tom-cat; having feeble sight, and being unfit for the chase, he follows the wild dogs and chacals, 166 MAMMALIA—LION. which run down buffaloes, antelopes, &c., and when they have succeeded, drives them off and gorges to repletion; as he relinquishes the carcass when satiated, he is called generous ; as he does not attack and devour men, when not hungry, he is considered magnanimous ; he retires slowly, facing his enemies, being unable to run with speed, and is celebrated for his noble spirit; and, as he does not kill the wild dogs and other small animals, be- cause it is not in his power to catch them, he is then called clement ; while in virtue of his great strength, dreadful claws, horrid teeth, and aw/ul roar, he is considered as altogether royal. Yet this king of quadrupeds has not half the moral excellence of a poodle dog, nor a thousandth part of the dignity of character possessed by the elephant. He is, moreover, no match for the great tiger of Asia, which, in ferocity, savage daring, audacious de- structiveness, unconquerable and unappeasable hatred to mankind, is infi- nitely more royal, and a more consistent emblem of a great number of human sings, who have aided, in various ages and countries, to retard the progress of improvement and the march of mind.” “At the time when men first adopted the lion as the emblem of courage,” says that intelligent traveller, Mr Burchell, ‘‘it would seem that they regard- ed great size and strength as indicating it; but they were greatly mistaken in the character they have given to this indolent, skulking animal, and ‘have overlooked a much better example of courage, and of other virtues also, in the bold and faithful dog.” Mr Barrow also brands him with the character ef cowardly and treacherous. “His forbearance and generosity,” says Mr Bennett, ‘if the facts be care- fully investigated, will be found to resolve themselves into no more than this: that in his wild state he destroys only to satiate his hunger or ‘revenge, and never, like the ‘gaunt wolves,’ and the ‘sullen tigers,’ of whom the poet has composed his train, in the wantonness of his power and the malignity of his disposition; and that, when tamed, his hunger being satis- fied, and his feelings being free from irritation, he suffers smaller animals to remain in his den uninjured, is familiar with, and sometimes fond of, the keeper, by whom he is attended and fed, and will even, when under coni- plete control, submit to the caresses of strangers. “But even this limited degree of amiability, which, in an animal of less formidable powers, would be considered as indicating no peculiar mildness of temper, is modified by the calls of hunger, by the feelings of revenge, which he frequently cherishes for a considerable length of time; and by various other circumstances, which render it dangerous to approach him iguardedly, even in his tamest and most domesticated state, without pre- viously ascertaining his immediate state of mind. On such occasions, no keeper possessed of common prudence, would be rash enough to venture on confronting him. He knows too well, that it is no boy’s play to seek the lion in his den, And fight him there, and make him tremble there: MAMMALIA—LION. 167 for in this state of irritation, from whatever cause it ma, have arisen he gives free scope to his natural ferocity, unrestrained by that control t which, at other times, he submits with meek and unresisting patience.” It appears, however, to be a well authenticated fact, that neither the lio1 nor the tiger can bear the steady gaze of the human eye, but are completely cowed by it. A writer in the South African Journal, says, “the Bechuanc chief, old Peyshow, now in Cape Town, conversing with me a few days ago, said that the lion very seldom attacks man if unprovoked; but he will frequently approach within a few paces and survey him steadily; and some- times he will attempt to get behind him, as if he could not stand his look, but was yet desirous of springing upon him unawares. Ifa person, in such circumstances, attempts either to fight or to fly, he incurs the most immi- nent peril; but if ne have sufficient presence of mind coolly to confront him, without appearance of either terror or aggression, the animal will, in almost every instance, after a little space, retire. The overmastering effect of the human eye upon the lion has been frequently mentioned, though much doubted by travellers; but, from my own inquiries among loon hunters, I am perfectly satisfied of the fact; and an anecdote related to me afew days ago, by Major Mackintosh, proves that this fascinating effect is not restricted to the lion. An officer in India, well known to my infor- mant, having chanced to ramble into a jungle, suddenly encountered a royal tiger. The rencontre appeared equally unexpected on both sides, and both parties made a dead halt, earnestly gazing on each other. The gentleman had no firearms, and was aware that a sword would be no effective defence in a struggle for life with such an antagonist! But he had heard that even the Bengal tiger might be sometimes check- 2d by looking him firmly in the face. He did so: in a few minutes, the tiger, which appeared prepared to make his final spring, grew dis- turbed—slunk aside—and attempted to creep round upon him behind. The officer turned constanily upon the tiger, which still continued to shrink from his glance; but darting into the thicket, and again issuing forth ata different quarter, it persevered for above half an hour in this attempt to catch him by surprise; till at last it fairly yielded to the contest, and left the gentleman to pursue his pleasure walk. The direction he now took, as may be easily believed, was straight to the tents, at double quick time.” 168 MAMMALIA—LION. THE BENG A Te BION: LA Tue uniformity of his color is one characteristic which distinguishes tne -1on from his congeners of the feline race. Except in his young state, when there is an appearance of stripes, he is of a pale tawny above, which be- comes somewhat lighter beneath. A second mark is, the long and flowing mane of the full grown male, which, commencing nearly at the root of his nose, extends backwards over his shoulders, and gracefully undulates on each side of his face and neck. A third is, a long and blackish tuft of hairs which terminates his tail. In size, the Asiatic lion rarely equals the south- ern African. He is of a more uniform and pale yellow, and has a peculiar appendage in the long hairs which begin beneath the neck, and occupy the whole of the middle line of the body below. The lioness has no mane, is of smaller size than the lion, more slenderly and delicately made, and more graceful and agile in her movements. The head of the lion is almost uniformly elevated; that of the lioness is almost uniformly carried on a level with the line of her back, which gives her a sullen and downcast look. The period of gestation is a hundred and eight days. ‘Th2 young are born with the eyes open; but the ear does not be- come co'apletely erect for two months. The lion arrives at mawrity m five years, and is then nearly eight feet long. MAMMALIA—LION. 169 THE CAPE LION. SNe CK ‘ ZEN, ) IN TueEre are two varieties of this species, which, from their color, particu- larly of the manes, are designated by the settlers, as the pale and the black hon. The latter of these is the larger and more ferocious of the two, and is occasionally found of the enormous length of eight feet from the tip of the nose to the origin of the tail. The tail is usually about half the length of the body. The pale variety is the more common. The colonists at the Cape bear the lion a deadly hatred for the mischief which he does to them, particularly in the destruction of their horses, for the flesh of which he seems to have an especial liking. Being excellent marksmen, they will almost attack him singly; but the more common mode of attacking him is by hunting parties. The hunting of an African lion is described with infinite spirit by Mr Pringle, who was a settler on the eastern frontier of tne Cape colony. ‘‘One ight,” says he, ‘‘a lion, that had previously purloined a few sheep out of my kraal, came down and killed my riding horse, about a hundred yards from the door of my cabin. Knowing that the hon, wnen he dees not carry off his prey, usually conceals himself in the vicinity, and is very apt to be dangerous by prowling about the place in search of more game, I resolved to have him destroyed or dislodged without delay. I therefore sent a mes- senger round the location, to invite all who were wiiling to assist in the enterprise, to repair to the place of rendezvous as speedily as possible. In an hour, every man of the party, (with the exception of two pluckless fel- lows, who were kept at home by the women,) appeared, ready mounted and armed. We were also reinforced by about a dozen of the ‘Bastuard’ or mulatto Hottentots, who resided at that time upon our territory as tenants yy herdsmen,—an active and enterprising, though rather an unsteady, race 22 170 , MAMMALIA—LION. of men. Our friends, the Tarkaboors, many of whom are excellent lion hunters, were all too far distant to assist us, our hearest nezghbors residing at least twenty miles from the location. We were, therefore, on account of our own inexperience, obliged to make our Hottentots the leaders of the chase. “The first point was to track the lion to his covert. This was effected by a few of the Hottentots, on feot. Commencing from the spot where the horse was killed, they followed the spoor, (track,) through grass, and gravel, and brushwood, with astonishing ease and dexterity, where an inexperience: ed eye could discern neither foot print nor mark of any kind,—unt. at length we fairly tracked him into a large bosch, or straggling thicker of brushwood and evergreens, about a mile distant. “The next object was to drive him out of this retreat, in order to attack him in close phalanx, and with more safety and effect. The approved mode, in such cases, is to torment him with dogs till he abandons his covert, and stands at bay in the open plain. The whole-band of hunters then march forward together, and fire deliberately one by one. If he does not speedily fall, but grows angry and turns upon his enemies, they must then stand close in a circle, and turn their horses, rear outward; some holding them fast by the bridles, while the others kneel to take a steady aim at the lion as he approaches, sometimes up to the very horses’ heels, couching every now and then, as if to measure the distance and strength of his enemies. This is the moment to shoot him fairly in the forehead, or some other mor- tal part. If they continue to wound him ineffectually till he waxes furious and desperate, or if the horses, startled by his terrific roar, grow frantic with terror, and burst loose, the business becomes rather serious, and may end in mischief; especially if all the party are not men of courage, coolness, and experience. The frontier boors are, however, generally such excellent marksmen, and, withal, so cool and deliberate, that they seldom fail to shoot him dead as soon as they get within a fair distance. “Tn the present instance, we did not manage matters quite so scientifically. The Bastuards, after recounting to us all these and other sage laws of lion hunting, were themselves the first to depart from them. Finding that the few indifferent hounds which we had, made little impression on the enemy, they divided themselves into two or three parties, and rode round the jungle, firing into the spot where the dogs were barking round him, but without effect. At length, after some hours spent in thus beating about the bush, the Scottish blood of some of my countrymen began to get impatient; and three of them announced their determination to march in and beard the lion in his den, provided three of the Bastuards, (who were superior marksmen,) would support them and follow up their fire, should the enemy venture to give battle. Accordingly, in they went, (in spite of the warnings of some more prudent men among us,) to within fifteen or twenty paces of the spot where the animal lay concealed. He was couched among the roots of a MAMMALIA—LION. 171 large evergreen bush, with a small space cf open ground on one side of it; and they fancied, on approaching, that they saw him distinctly lying glaring at them from beneath the foliage. Charging the Bastuards to stand firm and level fair, should they miss, the Scottish champions let fly together, and struck, not the lion, as it afterwards proved, but a great block of red stone, beyond which he was actually lying. Whether any of the shot grazed him is uncertain, but, with no other warning than a furious growl, forth he bolted from the bush. The pusillanimous Bastuards, in place of now pouring n their volley upon him, instantly turned and fled helter-skelter, leaving him to do his pleasure upon the defenceless Scots ; who, with empty guns, were tumbling over each other, in their hurry to escape the clutch of the rampant savage. Ina twinkling he was upon them, and with one stroke of his paw dashed the nearest to the ground. The scene was terrific! There stood the lion with his paw upon his prostrate foe, looking round in conscious power and pride upon the bands of his assailants, and with a port the most noble and imposing that can be conceived. It was the most magnificent thing I ever witnessed. The danger of our friends, however, rendered it at * the moment too terrible to enjoy either the grand or the ludicrous part.of the picture. We expected every instant to see one or more of them torn in pieces; nor, though the rest of the party were standing within fifty paces with their guns cocked and levelled, durst we fire for their assistance. One was lying under the lion’s paw, and the others scrambling towards us in such a way as to intercept our aim at him. All this passed far more rapid- ly than I have described it. But luckily, the lion, after steadily surveying us for a few seconds, seemed willing to be quits with us on fair terms; and with a fortunate forbearance, (for which he met but an ungrateful recom- pense,) turned calmly away, and driving the snarling dogs like rats from among his heels, bounded over the adjoining thicket, like a cat over a foot- stool, clearing brakes and bushes twelve or fifteen feet high, as readily as if they had been tufts of grass, and, abandoning the jungle, retreated towards the mountains. “After ascertaining the state of our rescued comrade, (who fortunately had sustained no other injury than a slight scratch on the back, and a severe bruise in the ribs, from the force with which the animal had dashed him to the ground,) we renewed the chase with Hottentots and hounds in full ery. In a short time we again came up with the enemy, and found him standing at bay under an old mimosa tree, by the side of a mountain stream, which we had distinguished by the name of Douglas water. The dogs were bark: ing round, but afraid to approach him, for he was now beginning to growl fiercely, and to brandish his tail in a manner that showed he was meditating mischief. © The Hottentots, by taking a circuit between him and the moun- tain, crossed the stream, and took a position on the top of a precipice overlooking the spot where he stood. Another party of us occupied a posi- tion on the other side of the glen; and placing the poor fellow thus between 172 MAMMALIA—LION. two fires, which confused his attention and prevented his retreat, we mept battering away at him till he fell, unable again to grapple with us, pierced with many wounds. “He proved to be a full grown lion of the yellow variety, about five or six years of age. He measured nearl elve feet from the nose to the tip of the tail. His fore leg, below the knee, was so thick that I could not span it with both hands; and his neck, breast, and limbs appeared, when the skin was taken off, a complete cengeries of sinews.” Major Denham furnishes us with the following anecdote: ‘The skin of a noble lion was sent me by the sheikh, which had been taken near Kabshary, measuring from the tail to the nose fourteen feet two inches. He had devour- ed four slaves, and was at last taken by the following stratagem ; the inha- bitants assembled together, and, with loud cries and noises, drove him from the place where he had last feasted; they then dug a very deep blaque, or circular hole, armed with sharp pointed stakes; this they most cunningly covered over with stalks of the gussub; a bundle of straw, enveloped in a robe, was laid over the spot, to which a gentle motion, like that of a man turning in sleep, was occasionally given by means of a line carried to some distance. On their quitting the spot, and the noise ceasing, the lion returned to his haunt, and was observed watching his trap for seven or eight nours—by degrees approaching closer and closer,—and at length he made a dreadful spring on his supposed prey, and was precipitated to the bottom of the pit. The Kabsharians now rushed to the spot, and before he could recover himself, despatched him with their spears.” It has been remarked of the lion, by the Bushmen, that he generally kills and devours his prey in the morning at sunrise, or sunset. On this account, when they intend to kill lions, they generally notice where the spring-bucks MAMMALIA—LION. 173 are grazing at the rising of the sun; and by observing, at the same time, if they appear frightened and run off, they conclude that they have been attacked by the lion. Marking accurately the spot where the alarm took place, about eleven o’clock in the day, when the sun is powerful, and the enemy they seek is supposed td be fast asleep, they carefully examine the ground, and finding him in a state of unguarded security, they lodge a poisoned arrow in his breast. The moment the lion is thus struck he springs from his lair, and bounds off as helpless as the stricken deer. The work is done; the arrow of death has pierced his heart, without even break- ing the slumbers of the lioness which may have been lying beside him ; and the Bushman knows where, in the course of a few hours, or even in less time, he will find him dead, or in the agonies of death. Mr Burchell furnishes us with the following lively description :—“ The day was exceedingly pleasant, and not a cloud was to be seen. For a mile or two we travelled along the banks of the river, which in this part abound- ed in tall mat-rushes. The dogs seemed much to enjoy prowling about and examining every bushy place, and at last met with some object among tne rushes which caused them to set up a most vehement and determined bark- ing. We explored the spot with caution, as we suspected, from the peculiar tone of their bark, that it was, what it proved to be, lions. Having encour- aged the dogs to drive them out, a task which they performed with great willingness, we had a full view of an enormous black maned lion, anda lioness. The latter was seen only for a minute, as she made her escape up the river, under concealment of the rushes; but the lion came steadily for- ward and stood still to look at us. At this moment we felt our situation not free from danger, as the animal seemed preparing to spring upon us, and we were standing on the bank at the distance of only a few yards from him, most of us being on foot and unarmed, without any visible possibility of escaping. I had given up my horse to the hunters, and was on foot myself, but there was no time for fear, and it was useless to attempt avoid- ing him. I stood well upon my guard, holding my pistols in my hand, with my finger upon ‘the trigger, and those who had muskets kept them- selves prepared in the same manner. But at this instant, the dogs boldly flew in between us and the lion, and surrounding him, kept him at bay by their violent and resolute barking. The courage of these faithful animals was most admirable; they advanced up to the side of the huge beast, and stood making the greatest clamor in his face, without the least appearance of fear. The lion, conscious of his strength, remained unmoved at their noisy attempts, and kept his head turned towards us. At one moment, the dogs perceiving his eyes thus engaged, had advanced close to his feet, and seemed as if they would actually seize hold of him, but they paid dearly for their »mprudence, for, without discomposing the majestic and steady attitude in which he stood fixed, he merely moved his paw, and at the next instant J beheld two lying dead, 1 doing this, he made so little exertion, that it . 174 MAMMALIA—LION. was scarcely perceptible by what means they had been killed. Of tne time which we had gained by the interference of the dogs, nota moment was lost; we fired upon him; one of the balls went through his side jus’ be- tween the short ribs, and the blood immediately began to flow, but the animal still remained standing in ign position. We had now no doubt that he would spring upon us; every gun was instantly reloaded; but happily we were mistaken, and were not sorry to see him move quietly away ; though I had hoped in a few minutes to have been enabled to take hold of his paw without danger. “‘ This was considered, by our party, to be a lion of the largest size, and seemed, as 1 measured him by comparison with the dogs, to be as large as an ox. He was certainly as long in body, though lower in stature; and his copious mane gave him truly a formidable appearance. He was of that variety which the Hottentots and boors distinguish by the name of the black lion, on account of the blacker color of the mane, and which 1s said to be always larger and more dangerous than the other, which they call the pale lion. Of the courage of a lion I have no very high opinion, but of his majestic air and movements, as exhibited by this animal, while at liberty in his native plains, I can bear testimony. Notwithstanding the pain of a wound, of which he must soon afterwards have died, he moved slowly away witha stately and measured step. “‘ The lion, as we have seen, principally lives in the plains, and is always found where there are large herds of wild antelopes and other animals feeding together, in that fellowship which is characteristic of each species. To all these animals he is an object of unceasing dread. It is supposed by the agitation which oxen display when a lion is near them, that they can scent him at a considerable distance. Whatever may be his physical strength, therefore, and we know that it is prodigious, it is evident he could not accomplish his purposes by strength alone. The instinctive fear of the creatures upon which he preys would be constantly called into action, by their keen sight and acute scent; and they would remove to some distant part before the destroyer could reach them. The lion, too, as well as the tiger, and others of the same species, seldom runs. He either walks, or creeps, or, for a short distance, advances rapidly by great bounds. It is evident, therefore, that he must seize his prey by stealth; that he is not fitted for an open attack; and that his character is necessarily that of great power united to considerable wariness in its exercise. “Every one, almost, is familiar with the roar of the lion. It is a sound of terror, and produces an appalling effect. It is said by travellers that it sometimes resembles the sound which is heard at the moment of an earth- quake ; and that he produces this extraordinary effect by laying his head upon the ground, and uttering a half stifled growl, by which means the noise is conveyed along the earth. The instant this roar is heard by the animals who are reposing in the plains, they start up with alarm ; they fly MAMMALIA—LION. 175 in all directions ; they rush into the very danger which they seel. to avoid This fearful sound, which the lion utters, is produced by the greet compara- tive size of the larynx, the principal organ of voice in all anivnals.* He utters it to excite that fear whichgis necessary to his easy selection of an individual ¥ictim. ‘e “The lion, as well as all of the cat tribe, takes his prey at night; and it is necessary, therefore, that he should have peculiar organs of vision. In all those animals which seek their food in the dark, the eye is usually of a large size, to admit a great number of rays; and that part which is called the choroides reflects, instead of absorbing, the light. The power of seeing in the dark, which the cat tribe possesses, has always appeared a subject of mystery ; and it is natural that it should be so, for man himself sees with more difficulty in the dark than any other animal; he has a compensation in his ability to produce artificial light. This peculiar kind of eye, there- fore, is necessary to the lion to perceive his prey; and he creeps towards it with a certainty which nothing but this distinct nocturnal vision could give “Every one must have observed what are usually called the whiskers on a cat’s upper lip. The use of these ina state of nature is very important. They are organs of touch. The slightest contact of these whiskers with any surrounding object is felt most distinctly by the animal, although the hairs are themselves insensible. They stand out on each side, in the lion, as well as in the common cat, so that, from point to point, they are equal to the width of the animal’s body. ““Tf we imagine, therefore, a lion stealing through a covert of wood in an imperfect light, we shall at once see the use of these long hairs. They in- dicate to him, through the nicest feeling, any obstacle which may present itself to the passage of his body; they prevent the rustle of boughs and leaves, which would give warning to his prey if he were to attempt to pass through too close a bush ;—and thus, in conjunction with the soft. cushions of his feet, they enable him to move towards his victim with a stillness greater even than that of the snake, who creeps along the grass, and is not perceived:till he has coiled round his prey.” *“ The size of the larynx is proportionate to the strength of the sounds which ani- mals utter. The absolute size of the larynx of the whale and the elephant 1s the largest; but relatively the larynx of the lion has a still greater circumference.”—Notes to Biuimenbach’s Comp. Anatomy, by Lawrence and Coulson, 1827. 176 MAMMALIA—COUGAR. THE PUMA, OR COUGAR. Tue puma, cougar, or American lion, is from four to five feet long, but more commonly of the former size, and has a tail of half that length, which has not, like that of the lion, a terminating brush of hair; neither has the pumaamane. Indeed, his name of lion could only have been given to him by careless or unscientific observers, as his uniform sameness of color is the sole point of resemblance which he has to the king of beasts. He hasa small rounded head, a broad and rather obtuse muzzle, and a body which, in proportion, is slender and less elevated than that of his more dignified namesake. ‘The upper parts of his body,” says Mr Bennett, “are of a bright silvery fawn, the tawny hairs being terminated by whitish tips: be- neath and on the inside of the limbs he is nearly white, and more com pletely so on the throat, chin, and upper lip. The head has an irregular mixture of black and gray; the outside of the ears, especially at the base, the sides of the muzzle from which the whiskers take their origin, and the extremity of the tail, are black.” The fur of the cubs has spots of a darker hue, which are visible only in certain lights, and disappear when the animal is full grown. Both the sexes are of the same color. The puma* was once spread over the whole wide extent of the new world, from Canada to Patagonia. The progress of civilization has, how- ever, circumscribed his range, and has rooted him out in many places. Notwithstanding his size and strength, he is cowardly ; and, like almost all cowards, he is sanguinary. Ifhe find a flock of sheep unprotected, he will 1 Felis concolor, Lin. * It is not now common, in any part of the United States, except the unsettled districts It is usually called the panther, or painter, by the common people. It is also called the catamount. * MAMMALIA—COUGAR. abr ¢ destroy the whole, merely that he may enjoy the luxury o. sucking their blood. As he possesses much timidity and little swiftness, and in South America frequents the open plains, he generally falls a victim when the hunter pursues him with the g lasso. In seizing its prey, the pum Is softly on his belly through the shrubs and bushes, conceals itself in ditches, or assumes a fawning appearance. As soon, however, as it can reach its victim, it leaps on its back by one bound, and soon rends it to pieces. Molina tells us, that, in Chili, where the husbandmen tether their horses in the fields by pairs, the puma kills and drags one away, and compels the other to follow by occasionally strik-- ing it with his paw. All animals are not thus easily vanquished. Asses defend themselves with their heels, and are often victorious ; and cows form themselves into a circle round their calves, turn their horns towards the assailant, and not unfrequently destroy him. Even a woman ora child can put him to flight. When hunted with dogs, however, and cut off from his retreat to a rock or a tree, he places himself under the trunk of a large tree, and fights furiously. : The puma is easily tamed, and in captivity becomes tractable, and even attached. It loves to be noticed and caressed, expresses its pleasure by purring, will follow its owner about like a dog, and has been known to suffer children to ride upon its back. The following anecdotes are from Godman : — “Two hunters, accompanied by two dogs, went out in quest of game near the Catskiil mountains. A‘ the foot of a large hill, they agreed to go round it in opposite directions, and when either discharged his rifle, the other was to hasten towards him to aid in securing the game. Soon after parting, the report ofa rifle was heard by one of them, who, hastening towards the spot, after some search, found nothing but the dog, dreadfully lacerated and dead. He now became much alarmed for the fate of his companion, and while anxiously looking around, was horror-struck by the harsh growl of a cougar, which he perceived on a large limb of a tree, crouching upon the body of his friend, and apparently meditating an attack on himself. Instantly he levelled his rifle at the beast, and was so fortu- nate as to wound it mortally, when it fell to the ground along with the body of his slaughtered companion. His dog then rushed upon the wounded cougar, which with one blow of its paw laid the poor animal dead by its side. The surviving hunter now left the spot, and quickly returned with several other persons, when they found the lifeless cougar extended near the dead bodies of the hunter and the faithful dogs.” “‘ About the close of the late war, a merchant of Piqua, named Herse, received a considerable sum of money in small bills, which made it appear of still greater magnitude to several suspicious looking persons who were resent when it was received. Mr Herse being unarmed, was apprehen- we that an attempt would be made to rob him at the camping ground, and 23 178 MAMMALIA—COUGAR. expressed his apprehensions to a single fellow-traveller, who was also un- provided with arms. In consequence, they resolved not to go to the camp- ing ground, but to pass the night in the woods without fire; there, turning their horses loose, they lay down in thei nkets on the leaves. Ir. the night they were aroused by hearing the S snort, as they are apt to do on the approach of Indians, and shortly after they were heard to make several bounds through the woods, as if some one had unsuccessfully attempted to catch them. After some time had elapsed, they both distinctly heard, what they supposed to be, a man crawling towards them on his hands and feet, as they could hear first one hand cautiously extended and pressed very gently on the leaves, to avoid making a noise, then the other, and finally the other limbs in like manner and with equal care. When they believed that this felonious visitor was within about ten feet of them, they touched each other, sprang up simultaneously, and rushed to some distance through the woods, where they crouched and remained without further dis- turbance. A short time after, they heard the horses snorting and bounding furiously through the woods, but they did not venture to arise until broad daylight, being still ignorant of the character of their enemy. “When sufficiently light to see, by climbing a sapling, they discovered the horses at a considerable distance on the prairie. On approaching them, it was at once evident that their disturber had been nothing less thana cougar. It had sprung upon the horses, and so lacerated with its claws and teeth their flanks and buttocks, that with the greatest difficulty were they able to drive the poor creatures before them to Shane’s. Several other instances of annoyance to travellers had happened at the same place, and Shane believed by the same cougar.” MAMMALIA-—TIGER. 179 THE TiegER! In the abass of carnivorous animals, the lion is the foremost. Immediately after him, follows the tiger; which, while he possesses all the bad qualities of the former, seems to be a stranger to his good ones. To pride, to courage, to strength, the lion adds greatness, and sometimes, perhaps, clemency ; while the tiger, without provocation, is fierce; without neces- sity, is cruel. Thus it is throughout all the classes of nature, in which the superiority of rank proceeds from the superiority of strength. The first class, sole masters of all, are less tyrannical than the inferior classes, which, denied so full an exertion of authority, abuse the powers entrusted to them. More, therefore, than even the lion, the tiger is an object of terror. He is the scourge of every country which he inhabits. Of the appearance of man, and of all his hostile weapons, he is fearless ; wild animals, as well as tame ones, fall sacrifices before him; the young elephant and rhinoceros he sometimes attacks; and sometimes, with an increased audacity, he braves the lion himself. The form of the body usually corresponds with the nature and disposition of the animal. The tiger, with a body too long, with limbs too short, with a head uncovered, and with eyes ghastly and haggard, has no characteristics but those of the basest and most insatiable cruelty. For instinct, he has nothing but a uniform rage, a blind fury ; so blind, indeed, so undistinguish- ed, that he frequently devours his own progeny, and, if she offers to defend them, tears in pieces the dam herself. 1 Felis tigris, Lin. 180 MAMMALIA—TIGER. Happy is it for the rest of nature, that this animal is not common, and that the species is chiefly confined to the warmest provinces of the East The tiger is found in Malabar, in Siam, and in Bengal. Sau When he has killed a large animal, such as a horse or a buffalo, he does not choose to devour it on the spot, fearin be disturbed ; and, in order to feast at his ease, he carries off his prey to the forest, dragging it along with such ease, that the swiftness of his motion seems scarcely retarded by the enormous load he sustains. To give a still more complete idea of the strength of this terrible creature, we shall quote a passage from Father Tachard, who was an eye-witness of a combat of one tiger against two, and even three, elephants, at Siam. For this purpose, the king ordered a lofty palisade to be built, of bamboo cane, about a hundred feet square; and in the midst of this were three elephants, appointed for combating the tiger. Their heads, and part of their trunks, were covered with a kind of armoy like a mask, which defend- ed that part from the assaults of the fierce animal with which they were to engage. As soon, (says this author,) as we were arrived at the place, a tiger was brought forth from his den, of a size much larger than we had ever seen before. He was not at first let loose, but held with cords, so that one of the elephants approaching, gave him three or four blows with his trunk on the back, with such force that the tiger was for some time stunned, and lay without m3tion, as if he had been dead. As soon, however, as he was let loose, and at full liberty, although the first blows had greatly abated his fury, he made at the elephant with a loud shriek, and aimed at seizing his trunk. But the elephant, wrinkling it up with great dexterity, received the tiger on his great teeth, and tossed him up into the air. This so dis- couraged the furious animal, that he no more ventured to approach the elephant, but made several circuits round the palisade, often attempting to fly at the spectators. Shortly after, a second, and then a third elephant, were sent against him, and they continued to strike him so terribly with their trunks, that he once more lay for dead; and they would certainly have killed him, had not a stop been put to the combat. The tiger, of which Father Gouie has communicated to the Academy of Sciences an anatomical description, composed by the Jesuit Fathers at China, seems to belong to the true species, as does also that which the Por- tuguese have distinguished by the name of royal tiger. Dellon expressly says, in his ‘Travels,’ that there is no country of India in which tigers so much abound, as Malabar; that there the species are numerous, but that the largest of all is that which the Portuguese call the royal tiger, which is very rare, and is as large as a horse. The species of the tiger has always been much rarer, ana much less general- y diffused, than that of the lion. Like the lioness, nevertheless, the tigress roduces four or five young ones at a birth. From her nature she is fierce all times; but when surrounded with her infant progeny, and in the MAMMALIA—TIGER. 18] smallest danger of losing them, her rage, her fury, becomes extravagant To oppose the daring invaders of her den, she braves every danger. On such occasions, she pursues the spoiler with an enmity the most inveterate ; and he, contented to lose a part in order to save a part, is frequently obliged to drop one of her cubs. With this she immediately returns to her den, and again pursues him: he then drops another; and, by the time she has returned with that, he generally escapes with the remainder. Should her young be torn from her entirely, with hideous cries she expresses her agony and her despair, and follows the captor to the very town, or ship, in which he may have taken refuge, and dares him, as it were, to come forth. The skins of these animals are much esteemed all over the East, particu- larly in China; the mandarins cover their seats of justice in the public places with them, and convert them into coverings for cushions in winter. The Indians eat the flesh of the tiger, and find it neither disagreeable nor unwholesome. Such is the character which Buffon and many other naturalists have given ‘to the tiger, and it certainly is not calculated to prejudice us in his favor. More recent writers have, however, and apparently with justice, endeavor- ed to remove a part of the odium which has been thrown upon him. Mr Bennett, the scientific and acute author of the description of the animals in the Tower Menagerie and the Zoological Gardens, has labored with much eloquence to raise the tiger in the scale of estimation. ‘Closely allied to_ the lion,” says he, ‘‘whom he resembles in power, in external form, in internal structure, in zoological character, in his prowling habits, and in his sanguinary propensities, the tiger is at once distinguished from that king of beasts, and from every other of their common genus, by the peculiar marking of his coat. Ona ground which exhibits in different individuals various shades of yellow, he is elegantly striped by a series of transverse black bands or bars, which occupy the sides of his head, neck, and body, and are continued upon his tail, in the form of rings, the last of the series uniformly occupying the extremity of that organ, and giving to it a black tip of greater or less extent. The under parts ef his body and the inner sides of his legs are almost entirely white: he has no mane, and his whole frame, though less elevated than that of the lion, is of a slenderer and more graceful make. His head is also shorter, and more rounded. “Almost in the same degree that the lion has been exalted and magnified, at the expense of his fellow brutes, has the tiger been degraded and depress- ed below his natural level. While the one has been held up to admiration, as the type and standard of heroic perfection, the other has, with equal capriciousness and disregard of the close and intimate relationship subsisting detween them, been looked upon by mankind in general, with those feelings of unmingled horror and detestation, which his character for untamable ferocity and insatiable thirst of blood, was so well calculated to inspire. It requires, however, but little consideration to teach us that the broad distinc. 182 MAMMALIA—TIGER. tion which has been drawn, cannot by possibility exist, and the recorded observations of naturalists and travellers, both at home and abroad, will be found amply sufficient to prove that the difference in their characters and habits, on which so much stress has been laid, is in reality as slight and unessential as that which exists in their corporeal structure. “Unquestionably, the tiger has not the majesty of the lion; for he is desti- tute of the mane, in which that majesty chiefly resides. Neither has he the same calm and dignified air of imperturbable gravity which is at once so striking and so prepossessing in the aspect of the lion. But, on the other hand, it will readily be granted, that in the superior lightness of his frame, which allows his natural agility its free and unrestricted scope, and in the graceful ease and spirited activity of his meiions, to say not'ing of the beauty, the regularity, and the vividness of his coloring, he far excels his competitor, whose giant bulk and comparative heaviness of person, added to the dull uniformity of his color, detract in no small degree from the impres- ' sion produced by his noble and majestic bearing. “‘Tn comparing the moral qualities of these two formidable animals, we shall also find that the shades of difference, for at most they are but shades, which distinguish them, are, like their external characteristics, pretty equally balanced in favor of each. In all the leading features of their character, the habits of both are essentially the same. The tiger, equally with the lion, and in common indeed with the whole of the group to which he belongs, reposes indolently in the security of his den, until the calls of appetite stimulate him to look abroad for food. He then chooses a conve- nient ambush, in which to lie concealed from observation, generally amid the underwood of the forest, but sometimes even on the branches of a tree, which he climbs with all the agility of acat. In this secret covert he awaits with patient watchfulness the approach of his prey, upon which he darts forth with an irresistible bound, and bears it off in triumph to his den. Unlike the lion, however, if his first attack proves unsuccessful, and he misses his aim, he does not usually slink sullenly back into his retreat, but pursues his victim with a speed and activity which is seldom baffled even by the fleetest animals. “It is evident, then, that in the general outline of his habits, and even in most of the separate traits by which his character is marked, he differs but little from the lion. His courage, if brute force stimulated by sensual ap- petite can deserve that honorable name, is at least equal; and as for magna- nimity and generosity, the idea of attributing such noble qualities to either, is in itself so absurd, and is so fully refuted by every particular of their authentic history, that it would be perfectly ridiculous to attempt a com- parison where no materials for comparison exist.” That the tiger is not irreclaimably ferocious, and that he is capable not merely of a capricious and transient liking, but of an enduring attachment, the following story affords an extraordinary and convincing proof. “A MAMMALIA—TIGER. 183 beautiful young tiger, brought in the Pitt, East Indiaman, from China, in the year 1790, was so far domesticated as to admit of every kind of familiarity from the people on board the ship. It seemed to be quite harmless, and was as playful asa kitten. It frequently slept with the sailors in their hammocks ; and would suffer two or thyee of them to repose their heads on its back as upon a pillow, while it lay stretched out upon the deck. In ‘eturn for this indulgence, it would, however, now and then steal their meit. Having one day stolen a piece of beef from the carpenter, he follow- ed the animal, took the meat out of its mouth, and beat it severely for the theft: which punishment it suffered with all the patience of a dog. It would frequently run out on the bowsprit; climb about the ship like a cat; and perform many other tricks, with an agility that was truly astonishing. There was a dog on board, with which it would frequently play in the most diverting manner imaginable. This animal was taken on board the ship when it was only a month or six weeks old, and arrived in England before it had quite completed its first year. On its arrival it was presented to the king, and was afterwards deposited in the Tower of London. It even there continued to be perfectly good-natured, and was, in no instance, known to be guilty of any savage or mischievous tricks. “Tn the year 1801, one day after this tiger had been fed, his keeper put into the den to him, a small, rough, black terrier puppy, a female. The beast suffered it to remain uninjured, and soon afterwards became so much attached to it, as to be restless and unhappy whenever the animal was taken away to be fed. On its return, the tiger invariably expressed the greatest symptoms of delight, always welcoming its arrival by gently lick- ing over every part of its body. In ene or two instances the terrier was left in the den, by mistake, during the time the tiger had his food. The dog sometimes ventured to eat with him, but the tiger generally appeared dissatisfied with this liberty. After a residence with the tiger of several months, the terrier was removed to make way fora little female Dutch mastiff. It was, however, thought advisable, before the terrier was taken away, to shut up the mastiff for three or four days among the straw of the tiger’s bed, to take off, if possible, any smell that might be offensive to the animal. The exchange was made soon after the animals had been fed, the tiger seemed perfectly satisfied with his new companion, and immediately began to lick it, as he had before done the terrier. The dog seemed at first in considerable alarm with so formidable an inmate, but in the course of the day he became perfectly reconciled to his situation. This diminvtive crea- ture the tiger would suffer to play with him, with the greatest good-nature. { have myself, says Mr Bingley, seen it bark at him, and bite him by the foot and mouth, without his expressing the least displeasure. When the dog, in its frolic, seized his foot, he merely lifted it up ou of its mouth, and seemed otherwise heedless of its attacks. “Strange dogs were several times put into the tiger’s den after his feed- {84 MA MMALIA—TIGER. ing, and he in na instance attempted toinjure txem. Mr Cross, the present keeper of Exeter Change, and who formerly had the care of the animals in the Tower, informed me that he could himself have ventured in safety into the den. The ship-carpenter, who,came over with the tiger, came to the Tower to see him. The animal, though they had been separated more than two years, instantly recognized a fOrmer acquaintance, rubbed himself back- ward and forward against the grating of his den, and appeared highly de lighted. Notwithstanding the urgent request that he would not expose himself to so much danger, the man begged to be let into the den, and with so much entreaty, that he was at last suffered to enter. The emotions of the animal seemed roused in the most grateful manner. He rubbed him- self against him, licked his hands, fawned upon him like a cat, and in no respect attempted to injure him. The man remained there two or three hours; and he at last began to fancy there would be some difficulty in getting out alone. Such was the affection of the animal towards his former friend, and so close did he keep to his person, as to render his escape by no means so easy as he had expected. With some care, however, he got the tiger beyond the partition of the two dens, and the keeper, watching his opportunity, closed the slide, and separated them.” Among many instances which we could adduce, where individuals have fallen victims to these animals, we may mention that related by Dr Shaw, where the son of Sir Hector Monro was, in 1792, attacked by a tiger, ac- companied by a tigress, in such a manner as caused his death within twenty-four hours. This animal lies in ambush for his prey, and not unfre- quently destroys his own young. Sometimes he forms his ambush on the borders of rivers and streams, where other animals are compelled to repair, by the heat of the climate, for their drink; but his velocity in running is so creat, that few creatures escape inevitable destruction. These animals are peculiar to Asia. They are generally natives of Bengal, the kingdoms of Siam, Tonquin, Sumatra, and China, also the countries north of China, the Indus, and those of Southern Asia. Buffon says they are also found in Southern Africa ; but Mr Pennant observes, that he could find no authority for his assertion, inasmuch as the animals called tigers by Ludolphus and Kolben were only the leopard or panther. The same gentleman also observes, that this animal is, by an improper misnomer, given to Africa and America. The natives of Sumatra are so infatuated with the belief that they are animated by the souls of their ancestors, that they seldom destroy them. . MAMMALIA—JAGUAR. 185 THE JAGUAR? Wuicu is sometimes called the American tiger, is one of the most formida- ble animals of the New World. He is to be found in the southern division of America, from Paraguay to Guiana; but be does not appear to inhabit to the northward of the Isthmus of Darien. Even in the south the race is gradually growing more rare, in consequence of the double temptation to destroy him, which is offered by the desire of getting rid of a beast so destructive to the flocks, and by the high price which is obtained for his skin. More robust and more clumsy than the leopard, he is also much superior in size, as he often measures four or five feet from the nose to the root of the tail. His head is larger and rounder than the leopard’s, his limbs are shorter, and his tail is of such a length as only to allow the tip to trail on the ground when the animal stands erect. Above the line of the eyes, the profile is also more pro:ninent. “These differences cf form,’ says Mr Bennett, ‘are accompanied dy differences in color and markings equally decisive. The general appearance is, at the first glance, the same in both; but be -penroses of the leopard are scarcely more than half the size of those of .se jaguar, and they all enclose a space of cne uniform color, in which, unless in some rare and accidental instances, no central spots exist, while, in the latter animal, most of those which are arranged along the upper surface near the middle line of the back, are distinguished by one or two small black spots enclosed within their circuit. The middle line itself is occupied in the leopard by open roses, imtermixed with a few black spots of small size and roundish form; that of 1 Felis onca, Lin. 24 . 186 MAMMALIA—JAGUAR. the jaguar, on the contrary, is marked by one or two regular longitudinal lines of broad, elongated deep black patches, sometimes extending severa. inches in length, and occasionally forming an almost continuous band from between the shoulders to the tail. The black rings towards the tip of the latter are also more completely circular than in the leopard.” The jaguar is a solitary animal, residing in forests, especially near large rivers. Heis an excellent swimmer. D’Azara tells us, partly from per- sonal observation, that, after a jaguar had destroyed a horse, he dragged the body sixty paces, and then swam with it over a broad and deep river. He is equally expert at climbing. “I have seen,” says M. Sonini, “in the forests of Guiana, the prints left by the claws of the jaguar on the smooth bark of a tree from forty to fifty feet in height, measuring about a foot and a half in circumference, and clothed with branches near its summit alone. It was easy to follow, with the eye, the efforts which the animal had made to reach the branches: although his talons had been thrust deeply into the body of the tree, he had met with several slips, but he had always recovered his ground, and, attracted no doubt by some favorite object of prey, had at length succeeded in gaining the very top.” The jaguar lies in ambush for his prey, on which he pounces suddenly, and his great muscular strength enables him instantly to bear it to the ground. Man he does not often attack, and never but by stealth. While M. Sonini was travelling in Guiana, his party was closely dogged for three nights by one of these animals, which eluded all their attempts to shoot it, and would, doubtless, have carried off any individual who might have un- guardedly exposed himself. Ferocious as he is in his wild state, the jaguar, when captive, becomes tame and even mild, and is particularly fond of licking the hands of those with whom he is familiar. The taking of the jaguar forms a portion of the warlike features distin- guishing the Indians of South America, particularly the Llaneros, or men of the plains. One inducement a Llanero has in pursuing the jaguar, is the honor of the feat—for the value of its skin and the little depredations it commits on the flocks, would never, I apprehend, (says a late traveller in South America,) induce him to risk a single combat with such fierce animals; but there isa stronger stimulus, viz. that killing seven jaguars, or six tigers, will give him the title of guapo, or warrior, and the privilege of choosing the fattest virgin in the tribe, for his companion; for with them, the lady who is most en bon point, is most beautiful. This alone is a sufficient inducement; and they endeavor to complete their task as early as the age of seventeen. At the approach of the breeding season, they watch with great assiduity the battles that take place between the male and the female, as this is a sure indication of her littering, not wishing to have the male know where she deposits the cubs, as some naturalists assert tha’ he eats them; others, that he hugs them to death. However this be, she MAMMALIA—JAGUAR. 187 never suffers him to approach the jungle, if I may be allowed to call it so until they are able to run after her. During this period, he awaits her with the most tender solicitude, and even brings her a portion of his prey. He is seen hovering instinctively about the place where she is crouched at noontide. When the Llanero perceives this, he envelopes himself in a jaguar’s skin, and approaches him, taking good care to have the wind in his favor, as the jaguar’s keen scent would soon discover the imposition Even this sagacity and instinct they think they have got over, by burning plaintain leaves so as to take away for hours any scent which the human oody has; though this is probably a mere fancy. As soon as the Llanero perceives the jaguar, he runs from him on all fours, and endeavors to mimic the whining cry of the beast, which by some is said to be like a cat, or like hogs crouching ma sty; the latter is what I would compare them to, as I have seen them mustering by night previous to hunting. As soon as the male perceives him, he bounds towards him; when the Llanero dex- terously throws the noose (the lasso) over him, and soon strangles him. Sometimes he wounds him with his lance, and then a sanguinary conflict takes place. As the Llanero has his left arm well bound round with tanned horse skin, impervious to the jaguar’s tusks, he presents his left hand; as soon as the jaguar seizes it, he is stabbed with a long knife, which seldom misses the heart, as the principal excellence of a guapo, is killing the beast with as few stabs as possible. As soon as he dispatches the male, the female becomes an easy prey. Sometimes the Llaneros, when their num- bers are complete, will, to show their dexterity and address, decoy the jaguar into a defile, when the man uncovers and shows himself; the jaguar endeavors to retreat, but is prevented by other Indians, who scare him with firebrands, for they can produce fire by rubbing two pieces of wood together, as quick as with tinder. In this manner they worry him with dogs, while they keep him at bay until the women arrive to witness their cruelty. As the jaguar gets frantic, he endeavors to bite at every thing near him; as often as the creature opens his mouth, he is sure to have a burning torch rammed into his throat, until madness exhausts him, and he is no longer able to close his jaws; then the women and boys descend from their high positions, chop off his paws, hammer out his teeth, and often skin him alive, while the boys are smeared with the blood, in order to make them good warriors, and the mothers take delight in seeing the animosity they have to the creature, even when no longer able to do any injury. As to the female jaguar, they have only to come near her crouching place to pro- voke a quarrel, as she will often attack them before they are within twe hundred yards of it: in her they sometimes find a more formidable enemy than in the male, although much inferior in point of size and strength, but more subtle and crafty ; their bite is difficult to heal, and the Llanero think a wound from a jaguar a great disgrace ; so much so, that a young aspirant for the title of guapo, who had the mis ‘ortune of being wounded in a ren- 188 MAMMALIA—TIGER...PANTHER. contre, was so much ashamed of acknowledging it, that he suffered a morti fication sooner than expose the wound, although he was well aware the women possessed a salve that would cure him. THE -BLACK. Pi GR Tus animal is a native of South America, and is generally considered as a very ferocious and destructive beast. It is about the size of a heifer of a year old, and is entirely of a deep brownish black color on the upper parts, and of a pale gray, or whitish hue underneath ; the upper lip and paws are also whitish, but the tail is of the same dusky appearance as the body. PE PAN Da RESEMBLEs the tiger in its habits, and the leopard in its skin. Like the tiger, it has an insatiable thirst of blood, and an untamable ferocity; like the leopard, its skin is spotted, but is less beautiful than the skin of that animal. It seems, in truth, only a large variety of the leopard. The panther is usually more than six feet long, independent of the tail, which is about three feet in length. In Africa, one was killed by Major Denham, which was more than eight feet in length. His hair is short, sleek, and mossy, and his color is, in general, of a bright tawny yellow, elegantly marked with black spots, disposed in circies of four or five each, with a single spot in the centre: his chest and belly are white. He has short and pointed ears, fierce and restless eyes, a strong, harsh ery, and a savage aspect. So rapid are his movements that few animals can escape him, and such is his agility, that he climbs trees in pursuit of his prey, and is sure of seizing his victim. The flesh of animals is said to be his favorite food but when pressed by hunger he makes his attacks without discrimination. Jn the time of the Romans, panthers appear to have been very numerous, and at present the species is said to extend from Barbary to the remotest parts of Guinea. } Felis nigra, a variety of the preceding. 2 Felis pardus, Lin, MAMMALIA—PANTHER. 189 4¢ must be observed, that it is very doubtful whether the panther has ever yet been truly represented in any drawing. Temminck is of opinion that all the nominal representations of panthers are really those of leopards. Major Denham, in his travels in Africa, furnishes us with the following description: ‘‘During the latter part of the night, while riding on in front with Maramy, the sheikh’s negro, who had accompanied me from Kouka, and who appeared to attach himself more closely to me as we approached danger, we had started several animals of the leopard species, who ran from us so swiftly, twisting their long tails in the air, as to prevent our getting near them. We, however, now started one of a larger kind, which Maramy assured me was so satiated with the blood of a negro, whose carcass we found lying in the wood, that he would be easily killed. I rode up to the spot just as a Shouaa had planted the first spear in him, which passed through the neck, a little above the shoulder, and came down between the animal’s legs; he rolled over, broke the spear, and bounded off with the lower half in his body. Another Shouaa galloped up within two arms’ length, and thrust a second spear through his loins; and the savage animal, with a woful howl, was in the act of springing on his pursuer, when an Arab shot him through the head with a ball, which killed him on the spot. “Tt was a male panther, (zazerma,) of a very large size, and measured, from the point of the tail to the nose, eight feet two inches; the skin was yellow, and beautifully marked with orbicular spots on the upper part of the body, while underneath, and at the throat, the spots were oblong and irregular, intermixed with white. These animals are found in great num- bers in the woods bordering on Mandara ; there are also leopards, the skins of which I saw, but not in great numbers. The panthers are as insidious as they are cruel; they will not attack any thing that is likely to make resistance, but have been known to watch a child for hours, while near the proteetion of huts or people. It will often spring on a grown person, male or female, while carrying a burthen, but always from behind : the flesh of a child or of a young ‘id it will sometimes devour; but when any full grown animal falls a prey t. its ferocity, it sucks the blood alone.” The following narrative of an encounter with a pamther, which is copied from the Library of Entertaining Knowledge, will abundantly prove the formidable nature of the panther, even when the animal is not of its largest size. “T was at Jaffna, at the northern extremity of the island of Ceylon, in tne beginning of the year 1819,” says the writer, “when, one morning, my ser- vant called me an hour or two before my usual time, with, ‘Master, master! people sent for master’s dogs—tiger in the town!’ Now, my dogs chanced to be some very degenerate specimens of a fine species, called the Poligar dog, which I should designate as a sort of wiry-haired greyhound, without scent. I kept them to hunt jackals; but tigers are very different things. By the way, there are no real tigers in Ceylon; but leopards and panthers 190 MAMMALIA—PANTHER. are always called so, and by ourselves as well as by the natives. This turned out to be a panther. My gun chanced not to be put together; and while my servants were doing it, the collector and two medical men, who had recently arrived, in consequence of the cholera morbus having just theu reached Ceylon from the continent, came to my door, the former armed with a fowling-piece, and the two latter with remarkably blunt hog spears. They insisted upon setting off without waiting for my gun, a proceeding not much to my taste. The tiger (I must continue to call him so,) had taken refuge in a hut, the roof of which, like those of Ceylon huts in general, spread to the ground like an umbrella; the only aperture into it was a small door, about four feet high. The collector wanted to get the tiger out at once. I begged to wait for my gun; but no—the fowling-piece, (loaded with ball of course,) and the two hog spears were quite enough. I gota hedge stake, and awaited my fate from very shame. At this moment, to my great delight, there arrived from the fort an English officer, two artillery men, and a Malay captain; and a pretty figure we should have cut without them, as the event will show. I was now quite ready to attack, and my gun came a minute afterwards. The whole scene which follows, took place within an enclosure, about twenty feet square, formed, on three sides, by a strong fence of palmyra leaves, and on the fourth by the hut. At the door of this, the two artillery men planted themselves; and the Malay captain sot at the top, to frighten the tiger out by worrying it,—an easy operation, as the huts there are covered with cccoa-nut leaves. One of the artillery men wanted to go in to the tiger, but we would not suffer it. At last the beast sprang: this man received him on his bayonet, which he thrust appa- rently down his throat, firing his piece at the same moment. The bayonet broke off short, leaving less than three inches on the musket; the rest re- mained in the animal, but was invisible to us: the shot probably went through his cheek, for it certainly did not seriously injure him, as he instant- ly rose upon his legs, with a loud roar, and placed his paws upon the soldier’s breast. At this moment, the animal appeared to me about to reach the centre of the man’s face; but I had scarcely time to observe this, when the tiger, stooping his head, seized the soldier’s arm in his mouth, turned him half round staggering, threw him over on his back, and fell upon him. Our dread now was, that if we fired upon the tiger, we might kill the man: for the moment there was a pause, when his comrade attack- ed the beast exactly in the same manner as the gallant fellow himself had done. He struck his bayonet into his head; the tiger rose at him—he fired; and this time the ball took effect, and in the head. The animal staggered backwards, and we all poured in our fire. He still kicked and writhed ; when the gentlemen with the hog spears advanced, and fixed him, while some natives finished him, by beating him on the head with hedge stakes. The brave artillery man was, after all, but slightly hurt: he claim- ed the skin, which was very cheerfully given tohim. There was, however, MAMMALIA—LEOPARD. 19] a cry among the natives that the head should be cut off: it was; and, in so doing, the knife came directly across the bayonet. ‘The animal measured scarcely less than four feet from the root of the tail to the muzzle. There was no tradition of a tiger having been in Jaffna before; indeed, this one must have either come a distance of almost twenty miles, or have swam across an arm of the sea nearly two in breadth; for Jaffna stands on a peninsula on which there is no jungle of any magnitude.” TE BE:OP A RD! its con WN if ae eS SS SS ADH ih SSN Sighs i ———s —=—_=— > Tus formidable and sanguinary animal is found nearly throughout tne whole of Africa, and in eastern and southern Asia. He usually measures about three feet in length, exclusive of the tail, but sometimes reaches four feet. His appearance indicates his natural disposition. He has a restless eye and a sinister countenance, and all his motions are hasty and abrupt. In rapidity, agility, and precision of motion, he is unrivalled by any other animal; an advantage which he owes to the strength of his muscles, the suppleness of his joints, the extreme pliability of his spine, the greater lateral compression of his body, and the slender proportions of his limbs. His prey, on which he darts from his hiding-place, and even pursues up the trees, consists of antelopes,; monkeys, and the smaller quadrupeds. Usually, he shuns man, but when closely pressed, he turns upon the hunter, and hunger will drive him to attack, though by stealth, the human race. “Even among the cats,” says Mr Bennett, “he is remarkable for extreme sleekness and excessive agility. He is well distinguished from all the other species, by the vividness of his coloring, and the beauty of his mark- 1 Felis leopardus, Lin. \ 192 MAMMALIA—OUNCK. zngs. These consist of numerous rows of large rose-like spots, passin, along his sides, each formed of the confluence of several smaller black spots into an irregular circle enclosing a fawn colored centre, upon a general ground color of light yellow. On his head, neck, and limbs, and the centra\ line of his back, the spots run into one another so completely, as to form: full patches of smaller size than the open roses, and without central yellow. The under parts of his body, as is usual in most quadrupeds, become gradu- ally of a lighter hue, the throat, chest, and abdomen being of a pure and delicate white. His tail is equal in length to the entire body, excluding the head; and is marked by a continuation of the open roses of the sides, which become, towards its extremity, separated in such a manner as to surround the upper surface with partial rings of black alternating with white. The whiskers are long and white, and implanted in a series of black lines which traverse his lips.” In captivity, the leopard has been sometimes brought to a considerable degree of tameness. It is not, however, very safe to trust them; for their original nature is now and then unexpectedly displayed. The female leopard in the Tower is extremely tame, suffers herself to be patted by the keeper. and licks his hands. She has a curious propensity to destroy such articles of dress as she can seize; and has torn to pieces hundreds of parasols, umbrellas, muffs, and hats, which the owners unwarily suffered to come within reach of her sudden and agile spring. TE. Chek PAH OR OU Nee! ibbirh, tn, Mh, \ Rte Soe Le ith ly Swe es. \ ee pe HAT es NG Nea AANA OR we" Sa LZ Ye Tuts animal, which is called the youze in Persia, the chetah in India, and to which Pennant gave the name of the hunting leopard, is a native of Africa 1 Felis uncia, GMELIN. MAMMALIA—OCELOT. 193 and Southern Asia. With the distinguishing characteristics of the cat species, it combines somewhat of the dog. Unlike those of the cat, its claws are only slightly retractile. In size he is intermediate between the leopard and the hound, but has a slenderer body, more elevation in his legs, and a less flat forepart of the head than the former, while he wants the graceful and lengthened form of head and body by which the latter is dis- tinguished. His fur is not sleek, but has a peculiar crispness. , Above, the ground color is a bright yellowish fawn; beneath, it is a pure white; the back and sides are covered with innumerable spots, close to each other, from half an inch to an inch in diameter. The spots are larger, but less closely set, on the back than on the head, sides, and limbs. On the chest and under part of the body they are wanting. The tail is marked with m- terrupted rings of them, till near the extremity, which is surrounded by three or four complete rings. Along the back of the neck, and the anterior part of the spine, is a mane, consisting of longer, crisper, and more upright hairs. 7 In the east he is used in hunting by the higher classes. Hiding himself as much as possible, he approaches the object, and when he has come sufficiently near it, he makes five or six enormous bounds, with incre- dible velocity, darts on his victim, and instantly strangles him. In his domesticated state, the chetah is one of the most playful and fond of ani- mals. He has not the slightest appearance of the caprice and mischievous- ness of the cat. Hs: O'CAL OT & . Ix describing the ocelot, serious mistakes have been committed by Buffon and other naturalists. Itis to Mr Bennett that we are indebted for the 1 Felis. pardalis, Lin ?A 194 MAMMALIA—OCELOT. latest and most accurate description of this animal. ‘“ Nearly equal in size to the lynx of Europe,” says he, “but shorter in its proportions and more graceful in its form, it holds, as it were, a middle station between the leopard and the domestic cat. Its body, when full grown, is nearly three feet in length, and its tailrather more than one; while its medium height may be reckoned at about eighteen inches. The ground color of its fur is gray, mingled with a slight tinge of fawn, and on this it is elegantly mark- ed with numerous longitudinal bands, the dorsal one being continuous and entirely black, and the lateral, to the number of six or seven on each side, consisting, for the most part, of a series of elongated spots with black mar- gins, sometimes completely distinct, and sometimes running together. The centre of each of these spots offers a deeper tinge of fawn than the ground color external to them ; and this deeper tinge is also conspicuous on the upper part of the head and neck, and on the outside of the limbs, all of which parts are irregularly marked with full black lines and spots of va- rious sizes. From the top of the head, between the ears, there pass back- wards, towards the shoulders, two, or more frequently four, uninterrupted diverging bands, which are full black anteriorly, but generally bifurcate posteriorly, and enclose a narrow fawn colored space within a black margin ; between these there is a single longitudinal, somewhat interrupted narrow black line, occupying the centre of the neck above. The ears are short and rounded, and externally margined with black, surrounding a large central whitish spot. The under parts of the body are whitish, spotted with black, and the tail, which is of the same ground color with the body, is also cover- ed with blackish spots. The tail of the specimen in the Tower does not exceed six or seven inches, but, as it ends abruptly, it has, in all probability, been shortened by some accident.” The animal in the Tower was sent from Trinidad, under the name of the Peruvian tiger. It is extensively spread over the American conti- nent, being found in the widely separated regions of Mexico and Para- guay, where it abides in the depths of the forests during the day, and gives chase at night to birds and small quadrupeds. As it is an active climber, it follows the birds even to their nests. “It is easily tamed,” says Mr Bennett, “but seldom loses all trace of its natural ferocity. D’Azara. however, speaks of one which was so completely domiciliated, as to be lef: at perfect liberty ; it was strongly attached to its master, and never attempt ed to make ‘ts escape.” te a’ # MAMMALIA—LYN4&. 195 THE LYNX! _—<— Satis 2 Is an animal more commonly found in cold than in temperate climates; and is, at least, very rare in hot ones. Bory St Vincent, however, assures us that he shot several in Spain. It is abundant in the northern parts of Europe, Asia, and America. The lynx of the Greeks and Romans was not the animal which now bears that name, but the caracal. The lynx, of which the ancients have said, that the sight was so sharp - as to penetrate opaque bodies, and of which the urine was made to possess the marvellous property of hardening into a solid substance, a precious stone called lapis lyncurius, is an animal which never existed, any more than all the properties attributed to it, but in fable. To the present lynx, or to the caracal, this imaginary one has no affinity, but in name. We must not, therefore, as the generality of naturalists have hitherto done, attribute to the former, which is a real being, the properties of tais imaginary one, the existence of which Pliny himself does not seem disposed to believe, since he speaks of it only as an extraordimary beast, and classes it with the sphinx, the pegasus, and other prodigies, or monsters, the produce of Ethiopia. The European lynx possesses not the wonderful quality of seeing through walls ; but it has bright eyes, a mild aspect, and, upon the whole, an agreea- dle and lively appearance. Such, however, is its native ferocity, that it is said to be incapable of being subdued.* Its urine produces not precious stones, but like the cat, an animal which it nearly resembles, and of which it retains the manners, and even the cleanliness, it covers it over with earth. The most beautiful skins of the lynx are brought from Siberia, as belong- mg to the lupus-cervarius; and from Canada, as belonging to the felis- cervarius ; because being, like all other animals of the New Continent, smaller than those of the Old World, in Europe they are compared to a wolf in size, and in Canada to a wild cat. The lynx has short legs, and is generally about the size of the fox. The ears are erect, and are tipped with a long pencil of black hair. The fur, 3 Felis lynx, Lin. 196 MAMMALIA—LYNX. which is long and thick, is of a pale gray color, with a reddish tinge, and obscurely marked with small dusky spots on the upper parts of the body. The under parts are white. The skin of the male is more beautifully marked than that of the female. It does not walk or run like the wolf in a progressive motion, but leaps and bounds like the cat. It gains its sole subsistence by devouring other animals; and these it will follow to the very tops of trees. Neither can the wild cat, the marten, the ermine, nor the squirrel, escape its pursuit. It also seizes birds, lies in wait for the stag, the rocbuck, and the hare, and with one bound often seizes them by the throat. When in possession of its prey, it first sucks the blood of the animal, and then lays open its head, in order to devour the brains. This done, it generally abandons the victim of its fury, goes in search of fresh prey, and is seldom known to return to the former; a circumstance which has given rise to the vulgar remark, that of all animals the lynx has the shortest memory. The skin of this animal changes its color according to the season and the climate. In winter it is in every respect better than it is in summer; and its flesh, like the flesh of all beasts of prey, is not proper to eat. CANADA LYNX Tuts is the only species of the genus which exists north of the Great Lakes, and eastward of the Rocky Mountains. It is rare on the sea-coast, and does not frequent the Barren Grounds, but it is not uncommon in the woody districts of the interior, since from seven to nine thousand are annu- ally procured by the Hudson’s Bay Company. It is found on the Mackenzie River, as far north as 66°. It is a timid creature, incapable of attacking any of the larger quadrupeds ; but well armed for the capture of the Ameri- can hare, on which it chiefly preys. Its large paws, slender loins, and long, but thick hind legs, with large buttocks scarcely relieved by a short thick tail, give it an awkward, clumsy appearance. Itis easily destroyed by a blow on the back with a slénder stick; and it never attacks a man. Its gait is by bounds straight forward, with the back a little arched, and lighting on all feet at once. Itswims well, but it is not swift on land. It breeds once a year, and has two young atatime. The natives eat its tlesh, which is white and tender, but rather flavorless, much resembling that of the American hare. The early French writers on Canada gave it the name of Loup Cervier. The French Canadians now term it indifferently La Chats, or Le Peshoo. Cvundar considered it as identical with the lynx of the Old World; Geoffroy St Hilaire named it as a distinct species ; and Temminck has again, under the name of Felis Borealis, described the species as the same in both hemispheres. 1 Felis Canadensis, Desm. MAMMALIA—SIYA-GUSH. 197 BAY LYNX,.OR AMERICAN WiLD CAT ! THE common wild cat of North America stands very high upon its legs and has a short tail which is curved upwards at its extremity; which cir cumstances tend to give the animal an appearance of being somewhat dis- proportioned. In other respects its physiognomy reminds one strongly of the domestic cat, to which its general aspect and movements are very simi- lar. The residence of the wild cat is usually in woody districts, where it preys upon birds, squirrels, and other small animals, which are taken by surprise, according to the manner of all the animals belonging to the genus felis. This animal is about two feet long, and twelve or thirteen inches in circumference. The tail but little exceeds three inches in length. The general color is a deep reddish, mingled with small spots of blackish brown. This animal is occasionally met with in New England, but is more com- mon in Canada and.the Western States. It must be distinguished from the wild cats, occasionally shot in our woods, which have sprung from the domestic cat. THE, CAR ACAL. OR, SLY A-GUS-E.2 Txoven the caracal resembies the lynx in size, in the formation of the body, and the aspect of the head; and though, like that animal, it seems to have the peculiar, and almost singular characteristic of a stripe of black —_— - 1 Felis rufa, GMEL. 2 Felis caracal, Lin. 198 MAMMALIA—CARACAL. hair at the extremity of the ears; we do not scruple, nevertheless, from their disagreement in other respects, to treat of them as animals of different species. The caracal is not spotted like the lynx ; it has hair rougher and shorter ; its tail is larger, and of a uniform color; its snout is more elongated; in appearance it is less mild, and in disposition it is fiercer. The lynx is an inhabitant of ihe cold, or at most of the temperate regions; the caracal is only found in hot countries. The caracal, which is the lynx of the ancients, is common in Barbary, in Arabia, and in the southern half of Asia, and in all those countries which are inhabited by the lion, the panther, and the leopard: like them it depends ~ on prey for its subsistence; but, unlike them, from its inferior size, its inferior strength, to procure that prey, it has much difficulty. Hardly, indeed, has it aught to subsist on, but what the more potent carnivorous animals are disposed to leave for it. It follows the lion, who, when the immediate cravings of his appetite are gratified, is of a disposition altogether inhostile. From the refuse of what this noble animal has devoured, the caracal frequently enjoys a comfortable meal. When, however, he is left to his own powers for support, he attacks hares, rabbits, and birds; of the latter he is exceedingly fond, and will pursue them with astonishing swift- ness to the tops of the tallest trees. The caracal is somewhat larger than a fox, and much fiercer and stronger. It has been known to attack, tear in pieces, and destroy, in a few minutes, a 1zarge dog, who, fighting for his life, defended himself with all his strength. It is very difficult to tame this animal; yet if taken when very young, and afterwards reared with care, some affirm that it may be trained to the chase, to which it is by nature inclined, and in which it is sure to succeed, pro- vided it is let loose against such animals only as are its inferiors, and unable to resist it. Should it be a service of danger, with every expression of reluctance it declines it. It is stated that in India they make use of this animal to take hares, rabbits, and even large birds, all of which it surprises, and seizes with singular address and facility. It is, however, doubtful whether the caracal is ever thus employed. In captivity it is extremely sulky, and stares fiercely whenever it is noticed. MAMMALIA—TIGER CAT. 199 THE TIGER CAT OF APRICA;, OR CAPE CAT. Tuts beautiful animal was erroneously supposed by Buffon to be the same as the serval of India, but we have recently seen a living specimen in Boston, from which the above accurate likeness was taken, and which ena- bles us to testify to the accuracy of the following description from Shaw. “ This animal is extremely brilliant in color, it being of the brightest ful- vous yellow, with jet black stripes and spots; the chin, throat, and breast, pale ash color; along the back are black stripes; on the sides of the neck, and on the breast, numerous small crescent shaped spots pointing upwards; on the legs numerous roundish spots; and the tail very strongly and dis- tinctly annulated with black and yellow.” The specimen of the cape cat to which we have referred, was certainly one of the most beautiful animals we have ever seen. Its motions were exceedingly quick and graceful, and its countenance mild, lively, and pleas- ing. Its forma was very slender; the head and body not being larger than those of a domestic cat; yet its height and length were nearly twice as great. i 1 Felis capensis. 200 MAMMALIA—CAT . THE DOMESTIC: CAT? TxovcH an animal of prey, is a useful domestic. It is neither wanting is sagacity nor sentiment; but its attachments are stronger to places than to persons. The form of its body corresponds with its disposition. The cat is handsome, light, adroit, cleanly, and voluptuous: he loves ease, and searches out the softest furniture in order to repose on, and rest himself. Young cats are gay, lively, pretty, and would be very proper to amuse children, if the strokes of their paws were not to be feared. Their dispo- sition, which is an enemy to all restraint, renders them incapable of a regular education. We are told, nevertheless, of the Greek friars of Cyprus having taught cats to hunt, take, catch, and destroy the serpents with which that island was infested ; their scent, which in the dog is an eminent quality ‘s “xr from being good, and therefore they do not pursue animals which taey n> .onger see; they do not hunt, but wait and attack them by surprise. The most immediate physical cause of this inclination which they have to spy out, and surprise other animals, comes from the advantage which they receive from the particular conformation of their eyes. The pupil, in man, as well as in the greater part of animals, is capable of a certain degree of contraction and dilatation ; it enlarges a little when there is no light, ané contracts when it becomes too strong. In the eye of the cat, and of nocturnal birds, this contraction and dilata tion are so considerable, that the pupil, which in obscurity is large and round, becomes, in broad day, long and narrow like a line; and for this reason, these animals see better during the night than during the day, the form of the pupil being always round when it is not constrained. During the day, there is a continual contraction in the eyes of the cat, and it is only by effort, as it were, that he sees in a strong light; whereas, at twilight, the pupil resuming its natural form, he sees perfectly, and profits from this advantage, to know, attack, and surprise other animals. The whiskers, too, appear to aid him in the chase, by possessing qualities analogs to those of the — of insects. — 1 Felis catus, Lin. MAMMALIA—CAT. 201 Cats seem to have a natural dread of water, cold, and vad smells. They are very fond of perfumes, and giadly suffer tnemse.ves' to be taken and caressed by persons who use them. ‘The scent of valerian has so powerful, and so delicious an effect on them, that they eppear transported with plea- sure by it; and, in order to preserve this plant in gardens, it is common to surround it with a close fence. Cats will smell it from afar, will run and rub themselves against it, and will pass and repass so often over it, as to destroy it in a short time. One of the most remarkable properties of the domestic cat is, the anxiety with which it makes itself acquainted, not only with every part of its usual habitation, but with the dimensions and external qualities of every ob- ject by which it is surrounded. Cats do not very readily adapt themselves to a change of houses; but we have watched the process by which one, whose attachment to a family is considerable, reconciles itself to such a change. He surveys every room in the house, from the garret to the cellar; if a door is shut, he waits till it be opened to complete the survey; he ascertains the relative size and position of every article of furniture ; and when he has acquired this knowledge, he sits down contented with his new situation. It appears necessary toa cat, that he should be intimately acquainted with every circumstance of his position, in the same way that a general first examines the face of the country in which he is to conduct his operations. if a new piece of furniture, if even a large book or portfolio, is newly placed inaroom which a cat frequents, he walks round it, smells it, takes note of its size and appearance, and then never troubles himself further about the matter. This is, probably, an instinctive quality; and the wild cat may, in the same way, take a survey of every tree or stone, every gap in a brake, every path in a thicket, within the ordinary range of its operations. The whiskers of the cat, as we have mentioned in the case of the lion, enable it to ascertain the space through which its body may pass, without the inconve- nience of vainly attempting such a passage. The memory of a cat must be very strong, to enable it to understind this great variety of local circumstances, after a single observation. The same power of memory leads this animal, much as its affection may be doubted, to know the faces of individuals. We have seen a cat exhibit manifest delight upon the return of its master, or of a person from whom it had received peculiar kindness. There are several instances of strong attach- ment to the human race, in cats, though, in number and intensity, they fall short of the attachment of the dog. Cats appear to possess, in some degree, the power of fascination. ‘There was at my house, a little while ago, a cat, seen watching rd upon the top of a tree, and for some time they mutually fixed their eyes upon each other. At length, the bird let herself fall resistless into the cat’s claws, 26 202 MAMMALIA—CAT. either dazzled and astonished by the force of imagination, or drawn by some attractive power in the cat.” As they are exceedingly clean, and as their coat is always dry and shin- ing, their hair easily electrifieS; and sparks are seen to come from it, when rubbed with the hand, in any dark place. Their eyes shine in the dark, almost like diamonds, and reflect outwardly, during the night, the light which they may be said to have imbibed during the day. Cats may be taught to perform tricks, such as leaping over a stick, but they always do such feats unwillingly. There was an exhibition of cats, in Regent-street, London, where the animals, at the bidding of their master, (an Italian,) turned a wheel, drew up a bucket, rang a bell, and, in doing these things, begin, continue, and stop, as they were commanded. But the commencez, continuez, arretez of their keeper, was always enforced with a threatening eye, and often with a severe blow; and the poor creatures ex- hibited the greatest reluctance to proceed with their unnatural employments. They had a subdued and piteous look; but the scratches upon their master’s arms, showed that Ais task was not always an easy one. “At Elford, near Litchfield, in England, the Rev. Mr Sawley had taken the young ones from a hare which had been shot. His cat, which had just lost her own kittens, carried them away, as it was supposed, to eat them ; but it presently appeared that it was affection, not hunger, which incited her, as she suckled them and brought them up as their mother.” Wild cats, from whence all the domestic varieties have been derived, have been seen in several parts of Africa, as in Guinea, at the Gold.Coast; at Madagascar, where the original inhabitants had even domestic cats; at the Cape of Good Hope, where, Kolben says, “there are also, though in a small number, wild cats of a blue color ;” and these blue, or rather slate colored cats, are found again in Asia. In Europe, but one species of wild cat is known, and seems to be but little varied by climate. In England, the wild, or wood cat, is the fiercest and most destructive of predatory animals, and may not improperly be denominated the British tiger. At its full growth, it stands a foot anda half in height, measures nearly two feet round the body, and, including the tail, which is half a yard long, itis about four feet in length. A larger head, more vividly sparkling eyes, and a more agile and daring demeanor, distinguish it from the domes- tic species. Its color is of a yellowish brown; the head, back, sides, and tail, being marked transversely with bars of deep brown and black. It isa very solitary animal. Merely to wound them is dangerous, as they will turn furiously on their assailant, and they have strength enough to render themselves formidable. In spite, however, of their strength and agility, they are often vanquished by a much smaller enemy. That enemy is the pine marter he combat between the two animals is well described by the author of a¥ecent valuable work, The British Naturalist. ‘The onset,” says he, “is one of some skill on both sides. The aim of the cat is to MAMMALIA-—SEAL. 203 pounce with her paws upon the head of the marten, in such a way that the claws may destroy or wound its eyes, while her teeth are embedded in its neck; and if she can accomplish that, the fate of the marten is decided. That, however, if done at all, must be done in a moment; and if it be lost, there is no repairing the mistake. he spring of the wood cat is larger than that of her opponent, and the cat takes up her position so that she shall, if possible, alight upon his head with her full spring and impetus. To dis- tract her attention, he keeps moving his head from side to side, and if he succeeds in his object, he rushes to close quarters by a side movement If the spring of the cat takes proper effect, there is a struggle, but not of long duration; and it is the same with the opposite result, if the cat miss and the marten fasten, during the short pause of exhaustion after the spring.” A singular animal has recently been discovered in the island of Java, which seems the connecting link between the cat and ferret tribes. It has the lengthened muzzle, and slender body of the latter, with the sheathed and retractile claws of the former. Dr Horsfield denominates it Prionodon gracilis. FAMILY ITI—AMPHIBIA. THESE animals have the feet short, enveloped in the skin, in form of fins ; the posterior in the direction of the body; number of incisors variable, often six, and sometimes four above, more generally four, and sometimes two below. THE SEAL. ie Baers =~ si EIT Na ON Tus animal has its head round, like that of the human species; its snout 1s broad, like the otter’s ; the eyes, large and elevated ; little, or no external ur lower e lower es large ¢; four ab- 1 Phoca vitulina, Lrx. The genus Phoca has six or four upper and two incisors ; two upper and two lower canines ; ten ox twelve upper and ten o molars. Molars all cutting or conical; five toes on all the feet; tail sho nostrils closing at the will of the animal; head round; external ears w dominal mamme. 204 MAMMALIA—SEAL. + oy signs of ears, only two auditory passages in the sides of the nead; it haa whiskers about its mouth, and its teeth somewhat resemble those of the wolf; the tongue is sloped at the point; the body, hands, and feet, covered with a short and bristly hair; it has no legs, but two feet, or memLranes, like hands, with five toes, terminated ‘by as many claws. These mem- branes, which have the appearance of hands, are only larger and turned backwards, as if designed to unite with its very short tail, which they accompany on both sides. The body is thickest where the neck is joined ic it, whence the animal tapers down to the tail like a fish. This amphibi- ous creature, though of a very different nature from that of our domestic animals, yet seems susceptible of a kind of education. It is taught to salute persons with its head and its voice; it is accustomed to obey the call of its keeper, and gives many other signs of intelligence and docility. The sensations of the seal are as perfect, and its sagacity as ready, as those of any other quadruped; both the one and the other are strongly marked by its docility, its social qualities, its strong instinct for its female, its great atteution towards ifs young, and by its voice, which is more expres- sive and more modulated than in other animals. Its body is likewise firm and large. It is also strong, and armed with very sharp teeth and claws, and has many particular and singular advantages over any other animals we can compare with it. It endures both heat and cold, and feeds indiffe- rently on grass, flesh, or fish. It can equally live on ice, land, or in the water. On account of their remaining so long a time under water, it was supposed that the foramen ovale remained open, as in the human fetus, but it is not so. hae But these advantages, which are very great, are counterbalanced by im- perfections still greater : they may be said to be deprived of the use of their fore legs, or membranes; they are almost entirely shut up within its body, while nothing appears but the extremities of them, which are furnished with five toes, scarcely moveable, being united together by a very strong mem- brane, so that they might more properly be called fins than feet, as they are more adapted for the purpose of swimming than walking; the hind feet, indeed, being turned backwards, are entirely useless upon land; so that when the animal is obliged to move, it drags itself forward like a reptile, and with an effort more painful; for it cannot twist itself about like a ser- pent, but lies like a lump on the earth, and by grasping whatever it finds in its reach, drags itself up the steepest shores, rocks, and shoals of ice: by this method, it moves with* such a degree of swiftness, that a man cannot overtake it. It makes its way towards the sea, and often, though wounded, escapes the pursuit of the hunter. Seals are social animals, and are generally found in great numbers in the places frequent: their natural climate is the northern, but they are also met ‘in the temperate, and even hot countries; for they are seen on the shores of almost all the seas in the universe. The species alone x ¥ D atte & . MAMMALIA-SEAL. 205 seem to vary ; and, according to the difference of climates, its color changes, and even its shape. The females of these animals bring forth in winter, and rear their young upon some sand bank, rock, or small island, at some distance from the continent. When they suckle their young, they sit upon their hinder legs, and they continue with their dam for twelve or fifteen days; after which, she brings them down to the water, accustoms them to swim, and get their food by their own industry. As each litter never exceeds above three or four, so the animal’s cares are not much divided, and the education of her little ones is soon completed. The young, particularly, distinguish their mother’s voice among the numerous bleatings of the old ones, and are perfectly obedient to her call. The time that intervenes, from their birth till they attain their full growth, being many years, the length of their lives must also be very long. Buffon is of the opinion, that these animals live upwards of a hundred years. The voice of the seal may be compared to the barking of an angry dog. When young, they have a shrill note, somewhat like the mewing of a cat. Those that are taken early from their dams mew continually, and very often die, sooner than take the food that is offered them. These animals, in general, are of a courageous nature. It is remarked, that, instead of being terrified at thunder and lightning, they are rather delighted, generally come on shore in tempests and storms, and even quit their icy abodes to avoid the shock of the tempestuous waves: at such times, they sport in great num- bers along the shore; the tremendous conflict seems to divert them, and the heavy rains that fall, appear to enliven them. They have naturally a disagreeable scent, and when there are great numbers together, it is per- ceived at a great distance. _ As they have a prodigious quantity of blood, and are also greatly overloaded with fat, they are consequently of a very dull and heavy nature ; they usually sleep soundly, and are fond of taking their repose on flakes of ice, or on the sides of rocks, at which time the hunters approach very near without disturbing them, and this is the usual method of Mis, Be They are very seldom killed with firearms ; for, as they do not immediately die, even if they are shot in the head, they plunge into the sea, and are entirely lost to the hunter. The general method, therefore, is to surprise them when asleep, and knock them on tne head. 206 MAMMALIA—SEAL. THE GREENLAND SEAL Turse animals differ considerably in size, being found from four to nine feet long. They also vary in their colors; some being black, others white, some spotted, and many yellow. ‘Their chief food consists of fish, which they are remarkably expert in pursuing and catching. In those places where herrings are seen in shoals, the seals destroy them by thousands; and when these retire, they are obliged to hunt after fish that are stronger and more capable of evading pursuit. They are taken for the sake of their skins and the oil their fat yields. The seal is capable of being tamed, and is said to be fond of music. The Icelanders believe them to be the offspring of Pharaoh, and his host, who were converted into seals on their being over- whelmed in the Red Sea. Were the race of this creature to cease to exist, the Greenlander would be rendered almost unable to inhabit his rigid clime, as it is principally from them that he derives the necessaries of life. There is scarcely a part of them which is not of the highest utility to him. The manner in which a Greenlander catches a seal, is as follows: The instant a seal is seen, he whispers, pussee ! (seal,) along the surface of the water, to the nearest of his companions, who telegraphs the signal till all the boats are engaged in the chase; and it is seldom possible for their prey to escape. The seal is impetuous in disposition, and having once discover- ed his pursuers, he dives repeatedly, and in different directions, to confound them; but becomes at length so short breathed by his hurry, that he cannot remain long out of sight; and, as the wskees are around at various points watchin favorable moment, one of them paddles silently in his rear, using th dle with one hand, while with the other he is getting his tackle in order; and having advanced near enough, for he is sure to measure 1 Phoca Groenlandica, Mutt. MAMMALIA—SEAL. 207 the distance with accuracy, he flings the dart, and never fails to strike. The seal, terrified and wounded, dives in the greatest terror; but a float being attached to the dart by a leathern line, he is soon forced up again and despatched. European and American ships are sent to the high northern latitudes to procure the oil and skins of seals, which are of extensive importance in commerce and manufactures. One mode of killing the seal, is to go to the caves on shore, into which herds of seals occasionally enter. When the sealers are properly placed, they raise a simultaneous shout, at which the affrighte. animals rush out in great confusion, and are dispatched with wonderful quickness, by a single blow on the nose, struck with a club. They are very tenacious of life when struck or wounded on any other part of the body. The best situation for sealing in the Arctic seas, is stated by Scoresby, to be in the vicinity of Jan Mayen’s Island; and the best season, the months of March and April. When the boats arrive at the ice, the sealers imme- diately attack the animals with clubs, and stun thefn by a single blow over the nose, which mode enables one person to destroy a large number of seals; when they are seen on pieces of drift ice they are hunted by means of boats, each boat pursuing a different herd; should the seals attempt to leave the ice before the arrival of the boat, the sealers shout as loudly as possible, and produce such amazement in the seals by this uproar, as to delay their flight till the boat arrives and the work of destruction is begun. Where the seals are very numerous, the sealers stop not to flay those they have killed, but set off to another ice field to kill more, merely leaving one man behind to take off the skins and fat. When the condition of the ice forbids the use of oats, the hunter is obliged to pursue the seals over it, jumping from piece iece, until they succeed in taking one, which he then stops to flay and mse, or to remove the skin and fat. This sometimes is a horrible busi- ness, since many of the seals are merely stunned, and occasionally recover after they have been flayed and flensed. Inthis condition, too shockingly mangled for description, they have been seen to make battle and even to swim off. The number of seals destroyed in a single season, by the regular sealers, may well excite surprise. One ship has been known to obtain a cargo of four or five thousand skins, and upwards of a hundred tons of oil. Whale ships have accidently fallen in with and secured two or three thousand of these animals during the month of April. The sealing business is, how- ever, very hazardous when conducted on the borders of the Spitzbergen ice. Many ships, with all their crews, are lost by the sudden and tremendous storms occurring in those seas, where the dangers are vastly tiplied by the driving of immense bodies of ice. In one storm that occurred in the year 1774, no less than five seal ships were destroyed in a few hours, and six hundred valuable searnen perished 208 MAMMALIA—ELEPHANT SEAL. THE FETED siAns Tis seal, when full grown, is about four feet and a half long, and its skin is covered with a dingy white hair, composed of stiff bristles and soft hair. The old animals are remarkably fetid, and this nauseous odor taints their flesh and fat equally. The fetid seal frequents the fixed ice near frozen lands, and never relinquishes its haunts when old. It has holes in the ice for the purpose of fishing, and is solitary in its habits, pairs being rarely seen together. It is not a timid animal, and is occasionally preyed upon by the eagle, being taken while asleep upon the surface. TE iS EeA, LAO WM, —/OeR 4B, Bo BeASN DS fA Gee To the species of seals, as above described, we may, ‘with great propriety, add another animal, described in Anson’s Voyages, by the name of the sea lion. It is found in great numbers on the coasts of the South Sea. The sea lion resembles the sea calf, which is very common in the same latitude; but they are much larger than any of the former, being from eleven to eighteen feet long, and from eight to eleven in circumference. It is so fat, that when the skin is taken off, the blubber is about a foot thick allround the body. About ninety gallons of oil is drawn from one of these animals; they are at the same time very full of blood, and when deeply wounded in many parts of the body, the blood spouts out with amazing power ; the throat of one of these animals being cut, it afforded two barrels of blood, besides what then remained in its body. Its skin is covered with a short hair of a brownish color, but blackish on the tail and feet: their toes are united by a membrane which does not reach to their extremity; each of the toes is known by aclaw. The sea lion differs from the seal, not only in its size and bulk, but also in some other characters; the male has a kind of thick comb or trunk hanging from the end of the upper jaw, about five or six inches long, which becomes inflated when the animal is angry. This character is not seen in the female. The strongest males collect together a flock of females, and hinder the others from approaching them. These animals are truly amphibious; they remain all the summer mn the sea, and go on shore in the winter, at which season the females bring forth their young, but never above one or two at a litter, which they suckle, like the seal. The sea lions, while they are on shore, feed on the grass by the side of the sea; they are of a very heavy and drowsy nature, and delight to sleep in the mire; but they are very wary, and at those times commonly fix some as sentinels near the place where they sleep; and it is said, that these senti- — 1 Phoca fetida, Mot. 2 Phoca ansonii, Desa. MAMMALIA—SEA BEAR. 209 nels are very careful to awake them when any danger is near. Their voices are very shrill, and of various tones; sometimes grunting like hogs, and sometimes neighing like horses. The males often fight with each other, when they wound one another desperately with their teeth. The flesh of these animals is not disagreeable to eat, particularly the tongue, which is as good as that of the ox. They are very easily killed, as they cannot defend themselves, nor fly from their enemies; they are so exceed- ingly heavy, that they move with great difficulty, and turn themselves about with still greater. Those that hunt them have only to guard against their teeth, which are very strong, and which they make use of with powerfui effect on those who approach within their reach. THE HOODE D Sih Ai. .+ Tue hooded seal is most commonly found on the shores of Greenland, of Davis’ Straits, and occasionally of Newfoundland. It is distinguished by the singular appendage it has on its head, formed by an extension of the skin of the front which communicates with the nostrils, and can he inflated, or elevated and depressed, at the pleasure of the animal. It is covered with short black hairs. The use of this hood has not been ascertained.— Godman. THE URSINE SEAL, OR oS hits, BE AR? Tue males of this species are, in general, about eight feet long, but the females are much smaller. Their bodies are very thick, and the color of the hair is commonly black, but that of the old ones is tipped with gray. The females are of an ash colored hue. The nose projects like that of a pug dog, and the eyes are large and prominent. Their voice varies on dif- ferent occasions; thus, when sporting on their native rocks, they low like a cow; when engaged in battle, they growl hideously; after feat or re- ceiving a wound, they mew like a cat; and the note of triumph after a 1 Phoca cristata, Gu. 2 Phoca ursina, Lis. 27 210 MAMMALIA—MORSE. victory somewhat resembles the chirping of a cricket, These animals are chiefly found on the islands in the vicinity of Kamtschatka, from June to September ; after which they remove, some to the Asiatic, and some to the American coast. On Behring’s Island they are so numerous as almost to .cover the whole shore; but it is a singular fact, that they uly rrequent that part of it which lies towards Kamtschatka. Ursine seals live in families, each male being surrounded py from eight to fifty females, whom he watches with the most vigilant jealousy, and treats in the most tyrannical manner. ‘They are of an irritable disposition, and have frequent battles. So tenacious are they of life, that they will live a fortnight after receiving wounds which would be speedily mortal to other animals. TAH EOWA RUS, OR MOR S et THE name of sea cow, or sea horse, by which the walrus is most gene- rally known, has been very wrongly applied; since the animal which it denotes has not the least resemblance to the land animals of that name: the denomination of sea elephant, which others have given it, is much bet- ter imagined, as it is founded on a singular and very apparent character. The walrus, like the elephant, has two large ivory tusks, weighing from ten to thirty pounds each, which shoot from the upper jaw; its head also is formed, or rather deformed, like that of the elephant, and would entirely resemble it in that part if it had a trunk; but the walrus is deprived of that instrument, which serves the elephant in the place of an arm and hand, and has real arms to make use of. These members, like those of the seal, are shut up within the skin, so that nothing appears outwardly but its hands and feet: its body is long and tapering, thickest towards the neck: the 1 Trichecus rosmarus, Gmet. The genus T'richecus has two upper and no lower inci- ors ; two upper and no lower canines; ten upper and ten lower molars; incisors small, deciduuus ; superior canines or tusks large, longer than the head, compressed laterally ; molars cylindrical, crown truncated obliquely ; body elongated; head round ; mrzzle large; i0 external ears; tail very short; fore feet like fins, with five toes; hind feet horizontal ; itees enve/oved in the skin. MAMMALIA—MORSE. : 211 whole hody is clothed with a short hair; the toes, and the hands, or feet, are covered with a membrane, and terminated by short and sharp pointed claws. On each side of the mouth are large bristles in the form of whiskers: its tongue is hollowed, the concha of the ears are wanting, &c. ; so that, excepting the two great tusks, and the cutting teeth, which it is deficient in above and below, the walrus in every other particular perfectly resembles the seal: it is only much larger and stronger, being commonly from twelve to sixteen feet in length, and eight or nine in circumference, and sometimes reaching eighteen feet in length, with a proportionable girth ; whereas the largést seals are no more than seven or eight feet. The walrus, also, is generally seen to frequent the same places as the seals are known to reside in, and are almost always found together. They have the same habitudes in every respect, excepting that there are fewer varie- ties of the morse than of the seal: they likewise are more attached to one particular climate, and are rarely found except in the northern seas. “There was formerly,” says Zordrager, “great plenty of morses and seals in the bays of Horisont and Klock, but at present there are very few. Both these animals quit the water in the summer, and resort to the neigh- ooring plains, where there are flocks of them from eighty to two hundred, particularly morses, which will remain there several days together, till hunger obliges them to return to the sea. This animal externally resem- bles the seal, but it is stronger and much larger: like that, it has five toes to each paw, but its claws are shorter, and its head thicker and rounder; its skin is thick, wrinkled, and covered with very short hair of different colors; its upper jaw is armed with two teeth about half an ell or an ell in length; these tusks, which are hollow at the root, become larger as the animal grows older. Some of them are found to have but one, the other being torn out in fighting, or perhaps fallen out through age. This ivory generally brings a greater price than that of the elephant, as it is of a more zompact and harder substance. The mouth of this animal is lke that ot the ox, and furnished with hairs which are hollow, pointed, and about the thickness of a straw. Above the mouth are two nostrils, through which the animal spouts the water like a whale. There are a great number ot morses towards Spitzbergen, and the profit that is derived from their teeth and fat fully repays the trouble of taking them, for the oil is almost as much valued as that produced from the whale. When the hunter is near one of these animals in the water, or on the ice, he darts a very strong harpoon at it, which, though made expressly for the purpose, often slips over its hard and thick skin; but if it has penetrated into it, they haul the animal towards the boat, and kill it with a sharp and strong lance. The morse 1s generally heavier than the ox, and as difficult to pursue as the whale, the skin of which is more easily pierced. For this reason, they always endea- vor to wound it in the most tender part, and aim at its eyes: the animal, obliged by this motion to turn its head, exposes its breast to the hunter, MAMMALIA—MORSE. who immediately strikes very forcibly in that part, and draws the lance out again as quick as possible, for fear it should seize the lance with its teeth, and wound those that attack it. Formerly, before these animals were so ereatly persecuted, they advanced so far on shore, that when it was high water, they were at a great distance from the sea; and at low water, being at a still greater, the hunters easily approached them and killed great num- bers. The hunters, in order to cut off their retreat to the sea, and after they had killed several, made a kind of barrier of their dead bodies, and in this manner often killed three or four hundred in a season. The prodigious quantity of bones spread over the shores, sufficiently proves how numerous these animals were in former times. When they are wounded, they be- come extremely furious, often biting the lances in pieces with their teeth, or tearing them out of the hands of their enemies; and when at last they are strongly engaged, they put their head betwixt their paws, or fins, and in this manner roll into the sea. When there is a great number together, they are so bold as to attack the boats that pursue them, bite them with their teeth, and exert all their strength to overturn them.” Captain Cook saw a herd of them floating on an ice island off the north- ern coasts of the American continent. ‘They lie,” says he, “in herds of many hundreds, upon the ice, huddling over one another like swine; and roar or bray so loud, that in the night, or in foggy weather, they gave us notice of the vicinity of the ice before we could see it. We never found the whole herd asleep, some being always on the watch. These, at the ap- proach of the boat, would wake those next to them; and the alarm being thus gradually communicated, the whole herd would be awaked. But they were seldom in a hurry to get away, till after they had been once fired at. They then would tumble over one another into the sea, in the utmost con- fusion. And if we did not, on the first discharge, kill those we fired at, we generally lost them, though mortally wounded. Vast numbers of these ani- mals would follow and come close up to the boats; but the flash of a musket in the pan, or even the pointing of a musket at them, would send them down in an instant. The female walrus will defend her offspring to the very last, and at the expense of her own life, whether in the water or upon the ice. Nor will the young one quit the dam, though she be dead; so that, if one be killed, the other is a certain prey.” We find the walrus can live, at least for some time, in a temperate cli- mate. We do not know how long it goes with young, but if we judge by the time of its growth and size, we must suppose it to be upwards of nine months. It cannot continue in the water fora long time together, and is obliged to go on shore to suckle its young, and for other occasions. When they meet with a steep shore, or pieces of ice to climb up, they make use of their tusks to hold by, and their feet to drag along the heavy mass of their body. They are said to feed upon the shell-fish which are at the ottom of the sea, and to grub them up with their strong tusks. Others MAMMALIA—OPOSSUM. 215 say, that they live on the broad leaves of a certain vegetable which grows in the sea, and that they eat neither flesh nor fish. But I imagine all these opinions have but a weak foundation ; and there is reason to think, that the walrus, like the seal, lives on prey, especially herrings and other fish; for it does not eat at all when upon land, and it is chiefly hunger which obliges it to return to the sea. The fat of the walrus furnishes from one to two barrels of oil; and the skin is capable of being manufactured into a strong and elastic leather. ORDER FIVE—MARSUPIALIA. Animats of this order have teeth different in the different genera. The young are brought forth prematurely, often into a pouch formed by a fold of the skin of the abdomen of the females, inclosing the mamme; marsupial bones in both sexes ; thumb of the hind feet sometimes wanting, sometimes very distinct, without nail, opposable to the other toes. THE) VPRGLNA AN OPOSSUM YI THE vpossum is found in Brazil, Guiana, Mexico, Florida, Virginia, and other temperate regions of this continent. The female has under the belly a large cavity, where she receives and suckles her young; she produces often, and a great number of young each time, most authors say, four or five, others six or seven. 1 Didelphis Virginiana, Penn. The genus Didelphis has ten upper and eight lower inci- sors ; two upper and two lower canines ; twelve or fourteen upper and fourteen lower molars. Two superior intermediate incisors larger than the others; lower incisors equal; canines strong, compressed molars, the three first in the upper jaw triangular; the others crown- ed with points ; head long and conical; muzzle pointed, mouth much cleft; ears large, rounded and almost naked; five toes on all the feet; nails long aud bent; hind feet planti- yrade with the thumbs opposable, but destitute of nails; tail long, scaly, mostly de- prived of hair. 214 MAMMALIA—OPOSSUM. The young opossums stick to the paps of the mother till they have acquir- ed strength enough, and a sufficient growth to move easily. ’ The latest and fullest account of the manners and habits of the opossum, is given by Dr Godman. ‘The opossum,” says he, “is very remarkable from other peculiarities, besides those which relate to the continuation of its kind. In the first place, it has a very large number of teeth, (no less than fifty,) and its hind feet are actually rendered hands, by short, fleshy, and opposable thumbs; which, together with the prominences in the palms of these posterior hands, enable the animal to take firm hold of objects which no one would think could be thus grasped. An opossum eu cling by these feet hands, to a smooth silk handkerchief, or a silk dress, with great securi- ty, and climb up by the same. In like manner, he can ascend by a skein of sili, or even a few threads. The slightest projection, or doubling, of any material, affords him a certain mean of climbing to any desired height. Another curious and amusing peculiarity, is his prehensile tail; by simply curving this at the extremity, the opossum sustains his weight, and depends from the limb of a tree, or other projecting body, and hanging in full securi- ty, gathers fruit, or seizes any prey within his reach; to regain his position _ on the limb, it is only necessary to make a little stronger effort with the tail, and throw his body upward at the same time. “In speaking of the more obvious peculiarities of the opossum, we may advert to the thinness and membranous character of the external ears, which may remind us, in some degree, of what has been heretofore said relative to the perfection of the sense of touch possessed by the bat, in consequence of the delicacy of the extended integument forming the ears and wings. The extremity of the nose of our animal is also covered with a soft, moist, and delicate integument, which is, no doubt, very sensitive. On the sides of the nose, or rather on the upper lip, there are numerous long and strong divergent whiskers, or bristles, projecting to the distance of nearly three inches ; over each eye, there are two long, black bristles, rather softer than the others, somewhat crisped, or undulated, and slightly decurved ; while, on the posterior part of the cheek, and about an inch below and in front of the ear, there is a bunch of long, straight bristles, (very similar to those of a hog,) six or eight in number, projecting laterally, so as to form a right angle with the head. When the elongated conical form of the opossum’s head is recollected, together with its nocturnal habits, we cannot avoid re- marking, that all these arrangements appear to have immediate reference to the safety of the animal, furnishing the means of directing its course, and warning it of the presence of bodies which otherwise might not be discover- ed until too late. ‘The mouth of the opossum is very wide when open, yet the animal does not drink by lapping, but by suction. ‘The wideness of the mouth is ren- dered very remarkable, when the female is approached, while in company with ner young. She then silently drops the lower jaw to the greatest dis- MAMMALIA—OPOSSUM. 215 tance it is capable of moving, retracts the angles of the lips, and shows the whole of her teeth, which thus present a formidable array. She then utters a muttering kind of snarl, but does not snap, until the hand, or other object, be brought very close. If this be a stick, or any hard or insensible body, she seldom closes her mouth on it after the first or second time, but main- tains the same gaping and snarling appearance, even when it is thrust into her mouth. At the same time, the young, if they have attained any size either exhibit their signs of defiance, take refuge in the pouch of the mother, or, clinging to various parts of her body, hide their faces amidst her long hair. “The general color of the opossum, is a whitish gray. From the top of the head, along the back, and upper part of the sides, the gray is darkest ; and this color is produced by the intermixture of coarse white hairs, upwards of three inches long, with a shorter, closer, and softer hair, which is white at base, and black for about half an inch at tip. The whole pelage (fur,) is of a woolly softness, and the long white hairs, diverging considerably, allow the back parts to be seen, so as to give the general gray color already men- tioned. On the face the wool is short, and of a smoky white color; that on the belly is of the same character, but is longer on the fore and hind legs; the color is nearly black from the body to the digits, which are naked beneath. The tail is thick and black, for upwards of three inches at base, and is covered by small hexagonal scales, having short rigid hairs inter- spersed throughout its length, which are but slightly perceptible at a little distance. The opossum is generally killed for the sake of its flesh and fat. Its wool is of considerable length and fineness, during the winter season, and we should suppose, that in manufactures it would be equal to the sheep’s wool which is wrought into coarse hats. “The opossum is a nocturnal and timid animal, depending for his safety more on cunning than strength. His motions are slow, and his walk, when “ww 216 MAMMALIA—OPOSSUM. on the ground, entirely plantigrade, which gives an appearance of clumsi- ness to his movements. When on the branches of trees, he moves with much greater ease, and with perfect security from sudden gusts of wind ; even were his weight sufficient to break the limb on which he rests, there is no danger of his falling to the earth, unless when on the lowest branch, as he can certainly catch, and securely cling, to the smallest intervening twigs, either with the hands or the extremity of the tail. Thzs organ is always employed by the animal, while on the smaller branches of trees, as if to guard against such an occurrence, and it is very useful in aiding the opossum to collect his food, by enabling him to suspend himself from a branch above, while rifling a bird’s nest of its eggs, or gathering fruits, “The food of the opossum varies very much, according to circumstances. It preys upon birds, various small quadrupeds, eggs, and, no doubt, occasion- ally upon insects. The poultry yards are sometimes visited, and much havoc committed by the opossum, as, like the weasel, this animal is fonder of cutting the throats and sucking the blood of a number of individuals, than of satisfying his hunger by eating the flesh of one. Among the wild fruits, the persimon, (Diospyros Virginiana,) is a great favorite, and it is generally after this fruit is in perfection, that the opossum is killed by the country people for the market. At that season it is very fat, and but little difference is to be perceived between this fat and that of a young pig. ‘The flavor of the flesh is compared to that of a roasted pig: we have, in several instances, seen it refused by dogs and cats, although the opossum was in fine order, and but recently killed. This may have been owing to some accidental circumstance, but it was uniformly rejected by these animals, usually not very nice when raw flesh is offered. “The hunting of the opossum is a favorite sport with the country people, who frequently go out with their dogs at night, after the autumnal frosts have begun, and the persimon fruit is in its most delicious state. The opossum, as soon as he discovers the approach of his enemies, lies perfectly close to the branch, or places himself snugly in the angle where two limbs separate from each other. The dogs, however, soon announce the fact of his presence, by their baying, and the hunter, ascending the tree, discovers the branch upon which the animal is seated, and begins to shake it with great violence, to alarm, and cause him to relax his hold. This is soon effected, and the opossum, attempting to escape to another limb, is pursued immediately, and the shaking is renewed with greater violence, until at Jength the terrified quadruped allows himself to drop to the ground, where hunters, or dogs, are prepared to dispatch him. “Should the hunter, as frequently happens, be unaccompanied by dogs when the opossum falls to the ground, it does not immediately make its escape, but steals slowly and quietly toa little distance, and then gather- ing itself into as small a compass as possible, remains as still as if dead. Should there be any quantity of grass or underwood near the tree, this MAMMALIA—OPOSSUM. 217 apparently simple artifice is frequently sufficient to secure the animal’s escape, as it is difficult by moonlight, or in the shadow of the tree, to dis- tinguish it; and if the hunter has not carefully observed the spot where it fell, his labor 1s often in vain. This circumstance, however, is generally attended to, and the opossum derives but little benefit from his instinctive artifice. “After remaining in this apparently lifeless condition for a considerable time, or so long as any noise indicative of danger can be heard, the opossum slowly unfolds himself, and creeping as closely as possible upon the ground would fain sneak off unperceived. Upon a shout, or outcry, in any tone, from his persecutor, he immediately renews his deathlike attitude and still- ness. If then approached, moved, or handled, he is still seemingly dead, and might deceive any one not accustomed to his actions. This feigning is repeated as frequently as opportunity is allowed him of attempting to escape, and is known so well to the country folks, as to have long since passed into a proverb: ‘He is playing possum,’ is applied with great readiness by them, to any one who is thought to act deceitfully, or wishes to appear what he is not. “The usual haunts of the opossum, are thick forests, and their dens are generally in hollows of decayed trees, where they pass the day asleep, and sally forth, mostly after nightfall, to seek food. They are occasionally seen out during daylight, especially when they have young ones of considerable size, too large to be carried in the maternal pouch. The female then offers a very singular appearance, as she toils along with twelve or sixteen cubs, nearly of the size of rats, each with a turn of his tail round the 1vot of the mother’s, and clinging to her back and sides with paws, hands, and mouth. This circumstance was thought distinctive of another species, hence called dorsigera, but is equally true of the common or Virginian opossum. It is _ exceedingly curious and interesting to see the young, when the mother is at rest, take refuge in the pouch, whence one or two of them may be seen peeping out, with an air of great comfort and satisfaction. The mother in this condition, or at any time in defence of her young, will make battle, biting with much keenness and severity, for which her long canine teeth are well suited. “Tf taken young, the opossum is generally tamed, and becomes very fond of human society, in a great degree relinquishes its nocturnal habits, and grows troublesome from its familiarity. We have had one thus tamed, which would follow the inmates of the house with great assiduity, and com- plain with a whining noise when left alone. As it grew older, it became mischievous, from its restless curiosity, and there seemed to be no possibility of devising any contrivance effectually to secure it. The same circumstance is frequently remarked by persons who have attempted to detain them in captivity ; and of the instances which have come to our knowledge, where even a great number were apparently well secured, they have all in a short 28 a ites 218 MAMMALIA—OPOSSUM. time enlarged themselves, and been no more heard of. In some such in- stances these animals have escaped in the city, and for a long time have taken up their quarters in cellars, where their presence has never been sus- pected, as during the day they remained concealed. In this way it is very probable that many are stiil living in the city of Philadelphia obtaining a plentiful food by their nightly labors.” THE CAMOPOLLIN, OR MEXICAN OP 0S 85 Um Is a small animal, a little larger than a rat, very much resembling the opos= sum in the snout, the ears, and the tail, which is thicker and stronger than that of a rat; he makes use of it as we do our hands; he has thin transpa- rent ears; the belly, the legs, and feet white. The young, when they are frightened, embrace the mother, who lifts them up on the trees. This spe- cies has been found on the mountains of New Spain. THE MARMOSE,; OR MURINE OP OS8.U M? RESEMBLES, in most respects, the Virginian; they are natives of the same climate, in the same continent, and are very much alike by the form of the body, the conformation of the feet, and the tail, a part of which is covered with scales, the upper part only being hairy. But the marmose is smaller than the common opossum, his snout is still sharper; the female has no bag under the belly, she has only two loose skins near the thighs, between which the young place themselves to stick to the paps. When the young are brought forth, they are not so large as small beans; they then stick to the paps. The brood of the marmose is very numerous ; we have seen ten small marmoses, each sticking to a pap, and the mother had still four more paps. It is probable that these animals bring forth a few days after concep- tion. The young are then foetuses only, which are not come to the fourth part of their growth; 1 Didelphis cayopollin, Lin. 2 Didelphis murina, Lin. MAMMALIA—KANGUROO. 219 THE KANGUROO.1 ; THERE exists several species of the kanguroo, all of which are natives of New Holland. ‘The principal of these, is the great kanguroo, which was first discovered in 1770, by some of the persons who accompanied Captain Cook. It often measures nine feet in length, from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail; and, when full grown, weighs two hundred pounds. The head and neck are very small, while the lower parts gradually dilate to a very great size; the fore legs are hardly nineteen inches long, while the hind- er ones, which are perfectly bare, and callous beneath, measure three feet seven inches. The head bears some resemblance to that of the deer, having a mild and placid visage; the ears are moderately large and erect, the eyes full, and the mouth rather small. The general color is a pale brown, inclin- ing to white underneath. From the great difference in length of the fore and hind legs, the pace of this animal consists in vast springs, or bounds, which are said at times to exceed twenty feet in length. It can with ease leap over an obstacle above nine feet high. In its state of rest, it sits erect on the whole length of the hind feet, supporting itself by the base of the tail; which is occasionally used as a weapon of defence, and is of such prodigious strength as to be able to break the leg of a man ata single blow. The female seldom produces more than one young one ata birth, which, when first brought forth, is not above an inch long, and is received into an 1 Kangurus labiatus, Georr. The genus Kangurus has six upper and two lower in- cisors ; no canines; ten upper and ten lower molars. Ears large, pointed; eyes large ; fore legs very short, with five toes, and strong nails; hind legs long, robust, with four toes; the two internal, united and small; the central large, with a strong claw, like a hoof, plantigrade ; tail very strong, with powerful muscles, not prehensile, but serving for locomotion; an abdominai pouch. es 220 MAMMALIA—KANGUROO. abdominal pouch, that the female is furnished with, wnich conceals the teats, and serves as a receptacle to secure the young in time of danger. The habits of the kanguroo have been recently described, with equal ani- mation and fidelity, by Mr Cunningham, in his amusing and valuable ac- count of his Two Years’ Residence in New South Wales. “Our largest animals,” he says, “are kanguroos; all of which are fine eating, being clear of fat except about the tail, tasting much like venison, and making most delicious stews and steaks, the favorite dish being what is called a steamer, composed of steaks, and chopped tail, with a few slices of salt pork, stewed with a very small quantity of water, for a couple of hours in a close vessel. We have the forest kanguroo, of a gray color, with a longish fur, inhabiting the forests; the wallaroo, of a blackish color, with acoarse shaggy fur, inhabiting the hills; and the red kanguroo, with smooth, short, close fur, of a reddish color (resembling considerably in fine- ness and texture the fur of the sea otter,) inhabiting the open-forests; and all of these varieties attain the weight of two hundred pounds and upwards when full grown. The wallabee and paddymalla grow to about sixty pounds each, and inhabit the bushes and broken hilly country. The rock kanguroo 1s very small, living among the rockiest portions of the mountains; while the kanguroo rat, or, more properly, rabbit, is about the size of the smallest of the latter kind of animal, and lodges in hollow trees, hopping along, like the other kanguroos, with great speed, and affording good sport in the chase. The kanguroos make no use of their short fore legs except in grazing, when they rise upon them and their tail, bring their hind legs forward, and go nibbling upon all fours, pulling up oceasionally some favorite plant with their fore paw, and sitting up bold and erect upon their hind houghs and tail, while they slowly bite and nibble it, shifting it from paw to paw, like a boy protracting his repast on a juicy apple. When chased, they hop upon their hind legs, bounding onwards at a most amazing rate, the tail wagging as they leap, and serving them for a balance. They will bound over gul- lies, and down declivities, the distance of thirty yards, and fly right over the tops of low brushwood; so that, in such places, dogs stand very little chance with them ; but in a clear open country soon tire inem out. The dogs seize them generally by the hip, and throw them over; then fasten upon their throats and finish them. But few dogs will attack a large kanguroo singly, some of the two hundred weight size often hopping off with three or four assailants hanging about them; ana I was informed of one that actually carried a man to some distance. When a dog gets up close to a large kan- guroo, it will often sit upon its tail and haunches, and fight the dog, turning adroitly round and round, so as always to face him, and pushing him off with the fore paws ; or it will seize and hug him like a bear, ripping him up with the long sharp claw on its powerful hind leg. They are constantly indeed cutting, and often killing, dogs with this terrible weapon, which will tear out the bowels at a single kick; anda large kanguroo is on this ace MAMMALIA—KANGUROO. 221 count, very dangerous even for a man to approach, when set at bay. The kanguroo hunters immediately hamstring them when thrown, to prevent mjury to themselves or the dogs; while the black natives give them a heavy blow over the loins with their waddie, which completely paralyzes their hind legs, as all the Jarge nerves supplying these parts pass out there. The kanguroo has enly ope young at a time, which you may see attached by the mouth to the nipple inside the mother’s pouch, from the period it is the size of your thumb top, and as bare and unshapen as a new-born mouse, until it attains the size of a poodle dog, with a fine glossy coat of hair, ready to leap out and hop along after the mother. The young are attached. to the nipple in somewhat the same way as the placenta of other animals is attached to the uterus, the mouth being contracted round the nipple, which swells out like a cherry inside it, nourishing the fetus by means of absorp- tion through this indirect channel, the mouth and nipple adhering sc strongly that it requires considerable force to separate them. When the foetus arrives at sufficient age to suck, it drops off the nipple, and may then oe said to be Jorn, yet still continuing inside of the pouch, and sucking milk now through the ducts of that same nipple from the external surface of which it formerly derived a very different species of nourishment. The manner in which the young reach this pouch from’ the ovary, and attach themselves to the nipple, is still, I believe, a mystery, as no communicative duct has yet been found; but the natives assert they are born in the usual way, and that the mother places them there. It is amazing tosee the young kanguroo pop its head out of the pouch when the mother is grazing, and nibble too at the tender herbage which she is passing over. When hard hunted, the mother will stop suddenly, thrust her fore paws into her pouch, drag out the young one and throw it away, that she may hop lighter along. They are always very hard pressed, however, before they thus sacrifice the life of their offspring to save their own; and itis pitiful to see the tender sympathetic looks they will sometimes cast back at the poor little helpless creatures they have been forced to desert. J'rom this singular mode of gestation, you may handle the fetus in utero, and pull it about by the tail like a kitten, from the first moment of its appearance there, up to the very day of its birth, without causing either pain or annoyance to it or its mother. Such is the very singular manner in which nearly all our Australian quadrupeds are generated and brought forth. When the young kanguroo has attained a considerable size, it will crawl out, feed about, and creep in again to warm itself, or in case any danger approaches. The kanguroos feed early in the morning, when the dew is on the grass, which is the best time to hunt them. Ifthere is no dog in your pack that will show the game, you must keep sight of the dogs at full gallop to secure it, or else take out a little short-legged terrier, that will run the foot, and that you can eadily keep sight of till it reaches the others, otherwise you may lose all our sport, as few of our dogs give tongue either in the chase or at the 222 MAMMALIA—WOMBACH. death If there is a river or pond near, the kanguroos are sure to retreat thither when hard pressed, and in this way readily baffle the natives’ dogs, by shoving under water and drowning such as may venture in beside them. From the great length of their hind legs and tail, they are enabled to stand on the firm bottom, while the dogs are obliged to swim; and in this way a fight between a large kanguroo and a pack of dogs affords a most amusing spectacle. The kanguroo stands gravely upright, with his fore paws spread out before him, wheeling round and round to ward off his assailants; and whenever one arrives within his reach, he pounces his paws upon him, and sousing him suddenly under, holds him fast in this position, gazing all the while around with the most solemn, simpleton sort of aspect, heedless of the kicking and sprawling of his victim, whom he quickly puts an end to, if some courageous colleague does not in good time advance to its aid, and force the kanguroo to let his half drowned antagonist bob above water again; the dog paddles forthwith towards shore, shaking his ears and looking most piteously, with no inclination to venture in a second time, notwithstanding all the halloos and cheerings with which you urge him.” The kanguroo may be domesticated. ‘One of the largest tame kangu- roos I have seen in this country,” says Mr Cunningham, “is domesticated, and a mischievous wag he is, creeping and snuffing cautiously towards a stranger, with such an innocently expressive countenance, that roguery could never be surmised to exist under it; when, having obtained, as he thinks, a sufficient introduction, he claps his fore paws on your shoulders, as if to caress you, and, raising himself suddenly upon his tail, administers such a well put push with his hind legs, that it is two to one but he drives you heels over head! This is all done in what he considers facetious play, with a view of giving you a hint toexamine your pockets, and see what don bons you have got for him, as he munches cakes and comfits with epicurean gotit ; and if the door is a-jar, he will gravely take his station behind your chair at meal time, like a lackey, giving you an admonitory kick every now and then, if you fail to help him as well as yourself.” THE WOMBACH.1 ' Tuts animal is a native of New South Wales, and was discovered in te year 1798. It is about the size of a badger, a species of which it was sup- posed to be, from its dexterity in burrowing in the earth by means of its fore paws ; but, in its general motions, it appeared to have much of the habits and manners of a bear. It hasa large head, a broad forehead, a 1 Phascolomys wombat. This animal is the only one of the genus. It has two upper and two lower incisors ; no canines; ten upper and ten lower molars. Incisors strong and thick; molars with oval crown divided a furrow; body thick; head large, flat; ears short; eyes much separated ; feet with five toes, the anterior armed with crooked and robust nails for digging; thumb of hind feet very small, nailless; tail scarcely appa- tent; an abdominal pouch in the female. MAMMALIA—BEAVER. 293 face tapering to the nose, which is a hard gristly substance, well adapted for removing the earth when it burrows; each jaw has tio cutting teeth, long and sharp like those of a kanguroo, with a space of an inch between them and the grinders, which are strong and well set® From the structure of its teeth, it does not appear to be a carnivorous animal; its eyes are small and black; its ears short and pointed. The paws are something like a beaver’s, with which it runs so awkwardly that a man could easily over- take it. Its posteriors differ from most other animals by falling down ina sloping direction, commencing at the hip joint, and descending to the knee joint of the hind legs; its tail is so short that itis scarcely perceivable. The general color is a cream brown, intermixed with black hairs. The female, like most other animals of New South Wales, is distinguished by a pouch or false belly for its young. The flesh is considered by the natives as a great luxury. ORDER SIX—GLIRES. Animazs of this order have two large incisors in each jaw, separated from the molars by a vacant space; no canine teeth; molars with flat crowns, or blunt tubercles; extremities, the posterior longest, terminated by unguiculated toes, the number varying according to the species; mamme variable in number; stomach simple ; intestines very long. 11S Deal oy Os a ag) ee Mit alt y Hip Sn My GES AN SRY BY 4/3 HRS ti Tue beaver seems to be now the only remaining monument of that kind ot intelligence in brutes, which, though infinitely inferior, as to its princi- 1 Castor fiber, Lix. The genus Castor has two upper and two lower incisors ; eight upper and eight lower molars. Molars composed ofa flat crown, with sinuous and complicated ridges of enamel; five toes on each foot, the anterior short and close, the posterior longer and palmated ; tail broad, thick, flattened horizontally, of an oval form, naked and cover- ed with scales. 224 MAMMALIA=BEAVER. ple, to that of man, supposes, however, certain common projects, certain relative ends in view, projects which, having for their basis society, in like manner suppose some particular method of understanding one another, and of acting in concert. @# It is allowed, that the beaver, far from having an absolute superiority over the other animals, seems, on the contrary, to be inferior to some of them as to its qualities merely as an individual. It is an animal tolerably mii, tranquil, and familiar, though rather, it would seem, gloomy and melancholy. If we consider this animal, therefore, in its dispersed and solitary state, we shall find, that, as to internal qualities, it is not superior to other animals; that it has not more ingenuity than the dog, more sense than the elephant, or more cunning than the fox. It is rather remarkable for the singularities of its internal qualities. Of quadrupeds, the beaver alone has a flat, oval tail, covered with scales, which serves as a rudder to direct its motions in the water. It is the only quadruped that nas membranes between the toes on the hind feet, and at the same time none on the fore ones, which it uses as hands in carrying food to the mouth. It is the only one which, while it resembles a terrestrial animal in its fore parts, seems to approach the nature of an aquatic being in its hind ones. The beavers begin to assemble in the month of June or July, in order to form a society, which is to continue for the greater part of the year. They arrive in numbers from every side, and presently form a company of two or three hundred. The place of meeting is commonly the place where they fix their abode ; and this is always by the side of some lake or river. Godman’s account, chiefly taken from Hearne, of the manner in which the beavers construct their dwellings, being somewhat particular, we insert it here. “They are not particular in the site they select for the establishment or their dwellings, but if in a lake or poa:}, where a dam is not required, they are careful to build where the water is sufficiently deep. In standing waters, however, they have not the advantage afforded by a current for the transportation of their supplies of wood ; which, when they build on a run- ning stream, is always cut higher up than the place of their residence, and floated down. “The materials used for the construction of their dams, are the trunks and branches of small birch, mulberry, willow, poplar, &c. They begin to cut down their timber for building, early in the summer, but their edifices are not commenced until about the middle or latter part of August, and are not completed until the beginning ef the cold season. The strength of their teeth, and their perseverance in this work, may be fairly estimated, by the size of the trees they cut down. These are cut in such a manner as to fall into the water; and then floated towards the site of the dam or dwellings. Small shrubs, &c., cut at a distance from the water, they drag with their teeth to the stream, and then launch and tow them to the place of deposit. _- s MAMMALIA—BEAVER. 2235 Atashort distance above a beaver dam, the number of trees which have been cut down, appears truly surprising, and the regularity of the stumps which are left, might lead persons unacquainted with the habits of the animal to believe that the clearing was the result of human industry. “The figure of the dam varies according to circumstances. Should the current be very gentle, the dam is carried nearly straight across; but when the stream is swiftly flowing, it is uniformly made with a considerable curve, having the convex part opposed to the current. Along with the trunks and branches of trees, they intermingle mud and stones, to give greater security ; and when dams have been long undisturbed and frequently repaired, they acquire great solidity, and their power of resisting the pres- sure of water and ice, is greatly increased by the willow, birch, &c., occa- sionally taking root, and eventually growing up into something of a regular hedge. The materials used in constructing the dams, are secured solely by the resting of the branches, &c., against the bottom, and the sub- sequent accumulation of mud and stones, by the force of the stream, or by the industry of the beavers. “The dwellings of the beaver are formed of the same materials as their dams, and are very rude, though strong, and adapted in size to the number of their inhabitants. These are seldom more than four old, and six or eight young ones. Double that number have been occasionally found in one of the lodges, though this is by no means a very common occurrence. “When building their houses, they place most of the wood cross-wise, and nearly horizontally, observing no other order than that of leaving a cavity in the middle. Branches, which project inward, are cut off with their teeth and thrown among the rest. The houses are by no means built of sticks first, and then plastered, but all the materials, sticks, mud, and stones, if the latter can be procured, are mixed up together, and this composition is employed from the foundation to the summit. The mud is obtained from the adjacent banks or bottom of the stream or pond, near the door of the hut. Mud and stones, the beaver always carries, by holding them between his fore paws and throat. “Their work is all performed at night, and with much expedition. When straw or grass is mingled with the mud used by them in building, it is an accidental circumstance, owing to the nature of the spot whence the latter was taken. As soon as any part of the material is placed where it is in- tended to remain, they turn round and give it a smart blow with the tail. The same sort of blow is struck by them, upon the surface of the water. when they are in the act of diving. “The outside of the hut is covered, or plastered with mud, late in the autumn, and after frost has begun to appear. By freezing, it soon becomes almost as hard as stone, effectually excluding their great enemy, the wolve- rene, during the winter. Their habit of walking over the work frequently luring its progress, has led to the absurd idea of their using the tail asa 29 226 _ MAMMALIA—BEAVER. trowel. The habit of flapping with the tail, is retained by them in a state of captivity, and, unless it be in the acts already mentioned, appears design- ed to effect no particular purpose. The houses, when they have stood for some time, and been kept in repair, become so firm from the consolidation of all the materials, as to require great exertion, and the use of the ice chisel or other iron instruments, to be broken open. The laborious nature of such an undertaking may easily be conceived, when it is known that the tops of the houses are generally from four to six feet thick at the apex of the cone.” It is near their habitations, that they establish their, magazines of fresh bark and soft wood; and to each hut or cabin, there is one allotted, of a size proportioned to the number of its inhabitants, to which they have all a com- mon right; nor do they offer to plunder their neighbors. Hamlets, so to express them, have been seen, composed of twenty, and even twenty-five dwellings. Such large settlements, however, are rare. In general, they do not contain more than ten or a dozen families, each of which has its own separate district, magazine, and habitation; nor will it allow any strangers to settle within its inclosure. The smallest dwellings contain two, four, and six; the largest, eighteen, twenty, and it is even said, thirty beavers; and it seldom or never happens that the number of males and females 1s not upon a par. Moderately speaking, therefore, their socie- ty may be said to consist frequently of one hundred and fifty, or two hundred workmen; who, having first exerted their united industry and diligence in rearing a grand public work, afterwards form themselves into different bodies, in order to construct private habitations. However numerous the republic of beavers may be, peace and good order are uniformly maintained in it. A common series of toil has strengthened their union ; the coaveniences which they have procured for each other, and the abundance of provisions which, after having amassed, they continue to consume together, render them happy within themselves; and, having moderate appetites, entertaining even an aversion to blood and carnage, they have not the smallest propensity to hostility or rapine, but actually enjoy all the blessings which man is only born to desire. Friends to each other, if threatened by any enemies from abroad, they know how to avoid them; and for this purpose, on the first alarm, they give notice of their mutual danger, by striking the water with their tails, which sends forth a sound that is heard in their most distant dwellings. On this occasion, each beaver, as he thinks most expedient, plunges into the water, or conceals himself within the walls of his own habitation, which is in no danger but from the fire of the angry heavens, or from the weapons of man, and which n0 animal dares attempt to open or to overturn. These asylums are not only secure, but also very neat and commodious. The fleor is covered with verdure, young and tender branches of trees serv- ing them for a carpet, on which they never permit any of their excrements ‘o be left. The window which fronts the water, serves them for a balcony, MAMMALIA—BEAVER. 227 from which they enjoy the fresh air, and bathe themselves the greater part of the day. In the water they remain in an upright posture, the head and fore parts only being visible. This element is, indeed, so necessary to them, or rather gives them so much pleasure, that they seem unable, as it were, to live without frequent immersions in it. Sometimes they go to a con- siderable distance under the ice; and then they are easily taken, by attack- ing the dwelling on one hand, and laying in wait for them, at the same time, at a hole which is purposely formed a little way off in the ice, and to which they are obliged to come for breath. The habit which this animal has, of continually keeping the tail and all the hind parts of the body in the water, seems to have changed the nature of its flesh. That of the fore parts, till we come to the reins, is of the same quality taste, and consistency, as the flesh of land animals; that of the tail, and of the hind legs and thighs, has the smell, the savor, and all the qualities of fish. As for the tail, in particular, it is even an extremity, and actual portion of a fish fixed to the body of a quadruped. In length, it generally measures a foot, in thickness an inch, and in breadth five or six inches. It is entirely covered over with scales, and has a skin altogether the same as that of a large fish. The largest beavers weigh from fifty to sixty pounds, and in length are little more than three feet from the tip of the snout to the insertion of the tail. The females are said to go four months with young. They bring forth about the close of winter, and their number generally consists of two or three ata time. Nearly at this period the males leave them, and go forth into the fields, where they enjoy all the sweets of the spring. In this season, they pay occasional visits to their habitation, but never reside init. There, however, the females remain employed in suck- ling, tending, and rearing their little ones, who are in a condition to follow them at the expiration of a few weeks. They then, in their turn, go abroad, where they feed on fish, or on the bark of young trees, and pass the whole of their time upon the water, or among the woods. Winter is the season which is principally allotted for hunting them, as it is then only that their fur is in perfection; and when, after their fabrics are demolished, a great number happen to be taken, their society is never restored ; the few that have escaped captivity or death disperse themselves, and become houseless wanderers ; or, concealed in some hole under ground, and reduced to the condition of other animals, they lead a timid life, no longer employ themselves but to satisfy their immediate and most urgent wants, no longer retain those faculties and qualities which they eminently possess in a state of society. To capture beavers residing on a small river or creek, the Indians of America find it necessary to stake the stream across, to prevent the animals from escaping, and then they try to ascertain where the vaults or washes in the banks are situated. This can only be done by those who are very experienced in such explorations, and is thus performed:—The hunter is 228 MAMMALIA—BEAVER. furnished with an ice chisel lashed to a handle four or five feet in length, with this instrument he strikes against the ice as he goes along the edge of the banks. The sound produced by the blow informs him when he is op- posite to one of these vaults. When one is discovered, a hole is cut through the ice of sufficient size to admit a full grown beaver, and the search is con- tinued until as many of the places of retreat are discovered as possible. During the time the most expert hunters are thus occupied, the others w:th the women are busy in breaking into the beaver houses, which, as may be supposed from what has been already stated, is a task of some difficulty. The beavers, alarmed at the invasion of their dwelling, take to the water and swim with surprising swiftness to their retreats in the banks; but their entrance is betrayed to the hunters watching the holes in the ice, by the motion and discoloration of the water. The entrance is instantly closed with stakes of wood, and the beaver, instead of finding shelter in his cave, is made prisoner and destroyed. The hunter then pulls the animal out, if within reach, by the introduction of his hand and arm, or by a hook design- ed for this use, fastened to a long handle. Beaver houses found in lakes, or other standing waters, offer an easier prey to the hunters, as there is no occasion for staking the water across. The Indians inhabiting the countries watered by the tributaries of the Missouri and Mississippi, take the beavers principally by trapping, and are generally supp’ .cd with steel traps by the traders, who do not sell, but lend or hire them, in order to keep the Indians dependent upon themselves, and also to lay claim to the furs which they may procure. The name of the trader being stamped on the trap, it is equal toa certificate of enlistment, and indicates, when an Indian carries his furs to another trading establish- ment, that the individual wishes to avoid the payment of his debts. The business of trapping requires great experience and caution, as the senses of the beaver are very keen, and enable him to detect the recent presence of the hunter by the slightest traces. It is necessary that the hands should be washed clean before the trap is handled and baited, and that every precau- tion should be employed to elude the vigilance of the animal. The bait which is used to entice the beavers is prepared from the sub- stance called castor (castoreum,) obtained from the glandulous pouches of the male animal, which contain sometimes from two to three ounces. This substance is called by the hunters bark-stone, and is squeezed gently into an open mouthed phial. We meet with beavers in America from the thirtieth degree of north lati- tude to the sixtieth, and even beyond it.* In the northern parts they are very common ; and the farther south we proceed, their number is still found * Pennant fixes the southern range of the American beaver in latitude 30°, in Louisian not far from the Gulf of Mexico; whilst Say mentions the confluence of the Ohio an Mississippi as their limit, which is about seven degrees further to the northward. Their ost northern range is, perhaps, on the banks of the river Mackenzie.—J& tardson. MAMMALIA—BEAVER. 229 to decrease. Thesame observation holds with respect to the Old Conti- nent: we never find them numerous but in the more northern countries; and in France, Spain, Italy, Greece, and Egypt, they are exceedingly rare. They formerly inhabited both England and Wales, but have long been extinct in both. Giraldus Cambrensis states them to have frequented the river Tievi, in Cardiganshire. They must, however, have been uncommon, as, in the tenth century, the Welsh laws valued a beaver skin at the enor- mous sum of a hundred and twenty pence. The ancients knew them; and by the religion of the Magi it was forbidden to kill them. Several authors have said, that the beaver, being an aquatic animal, could not live solely on land. This opinion, however, is erroneous ; for the bea- ver which was mentioned in a preceding paragraph, having been taken when quite young in Canada, and always reared in the house, did not know the water when he was brought to it, was afraid of it, and refused to go into it. Even when first plunged into a basin, there was a necessity for keeping him in it by force. A few minutes after, nevertheless, he became so well reconciled to it, that he no longer showed an aversion to his new situation ; and, when afterwards left to his liberty, he frequently returned to it of him- self, and would even roll about in the dirt, and upon the wet pavement. One day he made his escape, and descended by a cellar staircase into the quarries under the Royal Garden. There he swam to a considerable dis- tance on the stagnated waters which are at the bottom of those quarries ; yet no sooner did he see the light of the torches which were ordered down for the purpose of finding him, than he returned, and allowed himself to be taken without making the smallest resistance. He is an animal familiar without being fawning ; and when he sees people at table, he is sure to ask for something to eat. This he does by a little plaintive cry, and by a few gestures of his fere paws. When he has obtain- ed a morsel, he carries it away, and conceals himself, in order to eat it at his ease. In several instances he has been completely domesticated, and become as docile as a dog. When he sleeps, which he does very cften, he lies upon his belly. No food comes amiss to him, meat excepted; and this he constantly refuses, either raw or boiled. He gnaws every thing he comes near; and it was found necessary to line with tin the tun in which he was brought over. Independently of the fur, which is indeed the most valuable article fur- nished by the beaver, this animal furnishes a substance that has been con siderably used in medicine. This substance is known by the name of castor. The savages, it is said, obtain an oil from the tail of the beaver, which they employ as a topical remedy for different complaints. The flesh of this animal, though fat and delicate, is yet bitter, and disagreeable to the palate. There are two kinds of hair on the skin of the beaver; that next the skin 13 short, and as fine as down; the upper coat is more scanty, thicker, and 230 MAMMALIA—MUSKRAT. longer. The downy hair is manufactured into hats, stockings, caps, and other articles. The skin is so considerable an article of traffic, that the species which produces it will, perhaps, at length be exterminated. At one sale, the Hudson’s Bay company sold about fifty-four thousand ; and, in 1798, a hundred and six thousand were exported to Europe and China from Canada alone. In the year 1743, the imports of beaver skins into London and Rochelle, amounted to upwards of one hundred and fifty thousind; and there is reason to suppose that a considerable additional quantity was at that period introduced illicitly into Great Britain. In 1827, the importaticn of beaver skins into London for more than four times the extent of fur country than that which was occupied in 1743, did not much exceed fifty thousand. The senses of the beaver are very acute; and so delicate is its smell, that it will suffer no filth, no bad stench, to remain nearit. When kept too long in confinement, and under the necessity of voiding its excrement, it drops it near the threshold of its prison, and when the door is opened, is sure to push it out. THE ONDATRA, MUSQUASH, OR MUSKRAT.I Tuts animal is closely allied in form and habits to the beaver, and is found in the same parts of America as that animal, from thirty to sixty-nine or seventy degrees of latitude. But it is more familiar in its habits, as it is to be found only a short distance from large towns. The musquash is a watchful, but not a very shy animal. It may be frequently seen sit ing on the shores of small muddy islands, not easily to be distinguished from a piece of earth, till, on the approach of danger, it suddenly plunges into the water. It forms burrows on the banks of streams and ponds, the entrance to which is in deep water. These burrows extend to great distances, and do extensive injury to farms, by letting in the water upon the land. Fiber vibethicus, Desm. The genus Fiber has two upper and two lower incisors; six upper and six lower molars. Molars with a flat crown and scaly angular zigza plates of enamel; fore feet with four toes and the rudiment of a thumb; posterior wit five, edged with stiff and close bristles; tail long, compressed laterally, naked except a few scattered hairs, and granular. MAMMALIA—WATER RAT 231 In some situations, these animals build houses of a conical form, re- sembling those of the beaver, formed of mud, grass, and reeds plastered together. They feed upon the roots and tender shoots of aquatic plants, and on the leaves of grasses. They are excellent swimmers, dive well, and can remain for a long time under water. Itis rare to have an opportunity of seeing the animal during the day, as it then lies concealed in its burrow, and it is not till night, that it issues forth for food or recreation. It does not, like the beaver, lay up a store of provision for the winter ; and it builds a new habitation every season. This animal is common in the Atlantic States, and its fur being valuable for hats, it is much hunted. The Indians kill them by spearing them through the walls of their houses. Between four and five thousand skins are annually imported into Great Britain from North America. The ondatra is of the size of a small rabbit, and of the form of a rat. Its head is short and similar to that of the water rat; its hair is soft and glossy, with a very thick down underneath, nearly like that of the beaver; its tail is long, and though of a different form, being flattened laterally, it is cover- ed nevertheless with little scales, in the same manner as those of other rats. LHE WATER RAT! Is alittle animal, about the size of the black rat. but in its nature and habits rather resembling the otter than the rat. Like the otter, it frequents the fresh waters, and is generally found on the borders of rivers, rivulets, and ponds ; like that creature, too, it seldom feeds but upon fish, or the spawn of fish, though sometimes it eats frogs, water insects, and even roots and herbs. This animal is not web-footed ; but, though every toe of its feet is separated, it swims with facility, keeps itself a long time above water, and carries off its prey, in order to eat it when it has reached the land. The head of the water rat is shorter, the nose broader, the hair more erect, and the tail much longer, than that of the land rat. On the back it is of a fine raven black ; the under part is white, with a black line along the middle. The body is about three incheslong. The fur has an astonishing power of resisting water. Like the otter, it flies from large rivers, or rather from those which are too much frequented, and is never found either in houses or in barns. It is probable, that these animals bring forth often in a year; but of this we have no certain information. Their flesh is not absolutely bad; and, in 1 Arvicola amphibius, Lry. The genus Arvicola has two Beyer and two lower incisors ; six upper and six lower molars. Molars with a flat crown and angular plates of enamel ears large; anterior toes with nails; tail round, hairy, almost the length of the bod- 232 MAMMALIA—MOUSE. Catholic countries, the peasants eat it during Lent, as they do that of the otter. This species is to be found throughout Europe, the very extremities of the north excepted. In Holland it is devoted to destruction, as one of the most dangerous enemies of the country, in consequence of its burrowing in the dikes. THE FILLED MOUSEH ls smaller than the rat, but larger than the common mouse, and does not live in houses. It is remarkable for the largeness and prominence of its eyes; it differs likewise both from the rat and the mouse in the color of its skin, which, while it is tolerably white under the belly, is of a reddish brown upon the back. The species is generaliy and abundantly diffused. It appears that they are a Jong time in attaining their full growth, as they vary considerably in size. The largest are rather more than four inches in length, from the tip of the nose to the insertion of the tail; and the smallest. which appear to be full grown as well as the others, are an inch shorter. As there are found many of different intermediate sizes, however, there is no room to doubt but that the larger and the smaller are all of the same species. These creatures are fond of dry and elevated grounds. In woods, and in the fields adjoining to them, they are to be found in great numbers. They conceal themselves in holes, which they either find already made, or which - they make for themselves, under bushes, or the trunks of hollow trees. In these they amass so prodigious a quantity of acorns, nuts, &c., that in one single hole there has been found a bushel at a time; and this provision, instead of being proportioned to the wants of the animal, is only so to the capacity of the place allotted for its reception. These holes are generally more than a foot under ground, and often divided into two cells, of which the one serves for a habitation for itself and its young ones, and the other for a granary. The only method of preventing their ravages, which has appeared effectual, is that of setting traps at every tenth pace, through the whole extent of each piece of new sown land. There wants no other bait than a roasted nut laid under a flat stone, which is to be supported by a small bit of wood. This they will eagerly attempt to seize; and, being fixed to the wood, no sooner do they touch it, than the stone falls upon them, and stifles or crushes them to death. The short tailed field mouse, is more generally diffused than the long tailed kind, and is found almost every where; in woods, in meadows, and even in gardens. 1 Arvicola vulgaris, DEsM. MAMMALIA—LEMMING RAT. 933 THE LEMMING RAT OR LAPLAND MARMOT, Is of the shape of a-mouse, but has a shorter tail; its body is about the length of five inches, covered with fine hair of various colors. Those of Norway are of the size of a water rat; but those of Lapland are scarcely as large as mice. The former are variegated with black and tawny in the upper parts; the sides of the head and the under parts are white. The legs are grayish, and the under parts of the body of a dull white. In some, there are many red hairs about the mouth, resembling whiskers, six of which are longer and redder than the rest. The mouth is but small, and the upper lip is divided like the squirrel’s. The remains of the food in the throat of this animal, incline us to imagine it ruminates. The head is large, short, and thick; the neck short, and the body thick. The eyes are small and black; the ears round, and inclining towards the neck; the legs before are short, and those behind longer, which gives it a greater degree of swiftness ; the feet are clothed with hair, and armed with five very sharp and crooked claws; the middle claw is very long, and the fifth is like a little finger, or the spur of a cock, sometimes placed very high up the leg. This animal, therefore, whose legs are very short, runs very swift. It generally inhabits the mountains of Norway and Lapland, but descends in such great numbers in some years, and in some seasons, that the inhabitants look on their arrival as a terrible scourge, from which there is no possibility of delive- rance. They move, for the most part, in a square, marching forward by night, and lying still by day. Thus, like an animated torrent, they are often seen more than a mile broad covering the ground, and that so thick, that the hindermost touches its leader. It is in vain that the inhabitants resist, or attempt to stop their progress; they still keep moving forward ; and though thousands are destroyed, myriads are seen to succeed and make their destruction impracticable. They generally move in lines, which are about three feet from each other, and exactly parallel. Their march is always directed from the north-west to the south-west, and regularly con- ducted from the beginning. Wherever their motions are turned, nothing can stop them; they go directly forward, impelled by some strange power: and from the time they at first set out, they never think of retreating. If a lake or a river happens to interrupt their progress, they all together take the water and swim over it; a fire, a deep well, or a torrent, does not turn them out of their straight lined direction ; they boldly plunge mto the flames, or leap down the wel, and are sometimes seen climbing up on the other side. If they are interrupted by a boat across the river while they are swimming, they never attempt to swim round it, but mount directly up its 1 Lemmus Norvegicus, Desm. The genus Lemmus has two upper and two lower in- cisors ; six upper and six lower molars. Molars with a flat crown and angular plates of enamel ; ears very short; fore feet in some species with five, in others four toes, proper for digging ; tail short and hairy. 30 934 MAMMALIA—LEMMING RAT. sides; and the boatmen, who know how vain resistance would be, calmly suffer the living torrent to pass over, which it does without farther damage. If they meet with a stack of hay or corn which interrupts their passage, instead of going over it, they gnaw their way through; if they are stopped by a house in their course, if they cannot get through it, they continue there till they die. It is happy, however, that they eat nothing that is prepared for human subsistence; they never enter a house to destroy the provisions, but are contented with eating every root and vegetable that they meet. If they happen to pass through a meadow, they destroy it in a very short time, and give it an appearance of being burnt up and strewed with ashes. If they are interrupted in their course, and a man should imprudently venture to attack one of them, the little animal is no way intimidated by the dis- parity of strength, but furiously flies up at its opponent, and barking some- what like a puppy, wherever it fastens it does not easily quit its hold; if, at last, the leader be found out of its line, which it defends as long as it can, and be separated from the rest of its kind, it sets up a plaintive cry, different from that of anger, and, as some say, gives itself a voluntary death, by hang- ing itself on the fork of a tree. An enemy so numerous and destructive would quickly render the coun- tries where they appear, utterly uninhabitable, did it not fortunately happen that the same rapacity that animates them to destroy the labors of mankind, at last impels them to destroy each other. After committing incredible devastation, they are at last seen to separate into two armies, opposed with deadly hatred, along the coasts of the larger lakes and rivers. The Lapland- ers, Who observe them thus drawn up to fight, instead of considering their mutual animosity as a happy riddance of a most dreadful pest, form omit: nous prognostics from the manner of their engagements. They consider their combats as a presage of war, and expect an invasion from the Russians or Swedes, as the side next those kingdoms happens to conquer. The two divisions, however, continue their engagements and animosity, until one party overcomes the other: from that time they utterly disappear, nor is it well known what becomes of either the conquerors or the conquered. Some suppose, that they rush headlong into the sea; others, that they kill themselves, as some are found hanging on the forked branches of trees; and others, that they are destroyed by the young spring herbage. But the most probable opinion is, that having devoured the vegetable productions of the country, and having nothing more to subsist on, they then fall to devouring each other, and having habituated themselves to that kind of food, continue it. However this be, they are often found dead by thousands, and their carcasses have been known to infect the air for several miles round, s9 as to produce very malignant disorders. They also seem to infect the plants they have gnawed, for the cattle often die that afterwards feed in the places where they have passed. The inhabitants have an opinion, as they do not know whence such numbers proceed, that they fall with the rain. MAMMALIA—LEMMING. DORMOUSE. 935 Five or six young ones are produced at each litter, and the female brings forth several times in the course of a year. They sometimes litter while emigrating, and they have been seen carrying some of their offspring in their mouths, and others on their backs. As for the rest, the male is generally larger and more beautifully spotted than the female; they goin droves into the water; but no sooner does a storm of wind arise, than they are all drowned. The flesh of the lemmings is horrid food, and their skin, although covered with a very beautiful fur, is of too little consistence to be serviceable. HUDSON’S BAY LEMMING. THIs curious animal was first described by Foster, and afterwards more fully by Pallas. It inhabits Labrador, Hudson’s Straits, and the coast from Churchill to the extremity of Melville peninsula, as well as the islands of the Polar cea, visited by Captain Parry. Its habits are still imperfectly known. In summer, according to Hearne, it burrows under stones, in dry ridges; and Captain Sabine informs us, that in winter it resides in a nest of moss, on the surface of the ground, rarely going abroad. The former author also acquaints us that it is so easily tamed, that if taken even when full grown, it will in a day or two be perfectly reconciled, very fond of being handled, and will creep, of its own accord, into its master’s neck or bosom. ‘There are three other different species of the lemming, belonging to America. PEE FAT SQUIRREL, OR. DORMOUSE? Or this kind of animal, we know three species, which, like the marmot, sleep during the winter; namely, the fat squirrel, the garden squirrel, and the common dormouse. Many authors have confounded these species together, though they are all three very different, and of consequence easily known and distinguished. The fat squirrel is nearly of the size of the common European squirrel ; and, like it, its tail is covered with long hair. It is of a pale ash color on the upper parts of the body, and whitish on the under. It is without pro-. priety, that the term sleep has been applied to the state of these animals - 1 Lemmus Hudsonius, Desm. 2 Myoxus glis, Lx. The genus Myoxus has two upper and two lower incisors; eight upper and eight lower molars. Molars simple, with transverse projecting lines; fore feet with four toes, and the rudiment of a thumb; tail very long, round, with hair tufted or depressed. 236 MAMMALIA—DORMOUSE. Jurmng tne winter. They are not ima state of natural sleep at this period; they are in a torpor, which is produced by the coldness of the blood, and by which they lose the use of their members and senses. Their internal heat is indeed so small, that it hardly exceeds that of the temperature of the air. When the heat of the air is at ten degrees above the freezing point of the thermometer, the heat of these animals is also at ten degrees. Now it 1s well known, that the internal heat of man, and of the generality of animals, exceeds at all times thirty degrees; and therefore there is little reason to wonder why these animals, so inferior to all others in point of heat, should become torpid as soon as their little quantity of internal heat ceases to be assisted by the external heat of the air; a circumstance which naturally happens when the thermometer is not more than ten or eleven degrees above congelation. This is the real cause of the torpor of these animals; a cause of which naturalists have not been apprised, and which, nevertheless, extends to all animals that sleep during the winter. This torpor continues as long as the cause which produces it continues, and ceases when the cold ceases. A few degrees of heat above the tenth or eleventh degree are sufficient to reanimate these creatures; and if they are kept in a very warm place during winter, they do not become torpid at all. The flesh of the fat squirrel is not unlike that of the guinea-pig. They were considered as a dainty, by the Romans, who fattened great numbers of them in receptacles, called gliraria. Like the common squirrel, this animal lives in forests, climbs to the tops of trees, and leaps from branch to branch. This it does less nimbly, indeed, than the squirrel, whose legs ere longer, whose belly is by no means so big, and which is remarkable for being meagre. Nuts, however, and other wild fruits, form its usual nourish- ment. It likewise eats little birds, which it takes in the nests. It does not, like the squirrel, nestle in the upper parts of trees, but makes a bed of moss in the trunks of those which are hollow. It also shelters itself in the clefts of rocks, and always manifests a preference for dry places. It avoids mois- ture, it drinks little, rarely descends to the ground, and, unlike the squirrel, which is easily tamed, remains always wild. The species is very generally diffised in Europe. THE GARDEN DORMOUSE! Is of a tawny color on the upper part of the body, and whitish ash, tinged with yellow, on the under. Round each eye it has a black circle, and a black spot behind each ear. These animals nestle in the holes of walls, climb up trees, choose the best fruits, and gnaw them as they begin to ripen. To peaches, in particu- lar, they are exceedingly destructive. They climb up pear, apricot, and 1 Myoxus nitela, DEsm. MAMMALIA—DORMOUSE...RAT. 237 other trees; and in a scarcity of other fruit, they eat almonds, nuts, and even: leguminous plants. These they carry in great quantities to their holes, where they make a bed of herbs, moss, and leaves. The cold stupi- fies, the heat revives them; and sometimes there are eight or ten found in one place, all in a state of torpor, all huddled together, and rolled up in a ball, in the midst of their hoard of provisions. Their flesh is not eatable. and has even the disagreeable smell of the house rat. This animal s to be found in all the temperate climates of Europe. THE COMMON DORMOUSE. Tuts animal has eyes sparkling, full, and black; its tail is tufted, and its hair of a tawny red. The throat is white. It never lives in houses, is seldom to be found in gardens, but chiefly frequents the woods, where it firds a shelter in the hollow of some old tree. The species is by no means numerous, yet they seem to be tolerably com- mon in Italy, and to be not unknown even in the northern climates ; but it does not appeur to be an English animal; for Ray, who had seen it in Italy, observes, that the sma]! dormouse which is found in England, is not red upon the back, like the Itatien, and that it probably belongs to another species. The dormouse becomes torpid by the cold, and rolls itself up in a ball; it revives in mild weather, and hoards up ruts and other dry fruits, for future sustenance. It forms its nest in trees, like the squirrel, though generally in a lower situation, among the branches of a nut tree, 1a a bush, &c. The nest is composed of interwoven moss, leaves, and grass; is about six inches im diameter; has no aperture but at the top, and contains three or four yvung ones. TE ON OR WAG. RAT SO Tuts well known animal came originally from Persia or India, and was not known in England, previous to 1730. It is now naturalized in all the couatries of Europe and America. 1 Myoxus avellanarius, DEsM. 2 Mus decumanus, Desm. The genus Mus has two upper and two lower incisors ; canines, none; molars, three above and three below, on each side. Molars with tubercu- lous crowns; four toes, and rudimentary thumb on the fore feet; hind feet with four unguiculated toes; ears oblong or round, naked ; tail long, naked, and scaly; fur with scattered hairs, longer and stiffer than the others, sometimes forming a kind of spines, 238 MAMMALIA—RAT. It has a reddish skin, a long tail, the backbone arched like that of the squirrel, the body much thicker, and whiskers like those of a cat. It is about nine inches long, and has a tail of the same length as the body, covered with minute dusky scales, thickly interspersed with short hairs. It is considerably within half a century, since that species has been spread in the neighborhood of Paris. They multiply, indeed, prodigiously ; since it is well known that they generally produce twelve or fifteen, often sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, and even nineteen young ones atatime. The males are larger, stronger, and more mischievous than the females. When any one pursues, and endeavors to take them, they will turn again, and bite the hand or stick which touches them. Their bite is not only sharp but dan- gerous, and is immediately followed by a considerable swelling; and the wound, though small, is yet long in being closed. They bring forth three times in a year, the dams previously preparing a bed for their young; and thus two individuals of this species produce, at least, three dozen in the space of twelve months. THE BLACK EAT! Is carnivorous, and even, if the expression is allowable, omnivorous. Hard substances, however, it prefers to soft ones; it devours wool, stuffs, and furniture of all sorts; eats through wood, makes hiding-places in walls, thence issues in search of prey, and frequently returns with as much as it is able to drag along with it, forming, especially when it has young ones to provide for, a magazine of the whole. The females bring forth several times in the year, though mostly in the summer season; and they usually produce five or six at a birth. In defiance of the cats, and notwithstanding the poison, the traps, and every other method that is used to destroy these creatures, they multiply so fast as frequently to do considerable damage. On board a man of war they have been known to consume a hundred weight of biscuits daily, and when, to destroy them, the ship has been smoked between decks, six hampers a day have for some time been filled with their carcasses. The Isle of France was once abandoned, on account of their immense swarms; and, even now, they are a severe scourge toit. In old houses, in the country, especially, where great quantities of corn are kept, and where the neighboring barns and hay-stacks favor their retreat, as well as their multiplication, they are often so numerous, that the inhabitants would be obliged to remove with their furniture, were they not to devour each other. This we have often, by experience, found to be the case, when they have been in any degree Straitened for provisions; and the method they take to lessen their num- 1 Mus rattus, Lix. MAMMALIA—MOUSE. 239 ‘ers, is, for the stronger to fall upon the weaker. This done, they lay open their skulls, and first eat up the brains, afterwards the rest of their body. The next day, hostilities are renewed in the same manner; nor do they suspend their havoc till the majority are destroyed. For this reason it is, that, after any place has for a long while been infested with rats, they often seem to disappear of a sudden, and sometimes for a considerable time. The female always prepares a bed for her young, and provides them immediately with food. On their first quitting the-hole, she watches over, defends, and wiil even fight the cats, in order to save them. The weasel, though a smaller animal, is, however, a still more formidable enemy than the cat. The rat cannot inflict any wounds but by snatches, and with his fore teeth, which, however, being rather calculated for gnawing than for biting, have but little strength; whereas the weasel bites fiercely with the force of its whole jaw at once, and, instead of letting go its hold, sucks the blood through the wound. In every conflict with an enemy so dangercus, it isno wonder, therefore, that the rat should fall a victim. fHE MOUSE! Is an animal smaller than the rat, as also more numerous, and more gene- rally diffused. Its instinct, its temperament, its disposition is the same; nor does it materially differ from the rat, but by its weakness. and the habits which it contracts from that circumstance. By nature timid, by necessity familiar, its fears and its wants are the sole springs of its actions. It never leaves its hiding-place, but to seek for food; nor does it, like the rat, go from one house to another, unless forced to it, or commit by any means so rauch mischief. When viewed without the absurd disgust and apprehension which usually accompanies, or 1s affected at the sight of it, the mouse isa beautiful creature ; its skin is sleek and soft, its eyes bright and lively, all its limbs are formed with exquisite delicacy, and its motions are smart and active. Though one of the most timid of creatures, the mouse may be taught to repose confidence in mankind, and will quit its place of refuge to receive food. Some few of this species are of a pure white color, with large 1 Mus musculus, Lax 240'", . MAMMALIA—HAMSTER. red eyes; but whether they be a permanent kind, or only an accidentat variety, cannot well be determined. But for its immense fecundity, the species of the mouse could not subsist. Even in mouse-traps they have been known to bring forth. They produce at all seasons, and several times in the year. Their usual number ata birth is five or six; and these, in less than fifteen days, attain growth and strength sufficient to run about and shift for themselves. THE HAMSTER. Tus animal, which is also called the German marmot, is about the size of the brown rat, but much thicker. Its color is reddish brown above, and black beneath; there are three large oval white spots on each side of the body. The ears are somewhat large. But the peculiarity which distin- guishes it is, that there are two pouches, or receptacles for food, on eaca side of its mouth. These are not conspicuous externally, when empty but, when distended, they resemble a pair of tumid bladders, with a smocih, veiny surface, which the fur of the cheeks conceals. The pouches of one which Dr Russel dissected, were found stuffed with French beans, arranged lengthways, in such compact and accurate order, that it was exceedingly difficult to conceive how they had been so placed. When loosely laid ona table, they formed a heap thrice the bulk of the animal’s body. Austria, Silesia, and some parts of Germany, are their native places. The hamster is one of the most famous and most pernicious rats that exists. ‘We have fed one of these animals for many months,” says Buffon, “and afterwards had it dissected, and observed, that the hamster resembled more the water rat, than any other animal; it resembled it, also, in the smallness of its eyes, and the fineness of its hair; but its tail is not so long as that of a water rat; but, on the contrary, itis much shorter than that of the short tailed mouse. All these animals live under the earth, and seem to be animated with the same instinct. They have nearly the same habits, and particularly that of collecting Some, &c., and making great maga- zines in their holes.” 1 Cricetus vulgaris, Desm. The genus Cricetus has two s er and two lower inci- sors ; no canines; six upper and six lower molars. Crown oF the molars with blunt uubercles ; fore feet ith four toes, and a rudimentary thumb; hind feet pentadactyle, with strong nails ; tail short and hairy ; ; cheek pouches. MAMMALIA—HAMSTER. 241 The habitations of the hamsters are different, according to their sex and age, and also to the quality of the land they inhabit. That of the male hamster, is an oblique passage, and at the entrance isa portion of earth thrown up. Ata distance from the entrance, there is a single hole, which descends in a perpendicular manner to the chambers or cavities of the habitation. There is no hillock of earth near that hole; which makes us presume, that the oblique entrance is made hollow from the outside, and that the perpendicular hole, by which they come out, is worked withinside, from the bottom to the top. The habitation of the female has also an oblique passage, with two or three, and even eight perpendicular holes, by which the young ones may come in and goout. The male and the female have each their separate abode; that of the female is deeper than that of the male. The perpendicular hole is the common passage for coming in and going out. By the oblique road, they throw out the earth they scratch up. This passage also has a gentle declivity into some of the cavities, and another more steep into others, which serve for a free circulation of the air in this subterraneous habitation. The cavity where the female breeds her young contains no provision, but only a nest formed of straw or grass. The depth of the cavity is very different. The young hamster, of a year old, makes its burrow only a foot deep, while the old animal often hollows it to the depth of four or five feet. All the cavities communicate together in one habitation, which is about eight or ten feet in diameter. These animals siore their magazines with dry clover, corn, and other grain; beans and peas they likewise provide themselves with; all these they are particularly careful to separate from the husk, which, with every other matter they do not make use of, they carry out of their habitation by this oblique passage. The hamster commonly gets in its winter provisions ‘at the latter end of August. Its stores are not meant for a winter supply, it being torpid at that season, but for the preceding and following period. When it has filled its magazines, it covers them over, and shuts the avenues to them carefully with earth. This precaution renders the discovery of these animals very difficult. The heaps of earth which they throw up before the otlique pas- sage, are the only marks to trace their habitations. The most usual method of taking them, is by digging them out of their holes, which is attended with much trouble, on account of the depth and extent of their burrows; however, a man versed in this business, commonly effects his purpose with good success. In autumn, he seldom fails of finding two good bushels of corn in each of their habitations; and he draws great profit from the skins of tne animals. The hamsters bring forth their young two or three times in a year, and seldom less than five or six each time. Some years there are great numbers of them to be seen, and in others, scarcely any to be met with. They multiply in great numbers when the seasons are wet, 31 242 MAMMALIA—CHINCHILLA. which causes a great scarcity of grain, by the devastation these animals make. The back of the hamster is commonly brown, and the belly black; how- ever, there are some of a gray color; and this difference may proceed from their age. Besides these, there are some often met with which are entirely black. The hamster begins to burrow at the age of six weeks, or two months; it never procreates, however, in the first year of its growth. There are numbers produced in one year, insomuch, that, in some parts of Germany, from their occasioning a dearth of corn, a reward is fixed on their heads. In one year, about eleven thousand skins, in another fifty-four thousand, and ina third year, eighty thousand were produced at the town hall of Gotha, as vouchers to enable the bearers to receive the reward. They are likewise in such great numbers, that their fur is sold exceedingly cheap. The polecat is a great enemy to the hamster, which he destroy in great numbers; he not only pursues them on land, but follows them into their burrows, and feeds on them there. The hamster itself, is one of the most inveterate enemies of its own kind. His life, (says a recent naturalist,) is divided between eating and fighting. He seems to have no other passion than that of rage; which induces him to attack every animal that comes in his way, without in the least attend- ing to the strength of the enemy. Ignorant of the art of saving himself by flight, rather than yield, he will allow himself to be beaten in pieces with a stick. If he seizes a man’s hand, he must be killed before he will quit his hold. THE CHINCHILLA? a et Tuis interesting animal, which produces the fur which passes under its name, is a species of field mouse, and is common in the high plains of Chili and Peru. It is about nine inches in length, and has a tail about half the length of its body. It sits upon its haunches, and takes its food in its fore paws like a squirrel. It feeds chiefly upon bulbous roots. ty ! Cricetus laniger, Desm. MAMMALIA—JERBOA. 243 THE JERBOA Tue head of the jerboa is sloped somewhat in the manner of a rabbit; but the eyes are larger, and the ears shorter, though elevated and open, with respect to its size; its nose and hair are of a flesh color, its mouth short and thick, the orifice of the mouth very narrow, the upper jaw very full, the lower narrow and short, the teeth like those of the rabbit; the whiskers are composed of long black and white hairs; the fore feet are very short, and never touch the ground; they are furnished with four claws, which are only used as hands to carry the food to the animal’s mouth; the hind feet have but three claws, the middle one longer than the other two. The tail is three times as long as its body, and is covered with short stubborn hair, of the same color as that on the back, but tufted at the end with longer and softer hair; the legs, nose, and eyes are bare, and of a flesh color. The upper part of the head and back are covered with an ash colored hair; the sides, throat, and belly are whitish ; and below the loins, and near the tail, there is a large, black, transversal band, in form of a crescent. While leaping, the jerboa stretches out its tail, but while standing or walking, it carries it in the form of an §, the lower part touching the ground. These little animals commonly conceal their hands, or fore feet, with their hair; so that they aré said by some to have only hinder feet. When they move from ‘one place to another, they do not walk, that is, advance one foot before the other, but jump, or bound, about four or five feet ara time ; this they do with the greatest ease and swiftness, holding themselves erect, after the manner of birds, when they hop on the ground. Instead, however, of proceeding straight forward, it jumps first to one side, and then to the other. Such is its agility, that even a greyhound can scarcely kill it. They rest themselves in a kneeling posture, and only sleep in the day. In the night-time, they seek for their food like hares, and, like them, feed on grass, corn, and other grain. They are of a gentle nature, but not to be 1 Dipus gerboa, Desm. The genus Dipus has two upper and two lower incisors; na canines; six or eight upper, and six lower molars. Molars simple, with tuberculous crowns; eyes large; ears long, pointed ; posterior extremities much elongated, with the oumber of toes variable, but having only one metatarsal bone; tail very long, tufted 244 MAMMALIA—MARMOT. tamed beyond a certain limit. They burrow like rabbits, and in much less time. The excavations which it forms are many yards long, oblique, and winding, but not more than half a yard from the surface of the ground. It is fond of warmth, making its nest of the finest and most delicate herbage , and seems sensible of the approach of bad’ weather by wrapping itself up close in hay, with its head between its thighs. It sleeps during winter, without nutriment. The Jerboa breeds several times in the summer, and ssually brings forth seven or eight young ones at a litter. The flesh is reckoned one of the greatest of delicacies by the Arabs. They are found in Syria, Phenicia, Barbary, &c. THE LABRADOR JUMPING MOUSE! Is found in the fur countries as far north as Slave Lake. Its color 1s brown above, and white beneath. THE MARMOT. Ture seenis to be a combination of the bear and the rat in the form of the marmot. Its nose, its lips, and the form of its head, are like those cf the hare; it has the hair and claws of the badger, and teeth of the beaver, the whiskers of the cat, the paws of the hare, with a tufted tail and short 1 Gerbillus Labradorius, Sasine. The genus Gerbillus has two upper and two lower incisors ; no canines; six upper and six lower molars. Molars tuberculous; posterior extremities very long, with five toes, each with its proper metatarsal bone; tail long, covered with hair. _ 2 Arctomys marmotta, Desm. The genus Arctomys has two upper and two lower incisors ; no canines; ten upper and eight lower molars. Incisors very strong; molars with ridges and blunt tubercles; body thick and heavy; head large; no cheek pouches ; ears shor’ and rounded; eyes large; feet robust, those before witf four toes and a rudi- mentary thumb ; those behind with five toes, the nails strong, compressed, and crooked, MAMMALIA—MARMOT. 245 ears. The color of its hair on the back is reddish brown. On the belly it is reddish, but softer and shorter. Its voice resembles that of a little dog. when it is played with or caressed; but when it is irritated or frightened, 11 raises a loud and shrill cry, highly offensive to the ear. The marmot is a very cleanly animal. In autumn, particularly, it is loaded with fat, though all the parts of the body are never equally so. The marmot would be tolera- ble food, did it not constantly retain somewhat of a disagreeable smell. This animal, which delights in the regions of ice and snow, and is never found but on the highest mountains, is, nevertheless, most liable to be be- numbed by the cold. From the end of September, or the beginning of October, the marmot generally retires to its hole, an ' appears not again till about the beginning of April. The place of its ret it is formed with pre- caution, and finished with art. It is rather wide th. n long, and very deep, so that it is capable of containing several, without being under a necessity of crowding each other, or injuring the air they breathe. Their feet and claws are formed as if they were designed to dig; and, in fact, they bur- row into the ground with amazing celerity, scraping up the earth, and throwing back what they have loosened behind them constantly as they pro- ceed. Still more wonderful is the form of their hole ; it resembles the letter Y, the two branches having each an opening that conducts into one channel, which terminates in their general apartment at the bottom. As the whole is contrived on the declivity of a mountain, there is no part of it on a level but the apartment at the end. One of the branches, or openings, issues out sloping downward; and this serves as a kind of sink, or drain, for the whole family, in which they void their excrements, and through which the mois- ture of the place finds aneasy passage. The other branch, on the contrary, slopes upward, and serves them asa door to go in and out. The apartment at the end is warmly lined with moss and hay. It is even asserted, that this is a public work; that some cut the finest grass, others pile it up, and others take their turns to convey it to the hole. Upon this occasion ‘it is added, one of them lies upon its back, permits the hay to be heaped upon its belly, keeps its paws upright to make greater room, and in this manner, remaining still upon its back, is dragged by the tail, hay and all, to then _ common retreat. This practice some assign as a reason for the hair being generally worn away from their backs. However, another and perhaps a setter reason may be given for this appearance; namely, their inhabiting cells under ground, and being constantly employed in digging up the earth. Whenever they venture abroad, one is placed as a sentinel, sitting on ap elevated rock, while the others amuse themselves in the fields below, or are employed in cutting grass, and making it into hay for their future conveni ence ; and no sooner does their trusty sentinel perceive a man, an eagle, a dog, or any other enemy, than he gives notice to the rest by a kind ot whistle, and is himself the last that takes refuge in the cell. They make no provision for the winter, foreseeing probably that such a 246 MAMMALIA—MARMOT. precaution would be useless. But when they perceive the first approaches of the season, in which their vital motions are to continue in some measure suspended, they labor very diligently to close up the apertures of their dwel- lings, which they effect with such solidity, that it is more easy to open the earth any where else, than where they have closed it. They are at that time very fat, and some of them are found to weigh twenty pounds. In this plight they continue for three months longer ; but by degrees their flesh begins to waste, and they are quite thin by the end of winter. When their retreat is discovered, they are found each rolled into a ball, and covered with hay. In this state they seem entirely lifeless; they may be taken away, and even killed, vithout their testifying any sense of pain ; and those who find them in this aanner carry home the fat ones for food, and the young ones for breeding up and taming. The marmot produces but once a year, and the litter generally consists of three or four. Their growth is quick, and they live only nine or ten years. They are found in the Alps, Apennines, Pyrenees, in the highest mountains of Germany, in Poland, and in America, with some variations. When taken young, the marmot is more capable of being tamed than any other wild animal. It will easily learn to perform feats with a stick, to dance, and in every thing to obey the voice of its master. It has a great antipathy to the dog; and when it becomes familiar in a house, and is sure of being supported by its master, it will, in his presence, attack the largest dogs, and boldly fasten upon them with its teeth. Though this creature is not quite so large as a hare, it is yet of a more squat make, and has great strength joined to great agility. It has four teeth in the front of the jaw, which are long and strong enough to inflict a terrible wound; and yet, unless provoked to it, it neither attacks dogs, nor does mischief to any creature whatever. If care be not taken, however, it will gnaw the furni- ture of a house, and will even make holes through wooden partitions. As the marmot has very short thighs, and the toes of its paws are formed like those of the bear, so it often sits erect, and walks with ease, like that animal, upon its hind feet. With its fore paws it carries its food to its mouth, and eats in an upright posture like the squirrel. It runs much swifter up hill than down ; it climbs trees, and runs up the clefts of rocks or the contiguous walls of houses, with much facility; so much so, indeed, that it is ludicrously observed of the Savoyards, who are the general chimney-sweepers of Paris, that they have learned their trade from the marmot. These animals eat indiscriminately of whatever is given them, whether it be flesh, bread, fruits, herbs, roots, pulse, or insects. Of milk and butter, however, they are particularly fond; and, though less inclined to petty theits than the cat, tey are yet never better pleased than when they obtain access to the dairy. MAMMALIA—MARMOT. 247 THE MARYLAND: MARMOT Or WOOD CHUCK: Tus animal is common in all the temperate parts of America. It does great injury to the farmers, as the quantity of herbage it consumes is really surprising. It burrows in the ground on the sides of hills, and these extend to great distan@es under ground, and terminate in various cnambers. [ere the marmot makes himself a comfortable bed of dry leaves, grass, and any soft rubbish, where he sleeps from the close of day, till the next morning is far advanced. The Maryland marmot eats with great greediness, and in large quanti- ties. It is fond of cabbage, lettuce, and other garden vegetables. When in captivity, it is exceedingly fond of bread and milk. At the commencement of cold weather, the marmot goes into winter quarters, blocks up the door within, and remains torpid till the warm sea- son. It is about thesize of a rabbit, and of a dark brown color. PAR RYZS 7 ARN © 1.4 Tris animal has a blunt snout, and short ears, with a long tail tipped with black. The body is marbled on the upper part with confluent black and white spots, and ferruginous beneath. It is one foot in length, and inhabits Canada. _ 1 Arctomys monaz, Lin. 2 Arctomys Parryi’s, RicHarpson. 243 MAMMALIA—SQUIRREL. THE SQUIRREL THE common squirrel of Europe is a beautiful little animal, which is only haif wild, and which, by its gentleness, its docility, and even the innocence of its manners, might deserve to be exempted from the present class. It is neither properly a carnivorous nor an injurious animal, though it some- times seizes on birds; its general food consisting of fruit, almonds, hazle- nuts, beech-mast, and acorns; it is neat, cleanly, alert, lively, and industri- ous ; its eyes are large, black, and full of fire, its countenance is sharp, its body is nervous, and its limbs are supple. It is of a bright brown color, inclining to red; the breast and belly are white; the ears are ornamented with long tufts of hair. The fore feet are strong and sharp, and the fore legs are curiously furnished with long stiff hairs, projecting on each side like whiskers. The beauty of its form is yet heightened by a spreading tail, in shape like a plume of feathers, which it raises above its head, and forms into a kind of shade for itself. The squirrel may be said to be Jess a quadruped than almost any other four-footed animal. It generally holds itself almost upright, using its fore feet as hands for a conveyance to its mouth. Instead of hiding itself in the earth, it is continually in the air; it somewhat resembles the birds by its lightness and activity ; like them, it rests upon the branches of trees ; leap- ing from one to the other, and in the highest of them builds its nest. It avoids the water still more than the earth; and it is even asserted of this animal, that, when it is obliged to cross a river or stream, it uses the bark of a tree, or some such light woody substance, as a boat, while its tail sup- plies the place of sails, and of a rudder. It gathers together a quantity of 1 Sciurus vulgaris, Lyx. The genus Sciurus has two upper and two lower incisors; ho canmes; ten upper and ten lower molars. Inferior incisors compressed laterally ; molars tubercular; body elongated; head small; ears erect, rounded; eyes large; fore feet with four long toes, with compressed crooked nails and a tubercular thumb; rund feet very large, with five toes; tail Jong, often with hair disposed in two rows; two pectoral and six ventral mamme. MAMMALIA—SQUIRREL. | 249 nuts duriag the summer, which it deposits in the hollow part of some old tree, and to these has recourse for provision in winter; and such is the agility of its body, that it will, in an instant, climb a beach tree, let its bark be ever so smooth. : THE AMERICAN GRAY SQUIRREL! Is remarkable for its beauty and activity, and is common throughout the United States. It is generally found in hickory and chesnut woods, where it feeds on nuts, a.d lays up a hoard for the winter. They construct their nests with care on the tops of tall trees, and seldom leave them during the cold weather. They do a great deal of mischief in the corn fields, by destroying and carrying off a great quantity of corn. They are very easily domesticated, and in captivity are very playful and mischievous. The gray squirrel is commonly of a fine bluish gray, mingled with a golden color. AMERICAN FLYING SQUIRREL? Tne common flying squirrel is very abundant in the United States, and i¢ much admired for the softness of its fur, and the gentleness of its disposi tion. The skin of the sides is extended from the fore to the hind limbs, so as to form a sort of sail, which enables it to descend swiftly from a grea height, m cae easiest and most pleasant manner, often passing over a con siderable space. This squirrel is small, of an ash color above, and white beneath, with large, prominent black eyes. It builds its nest in hollow trees. 1 Sciurus cinereus, Desm. 2 Pteromys volucella, Desm. The genus Pteromys has two upper and two lower inci- sors; no canines; ten upper and eight lower molars; head round; ears rounded; eyes large; fore feet with four elongated toes, with compressed sharp claws and the rudi- ment of a thumb; hind feet with five toes much divided; tail long, hairy, sometimes distichous; skin of the sides extended, forming a kind of parachute. 32 250 MAMMALIA—PORCUPINE. The Severn River flying squirrel is much larger than the species described above, has a longer tail, and is of a different color. It is found near James’ Bay and Lake Huron. The Rocky Mountain flying squirrel lives in thick pine forests, and seldom leaves its retreats except atnight. It resembles the Severn River flying squirrel in form, though its limbs and tail are larger. It is of a vellowish brown color. THE PORCUPINE? Is generally about two feet in length, from the head to the extremity of the tail. The body is covered with spines, from ten to fourteen inches long, 1 Hystrix cristata, Lis. The genus Hystriz has two upper and two lower incisors ; no canines ; eight upper and eight lower molars. Molars with flat crowns, but with ridges of enamel; head strong; muzzle gibbous; ears short, rounded; tongue with spiny scales ; fore feet with four toes and a rudimentary thumb; hind feet pentadactyle ; spines inore or less long, on the body, sometimes intermixed with hairs; tail sometimes vrehensile- MAMMALIA—PORCUPINE. 251 resembling the barrel of a goosequill in thickness, but tapering at both _ ends, and variegated with black and white rings. In their usual state, they incline backward, like the bristles of a hog, but when the animal is irritated, they rise and stand upright. Travellers and naturalists have almost unanimously declared, that this animal has the faculty of discharging its quills, and wounding its foes at an immense distance; that these quills have the extraordinary and particular property of penetrating farther into the flesh, of their own accord, as soon as ever the point has made an entrance through the skin. These stories, however, are all purely imaginary, and without the smallest foundation or reason. The error seems to have arisen either from this animal raising its prickles upright, when he is irritated; and, as there are some of them which are only inserted into the skin by a small pellicle, they easily fall off; or from his sometimes shaking off his quills to a considerable distance when he is shedding them. We have seen many porcupines, but have never observed them dart any of their quills from them, although they were vi- olently agitated. We cannot, then, avoid being greatly astonished, that the greatest authors, both modern and ancient, as well as the most sensible travellers, have joined in believing a circumstance so entirely false. In justice, however, to Dr Shaw, we must except him from the number of these credulous travellers: ‘‘Of all the number of porcupines,” says he, ‘“‘ which I have seen in Africa, I have never yet met with one which darts its quills, however strongly it was irritated. Their common method of defence is to lie on one side, and when the enemy approaches very near, to rise suddenly, and wound him with the points of the other.” It appears, however, that there is a pernicious quality in the quills; which renders it difficult to cure the wounds inflicted by them. The porcupine, although a native of the hottest climates of Africa and India, lives and multiplies in colder countries, such as Persia, Spain, and Italy. Agricola says, that the species were not transported into Europe before the last century. They are found in Spain, but more commonly in Italy, especially on the Apennine mountains, and in the environs of Rome. In its wild state, the porcupine is a perfectly inoffensive animal. It never attacks, and will elude an aggressor when it can; but if compelled to de- fend itself, it forces even the lion to retire. In its domestic state, it is neither furious nor vicious; it is only anxious for its liberty ; and, with the assistance of its fore teeth, which are sharp and strong, like those of the beaver, it easily cuts through a wooden prison. Itis also known, that it feeds willingly on fruits, chesnuts, and crumbs of bread; that, in its wild state, it lives upon roots and wild grain; that, when it can enter a garden, it makes great havoc, eating the herbs, roots, fruit, &c. It becomes fat like most other animals, towards the end of summer; andits flesh, although insipid, is tolerable eating. 252 MAMMALIA—PORCUPINE. When the form, substance, and organization of the prickles of the porcu- pine are considered, they are found to be true quills, to which only feathers are wanting to mike them exactly resemble those of birds. They strike together with a noise as the animal walks; and it easily erects them in the same manner as the peacock spreads the featiiers of its tail. The Indians use them to adorn many articles of dress and furniture, and dye them of various colors. THE COUANDO, OR BRAZILIAN PORCUPINE! Tuis animal is much smaller than the porcupine of the Old Continent; its head and muzzle is shorter; it has no tuft on its head, nor slit in the upper lip; its quills are somewhat shorter, and much finer; its tail is long; it is carnivorous, rather than frugivorous, and endeavors to surprise birds, small animals, and poultry, while the porcupine only feeds upon herbs, greens, fruits, &c. It sleeps all the day, like the hedge-hog, and only stirs out in tae night. It climbs up trees, and hangs in the branches by its tail, which the porcupine cannot do. All travellers agree that its flesh is very good eating. It is easily tamed, and commonly lives in high places. These animals are found over all America, from Brazil and Guiana, to Louisiana, and the southern parts of Canada. While the porcupine is only to be found .n the hottest parts of the Old Continent. In transferring the name of porcupine to the couando, they have supposed and transmitted to him the same faculties, especially that of lancing his quills. Ray is the only person who has denied these circumstances, although they evidently appear at first view to be absurd. - 1 Hystriz cuandu, DesM. MAMMALIA—PORCUPINE. 253 THE URSON, OR CANADA’ PORCUPINE. TuIs animal, placed by nature in the desers part of North America, to the east of Hudson’s Bay, exists independent of, and far distant from, man. The urson might be called the spiny beaver, it being of the same size, the same country, and the same form of body; it has, like that, two long, strong, and sharp incisive teeth at the end of each jaw; its prickles are short, and almost covered with hair; for the urson, like the beaver, has a double coat ; the first consists of long and soft hair, and the second, of a down, er felt, which is still softer or smoother. In the young ursons, the prickles are proportionably larger, more apparent, and the hair shorter and scarcer than in the adults. This animal dislikes water, and is fearful of wetting himself. He makes nis habitation under the roots of great hollow trees, sleeps very much, and chiefly feeds upon the bark of juniper. In winter, the snow serves him for drink ; in summer, he laps water like adog. The savages eat his flesh, and strip the bristles off the hide, which they make use of instead of pins and needles. Many of the trading Americans, also, depend upon them for food at certain seasons of the year. The following observations are from Dr Godman: “In the remote and unsettled parts of Pennsylvania, the porcupine is still occasionally found; but sonth of this state, it is almost unknown. According to Catesby, it never was found in that direction beyond Virginia, where it was quite rare. In the Hudson’s Bay country, Canada and New England, as well as m some parts of the western states, and throughout the country lying between the Rocky Mountains and the great western rivers, they are found in great abundance, and are highly prized by the aboriginals, both for the sake of their flesh and their quills, which are extensively employed as ornaments to their dresses, pipes, weapons, &c. “The patience and ingenuity displayed by the Indian women, in orna- menting dresses, buffalo robes, moccasins, &c., can scarcely be appreciated by those who have never seen any of the articles thus adorned. We have already mentioned that these quills rarely exceed two inehes and a half, or, at most, three inches in length; and are not larger in circumference than a moderate sized wheat straw. Yet we find large surfaces worked or embroidered in the neatest and most beautiful manner with these quills, which are dyed of various rich and permanent colors. In making this embroidery, they have not the advantage of a needle, but ase a straight awl. Some of their work is done by passing the sinew of a deer, or other animal through a hole made with the awl, and at every stitch wrapping this thread with one or more turns of a poreupine quill. When they wind the quill 1 Hystriz dorsata, Desm. Q54 MAMMALIA—HARE. near its end, the extremity is turned into the skin, or is concealed by the succeeding turn, so as to appear, when the whole is completed, as if but a single strip had been used. In other instances, the ornament is wrought of the porcupine quills exclusively, and is frequently extremely beautiful, from its neatness and the good taste of the figures into which it is arranged. In general, however, the strong contrast of colors is the most remarkable effect aimed at. On some of the articles of dress, figures of animals, exhibit- ing much ingenuity, are formed by embroidering with these quills. The Philadelphia museum, so rich in objects of natural history, also boasts a most splendid and valuable collection of articles of dress, and implements of peace and war, peculiar to the various aboriginals of our country. Who- ever Wishes to see to what extent the quills of the porcupine are employed by these interesting people, and also to form a better idea of the number of porcupines that must be found in the trans-Mississipian regions, may be fully gratified by visiting this great institution.” THE HARES 7 an Yj A fi i Wis f eas =eupnnt 1 = Pee em enue OEE EGE? Hares are universally and abundantly spread over the face of the whole earth; and rabbits, though they originated only in particular climates, do yet multiply so prodigiously in almost every place to which they are trans- 1 Lepus timidus, Lis. The genus Lepus has four upper and two lower incisors ; no canines; twelve upper and ten lower molars. Centre upper incisors large and wedge- shaped, with a longitudinal furrow in front, lower incisors square; molars crowned with transverse laminz of enamel; ears and eyes large; fore legs short, with five toes; the hind feet long, with only four, covered with hair; tail short, erect; teats, from six to ten; cecum very large. . MAMMALIA—HARE. 255 ported, that it is no longer possible to extirpate them, and no small art is required in order to diminish their number. Some species of hares are migratory. They move, in flocks of five or six hundred, and often to a great distance, in search of food. In those districts in England, which are reserved for the chase, four or five hundred hares are killed in the course of perhaps one day’s sport. These animals multiply amazingly; they are in a condition to engender in all seasons, and before the first year of their life is expired. The females do not go above thirty or thirty-one days with their young. The young ones are brought forth with their eyes open; the mother suckles them for the space of twenty days; after which they separate them- selves from her, and provide for their own subsistence. They do not with- draw themselves far from each other, nor from the place where they first drew breath; yet they live in solitude, and each composes for itself a form, at a little distance, perhaps sixty or eighty paces. Thus, when we find a young leveret in one place, we are almost sure of finding one or two more in the neighborhood. They feed more by night than by day; and their favorite articles of provision, are herbs, roots, leaves, fruit, and grain, but, above all, such plants as yield a milky. juice. They even eat the bark of trees in winter. When they are reared at home, they are fed with lettuce d roots ; but the flesh of these domestic hares is always of a bad flavor. Hares sleep much, but always with their eyes open. They have no eye- iashes, and seem to have but bad eyes. ‘The eyes, however, are so promi- nent, that they can see both before and behind. Their hearing is exceeding- ly acute, and their ears are very large, compared with the size of their body. They move these long ears with great facility, and use them as a helm, in order to direct their course, which is so rapid, that they easily outstrip all other animals. As their fore legs are much shorter than their hind legs, they can more easily ascend than descend; for which reason, when they are pursued, their first object is to gain, if possible, some mountain. Their motion in running, is a kind of gallop; they proceed without making any noise, because their feet are plentifully covered with hair, even underneath ; and perhaps they are the only animals which have hair growing within their mouths. . Hares live not above seven or eight years. They pass their lives in solitude and in silence ; and never are known to exert their voice, but when they are forcibly laid hold of, tormented, or wounded. They are by no means so wild, as, by their habits, might be supposed; they are gentle, and susceptible of a species of improvement. As they have a good ear, as they rest on their hind feet of their own accord, and use their fore legs like arms, some have been so tutored as to beat a drum, to gesticulate in cadence, &c. Hares may be domesticated, and they then display sagacity, affection, and ny small share of curiosity. Cowper, the poet, has given an amusing acount of three of them, which he kept for some years. 256 MAMMALIA—RABBIT. THE RABBSIT2A TuoueH the hare and the rabbit arc, externally as well as internauy, very much alike, yet they form two distinct and separate species. The fecundity of the rabbit is even greater than that of the hare; and, without crediting what Wotton has advanced, that one pair only, being left together in an island, produced six thousand in one year, it is certain, that these creatures multiply so prodigiously in countries which are proper for the breed, that the earth cannot furnish them with subsistence: they destroy herbs, roots, grain, fruit, and even trees and shrubs; and, were it not for the use made in Europe of the dog and the ferret, they would reduce the country toa desert. In the reign of Augustus, they became such a nuisance to the Balearic Islands, that the inhabitants were under the necessity of petitioning the emperor to send a military force to destroy them. The rab- bit not only engenders and produces oftener than the hare, but it has more ways to escape from its enemies, and to avoid the sight of man. This circumstance alone may suffice to prove that the rabbit is superior to the hare in point of sagacity. Both are alike in their conformation, and both have it in their power to dig retreats for themselves. Both are timid to an excess; but the one, possessed of less art, is contented with forming a residence on the surface of the earth, where it remains continually expos- ed; while the other, by a more improved instinct, takes the trouble to dig into the earth, and there to make itself an asylum; and so true is it, that they act in this case from a kind of reason or reflection, that we never see the domestic rabbit employed in the same work. Rabbits give the alarm to each other by thumping on the ground with one of their hind feet, which may be heard to a considerable distance. The domestic rabbits, like all other animals, vary in their color; white, black, and gray, belong properly to nature. The black rabbits are the most scarce. These animals are able to engender and produce at the age of five or six months. It is asserted, that they commonly attach themselves to one particular female, and never quit her. She goes with young thirty or 1 Lepus cuniculus, Lin. MAMMALIA—AMERICAN HARE. 257 thirty-one days, and will produce five, six, and sometimes seven or eight at a birth. Like the doe-hare, she has a double matrix, and, of consequence, can have in her womb, at the same time, two separate litters. It appears, however, that superfmtations are less frequent in this species than in that of the hare. A few days before they bring forth, they dig a fresh burrow, not in a right line, but in a crooked direction, at the bottom of which they make an exca- vation; after which they tear a quantity of hair from their bellies, and make a kin] of bed for the use of their little ones. For the first two days they never quit them; they never stir abroad, unless forced to do so from necessity, and return as soon as ever they have taken their nourishment. At this season, they eat much, and very quick ; and thus they tend and suckle their young for more than six weeks. Tull then, the buck does not know them, nor does he enter the burrow which the doe has dug. Often, even when she quits it and leaves her little ones behind, she stops up the entry to it with earth, wet with her urine; but when they begin to venture to the edge of the hole, and to eat groundsel and other herbs, which the doe picks out for them, the buck begins to know them, to take them between his paws, to endeavor to give a gloss to their hair, to lick their eyes; and all of them, in succession, partake equally of his cares. * Though rabbits are found in America, they are not natives of it, but are descended from those which have been brought from Europe. The animal vulgarly called rabbit in this country, is the American hare, which we shall next describe. THE AMERICAN HARE. = =i = = Tuts animal is found throughout this country, to as far north as the vicinity of Carlton House, in the Hudson’s Bay country. According to the statement of Hearne, “‘they are not plentiful in the eastern parts of the northern Indian country, not even in those parts that are situated among } Lepus Americanus, GMEL. 33 258 MAMMALIA—AMERICAN HARE. the woods; but to the westward, bordering on the southern Indian country, they are in some places pretty numerous, though by no means equal to what has been reported of them at York Fort, and some other settlements in the Bay.” In parts of the Union, this hare is exceedingly common, and large numbers are annually destroyed for the sake of their flesh and fur. During the daytime the hare remains crouched within its form, which 1s a mere space, of the size of the animal, upon the surface of the ground, cleared of grass, and sheltered by some overarching plant ; or else its habi- tation is in the hollowed trunk of a tree, or under a collection of stones, &c. It is at the earliest dawn, while the dewdrops still glitter on the herbage, or when the fresh verdure is concealed beneath a mantle of glistening frost, that the timorous hare commonly ventures forth in quest of food, or courses undisturbed over the plains. Occasionally during the day, in retired and little frequented parts of the country, an individual is seen to scud from the path, where it has been basking in the sun; but the best time for study- ing the habits of the animal is during moonlight nights, when the hare is to be seen sporting with companions in unconstrained gambols, frisking with delighted eagerness around its mate, or busily engaged in cropping its food. On such occasions the turnip and cabbage fields suffer severely, where these animals are numerous, though in general they are productive of serious injury. However, when the food is scarce, they do much mis” chief to the farmers, by destroying the bark on the young trees in the nurseries, and by cutting valuable plants. The flesh of the American hare, though of a dark color, ismuch esteemed as an article of food. During the summer season they are lean and tough, and in many situations they are infested by a species of estrus, which lays its eggs in their skins, producing worms of a considerable size. But in the autumnal season, and especially after the commencement of the frost, when the wild berries, &c., are ripe, they become very fat, and are a delicious article of food. In the north, during winter, they feed on the twigs of the pine and fir, and are fit for the table throughout the season. The Indians eat the contents of their stomachs, notwithstanding the food is such as we have just mentioned. The American hare never burrows in the ground like the common European rabbit. When confined in a yard, our animal has been known to attempt an escape by scratching a hole in the earth near the fence or wall ; but there are few wild animals, whatever may be their characters, that will not do the same, under similar circumstances, though in their natural condi- tion they may never attempt to burrow. Such is the fact in relation to the American hare, which never burrows while it is a free tenant of the fields and woods. Jt has been said that this animal also occasionally ascends trees, which must be understood solely of its going up within the trunks of hollow trees, which it effects by pressing with its back and feet against MAMMALIA—AMERICAN HARE. 259 opposite sides of the hollow, ascending somewhat in the same manner that a sweep climbs a chimney. The hare is not hunted in this country as in Europe, but is generally roused by a dog, and shot, or is caught in various traps and snares. In its movements our hare closely resembles the common hare of Europe, bound- ing along with great celerity, and would no doubt, when pursued, resort to the artifices of doubling, &c., so well known to be used by the European animal. The American hare breeds several times during the year, and in the Southern States even during the winter months, having from two to four or six at a litter. In general, the hare is not devoid of the instinct necessary for its pre- servation, nor of sagacity sufficient to éffect an escape from its enemies. It prepares for itself a form ; and in winter, it chooses a spot which is exposed to the south, as in summer it does one which is situated to the north. It hides itself from view among hillocks of earth which are of the same color as its hair. ‘I have seen,” says Du Fouilloux, “a hare so cunning, that, as soon as it heard the huntsman’s horn, it started from its form, and, though at the distance of a quarter of a league from it, leaped to a pond, and there hid itself among the rushes, andthus escaped the pursuit of the dogs. J have seen a hare, which, after having run above two hours before the Jogs, has dislodged another hare, and taken possession of its form. I have seen others swim over three ponds, of which the smallest was not less than eighty paces broad. I have seen others, which, after having been warmly chased for two hours, have entered a sheepcote, through the little opening under the door, and remained among the cattle. I have seen others, which, when the dogs have chased them, joined a flock of sheep in the field, and, in like manner, remained with them. I have seen others, which, when they heard the dogs, have concealed themselves in the earth. I have seen others, which have gone along one side of a hedge, and returned by the other ; so that there was only the thickness of the hedge between the dogs and the hare. I have seen others, which, after they had been chased for half an hour, have mounted an old wall of six feet high, and taken refuge in a hole covered with ivy.” The nature of the soil has a great influence on these, as well as on all other animals; the hares of the mountains are larger and fatter than those of the plains, and are also of a different color; the former being browner on the body, and whiter about the neck than the latter, which are more inclined tored. On high mountains, and in the northern countries, they become white in the winter, and in summer recover their ordinary color. 960% * MAMMALIA—CABIAL. THES CABLAT Is about the size of'a hog of twelve months’ growth. The head is longer; the eyes are larger; the snout, instead of being rounded, as in the hog, is split like that of a rabbit or hare, and furnished with thick, strong whiskers; the mouth is not so wide; the number and form of the teeth are different, for it is without tusks; like the peccary, it wants a tail, and, unlike to all others of this kind, is in a manner web-footed, and thus easily fitted for swimming and living in water. The hoofs before are divided into four parts, and those behind into three; between the divisions, there is a prolongation of the skin; so that the feet, when cpened in swimming, can beat a great surface of water. This animal, thus made for the water, swims there like an otter, seeks the same prey, and seizes the fish with its feet and teeth, and carries them. te the edge of the lake to devour them with the greater ease. It lives also upon fruits, corn, and sugar-canes. As its legs are broad and flat, it often sits upright upon its hind legs. Its ery resembles more the braying of an ass than the grunting of a hog. Its color is a deep reddish brown above, and fawn beneath. It seldom stirs out but at night, and almost always in company, without going far from the sides of the water in which it preys. It can find no safety in flight; and, in order to escape the enemies which pursue it, it plunges into the water, remains at the bottom a long time, and rises at such a distance, that the hunters lose all hopes of seeing it again. Jt is fat; and the flesh is tender, but, like that of the otter, rather of a fishy taste; the head, however, is not bad; and this agrees with what is said of the beaver, whose exterior parts have a taste like fish. The cabiai is quiet and gentle; it is neither quarrelsome nor ferocious with other animals. It is easily tamed, comes at call, and willingly follows the hand that feeds it. We do not know the time of their bringing forth their young, their growth, and consequently the length of life of this animal. They are very common in Guiana, as well as in Brazil, in Ama- zonia, and in all the lower countries of South America. _ | Hydrocherus capybara, Lin. The genus Hydrocherus has two upper and two lower incisors ; no canines; ten upper and eight lower molars. Molars composed of laming ; eyes large; ears rounded ; fore feet with four, the hinder ones with three palmated toes ; no tail; two mamme; hair scattered and bristly. MAMMALIA—GUINEA-PIG. 261 THE GUINEA-PTG 1 TnovcH originally a native of the warm climates of Brazil and Guinea, lives, however, and breeds in temperate and even cold countries, provided it is properly taken care of. Its skin is of little or no value; and the flesh, though people may, and actually do eat it, is very indifferent food; a cir- zumstance which might, in some measure, be removed, were they to be reared in warrens, where they might have air, space to range in, anda proper choice of herbs. Those which are kept in houses have nearly the same taste as the houserabbit; and of those which have passed the sum mer in a garden, the taste is less disagreeable, but is still insipid. The Guinea-pig is much less than the rabbit; its upper lip is only half divided; it has two cutting teeth in each jaw; large and broad ears; its hair is of different colors, white, varied with orange and black, in irregular patches. It has no tail, and is very restless, from which latter circumstance it derives the epithet affixed to one of its names. The growth of these animals is not entirely completed till the expiration of eight or nine months; though indeed it is in apparent bulk and fat that they chiefly increase till then, the developement of the solid parts being finished before the age of five or six months. The female never goes with young above three weeks; and she has been known to bring forth when only two months old. The first litter is not so numerous as the subsequent litters. It does not amount to more than four or five; the second amounts to five or six, and the rest to seven or eight, and even to ten or eleven. She does not suckle her young longer than twelve or fifteen days. Thus these animals produce at least every two months; and as those which are newly born produce in the same manner, their multiplication is astonishing. In one yeara thousand might be obtained from a single couple, did they not frequently destroy each other, and perish from the cold and wet. The Guinea-pig feeds on all sorts of herbs, and especially on parsley, which it prefers even to bran, flour, or bread. Of apples and other fruits it is also exceedingly fond. Like the rabbit, it eats precipitately, little ata time, but very often. It whines somewhat like a young pig. So cleanly are Guinea-pigs, that much of their time is spent in licking and smoothing the fur of each other, and of the little ones; and should the 1 Cavia cobaya, Desm. The genus Cavia has two upper and two lower incisors; no canines ; eight upper and eight lower molars. Body ‘hvala muzzle short, compressed ; eyes large; ears round; legs short, four toes on the fore feet, three on the hind feet, not palmated ; no tail: two ventral teats. 262 MAMMALIA—AGOUTI. latter chance to be dirtied, the mother will never again suffer them to come near her. If kept in a room, it seldom crosses the floor, but creeps round by the wall. These animals are so delicate, that it is with difficulty they undergo the rigors of winter. When they feel the cold, they assemble together, press close to one another, and in this situation are frequently found dead. THE AGO: fT. Tris animal is about the size of a hare, and has been considered, errone- ously, as « kind of rabbit, or large rat, by the generality of nomenclators. As it has the hair of a hog, so also it has the voracious appetite of that animal. It eats indiscriminately of all things; and when satiated, it hides the remainder, like the dog or the fox, for a future occasion. It does not, like the rabbit, dig a hole in the ground, but burrows in the holes of trees. Its ordinary food consists of the roots of the country, pota- toes, yams, and such fruits as fall from the trees in autumn. It uses its fore paws like the squirrel, to carry its food to its mouth; and as its hind feet are longer than the fore ones, it runs very swiftly upon plain ground, or up a hill, but upon a descent it is in danger of falling. Its sight is excel- lent; its hearing equals that of any other animal; and whenever it is whistled to, it stops to hearken. The flesh is dressed like that ef a suck- ing pig, and of such as are well fed, is tolerable food, though it has always a peculiar taste, and is rather rough. It is hunted by dogs; and whenever it goes into a sugar ground, where the canes cover the place, it is easily overtaken ; for it is embarrassed every step ittakes, so that aman may easily come up with itand kill it, without any other assistance than a stick. When in the open country, it usually runs with great swiftness before the dogs until it gains its retreat, within which it continues to hide, and nothing but filling the hole with smoke can force it out. For this purpose the hunter burns faggots or straw at the entrance, 1 Dasyprocta acuti, Lix. The genus Dasyprocta has two upper and two lower inci- sors ; no canines; eight upper and eight lower molars. Head rather elongated ; fore- head flat; muzzle thick; eyes large and projecting; fore feet with four toes and a rudi- mentary thumb; hind legs longer than those before, with three toes and strong nails; sole of the foot naked and callous. MAMMALIA—CAVY. 263 and conducts the smoke in such a manner that it fills the whole cavity. While this is doing, the poor little animal seems sensible of its danger, begs for quarter with a most plaintive ery, but seldom quits its hole till the utmost extremity. The agouti seems to be a native of the south parts of America; nor is it at all known in the Old Continent. It is, however, very common in Brazil, Guiana, St Domingo, and all the islands around. To the cold and tempe- rate regions of America this animal 1s a stranger. — THE. PACA, OR; SPOT DE D CAV Y1 fs an animal of the New World, who digs a burrow like a rabbit, to which he has been compared, though there is scarcely any likeness between these two animals; he is much larger than the rabbit, and even than the hare; he has a round head, and the snout short; he is fat and bulky, and by the form of his body he is more like a pig, as well as by grunting, waddling, and the manner of eating; for he does not use, as the rabbit does, his fore feet to carry food to his Fatal: ; but grubs up the earth like the hog, to find his subsistence. The color of the back is dark brown, or liver colored ; but is lighter on the sides, which are beautifully marked with lines of white spots, running in parallel directions from its throat to its rump; those on the upper part of the body are perfectly distinct; the belly is white. Its head is large ; its ears short and naked; its eyes full, and placed high in its head, near the ears; it has two strong yellow cutting teeth in each jaw; its mouth is small; its upper lip divided; and it has long whiskers on its lips, 1 Celogenys sobriger, Desm. The genus tad ae has two upper and two lower incisors ; no canines; eight upper and eight lower molars. Five toes on all the feet; the external and internal toe behind being nearly rudimentary; nails conical, strong, for digging; cheek pouches; a naked tubercle in place of a tail; two pectoral and two mguinal mamme. 264 MAMMALIA—SLOTHR. and on each side of its head, under the ears. Its legs are short, with four toes on the fore, and three on the hind foot; and it has no tail. These animals inhabit the banks of rivers, and are found in damp and hot places of South America; the flesh is very good to eat, and excessively fat ; their skin, also, is eaten as that of a pig. The natives of Brazil consider the flesh to be a great delicacy ; a perpetual war is therefore carried on against these animals. Hunters find it very difficult to take them alive; and when they are surprised in their burrows, which have two openings, they defend themselves, and bite with great rage and inveteracy. When pursued, they take to the water, and escape by diving. If attacked by dogs, it defends itself vigorously. Their skin, though covered with: short and rough hair, is valuable, because it is spotted on the sides. These animals bring forth young in abundance: men, and animals of prey, destroy a great quantity of them, and yet the species is still numerous. They are peculiar to South America, and are found no where in the Old Continent. ORDER SEVENTH—EDENTATA. Anmats of this order have no incisors in either jaw; sometimes canines and molars, or molars only ; often no teeth at all; extremities terminated with toes, in number variable, armed with strong nails; orbital and tem- poral fossz united. a EU UNA Ue eA ID A -4ACl2 Oe cS) OTe. THESE two animals have the epithet of sloth given to them both, by most authors, on account of their slowness, and the difficulty with which they walk. The unau, or two-toed sloth, has no tail, and only two nails on the fore feet. The ai, or three-toed sloth, has a short tail, and three nails on every foot. The nose of the unau, is likewise much longer, the forehead higher, and the ears longer than those of the ai. It differs also in the hair. As for its interior, its viscera are both formed and situated differently ; but the most distinctive, and, at the same time, the most singular character, is, that the unau has forty-six ribs, while the ai has but twenty-eight. This alone supposes two species, quite distinct one from the other; and these forty-six ribs, in an animal whose body is so short, is a kind of excess or 1 Bradypus didactylus, Lin. ® Bradypus tridactylus, Lis. The genus Bradypus has two upper and two lower canines ; four upper and six lower molars. Canines higher than the molars, p ramidal and pointed; molars cylindrical; head small, rounded; muzzle truncated ; nec short ; nostiuls at the extremity of the muzzle; anterior extremities longer than the posterior, with two or three united toes, terminated by very long, robust nails ; fur thick and harsh, with the biir of the fore arms directed upwards; stomach membranous, divided into many sacs; intestines short; no cecum. MAMMALIA—SLOTH. 265 error in nature; for, even in the largest animals, and those whose podies are relatively longer than they are thick, not one of them is found to have somany. ‘The elephant has only forty, the dog twenty-six, and the human species twenty-four, &c. This difference in the construction of the unau and the ai, supposes a greater distance between these two kinds than there is between that of the cat and the dog, which have the same number of ribs; for the external differences are nothing in comparison with the internal ones, which are the causes of the others. These animals inhabit South America, and are especially numerous in Brazil and Guiana. ier ~ =a = (ily : AN SS = WS . Waterton gives the following account of the sloth: “This singular animal is destined by nature to be produced, to live, and to die, in the trees; and, to do justice to him, naturalists must examine lim in his upper element. He is a scarce and solitary animal, and, being good food, he is never allowed to escape. He inhabits remote and gloomy forests, where snakes take up their abode, and where cruelly stinging ants and scorpions, and swamps, and innumerable thorny shrubs and bushes, obstruct the steps of civilized man. Were you to draw your own conclusions from the descriptions which have been given of the sloth, you would probably suspect that no naturalisé had actually gone into the wilds with the fixed determination to find him out and examine his haunts, and see whether nature has committed any blunder in the formation of this extraordinary creature, which appears to us so forlorn and miserable, so ill put together, and so totally unfit to enjoy the 34 266 MAMMALIA—SLOTH. blessings which have been so bountifully given to the rest of animated nature; for, as it has formerly been remarked, he has no soles to his feet, and he is evidently ill at ease when he tries to move on the ground; and it is then that he looks up in your face with a countenance that says, ‘Have pity on me, for I am in pain and sorrow.’ “Tt mostly happens that Indians and negroes are the people who catch the sloth, and bring it to the white man. Hence it may be conjectured that the erroneous accounts we have hitherto had of the sloth have not been penned down with the slightest intention to mislead the reader, or give him an exaggerated history, but that these errors have naturally arisen Ly examining the sloth in those places where nature never intended that he should be exhibited. “ However, we are now in hisown domain. Man but little frequents these thick and noble forests, which extend far and wide on every side of us. This, then, is the proper place to go in quest of the sloth. We will first take a near view of him. By obtaining a knowledge of his anatomy, we shall be enabled to account for his movements hereafter, when we see nim in his proper haunts. His fore legs, or, more correctly speaking, his arms, are apparently much too long, while his hind legs are very short, and look as if they could be bent almost to the shape of a cork-screw. Both the fore and hind legs, by their form, and by the manner in which they are joined to the body, are quite incapacitated from acting in a perpendicular direction, or in supporting it on the earth, as the bodies of other quadrupeds are supported, by their legs. Hence, when you place him on the floor, his belly touches the ground. Now, granted, that he supported himself on his legs like other animals, nevertheless he would be in pain, for he has no soles to his feet, and his claws are very sharp and long, and curved, so that, were his body supported by his feet, it would be by their extremities; just as your body would be were you to throw yourself on all fours, and try to suppdrt it on the ends of your toes and fingers—a trying position. Were the floor of glass, or of a polished surface, the sloth would actually be quite stationary ; but as the ground is generally rough, with little protuberances upon it, such as stones, or roots of grass, &c., this just suits the sloth, and he moves his fore legs in all directions, in order to find something to lay hold of; and when he has succeeded, he pulls himself forward, and is thus enabled to travel onwards, but, at the same time, in so tardy a manner as to acquire him the name of sloth. “Indeed, his looks and his gestures evidently betray his uncomfortable situation; and, asa sigh every now and then escapes him, we may be entitled to conclude that he is actually in pain. “Some years ago I kept a sloth in my room for several months. I often took him out of the house, and placed him upon the ground, in order to have an opportunity of observing his motions. If the ground were rough, he would pul. himself forwards by means of his fore legs, at a pretty good MAMMALIA—SLOTH.. 267 pace, and he invariably shaped his course towards the nearest tree. But if I put him upon a smooth and well trodden part of the road, he appeared to be in trouble and distress; his favorite abode was the back of a chair; and, after getting all his legs in a line upon the topmost part of it, he would hang there for hours together, and often, with a low and inward cry, would seem to invite me to take notice of him. “The sloth, in its wild state, spends its whole life in the trees, and never leaves them but through force or accident. An all-ruling Providence has ordained man to tread on the surface of the earth, the eagle to soar in the expanse of the skies, and the monkey and squirrel to inhabit the trees; still these may change their relative situations without feeling much inconveni- ence; but the sloth is doomed to spend his whole life in the trees; and, what is more extraordinary, not upon the branches, like the squirrel and the monkey, but wnder them. He moves suspended from the branch, he rests suspended from it, and he sleeps suspended from it. To enable him to do this, he must have a very different formation from that of any other known quadruped. “Hence, his seemingly bungled conformation is at once accounted for ; and, in lieu of the sloth leading a painful life, and entailing a melancholy and miserable existence on its progeny, it is but fair to surmise that it enjoys life just as much as any other animal, and that his extraordinary forma- tion and singular habits are but further proofs to engage us to admire the wonderful works of Omnipotence. “Tt must be observed, that the sloth does not hang head downwards like the vampire. When asleep, he supports himself on a branch parallel to the earth. He first seizes the branch with one arm, and then with the other; and, after that, brings up both his legs, one by one, to the same branch; so that all four are ina line; he seems perfectly at rest in this position. Now, had he a tail, he would be at a loss to know what to do with it in this position ; were he to draw it up with his legs, it would interfere with them ; and were he to let it hang down, it would become the sport of the winds. Thus his deficiency of tail isa benefit to him; it is merely an apology for a tail, scarcely exceeding an inch and a half in length. “T observed when he was climbing, he never used his arms both together, but first one and then the other, and so on alternately. There is a singu- larity in his hair, different from that of all other animals, and, I believe, hitherto unnoticed by naturalists; his hair is thick and coarse at the extremity, and gradually tapers to the root, where it becomes fine as the finest spider’s web. His fur has so much the hue of the moss which grows on the branches of the trees, that it s very difficult to make him out, when he is at rest. “The male of the three-toed sloth has a longitudinal bar of very fine black hair on his back, rather \uwer than the shoulder-blades ; on each side of this black hair there is a space of yellow hair, equally fine; it has the 268 MAMMALIA—SLOTH. appearance of being pressed into the body, and looks exactly as if it had been singed. If we examine the anatomy of his fore legs, we shall imme- diately perceive by their firm and muscular texture, how very capable they are of supporting the pendent weight of his body, both in climbing and at rest; and, instead of prononncing them a bungled composition, as a cele- brated naturalist has done, we shall consider them as remarkably well cal- culated to perform their ordinary functions. “ As the sloth is an inhabitant of forests within the tropics, where the trees touch each other in the greatest profusion, there seems to be no reason why he should confine himself to one tree alone for food, and entirely strip it of its leaves. During the many years | have ranged the forests, I have never scen a tree in such a state of nudity; indeed I would hazard a con- jecture, that by the time the animal has finished the last of the old leaves, there would be a new crop on the part of the tree he had stripped first, ready for him to begin again, so quick is the process of vegetation in these countries. “There is a saying among the Indians, that when the wind blows, the sloth begins to travel. Incalm weather he remains tranquil, probably not liking to cling to the brittle extremity of the branches, lest they should break with him in passing from one tree to another; but as soon as the wind rises, the branches of the neighboring trees become interwoven, and then the sloth seizes hold of them, and pursues his journey in safety. There is seldom an entire day of calm in these forests. The trade wind generally sets in about ten o’clock in the morning, and thus the sloth may set off after breakfast, and get a considerable way before dinner. He travels at a good round pace; and were you to see him pass from tree to tree, as I have done, yeu would never think of calling him a sloth. “Thus it would appear that the different histories we have of this quadruped are erroneous on two accounts; first, that the writers of them, deterred by difficulties and local annoyances, have not paid sufficient atten- tion to him in his native haunts; and, secondly, they have described him in a situation in which he was never intended by nature to cut a figure, I mean on the ground. The sloth is as much at a loss to proceed on his journey upon a smooth and level floor, as a man would be who had to walk a mile in stilts upon a line of feather-beds. “One day, as we were crossing the Essequibo, I saw a large two-toed sloth on the ground upon the bank; how he got there nobody could tell; the Indian said he had never surprised a sloth in such a situation before ; he would hardly have come there to drink, for both above and below the place, the branches of the trees touched the water, and afforded him an easy and safe access to it. Be this as it may, though the trees were not above twenty yards from him, he could not make his way through the sand, in time to escape before we landed. As soon as we got up to him, he threw h mself on his back, and defended himself in a gallant style with his MAMMALIA—ARMADILLO. 269 fore legs. ‘Come, poor fellow,’ said I to him, ‘if thou has‘ got into a hobble to day, thou shalt not suffer for it; I’ll take no advantage of thee in misfortune; the forest is large enough both for thee and me to rove in; go thy ways up above, and enjoy thyself in these endless wilds; it is more than probable thou wilt never have another interview with man. So, fare thee well.’ On saying this, I took up a large stick which was lying there, held it for him to hook on, and then conveyed him toa high and stately mora. He ascended with wonderful rapidity, and in abouta minute he was almost at the top of the tree. He now went off in aside direction, and caught hold of the branch of a neighboring tree; he then proceeded towards the heart of the turest; I stood looking on, lost in amazementat his singular mode of progress. I followed him with my eye till the intervening branches closed in betwixt us; and then I lost sight forever of the two-toed sloth. I was going to add, that 1 never saw a sloth take to his heels in such earnest; but the expression will not do, for the sloth has no heels.” THE SIX-BANDED ARMADILLO! Unver the general name of armadillo, we may reckon several species which seem to us really distinct; in all of them the animal is protected by a crust resembling bone; it covers the head, the neck, the back, the flanks, the buttocks, and the tail to the very extremity. This crust is covered oute wardly by a thin skin, sleek and transparent; the only parts that are not sheltered by this buckler, are the throat, the breast, and the bel!y, which presents a white grainy skin, like that of a plucked fowl ; and, in consider- ing these parts with attention, you will perceive the appearance of scales which are of the same substance as the crust. This crust is, however, not 1 Dasypus sexcinctus, Lis. The genus Dasypus has two upper asl four lower incisors, sometimes nene ; molars varying in the several species from twenty-eight lo sixty-eight simple, cyindrical, separate, without enamel on the inner side; heal long; mouth an eyes small; body enveloped ina hard scaly shell in three compartinents coverin the head, body, and tail, with moveable transverse bands hetween them ; five toes on the hi feet; four or five on the fore feet, with long nails for digging. 270 MAMMALIA—ARMADILLO. of one piece, like that of the turtle; it consists of several parts joined to cach other by as many membranes, which put this armor in motion. The num- ber of these natural bands does not depend on the age of the animal; for the young armadillo and the adults have in the same species the same num- ber. Father d’Abbeville has distinguished six species of the armadillo, but the principal difference between them consists in the number of bands or divisions in the armor of the different species. The six-banded armadillo differs from its fellows in being also of a smaller size, not larger than that of a young pig, and in its tail being shorter, The armadilloes in general are innocent, harmless animals; if they can pee netrate into gardens, they will eat melons, potatoes, pulse and roots. Though used originally to the hot climates of America, they live in temperate regions. They walk quickly, but they can neither leap, run, nor climb up trees ; so they cannot escape by flight; they have then no other resource but to hide them- selves in their holes, or, if they are at too great a distance from their subterra- neous habitations, they contrive to dig one before they are overcome; for the mole is not more expert in digging the ground. They are sometimes caught before they are out of sight, and they then make such a resistance, that the tail is broken without bringing out the body; in order to take them without mutilation, the burrow must be opened; they, are then caught without making any resistance. When they find themselves in the hands of their pursuers, they roll themselves up into a ball, and are placed near the fire, to force them to stretch out their coat of mail; which, hard as it is, as soon as it is touched with the finger, the animal receives so quick an impression, that he contracts instantaneously. When they are in deep burrows, the method of forcing them out is to smoke them, or to let water run down the hole; the former process, however, is not always successful, as while his pursuer digs, the animal digs also, and so effectually closes up the hole, by throwing up the earth backwards, that the smoke is excluded. Some pre- tend they remain under ground above three months without venturing out: it is true, that they remain in their holes in the daytime, and never go out but in the night to seek for their subsistence. The armadillo is hunted with small dogs, who soon overtake him; but he stops before they have reached him, and contracts himself; in this condition he is taken and carried off. If he finds himself on the brink of a precipice, he escapes the dogs and the hunters, by rolling himself up, and letting himself fail down like a ball, without injury or prejudice to his scales. : “The armadillo,” says Mr Waterton, “is very common in these (the South American) forests; he burrows in the sand hills like a rabbit. As it often takes a considerable time to dig him out of his hole, it would be a long and laborious business to attack each hole indiscriminately, without knowing whether the animal were there or not. To prevent disappointment, the Indians carefully mine the mouth of the hole, and puta short stick down it. Now if, on introducing the stick, a number of musquitoes come out, the MAMMALIA—ANT EATER. 271 Indians know to a certainty that the armadillo is in it; whenever there are no musquitoes in the hole, there is no armadillo.” These animals are fat, and very prolific; the female brings forth, as it 1s reported, four young ones every month, which makes their species very numerous. They are good to eat, and are easily taken with snares laid for them on the banks of the rivers, and in the marshy grounds, which they inhabit in preference. It is pretended, that they are not afraid of the bite of the rattlesnake; it is likewise pretended, that they live in peace with these reptiles, which are often found in their holes. The savages apply their scales to different purposes, and make of them baskets, boxes, and other small vessels light and solid. The armadillo is only found in South America. THE. .TAMAN OTR) THE, TAMANDUA, AND THE FOURMILLIER, OR ANT-EATER. Soutn America produces three species of animals, with a long snout, a small mouth, and no teeth; their tongues, of a round form, are remarkably long; with which they catch the ants, which are their principal food. On coming to an ant hill, the animal scratches it up with his claws, and then protrudes his slender tongue, which has the appearance of an exceedingly long earth-worm. It is covered with a viscous saliva. To this the ants adhere, and, by retracting it, he swallows thousands of them. He also tears up the nests of woodlice, and often climbs the trees in pursuit of them, and of the wild bees and their honey. The first of these ant-eaters is that which the Brazilians call tamandua guacu, or great tamandua, to whom the French settled in America have given the name of tamanoir. The English call it THE GREAT: ANT-EATER. Tuis animal is about four feet in length from the extremity of the snout to the origin of the tail; his head is fourteen or fiften inches long, his snout stretches out to a great length; his tail, two feet and a half long, is covered with rough hair, which is more than a foot in length; his neck is short; his head narrow; his eyes black and small; his ears round; his tongue thin, more than two feet long, which he folds again in his mouth, after he draws it entirely out. His legs are but one foot high; the fore legs area little higher and more slender than those behind; he has round feet; the 1 Myrmecophaga jubata, Lrx. Animals of the genus Myrmecophaga are utterly tooth- less; they have the head elongated ; muzzle tapering toa point; tongue long, protractile; toes united, four before and five behind, or two before and four behind, armed with strong nails ; two pectoral and two ventral mamme; tail long; sometimes prehensile. 272 MAMMALIA—ANT-EATER. fore feet are armed with four claws, the two middle ones are tle longest, those behind have five claws. The hair of his head and body is black and white; this animal turns his tail up on his back, and covers with it his whole body, when he is inclined to sleep, or wants to shelter himself from the rain or the heat of the sun. The long hair of his tail and of his bodv is not round in all its extent; itis flat towards the end, and feels like dry grass. He waves his tail frequently and hastily when he is writated, but if hangs down when he is composed, and he sweeps the way with it as he goes. The tamanoir walks slowly; a man can easily overtake him in running ; his feet seem less calculated to walk than to climb, and to fasten round bodies; and he holds so fast a branch or a stick, that it is not possible to snatch either from him. The second of these animals is that which the Americans call THE TAMANDUA.! He is much smaller than the tamanoir; he is not above eighteen inches from the extremities of the snout to the rump; his head is five inches long, his snout crooked, and underneath flat and longs; he has a tail ten inches long, without hair at the end; his ears are erect, and about an inch in length; his tongue is round, eight inches long, and placed in a sort of gutter or hollow canal within the lower jaw; his !egs are not above four inches in height, his feet are of the same form, and have the same number of claws as the tamanoir. He climbs up and holds fast a branch, or a stick, like the tamanoir, and his march is equally slow. He does not cover him- self with his tail, which cannot shelter him, being almost bare; the hair of the fore part is shorter than that of the tamanoir; when he sleeps he hides his head under his neck and his fore legs. The third of these animals is that which the naturalists of Guiana call 1 Myrmecophaga tridactyla, Lux. ‘ MAMMALIA—ANT-EATER, 273 THE WATIRIWAOU,! Anp the French fourmillier, or ant-eater. He is sti]! much smaller than the tamandua, being not above six or seven inches in length from the extre- mity of the snout to the tail; his head is two inches long; the snout is not near so long as that of the tamanoir, or the tamandua; his tail is seven inches in length, is bent underneath, and bare at the end; his tongue is nar- row, long, and flat; his neck is almost bare; the head is large in proportion to the body ; his eyes placed low, at a little distance from the corners of the mouth; his ears are small and hidden by the hair; his legs are but three inches in height; the fore feet have no more than two claws, the outward 1s much longer than the inward one; the hind feet have four claws; the hair of the body is about nine inches long; he feels smooth; his color is shining, diversified with red and yellow; his feet are not made to walk, but to climb up, and to take hold of branches of trees, on which he hangs him- self by the extremity of his tail. These three animals, so different in the size and proportions of the body, have, nevertheless, many things in common, as to conformation and their natural instinct. All three feed upon ants, and suck honey and other liquid and viscous substances; they gather quickly crumbs of bread and small pieces of meat; they are tamed and domesticated easily ; they can subsist a long while without food; they do not swallow all the liquor which they keep in their mouth —one part of it issues out of their nostrils; they commonly sleep in the daytime, and change their station in the night; they go so slowly, that a man may overtake them easily whilst running in open ground, The savages eat their flesh, which has, however, an unsavory taste. The tamanoir looks at a distance like a great fox, and for that reason some travellers call him the American fox; he is strong enough to defend himself against a large dog, and even a jaguar; when he is attacked he fights standing on his hind legs, like the bear, and makes use of his fore claws, which are murdering weapons, for his protection; afterwards he lies on his back to use his hind legs, and in this situation he is almost invinci- ole; he fights with obstinacy to the last extremity, and even after he has put his adversary to death, he keeps hold of him a long while. He is covered with long bushy hair, anda very thick skin; besides, his fiech is remarkably hard, and he seldom loses his life in these engagements. The tamanoir, the tamandua, and the fourmillier, are natives of the hottest climates only of America; they are found in Brazil, in Guiana, and in the country of the Amazons, &c.; they do not breed in Canada, nor in the other frozen regions of the New World, and do not belong consequently to the Ancient Continent. We copy the following from ‘“‘ Waterton’s Wanderings.” “The ants have their enemies, as well as the rest of animated nature. 1 Myrmecophaga didactyla, Lux. 35 274 MAMMALIA—ANT-EATER. Amongst the foremost of these stand the three species of ant-bears. The smallest 13 not much larger than a rat; the next is nearly the size of a fox; and the third, a stout and powerful animal, measuring about six feet from the snout to the end of the tail. He is the most inoffensive of all animals, and never injures the property of man. He is chiefly found in the inmost recesses of the forest, and seems partial to the low and swampy parts near creeks, where the Troely tree grows. There he goes up and down in quest of ants, of which there is never the least scarcity; so that he soon obtains a sufficient supply of food with very little trouble. He cannot travel fast; man is superior to him in speed. Without swiftness to enable him to escape from his enemies, without teeth, the possession of which would assist him in self-defence, and without the power of burrowing in the ground, by which he might conceal himself irom his pursuers, he is still capable of ranging through these wilds in perfect safety; nor does he fear the fatal pressure of the serpent’s fold, nor the teeth of the famished jaguar. Nature has formed his fore legs wonderfully thick, strong and muscular, and armed his feet with three tremendous sharp and crooked claws. Whenever he seizes an animal with these formidable weapons, he hugs it close to his body, and keeps it there till it dies through pressure, or want of food. Nor does the ant-bear, in the mean time, suffer from want of aliment, as itis a well known fact, that he can go longer without food than perhaps any other animal, except the land tortoise. His skin is of a texture that perfectly resists the bite of a dog: his hinder parts are protected by thick and shaggy hair, while his immense tail is large enough to cover his whole body. “ The Indians have a great dread of coming in contact with the ant-bear ; and after disabling him in the chase, they never think of approaching him till he is quite dead. It is perhaps on account of this caution, that natural- ists have never yet given to the world a true and correct drawing of this singular animal, or described the peculiar position of his fore feet when he walks or stands. If, in taking a drawing from a dead ant-bear, you judge of the position in which he stands from that of all other terrestrial animals, the sloth excepted, you will be in error. Examine only a figure of this animal, in books of natural history, or inspect a stuffed specimen in the best museums, and you will see that the fore claws are just in the same forward attitude as those of a dog, or a common bear, when he walks or stands. But this would be an intolerable attitude for the ant-tear. The length and curve of his claws canuot admit of such a position. When he walks or stands, his feet have somewhat the appearance of clubhands. He goes entirely on the outer side of his fore feet, which are quite bent inwards , the claws collected into a point, and going under the foot. In this position he is quite at ease; while his long claws are disposed of in a manner to render them harmless to him, and are prevented from becoming dull and worn, like those of the dog, which would inevitably be the case, did their points come in actual contact with the ground: for his claws have not the MAMMALIA—MANIS. 275 retractile pow2r which enables animals of the feline species to preserve the sharpness of their claws on the most flinty path. A slight inspection of the fore feet of the ant-bear will easily convince you of the mistakes that artists and naturalists have fallen into; for you will perceive that the whole outer side of his foot is not only deprived of hair, but is hard and callous; proof positive of its being in perpetual contact with the ground. On the contrary the inner side of the bottom of his foot is soft and rather hairy. “There is another singularity in the anatomy of the ant-bear. He has wwe very large glands situated below the roof of the tongue. From these is emitted a glutinous liquid, with which his long tongue is lubricated when he puts it inte the ants’ nests. These glands are of the same substance as those found in the lower jaw of the woodpecker. The secretion from them, when wet, is very clammy and adhesive; but on being dried, it loses those qualities, and you can pulverize it betwixt your finger and thumb; so that in dissection, if any of it has got upon the fur of the animal, allow it to dry there, and then it may be removed, without leaving any stain behind. The ant-bear isa pacific animal. As his habits and haunts differ materially from those of any other animal in the forest, he might live to a good old age, and die in peace at last, were it not that his flesh is good food. On this account the Indian wages perpetual war with him, and as he cannot escape by flight, he falls an easy prey to the poisoned arrow. If he be ever closely attacked by a dog, he throws himself on his back, and if he can catch hold of his enemy with his tremendous claws, the invader is sure to pay for his rashness with the loss of life.” Pek PAN G-O EN AN DP HAT AGEN: OR, THE SHORT AND LONG-TAILED MANIS. TueEsE animals are commonly known under the name of scaly lizards; but they are not only of another genus, but even of another class than the lizards, which are oviparous reptiles, while the pangolin and tbe phatagin are viviparous quadrupeds. 1 Manis crassicaudata, GEoFF. * Manis longicaudata, Gzorr. The genus Manis is entirely toothless; the body is elongated, covered with strong, corneous, triangular, and imbricated scales, and capable of rolling into a ball; muzzle loug; tongue protractile; feet with five toes, formed for digging ; tail long. 276 MAMMALIA—MANIS. All the lizards are wholly covered, even under the belly, with a sleek speckled skin, resembling scales; but the pangolin and the phatagin have no scales under their throat, on the breast, or the belly; the phatagin, like the other quadrupeds, has hair on all these under parts of the body; the pangolin has nothing but a smooth skin without hair. The scales with which all the other parts of the body of these two animals are clothed and covered, do not stick to the skin; they are only fixed and inherent to it underneath ; they are moveable, like the prickles of the porcupine. These scales are so large, so hard, and so sharp, that they frighten and discourage all animals of prey; on collision they will strike fire like flint; it is an offensive armor which wounds while it resists. The most cruel and the most voracious animals, such as the tiger and the panther, make but useless efforts to devour these armed animals ; they tread upon them, roll them; but when they attempt to seize them, they are grievously wounded; they can neither terrify them by violence, nor bruise, nor smother them with their weight. When the pangolin and the phatagin contract themselves, they do not take, as the hedgehog, a globular and uniform figure; they form an oblong coat of armor; but their thick and long tail remains outward, and encircles their bodies. _This exterior part, by which it seems theseaanimals might otherwise be seized, carries its own defence; it is covered with scales equally hard and sharp with those with which the body is clothed, and as it is convex above, and flat below, in the form of half a pyramid, the sides are covered with square scales folded in a right angle, as thick and as sharp as the others ; so that the tail seems to be still more strongly armed than the body, the under parts of which are unprovided with scales. The pangolin, or short tailed manis, is larger than the phatagin, or long tailed kind; his fore feet are covered with scales, but the phatagin’s feet and part of his fore legs have none, being only clothed with hair. The pangolin has also larger scales, thicker, more convex, and not so close as those of the phatagin, which are armed with three sharp points; on the contrary, the scales of the pangolin are without points, and uniformly sharp. The phatagin is hairy upon the belly; and the pangolin has no hair on that jvart Of his body, but between those scales which cover his back some thick and lung bair issues like the bristles of a hog, which are not found on the back of the phatagin. The pangolin is from six to eight feet in length, including his tail; the *ail is very near as long as the body, though it appears shorter when young ; the scales ave not then so large nor so thick, and of a pale color, wh.ch is deeper when the animal is adult; they acquire such a hardness, that they resist a musket ball. Like the ant-eaters, the pangolin and the pha‘agin live chiefly upon ants; they have also a very long tongue, a narrow mouth, and without apparent teeth ; their body and their tail are also very lung, and tne claws of their feet very near of the same length and the same form, but MAMMALIA—CHLAMYPHORUS. PeiziT) equal in number. Like the ant-eater, the pangolin is also toothless, and has a long cylindrical tongue, which it uses in the same manner as that animal to procure the insects on which it subsists. When the pangolin approaches an ant hill, it lies down near it, concealing as much as _ possible the place of its retreat,-and stretching out its long tongue among the ants, keeping it for some time immovable. These little creatures, allured by its shining appearance, and the unctuous substance with which it is smeared, instantly gather upon it in great numbers; and when the pangolin supposes that it has a sufficiency, it quickly withdraws the tongue, and swallows them at once. This operation it repeats till it is satisfied, or till the ants, grown mere cautious, will be no longer allured to their destruction. The ant-eaters are found in America; the pangolin and the phatagin, in the East Indies, and in Africa, where the negroes call them quogelo. They eat their flesh, which they reckon a delicate, wholesome food; they also use their scales for different purposes. Their mode of killing it is by beating it with clubs. The pangolin and the phatagin have nothing forbidding but their figure; they are gentle, harmless, and innocent; they feed upon insects only ; they never run fast, and can only escape the pursuit of men by hiding themselves in hollow rocks, or in holes which they dig for themselves; they are two extraordinary species, not numerous, nor very useful; their odd form seems to place them as an intermediate class betwixt the quadrupeds and the reptiles. 1 EC Ben vA MY PH OR Us fia— cen discovered only within the last five years. From the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, it measures but five inches and a quarter; its 1 Chlamyphorus truncatus, HAntaN. This animal, which is the only one of the genus, has sixteen upper and as many lower teeth, all molars; the two first in each jaw pointed, the rest flat and cylindrical ; shell composed of a series of transverse plates; toes five before and behind, with compressed nails ; tail short, turned downward. 278 MAMMALIA—PLATYPUS. height at the shoulder is only one inch and three quarters, and the length of its tail is one inch. This is rather less than half the size of the three banded armadillo. It is a native of South America. THE: DUCK-B. UL GED, Pi Aw Y PUyseh New Hotranp is the country that produces this anomalous animal, one of the strangest sports of nature, as it combines the bill of a bird with the usual characteristics of a quadruped. So singular is this union, that it was at first supposed to be the trick of some person, for the purpose of imposing on collectors. When the creature was first discovered, it received the allu- sive name of ornithorynchus paradoxicus ; but it has since been denominated the platypus anatinus, or duck-billed platypus. It has a,depressed body, somewhat resembling that of an otter in miniature, which is covered witha soft fur, dark brown above, and of a ferruginous white beneath. The head is flattish, and the snout so exactly resembles that of some broad billed species of duck, that it might easily be mistaken for such. The tail is flat, furry, and of the same color as the body. The length of the whole animal, from the tip of the beak to that of the tail, is thirteen inches; of the beak, an inch anda half. The legs are very short, and terminate in a broad web, which on the fore feet extends to a considerable distance beyond the claws, put on the hind feet reaches no further than the roots of the claws. On the upper part of the head, on each side, a little beyond the beak, are situated two oval white spots, in the lower part of each of which the eyes are em- bedded. From the general form of this animal, and particularly its bill and webbed feet, it may naturally be concluded, that it resides in watery situations; that it has the habit of digging or burrowing in the banks of rivers, or under ground; and that its food consists of aquatic plants and animals ORDER EIGHTH.—PACHYDERMATA. Animats of this order have three or two kinds of teeth; four extremities, with the toes variable in number, and furnished with strong nails or hoofs ; no clavicles ; organs of digestion not disposed for ruminating. This order commences the series of hoofed quadrupeds. 1 Platypus anatinus. This genus, which comprises only two individuals yet known, has four upper and four lower molars, the teeth are fibrous, and fixed only in the gum; a horny beak resembling a duck’s bill; nostrils contiguous, opening at the end of the upper mandible ; cheek pouches; feet webbed, pentadactyle; with a spur on the hind ones in the male ; tail short, broad at the base. MAMMALIA—ELEPHANT. 279 FAMILY I.--PROBOSCIDEA. In this family the individuals have their upper incisors in the form of elongated tusks ; molars compound and in small number; five toes on all the feet; nose prolonged into a proboscis. THE ELEPHANT. Tue human race excepted, the elephant is the most respectable of ani- mals. In size, he surpasses all other terrestrial creatures, and in under- standing he is inferior only to man. Of all the brute creation, the elephant, the dog, the ape, and the beaver, are most admirable for their sagacity ; but the genius of the dog is only borrowed, being instructed by man in almost every thing he knows. The monkey has only the appearance of wisdom, and the beaver is only sensible with regard to himself, and those of his species. The elephant is superior to them all three: he unites all their most eminent qualities. The hand is the principal organ of the monkey’s dexterity ; the elephant with his trunk, which serves him instead of arms and hands, with which he can lift up, and seize the smallest, as well as the largest objects, carry them to his mouth, place them on his back, hold them, or throw them far off, has the same dexterity as the monkey, and at the same time the tractableness of the dog. He is, like him, susceptible of gratitude, capable of a strong attachment. He uses himself to man with- out reluctance, and submits to him, not so much by force, as by good treat- ment; he serves him with zeal, intelligence, and fidelity. In fine, the elephant, like the beaver, loves the society of his equals, and makes them understand him. They are often seen to assemble together, disperse, act in concert, and if they do not erect buildings, and do not work in common, it 1s, perhaps, for want of room only, and tranquillity; for men have very anciently multiplied in all the regions inhabited by the elephant; he consequently lives in fear and anxiety, and is no where a peaceful possessor of a space large and secure enough to establish his habitation on a settled spot. Every being in nature has his real price, and relative value; to judge of both in the elephant, we must allow him at least the judgment of the beaver, the dexterity of the monkey, the sentiment of the dog, and, to add to these qualifications, the peculiar advantages of strength, size, and longe- vity. We must not forget his arms, or his defence, with which he can pierce varough and conquer the lion. We must observe, that he shakes the ground at every step; that with his trunk he roots up trees; that with the strength 1The genus Elephas, of which there are only two species, has two upper incisors or tusks ; four upper and four lower molars. Tusks slightly arched towards their extremity, composed of ivory cased ina crust of enamel; molars composed of vertical and trars- verse laminze covered by enamel ; five toes on all the feet; nose elongated into a cylinari- cal proboscis, moveable in all directions, with a moveable appendix at the termination, serving the purpose of a finger; head very large; neck short; eyes small, lateral; ears extremely flat and very large; body large ard massive; tail short, tufted at the end; twa mamme. 280 MAMMALIA—ELEPHANT. of his body he makes a breach in a wall; that being terrible by his force, he is invincible by the resistance only of his enormous mass, and by the thickness of the leather which covers it; that he can carry on his back a tower armed in war, with a number of men; that he alone moves machines, and carries burthens, which six horses cannot move. To this prodigious strength he joins courage, prudence, coolness, and an exact obedience. He preserves moderation even in his most violent passion; he is more con- stant than impetuous in love; in anger he does not forget his friends; he never attacks any but those who have given him offence; he remembers favors as long as injuries. Having no taste for flesh, and feeding chiefly upon vegetables, he is not naturally an enemy to other animals; he is belov- ed by them all, since all of them respect him, and have no cause to fear him. For these reasons, men have had at all times a veneration for this great, this first of animals. The ancients considered the elephant as a prodigy, a miracle of nature; they have much exaggerated his natural faculties ; they attribute to him, without hesitation, not only intellectual qualities, but moral virtues. In a wild state, the elephant is neither bloody nor ferocious; his manners are social; he seldom wanders alone; he commonly walks in company, the oldest leads the herd, the next in age drives them, and forms the rear; the young and the weak are in the middle. The females carry their young, and hold them close with their trunks. They only observe this order, however, in perilous marches, when they go to feed on cultivated lands. They walk or travel with less precaution in forests and solitary places, but still keeping at such a moderate distance from each other, as to be able to give mutual assistance, and seasonable warnings of danger. Some, however, straggle, and remain behind the others; none but these are attacked by hunters, for a small army would be requisite to assail the whole herd, and they could not conquer without a great loss of men. It is even dangerous to do them the least injury ; they go straight to the offender, and, notwithstanding the weight of their body, they walk so fast that they easily overtake the lightest man in running; they pierce him through with their tusks, or seize him with their trunks, throw him against a stone, and tread him _ nder their feet; but it is only when they have been provoked, that they become so furious and so implacable. It is said, that when they have been once attack- ed by men, or have fallen into a snare, they never forget it, and seek for revenge on ali occasions. As they have an exquisite sense of smell, perhaps more perfect than any other animal, owing to the large extent of their nose, they smell a man ata great distance, and could easily follow nim by the track. These animals are fond of the banks of rivers, deep valleys, shady places, and marshy grounds; they cannot subsist a long while without water, and they make it thick and muddy before they drink. They often fill their trunks with it, either to convey it to their mouth, or only to cool their nose, and to amuse themselves in sprinkling it around MAMMALIA—ELEPHANT. 2a) ‘hem. They cannot support cold, and suffer equally from excessive heat’ for, to avoid the burning rays of the sun, they penetrate into the thickest forest;. They also bathe often in the water; the enormous size of their body is rather an advantage to them in swimming, and they do not swim so deep in the water as other animals; besides, the length of their trunk, which they erect, and through which they breathe, takes from them all fear of being drowned. Their common food is roots, herbs, leaves, and young branches; they also eat fruit and corn, but they have a dislike to flesh and fish. When one cf. them finds abundant pasture, he calls the others, and invites them to come ark feed with him. As they want a great quantity of fodder, they often change their place, and when they find cultivated lands, they make a prodigious waste; their bodies being of an enormous weight, they destroy ten times more with their feet, than they consume for their food, which may be reckoned at the rate of one hundred and fifty pounds of grass daily. As they never feed but in great numbers, they waste a large territory in about an hour’s time ; for this reason, the Indians and the negroes take great pains to prevent their visits, and to drive them away, by making a great noise, and great fires; not- withstanding these precautions, however, the elephants often take possession of them, drive away the cattle and men, and sometimes pull down their cottages. It is difficult to frighten them, as they are little susceptible of fear ; nothing can stop them but fireworks, and crackers, thrown amongst them, the sudden effect of which, often repeated, forces them sometimes to turnback. It is very difficult to part them, for they commonly attack their enemies all together, proceed unconcerned, or turn back. The feinale elephant goes two years with young; she only brings forth one at a time, which has teeth as soon as brought forth. He is then larger than a boar; yet his tusks are not visible, they appear soon after, and at six months old are some inches in length; at that age, the elephant is larger than an ox, and the tusks continue to increase till he is advanced in years. It is very easy to tame the elephant. But there is no domestic elephant that has not been wild before. The manner of taking, taming, and bring- ing them into submission, deserves particular attention. In the middle of forests, and in the vicinity of the places which they frequent, a large space is chosen, and encircled with palisadoes; the strongest trees of the forest serve instead of stakes, to which cross pieces of timber are fastened, which support the other stakes; a man may easily pass through this palisado; there is another great opening, through which the elephant may go in, with a trap hanging over it, or a gate whicn 1s snut behind him. To-bring nim to that inclosure, he must be enticed by a tame female, ready to take the rnale; and when her leader thinks she is near enough to be heard, he obliges her to indicate by her cries the condition she is in. The wild male answers immediately, and begins his march to join her: she repeats her call now 36 282 MAMMALIA—ELEPHANT. znd ther. and arrives first to the first inclosure, where the male, following ner track, enters through the same gate. As soon as he perceives himself shut up, his ardor vanishes, and when he discovers the hunters, he becomes furious. They throw at him ropes with a running knot to stop nim; tney fetter his legs and his trunk, they bring two or three tame elephants, led by dexterous men, and try to tie them with the wild elephant, and at last, by dint of dexterity, strength, terror, and caresses, they succeed in taming him in a few days. The elephant, once tamed, becomes the most tractable and the most sub- missive of all animals; he conceives an affection for his leader, he caresses him, and seems to guess whatever can please him. Ina little time he understands the signs, and even the expression of sounds; he distinguishes the tone of command, that of anger or good nature, and acts accordingly. He never mistakes the words of his master. He receives his orders with attention, executes them with prudence and eagerness, without precipita- tion ; for his motions are always measured, and his character seems to participate of the gravity of his body. He is easily taught to bend the knee to assist those who will ride on his back. He caresses his friends with his trunk, and salutes with it the persons he is directed to take notice of. He makes use of it to lift burdens, and helps to load himself. He has no aver- sion to being clothed, and seems to delight in a golden harness or magnifi- cent trappings. Heis easily put to the traces of carts, and draws ships upon occasion. He draws evenly, without stopping, or any marks of dis- like, provided he is not insulted by unseasonable 0) rection ; and provided his driver seems to be thankful for the spontaneous exertion a his strength. His leader is mounted on his neck, and makes use of4n iron rod, crooked at the end, with which he strikes him gently on the head to make him turn or increase his-pace. But often a word is sufficient, especially if he has had time to make himself well acquainted with his leader, and has a confidence in him. His attachment is sometimes so strong and so lasting, and his affection so great, that commonly he refuses to serve under any other per-~ son; and he is known to have died of grief for having in anger killed his covernor. If it is true, as has been affirmed, that the elephant lives two hundred years, and that he begets when he is one hundred and twenty years NS [Hs 7 a Wie { Li > i) Wie “MN NT wel bin. Wy, bof 5 7 R 5 ANN WV AA ae, J WEED LAY “Crt nin ix CHL WME LE LEGS SEE L “ alone furnish a sufficient proof of identity of origin; which consequently scarcely requires the confirmation to be derived from the perfect agreement of their internal structure, and of all the more essential particulars of their external conformation. These, however, are not wanting; not only is their anatomical structure the same, but the form of their heads, which affords the only certain means of distinguish:ag the actual species of this genus from each other, presents no difference whatever. In both the fore- head is flat, or more properly slightly depressed ; nearly square in its outlines, its height being equal to its breadth; and bounded above by a prominent line, forming an angular protuberance, passing directly across the skull between the basis of the horns. The only circumstances, in fact, in which the two animals differ, consist in a fatty hump on the snoulders of the zebu, and in the somewhat more slender and delicate make of its legs. Numerous breeds of this humped variety, varying in size from that of a large mastiff dog, to that of a full grown buffalo, are spread, more or less extensively, over the whole of southern Asia, the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and the eastern coast of Africa, from Abyssinia to the Cape of Good Hope. In all these countries, the zebu supplies the place of the MAMMALIA—OX. 39) ox, ooth as a beast of burthen and as an article of food and domestic econo- my. In some parts of India, it executes the duties of the horse also; being either saddled and ridden, or harnessed in a carriage, and performing in this manner journeys of considerable length with tolerable celerity. Some ae a LID re ayws ot the older writers speak of fifty or sixty miles a day, as its usual rate of travelling; but the more moderate computation of recent authors does not exceed from twenty to thirty. Its beef is considered by no means despicable, although far from equalling that of the European ox. The hump, which is chiefly composed of fat, is reckoned the most delicate part. As might naturally be expected from its perfect domestication and wide dif- fusion, the zebu is subject to as great a variety of colors as those which affect the European race. Its most common hue isa light ashy gray, passing into a cream color or milk white; but it is not unfrequently marked with various shades of red or brown, and occasionally it becomes perfectly black. Its hump is sometimes elevated in a remarkable degree, and usually retains its upright position ; but sometimes it becomes half pendulous, and hangs partly over towards one side. Instances are cited, in which it had attained the enormous weight of fifty pounds. A distinct breed is spoken of as common in Surat, which is furnished with a second hump. Among the other breeds, there are some which are entirely destitute of horns; and others, which have only the semblance of them, the external covering being unsupported by bony processes, and being consequently flexible and pendulous. The whole of the breeds are treated with great veneration by the Hindoos, who hold it sinful to deprive them of life under any pretext whatever. But they do not, in general, scruple to make the animals labor for their benefit ; e. 392 MAMMALIA—MANATI. although they consider it the height of impiety to eat of their flesh. A select number are, however, exempted from all services, and have the privi- lege of straying about the towns and villages, and of taking their foou wheresoever they please, if not sufficiently supplied by the pious contribu- ions of the devotees who impose on themselves this charitable office. « ORDER X.—CETACEA. TuEsE animals have a pisciform body, terminated by a caudal appendage, cartilaginous and horizontal; two anterior extremities formed like fins, having the bones which form them, flattened and very short; head joined to the body by a very short, thick neck; two pectoral or abdominal mam- mz; ears with very small external openings; brain large; pelvis and bones of the pesterior extremities represented by two rudimentary bones lost in the flesh. THE MANAT I Tuts animal may be indiscriminately called the last of beasts, or first ot fishes. It cannot be called a quadruped; nor can it entirely be termed a fish. It partakes of the nature of the fish by its two feet or hands; but the hind legs, which are almost wholly concealed, in the bodies of the seal and morse, are entirely wanting in the manati. Instead of two short feet and a small narrow tail, which is placed in a horizontal direction in the morse, the manati has only a thick tail, spread out broad like a fan. Oviedo seems to be the first author who has given any sort of history or description of the manati; he says, “it is a very clumsy and misshapen animal, the head of which is thicker than that of an ox; the eyes small, and the two feet or hands are placed near the head, for the purpose of swimming. It has no scales, but is covered with a skin, or rather a thick hide, with a few hairs or bristles. It is a peaceable animal, and feeds upon the herbage by the river sides, without entirely leaving the water, swimming on the surface of it to seek its food. The hunters practise the following method to take the manati; they row themselves in a boat or raft as near the animal as possible, and dart a very strong lance into it, to the end cf which a very long cord is fastened. The manati feeling itself wounded, instantly swims _} Manatus Americanus, Desm. The genus Manatus has two upper incisors ; no canines; eighteen upper and eighteen lower molars. The incisors exists only in the fetus. an the adults fase on]~ thirty-two teeth, feur of the molars falling out in early age; molars With two transverse cushions on their crown; head not distinct from the body ; eyes ve small; tongue oval; vestiges of nails on the margin of the pectoral fins; six cervica vertebra ; sixteen ptir of thick ribs; mustaches composed of a bundle of very strong hairs, directed downwards, and forming on each side a kind of corneous tusk. ®@ MAMMALIA—MANATI. 393 away, or plunges to the bottom ; but the cord which holds the lance, has a cork or piece of wood fastened to the end of it, to serve as a buoy. When the animal begins to grow faint and weak through the loss of blood, he swims to shore; the cord is then wound up, and the animal drawn within arm’s length of the boat, where they dispatch it in the water by strokes of the oar or lance. It is so very heavy, as to be a sufficient load for two oxen to draw ; its flesh is excellent eating, and is eaten rather as beef tnan as fish. Some of these animals measure more than fifteen feet in length, by six feet in breadth. The body becomes narrower towards the tail, and then spreads gradually broader towards the end. As the Spaniards give the appellation of hands to the feet of quadrupeds; and as this animal has only fore feet, they have given it the name of manati, that is, an animal with hands. The female has breasts placed forward, like those of a woman; and she generally brings forth two young ones at a time, which she suckles.” “The flesh and fat of this animal,” says M. de Condamine, “have a great resemblance to veal. It is not, properly speaking, amphibious, since it never entirely leaves the water; having only two flat fins, close to the head, about sixteen inches long, and which serves the animal instead of arms and hands. It only raises its head out of the water to feed on the herbage by the sea-side. The eyes of this animal have no proportion to the size of its body ; the orifice of its ears is still less, and only seems like a hole made by apin. The manati is not peculiar to the Amazonian river; for it is not less common in the Oronoko. It is found, also, though less frequently, in the Oyapoc, and many other rivers in the environs of Cayenne, and the coast of Guiana, and probably in other parts.” The female of this animal, from the position of the breasts, probably gave rise among mariners, to the fable of the mermaid. Columbus, when he first saw these animals in the West Indies, called them sirens. THE ROUND-TAILED MANATI. TuIs animal frequents most of the great African rivers, from Senegal to the Cape of Good Hope, and also many cf the rivers on the eastern shore of South America. It is often seen in the Amazons, nearly a thousand leagues from its mouth. It prefers shallow waters near low land, and is a frolicsome creature, frequently leaping into the air to great heights. The natives of America are said frequently to tame it, and we are told that it delights in music. The female, when struck by the harpoon, seems insensi- ble to her own sufferings, and only anxious to protect her young one,.by taking it under her fins or feet. The round-tailed manati is about six feet 1 Manatus Senegalensis, Desm. 50 394 MAMMALIA—DOLPHIN. in length, and three or four in circumference. Its flesh is a white, well tasted, and salubrious food. When the thicker parts of the skin are cut into slices and dried, they become exceedingly tough, and form good whips. Of the thinner parts, which have more pliability, the Indians make thongs to fasten together the sides of their canoes. DHE, DOLPHIN. Tus is a distinct animal from the small fish which sailors call by the same name; and though so often painted as being of the shape of the letter S, the dolphin is almost straight, the back being very slightly incurvated, and the body slender. The nose is long, narrow, and pointed, with a broad transverse band, or projection of the skin on its upper part. From the shape of the nose, the animal has been called the sea-goose. The mouth is very wide, and has twenty-one teeth in the upper, and nineteen in the lower jaw, somewhat above an inch long, conic at the upper end, sharp pointed, and bending a little in. They are placed at a small distance from each other; so that when the mouth is shut, the teeth of both jaws lock into each other. The spout hole is placed in the middle of the head; the tail is semi- lunar; the skin is smooth; the color of the back and sides dusky; the belly whitish. It swims with great swiftness, and its prey is fish, but particularly cod, herrings, and flat fish. The dolphin is longer and more slender than the porpoise, measuring nine or ten feet in length, and two in diameter. All this species have fins on the back; and resemble each other in their appetites, their manners, and conformation, being equally voracious, active, and roving. No fish could escape them, but from the awkward position of their mouth, which is placed in a manner under the head. Their own agility is so great, as to prevent them from being often taken; and they seldom remain a moment above water. Their too eager pursuit after prey occasionally, however, exposes them to danger; as they will sometimes follow the object of their pursuit even into the nets of the fishermen. 1 Delphinus delphis, Lis. The genus Delphinus has teeth variable in number, of a canine form, sometimes compressed and dentated on their cutting margins, from two hun- dred to none at all; jaws more or less advanced in form of a beak; spiracles with a cres-~ cent shaped aperture; an adipose, dorsal fin, or a longitudinal fold of the skin ; tail flat- tened horizontally, and bifurcated MAMMALIA—PORPOISE. 395 A shoal of dolphins will frequently attend the course of a ship, for the scraps that are thrown overboard, or the barnacles adhering to their sides. A shoal of them followed the ships of Sir Richard Hawkins, upwards of a thousand leagues. Their gambols and evolutions on the surface of the water are often very amusing. A dolphin has been known to spring forward more than twenty feet at a single bound. They inhabit the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The flesh, though tolerably well tasted, is dry and insipid; the best parts are near the head. It is seldom eaten but when young and tender. Dols phins are said to change their color before they die, and again after they tre dead. THE. POR POTS E.) In its general form, the porpoise, or porpus, very much resembles the dolphin. It is, however, somewhat less in size, and has a snout much broader and shorter. It is generally from six to seven feet in length; its pody is thick towards the head, but grows slender towards the tail, forming the figure of a cone. In each jaw are forty-four to fifty teeth, small, sharp pointed, and moveable; and so placed that the teeth of one jaw lock into those of the other. The eyes are small, as is the spout-hole at the top of the head. In colors the back is black, and the belly whitish, but they sometimes vary. Porpoises are very numerous in the river St Lawrence, whee there 1s a white kind. They are seldom seen, except in troops of six or seven to thirty and upwards; and, like the dolphin, they are very agile and sportive. In the most tempestuous weather, they can surmount the waves, and pursue their course, without injury. Seamen have a superstitious detesta- tion of them, because they believe their appearance to be ominous of ap- proaching storms. These animals live chiefly on the smaller fish. At the season when mackerel, herrings, pilchards, and salmon appear, the porpoise swarms; 1 Delphinus phocena, Lin. 396 MAMMALIA—GRAMPUS...SEA-UNICORN. and such is its violence in pursuit of its prey, that it will follon 1 shoak of small fish up a fresh water river, from whence it finds a diffiva ty to return. These creatures have been often taken in the river Thames, both above and below London bridge; and it is curious to observe with what dexterity they avoid their pursuers, and how momentarily they recover their breath above the water. It is usual to spread four or five boats over the part of the river where they are seen, and to fire at them the instant they rise. One porpoise yields about a hogshead of oil, and therefore renders its capture an object of consideration. It is said that, whenever a porpoise happens to be wounded, all the rest of its companions will immediately fall upon and devour it. THE GRAMPUS!} Is about twenty-four feet in length. It is a clumsy, unsightly fish, dark on the upper part, but very white below. The lower jaw is considerably wider than the upper. The back fin sometimes measures six feet. The grampus is an exceedingly voracious animal, which does not always spare even its own kind. Packs of them are said to attack the Greenland whale, like bull dogs, and tear off his flesh in masses. It, however, displays the utmost solicitude and affection for its young. Little oil is afforded by the grampus. It floats deep in the water, and would seldom be caught, did not its eager- ness for prey prompt it to rush into shailow waters, where it is killed, but not till it has made a desperate and formidable resistance. THE NWARWHAL,. OR SEA-UNICORN,? SeLpom exceeds twenty-two feet in length. Its body is slenderer than that of the whale, and its fat not so abundant. But this great animal is sufficiently distinguished from all others of the deep, by its tooth or teeth, which stand pointing directly forward from the upper jaw, and are from nine to ten feet long. In all the variety of weapons with which nature has armed her various tribes, there is not one so large or so formidable as this. This terrible weapon is generally fuund single; and some are of opinion that the animal is furnished with but one by nature: but there is at present the skull of a narwhal, at the Stadthouse at Amsterdam, with two teeth. The tooth, or as some are pleased to call it, the horn of the narwhal, is as 1 Delphinus grampus, DesM. 2 Monodon monoceros. 'This is the only one of the genus. The characteristics are one or two large tusks in the upper jaw; general form analogous to the dolphin’s ; orifice of the spiracles united on the top of the head; a longitudinal dorsal crest. MAMMALIA—WHALE. 397 straight as an arrow, about the thickness of the small of a man’s leg, wreathed 1M \.* Manner we sometimes see twisted bars of iron. It tapers to a sharp port and is whiter, heavier, and harder than ivory. It is generally seen to spring from the left side of the head, directly forward, in a straight line with the body ; and its root enters into the socket above a foot and a half. Notwithitanding its appointments for combat, this long and pointed tusk, amazing strength, and matchless celerity, the narwhal is one of the most harmless ind peaceful inhabitants of the ocean. It is seen constantly and inoffensivy2ly sporting among the other great monsters of the deep, no way attempting, to injure them, but pleased in their company. The Greenland- ers call th: narwhal the forerunner of the whale; for wherever it is seen, the whale is shortly after sure to follow. This may arise as well from the natural passion for society in these animals, as from both living upon the sanie food. The narwhal is much swifter than the whale, and would never be .aken ly the fishermen, but for those very tusks, which at first appear to be its principal defence. These animals are always seen in herds of several ata time; and whenever they are attacked, they crowd together in such a manner, that they are mutually émbarrassed by their tusks. By these, they are often locked together, and are prevented from sinking to the bottom. It seldom happens therefore, but the fishermen make sure of one or two of ths hindmost, which very well reward their trouble. DRE GREAT BEADED. CACHALOT, 7 OR SPERMACETI WHALE.! Luis tribe w not of such enormous size as the whale, properly so called, not being above sr1xty feet long and sixteen feet high. In consequence of their being more slender, they are much more active than the common whale; 1 Physeter macrocephalus, Desm. Tne genus Physeter has eighteen to twenty-three inferior teeth on each side of the jaw; upper jaw broad, elevated, without teeth, or with these short and concealed in the gum; lower jaw elongated, narrow, corresponding to a furrow of the upper, and armed with thick and conical teeth, entering into corresponding eavities of the upper jaw; spiracular orifices united at the upper part of the snout ; a dors fin in some species, a simple eminence on others; cartilaginous cay tes in the superior region of the head, filled with oily matter. 398 MAMMALIA—WHALE. they remain a longer time at the bottom, and afford a smaller quantity of oil. Asin the common whale, the head makes a third part of its bulk, so in this species the head is so large as to make one half of the whole. Their throats are much wider than those of the common whale, as may be judged from the fact, that the remains of sharks more than twelve feet long have been found in their stomachs. The cachalot is as destructive among the lesser fishes as the whale is harmless; and can at one gulp swallow a shoal of fishes down its enormous gullet. Linneus tells us that this fish pursues and terrifies the dolphins and porpoises so much, as often to drive them on shore. But, how formidable soever this fish may be to its fellows of the deep, it is by far the most valuable, and the most sought after by man; as it con- tains two very valuable drugs, spermaceti and ambergris. The whole oil of this fish is very easily convertible into spermaceti. This is performed by boiling it with a ley of potash, and hardening ‘it in the manner of soap. Candles are now made of it, which are substituted for wax, and sold much cheaper. @ As to the ambergris, which is sometimes found in this whale, it was long considered as a substance found floating on the surface of the sea; but time, that reveals the secrets of the mercenary, has discovered that it chiefly belongs to this animal. The name, which has been improperly given to the former substance, seems more justly to belong to this; for the ambergris is found in the place where the seminal vessels are usually situated in other animals. It is found in a bag of three or four feet long, in round lumps, from one to twenty pounds weight, floating in a fluid rather thinner than oil, and of a yellowish color. There are never seen more than four at a time in one of these bags; and that which weighed twenty pounds, and which was the largest ever seen, was found single. These balls of ambergris are not found in all fishes of this kind, but chiefly in the oldest and strongest. The blunt headed cachalot is fifty-four feet in length. Its greatest cir- cumference is just beyond the eyes, and is thirty feet. The upper jaw is five feet longer than the lower, which is ten feet. The head is above one third the size of the fish. The end of the upper jaw is blunt, and near nine feet high; the spout-hole placed near the end of it. The teeth are placed in the lower jaw, twenty-three on each side, all pointing outwards ; and, in the upper jaw, opposite, are a number of holes to receive them when the mouth is closed. They are about eighteen inches long. The spermaceti cachalot is found in greatest abundance in the Pacific ocean, where large numbers of them are annually killed by the American and other whalers, for the sake of their oil and spermaceti. The spermaceti cachalot is gregarious, and herds are frequently seen con- taining two hundred or more individuals. The mode of attacking these animals, is as follows: Whenever a number of them are seen, four boats, each provided with two or three lines and MAMMALIA—WHALE. 399 aarpeons, four lances, ard a crew of six men, proceed. pursuit, and; if possible, each boat strikes or “fastens to,” a distinct animal and each crew kills their own. When engaged in distant pursuit, the harpooner generally steers the boat, and in such cases the proper boat steezer occasionally strikes, but the harpooner mostly kills it. If one cachalot of a herd is struck, it commonly takes the lead and is followed by the rest. The one which is struck, seldom descends far under water, but generally swims off with great rapidity, stopping after a short course, so tbat the boat can be drawn up to it by the line, or be rowed sufficiently near to lance it. In the agonies of death, the struggles of the animal are truly tremendous, and the surface of the ocean is lashed into foam by the motions of the fins and tail. Tall jets of bleod are discharged from the blow-holes, which show that the wounds have taken mortal effect, and seeing this, the boats are kept aloof, lest they should be dashed to pieces by the violent efforts of the victim. When a herd is attacked in this way, ten or twelve of the number are killed. Those which are only wounded are rarely captured. After the cachalot is killed, the boats tuw it to the side of the ship, and if the weather pe fine, and other objects of chase in view, they are again sent to the attack. About three tons of oil are commonly obtained from a large cachalot; from one to two tons are procured from a small one. A cargo, produced from one hundred cachalots, may be from one hundred and fifty to two hun- dred tons of oil, besides the spermaceti, &c. THE SMALL, EYED, OR BLACK HEADED SPERMACETI WHALE, Is one of the most formidable monsters of the deep. It has an enormous dark colored head, armed with twenty-one projecting teeth on each side of the jaw. In a full grown specimen, these teeth are nine inches in length. This whale is often more than fifty feet in length, and is uncommonly active. Sharks, dolphins, and porpoises fall an easy prey to it. THE COMMON WHALE? Is the largest of all animals, being sometimes one hundred feet in lengtn. It is commonly met with from sixty to seventy feet. The head. makesa 1 Physeter microps, LAceEp. 2 Balena mysticetus, Lix. The genus Balena has no teeth; upper jaw keel-formed, furnished on each side with whalebone, or transverse horny lamina, slender, serrated, and attenuated at the edges; orifices of the spiracles separated, and pipeed towards the Beda of the upper part of the head; a dorsal fin in some species; nodosities on the back in others, 400 MAMMALIA—WHALE. third of its bulk. The fins on each side are from five to eight feet, composed of bones and muscles, and sufficiently strong to give speed and activity to the great mass of body which they move. The tail is about twenty-four feet broad; and, when the fish lies on one side, its blow is tremendous. It is a curious piece of mechanism, consisting of two lobes wholly made up of strong, tendinous fibres, connected with the major part of the muscular structure of the body. Of those fibres there are three distinct layers, of which the two external are in the direction of the Jobes, and the internal in an opposite direction. This structure renders the tail of the whale one of the most flexible of animal organs. It can move all ways with equal ease; every part has its own individual motion. The skin is smooth and black, and in some places marbled with white and yellow; which, running over the surface, has a very beautiful effect. The outward, or scarf skin of the whale, is no thicker than parchment; but this removed, the real skin appears, of about an inch thick, and covering the fat or blubber that lies beneath. This is from eight to twelve inches in thickness ; and is, when the fish is in health, of a beautiful yellow. The muscles lie beneath; and these, like the flesh of quadrupeds, are very red and tough. The cleft of the mouth is above twenty feet long, which is near one third of the animal’s whole length; and the upper jaw is furnished with barbs, that lie, like the pipes of an organ, the greatest in the middle, and the smallest on the sides. These compose the whalebone, absurdly called fins, the longest spars of which are found to be not less than eighteen feet. The tongue is almost immoveably fixed to the lower jaw, seeming one great lump of fat; and, in fact, it fills several hogsheads with blubber. The eyes are not larger than those of an ox; and when the crystalline humor is dried, it does not appear larger than a pea. They are placed towards the back of the head, being the most convenient situation for enabling them to see both before and behind; as also to see over them, where their food is prin- cipally found. They are guarded by eyelids and eyelashes, as in quadru- peds ; and they seem to be very sharp-sighted. Nor is their sense of hearing in less perfection; for they are warned, at great distances, of any danger preparing against them. We have already observed, that the substance, called whalebone, is taken from the upper jaw of the animal, and is very different from the real bones of the whale. The real bones are hard, like those of great land animals, are very porous, and filled with marrow. T'wo great, strong bones sustain the under lip, lying against each other in the shape of a half-moon; some of these are twenty feet long. They are often seen in gardens, set up against each other, and are usually mistaken for the ribs. The fidelity of these animals to each other, exceeds whatever we are told of even the constancy of birds. Some fishers, as Anderson informs us, having struck one of two whales, a male and a female, that were in com- MAMMAL-_A--WHALE. AO] pany together, the wounded fish made a long and terrible resistance; 11 struck down a boat with three men in it, with a single blow of the tail, by which all went to the bottom. The other still attended its companion, and lent it every assistance; till, at last, the fish that was struck sunk under the number of its wounds: while its faithful associate, disdaining to survive the loss, with great bellowing, stretched itself upon the dead fish, and shured his fate. The whale gues with young nine or ten months, and is then fatter than usual, particularly when near the time of bringing forth. The young ones continue at the breast f_r a year; during which time they are called by the sailors, short heads. They are then extremely fat, and yield above fifty barrels of blubber. Tue mother, at the sanie time, is equally lean and emaciated. At tie age of two years, they are called stunts, as they do not thrive much iramediately after quitting the breast; they then yield scarce above twenty or twenty-four barrels of blubber. From that time forward they are called skull fish, and their age is wholly unknown. The food of the whale, isa small insect, which is seen floating in those seas, and which Linneus terms the medusa. These insects are black, and of the size of asmall bean, and are sometimes seen floating in clusters on the surface of the water. They are of a round form like snails in a box, but they have wings, which are so tender that it is scarce possible to touch them without breaking. These, however, serve rather for swimming than flying. They have the taste of raw muscles, and have the smell of burnt sugar. Inoffen- sive as the whale is, it is not without enemies. There is a small animal, of the shell-fish kind, called the whale louse, that sticks to its body, as we see shells sticking to the foul bottom of a ship. This insinuates itself chiefly under the fins; and whatever efforts the great animal makes, it still keeps its hold, and lives upon the fat, which it is provided with instru- ments to arrive at. The sword-fish, however, is the whale’s most terrible enemy. “At the sight of this little animal,” says Anderson, “the whale seems agitated in an extraordinary manner, leaping from the water as if with affright ; wher- ever it appears, the whale perceives it at a distance, and flies from it in the opposite direction. I have been myself, a spectator of their terrible encoun- ter. The whale has no instrument of defence except the tail; with that it endeavors to strike the enemy; anda single blow taking place, would effectually destroy its adversary. But the sword-fish is as active as the other is strong, and easily avoids the stroke; then bounding into the air, it falls upon its enemy, and endeavors not to pierce with its pointed heak, but to cut with its toothed edges. The sea all about is soon dyed with blood, proceeding from the wounds of the whale; while the enormous- animal vainly endeavors to reach its invade" and strikes with its tail against the surface of the water, making +\.° at each blow Inuder than the noise of a cannon.” 51 402 MAMMA..A—-WHALE. There is sull another and more powerful enemy, called by tne fishermea of New England, the Hiller. This is itself supposed to be a cetaceous animal, armed with strong and powerful teeth. A number of these are said to surround the whale, in the same manner as dogs get round a bull. Some attack it with their teeth, behind; others attempt it before ; until, at last, the great animal is torn down; and its tongue is said to be the only part they devour when they have made it their prey. They are said to be of such great strength, that one of them alone was known to stop a dead whale, that several boats were towing along, and drag it from among them to the bottom. But of all the enemies of these enormous fishes, man is the greatest; he alone, destroys more in a year, than the rest in an age, and actually has thinned their number in that part of the world where they are chiefly sought. At the first discovery of Greenland, whales not being used to be disturbed, frequently came into the very bays, and were accordingly killed almost close to the shore ;.so that the blubber being cut off was immediately boiled into oil on the spot. The ships in those times, took in nothing but the pure oil and the whalebone, and all the business was executed in the country; by which means, a ship could bring home the product of many more whales, than she can, according to the present method of conducting this trade. The fishery also was then so plentiful, that they were obliged sometimes to send other ships to fetch off the oil they had made, the quan- tity being more than the fishing ships could bring away. But time and change of circumstances, have shifted the situation of this trade. The ships coming in such numbers from Holland, Denmark, Hamburg, and other northern countries, all intruders upon the English, who were the first dis- coverers of Greenland, the whales were disturbed, and gradually, as other fish often do, forsaking the place, were not.to be killed so near the shore as before; but are now found, and have been so ever since, in the openings and space among the ice, where they have deep water, and where they go sometimes a great many leagues from the shore. The whale fishery begins in May, and continues all June and July; but whether the ships have good or bad success, they must come away, and get clear of the ice, by the end of August; so that in the month of September, at farthest, they may be expected home. But a ship that meets witha fortunate and early fishery in May, may return in June or July. The manner of taking the Greenland whales is as follows: — Every ship is provided with six boats, to each of which belongs six men for rowing the boat, and a harpooner, whose business it is to strike the whale with his harpoon. Two of these boats are kept constantly on the watch, at some distance from the ship, fastened to pieces of ice, and are relieved by others every four hours. As soon asa whale is perceived, both the boats set out in pursuit of it, and if either of them can come up before the whale finally w#escends, which is known by his throwing up his tail, the harpooner dis- MAMMALIA—WHALE. 403 charges his harpoon at him. There is no difficulty in choosing the place where the whale is to be struck, as some have asserted; for these creatures only come up to the surface in order to spout up the water, or dlow, as the fishermen term it, and therefore always keep the soft and vulnerable part of their bodies above water. As soon as the whale is struck, the men set up one of their oars in the middle of the boat, as a signal to those in the ship. On perceiving this, the watchman alarms all the rest, with the cry of fall! fall! upon which all the other boats are immediately sent out to the assistance of the first. The whale finding himself wounded, runs off with prodigious violence Sometimes he descends perpendicularly ; at others goes off horizontally at a small depth below the surface. The rope which is fastened to the harpoon is about two hundred fathoms long, and properly coiled up, that it may be freely given out as there is a demand for it. At first, the verocity with which this line runs over the side of the boat is so great, that it is wetted to prevent its taking fire; but ina short time the strength of the whale begins to fail, and the fishermen, instead of letting out more rope, strive as much as possible to pull back what is given out already, though they always find themselves necessitated to yield at last to the efforts of the animal, to prevent his sinking their boat. If he runs out the two hundred fathoms of line contained in one boat, that belonging to another is immediately fastened to the end of the first, and so on; and there have been instances, where all the rope belonging to the six boats has been necessary, though half that quantity is seldom required. The whale cannot stay long below water, but again comes up to blow; and being now much fatigued and wounded, stays longer above water than usual. This gives another boat lime to come up with him, and he is again struck with aharpoon. He 404 MAMMALIA—WHALE. again descends, but with less force than before; and when he comes up again, 1s generally incapable of descending, but suffers himself to be wound- ed and killed with long lances, with which the men are provided for the purpose. He is known to be near death when he spouts up the water deep- ly tinged with blood. The whale being dead, is lashed along side the ship. They then lay it on one side, and put two ropes, one at the head, and the other in the place of the tail, which, together with the fins, is struck off as soon as he is taken, to keep these extremities above water. On the off side of the whale are wo boats, to receive the pieces of fat, utensils, and men, that might other- wise fall into the water on that side. These precautions bei 1g taken, three or four men with irons at their feet, to prevent slipping, get on the whale, and begin to cut out pieces of about three feet thick and eight long, which are hauled up at the capstan or windlass. When the fat is all got off, they cut off the whiskers of the upper jaw, with an axe. Before they are cut, they are all lashed to keep them firm; which also facilitates the cutting, and prevents them from falling into the sea. When on board, five or six of them are bundled together, and properly stowed; and after all is got off, the carcass is turned adrift, and devoured by the bears, who are very fond of it. In proportion as the large pieces of fat are cut off, the rest of the crew are employed in slicing them smaller, and picking out all the lean. When this is prepared, they stow it under the deck, where it lies til the fat of all the whales is on board; then cutting it still smaller, they put it up in casks in the hold, cramming them very full and close. Nothisg now remains but to sail homewards, where the fat is to be boiled and me::ed down into train oil. MAMMALIA—WHALE. AUS A. late improvement has been made in the method of discharging the harpoon, namely, by shooting it ou. of a kind of swivel or musquetoon ; but it does not appear that since this improvement was made, the whale fishing ships aave had better success than before. The flesh of this animal is a dainty to some nations; and the savages af Greenland, as weil as those near the south pole, are fond of it to distrac- tion. They eat the flesh, and drink the oil, which is a first-rate delicacy Tse nding a dead whale is an adventure considered among the fortunate circumstances of their lives. They make their abode beside it; and seldom remove tiii they have left nothing but the bones. CLASS SECOND—BIRDS. Vertekrated animals with red and warm blood, respiring by lungs, and the young of which are produced from eggs. Body covered with feathers, and general conformation organized for flying. Tue arrangement of birds into orders, has for its basis the cunformation of the bill and feet; which are adapted to their different modes of living and food. Birds of prey are characterized by a hooked bill, and feet armed with strong and crooked nails. Climbers are those, the structure of whose feet is calculated for motion on an inclined or vertical surface ; and web- footed birds are evidently adapted for swimming. Others, again, have the legs very long and naked, for wading; and a large number, with the claws short and feeble, live chiefly on insects. But though it be thus easy to separate the more strongly marked groups into extended families, yet it has been found extremely difficult to distribute them in subordinate groups, so as to facilitate the knowledge of species in a class so widely extended. In adopting the arrangement of Temminck, therefore, though his orders are more numerous, than those proposed by Cuvier and Vieillot, yet the families of the latter are in much greater number; and in an elementary work, it has been judged preper to follow that system which involves the least change of the established nomenclature, as likely to be most gene- rally useful. Birds support themselves, and direct their flight in the air, nearly in the same manner as fishes do in the water. But they are also calculated for motion on the ground; some families for motion on the surface of the water, or even, to a certain degree, through a mass of the same element: and their structure is varied to suit these different kinds of motion. The part of the spine in birds which corresponds to the back, is immov- able, and the only portions of the vertebral column capable of motion, are the vertebre of the neck, and those of the tail. Their pectoral members, or arms, are elongated to wings, proper only for flight. These memters, or wings, composed of one long finger and the vestiges of two others, are furnished with long, stiff, but elastic feathers, disposed like a fan, which follow the movement of the bone, and, when extended, occupy « large surface. The wings are attached by a double clavicle, and are supported by a broad sternum, carinated in front like the keel of a ship. This sternum is formed of five pieces firmly joined together; and the greater or less ossification of these pieces, is always relative to the powers of the bird for AVES 407 fhght. The long feathers attached to what may be termed the hand, gene- rally to the number of ten, are termed primaries ; the secondaries, variable in number, are those attached to the fore-arm; and the scapulars, are the smaller feathers, which are attached to the humerus. In describing birds, the terin remiges is also used, to denote the feathers of the wings, which serve as oars; and rectrices, those of the tail, which have been considered to act as arudder. The smaller feathers, which cover the base of the wing and tail, are termed ¢ectrices. The anterior extremities, destined to support them in flight, can neither be used for prehension nor support, and birds thus take objects from the ground by their mouth. The neck is elongated, and the body thrown forward, that the bill may easily reach the ground. The pelvis is lengthened, to furnish an attachment for the muscles, which support the trunk upon the thighs; and there is an arrangement of muscles going from the pelvis to the toes, in such a manner that the weight of the animal bends the toes, and enables it to sleep perched upon one foot. The bony part of the tail is short, but it carries a row of strong feathers, which. spreading, contribute to support the bird. The number of these feathers is generally twelve, sometimes fourteen, and in the galline eigh- teen. The legs have a fermur, and a tibia, and the tarsus and metatarsus are represented by a single bone. The toes are attached to the tarsus, and are generally three before and a kind of thumb behind; which, however, is sometimes wanting. In the swallow it is directed forwards. In the climb- ers, on the contrary, the external toe and thumb are directed backwards. The number of joints increases in each toe, counting from the thumb, which has two, to the external toe, which has five. Birds with toes entirely free, are adapted to walk or hop ona horizontal surface, such as the domestic fowl. Others with two toes behind and two before, such as the parrot, walk with difficulty, but climb with facility; and others again, such as ducks and swans, with the toes united by a membrane, are chiefly calculat- ed for motion in the water. ‘The bill in birds is covered with a corneous substance, and as these animals swallow their food without mastication, they are not furnished with teeth. The upper mandible is formed chiefly of the intermaxillary bones, prolonged behind into two arches, of which the internal is composed of the palate bones, and the external of the maxillary and jugal bones; and this mandible is united to the cranium by elastic Jamine. The bill is constructed less for bruising the food than for seizing and dividing it; and thus from the greater solidity and length of this organ, the nature of the food may be inferred. The bill, or beak, is sometimes furnished at its origin, with a fleshy or membranous caruncle, which is called the cere; and sometimes the beak is prolonged upon the forehead into a kind of horn or helmet, as in the calao. The two mandibles move- able upon one another, through the medium of an intermediate bone, placed at the articulation, is a distinguishing anatomical character, in the structure of the jaws of birds. The quills and feathers are composed of a bearded or 408 AVES. webbed stem, hollowed at its base; these webs or horizontal feathers are again themselves webbed by still smaller ones; and the texture, strength, justre, and general form of these feathers are infinitely varied. The feathers fall off twice a year, and this change of plumage is termed moulting. In some species, the winter plumage differs from that of the summer; and in the greater number the female differs from the male, in her colors being less bright. The young generally resemble the female. The brain of birds has the same general characters as that of the other oviparous vertebrated animals, but 1s distinguished by its proportionally greater volume, which often exceeds that of the Mammalia. But this apparent magnitude is caused by tubercles analogous to the corpora striata, and not by the hemis- pheres, which are very small and without circumvolutions. The cerebel- lum is of considerable size, without lateral lobes, and almost completely formed by the vermiform process. The trachea or windpipe, in birds, is formed of complete rings. At its bifurcation, is a glottis, provided with muscles, termed the inferior larynx. This is the organ which produces the voice of birds; and it is afterwards modified by the length, breadth, and elasticity of the trachea, and its orifice in the throat. The upper larynx is simple. The cavity of the thorax is not in birds separated by a fleshy partition from the abdomen. ‘The lungs adhere to the spine, and com- municate with many membranous sacs, situate in the abdomen, under tne axilla, and even in the cavities of the larger bones, the substance of the bill, and in the fistulous portions of the quills. The great quantity of air which birds respire, appears to have effect upon all their motions. They respire, it may be said, as well by the branches of the aorta, as by those of the pulmonary artery. It is believed that the temperature to which the bodies of birds is raised in hatching, and the great muscular force which they exert in almost continued flight for many days, depends upon the action of the air upon the blood. Birds, like all the vertebrated animals, possess five senses; but in this class, that of touch is least perfect. Their feathers prevent them from receiving, by immediate contact, the impressions of the object which they touch; and their feet are enveloped in corneous lamina, or scales, which materially blunt sensation. All enjoy the organ of sights. and by a particular mechanism in the structure of the eye, they are enabled to perceive objects at a distance with the same facility as when near the body. Besides the two ordinary eyelids, there is always a third semi-trans- parent one placed at the internal angle of the eye, which, by the assistance of a remarkable muscular apparatus, may be drawn before the eye like a curtain. The cornea is very convex. Although birds have no external cartilaginous ear, all appear to enjoy the faculty of feeling. Some of the nocturnal birds have the auditory opening surrounded by feathers. The organs of smell are concealed in the base of the bill, and the breadth of the nasal openings determine their form. The sense of smell in the vulture and raven, is said to be so very acute, that they can smell carrion at a very - AVES. 409 great distan:e; but this, from recent observation, seems doubtful. The tongue in birds, is supported by a production of the hyoid bone. The taste is not very delicate. Digestion in birds is in proportion to the activity of their life, and the quantity of their respiration. The stomach is composed first of the crop, which is a dilatation of the esophagus at the base of the neck. The food remains in this duct for some time, and there imbibes a fluid analogous to the saliva, which is secreted from the inside of the canal. When softened by the action of heat and moisture, it passes little by little into a muscular bag, called the gizzard, where the food is triturated the more easily, that many species swallow little stones to m- crease the effect. The gizzard, it has been remarked, is strongest in the birds which have slender bills, and which are of course unable to break down their food; in those which feed on fish or flesh, the muscles are much weaker, and the stomach is almost membranous. By the outlet of this stomach, the food, reduced to a species of chyme, flows through the remain- der of the intestinal canal, where the nutritious parts are absorbed, and the remainder expelled by a cloaca, an orifice common to the urinary and genital organs. Birds, such as the partridge and common fowl, whose young are able to walk and feed themselves on their departure from the egg, do not generally live in pairs. One male serves many females, and the young are entirely trusted to the maternal care. The greater part of birds, however, are blind and helpless at their birth, and their parents are therefore under the necessity of providing for their subsistence. Pigeons disgorge half digested grains, to feed their young; and linnets bring them larve of insects, or the soft parts of other animals. These live always in pairs, construct their nest with great care, and constantly in the same manner; and each species appropriates for this purpose certain materials. All possess a kind of instinct which leads them to choose the most convenient places for their nests, such as best afford concealment, or which render them inaccessible to their enemies. In birds the ova exist already formed in the mother before fecundation; and it is not a rare occurrence to see eggs laid without impregnation, similar in every respect to those which produce young. Fecundation, in most of the species, is accomplished by mere juxta- position. The eggs of birds differ much in the color of their calcareous covering. They have generally the form of an elongated ball, and one of their extremities is thicker than the other. The fecundated eggs require a certain heat, to be hatched; and the observation of this fact has led to the practice in Egypt, and elsewhere, of hatching large broods of chickens by artificial heat. The class of birds, though not apparently so uscful to man as Mammalia, serve important purposes in the general economy of nature. Those whose food is chiefly insects, check the excessive reproduo- tion of insect races, and for this purpose migrate at certain seasons to places where their food abounds. The indiscriminate destruction of crows and sparrows, in some districts, has accordingly been found to give rise to an 52 410 AVES. infinitely more prejudicial multiplication of creatures, still more destructive. Some families of birds destroy field mice, snakes, frogs, and lizards; and others again. are led by choice to feed on carrion, or dead animal! matter. Birds, besides, are extensive agents in the spread of vegetables and even animals. It is well ascertained that wild ducks, in their emigrations, carry impregnated spawn into remote ponds, and thus stock them with fish; and many by swallowing seeds whole, and subsequently expelling them, are the means of spreading vegetation over an extent of surface which scarcely any other means could accomplish. A great portion of tlis class and their eggs may be used as food; and the feathers of many, form an object of commerce. Nothing is more singular in the history of birds, than their periodical migrations. That these are connected in some measure with the necessity of a supply of food, and the impulse of reproduction, is almost demonstrated ; but the instinctive feeling which guides them, without compass, across seas and continents, and enables them to migrate at certain periods, correspond- ing with the production of their food in distant countries, can only be referred to one Great Source. Who bade the stork, Columbus-like, explore Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before? Who calls the council, states the certain day ? Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way? The flights of migratory birds have been noticed from the earliest periods ; “the stork in the heaven knoweth her appointed times, and the turtle, and the crane, and the swallow observe the time of their coming.” And, as if their passage through the air, or the structure of their bodies made them sooner perceive the incipient changes of the weather, the appearance and cries of birds have long been considered to afford presages of the coming storm, or the cessation of the tempest. The institution of a college of Augurs, at Rome, may therefore be conceived to have reference to something better than mere superstition; and though the flight of particular species” might, in the hands of interested individuals, be made to presage the wished for result of a battle, or Girect a march already determined cn, yet, in the absence of the barometer and thermometer, the appearance or disappearance and cries of birds, were the signals for the husbandman to sow his fields or to secure his crop. Jam veris prenuncia venit hirundo. — Ovid. Now comes the swallow, harbinger of spring. Tum cornix plena plunum vocat improba voce.—Virg. The crow with clamorous cries the shower demands.—Dryd. In this country, the great migrations of birds take place in spring and autumn. Those whicd arrive in spring, come from warmer climates, and, AVES. All after incubation, leave us in autumn; and another host, chiefly palmipedes, from the arctic regions, arrive in autumn, pass the winter on our lakes and shores, and depart again in spring. Each species has a particular mode of flight, in these annual journeys, and a certain period of arrival and departure. Assembled in large flocks, the cranes cleave the air in the form of a long triangle; wild geese fly in angular lines; and the smaller birds associate in less numerous families, and reach their destination in Jess con- tinued flights. One of the mest curious particulars connected with the annual migrations of birds, is the circumstance of individuals returning for a series of years to the same nestling places. Spallanzani having tied a thread ot red silk round the leg of a swallow, which built its nest in his window, saw for three seasons the same stranger, with its progeny, annually appear. Ekmark remarked a lame starling, which occupied the same nest in the hole of an old alder, for a period of eight years ; and similar instances dre on record, concerning many other species of migratory birds. This wonderful direction of instinct, which divides the innumerable flocks of birds in their progress northward, and leads particular families to seek the protection of the same roof, or the same chimney top, which formerly sheltered them, affords a subject not the least worthy of contemplation, among the thousand instances of wisdom and beneficence which arrest the student of nature, at every step of his progress. The flight of birds is very rapid. Birds of prey have been observed to fly at the rate of about twenty leagues in an hour. A falcon belonging to Henry II. of France, escaping from Fontainbleau, was found next day at Malta, a, distance of thirteen hundred and fifty miles, and recognized from the ring on its leg Sir Hans Sloane mentions that, at Barbadoes, the gulls came to feed, and returned two hundred miles the same day. And Mr Audubon relates of the migra- tory pigeons of America, that they have been killed in the neighborhood of New York with rice in their crops, collected in the fields of Georgia and Carolina, the nearest points at which this supply could have been obtained. Reasoning from the fact, that the food of pigeons is entirely digested in twelve hours, Mr Audubon concludes that they must have travelled between three and four hundred miles in six hours. Birds in general live long, considering how early they arrive at maturity. Swans are said to live for a hundred years; and the pelican arrives at a similar age. Carnivorous birds, particularly the eagle, live to a very great age, perhaps beyond a century ; the raven for a still longer period: and parrots have been known to live from sixty to eighty years. The life of gallinaceous birds, such as the domestic fowl, the pheasant, and the partridge, seldom exceeds, twelve or twenty years. , 412 AVES—GRIFFON VULTURE. ORDEP I.—RAPAUES. Birps of this order have the bill short and strong; upper mandible cover- ed at its base by a membrane or ce*e, compressed on the siftes and inod.ed towards its extremity; nostrils open; legs strong, muscuar, short or medium length, feathered to the knee or toes; toes three before aud one vehind divided, or united at the base by a membrane, rough below, armed with powerful claws, sharp, retractile, and hooked. Nearly all these birds live on animal food; the females are always larger than the males. The number of their eggs seldom exceeds four. THE FULVOUS, OR GRIE EON) VU RU RES Tuts noble species of vulture, which is one of the largest birds of prey of the Old Continent, measuring from three feet and a half to four feet in length, and more than twice as much in the expanse of its wings, is found on the lofty mountain chains of Europe, Asia, and Africa. It is not uncom- mon during the summer, in the Alps and Pyrenees; but it is said to retreat in winter, to the north of Africa, extending itself, according to Le Vaillant, to the Cape of Good Hope. The nest of the griffon vulture, is formed in the clefts of rocks. It lays from two to four eggs, which are of a grayish white, with numerous spots 1 Vultur fulvus, Lin. The genus Vultur has the bill thick and short, deeper than broad ; its base covered by a cere; upper mandible straight, bent towards the point; un- der mandible straight, rounded, and inclined at the point; head naked, or covered with a short down; nostrils naked, latera!, opening diagonally tewards the edge of the cere; legs strong, furnished with slightly bent claws ; the middle toe largest, and united with the exterior one at the base. Of the characters the most obvious, 1s the absence of feathers to a greater or less extent on the head and neck, a mark of distinction which, like all the rest, is closely connected with the habits of the birds. Thus a falling off, or thinning of the feathers, is the frequent result of feeding upon flesh. especially when in a state of decay. The barrenness of these parts in tae vultures, enables them, moreover, to burrow in the putrid carcasses on which they prey, without risk of soiling their plumage. Their largely exiended nostrils, and the great internal developement of these organs, would seem to be of manifest use in guiding the vultures to their prey, which they are generally believed to scent from a great distance. It has, however, been lately main- tained by a most acute observer of the habits of birds, Mr Audubon, that this belief, which has been entertained from the earliest antiquity, is founded in error, and that the vultures are directed to their prey by sight alone; the lofty pitch at which they fly, ana the surpassing excellence of thet vision, enabling them to detect it at an almost mcon- ceivable distance. Several of the experiments brought forward by that gentleman, in support of his hypothesis, appear at first sight almost decisive of the quesuon. But we cannot consent to abandon the received opinion, corroborated as it is to the fullest extent, a the anatomical structure of the organs of smell, until repeated experiments shall have placed the fact beyond the possibility of doubt. . It is almost unnecessary to point out the great utility of the strong, deep curved bill of most of the vultures in tearing to pieces the carcasses on which they feed and consi ing them in large masses to their maws. The nakedness of their legs may De regarded as cepnaca on the same causes, and serving the same purposes as that of their heads necks. AVES—GRIFFON VULTURE. A413 of a very ught and diluted red. Like all the other birds of its tribe, it feeds principally upon dead carcasses, to which it is frequently attracted in very considerable numbers. When it has once made a lodgment upon its prey, it rarely quits the banquet while a morsel of flesh remains; so that it is not uncommon to see it perched upon a putrefying corpse for several successive days. It neverattempts to carry off a portion, even to satisfy its young; but feeds thein by discharging the half digested morsel from its maw. Sometimes, but very rarely, it makes its prey of living victims; and even then of such only as are incapable of offering the smallest resistance; for in a contest for superiority, it has not that advantage which is possessed by the falcon tribes, of lacerating its enemy with its talons, and must therefore rely upon the force of its beak alone. It is only, however, when no other mode of satiating its appetite presents itself, that it has recourse to the destruction of other animals for its subsistence. “wy ify, o (ihe. Mir After feeding, it is seen fixed for hours in one unvaried posture, patiently waiting until the work of digestion is completed, and the stimulus of hunger is renewed, to enable and to urge it to mount again into the upper regions of the air, and fly abroad in quest of its necessary food. If violently dis- turbed after a full meal, it is incapable of flight until it has disgorged tne contents of its stomach; lightened of which, and freed from their debilitat- 414 AVES—CONDOR. ing effects, it 1s immediately in a condition to soar to such a pitch as, in spite of its magnitude, to become invisible to human sight. In captivity, it appears to have no other desire, than that of obtaining its regular supply of food. So long as that is afforded it, it manifests a perfect indifference to the circumstances in which it is placed. THE CONDOR. ——S Se ——s SS ——s <= a — SS —* —— Tuat the vulgar opinion of the immense size and ferocity of this, the largest of the American birds of prey, should have extended its influence over the minds even of scientific zoologists, can scarcely be regarded as affording 1 Cathartes gryphus, Temmincx. The genus Cathartes has the beak long, compress- ed, straight, bent towards the point; cere naked, covering more than half the beak; upper mandible turned towards the point; head oblong, naked, as well as the upper part of the neck; nostrils in the middle of the bili, near the ridge of the upper mandible, longitudi nally cleft, broad, sometimes surmounted by fleshy appendages; legs with tarsus naked, more or less slender; middle toe long, and united to the exterior one at the base. n~ AVES—CONDOR. 415 just grounds of surprise, when we consider how very imperfectly the condor was known to naturalists down to the commencement of the present cen- tury. Twenty years ago, one or two mutilated specimens formed the only memorials of its existence, in the cabinets of Europe; and all our knowledge of the living bird was derived from the relations of travellers, for the most part but little conversant with natural history, many of whom merely repeated, without examination, such stories as they found current; while others, less scrupulous or more fanciful, drew on their invention for those additional traits which they considered necessary to render the imaginary likeness perfect. Thus, the condor of the Andes was compared to the fabled roc, of Eastern mythology ; and this monstrous fabrication of ignorant credulity was declared to be fully equalled, if not surpassed, by the stupen- dous native of the western hemisphere. But it was reserved for one of the most scientific of modern travellers, the learned Baron Von Humboldt, completely to dispel the mist of prejudice, which had so long enveloped the history of the condor, and to describe that bird such as it really exists; to reduce its dimensions, its powers, and its propensities, within their just and natural limits, and to exhibit a faithful and highly interesting portrait in the place of an extravagant and grossly exaggerated caricature. The condor forms the type of a genus, a second species of which is the king of the vultures, of British writers. They are both peculiar to the New World, but approach, in their most essential characters, very closely to the vultures of the Old Continent, differing from the latter principally in the sarge fleshy, or rather cartilaginous caruncle, which surmounts their beaks; in the large size of their oval and longitudinal nostrils, placed almost at the very extremity of the cere; and in the comparative length of their quill feathers, the third being the longest of the series. The most important of these differences, the size and position of their nostrils, appears to be well calculated to add to the already highly powerful sense of smell possess- ed by the typical vultures, and for which these birds-have been almost proverbially celebrated from the earliest ages. There is also a third species, the Californian vulture, rivalling the condor in bulk, and agreeing, in every respect, with the generic characters of the group, except in the existence of the caruncle, of which they are entirely destitute. In size the condor is little, if at all, superior to the bearded griffin, the lammergeyer of the Alps, with which Buffon was disposed conjecturally to confound it, but to which it bears at most but a distant relation. The greatest authentic measurement scarcely carries the extent of its wings beyond fourteen feet, and it appears rarely to attain so gigantic a size. M. Humboldt met with none that exceeded nine feet, and was assured by many credible inhabitants of the province of Quito, that they had never shot any that measured more tan eleven. The length of a male specimen, somewhat less than nine feet in expande, was three feet three inches from 416 A AVES-—-CONDOR. the tip of the beak to the extremity of the tail; and its height, when perching, with the neck partly withdrawn, two feet eight inches. Its beak was two inches and three quarters in length, and an inch and a quarter in depth, when closed. The beak of the condor is straight at the base, but the upper mandible Wecomes arched towards the point, and terminates in a strong and well curved hook. The basal half is of an ash brown, and the remaining por- tion towards the point is nearly white. The head and neck are bare of feathers, and covered with a hard, wrinkled, dusky reddish skin, on which are scattered some short brown or blackish hairs. On the top of the head, which is much flattened above, and extending some distance along the beak, is attached an oblong, firm caruncle, or comb, covered by a continua- tion of the skin which invests the head. This organ is peculiar to the male. It is connected to the beak only in its anterior part, and is separated from it at the base m sucn a manner as to allow of a free passage of the air to the large oval nostrils, which are situated beneath it at that part. Behind the eyes, which are somewhat elongated, and not sunk beneath the general suiface of the head, the skin of the neck is, as it were, gathered into a series of descending folds, extending obliquely from the back of the head, over the temples, to the under side of the neck, and there connected an- tenorly with a lax membrane or wattle, capable of being dilated at plea- sure, like that of the common turkey. The neck is marked by numerous, deep parallel folds, produced by the habit of retracting the head, in which the bird indulges when at rest. In this position scarcely any part of the neck 1s visible. Round the lower part of the neck, both sexes, the female as well as the male, are furnished with a broad white ruff, of downy feathers, which forms the line of separation between the naked skin above and the true feathers covering the body below it. All the other feathers, with the exception of the wing coverts and the secondary quil! feathers, are of a bright black, generally mingled with a grayish tinge of greater or less intensity. In the female, the wing coverts are blackish gray; but the male has their points, and frequently as much as half their length, white. The wings of the latter are consequently distinguished from those of the female by their large white patches. The secondary quill feathers of both sexes are white on the outer side. The tail is short and wedge-shaped. The legs are exces- sively thick and powerful, and are colored of a bluish gray, intermingled with whitish streaks. Their elongated toes are united at the base by a loose but very apparent membrane, and are terminated by long, black talons, of considerable thickness, but very little curved. The hinder toe is much shorter than the rest; and its talon, although more distinctly curved, is equally wanting in strength; a deficiency which renders the foot much less powerful as an organ of prehension than that of any other of the large virds of the raptorial order. AVES—CONDOR. 417 The condor has been observed throughout the whole range of that im- mense chain of mountains which traverses the continent of South America, from the Straits of Magellan to the seventh degree of north latitude. It appears, however, to be much more common in Peru and Chili, than in any other part of the chain, and is most frequently met with at an elevation of from ten to fifteen thousand feet above the level of the ocean. Here, in the regions of perpetual snow, they may be seen grouped together to the number of three or four, but never in the large troops in which the true vultures sometimes assemble, on the bold points of the jutting rocks, many of the most remarkable of which are designated by the natives with names derived from the bird that haunts their pinnacles. It is only when driven by hunger, that it descends into the plains, which it quits as soon as its appetite is satiated, unable, as it would seem, to support for any great length of time the increased weight of the atmosphere and the warmer tem ature of the lower world. On such occasions, it rarely perches on tae branches of the trees, but generally takes up a position on the ground, for resting on which its comparatively straight talons are peculiarly fitted. It is said that the female bird builds no nest, but deposits its eggs upon the bare rock without protection of any kind. These eggs are stated to be perfectly white, and three or four inches in length. The female is also said to remain with her young for a whole year. The habits of the condor partake of the bold ferocity of the eagle, and of the disgusting filthiness of the vulture. Although, like the latter, it ap- pears to prefer the dead carcass, it frequently makes war upon a living prey; but the gripe of its talons is not sufficiently firm to enable it to carry off its victim through the air. Two of these birds, acting in concert, will frequently attack a puma, a llama, a calf, or even a full grown cow. They will pursue the poor animal with unwearied pertinacity, lacerating it inces- santly with their beaks and talons, until it falls exhausted with fatigue and loss of blood. Then, having first seized upon its tongue, they proceed te tear out its eyes, and commence their feast with these favorite morsels. The intestines form the second course of their banquet, which is usually continued until the birds have gorged themselves so fully as to render them- selves incapable of using their wings in flight. The Indians, who are well acquainted with this effect of their voracity, are in the habit of turning it to account for their amusement in the chase. For this purpose tney expose the dead body of a horse or a cow, by which some of the condors, wnich are generally hovering in the air in search of food, are speedily attracted. As soon as the birds have glutted themselves on the carcass, the Indians make their appearance, armed with the lasso, and the condors, being unable to escape by flight, are pursued and caught by means of these singular weapons with the greatest certainty. This sport is a peculiar favorite in the country, where it is held in a degree of estimation second to that of a bull-fight alone. a3 418 AVES—VULTURE. In tenacity of life, the condor exceeds almost every other bird. M. Hum- boldt relates that during his stay at Riobamba, he was present at some experiments which were made on one by the Indians who had taken it alive. They first strangled it with a lasso and hanged it on a tree, pulling it forcibly by the feet for several minutes; but scarcely was the lasso re- moved, when the bird arose and walked about as though nothing had occurred to affect it. It was then shot with three balls, discharged from a pistol, at less than four paces, all of which entered its body, and wounded it in the neck, chest, and abdomen; it still, however, kept its legs. Another ball struck its thigh, and it fell to the ground. This was preserved by M. Bonpland, for a considerable time, as a memorial of the circumstance. Ulloa had previously asserted, that in the colder parts of Peru, the skin of the condor was so closely covered with feathers, that eight or ten balls might be heard to strike it without penetrating its body. M. Humboldt’s bird did not die of its wounds until after an interval of half an hour. The stories which have long been current, on the authority of cra s.ous travellers, imputing to the condor a propensity to carry off young children, and even to attack men and women, appear to have originated solely in that common feeling which delights in regarding mere possibilities in the light of positive facts. M. Humboldt declares that he never heard of an _ instance in which a child was carried off; although the children of the Indians who collect the snow on the mountains for sale, are constantly left sleeping in the open air in the midst of these birds, and offer, of course, a temptation which would be irresistible if not counteracted by some peculiar instinct. With respect to the risk incurred by men, while he confesses that two of these birds would be dangerous enemies for a single man to encoun- ter, he states that he has frequently approached them within ten or twelve feet, as they sat three or four together perched upon the rocks, and that they showed no disposition to attack him. The Indians of Quito, moreover, unanimously assured him that men have nothing to apprehend from the condors. THE SOCIABLE VULTURE! Is a bird of extreme rarity. It was first described by Le Vaillant, in ais “Travels in the Interior of Africa,’ under the name of oricou; fancifully derived from the folding of the skin around its ears, and along its neck. A more detailed account of it was afterwards furnished by the same distin- guished ornithologist, in his Oiseaux d’Afrique, where a full grown male is very accurately figured. We do not find that it has since been observed by — — 1 Vultur auricularis, Daun. AVES—VULTURE. A19 any zoologist; for all the accounts of it with which we have met, are copied from Le Vaillant. In size, this gigantic bird is fully equal to the condor; the larger specimen measuring, according to Le Vaillant, upwards of ten feet in the expanse of their wings. The head, and greater part of the neck are of the color of raw flesh, and exhibit in their adult state no appearance of down 9r aiih Ws ==) Ups feathers, but only a few scarcely perceptible, scattered hairs. The throat is covered with blackish hairs, and the lower part of the neck behind, with a kind of ruff of crisped and curled feathers of the same color; within which, the bird withdraws its head while in a state of repose, especially after feed- ing ; an attitude which is common to most of the vultures. As Le Vaillant is the only writer who has observed these birds in their native state, our account of their manners must necessarily be derived from his work, which contains more detailed and authentic information relative to the habits of birds, than any other publication with which we are acquainted, excepting only Wilson’s admirable Ornithology. We shall, therefore, make no apology for abstracting his history of the present species, with which he has combined many particulars equally applicable to the whole family. Like all the other vultures, he says, this is a bird of the mountains, the sheltered retreats formed by their caves and fissures con- atituting its proper habitation. In them it passes the right. and reposes, 420 AVES—VULTURE. after it has sated its appetite, during the day. At sunrise, large bands are seen perched-on the rocks at the entrance of their abodes, and sometimes a continued chain of mountains exhibits them dispersed throughout the greater part of its extent. Their tails are always worn down by friction against the stones between which they thrust themselves, or on which they perch ; while the eagles, seldom walking and frequently perching upon trees, pre- serve theirs more entire. Those of the vultures are moreover injured by the soil of the plains, inasmuch as they cannot raise themselves into the air at once, but only after running several paces forwards and by a forced con- traction of the limbs. The flight of the vulture is nevertheless no less powerful and lofty; they raise themselves to a prodigious height, and disap- pear entirely from the sight. It is scarcely to be conceived how these birds, which often cannot be dis- tinguished in the air, can themselves perceive what is going on, on the surface of the earth, discover the animals on which they feed, and fall upon them the moment they are overtaken by death. Whena hunter kills a large animal which he cannot immediately remove, if he abandon it for an instant, he finds on his return a band of vultures, where a quarter of an hour before not one was to be seen. Our author gives the particulars of several adventures of this kind that had befallen himself; and offers an explanation of the manner in which the vultures are enabled to detect their prey, strictly in accordance with the theory of Mr Audubon, to which we have before ad- verted. We quote this explanation at length, without, however, adopting the hypotheses which it involves. ‘“‘Desirous of observing,” he says, “how so great a number of vultures could congregate together in so short a space of time, I concealed myself one day in a thicket, after having killed a large gazelle, which I left upon the spot. In an instant a number ofravens made their appearance, fluttering about the animal, and making a great croaking. In less than half a quarter of an hour these birds were reinforced by the arrival of kites and buzzards; and immediately afterwards I perceived on raising my head, a flight of birds at a prodigious height, wheeling round and round in their descent. These I soon recognised to be vultures, which seemed, if I may so express myself, to escape from a cavern in the sky. The first comers fell immediately upon the gazelle, but I did not allow them time to tear it in pieces. I left my concealment, and they betook themselves slowly and heavily to flight, re- joining their comrades, whose numbers continued to increase. They seemed almost to precipitate themselves from the clouds to share the spoil, but my presence caused them speedily to disappear. Thus it is then, that the vul- tures are called upon to participate in their prey; the first carnivorous birds that discover a carcass rouse the others which may happen to be in the environs by their cries and motions. If the nearest vulture does not spy he prey from the lofty region of the air in which he swims, by means of his wide spread wings, he perceives the subaltern and more terrestrial birds of AVES—VULTURE. 421 prey, preparing to take possession of it; but perhaps he has himseif a suffi- cient power of vision to enable him to discover it. He descends hastily and with a wheeling flight, and his fall directs the other vultures who witness his evolutions, and who no doubt have their instinct sharpened with regard to every thing that concerns their food. A concourse of carnivorous birds speedily takes place in the neighborhood of the carcass, sufficient to attract the vultures of the whole district, nearly in the same manner as the dis- turbance created by a number of men running along the streets of a crowded town, attracts the whole population to follow in their train.” The present species is not met with in the vicinity of the Cape; but is very common in the interior, especially in the country of Manaquas. It builds its nest in the fissures of the rocks, and the female lays two or rarely three eggs. During the time of incubation the male keeps watch at the entrance of the cavern, and thus renders their retreat easy of detection ; but on the other hand it is always very difficult of access. The interior offers a most disgusting spectacle, and is infected by an insupportable stench. Le Vaillant had eaten of their eggs, which, to use his own expression, are good enough to be made use of. As they live in formidable bands, a single mountain sometimes conceals as many nests as there are cavities fit for their reception. They appear to agree together exceedingly well, for two or three nests are sometimes seen placed side by side in the same cavern. PNM G7, Te Be V UL DE URE Sse Tuts is unquestionably one of the handsomest, although among the smaller species of the vulture family. The only other American vultures, the turkey buzzard, and a second closely allied species, (the black vulture) form a distinct genus nearly related to this, but differing essentially in several important points. It is no doubt in comparison with the two last mentioned birds, that the present has obtained, in the language of all the native tribes to which it is known, the appellation of king of the vultures; for it is far inferior, both in size and strength, to the gigantic species which are generically associated with it. When fully grown, the king of the vultures measures about two feet and a half in total length, and more than twice as much in the expanse of its wings. The hues of its plumage are bright, sharply circumscribed, and strongly contrasting with each other. Round the base of the neck passes a broad ruff of soft downy feathers of a deep ashy gray; the whole under suriace is white, with an occasional tinge of flesh color; the back and tail coverts are of abright fawn, which becomes lighter and lighter as the bire 1 Cathartes Papa, Ly. 422 AVES—VULTURE. advances in age; and the quill feathers of the wings and tail, together with the larger coverts of the former, are glossy black. The young bird of the first year, according to M. D’Azara, is entirely of s deep bluish tint, excepting the abdomen and lateral tail coverts, which are white. In the second year it assumes a dusky hue, marked by long white spots. Up to this peric!, the greater part of the head and neck is blackish violet. In the third year it assumes its adult coloring, with the exception of a few black feathers among the upper wing coverts. The range of this fine species of vulture is rather extensive. M. Bona parte enumerates it among the birds of the United States, and we believe it is occasionally met with in Florida, which is probably its northern limit. Towards the south, M. D’Azara describes it as common in Paraguay, but says that it does not pass the thirty-second degree of latitude. In the inter- mediate countries it would seem to be extremely abundant. Many travel- lers mention it as congregating in large flocks in various parts of Mexico, where it appears to have been first noticed by Navarrete, and was soon after described by Hernandez under the native name of cozeaquauhtli. Its more usual name, however, in that country, seems to be tzopilotl, literally king of the vultures. In Guiana it bears, according to Sonnini, a title exactly synonymous ; and in Paraguay, according to D’Azara, that of iriburubicha, signifying the same thing. This uniformity of appellation is evidently derived from the universality of the belief, that the other vultures pay a particular respect to this species, abandoning their prey to it, whenever it makes its appearance among them, But such a concession, as D’Azara AVES -TURKEY BUZZARD. 423 justly remarks, implies neither respect nor consideration; but is the natura effect of its superiority in size and strength. Like the other vultures, these birds perform a most important office in the economy of nature, by the removing of dead, and putrefying carrion. Their sight is wide and piercing, their sense of smell highly developed, and their strength of wing sufficient to enable them to reach an extremely high pitch, and to continue their flight for hours together. They endure the pangs of hunger with extraordinary patience ; and never attack the smallest bird or the most feeble quadruped while it has life. In walking, their gait is slow and heavy, and their body is maintained ina horizontal position. When about to mount into the air, they are compelled to take several leaps before they can accomplisn their purpose, and quit the ground with some little difficulty. The odor of their flesh is precisely the same with that of the carrion on which they feed, and even the skins retain it for many years. Contrary to the habits of their family in general, they perch on the tallest trees, living solitary or in pairs, building their nests, as it is said, in the hollows of the trunks, and laying only two eggs. They are little inclined to become familiar with man, but on the contrary avoid his habitations, and betake themselves every where to the interior and unfrequented parts of the country. In a deficiency of carrion they feed upon snakes and lizards, and during the summer subsist, in a great measure, upon the putrid fish of the lakes that are dried up by the parching heat of the sun. LiL G:, AVL R PCAN. CAR RLON VUE TaeR bh. OF TURKEY BUZZARD,! {s found in vast flocks in parts of America, where it 1s of great utility im destroying snakes and vermin, and in devouring dead and putrid carcasses 1 Cathartes Aura, Lin. 424 AVES—TURKEY BUZZARD. This bird is about the size of a turkey. The head and neck are bare of feathers, and of a reddish color, and the sides of the head warted like those of the turkey. The whole plumage is a brownish black, with a purple and greenish gloss in different directions. This species is well known throughout the United States, but is most numerous in the southern section of the Union. In the northern and mid- dle states, it is partially migratory, the greater part retiring to the south on the approach of cold weather. But numbers remain all the winter in Mary- land, Delaware, and New Jersey ; particularly in the vicinity of the large rivers and the ocean, which afford a supply of food at all seasons. The female lays from two to four eggs in an old hollow tree or stump. If any one approach the young, and attempt to handle them, they will immedi- ately vomit such offensive matter as to compel the intruder to a precipitate retreat. The turkey buzzards are gregarious, peaceable, and harmless; never offer- ing any violence to a living animal, nor depriving the husbandman of his stock. Hence, though in consequence of their filthy habits they are not be- loved, yet they are respected for their usefulness ; and in the southern states where they are most needed, they, as well as the black vultures, are protected by a law, which imposes a fine on those who wilfully deprive them of life. They generally roost in flocks on the limbs of large trees; and they may be seen on a summer’s morning, spreading out their wings to the rising sun, and remaining in that posture for a considerable time. The sense of smell in the turkey buzzard is astonishingly exquisite, and they never fail to discover carrion, even when at the distance of several miles. When once they have found a carcass, if not molested, they will remain in the place till the whole is devoured. At such times, they eat so immoderately that frequently they are incapable of rising, and may be caught without difficulty ; but few that are acquainted with them, will have the temerity to undertake the task. A man in the state of Delaware some years since, observing some turkey buzzards regaling themselves upon the carcass of a horse, which was ina highly putrid state, conceived the design of making a captive of one, to take home for the amusement of his children. He cautiously approached, and springing upon the unsuspecting group, grasped a fine plump fellow in his arms, and was bearing off his prize in triumph; when lo! the indignant vulture disgorged such a torrent of filth in the face of our hero, that it produced all the effects of the most powerful emetic, and forever cured him of his inclination for turkey buzzards. On tne continent of America this species inhabits a vast range of territory, running it 1s said from Nova Scotia to Terra del Fuego, though it is com- paratively rare in the northern states of the Union. They are numerals m the West India islands. AVES—VULTURE. 425 THE BLACK VULTURE! Tuts bird has sometimes been confounded with the turkey buz ard. But they are much darker in their plumage than the latter, and neve: associate with them. Their mode of flight also differ from that of the turkey buz- zard. The latter, though found in the vicinity of towns, rarely ventures within them. It is not so impatient of cold as the former, and is likewise less lazy. Unless pressed by hunger, it will not eat of a carcass until it becomes putrid. The black vulture is not so fastidious, but devours animal food without distinction. They are very indolent, and may be seen loitering for hours together inone place. It is said that they sometimes attack young pigs, and eat off their ears and tails; but those instances are rare. In,the towns and villages of the southern states, they may be seen saunter- ing about the streets; sunning themselves on the roofs of the houses and the fences; or, if the weather be cold, cowering around the tops of the chimneys to enjoy the benefit of the heat, which to them is a peculiar grati- fication. They are protected by law orusage; and may be said to be com- pletely domesticated, being as common as the domestic poultry, and equally familiar. The inhabitants generally are disgusted with their filthy habits ; but notwithstanding, being viewed as contributing to the removal of the dead animal matter, which, if permitted to putrefy during the hot season, would render the atmosphere impure, they have a respect paid thein as sca- vengers, whose labors are subservient to the public good. It sometimes happens that after having gorged themselves, these birds vomit down the chimneys, which must be intolerably disgusting, and must provoke the ill- will of those whose hospitality is thus requited. 1 Cathartes Vulturinus, Tamm. 54 426 AVES—VULTURE The black vulture is seldom found on the Atlantic, to the northward of Newbern, North Carolina ; but inhabits the whole continent to the south- ward as far as Cape Horn. THE LAMMERGEYER, OR BEARDED VULTURE] In its attitudes this bird resembles the eagles more than the vultures, its confident and sprightly bearing strongly contrasting with the crouching and suspicious postures of the latter. Like these, however, it generally retains its wings in a state of half expansion when at rest, and its neck more 01 less retracted within its shoulders. Its food, as we shall presently see, is more frequently sought in a living prey than on a putrefying carcass; and for this reason it 1s not often found, like the vultures, assembling ine con- sidera>le troops. The increased curvature of its talons also contributes to the same object, by enabling it to carry off its prey, whether living or dead. A careful comparison of their characters, or. what is far better, of the animals themselves, as they exist side by side in tne menagerie, wil show how nearly this bird holds the middle station between the two large groups to which it is almost equally related. Several nominal species were created by the naturalists on the close of the last century, which appear now, by common consent, to have been merged into one, the bearded vulture of ornithologists, or lammergeyer of the Swiss and German Alps. Its range extends to most of the principal mountain chains of the Old Continent, as it is found, with more or less fre- 1 Gypetus barbatus, Cuv. The genus Gypetus has a long bill; upper mandible arched towards the point, and bent like a hook; nostrils oval, covered with stiff hairs directed forward; feet short; four toes, the three anterior united by a short membrane, the middle one very long; nails slightly crooked ; wings long. AVES—VULTURE. - 427 quency, but never in great abundance, in the Pyrenees, the Alps from Pied- mont to Dalmatia, the mountains of Ghilan and Siberia, and those of Egypt and Abyssinia; occupying every where the loftiest and most inaccessible cliffs, and frequently committing dreadful ravages in the neighboring plains. In size it is the largest of European birds of prey, measuring, when fully grown, upwards of four feet from beak to tail, and in the expanse of its wings no less than nine or ten. M. Fortis indeed asserts that he had seen an individual in Dalmatia, the expanded wings of which measured twelve feet. The general color of the upper part of this remarkable bird isa dull brown with a mixture of gray; its wings and tail are of a grayish ash color; the upper part of its head is a dirty white ; a black band extends backwards from the base of the beak across the eye, and joins a narrower stripe of tne same that passes upwards to unite with its fellow on the back of the head ; and the neck, breast, and under parts are white with a shade of reddish brown or orange, which is deeper on the breast and throat, and gradually becomes less distinct on the abdomen and legs. For the first two years, the young birds are distinguished by the dusky brown of the head and neck; the mottled gray of their under surfaces, the large white spots, or spots of a lighter shade, scattered over their back and wings; and the dusky black of their quill feathers. Their iris is at first brown, and their toes of a livid color; but as they advance in age the former becomes of a bright red, and the latter assume a leaden hue. At all times the beak, which attains a length of four inches, is of an ashy gray with a flesh colored tinge; and t' e bristles at its base are deep black, as are also the talons. In its habits this bird combines the audacity and cruelty of the eagles, with the appetite for carrion which distinguishes the vultures. It seizes by preference living victims, chiefly quadrupeds, and especially those which are incapable of making an effectual resistance, such as rabbits, hares, sheep and lambs, or even young goats and calves; and thus proves an extremely dangerous neighbor to the peaceful flocks which graze on the declivities of the mountains inhabited by it, or in the intervening valleys. Sometimes, when rendered desperate by a long fast, it is said to attack the chamois, or even man himself, choosing for the scene of its exploits the brink of a preri- pice, and descending upon its victim with such an irresistible impetus as 17) precipitate him headlong into the abyss below. But such bold attempts as this, although spoken of by many writers, are foreign to its visual habits, and may rather be regarded as traditions handed down from generation to generation, than as common or every day occurrences. Inthe same manner it is probable that the stories current in the Alps, of children carried off by vultures to be devoured, are rather the expression of a natural dread of what might happen, than a relation of actual events. We are not aware of any authentic testimony in proof of the fact, which may therefore be classed with the narratives of the same description with reference to the condor. 428 AVES—VULTURE. It is from the character in which it is best known to them, as the spoiler of the fold, that this bird has received from the natives of the German Alps its title of lammergeyer, the lamb vulture. But although this 1s its food of choice, it feeds also upon carrion ; and as when in pursuit of a living prey, it emulates the eagles by soaring alone or in company only with its mate, so in its attack upon an unburied carcass it imitates the vultures by congre- gating in bands upon the spoil. In such circumstances it does not usually descend from aloft, but sweeps slowly along the ground towards its expected banquet. Bruce relates, in his Abyssinian Travels, a remarkable instance, illustrative at once of its boldness and voracity. His servants were prepar- ing for dinner on the summit of a lofty mountain, when a bearded vulture, attracted by the smell of the goat’s flesh, which they were cooking, slowly made his advances towards the party, and at length fairly seated himself within the ring which they had formed. The affrighted natives started up and ran for their lances and shields; and the bird, after an ineffectual attempt to extract a portion of their meat from the boiling water, seized a large piece in each of his talons from a platter that stood by, and carried it off slowly along the ground as he came. After an interval of a few minutes, the vulture returned for a second freight, but was shot by the traveller before it could carry its purpose into effect. The manner of its flight in this instance, as well as in many others, may be taken as an indication that this species does not usually make its prey of birds, which it is rarely if ever known to attack. Bruce remarks that on taking hold of this bird he was not a little surprised to find his hands covered with a yellow powder, which appeared to be produced from the breast feathers ; while those of the back and wings threw off a similar dust, excepting that on them it was brown. He imagined that this powder was contained in the tubes of the feathers, from which it was emitted upon pressure; and that it was a peculiar provision of nature to enable the birds of those Alpine regions to withstand the rigors of the cli- mate. It is more probable, however, that this appearance, which has not been noticed by any other writer, was merely the result of the change of plumage which the vulture had just undergone; the powder in question being in reality nothing more than the original pellicle of the feathers sepa- rating from them in minute particles, as is usual when they have optained their perfect growth. AVES—VULTURE. 429 THE SECRETARY VULTURE. CLBROWN. SC. a Tus curious bird resembles the common falcon in its head, bill, and claws , but its legs are so long that, when it stands upright, it is not much unlike the crane. After much hesitation, modern naturalists have arranged it in the vulture order. When standing erect, it measures about three feet from the top of the head to the ground. Itisa native of the interior of Africa, Asia, and the Philippine Islands. The general color of the plumage is a bluish ash ; the tips of the wings, the thighs, and the vent inclining to black. On the back of the head are several jong dark colored feathers, hanging down behind, and capable of being erected at pleasure. This crest induced the Dutch colonists at the Cape to give it the name of the secretary; the Hottentots, however, style it the serpent eater, from the avidity with which it catches and devours those noxious reptiles. The manner in which it seizes them, displays great intelligence. On approaching them, it carries forward the point of one of its wings, in order to parry their venomous bites, and waits till it finds an opportunity of spurning or treading on its adversary, or taking him on his pinions, and throwing him into the air. When he has at last thus wearied him out, he kills and devours him at his leisure. 1 Gypogeranus serpentarius, Temm. This is the only individual of the genus. Its characteristics are—bill shorter than the head, thick, strong, hooked, bent from its origin, furnished with a cere at its base, a little arched, compressed at the point; nostrils a little separated at the base, lateral, pierced in the cere, diagonal, oblong, open; legs very long, slender; tibia feathered; tarsus long, slenderer at its base than at its upper part; toes short, warty below, the anterior united at the base; thumb articulated on the tarsus wings long the first five wing feathers longest and almost equal; wings armed with; blurt spar. 430 AVES—FALCON. M. le Vaillant witnessed one of these combats. Finding itself inferior in strength, the serpent endeavored to regain his hole, but the falcon, by a single leap, got before him and cut off his retreat. On whatever side the reptile strove to escape, the enemy still faced him. The serpent then erect- ed himself to intimidate the bird, and hissing dreadfully, displayed his me- nacing throat, inflamed eyes, anda head swoln with rage and venom. Sometimes this produced a momentary suspension of hostilities; but the hird soon returned to the charge, and, covering her body with one of her wings as a buckler, struck her enemy with the bony protuberance of the other. The serpent at last dropped, and the bird laid open his skull with one stroke of her beak. This singular bird may be easily tamed, and it becomes very domestic and familiar. Though, if severely pinched with hunger, it will devour ducklings and chickens; yet, if well fed, it will live with the poultry on amicable terms, and when it sees any of them quarrelling, will run to part the combatants. Unlike ail the rest of the feathered race, these birds always strike forward with their legs when they fight. 3s: TD BOR: oP AcE Cons In size exceeds all other falcons, for he approaches nearly to the magnitude of the eagle. The top of the head is flat, and of an ash color, with a strong, thick, short, and blue beak. The feathers of the beak and wings are marked with black spots, in the shape of a heart. He is a courageous and fierce bird, nor fears even the eagle himself; but he chiefly flies at the stork, the heron, and the crane. He is mostly found in the colder regions of the north, in Iceland, Denmark, and tke north of Germany, but loses neither his strength nor his courage when brought into the milder climates. Falconry, which is now so much disused, was the principal amusement of our European ancestors. A person of rank scarcely stirred out without his hawk on his hand, which in old paintings is the criterion of nobitity. The expense which attended this sport was very great; among the old Welsh princes, the king’s faleoner was the fourth officer in the state; but, notwithstanding all his honors, he was forbidden to take more than three draughts of beer from his horn, lest he should get drunk and neglect his duty. In the reign of James the First, Sir Thomas Monson is said to have given a thousand pounds for a cast of hawks; and such was their value in ——— eee ne 1 Falco Islandicus, Gurr. The genus Falco has the head covered with feathers ; bill hooked, generaliy bent from its origin; a colored cere, more or less hairy at its base; mandibles sometimes notched ; nostrils lateral, rounded or oval, pierced in the cere, open; legs with tarsi covered with feathers or scales; three toes before, one behind, the exterior generally united at its base to the middle toe ; claws sharp, much hooked, retractile. AVES—FALCON, 43] general, that it was made felony in the reign of Edward the Third to steal a hawk. To take its eggs, even in a person’s own ground, was punishable with imprisonment for a year anda day, together with a fine at the king’s pleasure. Of many of the ancient falcons used for this purpose, we at this time know only the names. Of those in use at present, both in England and in other countries, are the jer falcon, the falcon, the lanner, the sacre, the hobby, the kestril, and the merlin. These are called the long winged hawks, to distinguish them from the goshawk, the sparrow-hawk, the kite, and the buzzard, that are of shorter wing, and either too slow, too cowardly, ‘oo indolent, or too obstinate, to be serviceable in contributing to the pleae sure of the field. THE PEREGRINE FALCON.! In different stages of its growth the peregrine falcon has been known by various English names. Its proper appellation among the falconers is the slight falcon, the term falcon gentle being equally applicable ————— 1 Falco buteo, Lin. AVES—BUZZARD. 459 returned when I called it to feed After some time, when I judged that I could trust to its fidelity, I removed the ligatures; and fastened a small bell, an inch and a half in diameter, above its talon, and also attached to its breast a bit of copper, having my name engraved on it. I then gave it entire liberty, which it soon abused ; for it took wing, and flew as far as the forest of Belestne. I gave it up for lost; but four hours afterwards, I saw it rush into my hall, pursued by four or five other buzzards, which had con- strained it to seek again its asylum. After this adventure, it preserved its fidelity to me, coming every night to sleep on my window.” It would also sit by and caress him at dinner, and follow him when he was on horseback. This bird had a remarkable antipathy to wigs, and particularly to red caps, which it never failed to snatch from the wearers, and deposit in a very high tree, that served as a store-house for its plunder. It is still more to the credit of the buzzard, that it is a most kind and assiduous parent; and Ray affirms that, should the female chance to be killed, the male will take charge of the young ones, and rear them till they can provide for themselves. The eggs of this bird are whitish, spotted with yellow. THE MOOR BUZZARD. Tus bird is about twenty-one inches in length, with a black bill, and yellow cere and eyes. The whole crown of the head is of a yellowish white, lightly tinged with brown; the throat is of a light rust color; the rest of the plumage is of a reddish brown, with pale edges; the greater wing-coverts are tipped with white; the legs are yellow; and claws black. — Rabbits, young wild ducks, and other waterfowl, are the prey of this bird, which will likewise feed on fish, frogs, reptiles, andeveninsects. Its haunts are in hedges and bushes, near pools, marshes, and rivers that abound with fish. It builds its nest a little above the surface of the ground, or in hillocks 1F’, rufus, Lin. 460 AVES=K MEE: covered with thick herbage ; the female lays three or four eggs of a whitish color, irregularly sprinkled with dusky spots. Though smaller, it is more active and bold than the common buzzard, and when pursued, it faces its antagonist, and makes a vigorous defence. Birds of this kind differ much; in some the crown and back part of the head being yellow; while some are uniformly of a chocolate brown, with a tinge of rust color. THE KITE! Is distinguished by his forked tail, and slow sailing flight, in which he seems perpetually on the wing. He is larger than the common buzzard. He hag large eyes, yellow legs and feet, and black talons. The head and back are of a pale ash hue, which is varied across the shafts of the feathers by longi- tudinal lines. His neck is reddish ; the feathers covering the inside of the wings are red, with black spots in the centre; and the lesser rows of the wing feathers are party-colored black, red, and white. He lives only upon accidental carnage, as almost every bird in the air is able to make good his retreat against him. He may be, therefore, considered as an insidious thief, who only prowls about, and, when he finds a small bird wounded, ora young chicken strayed too far from the mother, instantly seizes the hour of calamity, and, like a famished glutton, is sure to show no mercy. His hunger, indeed, often urges him to acts of seeming desperation. We have seen one of them fly round and round for a while to mark a clutch of chickens, and then ona sudden dart like lightning upon the unresisting little animal, and carry it off, the hen in vain crying out, and the boys hooting and casting stones to scare it from its plunder. For this reason, of all birds, the kite is the good housewife’s greatest tormenter and aversion. 1 Falco milvus, Lin. AVES—FALCON...KITE. 461 THE ROUGH-LEGGED FALCON,]I NotwitustTanvine its formidable size and appearance, spends the chief part of the winter among our low swamps and meadows, watching for mice, frogs, lame ducks, and other inglorious game. Twenty or thirty individuals of this family have regularly taken up their winter quarters for several years past in the meadows below Philadelphia, between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, where they spend their time watching the banks like cats; or sailing low and slowly over the surfaces of the ditches. Though rendered shy by any attempt made to shoot them, they seidom fly far, usually from one tree to another at no great distance, making a loud squealing as they rise, something resembling the neighing of a young colt, though in a more shrill and savage tone. This bird is common during winter in the lower parts of Maryland, and numerous in the extensive meadows below Newark, New Jersey; and are frequent along the Connecticut river. Their flight is slow and heavy. They take their station at daybreak near a ditch, bank, or haystack, for hours together, watching with patient vigilance for the first unlucky frog, mouse, or lizard, to make its :ippearance. The instant one of these is de- scried, the hawk, sliding into the air, sweeps over the spot, and in an instant has his prey grappled and sprawling in the air. LES VES SSS LEP’ KITE? I First observed, says Wilson, a few miles below Natchez, where I found them in company with the turkey buzzard, whose flight it so exactly imitates as to seem the same species, in miniature. It sails about in easy circles, and at an immense height in the air. I observed numbers of this awk sweeping about among the trees like swallows, in pursuit of the locusts that were in swarms on the trees, so that insects, it would appear, are the principal food of this species ; but I do not doubt that mice, lizards, snakes, and small birds, furnish him with an occasional repast. This hawk is fourteen inches in length, and three feet in extent of wing. It is of an ash color, with a white neck and head. 1, lagopus, Lin. . 2 F. plumbeus, GMEL. 39* 462 AVES—HAWK...BUZZARD. THE MARSH HAWK! [s, no doubt, the same species as the ring-tailed hawk of Europe. They are very common in New Jersey, where they are known by the name of mouse hawk. It is said, by Bonaparte, to be the young hen-harrier. They are most numerous in extensive meadows and salt marshes, over which they sail very low, making frequent circuitous sweeps over the ground, in search of a species of mouse, very abundant in such situations. It is said by European writers to build on the ground, or on the low limbs of trees. Itis found at Hudson’s Bay. It is particularly serviceable to the rice fields of the southern states, by the havoc it makes among the clouds of rice buntings that spread so much devastation among that grain. The planters consider one hawk to be equal to severe: negroes for alarming the rice birds. THE: RE D-T ALD BeD. HAW KO spi Zick Re D.3 Inuapits the whole of the United States. Among the extensive meadows that border the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers below Philadelphia, where flocks of larks, and where mice and moles are in great abundance, many individuals of this hawk spend the greater part of the winter. Others prowl about the plantations, looking for vagrant chickens; their method of seizing which, is by sweeping swiftly over the spot; and then, grappling them with their talons, they bear them away to the woods. THE AM EL CAN:. BUZZ AR Ds ResEMBLEs the red-tailed hawk, in size and general aspect, but differs some- what in color. It may perhaps on investigation be found to be the same. It is more numerous than the latter, but frequents the same _ situations in the winter. One, ich was shot on the wing, lived several weeks, but refused to eat. It amused itself by frequently hopping from one end of the room to the other, and sitting for hours at the window, looking down on the passengers below. At first, when approached by any one, he drew back; but after some time, he became quite familiar, permitting himself to be handled, and shutting h‘s eyes as if quite passive. Though he lived so long without food, he was found on dissection to be exceedingly fat. - 1’, cyaneus, Lin. 2 FE’, borealis, GMEL. 3 F’. buteoides, NuTTALL AVES—OWL. 463 THE EUROPEAN HORNED OWL, OR EAGLE OWL, Neale SSSI dl) Ar first view appears as large as an eagle, though when he comes to be observed more closely, he will be found much less, being but two feet in length. His eyes are large and transparent, encircled with an orange colored iris ; his ears are large and deep; his plumage is of reddish brown, marked on the back with black and yellow spots, and yellow only upor the belly. To its offspring it is very affectionate, and if they are taken from the nest and confined, it will assiduously supply them with food. This, how- ever, it accomplishes with such secrecy and sagacity, that itis almost impossible to detect it in the act. This bird has been seen in Scotland, and in Yorkshire, but is notcommon in England. All birds of the owl kind have one common mark, by which they are listinguished from others; their eyes, like those of tigers and cats, are formed for seeing better in the dusk, than in the broad glare of sunshine. The pupil, in fact, is capable of opening very wide, or shutting very close; and, by contracting it, the brighter light of the day, which would act too 1 Striaz bubo, Lis. The genvs Strix bas the bill bent from its origin; base surrounded by a cere, covered wholly or in part by stiff’ hairs; head large, much feathered; nostrils lateral, pierced in the anterior margin of the cere, rounded, open, concealed by hairs directed forwards; eyes very large, orbits surrounded by feathers ; legs feathered, often to the claws ; three toes before and one behind, separate, the exterior reversible; the first wing feathers dentated on their exterior border, the third the longest. 464 AVES—OWL. powerfully upon the sensibility of tae eye, is excluded; while, by dilating the pupil, the animal takes in the more faint rays of the night, and thereby is enabled to spy its prey, and catch it with greater facility in the dark. But though owls are dazzled by too bright a daylight, yet they do not see best in the darkest nights, as some have been apt to imagine. The nights when the moon shines are the times of their most successful plunder; for when it is wholly dark, they are less qualified for seeing and pursuing their prey; except, therefore, by moonlight, they contract the hours of their chase ; and if they come out at the approach of dusk in the evening they return before it is totally dark, and then rise by twilight the next morning, to pursue their game, and to return, in like manner, before the broad daylight begins to dazzle them with its splendor. Yet the faculty of seeing in the night, or of being entirely dazzled by day, is not alike in every species of these nocturnal birds. The common white or barn owl, for instance, sees with such exquisite acuteness in the dark, though the barn has been shut at night, and the light thus totally excluded, that it perceives the smallest mouse that peeps from its hole; on the con- trary, the brown horned owl is often seen to prowl along the hedges by day, like the sparrow-hawk; and sometimes with good success. The note of the owl is not unpleasant. ‘A friend,” says Mr White, “remarks that most of his owls hoot in B flat; but that one went almost half a note below A. — A neighbor of mine, who is said to have a nice ear, remarks that the owls about this village hoot in three different keys, in G flat, or F sharp, in B flat and A flat. He heard two hooting to each other, the one in A flat, and the other in B flat.” THESAMERICAN. HORN ED OW? Tue great horned owl is fuund in almost every quarter of the United States. ‘His favorite residence, however, is in the dark solitudes of deep swamps, covered with a growth of gigantic timber; and here, as soon as evening draws or, and mankind retire to rest, he sends forth such sounds, as seem scarcely to belong to this world. Along the mountainous shores of the Ohio, and amidst the deep forests of Indiana, alone and reposing in the woods, this ghostly watchman has frequently warned me of the approach of morning, and amused me by his singular exclamations; sometimes sweep- ing down and around my fire, uttering a sudden Waugh O! Waugh O! sufficient to have alarmed a whole garrison. He has other nocturnal solos, no less melodious, one of which very strikingly resembles the half suppress- 4 1 Strix Virginiana, WIitson. AVES—OWL. 465 ed screams of a person suffocated or throttled, and cannot fail of being exceedingly entertaining to a lonely benighted traveller, in the midst of an Indian wilderness.” This species inhabits the country round Hudson’s Bay; and according to Pennant, (who considers it a mere variety of the eagle owl of Europe,) is , found in Kamtschatlka, extends even to the Arctic regions, where it is found white; and occurs as low as Astrachan. It has also been seen white in the United States, but this has been owing doubtless to disease. It preys on young rabbits, squirrels, rats, mice, partridges, and small birds ot various kinds. It has been often known to prowl about a farmhouse, and carry off chickens from roost. The great horned owl is not migratory, but remains with us the whole year. He is very rarely seen abroad by day, and never but when disturbed. The nest is generally placed in the fork of a tall tree and is constructed of sticks piled in considerable quantity, lined with dry -eaves and a few feathers. The female lays four white eggs, nearly as large as those of a hen. THE SNOWY OWL! 1s a native of the most northern regions of both continents, passing south- ward in the old as far as the latitude of Astracan, and in the new to that of 1 Strix nyctea, Ly. 59 466 AVES—OWL. Pennsylvania, or more rarely even to the borders of Florida. It is very seldom, however, met with in Europe to the south of Sweden; while mn America it appears to ve most frequent in the latitude of Hudson’s Bay. Bechstein mentions one or two instances of its appearance in the neighbor- hood of Leipsic and of Dresden ; and it has obtained a place in the British Fauna, as an inhabitant of the islands of Orkney and Shetland, where it was first detected by Mr Edmonstone, about eighteen or twenty years ago. It seems probable, from that gentleman’s observations, that it is stationary in the last mentioned locality throughout the year; but Wilson believes it to be only an occasional visitant in the United States, except perhaps in some of the more northern and inland parts, when it may remain during the summer to breed. In the early part of the present year, (1832,) one of them was shot on an island in Boston harbor, where he had been noticed lurking for several days previous, feeding on clams, muscles, and other shellfish along the shore. The comparative length of wing and strength of the quill feathers, in this beautiful owl, enable him to fly with much more swiftness, and to remain suspended in the air for a much greater length of time, than any other bird of the family. It flies aproad also in the daytime, as well as in the twilight, and in all these particulars, as well as in the nature of its food, evinces a striking approach to some of the more strictly diurnal birds of prey. It feeds almost indiscriminately on birds, quadrupeds, fishes, and even carrion ; and is stated by Hearne to be extremely troublesome to the hunter, whom it will follow for a whole day, perching itself on the highest tree, and skimming down, when a bird has been shot with such rapidity as to carry off the prize AVES—OWL. 467 before the sportsman can get within reach of it. ‘They are,” he adds, “so great a hindrance to those employed in the hunting service, that the same premium is given for one of their heads as for that of the hawk.” Wilson describes this bird as being particularly fond of frequenting the shores and banks of shallow rivers, sailing slowly over the surface, or sitting on a rock a little raised above the water, watching for fish, which it sgizes with a sudden and instantaneous siroke of the foot, seldom missing its aim. It is capable of swallowing entire animals of considerable size, such as grouse, and partridges, young hares, and rabbits. Mr Bullock mentions an instance that came within his knowledge, in which a wounded individual disgorged a whole rabbit. According to Hearne, the female makes her nest upon the ground, and generally lays from three to four eggs, but seldom hatches more than two. The young are unable to fly before September ; and the parents never migrate in search of a more temperate climate, but brave the coldest winters, even on the barren grounds, far from any shelter that might be derived from the woods. In such situations they perch on high rocks and stones, watching for their prey, their snowy plumage render- ing them almost undistinguishable. Their voice is so dismal, that, as Pen- nant observes, it adds horror even to a Greenland winter. THE, WELT Ee, OR “BARN OW L,! THOUGH so common in Europe, is much rarer in the United States than the preceding; and is only found here during very severe win- ters. This may possibly be owing to the want of those favorite recesses in this part of the world, which it so much affeets in the Eastern Continent. The multitudes of old ruined towers, castles, monasteries, and cathedrals, that every where rise to view in those countries, are the chosen haunts of this well known species. Its savage cries at night give, with vulgar minds, a cast of supernatural horror to those venerable mouldering piles of anti quity. This species being common to both continents, doubtless extends to the arctic regions. They feed eagerly upon the meadow mouse, which is found in the mea- dows below Philadelphia, and on the marshes along the seashore. Another favorite prey of this owl is the bat. aS SS 1 Strix flammea, Lin. 468 AVES—OWL. THE HAWK: OW L4 Is a connecting link between the hawk and owl tribes. It has one strong trait of the hawk tribe in flying and preying by day, contrary to the general habit of owls. It is characterized asa bold and active species, following the fowler and carrying off his game as soon as shot. It is said to prey on partridges and birds, and is very common in Hudson’s Bay. It is rare in the soutmern parts of the United States. Its favorite range seems to be along the borders of the arctic regions. Of their nest and manner of breed- ing we have no account. It is an inhabitant of both continents. It is worthy of remark, that in all owls that fly by night, the exterior edges and sides of the wing quills are slightly recurved, and end in fine hairs or points; by which means the bird is enabled to pass through the air with the greatest silence, a provision necessary for enabling them the better to secure their prey. In the hawk owl, which dies by day, and to whom this contrivance would be of no consequence, it is accordingly omitted, or at least is scarcely observable. TE soe DO WL? Is well known by its common name of the little screech owl ; and noted for light nights they answer each other from various parts of the fields or ic Po i S il i ul f AST KS NX it NAN vo its melancholy quivering kind of wailing in the evening, particularly towards the latter part of summer and autumn, near the farmhouse. On clear moon- orchards; roost during the day in thick evergreens, such as cedar, pine, or 1 Strix funerea, GMEL. 2S. asio, Lin. AVES—OWL. 469 juniper trees, and are rarely seen abroad during the sunshine. They con- struct their nests in the hollow of a tree, often in the orchard in an old apple tree. I kept one of these birds, says Wilson, in a room for several weeks. It was caught in a barn, and being unhurt, I had an opportunity of remarking its manners. At first it struck itself so forcibly against the window as fre- quently to deprive it, seemingly, of all sensation for several minutes; this was done so repeatedly that I began to fear that either the glass, or the owl’s skull must give way. Ina few days, however, it either began to compre- hend the matter, or to take disgust at the glass; for it never repeated its attempts, and soon became quite tame and familiar. Those who have seen this bird only in the day, can form but an imperfect idea of its activity and even sprigntliness in its proper season of exercise. Throughout the day it was all stillness and gravity ; its eyelids half shut, its neck contracted, and its head shrunk seemingly into its body. But scarcely was the sun set and twilight began to approach, when its eyes became full and sparkling like two living globes of fire; it crouched on its perch; reconnoitered every object round with looks of eager fierceness; alighted and fed; stood on the meat with clenched talons, while it tore it in morsels with its bill; flew round the room with the silence of thought, and perching, moaned out its melancholy notes with many lively gesticulations, not at all accordant with the pitiful tone of its ditty, which reminded one of the shivering moaning of a half frozen puppy. THE LELLLE: Ow L! Ts one of the least of 1ts whole genus, but, like many other little folks, makes up in neatness of general form and appearance for deficiency of size, and is perhaps the most shapely of all our owls. It also possesses an eye fully equal in spirit and brilliancy to the best of them. This species is a general and constant inhabitant of the middle and north- ern states; but is found most numerous in the neighborhood of the seas shore, and among woods and swamps of pinetrees. It rarely rambles much during the day ; but if disturbed, flies a short way, and again takes shelter from the light; at the approach of twilight it is all life and activity, being a noted and dexterous mouse catcher. It is found as far north as Nova Scotia, and even Hudson’s Bay, and is frequent in Russia. It builds its nest ina pine tree. The melancholy and gloomy umbrage of those solitary evergreens forms its favorite haunts, where it sits dozing and slumbering all day. lulied by the roar of the neighboring ocean. Se oOO_a_q nm m—-—_—~=E——O——————— eee 1S. passerina, WILson. 470 AVES—OWL THE BUR ROWS MGs OA &- Dirrers essentially from all others in his habits and manners.» Instead of hiding his head in the daylight, he fearlessly flies abroad in search of prey, in the broadest glare of the sun; and far from seeking abodes of solitude and silence, he lives in company with animals in the recesses of the earth, where they all enjoy the pleasures of fellowship and good harmony. The mounds of the prairie dog or marmot, which are thrown up in such numbers near the Rocky Mountains, are about eighteen inches in height. The entrance is by a passage two feet in length, which terminates in a comfortable cell composed of dry grass, where the marmot takes up his winter abode. Around these villages, the burrowing owls may be seen moving briskly about, singly or in small flocks.. They seem to have very little fear of man, either soaring to a distance when alarmed, or descending into the burrows, where it is very difficult to come at them. In countries where the marmot is not found, this owl is said to dig a hole for himself. Their food appears to consist entirely of insects. Its note is similar to the ery of the marmot, which sounds like cheh, cheh, pronounced in rapid succession. The burrowing owl is nine inches and a half long. The general color of the plumage is a light burnt umber, spotted with whitish. The under parts are white, banded with brown. All this tribe of animals, Lowever they may differ in their size and plumage, agree in their general characteristics of preying by night; their bodies are strong and muscular ; their feet and claws made for tearing their prey; and their stomachs for digesting it. It must be remarked, however, that the digestion of all birds that live upon mice, lizards, or such like food, is not very perfect; for though they swallow them whole, yet they are always seen some time after to disgorge the skin and bones rolled up in a pellet, as being indigestible. As they are incapable of supporting the light of the day, or at least of then seeing and readily avoiding their danger, they keep all this time concealed in some obscure retreat, suited to their gloomy appetites, and there continue in solitude and silence. The cavern of a rock, the darkest part of a hollow tree, the battlements of a ruined, unfrequented castle, or some obscure hole in a farmer’s outhouse, are the places where they are usually found; if they be seen out of these retreats in the daytime, they may be considered as having lost their way ; as having by some accident been thrown into the midst of their enemies, and surrounded with danger. In this distress they are obliged to take shelter in the first tree or hedge that offers, there to continue concealed all day, till the returning darknes ee” 1 Strix cunicularia, Bonar. AVES—OWL. A71 once more supplies them with a better plan of the couniry But it too often happens, that, with all their precaution to conceal themselves, they are spied out by the other birds of the place, and are sure to receive no mercy. The blackbird, the thrush, the jay, the bunting, and the redbreast, all come in file, and employ their little arts of insult and abuse. The smallest, the feeblest, and the most contemptible of this unfortunate bird’s enemies, are then the foremost to injure and torment him. They increase their cries and turbulence round him, flap him with their wings, and are ready to show their courage to be great, as they are sensible that their danger is but small. The unfortunate owl, not knowing where to attack, or whither to fly, patiently sits and suffers all their insults. Astonished and dizzy, he only replies to their mockeries by awkward and ridiculous gestures, by turning his head, and rolling his eyes with an air of stupidity. It is enough that an owl appears by day to set the whole grove into a kind of an uproar. Either the aversion all the small birds have to this animal, or the consciousness of their own security, makes them pursue him without ceasing, while they encourage each other by their mutual cries to lend assistance in their lauda- ble undertaking. It sometimes happens, however, that the little birds pursue their insults with the same imprudent zeal with which the owl himself had pursued his depredations. They hunt him the whole day until evening returns; which restoring him his faculties of sight once more, he makes the foremost of his pursuers pay dear for their former sport ; nor is man always an unconcerned spectator here. The bird catchers have got an art of counterfeiting the cry of an owl exactly; and, having before limed the branches of a hedge, they sit unseen, and give the call. At this, all the little birds flock to the place where they expect to find their well known enemy ; but, instead of finding their stupid antagonist, they are stuck fast to the hedge themselves. This sport must be put in practice an hour before nightfall, in order to be success- ful; for if it is put off till later, those birds which but a few minutes sooner came to provoke their enemy, will then fly from him with as much terror as they just before showed insolence. It is not unpleasant to see one stupid bird made in some sort a decoy to deceive another. The great horned owl is sometimes made use of for this purpose, to lure the kite, when the falconer desires to catch him for the purpose of training the falcon. Upon this occasion, they clap the tail of a fox to the great owl, to render his figure extraordinary; in which trim he sails slowly along, flying low, which is his usual manner. The kite, either curious to observe this odd kind of animal, or perhaps inquisitive to see whether it may not be proper for food, flies after, and comes nearer aw nearer. ‘In this manner he continues to hover, and sometimes to descen? till the falconer, setting a strong winged hawk against him, seizes him f the purvose of training his young ones at home. 472 AVES—HORNBILL. ~~ The usual place where the great horned owl breeds is in the cavern of a rock, the hollow of a tree, or the turret of some ruined castle. Its nest is near three feet in diameter, and composed of sticxs, bound together by the fibrous roots of trees, and lined with leaves on the inside. It lays about three eggs, which are larger than those of a hen, and of a color somewhat resembling the bird itself. The lesser owl of this kind never makes a nest for itself, but always takes up with the old nest of some other bird, which it aas often been forced to abandon. It lays four or five eggs; and the young are all white at first, but change color in about a fortnight. The other owls in general build near the place where they chiefly prey; that which feeds upon birds, in some neighboring grove; that which preys chiefly upon mice, near some farmer’s yard, where the proprietor of the place takes care to give it perfect security. In fact, whatever mischief one species of owl may do in the woods, the barn owl makes a sufficient recompense for, by being equally active in destroying mice nearer home; so that a single ow] is said to be more serviceable than half a dozen cats in ridding the barn of its domestic vermin. ‘In the year 1580,” says an old writer, ‘‘at Hallontide, an army of mice so overrun the marshes near Southminster, that they ate up the grass to the very roots. But at length a great number of strange painted owls came and devoured all the mice. The like happened again in Essex about sixty years after.” ORDER II.—OMNIVOROUS BIRDS. brrps of this order have the bill middle sized, robust, sharp on the edges; the upper mandible more or less convex, and notched at the point; feet with four toes, three before and one behind; wings of medium size, with the quill feathers terminating in a point. THE HORN BILLA Tue rhinoceros hornbill, or rhinoceros bird, is nearly as large as the turkey ; the bill is ten inches long, and two and a half thick at the base. On the upper part is an appendage as large as the bill itself, and turning upwards, which measures eight inches in height. There is nothing else remarkable in the bird, as the general color of the plumage is black. This bird is found in most parts of the East Indies, where (like the raven) it feeds 1 Buceros rhinoceros, Lix. The genus Buceros has the bill convex, curved, sharp- edged, of large dimensions, serrated at the margin, with a horny protuberance near the base of the upper mandible rising into a crest; nostrils behind the base of the bill covered by a membrane ; legs short, muscular; lateral toes equal, the external one united to the second ioint ; the first three wing feathers graduated, the fourth or fifth longest. AVES—HORNBILL...RAVEN. A773 upon carrion. It is said to chase rats and mice, and, after pressing them ~ flat with its bill in a peculiar manner, toss them up in the air, and swallew them whole on their descent. THE HELMET, HORNBIL Gt Is remarkable for having the same prominence of a conical form; and in the Philippine Isles there is a species, the horn of which reaches backwards beyond the eyes, ending in two angular points, which produce the effect of a bird with two horns. a THE PIED HORNBIDL, (ORVCALAO OF MALABAR. THE circumstance which distinguishes it from the rest of its kind, is, that the breast, belly, and a part of the wings are white; the remainder of the nody is, like the rest of these animals, black. There are about twelve species of the hornbill in all, one of which is white. THE RAVEN THE raven is a bird found in every region of the world; strong and hardy, he is uninfluenced by the change of the weather ; and when other birds seem numbed with cold, or pining with famine, the raven is active and healthy, busily employed in prowling for prey, or sporting in the coldest atmosphere. As the heats at the line do not oppress him, so he bears the cold of the polar countri2s with indifference. He is sometimes indeed seen milk-white, and this may probably be the effect of the rigorous climates of the north. A raven may be reclaimed to almost every purpose to which birds can be con- verted. He may be trained up for fowling like a hawk; he may be taught to fetch and carry like a spaniel; he may be taught to speak like a parrot; but the most extraordinary of all is, that he can be taught to sing like a man. I have heard (says a modern writer) a raven sing the black joke w-th grezt distinctness, truth, and humor. sndeed, when the raven is taken as a domestic, he has many qualities that render him extremely amusing. Busy, inquisitive, and impudent, ne 1 Buceros galeatus, LATHAM. 2 Corvus corax, Lin. The genus Corvus has the bill straight at its origin, thick, com- ressed on the sides, bent towards the point, and edged; nostrils covered by reflected bristly feathers ; legs and feet plaited ; toes three before and one behind, divided ; tarsus longer than the middle toe ; wings acuminated, the fourth feather longest. 60 AQ* 474 AVES—RAVEN. goes every where, affronts and drives off the dogs, plays his pranks on the poultry, and is particularly assiduous in cultivating the good-will of the cook maid, who seems to be the favorite of the family. But then, with the amusing qualities of a favorite, he often also has the vices and defects. He is a glutton by nature, and a thief by habit. He does not confine himself to petty depredations on the pantry or the larder ; he soars at more magnificent plunder ; at spoils which he can neither exhibit nor enjoy ; but which, like a miser, he rests satisfied with having the satisfaction of sometimes visiting and contemplating in secret. A piece of money, a tea-spoon, or a ring, are always tempting baits to his avarice; these he will slily seize upon, and, if not watched, will carry to his favorite hole. In his wild state, the raven is an active and greedy plunderer. Nothing comes amiss to him. If in his flights he perceives no hope of carrion, (and his scent is so exquisite, that he can smell it a vast distance,) he then con- tents himself with more unsavory food, fruits, insects, and the accidental desserts of a dunghill. This bird chiefly builds its nest in trees, and lays five or six eggs of a pale green color, marked with small brownish spots. _ Notwithstanding the injury these birds do in picking out the eyes of sheep and lambs, when they find them sick and helpless, a vulgar respect is paid for them as being the birds that fed the prophet Elijah in the wilderness. This prepossession in favor of the raven is of very ancient date, as the Romans themselves, who thought the bird ominous, paid it, from motives of fear, the most profound veneration. One of these that had been kept in the temple of Castor, as Pliny informs us, flew down into the shop of a tailor, who took much delight in the visits of his new acquaintance. He AVES—CROW. A475 taught the bird several tricks ; but particularly to pronounce the name of the Emperor Tiberius and the whole royal family. The tailor was beginning to grow rich by those who came to see this wonderful raven, till an envious neighbor, displeased at the tailor’s success, killed the bird, and deprived the tailor of his future hopes of fortune. The Romans, however, took the poor tailor’s part; they punished the man who offered the injury, and gave the raven all the honors of a magnificent interment. Birds in general live longer than quadrupeds ; and the raven is said to be one of the most long lived of the number. Some of them have been known to live near a hundred years. This animal, indeed, seems possessed of those qualities that generally produce longevity, namely, a good appetite, and great exercise. The raven is about two feet in length, and four in breadth of wing. Its bil] is strong, and very thick at the base; it measures somewhat more than two inches and a half in length, and is covered with strong hairs or bristles, which extend above half its length, covering the nostrils; the general color of the upper parts is a fine glossy black, reflecting a blue tint in particular lights; the under parts are duller, and of a dusky hue. The raven is a general inhabitant of the United States, but is more com- mon in the interior. It is a remarkable fact, that where they abound, the common crow seldom makes his appearance. THE:- CARRION: CROW! Tuis bird is about eighteen inches in length; its breadth above two feet. Crows are more numerous than ravens, and as widely spread. They live mostly in woods, chiefly in pais, and build their nests on trees: the female lays five or six eggs much like those of a raven. They remain in England all the year. They feed on putrid flesh of all sorts; likewise on eggs, worms, insects, and various sorts of grain. Even pigeons, rabbits, chickens, aud young ducks are not safe from their attacks. The crow isa 1 Corvus corone, Lin. 476 AVES—ROOK. bold bird; neither the kite, buzzard nor raven can approach its nest witnou being driven away; and when it has young, it will even fall upon the peregrine falcon, and bring it to the ground by a single stroke of the bill It is a very common bird in the United States, and is more familiar in ite habits in this country than in Europe. THE F'O'O Kk Is about the size of the carrion crow, and, excepting its more glossy plu- “mage, very much resembles it. The base of the bill and nostrils, as far as the eyes, is naked, in which it differs from all the rest, occasioned, it is said, by _ thrusting its bill into the earth in search of worms: but as the same appears ance has been observed in such as have been breught up tame and unaccus- tomed to that mode of subsistence, we are inclined to consider it an original peculiarity. Rooks are useful in preventing a too great increase of that destructive insect the chafer or dor-beetle, and thereby make large recom- pense for the depredations they may occasionally commit on the corn-fields. They are gregarious, and fly in immense flocks at morning and evening te and from their roosting places in quest of food. During the breeding time they live together in large societies, and build their nests on the tallest trees close to each other, frequently in the midst of large and populous towns. These rookeries, however, are often the scenes of bitter contests; the new comers are frequently driven away by the old inhabitants, their half-built nests torn in pieces, and the unfortunate couple forced to begin their work ancw in 1 Corvus frugilegus, Lin. AVES—JACKDAW. A(7 some more undisturbed situation. But though bad neighbors, the males are good husbands, as they begin to feed the hens before the latter commence laying, and continue to do so through the whole season of incubation. The rook is a bird of great sagacity. Dr Darwin remarks, that rooks are obvi- ously more conscious of danger from mankind than most other birds are. Whoever has paid the least attention to them, may perceive that they are quite sensible of the danger being greater when a man is armed with a gun, than when he has no weapon with him. If, in the spring of the year, a person with a gun walk under a rookery, the inhabitants of the trees rise on their wings, and scream to the unfledged young to cower into their nests from the sight of the enemy. This uniformly occurs, and hence the country people assert that rooks can smell gunpowder. This bird is not a native of America. THE JACKDAW. Txrs bird is considerably less than the rook, being only thirteen inches in length. The head is large, and the bill long, in proportion to the body. The eyes are white, and the hinder part of the head and neck are of a hoary gray color; the rest of the plumage is of a fine glossy black above; beneath it has a dusky hue: the legs are black. It remains in England the whole year, and in great flocks frequents churches, old towers, and ruins, and some- times, though rarely, even chimneys, hollow trees, and rabbit burrows, where it builds its nest: the female lays five or six eggs, paler than those of the crow, and smaller. Jackdaws are easily tamed, and may be taught to pro- nounce several words: they will conceal part of their food, and with it small pieces of money or toys. They feed on insects, grain, fruit, and small pieces of flesh, and are said to be fond of partridges’ eggs. They have also been seen to catch fish. 1Corvus monedula, Lin. 4 ome A478 AVES—MAGPIE. There is a variety of this bird in Switzerland, which has a white collar round its neck ; and in Norway and other cold» countries, they have been found perfectly white. They are not found in America. PA eb A GP IE sy Ol Js about eighteen inches in length. The head, neck, and breast are of a deep black, finely contrasting with the snowy whiteness of the under parts ; the neck feathers are very long, and extend down the back, leaving only a_ gmall space, of a grayishash color, between them and the tail coverts, which are black ; the plumage in general is glossed with green, purple, and blue, which catch the eye in different lights; the tail is very long and wedge- shaped ; the under tail-coverts, thighs, and legs, are black; on the throat and part of the neck, there is a kind of feathers, mixed with the others, re- sembling strong whitish hairs. Indeed, were its other accomplishments equal to its beauty, few birds could be put in competition. Its black, its white, its green, and purple, with the rich and gilded combination of the 1 Corvus pica, Lin. AVES—MAGPIE. A479 glosses on its tail, are as fine as any that adorn the most beautiful of the feathered tribe. But it has too many of the qualities of a beau, to depre- ciate these natural perfections: vain, restless, loud, and quarrelsome, it isan unwelcome intruder every where; and never misses an opportunity, when it finds one, of doing mischief. It is a common bird in Europe and Asia, and in the western territories of the United States. It is remarkable that at the point where these birds are first encountered, in proceeding west, the blue jays disappear. The magpie bears a great resemblance to the butcherbird in its bill, which has a sharp process near the end of the upper chap, as weil as in the short- ness of its wings, and the form of the tail, each feather shortening from the two middlemost. But it agrees still more in its food, living not only upon worms and insects, but also upon small birds, when they can be seized. > short, che third the longest. ? Oriolus Baltimore, Wi1ison. AVES—ORIOLE. 487 to build on, it is generally known; and is as usual honored with a variety of names, such as hang-nest, hanging-bird, golden robin, fire-bird, &c., but more generally the Baltimore bird. Few of the American orioles equa) this in the construction of their nests; he gives them, in a superior degree, warmth, convenience, and security. He generally fixes on the high bending extremities of the branches, fastening strong strings of hemp or flax rount two forked twigs; with the same materials he fabricates a strong, firm kind of cloth, not unlike the substance of a hat in its raw state, forms it into 4 pouch six or eight inches in depth, lining it substantially with soft sub- stances well interwoven with the outward netting, and lastly finishes with a layer of horse hair; the whole being shaded from the sun and rain by a natural pent-house, or canopy of leaves. The birds of this species have all a common form of building, but they do not build in exactly the same manner. Great difference will be found in the style, neatness, and finishing of the nest. Some are far superior work- men to others. So sclicitous is the Baltimore to procure proper mate- rials for his nest, that the women in the country must narrowly watch the thread that may be bleaching; and the farmer must secure his young grafts, as this bird will carry off the former, and the strings that tie the latter, to serve his purposes in building. The principal food of the Baltimore consists of beetles, caterpillars, and bugs, particularly one of a brilliant glossy green. His song is a clear mellow whistle, repeated at short intervals, as he gleans among the branches. There is in it a certain wild playfuiness and naiveté extremely interesting. It is not uttered with the rapidity of our eminent songsters, but with the pleasing tranquillity of a careless ploughboy, whistling merely for his own amusement. When alarmed by an approach to his nest, he makes a kind of rapid chirruping very different from his usual note. He inhabits North America, from Canada to Mexico, and is found as far south as Brazil. It is seven inches long; the head, throat, upper part of the back and wings are black ; lower part of the back, and whole under parts are bright orange, deepening into vermilion on the breast; the back is also divided by a band of orange, the tailis black and orange. The plumage of the female is lighter and du’‘er than that of the male. These birds are several years in completing their plumage. 488 AVES—CROW BLACKBIRD. ORCHARD ORIOLE. Tuts bird has been described under a variety of names; as the spurious oriole, bastard oriole. It is a distinct species from the preceding, and differs from it in size, being less and more slender; in its colors, which are differ- ent; in the form of its bill and tail; in its notes, which are neither so full nor so mellow, and uttered with much more rapidity ; in its mode of build- ing, and the materials which it uses; and, lastly, in the shape and color of the eggs. Many mistakes have been occasioned by the change of color which these birds undergo, as they do not receive their full and perfect plumage till the fourth year. The young birds are easily raised from the nest, and soon become agreeable domestics. One which I reared and kept through the winter, whistled with great clearness and vivacity at two months old. It had an odd manner of moving its head and neck slowly, regularly, and in various directions, when intent on observing any thing, without stir- ring its body. This motion was as slow as that of asnake. When, at night, a candle was placed near its cage, it seemed extremely well pleased, fed and drank, drest, shook and arranged its plumage, sat as close to the light as possible, and sometimes chanted a few irregular notes, as I sat read- ing or writing beside it. CROW BLACKBIRD? Tus noted depredator is well known to every farmer of the northern and middle states. In March, these birds come from the south; fly in loose flocks, frequent swamps and meadows, and follow in the furrows after the plough ; their food at this season consists of worms, grubs, and caterpillars, of which they destroy prodigious numbers as if to recompense the husband- man beforehand for the havoc they intend to make in his crops of Indian corn. They build on tall cedar and pine trees in company; sometimes ten or fifteen nests being on the same tree. These are five inches in diameter; composed outwardly of mud, with long stalks and roots of grass, and lined with horse-hair. The trees in which they build are near the farmhouses and plantations. From them they issue over the neighboring fields, and make their depreda- Jones FR ee i ee ee ee eee 1 Oriolus mentatus, WILsoNn. 2 Icterus versicolor, Aupunon. The genus Jcterus has the bill longer than the head, or as long, straight, like an elongated cone, pointed, sharp, a little compressed, without distinct ridge or notch, the base covered by feathers; margin of the mandibles more or less bent inwards; nostrils basal, lateral, and covered bya hairy rudiment; tarsus as long as, or longer than the middle toe; wings long; third and fourth feathers longest. AVES—CROW BLACKBIRD. 489 tions. As soon as the blade of corn begins to make its appearance, the crow blackbirds hail it with screams of satisfaction, and descend on the fields, and begin to pull up and regale themselves on the seeds, scattering the green blades around. While thus,eagerly employed, the vengeance of Ine gun sometimes overtakes them; but those “ ___who live to get away, Return to steal another day.” In the early times of New England, it was customary, in some towns, to require each inhabitant to kill a certain number of these birds year y, a fine being imposed upon such as did not destroy and exhibit the requisite number. When the young ears are in a milky state, they are attacked with redoubled eagerness by the grakles and red-wings. They descend on the corn like a blackening and sweeping tempest; dig off the external covering of the leaves, and having laid bare the ear, leave little behind to the farmer but the cobs and shrivelled skins. Whole acres of corn have been thus more than half ruined. During these depredations, the gun makes great havoc among them, which has no other effect than to send the survivors to another field. This system of plunder and retaliation continues till November, when they sheer off to the south, where they collect and darken the air with their numbers, which sometimes amount to a hundred thousand. They rise from the fields with a noise like thunder, and descend on the roads and fences; and when they rise and cover the high timbered trees, then destitute of leaves, they produce a most singular and striking effect; the whole trees seeming as if hung in mourning, their notes and screams, meanwhile, re- sembling the sound of a distant cataract, but in more musical cadence, swelling and dying away on the ear, according to the fluctuation of the breeze. These birds are called by the farmers crow blackbirds, and are universally dreaded and detested. But if they do destroy the corn, they do nearly as much good as evil, by devouring numbers of noxious worms, grubs, and caterpillars, that infest the fields, which would, if not destroyed, desolate the country! The purple grakle is easily. tamed, and sings in confinement. They have been taught to articulate several words. These birds are allowed by the fish-hawks to build in the interstices of his nest, where they all hatch their young, and live together in perfect harmony. It is twelve inches long; on a slight view, it appears wholly black, but placed near, it appears of a rich, glossy steel blue, violet and green. The bill is more than an inch long, the upper mandible being very sharp. The female is of a sooty brown color. 490 AVES—STARLING...BIRD OF PARADISE. THE STARE, OR STARLIN Gt TERE are few birds better known in Europe, than that under our consi- deration. It has a nearer relation with the European blackbird than with any other; but it is as distinguished from that genus by the glossy green of its feathers, in some lights, and the purple in others. It breeds in hollow trees, the eaves of houses, towers, ruins, cliffs, often in high rocks over the sea. It lays four or five eggs, of a pale greenish ash color, and makes its nest of straw, small fibres of roots, &c. Its voice is rough; but what it wants in the melody of note, it compensates by the facility with which it is taught to speak. So fond is it of society, that it will join not only its own kind, but will also associate with redwings and fieldfares, and even with owls, jackdaws, and pigeons. In the winter season these birds fly in large flocks, and may be known at a great distance by their whirling mode of flight. M. de Buffon compares it to a sort of vortex, in which the whole collective body performs a uniformly circular revolution, yet progressively advances at the same time. ; The principal food of starlings is snails, worms, and insects; but they will eat grain, seeds, and fruit, and are said to be exceedingly fond of cher- ries. When confined, they will eat raw flesh cut small, or bread soaked in water. They are accused, we know not how truly, of getting into pigeon houses, to suck the eggs, and it is certain that they do great damage in Lincolnshire, by roosting in myriads on the reeds, which are used for thatch- ing in that country, and which they break down by their weight. PH Ee DUR DOP PAR AD 1S Es Tus bird has been more celebrated for the false and imaginary qualities which are attributed to it, than for its real and truly remarkable properties. It has been reported of it, that the egg is produced in the air by the female, and hatched by the male in an orifice of its body; that it never touches the ground ; that it has no legs; that it hangs itself by the two long feathers to a trée when sleeping; and that it is naturally without legs, and subsists entirely upon vapors and dew; witha variety of other assertions, equally false and equally ridiculous. There are about eight different species of ae ee eee 1 Sturnus vulgaris, Lix. The genus Sturnus has the bill straight, in the form of an elongated cone, depressed, slightly obtuse; base of the upper mandible projecting on the forehead, the point much depressed, and without a notch ; nostrils basal, lateral, half closed by an arched membrane ; wings long, the first quill very short, the second and third ongest; three toes before, and one behind, the exterior joined at its base to the middle one, AVES—BIRD OF PARADISE. 491 wese birds ; but that which is best known is the greater paradise bird,! which appears to the eye of the size nearly of a pigeon, though in reality the body is not much larger than that of a thrush. The tail, which is about six inches, is as long as the body; the wings are large compared with the bird’s other dimensions. The head, the throat, and the neck, are of a pale gold color. The base of the bill is surrounded by black feathers, as also the side of the head and throat, are as soft as velvet, and changeable like those of the neck of a mallard. Thehinder part of the head is of a shining green, mixed with gold. The body and wings are chiefly covered with beautiful brown, purple, and gold feathers. The uppermost part of the tail feathers is of a pale yellow, and those beneath are white and longer than the former; for which reason the hinder part of the tail appears to be all white. But what chiefly excites curiosity are two long naked feathers, which spring from the upper part of the rump above the tail, and which are usually about two feet long These are bearded only at the beginning and the end; the whole shaft, fe about one foot nine inches, being of a deep black, while the feathered ex. tremity is of a changeable color, like the mallard’s neck. This bird is a native of the Molucca Islands, but found in greatest num- bers in that of Arou. The inhabitants are not insensible of the pleasure they afford, and give them the name of God’s birds, as being superior to all that he has made. They live in large flocks, and at night generally perch upon the same tree. They are called by some, the swallows of Ternate from their rapid flight, and from their being continually on the wing in pur- suit of insects, their usual prey. 1 Paradisea apoda, Lin. The genus Paradisea has the bill of medium size, straight uadrangular, pointed, a little convex above, compressed: ridge between the feathers of the forehead ; nostrils basal, marginal, open, but entirely concealed by the featkers; legs short; tarsus longer than the middle toe; lateral toe unequal, the internal one united to the second joint; back toe longer than the others, robust; wings with the five long veathers staged ; the sixth or seventh longest. A492 AVES—BIRD OF PARADISE. As the country where they are bred has its tempestuous season, whez rains and thunders continually disturb the atmosphere, these birds are then but seldom seen. The natives, who make a trade of killing and selling these birds to the Europeans, generally conceal themselves in the trees where they resort, and having covered themselves up from sight in a bower made of the branches, they shoot at the birds with reedy arrows; and, as they assert, if they happen to kill the king, they then have a good chance for killing the greatest part of the flock. The chief mark by which they know the king is by the ends of the feathers in his tail, which have eyes like those of a peacock. When they have taken a number of these birds, their usual method is to gut them, and cut of their legs. This has given rise to the fable above quoted; and the reason of this operation is, that the birds are used in that country as aigrettes, and for other ornaments of dress ; and that being the case, it is usual to cut off the useless and less brilliant parts. They then run a hot iron into the body, which dries up the internal moisture ; and filling the cavity with salts and spices, they sell them to the Europeans for a perfect trifle. THE: KING? BLED OF PARADISE? Is about the size of a lark. The upper parts of the plumage are of a bright red, and the breast is a blood red color, with a broad green bar. The wing feathers are a little mottled with white and green, and the whole plu- mage has a fine gloss like satin. The tail is remarkably short, and from it spring two naked feathers, like those in the former species, except that they coil ina spiral manner at the end. It is supposed to breed in New Guinea, where there is also a species, the predominant color of which is black. THE MAGNIFICENT BIRD OF PARADISE? Is superior to all the preceding in the beauty of its plumage. It is the size of a blackbird. The crown of the head is a deep chesnut. At the back part of the neck a tuft of yellowish feathers arises, each of which is marked near the tip with a black spot; beneath these, springs another tuft 1 Paradisea regia, Lin. 2 Paradisea magnifica, SHAW f AVES—MISSEL THRUSH. 493 still larger and of a straw color. The back and tail are of a bright red brown. Down the middle of the throat, neck, and breast, the color is blue green, which is encircled by a gorget (as it were) of black with a green shade. The long feathers from the tail are without tufts at the end, but are fur- nished with very short green webs on one side. Besides these, there is the gorget bird of paradise, and some other species of less note. ORDER III—INSECTIVOROUS BIRDS. Birps of this order have the bill middle sized, or short, straight, rounded, slightly edged or awl-shaped; upper mandible curved and notched at the point, most frequently furnished at the base with some coarse hair, pointing forward ; feet with three toes, before and behind, articulated on the same level, the exterior united at its base, or to the first joint of the middle toe. THE MISSEL THRUSH! is eleven inches in length, and weighing near five ounces. It differs searcely in any other respect from the throstle, except that the spots on the breast are larger. It builds its nest in bushes, or on the side of some tree, as all of this kind are found to do, and lays four or five eggs in a season. Its song, which it begins in spring, sitting on the summit of a high tree, is not, however, so fine as that of the throstle. It is the largest bird of all the feathered tribe that has music in its voice; the note of all greater birds being either screaming, chattering, or croaking. It feeds on insects, holly, and misseltoe berries; and sometimes sends forth a very disagreeable scream when frightened or disturbed. It is very common in England, but is not found in America. While breeding, it is fierce and pugnacious, driving with great fury to a distance all birds that approach its nest. No jay, magpie, or blackbird, must enter the gar’en which is his haunt. 1 Turdus viscivorus, Lis. The genus Turdus has the bill middle sized, sharp edged, tip compressed, and recurved; upper mandible notched near the point; detached haira at the opening of the mandibles ; nostrils basal, ovoid, lateral, half concealed by a naked membrane; tarsus longer than the middle toe, to which last the outer is united at the bass. fe 494 AVES—FIELDFARE. THE FIELDFARE! Is known by his yellowish bill, by the dark color of his legs, and by his head being ash color, spotted with black. In the south of Europe they are insipid, tuneless birds, flying in flocks, and excessively watchful to preserve the general safety. All their season of music and pleasure is employed in the more northern climates, where they sing most delightfully, perched among the forests of maples, with which those countries abound. The fieldfare is only a visitant in England, making its appearance about the beginning of October, in order to avoid the rigorous winters of the north, whence it sometimes comes in great flocks, according to the severity of the season, and leaves England about the latter end of February, or the begin- ning of March, and retires to Russia, Sweden, Norway, and as far as Siberia and Kamtschatka. They breed in Sweden and Norway. They build their nests in high trees, and sit on trees during the day, but always roost on the ground. During the winter they feed on haws and other berries; they like- wise eat worms, snails, and slugs. Fieldfares are sometimes seen singly, but, in general, form very numerous flocks, and fly in a body; and though they often spread themselves through the fields in search of food, they seldom lose sight of each other, but, when alarmed, fly off, and collect together upon the same tree. There is reason, says Mr Bingley, to suppose that the flocks of these birds keep a kind of watch to remark and announce the appearance of danger. On any person approaching a tree that is covered with them, they continue fearless, till one, at the extremity of the bush, rising on its wings gives a loud and peculiar note of alarm. They will then fly away, except one other, which continues till the person approaches still nearer, to certify as it were the reality of the danger, and afterwards he also flies off, repeating the note of alarm. The Roman epicures held these birds in such esteem, that they fattened them with crumbs of bread mixed with minced figs, and their flesh is still esteemed a delicacy. a ee 1 Turdus pilaris, Lin. AVES—THRUSH. 495 THE THROST GE, ORL ON Grab iae Us Ht Is about eleven inches in length. The bill is dusky, the base of the lower bill yellow; the eyes are hazel; the head, back, and lesser coverts of the wings are of a deep olive brown, the latter tipped with white; the lower part of the back and rump are tinged with yellow; the cheeks are of a yel- lowish white, spotted with brown, as are also the breast and belly, which are marked with larger spots of a dark brown color; the quills are brown with pale edges; the tail feathers the same, the three outermost tipped with white; the legs are yellow; the claws black. It begins to sing very early, often on the turn of the year, in blowing, showery weather, whence in some places it is called the storm cock, and its song is heard during nine months. Its note of anger is very loud and harsh, between a chatter and a shriek, which accounts for some of its names. Its usual strain, however, is among the sweetest of the grove, and is often kept up for hours without cessation. When brought up from the nest with the woodlark or the nightingale, it will adopt their song. It subsists on various sorts of berries, and likewise on caterpillars and several kinds of insects, with which it also feeds its young. This bird is found in various parts of Europe, and is said to be migratory in some places, but continues in England the whole year, and frequently has two broods. It builds in woods or orchards, and not seldom in thick hedges near the ground. Fine and soft moss, interwoven with dried grass or hay, forms the outside of the nest, and the inside is curiously plastered with cow dung. In some districts of Poland, thrushes are caught in such numbers that the inhabitants export them in ship loads. THE THRASHER, OR BROWN. THRUSH Ir is the largest of all the American thrushes, and isa well known and distinguished songster, and from the tops of hedge-rows, apple or cherry trees, he salutes the opening morning with his charming song, which is loud, emphatical, and full of variety. At that serene hour, you may plainly dis- tinguish his voice at half a mile’s distance. These notes are not imitative, but solely his own. Early in May, he builds his nest, choosing a thorn-bush, low cedar, thicket of briers, or cluster of vines for his situation. It is con- structed of small sticks, dry leaves, and fine fibrous roots. He often attacks the black snake in defence of his young, and with success, as his bill is strong and powerful. His food consists of worms, caterpillars, beetles, and berries, 1 Turdus musicus, Linx. 2 Turdus rufus, Lin. 496 AVES—MOCKING-BIRD. He also destroys vast quantities of grubs, which he scratches from the ground. He is an active and vigorous bird, flying generally low from one thicket to another, with his long broad tail spread out like a fan; he has a single note or chuck when you approach his nest. He inhabits North America, fror Canada to Florida. They are easily reared, and become very familar ir confinement. The thrasher is eleven inches and a half long; the whole upper parts are of a bright reddish brown; lower parts yellowish white; the breast and sides are marked with pointed black spots, running in chains. The wings are crossed with two white bars. THE MOCKING-BIRD.1 Turis extraordinary bird is peculiar to the new world, inhabiting a consi- derable portion of both North and South America. A warm climate and low country seem most congenial to their nature; they are therefore much more numerous in the southern than the northern states. The berries of the red cedar, myrtle, holly, gum berries, gall berries, and a profusion of others, with which the luxuriant swampy thickets of those regions abound, furnish 1 Turdus polygizttus, Lin. AVES—MOCKING-BIRD. 497 them with a perpetual feast. Winged insects, also, which abound there even in winter, form a favorite part of their food. The mocking-bird builds his nest in different places, according to the lati- tude in which he resides. builds a large, compact nest, of dry grass and moss, in the upright fork of 1 small tree. In his manners he has more resemblance to the pies than to birds of prey, particularly in the habit of carrying off his surplus food, as if to hoard it for future exigencies; with this difference, that the pies concea] theirs at random in holes and crevices, where perhaps it is forgottzn; while the shrike sticks his on thorns and bushes, where it shrivels in the sun, and soon becomes useless to the hoarder. One of these birds had once the temerity to pursue a snow-bird into an open cage which stood in a garden; and, beforeany one could arrive to its assistance, had already strangled and scalped it, though he lost his liberty by the exploit. In confinement, he sticks up not only insects, but flesh, and the bodies of such birds as are thrown to him, on nails and sticks fixed up for the purpose. The character of the butcher-bird is entitled to no small degree of respect. His activity is visible in all his motions; his courage and intrepidity beyond every other bird of his size, (the king-bird excepted,) and in affection for bis young, he is surpassed by no other. He associates with them, the whole family hunting in company. He attacks the largest hawk or eagle in theit 64 43 506 AVES—FLYCATCHER. defence, witn a resolution truly astonishing, so that all of them respect him, and on every occasion decline the contest. As the snows of winter approach, he descends from the mountainous forests and from the regions of the north, to the more cultivated parts of the country, hovering about our hedge-rows, orchards, and meadows, and disappears again early in April. THE SPOTTED FLYCATCHER. Tue tribes of flycatchers are sonamed from living on insects. The spotted flycatcher, however, eats fruit, and is on that account called, in some parts of England, the cherry sucker. It is, in general, of a mouse color, the head spotted with black, and the wings and tail edged with white. Of all the European summer birds it is the most mute and the most familiar; it also appears the last of any. It builds in a vine or a sweet-brier, against the wall of a house, or in the hole of a wall, or on the end of a beam or plate, and often close to the post of a door where people are going in and out all day long. This bird does not make the least pretensions to song; but uses a little inward, waiing note, when it thinks its young in danger from cats or other annoyances. It takes its stand on the top of some stake or post, from whence it springs forth on its prey, catching a fly in the air, and hardly ever touching the ground, but returning still to the same stand, for many times together. THE PIED FLYCATCHER? Tus bird is about five inches long. It has a black beak, hazel eyes, aad white forehead; the top of the head, the back, tail, and legs, are black ; the rump is dashed with ash color; the wing-coverts are dusky, and the greater coverts are tipped with white; the exterior sides of the secondary quills are white, as are also the outer feathers of the tail, and all the under parts, from the bill to the tail. The female is much smaller than the male, but has a ee SS a es 1 Muscicapa grisola, Lis. The genus Muscicapa has a bill strong, angular, depressed ?' ‘he base, compressed towards the point, which is curved and muc notched ; hase fur- nished with long and stiff hairs; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, partly covered by hairs tarsus as long as the middle toe ; lateral toes almost equal. 2 Muscicapa albicollis, Tem AVES—FLYCATCHER, | 507 longer tail; is brown where he is black; and has not the white spot on the forehead. They are most plentiful in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derby- shire. Their nests are built in holes of trees. The parent birds incessantly feed their young with small flies, which they catch very expertly. THE KING-BIRD, OR TYRANT FLYCATCHER, Sometimes called the field marten, is a well known bird in the Unitea States. The name king, as well as tyrant, has been bestowed on this vird fer its extraordinary behavior in breeding time, and for the authority it assumes over all other birds. His extreme affection for his mate, nest, and young, makes him suspicious of every bird that comes near his residence, so that he attacks every intruder without discrimination ; his life at this season is one continued scene of broilsand battles; in which, however, he generally comes off conqueror. Hawks and crows, the bald eagle, and the great black eagle, all equally dread a rencontre with this merciless champion, who, as soon as he perceives one of these last approachiag, launches into the air to meet —-— -— 1 Muscicapa tyrannus, Bonar. 508 _ AVES—FLYCATCHER. him, mounts to a considerable height above him, and darts down on his back, sometimes fixing there to the great annoyance of his sovereign, who, if no convenient retreat be near, endeavors, by various evolutions, to rid himself of his merciless adversary, but the king-bird is not so easily dis- mounted. He teazes the eagle incessantly, sweeps upon him, and remounts, that he may descend on his back with greater violence ; all the while keep- ing up a shrill and rapid twittering. The purple marten, however, is some- times more than a match for him; and the red-headed wood-pecker is seen tc amuse himself with the violence of the king-bird, and play bo-peep with liini round a rail, while the latter, highly irritated, makes every attempt to strixe him, but m vain. He annoys the farmer very much by his partiality to bees. He plants himself on a post of the fence near the hives, and makes great havoc among these industrious insects. But the cultivator may be assured that this bird is greatly his friend, in destroying multitudes of insects and their larvee, which prey on the harvests of his fields. He often takes his stand in fields of pasture, on the tops cf mullen and other rank weeds, near the cattle, and makes sweeps after passing insects, particularly the large black gadflies, so terrifying to horses and cattle. His eye moves restlessly about him, traces _the flight of an insect, then that of a second, and even a third, till he sees one to his liking, when with a shrill sweep he pursues it, seizes it and re- turns to the same spot, to look out for more. He hovers over the river for a considerable time, darting after insects, snatching them from the surface of the water, and diving about in the air like a swallow; for he possesses, at will, great powers of wing. His flight is much like that of a hawk. Beside insects, he feeds on various sorts of berries, particularly blackberries, of which he is extremely fond. The general color of this bird is a dark slaty ash; the throat and lower parts are pure white; the plumage on the head, though not forming a crest, is frequently erected, and discovers a rich bed of orange color, called by the country people his crown; when the feathers lie close, this is concealed. THE GREAT-CRESTED FLYCATCHER? Is not so well known as the preceding, being chiefly confined to the woods There, his harsh squeak, (for he has no song,) is heard above most others He also visits the orchard, is equally fond of bees, but wants the courage and magnanimity of the king-bird. He builds his nest in a hollow tree deserted by the blue-bird or woodpecker. The materials of which this is —_— 1 Muscicapa crinita, Lin. AVES—FLYCATCHER. 509 formed, are somewhat scantier. It is formed of a little loose hay, featners of the Guinea fowls, hogs’ bristles, pieces of cast snake skins, and dogs’ hair Whether he surrounds his nest with the snake skin by way of terrorem, to prevent other birds or animals from entering, or whether it be that he finds its silky softness suitable for his young, is uncertain; the fact, however, is notorious. It feeds on whortleberries, while they last. It is eight inches and a half long; the upper parts are dull greenish olive, the feathers on the head are pointed, and form a sort of crest; the thioat and breast ash color; the rest of the lower parts a sulphur yellow. PAE? WL Dae Ee CA CH Er} Is one of our earliest spring visitants. Its notes, like those of the blue- bird, are pleasing, not for any melody they contain, but for the ideas of spring and returning verdure, with all the sweets of this lovely season, which are associated with his simple but lively ditty, which is nothing but pewée, pewittitee, pewée, for a whole morning. It begins to build in March, on some projecting part under a bridge, ina cave, in a well, often under a shed in the low eaves of a cottage, and in such places. The nest is composed of mud mixed with moss, lined with flax ard horse-hair, and is generally large and solid. This bird is six inches anda half in length; the upper parts are dusky olive; whole lower parts a pale delicate yellow; the plu- mage of the head is loose and crested. Pa SMALE. BEUE-GR AY FL YC A T Crier 2 Ir it were not for the length of the tail, would rank next to the humming- bird in magnitude. It is four inches and a half long; the plumage ahove is of a light bluish gray; below, bluish white; the wings brownish black. Its motions are quick ; he seems always on the look-out for insects; darts about from one part of the tree to another with hanging wings, and erected tail, making a feeble chirping ¢see, tsee, no louder than a mouse. Though so small, it is ambitious of hunting on the highest branches, and is seldom seen among the humbler thickets. It fixes its nest among the twigs on the top of a high tree; this is formed of the stems of old leaves, the husks of buds, the withered blossoms of weeds, coated with dry lichen, and lined with horse-hair. Yet in this frail receptacle does the female cow-bird venture to deposit her egg; and to the management of these pigmy nurses, leaves the fate of her helpless young. 1 Muscicapa phebe, Laru. 2 Muscicapa cerulea, WiLsoN. A3* 510 AVES—FLYCATCHER. THE RED-EYED FLYCATCHER! Is the most distinguishable of all the warblers of our forests; it has a loud, lively, and energetic song; which it continues sometimes for an hour without intermission, as it hunts among the thick foliage. Its notes are in short emphatical bars, of two, three, or four syllables. In Jamaica, where this bird winters, it is called whip-tom-kelly, from an imagined resemblance of its notes to these words. This bird builds a neat, pensile nest, between two twigs of a young dog- wood, or other young sapling. It is hung by the two upper edges, and formed of pieces of hornets’ nests, some flax, fragments of withered leaves, slips of pine bark, and bits of paper, all glued together by the saliva of the bird and the silk of caterpillars; lined with fibrous bark, grass, and hair. These nests are very durable, and selected by the cow-bird as one of the numerous receptacles for her egg; the red-eyed flycatcher showing as much solicitude for the young foundling as if it were her own. This bird is five inches and a half long; the plumage is yellow olive above; the under parts are white; the crown is ash, bordered with black. The iris of the eye is red. The red-eyed flycatcher is common throughout the United States, and is an inhabitant of the city as well as the forest. On a fine summer’s day, his lively notes may be heard among the branches of the elms on Boston common, THE YELL OW-T EH ROAwLE Der hye A iC Ee ie Is found chiefly in the woods, hunting among the high branches; and has an indolent and plaintive note, which it repeats with some little variation every ten or twelve seconds, like preeo, preea, &c. It is often heard in com- pany with the preceding; the loud, energetic notes of the latter, mingling with the soft, languid warble of the former, producing an agreeable effect, particularly during the burning heat of noon, when almost every other songster but these two is silent. Its nest is built on a tree, and composed o* strips of bark, of grape-vines, moss, lichens, &c., and lined with fibres. Winged insects are its principal food. This bird is five inches and a half long; the head and back of a nee yellow olive; the throat and breast a fine lemon color; the under parts are silky white; wings almost black, crossed with two white bars. 1 Muscicapa olivacea, Lin. 2 Muscicapa sylvicola, WiLson. AVES—FLYCATCHER...REDSTART. 511 THE WHITE-EYED FPLYCAECHE R! Is another of the cow-bird’s adopted nurses; a lively, active, and sociable little bird, possessing a strong voice for its size, and a great variety of notes, and sings during the whole summer. It probably winters in Mexico and the West Indies. It builds a very neat little nest in the figure of an inverted cone ; it is suspended by the upper edge of the two sides on the circular bend of a prickly vine that generally grows in low thickets. It is constructed of bits of rotten wood, fibres of weeds, and pieces of paper, commonly news- papers. From this circumstance it is sometimes called the Politician. It makes a great ado when any one comes near the nest; looking down and scolding with great vehemence. It is five inches and a quarter long; the upper parts are fine yellow olive; those below white, except the sides of the breast, which are yellow. THE SWALLLOW-TAILED FLYCATCHER? Is a very rare and beautiful bird, a specimen of which was shot, on the Ar- kansas river, by the exploring party under Major Long. It is as audacious as the king-bird, attacking with unhesitating intrepidity, and turning the flight of the most powerful of the feathered tribe. Its notes consist of a chirping something like tsch, tsch, much resembling that of the prairie dog, by which it deceived the members of Long’s party into a belief that they were ap- proaching one of the villages of this animal. To the above may be added the Arkansas, Say’s, Bonaparte’s, Selby’s, and Traill’s Flycatchers, all of which belong to the United States. TRE, AMERLCAN. REDS TAR D3 Has been classed among the warblers, yet it has all the characteristics of the flycatchers, and is in fact one of the most expert of its tribe. It will pursue a party of flies from the tops of the tallest trees, in an almost per- pendicular, but zigzag direction, to the ground, while the clicking of its bill is distinctly heard; and 1 deubt not but it often secures ten or twelve cf these in three or four seconds. Its notes or twitter, though animated and sprightly are not deserving the name of song; sometimes they are wéese, wéese, wéese, repeated every quarter of a minute, as it skips among the branches ; at other times this twitter varies to several other chants, which we 1 Muscicapa cantatrix, Witson. 2 Muscicapa forficata, GMEL. 3 Muscicapa ruticilla, Lin. 512 AVES—FLYCATCHER...NIGHTINGALE. can instantly distinguish in the woods. It is sure to be seen in the interio of forests, the borders of swamps, and meadows, and in deep glens covered with wood, and wherever flying insects abound. It is very generally found in the United States. The name redstart has been given to it from 1ts supposed resemblance to the redstart of Europe. It builds in low bushes; the nest is built of flax moistened with saliva, and lined with soft down. The male is extremely anxious for its preservation, and on any one’s approaching the place, will flit about within a few feet, seeming greatly distressed. This bird is five inches long; the general color above is black, glossed with blue; the sides of the breast, part of the wings and tail, of a fine orange, and the under parts white. THE NIGHLANGALE Visits England in the beginning of April, and leaves it in September. Itis found but in some of the southern parts of that country, being totally un- known in Scotland, Ireland, or North Wales. They frequent thick hedges and low coppices, and generally keep in the middle of the bush, so that they are rarely seen. It is not by the beauty of his plumage that this universally admired bird has become a general favorite, and the theme of almust every poet; for he is one of those warblers which are the most humbly attired. He is about six inches long, and the upper part of his body is of a rusty 1 Sylvia luscinia, Latu. The genus Sylvia has the bill straight, slender, awl-shaped, the base deeper than broad ; point of the upper mandible frequently notched, the under one straight ; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, partly covered by a membrane ; tarsus longer than the middle toe; the exterior toe joined at its hase to the middle one; first quill fecther very short, or none ; second scarcely exceeding the third ; great wing-coverts much shorter than the quill feathers. AVES—BLACK-CAP. 513 brown, tinged with olive; the under parts are of a pale ash color, almost winte at the throat and belly. But in his song he surpasses all the choristers of the air, his notes being exquisitely varied, soft, and harmonious, and ren- dered still more pleasing by their being poured forth in the night, when the other warblers are all silent. They begin their song in the evening, and generally continue for the whole night. For weeks together, if undisturbed, they sit upon the same tree; and Shakspeare rightly describes the nightin- gale, sitting nightly in the same place. In a calm evening, he may be heard to the distance of more than half a mile. In the beginning of May, the nightingale prepares to make its nest, which 1s formed of the leaves of trees, straw, and moss. The nest, being very eagerly sought after, is as cunningly secreted ; so that but very few of them are found by the boys when they go upon these pursuits. It is built at the bottom of hedges, where the bushes are thickest and best covered. While the female continues sitting, the male, at a good distance, but always within hearing, cheers the patient hour with his voice, and, by the short interruption of his song, often gives her warning of approaching danger. She lays four or five eggs; of which but a part, in England, come to maturity. The delicacy, or rather the fame, of this bird’s music, has induced many to abridge its liberty, to secure its harmony. Its song, however, in captivity, 1s not so very alluring; and the tyranny of taking it from these hedges, where only it is most pleasing, still more depreciates its imprisoned effurts. Gesner assures us, that it is not only the most agreeable songster in a cage, but that it is possessed of a most admirable faculty of talking. THE BLACK-CAP.! Tuis bird is rather more than five inches in length, and is of the titmouse kind. The upper mandible is of a dark horn color, the under one light blue, and the edges of both whitish ; the top of the head is black, from which circumstance it derives its name; the sides of the head and back of the neck are ash color; the back and wings of an olive gray; the throat and breast uf a silvery gray; the belly white; the legs are of a bluish color, inclining to brown; the claws black. The head of the female is of a dull rust color 1 Sylvia atricapilla, Latu, 65 514 AVES—REDBREAST. The black-cap visits England about the middle of April, and retires in September; it is common in Italy, but in England it is rather a rare bird It frequents gardens, and its nest, which it builds near the ground, is com posed of dried grass, moss, and wool, and lined with hair and feathers. The female lays five eggs, of a pale reddish brown, sprinkled with darker colored spots. During the time of incubation the male attends the female, and sits by turns; he likewise procures her food, such as flies, worms and insects. This bird sings sweetly, and so like the nightingale, that in Norfolk it is ealled the mock-nightingale. Black-caps feed chiefly on flies and insects, and not unfrequently on ivy, and other berries. THE REDBREAST.! TuovucHu the redbreast is generally admired for his song, he is still more ad- mired for his attachment to, and confidence in, mankind. In all countries, he is a favorite, and has what may be called a pet name. The inhabitants of Bornholm call him Tommi Liden, the Norwegians, Peter Ronsmed, the Germans, Thomas Gierdet,and in England he is known as Robin Redbreast, or by the still more familiar appellation of Bob. Buffon describes, with his usual elegance, the winter manners of this bird. ‘In that season,” says he, “ they visit our dwellings, and seek the warmest and most sheltered situa- tions ; and if any one happens still to continue in the woods, it becomes the companion of the faggot maker, cherishes itself at his fire, pecks at his bread, and flutters the whole day round him, chirping its slender pzp. But when the cold grows more severe, and thick snow covers the ground, it ap- proaches our houses, and taps at the windows with its bill, as if to entreat an asylum, which is cheerfully granted; and it repays the favor by the most amiable familiarity, gathering the crumbs from the table, distinguishing affectionately the people of the house, and assuming a warble, not indeed so rich as that in the spring, but more delicate. This it retains through all the rigors of the season, to hail each day the kindness of its host, and the sweetness of its retreat.” The bill of the robin is slender and delicate; its eyes are large, dark, and expressive, and its aspect mild; its head and all the upper parts of its body are brown, tinged with a greenish olive; the neck and breast are of a fine deep reddish orange ; a spot of the same color marks its forehead ; its belly is whitish, and the legs and feet of a dusky black. It is near six inches in length, from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail; the former being about half an inch, and the latter two inches and a half. This bird, m England, has the sweetest song of all the feathered tribe: the notes ef other birds are, indeed, louder, and their inflections more ca- pricious , but the redbreast’s voice is soft, tender, and well supported; and the more to be valued, as we enjoy it the greatest part of the winter. —— 1 Sylvia rubecola LATH. AVES—REDSTART. 515 During the spring, the robin haunts the wood, the grove, and the garden- and retires to the thickest and shadiest hedge-rows to breed in, where its nest is usually placed among the roots of trees, in some concealed spot near the ground. In winter it endeavors to support itself, by chirping round the ‘warm habitations of mankind, and by coming into those shelters where the riger of the season is artificially expelled, and where insects are found in the greatest numbers, attracted by the same cause. The female lays from five to seven eggs, of a dull white color, diversified with reddish streaks. In- sects and worms are the principal food of the redbreast. The latter it very dexterously renders fit to be eaten, by taking hold of the extremity of one in its beak, and beating it against the ground till the inside comes away, and then repeating the operation with the other end, till the outer part is entire’ ‘leansed. THE REDS TART.! Tuis bird measures rather more than five inches in length. Its bill and eyes are black; its forehead is white; the cheeks, throat, fore part, and sides of the neck, are black, which color extends over each eye; the crown of the head, hinder part of the neck, and the back, are of a deep blue gray ; insome subjects, probably old ones, this gray is almost black; its breast, rump, and sides are of a fine glowing red, inclining to orange color, which extends to all the feathers of the tail, excepting the two middle ones, which are brown ; the belly is white; the feet and claws are black. The female differs consi- derably from the male; her colors are not so vivid; the top of her head and back are of a gray ash color, and the chin is white. The redstart is migratory ; it appears about the middle of April, and de- parts in the latter end of September, or beginning of October; to what country it retires is not known; it frequents old walls and ruinous edifices, where it makes its nest, composed chiefly of moss, lined with hair and feathers. It is distinguished by a peculiar quick shake of its tail from side to side, on its alighting on a wall or other place. Though a wild and timo- rous bird, it is frequently found in the midst of cities, always choosing the —_— 1 Sylvia phenicurus, atu. 516 AVES—BLUE-BIRD. most difficult and inaccessible places for its residence; 1t likewise builds ia forests, in holes of trees, or in high and dangerous precipices. The female lays four or five eggs, not much unlike those of the hedge-sparrow, but somewhat longer. Should she discover that they have been touched, she immediately forsakes them. These birds feed on flies, spiders, the eggs of ants, small berries, soft fruits, and such like. If taken when old, it is im- possible to tame the redstart, but if caught young, and kept warm during the winter, it may be domesticated, and will pour forth its song, by night as well as by day, with great sweetness and freedom. THE BLUE-BIRD. Tue blue-bird is one of the first messengers of spring, and meets with a hearty welcome from every body. He appears as early as February, and 1s seen with his mate reconnoitering the leaf in the garden, and the hole in the apple tree, the cradles of some generations of his ancestors. They then begin to clear out the old nest, and to prepare for the reception of their future offspring. Soon after this, another sociable little pilgrim arrives from the south, and finding such a snug birth pre-occupied, shows his spite, by watching a convenient opportunity, and, in the absence of the owner, pops in and pulls out the sticks; but takes especial care to make off as fast as possible. Their principal food is insects and beetles, and sometimes spiders. In the fall they feed on berries, fruits, and seeds. The usual spring and summer song of this bird, is a soft, agreeable and oft-repeated warble,, uttered with open quivering wings, and is extremely pleasing. In his motions and charac- ter he resembles the redbreast of Britain, and like him he is known to almcst every child. He is of a mild and peaceful disposition, seldom quar- relling with other birds. His society is courted in the country, and few farmers neglect to provide for him, in some suitable place, a snug little summer-house, ready fitted and rent free. For this he more than sufficiently repivs them by the cheerfulness of his song and the multitude of injurious insects which he destroys. Towards fall, his song changes to a single plain- tive note, as he passes over the yellow and many-colored woods; and its melancholy air recalls to our minds the approaching decay of the face of nature. Even after the trees are stripped of their leaves, he still lingers over his native fields, as if loth to leave them. Indeed he appears scarcely ever totally to forsake us, as with every return of mild and open weather, we hear his plaintive note amidst the fields, or in the air, seeming to deplore the devastation of winter. The blue-bird is six inches and three quarters long; the wings are remar- ee 1 Sylvia sialis, WiLson. AVES--WARBLER. 517 kably full and broad, and dusky black at the tips; the whole upper parts are rich sky-blue, with purple reflections ; under parts chesnut color and white. THE BLUE-WINGED YELLOW WARBLER! Vistrs us from the south; haunts thickets and shrubberies, searching the branches for insects ; is fond of visiting gardens, orchards, and willow trees, of gleaning among blossoms and currant bushes; and is frequently found in very sequestered woods, where it generally builds its nest. It is in the form of an inverted cone, the bottom thickly bedded with dry beach leaves; the sides formed of the dry bark of weeds, and lined with grass. This species is five inches and a half long; back is rich green olive; crown and front orange yellow; whole lower parts yellow. THE BLUE-EYED YELLOW WARBLER? Is a very common bird, and appears almost always actively employed among the leaves and blossoms of the willows, snowballs and poplars, searching after small green caterpillars, which are its principal food. It has a few shrill emphatic notes, not deserving the name of song. It is a very sprightly, unsuspicious, and familiar bird; is often seen in and about gardens, among the blossoms and fruit trees; and, on account of its color, is very no- ticeable. Its nest is built with great neatness in the fork of a small shrub. [t is composed of flax or tow, strongly twisted round the twigs, and lined with hair and the down of fern. This interesting little bird will feign lame- ness to draw you from its nest, fluttering feebly along, and looking back to see if you foliow him. It is five inches long. The upper parts are greenish yellow; crown, front, and whole lower parts, rich gollicn yellow ; breast and sides streaked with dark red. THE GOLDEN-WINGED WARBLER? Is another spring passenger through the United States. Its habits partake very much of those of the titmouse, and in their language and actions very much resemble them. It darts actively among the young leaves and opening buds, and is rather a scarce species. It is five inches long; the crown is golden yellow; the wings yellow; the rest of the upper parts ash or slate color. 1 Sylvia solitaria, WiLson. 2 Sylvia cestiva, LATH. 3 Sylvia chrysoptera, Latu. 44 518 AVES—WREN. THE GOLDEN CRESTED WRENN. Tuts is the smallest of all British birds, is very beautiful, and has an extremely delicate and pleasing note, somewhat less loud than that of the common wren. In winter it may be distinguished by its shrill squeak, which somewhat resembles the cricking of a grasshopper. It is very agile, and is almost constantly in motion, either fluttering from branch to branch, creeping on all sides of the trees, clinging to them in all ways, and often hanging with its back downward, like a titmouse. Insects and their eggs, small worms, and various kinds cf seeds, constitute its food. The female lays from ten to eighteen eggs, which are scarcely larger than peas; and the nest is frequently formed amongst the leaves at the top of the branch of a fir tree, where, in high winds, it swings like a pendulum. Of this wren the head and upper part are of a deep reddish brown; the back, and the coverts of the wings and tail, are marked with slender trans- verse black lines; the quill feathers are barred with black and red; the belly and sides are crossed with narrow, dusky and pale reddish brown lines; the *tail is crossed with dusky bars; the throat is a yellowish white; and there is a stroke of white above each eye. TE EUR Orr AUN. WR N:.2 Tuis filliputian songster is a native of every part of Europe. It weighs only three drachms, is but four inches in length, from the point of the bill to the end of the tail, and is admired for the loudness of its note, compared with the little body whence it issues. It will carol forth its strains uncon- cerned during a fall of snow. Even when confined in a cage, it has some-. times been known to sing as strong as when in its native fields, and with equal freedom and mellowness of song. It commonly creeps about hedges or trees, in the Vicinity of farmyards, and sings very late in the evening, though not, like the nightingale, after the landscape is enveloped with darkness.—The female lays from ten to eighteen eggs, which are very small, white, and sprinkled with red spots. The wren constructs its nest in a very curious manner. Unlike other birds, it does not begin first at the bottom. If the nest be placed against a bank, it commences the fabric at the top; if against a tree,it at the outset 1 Regulus auricapillus, Setsy. The genus Regulus has the bill straight, slender, deeper than broad, compressed, the edges bending inwards; nostrils basal, with bristles directed forwards; wings with the first quill short, the second shorter than the third, which is the longest ; tarsus longer than the iniddle toe. 2 Troglodytes Europeus, Cuv. The genus T'roglodytes has the bill slender, and ughtly compressed, curved, emanginated ; nostrils basal, talf covered by a naked mein- brane ; wings short and rounded ; fourth and fifth feathers of equal length and longest; tail short, rounded, erect; tarsus the length of the middle toe. AVES—WREN. Fy traces the outline on the bark, and closes the sides and top in succession. When it builds against a hayrick, the exterior of the nest is of that material ; when it is on the side of a tree covered with white lichen, or green moss, the fabric 1s of one or other of those substances ; but the interior is uniform- ly lined with feathers. THE AMERICAN HOUSE WREN1J Tue house wren is a well known and familiar bird, who builds his nest, sometimes under the eaves, or in a hollow cherry tree; but most commonly in small boxes fixed on a pole, for its accommodation. He will even put up with an old hat, and if even this is denied him, he will find some hole or crevice, about the house or barn, rather than abandon the dwellings of man. A mower once hung up his coat, under a shed near a barn; two or three days elapsed before he had occasion to put it on; thrusting his arm up the sleeve he found it completely filied with some rubbish as he expressed it, and on extracting the whole mass, found it te be the nest of a wren, com- pletely finished and lined with a large quantity of feathers. In his retreat he was followed by the forlorn little proprietors, who scolded him with great vehemence, for thus ruining the whole economy of their domestic Affairs. The immense number of insects which this sociable little bird removes from the garden and fruit trees ought to endear him to every cultivator ; and his notes, loud, sprightly, and tremulous, are extremely agreeable. Its food is insects and caterpillars, and while supplying the wants of its young, it destroys, on an average, many hundreds a day. It isa bold and insolent bird against those that venture to build within its jurisdiction; attacking them without hesitation, though twice its size, and compelling them to decamp. I have known him to drive a pair of swallows from their newly formed nest, and take immediate possession of the premises. Even the blue-bird, when attacked by this little impertinent, soon relinquishes the contest ; with those of his own species, also, he has frequent squabbles. The nouse wren inhabits the whole of the United States. It is four mehes and a half long; the whole upper parts are a deep brown; the throat, breast, and cheeks, clay color; the under parts mottled. — 1 Troglodytes fulvus, Bonar. 520 AVES—WREN...WHEAT-EAR THE MARS Hh ew RE Nt 1s very numerous along the tide-water of the rivers in Pennsylvania, wnere they frequent the reeds and splatter docks, to seareh for flying insects, and green grasshoppers, which are its principal food. To such places it limits its excursions As to its notes, it would be mere burlesque to call them song, It builds a durable and warm nest of rushes and mud, which it suspends among the reeds, Its size, color, and habit of erecting its tail, give it some- thing the appearance of the house wren. It is five inches long, and of a dark brown color. THE GREAT CAROLINA WREWN? Woutp at first sight be called a wren, but this and the preceding are de- cidedly creepers. It is found only in the southern states, where it is at- tached to cypress swamps, deep hollows, among decaying timber, and coves near rivers and creeks. It has all the jerking manner of the wren, skipping about with great nimbleness, hopping into caves, and disappearing into holes and crevices like a rat, for several minutes, and then reappearing ia anof’.er yuarter. It occasionally utters a loud, strong, and singular twitter, resem- bling the word chirrup, dwelling long and strongly on the first syllable. It has also another chant, rather more musical, like ‘‘ Sweet William, Sweet William,” much softer than the former. Its food seems to consist of those insects and their larve that frequent low damp caves, piles of dead timber, old roots, projecting banks of creeks, &c. It is five inches and a quarter long, and of a reddish brown color. THE WHEAT-EAR. Tus bird weighs upwards of an ounce, and has a slender black bill, about half an inch long; the tongue is cloven or slit, and the inside of the mouth black; the eyes are of a hazel color, above which there is a white line pass- ing towards the hinder part of the head; and below them, a large black sne, which extends itself from the corners of the mouth to the ears. The head and back appear of a cinereous color, with a mixture of red. The ~ump is 1 Troglodytes palustris, Bonar. 2 Troglodytes ludovicianus, Bonar. 3 Sazicola enanthe, Becust. The genus Sazicola has the bill straight, slender, shghtly carmnated, and advancing upon the forehead; the top of the under mandible a little bent and emarginated ; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, partly concealed by 3 membrane; tarsus considerably longer than the middle toe; the outer toe joined at its base to the muddle one; third and fourth quill feathers the longest. AVES—WHEAT-EAR. 52. generally white, from whence, by some, it has the name of white-tail; the belly is white, tinged with yellow, dashed faintly with red; the breast and throat are more deep; the coverts and quills are black, with their extreme edges white, tinctured with a dusky red: the tail is something more than two inches long, and the upper half of it is black, the lower, white. The female wants the black mark across the eyes; the bar of white across the tail is narrower than that of the male; and the general colors are more dull. The wheat-ear visits England annually in the middle of March, and leaves in September. The females come first, about a fortnight before the males; and they continue to come till the middle of May. In some parts of Eng- land they are found in vast plenty, and are much esteemed. About East- bourne, in Sussex, they are taken in snares made of horse-hair, placed beneath a long turf. As they are very timid birds, the motion even of a cloud, or the appearance of a hawk, will immediately drive them into the traps. These traps are first set every year on St. James’s day, (July 25;) soon after which, they are caught in astonishing numbers, considering that they are not gregarious, and that more than two or three are scarcely ever seen flying together. The numbers annually ensnared in the district of Eastbourne alone is said to amount to nearly two thousand dozen. One shepherd has caught eighty-four dozen of them in aday. The birds caught are chiefly young ones, and they are invariably found in the greatest number when an easterly wind prevails ; as they always come against the wind. It is supposed, that the immense swarms of these birds which are found on the downs about Eastbourne, are occasioned by a species of fly, their fa- vorite food, that feeds on the wild thyme, and abounds in the adjacent hills. In England they are held in as much estimation as the ortolan is on the con- tinent. A few of these birds breed in the old rabbit-burrows there. The nest is large, and made of dry grass, rabbit’s down, a few feathers, and horse- hair The eggs are from six to eight, and are of a light color. 66 44 * 522 AVES—WAGTAILL. THE WHITE WAGTAILS Tris is an elegant, slender-bodied bird, and, next to the robin and the sparrow, is the most familiar with man. It weighs about six drachms, and is about seven incnes and a half from the tip of the bill to the end of the tail, and about eleven between the point of each wing, when extended. It has a slender, straight, sharp bill, of a black or dusky color, upwards of an inch long; the circles of the eyes are brown, or hazle colored, with a large white spot encircling each eye, and another or two underneath it, on each side of the throat; the top of the head, and the fore part of the neck, or throat, and the upper part of the back, are all black. Some of the tips of the quill feathers are white, which form a small white line upon the wing, and another is also formed by the white edges of some of the rows of the covert feathers; the lower parts of the breast and belly are both white. The tail is about three inches long, and is almost continually in motion, wagging up and down, from whence it is supposed to derive the name of wagtail ; the cuter feathers are chiefly white, the rest black. This motion is supposed to be intended to make the tail act as a kind of lever or counter- poise, to balance the body on the Jegs. The claws are sharp pointed, and pretty long, of a dusky or blackish color. These birds are frequently seen about the brinks of rivers, ponds, and small pools of water, and also amongst the low grass in dewy mornings, where they feed upon flies, worms, beetles, and other small insects. They particularly haunt streams where women come to wash their linen, the insects being attracted thither by the froth of the soap. From this cireum- stance the French call them lavandiéres. They build under the eaves of houses, and in holes in the walls of old buildings ; laying four or five eggs. 1 Motacilla alba, Lis. The genus Motacilla has the bill slender, straight, sululate, angular hetween the nostrils ; edges of the lower mandible compressed; nustri!s basal, lateral, oval, partly concealed by a naked membrane; tarsus considerably longer than the middle toe ; exterior toe joined to the middle one at the hase; hind claws strong and sometimes long; tail very long, equal, horizontal; one of the larger coverts as Jong as the wing feathers. AVES—SKYLARK. 523 ORDER IV.—GRANIVOROUS BIRDS. Bri of this order have the bill more or less conical, short, and strong; ridge more or less flattened, advancing upon the forehead; mandibles generis without notches; three toes before and one behind, the anterior ones ¢ #iwely divided; wings of medium length. THE SK VA hk Is one of the most esteemed of the European song birds. It is found throughout the whole of Europe, many parts of Asia, and the north of Africa. Its song is begun early in the spring, and continued during the greater part of summer. Itrises perpendicularly ina spiral flight, singing as it rises, till it frequently soars beyond the reach of vision. On the approach of winter, the larks begin to collect in immense flocks, quitting the more elevated parts of the country, and resorting to the coasts; at this period they are fat, and vast numbers are taken for the table. The lark is six inches in length ; its color is reddish, with the under parts yellowish white. The lark builds its nest upon the ground, beneath some turf, that serves to hide and shelter it. The female lays four or five eggs, of a dusky hue, in color somewhat like those of a plover. It is while she is sitting, that the male usually entertains her with his singing; and while he is risen to an imperceptible height, yet he still has his loved partner in his eye, nor once loses sight of the nest, either while he ascends or is descending. This 1 Alauda arvensis, Lix. The genus Alauda has the bill subeonic, short, with the mandibles of equal length, and the upper one slightly convex; nostrils basal, lateral, partly concealed by réfle-ted feathers ; claw of the hind toe much produced, and nearly straight; wings with thé first quill short or wanting, the third the longest; coronal feath. ers general y produced. 524 AVES—TITMOUSE. harmony corinues several months, beginning early in the spring, on pairing. In winter they assemble in flocks, when their song forsakes them, anZ the bird-eatchers destroy them in great numbers, for the tables of the luxurious. The common food of the young larks is worms and insects; butafter they are grown up they live chiefly on seeds, herbage, and most other vegetable substances There are many other larks found in Europe, the most noted of which, next to the skylark, is the woodlark, which surpasses the skylark in rich- ness, though not in variety of song. THE BEARDED TITMOUSE! Is about six inches long, and distinguished by a tuft of black feathers under each eye, resembling a mustachio. It is common in the marshes near London, and has erroneously been classed among the butcher-birds. The titmouse, which is also called the tomtit, bluecap, and nun, is about four inches and a half in length, and has a straight black bill, about half an inch long, pretty thick. The crown of the head is of a fine blue color; from the bill to the eyes there is a black line; and the forehead and cheeks are white. The latter color descends as low as the shoulders and middle part of the back, where it appears more shaded with a glossy green; the rump is of a fine blue. The quill feathers have some of their tips white, some blue, others green; the covert feathers by their white tips make a small trans- verse white line upon each wing. ‘The breast, belly, and thighs are yellow, with a broad black line passing from the throat down the middle of the breast to the vent. The tail is about two inches and a half long, of a black color, except the outward edges of some of the feathers, which are blue. The legs and feet are a sort of lead color. These birds feed on insects, seeds, and fruit. They often excite alarm in the owners of gardens, under the idea that they are destroying the buds, while, in fact, they are engaged in the beneficial operation of seeking for the caterpillars that infest them. They are very prolific, laying from fourteen to twenty eggs ata time. If tke eggs be touched, the female forsakes her nest, and builds again. Titmice will venture to assault birds that are twice or thrice their own bulk, and in this case they direct their aim chiefly at the eyes. They often seize upon birds that are weaker than themselves; which they kill, and having picked a hole in their skull, eat out their brains. 1 Parus biarmicus, Lin. The genus Parus has the bill short, straight, strong, conical, com- ressed terminating in a point, hase with small hairs; nostrils basal, rounded, concealed Y projecting feathers; legs stout; toes divided to their origin, nail of the hind one stronges: and most bent; wing feathers the first of medium .ength, or almost deficient, the fourth und fifth the longest. AVES—TITMUUSE 525 They are very fond of flesh, vast admirers of suet, and frequently pick bones from dunghills and other places. This bird is distinguished above the rest of its kind, by its rancor against the owl. There are many European varieties of this bird; the greater titmouse is about five inches in length. The nests of almost every kind are constructed with the most exquisite art, and with materials of the utmost delicacy ; such as moss, hair, and the web of spiders, with which the whole is strongly tied together. BLA CK- GAP EVE) EMO US Et Tus isone of our American birds, active, noisy, and restless, hardy beyond any of his size, braving the severest cold of our continent, as far north as the country around Hudson’s Bay, and always appearing most lively in the coldest weather. The males have a variety of very sprightly notes, which cannot indeed be called a song, but rather a lively, frequently repeated, and often varied, twitter. They are most usually seen during the fall and winter, when they approach nearer to the scenes of cultivation. They begin to build in April, choosing the deserted hole of a squirrel or woodpecker, and sometimes, with incredible labor, digging one out for themselves. They tra- verse the woods from tree to tree, tumbling, chatting, and hanging from the extremities of the branches, examining about the roots of the leaves, buds, and crevices of the bark, for insects and their larve. They also visit the orchards, the sides of the barn, and barn-yard, in the same pursuit. These birds sometimes fight violently with each other, and are known to attack young and sickly birds that are incapable of resistance, always direct- ing their blows against the skull. The crested titmouse is also an inhabitant of the United States, but 1s more common in the northern parts. 1 Parus bicolor, Lin. 526 AVES—-YELLOW-HAMMER...ORTOLAN...BOB-O-LINK. THE EUROPEAN YELLOW-HAMMER1 Ir is larger than the sparrow. A greenish yellow, spotted with brown, is the hue of its head; the throat and belly are yellow; the breast and sides, under the wings, are mingled with red; and the tail is of a flesh color. It builds on the ground, feeds on insects and seeds; and has a soft note, not unlike that of the linnet. THE ORTOLAN#? Is somewhat less than the yellow-hammer. The plumage on the upper parts is brownish chesnut, mixed with black ; the under parts are pale rufous. These birds are commen in France and Italy, but are not found in England They are caught in numbers to fatten for the table. This is done by includ. ing them in a dark room, and feeding them with oats and millet. By this process they become so fat that they would die from that cause alone, were they not killed for sale. In this state they will sometimes weigh three oun- ces, and are accounted the most luxurious repast of the epicure, being, as it were, one lump of exquisite fat. THE. BOB-0-LINK,: OR RICE BUNTING? CaxLep also reed bird in some of the southern states, and butter bird in Jamaica. He is seven anda half inches long. This is one of the most common birds in the United States, and is familiar to every schoolboy from the lively jingle of his note. The plumage of the male is an odd mixture of white and black in the spring and early part of the summer—he changes to a yellowish brown late in the season. ‘The female is of a dusky brown. In the eastern states the arrival of this bird 1s welcomed with pleasure, as he is highly esteemed and his habits are comparatively harmless to the crops. In the southern states he is more annoying to the husbandman and the sportsmen of those parts, who show the rice birds no mercy, as his flesh is excellent. They do great damage to the early wheat and barley in Virginia, and eagerly devour young ears of Indian corn. They feed also on grubs, 1 Emberiza citrinell, Lis. The genus Emberiza, or Bunting, has the bill short, coni- cal, compressed, sharp edged : the upper mandible narrower than the under, the edges of both bent inwards; nostrils, basal, rounded, surmounted and partly corered by the feath- ers of the forehead ;_ toes divided, the posterior with a short and bent claw; tail forked or slightly rounded. * Emberiza hortulana, Lin. 3 Emberiza oryzivora, Wi.son. AVES—COW-BUNTING. 527 flies, and caterpillars. They pour down upon the oat fields in a torrent, and resort to the shores of the Delaware and Schuylkill in immense numbers, to feed upon the reeds or wild oats. Atthis time they are extremely fat. Their note is a single chink, and is heard overhead with little intercession from inorning to night. These are halcyon days for our gunners, and many 2 lame and rusty gun-barrel is put in requisition for the sport. The report of musketry along the reedy shores of the river is almost incessant, resembling a running fire. The markets of Philadelphia at this season exhibit proofs of the prodigious havoc made auiong the birds. In the fall, they swarm in the tice fields, and devour great quantities of that grain. THE COW-BUNTING.1 Tue cow-bunting has a most remarkable character, which is the unac- countable practice it has of dropping its eggs into the nests of other birds, instead of building and hatching for itself; and thus entirely abandons its Yamily to the care and mercy of strangers. I have often found the young cow-bunting in the nests of small birds; and have seen these last followed by the young foundling, calling out clamorously for food; and I once took a very fine one irom the nest or the Maryland yellow throat, where 1t was fostered with great care. SS 1 Emberiza pecoris, WILson. 528 AVES—COW-BUNTING. ‘The migrations of these birds extend very far north. On their way they frequently stop in June, and are observed loitering singly, among thickets, reconnoitering no doubt for proper nurses, to whose care they may commit the hatching of their eggs, and the rearing of their helpless orphans. Among the birds selected for this duty are the red-eyed and white-eyed fly catchers, the chipping sparrow, the golden-crowned thrush, the blue-bird, the small blue gray flycatcher and and the yellow throat. The yellow throat and the red-eyed flycatcher, appear to be particular favorites; and the kindness and affectionate atiention which those two little birds pay to their nurslings, fully justifies the partiality of the parents. What reason nature may have for this extraordinary deviation from her general practice, is beyond my comprehension. These birds often frequent corn and rice-fields; but are more commonly found accompanying the cattle, feeding on the seeds and worms, &c., which they pick up amongst the fodder, &c. Hence they are called cow-birds, cowpen birds, and crow black-birds. They are generally found associated with the red-winged black-birds, which they in many respects resemble. In the month of July, says Wilson, I took frem the nest of a Maryland yellow throat, a young male cow-bunting, which filled and occupied the whole nest. I took the bird home with me, and placed it in the same cage with a red-bird, who at first and for several minutes after examined it closely and seemingly with great curiosity. It soon became clamorous for food, and from that moment the red-bird seemed to adopt it as his own, feeding it wita all the assiduity and tenderness of the most affectionate nurse. When he found that the grasshopper he had brought it, was too large for it to swal- low, he took the insect, broke it into small pieces, chewed them a little to soften them, and then with all the delicacy and gentleness imaginable, put them separately in his mouth. He often spent several minutes looking at and examining it all over, and in picking off any particles of dirt that he found on its plumage. In six months the cow-bird was in complete plu- mage, and repaid the affectionate services of his foster-parent, with a frequent display of his musical talents ; these it must be confessed are far from ravishing, yet for their singularity are worthy of notice. He spreads his wings, swells his body into a globular form, bristling every feather in the manner of a turkey-cock, and with great seeming difficulty utters a few low sputtering notes; always on these occasions strutting in front of the spectator with great consequential affectation. To see the red-bird, who is himself so ex- cellent a performer, silently listening to all this guttural sputter, reminds one of the great Handel, contemplating a wretched violin scraper! The cow-bunting is seven inches long; the head and neck is a silky drab ; the upper part of the breast a deep changeable violet; the rest of the bird is black, glossed with green. AVES—BUNTING...GROUND ROBIN. 529 THE PAHEIN TED BUN Eee Is tound in Lower Louisiana, where it is universally known among the French inhabitants, and called by them “ Le Rapei,” and by the Americans the Nonpareil. Its gay dress and docility of manners have procured it many admirers; for these qualities are highly attractive, and always carry their own recommendation along with them. The low countries of the southern states, in the vicinity of the sea and along the borders of our large rivers, particularly among the rice plantations, are the favorite haunts of this ele- gant little bird. A few are seen in North Carolina; they are more numerous in South Carolina, and still more so in Georgia. Their notes very much resemble those of the indigo bird, but want their strength and energy. These birds are domesticated at New Orleans, and is the most common cage bird they have. Six of these birds, says Wilson, which I brought with me from New Orleans by sea, soon became reconciled to the cage. In good weather, the males sung with great sprightliness. They were greedily fond of flies, which accompanied us in great numbers during the whole voyage; and many of the passengers amused themselves with catching them, and giving them to the nonpareils; till at length, the birds became so well ac- quainted with the amusement, that as soon as they saw any of the people attempting to catch flies, they assembled at the front of the cage, stretching out their heads evidently much interested in the issue of their success. They build their nests in orange trees, and sometimes in blackberry bushes. They are formed of dry grass, and the silk of caterpillars, and lined with hair and fine roots. The plumage undergoes great changes, not being per- fect till the fourth season. The head aad neck of the male is of a rich purplish hue, the chin and lower parts are vermilion; back glossy yellow, stained with green and sometimes with red; wings red, edged with green. It is seven inches and three fourths long. The female is of a green olive; the lower parts are light yellow. It is five inches and a half long. The food of the painted bunting consists of rice, insects, and various kinds of seeds, among which are the seeds of ripe figs. They frequent gardens, and chant occasionally during the whole summer. In the fall they retire to the south. THE TOWHEE-BUNTING, OR GROUND ROBIN. Tuis bird is also called chewink and swamp robin. It generally keeps close to the ground, and frequents thickets and sheltered spots, scratching among 1 Emberiza erythrophthalma, Witsox. 67 45 530 AVES—TANAGER. the leaves for worms and larve. It is quite a familiar bird, and will suffer a person to walk round the bush or thicket, where it is at work, without betraying any signs of alarm, and when disturbed, uttefing the notes tow-he, repeatedly. At times, the male mounts a small tree, and chants his few simple notes for an hour ata time. They are loud, but not unmusical. He is fond of thickets near streams of water, and is found generally over the United States. The nest is placed on the ground among the dry leaves, and is large and substantial. He shows great affection for his young, and is remarkable for the cunning with which he conceals his nest, sometimes nearly covering it with dry grass. In Virginia he is called the bulfinch. This bird is eight inches and a half long; of a black color above, and white below. The eye changes in color; the iris being sometimes white, and often red. There are various others of the bunting genus, natives of the United States, as the white-crowned bunting, the bay-winged bunting, the black- throated bunting, Henslow’s bunting. THE SCARLET: TANAGE RA Is one of the most beautiful of American birds, having a plumage of the richest scarlet, with wings of jet black. He is spread over the United States, and is found even in Canada, and South America. He rarely approaches 1 Tanagra rubra, Lrxy. The genus Tanagra has the bill short, strong, triangular at the base, carinated, much compressed at the point, which is bent; upper mandible longer than the under, and notched; edges of the mandibles bent inwards; under mandible straight, and somewhat gibbous toward the middle; nostrils basal, lateral, rounded, partly concealed by projecting feathers; tarsus the length of the middle toe; the external tue joined “t its base; the internal free; wings with the second and third quills longest. AVES—RED-BIRD. 531 the habitations of man, unless perhaps to the orchard, where he sometimes builds; or to the cherry trees in search of fruit. The depths of the woods are his favorite abode. There, among the thick foliage of the tallest trees, his simple, and almost monotonous notes of chip, churr, repeated at intervals in a pensive tone, may be occasionally heard, which appear to proceed from a considerable distance, though the bird be immediately above you; a faculty bestowed upon him by the beneficent Author of nature, no doubt for his protection, to compensate in a degree for the danger to which his glowing color would often expose him. Besides this usual note, he has, at times, a more musical chant. His food consists of large winged insects, such as wasps, hornets, and humble bees, and also of fruit. His nest is built on the horizontal branch of a tree, sometimes an apple tree, and is but slightly put together ; stalks of broken flax, and dry grass, so thinly woven together, that the light is easily perceivable through it, from the repository of his young. His manners are modest, easy, and inoffensive. He commits no depreda- tions on the property of the husbandman; but rather benefits him by the daily destruction of many noxious insects; and when winter approaches, he is no plundering dependant, but seeks in a distant country that sustenance which the severity of the season denies to his industry in this. He isa striking ornament to our rural scenery, and none of the meanest of ourrural songsters. Such being the true traits of his character, we shall always with pleasure welcome this beautiful stranger to our orchards, groves, and forests. When you approach the nest, the male keeps cautiously at a distance, as if fear‘ul of being seen; while the female hovers round in the greatest agitanon and distress. When the young leave the nest, the male parent takea a most active part in feeding and attending them, and is then altogether in? 4rent of concealment. THE SUMMER RED-BIRD.1 TxE changes of color which this bird is subject to, during the first year, save deceived European naturalists so much, that four different species of tanager have been formed out of this one. The female differs much in color from t» male. The food of this bird consists of various kinds of bugs, and large tiick beetles. During the season of whortleberries they seem to live ume:.t entirely upon them. In Pennsylvania they are rare, but in New feree7 shey may be generally found. The note of the male is a strong and on6s,s whistle, resembling a loose trill or shake on the notes of a fife, 1 Tanagra estiva, WILsoNn. ‘ 532 AVES—CROSSBILL. frequently repeated; that of the female is rather a kind of chattering, approaching nearly to the rapid pronunciation of chicky-tucky-tuck, when she sees any person approaching the neighborhood of her nest. She is, how- ever, rarely seen, and usually mute, and scarcely to be distinguished from the color of the foliage at a distance; while the loquacity and brilliant red of the male make him very conspicuous ; and when seen among the green leaves, he has a most beautiful and elegant appearance. The summer red-bird delights in a flat sandy country covered with wood, and interspersed with pine trees, and is more numerous on the shores of the Atlantic than in the interior. In both the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida they are numerous; in the northern states they are very rare. THE AMERICAN CROSSBILL. THIS species is a regular inhabitant of almost all our pine forests situated nortn of forty degrees, from September to April. The Great Pine Swamp in Pennsylvania appears to be their favorite rendezvous. They then appear in large flocks, feeding on the seds of the hemlock and white pine; have a loud, sharp, and not unmusical note; chatter as they fly; alight during the prevalence of the deep snows before the door of the hunter, and around the house, picking off the clay with which the logs are plastered, and searching in corners where any substance of a saline nature had been thrown. At such times they are so tame, as only to settle on the roof of the cabin when disturbed, and a moment after, descend to feed as before. They are then easily caught in traps. When kept in a cage they have many of the habits of the parrot, often climbing along the wires, and using their feet to grasp the cones in, while taking out the seeds. _ This bird has hitherto been considered a mere variety of the European species, but it differs in several respects. I have therefore separated it from the grosbeaks. It is subject to many changes of color. The male is five inches and three fourths long. The general color of the plumage, when perfect, is a red-lead color ; the tail is forked and edged with yellow. The female is less than the male; the plumage is of an olive yellow. 1 Loxia curvirostra, Lrx. The genus Lovia has the bill rather long, strong,much com- pressed, the two mandibles equally convex, and crossing each other at the points when at rest; nostrils round, basal, and lateral, concealed by reflected bristly feathers; the anterior toes entirely divided; wings with the first quill feathers longest; tail forked. AVES—GROSBEAK. 533 THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK! Tue cardinal grosbeak is one of our most common cage birds, and is very genera.ly known both in America and Europe. Numbers of these have been carried over to France and England, in which last country they are called Virginia nightingales. They have great clearness and variety of tones; many of them resemble the clear notes of a fife, and are nearly as loud. They begin in the spring at the first appearance of dawn, and repeat a favorite stanza or passage, twenty or thirty times. His sprightly figure and gaudy plumage, his vivacity, strength of voice, and the little expense with which he is kept, will always make him a favorite. This species inhabits America from New England to Carthagena. In the southern states they are the most numerous. They love to reside in the vicinity of fields of corn, a grain that constitutes their chief and favorite food. The seeds of apples, cherries, and many other sorts of fruit, are eaten by them; and they are accused of destroying bees. They build their nests in a holly, cedar, or laurel bush. It is constructed of twigs and weeds. They are hardy birds, easily kept, sing six or eight months in a year, and are most lively in wet weather. They are known by the names of red-bird, Virginia red-bird, Virginia nightingale, and crested red-bird. 1 Loxia cardinalis, Lin. 45* 5384 AVES—BULFINCH...LINNET. The others of this genus in the United States are the pine grosbeak, the blue grosbeak, the rose-breasted grosbeak, the evening grosbeak, and the spotted grosbeak. THE BULFIN CH? Is one of the most common of European birds. When at its full growth it measures, from the point of the bill to the end of the tail, six inches, of which the tail is two. It has a short black bill, very strong and crooked, the upper part hanging over the under side, like that of a hawk; the tongue is short, and the eyes of a hazel color; the head and neck in proportion to the body are larger than in the generality of small birds, from which, most probably, they derived their name. In some places they are called ropes; in others, thick-bills, and in some red-hoops, or tony-hoops, probably from their wild hooping kind of note. The bulfinch makes its nest of an ordinary mean fabric, in bushes, in which the female lays four or five eggs of a bluish color, with dark brown and reddish spots. The nest so closely resembles the surrounding foliage in color, that it is not easily to be discovered. In the summer it mostly fre- quents woods, and the more retired places; but in winter it approaches gardens and orchards, where in spring it makes great havoc among the buds of trees. It is probable, however, that it attacks the buds for the sake of the included insects. The cock 1s in size equal to the hen, but has a flatter crown, and excels ner in the beauty of his colors. Ina state of nature, this bird has but three cries, all of which are unpleasant; but if man designs to instruct it metho- dically, and accustoms it to fine, mellower, and more lengthened strains, it will listen with attention; and the docile bird, whether male or female, without relinquishing its native airs, will imitate exactly, and sometimes even surpass, its master. It also learns to articulate words and sentences. THE EVROPEAN LINNET? Tus favorite bird, which is universally admired for the melody of its voice, is in length, from the point of the bill to the end of the tail, five 1 Loxia vulgaris, Lin. 2 Fringilla cannabina, Lin. The genus Fringilla has the bill short, stout, straight and conical; upper mandible gibbous, depressed above, a little inclined at the point; nostrils basal, round, placed near the forehead, and partially concealed by the feathers in front; tarsus shorter ‘hen the middle toe, and the fore toes entirely divided; wings short, the third and fourth quills the longest; tail of varied form. J AVES—CANARY FINCH. 535 mcehes and a half; the bill is a bluish gray; the eyes are hazel; the upper parts of the head, neck, and back, are of a dark reddish brown, the edges of the feathers pale; the under parts are of a dirty reddish white; the breas is deeper than the rest, and in spring becomes a very beautiful crimson except in the female, whose breast is marked with only stripes of brown; the sides are spotted with brown likewise; the tail is brown, with white edges, except the two middle feathers, which have reddish margins; it is somewhat forked; the legs are brown. The linnet is so much esteemed for the sweetness of his singing, that, by many persons, he is thought to excel ali small birds. He has certainly a curious fine note of his own, little inferior to the most celebrated birds, and may be taught likewise to pipe or whistle the song of any other bird; but, as his own is so good, that trouble is unnecessary. He is, however, very apt in learning, and if brought up from the nest, will take the woodlark’s or canary bird’s song to perfection. In some instances he has been said to pronounce words with great distinctness. The cock linnet may be known, either old or young, by two marks; first, the feathers on his back are much browner than those of the hen ; secondly, by the white on the three or four longest feathers of the wing; if it appear clear, bright, and broad, and reach up to the quills, it is a true sign of a cock bird, for the white in the wing of the hen is much less, fainter, and narrower. In spring, too, as we have already mentioned, the breast of the cock is crimson. These birds commonly build in a thick bush or hedge, and sometimes among furze, bushes, &c., making a small, pretty nest; the outside of bents, dried weeds, and straw, and the bottom all matted together; the inside of fine soft wool, mixed with down stuff, gathered from dried plants, with a few horse-hairs, made exceedingly neat and warm; on which she lays four, and sometimes five, white eggs, with fine red specks, especially at the blunt end; and has young ones by the middle of April or beginning of May. They are particularly fond of linseed, from which, it is supposed, they derive their name. THE CANARY FINCH. Tuis well known bird came origmally from the Canary Islands, where they are stiil found in a wild state, as well as at the Cape Verd and Madeira Islands. In its native islands, a region equally noted for the beauty of its landscapes and the harmony of its groves, the canary bird is of a dusky gray color, and so different from those usually seen in Europe, that some 1 Fyingilla Canaria, Lin 536 AVES={LINME Ty have even doub.ed whether it be of the same species. With us, they have that variety of coloring usual in all domestic fowls ; some white, some mct- tled, some beautifully shaded with green; but they are more esteemed for their note than their beauty, having a high, piercing pipe, as indeed all those of the finch tribe have, continuing it for some time in one breath without intermission, then raising it higher and higher by degrees, with great variety. The canary will breed freely with the goldfinch and linnet, and the produce is a beautiful bird, called a Mule. The canary finch is a social and familiar bird, and is capable of con tracting an attachment for the person to whom it belongs. It will perch or the shoulder of its mistress, and peck its food from her hand or her mouth It is also capable of being taught still more extraordinary feats. In 1820, a Frenchman exhibited four and twenty Canary Birds in London, many of which, he said, were trom eighteen to twenty-five years of age. Some of these balanced themselves, head downward, on their shoulders, having their legs and tails in the air. One of them, taking a slender stick in its claws, passed its head between its legs, and suffered itself to be turned round, as if in the act of being roasted. Another balanced itself, and was slung back- ward and forward on a kind of slack rope. A third was dressed in military uniform, having a cap on its head, wearing a sword and pouch, and carrying a firelock in one claw; after some time sitting upright, this bird, at the word of command, freed itself from its dress, and flew away to the cage. A fourth suffered itself to be shot at, and falling down, as if dead, to be put intoa little wheelbarrow, and wheeled away by one of its comrades; and several of the birds were at the same time placed upon a little firework, and con- tinued there quietiy, and without alarm, till it was discharged. THE AMERICAN LINNE SD, OR. PURPLE FINCH. Tus bird, owing to its change of color, has been described frequently as a different species. It is six inches in length. All the upper parts of the male are dark crimson. The female is of a brown olive color, streaked with black and white. The young are of the same color with the female, but the males gradually attain their full crimson plumage. These birds come to us in large flocks from the north, and feed on the seeds of poplar, button- wood, juniper, and cedar trees. When the season is very severe, they pro- ceed to the south as far as Georgia. In the spring they feed on apple and cherry blossoms. The song of the purple finch is uncommonly sweet and voluble, sur- passing even that of the European linnet. It is remarkable that the nest 1 Fringilla purpurea, GMEL. AVES—SPARROW. 537 of this bird has never yet been seen by any naturalist, although they breed in the United States. Mr Audubon saw them feeding their young, who could not have been more than a few days old. The same author informs us that they frequently associate with the common crossbills. THE SON Gis PrAckih. Onwe 2 THE song sparrow is the most generally diffused over the United States, and is the most numerous of all our sparrows; and it is far the earliest, sweetest, and most lasting songster. Many of them remain during the whole winter in close sheltered meadows and swamps. It is the first singing bird in spring. Its song continues through the summer and fall, and is sometimes heard even in the depths of winter. The notes or chant are short but very sweet, and frequently repeated, from a small bush or tree, where it sits chant- ing for an hour together. It is fond of frequenting the borders of rivers, meadows and swamps; and if wounded and unable to fly, will readily take to the water, and swim with considerable rapidity. The song sparrow builds in the ground under a tuft of grass; the nest is ‘ormed of dry grass and horse-hair. It sometimes also builds in a cedar ‘ree, five or six feet from the ground. It is six inches and a half long, and ‘s of a chesnut color, marked and streaked with dirty white; the breast is spotted with pointed spots of chesnut. THE CHEP PING: SPAR R:Owe [s, perhaps, more generally known, and more familiar and domestic even, than the preceding species. He inhabits the city in summer, building in the branches of the trees in the streets and gardens, and gleaning v » crumbs from the yard and door. This sociable habit, which continues chiefly during summer, is a singular characteristic. Towards the end of the summer, he takes to the fields and hedges, until the weather becomes severe, when he departs for the south. The chipping bird builds his nest most commonly in a bush, and lines it with cow hair. This little bird is five inches and a quarter long, the frontlet is black, crown chesnut, the upper parts are varie- gated with black and chesnut, and the under parts pale ash. 1 Fringilla melodia, W itson. 2 Fringilla socialis, WiLson. 68 538 AVES—SPARROW...GOLDFINCH. THE FIELD SPARROW! Is the smallest of all our sparrows, and frequents dry fields covered with long grass builds a small nest on the ground at the foot of a bush, and lines it with horse-hair. It has no song, but a kind of chirruping not much diffe- rent from the chirpings of a cricket. There are multitudes of these little birds in North and South Carolina and Georgia. When disturbed, they take to the bushes, clustering so close together that a dozen may be shot at a ime. This bird is five inches and a quarter in length; the upper parts are chesnut and black. LEE INDIGO SLR pe Is numerous in the middle and eastern states, and in the Carolinas and Georgia. It is also known in Mexico and Nova Scotia. Its favorite haunts are about gardens, fields of clover, borders of woods, and roadsides, where it is frequently seen perched on fences. In its manners it is extremely neat and active, and a vigorous and pretty good songster. It mounts to the tops of the highest trees, and chants for half an hour ata time. Its song is not one continued strain, but a repetition of short notes, commencing loud and rapid, and falling by slow gradations till they seem hardly articulate, as if the little minstrel were quite exhausted ; but after a pause of half a minute, it commences again as before. He sings with as much animation under the meridian sun in July as in the month of May, and continues his song till August. His usual note when alarmed, is a sharp chip. It feeds on insects and seeds. Notwithstanding the beauty of his plumage, the vivacity of his song, the indigo bird is seldom seen domesticated. Its nest is built in a low bush, among ra \k grass, grain, or clover; suspended by two twigs, one passing up each side, cnd is composed of flax, and lined with grass. This bird is five inches long, the whole body of a rich sky b.ue, deepening in color toward the head, and sometimes varying to green. THE YVELLOW-BIRD, OR GCOLDPiaker: Bears a great resemblance to the canary, and in song is like the goldfinch of Britain, but it is in general so weak as to appear to proceed from a dis- 1 Fringilla pusilla, W1tson. 2 Fringilla cyanea, WiLson. 3 Fringilla tristis, Lin. AVES—GOLDFINCH...HONEY-GUIDE. 539 tance, when perhaps the bird is perched on a tree over your head. I have however heard them sing in cages with great animation and energy. In the spring, they associate in flocks, to bask and dress themselves in the morning sun, singing in concert for half an hour together; the confused mingling of their notes forming a kind of harmony not at all unpleasant. Their flight is not direct, but in alternate risings and sinkings, twittering as they fly at each successive impulse of the wings. They search the gardens in num- bers, in quest of seeds, and pass by various names, such as lettuce-bird, sallad-bird, thistle-bird, yellow-bird, &c. They are very easily tamed. The yellow-bird is four inches and a half in length: the male is of a rich lemon color. The wings and tail are black, edged with white. In the fall, this color changes to a brown olive, which is the constant color of the fe- male. They build a nest in the twigs of an apple tree, neatly formed of lichen and soft downy substances. The other individuals of the finch or sparrow tribe, which inhabit the United States, are too numerous for us here to particularize. THE EUROPEAN GOLDFINCH}! Is the most beautiful bird which inhabits Europe, and is also one of the most docile and harmonious. It is of a gentle nature; soon becomes reconciled to the loss of freedom; and, as few birds are more intelligent and obedient, it may be taught a variety of entertaining tricks. Whenconfined, it delights to view itself in a mirror. From its fondness for thistle seeds, it is some- times called the thistlefinch. The female builds an admirably constructed and warm nest, generally in fruit trees, and lays five eggs. ORDER V.—ZYGODACTYLOUS BIRDS Brrps of this order have the bill of various forms, more or less curved, or much hooked, and often straight and angular; feet always with two tces before, and two behind, and the exterior hind toe frequently reversible. THE HONEY GUIDE. Tus remarkable bird is a native of Southern Africa, and has the facuity of pointing out to man, and to the quadruped called ratel, the nests of the 1 Fringilla carduelis, Lix. 2 Indicator major. The genus Indicator has the bill short, depressed, dilated on the sides, a little bent and notched at the point; ridge distinct; nasal furrow large ; nostrils basal, a little tubular; tarsus shorter than the ex ernal toe; the anterior toes united at the first joint ; wings with the third feather the longe +t. 5A0 AVES—CUCKOO. wild bees. It is exceedingly fond of honey and of the bee magguts, and 11s services are generally rewarded by leaving it asmall portion of the spoil. In its external appearance it differs not much from the common sparrow, except m being somewhat larger, and of a lighter color. It hasalso a wate spot on each shoulder, and its tail feathers are dashed with white. The morning and evening are its principal meal times; at least, it is then that it shows the greatest inclination to come forth, and with a grating cry of cherr, cherr, cherr, to excite the attention of the ratel, as well as of the Hottentots and colonists. Somebody then generally repairs to the place whence the sound proceeds; when the bird, continually repeating its cry of cherr, cherr, cherr, flies on slowly, and by degrees, towards the quarter where the bees have taken up their abode. The persons thus invited,accordingly follow; taking care at the same time not to frighten their guide by any unusual noise, but rather to answer it now and then with a soft and gentle whistle, by way of letting the bird know that its call is attended to. When the bees’ nest is at some distance, the bird often makes long stages of flight, waiting for its sporting companions between each flight, and calling to them again to come on; but flies to shorter distances, and repeats its cry more frequently and with more earnestness, as they approach nearer to thenest. When the bird has sometimes, through its impatience, got too far ahead of its followers, but particularly when, from the unevenness of the ground, they have not been able to keep pace with it, it has flown back to meet them, and with redoubled cries has denoted still greater impatience, as though reproaching them for being so tardy. When it comes to the bees’ nest, whether in the cleft of a rock, the hollow of a tree, or a cavity in the earth, it hovers over the spot for a few seconds; after which it sits in silence, and for the most part concealed, in some neighboring tree or bush, in expectation of what may happen, and with a view of receiving its share of the booty. THE EUROPEAN CUCKOO Tus singular bird is about fourteen inches in length, shaped somewhat like a mag vie, and distinguished from all other birds by its round pro- minent nostrils. The head, neck, back, and wing-coverts are of a dove color; the throat is a pale gray; the breast and belly are white, crossed with wavy lines of black; the tail consists of ten feathers; the two middle ones black, with white tips; the others dusky, and marked with alternate spots of white on each side of the shaft. The legs are of a yellow color, and the 1 Cuculus canorus, Lin. The genus Cuculus has the bill as long as the head, com- pressed, and slightly curved; nostrils hasal, pierced in the margin of the mandible, and surrounded bya naked and prominent membrane; legs feathered below the knee; fore toes united at the base; hind toes divided, the exterior reversible ; tail long, more or lesg graduated ; the third quill feather the longest. AVES—CUCKOO. 5Al claws white. The plumage of the young birds is chiefly brown, mixed wita_ a ferruginous hue and black. Having disappeared all the autumn and win- ter, it discovers itself in our country, early in the spring, by its well known call Its note is heard earlier or later, as the season seems to be more or less forward, and the weather more or less inviting. From the cheerful voice of this bird, the farmer may be instructed in the real advancement of the year. His note is pleasant, though uniform; and, from an association of ideas, seldom occurs to the memory without reminding us of the sweets of summer. There is a popular superstition, that he who hears the cuckoo before he has heard the nightingale, will be unsuccessful in love. To this idea Milton elegantly alludes in his Sonnet to the Nightingale. It was once doubted, whether these birds were carnivorous ;* but Reaumur was at the pains of breeding up several, and found that they would feed upon bread or corn; but flesh and insects were their favorite nourishment. Their gluttony is not to be wondered at, when we consider the capacity of their stomach, which is enormous, and reaches from the breast-bone to the vent. The female cuckoo, in general, makes no nest of her own. She has, however, been known to rear her own young. But, usually, she repairs for that purpose to the nest of some other bird, generally the water-wagtail or hedge-sparrow, and having devoured the eggs of the owner, lays her egg in the place. She usually lays but one, which is speckled, and of the size of a blackbird’s. This the fond, foolish bird hatches with great assiduity, and when excluded, finds ne difference in the great ill lookimg changeling from ner own. To supply this voracious creature, the credulous nurse toils with unusual labor, no way sensible that she is feeding up an enemy to her race, aud one of the most destructive robbers of her future progeny. This intrusion often occasions some disorder, for the hedge-sparrow, at intervals, while she is sitting, not only throws out some of her own eggs, but sometimes injures them in such a manner that they become addled; so that it frequently happens that not more than two. or three of the parent bird’s eggs are hatched; but it has never been observed that the egg of the cuckoo has either been thrown out or injured. The newly hatched cuckoo itself, also contrives to raise up the young, and throw them out of the nest, and nature seems to have provided for its doing so, by giving to it a broad 46 542 AVES-GUCKOO* back, with a considerable depression in the middle; which shape it loses as soon as it has no longer any use for it. When the hedge-sparrow has set her usual time, and disengaged the young cuckoo and some of lier own offspring from the shell, her own young ones, and any of her eggs that re- main unhatched, are turned out of the nest. The young bird generally con- tinues three weeks in the nest before it flies; and the foster parent-feeds it more than five weeks after this period. All the little birds of the grove seem to consider the young cuckoo as an enemy, and revenge the cause of their kind by their repeated insults. They pursue it whenever it flies, and oblige it to take shelter in the thickest branches of some neighboring tree. All the smaller birds form the train of its pur- suers; but the wryneck, in particular, is found the most active in the chase; and thence it has been called, by many, the cuckoo’s attendant and provider. But it is very far from following with a friendly intention; it only pursues as an insulter, or a spy, to warn all its little companions of the cuckoo’s depredations. Such are the manners of this bird while it continues to reside, or to be seen amongst us. But in the first week in July, the old ones quit this coun- try, and the young ones follow in succession; and as its new abode is not known, there are conflicting opinions on the subject. Some suppose that it lies hid in hollow trees; and others that it passes into warmer climates. Which of these opinions is true is uncertain, as there are no facts related on either side that can be totally relied on. To support the opinion that they remain torpid during the winter, at home, Willoughby introduces the following story, which he delivers upon the credit of another :—‘“‘ The ser- vants of a gentleman in the country, having stocked up, in one of their meadows, some old dry rotten willows, thought proper, on a certain occa- sion, to carry them home. In heating a stove, two logs of this timber were put into the furnace beneath, and fire applied as usual. But soon, to the great surprise of the family, was heard the voice of a cuckoo, singing three times from under the stove. Wondering at so extraordinary a cry in winter time, the servants ran and drew the willow logs from the furnace, and in the midst, one of them saw something move; wherefore, taking an axe, they opened the hole, and thrusting in their hands, first they plucked out nothing tut feathers; afterwards they got hold of a living animal; and this was the cuckoo that had waked so very opportunely for its own safety. “It was, indeed,” continues our historian, ‘brisk and lively, but wholly naked and bare of feathers, and without any winter provision in itshole. This cuckoo the boys kept two years afterwards, alive in the stove; but whether it re- paid them with a secend song, the author of the tale has not thought fit to inform us.” The most probable opinion on this subject is, that as quails and wood- cocks shift their habitation in winter, so also does the cuckoo; but to what AVES—CUCKOO...TOUCAN. 543 eountry it retires, or whether it has been ever seen on its journey, are ques- tions that we are wholly incapable of resolving. Or this bird there are many kinds in various parts of the world, not only differing in their colors but their size. Latham make no less than forty species. There is a large spotted cuckoo in the south of Spain; and at the Cape of Good Hope there is a black-crested species. Only the common and spotted cuckoo have been seen in Europe. THE AMERICAN CUCKOO! Ig sometimes called the cow-bird, from its note; and it is also called sn Virginia, the rain crow, from being most clamorous just before rain. A traveller in our woods, in May or June, will sometimes hear, as he traverses the borders of deep, retired, high timbered hollows, an uncouth guttural sound or note, resembling the words kowe, kowe, kowe, kowe, kowe, beginning slowly, but ending so rapidly that the notes seem to run into each other, and vice versa. He will hear this frequently, without being able to discover the bird or animal from which it proceeds; as this bird is shy and solitary, seeking always the thickest foliage for concealment. It breeds all over the United States, from Boston to the Mississippi, preferring the borders of soli- tary swamps and apple orchards. The nest is usually fixed in an apple tree, and sometimes on a thorn in the woods. It is almost flat, and composed of twigs and weeds. When you approach the nest, the female throws herself on the ground, and feigns lameness to draw you off. They feed on caterpil- lars and insects. They are accused also of sucking the eggs of other birds, and sometimes eat berries. This bird is thirteen inches long; the whole upper parts are drab; or quaker eclor, with greenish reflections. The under parts are pure white. The bill is yellow, and the legs and feet light blue. BRE LOUCAN. Or this extraordinary bird there are about fifteen species. We shall only describe the red-beaked toucan.2 It is about the size of, and shaped like a jackdaw, with a large head to support its monstrous bill; this bill, from 1 Cuculus Carolinensis, WiLson. 2 Ramphastos toco, Latu. The genus Ramphastos has the bill cellular, thin, transpa- rent, broader than the head at the base, convex above, serrated at the edges, and a little incurvated at the tip; nostrils vertical, concealed behind the corneous maw, surrounded by a membrane ; tarsus as long as the external toe; the two anterior toes united at the second joint ; tail short. 5AAL AVES—TOUCAN. the angles of the mouth to its point, is six inchesand a half; and its breadth in the thickest part is a little more than two. Its thickness near the head is one inch and a quarter ; and it is a little rounded along the upper chap, the under side being rounded also; the whole of the bill extremely slight, and a little thicker than parchment. The upper chap is of a bright yellow, except on each side, which is of a fine scarlet color; as is also the lower chap, except at the base, which is purple. Between the head and the bill there is a black line of separation all round the base of the bill; in the upper part ot which the nostrils are placed, and are almost covered with feathers, which has occasioned some writers to say, that the toucan has no nostrils. Round the eyes, on each side of the head, is a space of bluish skin, void of feathers, above which the head is black, except a white spot on each side joining to the base of the upper chap. The hinder part of the neck, the back, wings tail, belly, and thighs, are black. The under side of the head, throat, and the beginning of the breast, are white. Between the white on the breast, and the black on the belly, is a space of red feathers, in the form of a new moon, with its horns upwards. The legs, feet, and claws, are of an ash color; and the toes stand like those of parrots, two before, and two behind. This bird is easily tamed, and will become very familiar, and eat almost any thing offered to it; in general it feeds on fruits. In its wild state, itisa noisy bird, and is perpetually moving from place to place, in quest of food, going northward or southward, as the fruits ripen. Grapes, however, seem to be one of its most favorite articles of food. If these are plucked from the stalk, one by one, and thrown to it, the toucan will catch them with great dexterity before they fall to the ground. AVES—PARROT. 545 These birds when in flocks, on retiring to rest, generally appoint one tc watch during the night. While they are asleep, he sits perched at the top of a tree, above them, and makes a continual noise, resembling ill aiticulat- ed sounds, moving also his head, during the whole time, to the right and left. For this reason the South Americans give to the toucan the name of preacher toucan. The toucan builds its nest in the holes of trees, that are either formed by itself, or that from accident it meets with, and lays two eggs; and no bird better secures its young from external injury. It has not only birds, men, and serpents to guard against, but a numerous train of monkeys, still more prying, mischievous, and hungry, than all the rest. The toucan, however, sits in its hole, defending the entrance with its great beak; end if the mon- key venture to offer a visit of curiosity, the toucan gives him such a welcome that he is soon glad to make his escape. This bird is a native of Guiana and Brazil, and is said to be in great re- quest in South America; both from the delicacy of its flesh, and on account of the beauty of its plumage, particularly the feathers of the breast. The skin of this part the Indians pluck off, and, when dry, glue to their cheeks, and this they consider as an irresistible addition to their beauty. DHE PARR OP! Tuis bird is said to have been first introduced into Europe, by Alexander the Great. It is equally remarkable for its beauty and its docility. _ But its chief attraction is to be found in its ability to utter articulate sounds, a gift which it possesses in far greater perfection than any other bird. Its voice also is more like a man’s than any other; the raven is too hoarse, and the jay and magpie too shrill, to resemble the truth; but the parrot’s note is of the true pitch, and capable of a variety of modulations. For this it is indebted to the form of its bill, tongue, and head. “Its bill, round on the outside and hollow within, has in some degree the capacity of a mouth, and allows the tongue to play freely; and the sound, striking against the circular border of the lower mandible, is there modified as on a row of teeth, while the concavity of the upper mandible reflects it like a palate; hence the animal does not utter a whistling sound, but a full articulation. The tongue, which modulates all sounds, is proportionably larger than in man, and would be more voluble, were it not harder than flesh, and invested with 1The genus Psittacus, which includes parrots, maccaws, cockatoos, &c., has the bil. short, thick, gibbous, very strong, convex above and below, much bent and hooked at the point; lower mandible short, obtuse ; base of the bill within a cere; head large, nostrils orbicular, pierced in the cere, open; legs short, robust; tarsus shorter than the external toe; the interior toes united at their base ; tail of varied form. 69 . 46% 546 AVES—PARROT a strong horny membrane.” In addition to the talent of speech, the parrot is endowed with a strong memory and a high degree of sagacity. The bill is fashioned with peculiarities; for the upper chap, as well as the lower, are both movable. In most other birds the upper chap is connected, and makes but one piece with the skull; but in these, and in one or two species of the feathered tribe more, the upper chap is connected to the bone of the head by a strong membrane, placed on each side, that lifts and de- presses it at pleasure. By this contrivance they can open their bills the wider; which is not a little useful, as the upper chap is so hooked and so overhanging, that, if the lower chap only had motion, they could scarcely gape sufficiently to take any thing in for their nourishment. The parrot, though common enough in Europe, will not, however, breed there. The climate is too cold for its warm constitution; and though it bears our winter when arrived at maturity, yet it always seems sensible of its rigor, and loses both its spirits and appetite during the colder part of tne season. The sagacity which parrots show in a domestic state, seems also natural to them in their native residence among the woods. They live together in flocks, and mutually assist each other against other animals, either by their courage or their notes of warning. They generally breed in hollow trees, where they make a round hele, and do not line their nest within. If they find any part of a tree beginning to rot from the breaking off of a branch, or any such accident, this they take care to scoop, and to make the hole suffi- ciently wide and convenient; but it sometimes happens that they are content with the hole which a woodpecker has wrought out with greater ease before them ; and in this they prepare to hatch and bring up their young. The female lays two or three eggs, about the size of those of a pigeon, and marked with little specks. The natives are very assiduous in seeking their nests, and usually take them by cutting down the tree. By this means, indeed, the young parrots are liable to be killed; but if one of them survive, it is considered as a sufficient recompense. The old ones are shot with heavy arrows headed with cotton, which knock them down without killing them. The food commonly given to these birds consists of hemp-seed, nuts, fruits of every kind, and bread soaked in wine; they would prefer meat, but that kind of aliment has been found to make them dull and heavy, and tc cause their feathers to drop off after some time. It has been observed that they keep their food in a kind of pouch, from which they afterwards throw it up, in the same manner as ruminating animals. AVES—PARROT. 5A7 THE CAROLINA PARROT: Tuts is the only species found native within the territory of the United States. The vast luxuriant tracts lying within the torrid zone, seem to be the favorite residence of those noisy, numerous, and richly plumaged tribes. The Carolina parrot inhabits the interior of Louisiana, and the shores of the Mississippi, and Ohio, east of the Alleghanies. It is se:dom seen north of Maryland. ‘Their private places of resort are low, rich alluvial bottoms along the borders of creeks; deep and almost impenetrable swamps filled with sycamore and cypress trees, and those singular salines or licks, so interspersed over the western country Here, too, is a great abundance of their favorite fruits. The seeds of the cypress tree and beech nuts, are eagerly sought after by these birds. The flight of the Carolina parrot is very much like that of the wild pigeon, in close compact bodies, moving with great rapidity, making a loud and outrageous screaming, like that of the red-headed woodpecker. Their flight is sometimes in a direct line, but most usually circuitous, making a 1 Psittacus Carolinensis, Lin. ' 548 AVES—COCKATOO. great variety of elegant and easy serpentine meanders, as if for pleasure. They generally roost in the hollow trunks of old sycamores, in parties of thirty or forty together. Here they cling fast to the sides of the tree, hold- ing by their claws and bills. They appear to be fond of sleep, and often retire to their holes during the day, probably to take their regular siesta. They are extremely social and friendly towards each other. They build in companies in hollow trees. This bird is thirteen inches long; the forehead and cheeks are orange red; down and round the neck a rich and pure yellow; the shoulder and bend of the wings also edged with rich orange red. The general color of the rest of the plumage is a tright yellowish silky green, with light blue reflections. It is altogether supe- rior in elegance of figure, and beauty of plumage, to many of the foreign parrots. It is docile and sociable, and soon becomes perfectly familiar, but cannot be taught to speak. These birds are rapidly diminishing. Accord- ing to Mr Audubon, very few of them are to be found north of Cincinnati _and there are not, at present, half the number along the Mississippi, that existed there fifteen years ago. THE COCKATOO! Is distinguished from the parrot, by its head being adorned with a crest ot long feathers, which is capable of being erected and lowered at will, and gives the bird a strikingly fine appearance. It isa native of the Molucca Islands, and other parts of the East Indies, where it is frequently known to build on the tops of houses. Like the rest of the parrot kind, it is capable of uttering sea phrases and sentences, with equal propriety of tone and volubility. It derives its name from its frequent repetition of the syllables cock-a-too. It delights in damp and marshy situations, and usually dwells near rivers or brooks, where it indulges in frequent bathing. In bathing, indeed, it feels a particular pleasure, even when a captive. Vegetable sub- 1 Psittacus cristatus, Lin. AVES—MACCAW. 549 stances, chiefly seeds, supply its food, in the wild state. When domesti- cated, it lives on hemp-seed, the outer covering of which it detaches with much dexterity Of pastry and sweetmeats it is very fond. THE MACCAW.1 THE maccaws are characterized by their very broad and powerful beaks ; «he nakedness of the face, sometimes quite bare, at other times partially severed with lines of short and scattered feathers; and the tail, which sur- passes the body in length, is regularly graduated and terminates in an acute wpex. All of them are natives of America, inhabit the tropical regions, and aie remarkable for their vivid coloring. They subsist on fruits and seeds. Of tke latter, they prefer such as have a hard and shelly covering, and from these hey extract the contents very skilfully. THE BLUE MACCAW Innazits Brazil. It is entirely of a deep and ‘brilliant blue color; with black back, legs, and claws. Round each of the eyes is a naked circle of bright yellow, and the cere is of the same hue. A specimen in the Tower, measurestwo feet four inches, from the top of the head to the extremity of the tail. Its upper mandible is five inches long; its lower is two. 1 Psittacus macao, Lin. 550 AVES—PARROQUET...WOODPECKER. THE PARR O QU El. Tuts bird has a longer tail than the common parrot, and is less in size It also speaks with less facility, and is even more easily tamed. The handsomest species is the ring paroquet, which has a red circle encompassing the back of the neck, and ending under the lower chap of the bill. Its head and body are green, but of a fainter hue on the neck, breast, and whole of the under side; the belly being of so slight a green as to seem almost yellow. The parroquet tribe in Brazil are most beautiful in their plumage, and the most talkative birds in nature. THE WOODPECK ER+ Birps of this tribe subsist for the most part upon worms and insects, con- tained in the trunks and branches of trees. For this purpose they are fur- nished with a straight, hard, strong, angular, and sharp bill, made for piercing and boring. They have a tongue of a very great length; round, ending m a sharp, stiff, bony thorn, dentated on each side, to strike ants and insects when dislodged from their cells. Their legs are short and strong, for the purposes of climbing. Their toes stand two forward, and two backward; which is particularly serviceable in holding by branches of trees. They have hard stiff tails, to lean upon when climbing. They feed only upon insects, and want that intestine which anatomists call the cecum; a cir- cumstance peculiar to this tribe only. Of this bird there are more than fifty species, with many varieties. They form large colonies in the forests of every part of the world. They are found from the size of a jackdaw to that of a wren, and differ greatly in color and appearance; and agreeing only in the marks above-mentioned, or in those habits which result from so peculiar a conformation. All these species feed upon insects, and particularly on tnose which are found in decaving trees. When a woodpecker, by its natural sagacity, finds a hollow or decayed tree where there are worms, ants’ eggs, or insects, it immediately prepares for its operations. Resting by its strong claws, and leaning on the ten hard, stiff, and sharp-pointed feathers of its tail, it begins to bore with its powerful beak, until it discloses the whole internal habitation. It then 1 The genus Picus, which embraces the family of woodpeckers, has the bill long or medium size, straight, angular, wedge-shaped at the tip; nostrils basal, eben, covered by setaceous feathers; tongue round, vermiform; legs strong; two toes before and two be- ind, rarely one behind ; anterior toes joined at their base, the posterior divided ; tail of twelve feathers, the lateral very short. AVES—W OODPECKER. 55} sends forth a !oud cry, upon which the whole insect tribe are thrown mto zonfusion, and run hither and thither seeking for safety; while the invader luxuriously feasts upon them at leisure, darting in its long tongue, and de- vouring the whole brood. The woodpecker, however, does not confine its depredations solely to trees, but sometimes alights upon the ground, to try its fortune at an ant-hill. It first goes to their hills, which it pecks, in order to call them abroad; it then thrusts out its long red tongue, which being like a worm, and resembling their usual prey, the ants come out to settle upon it in great numbers; how- ever, the bird, watching the properest opportunity, withdraws its tongue at a jerk, and devours the devourers. This stratagem it continues, till it has alarmed their fears, or till it is quite satisfied. As the woodpecker is obliged to make holes in trees to procure food, so it is also to make cavities still larger to form its nest and to layin. This is performed, as usual, with the bill; although some have affirmed that the animal uses its tongue as a gimlet, to bore with. But this is a mistake; and those that are curious, may often hear the noise of the bill making its way in large woods and forests. The woodpecker chooses, however, for this purpose, trees that are decayed, or wood that is soft, like beech, elm, and poplar. In these, with very little trouble, it can make holes as exactly round as a mathematician could ,;with compasses. One of these holes the bird generally chooses for its own use, to nestle and bring up its young in; but as they are easily made, it is delicate in its choice, and often makes twenty before one is found fit to give entire satisfaction. The woodpecker takes no care to line its nest with feathers or straw; its eggs are deposited in the hole, without any thing to keep them warm, except the heat of the parent’s body. Their number is generally five or six ; always white, oblong, and of a middle size. When the young are excluded, and before they leave the nest, they are adorned with a scarlet plumage under the throat, which adds to their beauty. THE BED-HEADED, WOODPECKERS Is one of the most remarkable of American birds. Its tri-colored plumage, red, white, and black, is so striking and characteristic, and his predatory habits in the orchards and corn-fields, added to his numbers and fondness for hovering along the fences, so very notorious, that almost every child is ac- quainted with the red-headed woodpecker. Towards the mountains, par- ticularly in the vicinity of creeks and rivers, these birds are extremely abunilant, especially in the latter part of the summer. Wherever you travel — 1 Picus erythrocephalus, Li. 552 AVES—WOODPECKER. in the interior at that season, you hear them screaming from the adjoining woods, ratiling on the dead limbs of trees, or on the fences, where they are perpetually seen flitting from stake to stake on the roadside before you. Wherever there are trees of the wild cherry, covered with ripe fruit, there you see tnem busy among the branches; and in passing orchards, you may easily know where to find the earliest, sweetest apples, by observing those trees on or near which this bird is skulking; for he is so excellent a con- noisseur in fruit, that wherever an apple or pear is found broached by him, it is sure to be among the ripest and best flavored. When alarmed, he seizes a capital one by sticking his open bill deep into it, and bears it off to the woods. When the Indian corn is in its ripe, succulent, and milky state, he attacks it with great eagerness, opening a passage through the numerous folds of the husk, and feeding on it with voracity. The girdled or deadened timber, so common among the corn-fields in the back settlements, are his favorite retreats, whence he sallies out to make his depredations. He is fond of the ripe berries of the sour gum, and pays regular visits to the cherry trees, when loaded with fruit. Towards fall, he often approaches the barn or farmhouse, and raps on the shingles and weather-boards. He is of a gay and frolicsome disposition ; and half a dozen of the fraternity are frequently seen diving and vociferating round the high dead limbs of some tree, pur- suing and playing with each other, amusing the passenger with their gam. bols. Their note or cry is shrill and lively, and so much resembles that of a species of tree-frog, which frequents the same tree, that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the one from the other. Thovgh this bird occasionally regales himself on fruit, yet his natura. AVES—WOODPECKER. 553 and most useful food is insects, particularly those numerous and destructive species that penetrate the bark and body of the tree, to deposit their eggs and larve, the latter of which are well known to make immense havoc. In fact, insects form at least two thirds of his subsistence. He searches for them with a dexterity and intelligence, I may safely say, more than human; he perceives by the exterior surface of the bark where they lurk below; when he is dubious, he rattles vehemently on the outside with his bill, and his acute ear distinguishes the terrified vermin skrinking within to their inmost retreats, where his pointed and barbed tongue soon reaches them. ‘Ine masses of bugs, caterpillars, and other larve which I have taken from the stomachs of these birds have often surprised me. These larve, it should be remembered, feed not only on the buds, leaves and blossoms, but on the very vegetable life of the tree,—the newly forming bark and wood; the conse- quence is, that whole branches and trees decay under the silent ravages of these destructive vermin. It must therefore be allowed, that the services of this useful bird more than compensate for his petty thefts on apple and cherry trees. These birds build their nests in the body or large limbs of trees, taking in no materials, but smoothing it within to the proper shape and size. The female lays six eggs. Notwithstanding the care which this bird takes to place its young beyond the reach of enemies, yet there is one deadly foe against whose depredations there is no security. This is the black snake, who frequently glides up the trunk of the tree, and, like a skulking savage, enters the woodpecker’s peaceful apartment, devours the eggs or helpless young, in spite of the cries and flutterings of the parents; and if the place be large enough, coils himself up in the spot they occupied, where he will sometimes remain several days; and often terrifies the eager schoolboy, who thrusts his arm into the cavity after the callow brood. Several adven- tures of this kind have come to my knowledge. This bird is nine inches and a half long; the head and neck are deep scar- let; the back, wing-coverts, and tail, black; the lower part of the back, and whole under parts are white. THE TVORY-BILLE’D WOODPE CK ER.2 In strength and magnitude, stands at the head of the whole class of woad- peckers hitherto discovered. He may be called the king or chief of his tribe ; and nature seems to have designed him a distinguished characteristic, in the superb carmine crest and bill of polished ivory with which she has orna- mented him. His eye is brilliant and daring, and his whole frame admira- bly adapted for his mode of life. His manners have also a dignity in them 1 Picus principalis, Lin. 70 47 é 554 AVES—WOODPECKER. superior to the common herd of woodpeckers. The royal nunter before us, scorns the humility of searching for prey in trees, shrubbery, orchards, rails, and old prostrate logs, and seeks the most towering trees of the forest; seem- ing particularly attached to those prodigious cypress swamps, whose crowded giant sons stretch their bare and blasted, or moss-hung arms midway to the skies. In these almost impenetrable recesses, amid ruinous piles of de- caying timber, his trumpet-like note and loud strokes resound through the solitary savage wilds, of which he seems the sole lord and inhabitant Wherever he frequents, he leaves numerous monuments of his industry behind him. We there see enormous pine trees with cart-loads of bark lying around their roots, and chips of the trunk itself in such quantities as to suggest the idea that half a dozen axe-men had been at work there the whole morning. But examine the tree closely where he has been at work, and you will soon perceive, that it is neither for amusement nor mischief that he slices off the bark, or digs his way into the trunk. The sound and healthy tree is not the least object of his attention. The diseased, infested with insects and hastening to putrefaction, are his favorites ; there the deadly crawling enemy have formed a Jodgment between the bark and tender wood, to drink up the very vital part of the tree. This bird is not migratory: it breeds in the Carolinas, and builds a large and capacious nest ina cypress tree. It is called by the natives the large Logcock. Its food consists entirely of insects and larve. Its common note, repeated every three or four seconds, very much resembles the tone of a trumpet, seeming to be near at hand, though perhaps one hundred yards off. This it utters while mounting along the trunk, or digging into it. At these times it has a stately and novel appearance, and his note instantly attracts the notice of a stranger. The ivory-billed woodpecker is twenty inches long; the general color is black, glossed with green ; fore part of the head black; the rest of the crest of a most splendid red, spotted at the bottom with white; the beak is of the color and consistence of ivory, prodigiously strong, and elegantly fluted. DEE PILEATED.W OODPECK ER! Is the next in size, and may be styled the great northern chief, though his range extends from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico, over the whole range of the United States. In Pennsylvania and the northern states he is called the black woodcock; in the southern states, the lesser logcock. He is very numerous in all the tracts of high timbered forests, in the neighborhood of large rivers, where he is noted for making a loud and incessant cackling be 1 Picus pileatus, Lin. AVES—WOODPECKER. 555 fore wet weather, making the woods echo to his outcry. Almost every trunk in the forests bears the marks of his chisel. Whether engaged in digging, flying, or climbing, he seems perpetually in a hurry. He is extremely hard to kill, clinging close to the tree after he has received his mortal wound ; nor yielding up his hold but with his expiring breath. He can rarely be recon- ciled to confinement. This bird is net migratory, but bears the extremes of both the arctic and torrid regions. Neither is he gregarious, for itis rare to see more than one or two in company. Their nest is built in the hole of a tree, dug out by themselves: it is eighteen inches long; the general color is a dusky brown- ish black ; the head is ornamented with a conical cap of bright scarlet; the chin is white, with two scarlet mustaches; the upper part of the wings is white, the lower part black, but the white is never seen except when the bird is flying. THE YELLOW-BELLIED WOODPECKER! Is one of our resident birds. It visits our orchards in the fall in great nume- bers, and is occasionally seen during the whole winter and spring; but seems to seek the depths of the forest to rear its young in; for during the summer it is rarely seen. It inhabits the continent from Cayenne to Virginia. They are common in Kentucky and Ohio, ard have been seen near St. Louis. The only nest of this bird which I have met with was in the body of an old pear tree. The hole was almost exactly circular, small for the size of the bird, so that he crept in and out with difficulty; but suddenly widened by a small angle, and then running downwards about fifteen inches. On the smooth solid wood were four eggs. The principal food of these birds is insects; and they seem particularly fond of frequenting orchards, boring the trunks of the apple trees in their eager search for them. In the morning they are extremely active. Their cry cannot be described by words. THE °HATRY WOODPECKER 2 Is, like the former, a haunter of orchards, and borer of apple trees, an eager hunter of insects in old stumps and rails, and rotten branches and crevices of the bark. In the spring, he retires into the woods and seeks out a branch already hollow, or cuts out an opening for himself. In the latter case he digs horizontally first, and then downwards, carrying up the chips wita his bil, and scraping them out with his feet. They sometimes breed in an * Picus varius, Wiison. 2 Picus villosus, Lin. 556SC- AVES—WOC DPECKER. orchard, or dig a hole in an old stake of a fence. They frequently approach the farmhouses and skirts of the town. In Philadelphia, they frequent the old wiilow and poplar trees. Their cry is strong, shrill, and tremulous; they have alse a single note or chuck, which they often repeat in an eager manner as they hop about and dig in the crevices of the trees. They inhabit the continent from Hudson’s Bay to Carolina and Georgia. This bird is nine inches long; the hind head is scarlet mixed with black ; under the bill are long hairs thrown forwards and upwards. The back is black, divided by a strip of white, the feathers of which resemble hairs ; wings black, spotted with white, the under parts are pure white. The great mass of hairs that cover the nostril appears to be designed as a protection to the front of the nead, when the bird is engaged in digging holes in the wood. Iu flight thesa birds sink and rise alternately, uttering a loud tremulous scream as they set off and alight. They are hard to kill. THE, DOWNY WOODPECKER+A d Is the smallest of all, and exactly resembles the former in tints and mark ings, and in almost every thing but its diminutive size. Its principal characteristics are diligence, familiarity, and a strength and energy in the head and neck, which are truly astonishing. Mounted on the infected branch of an old apple tree, where insects have lodged between the bark and the wood, he labors sometimes for half an hour incessantly at the same spot, till he has succeeded in dislodging them. At these times you may walk pretty close to the tree without in the least embarrassing him: the strokes of his bill are distinctly heard several hundred yards off; and I have known him to work for two hours together on one tree. He has a single note or chink, which he frequently repeats: and when he flies off, he utters a rather shriller cry, quickly reiterated. Of all our woodpeckers, none rid the apple- trees of so many vermin as this; digging off the moss, and probing every trevice. His industry is unequalled, and almost incessant. TiS RED-BELLIED WOODPECKER®? PosskEssEs all the restless and noisy habits of its tribe. It is more shy than the red-headed one. It is also more solitary. It prefers the largest, high- timbered woods and tallest decayed timbers of the forest; seldom appearing near the ground, on the fences, or in orchards; yet where the trees have been deadened in fields of Indian corn, it is pretty numerous, and it feeds — 1 Picus pubescens, Lin. 2 Picus Carolinus, Try, AVES—WOODPECKER. 557 eagerly on that grain. Its voice is hoarser than any of the others; and its usual note, chow, has often reminded me of the barking of a little lap- dog. It is a most expert climber, possessing extraordinary strength in the muscles of its feet and claws, and moves about the body and hori- zontal limbs of the trees with equal facility in all directions. It rattles like the rest of its tribe on the dead limbs with such violence, as to be heard in still weather for more than half a mile; and listens to hear the insects it has alarmed. It digs its nest in the lower side of some lofty branch, the male and female working together. This bird is ten inches in iength. The upper part of the head, neck, and back are of a brilliant, golden, glossy red; the breast is ash, and the belly bloody red. The back is black, crossed with bars of white. It inhabits a large extent of country. THE GOLDEN-WINGED WOODPECKER! Is well xnown to our farmers and junior sportsmen, who take every oppor tunity of destroying him; the former, for the supposed trespasses he commits on their Indian corn, or the trifle he will bring in market; and the latter, for the mere pleasure of destruction, and perhaps for the flavor of his flesh, which is in general esteem. Early in April these elegant birds begin to prepare their nests, which is built in the hollow body or branch of a tree, sometimes in an old apple tree. The male and female work together, and encourage each other by mutual caresses. They employ themselves in hol- lowing the tree for several days, and may even be heard late in the evening, 1 Picus auratus, Lin, A7* 558 AVES—NUTHATCH. thumping like carpenters. They carry in no materials for their nest. Their food varies with the season. As the common cherries, wild cherries, and berries of the sour gum ripen, he regales plentifully on them ; but his chief food is wood-lice and the young and larve of ants. He is very fond of corn, and visits the farmer’s grounds too frequently to remain unpunished, as the farmer destroys him on every opportunity. This bird has the back and wings of a burnt umber, marked with streaks of black; the breast is ornamented with a broad crescent of deep black ; the belly is light yellow, spotted with innumerable round spots of black; the inner side of the wings and tail are of a beautiful golden yellow. They inhabit America from Hudson’s Bay to Georgia, and have been found on the North-West coast. They arrive at Hudson’s Bay in the spring. ORDER VI.—ANISODACTYLI. Birps of this order have the bill more or less arched, often straight, always subulate and slender; feet with three toes before and one behind, the exte- rior united at the base to that in the middle, the hinder one generally long, and all provided with long and bent claws. THE SUT A TCH! WEIcHs near an ounce, and is five inches and three quarters in length. The bill is strong and straight, and three fourths of an inch long. The upper part of the plumage is of a fine bluish gray; a black stroke runs from the mouth to the eye. The cheeks are white, and the breast and belly of a dul orange color. This bird runs up and down the bodies of trees like the wood- pecker. It feeds on insects and nuts, which it stores in the hollow parts of the tree. Itis a pretty sight, says Willoughby, to see her fetch a nut out 1 Sitta Europea, Lix. The genus Sitta has the bill straight, cylindrical, slightly com- pressed, tip acuminated, nostrils basal, rounded, partly concealed by reflected bristles}. tongue short, horny ; three toes before, the exterior joined at its base to the middle one; hind toe very long, with a long hooked claw; tail composed of twelve feathers. AVES—NUTHATCH. 559 of her hoard, place it in a chink, and then, standing above it, striking it with ali its force till it breaks the shell and catches up the kernel. Doctor Plot says, that this bird, by putting its bill into the crack of a tree, can produce a violent sound, as if it was rending asunder, which may be heard, at least one hundred and twenty yards. In some countries this bird, from the noise which it produces in the manner above stated, is called the logger- head. WHITE-BREASTED NUTHATCH.! Tue white-breasted nuthatch is common almost everywhere in the woods of North America; and may be known ata distance by thenotes guank, quank, frequently repeated, as he moves up and down in spiral circles around the body and branches of the tree, shelling off pieces of bark in search of spi- ders, ants, insects, and their larve. He rests and roosts with his head downwards, and appears to possess a curiosity not common to birds; fre- quently descending very slily within a few feet of the root of a tree where you happen to stand, stopping head downwards, stretching out his neck in a horizontal position, as if to reconnoitre your appearance, and, after several minutes of silent observation, wheeling round, he again mounts with fresh activity, piping his orisonsas before. Strongly attached to his native forests, he seldom forsakes them, and in the rigor of the severest winter, his note is still heard in the bleak and leafless woods. This bird builds its nest in the hole of a tree, in the hollow rail of a fence, and sometimes in the wooden crevice under the eaves. The male is ex tremely attentive to the female while sitting, and supplies her regularly with sustenance, calling her and offering her whatever he has brought, with the most endearing tenderness. Sometimes he stops merely to inquire how she is, and to lighten the tedious moments with his soothing chatter. When both are feeding on the same tree, he is perpetually calling to her; and from the momentary pause he makes, it is evident that he feels pleased to hear her reply. There are two or three species of the nuthatch besides the above, found in America. 1 Sitta Carolinensis, Witson, 560 AVES—CREEPER...HUMMING-BIRD. THE CREEPER! Is the smallest of European birds, if we except the crested wren, and weighs only five drachms. The bill is hooked like a sickle. The upper part of the body is variegated with brown and black, and the breast and belly are of a silver white. This bird is very common in England, though, from its extreme agility in eluding the eye of the spectator, it is less frequently seen than other common birds. It feeds upon insects, and builds in the holes of trees. The nest is formed of grass, lined with feathers. Along the stems of trees it runs readily in every direction. - Nearly eighty species, foreign and domestic, have been enumerated of this bird. The color of the foreign species is in general olive green. It inhabits the Sandwich Islands, and is one of the birds, whose plumage the natives make use of for their feathered garments. THE HUMMING-BIRD2 Or this charming little animal there are not less than sixty species, from the size of a small wren down to that of a bee. An European could never have supposed a bird existing so very small, and yet completely furnished with a bill, feathers, wings, and intestines, exactly resembling those of the largest kind. A bird not so big as the end of one’s little finger, would pro- bably be supposed but a creature of imagination, were it not seen in infinite numbers, and as frequent as butterflies ina summer’s day, sporting in the fields of America, from flower to flower, and extracting their sweets with its little bill. 1 Certhia familiaris, Lux. The genus Certhia has the bill long, or of medium length, more or less curved, triangular, compressed, slender; nostrils basal, naked, pierced hori- zontally, and half closed by a membrane ; three toes before, the outer united at its base to the intermediate one; claws much hooked, that on the hind toe longest; tail graduated with stiff pomted shafts; fourth quill feather longest. 2The genus T'rochilus which embraces the humming-bird, has the bill Jong, straight, or arcuated, tubular, very slender, base depressed, acuminated ; upper mandible almost con- cealing the lower; tongue long, extensible, bifid, and tubular; nostrils open before, covered by a broad membrane; legs very short; tarsus shorter than the middle toe the three anterior toes nearly divided; wings graduated, the first feather longest. ribes AVES—HUMMING-BIRD. 561 The smallest humming-bird is about the size of a bee, and weighs ne more than twenty grains. The feathers on its wings and tail are violet brown, but those on its body and under its wings are of a greenish brown; with a fine red cast or gloss, which no silk or velvet can imitate. Tle bill is black, straight, slender, and of the length of three lines and a half. There are almost all colors of these beautiful animals, crimson, green, emerald, white breasted, and spotted. Some of them with and some without crests. The eyes of most of them are very small, and as black as jet. It is inconceivable how much these add to the high finishing and beauty of a rich luxurious western landscape. As soon as the sun is risen, the humming-birds of different kinds are seen fluttering about the flowers, with- out even lighting upon them. Their wings are in such rapid motion, that it is impossible to discern their colors, except by their glittering. They are never still, but continually in motion, visiting flower after flower, and ex- tracting its honey. For this purpose they are furnished with a forked tongue, that enters the cup of the flower, and extracts its nectared tribute. Upon this alone they subsist. The rapid motion of their wings brings out a hum- ming sound, whence they have their name. The nests of these birds are not less curious than the rest; they are sus- pended in the air, at the point of the twigs of an orange, a pomegranate, or a citron tree; sometimes, even in houses, if they find a small and convenient twig for the purpose. The female is the architect, while the male goes in quest of materials, such as cotton, fine moss, and the fibres of vegetables. The nest is about the size of a hen’s egg cut intwo. They lay two eggs at a time, and never more, about the size of small peas, and as white as snow, with here and there a yellow speck. ‘The time of incubation con- tinues twelve days; at the end of which, the young ones appear, and are much about the size of a bluebcttle fly. It is a doubt whether or not these birds have a continued note in singing. All travellers agree that, beside the humming noise produced by their wings. they have a little interrupted chirrup; but Labat asserts, that they have a most pleasing melancholy melody in their voices, though small and propor- tioned to the organs which produce it. It is very probable that, in different places, their notes are also different; and as there are some that continue torpid all the winter, there may likewise be some with agreeable voices, thougn tne rest may in general be silent. Small as the humming-bird is, it has great courage and violent passions. If it find that a flower has been deprived of its honey, it will pluck it off, throw it on the ground, and sometimes tear it to pieces; and it often fights with a desperate fury which is astonishing in a creature of such diminutive size. It will even allow aman to come within two yards of it, before it will take to flight. Humming-birds are caught by blowing water on them from a tube, or shooting at them with sand. 71 aa 562 AVES—HUMMING-BIRD. THE HUMMING-BIRD OF THE UNITED STATES:! Tus little bird is remarkable for its beauty, minuteness, want of song, and manner of feeding. There are upwards of seventy species in America and te adjacent islands, one only of which is found in the United States. This is found in Canada in great numbers, where it arrives from the south. It is wonderful how such a little creature can make its way over such ex- tensive regions of lakes and forests. But its very mznuteness, the rapidity of its flight, and its admirable instinct and courage, are its guides and pro- tectors. The nest of this little bird is fixed on the upper side of the branch of a tree. Instances have been known of its building on an old moss-grown trunk, or on a strong weed in the garden; but these cases are rare. This nest is about an inch in diameter, an inch deep, formed of lichen, wings of certain flying seeds, and of a downy substance from the great mullein. The eggs are two, of a pure white. If any one approaches the nest, the little proprietors dart around with a humming sound, frequently passing within a few inches of your head. His only note is a single chirp, not louder than that of a cricket or grasshopper. The humming-bird is extremely fond of tubular flowers, particularly of the blossoms of the trumpet flower. When arrived before a thicket of these, that are full blown, he suspends himself on wing for the space of two or three seconds, so steadily, that his wings become invisible, or only like a mist; the glossy golden green of his back, and fire of his throat, dazzling in the sun, form altogether an interesting spectacle. When he alights, he prefers the small dead twigs of a bush where he dresses and arranges his plumage with great dexterity. He is one of the few birds that is universally beloved. His flight from flower to flower greatly resembles that of a bee, but is infinitely more rapid. He poises himself on the wing, while he thrusts his long slender tongue into the flowers in search of food. He sometimes enters a room by the window, examines the bouquets of flowers, and passes out by the opposite door or window. It has hitherto been supposed to sub- sist entirely on the honey which it extracts from flowers. But they are known t) feed on insects, being seen for half an hour at a time, darting at little grcups of insects with the dexterity of the flycatcher. The humming-bird is three inches anda half in length, aud of a rich golden green color, while the feathers round his throat are black, crimson, and orange, mingled together, giving him a very brilliant appearan ‘e. _——— 1 Trochilus colubris, Lin. AVES—HOOPOE. 563 THE HOOPOE.! Of this bird there are only two species known to Europeans, one of which is, however, diffused over the whole of the Old Continent. It weighs about twelve ounces, and is twelve inches in length, the extent of its wings being nineteen inches across. The bill is long, black, and somewhat curved. The neck is pale reddish brown; the breast and belly white; the lesser coverts of the wing light brown; the back, scapulars, and wings crossed with black and white, the rump white, and the tail white, marked with black in the form of a crescent. But the distinguishing character is a beau- tiful crest of about two inches high, which is ofa pale orange tipped with black, and which the bird can erect at pleasure. The food of this bird is insects. It is a solitary bird, two of them being seldom found together. In some places it is accounted good eating. ORDER VII.—ALCYONES. Birps of this order have the bill middle sized or long, pointed, almost quadrangular, and either slightly arched or straight; tarsus very short three toes before, united, and one behind. These birds fly with great celerity. Their movements are quick and abrupt, and they neither walk nor climb. They seize their food on the wing, and often from the surface of the water, and nestle in holes on the banks of rivers. They moult only once a year; and the females and young are not very dissimilar from the males and mature birds. 1 Upupa epops, Lin. The genus Upupa has the bill very long, slightly arched, slender, wiangular, compressed ; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, open, and surmounted with feathers ‘n front ; taree toes before, the exterior united to the middle one to the first joint; one be- rind ; tail square, of ten feathers. ; 564 AVES—BEE-EATER...EUROPEAN KINGFISHER. THE BEE-EATER! Is well known on the continent of Europe, though it has never been seen in England. It is about ten inchesinlength. The forehead is of a blue green ; the top of the head, and upper part of the back, chesnut and green; the throat is yellow; andthe under parts of the body blue green. Flocks of these birds are seen in Germany. It feeds chiefly upon insects, and is good food. There are about twenty different species, foreign and domestic. The Indian bee-eater is about the size of a common blackbird. Its bill is nearly two inches long, and its eyes are of a fine red; on each side of the head extends a black stroke, which begins at the corners of the mouth, and passes beyond the eyes. The base of the upper chap, and under the chin, is covered with bright pale blue feathers; the upper and back part of the head are of a dusky yellow; the back and wings of the same color, only shaded pretty strongly with a green; the tips of the quill feathers brown, the breast and belly green; the thighs and under part near the vent, ofa pale yellow, with a small green mixture. The tail consists of about twelve feathers ; the outermost on each side are of a green and yellow mixture, about three inches in length, the two middlemost twice that length, ending in sharp points, of a brown or dusky color; the legs and feet black. They principally feed on bees, beetles, grasshoppers, and other insects. They build in hollow places or caverns five or six feet deep, and lay six or seven eggs. 3 THE EVROPEAN KINGFISHER? Tats kingfisher is not much larger than a swallow; its shape is compact; the legs, however, are disproportionabiy small, and the bill disproportionably long; it is two inches from the base to the tip; the upper chap black, and the lower yellow; but the colors of this bird atone for whatever is inelegant iz. its form; the crown of the head, and the coverts of the wings, are of a deep blackish green, spotted with bright azure; the back and tail are of the most resplendent azure; the whole under side of the body is orarge colored; a broad mark of the same passes from the bill beyond the eyes ; beyond that is a large white spot; the tail is short, and consists of twelve feathers of a eee CU a ? Merops apiaster, Lux. The genus Merops has the bill sharp edged, pointed, shyhtly curved; nostrils basal, lateral, ovoid, contealed by hairs directed forwards; tarsus short, three front toes united, the exterior to the second Joint, the interior to the first Joint of the middl> toe; hind toe broad at its base; the second wing feather the longest. ? Alcedo ispida, Lix. The genus Alcedo has the bill long, straight, quadrangular, pointed, edged, and very rarely depressed; nostrils basa:, lateral, pierced obliquely, _ almost wholly closed by a naked membrane; legs short, naked above the knee; exterior .0e united to the second joint, and the interior to the first jomt of the middle toe. AVES—BELTED KINGFISHER. 565 rich deep blue; the feet are of a reddish yellow, and the three joints of the twtmost toe adhere to the middle toe, while the inner toe adheres only by one. From the diminutive size, the slender short legs, and the beautiful colors of this bird, no person would suppose it one of the most rapacious little animals that skims the deep. Yet it is forever on the wing, and feeds on fish, which it takes in surprising quantities, when we consider its size and figure. It chiefly frequents the banks of rivers. There it preys on the smaller fish, and sits frequently on a branch projecting over the current; there it remains motionless, and often watches whole hours to catch the moment when a little fish springs under its station ; it dives perpendicularly into the water, where it continues several seconds, and then brings up the fish, which it carries to land, beats to death, and then swallows; but it afterwards throws up the undigestible parts. When this bird cannot find a projecting bough, it sits on some stone near the brink, or even on the gravel ; but the moment it perceives the fish, it takes a spring upward, of twelve or fifteen feet, and drops perpendicularly from thatheight. Often it is observed to stop short in its rapid course, and remain stationary, hovering like a hawk, over the same spot for several seconds. Such is its mode in winter, when the muddy swell of the stream, or the thickness of the ice, constrains it to leave the rivers, and ply along the sides of the unfrozen brooks. In this way it traverses many leagues. While it remains suspended in the air, in a bright day, the plumage exhibits a beautiful variety of the most dazzling and brilliant colors. The kingfisher builds its nest by the river-side, in a hole which it burrows out itself, or in the deserted hole of a rat. In these holes, which, from the remains of fish brought there, are very feetid, the kingfisher is often found with from five eggs to nine. There the female continues to hatch, even though disturbed ; and though the nest be robbed, she will again return and lay there. The male, whose fidelity exceeds even that of the turtle, brings her large provisions of fish while she is thus employed ; and she, contrary to most other birds, is found plump and fat at that season. THE BELTED KINGSTSHE RY Tuts is a general inhabitant of the banks and shores of all our fresh water rivers from Hudson’s Bay to Mexico, and is the only species of its tribe found within the United States. This last circumstance, and its characte- ristic appearance, make it° universally known here. Like the love-lorn swains, of whom poets tell us, he delights in murmuring streamsand falling waters; not however merely that they may sooth his ear, but for a gratificas “ 1 Aleedo alcyon, Lin. 48 se: 566 AVES—BELTED KINGFISHER, tion somewhat more substantial. Amidst the roar of a cataract, or over the foam of a torrent, he sits perched upon an overhanging bough, glancing his piercing eye in every direction below for his scaly prey, wnich, with a sudden circular plunge, he sweeps from their native elemcat and swallows in an instant. His voice, which is not unlike the twirling of a watchman’s rattle, is naturally loud, harsh, and sudden, but is softened by the sound of the brawling streams, and cascades, among which he generally rambles. He courses along the windings of the brook, er river, at a small height above ihe surface. Sometimes suspending himself by the rapid actior o* his ' wings, ready to pounce on the prey below; now and then settling on an old dead overhanging limb to reconnoitre. Mill-dams are particularly visited by this feathered fisher; and the sound of his pipe is as well known to the miller, as the rattling of his own hopper. Rapid streams, with high perpendicular banks, particularly if they be ni hard clayey or Saas nature, are also favorite places of resort for this bird; not only because in such places the fish are more exposed to view, but because those steep and high banks are the chosen situations for his nest. Into these he digs with his bill horizontally, sometimes four or five feet. The nest is built of few materials. They are very tenacious of their haunts, breeding for several successive years in the same hole, and do not readily forsake it, even though it be visited. Many fabulous stories have becn related iy the ancients, of the nest and manner of hatching of the kingfisher AVES—SWALLOW. 567 This bird is twelve inches and a half long; the whole upper parts are a bluish slate color, round the neck is a collar of pure white; the head is large, and crested; the feathers are long, and generally erect; the breast is blue and brown, the under parts white. ORDER VIII.—_-CHELIDONES. Brrps of this order have the bill very short, much depressed, and very wide at the base ; the upper mandible curved at the point; legs short, three ‘oes before, either entirely divided, or connected at the base by a short mem- brane, the hinder often reversible; claws much hooked; wings long. The flight of these birds is rapid and abrupt, their sight piercing; neck short; throat wade, bill broad, and often gaping fer the reception of insects, which constitute their only food. THE SWALLOW.! Tue swallow tribe is very numerous. These birds have a peculiar twit- tering voice, fly with extreme rapidity, scarcely ever walk, and perform all their functions while they are on the wing or sitting. Their plumage is glossed with a rich purple. To the martens, and other small birds, the swallow announces the ap- proach of birds of prey. By a shrill alarming note, he summons around him all his own species and the martens, as soon as an owl or hawk appears. The whole band then pursue and strike their enemy till they expel him from the place; darting down on his back, and rising in a perpendicular line with perfect security. The swallow will also strike at cats while they are climb- ing the roofs of houses. Early in the spring, when the solar beams begin to rouse the insect tribes from their annual state of torpidity, the swallow is seen returning from its long migrations beyond the ocean ; and in proportion as the weather grows warmer, and its insect supply increases, it gathers strength and activity: The breed of the swallow ought to be cherished, as the bird is of infinite service to mankind, by destroying myriads of vermin which would prove fatally prejudicial to the labors of the husbandman. Of the swallow tribe, all the birds have been observed to drink while in their flight, sipping the surface of the water. It is, however, generally 1The genus Hirundo, which embraces most of the swallows, has the bill short, triangu- far, broad at the base, depressed, cleft near to the eyes; upper mandible slightly hooked at the tip; nostrils basal, oblong, partly closed i a membrane, surmounted by feathers in front; legs short, with slender toes and claws; three toes before, the exterior united to the first joint of the middle one; one behind; wings long; the first quill the longest; tail of twelve feathers, mostly forked. 568 AVES—MARTEN. speaking, only the swallow that washes on the wing, Ly making many suc cessive dips into a pond. Swallows will attend horsemen for miles, over wide downs, to collect such insects as are aroused by the trampling of the horses’ feet. THE PURPLE: MARTE N! Is a general inhabitant of the United States, and a particular favorite wher- ever he takes up his abode. This bird, like the rest of his tribe, is migratory. His summer residence is universally among the habitations of man, who, having no interest in his destruction, is generally his friend and protector. . Whenever he comes, he finds some hospitable retreat fitted up for his accommodation. Some people have large conveniences formed for the martens, with many apartments, which are fully tenanted, and occupied regularly every spring. Even the solitary Indian seems to have a particular respect for this bird. The Choc- taws and Chickasaws cut off all the top branches of a sapling near their cabins, leaving the prongs a foot or two long, on each side of which they hang a gourd or calabash, hollowed out for their convenience. On the Mississippi the negroes stick up long canes, with the same species of apart- ment, in which the martens regularly breed. They begin their nest about the middle of April. It is formed of a quantity of willows, slender straws, feathers, and hay. When the female is sitting, she is frequently visited by the male, who occupies her place while she takes a short recreation abroad He sits on the outside of the apartment where she is, dressing and arranging his plumage, occasionally passing to the door, as if to inquire how she is. His notes at this time seem to have a peculiar softness, and his gratulations are expressive of much tenderness. Conjugal fidelity seems to be faithfully preserved by these birds. A male and femeaie marten once took possession of a box in Mr Bartram’s garden. A day or two after, a second female made her appearance, but from the cold reception she met with, being frequently beat off by the male, she finally abandoned the place, and set off no doubt to seek a more sociable com- panion. The flight of the purple marten unites in it all the swiftness, ease, rapidity of turning, and gracefulness of motion of its tribe. His usual note peuo, peuo, peuo, is loud and musical; but is frequently succeeded by others that Hirundo purpurea, Lin. AVES—SWALLOW.’ — ° 569 are low and guttural. Wasps, bees, and large beetles, seem to be his favo- rite food. He is eight inches long, and of a rich deep ee blue, except the wings and tail, which are brownish black. J THE BARN SWALLOW, TocETHER With its whole tribe, are distinguished from the rest of small birds, by their sweeping rapidity of fiight, their peculiar aerial evolutions of wing over our fields and rivers, and through our streets from morning to night. The light of heaven itself, the sky, the trees, or any other common objects of nature, are not better known than the swallows. The wonderful activity displayed by these birds, forms a striking contrast to the slow habits of other animals. Let a person take his stand on a summer evening by a field, meadow, or river shore, fix his eye on one of these birds, and follow for a while all its circuitous windings; its extensive sweeps; its sudden, rapidly reiterated zigzag excursions, little infericr to the lightning itself— and then attempt to calculate the length of the various lines it describes. On the east side of the great range of the Alleghany, they are dispersed very generally over the country. Early in May they begin to build, and it takes nearly a week to complete the nest.. It is in the form of an inverted cone, and placed up against a rafter in a barn... It is formed of mud, mixed with hay ; it is then stuffed with fine hay, anda handful of downy geese feathers. It is not uncommon for twenty or thirty pair to build in the same barn, and some nests are within a few inches of each other; yet the most perfect harmony prevails in this peaceful and affectionate community. When the young are able to leave the nest, the old ones entice them out by fluttering backwards and forwards, twittering and calling to them cons stantly. As soon as they leave the barn, they are conducted to the trees and bushes, by the pond or river shore, where their proper food is abundant. In August they all prepare for departure. They assemble on the roofs in great numbers, dressing and arranging their plumage, and making ‘occas 1 Hirundo Americana, Witson. 48* 570 AVES—-SWALLOW...MARTEN. sional essays, twittering with great cheerfulness. Their song is a sprightly warble, sometimes continued for a considerable time. They then pass along to the south in great numbers; sometimes severa] hundreds pass within sight in a quarter of an hour. Itis highly probable that they winter in Mexico and South America. They are easily tamed, and soon become gen- tle and familiar. The barn swallow is seven inches long; the upper parts are steel blue; the front, chin, and under parts are chesnut; the wings and tail are black, the latter greatly forked. THE BANK SWeLLOGWe-OR SAND MART E.N# Appears to be the most sociable with its kind, and the least intimate with man of all our swallows, living together in communities of three or four hundred. On the high sandy banks of a river, they scratch out holes for their nests, running them in a horizontal direction to the depth of two or three feet. At the extremity of this hole, a little fine dry grass, with a few large downy feathers, form the nest. The voice of this species is a low mutter. ‘They are particularly fond of the shores of rivers; they likewise visit the seashore in great numbers, previous to their departure. It is the safe species as the European. The bank swallow is five inches long; the upper parts are mouse colored; tne lower are white, with a band of brown across the upper part of the breast. THE REPUBLICAN, OR CLhIEE Ss W.4,L,1.0 Wee Is found in the western states. These birds build their nests in clusters, or associations, and defend them with spirit and pertinacity. They generally build on the sides of perpendicular clitfs, but sometimes under the eaves of houses. There are several others of the swallow tribe inhabiting the United States. THE EUROPEAN MARTEN. Tuis bird, “ the temple-haunting martlet,” as it is denominated by Shaks- peare, is inferior in size to the swallow, and its tail is much less forked. The plumage, however, is nearly the same; the upper part of the body, 1 Hirundo vivaria Lin. 2 Hirundo fulva, Bonar. 3 Hirundo urbica, Lin. AVES—SWIFT. 571 wings, and tail being black, glossed with purple; and the under parts white. They are much less agile than the chimney swallow, and have a placid, easy motion. These birds sometimes build against the sides of cliffs that over- hang the sea; but more frequently under the eaves, in the corners of win- dows, or under cornices. The materials of the nest are earth, tempered and mixed with straw, and lined with small straws, grasses, and feathers. The little architect builds only during the morning, and allows the fabric to harden during the rest of the day. The same nest is often inhabited for several years. THES WET e+ ‘l'nts is the largest of the swallow kind known in England, being often eighteen inches long, though the entire weight of the bird is not more than one ounce. The whole plumage is of a sooty black, except the throat, which is white. The feet, which are so small that the actions of walking and rising from the ground seem very difficult, are of a particular structure, all the toes standing forward. For this reason, the swift never settles on the ground, unless by accident. They have, however, a strong grasp with their feet, which enables them to cling to walls. It spends more of its time on the wing than any other swallow, and its flight is more rapid. In summer it keeps on the wing at least sixteen hours out of the twenty-four. It breeds under the eaves of houses, in steeples, and other lofty buildings; and makes its nest of grass and feathers. It has but one brood in the summer, and never more than two young ones at a time. The voice of the swift is a harsh scream; yet there are few ears to which it is not pleasing, from an agreeable association of ideas, since it is never heard but in the most lovely summer weather. These birds visit England the latest, and retire the earliest, of all their tribes; as they withdraw from that country before the middle of August, generally by the tenth, and nota single straggler is to be seen by the twentieth. This early retreat is totally unaccountable, as that time is often the most delightful in the year. But, what is yet more extraordinary, they begin to retire still earlier in the most southerly parts of Andalusia; where they can by no means be influenced by any defect of heat, or even of food. 1 Cypselus murarius, Temm. The genus Cypselus has the bill very short, triangular. broad at the base, inconspicuous, depressed ; gape as far as under the eyes; npper mandi- ble hooked at the tip; nostrils cleft longitudinally, at the upper part of the Ill, open, and the raised margins furnished with small feathers; legs very short, with the fore toes directed forwards, and quit: divided ; three toes, and claws short and thick; wings very long, tail with ten feathers. 572 AVES—SWALLOW...GOATSUCKER. THE CHIMNEY (SWALL.O we Is strongly distinguished from the other. American swallows, by its figure, flight and manners. It is dispersed all over the country wherever there are "vacant chimneys, that are convenient for their accommodation. In the western forests they build in the hollows of large trees. The nest is of sin- gular construction, being formed of small twigs, fastened together by a sort of glue from two glands in the head. With this glue, which becomes hard, the nest is thickly besmeared. It is attached to the side of the wall, and is destitute of any soft lining. The young are fed at intervals during the night. The noise which the old ones make in passing up and down the funnel, has some resemblance to distant thunder. When there are long and heavy rains, the nest is sometimes precipitated to the bottom; but the young sometimes scramble up the chimneys, clinging like squirrels to the side. In this situation they are fed for a week or more. This bird is four inches and a half in length, of a sooty browncolor. When it flies, it utters the sounds trip, trip, trip, tree, tree, in a hurried manner When roosting, the thorny extremities with which its tail is furnished are thrown in for its support. It is never seen to alight but in hollow trees or chimneys; and is always most gay and active in wet and gloomy weather. THE GOATSUCKER#? Is nearly allied to the swallow, both in form and manners. Like the swallow, it is remarkable for.the wideness of itsgape; like it, it feeds upon insects ; like it, collects its food upon the wing; indeed, by some authors, it has been termed the nocturnal swallow, for it preys entirely in the night, or rather in the dusk of the evening, when the other swallows are retired to rest.’ | phasis ‘act ) There is only one species known in Europe,? and this is considerably larger than the swallow, being ten inches and a half in length, and in weight two ounces and a half. The ground of the plumage is almost black, but it is beautifully diversified with ash color and white in different parts; and it 1 Cypselus pelasgicus, TEMM. 2The genus Caprimulgus, or goatsuckers, so named, from the erroneous notion that they sucked the teats of goats, has the bill slightly curved, very srnall, and depressed at the base ; mouth extremely wide, nostrils basal, wide, closed by a membrane surmounted by feathers; tail round, or forked, of ten feathers; legs short, the anterior toes united to the first joint; middle claw long, and serrated on the edge, but smoot! in some of the species ; hind toe reversible. 3 Caprimulgus Europeus, Lin. AVES—GOATSUCKER. 5738 has, like ill the kind,a number of bristles about the bill. It makes nonest, but lays its eggs on the bare ground, or some loose crag, without any seem- ing care whatever. It is a great destroyer of cockchaffers and beetles; and its note resembles the noise of a spinning wheel. From its nocturnal habits, it has been called the night hawk, and the churn owl. It visits England about May, and returns in August. There appears to be no other ground for the ridiculous story of its sucking the goats, but the width of its mouth, which is to be accounted for on much more rational principles. ‘The country people (says Mr White) have a notion that the fern owl, or churn owl, or eve jar, which they call a puckeridge, is very injurious to weaning calves, by inflicting, as it strikes at them, a fatal distemper, known to cow- leeches by the name of puckeridge. Thus does this harmless, ill-fated bird, fall under a double imputation, which it by no means deserves —in Italy, of sucking the teats of goats, whence it is called caprimulgus, and with us, of communicating a deadly disorder to cattle. The least observation and attention would convince men that these birds neither injure the goatherd nor the grazier.” Mr Waterton, also, has pointed out, that the “striking at the cattle,” as the sapient rustics call it, is, in fact, the leap which the bird makes at the nocturnal flies which are tormenting the herd; and that, with more good sense than their masters possess, the cattle are aware of, and grateful for, the service which the bird thus renders to them. 574 AVES—NIGHT HAWK THE NIGHT HAWK. Tus bird is called a bat in some of the southern states. It is cy many supposed to be the same bird as the whip-poor-will; but on comparing the two birds, the difference between them will be easily observed, and their manners also are strikingly dissimilar. The night hawk lays its eggs on the bare ground, in an open space in the woods, or in the corner of a field, where the color of the leaves and ground may resemble the general tint of the eggs. The male and female are constantly near the nest during the day. They sit lengthwise on the branch of a tree, instead of crosswise, like most other birds, their legs and feet being too slender to grasp the branch firmly. While the female is sitting, the male keeps a most vigilant watch around. He plays about in the air, mounting by several quick vibrations of the wing, uttering all the while a sharp harsh squeal, till, having gained the highest point, he suddenly precipitates himself head foremost, and with great rapidity, down sixty or seventy feet, wheeling up as suddenly; at which instant is heard a booming sound, resembling that produced by blowing strongly into the bunghole of an empty hogshead; and which is doubtless produced by the sudden expansion of his capacious mouth, while he passes through the air. This singular habit belongs only to the male. The female never descends in the manner of the male. When she is approached, she moves in such a fluttering tumbling manner, and appearance of a lame and wounded bird, as nine times in ten to deceive the person, and induce him to pursue her. When the young are first hatched, it is difficult to distinguish them from the surface of the ground; they sit so fixed and squat as to be mistaken for a slight moulding on the earth. These birds are seen abroad at all times of the day; but their most favo- rite time is from two hours before sunset till dusk. They are very numerous —_——. 1 Caprimulgus Americanus, WILSON AVES—WHIP-POOR-WILL . ee near salt marshes, skimming over the meadows in the manner of swallows. Their chief food seems to be insects. When wounded and taken, they at- tempt to intimidate you by opening their mouth to its utmost stretch, throw- mg the head forward, and uttering a kind of guttural whizzing sound, striking violently with their wings, which seem to be their only offensive weapons. In August they steer for the south in vast multitudes, darting after insects as they advance. They are often accompanied by twice their number of swallows. The night hawk is nine inches and a half long; the upper parts are deep brown; the whole body is spotted and sanded with cream color and red- dish. The tail is handsomely forked, and there are no bristles about the bill. THE WHIP-POOR-WILL. Tus 1s a very singular and celebrated species, universally known over the United States, for its favorite call in spring; yet, personally, he is little known. The notes of this solitary bird, seem like the voice of an old friend, and are listened to by almost all with great interest. At first they issue from sotie retired part of the woods, the glen, or mountain; in a few eve- nings, perhaps, we hear them from the adjoining coppice—the garden fence — the road before the door, and even from the roof of the dwelling- house, long after the family have retired to rest. He is now a regular ac- quaintance. Every morning and evening his shrill repetitions are heard 1 Caprimulgus vociferus, WILSON. o 576 AVES—CHUCK WILL’S WIDOW. from the adjoming woods, and when two or more are calling at the same time, the noise, mingling with the echoes of the mountains, 1s really su- prising. These notes serve pretty plainly to articulate the words, whip- _poor-will, the first and last syllables being uttered with great emphasis. When near, you often hear an introductory cluck between the notes. To- wards midnight they generally become silent, unless in clear moonlight. During the day, they sit in the most retired, solitary, and deep shaded parts of the woods, where they repose in silence. Their food appears to be large moths, grasshoppers, and such insects as frequent the bark of old rotten and decaying timber. The nest is built like that of the night hawk, on the ground; the young have very much the same appearance, though the eggs are much darker. When disturbed, the whip-poor-will rises and sails low and slowly, through the woods, for thirty or forty yards, and generally settles on a low branch or on the ground. Their favorite places of resort are on high and dry situa- tions; in low marshy tracts of country they are seldom heard; in this they differ from the night hawk, which delights in extensive sea marshes. Their flight also is very dissimilar. The whip-poor-will has ranges of long and strong bristles on each side of the mouth; the night hawk is entirely desti- tute of them. The bill of tae whip-poor-will is twice the length of that of the night hawk. The wings of the whip-poor-will are shorter by more than two inches than those of the night hawk. The tail of the latter is forked, that of the former is rounded. The two species differ also in size and color. THE CHUCK WILL’S WIDOW. Luts solitary bird is rarely found north of Virginia and Tennessee. It has sometimes.been confsunded with the whip-poor-will. It has derived its Caprimulgus Carolinensis, WiLson. 7 AVES—PIGEON. ® 577 name froia its notes, which seem exactly to articulate those words. It commences its singular call generally in the evening, soon after sunset, and continues it with short occasional interruptions for several hours. Towards morning these repetitions are renewed. This note instantly attracts the attention of a stranger, and is strikingly different from that of the whip- poor-will. In sound and articulation it seems plainly to express the words which have been applied to it, pronouncing every syllable leisurely, and distinctly, putting the principal emphasis on the last word. In a still evening it may be heard at the distance of nearly a mile; the tones of its voice being stronger, and more full, than those of the whip-poor-will, whe utters his with much greater rapidity. The flight of this bird is slow, skimming about the surface of the ground, frequently settling on old logs, or on the fences, and from thence sweeping ‘around in pursuit of various insects, that fly in the night. Like the whip- poor-will, it prefers the declivities of glens, and other deeply shaded places, making the mountains resound with echoes the whole evening. ORDER IX.—COLUMBE. Birps of this order have the bill of moderate dimensions, compressed ; base of the upper mandible covered with a soft skin, in which the nostrils are perforated, the tip more or less curved; feet with three toes in front, quite divided, and one behind. This order contains but one genus, but is numerous in species, and these are very widely dispersed over the world. fH Ee A Miaerees NN WiL.D PIGEON? Cattep also the passenger pigeon, is the most remarkable of this whole order of birds. It is about the size of the common domestic pigeon. The head, throat, and upper parts of the body are ash colored; the sides of the neck are of a glossy variable purple; the fore part of the neck and breast are vinaceous; the under parts of a similar color, but paler; and there isa erimson mark round the eyes. These birds visit the different parts of North America, in such immense flocks, that we may justly apply to them Milton’s expression of “numbers numberless.” Their habits and migrations, and the manner in which they are pursued by man and beast, are thus described by Mr Audubon. ‘“ The most important facts connected with the habits of these birds, relate to their extraordinary associations and migrations. No 1 Columba migratoria, Lry. The characteristics of the genus Columba, are, bill of medium size, straight, compressed, arched, tip curved ; base of the upper mandible covered with a soft skin, more or less inflated; nostrils in the middle of the membrane; legs generally red; three toes before, entirely divided, one behind, articulated on the heel ; wings with the second quill feather longest. 73 49 om 578 * AVES—PIGEON. other species known to naturalists, is more calculated to attract the atten tion of either the citizen or the stranger, as he has opportunity of viewing both of these characteristic habits, while they are passing from north tc south, east and west, and, vice versa, over and across the whole extent of the United States of Arnerica. “The remarkable migrations are owing entirely to the dire necessity of providing food, and not merely to escape the severity of a northern lati- tude, or seek a southern one for the purpose of breeding. They, conse quently, do not take place at any fixed period or season of the year. Indeed it happens sometimes that a continuance of a sufficient supply of food u one district will keep these birds absent from another for years. “T know, at least, toa certainty, that in Kentucky they remained for several years constantly, and were no where else to be found. They all disappeared one season suddenly when the mast was exhausted, and thus did not return for along period. The same facts have been observed in other states. “Their great power of flight enables them, when in need, to survey and pass over an astonishing extent of country ina very short time. This is proved by facts known to the greater number of observers in America. Pigeons, for example, have been killed in the neighborhood of New York, with their crops still filled with rice, collected by them in the fields of Geor- cia and Carolina, the nearest point at which this supply could possibly have heen obtained; and, as it is well ascertained, that owing to their great power of digestion, they will decompose food entirely in twelve hours, they must AVES—PIGEON. 579 nave travelled between tiiree and four hundred miles in six hours, making their speed at an average about one mile ina minute, and this would enable one of these birds, if so inclined, to visit the European continent, as swal- lows are undoubtedly able to do, in a couple cf days. “This great power of flight is seconded by as great a power of vision, which enables them, as they travel at that swift rate, to view objects below, to discover their food with facility, and thus put an immediate end to their journey. This I also have proved to be the case, by having observed the pigeons, when passing over a destitute part of the country, keep high in air, and in such an extensive front, as to enable them to survey hundreds of acres at once. But if, on the contrary, the land is richly covered with food, or the trees with mast, they will fly low, in order to discover the portion most plentifully supplied, and upon these they alight progressively. “The form of the bodies of these swift travellers is an elongated oval, steered by a long well-plumed tail, furnished with extremely well set and very muscular wings for the size of the individual. If a single bird is seen gliding through the woods and close by, it passes apparently like a thought; and on trying to see him again, the eye searches in vain — the bird is gone! “Their multitudes in our woods are astonishing; and, indeed, after hav- ing viewed them so often, and under so many circumstances, for years, and, I may add, in many different climates, I éven now feel inclined to pause, and assure myself afresh that what lam going to relate is fact. That I have seen it is most certain; and I have seen it all in the company of hun- dreds of other persons looking on, like myself, amazed, and wondering if what we saw was really true. ; “Tn the autumn of 1813, I left my house at Henderson, on the banks ot the Ohio, on my way to Louisville. Having met the pigeons flying from north-east to south-west, in the barrens of natural wastes, a few miles be- yond Hardensburgh, in greater apparent numbers than I thought I had ever seen them before, I felt an inclination to enumerate the flocks that would pass within the reach of my eye in one hour. I dismounted, and, seating myself on a tolerable eminence, took my pencil to mark down what I saw going by and over me, and made a dot for every flock which passed. “Finding, however, that it was next to impossible, and feeling unable to record the flocks, as they multiplied constantly, I rose, and, counting the dots then put down, discovered that one hundred and sixty-three had been made in twenty-one minutes. I travelled on, and still met more the farther Iwent. The air was literally filled with pigeons; the light of noonday became dim, as during an eclipse; the pigeon’s dung fell in spots, not unlike melting flakes of snow; and the continued buzz of their wings over me had a tendency to incline my senses to repose. “Whilst waiting for my dinner at Young’s inn, at the confluence of Salt river with the Ohio, I saw, at my leisure, immense legions still going by. with a front reaching far beyond the Ohio on the west, and the beech-wood 580 AVES—PIGEON. forests directly on the east of me. Yet not a single bird would ahght; for not a nut or acorn was that year to be seen in the neighborhood. They consequently flew so high, that different trials to reach them with a capital rifle proved ineffectual, and not even the report disturbed them in the least. But I cannot describe how beautiful their aerial evolutions were, if a black hawk appeared in their rear. At once, like a torrent, and with a thunder- like noise, they formed themselves into almost a solid compact mass, press- ing each on each towards the centre; and when, in such solid bodies, they zigzagged to escape the murderous falcon, now down close over the earth sweeping with inconceivable velocity, then ascending perpendicularly, like a vast monument; and, when high, were seen wheeling and twisting within their continued lines, resembling the coils of a gigantic serpent. “‘ Before sunset I reached Louisville, distant from Hardenburgh fifty-five miles, where the pigeons were still passing, and this continued for three days in succession. “The people were indeed all up in arms, and shouting on all sides at the passing flocks. The banks of the river were crowned with men and chil- dren, for here the pigeons flew rather low as they passed the Ohio. This gave a fair opportunity to destroy them in great numbers. For a week or more, the population spoke of nothing but pigeons, and fed on no other flesh but that of pigeons. The whole’atmosphere during this time was strongly impregnated with the smell appertaining to their species. “Tt is extremely curious to see flocks after flocks follow exactly the very evolutions performed by a preceding one, when they arrive at the place where these mancuvres were displayed. If a hawk, for instance, has chanc- ed to charge on a portion at a certain spot, no matter what the zigzags, curved lines, or undulations of lines might have been during the affray, all the following birds always keep the same track; so that if the traveller hap- pens to see one of those attacks, and feels a wish to have it repeated, he may do so by waiting for a short time. “Tt may not, perhaps, be out of place to attempt an estimate of the num- ber of pigeons contained in those mighty flocks, and the quantity of food consumed by its members. The inquiry will show the astonishing bounty of the Creator in his works, and how universally this bounty has been granted to every living thing on the vast continent of America. “ We shall take, for example, a column of one mile m breadth, which is iar below the average size, and suppose it passing over us without interruption fur three hours, at the.rate mentioned above, of one mile per minute. This will give us a parallelogram of one hundred and eighty miles by one, covering one hundred and eighty square miles, and allowing two pigeons to the square yard, we have one billion one hundred and fifteen million one hundred and thirty-six thousand pigeons in one flock ; and as every pigeon consumes fully half a pint of food per day, the quantity must be eight million seven hundred and twelve thousand bushels per day, which is required to feed such a flock AVES—PIGEON. 581 “‘ As soon as these birds discover a sufficiency of food to entice them to alight, they fly round in circles, reviewing the country below, and at this time exhibit their phalanx in all the beauties of their plumage; now displaying a large glistening sheet of bright azure, by exposing their hacks to view, and suddenly veering, exhibit a 1nass of rich deep pur- ple. They then pass lower, over the woods, and are Jost among the foliage for a moment, but they reappear as suddenly above; after which they alight, and, as if affrighted, the whole again take to wing, with a roar equal to loud thunder, and wander swiftly through the forest to see if danger is near. Impelling hunger, however, soon brings them all to the ground, and then they are seen industriously throwing up the fallen leaves to seek for the last beech-nut or acorn; the rear ranks continually rising, passing over, and alighting in front, in such quick succession, that the whole still bears the appearance of being on the wing. The quantity of ground thus swept up, or, to use a French expression, mozssonnée, is astonishing, and so clean is this work, that gleaners never find it worth their while to follow where the pigeons have been. On such occasions, when the woods are thus filled with them, they are killed in immense numbers, yet without any apparent diminution. During the middle of the day, after their repast is finished, the whole settle on the trees to enjoy rest, and digest their food ; buc as the sun sinks in the horizon, they depart en masse for the roosting pluce, not unfrequently hundreds of miles off, as has been ascertained by persons keeping account of their arrival and of their departure from their curious roosting places, to which I must now conduct the reader. “To one of those general nightly rendezvous, not far from the banks of Green River, in Kentucky, I paid repeated visits. It was, as is almost al- ways the case, pitched in a portion of the forest where the trees were of great magnitude of growth, but with little underwood. I rode through it lengthwise upwards of forty miles, and crossed it in different parts, ascer- taining its average width to be rather more than three miles. My first view of it was about a fortnight subsequent to the period when they had chosen this spot, and I arrived there nearly two hours before the setting of thesun. Few pigeons were then to be seen, but a great number of persons, with horses and wagons, guns and ammunition, had already established different camps on the borders. Two farmers from the vicinity of Russelsville, distant more than a hundred miles, had driven upwards of three hundred hogs to be fat- tened on pigeon-meat, and here and there the people, employed in picking and salting what had already been procured, were seen sitting in the centre of large piles of. these birds, all proving to me that the number resorting there at night must be immense, and probably consisting of all those then feeding in Indiana, some distance beyond Jeffersonville, not less than one hundred and fifty miles off. The dung of the birds was several inches deep, covering the whole extent of the roosting place like a bed of snow, Many 49%* 582 AVES—PIGEON. trees, two feet in diameter, I observed, were broken at no great distance from the ground, and the branches of many of the largest and tallest so much so, that the desolations already exhibited, equalled that performed by a furious tornado. As the time elapsed, I saw each of the anxious persons about to prepare for action; some with sulphur in iron pots, others with torches of pine knots, many with poles, and the rest with guns, double and treble charged. The sun was lost to our view, and not a pigeon had yet arrived; but, all of a sudden, I heard a general cry of ‘ Here they come!’ The noise which they made, though distant, reminded me of a hard gale at sea, passe ing through the rigging of a close-reefed vessel. As the birds arrived, and passed over me, I felt a current of air that surprised me. Thousands were soon knocked down by the polemen. ‘The current of birds, however, kept increasing. The fires were lighted, and a most magnificent as well as won- derful and terrifying sight was before me. The pigeons, coming in by mil- lions, alighted every where, one on the top of another, until masses of them, resembling hanging swarms of bees as large as hogsheads, were formed on every tree in all directions. These heavy clusters were seen to give way, as the supporting branches, breaking down with a crash, came to the ground, killing hundreds of those which obstructed their fall, forcing down other equally large and heavy groups, and rendering the whole a scene of uproar and of distressing confusion. I found it quite useless to speak, or even to shout to those persons nearest me. The reports even of the different guns were seldom heard, and I knew only of their going off by seeing the owners reload them. “No person dared venture within the line of devastation, and the hogs had been penned up in due time, the picking of the dead and wounded suf- ferers being left for the next morning’s operation. Still the pigeons were constantly coming, and it was past midnight before I perceived a decrease in the number of those that arrived. The uproar continued, however, the whole night; and, as I was anxious to know to what distance the sound reached, I sent off a man, who, by his habits in the woods, was able to tell me, two hours afterwards, that at three miles he heard it distinctly. Towards the approach of day, the noise rather subsided; but, long ere the objects were all distinguishable, the pigeons began to move off in a direction quite dif- ferent from that in which they had arrived the day before, and at sunrise, none that were able to fly remained. The howling of the wolves now reached our ears, and the foxes, the lynxes, the cougars, bears, racoons, opossums, and polecats, were seen sneaking off the spot, whilst the eagles and hawks of different species, supported by a horde of buzzards and car- rion crows, came to supplant them, and reap the benefits of this night of destruction. “Tt was then that I, and all those present, began our entry amongst the dead aid wounded sufferers. They were picked up in great numbers, until AVES—PIGEON. 583 each had as many as could possibly be disposed of; and afterwards the hogs and dogs were let loose to feed on the remainder. “ Persons unacquainted with these birds must naturally conclude, that such dreadful havoc must soon put an end to the species; but this is very far from being the case, for by long observation I have satisfied myself, that, as they not unfrequently quadruple their numbers yearly, always, at least, double it, nothing but the gradual diminution of our forests can accomplish their de- crease. In 1805, I have seen schooners loaded in bulk with pigeons caught up the Hudson River, coming into the wharf at New York, and those birds sold for a cent a piece. I knewa man in Pennsylvania, who caught and killed upwards of five hundred dozen in a clap-net in a day, sweeping some- times twenty dozen or more at one haul. ““T have also seen the negroes at the United States’ Salines, or salt- works, of Shawnee Town, wearied with killing pigeons, as they alighted to drink water issuing from the leading pipes, for weeks at times; and yet, in 1826, in Louisiana, I saw congregated flocks of those birds as numerous as ever I had seen them before, during a residence of nearly thirty years in the United States. “The breeding of the wild pigeons, and the places chosen for that pur- pose, are points of great interest. As I have said before, the time set apart for this is not influenced by climate or season, but generally takes place where and when food is most plentiful and most attainable, and always at a convenient distance from the water, and in high timbered forests. The spot generally chosen is not, like that above described, a scene of confusion and death, but one where, it is no exaggeration to say, the tenderest affection seems to prevail. To this place these countless myriads of pigeons fly and settle to coo, and, with parental care, begin their nests in general peace and harmony. On the same tree, from fifty to one hundred nests may be seen, formed of slight materials, being only composed of a few dried twigs, cross- ed in different ways, supported by suitable forks in the branches from the lowest to the highest, and each mate partakes in the task of incubation. The females lay two white eggs each, proportioned to the size of the bird, and, as they sit the‘greater portion of this precious time, the males feed them from bill to bill, with amorous tenderness and care. “The young are hatched, and would grow and leave the nest in course of time, did not man discover the place, and commence his work of devasta- tion. Armed with axes, their enemies reach the spot, to seize and destroy all they can. The trees are felled, and are made to fall in such a way, that the cutting of one causes the fall of one or two more, or shakes others in such a manner, that the squabs, or young pigeons, are violently hurried te the ground.” 584 AVES—PIGEON. THE CAROLINA PIGEON? CALLED also the turtle-dove, is a general inhabitant, in the summer, of the United States, from Canada to Florida, and from the seacoast te the Missis- sippi, and far to the westward. ‘They pass the winter in great numbers at North and South Carolina. It is a favorite bird with all those who love to wander among the woods in spring, and listen to their varied harmony They will hear many a singular and striking performance, but none so mournful as this. Its notes are four; the first is somewhat the highest and preparatory, seeming to be uttered with an inspiration of the breath, as if the afflicted creature were just recovering its voice from the last convulsive notes of distress ; this is followed by three long, deep, and mournful moanings, that no one can listen to without sympathy. A pause of a few minutes ensues, and then again the solemn voice of sorrow is renewed as before. There is, however, nothing of real distress in all this; quite the reverse. The bird who utters it, wantons by the side of his beloved partner, or invites her, by his call, to some favorite, retired, and shady retreat. It is the voice of love, of faithful connubial affection, for which the whole family of doves are so celebrated; and among them all, none more deservedly so, than the species now before us. The flight of this bird is quick, vigorous, and always accompanied by a peculiar whistling of the wings. They fly with great swiftness, alight on trees, fences, or on the ground, indiscriminately; are exceedingly fond of buck-wheat, hemp-seed, and Indian corn; feed on several kinds of berries and small acorns. They devour large quantities of gravel, and have a great regard for peas. The nest is very rudely constructed, generally in an evergreen, among the thick foliage ofa vine, in an orchard on an apple tree, and sometimes on the 1 Columba Carolinensis, Lin. AVES—PIGEON. - 585 ground. It is composed of trees and roots, making an almost flat nest. The flesh of this bird is considered superior to that of the wild pigeon. Itis twelve inches long; it has a beautiful glossy black eye. The general color is a fine slate blue, reflecting in some part the most vivid tints of green, gold, and crimson. The legs and feet are red, seamed with white. LHE GROUND D.O VBA Is one of the least of the pigeon tribe, and has a very timid and innocent appearance. It is a native of North and South Carolina, Louisiana, Florida, and the West Indies. They are numerous on the seacoasts of Carolina and Georgia, fiy in flocks of fifteen or twenty, seldom visit the woods, and are almost constantly on the ground. They feed on rice, seeds, and berries. It is six inches and a quarter long. The upper parts are of a cinereous brown; the throat and breast of a pale purple; the iris of the eye orange red, and the legs and feet yellow. In the United States are found, also, the white-crowned pigeon, the band- tailed pigeon, and the zenaida dove. oe 2 Ovi Siok © Bante EON. . * Wiru all its beautiful varieties, is said to derive its origin from the stock- dove, the English name, implying its being the stock, or stem, whence the other domestic kinds have been propagated. This bird, in its natural state, is of a deep bluish ash color; the breast dashed with a fine changeable green and purple; its wings marked with two black bars; and the tail barred near the end with black. These are the colors of the pigeon in a state of nature; and from these simple tints, has man, by art, propagated a variety, that words cannot describe, nor even fancy suggest. However, nature still per- severes in her great outline; and though the form, color, and even the fecundity of these birds may be altered by art, yet their natural manners and inclinations continue still the same. The stockdove usually builds in holes of rocks, or in excavated trees. Its murmuring note at morning, and dusk, is highly pleasing. The dovehouse pigeon, as is well known, breeds every month; it lays two white eggs, which, most usually, produce young ones of different sexes. From three or four o’clock in the evening, till nine the next day, the female sits on the eggs; she is then relieved by the male, who takes his place from ten till three, while his mate is feeding abroad. In this manner they sit 1 Columba passer ina, WiLson. 2 Columba enas, Lin. 74 586 AVES—PIGEON. alternately till the young are excluded, which is from eighteen to twenty days, according to the warmth of the season. If, during this term, the female delays to return at the expected hour, the male follows, and drives her to the nest; and should he in his turn be dilatory, she retaliates with equal severity. The hen pigeon is, however, so constant to her eggs, that one, whose legs were frozen and dropped off, continued to sit, notwithstanding the pain which she endured with the loss of her limbs, till her young were hatched. Her legs were frozen by the nest being too near the entrance of the dovecote, and consequently exposed to the cold air. The young ones, when hatched, require no food for the three first days, only wanting to be kept warm, which is an employment the female takes entirely upon herself. During this period she never surs out, except fora few minutes, to take a little food. From this they are fed for eight or ten days, with corn, or grain, of different kinds, which the old ones gather in the fields, and keep treasured up in their crops, whence they throw it up again into the mouths of their young ones, who very greedily demand it. So great is the produce of this bird in its domestic state, that near fifteen thousand may, in the space of four years, be produced from a single pair. Most birds drink by sipping at intervals; the pigeon takes along continued draught, like a quadruped. Those pigeons which are called carriers, and are used to convey letters, are easily distinguished from all others, by their eyes, which are compassed about with a byoad circle of naked white skin, and by being of a dark blue or blackish color. It is from their attachment to their native place, and particularly where they have brought up their young, that these birds are employed in several countries as the most expeditious carriers. They are first brought from the place where they were bred, and whither it is intended to send them back with information. The letter is tied under the bird’s wing, and, after feeding it well, lest it should stop by the way to eat, it is let loose to return. The little animal no sooner finds itself at liberty, than its passion for its native spot directs all its motions. It is seen, upon these occasions, flying directly into the clouds to an amazing height; and then, with the greatest certainty and exactness, directing itself by some surprising instinct towards home, which lies sometimes at many miles distance. It is said, that, in the space of an hour and a half, they sometimes performa journey of forty miles. The varieties of the tame pigeon are so numerous, that it would be a vain attempt to mention them all. AVES—PEACOCK. 587 ORDER X.—GALLINE. Brrps of this order have the bill short, convex, in some genera covered by a cere; upper mandible bending from its base, or only at the point; nostrils lateral, covered by a membrane, naked or feathered ; tarsus long, three toes before, united at their base by a membrane; hind toe articulated on the tarsus above the junction of the anterior toes. THE PEACOCK! Came originally from the East Indies; and we are assured that tney are still found in vast flocks, in a wild state, in the islands of Java and Ceylon, 1 Pavo cristatus, L1y. The genus Pavo has the bill naked at the base, convex above thickened, bent down towards the tip; nostrils open; cheeks partially denuded; tai coverts very long; tail of eighteen feathers, elongated, broad, capable of ene expanded like a ofan, and ocellated; tarsus longer than the middle toe, with a conical spur; head crested. 588 AVES—PEACOCK. To describe, in adequate terms, the dazzling beauties of this elegant bird would be a task of no small difficulty. Its head is adorned with a tuft, consisting of twenty-four feathers, whose slender shafts are furnished with webs only at the ends, painted with the most exquisite green, mixed with gold; the head, throat, neck, and breast, are of a deep blue, glossed with green and gold; the greater coverts and bastard wings are of a reddish brown, as are also the quills, some of which are variegated with black and green; the belly and vent are black, with a greenish hue: but the distin- cuishing character of this singular Lird is its train, which rises just above the tail, and, when erected, forms a fan of the most resplendent hues; the two middle feathers are sometimes four feet and a half long, the others gradually diminishing on each side; the shafts, white, and furnished from their origin nearly to the end with parted filaments of varying colors, ending in a flat vane, which is decorated with what is called the eye. The real tail consists of short, stiff, brown feathers, which serve as a support to the train. When pleased or delighted, and in sight cf his females, the peacock erects his train, and displays all the majesty of his beauty: all his movements are full of dignity ; his head and neck bend nobly back; his pace is slow and solemn, and he frequently turns slowly and gracefully round, as if to catch the sun- beams in every directien, and produce new colors of inconceivable richness and beauty. accompanied at the same time with a hollow murmuring voice expressive of desire. The cry of the peacock, at other times, is often repeat- ed, and very disagreeable. The plumes are shed every year, and, while moulting them, the bird, as if humiliated, retires from view. The peacock has, in some countries, been esteemed as an article of luxu- ry; but whatever there may be of delicacy in the flesh of a young peacock, it is certain an old one is very indifferent eating. Its fame for delicacy, how- ever, did not continue very long; for we find, in the time of Francis the First, that it was a custom to serve up peacocks to the tables of the great, with an intention not to be eaten, but only to be seen. Their manner was to strip off the skin; and then preparing the body with the warmest spices, they covered it up again in its former skin, with all its plumage in full dis- play, and no way injured by the preparation. The bird, thus prepared, was often preserved for many years without corrupting; and it is asserted of the peacock’s flesh, that it keeps longer unputrefied than that of any other ani- mal. To giveahigher zest to these entertainments, on weddings particularly, they filled the bird’s beak and throat with cotton and camphor, which they set on fire to amuse and delight the company. Peacocks were highly esteemed by the Romans, and the Bible mentions them among Solomon’s importations from the East. In the days of chivalry, also, they were in such great repute as to be the subject of a knightly oath. Like other birds of the poultry kind, the peacock feeds upon corn; but its chief predilection is for barley. There is, however, scarcely any foud that it will not at times covet and pursue. In the indulgence of these capricious 2VES—CUCE. 589 pursuits, walls cannot easily confine it; it strips the tops of houses of their tiles or thatch, it lays waste the labors of the gardener, roots up his choicest seeds, and nips his favorite flowers in the bud. Thus its beauty ill recom- penses for the mischief it occasions ; and many of the more homely looking fowls are very deservedly preferred before it. The peahen seldom lays above five or six eggs in this climate before she sits. Aristotle describes her as laying twelve; and it is probable, in her native climate, she may be thus prolific: for it is certain, that, in the forests where they breed naturally, they are numerous beyond expression. The bird lives about twenty years; and not till its third year has it that beautiful variegated plumage that adorns its tail. THE DOMESTIC COCK. OF all birds, the cock seems to be the oldest companion of mankind, to have Leen first reclaimed from the forest, and taken to supply the accidental failure of the luxuries or necessaries of iife. As he is thus longest under the care of man, so perhaps he exhibits the greatest number of varieties, there being scarcely two birds of this species that exactly resemble each other in plumage and form. It is not well ascertained when the cock was first made domestic in Europe; but it is generally agreed that it was first brought there from the kingdom of Persia. It came to America with the early European settlers. The cock is found wild in the island of Tinian, in many others of the Indian ocean, and in the woods on the coasts of Malabar; his plumage is black and yellow, and his comb and wattles are yellow and purple. There is another peculiarity also in those of the Indian weeds; their bones, which, when 1 Gallus domesticus, Temm. This genus has the bill of medium size, strong, base naked ; upper mandible arched, convex, bent tewards the point ; head surmounted by a crest or plume; ears naked ; three toes before, united to the first joint; the hind toe raised from af ground ; tarsus with a long and bent spur; middle feathers of the tail arched+ wings SHort. 50 590 AVES—COCK. boiled with us, are white, as every body knows, in those are black as ebony. Whether this tincture proceeds from their food, as the bones are tinctured red by feeding upon madder, we leave to the discussion of others: satisfied with the fact, let us decline speculation. In their first propagation in Europe, there were distinctions then that now subsist no longer. The ancients esteemed those fowls whose plumage was reddish, as invaluable ; but as for the wuite, it was considered as utterly unfit for domestic purposes. These they regarded as subject to become a prey to rapacious birds ; and less fruitful than the former. No animal in the world | has greater courage than the cock, when opposed to one of his own species and in every part of the world, where refinement and polished manners have not entirely taken place, cock-fighting is a principal diversion. In China, India, the Philippine islands, and all over the East, cock-fighting is the sport and amusement even of kings and princes. In England it is declining every day; and it is to be hoped it will, in time, become only the pastime of the lowest vulgar. It is the opinion of many persons there, that they have a bolder and more valiant breed than is to be found elsewhere; but the truth is, they have cocks in China as bold, if not bolder than the English cocks. Nor is it against his own species alone that the cock displays courage. One, of less than a year old, has been known to dart on a sparrowhawk, throw him down, and detain him till a person came to secure the plunderer. To his females the cock is assiduously attentive. He keeps them always in his sight, prevents them from straggling, and defends them from aggres- sion. Whatever strange cock appears within his bounds is instantly attack- ed. His jealousy is as strong as his gallantry, and has been said to prompt him to take vengeance on the female. Dr Percival relates an instance, in which some patridges’ eggs having been hatched under a hen, the cock, as soon as he saw the brood, fell furiously upon the unfortunate foster-mother, and killed her before any help could be afforded to her. The hen seldom clutches a brood of chickens above once a season, though instances have been known in which they have produced two. The number of eggs a domestic hen will lay in the year is above two hundred, provided she be well fed, and supplied with water and liberty. It matters not much whether she be trodden by the cock or not; she will continue to lay, although all the eggs of this kind ean never by hatching be brought to prodrce a hving animal. As soo. as an egg is laid, it begins to transpire, and loses, in a little time, some grains of its weight. If it continues exposed to the air, the inside hardens, and contracts a bad flavor; but, to prevent this effect, it is only necessary to cover the outside of the shell with a varnish, or with oily matter, which shields it from the air. It is obvious, however, that the varnish must be removed if the eggs are designed for hatching. ; The hen makes her nest without any care, if left to herself; a hole scratched in the ground, among a few bushes, is the only preparation she AVES—COCK. 591 makes for this season of patient expectation. Nature, almost exhausted by its own fecundity, seems to inform her of the proper time for hatching, which she herself testifies by a clucking note, and by discontinuing to lay, If left entirely to herself, the hen would seldom lay above twenty eggs in the same nest, without attempting to hatch them. While she sits, she carefully turns her eggs, and even removes them to different situations; till at length, in about three weeks, the young brood begin to give signs of a de- sire to burst their confinement. The formation of the embryo iscurious. During the first day’s incubation, and even when the egg has been under the hen a few hours, the head of the chicken may be seen gradualiy uniting itself to the spine of the back. On the second day the first process of the vertebre may be discerned, like so many small globules disposed on each side of the spine. The first com- mencement of the wings and the umbilical vessels may also be distinguish- ed by their dark color. The neck and breast also show themselves, and the head continues to increase in size. The third day, the whole is more distinct and enlarged; and the heart, which is suspended at the opening of the breast, is observed to beat ; veins and arteries may also be perceived about the brains, and the spinal marrow begins to extend itself through the spine. The eyes are considerably formed on the fourth day. The pupil and the crystalline and vitreous humors may be distinctly seen. The wings increase, the thighs appear, and the whole body begins. in some degree to be covered with flesh. The fifth day, the body is covered with a glutinous, or unctuous flesh, the heart is retained within a very fine membrane, which also extends itself all over the breast. The sixth day, the spinal marrow, in two divisions, continues to advance along the trunk; the liver, which at first was whitish, becomes of a darker hue; both ventricles of the heart beat, and the body of the chicken is covered with skin, in which may be already discerned the points of the feathers. The beak may be discovered on the seventh day, and the brain, the wings, the thighs and even the feet, have acquired a perfect form. The lungs appear at the end of the ninth day; their color is whitish. On the tenth, the muscles of the wings begin to form, the feathers continue to shoot out. It is not till the eleventh day that the arteries, which before Were separate, unite to the heart. The rest of the process consists only in an increase and more perfect development of the several parts, till they acquire sufficient vigor to break the shell. The strongest and best chickens generally are the first candidates for liberty; the weakest come behind, and some even die in the shell. When all are produced, the hen leads them forth to provide for themselves. Her affection and her pride seem then to alter her very nature, and correct her imperfections. No longer voracious or cowardly, she abstains from all food that her young can swallow, and flies boldly at every creature that she thinks is likely to do them mischief. Ten or twelve chickens are the greatest number that a good hen can rear 592 AVES—PHEASANT. and clutch at a time; but as this bears no proportion to the number of her eggs, schemes have been imagined to clutch all the eggs of an hen, and thus turn her produce to the greatest advantage. The contrivance we mean is the artificial method of hatching chickens in stoves, as is practised at Grand Cairo; or in a chemical laboratory, properly graduated, as has been effected by Mr Reaumur. At Grand Cairo, they thus produce six or seven thousand chickens at a time; where, as they are brought forth in their mild spring, which is warmer than our summer, the young ones thrive without clutching. But it is otherwise in our colder and unequal climate; the little animals may, Without much difficulty, be hatched from the shell; but they almost all perish when excluded. Recent attempts have been made to apply steam to the purpose of hatching fowls. The cock is a short-lived animal; but how long these birds live, if left to themselves, is not yet well ascertained by any historian. THE PHE AS AND 3 ‘THE pheasant is the bird of Phasis, a river of Colchis, in Asia Minor whence they were first introduced into Europe. Next to the peacock they are the most beautiful of birds, as well for the vivid color of their plumes as for their happy mixtures and varieties. It is far beyond the power of the pencil to draw any thing so glossy, so bright, or points so finely blending into each other. We are told that when Creesus, king of Lydia, was seated on his throne, adorned with royal magnificence, and all the barbarous pomp of eastern splendor, he asked Solon if he had ‘ ever beheld any thing so fine? The Greek philosupher, no way moved by the objects before him, or taking a pride in his native simplicity, replied, that after having seen the beautiful plumage of the pheasant, he could be astonished at no other finery. In fact, nothing can satisfy the eye with a greater variety and richness of ornament than this beautiful creature. The iris of the eyes is yellow; and the eyes themselves are surrounded with a scarlet color, sprinkled with small specks of black. On the fore part of the head there are blackish feathers mixed with a shining purple. The top of the head and the upper part of the neck are tinged with a darkish green that shines like silk. In some, the top of the head is a shining blue, and the head itself, as well as the upper part of the neck, appears sometimes blue and sometimes green, as it is diffe- ‘ 1 Phasianus Colchicus, Lin. The genus Phasianus has the bill short, thickened, naked at the base; bent towards the tip; nostrils basal, lateral; cheeks naked, warty; ears covered; three toes before, united to the first joint, and one benind; tarsi furnished with a in the males; tail elongated cuneiform, and composed of eighteen feathers ; wings short. AV ES—PHEASANT. 593 rently placed to the eye of the spectator. The feathers of the breast, the shoulders, the middle cf the back, and the sides under the wings, have a blackish ground, with edges tinged of an exquisite color, which appears sometimes black and sometimes purple, according to the different lights it is placed in; under the purple there is a transverse streak of gold color. The tail, from the middle feathers to the root, is about eighteen inches long; the legs, the feet, and the toes are of the color of horn. There are black spurs on the legs, shorter than those of a cock; there is a membrane that connects two of the toes together; and the male is much more beautiful than the female. The wings of the pheasant are short, and nof calculated for a protracted flight. On this account, the pheasants on the island called Isola Madre, in the Lago Maggiore, in Italy, as they cannot fly across the lake, are impri- soned. Those which attempt to cross are almost always drowned. This bird, though so beautiful to the eye, is not less delicate when served up to the table. Its flesh is considered as the greatest dainty; and when the old physicians spoke of the wholesomeness of any viands, they made their comparison with the flesh of the pheasant. In the woods the hen pheasant lays from eighteen to twenty eggs in a season; but in a domestic state she seldom lays above ten. Its fecundity when wild is sufficient to stock the forest; its beautiful plumage adorns it; and its flesh retains a higher flavor from its unlimited freedom. The pheasant, when full grown, seems to feed indifferently upon every thing that offers. It is said by a French writer, that one of the king’s sportsmen shooting at a pareel ot crows that were gathered round a dead carcass, to his great surprise, upon coming up, found that he had killed as many pheasants as crows. It is even asserted by some, that such is the carnivorous disposition of this bird, that when several of them are put together in the same yard, if one of them happens to fall sick, or seems to be pining, all the rest will fall upon, kill, and devour it. THE GOLDEN PHEASANT OF al! the species of pheasants which are met with in our preserves ana im our aviaries, the golden pheasant is the rarest and the most beautiful. The male bird, when in perfect plumage, measures nearly three feet in length, of which the tail alone forms about two thirds. The feathers of the fore part of the head are very long, silky, and of a bright yellow; and con- siderably overhang those of the hinder part, which are of a brilliant orange, marked with transverse black rays. These last are elongated and extended 1 Phasianus pictus, Li. 7) 50* 594 AVES—WILD TURKEY. backwards over the sides of the neck, and may be raised or depressed at will. A few minute hairs are scattered over the cheeks, which are of a livid com- plexion. The feathers of the back of the neck are tinged with a mixture of green and gold and bordered with black, those of the back and the upper tail- coverts are bright yellow, the latter terminating in a crimson border. These magnificent birds are natives of Ching; and it was warmly main- tained by Buffon, in accordance with his theory of the degeneration of ani- mals, that they were merely a variety of the common pheasant, which has assumed a more splendid plumage, in- consequence of the superior fineness of the climate in which they dwelt. Unfortunately for this hypothesis, the common pheasant is also widely spread throughout the same region, in which it preserves all the characters by which it is distinguished in Europe, and never produces in its wild state a mixed breed with its supposed variety. No naturalist since Buffon has imagined such a transformation possible. EE We Laas Re Yas? Tus elegant bird is the original stock from which all the common domes- tic turkeys have been produced. It is a native of America, and is found in all the western parts of the United States and North America, from Lake Superior to the Isthmus of Panama. They abound in the forests and un- ' Meleagris gallopavo, Lx. The genus Meleagris has the bill short and thick, base vovered with a naked skin; head and upper part of the neck invested with a naked, tuber- culated skin; a loose caruncle on the upper part of the bill; throat witha longitudinal pendulous, and carunculated wattle; tarsi of the male with an obtuse and weak spur wings short; tail of eighteen feathers spreading int’ 2 circle. ¢ 4 > AVES—WILD TURKEY. 595 settled parts of the Union, but are not numerous in Florida, Georgia, or the Carolinas. They are very rare in the northern and eastern parts of the United States. They were formerly abundant in Canada, but as their places of resort become settled and thickly peopled, they retire and seek refuge in the remotest recesses of the interior. In New England it appears to have been destroyed many years ago, but they are still found in the eastern parts of Pennsylvania and New Jersey. These birds do not confine themselves to any particular food, but eat corn, berries, grapes, barley, tadpoles, young frogs, and lizards. Their favorite vs 4 GN : ‘ SN ANS SESS Ae AW Wt S q yf N food, however, is the pecan nut, and acorn. Where there is an abundant crop of acorns, there numerous flocks of turkeys may be expected. In the fall, they direct their courses in vast numbers to the rich lands on the bor- ders of the Ohio and Mississippi. The males and females travel separately, but all in the same direction. Before crossing a river, they assemble on the highest eminences, and remain there as if in consultation for a day or two. At length, after due preparation, the leader gives a signal note, and they al! wing their way to the opposite shore. Some of the young and weak fall into the water, and are obliged to swim for their lives, using all the means m their power, and the most violent exertion, to reach the shore. Many. 596 AVES—WILD TURKEY. however, perish in the attempt. Its observed that, after these journeys, the turkeys are so familiar, that they fearlessly enter the plantations in search of food. Great numbers are killed at this time, and kept in a frozen state to be sent to distant markets. They begin to build in April; the nest is very simple in construction, being only composed of a few dried leaves. The female lays sometimes twenty, but more usually nine or fifteen eggs, which are white, spotted with brown. Wild turkeys are very tenacious of their feeding grounds, as well as of the trees on which they have once roosted. Flocks have been known to resort to one spot for a succession of years, and to return after a distant emigration in search of food. They roost on a point of land jutting into a river where there are large trees in great numbers. When they are all quiet for the night, they are very easily shot; and an experienced hunter may secure near- ly the whole flock, as the turkeys, fancying themselves secure when at roost, are not alarmed by either the sportsman or his gun. The flesh of the wild turkey is of excellent flavor, being more delicate and juicy than that of the domestic turkey; the Indians value it so highly, that they term it, when roasted, “the white man’s dish.” The male of the wild turkey is nearly four feet in length; the female is only three feet and a quarter long. The plumage of the male is very bril- liant, and of a variety of hues; that of the female is not as beautiful. When strutting abroad and displaying himself, this bird has a very stately and handsome appearance, and appears to be quite sensible of the admiration he excites. A new species, called the ocellated turkey, has been discovered in Hondu- ras, which is of a smaller size and of more brilliant plumage than the turkey of the United States. It has smal! ocellated spots on the tail. AVES—GUINEA HEN. 597 THE, PINTDADO,,.0R.GU LNA EEN? ls aoout the size of a common hen, but, as it is supported on longer legs, it locks much larger. It has,a round back, with a tail turned downwards like a partridge. The head is covered with a kind of casque; and the whole plu- mage is black or dark grey, speckled with white spots. It has wattles under the bill, which do not proceed from the lower chap, as in cocks, but from the upper, which gives it a very peculiar air; while its restless gait, and odd chuckling sound, distinguish it sufficiently from all other birds what- ever. It is well known all over Europe and America, and we find it in different countries called by different names, from the place whence they had it. We have given it the name of that part of Africa from whence probably it was first brought, and where it is still found in a wild state. Among the Ro- mans they were in high repute for the table, and, being scarce, were sold at a great price. In many parts of their native country they are seen in vast flocks together, feeding their young, and leading them in quest of food. All their habits are like those of the poultry kind, and they agree in every other respect, except that the male and female are so much alike, that they can hardly be distin- guished asunder. The principal distinction is in the wattles; those of the cock being of a bluish cast, while those of the female incline to red. Their eggs, like their bodies, are speckled; in our climate they lay but five or six in a season ; but they are far more prolific in their sultry regions at home. There is a species of this bird with a very beautiful crest. There are also some other varieties, which it would be tedious to describe. Numida meleagris, Lis. The genus Numida has the bill shert, thick, arched, the base covere:| with a warted membrane, and a cartnculated wattle hanging from the under mandible; nostrils situated in the cere, divided by a cartilage, head naked or feathered, the crown with a callous horn or crest; tarsus smooth; the three fore toes united by mem- branes; hind toe joined on the tarsus; tail short; bent down. 598 AVES—WOOD GROUSE. THE WOOD GRCUSE! I 4 MIN N Si Ba Ns m LSA AVS USGS ry AN x Sh Wa SAS Ons Ce 7 MGT ‘Gtiememeensy angie os ie MO Sy araeees-+ tee. om {s about the size of a turkey, and frequently weighs near fourteen pounIs, but the female is much smaller. The head and neck are ash color, crossed with black lines; the body and wings chesnut brown, and the breast of a very glossy blackish green. The legs are strong, and covered with brown feathers. The plumage of the female differs from this description, it being red about the throat, and having the head, neck, and back, crossed with red and black bars; the belly barred with orange and black, with the tips of the feathers white, as are also the tips of the shoulders. The cock of the wood, when in the forest, attaches himself principally to the oak and the pine tree; the cones of the latter serving for his food, and the thick boughs fora habitation. He feeds also on ants’ eggs; which seem 1Tetrao urogallus, Linx. The genus ¢etrao has the bill short, thick, arched above, convex, bent downwards towards the tip, base naked; nostrils basal, half closed, with an arched scale above, and connected by small feathers ; eyebrows naked, with scarlet warts; tarsi feathered ; three toes before and one behind, united to the first jot; one toe bebind, margined with asperities. AVES—WOOD GROUSE. 599 a high delicacy to all birds of the poultry kind; cranberries are likewise eften found in his crop. The female is much less than her mate, and en- urely unlike him in plumage, so that she might be mistaken for a bird of another species. She seldom lays more than six or seven eggs, which are white, marked with yellow, of the size of a common hen’s egg. She gene- rally lays them in a dry place and mossy ground; and when she is obliged, during the time of incubation, to leave her nest in quest of food, she covers them up so artfully with moss or dry leaves, that it is extremely difficult to discover them. As soon as the young ones are hatched, they are seen running with ex- treme agility after the mother, though sometimes they are not entirely dis- engaged from the shell. They soon come to perfection; they are a hardy bird; their food lies every where before them, and it would seem that they should increase in great abundance. But this is not the case; their num- bers are thinned by rapacious birds and beasts of every kind, and still more by their own salacious contests. At sunrise and setting, during this season, the male may be seen extremely active upon one of the largest branches of a pine tree; his tail raised and expanded like a fan, his wings drooping, his neck streiched out, and his head swoln and red. His cry upon this occasion is a kind of loud explosion, followed by a noise like the whetting of a scythe. While under this influence, they fight each other like game-cocks; and are so inattentive to their own safety, that it often happens that two or three of them are killed ata shot. It is probable that, in these contests, the bird which comes off victorious takes possession of the female seraglio, as it is certain they have no faithful attachments. This species was once not un- common in the Highlands of Scotland. It is now extinct in England, as well as in Ireland. The last Scotch specimen is said to have been killed about fifty years ago; and Ireland had previously ceased to possess the cock of’ the wood. 600 AVES—BLACK GROUSE. THE BLACK GROUSE; OR, BLACK, @oiex,1 Is much more common. Jt is found in many parts of Europe, and im most of the moors in the north of England, Wales, and Scotland. Its name almost furnishes its description, since the whole body is black, which, how- ever, is iridesgent, and in some positions of the light, it shows a beautiful purple; but it has another remarkable characteristic, which is, that its tail is forked. Itis rather larger than a common fowl, and is in length from twenty-four to twenty-eight inches. At the breeding season their contests are so furious, that in Courland, Livonia, &c., it is a common method of taking them, to assemble them together, by imitating the crowing of a black ock, and by having a figure prepared to imitate that animal in all its mo- fons. The grouse, being collected in vast numbers from all parts, enter into a bloody contest; when the combatants are so intent upon each othier’s destruction, that they fall an easy prey to their pursuers, and may even be knocked down with a stick. There isa variety of this species with a plain tail. 1 Tetrao tetriz, Lin. AVES—RED GROUSE...RUFFED GROUSE. 601 THE RED GROUSE, OR MOOR COCK, Is also abundant in Great Britain, where are also found the ptarmigan, or white grouse. The hazel and pintailed grouse are found in different parts of Europe. ; THE RUEFED GROUSE! NY atts ny filly = ol Hh ey) carat OSes. | . a: fl A LIK ‘fs en oe it = - : rant eet HU AEM eS Tuts well known American bird is called partridge, in the New England states, and pheasant at the south, although neither the partridge nor pheas- 1 Tetrao wmbellus, Lin. 76 51 * 602 AVES—RUFFED GROUSE. antis found in America. The ruffed grouse is known in almost every quar- ter of the United States, and appears to inhabit a very extensive range of country. Its favorite places of resort are high mountains covered with the balsam, pine, hemlock, and such like evergreens. Unlike the pinnated grouse, it always prefers the woods ; is seldom or never found in open plains ; but loves the pine sheltered declivities of mountains near streams of water. In the lower parts of Georgia, Carolina, and Florida, they are very seldom observed; but as we advance inland to the mountains, they again make their appearance. The manners of the ruffed grouse are solitary; they are seldom found in coveys of more than four or five together, and more usually in pairs or singly. They leave the woods early in the morning, and seek the path or road, to pick up gravel, and glean among the droppings of the horses. If the weather be foggy or lowering, they are sure of being found in such situations. They generally move along with great stateliness, their broad fan-like tail spread out. The drumming, as it is generally called, of the pheasant, is another singularity of this species. This is performed by the male alone. Itisa kind of thump, like that produced by two full blown ox bladders being struck together ; the strokes at first are low and distinct, but gradually increase in rapidity till they run into each other. This may be heard half a mile off, and is produced in the following manner.—The bird standing on an old pros- trate log, lowers his wings, erects his tail, contracts his throat, elevates the two tufts of feathers on his neck, and inflates his whole body somewhat in the manner of the turkey cock, strutting and wheeling about with great stateliness. After a few mancuvres of this kind, he begins to strike with his stiffened wings in short and quick strokes, which become more and more rapid as has been described. This is, most common in the morning and evening; and by this means the gunner is led to the place of his re- treat. 7 The bird springs within a few yards, with a loud whizzing sound, and flies with great vigor through the woods beyond reach of view before it alights. They are exceedingly fond of the seeds of grapes, and eat chesnuts, blackberries, and ants. In the fall they feed on whortleberries and partridge berries, the last of which give their flesh a peculiar and delicate flavor. During winter they eat the buds of the alder and laurel. At this time their flesh is unwholesome. The ruffed grouse is eighteen inches long. The upper parts of the pody are of a bright rust color, marked with spots of white. The under parts are white, and the tail beautifully marked with black. There is a tuft of large black feathers on each side of the neck, which it occasionally raises. AVES—PINNATED GROUSE. 603 TILE PLN NAT E.D..G.R O,US EO 1s, CH Be eg HEN Is the individual known by the general name of grouse in New England. Open dry plains, thinly interspersed with trees, or partially overgrown with shrub oaks, are his favorite haunts. Accordingly he is found on the plains in New Jersey, in the barrens of Kentucky, on the bushy plains of Long Island, and in similar situations in Pennsylvania, Indiana territory, and Upper Louisiana ; and, according to the late Governor Lewis, on the vast plains of the Columbia. They dislike marshes and watery places. Their great inducement in frequenting these plains, is probably the small acorn of the shrub oak, the strawberries, whortleberries, and partridge berries, with which they abound, and which constitute their principal food. The most remarkable circumstance relative to these birds, is the two extraordinary bags of skin which mark the neck of the male, and which no writer has yet described. These appear to be formed by an expansion of the gullet, and the outer skin of the neck, which hang loose when the bird “s at rest or flying. But when these are inflated, they very much resemble a fully ripe orange. By means of these, he is enabled to produce a booming sound, which consists of three notes, similaz to those produced by the night hawk. While uttering these, the bird exhibits all the gesticulations of the turkey cock; erecting and fluttering his neck wings, wheeling and passing before the females, and close before his fellows, as in defiance. Now and then are heard some rapid cackling notes, not unlike that of some person tickled to excessive laughter; in short, no one can listen to them without feeling disposed to laugh. Fresh ploughed fields are sure to be visited by these birds everv morning. On one of these, says Wilson, I counted seventeen males, making such a — 1 Tetrao cupido, Lin. 604 AVES—DUSKY GROUSE. continued noise, as might have been heard a mile off. When snow comes, they become half domesticated, visit the barns, and farmhouses, and mix with the poultry. Great numbers are then taken in traps. Their nests are built on the ground, formed with little art, and few materials. The pinnated grouse is nineteen inches long, and, when in good order, weighs three pounds and a half. There are small wings on each side of the neck, whose upper parts are mottled transversely with black, brown, and ~vhite. Over the eye isa semicircular comb of rich orange. ‘The breast ind belly are white, marked with brown. THE .DUS KY “G4 R/O Ss h4 In size and color, may be compared with the black grouse of Europe. A specimen was killed by an exploring party under Major Long, in 1820, on a mountain of the chain which divides the Mississippi from the waters which flow toward the Pacific. When the bird flew, it uttered a cackling note, somewhat like that of the domestic fowl. The general color of the plumage in the female is blackish brown; that of the male is entirely black. THE - SHARP-TAILED GROUSE? == Za Was first met with by the lamented Governor Lewis, on the upper waters of tne Misseuri. It is said to be the inhabitant of the great plains of the Columbia. The expedition under Major Long brought a specimen, now in the museum at Philadelphia. This bird is never seen in any of the Atlantic —— 1 Tetrao obscurus, Say. 2 Tetrao phasianellus, Lay. AVES—PARTRIDGE. 605 states, though numerous in highnorthern latitudes. It inhabits the unculti- vated lands near the southern parts of Hudson’s Bay. It issometimes found near Lake Superior in the spring. , The sharp-tailed grouse is very shy and solitary in summer, but lives in flocks during winter. Their favorite places of resort are the juniper plains, where the buds of juniper bushes constitute their favorite food. They fre- quent the woods as well as the plains; sometimes feeding >a oerries, and sometimes on the tops of evergreen, poplar, and birch trees. They breed on the ground, near low bushes; the nest is composed of grass and lined with feathers. Their flesh is excellent eating. One of these birds will some- times weigh upwards of two pounds. The general color of the plumage is a mixture of white and rusty on a glossy blackish ground; the feathers of the head and neck are tipped with white. The other American birds of this family are, the spotted grouse, and the sock of the plains. THE PART hi DG kh! Tus bird is about thirteen inches in length. The general color of its plumage is brown and ash, elegantly mixed with black; each feather is streaked down the middle with buff color; the sides of the head are tawny; the eyes are hazel, and under each eye there is a small saflron-colored spot, 1 Perdix cinerea, LatH. The genus perdiz, has the bill short, compressed, stout, base naked ; upper mandible arched, convex, strongly curved towards the tip; nostrils basal, lateral, half closed by an arched and naked membrane; the three anterior toes united by membranes to the first joint; tail composed of eighteen, or of fourteen feathers, short, rounded and slanting downwards; wings short. 51* 606 AVES—EUROPEAN QUAIL. which has a granulated appearance, and between the eye and the ear isa naked skin of a bright scarlet, which is not very conspicuous but in old birds; on the breast there is a crescent of a deep chesnut color; the tail is short; the legs are of agreenish white, and are furnished with a small knob behind. The bill is of a light brown. The female has no crescent on the breast, and her colors in general are not so distinct and bright as those of the male. There are generally from ten to fifteen in a covey; and if unmo- lested, they live from fifteen to seventeen years. This bird is found in nearly every part of Europe. The manners of the partridge, in most circumstances, resemble all those of poultry in general; but their cunning and instinct seem superior to those of the larger kinds. Perhaps, as they live in the very neighborhood of their enemies, they have more frequent occasion to put their little arts in practice, and learn, by habit, the means of evasion or safety. The affection of the female for her young is peculiarly strong and lively; she is greatly assisted in the care of rearing them by her mate; they lead them out in common, call them together, point out to them their proper food, and assist them in finding it, by scratching the ground with their feet. They frequently sit close by each other, covering their young with their wings, like the hen; in this situation they are not easily flushed ; but when, at length, they are compelled tc move, the male employs many interesting stratagems, such as fluttering along the ground, hanging his wings, and feigning to be wounded, in order to attract the pursuit of the enemy, and afford to the female an opportunity to escape with her infant brood. Partridges, though tamed when young, will almost invariably return to the wild state. THE EURGPEAN QUATL* Is about half the size of a partridge. Its flesh is a great delicacy. The feathers of the head are black, edged with rusty brown; the breast is of a pale yellowish red, spotted with black ; the feathers on the back are marked with lines of pale yellow, and the legs are of a pale hue. The quail is by all known to be a bird of passage ; and yet, if we consider its heavy manner of flying, and its dearth of plumage, with respect to ita corpulence, we shall be surprised how a bird so apparently ill quaiified for migration should take such extensive journeys. Nothing, however, is more certain. ‘‘When we sailed from Rhodes to Aljexandria,” says Bellonius, “about autumn, many quails, flying from the north to the south, were taken in our ship; and sailing at spring time the contrary way, from the south to the north, I observed them on their return, when many of them were taken in the same manner.” This account is confirmed by many others; who —————— = 1 Perdix coturnis, LATH. AVES—AMERICAN QUAIL. 607 aver, that they choose a north wind for these adventures; the south being very unfavorable, as it retards their flight, by moistening their plumage. They then fly two by two; continuing, when their way lies over land, to go faster by night than by day; and to fly very high, to avoid being surprised, or set upon by birds of prey. On the western coasts of the kingdom of Naples, and on the shores of Provence, such prodigious flights have appear- ed that a hundred thousand have been taken in a day within the space of four or five miles. It is now, however, asserted by some, that the quail only migrates from one province of a country to another. For instance, that in England they fly from the inland counties to those bordering on the sea, and continue there all the winter. These birds are much less prolific than the parteideat ; seldom laying more than six or seven whitish eggs; marked with ragged, rust-colored spots. Quail fighting was a favorite amusement among the Athenians; they ab- stained from the flesh of this bird, deeming it unwholesome, as supposing that it fed upon the white hellebore; but they reared great numbers of them, for the pleasure of seeing them fight; and staked sums of money upon them as we do with cocks, upon the successof the combat. Thesame practice is at this day carried on in China and in some parts of Italy. é * THE AMERICAN QUAII@ CaLeD partridge in the southern states, is an inhabitantof North America, . from Canada and Nova Scotia to Florida, and it has been seen in the interior of Louisiana. These birds rarely frequent the forest, and are most nume- rous in the vicinity of well cultivated plantations, where there is plenty ot grain. They however occasionally seek shelter in the woods, perching on the branches, or secreting among the brushwood; but are found’ most usually in open fields or along fences sheltered by thickets of brier. In winter, they approach the barns and sometimes mix with the poultry. At this time great numbers of them are shot and taken in traps. The quail builds its nest on the ground, at the bottom of a thick taft of grass that shelters and conceals it. The materials are leaves and fine dry grass. Itis well covered above, and an opening left for entrance. The young are guided by their mother’s voice, which resembles that of a young chicken, and sheltered by her wings in the same manner as those of the domestic fowl. In this situation, should the timid little family be unexpect- edly surprised, the utmost alarm and consternation instantly prevail. The mother throws herself in the path, fluttering along and beating the ground 1 Perdix Virginiana, Latu. hii 608 AVES—AMERICAN QUAIL. with her wings, as if sorely wounded ; using every artifice she is mistress of, to entice the passenger in pursuit of herself, uttering at the same time peculiar notes of alarm well understood by the young, who dive separately among the grass, and secrete themselves till the danger is over; and the parent, having decoyed the pursuer to a safe distance, returns bya circuitous route to collect and lead them off. In the fall, the quails associate in flocks or coveys, of four or five and thirty. At this time the notes of the male are frequent, loud, and distinct. His common call consists of two notes, and is similar to the sound produced py pronouncing the words “Bob White.” This call may be imitated by whistling, so as to deceive the bird itself, and bring it near. While uttering this, the bird is usually perched on the rail of a fence or on a low limb of an apple tree, where he will sometimes sit, repeating, at short intervals, ‘‘ Bob White,” for half an hour at a time. The food of the partridge consists of grain, seeds, insects, and berries of various kinds. Buckwheat and Indian corn are particular favorites. They roost at nighe in the middle of a field on high ground. They fly witha loud whizzing sound, occasioned by the shortness, concavity, and rapid mo- tion of their wings, and the comparative weight of their bodies. The flesh is peculiarly white, tender, and delicate. ie The quail is nine inches long. It is of a red brown color, sprinkled with black. The under parts are white, spotted with black, and the sides of the neck spotted with white. AVES—QUAIL...SCREAMER. 609 THE CALIFORNIAN QUAIL! Tue general color of the upper part of the body and wings in the Califor- nian quail, is of a dusky brown, assuming a leaden or slaty tinge on the tail, and on the fore part of the breast, upon which it advances in the form of a broadband. The fore part of the head is of a mixed ash gray, and the hinder part blackish brown. ORDER XI.—ALECTORIDES. Binns of this order have the bill shorter than the head, or the same length, strong, robust, upper mandible convex, and often hooked at the point; tarsus long and slender; three toes before and one behind; the hind toe articulated higher up than those before. THE HORNED SCREAMER? Is a native of Brazil. This is a water-fowl cf the rapacious kind, and big- ger than a swan. The head, which is small for the size of the body, bears 1 Perdix californica, LATH, 2 Palamedea cornuta, LatH. The genus palamedea has the bill short, conico-convex much curved at the point, compressed throughout its length; nasal furrow large; head small, covered with down, and around with a slender flexible horn; nostrils remote from the base of the bill, lateral, oval, open ; legs short, thick; tees very long, the lateral con- nected with the intermediate by a short membrane; wirgs ample, and spurs op the winglets. 77 610 AVES—OSTRICH. a black bill, which is not above two inches long; but what distinguishes it in particular is a horn growing from the forehead as long as the bill, and hending forward like that of the fabulous unicorn of the ancients. This horn is not much thicker than a crow-quill, as round as if turned in a lathe, and of an ivory color. But this is not the only instrument of battle this formidable bird carries; it seems to be armed at all points; for at the fore- _ part of each wing, at the second joint, spring two straight triangular spurs, about as thick as one’s little finger; the foremost of these goads or spurs is above an inch long; the hinder is shorter, and both of a dusky color. The claws also are long and sharp; the color is a mixed black, gray, and white, with a little yellow in some places; and they make a very loud noise, often repeating the notes wyhu, wyhu. They are never found alone, but always in pairs; the cock and hen prowl together ; and their fidelity is said to be such, that when ene dies, the other never departs from the carcass, but dies with its companion. It makes its nest of clay, near the bodies of trees, upon the ground, of the shape of an oven. There is another species of screamer, which is crested and without the horn. OND SE NG a ee Uva Osha Sie os, naked Birns of this order have the bill middle sized, or short; legs iong, above the knee; and with only two or three toes, directed forward. These birds live always in the fields, and most frequently in desart places remote from woods. ' PILE. Oss RT Cnt Is generally considered as the largest of birds, but its size serves to deprive it of the principal excellence of this class of animals, the power of flying. The medium weight of this bird may be estimated at seventy-five or eighty pounds, a weight which would require an immense power of wing to elevate into the atmosphere; and hence all those of the feathered kind which ap- proach to the size of the ostrich, such as the touyou, the cassowary, the dode, neither possess, nor can possess, the faculty of flight. The head and bill of the ostrich somewhat resemble those of the duck ; and the neck may be compared to that of a swan, but that itis much longer; the legs and thighs resemble those of a hen; though the whole appearance at a distance bears a strong resemblance to that of a camel; it is usually seven feet high 1 Struthio camelus, Lin. This is the only one of the genus. Its characteristics are— a bill obtuse, straight. depressed at the tip, which is rounded and unguiculated ; mandi- bles equal and flexible; nostrils near the middle of the bill; legs very long, robust, and muscular, with only two strong toes directed forward, but the inner much shorter than the outer; the former provided with a large and blunt claw, the latter clawiess; tibia very fleshy to the knee ; wings unfit for flight, being composed of long, soft, and flexible fea- thors, and armed with a doi ble spur. AVES—OSTRICH. 611 from the top of the head to the ground; but from the back it is only four; so that the head and neck are above three feet long. Some reach the height of nine feet. From the top of the head to the rump, when the neck is stretched out in a right line, it is six feet long, and the tail is about a foot more. Oneof the wings, without the feathers, is a foot and a half; and being stretched out, with the feathers, is three feet. OQKCQ 2 Mia The plumage is much alike in all; that is, generally black and white; though some of them are said to be gray. The greatest feathers are at the extremities of the wings and tail, and the largest are generally white. The next row is black and white; and of the small feathers on the back and belly, some are white and others black. There are no feathers on the sides, nor yet on the thighs, nor under the wings. The lower part of the neck, about half way, is covered with still smaller feathers than those on the beliy 612 AVES—OSTRICH. and back; and those, like the former, also are of different colors. The head and upper part of the neck are covered with hair. At the end of each wing there is a kind of spur, almost like the quill of a porcupine. It is an inch long, being hollow, and of a horny substance. There are two of these on each wing; the largest of which is at the ex- tremity of the bone of the wing, and the other 2 foot lower. The neck seems to be more slender in proportion to that of other birds, from ‘ts noi being furnished with feathers. The thighs are very fleshy and large, being covered with a white skin, inclining to redness, and wrinkled in the manner of a net, whose meshes will admit the end of a finger. Some have very small feathers here and there on the thighs; and others again have neither feathers nor wrinkles. The legs are covered before with scales. The end of the foot is cloven, and has two very large toes, which, like the leg, are covered with scales. These toes ure of equal sizes. The largest, which is on the inside, is seven inches long, including the claw, which is near three fourths of an inch in length, and almost as broad. The other toe is but four inches tong, and is without a claw. The ostrich is a native only of the torrid regions of Africa and Arabia, and has never bred out of those countries which first produced it. Though, however, the climate of France be much less warm than that of Barbary, yet some ostriches have been known to lay in the royal menagerie at Ver- sailles ; but the gentlemen of the Academy have in vain attempted to make these eggs produce by an artificial process. This bird, so disqualified for society with man, inhabits, from preference, the most solitary and horrid deserts, where there are few vegetables to clothe the surface of the earth, and where the rain never comes to refresh it. The Arabians assert that the ostrich never drinks; and the place of its habitation seems to confirm the assertion. In these formidable regions ostriches are seen in large flocks, which to the distant spectator appear like a regiment of cavalry, and have often alarmed a whole carayan. There is no desert, how barren soever, but is capable of supplying these animals with provision; they eat almost every thing; and these barren tracts are thus doubly grateful, as they afford both food and security. In Southern Africa they are exceedingly injurious to the farmers, as they will destroy a field of wheat so effectually as not to leave a single ear behind; and this operation they perform without danger to themselves, as they are so vigilant and so swift, that it is almost impossible to geta shot atthem. The ostrich is of all animals the most voracious. It will devour leather, grass, hair, iron, stones, or any thing that is given. Nor are its powers of digestion less in such things as are digestible. Those substances which the coats of the stomach cannot soften, pass whole; so that glass, stones, or iron, are excluded in the form in which they are de- voured, All metals, indeed, which are swallowed by any animal, lose a part of their weight, and often’ the extremities of their figure, from the AVES—OSTRICH. 613 action of the juices uf the stomach upon their surface. A quarte: pistole, which was swallowed by a duck, lost seven grains of its weight in the gizzard before it was voided ; and it is probable that a still greater diminu- tion of weight would happen in the stomach of an ostrich. Considered in this light, therefore, this animal may be said to digest iron; but such sub- stances seldom remain long enough in the stomach of any animal to undergo so tedious a dissolution. The ostrich lays very large eggs, some of them being above five inches in diameter, and weighing above five pounds. These eggs have a very hard shell, somewhat resembling those of the crocodile, except that those of the latter are less and rounder. It is a curi- ous fact, that these eggs often contain a number of small, exceedingly hard oval-shaped pebbles, about the size of a marrowfat pea, and of a yellow color. They are sometimes set, and used as buttons. The season for laying depends upon the climate ; in the northern parts of Africa it is about the beginning of July; in the south, it is about the latter end of December. These birds are very prolific, and lay generally from ihirty to forty eggs in a season, and about twelve at one clutch. It has been commonly reported that the female deposits them in the sand; and, covering them up, leaves them to be hatched by the heat of the climate, and then permits the young to shift for themselves. Very little of this however is true; no bird has a stronger affection for her young than the ostrich, and none watches her eggs with greater assiduity. It happens, indeed, in those hot climates, that there is less necessity for the continual incubation of the female ; and she more frequently leaves her eggs, which are in no fear of being chilled by the weather: but though she sometimes forsakes them by day, she always carefully broods over them by night; nor is it more true that they forsake their young after they are excluded from theshell. On the contrary, the young ones are not evenable to walk for several days after they are hatched. During this time, the old ones are very assiduous in supplying them with grass, and very careful to defend them from danger; nay, they encounter every danger in their defence. The strength and size of the ostrich has suggested to men the experiment of using them as animals of burthen. The tyrant Firmius, who reigned in Egypt about the end of the third century, was frequently carried by large ostriches. Moore, an English traveller, relates that he had seen at Joar, in Africa, a man travelling on an ostrich. And Vallisnieri speaks of a young man, who exhibited himself upon one of these birds at Venice. In fine, M. Adanson saw, at the factory at Podor, two ostriches, which were yet young, of which the stronger went at apace which would have distanced the fleetest English racehorse, with two negroes on its back. Whether this bird could be broken and tamed so as to carry its rider with the same safety and docility as a horse, is a different question ; and, let it be remembered that, though the ostriches above-mentioned ran for a short time 52 614 AVES—OSTRICH. faster than a racehorse, there is no reason to believe they could hold out so long. From ancient writers we learn, that whole nations have acquired the name of Struthiophagi (ostrich-eaters) from the preference which they had manifest- ed for the flesh of this bird. Apicius has recommended a peculiar sauce for the ostrich, which shows at least that it was eaten among the Romans, and at a single feast the emperor Heliogabalus was served with the brains of siz hundred of these animals. Even at this period, some of the savage nations of Africa hunt them not only for their plumage, but for their flesh also, wh’ch they consider asa dainty. They scmetimes also breed these birds tame ..o eat the young ones, of which ine female is said to be the greatest delicacy. The skin of the ostrich is so thick, tiat it is used for leather by the Arabians; and of the eggs drinking cups are made. ‘The value of the plumage is well known in most countries of Europe. As the spoils of the ostrich are thus valuable, it is not to be wondered at that man has become their most assiduous pursuer. For this purpose, the Arabians train up their best and fleetest horses, and hunt the ostrich still in view. Perhaps, of all varieties of the chase, though the most laborious, it is yet the most entertaining. As soon as the hunter comes within sight of his prey, he puts his horse to a gentle gallop, so as to keep the ostrich stillin sight ; yet not so as to terrify him from the plain into the mountains. Upon observing himself, therefore, pursued at a distance, the bird begins to run at first, but gently, either insensible of his danger, or sure of escaping. In this situa- tion he somewhat resembles a man at full speed; his wings, like two arms, keep working with a motion correspondent to that of his legs; and his speed would very soon snatch him from the view of his pursuers, but, unfor- tunately for the silly creature, instead of going off ina direct line, he takes his course in circles; while the hunters still make a small course within, relieve each other, meet him at unexpected turns, and keep him thus still employed, still followed, for two or three days together. At last, spent with fatigue and famine, and finding all power of escape impossible, he endeavors to hide himself from those enemies he cannot avoid, and covers his head in the sand, or the first thicket he meets. Sometimes, however, he attempts to face his pursuers; and, though in general, the most gentle animal in nature, when driven to desperation, he defends himself with his beak his wings, and his feet. Such is the force of his motion, that a man wou. be utterly unable to withstand him in the shock. The Struthiophagi had another mode of capturing these animals. They disguised themselves in the skin of an ostrich, and putting one of their arms through the neck, they imitated all its motions. By this means they are said to have enabled themselves to approach and take them at pleasure. In the same manner the savages of America disguise themselves as a roebuck, in order to surprise that animal. AVES—AMERICAN OSTRICH. 615 Ostriches are sometimes bred in flocks, for they are easily tamed. In this domesticated state they play and frisk about with viracity, and are tractable and familiar towards those who.are acquainted with them. To strangers, however, they are often fierce, and will attack them with fury, making an angry hissing noise, and having their throats inflated, and their mouths open. During the night they frequently utter a discordant cry, whicn pears a resemblance to the distant roaring of a lion, or the hoarse tone of a bear or an ox when in great agony. THE; TOUYOU, OR AMERICAN OSTRICH! Ir is chiefly found in Guiana, along the banks of the Oroonoko, in the inland provinces of Brazil and Chili, and the vast forests that border on the mouth of the river Plata. Many other parts of South America were known to have them; but as man multiplied, these large and timorous birds either fell beneath their superior power, or fled from their vicinity. It is said to be found in Patagonia, and the natives are represented as chasing it on horse- back, and killing it with clubs when they approach sufficiently near. The touyou, though not so large as the ostrich, is only second to it in magnitude. Itis by much the largest bird in the New Continent, and is genera!ly found to be six feet high, measuring from its head to the ground. Its legs are three feet long. Its body is of an oval form, and appears entirely round. It is covered fromthe back and rump with long feathers; these feathers are gray upon the back, and white on the belly, and it has no other tail. It goes very swiftly, and seems assisted in its motion by a kind of tubercle behind, like a heel, upon which, on plain ground, it treads very securely ; in its course it uses a very odd kind of action, lifting up one wing, which it keeps elevated for a time; till letting it drop, it lifts up the other; it runs with such swiftness, that the fleetest dogs are sometimes thrown out in the pursuit. One of them, finding itself surrounded by the hunters, dart- ed among the dogs with such fury, that they made way to avoid its rage; and it escaped, by its amazing velocity, in safety to the mountains. It de- fends itself with its feet, and calls its young by a kind of hiss. Nieremberg relates, that, during incubation, they generally make a false nest at some distance from the true one; in this ‘they lay two eggs, which are afterwards broken by the old bird, and by attracting a number of flies, 1 Rhea Americana, Temm. This is the only one of the genus. Its characteristics are a bill straight, short, soft, depressed at the base, a little compressed at the tip, which is obtuse ; lower mandible cack depressed, flexible, and rounded at the tip; nostrils on the lateral surface of the bill, large, foneundinally cleft and open; legs long, with three toes before, and a callosity behind; wings short, with feathers more or less strong, and termi- nating in a spur. 616 AVES—AMERICAN OSTRICH. beetles, &c., afford a means of sustenance to the young. This, however, may be considered as apocryphal. When first hatched, the young ones are familiar, and follow the first per- son they meet. I have been followed myself, says Wafer, by many of these young ostriches, which at first are extremely harmless and simple; but, as they grow older, they become more cunning and distrustful; and run so swift, that a greyhound can scarcely overtake them. Their flesh, in general, ee N THER S 4) i\ SG Hi 2 v hi well | By ws S AYa\\ hi) a, =< EE /))D) NT) SSW er Bee) pe. 11s is good to be eaten, especially if ney be young. It would be no difficult matter to rear up flocks of these animals tame, particularly as they are naturally so familiar; and they might be found to answer domestic purposes, like the hen or the turkey. Their maintenance could not be expensive, if, as Narborough says, they live entirely upon grass. Like the ostrich, the touyou is indiscriminately voracious; swallowing stones, iron, and other hard substances. AVES—EMEU. 617 THE NEW HOLLAND EMEU.! La & i" Tus bird has been so scientifically described by Mr Bennett, from specis mens in the Tower, that we cannot do better than to adopt his description. *“ The distinctive generic characters of the New Holland emeu, which forms part of the ostrich family, and is, with the sole exception of the ostrich, the largest bird known to exist, consist in the flattening of its bill from above downwards, instead of from side to side; in the absence of the bony process which crests the head of the cassowary, of the wattles which depend from his neck, and of the long spurlike shafts which arm his wings; and in the equal, or nearly equal, length of all his claws. The emeus, however, agree with the cassowaries in the number of their toes, three on each foot, all of them directed forwards, and extremely thick and short, the posterior toe, which is common in most of the order, being in them entirely wanting; in the excessive shortness of their wings, which do not even, as is the case with the ostriches, assist them in running, much less in flight, of which, in common with the latter, they are absolutely incapable ; and in the structure of their feathers, which are for the most part double, each tube being divid- ed near its origin into two shafts, the barbs of which are soft, downy, and dis- tinct from each other, and assume at a distance rather the appearance of a silky covering of hair, than that of the common plumage of birds. “The New Holland bird has the head and upper part of the neck thinly covered with slender black feathers; the space around the ears being alone left bare, and exhibiting, as well as the neck and throat, which are but 1 Dromaius Nove Hollandie,Suaw. This is the only individual of the genus. Its sharacteristics are, bill straight, the edges greatly depressed, tip rounded ; head feathered throat naked ; feet three-toed, the toes placed before ; wings very short. 78 62* 618 AVES—BUSTARD. partially concealed by the scattered plumage with which they are provided, the blue tinge of the skin. The general color of the skin is grayish brown above, with a more plentiful intermixture of the gray, and a consequently lighter tinge beneath. The young are striped longitudinally with brown and gray. Their bill is black, and their legs are remarkably thick and of a dull brown. The great length of the latter and of the neck, and the erect attitude and quiet demeanor of these birds, which sometimes attain as muck as seven feet in height, give them altogether a noble and imposing appear- ance. They were formerly common in the neighborhood of Botany Bay subsisting, like the rest of their tribe, upon vegetable substances, chiefly fruits. They are extremely wild, and run with great swiftness when pur- sued; outstripping, it is said, the fleetness of the greyhound. Like the kanguroos, they are sometimes hunted by the colonists as articles of food; and their flesh is stated to have much of the flavor of beef. The quantity of provision supplied by one of these birds is by no means inconsiderable.” THE GREAT BUSTARD! Is the largest land bird that is a native of Europe. It was once much more numerous than it is at present; but the increased cultivation of the country, and the extreme delicacy of its flesh, have greatly thinned the species; so that the time may come when it may be doubted whether so large a bird was ever bred there. It is probable that, long before this, the bustard would have been extirpated, but for its peculiar manner of feeding. It inhabits only the open and extensive plain, where its food lies in abun- dance, and where every invader may be seen at a distance. ; The weight of this bird varies considerably ; some have been found of not more than ten pounds, others have been found of twenty-seven and even thirty. The female is not more than half the size of the male. The bustard is distinguished from the ostrich, the touyou, the cassowary, and the dodo, by its wings, which, although disproportioned to the size of its body, yet serve to elevate it in the air, and enable it to fly, though with some difficulty; they are generally about four feet from the tip of one to the other. The neck is a foot long, and the legs a foot and a half. The head and neck of the male are ash colored; the back is barred transversely with black, and bright rust color. The greater quill feathers are black, the belly white, and the tail, which consists of twenty feathers, is marked with broad black bars. 1 Otis tarda, Lis. The genus Ofis has the bill straight, conical, compressed ; up of the upper mandible slightly arched; nostrils open, oval, approximated, hut remote at the base ; legs long, naked above the knee; three toes before, short, united at their base, and bordered by a membrane + wings of medium length ; third quill feather longest. AVES—BUSTARD. 619 The bustard (according to Plutarch) was found in Libya, in the environs of Auexandria, in Syria, in Greece, in Spain, in France, in the plains of Poitou and Champygne; they are now and then seen in England, on the extensive downs of Salisbury Plain, in the heaths of Sussex and Cambridgeshire, the Dorsetshire uplands, and as far as East Lothian, in Scotland. In thos3 extensive plains, where there are no woods to screen the sportsman, no hedges to creep along, the bustards enjoy an indolent security. Their fooe J Dae LO py iy ge a Sil iin. wah Lip DUM r= era ¥) =) wy r Z Th) WY, y 14 is composed of the berries that grow among the heath, and the large earth- worms that appear in great quantities on the downs before sunrising in summer. They also eat green corn, the tops of turnips, and other vegeta- bles ; and have even been known to devour frogs, mice, and young birds. It is in vain that the fowler creeps forward to approach them; they have always sentinels placed at proper eminences, which are ever on the watch, and warn the flock of the smallest appearance of danger. All therefore that 620 AVES—BUSTARD. is left the sportsman, is the comforuess view of their distant security. He may wish, but they are in safety. It sometimes happens that these birds, though they are seldom shot by the gun, are run down by greyhounds. As they are voracious and greedy, they often sacrifice their safety to their appetite, and feed themselves so very fat, that they are unable to fly without great preparation. When the greyhound, therefore, comes within a certain distance, the bustard runs off, flapping its wings, and endeavoring to gather air enough under them to rise; in the mean time the enemy approaches nearer, till it is too late for the bird even to think of obtaining safety by flight; for just at the rise there is always time lost, and of this the bird is sensible; it continues, therefore, on the foot until it is taken. As there are few places where they can at once find proper food and secu- rity, so they generally continue near their old haunts, seldom wandering above twenty or thirty miles from home. As their food is replete with moisture, it enables them to live upon these dry plains, where there are scarcely any springs of water, a long time without drinking. Besides this, nature has given the males an admirable magazine for their security against thirst. This is a pouch, the entrance of which lies immediately under the tongue, and capable of holding near seven quarts of water. This is proba- bly filled upon proper occasions, to supply the hen when sitting, or the young before they can fly. The bustard also makes use of its reservoir to defend itself against birds of prey; which it effects by ejecting the water with such violence as often to arrest the progress of its enemy. They form no nest, but only scrape a hole in the earth, and sometimes line it with a little long grass or straw. They lay two eggs only, almost of the size of a goose egg, of a pale olive brown, marked with spots of a darker color. They hatch for about thirty days, and the young ones run about as soon as they are out of the shell. It is said that when the persecuted mother is apprehensive of the hunters, and is disturbed from her nest, she takes her eggs under her wing, and transports them to a place of safety. The fact is, however, that following the instinct of all other birds of this kind, they generally make their nests in the corn, where they are almost certain of remaining undisturbed. The bustard isnot known in America. Besides the delicacy of their flesh, the quills are valuable, as they make excellent pens, but they are still more esteemed by anglers, who use them as fluats; for, as they are spotted with black, the notion is, that these black spots appear as flies to the fish, which they rather allure than drive away by their appearance. AVES—BUSTARD....PLOVER. 621 PHE BPP Tle Pes van Dp DirreEnrs only from the preceding in being of a smaller size, being not .arger than a pheasant, or about seventeen inches in length. This species is found in many parts of Europe. It is, however, by no means common in France, and has only been met with three or four times in England. ORDER XIII.—GRALLATORES. Birps of this order have the bill of various forms, but most frequently straight, in the form of an elongated cone, and compressed, more rarely de- pressed or flat; legs slender, long, more or less naked above the knee, three toes before and one behind, the posterior one jointed at the level of those be- fore, or more elevated. These birds frequent the margin of the sea, or the banks of lakes and rivers, feeding on fish, worms, or insects. They are almost all sewi reeturnal. tuwH LONG-LEGGED PLOVER2 Puss se vin bird, we might perhaps justly say, most singular of birds, whabits ‘ue «ath of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, but very rarely visits Engia.i. Chance alone seems to drive it to that country. It hasa slender, bl. sill, two inches and a half in length; the irides are red; the forehead, revod the eye, and all the under parts, are white; the back, the crown of the : ead, and the wings, are glossy black ; the®hind part of the neck is ma’r-d with dusky spots; the rump is white; the tail the same, inclining t. 7. y; the outer feathers are quite white, the legs ed; aud the outer and °.’.”.\le toes connected at the base. 1 Otis tetrax, Lin. 2 Himantopus melanopterus, Mever. The genus Himantopus has the bill long, slen- der, cylindrical, flattened at the base, compressed at the point ; mandibles laterally chan- nelled to the half of their length; nostrils lateral, linear, long; legs very long and slender, with three toes hefore, of which the intermediate is united to the outer hy a broad mem- bran2, and to the inner by a rudimentary one; claws very small and flat; wings very long ; the first feathers much longer than the others. 622 AVES—PLOVER. But the circumstance which makes this bird differ from all others, is the astonishing and seemingly preposterous length of its legs. Mr White has given a very pleasing description of this natural curiosity. “These birds might with propriety be called the stilt plovers. My speci- men, when drawn and stuffed with pepper, weighed only four ounces and a quarter, though the naked part of the thigh measured three inches and a half. Hence we may safely assert, that these birds exhibit weight for inches, and have incomparably the greatest length of legs of any known bird. The fla- mir go, for instance, is one of the most long-legged birds, and yet it bears no manner of proportion to the himantopus, as this bird is denominated by naturalists ; for a cock flamingo weighs, at an average, about four pounds avoirdupois; and his legs and thighs measure usually about twenty inches. But four pounds are fifteen and a fraction times more than four ounces and a quarter; and if four ounces and a quarter have eight inches of legs, four pounds must have one hundred and twenty inches and a fraction of legs, or somewhat more than ten feet; such a monstrous disproportion as the world never saw. [f we try the experiment in still larger birds, the disparity will increase. “Tt must be matter of great curiosity to see the stilt plover move; to ob- serve how it can wield such a length of lever with such feeble muscles as the thighs seem to be furnished with. At best, one would expect it to bea bad walker; but what adds to the wonder is, that it has no back toe ” THE GOLDEN PLOVER. Tne golden, or green plover, is a well known bird, and is found in small flocks, in the winter time, on all our moors, heaths, &c., where it feeds chief- ly on worms. It is remarkable for the whole of its plumage being elegantly variegated with a fine, yellowish green. From its spots somewhat resem- bling those of a leopard, the ancients called it pardalis. It may be enticed within gunshot, by a skilful imitator of their voice, and is esteemed asa delicacy. It is eleven inches in length, weighs nine ounces, and is found in France, Switzerldhd, Italy, and most parts of England. 1Charadrius pluvialis, Lix. The genus Charadrius has the bill shorter than the head, slender, straight, compressed ; mandibles gibbous toward the tip; nostrils longitu- dinally cleft in the large membrane which covers the nasal furrow; legs slender, with three tves before, the outer connected with the middle one by a short membrane, and the saner divided ; tail slightly rounded or even; wings middle sized ; the second quill feather ongest, AVES—DOTTEREL....PLOVER....LAPWING. 623 THE DOTTEREL! Is about ten inches in length, and weighs four ounces. The bill is shorter than that of the majority of this genus, being only an inch long. The head is black, spotted with white, and a white stroke runs over each eye, meeting behind. The upper parts of the plumage are grayish brown, margined with a dull, deep yellow. The breast is a dull orange, and acrossit is a streak of white, margined above with black. The colors of the female are less vivid. It is esteemed a very foolish bird ; and was believed to mimic the actions of the fowler, to stretch out a wing when he stretched out an arm, &c., regard- less of the net which was spreading for it. They appear in England in small flocks, from April to September. THE RENGASD PLO WER. Tue ringed plover is seven inches and a half long, though it weighs but two ounces; the bill is half an inch long, and from it to the eyes runs a black line. The upper part of the neck is encircled with a white collar, the lower part with a black one. The back and wings are light brown, the breast and belly are white, the legs yellow. They frequent the shores of England in summer, and are sometimes known by the name of the sea lark. They are also common in America. QWE.. LAP WONG .3 Tue lapwing, or bastard plover, is about the size of a common pigeon, and is covered with very thick plumes, which are black at the roots, but of diffe. 1 Charadrius morinellus, Lin. - Charadrius hiaticula, Lr. 3 Vanellus cristatus, Meyer. The genus Vanellus has the bill short, slender, straight, compressed, tip gibbous; nostrils lateral, longitudinally cleft; legs slender, with three toes before and one behind; the middle one connected with the outer by a short membrane and the hinder ohe almost obliterated, or very short, not touching the ground; wings elongated. 624 AVES—LAPWING. rent color on the outward part. The feathers on the belly, thighs, and un- der the wings, are most of them white as snow; and the under part on the outside of the wings white, but black lower. The back is of a dark green, glossed with blue shades. The head and crest are black, and the latter, which is composed of unwebbed feathers, is almost four inches in length. It has a great liver, divided into two parts, and, as some authors affirm, no gall. Lapwings are found in most parts of Europe, as far northward as Iceland. In the winter they are met with in Persia and Egypt. Their chief food is worms; and sometimes they may be seen in flocks nearly covering the low marshy grounds in search of these, which they draw with great dexterity from their holes. When the bird meets with one of those little clusters of pellets, or rolls of earth that are thrown out by the worm’s perforations, it first gently removes the mould from the mouth of the hole, then strikes the ground at the side with its foot, and attentively waits the issue; alarmed by -he shock, the reptile emerges from its retreat, and is instantly seized. In the evening they adopt ancther mode. They then run along the grass, and feel with their feet the worms which the dampness of the atmosphere has brought forth These birds make a great noise with their wings in flying, and are called peewits, or tewits, in the north of England, from their particular ery. They remain there the whole year. The female lays two eggs on the dry ground, near some marsh, upon a little bed which she prepares of dry grass. These are olive-colored, and spotted with black. She sits about three weeks; and the young, who are covered with a thick down, are able to run within two or three days after they are hatched. The parent displays the fondest attachment to them, and employs innumerable interesting stratagems to avert approaching danger from them. “She does not wait the arrival of her enemies to the nest, but boldly pushes out to meet them. When she has approached as near as she dare venture, she rises from the ground with a loud screaming voice, as if just flushed from hatching, though probably she is not at the time within a hundred yards of her nest. She now flies with great clamor and apparent anxiety; winding and screaming round the inva- ders, striking at them with her wings, and sometimes fluttering as if she was wounded. To complete the deception, she becomes still more clamo- AVES—CRANE 625 yous as she retires from the nest. If very near, she appears altogether unconcerned ; and her cries cease in proportion as her fears are augmented. When approached by dogs, she flies heavily, at a little distance before tnem, as if maimed; still vociferous, and still bold, but never offering to move towards the quarter where her young ones are stationed. The dogs pursue, i expectation every moment of seizing the parent, and by this means actu- ally lose the offspring ; for the cunning bird, having thus drawn them off to a proper distance, exerts her powers, and leaves her astonished pursuers to gaze at the rapidity of her flight.” The lapwing may be domesticated, and it then becomes uncommonly familiar and confiding. THE CRANE}! Is a tall, slender bird, with a long neck and long legs. The top of the head is covered with black bristles, and the back of it is bald and red, which suf: ficiently distinguishes this bird from the stork, to which it is very nearly allied in size and figure. The plumage, in general, is ash colored; and there are two large tufts of feathers that spring from the pinion of each wing. 1 Grus cinerea, Becust. The genus Grus has the bill as long as, or longer than the head, strong, straight, compressed, obtuse towards the tip; lateral base of the mandible deeply suleated ; ridge elevated; nostrils in the middle of the bill closed behind by a membrane; region of the eyes and base of the bill naked and papillons, or covered with feathers ; legs long, with a large naked space above the knees; the middle fore toe united to the outer by a rudimentary membrane, the inner divided ; hind toe articulated higher on the tarsus. 79 53 626 AVES—CRANE. These, which bear a resemblance to hair, and are finely curled at the ends the bird has a power of erecting and depressing at pleasure. Gesner says, that these feathers, in his time, used to be set in gold, and worn as orna- ments in caps. The crane is a very social bird, and they are seldom seenalone. Their usual mode of flying or sitting is in flocks of fifty or sixty together; and while a part feed, the rest stand like sentinels upon duty. It for the most part subsists upon vegetables, and is known in every country of Europe, except England. As they are birds of passage, they are seen to depart and return regularly at those seasons when their provision invites or repels them. They generally leave Europe about the latter end of autumn, and return in the beginning of summer. In the inland parts of the continent, they are seen crossing the country, in flocks of fifty or a hundred, making from the northern regions towards the south. In these migrations, however, they are not so resolutely bent upon going forward, but that, if a field of corn offers in their way, they will stop a while to regale upon it; on such occasions they do incredible damage, chiefly in the night; and the husbandman, who lies down in joyful expectation, rises in the morning to see his fields laid entirely waste, by an enemy whose march is too swift for his vengeance to overtake. The cold arctic region seems to be this bird’s favorite abode. They come down into the more southern parts of Europe, rainer as visitants than inhabitants. In their journeys, it is amazing to conceive the heights to which they ascend when they fly. Their note is the loudest of all birds; and is often heard in the clouds, when the bird itself is entirely unseen. As it is light for its size, and spreads a large expanse of wing, it is capable of floating, at the greatest heights, where the air is lightest; and as it secures its safety, and is entirely out of the reach of man, it flies in tracks which would be too fatiguing for any other birds to move forward in. In these aerial journeys, though unseen themselves, they have the distinct- est vision of every object below. They govern and direct their flight by their cries; and exhort each other to proceed or descend, when a fit opportu- nity offers for depredation. As they rise but heavily, they are very shy birds, and seldom let the fowler approach them. Corn is their favorite food ; but there is scarcely any other that comes amiss to them. Redi, wl.o opened several, found the stomach of one full of the herb called dandelion; that of another was filled with beans; a third had a great quantity of clover in its stomach; while those of two others were filled with earth-worms and bee- tles; in some he found lizards and sea-fish; in others, snails, grass, and pebbles, swallowed perhaps for medicinal purposes. In general, it is a peaceful bird, both in its own society, and with respect to those ef the forest. It 1s an animal easily tamed. [= — AVES—CRANE. 627 ’ THE BALEARIC CRANE,! For a long time continued unknown, till we became acquainted with the birds cf tropical climates, when one of the crane kind with a topping was | brought into Europe, and described by Aldrovandus as Pliny’s balearic crane. It is remarkable for the lightness and elegance of its proportions, and the gracefulness and variety of its attitudes. Its forehead is covered by a thick tuft of short velvety feathers of a soft and brilliant black. The bill and legs are of the same hue. The long, slender feathers, descending on the neck, and the broader ones with which the upper and under surface of its body are clothed, are black, with a slight tinge of lead color; the primary wing feathers are black; the secondary, reddish brown; the wing-coverts white. The naked cheeks and temples are of a delicate rose color; and the yellow filaments of its crest terminate in blackish pencils. This bird comes from the coast of Africa and the Cape de Verd Islands. It grows to the height of four feet. As it runs, it stretches out its wings, and goes very swiftly, otherwise its usual motion is very slow. In their domestic state, they walk very deliberately among other poultry, and suffer themselves to be approached by every spectator. They never roost in houses; but about night, when they are disposed to go to rest, they search out some high wall, on which they perch in the manner of a peacock. Indeed, they so much re- semble that bird in manners and disposition, that some have described them by the name of the sea peacock. But though their voice and roosting be similiar, their food, which is entirely greens, vegetables, and barley, seems to make some difference. 1Grus pavonina, Temm. 628 AVES—HERON. THE HERON. Tue common heron is remarkably light in proportion to its bulk, scarcely weighing three pounds and a half, yet it expands a breadth of wing which s five feet from tip to tip. Its bill is very long, being five inches from the point to the base; its claws are long, sharp, and the middlemost toothed like a saw. Yet, thus armed as it appears for war, it is indolent and cowardly, and flies even at the approach of a sparrow-hawk. When driven to ex- tremity, however, it shakes off its timidity, and displays both courage and skill. When its antagonist succeeds in, rising above it, which is not easily done, the heron doubles his neck backward under his wing, and turns his bill upward, like a bayonet. In this manner, he sometimes contrives to transfix even the powerful sea eagle. Of all birds, this commits the greatest devastation in fresh water; and there is scarcely a fish, though ever so large, that he will not strike at and wound, though unable to carry itaway. But the smaller fry are his chief subsistence; these, pursued by their larger fellows of the deep, are obliged to take refuge in shallow waters, where they find the heron a stil! more for- midable enemy. His method is to wade as far as he can go into the water, and there patiently wait the approach of his prey, which, when it comes 1 Ardea cinerea, Latu. The genus Ardea has the bill as long as, or longer, than the head, strong, straight, compressed, pointed ; upper mandible slightly suleated, ridge round- ed; nostrils lateral, placed almost at the base of the bill, longitudinally cleft in a groove. and half closed by a membrane; orbits and lores naked; legs long and_ slender, with a naked space above the knee; the middle toe connected with the outer by a short mem- brane ; claws long, compressed, that of the middle toe dentated interiorly. AVES—HERON. 629 within sight, he darts upon with an inevitable aim. In this inanner he is found to destroy more in a week than an otter in three months. “I have seen a heron,” says Willoughby, ‘‘ that had been shot, which had seventeen carps in his belly at once, which he will digest in six or seven hours. I have seen a carp,” continues he, “taken out of a heron’s belly, nine inches and a half long. Several gentlemen who kept tame herons, to try what quantity one of them would eat ina day, have put several smaller roach and dace in a tub; and they have found him eat fifty in a day, one day with another. In this manner a single heron will destroy fifteen thousand carp in a single half year.” But though in seasons of fine weather the heron can always find a plenti- ful supply, in cold or stormy seasons his prey is no longer within reach; the fish that before came into shallow water now keep in the deep,-as they find it to be the warmest situation. Frogs and lizards, also, seldom venture from their lurking places; and the heron is obliged to support himself upon his long habits of patience, and even to take up the weeds that grow upon the water. At those times he contracts a consumptive disposition, which succeeding plenty is not able to remove; so that the meagre glutton spends his time between want and riot, and feels alternately the extremes of famine and excess. Hence, notwithstanding the ease with which he takes his prey, and the amazing quantity he devours, the heron is always lean and emaciated ; and though his crop be usually found full, yet his flesh is scarce sufficient to cover the bones. Though this bird lives chiefly among pools and marshes, yet its nest is built on the top of the highes* trees, and sometimes on cliffs hanging over the sea. They are never in flocks when they fish, committing their depre- dations in solitude and silence; but in making their nests they love each other’s society ; and they are seen, like rooks, building in company with flocks of their kind. Their nests are made of sticks, and lined with wool; and the female lays four large eggs, of a pale color. The observable indo- lence of their nature, however, is not less seen in their nestling than in their habits of depredation. Nothing is more certain, and we have seen it 2 hundred times, than that they will not be at the trouble of building a nest when they can get one made by the rook, or deserted by the ow], already provided for them. This they usually enlarge and line within, driving off the original possessors, should they happen to renew their fruitless claims. The heron is said to be a very long-lived bird ; by Mr Keysler’s account, it may exceed sixty years; and by a recent instance of one that was taken in Holland, by a hawk belonging to the Stadtholder, its longevity is again con- firmed, the bird having a silver plate fastened to one leg, with an inscription, importing that it had heen struck by the elector of Cologne’s hawks thirty- five years before. 53% 630 AVES--EGRET...HERON TH Ey LOT Dilek eG bees Is the size of a fowl. The hind head is crested, and two of the feathers, which are five inches in length, hang gracefully behind. The whole plu- mage is cf a beautiful white, and the elegance of the bird is much increased by the long, loose feathers which cover and hang over the rump; their flesh is said to be excellent. It is conjectured that both the crane and egret were formerly inhabitants of Great Britain ; but this can hardly be said of them at present, notwithstanding a solitary instance or two of their having been shot there. In America there are egrets found of a reddish, and some of a black color ; but they differ in no other respect from the European. THE NIGHT HERON? Is found in Europe and America. In the United States it is known by the name of qua bird, and breeds usually in the most solitary and deeply shaded parts of a cedar swamp. The males regularly direct their course every evening at twilight towards the marshes, uttermg in a hoarse and hollow tone, the sound gua. At this hour, also, all the nurseries in the swamps are — 1 Ardea garzetta, Lin. 2 Ardea nycticorax, Lin. AVES—HERON. 631 emptied of their inhabitants, who disperse in quest of food. On entering one of these swamps, the noise of the old and young would almost lead one to suppose that two or three hundred Indians were choking each other. The instant an intruder is discovered, the whole rise in the air in silence, and remove to the tops of the trees, in another part of the woods; while par- ties of from eight to ten make occasional circuits over the spot to see what is going on. The food of the night heron, or qua bird, is chiefly composed of small fish, which it takes at night. THE GREAT EGRET HERON! Is often seen in summer in our low marshes and inundated meadows; yet, on account of its extreme vigilance, it is very difficult to be procured. It is found from Guiana, and probably beyond the line, to New York. It enters the territories of the United States late in February. The high inland parts of the country it rarely or never visits. Its favorite haunts are vast inun- dated swamps, rice fields, the low marshy shores of rivers, and such like places ; where, from its size and color, it is very conspicuous even at a dis- tance. The food consists of frogs, lizards, small fish, insects, and small water snakes, &c. They will also devour mice and moles. The plumage of this elegant bird is of a snowy whiteness; the bill of a rich orange yel- low ; and the legs black. THE GREAT HERON? Is a constant inhabitant of the Atlantic coast, from New York to Florida. They breed in the Carolinas and New Jersey, in the gloomy solitudes of cedar swamps, where, if unmolested, they will annually breed for many years. Their nests are constructed on the tallest trees. These are large, formed of sticks; each occupies the top of a single tree. The principal food of this bird is fish, for which he watches with unwearied patience, and seizes them with surprising dexterity. At the edge of a river, pond, or sea- shore, he stands fixed and motionless. But his stroke is as sure as fate to the first fish that comes in his way. He is also an excellent mouser, and feeds eagerly on grasshoppers and various winged insects. The heron has great powers of wing, flying sometimes very high, and to a —— 1 Ardea egretta, WiLSON. 2 Ardea Herodias, Lin. §32 AVES—HERON...BITTERN. great distance; his neck doubled, his head drawn in, and his long legs stretched out in a long line behind him, appearing like a tail, and probably serving the same rudder-like office. Lie. BuU EAE BROWN Is properly a native of the warmer climates of the United States, migrating thence in winter to the tropical regions; being found in Cayenne, Jamaica, and Mexico. On the muddy shores of the Mississippi, these birds are fre- quently met with. Though in the northern states they are found chiefly in the neighborhood of the ocean, they are yet particularly fond of fresh water bogs on the edges of the salt marsh. These it often frequents, wading about in search of tadpoles, lizards, various larve of winged insects, and mud worms. It moves actively about in search of these, sometimes making a run at its prey, and is often seen in company with the little white heron. There are also found in the United States, the little white heron, the green heron, the Louisiana heron, and the yellow-crowned heron. MEE BETTE RIN [os who have walked in an evening, by the sedgy sides of unfrequented rivers, must remember a variety of notes from different waterfowls. But of all those sounds, there is none so dismally hollow as the booming of the 1 Ardea ceerulea, Lin. 2 Ardea stellaris, Lin. AVES—BITTERN. 633 bittern. It is impossible for words to give those who have not heard this evening call, an adequate idea of its solemnity. It is like the interrupted bellowing of a bull, but hollower and louder, and is heard at a mile’s dis- tance, as if issuing from some formidable being that resided at the bottom of the waters. The bird, however, that produces this terrifying sound is not so big as a heron, with a weaker bill, and not above four inches long. It differs from the heron chiefly in its color, which is, in general, of a palish yellow, spots ved and barred with black. Its windpipe is fitted to produce the sound for which it is remarkable ; the lower part of it dividing into the lungs, is sups plied with a thin loose membrane, that can be filled with a large body of air, and exploded at pleasure. These bellowing explosions are chiefly heard from the beginning of spring to the end of autumn; and, however awful they may seem to us, are the calls to courtship, or connubial felicity. This bird, though of the heron kind, is yet neither so destructive, nor so voracious. It is a retired, timorous animal, concealing itself in the midst of reeds and marshy places, and living upon frogs, insects, and vegetables ; and though so nearly resembling the heron in figure, yet differing much in manners and appetites. It lays its eggs in a sedgy margin, or amidst a tuft of rushes, and composes its simple habitation of sedges, the leaves of water- plants, and dry rushes. It lays generally seven or eight eggs of an ash- green color, and in three days leads its little ones to their food. The bitterns defend their young with such courage, that even the hawk does not often venture to attack their nest. At the latter end of autumn, however, in the evening, the wonted indo- lence of the bittern appears to forsake it. It is seen rising in a spiral ascent till it is quite lost from the view, and makes at the same time a singular noise, very different from its former boomings. The flesh of the bittern is greatly in esteem among the luxurious. For this reason, it is as eagerly sought after by the fowler as it is shunned by the peasant ; and as it is a heavy rising, slow-winged bird, it does not often escape him. Indeed, it seldom rises but when almost trod upon; and seems to seek protection aa from concealment than flight. When wounded by a sportsman, this bird often makes severe resistance. It does not retire; but waits the onset, and gives such vigorous pushes with its bill, as to wound the leg through the boot. Sometimes it turns on its back, like the rapacious birds, and fights with both its billand claws. When surprised by a dog, it is said always to throw itself into this posture and defend itself so vigorously, as to compel the assailant to retire. The eyes of its antagonist are the object at which it chiefly strikes. 80 634 AVES—BITTERN...STORK. THE AMERICAN .BLT EER NY Is common to all our sea and river marshes, though no where numerous; it rests all day among the reeds and rushes, and, unless disturbed, feeds and flies only during the night. In some places it is called the Indian hen. On the seacoast of New Jersey, it is known by the name of dunkadoo, a word probably imitative of its note. It utters sometimes a hollow guttural note, among the reeds; but has nothing of that long booming sound for which the European bittern is so remarkable. When disturbed, they rise with a hollow /wa, and are then easily shot down, as they fly heavily. Like most other night birds, their sight is most acute during the evening twilight; but their hearing is at all times exquisite. They make their nests in swamps, laying four eggs in the long grass. THE LEAST BID TER N? Is the smallest known species of the whole tribe. It is commonly found in fresh water meadows, and rarely visits the salt,marshes. In the meadows of Schuylkill and Delaware below Philadelphia, a few of these birds breed every year; making their nests in the thick tussocks of grass in swampy places. When alarmed they seldora fly far, but take shelter among the reeds or long grass. They are scarcely ever seen exposed, but skulk during the whole day; and, like the preceding species, feed chiefly at night. This little creature measures but twelve inches in length. EBS TOR K.2 Tue most remarkable of this tribe is the white stork, the length of which is about three feet. The bill is nearly eight inches long, and of a fine red color. The plumage is wholly white, except the orbits of the eyes, which are bare and blackish ; some of the feathers on the side of the back and on the wings are black. The skin, the legs, and the bare parts of the thighs are red. The white stork is semi-domestic; haunting towns and cities, and in many places stalking unconcernedly about the streets, in search of offal and 1 Ardea minor, Witson. 2 Ardea exilis, GMEL. P > 8 Ciconia alba, Betton. The genus Ciconia has the bill long, straight, stout, cylindr1- cal, in the form of an elongated pointed cone; ridge rounded, of equal height with the head; under mandible slightly bent upwards; nostrils longitudinally cleft in a groove of the horny substance ; eyes surrounded with a naked space; legs long; the three anterior toes united to the first joint, the hind toe jointed on the same level as the others; wings of moderate size. AVES—STORK. 635 other food. They remove the noxious filth, and clear the fields of serpents and reptiles. On this account they are protected in Holland, held in high veneration by the Mahometans ; and so greatly were they respected in times of old by the Thessalonians, that to kill one of these birds was a crime expiable only by death. The ancients, indeed, ascribed to it the virtues of temperance, conjugal fidelity, and filial and paternal piety. The disposition of this bird is mild, neither shy nor savage; it is 2asily tamed, and may be trained to reside in gardens, which it will clear of insects and reptiles. It has a grave air anda mournful visage; yet whea roused by example, it shows a certain degree of gaiety ; for it joins in the frolics of children, by imitating them. Dr Herman tells us, that he saw a tame one in a garden, where the children were playing at hide and seek, and that it run its turn when touched, and so well distinguished the child whose turn it was to pursue the rest, as to be perfectly on its guard. Nor do they lightly feel or inadequately revenge an injury. A wild stork, having been beaten by a tame one, has been known, after an interval of four months, to come back with three other storks, and kill the former victor. Storks are birds of passage, and observe great exactness in the time of their autumnal departure from Europe to more favorite climates. They are seldom seen farther north than Sweden; and though they have scarcely ever been met with in England, they are so common in Holland as to build every where on the tops of the houses, where the inhabitants provide boxes for them to make their nests in, and are careful that the birds suffer no injury 636 AVES—STORK always resenting this as an offence committed against themselves. Storks are also common at Aleppo, and in plenty at Seville, in Spain. At Bagdad, hundreds are said to be seen about the houses, walls, and trees; and ai Per- sepolis, or Chilmanar, in Persia, the remains of the pillars serve them to build on, every pillar having a nest on it. This bird bestows much time and care on the education of 1ts young, and does not leave them till they have strength sufficient for defence and support. When they begin to flutter out of the nest, the mother bears them on her wings; she protects them from danger, and will sometimes perish rather than forsake them. In autumn they retire into Egypt, and the marshes of Barbary, where they enjoy a second summer, and bring up a second brood. Their migra- tion is performed in immense companies. Dr Shaw saw passing over Mount Carmel three flocks of them, each of which was half a mile in width, and they were three hours in going by. Bellonius informs us, that storks visit Egypt in such abundance, that the fields and meadows are white with them, and that the natives are pleased with their arrival, as the birds deliver them from innumerable swarms of frogs, and also devour serpents. Between Belbeis and Gaza, in Palestine, they perform a similar service, by destroying innumerable rats and mice. In the northern countries of Europe there are storks, of which the plu- mage is black. Mi RALB O.U" Ss: f OR Ket Tue marabou stork appears to inhabit nearly the whole of tropical Africa, extending southward, according to M. Temmick, to the neighborhood of the Cape of Good Hope, where, however, it is by no means common. M. Riippel observed it on the banks of the Nile, Major Denham in the neigh- borhood of the large towns if the interior, and Smeathman on the western coast. The plumes imported into Europe are brought chiefly from Senegal. In its habits this bird bears a close resemblance to the white stork of Evrope, but becomes still more familiar, and, in consequence of its larger size, renders more essential service in the removal of carrion, offal, and other nuisances. This important office, like the adjutants of Calcutta, it shares with the vultures ; and both birds are universally privileged frora all annoy- ance, in return for so meritorious exertion of their natural propensities. They seem to be constantly attracted by the heaps of offensive substances collected in the villages and towns, which they devour without scruple, and in immense quantities. The mode in which the Indian bird performs the 1 Ciconia marabou, TemM. AVES—STORK. 637 functions of a scavenger has been repeatedly described by travellers and Major Denham mentions his having frequently been a witness of the vora- cious and omnivorous habits of the African. Nothing seems to come amiss to its voracious appetite, for when carrion is scarce, it attacks reptiles, smal] birds, and even the lesser quadrupeds, which it usually swallows entire. These birds are so peaceable in their manners, and so inclined to become familiar, that there is little difficulty in taming them. Dr Latham gives an amusing account, derived from Smeathman, of the behavior of a young indi- vidual, which had been brought up in a state of domestication in the part of Africa where that traveller resided. This bird always took its place a dinner time, in the great hall, behind its master’s chair, where it remainec. in expectation of its usual share in the meal. The servants had some difh- culty in protecting the dishes from its attacks previously to the arrival of the guests; they carried switches for the purpose, but it would frequently watch its opportunity and snatch some favorite morsel before they were aware of it. In this way it had been known to swallow an entire boiled fowl ata single mouthful. It was permitted to fly at large about the island, and troosted very high among the silk-cotton trees, from the tops of which, even 54 638 AVES—FLAMINGO. at the distance of two or three miles, it would espy the servants carrying the dishes across the yard, and dash down among them as they entered the hall. The attitudes of these birds are particularly curious, and frequently not a little ludicrous. At rest, they either stand upon one leg, with the neck withdrawn and the bill brought forwards towards the breast, or sit upon the ground with one or both legs directed straight before them. But when excited, they elongate their necks, and stand at their full height, menacing with their large bills, which are, however, toc light to inflict any serious mjury, even had the birds courage enough to attempt it. THE FLAMINGO? Is, perhaps, the most remarkable of water-fowl ; it is one of the tallest and the most beautiful. The body, which is of a beautiful scarlet, is no bigger than that of a swan; but its legs and neck are of such an extraordinary length, that when it stands erect, it is six feet six incheshigh. Its wings, extended, are five feet six inches from tip to tip; and it is four feet eight inches from tip to tail. The head is round and small, with a large bill, seven inches long, partly red, partly black, and crooked like a bow. The legs and thighs, which are not much thicker than a man’s finger, are about two feet eight inches high; and its neck near three feet long. The feet are feeble, and united by membranes, as in those of the goose. Of what use these mem- branes are does not appear, as the bird is never seen swimming, its legs and thighs being sufficient to bear it into those depths where it seeks for prey. This extraordinary bird is now chiefly found in America, but was once known on all the coasts of Europe. It is still occasionally met with on the shores of the Mediterranean. Its beauty, its size, and the peculiar delicacy of its flesh, have been such temptations to destroy or take it, that it has long since deserted the shores frequented by man, and taken refuge in countries that are as yet but thinly peopled. When the Europeans first came to America, and coasted down along the African shores, they found the flamingos on several shores on either conti- nent gentle, and no way distrustful of mankind. When the fowler had killed one, the rest of the flock, far from att mpting to fly, only regarded the fall of their companion in a kind of fixed astonishment; another and another shot was discharged; and thus the fowle: often levelled the whole fiock, before one of them began to think of escaping. 1 Phenicopterus ruber, Lrx. This is the only one of the genus. Its characteristics are a bill thick, strong, deeper than broad, dentared, naked at the base; upper mandible bent over the under at the tip; the under broader than the upper; nostrils longitudinal! in the middle of the bill, covered by a membrane; lugs very long, with three toes before, and a very short one articulated high onthe tarsus behind; the fore toes connected with the claws; wings middle sized. AVES—FLAMINGO 639 But at present it is very different in that part of the world; and the fla- mingo is not only one of the scarcest, but one of the shyest birds in the world, and the most difficult of approach. They chiefly keep near the most deserted and inhospit»ble shores; near salt water lakes and swampy islands. When seen by mari’ rs in the day, they always appear drawn up in a long close line of two or three hundred together ; and, as Dampier tells us, present at the distance of half a mile, the exact representation of a long brick wall. This line, however, is broken when they seek for food; but they always appoint one of the number as a watch, whose only employment is to observe and give notice of danger while the rest are feeding. As soon as this trusty sentinel perceives the remotest appearance of danger, he gives a loud scream, with a voice as shrill as a trumpet, and instantly the whole cohort are upon the wing. The flesh of the old ones is black and hard, though, Dampier says, well tasted; that of the young ones is better. But, of all delicacies, the flamingo’s tongue is the most celebrated. In fact, the Roman emperors considered them asthe highest luxury ; and we have an account of one of them, who procured fifteen hundred flamingos’ tongues to be served up in asingle dish The tongue of this bird, which was so 640 AVES—AVOSET. much sought after, is a good deal larger than that of any other bird what- ever. The bill of the flamingo is like a large black box of an irregular figure, and filled with a tongue which is black and gristly. Their time of breeding is according to the climate in which they reside; in North America they breed in summer; on the other side of the line, they take the most favorable season of the year. They build their nests in exten- sive marshes, and where they are in no danger of a surprise. The nest is not less curious than the animal that builds it: it is raised from the surface of the pool about a foot and a half, formed of mud scraped up together, and hardened by the sun, or the heat of the bird’s body: it resembles a truncated cone, or one of the pots which we see placed on chimneys; on the top it is hoilowed out to the shape of the bird, and in that cavity the female lays her eggs, without any lining but the well cemented mud that forms the sides of the building. She always lays two eggs, and no more; and, as her legs are immoderately long, she straddles on the nest, while her legs hang down, one on each side, into the water. The young ones are a long while before they are able to fly; but they run with amazing swiftness. They are sometimes caught; and, very different from old ones, suffer themselves to be carried home, and are tamed very easily. THE) Ay OS ET Is easily distinguished from all other birds by the -form of its bill, which is very thin, slender, and bends considerably upwards. The scooping avoset is about the size of the lapwing, or eighteen inches long; the bill is three inches and a half in length. The top of the head is black, the rest of the head, neck, and all the other parts of the body white, except the inner sca- pulars, the middle of the wing-coverts and outer webs, and ends of the quills, which again are black. The legs are long, and of a bluish gray, and the toes have a connecting membrane. It weighs about thirteen ounces, and is frequent, in the winter, on most of the seacoasts of Europe, as well as in the fens of Lincolnshire, Cambridge, &c in England. It feeds on worms and insects, which it scoops out of the sand with its bill. \ 1 Recurvirostra avocetta, Lix. The genus Recurvirostra has the bill very long, slen- der, feeble. depressed throughout its length, flexible and turned up at the point, the upper mandible channelled on its surface, the under laterally; nostrils linear and long; legs long and slender; the three fore toes united as far as the second joint by a membrane; bund toe placed high up and very short; wings acuminate, the first quill longest. AVES—AV OSET...SPOONBILL. 64] AMERICAN AVOSET. Tuis species, from its perpetual clamor and flippancy of tongue, is called by the inhabitants of Cape May, the lawyer. Wilson found these birds, as well as the long-legged avost, in the salt marshes of New Jersey on the 20th of May. They flew around the shallow pools, uttering the sharp note of click, click, alighting on the marsh, or in the water, fluttering their loose wings, and shaking their half-bent legs, as if ready to tumble over, keepmg up a continual yelping note. The nest was built among the thick tufts a grass, of sea-weed, dry grass, and twigs, and raised to the height of seve- ral inches. THE ROSEATE SPOONBILL2 Tus stately and elegant bird inhabits the seashores of America from Brazil to Georgia. It also appears to wander up the Mississippi sometimes 1 Recurvirostra Americana, LatH. 2? Platalea ajaja, Lis. The genus Platalea has the bill very long, much flattened, dilat- ed towards the extremity, and rounded like a spoon or spatula ; upper mandible channeled and transversely sulcated at the base; nostrils approximated, sblong, open, bordered with a membrane; face and head wholly or partially naked ; legs long; the three anterior toes connected to the second joint by deeply cut membranes ; the hinder one long, and bearing on the ground. 81 54* 642 AVES—IBIS. sn summer. It is however rarely seen to the northward of Altamaha river: and even along the peninsula of Florida is a rare bird; in Jamaica and several other of the West India islands, Mexico, and Guiana, it is more com- mon, but confines itself chiefly to the seashore and the mouths of rivers. It wades about in quest of shell-fish, marine insects, small crabs, and fish. In pursuit of these, it occasionally swims and dives. This bird is of a beautiful pink color, with a mixture of black at the lower part of the neck. The most common species, however, is that which bears the name of the white spoonbill,! from its plumage, save that in some rare exceptions it is entirely white. This bird is about the size of a heron, but somewhat shorter in the neck and legs. The bill is more than half a foct long. and has the shape of a spoon. THE LELSAa 4 BA Tur Egyptian ibis, so famous in history and mythology, is larger than the stork, measuring from thirty to forty inches in length. The bill is seven 1 Platalea nivea, Cuv. 2 Ibis religiosi, Cuv. The genus Ibis has the bill long, slender, arched, broad at the base, tip depressed, obtuse, and rounded; upper mandible deeply furrowed in its whole length; nostrils near the base at the upper part of the bill, oblong, straight and perforated in the siembrane which covers the furrow ; the face, and frequently a part of the head and neck, naked; legs naked above the knee; the fore toes united as far as the first Jomt; tne ound toe long, and reaching the ground. AVES—IBI1$ 643 inches long, is slightly curved, and ends in a blunt point. The plumage is a reddish white, most inclining to red on the back and wings. It is found mm great numbers in Lower Egypt, in places just freed from the inundations of the Nile, where it is of signal service in destroying insects, reptiles, &c. This bird is frequently found in the sepulchres along with the mummies, and was formerly held sacred by the Egyptians. WoopD IBIS8.! Tuts bird is found in the southern parts of the United States, and also extends as far as Cayenne, Brazil, and various parts of South America. Its favorite haunts are watery savannahs, and inland swamps, where it feeds on fish and reptiles. The French inhabitants of Louisiana esteem it good eating. The following account is given by Mr William Bartram. ‘“ This solitary bird does not associate in flocks; but is generally seen alone, commonly near the banks of great rivers, in marshes or meadows, especially such as are covered by inundations, and also in vast deserted rice plantations. He stands alone, on the topmost limb of tall, dead cypress trees, his neck con- tracted or drawn in upon his shoulders, and his beak resting like a long scythe upon his breast; in this pensive posture and solitary situation, they look extremely grave, sorrowful, and melancholy, as if in the deepest thought. They are never seen on the seacoast, and yet are never found at a great distance from it. They feed on serpents, young alligators, frogs, and other reptiles.” The whole body, neck, and lower parts of this bird, are white; the bill is nearly nine inches long. THE SCARLET IBIS Tus beautiful bird is said to be eommon in most parts of America within the tropics, and in almost all the West India islands. Of its manners, little more has been collected, than that it frequents the borders of the sea, and shores of the neighboring rivers, feeding on small fry, shell-fish, sea-worms and crabs. It is said frequently to perch on trees, sometimes in large flocks put to lay its eggs on the ground, or a bed of leaves. The young whe 1 Jbis loculator, Lin. 2 Ibis rubra, VIEILL, 644 AVES—CURLEW...SANDPIPER. hatched are black, soon after gray, then white, and gradually assume their red color; at the third year, their plumage is complete. They have fre- qaently been domesticated. THE CURLEW'! Is a well known bird, which in winter frequents seacoasts and marshes, feeding chiefly on frogs and marine insects. In summer they retire to the mountainous and unfrequented parts to breed. Their flesh is rank and fishy. Curlews differ much in size, some weighing thirty-seven ounces, and some not twenty-two; the length of the largest is twenty-five inches. Its bill is - long, black, and much curved. The upper parts of the plumage are of a pale brown ; the breast and belly white, marked with dark oblong spots. The female is somewhat larger than the male, which is commonly called the jack curlew, and the spots with which she is covered almost all over are more inclining toa red. Latham enumerates about eleven species, foreign and domestic. PEE eS AN Det PE R A Or the sandpiper, properly so called, there are about twelve species known in Europe, from the size of a thrush to that of a hedge-sparrow. The com- 1 Numenius arquata, LatH. The genus Numenius has the bill long, slender, arched, compressed, point hard, and slightly obtuse; upper mandible projecting beyond the lower, rounded at the bud, and channelled through three fourths of its length; nostrils lateral, linear and pierced in the furrow; face feathered; legs slender; naked above the knee; the three fore toes united by a membrane to the first joint; the hinder articulated to the tarsus, and touching the ground. *The genus Tringa or sandpiper, has the bill middle-sized or long, very slightly arched, curved or straight at the tip, soft and flexible through its whole length, compressed at the base, depressed, dilated, and obtuse at the point; both mandibles channelled to near their extremities ; nostrils lateral, conical in the membrane which covers the nasal furrow; legs slender, naked above the knee; the three fore toes quite divided; but in a few species the middle and outer toe are connected by a meinbrane; the hinder articulated to the tarsus. AVES—SANDPIPER. 645 mon sandpiper, which is a solitary bird, is in weight about two ounces; the head is brown, streaked with black, the back and coverts brown, mixed with glossy green; the breast and belly pure white. Its note is louder and more piping than others of this genus. It frequents rivers, lakes, and meres, and is never found near the sea. THE RED-BACKED SANDPIPER! Innazits both the old and new continents, being known in England by the name of Dunlin; and in the United States, along the shores of New Jersey, by the name of red-back. They frequent the muddy flats and shores of the salt marshes at low water, feeding on small worms and other insects which abound in such places. It has not till now beer recognized by naturalists as inhabiting this part of North America. THE S-OLIDAR Y.. SANDPIPER? Innazits the watery solitudes of our highest mountains during the summer, from Kentucky to New York, but is nowhere numerous, seldom more than one or two being seen together. It takes low, short flights; runs nimbly about among the mossy margins of mountain springs, brooks, and pools, occasionally stopping, looking at you, and perpetually nodding the head. It is so unsuspicious as to permit one tu approach within a few yards of it, without appearing to take notice, or to be the least alarmed. THE RED-BREASTED SANDPIPER Is commonly called the gray back, or brown back. on our seacoasts. It isa particular favorite among gunners, being generally a very plump, tender, and excellent bird for the table. They usually keep in small flocks, alight on the sand-flats in a close body, where they search for small bivalve shells. On the approach of the sportsman, they frequently stand fixed and silent for some time; do not appear to be easily alarmed, neither do they run about im the water as much as some others, or with the same rapidity, but appear more tranquil and deliberate. They retire to the south in November. The other individuals of this family, both American and foreign, are too numerous to be particularized. —— 1Tringa alpina, Lin. 2Tringasolitaria, Witson. *%Tringa rufa, Witson. 646 AVES—WOODCOCK. THE.: W.0,0:D.€,0;C Ket Tue woodcock of the old continent inhabits and breeds in the northern regions during summer; but on the commencement of the frost, it begins to migrate southward. The greater part of them leave England at the close of February, or the beginning of March, after having paired; but they are sometimes detained for a while longer by the wind being adverse. The woodcock is about as large as a pigeon, with a bill three inches long. The crown of the head and back of the neck are barred with black, and u black streak runs from the bill to the eyes. It flaps its wings with som noise when it rises, and its flight is pretty rapid, but neither high nor long and its descent is so sudden that it seems to fall like a stone. It flies very straight in a wood of tall trees, but in a copse it is often obliged to wind. and frequently drops behind bushes, to conceal itself from the eye of the fowler. It principally feeds on worms and insects, which it draws out of the mud with its long bill; andits flesh is universally admired. The female builds a rude nest on the ground, and generally lays four or five eggs. Sl. is remarkably tame during incubation. THE AM it RICAN WOODCOCK In its general figure and habits, greatly resembles the woodcock of Europe, but is considerably less, and very differently marked. This bird is univer- 1 Scolopax rusticola, Lin. The genus Scolopax has the bill long, straight, compressed slender, soft, with the tip turned; both mandibles channelled the half of their lengt’s, the op of the UPPer, projecting beyond that of the under, and the turned portion being hook ed; nostrils lateral, basal, longitudinally cleft near the edges of the mandible, and covered by a membrane; legs slender, with a very small naked space above the knee; tle three fore toes quite divided, or rarely the outer and middle united. 2 Scolopax minor, WiLson. AVES—SNIPE. 647 sally known to oue sportsmen. During the day they keep to the woods and thickets, and at the approach of evening seek the springs and open watery places to feed in. They soon disperse themselves over the country, to breed. In the hot weather, they descend to the marshy shores of our rivers, their favorite springs and watery recesses inland, being chiefly dried up. To the former of these retreats they are pursued by the merciless sportsmen, flush- ed by dogs, and shct down in great numbers. The woodcock is properly a nocturnal bird, feeding chiefly at night, and seldom stirring about till after sunset; at such times he rises by a kind of spiral course to a considerable height in the air, uttering at times, a sudden quack, till having gained his utmost height, he hovers round in a wild, irregular manner, making a sort of murmuring sound, then descends with rapidity as he rose. When utter- ing his note on the ground, he seems to do it with difficulty, throwing his head towards the earth, and frequently jetting up his tail. Their food con- sists of larvee and other aquatic worms, for which, during the evening, they are almost continually turning over the leaves with their bill, or searching in the bogs. Their flesh is reckoned delicious and prized highly. The head of the woodcock is of singular conformation, and the eye is fixed at a remarkable distance from the bill, and high in the head. This” construction was necessary to give a greater range of vision, and to secure the eve from injury, while the owner is searching in the mire. The flight of this bird is slow. LHE SNIPE 2 SNIPES are migratory birds, which are supposed to breed chiefly in the lower lands ot Germany and Switzerland. They visit England in autumn, and retire in the spring. Many, however, remain there the whole year, and make their nests of dried grass and feathers, in the most inaccessible parts of marshes. Our common snipe, usually called the English snipe, cif- fers but little, if at all, from the European snipe. They are most difficult to shoot, of all our birds, as they fly very rapidly, in zigzag lines. They 1 Scolopax gallinago, Lix. 648 AVES—SNIPE. are very eagerly suught after by our gunners. Therr food consists of small worms, slugs, and the larve of insects. During the breeding season, while it plays over the moors, this bird makes a pleasing, humming, and piping sound. Their flesh is justly reckoned among feathered dainties. From the point of the bill, to the end of the tail, the snipe measures about twelve inches, and from the point of each wing, when extended, about fif- teen or sixteen; the head is divided longwise by a pale red line, parallel to which on each side, is a black line, and over the eyes there runs another line pretty much of the same color as that on the middle of the head. The feathers that spring from the shoulders reach almost as far as the end of the tail, the outward half from the shaft being of a pale red. THE WiLLET, OR SBEMIPALMATED SNIPE Is peculiar to America, and is one of the most noisy and noted birds that inhabit our salt marshes in summer. Its common food is willet. It arrives ‘from the south on the shores of the middle states, about the beginning of May; and from that time till the last of July, its loud and shrill reiterations of pill-will-willet, pill-will-willet, resound almost incessantly along the marshes, and may be distinctly heard at the distance of more than a mile Their nests are built on the ground among the grass of the marshes, and are composed of wet rushes and coarse grass. The anxiety and affection manifested by this bird for its eggs and young, are truly interesting. A person no sooner enters the marshes, than he is beset by the willets flying around and skimming over his head, vociferating with great violence their common cry of pill-will-willet ; and uttering at times a loud clicking note as he approaches nearer to their nest. As they occasionally alight, and slowly shut their long white wings speckled with black, they have a mournful note, expressive of great tenderness. They chiefly subsist on small shell-fish, marine worms, and aquatic insects. They have a summer and also a winter dress, in its colors differing so much in these seasons, as scarcely to be known as the same species. There are other individuals of this tribe, common in the United States, which we have not room to describe. 1 Scolopax semipalmata, Witsen. AVES—OUZEL. 649 THE WATER RAIL, OR OUZEL; Is a bird well known in the British islands. It is a large slender bird, with a black bill, one inch and three quarters long. Its weight is four ounces anda half. The upper parts of the plumage are black, edged with olive brown, the lower parts ash colored. This bird frequents the banks of springs or brooks, which it never leaves; preferring the limpid streams, whose fall is rapid, and whose bed is broken with stones and fragments of rocks. The habits of the water ouzel are very singular. Aquatic birds, with palmated feet, swim or dive; those which inhabit the shores, without wetting their body, wade with their tall legs; but the water ouzel, which, it must be re- membered, is neither a wader nor a diver, but one of the passerine birds, walks quite into the flood, following the declivity of the ground. It is ob- » served to enter by degrees, till the water reaches itsneck; and it still advan- ces, holding its head not higher tnan usual, though completely immersed. It continues to walk under the water; and even descends to the bottom, where it saunters as on dry land. M. Herbert, who watched one immersing itself in the lake of Nantua, and who communicated the fact to M. de Buffon, says, “I perceived several times, that as often as it waded deeper than the knee, it displayed its wings, and allowed them to hang to the ground. I remarked, too, that, when I could discern it at the bottom of the water, it appeared enveloped with air, which gave it a brilliant surface, like that on some sorts of beetles, which in water are always inclosed in a bubble of air. Its view, in dropping its wings on entering the water, might be to confine this air, it was certainly never without some, and it seemed to quiver.” It is a curious fact, that even the young ones, before they are quite feathered, are able to make their way under water, the same as the older birds. These birds are found in many parts of Europe. The female makes her nest on the ground, in some mossy bank near the water, of hay and dried bres, lining it with dry oak leaves, and forming to it a portico or entrance 1 Rallus aquaticus, Lis. The genus Rallus has the bill longer than the head, slender slightly arched, or straight, cork Hat at the base, cylindrical at the tip 3 mye mandi- ble channelled ; nostrils lateral, Jongitudinally cleft in the furrow, half closed by a mem brane; legs long and stout, with a small naked spur above the knee; the three anterior toes divided ; the posterior articulated on the tarsus ; wings rounded, the third and fourth feathers longest. 82 50 650 AVES—RAILL. ot moss. The nest is in its color so closely similar to that of the surround- ing objects, that it is almost impossible to discover it except when the bird is entering. The eggs are five in number; white, tinged with a fine blush of red. It will sometimes pick up insects at the edge of the water. When disturbed, it usually flirts up its tail, and makes a chirping noise. Its song in spring is said to be very pretty. In some places it is supposed to be migratory. THE AMERICAN RAIL! di init! i) | e Arrorps the sportsman a most agreeable amusement, anda delicious repast. In Virginia, it is called sora, and in South Carolina, the coot. Its history is involved in profound mystery. No one can detect the first moment of arri- val; yet, all at once, the reedy shores, and grassy marshes of our large rivers, swarm with them, thousands of them being sometimes found within the space of a few acres. These, when they do venture on the wing, seem to fly so feebly, and in such short fluttering flights among the reeds, as to render it highly improbable to most people that they could possibly make their way over an extensive country. Yet on the first smart frost that occurs, the whole suddenly disappear, as if they had never been. When the reeds along the shores of the Delaware have attained their full growth, the rail resort to them in great numbers to feed on the seeds of this plant, of which they are immoderately fond. As you walk along the em- 1 Rallus carolinus, Lin. AVES—COOT. 65t bankment of the river at this season, you hear them squeaking in every direction like young puppies ; if a stone be thrown among the reeds, there is a general outcry, and a reiterated kuk, kuk, kuk, something like that of a guinea fowl. Any sudden noise, or the discharge of a gun, produces the same effect. In the mean time, none are to be seen, unless it be at high ‘water; for whea the tide is low, they universally secrete themselves among the reeds, and you may walk past and even over them, without seeing a single individual. Their flight through the reeds is exceedingly low; and shelter being abundant, is rarely extended far. They swim and dive with great rapidity, and sometimes when wounded, they dive, and rising under the gunwale of the boat, secrete themselves there, moving round as the boat moves, until they have an opportunity of escaping unnoticed. They are feeble and de- licate in every thing but the legs, which seem to possess great vigor and energy, and their bodies being so remarkably thin, as to be less than an inch anda quarter through transversely, they are enabled to pass between the reeds like rats. When seen, they are almost constantly getting up the tail. These birds are also numerous near Detroit, in the lagoons, where another species of reed grows of which they are fond. In New Jersey, where there are no reeds, they are never to be found; but wherever the reeds are, there the rails are sure to be in great numbers. In the United States are also found, the Virginian rail and the clapper rail. ORDER 2IV—PINNATIPR ED ES Brrps of this order have the bill middle-sized and straight ; upper mandi- ble slightly curved at the tip; legs of medium size; tarsi slender or com- pressed ; three toes before and one behind, with rudiments of webs along the toes ; hind toe articulated interiorly on the tarsus. EE he CO OOrrt Is a well known bird. It weighs from twenty-four to twenty-eight ounces Wilson is inclined to believe that the American coot is a different species from the European, from the circumstance that the membrane in the former is of a chesnut color, instead of white; though in other respects they seem to be the same. In Pennsylvania it is called the mud-hen. The bald part 1 Fulica atra, Lin. The genus Flulica has the bill middle-sized, strong, conical, broad at the base; the ridge projecting in front, and dilated into a naked plate; both mandibles of the same length, the upper slightly curved, and reduced at the base, the lower form- ing an angle; nostrils lateral, in the middle of the hill, longitudinally cleft, half closed by a membrane ; legs long, slender, naked above the knee ; all the toes very long, connected at heir base, and furnished along their sides with scalloped membranes. 652 AVES—CRESTED GREBE of the head, which in the water-hen 1s red, in the coot is white. The upper parts of its plumage are black, the breast and belly white. As the coot isa larger bird than the water-hen, which it much resembles, it is always seen in larger streams, and more remote from mankind, It there makes a nest of such weeds as the stream supplies, and lays them among the reeds, float- ing on the surface, and rising and falling with the water. The reeds among which it is ouilt keep it fast, so that it is seldom washed into the middle of the stream. But if this happens, which is sometimes the case, the bird sits mm her nest, like a mariner in his boat, and steers, with her legs, her cargo into the nearest harbor; there, having attained her port, she continues to sit in great tranquillity, regardless of the impetuosity of the current; and, though the water penetrates her nest, she hatches her eggs in that wet condition. The coot is by no means a rare bird in Britain, where it resides permanently, though with the seasons it changes its residence. It is rather a timid bird, very inert, and feeds in the evening, upon fishes, insects, seeds, and herbage. In Madagascar there is a coot with a red comb like a cock. THE CRESTED GREBE.1 Tus bird is about the size of a duck. Its bill, that part especially towards the head, is of a reddish color, and is somewhat more than two inches in length. On the top of the head and neck is a beautiful crest of feathers, those on the neck appearing likea collar or ruff, and seeming a good deal bigger than they really are; those on the top of the head are black, those on the sides of the neck are of a reddish or cinereous color; the back 1 Podiceps cristatus, LatH. The genus Podiceps has the bill middle size, straight, hard, compressed, in the form of an elongated and pointed cone ; tp of the upper mandi- ble slightly inclined; nostrils lateral, concave, oblong, closed behind by amembrane, open in front, and pervious; legs long, placed far backwards; tarsi much compressed ; fore toes much depressed, connected at their base, and furnished with a simple lobe; hind tee compressed and scalloped; claws broad, much depressed ; no tail; wings short. AVES—CUTWATER. 653 and wings are of a darkish brown, pretty much inclining to black, except some of the exterior edges of the wing feathers, which are white. The breast and belly are of a light ash color; it has no tail; the legs and toes are broad and flat. It has an unpleasant cry, and will occasionally, when angered or pleased, raise or fall the feathers of its crest. ORDER XV.—PALMIPEDES. Birps of this order have the bill of various forms ; legs short, placed more or less backwards; the anterior toes partially or wholly connected by webs, and in some families all the four toes united by one membrane; the hinder toe interiorly articulated to the tarsus, or, in some genera, wanting. Pie SKIMMERS OR CUT WATER Is twenty inches in length, and in breadth three feet seven inches. The bill is of a very singular structure, the upper chap, or mandible, being above an inch shorter than the under, and the upper shuts into it, as a razor into its handle. The base of the bill is red, the rest black; and on the sides are several furrows. The forehead, chin, and all the under parts, are white; tne upper parts of the plumage black, with a bar of white across each wing. — 1 Rhynchops nigra, Lix. The genus Rhynchops has the hill long, straight, flattened into a blade, truncated at the apex; upper mandible much sherter than the under; nostrils lateral, marginal, remote from the base; legs slender; tarsus larger than the middle toe; the fore toes united by a membrane; hind toe joined en the tarsus; tail forked, ana shorter than the wings. 53%* 654 AVES—TERN. The tail is short and forked. It inhabits all America; is common y or the wing, and skims along the surface to catch the small fish on which it feeds. it is frequently known by the name of the razor-bill. THE GREAT. TERN} {s about fourteen inches long, and weighs four ounces and a quarter. The bill and feet area fine crimson; the former is tipped with black, and very slender. The back of the head is black; the upper part of the body a pale gray, and the under part white. These birds have been called sea swallows, as they appear to have all the same actions at sea that the swallow has at land, seizing every insect which appears on the surface, and darting down upon the smaller fishes, which they seize with incredible rapidity. THE LESSER .TERN? Weicus only two ounces and fivegrains. The bill is yellow; and from the eyes to the bill is a black line. In other respects, it almost exactly resem- bles the preceding. 1 Sterna hirundo, Lix. The genus Sterna has the bill as long as, or longer than the head, almost straight, compressed, slender, edged, and pointed; mandibles of equa: length, the upper slightly sloping towards the tip; nostrils in the middle of the bill longi- tudinally cleft and pervious; legs small, naked above the knee; tarsus very short, the three anterior toes connected by a membrane, the hinder detached; tail more or less forked ; wings very long, and pointed. 2 Sterna minvta, Lin. AVES—=NODDY.:.GULL. 655 Among the foreign birds of the tern genus, there are some found of a showy white; but the most singular bird of this kind is the striated tern, which is found at New Zealand. It is thirteen incnes in Jength. The hill is black, and the body in general mottled, or rather striped with black and white. , LUE, NOD Dyt Is about fifteen inches long. ‘The bill is black, and two inches long, and the whole plumage a sooty brown, except the top of the head, which is white, It is a very common bird in the tropical seas, where it is known frequently to fly on board ships, and is taken with the hand. But though it be thug stupid, it bites the fingers severely, so as to make it unsafe to hold it. It is said to breed in the Bahama Islands. . Pw GOsbi.2 Anp all its varieties, is well known to most readers. It is seen with slow sailing flight hovering over rvers, to prey upon the smaller kinds of fish; it is seen following the ploughman in fallow fields to pick up insects; and 1 Sterna stolida, Las. The genus Larus, which comprises most of the guils has the bill Jong, or middle sized, strong, hard, pompressed edged, bent toward the tip; lower mandible angulated near the point; nostrils lateral, in the middle of the bill, longituainaily cleft, straight, and pervious ; legs slender, naked above the knee; tarsus long; three fore toes quite webbed, the hinder free, short, placed high on the tarsus; tail feathers of equal length; wings .ong. 656 AVES—GULL. when living animal food is not to be found, it has even been known to eat carrion, and whatever else offers of the kind. Of the gull there are about nineteen species. The largest with which we are acquainted is, the black and white or black-backed gull.! It generally weighs upwards of four pounds, and is twenty-five or twenty-six inches from the point of the bill to the end of the tail; and from the tip of each wing, when extended, five feet and several inches. The bill appears compressed sideways, being more than three inches long, and hooked towards the end, like the rest of this kind, of a sort of orange color; the nostrils are of an oblong form ; the mouth is wide, with a long tongue, and very open gullet. The irides of the eyes are of a delightful red. The wings and the middle ot the back are black; only the tips of the covert and quill feathers are white. The head, breast, tail, and other parts of the body, are likewise white. The tail is near six inches long, the legs and feet are flesh-colored, and the claws black. There are about twenty varieties of this tribe, which are all dis- tinguished by an angular knob on the chap. Gulls are found in great plenty in every place; but it is chiefly round the rockiest shores, that they are seen in the greatest abundance; itis there that the gull breeds and brings upits young; it is there that millions of them are heard screaming with discordant notes for months together. 1 Larus marinus, Lin. AVES—PETREL. 657 THES PE PRE LE TueE whole genus of petrels are known by having, instead of a back toe, only a sharp spur or nail; they have also a faculty of spouting from their bills, to a considerable distance, a large quantity of pure oil, which they do, by way of defence, into the face of any person who attempts to take them. THE FULMAR PETREL? [s the largest of the kind which is known in Europe. It is superior to the size of the common gull, being about fifteen inches in length, and in weight seventeen ounces. The bill is very strong, yellow, and hooked at the end. The head, neck, and all the under parts of the body, are white; the back and wings ash-colored, the quills dusky, and the tail white. It feeds on the blubber of whales, which supplies the reservoir, whence it spouts, with a constant stock of ammunition. This oil is esteemed by the inhabitants of the north, as a sovereign remedy in many complaints, both external and internal. The flesh is also considered by them as a delicacy, and the bird is therefore in great request at St Kilda. When a whale is taken, these birds will, in defiance of all endeavors, light upon it, and pick out large lumps of fat, even while it is alive. 1 Procellaria glacialis, Lrx. The genus Procellaria has the bill as long as, or longer than the head, very hard, edged, depressed, and dilated at the base; the tip compressed, and arched, both mandibles channelled, and abruptly infiected towards the extremity ; nostrils prominent at the surface of the bill, united, and concealed in a tube which either forms a single opening, or exhibits two distinct openings ; legs middle sized, often long, slender; the tarsi compressed; the three front toes entirely webbed and long, and the hinder represented by a pointed claw; wings long. 658 AVES—MANKS PUFFIN...PETREL THE SHEARWATER, OR MANES PUEeEN. As itis called by Willovghby, is something emaller than the preceding The head and all the upper part of the body are of a sooty blackness; ana the under part, and inner coverts of the wings, white. These pirds are found in the Isle of Man, and the Scilly isles. In February, they take a short possession of the rabbit burrows, and theu disappear till April; they lay one egg, and in a short time the young are fit to be taken. They are then salted and barrelled. During the day, they keep at sea, fishing, and towards evening return to their young, whom they feed, by discharging the contents of the stomach into their mouths. {s about the size of a house swallow. The general color of the plumage is black, except about the rump, which is white. They are always to be found on the shores of Britain, and seem to be diffused all over the world. They sometimes hover over the water like swallows, and sometimes appear to 1 Praceliaria Anglorum, Tem. 2 Procellaria pelagica, Lin. AVES—ALBATROSS. 659 run on the top of it, they are also excellent divers. It skims along the hollows of the waves, and through the spray upon their tops, at the astonish- ing rate of sixty miles in anhour. They are very clamorous, and are called by the sailors Mother Cary’s Chickens, who observe they never settle or sit upon the water but when stormy weather is to be expected. They are found in most parts of the world; and in the Feroe islands, the inhabitants draw a wick through the body of the bird, from the mouth to the rump. which serves them as a candle, being fed by the vast proportion of oil which this little animal contains. Wilson supposed the American stormy petrel to be the same as that of Europe; but Charles Bonaparte has shown that it is a distinct species. It breeds in great numbers on the shores of the Bahama and Bermuda isles, and on the coast of East Florida and Cuba. This author enumerates four species of the stormy petrel. THE ALBATROSS = Ye wey IW Uh, SSS EA > —\\ \ NS ITT Er SAAS [s one of the largest and most formidable birds of Africa and South America_ The largest, which is called the wandering albatross,! is rather larger than 1 Diomedea exulans, Lin. The genus Diomedea has the bill very long, stout, edged, compressed, straight, suddenly curved ; upper mandible channelled on the sides, andmuech hooked at the point, the under smooth, and truncated at the extremity; nostrils lateral, remote from the base, tubular, covered on the sides, and open in front; legs short, with only three very long toes entirely webbed ; the lateral one margined ; wings very long and narrow, with the primary quills short, and the secondaries long. 660 AVES—WILD GOOSE. a swan, and its wings, when extended, ten feet from tip to tip. The bill, which is six inches long, is yellowish, and terminates in a crooked point. The top of the head is of a bright brown; the back is of a dirty, deep spotted brown ; and the belly, and under the wings, is white. The toes, which are webbed, are of a fles’ color. This bird is an inhabitant of the tropical climates, and also beyond them, as far as the Straits of Magellan, in the South seas. It not only eats fish, but also such small water-fowl as it can take by surprise. It preys, as the gull kind do, upon the wing, and chiefly pursues the flying fish that are forced from the sea by the dolphins. The albatross seems to have a peculiar affection for the penguin, and a pleasure in its society. They are always seen to choose the same places of breeding ; some distant, uninhabited island, where the ground slants to the sea, as the penguin is not formed either for flying or climbing. In such places their nests are seen together, as if they stood in need of mutual assist- ance and protection. In the middle, on high, the albatross raises its nest on heath, sticks, and long grass, about two feet above the surface; and round this the penguins make their lower settlements, rather in holes in the ground; and most usually eight penguins to one albatross. There are about three other species of albatross, all of them smaller than the preceding. ‘The upper parts of the plumage are a dusky blue black, and the rump and under parts white ; but what peculiarly distinguishes it is, that the bill, which is four inches long, is black, all but the upper ridge, which is yellow quite to the tip. It inhabits the South seas within the tropics. THE, AMERICAN: WiLD?.G00SE.! Tuts is a bird universally known over the whole country, and whose regu lar periodical migrations are the sure signals of returning spring, or approaching winter. I have never yet visited, says Wilson, any quarter of the country, where the inhabitants are not familiarly acquainted with the passing and repassing of the wild geese. The general opinion here is, that they are on their way to the lakes to breed; but the inhabitants on the con- 1 Anas canadensis, Lrx. The genus Anas has the bill middle-sized, robust, straight, more or less depressed, covered by a thin skin, often deeper than broad at the base, whic is furnished with a fleshy tubercle, or smooth; always depressed towards the tip, which is obtuse and furnished with a nail; edges of both mandibles divided into conical or flat lamellated teeth; nostrils almost at the surface of the bill, at some distance from the base, ovoid half closed by the flat membrane that covers the nasal furrow; legs short, feathered to the knee, and placed near the abdomen; the three fore toes webbed ; the hinder detach- ed, and either destitute of a web, or having only a rudimentary one. AVES—WILD GOOSE. 661 fines of the great lakes are equally ignorant with ourselves of the particular breedin x places of these birds. There, their journey north is but commenc- ing, and hew far it extends it is impossible for us at present to ascertain. They were seen by Hearne in large flocks within the arctic circle, and were then pursuing their way still farther north. They have been seen, also, on the dreary coast of Spitsbergen, feeding on the water’s edge. It is highly probable that they extend their migrations under the very pole itself, amid the silent desolation of unknown countries, shut out from the eye of man by everlasting barriers of ice. That such places abound with suitable food, we cannot for a momer.t doubt. The flight of the wild geese is heavy and laborious, generally in a straight line, or in two lines approximating to a point. In both cases, the van is led by an old gander, who every now and then pipes his well known hovwk, as if to ask how they come on; and the houk of ‘all’s well,” is generally returned by some of the party. When bewildered in foggy weather, they appear sometimes to be in great distress, flying about in an irregular man- ner, making a great clamor. On these occasions, should they alight on the earth, as they sometimes do, they meet with speedy death and destruction. The autumnal flight lasts from the middle of August to the middle of Octo- ber; the vernal flight from the middle of April to the middle of May. Wounded geese have frequently been domesticated, and readily pair with tame geese. On the approach of spring, however, they discover symptoms of great uneasiness, frequently looking up into the air, and attempting to gu off. Some, whose wings have been closely cut, have travelled on foot in a northerly direction, and have been found at a distance of several miles from 56 662 AVES—WILD GOOSE. nome. They hail every flock that passes overhead, and the sa ute is sure to be returned by the voyagers, who are only prevented from alighting among them, by the presence and habitations of man. The gunners sometimes take one or two of these domesticated geese with them to those places over which the wild ones are accustomed to fly; and concealing themselves, wait for a flight, which is no sooner perceived by the decoy geese, than they be- gin calling aloud, until the flock approaches so near, that the gunners are enabled to make great havec among them with their musket shot. The English at Hudson’s Bay depend greatly on geese, and in favorable seasons kill three or four thousand, and barrel them up for use. They send out their servants, as well as Indians, to kill them on their passage. They mimic the cackle of geese so well, that many of them are allured to the spot where they are concealed, and are thus easily shot. When in good order, the wild goose weighs from ten to fourteen pounds, and is estimated to yield half a pound of feathers. It is domesticated in numerous quarters of the country, and is remarked for being extremely watchful, and more sensible of approaching changes in the atmosphere than the common gray goose. In England, France and Germany, they have been long ago domesticated. Mr Platt, a respectable farmer on Long Island, being out shooting in one of the bays which in that part of the country abound in water-fowl, wounded a wild goose. Being unable to fly, he caught it and brought it home alive. It proved to be a female, and turning it into his yard with a flock of tame geese, it soon became quite familiar, and in a little time its wounded wing entirely healed. In the following spring, when the wild geese migrate to the northward, a flock passed over Mr Platt’s barn-yard, and just at that moment, their leader happening to sound the bugle note, our goose, in whom its new habits and enjoyments had not quite extinguished the love of liberty, and remembering the well-known sound, spread its wings, mounted into the alr, joined the travellers, and soon disappeared. In the succeeding autumn, the wild geese, as usual, returned from the northward in great numbers, to pass the winter in our bays and rivers. Mr Platt happened to be standing in his yard, when a flock passed directly over his barn. At that instant, he observed three geese detach themselves from the rest, and alter wheeling round several times, alight in the middle of the yard. Imagine his surprise and pleasure, when, by certain well remembered signs, he recognised in one of the three his long-lost fugitive. It was she indeed! She had travelled many hundred miles to the lakes; had there hatched and reared her off- spring ; and had now returned with her little family, to share with them the sweets of civilized life. AVES—WILD GOOSKH...SWAN. 663 THE EUROPEAN WILD GOOSE! Tue wild goose, or gray lag, always retains the same marks: the whole upper part is ash colored; the breast and belly are of a dirty white; the bill is narrow at the base, and at the tip it is black; the legs are of a saffron color, and the claws black. It frequently weighs about ten pounds. The wild goose is supposed to breed in the northern parts of Europe, and, in the beginning of winter, to descend into more temperate regions. If they come to the ground by day, they range themselves in a line, like cranes ; and seem rather to have descended for rest, than for other refreshment. When they have sat in this manner for an’ hour or two, we have heard one of them, with a loud, long note, sound a kind of charge, to which the rest punctually attended, and they pursued their journey with renewed alacrity. Their flighteis very regularly arranged; they either go in a line abreast, or in two lines, joining in an angle in the middle. The common tame goose is nothing more than’ this goose in a state of domestication. The tame goose is sometimes white, and generally varies between white and gray. if There are also the barnacle goose,2 the brant goose,’ the bear goose, and a variety of others. THE SWANS So much difference is there between this bird, when on land and in the water, that it is hardly to be supposed the same, for in the latter, no bird can possibly exceed it for beauty and majestic appearance. When it ascends from its favorite element, its motions are awkward, and its neck is stretched forward with an air of stupidity; it has, indeed, the air of being only a larger sort of goose; but when seen smoothly gliding along the water, dis- plays a thousand graceful attitudes, and moving at pleasure without the smallest apparent effort, there is not a more beautiful figure in all nature. In its form, we find no broken or harsh lines; in its motions, nothing con- strained or abrupt, but the roundest contours, and the easiest transitions ; the eye wanders over the whole with unalloyed pleasure, and, with every change of position, every part assumes a new grace. It will swim faster than a man can walk. "this bird has long been rendered domestic; and it is now doubtful whe- cher there be any of the tame kind ina state of nature. The color of the tame swan is entirely white, and it generally weighs full twenty pounds. Under 1 Anas anser, Lin. 2 Anas leucopsis, TEMM. 3 Anas bernicla, Lin. 4 Anas segetum, GMEL. 5 Anas olor, Lin. 664 AVES—SWAN. the feathers is a very thick, soft down, which is made an article of com- merce. for purposes of both use and ornament. The windpipe smks down into the lungs in the ordinary manner; and it is the most silent of all the feathered tribe ; it cando nothing more than hiss, which it does on receiving any provocation. In these respects, it is very different from the wild or whistling swan. This beautiful bird is as delicate in its appetites as it is elegant in its form. Its chief food is corn, bread, herbs growing in the water, and roots and seeds, which are found near the margin. At the time of incubation, it prepares a nest in some retired part of the bank, and chiefly where there is an islet in the stream. This is composed of water plants, long grass, and sticks; and the male and female assist in forming it with great assiduity. The swan fays seven or eight white eggs, one every other day, much larger than those of a goose, with a hard, and sometimes a tuberous shell. It sits six weeks before its young are excluded; which are ash colored when they first leave the shell, and for some months after. It is not a little dangerous to ap- proach the old ones, when their little family are feeding around them. Their fears as well as their pride, seem to take the alarm, and, when in danger, the old birds carry off the young ones on their back. A female has been known to attack and drown a fox, which was swimming towards her nest; taey are able to throw down and trample on youths of fifteen or sixteen; and an old swan can break the leg of a man with.a single stroke of its wing. Swans were formerly held in such great esteem in England, that, by an act of Edward the Fourth, none, except the son of the king, was permitted to keep a swan, unless possessed of a freehold to the value of five marks a year. By a subsequent act, the punishment for taking their eggs was im- prisonment for a year and a day, and a fine at the king’s will. At present, they are not valued for the delicacy of their flesh ; but numbers are still pre-e AVES—SWAN. 665 served for their beauty. Many may be seen on the Thames, where they are esteemed royal property, and it is accountea feloay to steal their eggs. On this river, as far as the conservancy of it belongs to the city of London, they are under the care of the corporation ; and at certain times the lord mayor, aldermen, &c. proceed up the Thames, to what is commonly called the swan hopping, to mark the young birds. The swan is a long-lived bird, and sometimes attains the age of more than a hundred years. ” THE. .WiIL.D.:0 Ro WALES Eo ENG. Sov An THovcH so strongly resembling the tame swan in color and form, is yet a lifferent bird; for it is very differently formed within. The wild swan is ‘ess than the tame, almost a fourth; for as the one weighs twenty pounds, the other only weighs sixteen pounds and three quarters. The color of the tame swan is all over white; that of the wild bird is along the back and the tips of the wings of an ash color; the tame swan is mute, the wild one has a sharp loud cry, particularly while flying. But these are slight differences, com- pared to what are found upon dissection. The wild species is found im mcst of the northern regions, in America, and probably in the East Indies. THE BLACK SWAN. New Holland, that country of animal wonders, presents us with a bird wnizh the ancients imagined could not possibly have existence. The black 1 Anas cygnus, Lin. . $4 56* 666 AVES—EIDER DUCK. swan is exactly similar in its form to the swan of the old world, but is some- what smaller in size. Every part of its plumage is perfectly black, with the exception of the primary and a few of the secondary quill feathers, which are white. The bill is of a bright red above, is crossed at the anterior part by a whitish band; is of a grayish white on the under part; and, in the male, is surmounted at the base bya slight protuberance. The legs and feet are of a dull ash color. Black swans, in their wild state, are extremely shy, They are found in Van Dieman’s Land, New South Wales, and on the western coast of New Holland; and are generally seen swimming on a lake,ein flocks consisting of eight or nine individuals. On being disturbed, . they fly off in a direct line one after the other, like wild geese. LHE BID ER. D.C Kk! Has a black, cylindrical bill, and the feathers or the forehead and cheeks ad- vance far into the base. In the male, the feathers of part of the head, the lower part of the breast, the belly and the tail, are black, as are also the quili feathers of the wings; and nearly all the rest of the body 1s waite. The legs are green. The female is of a reddish brown, variously marked with black and dusky streaks. It is principally found in the western isles of Scotland, on the coasts of Norway, Iceland and Greenland, and in many parts of North America. The female lays from three to five eggs, (sometimes as many as eight,) which are large, smooth, glossy, and of a pale olive color. She generally 1 Anas mollisima, Lin —————s AVES—EIDER DUCK. 667 lays among stones, or plants, near the sea, but m a soft bed of down, which she plucks from her own breast. Sometimes two females will lay their eggs in the same nest, in which case they always agree remarkably well. As long as the female is sitting, the male continues on watch near the shore ; but as soon as the young are hatched, he leaves them. The mother, how- ever, remains with them a considerable time afterwards. It is curious to observe her manner of leading them out of the nest, almost as soon as they creep from the eggs. Going before them to the shore, they trip after her; and, when she comes to the water-side, she takes them on- her back, and swims a few yards with them, when she dives; and the young ones are left floating on the surface, obliged to take care of themselves. They are sel- dom seen afterwards on land. In Iceland, the eider ducks generally build their nests on small islands, not far from the shore; and sometimes even near the dwellings of the na- tives, who treat them with so much attention and kindness as to render them nearly tame. From these birds is produced the soft down, so well known by the name of the eider, or edder down, which is so light and expan- sive that a couple of handfuls will fill a down quilt, which, in cold countries, is used instead of a quilt or blanket. In the breeding season, the birds pluck it from their breasts to line their nests, and make a soft bed for the young ones. When the natives come to the nests, they carefully remove the fe- male and take away the superfluous down and eggs; after this, they replace the female ; she then begins to lay afresh, and covers her eggs with new down, which she also plucks from her body; when this is scarce, or she has no more left, the male comes to her assistance, and covers the eggs with his down, which is white, and easily distinguished from that of the female. When the young ones leave the nest, which is about an hour after they are hatched, it is once more plundered. The most eggs and best down are got during the first three weeks of their laying; and it has generally been ob- served, that they lay the greatest number of eggs in rainy weather. One female, during the time of laying, generally gives half a pound of down; which, however, is reduced one half after it is cleaned. The Iceland com- pany at Copenhagen generally export from Iceland about one thousand five hundred or two thousand pounds weight of this down, besides what is pri- vately purchased by foreigners. The Greenlanders kill these birds with darts; pursuing them in their lit- tle boats, watching their course by the air bubbles when they dive, and always striking them when they rise to the surface wearied. ‘The flesh is valued as food, and their skins are made into warm and comfortable under garments. 668 AVES—TEAL....WIDGEUN. THE TEAL2 Tuts is the smallest bird of the duck kind; it is common in England in the winter months; and some imagine that it breeds there as well as it does in France. It does not usually weigh more than twelve ounces; and it measures about sixteen inches from the point of the bill to the tip of the tail, and from the extremity of each wing, when extended, nearly two feet. The bill is of a dark brown color, the head is considerably lighter, inclining to a bay, with a large white stripe over each eye, bending downwards, to- wards the back part of the head; the back and sides under the wings are curiously varied with lines of white and black. The breast is of a dirty colored yellow, interspersed with dusky transverse lines; the belly more bright, with yellowish brown spots; the quill feathers of the wings are of a dusky brown, with white edges; the covert feathers appear of a fine shining green, with their tips white; the scapular feathers are more inclining to an ash color; the legs and: feet are brown, the claws black. These birds feed on cresses, chervil, and other weeds, and also on seeds and some kinds of water insects. ‘The flesh is a great delicacy, and has a less fishy taste than any other of the wild duck tribe. The female constructs her nests of reeds interwoven with grass, and is said to make it among rushes, that it may rise or fall with the varying height of the water. LHE: WADGEON 2 Tus bird weighs about twenty-two ounces; it has a black nail at the end of the upper mandible of the bill, the other part of which is of a lead color; the structure of the head and mouth very much resembles the com- mon wud duck, only the head does not seem to be quite so large, in propor- 1 Anas crecca, Lin. 2 Anas Penelope, Lin. AVES—WIDGEON. 669 tion to the body, which also appears of a finer shape, and the wings longer. The crown of the head towards the base of the bill is of a pale pink color, inclining to a reddish white; the other parts of the head and neck are red; _ the sides of the body and the upper part of the breast are tinctured with a very fair, glossy, and beautiful claret color, with a few small transverse lines of black. The feathers on the back are brown, the edges more pale or ash colored ; the scapular feathers, and those under the fore part of the wings, are finely variegated with small transverse black and white lines, beautifully dispersed like waves; the quill feathers are some of them brown, with white tips, others have their outward webs of a blackish purple; other parts, especially those beyond the covert feathers, of a lovely fine blue; some of the exterior feathers have their outward webs inclining to black, with a fine purple gloss upon the borders, on which there are a number ef small light colored spots; the rest of the wing feathers are of a beautiful party-colered brown and white. The upper part of the tail is ash colored; the under part, behind the vent, black. The legs and feet are of a dark lead color, and the claws black. The young of both sexes are gray, and this hue they retain till February, when the plumage of the male begins to assume its variegated tints. He is said to retain his bright colors till the end of July, and then to become dark end gray, so as scarcely to be distinguished from the female. Widgeons are common in Cambridgeshire, England, the Isle of Ely, &c., where the male is called the Widgeon, and the female the Whewer. They feed upon wild periwinkles, grass, weeds, &c., which grow at the oottom of rivers and lakes. Their flesh h& a fine taste. 670 AVES—DUCK. THE CANVASS-BACK DUCK! mn it l if P im, rl Is a very celebrated species, unknown in Europe. They appear in the Unit- ed States about the middle of October, and great numbers of them are found on the rivers near Chesapeake Bay. The canvass-back, in the rich juicy tenderness of its flesh, and its delicacy and flavor, stands unrivalled by the whole of its tribe in, perhaps, any other part of the world. They sometimes sell from one to three dollars a pair. Its length is about two feet, and its weight two pounds. The most obvious distinction between wild and tame ducks is in the colo. of their feet; those of the tame duck being black; those of the wild duck yellow. The difference between wild ducks among each other, arises as well from their size, as the nature of the place they feed in. Sea ducks, which feed in the salt water, and dive much, have a broad biil, bending upwards, a large hind toe, and a long blunt tail. Pond ducks, which feed in plashes, have a straight and narrow bill, a small hind toe, and a sharp pointed train. The former are called in England, by the decoy-men, foreign ducks ; the latter are supposed to be natives of England. In this tribe, we may rank, as natives of America, the velvet duck,? not so large, and with a yellow bill; the scoter duck, or black diver,? with a knob at the base of a yellow bill; the tufted duck,4 adorned with a thick crest; the scaup duck, less than the common duck, with the bill of a grayish blue color; the gol- den eye,® with a large white spotvat the corners of the mouth, resembling an eye; the sheldrake,’ with the bill of a bright red, and swelling into a knob; the mallard,’ which is the stock whence the tame breed has probably 1 Anas valisneria, Witson. 2 Anas fusca, Lin. 3 Anas nigra, LIN. 4Anas fuligula, Witson. * Anas marila, Lin. 6 Anas clangula, Lr. 1 Anas tadorna, Lin. 8 Anas boschas, Lin. AVES—GOOSANDER...MERGANSER. 671 been produced; the shoveller,! which has a bill three inches long, and re- markably broad at the end; the pintail,? with the two middle feathers of the tail three inches longer than the rest; the long-tailed? duck, the general color of whose plumage is deep chocolate, and the outer feathers of the tail, which are white, four inches longer than the rest. PH EY GOOsAN DE RA Wetcus about four pounds. The bill is red; the head very full of feathers on the top and back part. The plumage is various and beautiful. The head and upper parts are fine glossy black, the rump and tail ash color, and the under parts of the neck and body a fine pale yellow. Its manners and appetites entirely resemble those of the diver. It feeds upon fish, for which it dives; it is said to build its nest upon trees, like the heron and the cor- vorant. THE RED-BREASTED MERGANSERS® Is smaller, weighing only twopounds. The head and neck are black, gloss- ed with green; the rest of the neck and the belly white ; the upper part of the back is glossy black: the lower parts and the rump are striated with brown and pale gray; on the wings there are white bars tipped with black, and 1 Anas clypeata, Lin. 2 Anas Labradora, GMEL. 3 Anas glacialis. 4 Mergus merganser, Lin. The genus Mergus has the bill middle-sized or long, slen- der, in the form of an elongated cone, and almost cylindrical; bas2 broad; tip of the up- er mandible much hooked, and furnished with a nail; edges of both mandibles serrated in a backward direction; nostrils lateral towards the middle of the bill; legs short, placed ppelwancs on the abdomen, the three fore toes completely webbed, the hind toe articulated on the tarsus. 5 Mergus serrator, Lin. 672 AVES—GOOSANDER. the breast 1s reddish, mixed with black and white. The plumage of the female is less splendid; and they differ in another respect, viz. that the male nas a very full and large crest, the female only the rudiment of one It is common on the shores of the United States as well as in Europe. THE SMEW, OR WHITE-HEADED GOOSANDER,! Measures eighteen inches from the point of the bill to the extremity. It has a fine crest upon the head, which falls down towards the back part of it, under which, on each side of the head, isa black spot; the rest of the head and neck, and the under parts of the body, are white; the back and the wings are a pleasing mixture of black and white. The tail is about three 1 Mergus albellus, Lin. AVES—MERGANSER...PELICAN. 673 mehes long, of a kind of dusky ash color, the feathers on each side shorten- mg gradually. The female has no crest; the sides of the head red; the wings of a dusky ash color; the throat is white. In other respects it agrees with the male. THE HOODED MERGANSER! Is a native of North America, and peculiar to that country. It is common on the coasts of New England, and breeds in the arctic regions. It is about the size of a widgeon. The head and neck are dark brown; the former sur- rounded with a large round crest, the middle of which is white. The back and quills are black, the tail dusky ; and the breast and belly white, undu- lated with black. The female is fainter in the color of her plumage, and has a smaller crest. THE PELICAN, Tue great white pelican of Africa? is much larger than aswan. Its four toes are all webbed together; and its neck, in some measure, resembles that of a swan; but that singularity in which it differs from all other birds, is in the bill, and the great pouch underneath, which are wonderful, and demand a distinct description. This enormous bill is fifteen inches from the point to the opening of the mouth, which is a good way back behind the eyes. The base of the bill is somewhat greenish; but it varies towards the end, being of a reddish blue. To the lower edges of the underchap hangs a bag, reaching the whole length of the bill to the neck, which is said to be capable of con- taining fifteen quarts of water. This bag the bird has a power of wrinkling up into the hollow of the under chap; but, by opening the bill, and putting one’s hand down into the bag, it may be distended at pleasure. It is nv. covered with feathers, but a short downy substance, as smooth and soft as satin. Tertre affirms, that this pouch will hold as many fish as will serve sixty hungry men fora meal. Such is the formation of this extraordinary bird, which isa native of Africa and America. It was once also known —s 1 Mergus cucullatus, Lr. 2The genus Pelicanus has the bill long, straight, broad, much depressed; upper man- dible flattened, terminated by a nail, or very strong hook; the lower formed by two long branches, which are depressed, flexible, and united at the tip; from these branches is sus- nded a naked skin, in form of a pouch; face and throat naked; nostrils basal, in the orm of a narrow longitudinal slit; legs short and stout; all the four toes connected bj a web. 3 Pelicanus onocrotalus, Lin. 57 674 AVES—PELICAN. m Europe, particularly in Russia; but it seems to have deserted those coasts. In the island of Manilla, the pelicans are of a rose color, and in America they are brown. They are all torpid and inactive to the last degree, so that nothing can exceed their indolence but their gluttony. It is only from the stimulations of hunger that they are excited to labor; for otherwise they would continue always in fixed repose. When they have raised themselves about thirty or forty feet above the surface of the sea, they turn their head, with one eye downwards, and continue to fly in that posture. As soon as they perceive a fish sufficiently near the surface, they dart down upon it with the swiftness of an arrow, seize it with unerring certainty, and store it up in their pouch. They then rise again, though not without great labor, and continue hevering and fishing, with their head on one side, as before. This work they continue, with great effort and indusiry, till their bag is full; and then they fly to land, to devour and digest, at leisure, the fruits of their industry. This, however, it would appear, they are not long perform- ing; for, towards night, they have another hungry call; and they again, reluctantly, go to labor. Sometimes, they are said to assemble in large numbers, to act in concert, und to maneeuvre with great skill, for the purpose of securing an abundant prey. This they accomplish by forming a circular line, and gradually nar- AVES—CORMORANT. 675 rowing the included space, till the fishes are driven within a narrow com- pass. ‘They then all plunge into the water at once, on a given signal, fiil their pouches with the spoil, and then return to the land, to enjoy themselves at leisure. Their life is spent between sleeping and eating. The female makes no preparation for her nest, nor seems to choose any place in preference to lay in, but drops her eggs on the bare ground, to the number of five or six, and there continues to hatch them. Her little progeny, however, seem to call forth some maternal affections ; for its young have been taken and tied by the leg to a post, and the parent bird has been observed for several days to come and feed them; remaining with them the greater part of the day, and spend- ing the night on a branch of a tree that hung over them. By these means they become so familiar that they suffered themselves to be handled; and they very readily accepted whatever fish was given to them. These they always put first into their pouch, and then swallowed them at leisure. THE CORMORANTS OR COR VOR A NE Is about the size of a large Muscovy duck. The head and neck of this bird are of a sooty blackness, and the body thick and heavy, more inclining in figure to that of the goose, than the gull. As soon as the winter approaches, they are seen dispersed along the seashore, and ascending up the mouths of fresh water rivers, carrying destruction to all the finny tribe. They are most remarkably voracious, and have a most sudden digestion. Their appe- lite is forever craving, and never satisfied. This gnawing sensation may probably be increased by the great quantity of small worms that fill their intestines, and which their increasing gluttony contributes to engender. This bird has the most rank and disagreeable smell, and is more fetid than even carrion, when in its most healthful state. It is seen as well by land as sea; it fishes in fresh water lakes as well as in the depths of the ocean ; it builds in the cliffs .of rocks, as well as on trees; and preys not only in the daytime, but by night. Its indefatigable nature, and its great power in catching fish, were, proba- bly, the motives that induced some nations to breed this bird up tame, for the purpose of fishing. The description of their manner of fishing is thus enlivened by Faber: “When they carry them out of the rooms where they are kept, to the fish 1 Carbo cormoranus, Meyer. The genus Carbo has the bill middle-sized, or long, straight, compressed ; upper mandible much hent at the tip, the lower compressed ; base of the bill involved in a membrane which extends to the throat ; face and throat naked nostrils basal, linear and concealed ; legs strong, short, situated far behind; all the toes mcluded in a web, and the middle claw serrated. 676 AVES—CORMORANT. pools, they hoodwink them, that they may not be frightened by the way When they are come to the rivers, they take off their hoods; and having ued a leather thong round the lower part of their necks, that they may not swal- low down the fish they catch, they throw them into the river. They pre- sently dive under water ; and there, for a long time, with wonderful swift- ness, pursue the fish; and, when they have caught them, rise to the top of the water, and, pressing the fish lightly with their bills, swallow them; till each bird has, after this manner, devoured five or six fishes. Then their SH =< keepers call them to the fist, to which they readily fly; and, one after another, vomit up all their fish, a little bruised with the first nip given in catching them. When they have done fishing, setting the birds on some high place, they loose the string from their necks, leaving the passage to the stomach free and open; and, for their reward, they throw them part of their prey; to each one or two fishes, which they will catch most dexteroasly, as they are falling in the air.” At present, the cormorant is trained up in every part of China for the same purpose. “It is very pleasant to behold with what sagacity they por- ton out the lake or the canal where they are upon duty. When they have AVES—GANNET. 677 found their prey, they seize it with their beak by the middle, and carry it without fail to their master. When the fish is too large, they then give each other mutual assistance; one seizes it by the head, the other by the tail, and in this manner carry it to the boat together. They have always while they fish, a string fastened round their throats, to prevent them from devouring their prey.” Such was formerly the practice in England; and as Jate as the reign of Charles I., there was an officer of the hovsehold who pore the title of Master of the Cormorants. THE GANNET, OR SOLAN GOOSE,! Is of the size of a tame goose, but its wings much longer, being six feet over. The bill is six inches long, straight almost to the point. It differs from the corvorant in size, being larger; in its color, which is chiefly dirty white, with a cinereous tinge; and by its having no nostrils, but in their place a long furrow that reaches almost to the end of the bill. From the corner of the mouth is a narrow slip of black bare skin, that extends to the hind part of the head; beneath the skin is another that, like the pouch of the pelican, is dilatable, and of size sufficient to contain five or six entire herrings, which in the breeding season it carries at once to its mate or its young. These birds, which subsist entirely upon fish, chiefly resort to those unin- habited islands where their food is found in plenty, and men seldom come to disturb them. The islands to the north of Scotland, the Skelig islands off the coasts of Kerry, in Ireland, and those that lie in the North sea off Norway, abound with them. But it is on the Bass island, in the firth of 1 Sula alba, Meyer. The genus Sula has the bill long, stout, in the form of an elon- gated cone, very thick at the base, compressed towards the tip, which is obliquely curved ; cleft beyond the eyes ; edges of both mandibles serrated ; face and throat naked ; nostrils hasal, linear, and concealed ; legs short, stout, placed far behind; all the toes connected hy a web; claw of the middle toe serrated; wings long; tail conical, and composed of twelve feathers 57* 678 AVES—TROPIC BIRD...DIVER Edinburgh, where they are seen in the greatest abundance. “lt is scarce- ly possible to walk there without treading on them; the flocks of birds upon the wing are so numerous as to darken the air like a cloud; and their noise is such, that one cannot, without difficulty, be heard by the person next to him.” . PE PRO Pre” Ber Dp! IncLupEs only three known species, which are all distinguished by a wedge- like tail, the two middle feathers extending a vast length beyond the others TH EC O MILO NT RO? ECoABs am D2 Is about the size of a widgeon. The length to the tip of the two long fea- thers is nearly three feet. The bill is three inches long, and red; the head, neck, and under parts of the body, are quite white; the upper parts of the plumage white also, but marked with black lines. The two middle feathers of the tail measure twenty inches, and project fifteen inches beyond the rest. It takes its name from being chiefly found within the tropics. It frequently flies very high, but generally attends upon the flying-fishes in their escape from their watery enemies; and they have now and then been found in calm weather, supinely floating on the backs of the drowsy tortoises. Their flesh 1s not good, but is sometimes eaten by the hungry sailors. THE GREAT ONOR THE RIN DiLVERS Is a very large bird, weighing sixteen pounds, and measuring three feet six inches in length. ‘The bill is strong, black, and above four inches in length. 1 The genus Phaeton has the bill as long as the head, thick, stout, hard, sharp-edged much compressed, pointed, slightly sloped from the base; edges of the mandibles widen- | ed at the base, compressed and serrated in the rest of their length; nostrils basal, lateral, covered above and near the base, by a naked membrane, and pervious; legs very short, placed far back, all the toes connected by a web ; wings long; tail short, but the two filamentous middle feathers very long. 2 Phaéton phenicurus, Lin. 3 Colymbus glacialis, Lin. The genus Colymbus has the bill of medium size, straight, very pointed, compressed ; nostrils Pasa lateral concave, oblong, half closed by a mem- brane; legs placed far behind; tarsi compressed; the three fore toes very long and bakes inder short, with a loose rudimentary web; wings short; tail very short rounded. AVES—PUFFIN. 679 The head and neck are ve.vet olack, with a white crescent immediately under tne tnroa‘, and another behind. The upper parts of the plumage are also black, spotted with white, and the breast and belly perfectly white. This bird is found in all the northern parts of Europe, and feeds on fish. It breeds on the inaccessible rocks and steep cliffs in the Isle of Man, and likewise in Cornwall, and several other places in England. The northern diver lays exceedingly large eggs; being full three inches long, blunt at one end, and sharp at the other, of a sort of bluish color, generally spotted with some black spots or strokes. It flies high and well. It is found on tke coast of the United States, where it is known by the name of the Joon. THE, RUIN! ls the size of the teal, weighs about twelve ounces, and is twelve inches in length. The bill is much compressed; the half next the point is red, that next the base is blue gray. It has three furrows or grooves impressed in it; one in the livid part, two in the red. The eyes are fenced with a protube- rant skin, of a livid color; and they are gray or ash colored. The puffin, like all the rest of this kind, has its legs thrown so far back, that it can hardly move without tumbling. This makes it rise with diffi- culty, and subject to many falls before it gets upon the wing; but as it isa small bird, when it once rises, it can continue its flight with great celerity. All the winter these birds are absent, visiting regions too remote for discovery. At the latter end of March, or the beginning of April, a troop of their spies, or harbingers, come and stay two or three days, as it were, to 1 Mormon fratercula,Temm. The genus Mormon has the bill shorter than the head, deeper than long, and much compressed ; both mandibles arched transversely, furrowed, and notched towards the tip; ridge of the ape mandible elevated above the level of the skull; nostrils lateral, marginal, linear, naked, almost wholly concealed by a large naked membrane; legs short, placed fir behind, furnished with only three toes all directed forwards, end webbed ; claws much hooked ; wings short. 680 AVES=GREATNAUK. view and search out their former situations, and see whether all be well This done, they once more depart; and, about the beginning of May, return again with the whole army of their companions. But if the season happens to be stormy and tempestuous, and the sea troubled, the unfortunate voyagers undergo incredible hardships; and they are found, by hundreds, cast away upon the shores, lean, and perished with famine. The puffin, when it prepares for breeding, which always happens a few days after its arrival, begins to scrape out a hole in the ground, not far from the shore; and when it has penetrated some way into the earth, it then throws itself upon its back, and with its bill and claws thus burrows inward, till it has dug a hole with several windings and turnings, from eight to ten feet deep. It particularly seeks to dig under a stone, where it expects the greatest security. Jn this fortified retreat it lays one egg, which, though the bird be not much bigger than a pigeon, is the size of a hen’s. Few birds or beasts will venture to attack them in their retreats. When the great sea raven comes to take away their young, the puffin boldly op- poses him. Their meetings afford a most singular combat. As soon as the raven approacees, the puffin catches him under the throat with its beak, and sticks its claws into its breast, which makes the raven, with a loud scream- ing, attempt to get away; but the little bird still holds fast to the invader, nor lets him go till they both come to the sea, when they drop down together, and the raven is drowned; yet the raven is but too often successful, and, nvading the puffin at the bottom of its hole, devours both the parent and \ts family. PALE GRE AVP Aw Ke {s distinguished peculiarly by the form of the bill, which is strong, convex, compressed at the sides, in general crossed with several furrows, and in some degree resembling the coulter of a plough. It is the size of a goose; its bill is black, about four inches and a quarter in length, and covered at the base with short, velvet-like feathers. The upper parts of the plumage are black, and the lower parts white, with a spot of white between the bill and the eyes, and an oblong stripe of the same on the wings, which are too short for flight. The bird is alsoa very bad walker, but swims and dives well. It is, however, observed by seamen, 1 Alca impenuis, Lix. The genus Alca has the bill straight, broad, compressed, much bent towards the tip, both mandibles half covered with feathers, and grooved near the pint, the upper hooked, the lower forming a salient angle; nostrils lateral, marginal, inear, situated near the middle of the bill, almost entirely closed by a membrane, an covered with feathers; legs short, placed far behind, with three toes directed forwards, and palinated; wings short. AVES--RAZORBILL...PENGUIN. 681 that it is never seen out of soundings, so that its appearance serves as an infallible direction to land. It feeds on the lump fish, and others of the same size, andis frequent on the coasts of Norway, Greenland, Newfoundland, &c. It lays its eggs close to the sea-mark. THE RAZORBILL! [s not above half the size of the preceding, which it resembles both m form and plumage, except that it has the use of its wings, and lays its egg (for each of these species lays but one) on the bare top of a precipice, and fastens it by a cement, so as to prevent its rolling off. Itis pretty common on the coasts of England during: the summer season. LEE PENG UL N. THE penguins seem to hold the same place in tne southern parts of the world, as the auks do in the north, neither of them having ever been observed within the tropics. The wings of the larger species do not enable them to rise out of the water, but serve them rather as paddles, to help them forward when they attempt to move swiftly, and in a manner walk along the surface of the water. Even the smaller kinds seldom fly by choice; they flutter their wings with the swiftest efforts, without making way; and though they have but a small weight of body to sustain, yet they seldom venture to quit the water, where they are provided witli food and protection. —_—— 1Alca torda, Lin. 86 682 AVES—PENGUIN. As the wings of the penguin tribe are unfitted for flight, the legs are still more awkwardly adapted for walking. ‘This whole tribe have all above the knee hid within the belly; and nothing appears but two short legs, or feet, as some would call them, that seem stuck under the rump, and upon which the animal 1s very awkwardly supported. They seem, when sitting, 02 attempt'ng to walk, like a dog that has been taught to sit up, or to move a minuet. Their short legs drive the body in progression from side to side; and were they not assisted by their wings, they could scarcely move faster than a tortoise. This awkward position of the legs, which so disqualifies them for living upon land, adapts them admirably for a residence in water; in that, the legs, placed behind the moving body, push it forward with greater velocity ; and these birds, like Indian canoes, are the swiftest in the water, by having their paddles in the rear. They are also covered more warmly all over the body with feathers, than any other birds whatever; so that the sea seems entirely their element. THE. PAT AG ONAN PENG iN! Weicus about forty pounds, and is four feet three inches in length. The bill measures four inches and a half, but is slender. The head, throat, and hind part of the neck, are brown; the back of a deep ash color; and all the under parts white. The Magellanic penguin is about the size of a goose; the upper parts of the plumage are black, and the under white. These birds walk erect, with their heads on high, their fin-like wings hanging down like arms; so that to see them ata distance, they look like so many children with white aprons. Hence they are said to unite in themselves the qualities of men, fowls, and fishes. Like men, they are upright; like fowls, they are feathered ; and, like fishes, they have fin-like instruments, that beat the _ water before, and serve for all the purposes of swimming rather than flying. ORDER XVI.—INERTES. Brrps of this order have the bill of different forms; body probably thick, covered with down, and feathers with distant webs; legs placed much behind; tarsus short; three toes before, divided to the base; hind toe short 1 Aptenodytes Patachonica, Latu. The genus Aptenodytes has the bill longer than the head, slender, straight, inflected at the tip; upper mandible furrowed throughout its whole length, the under avider at the base, and covered with a naked and smootb skin; nostrils in the upper part of the bill concealed by the feathers of the forehead, .egs ve short, thick, placed far behind; four toes directed forward, three of which are webbed, and the foirth very short; wings incapable of flight. AVES—DODO. 683 articulated exteriorly , claws thick and sharp; wings improper for flight. There are only two birds known of this order; the apteryx, a bird inhabiting New Zealand, and the dodo PED Ope! Swirrness is generally considered as the peculiar attribute of birds; tut the dodo, instead of exciting that idea by its appearance, seems to strike the imagination as a thing the most unwieldy and inactive of all nature. Its body is massive, almost cubical, and covered with gray feathers ; it is Just barely supported upon two short thick legs like pillars. The neck, thick and pursy, is joined to the head, which consists of two great chaps, that open far behind the eyes, which are large, black, and prominent; so that the animal, when it gapes, seems to be all mouth. The bill, therefore, is cf an extraordinary length, not flat and broad, but thick, and of a bluish white, sharp at the end, and each chap crooked in opposite directions. From all this, results a stupid and voracious physiognomy; which is still more increased by a bordering of feathers round the root of the beak, and which give the appearance of a hood or cowl. The dodo is furnished with wings, covered with soft ash-colored feathers; but they are too short to assist it in flying. It is furnished with a tail, and with a few small curled feathers; 1 Didus ineptus, Lry. The characteristics of the genus Didus are a bill long, stout, broad, compressed; upper mandible bent at the point, transversely furrowed; lower mandible straight, gibbovs, bent upwards at the point; nostrils in the middle of the bill, placed obliquely in a furrow ; tarsus short; three toes before, divided, the hind toe short, claws short, bent; wings incapable of flight. 684 AVES—DODO. but this tail is disproportioned and displaced. Its legs are too short for running, and its body too fat to be strong. This bird was a native of the Isle of France; and the Dutch, who nrst discovered it there, called it in their language the nauseous bird, as well from its disgusting figure, as from the bad taste of its flesh. However, succeed- ing observers contradict this last report, and assert that its flesh is good and wholesome eating. It is a simple bird, and is very easily taken. Three or four dodos are enough to dine a hundred men. This bird, says Loudon’s Magazine of Natural History, was original.y found on the uninhabited islands in the Indian ocean, and in great numbers; but from various accounts it is supposed now to have entirely disappeared. The dodo, or as it is sometimes called, the solitaire, was seen in numbers; by Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese navigator, in 1497, and in 1614, on the islands of Bourbon and Mauritius. He speaks of them as being very tame, and not at all afraid of man. Leguat, who visited the island of Rodriguez, in 1691, gives a long account of the solitaire. Though generally represented as a clumsy and ill-formed bird, he speaks of it as graceful and dignified in its movements, and as possessing great beauty. Though it would allow itself to be approached, yet when caught, it was incapable of being tamed, and would refuse nourish- ment till it died. The nest was made of a heap of palm leaves, raised a foot and a half from the ground, in which one egg was deposited. When the dodo finally disappeared from these islands is not known, but no traces haze hoen fonnd of it since the commencement ef the eighteenth century. CLASS THIRD—REPTILES. Vertebrated animals with cold red blood, respuring by lungs; body naked er covered with scales. In reptiles, the heart is so disposed, that at each contraction, only a pore tion of the blood which it receives is conveyed to the .ungs; and from this it results that the action of oxygen on the blood is much less than in the mam- miferous animals or birds, where all the blood is exposed to the action of the air. As respiration gives the blood its heat, and muscular fibre its suscepti- bility for nervous irritation, the temperature of reptiles is comparatively lower, and their muscular strength weaker than that of quadrupeds, and much less than that of birds. Their motions are chiefly confined to that of crawling and swimming; and though many at times leap and run very quickly, yet their general habits are sluggish, their sensations obtuse, their digestion slow, and in cold or temperate countries they pass almost the whole winter in a state of torpidity. The heart is composed, in frogs,of an auricle and a ventricle; in serpents, of two auricles, and a ventricle of two compartments ; and in the tortoises and lizards, of two auricles and a ventri- cle of communicating cavities. The general resemblance in point of form, which characterizes the two preceding classes, is not applicable to the pre- sent class; for while some, as the serpents, have no members at all, others have two short legs; and the lizards, tortoises, and frogs, have four, adapted, in the two last, to progression in the water and on Jand. Neither is there a common external covering for the class, as fur for the quadrupeds, or feathers for the birds. Their low temperature, not differing much from the medium in which they live, renders such a covering to retain the heat unnecessary. The skin is naked in frogs, scaly in lizards and serpents, and covered with a shelly plate in the tortoises. The brain in reptiles is small, their nerves are very solid, and the relation of their sensations toa common centre seems less necessary to their animal and vital functions than the higher classes. They continue to live and possess voluntary motion for a considerable time after the brain is removed, and even when their head is cut off. The connection of the nervous system with the muscular fibre is also less necessary to its contraction; and their muscles preserve their irritability longer after being separated from the body, than in the previous classes. Even in some species, the heart beats many hours after it has been taken from the body, and the ody itself continues to move for a still longer period, after the removal ot this essential organ. 58 686 REPTILIA. Reptiles possess five senses, but none of them in great perfection. Thus, their sense of touch is obtuse, from the scales, plates, or shells of some species; and even when the skin is naked, it is not adherent to the body, but envelopes it like a bag, as is seen in a frog. Sometimes, as in the serpents, their eyes have no eyelids, are often immoveable, and covered with a corne- ous substance ; in some, three eyelids are to be distinguished; while some again appear to be destitute of sight. They have no cochlea, and but a small bone under the tympanum. Their nostrils are small, and their sense of smell appears weak. Their taste is not delicate, for the greater number swallow the prey whole; and in those which have the tongue soft and flexi- ble, this organ serves chiefly for the seizrre of their food. Many species of reptiles have no ribs, as the frogs; among others, as the serpents, these ribs are free, and without a sternum; in the tortoises, they are all fixed together ; and in the lizard family, the ribs are disposed nearly as in the birds. The lungs are always included in the same cavity. The smallness of the pul- monary vessels permits reptiles to suspend their respiration without stop- ping the circulation of the blood; and thus they can remain for a long time under water with ease. The cells of their lungs are few in number, and generally large, and this organ has sometimes the form of simple sacs, scarcely cellular. They are provided with a trachea and larynx, although all have not the faculty of uttering sounds. No species of reptile is possess- ed of true fleshy lips. Some, as the tortoises, have a horny bill like a parrot; others have teeth of various forms, not serving, however, in general for the maceration of food, but for retaining their prey; while others, as certain serpents, have hollow fangs, which are erected when the animal opens its mouth to bite, and which insert an active poison into the wound made by these teeth. Reptiles have but one opening, for rejected solid and fluid matters, and for the organs of generation. The females have a double ovary and two oviducts, and, though oviparous, none of the species hateh their eggs. Those which couple, deposit eggs covered with a hard envelope; and the eggs of those species which do not, are soft and glaring. The greater part abandon their eggs after having deposited them in a convenient place; though some species carry them about with them. The voung, on quitting the ova, appear sometimes in the form which they preserve through life ; but im other cases they are, at this period of their existence, organized like fishes, are not fully developed till after a certain period, and undergo a complete metamorphosis. Such are the tadpoles of the frog. Many spe- cies of this class are used as articles of food in different countries. The use of others in the economy of nature, is apparent, in limiting the excessive reproduction of insects and worms; while they themselves, on the other hand, form the principal food of some families of birds. The poisonous spe- cies are not very numerous, and their range is daily diminishing, as cultiva: tion and population increase. REPTILIA—TORTOISE. 687 According to the arrangement of reptiles by M. Brogniart, and followed by M. Cuvier, founded upon their organization, and which is adopted in the following summary, they are divided as noticed above, into four orders, viz. Chelonian reptiles, or tortoises; Saurian reptiles, or lizards; Ophidian rep- tiles, or serpents; and Batrachian reptiles, or frogs. ORDER I.—CHELONIA. Reptixes of this order have a heart with two auricles ; body enveloped in two plates or shields formed of the ribs and sternum ; four feet. THE WZORTOLS SE. TorTotsEs are usually divided into those that live upon land, and those that subsist in the water ; and use has made a distinction even in the name, the one being called tortoises, the other turtles. However, Seba has proved that all tortoises are amphibious; that the land tortoise will live in the water, and that the sea turtle can be fed upon land. A land tortoise was brought to him, that was caught in one of the canals of Amsterdam, which he kept for half a year in his house, where it lived very well contented in both elements. ‘When in the water, it remained with its head above the surface; when placed in the sun, it seemed delighted with its beams, and continued im- moveable while it felt their warmth. The difference, therefore, in these animals arises rather from their habits than their conformation ; and, upon examination, there will be less variety found between them than between birds that live upon land and those that swim upon the water. All tortoises, in their external form, niuch resemble each other ; their outward covering being composed of two great shells, the one laid upen the other, and only touching at the edges; however, when we come to look closer, we shall find that the upper shell is composed of no less than thirteen pieces. There are two holes at either edge of this vaulted body; one fora very small head, shoulders, and arms, to peep through; the other at the op- posite edge, for the feet and the tail. These shells the animal is never disengaged from; and they serve for its defence against every creature but man. 688 REPTILIA—TORTOISE. LAND TORTOISES! Are found of all sizes up to five feet in length from the end of the snout to the tip of the tail; and to a foot and a half across the back. It has a small head, somewhat resembling that of a serpent; an eye without the upper lid; the under eyelid serving to cover and keep that organ in safety. Ithasa strong, scaly tail, like the lizard. Its head the animal can put out and hide at pleasure, under the great penthouse of its shell; there it can remain secure from all attacks. As the tortoise lives wholly upon vegetable food, it never seeks the encounter; yet if any of the smaller animals attempt to invade its repose, they are sure to suffer. The tortoise, impregnably de- fended, is furnished with such a strength of jaw, that, though armed only with bony plates instead of teeth, wherever it fastens, it nfallibly keeps its hold until it has taken out the piece. Though peaceable in itself, it is formed for war in another respect, for it seems almost endued with immortality. Nothing can kill it; the depriving it of one of its members is but a slight injury; it will live though deprived of the brain; it will live, though deprived of its head. Tortoises are com- monly known to exceed eighty years ; and there was one kept in the arch- bishop of Canterbury’s garden at Lambeth, London, that was remembered above a hundred and twenty. It was at last killed by the severity of the frost, from which it had not sufficiently defended itself in its winter retreat, which was a heap of sand at the bottom of the garden. Though there is a circulation of blood in the tortoise, yet the animal is capable of continuing to live without continuing to breathe. In this it resembles the bat, the serpent, the mole, and the lizard; like them it takes up its dark residence for the winter, and, at that time, when its food is no longer in plenty, it happily becomes insensible to the want. But it must not be supposed that, while it is thus at rest, it totally discontinues to oreathe; on the contrary, an animal of this kind, if put into a close vessel, without air, will soon be stifled; though not so readily as in a state of vigor and activity. _ The genus Testudo has the upper shell gibbous, supported by a solid, bony frame, and Joined through the greater portion of its sides to the under shell; feet with short toes unit- ed nearly to the nails, and capable, as well as the head, of being withdrawn within the shell; fore feet with five nails, those behind with four, all thick and conical. REPTILIA—TORTOISE...TURTLE. 689 The eggs of all the tortoise kind, like those of birds, are furnished with a yolk and a white; but the shell is different, being somewhat like those soft eggs that hens exclude before their time; however, this shell is much thicker and stronger, and is a longer time in coming to maturity in the womb. The land tortoise lays but a few in number, if compared to the sea turtle, who deposits from a lundred and fifty to two hundred in a season. The amount of the land tortoise’s eggs we have not been able to learn; but, from the scarceness of the animal, we are apt to think they cannot be very numerous. When it prepares to lay, the female scratches a slight de- pression in the earth, generally in a warm situation, where the beams of the sun have their full effect. There depositing her eggs, and covering them with grass and leaves, she forsakes them, to be hatched by the heat of the season. The young tortoises are generally excluded in about twenty-six days; but, as the heat of the weather assists, or its coldness retards, incu- bation, sometimes it happens that there is a difference of two or three days. The little animals no sooner leave the egg, than they seek for their provi- sion, entirely self-taught; and their shell, with which they are covered from the beginning, expands and grows larger’with age. As it is composed of a variety of pieces, they are all capable of extension at their sutures; and the shell admits of increase in every direction. It is common enough to take these animals into gardens, as they are thought to destroy insects and snails in great abundance. We are even told that, in hot countries, they are admitted into a domestic state, as they are great destroyers of bugs. PH ES BA, “2 OR LOLS EB, OR cE UR Tig As it is now called, is generally found larger than the former. THE GREAT MEDITERRANEAN TURTLE? Is the largest of the turtle kind with which we are acquainted. It is found from five to eight feet long, and from six to nine hundred pounds weight ° but, unluckily, its utility bears no proportion to its size, as itis unfit for food and sometimes poisons those who eat it. The shell also, which is a tough strong integument, resembling a hide, is unfit for all serviceable purposes. 1The genus Chelonia has the feet flattened into scaly fins; toes unequal, elongated, scaly, and united by a membrane, with very small nails upon their exterior border, term’. nated by scaly lamine. 2 Chelonia coriacca, Cuv. S7 58* 630 REPTILIA—TURTLE. One of these anirnals was taken in the year 1729, at the mouth of the Loire, in France, in nets that were not designed for so large a capture. This tur- tle, which was of enormous strength, by its own struggles, involved itself in the nets in such a manner as to be incapable of doing mischief: yet, even thus shackled, it appeared terrible to the fishermen, who were at first for flying; but, finding it impotent, they gathered courage to drag it on shore, where it made a most horrible bellowing ; and when they began to knock it on the head with their gaffs, it was to be heard at half a mile’s distance. They were still further intimidated by its nauseous and pestilential breath, which so powerfully affected them that they were near fainting. This animal wanted but four inches of being eight feet long, and was about two feet over; its shell more resembled leather than the shell of a tortoise; and unlike all other animals of this kind, it was furnished with teeth in each jaw, one rank behind another, like those of a shark; its feet also, different from the rest of this kind, wanted claws; and the tail was quite disengaged from the shell, and fifteen inches long, more resembling that of a quadruped than a tortoise. These are a formidable and useless kind, if compared to the turtle caught in the South seas and the Indian ocean. These are of different kinds; not only unlike each other in form, but furnishing man with very different ad vantages. They are usually distinguished by sailors into four kinds; the trunk turtle, the loggerhead, the hawksbill, and the green turtle. THE. HAWKSBILL, OR IMBRICATED TURTLE Is the least of the four, and has a long and small mouth, somewhat resem- bling the billof a hawk. The flesh of this, also, is very indifferent eating ; but the shell serves for the most valuable purposes. This is the animal that supplies the tortoise shell, of which such a variety of beautiful trinkets are made. 1 Chelonia imbricata, Cuv. REPTILIA—CROCODILE. 691 But of all animals of the tortoise kind, the green turtle! is the most noted and the most valuable, from the delicacy of its flesh, and its nutritive quali- sles, together with the property of being easily digested. It is generally found about two hundred pounds in weight; though some are five hundred, and others not above fifty. Dampier mentions one so large that a boy of ten Years of age, the son of Captain Rock, went from the shore in the shell of it, as a boat, to his father’s ship. This animal seldom comes from the sea but to deposit its eggs. Its chief * food consists of the mangrove, the blackwood tree, and other marine plants. When the weather is fair, the turtles are sometimes seen feeding in great numbers, like flocks of sheep, several fathoms deep upon the verdant carpet below. They frequent the creeks and shallows, where they are usually taken, but they are extremely shy of boats and men, and swim remarka- bly fast. ORDER II.—SAURIA. Reptites of this order have the body elongated, covered with scales generally with four feet ; toes with claws, or at least, in part; tail more or less long; mouth armed with teeth. THE CROCODILE E.2 Tuts animal grows toa great length, being sometimes found thirty feet long from the tip cf the snout to the end of the tail; its most usual length, however, is eighteen. One which was dissected by the Jesuits at Siam, was eighteen feet and a half, French measure, in length; of which the tail was no less than five feet and a half, and the head and neck above two feet and a half. It was four feet, nine inches in circumference, where thickest. The fore legs had the same parts and conformation as the arms of a man both within and without. The hands, if they may be so called, had five fingers ; the two last of which had no nails, and were of a conical figure. The hinder legs, including the thigh and paw, were two feet two inches long; the paws, from the joint to the extremity of the longest claws, were about nine inches; they were divided into four toes, of which three were armed with large claws, the longest of which was an inch anda half; these toes were united by a membrane, like those of a°duck, but much thicker. The head was long, and had a little rising at the top; but the rest was flat, and 1 Chelonia mydas, Cuv. 2The genus Crocodilus has the muzzle oblong and depressed; teeth unequal; legs dentated, and feet palmated, the fourth tooth in the lower jaw, on each side, lying along a groove in the upper. 692 REPTILIA—CROCODILE. especially towards the extremity of the jaws. It was covered by a skin, which adhered firmly to the skull and to the jaws. The skull was rough and unequal in several places. The eye was very small in proportion to the rest of the body. The jaws seemed to shut one upon the other; and no- thing can be more false than that the animal’s under jaw is without motion ; it moves, like the lower jaw in all other animals, while the upper is fixéd to the skull, and absolutely immoveable. The animal had twenty-seven cut- ting teeth in the upper jaw, and fifteen in the lower, with several void spaces between them. The distance of the two jaws, when opened as wide as they could be, was fifteen inches and a half; this is a very wide yawn, and could easily enough take in the body of aman. From the shoulders to the ex- tremity of the tail, the animal was covered with large scales, of a square form, disposed like parallel girdles. Tne creature was covered not only with REPTILIA—ALLIGATOR. eggs, of the size of a tennis-ball, and of the same figure, covered with a tough, white skin, like parchment. She takes above an hour to perform this task; and then covering up the place so artfully that it can scarcely be perceived, she goes back, to return again the next day. Upon her return, with the same precaution as before, she lays about the same number of eggs; and the day following also a like number. Thus, having Ceposited her whole quantity, and having covered them close up in the sand, they are soon vivified by the heat of the sun; and at the end of thirty days, the young ones begin to break open the shell. At this time, the female is instinctively taught that her young ones want relief; and she goes upon land, to scratch away the sand, and set them free. Her brood quickly avail themselves of their liberty ; a part run unguided to the water; another part ascend the back of the female, and are carried thither in greater safety. But the moment they arrive at the water, all natural connection is at an end. The whole brood scatters into different parts of the hottom ; by far the greater number are destroyed; and the rest find safety in their agility or minuteness. The open-bellied crocodile is furnished with a false belly, like the opos- sum, where the young creep out and in, as their dangers and necessities require. It is probable that this open-bellied crocodile is viviparous, and fosters her young, that are prematurely excluded, in this second womb, until they come to proper maturity. THE “ALLIGATORA OR AME RIGA IN? CBO.CIO- Dane Wuicu is called the cayman by the Indians, is closely allied to the preceding; the principal difference between them being that its head and partof its neck are much more smooth than those of the latter, and that its snout is more wide and flat, and more rounded at the extremity. The usual length of the alli- gator is seventeen or eighteen feet, but it sometimes exceeds this. This animal is a native of the warmer parts of America, in some of which it is astonishingly numerous. Its voice is loud and dreadful; and its. musky scent is sometimes so powerful as to be exceedingly offensive. The habits of the North American alligator are described with great accuracy, and in a very amusing manner, by Mr Audubon. “One of the most remarkable objects connected with the natural history of America, that attract the traveller’s eye as he ascends through the mouths of the 1 The genus Alligator has the muzzle broad, obtuse ; teeth unequal ; the fourth tooth on ont side of the lower jaw entering a cavity in the upper; feet semi-palmated, and with entations. REP 'LEDIA=A PuIGAr OR, 695 mighty sea-like river Mississippi, is the alligator. There, along the muddy shores, and on the large floating logs, these animals are seen lying stretched at full length, basking and asleep, or crossing to and fro the stream in search of food, with the head only out of the water. It is here neither: wil nor shy; nor is it the very dangerous animal represented by travellers. But, to give you details that probably may not be uninteresting, I shall describe their more private haunts, and relate what I have experienced and scen respecting them in their habits. “Tn Louisiana, all our lagoons, bayous, creeks, ponds, lakes, and rivers, are well stocked with them; they are found wherever there is a sufficient quantity of water to hide them, or to furnish them with food; and they continue thus, in great numbers, as high as the mouth of the Arkansas river, extending east to North Carolina, and as far west as Ihave penetrated. On the Red river, before it was navigated by steam vessels, they were se extremely abundant that, to see hundreds at a sight along the shores, or on the immense rafts of floating or stranded timber, was quite a common occur- rence, the smaller on the backs of the larger, groaning and uttering their bellowing noise, like thousands of irritated bulls about to meet in fight, but all so careless of man that, unless shot at, or positively disturbed, they re- mained motionless, suffering boats or canoes to pass within a few yards of them, without noticing them in the least. The shores are yet trampled by them in such a manner, that their large tracks are seen as plentiful as thosa 696 REPTILIA—ALLIGATOR of sheep in a fold. It was on that river, particularly, thousands of the largest size were killed, when the mania of having shoes, boots, or saddle-seats made of their hides, lasted. It had become an article of trade, and many of the squatters and strolling Indians followed for a time no other business. The discovery that their skins are not sufficiently firm and close-grained to prevent water, or dampness long, puta stop to their general destruction, which had already become very apparent. The leather prepared from these skins was handsome and very pliant, exhibiting all the regular lozenges of the scales, and able to receive the highest degree of polish and finishing. “ The usual motion of the alligator, when on land, is slow and sluggish; itis a kind of labored crawling, performed by moving alternately each leg, in the manner of a quadruped when walking, scarce able to keep up their weighty bodies from dragging on the earth, and leaving the track of their long tail on the mud, as if that of the keel of a small vessel. Thus they emerge from the water, and go about the shores and the woods, or the fields, in search of food, or of a different place of abode, or one of safety to deposit their eggs. If, at such times, when at all distant from the water, an enemy is perceived by them, they droop and lie flat, with the nose on the ground, watching the intruder’s movements with their eyes, which are able to move considerably round, without affecting the position of the head. Should a man then approach them, they do not attempt either to make away or attack, but merely raise their body from the ground for an instant, swelling them- selves, and issuing a dull blowing, not unlike that of a blacksmith’s bellows. Not the least danger need be apprehended ; then you may either kill them with ease, or leave them. But, to give you a better idea of the slowness of their movements and progress of travels on land, when arrived ata large size, say twelve or fifteen feet, believe me when I tell you, that having found one in the morning, fifty yards froma lake, going to another im sight, I have left him unmolested, hunted through the surrounding swamps all the day, and met the same alligator within five hundred yards of the spot, when re- turning to my camp at dusk. On this account they usually travel during the night, they being then less likely to be disturbed, and having a better cnance to surprise a litter of pigs, or of land tortoises, for prey. “The power of the alligator is in his great strength ; and the chief means uf his attack or defence is his large tail, so well contrived by nature to supply his wants, or guard him from danger, that it reaches, when curved into half a circle, his enormous mouth. Woe be to him who goes within the reach of this tremendous thrashing instrument ; for no matter how strong or muscular—if human, he must suffer greatly, if he escapes with life. The monster, as he strikes with this, forces all objects within the circle towards his jaws, which, as the tail makes a motion, are opened _tg their full stretch, thrown a little sideways, to receive the object, and, like batter- img-rams, to bruise it shockingly in a moment. REPTILIA—LIZARD. 697 “The alligator, when after prey in the water, or at its edge, swims so slowly towards it, as not to ruffle the water. It approaches the object side- ways, body and head all concealed, till sure of his stroke; then, with a tre- mendous blow, as quick as thought, the abject is secured, as I described before.” THE Lil ZAR D. Tue color of these animals is very various, as they are found of a hun- dred different hues ; green, blue, red, chesnut, yellow, spotted, streaked, and marbled. Were color alone capable of constituting beauty, the lizard would often please; but there is something so repulsive in the animal’s figure, that the brilliancy of its scales, or the variety of its spots, only tend to give an air of more exquisite venom, of greater malignity. The figure of these animals is not less various; sometimes swollen in the belly, sometimes pursed up at the throat; sometimes with a rough set of spines on the back, like the teeth of a saw; sometimes with teeth, at others with none; some- times venomous, at others harmless, and even philanthropic; sometimes smooth and even; sometimes with a Jong, slender tail; and often witha shorter blunt one. But their greatest distinction arises from their manner of bringing forth their young ; some of them are viviparous; some are oviparous; and some bring forth small spawn, like fishes. THE GREEN LIZARD# Is seen in its greatest brilliancy about the beginning of spring ; when, after having thrown off its old covering, it exposes its new skin, with all its bright enamelled scales, to the genial warmth of the sun’s rays, which, playing on the scales, gild them with undulating reflections. The upper parts of the 1The genus Lacerta has the palate armed with two rows of teeth; a collar on the under side of the neck, formed by a transverse row of iarge scales, separated from those of the belly by very small ones; bone of the cranium projected on the temples and orbits. ® Lacerta viri lis, Daub. 88 5a 698 REPTILIA—IGUANA. body are of a beautiful green, more or less variegated with yellow, gray brown, and even sometimes with red; the under parts being always more of a whitish color. The colors of this species are subject to variety, becom- ing pale at certain seasons of the year, and more particularly after the death of the animal. It is chiefly in the warm countries that it shines with all its superb ornaments, like gold and precious stone. In those regions it grows to a larger size than in more temperate countries, being sometimes found thirty inches in length. The inhabitants of Africa eat the flesh of this annnal. It is a gentle creature, and, if taken when young, may be rendered tame. If irritated, however, and driven to extremity, it will defend itself against a dog, and will fasten so firmly on his muzzle, as to allow itself to be killed, rather than forego its hold. The green lizard is by no means confined to the warmest countries of both continents; it is found likewise in temperate regions, though it is there smaller and less numerous. It is not even unknown in Sweden, and in Kamtschatka ; and in both countries, in spite of its beautiful appearance, it is looked on by the inhabitants with horror, from some strange superstitious prejudices. TEE He GU ACN fs about three feet long, and the body about as thick as one’s thigh. The skin is covered with small scales, like those of a serpent; and the back is furnished with a row of prickles that stand up, like the teeth of a saw. Both the jaws are full of very sharp teeth, and the bite is dangerous, though not venomous. The male has a skin hanging under his throat, which reaches down to his breast; and when displeased, he puffs it up like a bladder; he is one third larger and stronger than the female though the strength of either avails them litle towards their defence. The males are ash colored, and the females are green. The flesh of these may be considered as the greatest delicacy of Africa and South America; and the sportsmen of those climates go out to hunt the iguana, as we do in pursuit of the pheasant or the hare. In the beginning of the season, when the great floods of the tropical climates are passed away, and vegetation starts into universal verdure, the sportsmen are seen, with a noose and a stick, wandering along the sides of the rivers, to take the iguana. This animal, though apparently formed for combat, is the most harmless creature of all the forest. —— - Iguana vulgariz, Lin. The genus Iguana has the body and tail covered with small imbricated scales; a row of spines, or impressed and pointed scales along the back ; throat with a pendent and inflated skin, compressed laterally ; femoral pores ; head plated ; a row or compressed triangular and serrated teeth around the jaws, and two little rows on the posterior margin of the palate. REPTILIA—CHAMELEON. 699 THE CHAMELEON! Lizz the crocodile, this little animal proceeds from an egg; and italso nearly resembles that formidable creature in form. It is found in all the warm countries, both of the old and the new world. The head of a large chameleon is almost two inches long; and thence to the beginning of the tail, four and a half; the tail is five inches long, and the feet two and a half; the thickness of the body is different at different times; for sometimes, from the back to the belly it is two inches, and sometimes but one; for it can blow itself up, and contract itself at pleasure. This swelling and contraction is not only of the back and belly, but of the legs and tail. The chameleon has the power of driving the air it breathes, over every part of the body; however, it only gets between the skin and the muscles; for the muscles themselves are never swollen. The skin is very cold to the touch; and though tne animal seems so lean, there is no feeling the beating of the heart. The surface of the skin is unequal, and has a grain not unlike shagreen, but very soft, because each eminence is as smooth as if it were polished. The color of all these eminences, when the chameleon is at rest in a shady place, is of a bluish gray ; and the space between is of a pale red and yellow. But when the animal is removed into the sun, then comes the wonderful paat of its history. At first, it appears to suffer no change of color, its grayish spots still continuing the same; but the whole surface soon seems to imtibe the rays of light; and the simple coloring of the body changes into a variety of beautiful hues. Wherever the light comes upon the body, it is of a tawny brown ; but that part of the skin on which the sun does not shine, changes 1The genus Chameleon has the body shagreened with small scaly granules, compressed, and the back edged; tail round and prehensile ; five toes on all the feet, but divided ‘nto two sets, the one of three toes, the other of two, each united by a membrane to the nails; tongue fleshy, cylindrical, and extremely extensible; teeth tri-lohed; eyes large, but almost covered by skin, and with separate movements ; no external ear; occiput pyramidal ; lungs very large. 700 REPTILIA—BOA CONSTRICTOR. into several brighter colors, pale yellow, or vivid crimson, which form spots of the size of half one’s finger; some of these descend from the spine half way down the back ; and others appear on the sides, arms, and tail. Some- times the animal becomes all over spotted with brown spots, of a greenish cast. When it is wrapped up in a white linen cloth for two or three minutes, the natural color becomes much lighter, but not quite white, as some authors have pretended; however, it must not hence be concluded that the chameleon assumes the color of the objects which it approaches; this is entirely an error, and probably has taken its rise from the continual changes it appears to undergo. y When the chameleon changes place, and attempts to descend from an eminence, it moves with the utmost precaution, advancing one leg very deliberately before the other, still securing itself by holding whatever it can grasp by the tail. It seldom opens the mouth, except for fresh air; and, when that is supplied, discovers its satisfaction by its raotions, and the fre- quent changes of its color. The tongue is sometimes darted out after its prey, which are flies; and this is as long as the whole body. The eyes are re- markably little, though they stand out of the head; but the most extraordi- nary part of their conformation is, that the animal often moves one eye, when the other is entirely at rest; nay, sometimes one eye will seem to look directly forward, while the other looks backward ; and one will look upwards, while the other regards the earth. ORDER I11.—OPHIDIA. THE ophidia, or serpents, have a heart with two auricles ; body much elon- gated, cylindrical, destitute of feet, generally covered with scales. fHE BOA CONSTRICTOR? THE ground color of the body of the great boa, which is the largest and strongest of the serpent race, is yellowish gray, on which is distributed, along the back, a series of large, chain-like, reddish brown, and sometimes perfectly red variations, with other small and more irregular marks and spots. The great boa is frequently from twenty-five to thirty feet in length, and of a proportionate thickness. The rapacity of these creatures is often their own destruction; for whenever they seize and swallow their prey, they seem like surfeited gluttons, unwieldy, stupid, helpless, and sleepy. They at the same time seek for some retreat, where they may lurk for several EH een eR et a ET Lean Mops NE yet f i 1The pence Boa has the anus with a hook on each side; body compressed, thickest in tne middle; tail prehensile; scales small, at least upon the posterior part of the head. REPTILIA—BOA CONSTRICTOR. 701 days together, and digest their meal in safety. The smallest effort will then destroy them; they scarcely can make any resistance; and, equally un- qualified for flight or opposition, even the naked Indians do not fear to assail them. But it is otherwise, when this sleeping interval of digestion is over; they then issue, with famished appetites, from their retreats, and with accumulated terrors, while every animal of the forest flies from their presence. One of them has been known to kill and devour a buffalo. Having darted upon the affrighted beast, (says the narrator,) the serpent instantly began to wrap him round with its volumimous twistings; and at every twist the bones of the buffalo were heard to crack as loud as the report of a gun. It was in vain that the animal struggled and bellowed; its enormous enemy entwined it so closely, that at length all its bones were crushed to pieces, like those of a malefactor on the wheel, and the whole body was reduced to one uniform mass; the serpent then untwined its folds, in order to swallow its prey at leisure. To prepare for this, and also to make it slip down the throat more smoothly, it was seen to lick «he whole body over, and thus to cover it with a mucilaginous substance. It then began to swallow it, at the end that offered the least resistance; and in the act of swallowing, the throat suffered so great a dilatation, that it took in at once a substance that was thrice its own thickness. This animal inhabits India, Africa, and South America. With respect to their conformation, all serpents have a very wide mouth, in proportion to the size of the head; and, what is very extraordinary, they can gape and swallow the head of another animal which is three times as big as their own. To explain this, it must be observed, that the jaws of this animal do not open as ours, in the manner of a pair of hinges, where bones are applied to bones, and play upon one another; on the contrary, the serpent’s jaws are held together at the roots by a stretching muscular skin; by which means they open as widely as the animal chooses to stretch them, and admit of a prey much thicker than the snake’s own body. The throat, like stretching lea- ie 702 REPTILIA—ANACONDA...RINGED SNAKRE. -her, dilates to admit the morsel; the stomach receives it in part; and the rest remains in the gullet, till putrefaction and the juices of the serpent’s body unite to dissolve it. THE ANACONDA! SUE YIU 2 / A ‘ Ke ey Add SIN : we » . : x ‘ USSs ‘ = S Innapits Surmam. He is twenty feet in length, of a bright brown color, with a double row of deep brown round spots along the back, and ocellated spots on the sides. The name of anaconda has been popularly applied to all serpents of enormous size. THE, BLACK, OR) RIN GED SN AK Ee Is the largest of English serpents, sometimes exceeding four feet in length. The neck is slender, the middle of the body thick, the back and sides covered with small scales; the belly with oblong, narrow, transverse plates; the color of the back and sides is of a dusky brown; the middle of the back marked with two rows of small black spots, running from the head to the tail; the plates on the belly are dusky; the scales on the sides are of a bluish white; the teeth are small and serrated, lying on each side of the 1 Boa scytale, Lux. 2 Coluber natriz, Lin. The genus Coluber has transverse plates on the belly, divided ito two under the tail, or forming a double row; head flattened, with nine large plates; teeth almost equal; no poison fangs. REPTILIA—BLACK SNAKE...RATTLESNAKE. 703 jaw, in two rows. The whole species is perfectly inoffensive, taking shelter m dunghills, and among bushes in moist places; whence they seldom remove, unless in the midst of the day, in summer, when they are invited out by the heat, to bask themselves in the sun. This snake preys upon frogs, insects, worms, mice, and young birds. PEE BISA CK. SNAKE Or the United States, which is larger than the above, and generally grows to six feet long, takes a prey proportionable to its size—squirrels and small birds. It is sometimes found in the neighborhood of the hen-roost, and will devour the eggs, even while the hen is sitting upon them. But its usual haunts are meadows and dry thickets. It may be often seen among whortleberry bushes, waiting to make a prey of the birds that are hopping among them. Its color is a glossy black, sometimes tinged with blue. It seizes its prey with great quickness, and kills it by coiling round the body in the manner of the boa constrictor. PRE VR ATT LE SNA KE! Is found in North and South America, and in no part of the old world. Some are as thick as a man’s arm, and six feet in length; but the most usual size is from four to five feet long. In most particulars it resembles the viper; it differs, however, in having a large scale, which hangs like a penthouse over each eye. They are of an orange tawny, and blackish color on the back; and of an ash color on the belly, inclining to lead. The male may be readily distinguished from the female, by a black velvet spot on the 1 Crotalus horridus, Lin. The genus Crotalus has the head broad, triangular, and flattened ; scales carinated ; tongue forked; a hollow behind the nostrils ; upper maxillary hones with isolated fangs; plates, or transverse bands under the body and tail; extremity of the tail with a rattle, formed of hollow, moveable and sonorous plates. AOs* 704 REPTILIA—RATTLESNAKE. head, and by the head being smaller and longer. But that which, besides their superior malignity, distinguishes them from all other animals, is their rattle an instrument lodged in their tail, by which they make such a loud, rattling noise, when they move, that their approach may readily be per- ceived, and the danger avoided. This rattle, which is placed in the tail, somewhat resembles, when taken from the body, the curb chain of a bridle; it is composed of several thin, hard, hollow bones, linked on each other, and rattling upon the slightest motion. It is supposed by some that the snake acquires an additional bone every year; and that from this its age may be precisely known; however this may be, certain it is, that the young snakes of a year or two old, have no rattles at all; while many old ones have been killed, th::c had from eleven to thirteen joints each They shake and make 3 noise with these rattles, with prodigious quickness when they are dis- turbed; however, the peccary and the vulture are no way terrified at the sound, but hasten at the signal, to seize the snake, as their most favorite prey. It is very different with almost every other animal. The certain death which ensues from this terrible creature’s bite, makes a solitude wherever it is heard. It moves along most majestically; neither seeking to offend the larger animals, nor fearing their insults. If unprovoked, it never meddles with any thing but its natural prey ; but when accidentally trodden upon, or pursued to be destroyed, it then makes a dreadful and desperate defence. It erects itself upon its tail, throws back its head, and inflicts the wound in a moment; then parts, and inflicts a second wound; after which, we are told by some, that it remains torpid and inactive, without even attempting to escape. REPTILIA—HOOD&D SERPENT 705 The very instant the wound is inflicted, though small in itself, it appears more painful than the sting of a bee. This pain, which is so suddenly felt, far from abating, grows every moment more excruciating and dangerous; the limb swells; the venom reaches the head, which is soon of a monstrous size; the eyes are red and fiery; the heart beats quick, with frequent inter- ruptions ; the pain becomes insupportable, and some expire under it in five or six hours; but others, who are of stronger constitutions, survive the agony for a few hours longer, only to sink under a general mortification which ensues and corrupts the whole body. The usual motion of the rattlesnake is with its head to the ground. When, however, it is alarmed, it coils its body into a circle, with its head erect, and its eyes flaming in a terrific manner. But it cannot pursue rapid- ly, and has no power of springing on its enemy. Rattlesnakes are viviparous, producing their young, generally about twelve in number, in the month of June, and by September these acquire the length of twelve inches. It has been well attested that they adopt the same mode of preserving their young from danger as that attributed to the common viper, receiving them into their mouth and swallowing them. It is believed by some naturalists to have the power of fascinating its prey by gazing at it, so as to render it incapable of flight; but others are doubtful as to this being a fact. The probability seems to be, that the victim is prevented from escap- ing merely by the extreme terror which its formidable enemy inspires. PH E CO BR MDa CAPE IehtO.) OR HOODED SERPENT,! {nFLicts the most deadly and incurable wounds. Of this formidable crea- ture there are five or six different kinds; but they are all equally dangerous, and their bite is followed by speedy and certain death. It is from three to eight feet long, with two large fangs hanging out of the upper jaw. It has a broad neck, and a mark of dark brown on the forehead ; which, when view- 1Naia vulgaris, Lix. The genus Naiahas plates jprgpE Oe the body near the head; the head covered with large plates, and hind head furnished with a hood; poisonous fangs in tne upper Jaw. 89 706 REPTILIA—EGYPTIAN VIPER. ed frontwise, looks like a pair of spectacles; but behind, like the head of a cat. The eyes are fierce, and full of fire; the head is small, and the nose flat, though covered with very large scales, of a yellowish ash color; the sxin is white, and the large tumor on the neck is flat, and covered with oblong, smooth scales. 4 EEG OE EAC Vo Espn ives Tuts is said to be the officinal viper of the Egyptians, and is, by some, supposed to be the asp of Cleopatra, by the bite of which that high-spirited princess determined to die rather than submit to be carried to Rome in order to grace the triumph of Augustus. It is imported in considerable quantities every year to Venice, for the use of the apothecaries in the com- position of theriaca, and for other purposes. It is abundant in Egypt; and is found in other parts of Africa as well as in Asia. It is from twenty 1 Naia haje, Li. REPTILIA—VIPER. 707 inches long to three feet and upwards, variegated with rich chestnut brown spots or bands, on a lighter brown ground, the scales remarkably short, close set, and hard; the eyes are vertical; the head compressed, and covered with very minute dark brown scales, and reddish stripes. THE NE een.: THE common viper? is a native of many parts of Europe; but the dry, stony, and in particular the chalky countries, abound with them. In the East Indies, also, it is found, and varies very slightly from that which be- longs to Europe. It can equally support the vicissitudes of very cold climates, it being an inhabitant of Sweden, where its bite is nearly as dangerous as in the warmer regions of Europe ; and likewise of Russia, and of several parts of Siberia, where it is very numerous, as the superstitions of the people deter them from endeavoring to destroy this noxious reptile, because that they conceive some terrible disaster will follow the attempt. This animal seldom grows to a greater length than two feet; though some- times they are found above three. The ground color of their bodies is a dirty yellow; that of the female is deeper. The back is marked the whole length with a series of rhomboid black spots, touching each other at the points; the sides with triangular ones; the belly entirely black. It is chiefly distinguished from the common ringed snake by the color, which in the latter is more beautifully mottled; as well as by the head, which is thicker than the body; but particularly by the tail, which, in the viper, though it ends in a point, does not run tapering to so great a length as in the other. When, therefore, cther distinctions fail, the difference of the tail ean be discerned at a single glance. The viper differs from most other serpents in being much slower, as also, in excluding its young completely formed, and bringing them forth alive. The kindness of Providence seems exerted not only in diminishing the —_—- 1The genus Vipera has scales on the head rough or granulated ; plates under the belly divided into two under the tail; poisonous fangs in the upper jaw. 2 Vipera Berus, Cuv. 708 REPTILIA—HORNED VIPER. speed, but also the fertility, of this dangerous creature. They couple in May, and are supposed to be about three months before they bring forth, and have seldom above eleven eggs at a time. ‘These are of the size of a black- bird’s egg, and chained together in the womb like a string of beads. Each egg contains from one to four young ones; so that the whole of a brood may amount to about twenty or thirty. They continue in the womb till they come to such perfection as to be able to burst from the shell; and they are said to creep from their confinement by their own efforts into the open air, where they continue for several days without taking any food whatsoever. When they are in danger, they retreat into the mouth of the mother. The viper is capable of supporting very long abstinence, it being known that some have been kept in a box six months without food; yet during the whole time they did not abate of their vivacity. They feed only a small part of the year, but never during their confinement; for if mice, their fa- vorite diet, shouldat that time be thrown into their box, though they will kill, yet they will never eat them. When at liberty, they remain torpid through- out the winter; yet, when confined, have never been observed to take their annual repose. Vipers crawl slowly at all times, and in general only attack such smaller animals as are their usual food. They never willingly assail man or the larger animals, except when wounded, trampled on, or irritated, when they become furious, and are apt to bite severely. From the firmer manner in which their spine is articulated, they are unable to twist themselves round so much as most other serpents. Itis only the head that they can turn with any considerable degree of agility; owing to this circumstance, they are easily taken. For this purpose, some persons use a forked stick, to fix the viper by the neck; and then, seizing it by the tail, throw it into a bag. Others, holding down its head with the end of a stick, take it fast in the left hand by the neck; and while the animal makes ineffectual efforts to defend itself, with its mouth wide open, cut out its poisonous fangs with a pair of scissors or a knife ; the viper, after this, is incapable of doing injury, and may be handled with perfect safety. The English viper-catchers have the boldness to seize them suddenly by the neck, or even by the tail, with their hands; and holding them with a firm grasp, the animal is altogether incapable of turning itself sufficiently to bite the hand that holds it fast. TEE O'R: NED VTP BR. Tue cerastes, or homed viper, which commonly grows to the length of about a foot or fifteen inches, but sometimes more than two feet, is distin- guished by a pair of horns or curved processes, situated above the eyes, and —_____, 1 Vipera cerastes, Cuv. REPTILIA—AMPHISBENA. 709 pointing forward ; these horns have nothing analogous in their structure to the horns of quadrupeds, and are by no means to be considered in the light of either offensive or defensive weapons; they are moveable, and about one sixth of an inch long. The head of the cerastes is flattened ; the muzzle thick and short; the eye yellowish green. The hind part of the head is narrower than the part of the body to which it is attached. The scales of the head are of the same size with those on the back, or only a little less; and all the scales are oval with a longitudinal ridge. The general color of the back is yellowish, with irregular spots of different degrees of darkness, in form of transverse bands. The under surface of the body is brighter. The cerastes inhabits the great- est part of the eastern continent, especially the desert sandy part of it. It abounds in the three Arabias, and in Africa. In Egypt, it appears to be par- tially domesticated, as it will enter the houses when the family are at table, pick up the scattered crumbs, and retire without doing injury to any one. This animal can endure hunger and thirst much longer than most serpents ; some naturalists assert that it can exist five years without nourishment. Pie AMP HIS Bas N At TuIs genus grows usually to the length of one or two feet, of which the tail never exceeds an inch, or an inch and a quarter. It is from the extremi- ties of its body being of an equal thickness its being supposed to crawl in both directions, that it derives its name. The eyes are exceedingly small, and covered in such a manner by a membrane, as to be hardly perceptible ; from which circumstance it has been called the blind serpent. The top of the head is covered by six large scales, in three rows of two each; and the body is entirely covered with smooth scales of an almost square form, arrang- ed in regular transverse rings. It hasa bard skin of an earthy color. 1 The genus Amphisbena has the body surrounded with circular rows of quadrangular scales; a row of pores before the anus; teeth not numerous, conical in the jaws only; ovi- parous. 60 710 REPTILIA—FROG. This animal is found in India, particularly the isle of Ceylon; and like- wise in South America. Its habits are in a great measure unknown ; but it feeds on earthworms, beetles, and various insects; it is particularly fond of devouring ants, which in numberless legions often destroy all before them, leaving every thing desolate as if destroyed by fire. Having the power of advancing or withdrawing itself without injury, in consequence of its struc- ture, this serpent is peculiarly fitted for penetrating into the subterraneous retreats of ants, worms, and other insects; and is able to dig deeper than any other serpent, its skin being very hard, and its muscles very strong. The amphisbeena is not venomous. ‘ ORDER IV.—BATRACHIA. Reptites of this order have a heart with one auricle; body covered with a naked skin; lungs two when mature, but with bronchie like fishes in their early stage. i] THEY ER OG ‘ 2 So ie Ir we examine this animal internally, we shall find that it has very little brain for its size; a very wide swallow; a stomach seemingly small, but capable of great distention. The heart in the frog, as in all other animals that are truly amphibious, has but one ventricle; so that the blood can cir- culate without the assistance of the lungs, while it keeps under water. The lungs resemble a number of small bladders joined together, like the cells of a honey-comb; they are connected to the back by muscles, and can be dis- tended or exhausted at the animal’s pleasure. Neither male nor female have any of the external instruments of generation; the anus serving for that purpose in both. Such are the most striking peculiarities in the anatomy of a frog; and in these it agrees with the toad, the lizard, and the serpent. ? The characteristics of the genus Rana, or frog, are a body slender; hind feet very long, musvular, and completely palmated; skin smooth; upper jaw furnished with a row o small teeth and an interrupted transverse one in the middle of the palate; males with a tnin membrane under the ear, which is inflated with air when they cry. REPTILIA—FROG. 70 | The female is impregnated neither by the mouth, as some philosophers imagine, nor by the excrescence at the thumbs, as was the opinion of Lin- nus; but by the inspersion of the male seminal fluid upon the eggs as they proceed from the body. A single female produces from six to eleven hundred eggs at a time; and. in general, she throws them all out together by a single effort; though some- times she is an hour in performing this task. It is generally in March that she deposits the ova, or spawn. When the spawn is emitted and impregnated by the male, it drops to the bottom. The eggs, which during the four first hours suffer no perceptible change, begin then to enlarge and grow lighter; by which means they mount to the surface of the water. The twenty-first day, the egg is seen to open a little on one side, and the beginning of a tail to peep out, which be- comes more and more distinct every day. The thirty-ninth day, the little animal begins to have motion; it moves at intervals its tail; and it is per- ceived that the liquor in which it is circumfused, serves it for nourishment. In two days more, some of these little creatures fall to the bottom; while others remain swimming in the fluid round them, while their vivacity and motion is seen to increase. Those which fall to the bottom remain there the whole day; but having lengthened themselves a little, for hitherto they are doubled up, they mount at intervals to the mucus, which they had quit- ted, and are seen to feed upon it with great vivacity. The next day they acquire their tadpole form. In three days more, they are perceived to have two little fringes, that serve as fins, beneath the head; and these in four days after assume a more perfect form. It is then also that they are seen to feed very greedily upon the pond-weed. When ninety-two days old, two ‘small feet are seen beginning to sprout near the tail; and the head appears to be separate from the body. In five days after this, they refuse all vegeta- ble food; their mouth appears furnished with teeth; and their hinder legs are completely formed. In this state it continues for about six or eight hours; and then the tail dropping off by degrees, the animal appears in its most perfect form. Thus the frog, in less than a day, having changed its figure, is seen to change its appetites also. As soon as the animal acquires its perfect state, from having fed upon vegetables it becomes carnivorous, and lives entirely upon worms and insects. But, as the water cannot supply these, it is oblig- ed to quit its native element, and seek for food upon land, where it lives by hunting worms and taking insects by surprise. The frog lives for the most part out of the water; but when the cold nights begin to set in, it returns to its native element, always choosing stag- nant waters, where it can lie without danger, concealed at the bottom. In this manner it continues torpid, or with but very little motion, all the win- ter; like the rest of the dormant race, it requires no food; and the circula- tio. is slowly carried on, without any assistance from the air. In the 712 REPTILIA—FROG. countries round Hudson’s Bay, it is often found frozen hard, in which state it is as brittle as glass; yet, by wrapping it in warm skins, and exposing it to a slow fire, it will return to life. The difference of sexes, which was mentioned above, 1s not perceivable in these animals, until they have arrived at their fourth year; nor do they begin to propagate, till they have completed that period. By comparing their slow growth with their other habitudes, it would appear, that they live about twelve years; but having so many enemies, both by land and water, it is probable that few of them arrive at the end of their term. Frogs live upon insects of all kinds; but they never eat any, unless they have motion. , They continue fixed and immoveable till their prey appears ; and just when it comes sufficiently near, they jump forward with great agili- ty, dart out their tongues, and seize it with certainty. The tongue in this animal, as in the toad, lizard, and serpent, is extremely long, and formed in such a manner that it swallows the point down its throat; so that a length of tongue is thus drawn out, like a sword from its scabbard, to assail its grey. This tongue is furnished with a glutinous substance; and whatever snsect it touches infallibly adheres, and 1s thus held fast till it is drawn into the mouth. The croaking of frogs is well known, whence in some countries they are distinguished by the ludicrous title of Dutch nightingales. The large water or bull frogs of the northern countries have a note as loud as the bellowing of a bull; and, for this purpose, puff up the cheeks to a surprising magni- tude. Of all frogs, however, the male only croaks; the female is silent; before wet weather, their voices are in full exertion; they are then heard with unceasing assiduity, sending forth their call, and welcoming the ap- proaches of their favorite moisture. No weather-glass was ever so true as a frog, in foretelling an approaching change. This may probably serve to explain an opinion which some entertain, that there is a month in the year, called Paddock Moon, in which the frogs never croak: the whole seems to be no more than that, in the hot season, when the moisture is dried away, and consequently, when these animals neither enjoy the quantity of health nor food that at other times they are supplied with, they show by their silence how much they are displeased with the weather. As frogs adhere closely to the backs of their own species, so it has been round, by repeated experience, they will also adhere to the backs of fishes. Few that have ponds, but know that these animals will stick to the backs of carp, and fix their fingers in the corner of each eye. In this manner thev are often caight together; the carp blinded, and wasted away. REPTILIA—FROG.:..TOAD. 713 THE EDIBLE FROG; Wuicu is considerably larger than the common species, is rare in England, but is abundant in Italy, France, and Germany, where its hind quarters are looked upon as a delicacy. It is of an olive green hue, marked with black ° patches on its back, and on its limbs with black transverse bars. THE TR EER: O-G:.2 Tue tree frog is small, slender, and elegantly made; green in all tne upper parts, whitish in the abdomen, and reddish on the under surtace ot the limbs. In summer it resides principally on the upper branches of trees, where it feeds on insects, which it catches very dexterously. It is remarka- ble for its power of absorbing water. It is found in France, Germany, and Italy, and other European countries, and in various parts of America, but not in Great Britain. PE TOAD? As the toad bears a general resemblance in figure to the frog, so also it resembles that animal in its nature and appetites. When, like the frog, these animals have undergone all the variations of their tadpole state, they forsake tne water, and are often seen in a moist summier’s evening, crawling up, by myriads, from fenny places, into drier situations. There, having 1 Rana esculenta, Lin. 2 Ayla arborea, Lin. The genus Hyla has the body slightly compressed, elongated, smooth; tongue short and thick; the two fore feet furnished with four toes, the hinder with five, all without claws, but terminated by lenticular tubercles; male with a gular pouch, capable of inflation. 3 Bufo vulgaris, Lix. The genus Bufo has the body thick, short, and broad, cavered above with warts or papille, which exude a fetid fluid ; a thick projection behind the ears; no teeth; eyes large and protuberant; fore feet with four toes separate ; hind feet short, with five toes, generally palmated. 90 60* 714 REPTILIA—TOAD. found out a retreat, or having dug themselves one with their mouth and hands, they lead a patient, solitary life, seldom venturing out, except when the moisture of a summer’s evening invites them abroad. At that time the grass is filled with snails, and the pathways covered with worms, which make their principal food. Insects also, of every kind, they are fond of; and we have the authority of Linnzus for it, that they sometimes continue immoveable, with the mouth open, at the bottom of shrubs, where the but- terflies, in some measure fascinated, are seen to fly down their throats. The toad, contrary to vulgar prejudice, is a harmless, defenceless creature, torpid and unvenomous, and seeking the darkest retreats, not from the malig- nity of its nature, but the multitude of its enemies. Like all of the frog kind, the toad is torpid in winter. It chooses then for a retreat either the hollow root of a tree, the cleft of a rock, or sometimes the bottom of a pond, where it is found in a state of seeming insensibility. As it is very long-lived, it is very difficult to be killed; its skin is tough, and cannot be easily pierced; and, though covered with wounds, the animal continues to show signs of life, and every part appears in motion. But what shall we say to its living for centuries lodged in the bosom of a rock, or cased within the body of an oak tree, without the smallest access on any side, either for nourishment or air, and yet taken out alive and perfect! Stories of this kind, it would be as rash to contradict, as itis difficult to be- lieve; we have the highest authorities bearing witness to their truth, and yet, the whole analogy of nature seems to arraign them of falsehood. Bacon asserts, that toads are found in this manner; Dr Plot asserts the same; there is, to this day, a marble chimney-piece at Chatsworth, with the print of the toad upon it, and tradition of the manner in which it was found. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, there is an account of a toad found alive and healthy in the heart of a very thick elm, without the small- est entrance or egress. In the year 1731, there was another found near Nantz, in the heart of an old oak, without the smallest issue to its cell; and the discoverer was of opinion, from the size of the tree, that the animal could not have been confined there less than eighty or a hundred years, without sustenance and without air. Of this animal there are several varieties; such as the water and the land toad, which probably differ only in the ground color of their skin. THE SURINAM TOAD. Tuts animal is m form more hideous than even the commontoad, The body is flat and broad; the head small; the jaws, like those of the mole, 1 Pipa Surinamensis, Suaw. The characteristics of this genus, are a body flattened horizontally ; head large and triangular; tongue wanting ; tympanum concealed under the skin; eyes small, towards the margin of the upper jaw; toes of the fore feet cleft into four small points; larynx of the male very long. triangular. REPTILIA—SALAMANDER. 715 are extended, and evidently formed for rooting in the ground; the skin of the neck forms a sort of wrinkled collar; the color of the head is of a dark chesnut, and the eyes are small; the back, which is very broad, is of a light- ish gray, and seems covered over with a number of small eyes, which are round, and placed at nearly equal distances. These eyes are very different from what they seem; they are the animal’s eggs covered with their shells, and placed there for hatching. They are generated within the female, who drops them on the ground. The male then collects them, and deposits them carefully on the back of the female, where, after impregnation, they are pressed into the cellules, which close upon them. ‘These eggs are buried deep in the skin, and in the beginning of gestation but just appear; and are very visible when the young animal is about to burst from its confinement They are of a reddish, shining yellow color; and the spaces between then. are full of small warts, resembling pearls. In this manner the pipa is seen travelling with her wondrous family on her back, in all the different stages of maturity. Some of the strange progeny, not yet come to sufficient perfection, appear quite torpid, and as yet without life in the egg; others seem just beginning to rise through the skin ; here peeping forth from the shell, and there having entirely forsaken their prison; some are sporting at large upon their parent’s back; and others descending to the ground, to try their own fortune below. THE SALAMANDER .! Tue ancients have described a lizard that is bred from heat, that lives in the flames, and feeds upon fire, as its proper nourishment. It will be need- less to say that there is no such animal existing ; and that, above all others, the modern salamander has the smallest affinity to such an animal. The fact is, that, when the animal is exposed to fire, drops of milky fluid ooze through all the pores of the skin. The same circumstance, however, occurs whenever itis handled. ‘This fluid appears to be of an acrid nature. The salamander? best known in Europe, is from eight to eleven inches long; usually black, spotted with yellow; and, when taken in the hand, feeling cold to a great degree. There are several kinds. The black water newt is reckoned among the number. The idle report of its being incon- sumable by fire, has caused many of these poor animals to be burnt; but we 1 The genus Salamandra has the body elongated ; tail long, cylindrical, or flattened ; head depressed ; ears concealed, and with a small cartilaginous plate upon the opening ; jaws furnished with numerous small teeth, and_ two Tepe stritcialcraies of similar teeth on the alate ; tongue short, thick, and fixed in the lower jaw; no third eyelid; feet four, with our toes before and five behind. 2 Salamandra terrestris, Lin. 716 REPTILIA—SALAMANDER. cannot say as philosophical martyrs; since scarce any philosopher would think it necessary to make the experiment. When thrown into the fire, the animal is seen to burst with the heat of its situation, and to eject its fluids. We are gravely told in the Philosophical Transactions, that this is a method the animal! takes to extinguish the flames. The whole of the lizard kind are so tenacious of life, that they will live several hours after the loss of the head; they also sustain the want of food in a surprising manner. One of them, brought from the Indies, lived nine months without any other food than what it received from licking a piece of earth, on which it was brought over; another was kept by Seba, in an empty phial, for six months, without any nourishment; and Redi talks of a large one, brought from Africa, that lived for eight months, without taking any nourishment whatever. Indeed, as many of this kind, both salaman- ders and lizards, are torpid, or nearly so, during the winter, the loss of their appetite for so long a time is the less surprising. If wetted with vinegar, however, or sprinkled with powdered salt, the animal soon dies in convuls sions. 717 CLASS FOURTH—FISHES. Vertebrated animals with cold, red blood, respiring by gills, or bronchia, and moving in the water by the aid of fins. Tue form cf fishes seems as admirably adapted for motion in the water, as that of birds for flight in the air. Suspended in a liquid of nearly the same specific gravity as their own bodies, they do not require extended members for their support. Their general form is elongated, but thicker in the middle than at their extremities; and the tail, the principal instrument in their progressive motion, is always long, and terminated by a vertical fin, capable of expansion and attraction like a fan. The organs of locomotion assume, in this class, the form of fins, of which those named thoracic or pectoral, from their situation on the body, have been considered as analogous to the fore feet of quadrupeds ; and those placed further backwards, called abdominai or ventral fins, have been conceived to represent the hind feet of the first class of vertebrated animals. The vertical fins on the back are termed dorsal fins, and those on the under surface of the body, anal fins ; the fin by which the tail is terminated, being termed the caudal fin. The membranes of these fins are supported by rays or bands, more or less numerous; and those of the pectoral and ventral fins, according to the supposed analogy between the organs of fishes and quadrupeds, have been supposed to represent the toes of the feet. Other rays placed at the extremity of the spinous processes, support the vertical fins of the back, those under the tail, and at its extremity. These radii, or rays, are of two kinds; those of a solid, bony, and pointed form, sometimes flexible and elastic, are called spinous rays; and those composed of a number of small joints, generally divided into branches at their extremity, are called soft, or articulated rays. In the number of the members, as many varieties are observed among the fishes as among the reptiles; for, though generally speaking, the fishes have four, yet in some families, there are but two, and others want them altogether. The greater part of fishes make their progressive motion in the water, by means of their expanded tail, which, striking the water alternately from right to left, impels them forward; and they change their direction by striking more rapidly, or with greater force on one side than on another. The fins, which are in pairs, appear to be intended, besides aiding in pro- gressions, to maintain their equilibrium in the water, and to regulate the direc- tion of their course. Some families, however, as the rays, swim chiefly by means of these fins; but the particular form of the body must naturally influence their medium of locomotion. The greater part of fishes, besides 718 PIS SES. having their bodies admirably constructed for the liquid in which they move, have in addition a singular apparatus, for rendering them specifi- cally lighter or heavier than water. This consists in a membranous sac, containing air, called the air-vessel, or swimming bladder, which is placed under the spine, and by compressing or dilating which, they are supposed to tise or sink in the water. This vessel forms two compartments in the carp, and often communicates with the intestines in fishes which inhabit lakes or rivers. One of the chief differences in structure, which characterizes the present class of animals, is their respiratory apparatus. Living in a fluid element, their respiration is necessarily adapted to the nature of that fluid, This is accomplished by means of an apparatus named gills, or bronchie placed on the sides of the neck or head. These bronchiz consist of numer ous lamin, suspended on arches attached to the hyoid bone, each composed of a great number of separate lamin, covered with a tissue of innumerable blood-vessels. The water which they swallow passes between these lamine, and escapes by the bronchial openings. In its passage, the blood which is sent from the heart to the gills is acted upon by the air contained in the water. After undergoing this change, it is collected in an arterial trunk under the spine, which, though resembling, in anatomical situation, the aorta of animals with a double heart, performs the functions of a left ven- tricle, and distributes it by numerous ramifications through the body, from which it returns to the heart by the veins. The bronchial openings are covered either by an osseous moveable plate, which is termed the gill cover, or operculum, or, by a simple membrane, with one or more openings. The whole of blood in fishes is sent by the heart to the bronchial vessels, and is then venous, or dark blood; but when it has been exposed to the air in the water, it assumes the arterial, or red color, and passes into other ves- sels, which unite in the great srterial trunk under the spine. Thus the neart has but a single auricle, a single ventricle, and asingle artery; and itis believed that the little portion of heat developed in this mode of respiration, is owing to the small quantity of air to which the blood is at one time exposed, in passing through the bronchiz. The vertebre of fishes are united together by concave surfaces, filled with cartilage. In the greater number, these vertebre have long spinous pro- cesses, which keep the body in a vertical positian. The ribs are often joined to transverse processes. Though the head in fishes varies more in poit of form, than in any other class of animals, it always consists of the same number of bones. The frontal bone is composed of six pieces; the parietal, of three; the occipital, of five; the sphenoidal bone of five, and each temporal bone of two pieces. The cranium forms but a small portion of the head. The brain is enveloped by gelatinous matter, and forms many ganglions or consecutive knots, as in the reptiles; and there are ganglions or nots, besides, at the base ef the olfactory nerve. A superficial nerve also runs along the body, almost immediately under what is called the Jateral PISO S: 719 line from the head to the tail. Sensation appears to be weak in almost all the class, although some, as the eel, possess irritability after being cut into small portions. The nostrils in fishes are simple cavities or hollows at the point of the suout, in the interior of which are disposed lamine in a radiated form. These cavities are often divided into two compartments, and sometimes, as in the lamprey, the two nostrils are unitedinto one. The eye is possessed of a very flat cornea, with but little aqueous humor; but the crystalline lers is almost globular, and very hard. In general, the eyes of fishes are large .n proportion to their size, and they are destitute of eyelids. The pupil, or the opening by which light penetrates into the eye, varies much in form. In the greater part of the species of which the eyes are vertical, anatomists remark a singular disposition of the pupillary orifice, which presents the fringes of the iris arranged in such a manner, as to dilate or contract, in order to weaken or augment the quantity of light which enters the eye. In the Pleuronectes, both eyes are on the same side of the dorsal line. The ear consists of a sac which represents the vestibule, in which are suspended bones of a stony hardness, and of three semicircular, membranous canals, situate rather in the cavity of the cranium, than in the substance of its walls, except among the Chondropterygii. There is neither eustachian tube, nor tympanum, and bones ; and the order Selachii have only an oval plate, on a level with their head. It is probable that the vibrations of the water may communicate a sensation analogous to that of sound. The sense of taste in fishes cannot be delicate, as their tongue is often osseous, and furnished with teeth or other hard covering; they are destitute of salivary glands, and the greater part swallow their food without maceration. Neither is the sense of touch very acute, as in most, the body is covered with scales, and in all, the organs of prehension are wanting. The cirri, or filamentous, fleshy processes of some families, may, perhaps, supply the im- perfections of their organs of touch. In the greater number of fishes, the intermaxillary bone forms the margin of the upper jaw, having behind it the maxillary or labial bone. The palatine arch, composed of the palate bones, the two pterygoid processes, the zygomatic process, the tympanum, and the squamous portion, forms, as in birds and serpents, a kind of interior jaw, and furnishes behind, an articulation for the lower jaw, which has twe bones on each side; but these pieces are reduced to the smallest number in the Chondropterygii. The teeth of fishes present many varieties. Some have none at all, and in others the jaws are so hard that they forma kind of solid beak ; in some, these teeth are pointed, edged, crenated, flat; and in others, they are placed on the lips, the jaws, the palate, the tongue, the gullet, or in all these parts at the same time. The stomach is almost always simple, and the intestinal canal short, as in carnivorous animals; the liver is very large; and there is but one opening for rejected matters, the milt of the male, and the ova of the female. 720 PISCES. The sexes in fishes are, in the greater portion, in separate individuals. The ova are generally impregnated by the male after extrusion, and the young are developed without the care of the parent. The male is known, besides other distinctions, by the presence of the testes, or milt, and the females by the ovary, or roe, which both occupy the same relative place in the body of the animals. Those are said to be viviparous, in which the ova are matured, and the young developed before extrusion. In the develope- ment of the embryo, the heart first appears, afterwards the spine, eyes, and tail. Of the organs of motion, the pectoral fins first appear, followed in suc- cession by the caudal, dorsal, and anal fins. Among the oviparous fishes, hermaphroditism was long considered as a rare and accidental circum- stance. Baster noticed this occurrence in the whiting, Duhamel in the carp; Haller gave his testimony to facts of the same nature; and Pallas believed that the genus Syngnathus had no males. Lastly, Sir Everard Home, in the Philosophical Transactions for 1815, states the same fact re- garding the lampern or pride, and the Gastrobranchus cecus of Bloch. The amazing reproductive powers of fishes are well known. In the ovary of the cod in December, were formed three millions six hundred and eighty- six thousand seven hundred and sixty ova; in the flounder in March, one million three hundred and fifty-seven thousand and four hundred; in the herring in October, thirty-six thousand nine hundred and sixty; and in the tench, three hundred and eighty-three thousand two hundred and fifty-two. And Bloch relates, as the result of an experiment, regarding the productive power of the carp, that, ina pond of seven acres, in which were placed four males and three females, the increase in one year was one hundred and ten thousand young carp, a number too great for the size of the pond and the neces- sary supply of food. But this astonishing capability of increase is modified by a thousand circumstances, which regulate the number produced to the supply of food. Myriads of these ova form the food of different species; and myri- ads more of the young may be supposed to be destroyed in an element where almost all are destined to become the prey of one another. Notwith- standing these deductions, however, the importance of this class as an object of commerce, and as a supply of food, holds out an inexhaustible field for the enterprise of nations whose territories approach the sea. Of the migrations of fishes, and the causes which prompt these annual influxes of certain fishes, on certain coasts, little is with certainty known. Probably they are regulated by the same causes which influence the migrations of birds, to find food and proper places for reproduction ; and the same instinc- tive impulse which induces the salmon, at certain seasons, to ascend rivers, may bring myriads of fishes to the shores for a similar purpose Little is known with regard to the comparative age of fishes. The carp has been known to reach two hundred years, and the pike to two hundred and sixty , and if whales be found of less size now than in former ages, when their PISCES—LAMPREY. 721 . fishery was but little attended to, it may be conjectured, that their age is still more considerable. SUB-CLASS I.—CARTILAGINOUS FISHES. Tue bones of the fishes of this division are essentially cartilaginous, and, in general, are never formed of bony fibres. The most general character common to the cartilaginous fishes, and sufficient to distinguish them from all others, is that of wanting entirely, or having only in a rudimentary form, ~ the maxillary and intermaxillary bones, the place of which is supplied by bones analogous to the palatine ones. ORDER I.—CYCLOSTOMI. Fisues of this order have the jaw fixed in an immoveable ring; bronchie fixed, and the openings numerous. THE. LA MPR E.Y..! Tue lamprey much resembles the eel in its general appearance, butis of a -ighter color, and rather a clumsier make. It differs, however, in the mouth, which is round, and placed rather obliquely below the end of the nose. It more resembles the mouth of a leech than an eel; and the animal has a hole on the top of the head, through which it spouts water, like the cetacea. There are seven holes on each side for respiration; and the fins are formed rather by a lengthening out of the skin, than any set of bones or spines for that purpose. As the mouth is formed resembling that of a leech, so it has a property resembling that animal, of sticking close to, and sucking any body it is applied to. It is extraordinary, the power they have of adhering to stones ; which they do so firmly, as not to be drawn off without some difficulty. We are told of one that weighed but three pounds and yet it stuck so firmly to a stone of twelve pounds, that it remainea suspended at its mouth; from which it was separated with no small diffi- culty. As to the intestines of the lamprey, it seems to have but one great bowel, running from the mouth to the vent, narrow at both ends, and wide in the middle. _! The genus Petromyzon has the maxillary ring armed with strong teeth; lips formed for suction ; tongue with two rows of small teeth; a dorsal fin before, and another behind the anus. 91 61 722 PISCES—SHARK. ORDER II.—PLAGIOSTOMI. Fisues of this order have the bronchie pectinated, the openings numerous, without operculi or membranes; palatine and postmandibulary bones armed with teeth in place of jaws. . THE SARK. Tue white shark! is sometimes seen to rank even among the whales for magnitude, and is found from twenty to thirty feet long. Some assert that they have seen them of four thousand pounds weight; and we are told particularly of one, that had a human corpse in his belly. The head is large, and somewhat flattened; the snout long, and the eyes large. The mouth is enormously wide, as is the throat, and capable of swallowing 3 man with great ease. But its furniture of teeth is still more terrible. Of these there are six rows extremely hard, sharp peinted, and of a wedge-like figure. It is asserted that there are seventy-two in each jaw, which make one hundred and forty-four in the whole; yet others think that their number is uncertain; and that, in proportion as the animal grows older, these terri- ble instruments of destruction are found to increase. With these the jaws both above and below appear planted all over ; but the animal has the power of erecting or depressing them at pleasure. When the shark is at rest, they lie quite flat in his mouth; but when he prepares to seize his prey, he erects all his dreadful apparatus, by the help of a set of muscles, that join them to the jaw; and theanimal he seizes, dies, pierced with a hundred wounds, in a moment. Nor is this fish legs terrible to behold as to the rest of his form; his fins are larger, in proportion ; he is furnished with great goggle eyes, which he turns with ease on every side, so as to see his prey behind him as well as before; and his whole aspect is marked with a character of malignity; his skin also is rough, hard, and prickly; being that substance which covers instrument cases, called shagreen. No fish can swim so fast as the shark; he outstrips the swiftest ships. Such amazing powers, with such great appetites for destruction, would quickly unpeople even the ocean ; but providentially the shark’s upper jaw projects so far above the lower, that he is obliged to turn on one side (not on his back, as is generally supposed,) to seize his prey. As this takes some small time to perform, the animal pursued seizes that onportunity to make his escape. 1 Carcharias vulgaris, Cuv. The genus Carcharias has the snout prominent, conical and depressed ; nostrils under its middle; teeth in many rows, edged, pointed, and often dentated on their margin; no spiracles; first dorsal fin before the ventrals, and the second nearly opposite the anal fin; last openings of the bronchi extending over the pectoral fins. PISCES—SHARK. 723 Still, however, the depredations he commits are frequent and formidable. The shark is the dread of sailors in all hot climates, where, like a greedy roboer, he attends the ships, in expectation of what may drop overboard. A man who unfortunately falls into the sea at such a time is sure to perish. The usual method by which sailors take the shark, is by baiting a great hook with a piece of beef or pork, which is thrown out into the sea, by a strong cord, strengthened near the hook with an iron chain. Without this precaution, the shark would quickly bite the cord in two, and thus set himself free. It is no unpleasant amusement to observe this voracious animal coming up to survey the bait, particularly when not pressed by hunger. He approaches it, examines it, swims round it, seems for a while to neglect it, perhaps apprehensive of the cord and chain; he quits it for a little; but, his appetite pressing, he returns again; appears preparing , to devour it, but quits it once more. When the sailors have sufficiently divert- ed themselves with his different evolutions, they then make a pretence, by drawing the rope, as if intending to take the bait away; it is then that the glutton’s hunger excites him; he darts at the bait, and swallows it, hook and all. Sometimes, however, he does not so entirely gorge the whole, but that he once more gets free; yet even then, though wounded and bleed- mg with the hook, he will again pursue the bait until he is taken. When he finds the hook lodged in his maw, his utmost efforts are then excited, but in vain, to get free; he tries with his teeth to cut the chain; he pulls with all his force to break the line; he almost seems to turn his stomacn inside out, to disgorge the hook; in this manner he continues his formidable though fruitless efforts; till, quite spent, he suffers his head to be drawn above water, and the sailors, confining his tail by a noose, in this manner draw him on ship-board, and despatch him. This is done by beating him on the head till he dies; yet even that is not effected without difficulty and danger ; the enormous creature, terrible even in the agonies of death, still struggles with his destroyers; nor is there an animal in the world that is harder to be killed. Even when cut in pieces, the muscles still preserve their motion, and vibrate for some minutes after being separated from the body. Another method of taking him, is by striking a barbed instrument, ealled a fizgig, into his body, as he brushes along by the side of the ship. As soon as he is taken up, to prevent his flouncing, they cut off the tail with an axe, with the utmost expedition. This is the manner in which Europeans destroy the shark; but some of the negroes along the African coast take a bolder and more dangerous method to combat their terrible enemy. Armed with nothing more than a knife, the negro plunges into the water, where he sees the shark watching for his prey, and boldly swims forward to meet him. Though the great animal does not come to provoke the combat, he does not avoid it, and suffers the man to approach him; but, just as he turns upon his side te seize the aggressor, the negra watches the opportunity, plunges his knife 724 PISCES—TORPEDO. into the fish’s belly, and pursues his blows with such success, that he leaves the ravenous tyrant dead at the bottom; he soon however returns, fixes the fish’s head in a noose, and drags him to shore, where he makes a noble feast for the adjacent villages. Besides the above, there are also the blue shark,! long-tailed shark, tasking shark,2 hammer-headed shark, angel shark, fox shark,® porbeagle shark,§ and others. THE "TOR PE 'D'O.7 Tue body of this fish is almost circular, and thicker than others of the same genus; the skin is soft, smooth, and of a dusky brown above, and white underneath; the eyes very small; the tail tapering to a point; and the weight of the fish from a quarter to fifteen pounds. Redi found one twenty-four pounds weight. The electrical rays are found in many parts of the European seas. The fishermen often discover itin Torbay, and some- times of eighty pounds weight. They are partial to sandy bottoms, in about forty fathoms water, where they often bury themselves by flinging the sand over them, by a quick flapping of all the extremities. They bring forth their young in autumn. To all outward appearance, the torpedo is furnished with no extraordinary qualities; yet such is the unaccountable power it possesses, that, the instant it is touched, it numbs not only the hand and arm, but sometimes also the whole body. The shock receivet, resembles the stroke of an electrical machine; sudden, tingling, and painful. {t is, in truth, electric. “The instant,” says Kempfer, “I touched it with my nand, I felt a terrible numbness in my arm, andas far up as the shoulder. ! Carcharias glaucus, Cuv. 2 Selache maximus, Cuv. $Zygena vulgaris, Cuv. 4 Squatina levis, Cuv. ® Carcharias vulpes, Cuv. 6 Samna cornubiensis, Cuv. 7 The characteristics of the genus Torpedo are a body smooth, depressed, obtuse before and nearly circular; anterior border taane by productions of the snout, which exten along the sides te meet the pectoral fins; five bronchial openings on each side, beneath electrical organs on the sides; teeth small, and pointed; tail short, and fleshy. PISCES—RAY. 725 Evenif one treads upon it with the shoe on, it aflects not only the eg, but the whole thigh upwards. Those who touch it with the foot, are seized with a stronger palpitation than even those who touch it with the hand. This numbness bears no resemblance to that which we feel when a nerve is a long time pressed and the foot is said to be asleep; it rather appears like a sudden vapor, which, passing through the pores, in an instant penetrates to the very springs of life, whence it diffuses itself over the whole body, and gives real pain. The nerves are so affected, that the person struck imagines all the bones of his body, and particularly those of the limb that received the blow, are driven out of joint. All this is accom- panied with a universal tremor, a sickness of the stomach, a general con- vulsion, and a total suspension of the faculties of the mind.” Reaumur, who made several trials upon this animal, has convinced the world that it is not necessarily, but by an effort, that the torpedo numbs the hand of him that touches it. He tried several times, and could easily tell when the fish intended the stroke, and when it was about to continue harm- less. Always before the fish intended the stroke, it flattened the back, raised the head and the tail, and then, by a violent contraction in the oppo- site direction, struck with its back against the pressing finger ; and the body, which before was flat, became humped and round. The electric or benumbing organs are placed one on each side of the gills, reaching from thence to the semicircular cartilages of each great fin, and extending longitudinally from the interior extremity of the animal to the transverse cartilage which divides the thorax from the abdomen, and within these limits they occupy the whole space between the skin of the upper and under surfaces. Each organ is about five inches in length, and at the ante- rior end, about three in breadth; they are composed of perpendicular columns, reaching from the upper to the under surface, varying in length according to the thickness of the parts of the body, from an inch and a half, ohalf an inch. The engraving displays the interior of the lower electric yr galvanic organ. When the fish is dead, the whole power is destroyed, and it may be han- Jed or eaten with perfect security. THE Av? Or this fish there are several species; as, the thornback, starry, sharp- nosed, rough, small-eyed, and undulated rays. 1The genus aia has a rhomboidal dise; five bronchial openings on each side beneath - mouth below; tail slender, with two small dorsal fins near its extremity; teeth small, crowded, and in quincunx order; males with hooked spines on the pectorals. 61* 2 726 PISCES—SKATE...STURGEON. THE SKATE} ls the largest of the genus, as well as the best; the flesh being white, firm, and of a good flavor. It is sometimes of an immense size. It has a broad flat body, brown on the back, and white on the belly. The principal diffe- rence between it and the thornback consists in its having sharp teeth, and a single row of spines on the tail; whilst the latter has blunt teeth, and several rows of spines both on the back and tail. The females produce their off- spring from May till September. Each of the young ones is inclosed in an angular oblong bag, of a maroon color; a substance like thin parchment, or leather, and having two horns at each end. These, which are sometimes cast ashore after storms, are called purses by the fishermen. ORDER III.—STURIONES. Tuese fishes have bronchial openings, much cleft, furnished with an oper- culum, but without rays in the membrane; bronchie free. THE STURGEON, In its general form, resembles a fresh water pike. Formidable as this large and finely tasted fish is in its appearance, it is perfectly harmless; the body, which is from six to eighteen feet in length, is pentagonal, armed from head 1 Raia batis, Lin. * Accipenser sturio, Lx. The genus Accipenser has the body elongated, and furnished, as well as the head, with rows of Pony prominences ; mouth placed under the snout cylin« drical, retractile, and without teeth ; four cirri beneath the snout, PISCES—HUSO. Cae to tail with five rows of large bony tubercles, each of which ends in a strong recurved tip; one of these is on the back, one on each side, and two on the margin of the belly. The snout is long, and obtuse at the end, and has the tendrils near the tip. The mouth, which is beneath the head, is somewhat like the opening of a purse, and is so formed as to he pushed suddenly out or retracted. ‘The upper part of the body is of a dirty olive color; the lower parts silvery; and the tubercles are white in the middle. The tendrils on the snout, which are some inches in length, have so great a resemblance in form, to earth-worms, that, at first sight, they might be mistaken for them. By this contrivance, this clumsy, toothless fish is supposed to keep himself in good condition, the solidity of his flesh evidently showing him to be a fish of prey. He is said to hide his body among the weeds near the sea coast, or at the mouths of large rivers, only exposing his tendrils, which small fishes or sea insects, mistaking for real worms, approach to seize, and are sucked into the jaws of their enemy. He has been supposed by some to root into the soil at the bottom of the sea or rivers; but, if this were the case, the tendrils above-mentioned, which hang from his snout over his mouth, must be very inconvenient to him. As he has no jaws, it is evi- dent that he lives by suction, and, during his residence in the sea, marine insects are generally found in his stomach. A very great trade is carried on with the roe of the sturgeon, preserved in a particular manner, and called caviar ; it is made from the roe of all kinds of sturgeon. This is much more in request in other countries of Europe than in England. To all these high-relished meats, the appetite must be formed by degrees; and though formerly, even in England, it was very much in request at the politest tables, it is at present sunk entirely into disuse. It is still, however, a considerable merchandise among the Turks, Greeks, and Venetians. Caviar somewhat resembles soft soap in consistence ; but it is of a brown, uniform color, and is eaten as cheese with bread. THE HUSO, OR ISINGLASS FISH, Is caught in great quantities in the Danube, from the months of October to January; it is seldom under fifty pounds weight, and often above four hun- dred; its flesh is soft, glutinous, and flabby; but it is sometimes salted, ~which makes it better tasted, and then it turns red like a salmon. It is for the commodity it furnishes that it is chiefly taken. The manner of making it is this: they take the skin, the entrails, the fins, and the tail of this fish, and cut ther into small pieces; these are left to macerate in a sufficient 1 Accipenser huso, Lin. 728 PISCES—SEA HORSE. quantity of warm water, and they are all boiled shortly after with a slow fire, until they are dissolved and reduced to a jelly; this jelly is spread upon in- struments made for the purpose, so that in drying, it assumes the form of parchment, and, when quite dry, it is then rolled into the form which we see itin the shops. This valuable commodity is principally furnished from Russia. SUB-CLASS II.—OSSEOUS FISHES. Tuis division includes the fishes with free bronchi, and of which the bones, though varying in hardness, are always fibrous. The cranium is divided by sutures. ORDER IV.—PLECTOGNATHI. TueEse fishes have the upper jaw formed by the intermaxillary bone, which is immoveably fixed upon the side of the maxillary; palatine arch fixed to the cranium; bronchial cleft simple. ORDER V.--LOPHOBRONCHII. TueEsE fishes have the jaws complete; bronchie in the form of small, round tufts, disposed in pairs along the bronchial arteries. THE SEA HORSE! Is a small fish of a curious shape. The length seldom reaches twelve inches; the head bears some resemblance to that of a horse, whence originates its name. A long back fin runs from the head to the tail, which is spirally covered. The eggs of this fish are hatched in a pouch, formed by an expan- sion of the skin, which in some 1s placed under the belly, and in others at the base of the tail, and which opens to allow the young to get out. This fish is often seen in cabinets and museums in a dried state. 1 Hippocampus vulgaris, Lix. The genus Hippocampus has the snout tubular; trunk of the body compressed laterally, and more elevated than the tail ; joinings of the scales faye into ridges, and the projecting angles spinous; no ventral fins ; bronchial openings on the neck. PISCES—SALMON. | 729 ORDER VI.—MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMI- NALES. TuesE fishes have the skeleton osseous ; jaws complete; bronchi pecti- nated; all the rays of the fins soft, except sometimes the first ray of the dorsal, or pectoral fins ; ventral fins behind the abdomen. THE SALMON} Is distinguished from otner fish by having two dorsal fins, of which the hindermost is fleshy and without rays; they have teeth both in the jaws and the tongue, and the body is covered with round and minutely striated scales. Gray is the color of the back and sides, sometimes spotted with black, and sometimes plain. The belly is silvery. It is entirely a northern fish, being found both at Greenland, Kamtschatka, and the northern parts of North America, but never so far south as the Mediterranean. Salmon are now scarce in all our rivers south of the Merrimac. In the Connecticut they were once so abundant as to be less esteemed than shad, and the fishermen used to require their purchasers to take some salmon with their shad. Within the memory of persons living, they were taken in plenty even as far up as Vermont. The Indians used to catch a great many of them, as they were ascending Bellows Falls. It is supposed that the locks, dams, and canals constructed in the river, have driven this valuable fish away. About the latter end of the year, the salmon begin to press up the rivers, even for hun- dreds of miles, to deposit their spawn, which lies buried m the sand till spring, if not disturbed by the floods, or devoured by other fishes. In this peregrination it is not to be stopped, even by cataracts. About March, the young ones begin to appear, and about the beginning of May, the river is full of the salmon fry, which are then four or five inches long, and gradually proceed to the sea. About the middle of June, the earliest fry begin tb return again from the sea, and are then from twelve to fourteen inches long. The growth of this fish is so extraordinary, that a young salmon being taken at Warrington, and which weighed seven pounds on the seventh of Februa- 2 Salmo salar, Lix. The genus Salmo has the greater part of the upper jaw formed by the maxillary bones; mouth large and furnished with teeth; ventral fins opposite the middle of the first dorsal, and the adipose fin opposite the anal; bronchial membrane with more than eight rays. 730 PISCES—SEA-TROUT...TROUT. ry, being marked with a scissors on the back fin, was again taken on the seventeenth of March following, and was then found to weigh seventeen pounds and a half. TIE SEA-TROUT, Of SATMON-TROW TS Micrates like the salmon up several of our rivers, spawns, and returns to the sea. The shape is thicker than the common trout. The head and back are dusky, with a gloss of blue and green, and the sides, as far as the lateral line, are marked with large irregular spots of black. The flesh, when boiled, is red, and resembles that of a salmon in taste. THE TROUT. Tuts is a fsh of prey, has a short, roundish head, blunt nose, and wide mouth, filled with teeth, not only in the jaws, but on the palate and tongue ; the scales are small, the back ash color, the sides yellow, and, when in sea- son, it is sprinkled all over the body and covers of the gills with small beau- tiful red and black spots; the tail is broad. The colors of the trout, and its spots, vary greatly in different waters, and in different seasons; yet each may be reduced to one species. In Llyndivi, a lakein South Wales, are trouts called cochy-dail, marked with red and black spots as big as sixpences ; others unspotted, and of a reddish hue, that sometimes weigh near ten pounds, but are bad tasted. In Lough Neagh, in Ireland, trouts are called buddaghs, which sometimes weigh thirty pounds. Trouts are common in all the mountainous parts of the United States east of tae Alleghany ridge. ~_ 1 Salmo trutta, Lin. 2 Salmo fario, Lrx. PISCES—SMELT...GRAYLING. 731 THE SMELT! Innasits the northern seas, and is never found so far south as the Mediter- ranean. Its name is supposed to be a contraction of ‘smell it,” from its very agreeable smell. The Germans, however, call it the stink-fish. Its form is very elegant; it is of a silvery color, tinged with yellow; and the skin is almost transparent. The largest we have heard of was thirteen inches long, and weighed half a pound. THE GRAYLING? Is in general of a fine silvery gray, but when just taken it is varied slightly with blue and gold. The scales are large; the first dorsal fin consists of twenty-one rays; this fin is spotted; all the rest are plain; the tail is much forked. It haunts clear and rapid streams, particularly those of mountain- ous countries. In Lapland, where it is very common, the inhabitants use its entrails, instead of rennet, to make their cheese from the milk of the rein-deer. The stomach is so hard and thick, that to the touch it appears like cartilage. The largest that has been heard of was taken near Ludlow; it was half a yard long, and weighed four pounds six ounces. The ancients believed that the oil from them would obliterate freckles and small pox marks. —— 1 Osmerus eperlanus, Cuv. The characteristics of this genus are the mouth at the ex- tremity of the snout; head compressed; scales scarcely visible; two dorsal fins; two rows of scattered teeth on each palatine bone ; bronchial membrane with eight rays. 2 Coregonus thymallus, Cuv. This genus has the mouth at the extremity of the snout. very little cleft ; head compressed ;, Scales large ; two dorsal fins, of which the second 1s adipose, and without rays; bronchial membrane with seven or eight rays; teeth small. 732 PISCES—HERRING. THE: HERRING. THE common herring is distinguished from the other fish of the same tribe, by the projection of the lower jaw, which is curved, and by having seventeen rays in the ventral fin. The head and mouth are small, the tongue short, pointed, and armed with teeth, the covers of the gills general- ly have a violet or red spot, that disappears soon after the death of the fish, wnicl survives a very short time, when taken out of its natural element. Of all the migrating fish, the herring and the pilchard take the most ad- venturuus voyages. Herrings are found in the greatest abundance in the highest northern latitudes. In those inaccessible seas, that are covered with ice for a great part of the year, the herring and pilchard find a quiet and sure retreat from all their numerous enemies; thither neither man, nor their still more destructive enemy, the fin-fish, or the cachalot, dares to pursue them. The quantity of insect food which those seas supply is very great; whence, in that remote situation, defended by the icy rigor of the climate, they live at ease, and multiply beyond expression. From this most desira- ble retreat, Anderson supposes they would never depart, but that their num- bers render it necessary for them to migrate; and, as bees from a hive, they are compelled to seek for other retreats. For this reason, the great colony is seen to set out from the icy sea about the middle of winter ; composed of such numbers, that if all the men in the world were to be loaded with herrings, they would not carry the thousandth part away. But they no sooner leave their retreats, but millions of enemies appear to thin their squadrons. The fin-fish and the cachalot swallow bar- rels at a yawn; the porpus, the grampus, the shark, and the whole nume- rous tribe of dog-fish, find them an easy prey, and desist from making war upon each other; but still more, the unnumbered flocks of sea-fowl that chiefly inhabit near the pole, watch the outset of their dangerous migration. and spread extensive ruin. In this exigence, the defenceless emigrants find no other safety, but by crowding closer together, and leaving to the outmost bands the danger of being the first devoured; thus, like sheep when frightened, that always run together in a body, and each finding some protection in being but one of - ——_ 1 Clupea harengus, Lix. The genus Clupea has the intermaxillary bones narrow, arched before, and divided longitudinally into many pieces; mouth not entirely furnishe with teeth, and often edentate ; belly compressed, carinated, the scales forming a serraturo on the ridge ; one dorsal fin, above the ventral ones. PISCES—HERRING. 733 many that are equally liable to invasion, they are seen to separate into shoals, one body of which moves to the west, and pours down along the coast of America, as far south as Carolina, and but seldom farther. In Chesapeake Bay, the annual inundation of these fish is so great, that they cover the shores in such quantities as to become a nuisance. Those that hold more to the east, and come down towards Europe, endeavor to save them- selves from their merciless pursuers, by approaching the first shore they can find; and that which first offers in their descent is the coast of Iceland, in the beginning of March. Upon their arrival on that coast, their phalanx, which has already suffered considerable diminutions, is, nevertheless, of amazing extent, depth, and closeness, covering an extent of shore as large as the island itself. The whole water seems alive; and is seen so black with them at a great distance, that the number seems inexhaustible. That body which comes upon the English coast, begins to appear off the Shetland Isles, in April. These are the forerunners of the grand shoal which descends in June; while its arrival is easily announced, by the num- ber of its greedy attendants, the gannet, the gull, the shark, and the porpus. When the main body is arrived, its breadth and depth is such, as to alter the very appearance of the ocean. It is divided into distinct columns, of five or six miles in length, and three or four broad; while the water before them curls up, as if forced out of its bed. Sometimes they sink for the space of ten or fifteen minutes, then rise again to the surface; and, in bright weather, reflect a variety of splendid colors, like a field bespangled with purple, gold, and azure. The fishermen are ready prepared to give them a proper recep- tion; and, by nets made for the occasion, they take sometimes above two thousand barrels at a single draught. Such has long been the received opinion with respect to the migration of herrings, and it is so poetical that it is almost a pity to disturb it. But science must listen only to the voice of truth. The author of the British Naturalist has given a rude shock to the migratory theory. ‘Simply, then, the story cannot be true, (says he,) because it is impossible. The herrings do not come in myriads from the polar sea, beginning their progress in January, because there are no means of producing them there. Spawn has not been found to animate in any place except floating near the surface, or in shallow water, where both the sun and the air act upoa it; and while the polar seas and shores are open to such action, the herrings are not there, they are on our shores, the full grown and the young. But setting aside the impossibility, the supposed emigration would be without an object; they would not come for food, as they are said to leave the north just when food would be found there ; and if they are annually produced in the north, they could not come to our shores for the purpose of spawning, even though they are all obviously in preparation for sucha purpose. Beside, there is ne animal that migrates southward in the spring; and therefore the theory would require one law for the rest of creation, and another for the herring; 62 734 PISCES—SHAD. that the latter should be chilled by the genial warmth of the spring, and warmed by the polar frost. Now, so far is the production of fish from being independent of the influence of heat, that, just as one would be led to infer from the slow progress of the solar beams through the element in which they live, they require the whole, or the greater part of our summer, to ma- ture the germs of their countless broods. Nay, it appears that many, if not most of the species, cannot mature their spawn in the depths of the ocean, to which they retire to recruit their strength, but that they come to the shores and shallows, where the heat of the sun can penetrate to the bottom, and be reflected by it, for the purpose of maturing, as well as depositing, their spawn. “The herrings come to the shores and estuaries to mature and propagate their spawn, which they do over a greater range of the year than most other fish; continuing the operation to the middle of winter, and retiring into deeper water after that is done. But there is no reason to conclude, that they have much migration in latitude; or, that they ever move far from those shores which they frequent in the season. The fry too are found on the shores and in the bays and estuaries frequented by their parents; and they do not go to the deep water till late in the season. They even appear to go farther up the rivers than the old fish, for they may be taken in brack- ish water, with a common trout fly.” THE SHA D1 {s taken in many rivers; those of the Severn are most esteemedin England, and are distinguished by the London fishmongers by the French name of alosse. The Thames shad is a very insipid, coarse fish. The Thames shad, when it visits the Severn, is called the ¢waite, and is held in great disrepute. The difference between the two kinds is as follows:—The true shad weighs from four to eight pounds; the ¢waite from half a pound to two. The twaite may also be known from a small shad, by having one or more tlack spots on the sides; when it has only one, it is always near the gill. The shad of America is a very superior fish, and is abundant in all the northern rivers. Those of the Connecticut are particularly esteemed, and, when salted and barrelled, command a high price. These fish are chiefly taken during the months of April and May. ‘They ascend the rivers for many miles, and formerly large numbers of them were caught in the Con- necticut, at the distance of two hundred miles from its mouth. 1 Clupea alosa, Lim. PISCES—ANCHOVY...PIKE. 735 THE ANCHOVY! fs about six inches anda half in length. The body is slender, but thicker in propertion than the herring. The scales are large, and easily fall off. The back is green, and semipellucid; the sides and belly si'very; and the tail forked. At different seasons it frequents the Atlantic ocean and the Mediterranean sea, passing through the Straits of Gibraltar towards the Levant in the months of May, June, and July. The greatest fishery is at Gorgona, asmall isle west of Leghorn, where they are taken at night in nets, into which they are allured by lights fixed to the stern of the vessels. Whén cured, their heads are cut off, their gall and entrails taken out, then salted and packed in barrels. It scarce needs to be mentioned that, being put on the fire. they dissolve in almost any liquor. They are well tasted when fresh. But it has been found by experience, that anchovies taken thus by torch light are neither so good, so firm, nor so proper for keeping, as those which are taken otherwise. From December to March, vast numbers are caught on the shores of Provence and Catalonia, and during June and July in the English channel, and in the environs of Bayonne, Venice, Rome, and Genoa. From the anchovy the ancients prepared one of the liquids called garum, which was in high repute among epicures. THE PIK-E? Is common in most of the lakes of Europe, but the largest are those taken in Lapland, which, according to Scheffer, are sometimes eight feet long. They are taken there in great abundance, dried and exported for sale. The largest fish of this kind which we have ever heard of in England, weighed thirty-five pounds. ——— 1 Engraulis encrasicolus, Cuv. The genus Engraulis has the ethmoid and nasal bones forming a projecting point, below which the ge small intermaxillaries are fixed; maxul lary bones straight and very long; Jaws much cleft, and both furnished ‘with teeth ; bron. chial openings large. 2 Esox lucius, Lux. The genus Esox has the snout long, obtuse, broad, and depressed ; long-pointed teeth on the sides of the lower jaw; the intermaxillaries, vomer, palate and tongue furnished with small and crowded teeth; one dorsal fin opposite the anal one, 736 PISCES—PIKE. According to the common saying, these fish were introduced mto England in the reign of Henry the Eighth, in 1537. They were so rare, that a pike was sold for double the price of a house-lamb, in February, and a pickerel for more than a fat capon. . All writers who treat of this species bring instances of its vast voracious- ness. We have known one that was choked by attempting to swallow one of its own species that proved too large a morsel. Yet its jaws are very loosely connected; and have on each side an additional bone like the jaw of a viper, which renders them capable of great distention when it swallows its prey. Itdoes not confine itself to feed on fish and frogs; it will devour the water-rat, and draw down the young ducks as they are swimming about. At the marquis of Stafford’s canal at Trentham, England, a pike seized the head of a swan, as she was feeding under water, and gorged so much of it as killed them both. The servants perceiving the swan with its head under water for a longer time than usual, took the boat, and found both swan and pike dead. But there ate instances of its fierceness still more surprising, and which, irdeed, border a little on the marvellous. Gesner relates, that a famished dpm: = 8 5 SS ES ~ 2 , cs pike in the Rhone seized on the lips of a mule, that was brought to water and that the beast drew the fish out before it could disengage itself; that people have been bit by these voracious creatures while they were washing their legs ; and that they will even contend with the otter for its prey, and endeavour to force it out of its mouth. Pike spawn in March or April, according to the coldness or warmth of the weather. When they are in high season, their colors are very fine, being green, spotted with bright yellow ; and the gills are of a most vivid and full red. When out of season, the green changes to gray, and the yellow spots turn pale. The head is very flat; the upper jaw broad, and is shorter than the lower; the under jaw turns up a little at the end, and is marked with minute punc- tures. The teeth are very sharp, disposed aot only in the front of the up- per jaw, but in both sides of the lower, in the roof of the mouth, and often the tongue. The slit of the mouth, or the gape, is wide; the eyes small. The dorsal fin is placed very low on the back, and consists of twenty-one tays; the pectoral, of fifteen; the ventral, of eleven; the anal of eighteen. The tail is bifurcated. PISCES—FLYING-FISH. Tor THE FLYING-FISH!? Tue body of this fish is oblong; the head is almost three cornered ; the fin covering the gills with ten rays; the pectoral fin placed high, andas long as the whole body; the back fin at the extremity of the back. ‘The tail is bifureated. As itis asmall animal, seldom growing above the size of a herring, it is chiefly sought by the dorado. Nature has furnished each respec- tively with the powers of pursuit and evasion. The dorado being above six feet long, yet not thicker than a salmon, and furnished with a full comple- ment of fins, cuts its way through the water, with amazing rapidity ; on the other hand, the flying-fish is furnished with two pair of fins, longer than the body, and these also moved by a stronger set of muscles than any other. This equality of power seems to furnish one of the most entertaining spec- tacles those seas can exhibit. The efforts to seize on the one side, and the arts of escaping on the other, are perfectly amusing. The dorado is seen, upon this occasion, darting after its prey, which will not leave the water, while it has the advantage of swimming, in the beginning of the chase. But, like a hunted hare, being tired at last, it then has recourse to another expedient for safety, by flight. The long fins, which began to grow useless in the water, are now exerted in a different manner and different direction to that in which they were employed in swimming; by this means the timid little animal rises from the water, and flutters over its surface, for two or three hundred yards, till the muscles employed in moving the wings, are enfeebled by that particular manner of exertion. By this time, however, they have acquired a fresh power of renewing their efforts in the water, and the animal is capable of proceeding with some velocity by swimming; still, however the active enemy keeps it in view, and drives it again from the deep; till at length, the poor little creature is seen to dart to shorter dis- tances, to flutter with greater effort, and to drop down at last into the mouth of its fierce pursuer. But not the dorado alone—all animated nature seems combined against this little fish, which seems ‘possessed of double powers, only to be subject to greater dangers; for, though it should escape from its 1 Exocetusevolans,Birocx. The genus Eocetus has the head covered with scales; ten rays in the bronchial membrane; eyes large ; jaws furnished with small pointed teeth and the pharyngeal bones with flat ones ; pectoral fins as tong as the body. 93 62* 738 PISCES—CARP enemies of the deep, yet the tropic bird and the albatross are forever upon he wing to seize it. Thus pursued in either element, it sometimes seeks 1efuge with a new enemy ; and it is not unfrequent for whole shoals of them to fall on shipboard, where they furnish man with an object of useless curiosity. THE. CARP PouisH Prussia is the chief seat of the carp; they abound in the rivers and lakes of that country, particularly in the Frisch and Curischhaff, where tney are taken of a vast size. They are there a great article of commerce, and sent in well boats to Sweden and Russia. The merchants purchase them out of the waters of the noblesse of the country, who draw a good revenue from this article. Neither are there wanting, among the English gentry, instances of some who make good profits of their ponds. The carp is a prodigious breeder; its quantity of roe has been found se great that, when taken out and weighed against the fish itself, the former has been found to preponderate. From the spawn of this fish caviar is made for the Jews, who hold the sturgeon in abhorrence. These fish are extremely cunning, and on that account are by some styled the river for. They will sometimes leap over the nets, and escape that way; at others, will immerse themselves so deep in the mud, as to let the net pass over them. They are also very shy of taking a bait; yet at the spawning time they are so simple as to suffer themselves to be tickled and caught by any body that will attempt it. It is so tenacious of life that it may be kept alive for a fortnight in wet straw or moss. This fish is apt to mix its milt with the roe of other fish, from which is produced a spurious breed; we have seen the offspring of the carp and tench, which bore the greatest resemblance to the first; we have also heard of the same mixture between the carp and bream. 1 Cyprinus carpio, Lin. The genus Cyprinus has three flat rays in the bronchiz. mem- brane; tongue and palate smooth; dorsal fin long; second ray of the dorsal and anal fin spinous and dentated. PISCES—-CARP...ROACH. 739 THE GOLDEN CARP. Tuis is the common gold fish, which are now domesticated in ar nouses and fish ponds. They were originally brought from Southern Cnina, and were not generally known in England or America, before the early part of the last century. In China, the most beautiful kinds are taken in a small lake in the province of Che-Kyang. Every person of fashion keeps them for amusement, either in porcelain vessels, or in the small basons that decorate the courts of the Chinese houses. The beauty of their colors, and their lively motions, give great entertainment, especially to the ladies, whose pleasures, by reason of the cruel policy of that country, are extremely limited. In the form of the body, they bear a great resemblance toa carp. They have been known in Europe to arrive at the length of eight inches; in their native place, they are said to grow to the size of our largest herring. The nostrils are tubular, and form a sort of appendages above the nose; the dorsal fin and the tail vary greatly in shape; the tail is naturally bifid, but in many it is trifid, and in some even quadrifid; the anal fins are the strongest characters of this species, being placed not behind one another, like those of other fish, but opposite each other, like the ventral fins. THE ROACH, ‘Sounp as a roach,’ is a proverb that appears to be but indifferently found- ed, that fish being not more distinguished for its vivacity than many others; yet it is used by the French as well as the English, who compare people of = Cyprinus auratus, Lin. * Leuciscus rutilus, Cuv. The genus Leuciscus has the dorsal and ana, fins shert, ané destitute of spines and cirrhi, 740 PISCES—COD. strong health to the rowget, or roach. It is so silly a fish, that it is called the water sheep. It is a common fish, found in many of our deep still rivers, affecting, like the others of this genus, quiet waters. It is gregarious, keeping in large shoals. We have never seen them very large. Old Walton speaks of some that weighed two pounds. Ina list of fish sold in the London markets, with the greatest weight of each, there is mention of one whose weight was five pounds. ORDER VII.—MALACOPTERYGII SUBRACHIATIL TuEsE fishes have the jaws complete; bronchie pectinated; ventral fins placed either before the pectorals, between them, or a little behind. THE COD.) Tue cod seems to be the foremost of the wandering tribe of fishes, and in only found in the northern part of the world. ‘Their principal food consists of the smaller species of fish, worms, shell-fish, and crabs; and their stomachs are capable of dissolving the major part of the shells which they swallow. They grow to a great size. The largest that ever was seen, was taken at Scarborough, England, in 1775. It weighed seventy-eight pounds, and was five feet eight inches long. This animal’s chief place of resort is on the banks of Newfoundland, and the other sand banks that lie off Cape Breton. That extensive flat seems to be no other than the broad top of a sea mountain, extending for above five hundred miles long, and surrounded with a deeper sea. Hither the cod annually repair, in numbers beyond the power of calculation, to feed on the quantity of worms that are to be found there in the sandy bottom. Here they are taken in such quanti- ties, that they supply Europe and America with a considerable share of pro- vision. The English have stages erected all along the shore, for salting and drying them; and the fishermen, who take them with the hook and line, which is their method, draw them in as fast as they can throw out. An expert hand will -sometimes capture four hundred in a day. This 1 Morrhua vulgaris, Lin. The genus Morrhua has the head compressed ; e es distant, on the sides of the head ; body elongated, slightly compressed ; three dorsal fins; two anal; ventral fins pointed; a cirrus at the point of the lower jaw. PISCES—HADDOCK...HALIBUT...TURBOT. 7Al immense capture, however, makes but a very small diminution, when com- pared to their numbers; and when their provision there is exhausted, or the season for propagation returns, they go off to the polar seas, where they deposit their spawn. Previous to the discovery of Newfoundland, the principal fisheries for cod were in the Iceland seas, and off the western isles of Scotland. THE HADDOCK} Is a well-known fish of this genus, which much resembles the cod, but is smaller ; it is also distinguished by a black mark on each side beyond the gills, which superstition ascribes to the impression which St Peter left with his finger and thumb, when he took the tribute money out of the fish’s mouth, which tradition would have us believe to have been of this species. THE HALIBUT? Weicus from one hundred to three hundred pounds. The halibut is the most voracious of fishes, and has been known to swallow even the lead which seamen make use of for the purpose of sounding the depth. Its back isa dusky color ; its belly pure white. The flesh is very coarse and indifferent food. Itis the narrowest fish in proportion to its length of any of this genus, except the sole. THE Dw RB OTs Like some others of the flat fish, grows to a great size. It has occasionally been known to weigh from twenty-five to thirty pounds. In its general form it is somewhat square. Flat fish swim sideways, on which account they are styled pleuronectes by Linneus. The eyes of all of them are situs ated on one side of the head, those of the turbot on the left; and it is a curi- ous circumstance, that, while the under parts of their body are of a brilliant white, the upper parts are so colored and speckled, as, when they are half 1 Morrhua eglefinus, Lin. 2 Hippoglossus vulgaris, Buocu. This genus has the hody oblong, compressed; the jaws and pharynx armed with slender pointed teeth; an interval between the dorsal and anal fins and tail. 3Rhombus maximus, Cuv. This genus has the jaws and pharynx with numerous slender pointed teeth ; dorsal fin rising from the margin of the upper jaw, and rnnning, as well as th: anal, almost to the tail; eyes in the greater number sunistral, 742 PISCES—TURBOT. immersed in the sand or mud, to render themimperceptible. Of this resem- blance they are so conscious, that, whenever they find themselves in danger, they sink into the mud, and continue perfectly motionless. This is a cir- cumstance so well known to fishermen, that within their palings on the strand, they are often under the necessity of tracing furrows with a kind of iron sickle, to detect by the touch what they are not otherwise able to dis- tinguish. But the turbot does not thus hide itself for security alone. It re- sorts to this stratagem as an ambush for obtaining its prey, whence it pounces forth on the smaller kinds of fish that incautiously approach it. The finest turbot in the world are found off the northern shore of Eng- land, and some parts of the Dutch coast. The manner of fishing for them off the Yorkshire coast is asfollows: three men go out in each of the boats, each man provided with three lines; every one of which is furnished with two hundred and eighty hooks, placed exactly six feet two inches asunder. These are coiled on an oblong piece of wicker-work, with the hooks baited, and placed very regularly in the centre of the coil. When they are used, the nine are generally fastened together so as to form one line with above two thousand hooks, and extending near three miles in length. This is always laid across thecurrent. An anchor and buoy are fixed at the end of each man’s line. The boats for this purpose are each about a ton burthen, somewhat more than twenty feet in length, and about five feet in width. The general bait used for taking turbots is fresh herring cut into proper sized pieces, at which they bite most readily; they are also partial to the smaller lampreys, pieces of haddocks, sand-worms, muscles, and limpets; and when none of these are to be had, the fishermen use bullock’s liver. They are so extremely delicate in the choice of their baits, as not to touch a viece of herring or haddock that has been twelve hours out of the sea; nor will they touch any bait that has been bitten by another fish. PISCES—SOLE...LUMP FISH. F43 THE SOLE! Tus well-known and delicious fish is remarkable for one extraordinary circumstance ; they have been known to feed on shell-fish, although they are furnished with no apparatus whatever in their mouth for reducing them to a state calculated for digestion. The stomach, however, has a dissolvent power, which makes up for the want of masticating apparatus. But the most usual food for soles is the spawn and young of other fish. THE LUMP FISH, LUMPSUCKER, OR SEA OWLS ls sixteen inches in length, and its weight about four pounds; the shape of the body is like that of the bream, deep, and it swims edgewise, the back is sharp and elevated, and the belly flat; the lips, mouth, and tongue of this animal are of a deep red; the whole skin is rough, with bony knobs, the largest row is along the ridge of the back; the belly is of a bright crimson color ; but what makes the chief singularity in this fish, is an oval aperture in the belly, surrounded with a fleshy, soft substance, that seems bearded all round; by means of this part it adheres with vast force to any thing it pleases. If flung into a pail of water, it will stick so close to the bottom, that on taking the fish by the tail, one may lift up pail and all, though it hold several gallons of water. Great numbers of these fish are found along 1 Solea vulgaris, Cuv. This genus has the mouth twisted to the side opposite to the eyes ; jaws destitute of teeth on the eye side; body oblong; dorsal fin commencing at the mouth, and running, as well as the anal fin, to the tail; lateral line straight. * Cyclopterus lumpus, Lin. This genus has the mouth large, with very small pointed teeth in both jaws; pectoral fin, and large ventral fins united in the form of an oval and concave disc bromzhial membrane with six rays; skin viscid and without scales. 744 PISCES— the coast of Greenland, in the beginning of summer, where they resort to spawn. Their roe is remarkably large, and the Greenlanders boil it to a pulp for eating. They are extremely fat, but not admired in England, being doth flabby and insipid. ORDER VIII.—MALACOPTERYGII APODES. Tuese fishes have the body elongated, with thick skin, and destitute of ventral fins. THE EEL. THE common eel is a very singular fish in several things that relate to its natural history, and in some respects borders on the nature of the reptile tribe. ; It is known to quit its element, and, during night, to wander along the meadows, not only for change of habitation, but also for the sake of prey, feeding on the snails it finds in its passage. During winter, it beds itself deep in the mud, and continues m a state of rest like the serpent kind. It is very impatient of cold, and will eagerly take shelter in a wisp of straw, flung into a pond in severe weather, which has sometimes been practised as a method of taking them. Albertus goes so far as to say, that he has known eels to shelter in a hay-rick, yet all perished through excess of cold. The eyes are placed not remote from the end of the nose; the irides are tinged with red; the under jaw is longer than the upper; the teeth are small, sharp, and numerous; beneath each eye is a minute orifice; at the end of the nose two others, sma!l, and tubular. This fish is furnished with a pair of pectoral fins, rounded at their ends; another narrow fin on the back, uniting with that of the tail; and the anal fin joins it in the same manner beneath. Behind the pectoral fins is the orifice to the gills, which are concealed in the skin. Eels vary much in their colors, from a sooty hue, to a light olive-green ; and those which are called silver eels have their bellies white, anda remarga- ble clearness throughout. 1 Anguilla vulgaris, Cuv. This genus has the body rounded, elongated, smooth; bronchial openings lateral, placed under the pectoral fins; pectoral fins large; dorsal and anal fins united, and forming a pointed caudal fin. PISCES—EEL. 745 THE CONGER EEL. Tue conger eel grows to an immense size, and its fierceness is equal to its magnitude; they have been taken ten feet and a half long, and eighteen inches in circumference in the thickest part. They differ from the common eel not only in their size, but in being of a darker color, and in the form of the lower jaw, which is shorter than the upper. They are extremely vora- cious, and prey upon other fish, particularly upon crabs, when they have cast their shell. The fishermen are very fearful of the large congers, lest they should endanger their legs by clinging round them; they therefore kill them as soon as possible, by striking them on the navel. In April, 1808, one was taken at Yarmouth, England, which knocked down its captor before it could be secured. On the coast of Cornwall, these fish constitute a considerable article of commerce, where they are salted and dried, and afterwards ground to powder, which is purchased by the Spaniards, for the purpose of thicken- ing their soups. THE ELECTRICAL EEL? Is common in South America. It is from three to five feet in length, and ten or twelve inches in circumference in the broadest part of the body; and has the capability of swimming backward as well as forward. Their color is an olive-green, and the head yellow, mingled with red. The head is flat, and the mouth wide and toothless. From the point of its tail to within six inches of its head, extends a fin about two inches deep, and which is an inch thick at its junction with the body. As there are several annular divisions, or rather ruge of the skin, across the body, it would seem that the fish 1 Conger vulgaris, Cuv. The genus Conger has the dorsal fin commencing near the pectoral fins, or over them; upper Jaw longer than the under. 2 Gymnotus electricus, Lrx. The characteristics of this genus are, kronchial openings 1n part closed by a membrane opening before the pectoral fins; anus placed much forward, the anal fin running along the greater part of the body; no dorsal fin; skin without per ceptible scales. 94 63 x * 746 PISCES—WOLF FISH. partakes of the vermicular nature, and can contract or dilate itself at pleasure. The electrical shock in conveyed either through the hand, or any metallic conductor which touches the fish; and a stroke of one of the largest kind, if properly applied, would prove instant death to even the human species. This extraordinary power is given to this fish, not only for defence, but subsistence. For whenever small fishes or worms are thrown into the water, they are first struck dead by the electric power of the animal, and afterwards swallowed by him. ORDER IX.—ACANTHOPTERYGII. Tuese fishes have the first rays of the dorsal, ventral and anal fins supe ported by simple spinous rays. THE WOLF FISH.! Ts animal seems to be confined to the northern seas, and sometimes is found near the coasts of Scotland. It grows to a very large size, being fre: quently taken of the length of seven feet, and even more. It is a most ravenous and fierce fish, and when taken, fastens upon every thing within its reach. It is said even to bite so hard, that it will seize upon an anchor, and leave the marks of its teeth on it. It feeds almost entirely on shell-fish, the hardest of which it easily crushes with its jaws. It has so formidable and disagreeable appearance, that it is only eaten py tne fishermen, who, however, prefer it to halibut. 1Anarchicaz lupus, Lin. This genus has the body long, smooth; head thick and obtuse ; anterior teeth long and conice:; the others, bony tubercles, with small enamelled teeth on their summits ; six rays in .he bronchial membrane. PISCES—GILT-HEAD...MULLET. 747 THE GILT-HEAD! Taxes its name from its predominant color, the forehead and sides resembling gold, though the latter are tinged with brown. It has but one back fin, which reaches the whole length of the body. In form, it in some degree re- rembles the bream. It is found in deep waters, on bold rocky shores; it subsists chiefly on shell-fish, and some of the species grow to the weight of ten pounds. Besides the lunated, which is the most common, and takes its name from a semi-lunar gold spot under the eyes, there are the red, and the toothed or streaked gilt-heads, the last of which is distinguished by two canine teeth on each side. THE MULLET? Was formerly much celebrated as a treat for the epicure, and frequent allu- sions to it are found in the ancient satirists. It is a fish of an elegant form; is generally found by the seashores, where it roots like a hog, in the sand or mud, and it is so active, that it frequently escapes, by leaping out of the fishermen’s nets. The head is almost square, and is flat at the top. It has no teeth, only in the upper lip is a small roughness. The tail is much forked. ‘The color of the back is dusky, marked with blue and green. The sides silvery, marked with dusky lines, reaching from the head to the tail. The belly is silvery. 1 Daurada auratus, The genus Dawrada has the head compressed ; jaws slightly extensible, with four or six conical teeth in one row; the others flat. 2 Mugil cephalus, Lis. The genus Mugil has the head depressed, broad, and scaly; ventral fins under the abdomen; and two short dorsal fins; mouth with fleshy and crenu- lated lips; lower jaw witha carination in the middle, entering into a corresponding groove in the upper; no teeth; bronchial membrane with three rays. 748 PISCES—PERCH...MACKEREL. THE’ P£#£RC H1 Is a gregarious fish, and loves deep holes, and gentle streams. It is a most voracious fish and eager biter; if the angler meets with a shoal of them, he is sure of taking every one. It isa common notion, that the pike will not attack this fish, being fearful of the spiny fins which the perch erects on the approach of the former. This may be true in respect to large fish; but it is well known the small ones are the most tempting bait that can be laid for the pike. The perch is a fish very tenacious of life; we have known them carried near sixty miles in dry straw, and yet survive the journey. These fish seldom grow to a large size. THE MACKEREL2 Tue mackerel emits a phosphoric light when fresh from the sea. Wher taken out of the water, it soon dies, and even in the water, if it advance with too much impetuosity against the net. It is caught with that instru- ment, or with a hook baited with bits of red cloth, or small herrings, and pieces of other kinds of fish or flesh. In some places it is taken by lines from boats, as during a fresh gale of wind, it readily seizes a bait; it is necessary that the boat should be in motion, i order to drag the bait along near the surface of the water. There is a great fishery for mackerel on some parts of the west coast of England. ‘This is of such an extent, as to 1 Perca fluviatilis, Lrx. The genus Perca has a snout without scales, not advancing reyond the lips ; second dorsal fin not sensibly longer than the first; ventral fins on the thorax ; pre-operculi dentated ; operculi spinous. 2 Scomber scomber, Linx. The genus Scomber, or mackerel, has a projsceing ridge on each side of the tail, and a row of pointed teeth in each jaw; anal and dorsal fins witb the posterior part divided into spurious fins ; the second dorsal, distant from the first. PISCES—TUNNY...PILOT FISH. 749 employ in the whole, a capital of nearly two hundred thousand pounds. The mackerel fishery on the coast of New England is very productive. It is carried on in small schooners of twenty or thirty tons. THE TUN NY Rerarns not only the character, but the habits of the mackerel. They resort in vast shoals to the Mediterranean, at certain seasons, and, from the earliest periods of history, have constituted a considerable branch of commerce there. Tne tunny, however, differs greatly from the mackerel in size. One which Mr Pennant saw at Inverary in Scotland, weighed four hundred and sixty pounds. It was seven feet ten inches in length, and the circumference in the largest part was five feet seven, and near the tail only one foot six. The pieces, when fresh cut, appear like raw beef but when boiled turn pale, and have something the flavor of salmon. LEE Pinon! LS.H2 Weer » 97 and banded body, with four loose spines on the back; a come press‘ J !ead, rounded off in front; a small mouth, the jaws of which are of equal iength, end furnished with small teeth. The palate has a curved row of teeth, and the tongue has teeth all along. This species is found in the Mediterranean, Southern ocean, East Indies, and Cape of Good Hope. It grows toa foot and a half in length, and derives its name from being commonly seen with the shark, to which it appears to point out its prey. The circumstance of its guiding the shark, 1 Thynnus vulgaris, Cuv. _ This genus has a projecting ridge on each side of the tail, and a row of pointed teeth in each jaw; anal and second dorsal fins subdivided; first dorsal fin prolonged olmost to the second, and sometimes touching it. 2 Centronotus ductor, LAcep. This genus has one dorsal fin with spines before ; vertral fins suppor‘ed, as in general, by some rays, the most of which are short; sides of the tail carinated ; anal shorter than the dorsal fin, with sometimes free spines. 63* 750 PISCES—DORADO...SWORD FISH. was long a matter of doubt, but appears now to be an ascertained fact. M. Geoffroy, when near Malta, in 1798, saw two of the pilot fish lead a shark to a piece of bacon, which a seaman had let down by a line and hook. PE DORN, OF DORA D 0.2 Tue form of this fish is very disgusting. Its body is oval, and much compressed at the sides. Its snout is long, and its mouth is wide. The first back fin consists of ten spiny rays, with long filaments; the second of twenty-four soft rays. The tail is round at the end. ‘The color of the body is Olive, varied with light blue and white ; while living, it has the appear- ance of gilding, whence its name Dorée (gilt). It is found in the North sea, the British channel, the Atlantic, and the Mediterranean. THE SWORD FISH! Is very common in the Mediterranean, and is much esteemed for food by the Sicilians, who consider it as equal to the sturgeon. It is also found on the coasts of America. It grows to a very large size, upwards of twenty feet in length. It is ofa long and rounded body, largest near the head, and taper- ing by degrees to the tail. The skin is rough, the back black, and the belly white. It has one fin on the back, running almost its whole length. It nas one pair of fins also at the gills. But the most remarkable part of this fish is the snout, which, in the upper jaw, runs out in the figure of a sword, sometimes to the length of three feet, and is of a substance like a coarse xind of ivory. The under jaw is much shorter. 1 Zeus faber, Lin. This genus is characterized by a body oval, compressed ; jaws strongly protractile; teeth crowded; spinous portions of the dorsal and anal fins sepa- rated from the others by a deep notch; scales projecting, and spinous scales at the base of the vertical fins, and between the ventral and anal fins. * Xiphias gladius, Lix. The genus Xiphias has the snout prolonged, resembling the blade of a sword; strong asperities in the jaws, in the place of teeth; body elongated rounded, with scarcely perceptible scales or projecting carinee on each side of the tail, Destoral #03 long and pointed; two or three anterior rays of the dorsal fin spinous ; ne Ventral fin. PISCES—SWORD FISH. 751 The sword fish has wonderful strength. The Leopard man-of-war was struck by one of them; and though the animal was following the ship, and consequently gave the blow with less force than it otherwise would have done, yet the sword penetrated nearly a quarter of a yard through the sheathing and timber, and was broken off by the shock. Eight or nine strokes from a nammer weighing a quarter of a hundred weight, would be required, to drive an iron pin the same depth into wood. In the British Museum there is also a plank of a ship, through which a fish impelled the whole length of his sword; not, however, without losing his life by the effort. The sword fish has an antipathy to the whale, and no sooner meets than he assails him. Two will sometimes combine in the attack. The whale can defend himself only with his tail, which the activity of his adversary generally enables him to evade. The whale dives in vain, for he is pursued by his pertinacious tormentor, and he is at length compelled to take flight. 752 INVERTEBRAL ANIMALS. THE animals destitute of a vertebral column and bony skeleton, form the second, and, by far, the most numerous, group of living beings. In the system of Linnzus, the invertebral animals were included in two great classes, Insecta and Vermes. But subsequent investigations into their nature and organization, have given rise to more numerous and better characterized groups. Possessing little analogy in point of structure with the vertebral animals, some are found with the body unprotected, except bya soft skin; others are covered by a shell; while others have their members enveloped in crustaceous plates. The circulating system in this division is also less perfect than in the vertebral animals; and, with the exception of a few groups, none have red blood. The nervous system appears also in a less complete form ; and, instead of the medullary mass of the brain and spinal chord of the higher classes, they present only ganglions or knots in the ner- vous thread. No class of invertebral animals possesses all the organs of sense; for while some are destitute of the organs of hearing, others seem deprived of the faculty of smell and sight, and many appear to be guided only by the sense of touch. The sexes, besides, are in many groups united in the same individuals, and in others the species is continued in a process analogous to the budding of vegetables. The animals of this division are but feebly endowed with the functions of relation. Many of them, indeed, almost deprived of locomotion, or fixed to other bodies, have neither choice of situation or food, but remain for the term of life in the places where they originally had their birth. But the want of intelligence is largely made up to many classes of this division, by their superior instinctive powers, which, in as far as regard their subsis- tence and reproduction, surpass that of the vertebral animals. In one very large class, the insects, this instinctive intelligence is displayed in a very striking manner, in the combination of individuals for one common pur- pose, and in the wonderful subsidiary arrangements of their commonwealths. [t has been observed, as a distinction between the vertebral and the inverte- bral animals, that while in the former, the bones or hard parts are more o. less formed of phosphate of lime; the hard parts of the latter, such as the shells of the mollusca and crustacea, and the stony matter of corals and madrepores, are chiefly composed of carbonate of lime. The invertebral animals, as noticed in the introduction, are arranged by Cuvier into three great divisions. 1. Those which have no skeleton; in which the muscles are attached only to the skin, which proves a soft contractile covering, in INVERTEBRATA—MOLLUSCA. 753 which the nervous system, composed of scattered masses, is contained in this general envelope; in which there is a complete circulating system, particular organs for respiration, and organs for digestion and secretion, are termed Motiusca. 2. The second division, including those animals in which the trunk is divided transversely into a certain number of rings, and of which the integuments, either hard or soft, have always the muscles attach- ed to their interior,is named Articutata. The nervous system in this divi- sion consists of long threads, running along the belly, and thickened at certain distances into knots or ganglions; and the body is, in most cases, provided with jointed members, or legs, at the sides of the annular segments. Their jaws, whenever they have any, are always lateral. 3. The third great division includes all the animals known under the name ZooruyTEs, to which Cuvier gives the name of Raprata. In the preceding divisions, the organs of movement and sensation are disposed symmetrically on the two sides of a common axis. In the present, they are arranged circularly around a common centre. In this last division, too, the lowest in the scale of ami- mated beings, the nervous and circulating system almost disappears, the respiratory apparatus is almost always on the surface of the body; and in the greater number, the intestinal canal presents the appearance of a simple sac without an outlet. The last families of this division present the ap- pearance of a homogenous pulp, indistinctly perceived to possess animal life, from giving indications of motion and sensation. CLASS I. MOLLUSCA. Invertebral, soft, inarticulated animals, furnished with a more or less prominent head at their anterior part. Tue form of the body in the mollusca is extremely various. It is fre- quently oval, more or less elongated, convex above, and flat beneath, as in the genera Doris, Limaz, &c. Itis, also, sometimes oval, and equally convex above and below, as in the Sepie; elongated and cylindrical, as in certain Loligines ; globular, as in the Octopodes. It is often more or less compress- ed on the sides, as in the Scyllee. In very many cases, a large portion of the body is rolled up ina spiral form. A considerable number of these animals present a very distinct separation between the head and the rest of the body, as in the Octopodes. This distinction is sometimes much less marked, as in the genus Doris. The distinction of neck, breast, abdomen, and tail is still less obvious; the body forming only a simple mass. It is seldom that the body is furnished with organs of locomotion, properly so called, although cutaneous expansions are sometimes remarked on the sides, which are subservient to this purpose. The nervous system consists of a 95 754 MOLLUSGA. central part or brain, situated above the intestinal canal; of ganglia for the different orders of sense, as well as for the locomotive apparatus; of a few visceral ganglia, together with conducting filaments or nerves. The brain consists of two similar parts, more or less connected, and situated above the esophagus. The ganglion of the organ of sight communicates with the brain, as well as that of the organ of hearing, when it exists. Besides the more or less immediate connection which exists between the two parts of the brain, above the csophagus, there is another which passes under the esophagus, thus forming a sort of ring. These visceral ganglia appear to be only two in number. The principal one is commonly placed near the stomach, and sends forth filaments to the intestinal canal, and others which communicate with the brain, by means of the esophageal ring. For the locomotive apparatus, and the organs of general sensation, there is but a single ganglion on each side, which communicates with the brain, by a chord. From this ganglion proceed the filaments that supply the musculo- cutaneous envelope, and especially those which are subservient to general Jocomotion, such as the foot of the Gasteropoda and Trachelipoda, the wings of the Pteropoda, &c. The circulation is, complete in the mollusca. The heart is situated, in general, in the back, above the intestinal canal. It is not contained in a true pericardium, but ina muscular cell of the imperfect diaphragm, which separates the visceral cavity from that of the bronchial. It consists of an auricle, sometimes double, anda ventricle. The auricle varies in its forms, but is commonly oval, with very thin walls; a few mus- cular cords, however, are observed to traverse itsinterior. It communicates with the ventricle by a sort of contraction, frequently of considerable length, as for example in the genus Loligo, and by means of a narrow orifice, com- monly transverse, situated between two folds of the inner surface of the ventricle, but without valves. The ventricle is in general much larger, and varies much in form and direction. Its walls are always much thicker than those of the auricle, and the transverse, muscular fasciculi, of which it is formed, are very distinct. From the extremity ‘of the heart issues the arterial system, commonly by a single trunk, but sometimes, also, by two. There are no valves placed at the commencement of this vessel. Their walls are thicker than those of the veins, and are possessed of great elasti- city. Their distribution varies in a considerable degree, although there are in general two trunks, an anterior and a posterior. The former furnishes branches to the head and its different parts, to the esophagus, and even to ihe organs of generation ; while the other sends ramifications to the stomach, the rest of the intestines, the liver, and the secreting organs of generation. The veins have their walls extremely thin, and frequently so confounded with the tissue of the parts, as to be with difficulty distinguished. They constitute only two systems, one which comes from all parts of the body, and the other from the respiratory organ, there being no system of the vena pore. ‘The venous radicles of the general system of the body, after repeat- MOLLUSCA. 755 ed.y uniting into trunks, arrive at the respiratory organ, where they are con- verted into an arterial system, which ramifies through its substance. From the capillary extremities of the bronchial artery, arises the second venous system. The veins unite into branches, which terminate in a large trunk, pouring its contents into the heart. The color of the blood is white or bluish. The organs of respiration vary considerably, not only in respect to their form, and the place which they occupy in the animal, but also with respect to structure. In most of them they are true bronchiz, or receive the influence of the ambient fluid on their surface; while in some others, they form a sort of cavity, into which it penetrates, as in the terrestrial mollusca. In the latter animals, the bronchial cavity is always more or less oval; butin the aquatic species, it is found simple or compound. [ft consists of numerous ramifica- tions in the Tritonie, of tufts or lamine in other genera, of triangular pyra- mids in the Loligines, &c. In many genera it is external, as in the Ptero- poda ; while in others it is more or less internal. It is sometimes situate at the upper and posterior part of the body, as in the genus Doris; at other times, on each side or the back; most commonly, however, at the anterior and superior part of the commencement of the back. The structure of the re- spiratory organ has, in most species, a considerable resemblance to that of fishes, consisting either of triangular lamina, like the teeth of a comb, or of granulations, or tubercles, arranged along a common axis. The mouth is in general armed with hard parts. In some it is shut, with almost always two jaws; in others it consists of a retractile proboscis, fur- nished with small teeth at its internal orifice, and has no jaws. Those which have jaws, have the mouth sometimes vertical, presenting two bony, _ toothless jaws, hooked like a parrot’s bill, sometimes placed under the head, or almost at its anterior extremity, or very small. It presents itself under the form of a longitudinal or transverse fissure, and terminates that part of the head which extends from the base of the tentacule to the aperture of the mouth, and which is named the snout. This snout is sometimes very short, and sometimes so elongated as to assume the appearance of a proboscis. In this latter case, however, it is always distinct .from the true proboscis, which has no jaws, and is retractile. The two jaws of the kind of snout just mentioned, are cartilaginous and very unequal. Among those which are destitute of maxillz, there are some which have, instead of them, a kind of cylindrical tube, of great length, in certain species, but much smaller in others. It is fleshy, muscular, contractile, and pliant. Its ex- tremity is perforated by a round hole, margined by cartilaginous membrane, and armed with very small teeth. The proboscidiferous mollusca are carnivorous, making use of this organ for perforating the shells of other animals, and sucking their flesh. Those which have the parrot beak, are also carnivorous. Those which haye a 756 MOLLUSCA. snout and two jaws, of which one, at least, is furnished with small teeth, are herbivorous or frugivorous. The intestinal canal consists of an internal mucous membrane, common- ly forming longitudinal folds, and a more or less distinct muscular layer It varies much in respect to its direction and enlargement. Sometimes there is a long and narrow esophagus, and sometimes that organ is very large and wide. The stomach is frequently simple, but also divided into several cavities or cells. The liver, composed of lobes and lobules, is situat- ed more or less behind the stomach, very frequently at the posterior part of the body. The ducts unite into three or four canals, which empty them- selves into the stomach or intestine. The intestinal canal varies still more than the stomach in its diameter, the number and form of its circumvolutions, in its direction, and in the point at which it terminates. The organs of vision are largely developed in certain species, as in the genus Joligo ; in others, they are small and imperfect, and are borne at the extremity ofa sort of tentaculum, or are sessile. The sense is in general very obscure, and in many species can scarcely be said to exist. The senses of hearing, of smell, and taste, are equally obtuse. The skin which envelopes the body of the mollusca, is peculiarly soft and spongy, and from its connection with the subjacent muscles, slightly contractile. It is smooth or tubercular, and generally secretes a large quantity of mucus. It obtains the name of man- tie. Many species are naked ; but by far the greater number are enveloped in 2 calcareous covering, named the shell. Of those which are naked, some are entirely soft in all their parts; while others contain internally, one or more solid parts, which are sometimes merely cartilaginous or horny, or cretaceous, and lamellar, without being really conchyliform, and sometimes constitute a true internal shell. Of the shells produced by the mollusca, there are, therefore, some which are truly internal, not appearing at all ex- ternally; in others, the shell is disclosed, in part, at the posterior extremity of the animal; while in a great portion, the shell is entirely external, and envelopes or covers the animal. The form of this external shell is extreme- ly varied. In general, it isspirally convoluted. The principal parts which it presents, are the aperture or mouth, consisting of an inner or columellar lip,and an outer lip; the body of the shell consisting of the last, and generally tumid turn, or whorl; the spine, formed of the convolutions, which are only in part seen, because enveloped by the last turn; and the columella, or axis, round which the shell is contorted. When the columella is hollow, its opening is called the wmbilicus. The shell consists of a mixture of calca- reous matter, (carbonate of lime,) and gelatinous matter. This is frequently covered externally by a thin layer of the latter substance, forming what is called the epidermis. It exhibits a great variety of coloring. The form of the shell indicates that of the animal which inhabits it; and is used as fur- nishing the generic characters, the structure of the animals of this class not being generally known. It also furnishes many of the specific characters; ‘eo MOLLUSCA. 757 while the circumstance of its surface being smooth, or variously grooved, tuberculated, or marked with spines, supplies others. The immense variety in the coloring, also, affords obvious means of specific distinction. All the mollusca are oviparous. The reproduction is therefore necessarily effected by sexual impregnation. In some of the orders of these animals, the sexes are separate, as in the Sepiaria. These animals, however, do not copulate, but the males shed a fecundating fluid upon the ova deposited by the females. It appears that the other mollusca, such in particular as the Gasteropoda and Trachelipoda, have the two sexes united in the same individual. Of these hermaphrodites, some require a reciprocal copulation, while others appear to fecundate themselves. The ova of the mollusca are not in general hatched until after they have been deposited. Some have acrustaceous covering like the ova of birds and reptiles, as is the case with the helices; others are sometimes surrounded with a sort of jelly, by which they are attached to- gether, as in the planorbes, lymnee, &c., and others are contained in mem- branous sacs, of very different forms, sometimes solitary, but more commonly in groups; each of the sacs containing several young individuals, which issue from them alive, with their shell already formed, as is the case with the Buccina, &c. The mollusca are in general aquatic animals. Many species, however, are terrestrial; and some appear to live almost constantly under ground, such as the testacelle, but this is rare. A great number are found on the surface, such as the limaces, helices, &c.; while some are to a certain degree amphibious, as the lymnee. By far the greater part, however, iive in water, fresh and salt. Of the fresh water kinds, some remain free at the surface of the mud; others adhere to other bodies. Of the latter, the circumstances, in this respect, are considerably varied. Some are found only on the coasts, and are termed littoral species, as the genera patelia, turbo, &e. ; others appear to exist only at a distance from the shores, and in deep water, whence they are called pelagic species; and the Sepzaria wander in the depths of the ocean. With respect to their geographical distribution, little is known, this subject not having been submitted to sufficient investi- gation. They are found, however, in all parts of the world, whether in the seas, rivers, and lakes, or on land. Certain tribes are confined to particular zones, While others appear to inhabit all. Thus the Sepzaria occur in all seas, While the nautilus and spirula are found only in the torrid zone. The food of the mollusca consists of almost all sorts of substances, animal and vegetable, in all states, living or dead, fresh or putrid; but each species is in general confined to acertain kind. ‘The uses of the mollusca, in the econo- my of nature, are varied and extensive. They afford food to numerous animals, especially fishes and birds, and to man himself. The savage tribes which live along the coast, in many parts of the world, employ them much as an article of food. Even in civilized countries, the mollusca frequently form a considerable pertion of sustenance, although in general they are nei- ther very pleasant nor wholesome. The cuttle-fish furnishes a fluid from 64 758 MOLLUSCA—CUTTLE-FISH. which tne pigment called China ink is procured ; and the ancients extracted the beautiful purple color, with which the garments of their princes and nobles were dyed, from certain species of purpure inhabiting the coast of Tyre. ORDER IJ.—CEPHALOPODA. Turse animals are distinguished by having a mantle in the form of a dag, containing the lower part of the body; head protruding from the bag, crowned with inarticulated arms, furnished with cups or suckers, and sur- rounding the mouth; two sessile eyes; mouth with two horny mandibles; three hearts; the sexes separate. THE GREAT CUTTLE-FISH2 Tuis singular creature, which is about two feet long, has eight arms or claws, furnished on the interior side with little round serrated cups, by the contraction of which the animal lays fast hold of any thing that comes in its way. Besides these eight arms, it has two tentacula, four times longer than the preceding, and also pedunculated. When the suckers adhere to any thing, it is very difficult to loosen their hold. The mouth is situated in the centre, and is horny and hooked, like the bill ofa parrot. It is so strong that the animal can break to pieces the shells of limpets and of other marine, testaceous creatures on which it feeds. The eyes are below, and surrounded with several silvery rings; they are as large as the eyes ofa zalf, but are very prominent, and rather resemble the eyes of a crab. The 1 Sepia officinalis, LAMARcK. The genus Sepia has the body fleshy, depressed, con- tained in a bag, which is obtuse behind, and margined on cither side in its whole length, by a narrow fin; a free, calcareous, spongy, and opaque bone included ia the body near the back; mouth terminal, surrounded with ten arms furnished with cups, of which two are pedunculate, ail longer than the others MOLLUSCA—NAUTILUS. 759 body is of a reddish brown color, nearly cylindrical. The belly below is equal, soft, smooth, oblong-round, of an ash and faintly yellowish color; about the middle of the upper part of the body, there is a fin like those of fishes, composed of a softish cartilaginous substance, spread out widely on both sides, and decreasing towards the tail, till it ends in a point, like the broad fins of the ray fish ; by means of this fin, it moves itself in swimming, having no other membrane for that purpose. From this pointed termina- tion of the tail, the French call it the sea-spider, although it has scarcely any resemblance to the spider; but rather, with respect to the head, approaches to the shape of the star-fish. At any rate, they are very formida- ble animals. With their arms and trunks they fasten themselves, to resist ‘he motion of the waves. The females lay their eggs upon seaweed and ylants, in clusters like bunches of grapes. Immediately after they are laid, they are white, and the males pass over and impregnate them with a black liquor, after which they grow larger and resemble black grapes. On open- ing one of the eggs, the embryo cuttle is found alive. The noise of a cuttle- fish, on being dragged out of the water, resembles the grunting of a boar. When the male is pursued by a sea-wolf, or other ravenous fish, he shuns the danger by stratagem. He squirts out a black liquor, by which the water becomes as black as ink, and under shelter cf this, he baffles the pursuit of his enemy. This black liquor is elaborated in a particular gland. The Romans used it as ink; and it is said to be an ingredient in the composition of Indian ink. There is a bone in this animal which is converted into that useful article of stationary called pounce, and is also used by silversmiths to form moulds. This fish was much esteemed by the ancients, and is still eaten in the hot countries bordering on the Mediterranean. LHENAUL LEU Ss Tuis animal inhabits a shell which resembles that of a large snail, but 1s generally six or eight inches across; within, it is divided into forty parti- tions, that communicate with each other by doors, if we may so call them, through which one could not thrust a goose quill ; almost the whole internal part of the shell is filled by the animal, the body of which, like its habita- tion, is divided into as many parts as there are chambers in its shell; all the parts of its body communicate with each other, through the doors or open- ings, by a long vessel, which runs from the head to the tail; thus the body of the animal, if taken out of the shell, may be likened to a number of soft bits of flesh, of which there are forty threaded upon a string. From this 1 Nautilus Pompilius, Lux. Shell disciform, spiral, multilocular, with simple walls ; turns contiguous, the last covering the rest; transverse septa, concave externally, perfo rated in the disc; the margins entire. 760 MOLLUSCA—NAUTILUS. extraordinary conformation, one would not be apt to suppose that the nauti- lus sometimes quitted its shell, and returned to it again; yet nothing, though seemingly impossible, is more certain. The manner by which it contrives to disengage every part of its body from so intricate a habitation— by which it makes a substance, to appearance as thick as one’s wrist, pass through forty doors, each of which would scarcely admit a goose quill—is not yet discovered; but the fact is certain; for the animal is often found without its shell; and the shell more frequently destitute of the animal. It is most probable, that it has a power of making the substance of one section of its body remove up into that which is next; and thus, by multi- plied removals, it gets free. But this, though very strange, is not the peculiarity for which the nautilus has been the most distinguished. Its spreading the thin oar, and catching the flying gale, to use the poet’s description of it, has chiefly excited human curiosity. These animals, particularlarly those of the white, light kind,! are chiefly found in the Mediterranean ; and scarce any who have sailed on that sea, but must have often seen them. When the sea is calm, they are observed floating on the surface; some spreading their little sail; some rowing with their feet, as if for life and death ; and others still, floating upon their mouths, like a ship with the keel upward. If taken while thus em- ployed, and examined, the extraordinary mechanism of their limbs for sail- ing, will appear more manifest. The nautilus is furnished with eight feet, which issue near the mouth, and may as properly be called barbs ; these are connected to each other by a thin skin, like that between the toes of a duck, but much thinner, andmore transparent. Of these eight feet thus connected, six are short, and these are held up as sails to catch the wind in sailing; the two others are longer, and are kept in the water; serving, like paddles, to steer their course by. When the weather is quite calm, and the animal is pursued from below, it is then seen expanding only a part of its sail, and rowing with the rest; whenever it is interrupted, or fears danger from above, it instantly furls the sail, catches in all its oars, turns its shell mouth downward, and instantly sinks to the bottom. Sometimes also it is seen pumping the water from its leaking hulk; and, when unfit for sailing, deserts its shell entirely. The forsaken hulk is seen floating along, till it dashes, by a kind of shipwreck, upon the rocks or the shore. 1 Argonauta Argo, LAM. MOLLUSCA—SNAIL. 761 THE SNAIL. Tuts animal is furnished with the organs of life in a manner almost as complete as the largest animal ; with a tongue, brain, salival ducts, glands, nerves, stomach and intestines, liver, hearty and blood-vessels; besides these, it has a purple bag that furnishes a red matter to different parts of the body, together with strong muscles that hold it to the shell, and which are hardened, like tendons, at their insertion. But these it possesses in common with cther animals. We must now see what it has peculiar to itself. The first striking peculiarity is, that the animal has got its eyes on the points of its largest horns. When the snail is in motion, four horns are distinctly seen; but the two uppermost and longest deserve peculiar consideration, both on account of the various mo- tions with which they are endued, as well as their having their eyes fixed at the extreme ends of them. The eyes the animal ean direct to different objects at pleasure, by a regular motion out of the body; and sometimes it ides them, by a very swift contraction into the belly. Under the small norns is the animal’s mouth; and though it may appear too soft a substance to be furnished with teeth, yet it has not less than eight of them, with which it devours leaves, and other substances, seemingly harder than itself; and with which it sometimes bites off pieces of its own shell. At the expiration of eighteen days after coupling, the snails produce their eggs, and hide them in the earth with the greatest solicitude and industry. These eggs are in great numbers, round, white, and covered with a soft snell; they are also stuck to each other by an imperceptible slime, hke a bunch of grapes, of about the size of a small pea. The snail is possessed not only of a power of retreating into its shell, but of mending it when broken. Sometimes these animals are crushed seem: ingly to pieces, and to all appearance utterly destroyed; yet still they set themselves to work, and, in a few days, mend all their numerous breaches. The same substance by which the shell is originally made, goes to the re- establishment of the ruined habitation. 1 Helix. Shell orbicular, convex or covered, sometimes globular, with the spire slightly elevated ; aperture entire, broader than long, very oblique, contiguous to the axis of the shell, Laving the margin disunited by the projection of the penult imate whorl. 96 64* 762 MOLLUSCA—CONCHIFERA. As the snail is furnished with all the organs of life and sensation, it is not wonderful to see it very voracious. It chiefly subsists upon the leaves of plants and trees,,but is very delicate in its choice. At the approach of winter, it buries itself in the earth, or retires to some hole to continue in a torpid state, during the severity of the season. It is sometimes seen alone, bnt more frequently in company in its retreat; several being usually found together, apparently deprived of life and sensation. For the purpose of con tinuing in greater warmth and security, the snail forms a cover or lid to the mouth of its shell with its slime, which stops it up entirely, and thus pro- tects it from every external danger. When the cover is formed too thick, the snail then breaks a little hole in it, to correct the effect of that closeness which proceeded from too much caution. In this manner, sheltered in its hole from the weather, defended in its sheil by a cover, it sleeps during the winter; and for six or seven months, continues without food or motion, until the genial call of spring breaks its slumber, and excites its activity. The snail, having slept for so long a season, awakes in one of the first fine days of April, breaks open its cell, and sallies forth to seek for nourish- nent. At first, it is not very difficult in the choice of its food; almost any vegetable that is green seems welcome; but the succulent plants of the garden are chiefly grateful; and the various kinds of pulse are, at some seasons, almost wholly destroyed by their numbers. A wet season is generally favorable to their production; for this animal cannot bear very dry seasons, or dry places, as they cause too great a consumption of its slime, without plenty of which it cannot subsist in health and vigor. CLASS II.—CONCHIFERA| Animal soft, inarticulated, destitute of head or eyes, and always fixed ina valve shell ; bronchie@ external ; circulation simple ; heart unilocular. THE animals of this class have no apparent head; and their mouth con- cealed under the mantle, or at the junction of its two lobes, and destitute of jaws 9r hard parts, appears to be as the orifice of a short esophagus. The mantle or cloak which envelopes the body is large, in two lobes, and incloses the trunk, like the cover of c book. In some families, however, this mantle is united before, and then forms a tubular covering, open at both ends. The mantle, besides, often forms two tubes or syphons, of which one con- ducts the water to the bronchiw, and the other serves as a canal for dejec- tions. This mantle is always furnished with a shell of two valves, united by a hinge or ligament; and strong transverse muscles, attached to the eae SOME Oe — (} Mollusca acephala, Cuv.) MOLLUSCA—CONCHIFERA. 763 shell, enable the animal to open or shut it at pleasure. The nervous system in this class is imperfectly developed, sensation very obtuse, and the brain, if such it may be termed, is a ganglion over the mouth, formed by the junc- tion of two nervous chords. ‘Their chief sense seems to be that of touch. Tn some families, this sense appears to reside in tentacular filaments, which border the lobes of the mantle, or certain places of these lobes. These tentacular threads, which appear very sensible, or at least irritable, are, :a veneral, numerous, short, very fine, and move sometimes with extreme quickness. ‘The heart in the Conchzfera is placed towards the back. It 1s small, but provided with venous and arterial vessels. The liver is large, embracing the stomach and a great portion of the alimentary canal. The bronchiz are external, and appear more particularly so in those in which the mantle is open before. These bronchie are opposite, formed of large vascu- lar leaflets, generally crescent-shaped, placed on each side under the cloak, covering the belly of the animal, upon the sides of which they are attached in pairs. These bronchie are formed of a tissue of smal! vessels, arranged close together, like the pipes of an organ. At the sides of the mouth are four triangular thin leaflets, the extremities of two lips. All the Conchifera have a testaceous covering of two principal pieces, most of them of two alone. These pieces, named valves, are opposed to one another, and consti- tute the proper shell of the animal. The valves are united together near their base, by an elastic coriaceous or horny ligament, and the point of union is called the hinge. This hinge is distinguished by teeth, or protuberances and hollows, which lock into each other when the shell is closed. When the valves are unequal or dissimilar in size, the shell is said to be inequi- valve ; and when, on the contrary, both resemble one another, in their general form and size, they are said to be equivalve. Among the equivalve shells, however, are found some, which, when the shell is closed, have, towards their lateral extremities, an opening or gape, more or less consi- derable. In those in which this opening is large, it has been observed that the mantle of the animal is almost always united before. The ligament of the valves is sometimes exterior, and sometimes interior. In both cases, it serves not only to fix the two portions of the shell together, but to open them by its elasticity. When this ligament is exterior, if the shell be closed, itis then tense, the valves being held together by the con- traction of the internal muscle; but if this muscle is relaxed, the elasticity of the ligament alone separates the valves. When, on the contrary, the ligament is interior, it is compressed when the shell is shut, and the muscle exerts its power, but throws open the valves when this power is relaxed. Though the Conchifera never crawl ona ventral disc, or foot, like many of the Mollusca, yet some possess a muscular, contractile organ, often coms pressed and lamelliform, which the animal exerts or withdraws at will. This muscular part serves some families as an organ of locomotion, by enabling them to execute a sort of leap; in others, deprived of locomotion 764 MOLLUSCA—CONCHIFERA.,. to attach their tendinous threads or byssus to rocks or marine bodies. As the movements of this class are thus nearly reduced to those of their muscu- lar attachment to the shell and their muscular cloak, these parts are much developed. The thickness of the muscle which attaches the oyster to its shell, and the amplitude of the mantle in all the Conchifera, are well known. The disposition of the first of these has afforded characters for the determination of groups. In the oyster, for instance, there is but one muscle, which traverses, in some measure, the whole body to attach it to the valves of the shell. In others, such as the genera Venus and Tellina, che muscles of attachment are two in number, and attached to the lateral extremities of the shell; and in a third group, these muscles seem di- vided, as in the Anodonta, into three or four muscles of attachment. The muscles of attachment are generally thick, composed of straight vertical fibres, and at their place of junction with the shell acquire a remarkable hardness. Their use is to shut the valves by contrac- tion; when they are relaxed, the ligament at the hinge suffices by its elasti- city to open them. It is remarkable, that during the life of the animal, these muscles really change their place, without ceasing, for an instant, to attach the animal to the shell. They become obliterated, dried up, and detached, by almost imperceptible degrees on one side; while on the other, they increase by the addition of new fibres; and this is done in such a man- ner that they always preserve the same relative position as the shell in- creases in size from age. When the animal is removed from the shell, the muscles of attachment always leave on its internal surface impressions which show their situation, their number, and the displacement which they have undergone. Among the Conchifera, the animal never has a shell, or other hard part internally. The body is always soft, often oval, more or less compressed, and the mouth is generally situate towards the lowest part of the shell, on the left side of the hinge. All the Conchifera are aquatic. Some races live in fresh water, and others in the sea. The greater part are free; but some are fixed upon marine bodies by their shell, and others at- tached by bony filaments, or a byssus. Lamarck divides the class Conchi- fera into two orders, viz. Order first—Monomyarta. With but one muscle of attachment; shell marked interiorly with one subcentral muscular im- pression. Order second—Dimyaria. With at least two muscles of attach- ment; shell marked interiorly with two separate and lateral muscular im pressions. It is not necessary to detail here all the arrangements proposed for this class cf animals. They were included by Linneus among his Vermes testacea, and form the class of Mollusca acephaia in the Régne Animal of M. Cuvier. The older naturalists, who arranged the testaceous animals as one great family by the from of their testaceous covering, took their charac- ters wholly form the shell; and this department of science, including the testaceous coverings of the preceding class, form the branch of science termed Conchology. MOLLUSCA—MUSCLE. 765 THE MUSCLE,! As is well known, consists of two equal shells, joined at the back by a strong muscular ligament that answers all the purposes of a hinge. By the elastic contraction of this, the animal can open its shells, at pleasure, about a quar- ter of an inch from each other. The fish is fixed to either shell by four tendons, by means of which it shuts them close, and keeps its body firm from being crushed by any shock against the walls of its own habitation, It is furnished, like all other animals of this kind, with vital organs, though these are situated in a very extraordinary manner. It has a mouth furnish- ed with two fleshy lips; its intestines begin at the bottom of the mouth, pass through the brain, and make a number of circumvolutions through the liver; on leaving this organ, they go on straight into the heart, which they penetrate, and end in the anus; near which the lungs are placed, and through which it breathes, like those of the snail kind; and in this manner its languid circulation is carried on. The multitude of these animals in some places is very great; but from their defenceless state, the number of their destroyers is in equal pro- portion. But notwithstanding the number of this creature’s animated enemies, it seems still more fearful of the agitations of the element in which it resides; for if dashed against rocks, or thrown far on the beach, it is destroyed with- out a power of redress. In order to guard against these, which are to this animal the commonest and the most fatal accidents, although it has a power of slow motion, which we shall presently describe, yet it endeavors to be- come stationary, and to attach itself to any fixed object it happens to be near. For this purpose it is furnished with a very singular capacity of bind- ing itself by a number of threads to whatever object it approaches; and these Reaumur supposed it to spin artificially, as spiders their webs, which they fasten against a wall. Of this, however, later philosophers have found very great reason to doubt. It is, therefore, supposed that these threads, which are usually called the beard of the muscle, are the natural growth of the animal’s body, and by no means produced at pleasure. Its instrument of motion, by which it contrives to reach the object it wants to bind itself to, is that muscular substance resembling a tongue, which is found long in proportion to the size of the muscle. In some, it is two inches long; in others, not a third part of these dimensions. This the animal has the power of thrusting out of its shell; and with this, it is capa- ble of making a slight furrow in the sand at the bottom. By means of this Turrow, it can erect itself upon the edge of its shell; and thus continuing to 1 Mytilus. Shell longitudinal, equivalve, regular, pointed at the base, and aghenihe by a byssus: beaks almost straight, terminal, an pees hinge lateral, generally without teeth; ligament marginal, subinterior; museuar impression elongated, :lavate sub- lateral. 766 MOLLUSCA—OYSTER. make the furrow in. proportion as it goes forward, it reaches out its tongue that answers the purpose of an arm, and thus carries its shell edgewise, as in a groove, until it reach the point intended. There where it determines to take up its residence, it fixes the ends of its beard, which are glutinous, to the rock or the object, whatever it be; and thus, like a ship at anchor, braves all the agitations of the water. The beards have been seen a foot and a half long; and of this substance the natives of Palermo sometimes make gloves and stockings. AE OY Ss Tak? Is formed with organs of life and respiration, with intestines which are very voluminous, a liver, lungs, and heart. Like the muscle, it is self-impreg- nated ; and the shell, which the animal soon acquires, serves it for its future habitation. Like the muscle, it opens its shell to receive the influx of water, and, like that animal, is strongly attached to its shells both above and below. The oyster respires by means of gills. The water is drawn in at the mouth, which is a small opening in the upper part of the body, and proceeds thence down a long canal, constituting the base of the gills, and so out again, the animal retaining such a portion of air as is necessary for the functions of the body. The oyster differs from the muscle in being utterly unable to change ‘ts situation. It is entirely without that tongue which we see answering the purposes of an arm in the other animal, but, nevertheless, is often attached very firmly to any object it happens to approach. Nothing is so common in the rivers of the tropical climates as to see oysters growing even amidst the branches of the forest. Many trees, which grow along the banks of the stream, often bend their branches into the water, and particularly the mangrove, which chiefly delights in a moist situation. To these the oys- 1 The genus Ostrea, or oyster, is characterized by an adhering shell, inequivalve, irregu- Jar, with beaks separated, and the upper valve advanced as the animal increases In age; hinge without teeth; ligament half internal; the hollow of attachment and the beak in the lower valve increasing with age. MOLLUSCA—PEARL OYSTER. 767 ters hang in clusters, like apples upon the most fertile tree; and in propor- tion as the weight of the fish sinks the plant into the water, where it still continues growing, the aumber of oysters increase, and hang upon the branches. This is effected by means of a glue proper to themselves, which, when it cements, the joining is as hard as the shell, and is as difficultly broken. Oysters usually cast their spawn in May, which at first appears like drops of candle-grease, and sticks to any hard substance it falls upon. These are covered with a shell in two or three days; and in three years the animal is large enough to be brought to market. As they invariably remain in the places where they are laid, and as they grow without any other seeming food than the afflux of sea water, it is the custom where the tide settles in marshes on land, to pick up great quantities of small oysters along the shore, which, when first gathered, seldom exceed the size of a sixpence. These are deposited in beds where the tide comes in, and in two or three years grow to a tolerable size. They are said to be better tasted for being thus sheltered from the agitation of the deep; and a mixture of fresh water entering into these repositories, is said to improve their flavor, and to increase their growth and fatness. Most of the oysters sold in Boston are taken in some part of Long Island Sound, and kept a year at Cape Cod, where they grow much larger, and are better than when first taken. The oysters, however, which are prepared in this manner, are by no means so large as those found sticking to rocks at the bottom of the sea, usually called rock oysters. These are sometimes found as broad as a plate, and are admired by some as excellent food. But what js the size of these compared to the oysters of the East Indies, some of whose shells we have seen two feet over? The oysters found along the coast of Coromandel are capable of furnishing a plentiful meal to eight or ten men; but it seems universally agreed that they are no way comparable to ours for delicacy or flavor. The oysters gaken on the coast of England have a strong taste of copper, which they derive from the copper banks. They are, at first, very disgusting to an American palate. Dee VP EARL OY Sf rR? Has a large, strong, whitish shell, wrinkled and rough without, and within smooth, and of a silver color. From these the mother-of-pearl is taken, which is nothing more than the internal coats of the shell, resembling the pearl in color and consistence. There are a great number of pearl fisheries 1 Meleagrina marearitifera. Lix. The genus Meleagrina has a shell subequivalve. rounded, scaly without; a sinus at the posterior base of the valves for the passage of the byssus, the left valve heing notched and narrow at this place; hinge linear withovt teeth: ligament marginal, elongated,almost exterior, dilated in the middle 768 MOLLUSCA—PEARL OYSTER. in America and Asia. The chief of these is carried on in the Persian gul? and at Ceylon. The wretched people that are destined to fish for pearls, are either negioes or some of the poorest of the natives of Persia. The divers are not only subject to the dangers of the deep, to tempests, to suffocation at the bottom, to being devoured by sharks, but, from their profession, universally labor un- der a spitting of blood, occasioned by the pressure of air upon their lungs in going down to the bottom. The most robust and healthy young men are chosen for this employment; but they seldom survive it above five or six years. Their fibres become rigid; their eyeballs turn red; and they usually die consumptive. It is amazing how very long they are seen to continue at the bottom. Some, as we are assured, have been known to continue three quarters of an hour under water without breathing; and to one unused to diving, ten minutes would suffocate the strongest. They fish for pearls, or rather the oysters that contain them, in boats twenty-eight feet long; and of these there are sometimes three or four hundred at a time, with each seven or eight stones which serve for anchors. There are from five to eight divers belonging to each, that dive one after another. They are quite naked, ex- cept that they have a net hanging down from the neck to put their oysters in, and gloves on their hands to defend them while they pick the oysters from the holes in the rocks; for in this manner alone can they be gathered. Ivery diver is sunk by means of a stone, weighing fifty pounds, tied to the rope, by which he descends. He places his foot in a kind of stirrup, and laying hold of the rope with his left hand, with his right he stops his nose to keef in his breath, as upon going down he takes in a very long in- spiration. They are no sooner come to the bottom, but they give the signal to those who are in the boat to draw up the stone; which done, they go to work filling their nets as fast as they can; and then giving another signal, the boats above pull up the net loaded with oysters, and shortly after the diver himself to take a new inspiration. ‘They dive to the depth of fifteen fathoms, and seldom go deeper. They generally go every morning by break of day to this fatiguing employment, taking the land-wind to waft them out to sea, and returning with the sea-breeze at night. The owners of the boats usual- ly hire the divers, and rest of the boat’s crew, as we do our laborers, at so much a day. All the oysters are brought on shore, where they are laid ina great heap, till the pearl fishery is over, which continues during the months of November and December. When opportunity serves, they examine every oyster; and it is accidental whether the capture turns out ade vantageous. MOLLUSCA—UOCKLE.. PHOLAS. 769 THE COCKLE! Or the cardium, or cockle tribe, there are more than fifty spec:es; some or other of which are to be procured on the sandy shores of all the known seas. They are mostly found immersed a few inches deep in the sand. In size, the different species vary considerably, some heing five or six inches in diameter, and others not more than half an inch. The cockle has a tolera- ble degree of locomotive power, in consequence of its triangular yellow foot, which is conspicuous on the shell being opened. With this feot it can alse draw int6 threads its glutinous matter, and thus in a manner anchor itself on the spot that it has chosen for its residence. The opening of the shell is protected by a soft membrane, which wholly closes up the front, except in two places, at each of which there is a small, yellow, fringed tube. Through these tubes the animal receives and ejects the water which conveys nutriment to its body. THE CARDIUM EDULE, OR COMMON COCKLE, Wuicu is the species most common in England, has a grayish shell, some- what heart-shaped, with about twenty-eight flattish ribs, transversely striated, with recurved imbrications. It isa wholesome and pleasant food. Lobsters and crabs lie in wait for an opportunity of thrusting in a leg ora claw, when the cockle is open, in order to prey on the included animal; but it often happens that the younger ones of those crustaceous animals, not being sufficiently hard to withstand the violent snapping of the shells of the larger species when they close, are deprived of the limb. OH Ey Po) ONT A'S? Or all animals of the shelly tribe, the Pholades are the most won- derful. These animals are found in different places; sometimes cloth- ed in their proper shell, at the bottom of the water; sometimes con- cealed in lumps of marly earth; and sometimes lodged, shell and all, 1The genus Cardium is characterized by a shell equivalve, subcordiform, with protube- rant beaks ; valves dentated, or plicated on their internal margin; hinge with four teezh in each valve, of which the two primary ones are approximated and oblique, and two late- ral distant ones. 2The genus Pholas has the shell bivalve, equivalve, transverse, gaping on each side with several accessory pieces, either on the hinge, or below it; inferior margin of the valves bent outwards; animal destitute of a tubular sheath, projecting anteriorly, two united tubes, often surrounded by a common skin, and posteriorly, a short, thick, muscular foot, flattened at its extremity. 65 770 MOLLUSC A~-PHOLAS. in the body of the hardest marble. In their proper shell they assume diffe rent figures; but, in general, they somewhat resemble a muscle, except that their shell is found actually composed of five or more pieces, the smaller valves serving to close up the openings left by the irregular meeung of the two principal shells. But their penetration into rocks, and their residence there, makes up the most wonderful part of their history. This animal, when divested of its shell, resembles a roundish soft pud- ding, with no instrument that seems in the least fitted for boring into stones, or even penetrating the softest substance. It is furnished with two teeth indeed; but these are placed in such a situation, as to be incapable-of touch- ing the hollow surface of its stony dwelling; it has also two covers to its shell, that open and shut at either end; but these are totally unserviceable to itasaminer. The instrument with which it performs all its operations, and buries itself in the hardest rocks, is onlv a broad fleshy substance, some- what resembling a tongue, that 1s seen issuing Irom tne pottom otf its sme. With this soft, yielding instrument, it perforates the most solid marble; and having, while yet little and young, made its way, by a very narrow entrance into the substance of the stone, it then begins to grow bigger, and thus to enlarge its apartment. When it has buried its body in a stone, it there continues for life at its ease; the sea-water that enters at the little aperture supplying it with luxu- rious plenty. When the animal has taken too great a quantity of water, it is seen to spurt it out of its hole with some violence. Upon this seemingly thin diet, it quickly grows larger, and soon finds itself under a necessity of enlarging its habitation and its shell. The motion of the pholas is slow beyond conception ; its progress keeps pace with the growth of its body; and in proportion as it becomes larger, it makes its way farther into the rock. When it has got a certain way in, it then turns from its former di- rection, and hollows downward; till at last, when its habitation is completed, the whole apartment resembles the bowl of a tobacco pipe; the hole in the shank being that by which the animal entered. But they are not only supplied with their rocky habitation ; they have also a shell to protect them; this shell grows upon them in the body of the rock, and seems a very unnecessary addition to that defence which they have procured themselves by art. These shells take different forms, and are often composed of a different number of valves; sometimes six; sometimes but three; sometimes the shell resembles a tube with holes at either end, one for the mouth, and the other for voiding the excrements. ; MOLLUSCA—TUNICATA. 771 CLASS IIJ.—TUNICATA. Gelatinous, or coriaceous, biforous, bitunicated animals, isolated, in groups, or often joined together in a common mass. Tue place which the animals of this class ought to occupy in the arrange- ment corresponding to their organization, has not been satisfactorily ascer- tained. Cuvier places them among his molluscous animals, in the class Acephala, and makes them the second order of this class, under the title or acephalous animals, without shells; while Lamarck arranges them between the Echinodermata and worms. Latreille places them after the Entozoa, and they form the fourth order of Blainville’s class, Acephalophora, under the name of Heterobranchiata. In point of fact, there seems to be, both among the vertebral and invertebral animals, more than one series of forms and structure, which, either in the descending or ascending scale, where the most nearly-allied groups, in point of structure, are arranged in sequence, will always interfere to disturb any continuous or subordinate arrangement. The existence of these parallel groups presents formidable difficulties to the classification of animals in one unbroken series; but the establishment of closely connected groups into natural families,a plan which has been largely adopted, by the recent writers on the classification of animals, renders the arbitrary limitations of systematic writers, of objects in themselves unlimit- ed, a matter of less consequence. We have, therefore, followed M. Cuvier in placing the class Twnicata, under the general head Mollusca. The animals of the class T'unicata have an oblong, irregular body, as if divid- ed interiorly into many cavities. They have no head; possess no distinct organs of sensation; and no symmetrical or similar parts in pairs. Some tubercles and threads, discovered in their body, are presumed to form the aervous system. The body is besides composed of muscular fibres, and dis- linct blood vessels; the alimentary tube is open at both ends, and a mass of gemme or ova, either solitary or together, in a common envelope, seem to form the ovaries. The respiratory organ in this class is always interior, formed of two membranous, reticular leaflets, sometimes constituting a sort of sac, sometimes forming two bands of unequal length, united by one end. None of these animals possess a retractile tube for locomotion. Their body soft, or coriaceous, is generally fixed either by itself, or in connection with others of the species, to foreign substances. No trace of sexual organs has been discovered. Many of the animals of this class, from their union in a common mass, seem at first sight to form compound animals, like the polypi; but this wide distinction is to be remarked between them and the lower families, in the zoological scale, that the aggregated Tunicata are independen and individual beings, each being provided with a mouth and an aperture for 772 MOLLUSCA—CIRRIPEDA. digestion, applicable to their individual wants, and unconnected with the general nutrition of the common mass. Lamarck divides this class into two orders. Order I. Ascrprarta.— Animals disunited, either isolated, or in groups, without internal communication, and not forming essentially a common mass. Order I]. Botrryrtiaria. —Agglomerated animals, always united, and constituting a mass with a common covering. CLASS IV.:-CIRRIPE DA. Soft animals, destitute of head and eyes, covered with a shell, and fixed, body inarticulated, furnished with a mantle, and tentacular, cirrous, many- jointed arms above. Tue class Cirripeda forming the genus Lepas, in the system of Linneus, was instituted by Lamarck, in 1812, and has since been adopted by Cuvier, Blainville, and other naturalists, as a distinct group of molluscous animals, intermediate between them and the articulated groups. The body in this class is always much shortened, immoveable, and inclosed in a shell, either itself fixed to an extraneous body, or elevated on a tubular and moveable peduncle, which permits some degree of motion. In the first case, the shell adheres immediately to the marine bodies, upon which it is fixed; while in the other shell, of which the valves are always distinct and moveable, and inclosing the body more or less completely, is raised on a peduncle of greater or less length. This foot-stalk or peduncle is tubular, tendinous, moveable, more or less contractile, and fixed by its base; and it does not appear that the animal has the power of changing its attachment, or shifting its place. The tunic or mantle of the Cirripeda, in some cases, envelopes only a por- tion of the body, and forms the external coat of the peduncle in those which have a foot-stalk. In others, as in the genera Otion and Cineras, the tunic envelopes all the body, leaving only an anterior opening for the arms. In none is this tunic divided into two lobes, as in the Conchifera and Mollusca. The jaws in the Cirripeda are lateral, and along the belly are numerous fila- ments named cirri, disposed in pairs, and composed of a great number of sinall joints. These cirri forming a kind of arms or fins, vary in number; sometimes there are twenty-four, or twelve pairs on each side. They are long, slender, unequal, and ciliated, with a horny skin. The longest are found at the summit of the body, and they gradually diminish, in such a manner that the shortest are nearest the mouth. In repose, they are rolled up in a spiral form. These cirri or arms have no analogy with the tentacula MOLLUSCA—CIRRIPEDA. 773 of the mollusca, and seem a species of antenne; but as the animal has no head, M. Lamarck considers them as arms. The heart in this class is situate towards the back, and the bronchize on the sides. Their nervous system forms a series of knots, or ganglions under the belly. The animals are placed in their shell in such a manner that the head is below, and the cirri towards the orifice. Between these is a long, fleshy tube, at the base of which, towards the back, is the anal opening. In the interior is the stomach, with a number of small cavities in its walls. which appear to fulfil the functions of a liver; a simple intestinal canal; a double ovary; anda double winding canal for the passage of the ova. The shell of the Cirripeda is always multivalve, or composed of a number of separate pieces. In a great portion of the class, however, where the shell is fixed immediately to other bodies, the shell appears univalve, its por- tions, six in number, being generally joined together at the sides. This shell is conical or tubular, fixed by its base, truncated and open at the sum- mit. In the opening, which is terminal, are two or four moveable valves, which the animal opens and shuts at will, and which form what is termed the operculum. But in that portion of the class raised on a tubular pedun- cle, which supports the body and shell, the shell is distinctly multivalve, and of a different character from the sessile species. In the greater number, this shell consists of five unequal pieces, which form, when the shell is shut, a cone compressed on the sides; in one genus, besides these five principal pieces, are found others much smaller, termed accessory pieces; and in others, the pieces of the shell are isolated or much separated, and do not en- tirely cover the body. But, however great the difference between the shells of the pedunculated and the sessile species of this class, the animals are analogous in point of structure or organization ; and, the shells of both, simply attached to the body, or fixed on the sum.nit of the peduncle, are essen- tially different from those of the bivalve, where the two pieces of the shell are connected by a ligament and hinge. The animals of this class are hermaphrodite, and all marine. Lamarck divides the class Cirripeda into two orders. Order I. PEpuncutata.—Body supported by a tubular moveable peduncle, of which the base is fixed upon marine bodies ; mouth almost inferior. Order Il. Serssizt1a.—Body destitute of peduncle, and fixed by the shel] upon marine bodies: mouth superior and anterior. 65* V4 ARTICULATA—ANNELIDES. DIVISION III.—ARTICULATA. Tur third great division of the animal kingdom consists of animals whicn have their body or members composed of segments or articulated rings, te the interior of which the muscles are attached. The nervous system con- sists of two long chords extending along the belly, and swelled out at inter- vals into knots or ganglia. The first of these placed upon the esophagus, tnough but little larger than the others, is considered as analogous to the vrain in the higher animals. The teguments of the body are sometimes hard, sometimes soft; and the trunk has often at its sides articulated mem- bers, though in some groups these are wanting. As formerly observed, it is in this division of the animal kingdom, that the transition of the circulation in closed vessels to nutrition by imbibition is observed ; and the correspond- ing transition from respiration in circumscribed organs, to that performed by trachea, or air vessels distributed through the body. The organs of movement and sense are disposed symmetrically on the sides of a common axis. The senses of taste and sight seem most distinct; and their jaws, when they have any, is always lateral. This division of the animal kingdom contains five classes, viz :--ANNELIDES, CRUSTACEA, ARACHNIDES, MYRIAPODA, and INSECTA. CLASS V.—ANNELIDES. Body soft, more or less elongated, naked or inclosed in a tube, and divided into a number of segments ; blood red. THE animals of this vlass are the only invertebral ones which have red blood, circulating in a double system of complicated vessels. Their body is naked or inciosed in a tube, formed of segments, or transversely wrinkled, and often without a head, eyes, or antenne. They are destitute of articu- jated feet ; but the greater portion have in their place, setiferous, retractile papillz disposed in lateral rows. The mouth is nearly terminal simple, erbicular, or labiated, or in the form of a maxillary proboscis. The anatomi- cal structure of the animals of this class has been investigated by Cuvier, Montegre, Spix, and Savigny; and the result of their observations has led to their arrangement in a separate group. The animals of this group, it may be remarked, formed part of the class Vermes, of Linneus. The head of these species which are provided with one, is a slight anterior thickening, distinct from the first segments of the body, and upon which are the antenne andeyes. The antenne are articulated filaments, sometimes short and thick, inserted on the head, and of which the number exceeds five. The eyes, to the number of two or four, are also upon the head, behind the ARTICULATA—ANNELIDES. 775 antenne, and between them and the first segment of the body. The tenta- ceula are either inarticulated filaments on the head or anterior part of the body, or papillz more or less elongated into filaments at the orifice of the mouth. The proboscis is fleshy and contractile, composed sometimes of one, and sometimes of two rings, inclosing the jaws; and the jaws are bony or calcareous, inclosed in the proboscis, in number at least two, and sometimes to the number of seven or nine. When this is the case, they are in two rows, one above the other. The body of the Annelides is in some naked, or without hairs or bristles ; in others, furnished with bristles without papilla, cr with rows of setiferous papille. The bristles which are found without papillz, are not retractile, while the setiferous mamille are generally so. These papille, or mamille, are fleshy sheaths, which inclose each a bundle of subulate bristles. The sete traverse the papille, and are attached to the muscles under the skin. M. Savigny gives the name of foot to each pair of setiferous papilla, and he divides each foot into two branches, one supe- rior or dorsal, and one inferior or ventral. The ventral branch is the most projecting, and they are best organized for progressive motion. At each branch are observed tubular, subartuculated, generally contractile cirri, analogous to antenpe. These are the antenns of the body. Those of the dorsal branches are generally longest. ‘The bristles of each branch, or the subulate bristles, are hard, stiff, opaque, and shine with metallic lustre. They form at each branch a moveable tuft, which the animal has the power of erecting or withdrawing at will. Besides, the subulate bristles are dis- tinguished from others, which are thicker, straight, conical, and very sharp, inclosed in a particular sheath, and generally one in each branch, those of the ventral branches being commonly the strongest. In some genera, how- ever, these acicular bristles are wanting. Some of the Annelides possess a third kind of bristles, which M. Savigny terms hooked bristles. These are flattened and armed below with sharp hooks. They are also retractile, and concealed in the thickness of the skinin repose. The tentacular cirri are those of the first pair of feet, and often those of the two or three following pairs, which are sometimes destitute cf bristles, and have only cirri. In this case, the cirri acquire a greater developement, and take the appearance of tentacula. The last pair of feet constitute, by an analogous transformation, the two filaments which terminate the body posteriorly, in certain species. ‘The first segment of the body, either alone or united to some of the following ones, often forms a ring larger than the others, more apparent than the head ; and in the last segment is a plicated, anal aperture, turned upwards. All the Annelides respire by bronchi, and live in water, mud, sand, or moist earth. These bronchie vary much in situation, size, and form. In some, they are distributed along the body, partially or whally, and in others, they are found at one extremity, chiefly the anterior. The intestine is straight, generally contracted into rings, and the anus terminal. The organs of circulation consist of lateral, dorsal, and central vessels, extending the length of the 776 ARTICULATA—EARTH WORM body. What are termed eyes in some species, are but ocular points, which are not conceived to give the faculty of sight. ‘The Annelides are either naked, or construct tubes or sheaths for themselves, more or less solid, in which they remain without attachment. These tubes, or sheaths, are in some, membranous or horny, incrusted exteriorly with grains of sand, or fragments of shell, in others solid, caleareous,and homogenous. The greater part of the Annelides are carnivorous, sucking the blood of other animals. They are hermaphrodite, but require mutual impregnation. Cuvier divides the class of Annelides into three orders :—1i. Tusicons#, those in which the pronchiz are in the form of tufts, attached to the head or anterior part of the body, and generally inhabiting tubes. 2. Dorsiprancuiz, where the bronchie are toward the middle of the body, or along the sides. 3. ABRaNcCHIm, where the bronchi are not apparent externally. Lamarck, on the other hand divides the class into three orders, from other considerations, viz. : Order I. SepEnTar1=.—Destitute of antenne, eyes, and jaws, and inhabit ing tubes. Order II. Antennat#.—Head with antenne and eyes, and a protractile proboscis often armed with jaws. _ Order III. Avoprs.—Destitute of feet or setiferous papille, and antens nated head. THE EARTH wor mM Has a power of contracting or lengthening itself at will; There is a spiral muscle, that rurs round its whole body, from the head to the tail, somewhat resembling a wire wound round a walking-cane, which, when slipped off, and one end extended and held fast, will bring the other nearer to it; mm this manner the earth worm, having shot out or extended its body, takes hold py the slime of the fore part of its body, and so contracts and brings ‘ Lumbricus terrestris, Lrx. The order Apodes to which the earth worm belongs, are destitute of feet, without setiferous and retractile pepille ; bronchi, when known, dispo itteriorly along the body ; no antenniferous head. ARTICULA TA—LEECH. Tt forward the hinder part; in this manner it moves onward, not without great effort; but the occasions for its progresssive motion are few. As it is designed for living under the earth, and leading a life of obscurity, so it seems tolerably adapted to its situation. Its body is armed with small, stiff, sharp burrs or prickles, which it can erect or depress at pleasure ; under the skin there lies a slimy juice, to be ejected as occasion requires at certain perforations, between the rings of the muscles, to lubricate its body, and facilitate its passage into the earth. Like most other insects, it has breathe ing holes along the back, adjoining each ring; but it is without bones, without eyes, without ears, and, properly, without feet. It bas a mouth, and also an alimentary canal, which runs along to the very point of the tail. In some worms, however, particularly such as are found ia the bodies of animals, this canal opens towards the middle of the belly, at some dis- tance from the tail. The intestines of the earth worm are always found filled with a very fine earth, which seems to be the only nourishment these animals are capable of receiving. The animal is entirely without brain; but near the ean is placed the heart, which is seen to beat with a very aueieel motion, and round it are the spermatic vessels, forming a number of tittle globules, containing a milky fluid, which have an opening into the belly, not far from the head; they are also cften found to contain a number of eggs, which are laid in the earth, and are hatched in twelve or fourteen days into life, by the genial warmth of their situation. When the eggs are laid in the earth, which, in about fourteen days, as has been said, are hatched into maturity, the young ones come forth very small, but perfectly formed, and suffer no change during their existence: how long their life continues is not well known, but it certainly holds for more than two or three seasons. During the winter, they bury themselves deeper in the earth, and seem, in some measure, to share the general torpidity of the insect tribe. In spring, they revive with the rest of nature, and on those occasions a moist or dewy evening brings them forth from their retreats, for the universal purpose of continuing their kind. They chiefly live in a light, rich, and fertile soil, moistened by dews or accidental showers, but avoid those places where the water is apt to lie on the surface of the earth, or where the clay is too stiff for their easy progression under ground. THE LEECH, From its uses in medicine, is one of those insects that man has taken care to propagate , but, of a great variety, one kind only is considered as service- 98 778 ARTICULATA—LEECH. able. The horse leech,! which is the largest of all, and grows to four inches in length, with a glossy black surface, is of no use, as it will not stick to the skin; the snail leech is but an inch in length; and though 11 will stick, is not large enough to extract a sufficient quantity of blood from the patient ; the broad-tailed leech, which grows to an inch and a half in length, with the back raised into a sort of a ridge, will stick but on very few occasions; it is the large brown leech? with a whitish belly, that is made use of in medicine, and whose history best merits our curiosity. The leech has the general figure of a worm, and is about as long as one’s middle finger. Its skin is composed of rings, by means of which it is pos- sessed of its agility, and swims in water. It contracts itself when out of water, in such a manner that, when touched, it is not above an inch long. It has a small head, and a black skin, edged with a yellow line on each side, with some yellowish spots on the back. The belly also, which is of a reddish color, is marked with whitish yellow spots. But the most remarka- ble part of this animal is the mouth, which is composed of two lips, that taxe whatever form the insect finds convenient. When at rest, the opening is usually triangular ; and within it are placed three very sharp teeth, capa- ble of piercing not only the human skin, but also that of a horse or an ox. Still deeper in the head is discovered the tongue, which is composed of a strong fleshy substance, and which serves to assist the animai in sucking, when it has inflicted its triple wound ; for no sooner is this voracious crea- ture applied to the skin, than it buries its teeth therein, then closes its lips round the wound which it has made; and thus, in the manner of a cupping- glass, extracts the blood as it flows to the different orifices. The leech is viviparous, and produces its young one after the other, to the number of forty or fifty at a birth. Itis probable that, like the snail, each insect contains the two sexes, and that it impregnates, and is impregnated, in the same manner. The young ones are chiefly found, in the month of July, in shallow running waiters, and particularly where they are tepified by the rays of thesun. The large ones are chiefly sought after; and, being put into a glass vessel filled with water, they remain for months, nay, for years, without taking any other subsistence. But they never breed in this confine- ment; and, consequently, what regards that part of their history still remains obscure. In England, they seldom grow to above four inches; but in the East, they are found from six to seven. Their pools abound with them in such numbers, that it would be dangerous bathing there, if from no other consi- 1 Hirudo sanguisuga, Lix. The genus Hirudo has the body oblong, blunt, slightly depressed, widened posteriorly, composed of numerous contractile segments, and with the posterior extremity terminated by a broad prehensile disc; mouth naked, dilatable armed interiorly with three teeth or horny jaws; no eyes; anus superior, near tha posterior disc. ® Hirudo medicialis, Lin. CRUSTACEA. 779 deration. The English sailors and soldiers, who were obliged to walk in those countries through marshy grounds, talked with terror of the number of leecnes that infested them on their march. Even in some parts of Europe, they Increase so as to become formidable. Sedelius,a German physician, relates, that a girl of nine years old, who was keeping sheep near the city of Bomst, in Poland, perceiving a soldier making up to her, went to hide herself ina neighboring marsh, among some bushes; but the number of leeches was so great in that place, and they stuck to her so close, that the poor creature expired from the quantity of blood which she lost by their united efforts. Nor is this much to be wondered at, since one of these insects, of a large size, will draw about an ounce of blood. CLASS VI.—CRUSTACEA. Invertebral animals, with a crustaceous, and more or less horny covering, pro- vided with articulated members, distinct organs of circulation, and respiring by bronchia. Tue animals of this class were known to the Greeks under the name of Lalexootoaxos, as designating marine animals, of which the exterior envelope was much less solid than that of the testaceous, and much more so than the covering of the native Mollusca. Among the Romans, this designation was — signified by the terms of Crustata and Crustacea, the last of which forms the present name for the class. The earliest modern naturalists, like the more ancient writers, arranged the Crustacea between the fishes and the mollusca ; and Linneus placed them in his class Jnsecta, along with the apterous insects, including the spiders in the same class. Brisson was the first who formed them into a separate group. The Crustacea in one view ought certainly to occupy a more elevated place among the invertebral animals, than has been assigned to them, — above those, for instance, which are destitute of articulated members and eyes, and where the sexual organs are in the same individual; but, on the other hand, to place them between the Cephalopodous and Gasteropodous Mollusca, which would seem to be their place in the series, would break the chain of connection which unites this great class. It became necessary, therefore, either to place the Crustacea before moiluscous animals, or after them, and this last alternative has been adopted by modern zoologists. The Crustacea, besides the characters they have in common with the two follow- ing classes, possess some peculiar to themselves. They respire by bronchi, or by bronchial lamine generally annexed to their feet, or to their jaws. They have a distinct heart, provided with circulating vessels; feet to the 780 CRUSTACEA. : number of five or seven pairs; a head, sometimes not distinct from the trunk, with two or four antenne, and two moveable, compound, and ofter pedunculated eyes. The organs of generation are at the base of the feet, or at the extremity of the body. The Crustacea are, in general, to be re- cognised from their solid envelope, which is sometimes extremely hard, as when the calcareous matter of the covering predominates over the mem- branous portion; but, according to the families and genera, the calcareous portion diminishes in quantity, and the corneous material becomes predo- minant, till at last the covering seems simply membranous. The antennz in this class are jointed, setaceous, and generally four in number. In some, the head is intimately united to the thorax, or is indis- tinguishable as a separate organ. The shield in this case forms a large covering over the thorax, which is called the shell. In others, where the head is distinct, the body is divided into seven segments, to which the feet are attached below. The body is often terminated posteriorly by a tail com- posed of many segments. The feet, in general, are from ten to fourteen, and with six articulations, the two natural feet, and sometimes the two or four following ones, being terminated in a kind of forceps; at other times, in simple hooks; and in some, the termination of the feet seems adapted only for swimming. The Crustacea have two eyes, in some species elevated on moveable peduncles, in others sessile. These eyes are, in general, compound or reti- culated ; but in some, both eyes are united into one. The mouth is provided, in general, with two mandibles, a Jabium below, and from three to five pairs of jaws. To the first pair, or the first three pairs of these, the name of the feet-jaws has been applied, as being formed by the two or six anterior feet of the animal, modified by their position near the mouth, and not proper for locomotion. The branchie are exterior in the Crustacea, although often concealed, and placed at the sides, feet, or under the tail. They are, how- ever, generally at the base of one part of the feet, and are composed of pyramidal] lamine, or tufted filaments. e The nervous system in this class is very similar to that of the arachnides and insects. It consists principally of a ganglion or brain, placed before and above the intestinal canal, and of an elongated double chord, with ganglions or knots, placed on the lewer surface of the body, sometimes extending its whole length, at others forming towards the middle, a medullary circle, with radiated elongations. The Crustacea enjoy the faculty of sight; many of them, that of hearing; and they possess the senses of smell and taste; but their sense of touch is obscure, from their calcareous or horny covering. The class Crustacea is divided by Latreille into five orders, founded upon the difference in structure and form of the branchie, the manner in which the head is connected with the trunk and the organs of mastication. The first three were included by Linneus in his genus Cancer; the fourth form- ed the genus Oniscus, of that author. - CRUSTACEA—LOBSTER. 781 Order I. Decaropa.— With palpi at the mandibles, moveable eyes, and the head not distinct from the trunk; bronchi# pyramidal, in leaflets or plumes, placed at the exterior base of the feet-jaws, and the feet properly so called, and concealed under the lateral margins of the shell. Order II. Sromaropa.— With palpi at the mandibles, and moveable eyes, but the head distinct from the trunk, and divided into two portions, of which the anterior bears the antenne and eyes; bronchi plumose, sus- pended under the tail. Order III. Ampuirpopa.—Palpi at the mandibles, and eyes immovea- ble, head distinct from the trunk, and in one piece; bronchie vesicular, and placed at the interior base of the feet, with the exception of the anterior pair. Order IV. Isopopa.— Mandibles without palpi, and the mouth always composed of many jaws, of which the two under ones resemble a lip with two palpi; bronchie generally under the abdomen; feet simple, and only proper for locomotion or prehension; head for the most part distinct; no shell; and the eyes granulated. Order V. Brancutopopa.— Mouth in the form of a beak, sometimes composed of many jaws; feet in the form of fins, and the bronchie attach- ed between them. Body generally covered with a shell, not distinct from the head. The Crustacea are generally carnivorous, feeding on dead, or decomposed animal matters. Some are constantly fixed on cetaceous animals, aquatic reptiles, and fishes. The greater portion live in the sea, at different depths, and in localities proper to their various habits; others are found in fresh water, or on land. These which have fin-like feet, swim on their side or back, and the greater part of the others walk sideways or backwards. Some run with extreme rapidity, and others are constructed for climbing trees. Many species afford an agreeable food, and are taken for this purpose, in numbers, or for bait. The members of the Crustacea, when injured or disa- bled, are speedily reproduced, and they change their crustaceous covering annually, THE LOBSTER. Tue lobster is an animal of so extraordinary a form, that those who first see it are apt to mistake the head for the tail; but it is soon discovered that 1 Astacus marinus, Lin. The genus Astacus has four unequal antenne, in the same transverse line, the two intermediate shortest, and deeply bifid, the lateral ones simple, and longer than the body, and the peduncle with squamiform teeth; exterior feet-jaws long, the two first joint furnished with stiff hairs, and small spines on the internal side ; body oblong, subcylindrical, and the shell with a projecting beak; tail terminated by a fan-shaped fin ; the lateral pieces divided in two ; six anterior legs didactyle, the first pair verv long and thick, with the head more or less tuberculous, and spinous. 66 782 CRUSTACEA—LOBSTER. the animal moves with its claws foremost; and that the part which plays within itself by joints, like a coat of armor, is the tail. The mouth, like that of insects, opens the long way of the body, not crosswise, as with man, and the higher race of animals. It is furnished with two teeth in the mouth, for the comminution of its food; but as these are not sufficient, it has three more in the stomach; one on each side, and the other below. Between the two teeth there is a fleshy substance, in the shape of a tongue. The intestines consist of one long bowel, which reaches from the mouth to the vent; but what this animal differs in from all others is, that the spinal marrow is in the breast bone. It is furnished with two long feelers or horns, that issue on each side of the head, that seem to correct the dimness of the sight, and apprize the animal of its danger, or of its prey. The tail, or that jointed instrument at the other end, is the grand instrument of motion ; and with this it can ‘aise itself in the water. Under this, we usually see lodged the spawn in great abundance; every pea adhering to the next by a very fine filament, which is scarcely perceivable. Every lobster is an her- maphrodite, and is supposed to be self-impregnated. The ovary, or place where the spawn is first produced, is backwards, towards the tail, where a red substance is always found, and which is nothing but a cluster of peas, that are yet too small for exclusion. From this receptacle there go two canals, that open on each side at the jointures of the shell, at the belly; and through these passages the peas descend to be excluded, and placed under the tail, where the animal preserves them from danger for some time, until they come to maturity. They are then dropped in the sand, where they are soon hatched, Between twelve and thirteen thousand eggs have been count- ed in one lobster. When the young lobsters are produced, they immediately seek for refuge in the smallest clefts of rocks, and in such like crevices at the bottom of the sea, where the entrance is but small, and the opening can be easily defena- ed. There, without seeming to take any food, they grow larger in a few weeks’ time, from the mere accidental substances which the water washes to their retreats. By this time, also, they acquire a hard, firm shell, which furnishes them with both offensive and defensive armor. They then begin to issue from their fortresses, and boldly creep along the bottom, in hopes of CRKRUSTACEA—LOBSTER. 783 meeting with diminutive plunder. The spawn of fish, the smaller animals of their own kind, but chiefly the worms that keep at the bottom of the sea, supply them with plenty. They keep in this manner close among the rocks, busily employed in scratching up the sand with their claws for worms, or surprising such heedless animals as fall within their grasp; thus they have little to apprehend, except from each other; for in them, as among fishes, the large are the most formidable of all enemies to the small. But this life of abundance and security is soon to have a most dangerous interruption ; for the body of the lobster still continuing to increase, while its shell remains unalterably the same, the animal becomes too large for its habitation, and imprisoned within the crust that has naturally gathered round it, there comes on a necessity of getting free. The young of this kind, therefore, that grow faster, as we are assured by the fishermen, change their shell oftener than the old, who come to their full growth, and who remain in the same shell often for two years together. In general, however, all these animals change their shell once a year; and this is not only a most painful operation, but also subjects them to every danger. Just before casting its shell, it throws itself upon its back, strikes its claws upon each other, and every limb seems to tremble; its feelers are agitated, and the whole body is in violent motion ; it then swells itself in an unusual manner, and at last the shell is seen beginning to divide at its junctures. It also seems turned inside out; and its stomach comes away with its shell. After this, by the same operation, it disengages itself of the claws, which burst at the joints; the animal, with a tremulous motion, casting them off as a man would kick off a boot that was too big for him. Thus, in a short time, this wonderful creature finds itself at liberty; but in such a weak and enfeebled state, that it continues for several hours mo- tionless. Indeed, so violent and painful is the operation, that many of them die under it; and those which survive are in such a weakly state for some time, that they neither take food nor venture from their retreats. Immedi- ately after this change, they have not only the softness, but the timidity of a worm. Every animal of the deep is then a powerful enemy, which they zan neither escape nor oppose; and this, in fact, is the time when the dog- fish, the cod, and the ray, devour them by hundreds. But this state of d2- fenceless imbecility continues for a very short time; the animal, in less than two days, is seen to have the skin that covered its body, grown almost as hard as before; its appetite is seen to increase ; and, strange to behold! the first object that tempts its gluttony, is its own stomach, which it so lately was disengaged from. This it devours with great eagerness; and, some time after, eats even its former shell. In about forty-eight hours, in propor- tion to the animal’s health and strength, the new shell is perfectly formed, and as hard as that which was but just thrown aside. When the lobster is completely equipped in its new shell, it then appears how much it has grown in the space of a very few days; the dimensions 784 CRUSTACEA—LOBSTER. of the old shell being compared with those of the new, 1t will be found that the creature is increased above a third in its size; and, like a boy that has outgrown his clothes, it seems wonderful how the deserted shell was able to contain so great an animal as entirely fills up the new. The creature thus furnished, not only with a complete covering, but also a greater share of strength and courage, ventures more boldly among the animals at the bottom; and nota week passes that in its combats it does not suffer some mutilation. A joint, or even a whole claw, is sometimes snap- ped off in these encounters. At certain seasons of the year, these animals never meet each other without an engagement. In these, to come off wich the loss of a leg, or even a claw, is considered as no great calamity; the victor carries off the spoil to feast upon at his leisure, while the other reures from the defeat to wait fora thorough repair. This repair it is not long in procuring. From the place where the joint of the claw was cut away, 1s seen in a most surprising manner to bourgeon out the beginning of a new claw. This, if observed, at first, is small and tender, but grows in the space of three weeks, to be almost as large and as powerful as the old one. We say almost as large, for it never arrives to the full size; and this is the reason we generally find the claws of lobsters of unequal magnitude. Of this extraordinary, yet well-known animal, there are many varieties, with some differences in the claws, but little in the habits or conformation. It is found above three feet long; and, if we may admit the shrimp and the prawn into the class, though unfurnished with claws, it is seen not above an inch. These all live in the water, and can bear its absence but for a few hours. The shell is black when taken out of the water, but turns red by boil- ing. The most common way of taking the lobster is ina basket, or pot, as the fishermen call it, made of wicker work, in which they put the bait, and then throw it to the bottom of the sea, in six or ten fathom water. The lobsters creep into this for the sake of the bait, but are not able to get ov* again. CRUSTACEA—CRAB. 785 THE CRAB. As the crab is found upon land as well as im the water, the peculiarity of its situation produces a difference in its habitudes, which it is proper te describe. THE COMMON,:OR BLACK-CLAWED: CRAB, Has three notches on the front; five serrated teeth on each side; the claws elevated ; the next joint toothed; the hind feet subulated; the color a dirty green, but red when boiled. It inhabits almost all shores, and lurks and burrows under the sand. It changes its shell once a year, generally between Christmas and Easter, and while it is performing this operation, it retires among the cavities of rocks, and under large stones. The crab is an exceedingly quarrelsome animal, and when it has seized on its antagonist, it is not easily compellee to forego its hold. In this situation, the captive has no resource but to re- linguish the limb, and nature has provided it with the power of accomplish- ing this in a very curious manner. It stretches the claw out stéady, the claw suddenly gives a gentle crack, and the wounded limb drops off, not, as we might be led to infer from reasoning, at the joint, but in the smoothest part. 1 Cancer pagurus, Lin. The genus Cancer, or crabs, have the exterior antenne st ort, in verted between the inner canthus of the eye and front, and the intermediate ones, :n small furrows in the centre; third joint of the anterior feet-jaws, almost square, with a notchat the internal angle of the summit; anterior feet largest, with the forceps unequal; shell short, transverse, narrowed posteriorly ; the anterior margin semicircular, often dentated on the sides, with the lateral angle obtuse; eyes on a short peduncle. 99 66* "86 CRUSTACEA—CRAB. THE LAND: €R AB Is found in some of the warmer regions of Europe, and in great abundance in all the tropical climates in Africa and America. They are of various kinds, and endued with various properties; some being healthfu, delicious, and nourishing food; others poisonous or malignant to the last degree ; some are not above half an inch broad, others are found a foot over; some are of ° a dirty brown, and others beautifully mottled DEE VO nee a B., Or the Caribee Islands, is the most noted, both for its shape, the delicacy ot its flesh, and the singularity of its manners. It somewhat resembles two hands cut through the middle and joined together; for each side looks like four fingers, and the two nippers or claws resemble the thumbs. All the rest of the body is covered with a shell as large as a man’s hand, and bunched in the middle, on the fore part of which there are two long eyes of the size of a grain of barley, as transparent as crystal, and as hard as horn. A little below these is the mouth, covered with a sort of barbs, under which there are two broad, sharp teeth, as white as snow. They are not placed, as in other animals, crosswise, but in the opposite direction, not much unlike the blade of a pair of scissors. With these teeth they can easily cut leaves, fruits, and rotten wood, which is their usual food. But their principal instrument for cutting and seizing their food is their nippers, which catch such a hold, that the animal loses the limb sooner than its grasp, and is often seen scampering off, having left its claw still holding fast upon the enemy. The faithful claw seems to perform its duty, and keeps for al we a minute fastened upon the finger, while the crab is making off. In fact, it loses no great matter by leaving a leg or an arm, for they soon grow again, and the animal is found as perfect as before. This, however, is the least surprising part of this creature’s history; and what we are going to relate, were it not as well known and as confidently confirmed as any other circumstance in natural history, might well stagger our belief. These animals live not only in a kind of society in their retreats in the mountains, but regularly once a year march down to the seaside in a body of some millions atatime. As they multiply in great numbers, they choose the months of April or May, to begin their expedition ; and then sally out by thousands from the stumps of hollow trees, from the clifts of rocks and from the holes which they dig for themseives under the surface of the varth. At that time, the whole ground is covered with this band of adven- turers; there is no setting down one’s ‘oot without treading upon them. CRUSTACEA—CRAB. 787 The sea is the place of destination, and to that they direct their march, with right-lined precision. No geometrician could send them to their destination by a shorter course; they neither turn to the right nor left, whatever obstacles intervene; and even if they meet with a house, they will attempt to scale the walls to keep the unbroken tenor of their way. But though this be the general order of their route, they upon other occasions are compslled to conform to the face of the country ; and if it be intersected by rivers, they are then seen to wind along the course of the stream. The procession sets forward from the mountains with the regularity of an army under the guidance of an experienced commander. They are commonly divided into three battalions ; of which the first consists of the strongest and poldest males, that, like pioneers, march forward to clear the route and face the greatest dangers. These are often obliged to halt for want of rain, and go into the most convenient encampment till the weather changes. The main body of the army is composed of females, which never leave the mountains till the rain is set in for some time, and then descend in regular battalia, being formed into columns of fifty paces broad, and three miles deep, and so close that they almost cover the ground. Three or four days after this, the rear-guard follows; a straggling, undisciplined tribe, consisting of males and females, but neither so robust nor so numerous as the former. The night is their chief time of proceeding; but if it rains by day, they do not fail to profit by the occasion; and they continue to move forward in their slow, uniform manner. When the sun shines, and is hot upon the sur- face of the ground, they then make a universal halt, and wait till the cool of the evening. When they are terrified, they march back ina confused, disorderly manner, holding up their nippers, with which they sometimes tear off a piece of the skin, and then leave the weapon where they inflicted the wound. They even try to intimidate their enemies; for they often clatter their nippers together, as if it were to threaten those that come to disturb them. But though they thus strive to be formidable to man, they are much more so to each other ; for they are possessed of one most unsocial property, which is, that if any of them by accident is maimed in such a manner as to be incapable of proceeding, the rest fall upon and devour it on the spot, and then pursue their journey. When, after a fatiguing march, and escaping a thousand dangers, for they are sometimes three months in getting to the shore, they have arrived at their destined port, they prepare to cast their spawn. The peas are yet within their bodies, and not excluded, as is usual in animals of this kind, under the tail; for the creature waits for the benefit of the sea water to help the delivery. For this purpose, the crab has no sooner reached the shore than it eagerly goes to the edge of the water, and lets the waves wash over its body two or three times. This seems only a preparation for bringing their spawn to maturity; for without farther delay they withdraw to seek a lodging upon land; in the mean time, the spawn grows larger, is excluded 788 CRUSTACEA—CRAPBP. out of the body, and sticks to the barbs under the flab, or more properly tne tail. This bunch is seen as big as a hen’s egg, and exactly resembling the roes of herrings. In this state of pregnancy, they once more seek the snore for the last time, and shaking off their spawn into the water, leave accident to bring it to maturity. At this time, whole shoals of hungry fish are at the shore, and about two thirds of the crabs’ eggs are immediately devoured by these rapacious invaders. The eggs that escape are hatched under the sand; and soon after, millions at a time of these little crabs are seen quitting the shore, and slowly travelling up to the mountains. The old ones, however, are not so active to return; they have become so feeble and lean, that they can hardly creep along, and the flesh at that time changes its color. Most of them, therefore, are obliged to continue in the flat parts of the country till they recover, making holes in the earth, which they cover at the mouth with leaves and dirt, so that no air may enter. There they throw off their old shells, which they leave as it were quite whole, the place where they are opened on the belly being unseen. At that time they are quite naked, and almost without motion for six days together, when they become so fat as to be delicious food. They have then under their stomachs four large white stones, which gradually decrease in proportion as the shell hardens, and when they come to perfection are not to be found. It 1s at that time that the animal is seen slowly making its way back; and ali this is most commonly performed in the space of six weeks. The descent of these creatures for such important purposes, deserves our admiration; but there is an animal of the lobster kind that annually de- scends from its mountains in like manner, and for purposes still more im- portant and various. Its descent is not only to produce an ofispring, but to provide itself a covering; not only to secure a family, but to furnish a house. The animal in question is the Soldier Crab, or Hermit Crab,! which ‘Nas some similitude to the lobster, if divested of its shell. It is usually about four inches long, has no shell behind, but is covered down to the tail with a rough skin, terminating in a point. It is, however, armed with strong, hard nippers before, like the lobster; and one of them 1s as thick as aa eS 1 Pagurus Bernhardus. Lin. CRUSTACEA—CRAB. 789 a man’s thumb, and pinches most powerfully. It is, as was said, without a shell to any part except its nippers; but what nature has denied to this ani- mal, it takes care to supply by art; and taking possession of the deserted shell of some other animal, it resides in it, till, by growing too \arge for its habitation, it is under a necessity of change. It is a native or the West India Islands; and like the former, it is seen every year descending from the mountains to the seashore, to deposit its spawn, and to provide itself with a new shell. This isa most bustling time with it, having so many things to do; and, in fact, very busy it appears. It is very probable that its first care is to provide for its offspring before it attends to its own wants; and it is thought, from the number of little shells which it is seen examining, that it deposits its spawn in them, which thus is placed in perfect security till the time of exclusion. It is very diverting to observe these animals when changing the shell. Tha little soldier is seen bustly parading the shore along that line of pebbles and shells which is formed by the extremest wave, still, however, dragging its old incommodious habitation at its tail, unwilling to part with one shell, even though a troublesome appendage, till it can find one more convenient. It is‘seen stopping at one shell, turning it and passing it by; going on to another, contemplating that for a while, and then slipping its tail from its old habitation to try on the new: this also is found to be inconvenient, and it quickly returns to its old shell again. In this manner, it frequently changes, till at last it finds one light, roomy, and commodious; to this it adheres, though the shell be sometimes so large as to hide the body of the animal, claws and all. Yet it is not only after many trials, but many combats also, that the soldier is completely equipped ; for there is often a contest between two of them for some well-looking, favorite shell for which they are rivals. , They both endeavor to take possession; they strike with their claws; they bite each other, till the weakest is obliged to yield, by giving up the object of dispute. It is then that the victor immediately takes possession, and pa- rades in his new conquest three or four tirmes backward and forward upon the strand before his envious antagonist. When this animal is taken, it sends forth a feeble cry, endeavoring to seize the enemy with its nippers; which, if it fastens upon. 1t will sooner die than quit the grasp. The wound is very painful, and not easily cured. For this reason, and as it is not much esteemed for its flesh, 1t is generally permitted to return to its old retreat to the mountains in safety. There it continues till the necessity of changing once more, and the desire of produ- eing an offspring, expose it to fresh dangers the year ensuing. 790 CRUSTACEA—SHRIMP. 2H ES RE SEP Surimps possess long, slender feelers, and between them two thin, project- ing lamin; the claws have a single hooked, moveable fang; they have three pair of legs; seven joints in the taii; the middle caudal fin subulated, the four others round and fringed; a spine on the exterior side of each of the outmost. These animals, which are of a delicate flavor, inhabit the shores of Britain in vast quantities, ascend the rivers, and even find their way into the ditches and ponds of salt marshes. Those caught in the sea are, however much better than those of the rivers. They are also found in the United States. . THE PRAWN? Tue prawn is not unlike the shrimp, but exceeds it in size, being at least three times as big; and is more pleasing in color, it having, when boiled, the most beautiful pink tint all over its body. The flesh is better tasted than that of the shrimp. It has a long horn in front of its head, compressed vertically, which bends somewhat upward, and is serrated both above and below. Seaweeds, and the vicinity of rocks near the shore, are the haunts of the prawn, which, unlike the shrimp, seldom enters the mouths of rivers. It usually swims on its back, but when in danger it throws itself on one side, and springs backward to a considerable distance. 1The genus Crangon, or shrimp, has the anterior part of the legs largest, with a com- pressed nionodacty, hand; the second and third parts more slender ; the fcurth and fifth thicker; exterior antenne setaceous, the length of the body; the intermediate divided into two filaments; shell thin, semi-transparent, with a short rostrum before. 2 Palemon serratus, LEACH. ARACHNIDES 791 CLASS VIIL.—ARACHNIDES. Oviparous animals with articulated members, and not undergoing a metamor- phosis ; respiration tracheal or branchial, the openings for the admission of the air stigmatiform ; no antenne. Tue animals of this class were arranged by Linneus in the last order of his class Insecta, but were formed into a separate class by Lamarck, in 1800, under Arachnides, from agaxvys, a spider, as denoting animals which can- not properly be included either among the Crustacea or insects. They differ from the Crustacea in having their respiratory organs always in the interior of the body ; and from the insects, in not undergoing a metamorphosis. The head in the Arachnides is not distinct from the trunk; the eyes are sim- ple, and vary in number from two to eight. Some have two jointed mandi- bles or forceps at the posterior extremity of the trunk, such as the scorpions; in others, these parts take the form of the sucker. The Arachnides are also destitute of a labium, or under lip, as in the insects; the part designed under this name being a dilatation of the space between the fore feet, which some- fumes forms part of the sucker. The mouth is generally accompanied by two palpi. The number of feet in the animals of this class is eight; al- though some have six, and the females of others have two additional ones . ior the purpose of carrying their ova. These feet are arranged around the sides of the breast, and are composed of seven joints; the first two forming the haunch, the third corresponding to the thigh; the two next to the leg, and the last two to the tarsi. The feet are terminated by two hooks, gene- rally dentated or pectinated below; and a smaller simple one in the middle. The trunk of the body, except in one family, is soft, and without apparent livisions ; the envelope being a kind of bag or sack, including the organs of circulation, respiration, and intestines, and the secreting vessels of the mat- ters which forms their web. The heart is a large vessel running along the pack, with tranches on each side. The respiratory organs, two in number, and composed of minute laminz, are contained in the interior walls of two sacks, situated at the lower part of the belly, one on each side, and covered by a membranous operculum. A transverse cleft affords a passage for the external air, and two yellowish or whitish spots generally indicate the place of these organs. The intestinal canal is short, with two dilatations, the last surrounded by the liver. The vessels containing the matter of the web, generally six in number, extend on each side internally, are of a tortuous form, narrowed abruptly towards their extremity, and terminate in a straight filament ending at the membranous papille from which the threads are exuded. The generative organs of both sexes are placed at the base of the belly, and are double in all the pulmonary Arachnides. Some of the Arach- _nides live on land; others in the water; and a third group are parasitica] 792 ARACHNIDES—SCORPION. on different animals. In general, they are carnivorous, and suck the >lood of their prey or animals. A small number only feed on vegetable m \tters Many have mandibles which exercise the office of a sucker; and others have an isolated sucker, often, however, joined with mandibles and palpi. The terrestrial species are in general solitary animals, and of a forbidding aspect, and many of them shun the light, and live in concealment. Several of these are poisonous, and their bite dangerous. Lamarck divides the class of Arch- nides into three orders, viz: First, Those destitute of antenne, furnished with branchial sacs for respiration, and with six to eight eyes. Second, Those destitute of antenne, with branched trachea for respiration, and with two or four smooth eyes. Third, Those with antenne and gangliated tra- chia for respiration; while Latreille arranges the class into two orders, ac- cording to the characters of their branchial apparatus. Order I. PutmMonarrz.—With pulmonary sacs for respiration; a heart and distinct vessels. Order Il. TracnEartr®.—Respiring by trachez, and the organs of cir culation indistinct. THE SCORPION. There are four principal parts distinguishable in this animal; the head, the breast, the belly, and the tail. The scorpion’s head seems, as it were, joined to the breast; in the middle of which are seen two eyes; and a little more forward, two eyes more, placed in the fore part of the head; these eyes are so small, that they are scarcely perceivable; and it is probable the animal has but little occasion for seeing. The mouth is furnished with two jaws; the undermost is divided into two, and the parts notched ‘nto each 1 The genus Scorpio has two large palpi in the form of arms, the *ast joint thickest, and in the form of forceps ; mandibles short, narrow, and didactyle ; ore short, rounded ; eyes six or eight; body oblong, divided into many segments, with a long, knotty, tail ter- minated in an arched sting; two pectinated and moveable plates under the belly at the base of the abdomen; four spiracles on each side; eight feet. ARACHNIDES—SCORPION. 793 other, which serves the animal as teeth, and with which it breaks its food, 2ia thrusts it into its mouth; these the scorpion can at pleasure pull back into its mouth, so that no part of them can be seen. On each side of the nead are two arms, each composed of four joints; the last of which is large, with strong muscles, and made in the manner of a lobster’s claw. Below the breast are eight articulated legs, each divided into six joints; the two hindmost of which are each provided with two crooked claws, and here-and there covered with hair. The belly is divided into seven little rings; from the lowest of which is appended a tail, composed of six joints, which are aristly, and formed like littie globes, the last being armed with a crooked sting. This is that fatal instrument which renders the insect so formida- ble; it is long, pointed, hard, and hollow ; it is pierced near the base by two small holes, through which, when the animal stings, it ejects a drop of poison, which is white, caustic, and fatal. The reservoir in which this poison is kept, is a small bladder near the tail, into which the venom is dis- tilled by a peculiar apparatus. If this bladder be gently pressed, the venom will be seen issuing out through the two holes above mentioned; so that it appears, that when the animal stings, the bladder is pressed, and the venom issues through the two apertures into the wound. There are few animals more formidable, or more truly mischievous, than the scorpion. As it takes refuge in a small place, and is generally found sheltering in houses, so itcannot be otherwise than that it must frequently sting those among whom it resides. In some of the towns of Italy, and in France, in the province of Languedoc, it is one of the greatest pests that torment mankind; but its malignity in Europe is trifling, when compared to what the natives of Africa and the East are known to experience. In Batavia, where they grow twelve inches long, there is no removing any piece of furniture, without the utmost danger of being stung by them. Bosman assures us that, along the Gold Ccast, they are often found larger than a lobster; and that their sting is inevitably fatal. In Europe, the general size of this animal does not exceed two or three inches ; and its sting is very seldom found to be fatal. Maupertuis, who made several experiments on the scorpion of Languedoc, found it by no means so invaria- bly dangerous as it had till then been represented. From his experiments, indeed, it appears that many circumstances, which are utterly unknown, must contribute to give eflicacy to the scorpion’s venom; but whether its food, long fasting, the season, the nature of the vessels it wounds, or its state of maturity, contribute to or retard its malig- nity, is yet to be ascertained by succeeding observers. The scorpion of the tropical climates being much larger than the former, is probably much more venomous. Helbigius, however, who resided many years in the East, assures us, that he was often stung by the scorpion, and never received any material injury from the wound; a painful tumor gene- tally ensued; but he always cured it by rubbing the part with a piece of iron 100 67 794 ARACHNIDES—SPIDER. or stone, as he had seen the Indians practise before nim, untu the flesh be- came insensible. Seba, Moore, ana Bosman, however, give a very differ- ent account of the scorpion’s malignity ; and assert that, unless speedily relieved, the wound becomes fatal. It is certain that no animal in the creation seems endued with such an irascible nature THE SPIDER! Has two divisions in its body. The fore part, containing the head and breast, is separated from the hinder part or belly by a very slender thread, through which, however, there is a communication from one part to the other. The fore part is covered with a hard shell, as well as the legs, which adhere to the breast. The hinder part is clothed with a supple skin, beset all over with hair. They have several eyes all round the head, brilliant and acute; these are sometimes eight in number, sometimes but six; two behind, two before, and the rest on eachside. Like all other insects, their eyes are immoveable; and they want eyelids; but this organ is fortified with a transparent horny substance, which at once secures and assists their vision. As the animal procures its subsistence by the most watchful atten- tion, so large a number of eyes was necessary to give it the earliest informa- tion of the capture of its prey. They have two pincers on the fore part of the head, rough, with strong points, toothed like a saw, and terminating in claws like those ofa cat. A little below the point of the claw there isa small hole, through which the animal emits a poison, which, though harm. less to us, is sufficiently capable of instantly destroying its prey. This is the most powerful weapon they have against their enemies, they can open or extend these pincers as occasion may require; and when they are undis- turbed, they suffer them to lie one upon the other, never opening them but when there is a necessity for their exertion. They have all eight legs, joined like those of lobsters, and similar also in another respect; for if a leg _1 The order of Araneides or spiders has paip1 in the torm of small feet, terminated by 8 little hook, the last joint bearing the sexual organs i:. <.4e male; four to six web-spinning Mamillz situate near the anus, and in both sexes. ARACHNIDES—SPIDER. 795 be torn away, or a joint cut off, a new one will quickly grow in its place, and the animal will find itself fitted for combat as before. At the end of each leg there are three crooked moveable claws; namely, a small one, placed higher up, like a cock’s spur, by the assistance of which it adheres to the threads of its web. There are two others larger, which meet together like a lobster’s claw, by which they can catch hold of the smallest depres- sions, walking up or down very polished surfaces, on which they can find inequalities that are imperceptible to our grosser sight. But when they walk upon such bodies as are perfectly smooth, as looking-glass or polished marble, they squeeze a little sponge, which grows near the extremity of their claws, and thus diffusing a glutinous substance, adhere to the surface until they make a second step. Besides the eight legs just mentioned, these animals have two others, which may more properly be called arms, as they do not serve to assist motion, but are used in holding and managing their prey. The spider, though thus formidably equipped, would seldom prove suc- cessful in the capture, were it not equally furnished with other instruments to assist its depredations. It is a most experienced hunter, and spreads its nets to catch such animals as it is unable to pursue. The spider’s web is generally laid in those places where flies are most apt to shelter. There the little animal remains for days, nay, weeks together, in patient expecta- tion, seldom changing its situation though ever so unsuccessful. For the purposes of making this web, nature has supplied this animal with a large quantity of glutinous matter, and five dugs or teats for spinning it into thread. ‘This substance is contained in a little bag, and at first sight resembles soft glue; but when examined more accurately, it will be found twisted into many coils of an agate color, and upon breaking it, the contents may easily be drawn out into threads, from the tenacity of the substance, not from those threads being already formed. ‘Those who have seen the machine by which wire is spun, will have an idea of the manner in which this animal forms the threads of its little net, the orifices of the five teats above mentiuned, through which the thread is drawn, contracting or dilating at pleasure. The threads which we see, and appear so fine, are, notwith- standing, composed of five joined together, and these are many times doubled when the web is in formation. When a house spider proposes to begin a web, it first makes choice 61 some commodious spot, where there is an appearance of plunder ane secu- rity. The animal then distils one little drop of its glutinous liquor, which is very tenacious, and then creeping up the wall, and joining its threads as it proceeds, it darts itself in a very surprising manner to the opposite place, where the other end of the web is to be fastened. The first thread thus formed, drawn tight, and fixed at each end, the spider then runs upon it backward and forward, still assiduously employed in doubling and strengthen- ing it, as upon its force depend the strength and stability of the whole. The 796 ARACHNIDES—SPIDER. scaffolding thus completed, the spider makes a number of threads parallel to the first, in the same manner, and then crosses them with others; the clammy substance of which they are formed serving to bind them, when newly made, to each other. The insect, after this operation, doubles and trebles the thread that bor- ders its web, by opening all its teats at once, and secures the edges, so as to prevent the wind from blowing the work away. The edges being thus for- tified, the retreat is next to be attended to; and this is formed like a funnel at the bottom of the web, where the little creature lies concealed. To this are two passages or outlets, one above and the other below, very artfaily contrived, to give it an opportunity of making excursions at proper seasons, of prying into every corner, and cleaning those parts which are observed to be clogged or encumbered. Still attentive to its web, the spider, from time to time, cleans away the dust that gathers round it, which might otherwise clog and incommode it; for this purpose, it gives the whole a shake with its paws; still, however, proportioning the blow so as not to endanger the fabric. It often happens also, that from the main web there are several threads extended at some distance on every side; these are, in some mea- sure, the outworks of the fortification, which, whenever touched from with- out, the spider prepares for attack or self-defence. If the insect impinging be a fly, it springs forward with great agility; if, on the contrary, it be the assault of an enemy stronger than itself, it keeps within its fortress, and never ventures out till the danger be over. Another advantage which the spider reaps from the contrivance of a cell, or retreat behind the web, is, that it serves for a place where the creature can feast upon its game with all safety, and conceal the fragments of those carcasses which it has picked, without exposing to public view the least trace of barbarity, that might create a suspicion in any insects that their enemy was near. The female generally lays from nine hundred to a thousand eggs ina season. These eggs are large or small in proportion to the size of the animal that produces them. Jn some they are as large as a grain of mustard seed; in others, they are scarcely visible. The female never begins to lay till she is two years old. When the number of eggs which the spider has brought forth have remained for an hour or two to dry after exclusion, the little animal then prepares to make them a bag, where they are to be hatched, until they leave the shell. For this purpose, she spins a web four or five times stronger than that made for catching flies; and, besides, lines it withinside with down, which she plucks from her own breast. This bag, when completed, is as thick as paper, is smooth withinside, but rougher without. Within this they deposit their eggs; and it is almost incredible to relate the concern and industry which they bestow in the preservation of it. They stick it by means of their glutinous fluid to the end of their body; so that the animal, when thus loaded, appears as if she had one body placed behind another ARACHNIDES—TARANTULA. 797 If this bag be separated from her by any accident, she employs all her assi- duity to stick it again in its former situation, and seldom abandons her treasure but with her life. When the young ones are excluded from their shells, within the tag, they remain for some time in their confinement, until the female, instinctively knowing their maturity, bites open their prison, and sets them free. But her parental care does not terminate with their exclusion ; she receives them upon her back for some time, until they have strength to provide for themselves, when they leave her, never to return, and each begins a separate manufactory of its own. The young ones begin to spin when they can scarcely be discerned ; and prepare for a life of plunder before they have strength to overcome. Of this animal there are several kinds, slightly differing from each other either in habits or conformation. The water spider! is the most remarka- ble of the number. This insect resembles the common spider in its appear- ance, except that its hinder part is made rather in the shape of a ninepin than a ball. They differ in being able to live as well by land as water, and in being capable of spinning as well in one element as the other. Their appearanze under water is very remarkable; for, though they inhabit the bottom, yet they are never touched by the element in which they reside, but are enclosed in a bubble of air, that, like a box, surrounds them on every side. This bubble has the bright appearance, at the bottom, of quicksilver ; and within this they perform their several functions of eating, spinning, and sleeping, without its ever bursting, or in the least disturbing their operations. LAE TARANTULA? Is a native of Apulia, in Italy. Its body is three quarters of an inch long, and about as thick as a man’s little finger; the color is generally an olive oruwn, variegated with one that is more dusky; it has eight legs and eight — 1 Argyroneta aquatica, Lat. ® Lycosa tarentula, Lar. 67* 798 ARACHNIDES—SPIDER. eyes, like the rest, and nippers, which are sharp and serrated; between these and the fore legs there are two little norns, or feelers, which it is observed to move very briskly when it approaches its prey. It is covered all over the body with a soft down; and propagates, as other spiders, by laying eggs. In the summer months, particularly in the dog-days, the tarantula, creeping among the corn, bites the mowers and passengers; but in winter it lurks in holes, and is seldom seen. Thus far is true; but now the fable begins; for though the bite is attend- ed with no dangerous symptoms, and will easily cure of itself, wonderful stories are reported concerning its virulence. At first, the pain is scarcely felt; but a few hours after, a violent sickness is said to come on, with diffi- culty of breathing, fainting, and sometimes trembling. The person bit, after this, does nothing but laugh, dance, and skip about, putting himself into the most extravagant postures; and sometimes also is seized with a most frightful melancholy. At the return of the season in which he was bit, his madness begins again; and the patient always talks of the same things. Sometimes he fancies himself a shepherd, sometimes a king; these troublesome symptoms sometimes return for several years successively, and at last terminate in death. But so dreadful a disorder has, it seems, not been left without a remedy, which is no other than a well-played fiddle. For this purpose the medical physician plays a particular tune, famous for the cure, which he begins slow, and increases in quickness as he sees the patient affected. The patient no sooner hears the music than he begins to dance ; and continues so doing till he is all over in a sweat, which forces out the venom that appeared sodangerous. Such are the symptoms related of the tarantula poison; but the truth is, that the whole is an imposition of the peasants upon travellers who happen to pass through that part of the country, and who procure a trifle for suffering themselves to be bitten by the tarantula. Whenever they find a traveller willing to try the experiment, they readily offer themselves ; and are sure to ousted the whole train of symptoms which music is said to remove. THE GREAT AMERTCAN, SPIDER Tus is one of the largest species of the tribe. Its back is covered with a hard, thick, brown coat, hollowed at the sides, and cleft transversely across the middle, as if it had a hole in that place. The head is small, and with difficulty distinguished from the corslet. The mouth is furnished with srown, hard, crooked teeth; the body is large and round, growing out into - Mygale avicularia, Lat. MYRIAPODA. 799 trvo parts. Except the back, the whole body and the feet are covered wrth long bushy hair. The extremities of the feet are smooth and large, like the toes of a dog. This hideous species of the spider tribe preys principally on small birds; in doing of which, it tears them to pieces to get at their blood, and after- wards sucks their eggs. CLASS VIII.—MYRIAPODA. Head distinct, with two antenneé ; mandibles simple, incisive ; feet on ail or most of the segments of the body. TuE animals of this class were arranged among the apterous insects by Linneus, under the generic appellations of Scolopendra and Julus. Fabricius placed them asa division of his class Arachnides; and Dr Leach, in the Edinburgh Encyclopedia, fixed their characters as a distinct class, in which he has been followed by Latreille and the later writers. The Myriapoda, allied to the two preceding classes in their general structure, approach the insects in the organization of their respiratory appa- ratus. This consists of two principal trachea or air tubes, extending longi- tudinally and parallel to one another, the whole length of the body, which receive the air by numerous lateral spiracles. Their sexual organs are also, as in these, single. The feet, indefinite in number, but always more than six, are inserted by single or double pairs on the segments of the body, and increase in number as the body is elongated from age. From their great number of feet, the animals of this class have been designated by the term Millepedes. The Myriapoda, in general, have the form of small serpents or worms, with an elongated body of numerous segments, and of the same thickness, and crowded with feet along its wholelength. Their head is fur- nished with two short antenne, composed of seven joints. ‘They have two granulated eyes, formed by the junction of numerous and smaller smooth ones ; two dentated mandibles, proper for bruising or cutting their food, and divided transversely by a suture; and a labium or lip without palpi, formed of united portions. The two or four anterior feet, joined at their base, are analogous to the pedipalpi of the crustacea. The stigmata or air vessels are often very small, and exceed in number those of insects. The nervous system in the Myriapoda is composed of a series of ganglia, one in each segment of the body, communicating by a longitudinalchord. The animals of this class are found under stones, the bark of trees, &c., and feed on 800 MYRIAPODA—SCOLOPENDRA...GALLY-WORM. vegetable or animal substances. Latreille divides the class of Myriapoda into two orders, viz. Order I. CuttocnatHa.—Antenne filiform, of seven joints; mouth com posed of two mandibles, and a lip divided by sutures; two or four anterior feet united at the base. Order II. Curmoropa.—Antenne setaceous, of fourteen joints and up- wards ; mouth composed of two mandibles, a multifid tip, two palpiform feet, and a second pair of feet united at their base, with a perforated hook. THE SCOLOPENDRA,! AND GALLY-WORM. Or these hideous and angry insects we know little, except the figure and the noxious qualities. Though with us there are insects somewhat resem- bling them in form, we are placed at a happy distance from such as are really formidable. With us they seldom grow above an inch long; in the tropical climates they are often found above a quarter of a yard. The scolopendra.is otherwise called the centipes, from the number of its feet; and it is very common in many parts of the world, especially between the tropics. Those of the East Indies, where they grow to the largest size, and are sometimes more than a foot in length, are of a ruddy color, and as thick as a man’s finger; they consist of many joints, and from each joint is a leg on each side; they are covered with hair, and seem to have no eyes but there are two feelers on the head, which they make use of to find out the way they are to pass; the head is very round, with two small, sharp teeth, with which they inflict wounds that are very painful and dangerous. A sailor that was bit by one on board a ship, felt an excessive pain, and his life was supposed to be in danger; however, he recovered by the application of three roasted onions to the part, and was soon quite well. Of this animal there are different kinds; some living, like worms, in holes in the earth ; others under stones, and among rotten wood; so that nothing is more dan- gerous than removing those substances in the places where they breed. The gally-worm? differs from the scolopendra, in having double the number of feet; there being two on each side, to every joint of the body. Some of these are smooth, and others hairy ; some are yellow, some black, and some brown. ‘They are found among decayed trees, between the wood and the bark; as also among stones that are covered with moss. They all, when touched, contract themselves, rolling themselves up into a circle. Whatever may be their qualities in the tropical parts of the world, in Europe they are perfectly harmless ; having been often handled and irritated without any vindictive consequences. _- 1 Scolopendra morsitans, Lix. 2 Julus, INSECTA. 8U1 All these as well as the scorpion, are produced perfect from the parent, or the egg; and to undergo no changes after their first expulsion They are seen of all sizes; and this isa sufficient inducement to suppose that they preserve their first appearance through their whole existence. It is probable, however, that, like most of this class, they often change their skins; but of this we have no certain information. CLASS I[X.—INSECTA. Articulated animals with six legs, respiring by means of trachee ; head distinet from the thorax ; two antenne. Tus branch of science named Entomology, (from evtouoy, an insect, and Aoyos, discourse,) including the most numerous class of organized beings, has but lately risen into merited consequence. The use of insects, indeed, in the economy of nature, was not likely to be estimated by men in the in- fancy of society, to whose wants or conveniences they were apparently little calculated to afford any addition. To some tribes, however, attention must have been early directed, « . account of the ravages their united myriads enabled them to perpetrate ; and others were early noticed as the industrious collectors of a species of food which man has long converted to his use. The term Insecta is derived from the Latin in, into, and seco, I cut, from the body having the appearance of being cut or divided into segments; and a term of the same meaning, evroua, (ev and teuvw,) was used by the Greeks. Linnzus, whose powerful genius enabled him, in this, as in other branches of natural history, laid the foundation or arrangements, from which all that has since been done has emanated. The characters upon which Linneus founded his arrangement, were chiefly the wings, and hence his system has been called the alary system. The class Insecta, of Linneus, however, as it stands in the twelfth edition of his Systema Nature, included the crustacea and arachnides. He div des the whole into seven orders, viz. I. Cotzorrera, (from zoids, a sheath, and 21egdv,a wing.) Wings four, the upper ones crustaceous, with a straight suture. Il. Hemierera, (from quov, half, and wregov.) Wings four, semicrusta- ceous, incumbent. II. Lermorrera, (from dens, a scale, and ategdv.) Wings covered with imbricated scales. . V. Nevrortera, (from vévgoy, a chord or string, and mtegdy.) Wings membranous, with ribs or nerves; anus unarmed. 101 802 INSECTA. V. Hymenoptera, (from tuqy, a membrane, and mtegov ) Wings mem- branous; anus aculeate. VI. Dirrera, (from dvw, two, and ategdy.) Wings two, with poisers in place of the posterior pair. VII. Arrera, (from «, without, and ategdy.) Destitute of wings or elytra. Fabricius, a pupil of Linnzus, proposed an arrangement of insects, found- ed on their instruments of manducation. De Geer had, indeed, in the majority of his classes, added the characters derived from the mouth, to those afforded by the wings; but Fabricius carried the principle much far- ther, and made the Trophi, or Instrumenta Cibraria, as he termed them, the basis of all his divisions. To the labors of Fabricius, entomology is deeply indebted ; for independently altogether of the merit of his arrangement, as an artificial system, it had the effect df directing the attention of his suc- cessors to parts indicating a corresponding difference in the character and structure of the animals. Subsequent writers have proposed various sys- tems, combining the characters of Linneus and Fabricius. The most pro- minent of these is that by P. A. Latreille, who, in 1796, in his Précis des caractéres générigues des Insectes, limited the definition of the class, and whose object in his subsequent writings has been to divide his orders into natural groups. Cuvier, Lamarck, and others have also done much to in- crease the anatomical and general knowledge of insects, and to facilitate their study by appropriate arrangements; and Mr Macleay has suggested a very ingenious classification, founded on the quinary system, by which it appears that the groups, when arranged in circles of five, seem mutually connected together. Latreille divides the class of insects, as now restricted, into eleven orders. I.—APTERA. Order I. THysANouRA. Order Ill. SypHoNAPTERA. so Wl. PaRAsira. TI.—ALATA. Order IV. CoLEorTERA. Order VIII. HymEenoprera. Go V. ORTHOPTERA. < IX. LepmoptTera. “SM VI. HemieTera. & X. RHIPIPTERA. “ VII. NEvRoPTERA. e XI. Diptera. Che body of insects is divided into three principal parts, the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. ‘The head, of which the surface bears many names, according to the position of its parts, such as the vertex, the fore- lead, the nose, the hood, and the cheeks, supports the antenne, the eyes, and the mouth. The antenne vary much in their composition and form. The anterous insects, wnicn form the first three orders, and the coleoptera, have INSECTA. 8u3 never more than one kind of eyes; but many of the other orders, besides their compound eyes in facets, possess minute smooth ones (ocelli) in the form of brilliant points, sometimes to the nurnber of two, generally three, disposed in a triangular form, on the top of the head. These organs are always immoveable. The mouth is composed of six principal pieces, of which four are lateral, disposed in pairs, and moving transversely ; two other parts, opposed to one another, and filling up the space between these, being placed, the one above the upper pair, and the other under the lower Tn insects which feed on solid substances, the feur lateral pieces are con- sidered as jaws, and the other two pieces as lips. The two upper jaws, generally horny, or scaly, similar to strong teeth, and without an articulated appendage, have been distinguished by Fabricius under the name of mandi- bles, (mandibule,) the two lower only preserving the name of jaws, (mazille). On the back of these are one or two jointed fijarnents, called antennule, but oftener palpi—a character which distinguishes them from the mandibles. They are generally narrow, elongated, compressed, horny or scaly, till near the origin of the palpi, with the upper extremity membranous or coriaceous, in the form of a reversed triangle, ciliated or hairy, and. accompanied often on the internal side, by a smaller piece, named the internal lobe or division. The part or lobe forming the upper extremity of the jaw, sometimes appears in the form of a small palpus, of two joints, which is termed the internal maxillary palpus; in others it forms a vesicular, naked, vaulted appendage, ealled by Fabricius, from its form, galea. In both these cases, the extremity of the jaw, or the portion covered by the internal palpus or galea, is always horny, pointed, in the form of a hook or tooth, or armed with dentations or spines. These insects are always carnivorous or gnawers. When the jaws have neither internal palpus, or galea, are entirely horny, and armed with teeth, the insects may be considered as very voracious. The number of the exterior maxillary palpi varies from two to six. The two pieces opposite to these lateral parts have been termed lips; the upper one being generally termed labrum (labium superius). The under one, termed the ladium, or labium inferius, is formed of two parts; one inferior, generally horny or coriaceous, is the chin, (mentum,) the other membranous, sometimes entire, sometimes notched, or trifid, and bearing the palpi, is termed ligula. These palpi have from two to four joints, and are called labial. They are general- ly shorter than the exterior maxillary palpi. The pharynz is situate between the jaws and the lip. The interior of the mouth in the Orthoptera, and some other insects, has a fleshy caruncle in the form of a tongue, or epiglot- tis. In the Hymenoptera, the pharynx is formed by a triangular process, named epipharynx or epiglossus, by Savigny. In this order, also, the jaws form small, compressed valves, and the chin becomes a kind of cylindrical or conical tube. All these parts, as well as the labium, are often much elongated, and com puse together a species of trunk or proboscis, which Illiger names premusezs, 804 INSECTA. and which Latreille calls a spurigus proboscis ; and in regard to this organ Lamarck considers the Hymenoptera as intermediate between the gnawers and suckers. Among the insects which feed on fluids, or which extract their food by suction, the organs of manducation appear under two modifications In the first, the mandibles and jaws are replaced by minute lamina, in the form of sete, composing by their union, a kind of sucker (haustellum) which is received into a sheath, the substitute for a lip, either cylindrical, conical, or jointed, termed the rostrum or beak in the Hemiptera, or membranous and fleshy, terminated by two lips, termed the trunk or prodoscis, in the Diptera. The labium is triangular or conical, and covers the base of the sucker. In the second modification, the mandibles are excessively small, and in the form of a tubercle, more or less triangular, furnished with cilix on the internal margin; the lip is only distinguished by the presence of palpi; the jaws acquire an extraordinary length, and unite to form a probos- cis or tongue, (Jingua,) rolled up in a spiral form. Interiorly, this tongue is provided with three canals, of which the intermediate is the conduit of the nutritive juices; and at the base of the filaments isa minute palpus. The mouth of the Lepidoptera is an instance of this construction. The trunk or ¢horax is that part of the body which unites the head to the abdomen, and to which are attached the organs of locomotion. It is form. ed of three segments, each with a pair of feet; but in the winged insects the upper sides of the last two segments also form points of attachmen: for the wings. The term thorax has been given to the upper surface of thy trunk, and that of breast, to the opposite face below. The middle part ol the breast between the feet, is the séernwm, and the portion between the at- tachment of the wings, generally triangular, and sometimes very large, is named the shield, or scwtellum. The anterior segment of the thorax, in a great many winged insects, is much larger than the other segments, and separated from the second, by a very marked articulation; in others it is extremely short, and has the appearance of a collar, while the two follow- ing segments, of greater size, are internally united, and form a rounded mass, distinct from the abdomen. In both these cases, the large naked portion receives the name of thorax. The insects of the first three orders have but one species of locomotive organs, and only proper for walking; others have, also, wings to the number of four; and the posterior extremity of the thorax is furnished, in those which have only two wings, with two appendages, one on each side, termed poisers or balancers, (halteres,) and often other appendages in the form of spoonlike scales, (sguamule,) or winglets. The wings (ale) are membranous, elastic, gererally transparent, and attached to the upper sides of the thorax. The ribs or nerves, more or less numerous, which run through them, form sometimes a net-work, sometimes anastomosing veins. In wasps and bees, these wings, four mm number, are naked and transparent; in butterflies, they are cover- ed with minute scales, resembling fine powder, and embellished with INSECTA. 805 the liveliest colors. The scales are imbricated, each has a peauncle, and they form in conjunction, a kind of mosaic work, exhibiting the charac- teristic figures and colorings of this part. In the large class of Coleoptera, in place of upper or anterior wings, two large scales or plates, opaque, more or less thick and solid, and which open and shut longitudinally, forms for the membranous wings, coverings which are called wing-cases, or elytra, (tnvolucra). In the greater part of the Orthoptera, these wing-cases, or upper wings, become thick and solid, and are furnished with ribs; in the Hemip- tera, they are in a great part membranous; and the gradual transition from crustaceous coverings, to membranous and transparent organs, indicate that the wing-cases in the Coleoptera, though scarcely contributing to the action of flight, are modified wings. The form and disposition of the wings is much varied. In some they are straight and extended, or folded longitu- dinally like a fan, in repose ; in others, they are folded transversely, as in the Coleoptera; and in others again, as the earwig, while one portion of the wings is folded transversely, the other takes the fan-like fold. The wings vary also in their place of position. In some insects, they are found inclined or sloped like a roof; in others they are placed horizontally, lying or crossed over one another, or sometimes separated; some, as the butterflies, raise their wings vertically in repose; and small hooked sete placed along the side of the upper wings, serve to retain the lower ones in their position. In the nocturnal Lepidoptera, this is effected by a stiff, scaly, and pointed bristle. Among the insects with four wings, the form and relative size of these wings vary much. By their rapid motion, they often produce a hum- ming sound; and among the males of some Orthoptera, a stridulous noise, which has been called their song. This sound is produced by the friction of the margins of their elytra upon one another, or by the rubbing of the posterior feet against the wings, and is conceived to be produced for the pur- pose of calling their females. The feet in insects are composed of the hip or cova, of two joints; the thigh, (femur,) the leg, (¢ébca,) and the toe, (¢arsus,) divided into many phalanges. The number of joints in the tarsi is constantly five in some orders; but in others it varies from one to five, and sometimes even the pos terior tarsi have a joint less than the anterior ones. Upon the difference in these members the principal divisions of the Coleoptera are established. The last joint of the tarsi is simple, or divided into two lobes, almost always terminated by two claws or hooks, between which, in many, are remarked from one to three membranous cushions or suckers. In the form of the feet, and particularly the tarsi, there are certain modifications, correspond- ing to the habits of the insects. The two anterior ones have sometimes the under part of the thighs grooved, and armed with slight dentations; and their legs or tarsi, in this case, terminated by a strong spine, fold with facility on the side of the thighs, and form an organ of prehension. The insects which have the anterior feet disposed in this manner, use them for 68 806 INSECTA. seizing their prey, and are termed raptori. Others have the tarsi com- pressed and ciliated or even hairy, demonstrating their aptitude to be used as oars, or for swimming, and these are called natatorii. In the family ot bees, the legs and the’ first joint of the tarsi are formed in such a manner as to brush off and carry away the pollen or dust from the stamina of flowers, and the tarsi and anterior legs in other species are sometimes broad, fur- nished with dentations or small spines, and calculated for digging in the earth (pedes fossorii.) These feet also in some are not subservient ‘: :n0- tion, as in many Papilionides, and they differ in others according to the sexes, The abdomen, forming the third and last part of the body, includes the viscera and the sexual organs. It is composed of from six to nine seg- menis, each divided into two semicircles or plates united laterally, the under portion being termed the belly. The organs of generation are situ- ated at the posterior extremity; and hooks or forceps of different forms accompany these parts in the male. The oviduct of many females is pro- longed beyond the termination of the abdomen, sometimes in form of an articulated tube; sometimes as an ovipositor or auger (¢erebra,) composed of plates or filaments often dentated at the end. This oviduct terminates in a sting (aculeus) in the females andneuters of many hymenoptera. The exte- rior envelope of insects, which is more or less solid, serves the double pur- pose of outward protection and internal support. Less complicated than the skin of higher classes, it seems to consist of but two layers, the epidermis or outer skin, and the mucous tissue. Detached from the mucous tissue, the epidermis of insects is almost pellucid, or semi-transparent, and colorless. _From its manner of growth, and the great proportion of gelatine in its com- position, the substance of the outer envelepe is of a horny consistence, more flexible than the coverings of the crustacea, when the phosphate of lime pre- dominates over the animal matter. The body of a caterpillar, deprived of the epidermis, presents the same colors as before; and it is conceived that the growth of the epidermis, being stopped by the layers which grow successively below, destroy the functions of the envelope, and occasion the change of covering observed to take place in the animals at this stage. The appendages of the skin consist of spines, hairs, and scales; the first two being merely prolongations of the epidermis. The solid soft parts of insects are of two kinds. The first, termed muscles, are formed of soft fibres, disposed in bundles, capable of producing motion by their contraction in the parts to which they are affixed. These muscles are always attached to the harder parts by a tendon of a horny consistence. The other soft parts, formed also of muscular fibre, constitute the interior organs, which, with the fluids, perform the necessary functions of vitality. There are generally two muscles concerned in the motion of each part. The muscles which move the head are situate within the thorax, and the principal ones serve to raise or lower it. Within the thorax likewise are placed the muscles whicn move the wings and feet; and besides these are INSECTA. S07 some strong muscles approaching the dorsal or ventral portions, which appear intended to give to the breast a movement of compression or dilatation. Tne abdomen in insects is composed of many imbricated rings, of which the one nearest the breast passes over the second, the second over the third, &c. The muscles which move these parts extend along the anterior margin of one segment, to the posterior margin of that which precedes it, and give more or less motion upwards or downwards, according to the structure and junction of the separate parts. The feet are provided with flexor and exten- sor muscles at every articulation. When the thigh is slender and cylindri- cal, the motion is confined to walking; when thick and tumid, to give room for the requisite muscles, the motions indicated are leaping and swimming, The muscles of insects in general are extremely numerous, very irritable. and many of them extremely minute. In the caterpillar of one species, (Cossus ligniperda) Lyonnet reckoned upwards of four thousand different mus- cles, while those of the human body do not exceed five hundred and twenty- nine; and the strength of these muscles is such, that some caterpillars are able to suspend themseives horizontally in the air for hours, supported by their posterior feet on a vertica! surface. The nervous system of insects is the same as in the annelides, the crusta- cea and arachnides. From the brain, or what is considered equivalent to the brain, the nervous matter in the head, originate threads, which extend to the eyes, to the antenne, and to the mouth. From its posterior extremi- ty arise two chords or one pair of nerves, which, forming a collar, embrace the esophagus, and, uniting below in a ganglion, give off filaments to the surrounding parts. Two chords more or less approximated, often united, are prolonged from thence along the under part of the body, forming at in- tervals other ganglions, varying in number, till the filaments reach the anal extremity. What is called the brain differs but little from the other ganglia, and is distinguished by this appellation, only because the nervous threads of the head seem to be derived fromit. Many consider these ganglia or knots, as so many little centres of nervous energy, and thus explain why, when an insect is cut into small portions, it displays for some time marks of sensation. In insects, two kinds of eyes occur, the first compound, or composed of facets, the others simple and smooth. These eyes are immoveable, and destitute of ciliz, or eyelids. The optic nerve, at some distance from its origin, is extended to form the retina, and divided into anumber of hexagonal threads, which, passing through the network of a circular trachea, go to a mem- brane, generally cellular, called the choroid coat, and after having traversed the posterior part of the cornea, are applied against the facets or multiplied faces of the external eye, take their figure and become individual retin. Those species which shun the light are destitute of the choroid coat. The pigment which covers the upper surface, and that which covers the opposite side of the cornea is opaque, slightly fluid, and adheres strongly. The cornea 1s composed of a hard elastic membrane, with the surface reticulated o7 808 INSECTA. divided by small hollow lines, often furnished with hairs, and a number of hexagonal facets. LLewenhoeck has counted three thousand one hundred and eighty-one in the cornea of a beetle, and eight thousand in that of a moth. The butterfly has seventeen thousand two hundred and thirty-five. Each facet may be considered as a crystalline lens, concave within and con- vex without. The organ of hearing is not manifest in insects, although most of them possess this faculty to a certain extent; for in the coupling season, many males have the power of producing a noise to call the females, as in the grasshopper and cricket. The sense of smell is more evidently manifest- ed both in their larva and perfect state, from their instantly discovering and crowding to places where their food is to be found, or to substances proper for the deposition of their ova, and where they were not previously seen. The seat of this faculty some naturalists are inclined to believe is in the antennx, while others, as M. Dumeril, suppose it to be at the entrance of the trachee or stigmata. On the other hand, Brunnich, Olivier, and Marcel Je Serres are of opinion that the sense of smell resides in the palpi; and experiments on bees have rendered it probable that the chief sensations are communicated by the mouth. From the proboscis being more or less de- veloped, as the palpi are minute or wanting, M. Lamarck considers this supposition the correct one. The organs of touch have been generally con- sidered to be those named antenne or feelers; and insects destitute of them use their palpi and the tarsi of the anterior feet for the same purpose. The covering of the body being generally corneous, can communicate but feebly the sense of touch. In insects, distinct absorbing or circulating vessels have not hitherto been discovered. A dorsal vessel, or long transparent canal, reaches indeed from the head to the posterior extremity of the body; and this has been conceived to be equivalent to the heart and blood-vessels of the higher classes. But this vessel, though narrowed at intervals, corresponding to the segments of the body, and having an undulatory contraction and dilatation from the head to the posterior extremity, possesses none of the characters of a true heart or circulating system ; and it is considered to be the only chief reservoir of the principal fluid in insects, filling and emptying itself by absorption and exuda- tion. M. Carus, however, has discovered in the caudal lamin of some larvee, and in the rudimentary wings, an excurrent and incurrent motion of _ fluid in distinct tubes, which he conceives tobe a true circulation ; a circum- stance which has escaped the penetration of Lyonnet, who always found the undulatory motion of the dorsal vessel to proceed invariably from the head ‘o the tail. As this circulation, or double motion, however, has only been observed in one stage of existence, it is rather to be regarded as a phenome- non connected with the passage of the animal into a different state, than as a circulation analogous to that of animals, with two distinct sets of vessels. Respvration in insects is effected by means of two tubes, one on each side of INSECTA. 809 the hody, and running along its whole length, named trachee. From these tracheal vessels are derived a great many ramifications or bronchi, the num- ber of which is more or less considerable, as they belong to parts enjoyimg more or less vital energy. The tracheee communicate with the external air by means of openings called sézgmata, of which the number varies, placed on each side of the body. In caterpillars, the number of stigmata is generally eighteen. These stigmata are marked in the skin of the insect by a small scaly plate, open in the centre, and furnished with membranes or filaments to protect the entrance. The larve of many species which live in water, have on the sides of their body, filaments or appendages in the form of lamin, upon which are spread vessels communicating with the bronchi and tracher. . Though insects have no lungs, and are destitute of voice properly so called, yet they possess the means of producing sounds. ‘Thus the male grasshopper makes a noise to attract the female. The males of the cicade and the crickets possess the same faculty. In all these insects, however, the means by which the sound is. produced, is similar to that by which a stringed instrument or drum is sounded. The males of the locust and grasshoppers havea portion of the internal margin of their elytra formed of an elastic, transparent membrane, like tale, provided with strong projecting ribs, separated by large hollow spaces. It is a kind of violin, of which the ribs represent the strings ; and the sharp, disagreeable sound by which these insects are distinguished ata distance, is produced by rubbing the elytra over one another. In the cricket, the thigh, furnished with projecting lines, serves as the bow, and the longitudinal ribs of the elytra the strings. In the cicade, the organ which produces the sound is more complicated. It is a species of drum, and is peculiar to themale. The abdomen, which is coni- cal, is provided below and near the base, with two large semicircular scales, which cover an empty space, in which is a delicate, tense membrane, equiva- lent to the skin of the drum, and below this membrane, at the bottom of the cavity, are other parts, which, striking against it, produce the sound. The stridulous noise which is heard when the Sphinx atropos is touched, is occas sioned by the air escaping rapidly by the trachee at the sides of the base of the abdomen, and which is closed in the state of repose by a bundle of stellat- ed hairs. Many coleoptera produce a plaintive and interrupted sound by _rubbing the peduncle of the base of the abdomen against the interior walls of the thorax; and the extremity of the head in others produces a similar sound. The rapid vibration of the wings is the chief cause of the humming noise which most insects produce when flying. Insects feed on all kinds of matters, vegetable and animal; and there is scarcely any production in these two divisions of nature, which does not serve as the food of some insect. Each insect, besides, has a particular food upon which it lives in preference, and which it is endowed with the power of dis- covering and procuring. Many in their perfect state live on food quite difs 102 68* 810 INSECTA. ferent from that upon which they subsisted when 1n the state of larve; and yet, notwithstanding of this, they instinctively deposit their ova upou the peculiar matters necessary for the food of the young. Thus the lepidoptera, which in the perfect state, suck the honey of flowers, never fail to place meir ¢va on or near the plants, the leaves of which are proper for the nourisnment ef the caterpillar; and thus it happens that the culices, whose larve are des- tained to live and find their subsistence in water, drop their ova on its surface. Among the insects which live in society, there are some, as the bees, which are under the necessity of making choice of a dwelling for the pur- pose of storing up a supply of provisions for unfavorable seasons, which would prevent the acquisition of a daily supply. Others, such as the ants, unite and work in common, to procure not only their own subsistence, but food for their larve, which are totally incapable of seeking it for them- selves. Many insects seem confined to one species of food, and never vary in neir taste. Such are a great number of caterpillars, which feed on certain eaves, and if these fail, they die. The herbivorous insects besides, eat often, and almost continually ; while those living on prey, like the carnivorous animals of the higher classes, are capable of considerable abstinence. Certain species of insects subsist on the leaves of trees, such as the larve of the epidoptera, and many of the coleoptera and hymenoptera; others suck the juices of the leaves and stems, as the cicada, and the aphides; some feed on the vegetable excrescences, named galls, and many on the buds of trees. Fruits of all kinds are the subsistence of many insects and their larve; while others prove powerful destroyers of the different species of grain. Even the solid matter of trees becomes the food of many larve, which perfo- rate the timber in all directions, reduce it to powder, and devour the parti- sles. A food more delicate is necessary for some insects, and this is found in that part of flowers termed by botanists the nectary. From these necta- ries the bees collect the fluid, which, after having undergone some prepara- tion in their bodies, forms the substance termed honey; and the ants seek with avidity the saccharine fluid which is exuded from openings i the abdomen of the aphides, caressing them till this evacuation, so necessary to them, is produced. A crowd of insects, both in the larve and periect state, are found in the dung of animals; and dead animal matter of all kinds, particularly that of quadrupeds, birds and fishes is equally sought after by numerous species. The flesh-fly is well known to deposit its ova in butcher’s meat exposed; and the feeding of these minute animals within the meat, accelerates putre- faction and dissolution. Even the dried flesh of animals, and their skins preserved in museums, are the prey of small coleoptera of the genera Dermestes Ptinus, &c.; and these minute animals likewise destroy the most valuable furs. Other insects attack living animals, and feed on their solid and fluid parts. One larva in particular, belonging to the genus Cisteu INSECTA. Sil lives on the back and under the skin of horned cattle, and feeds on the pus which is formed by the tumors occasioned by their residence. Other larvee uf the same genus are found in the stomach of the horse, around the pylorus, and sometimes in the intestines ; and sheep, horses, and oxen feed the larve of another species of estrus in their frontal sinuses,cn the fluid which exudes from the nose. In short, no animal seems free from the depreda- tions of insects; and some larve live even in the interior of the body of other species, as the large family of the ichneumons, the cinips of Geoffroy, and the sphex of Linneus. The organs of deglutition, in insects, present nothing very remarkable. The esophagus is a straight canal, passing between the brain and the first nervous ganglion. %t is surrounded by the nervous matter which joins the two principal organs of sensation. ‘This part of the esophagus is perhaps the seat of the organs of taste. In the gnawing insects, the alimentary matters, after having been cut and reduced to smull portions by the action of the mandibles, are carried to the pharynx. In the suckers, the nutritive fluids are carried there by the pressure of the sucker. The organs of digestion comprise the stomach and the intestinal canal. These are, according to M. Marcel de Serres, formed of three membrares. The stomach presents great variety in point of form, and has been distin- guished by Latreille, into three kinds, which he distinguishes as simple, double, and multiple. The stomach of the first form occurs in the greater part of the insects. In some it is simply membranous; in others it is mus- cular; and ina third group it is not evident, that is, the @sophagus is not dilated. Those which have the stomach membranous and dilated, live generally on the nectar of plants, such as the bees, butterflies, &c.; those in which the stomach is muscular, are chiefly the hemiptera ; and those in which this viscus is not dilated, feed commonly on leaves or roots, which they gnaw and eat. The insects which have a double stomach are the coleoptera which feed on living piey, such as the hydrocanthari, the cicindelete and the carabide. The greater part of the orthoptera are remarkable for the appa- rent multiplicity of their stomachs. The mole cricket of gardens has four. This insect and others analogous have been considered as raminating insects, or as having the faculty of returning again to their mouth the ali- ments in their organs of digestion. In insects, it is to be remarked, there often exist great differences in the structure of the intestinal canal, properly so called, in the state of larve, and in the perfect insect. Thus, in the caterpillar of the butterfly there is an @sophagus dilated abruptly to form a cylindrical stomach, with three transverse rows of coecums totally different from the form of the same parts in the perfect insect. Similar differences nave been observed in the larva of the bee, and indeed occur in many groups. ‘This change of structure is necessary for the accommodation of the animal to its changes of food; but when the larve and the perfect insect feed on the same materials, this alteration in organization does not take place. 812 INSECTA. Besides tne secreting organs proper to nutrition and generation, others are found in certain insects for secreting fluids, either calculated for defence, er for protecting them from variations of temperature during their transforma- tions. The acrid and fetid fluids with which some insects defend them selves, are produced by small tortuous tubes, and accumulated in two vesicles _ near the anus. The Carabi and the Dytiscz secrete acid fluids which redden vegetable blue; the Brachinz discharge an acid vapor, which gives considerable pain; a spe- cies of Blaps produces a brown fetid oil, which swims upon water ; the silk-worm possesses organs for secreting a silky matter of which the threads of silk are formed ; and in the Hymenoptera, such as wasps, bees, sphexides, &e., the extremity of the abdomen incloses a sting, caftulated for attack or defence. This sting is a hollow canal furnished with muscles, of which the contraction or dilatation projects, or withdraws it at the will of the animal. At the base of this hollow tube is found a gland which secretes the acid or poisonous fluid. The sexes in insects are always in separate individuals, male and female, and coupling takes place at certain seasons, as in the h'gher animals. The only exception to this rule occurs in some genera of the order Hymenoptera, where, besides the males and females, a third kind of individuals occur called neuters. These, from what has been observed in the economy of the bees, who, when a new queen is wanted, rear one of the larvee of the neuters for this purpose, and conceived to be imperfectly de- veloped females. ‘The males are distinguished from the females, by their reproductive organs, by their smaller size, and in general more brilliant co- lors; by the form of their antenne, and sometimes by their having wings, while the females are apterous. Reproduction takes place in the last or per- fect state; and after impregnation, the females, with instinctive sagacity, deposit their ova, of various forms, on objects or places where the young animal, when hatched, may find its appropriate food. Insects are in general oviparous animals; for though a few, which have been termed ovo-viviparous, bring forth living larve, as the flesh-fly, or as the Hippobosca equina, produce their young in the pupa state; yet, generally speaking, the whole class may be considered as oviparous. The ova are of two kinds; some with a membranous covering like those of reptiles, and the others crustaceous like the eggs of birds. The variety, however, in point of form, among these ova, is almost incredible; nearly equal, it may be said, to the number of the species. Some are round, elliptical, lenticu- lar, cylindrical, pyrarnidal, flat, and even square; some are smooth, others figured or grooved; and in point of color every shade is employed, some shining with the lustre of pearls, and others with the hue of gold. And these ova are all deposited with the most unerring instinct in places where the future animal may find its proper food without the parent’s care. The number of ova deposited by particular insects is extremely various, but in general it may be remarked that the fertility of insects exceeds that a INSECTA. 813 of birds, and is only surpassed by the almost unbounded reproductive powers of fishes. Lewenhoeck found that a single fly could produce in three months seven hundred and forty-six thousand four hundred and ninety-six flies, simi- lar to itself; the silk-worm moth deposits about five hundred ova; the tiger- moth sixteen hundred. And in insects living in societies like the wasp and bee, whose manners have been more the subject of observation, the repro- ductive powers are still greater. The female wasp deposits at least thirty thousand, and the queen bee from forty to fifty thousand. But all these are left far behind by a species of the white ant (Termes fatale), the female of which deposits not less than sixty ova in a minute, three thousand six hun- dred in an hour, or eight hundred and sixty-four thousand in a day! The most remarkable feature in the history of insects, is the transformations the same individuals undergo during the different stages of their existence. These transformations, more wonderful than the fabled metamorphoses of the pagan mythology, have been adduced in proof of the argument for the existence of design in the conduct of the universe. But to the student of nature, even this instance, however striking, is not wanted to establish proofs of design the most admirable, and beneficence the most unbounded, in the structure and preservation of the almost infinitely numerous tribes of organized be- ings ; since every portion of nature exhibits facts of the same kind, impos- sible to be explained without reference to Infinite Wisdom and Almighty Power. The transformations or metamorphoses of insects embrace three states m which the animals appear, and which form as many great periods of their fife. In the first, they have no wings, and some even possess no organ of movement; in the second, the animal falls into a state of torpor or apparent lethargy, for a longer or shorter period, during which its future organs are completed; and the third displays the perfect insect in the full possession of of all its members and animal faculties. In the first state, the animal, under the form of a small worm, is termed the larva, or caterpillar. These larve appear in two states; 1. Those which, in general form, more or less resemble the perfect insect; 2. Those which are wholly unlike the perfect insect. The first cf these ins cludes, with the exception of the crustacea, nearly the whole of the Lins nan orders, Aptera and Henuptera; the second comprises, with few ex- ceptions, the whole of the Linnean orders, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hymenop= tera, Diptera, and the greater portion of the Neuroptera. Previous to their change, the larve exhibit appearances of the greatest anxiety and restlessness. They cease to eat, wander about with instinctive care, seeking for holes in the earth, chinks in trees, crevices in walls, and other places for their tempo- rary repose. Many penetrate the ground to the depth of several inches; the grubs of the gad-fly creep out of the backs of the cattle, and drop upon the ground, or are carried by the animal, licking itself, into its mouth and through its intestines; and the various aquatic larve leave the water for an 814 / INSECWA element more suited to their future existence. The coccenef/e and others fix themselves by the anus under leaves or twigs; others suspend themselves by a silken thread; and a very great number enclose themselves in cases or cocoons composed of silk and other materials, to undergo their final change. The second form in which insects appear is the pupa or nympha state. In this, the number of the exterior organs of the animal 1s augmented or developed anew. Linneus presents the forms under which insects appear in this state under five heads. The whole, however, may be reduced under two heads: first, those in which the transformation is partial ; and secondly, those in which it is complete. The influence which the partial metamorphosis exercises on the body is not sufficiently powerful to destroy the typical form proper to the species, and is modified only by slight alterations. An experienced eye’which has seen the animal in its first stage of life, can still recognise the individual. The prin- cipal change takes place in the exterior members, and particularly in the organs of locomotion; but the animal retains its habits and activity. In’ the perfect or complete transformation, on the contrary, the larva is so different from the perfect animal, that nothing but ocular evidence of the change can convince of its identity. The pupe of this metamorphosis, although their forms are shortened, and somewhat similar to those which they are to acquire in their last change, take no food, remain immoveable, and give no external sign of life. The term chrysalis is applied by many writers to insects in the pupa state. The period insects continue in the pupa state is various. Some species remain only a few days und>r this form, others as many months, or even years. Each, however, has in gene- ral a stated period, which is seldom or never exceeded. As Lamarck has observed, there seems between the insect races and the vegetable kingdom a correspondence of developement. The larve are produced from the ova when the food of many, the leaves of plants, begin to appear; and the per- fect insect from the same larve, as in a great portion of some orders, appears in its changed form, when food adapted to the animal is prepared in the nec- taries of the expanded flowers. The duration, however, of the pupa state, may be prolonged in certain cases, beyond the average term. Thus it has been found, that according as the insect becomes a pupa at an earlier or later period of the season, it will remain in this state for a few weeks or several months, according to circumstances. The caterpillar of the Papilio machaon, one of those which have a double brood in the year, if it becomes a pupa in July, the butterfly will appear in thirteen days; if not until September, it will not make its appearance unt. June, in the following year. The same is the case with a vast number of other insects, and their developement has been thus discovered to depend much on the temperature of the season, or, which is the same thing, on the developement of plants destined to afford them protection and support. Ip the month of January Reaumur placed several of the pupa of moths and INSECTA. 815 butterflies, which would not naturally have been developed till the following May, in a hot-house, and the result was, that the perfect insects made their appearance in a fortnight, in the depth of winter; and by other experiments he ascertained that ia this high temperature the change was accomplished in five or six days, which would have required as many weeks in ordinary circumstances. The converse of this experiment equally succeeded ; for by keeping pup in an ice-house during the whole summer, the production of the fly was retarded a full year beyond the ordinary period. And it is a fact well ascertained that the pupa state sometimes continues for years—thus providing for the continuance of the species, should adverse seasons threaten to destroy the inclosed animals before they had carried through the great purpose of nature by reproduction. The mode in which insects break through their prison-house or coccoon, and assume the perfect form, is vari- ous. Previous to this period, the color of the pupa undergoes an alteration: the golden or silver tinge in many vanishes, and those which are transpa- rent usually permit the form and colors of the insect within and the motions of their limbs to be seen. In the obdtected pupa, the struggles of the included butterfly or moth first effect a longitudinal slit down the middle of the thorax, where there is usually a suture for the purpose, and the insect gradually withdraws itself from its case.. The members are also withdrawn from a a series of inner membranous sheaths, which separately include them like a glove. In the coarctate pupa, where the outer case is generally more rigid and destitute of sutures, a lid or operculum is found at the anterior end which the animal is enabled to push off; and the coleopterous insects, whose tem- porary dwelling is under ground, await the progress of the developement, and hardening of their elytra, before mining upwards to the open air. In other families, the coccoon is ruptured by the inclosed insect; or in cases where the portions of the cases have been glued together, that glue is dis- solved by a solvent fluid, and the animal left free to escape ; and among the ants, the working class not only feed the young previously, but at their period of transformation cut the minute threads of the coccoons when the insect is ready to appear. Inthe gnat, which undergoes its change on the surface of the water, the pupa-case splits like a little boat, and the animal raises itself from the horizontal to the vertical position, extricates its mem- bers from their confinement, rests for a moment on the water till its wings are unfolded, and flies away. The last stage of the life of insects is termed the imago or perfect state. In this state all their parts are fully developed, and it is only in this stage that they are qualified for the great purpose of reproduction. Immediately upon their exclusion, insects are generally weak, soft, and languid; and some short space of time is required for the expansion of the members, ca.+ culated for action in a different situation or in a different melium. The elytra assume their brilliant colors; the wings expand to their p oper size, and assume their various workings ; and what seemed a few minutes before 816 INSECTA. but an imanimate half-formed mass, is now transformed into an anima decked with the most vivid colors, and rejoicing in its new existence. The operation of expanding their wings in by far the greater number of insects occupies only a few minutes; in some butterflies, half an hour or an hour; and some species of sphynx require several hours or even a day for this ope- ration. In certain t7pule and the ephemera, however, this process is almost instantaneous ; and in some species of this last genus, the insects, after be- ing released from the puparium, and making use of their expanded wings for flight, undergo a slight and further metamorphosis. They fix themselves by their claws in a vertical position upon some object ; withdraw every part of the body, even the legs and wings, from a thin pellicle which covered them like a glove; and so perfect is the resemblance of this exuvie to the insect, as to be at first sight mistaken for it. When the developement of the perfect insect is thus fully completed, it immediately begins to exercise its new powers in their destined functions. It walks, runs, or flies, in search of food, or of the other sex of its own spe- cies if it be a male, that the great purpose of its existence in this state may be fulfilled, the continuation of the species; and so unerring are its intuitive perceptions of the food which is proper, and the protection which it requires, that the new-formed being becomes at once a free denizen of the air, distin- guishing with more than botanical skill the plants and their juices which are necessary for its wants; and guided at once to results which in other be- ings are only acquired by the slow lessons of experience or education. The duration of insect life in the imago or perfect animal is subject to some vati- ations, but in general concludes when reproduction is perfected. There is not, as in the larger animals, a duration of a medium period, only liable to be shortened by accident or disease; but a conditional one, dependent on the earlier or later fulfilment of a particular function. The general law regarding this period among insects seems to be, that a few days, or at most a few weeks, after the union of the sexes, and the deposition of the ova by the female, both individuals perish. The period of effecting this is longer or shorter according to the species. Some, as several ephemera, live only a few hours, and never enjoy the enlivening light of the sun, appearing only to fulfil the great purpose of nature after sunset, and having finished this in the course of a few hours, by dropping their ova on the surface of their native waters, perish before the dawning of another day. Others, as flies, moths, butterflies, and indeed the greater part of insects, take a few days or weeks, to accomplish the same purpose. A comparatively small number, such as some of the larger coleoptera, orthoptera, &c., exist from six to nine, twelve, and even fifteen months ; and some instances have been recorded of particu- lar species, when kept and fed, having their existence prolonged considerably beyond this term. But these are exceptions to the general rule. And it is to be remarked further, that insect life seems to follow a different law from that which prevails among vertebrated animals, where the duration of INSECTA. 817 existence is generally observed to be in relation to the period of their attaining maturity—that is, that an animal is long or short lived, in proportion as it at- tains puberty in a longer or shorter period. Among insects, this analogy does not hold; for while the larve of the goat-moth (cossus lgniperda,) is three years, and that of the cabbage butterfly, not three months in attaining maturity, yet the perfect insect m both lives equally long. The Melolon- tha vulgaris, which exists four years in its preparatory stages, lives only eight or ten days as a perfect insect; some ephemere, whose larve have enjoyed two years of preparatory existence, scarcely live beyond an hour; while the common flesh-fly, whose larve have attained to maturity in three or four days, exists several weeks. It is worthy of remark, as connected with this subject, that although the general rule seems to be that insects die immediately or soon after the period, when the continuance of the species is provided for by their coupling, and the deposition of the ova, yet if the junction of the sexes be prevented, such individuals seem exempted from the general law. It is probable that some of the instances related of insects naving been kept for long periods in the perfect state, have been individuals who had not by the sexual junction fulfilled one important purpose of their being. Gleditsch asserts, that by keeping apart the sexes of the grasshopper, their lives were prolonged to eight or nine weeks, in place of two or three, the general period of their existence; and under similar circumstances, Ephemera, which naturally perish in one day, may be kept alive for seven or eight. The associations among insects for a common purpose are temporary or continued. The temporary ones owe their origin to a female who has sur- vived the winter, and who lays the foundation of the colony, of all the mem- bers of which she is the common mother. Such are the associations among wasps and hornets. The female queen begins the edifice, and deposits ova in the first formed cells, which are destined to produce assistants, to people and complete the colony. The insects first developed are all neuters, or workers. To these, all the labors of the family are committed. In certain communities of Termes, or white ants, the neuters form a body of soldiers ready to defend the commonwealth from enemies, or to make regular war on rival communities, with all the precision and detail of military ope- rations. Me 5 All insects which live in society, with the exception of the Termes, un- dergo a complete metamorphosis. Among the Termes, the young differ hut little from the full-grown insect, except in point of size, the absence a shortness of wings, and other distinctions of slight importance. Among the ants, the neuters are deprived of wings; but in all the other societies, the three kinds of individuals have wings. The instincts of these societies are modified according to their organic differences. Deprived of wings, the neuters or workers among the ants form their dwelling in clefts of trees, wa.ts, or under ground. The wasps and bees, on the contrary, whose wings 103 69 818 INSECTA. enable them to enlarge the sphere of their industry, have a greater choice of material anda wider range of action. Thus the dwellingsof the hornet are formed of a light papyraceous substance, admirably adapted in the light- ness of the material tor being suspended in the air, and as wonderfully con- structed within, for the number of its inhabitants; while the bees collect a resinous substance, inpermeable to moisture, and capable from its ductility, of being moulded into any form. In the societies of insects which exist ina mixed form, that is, where there are workers of one or two other species, the internal economy an arranges ments are so wonderful, that, unless the fact had been witnessed and related by such naturalists as Humboldt and Huber, it would scarcely have com- manded belief. The workers of different species found in these warlile communities, taken by force in their early age, from neighboring ant-hills, become in their perfect state the auxiliaries of the captors or their slaves. But all the neuters of these communities have neither the same form nor func- tions; for some which M. Huber distinguishes by the name of Amazons, have long, narrow, arched mandibles without dentations, which, from their form, are neither proper for carrying nor preparing the materials of their habita- tion, and are evidently rather constructed as arms, for offence and defence, than as tools for mechanical arts. These individuals are, therefore, intend- ed by nature for warriors; to fight seems their strongest predilection ; and the rearing of their young, the most general instinctive feeling of animals, is in their case committed to the care of strangers whom they have taken captive. The other working ants do not take a part in the predatory excursions, unless driven to it by extreme want. The Amazonian ants, at a certain hour, quit their dwelling, and march in close column, more or less numerous, according to circumstances, towards the ant-hill previously recon- noitred — fight their way to its recesses, in spite of opposition—sieze in their mouths the larve and pupe of the neuters or workers, and, putting themselves again in marching order, return with their captives to their own eapitol. Itis upon the species named F’. fusca, that they chiefly exercise their power. M. Huber, led by a very striking analogy, compares the cap- tured ants, retained as workers by these warlike hordes, to the Helots of the Greeks and Romans, or to the negro slaves of modern Europeans. The Formica sanguinea affords an instance where all the workers are of sim- ilar forms, and engage in the same labors; and, though they do not seem to have a kind of standing army among them, like the Amazonian ants, follow ‘he same warlike propensities. M. Huber has detailed the tactics of these »iail animals from observations made in the cantons of Switzerland, where the species is common, and demonstrated that the scourges of war and stavery are not confined alone to human beings. The bee, however, presents instinctive faculties of a more amiable nature. It has no carnivorous pre pensities ; and while some of the other insects which live in societies, sub #ist by rapine and destruction, this interesting animal pursues its peaceful INSECTA. 819 labors, collecting honey and wax from sources inaccessible tohuman means, and presents a model of industry and foresight which has often been held up by moralists as instructive to man. The migrations of insects, or rather their appearance in certain countries, at certain periods, laying waste whole territories by destroying the crops, and eating up every green leaf and blade of grass, do not seem referable to the same causes as the migration of birds and fishes. The appearance of locusts (Gryllus migratorius, Lrn.) in Barbary, Egypt, and Tartary, and their occasional irruptions into the south of Europe, are rather to be attributed to the excessive multiplication of the species, from causes favorable to repro- duction, than to any periodical, instinctive impulse; and their occasional- dispersion, in countless numbers, over the neighboring countries, may origi- nate in the necessity of finding a supply of food. The direction of their flight, in their migration, is generally regulated by the blowing of the wind. In places visited with this scourge, the inhabitants eat these insects, either using them when recent, or drying and grinding them as a substitute for bread. Since the year 1749, though certain parts of Russia, Poland, and Hungary are occasionally visited by flights of locusts, Europe has been free from any very alarming influx of these animals. In that year, they carried destruction over the fairest provinces of Germany, and even extended their flight across the Baltic to Sweden. The temperature of the bodies of insects is very nearly that of the atmosphere, and thus many of these animals, and above all the larve, pass the winter ina state of torpor. In those which live in society, however, such as bees, the temperature of the hive is always somewhat higher than the external air. But the temperature which is neces- sary to develope one species, is not necessary to all, and hence the distribu- tion of insects over the world, in every variety of climate. It has been observed that where the empire of Flora terminates, there also terminates the domain of Zoology ; for animals which feed on vegetables cannot live in places totally ste- rile; and those which are carnivorous must be equally deprived of subsistence. Those countries richest in vegetable productions, are therefore the most prclifie in insects; and as vegetation diminishes, the number of insects decreases. But the proper limits of the different insects in geographical positions, are far from being ascertained; and all that is generally known is, that there are tribes peculiar to the warmer regions of the globe, and others that belong to the temperate latitudes; that some are extremely local; and that others feed on vegetables of extensive dissemination. M. Latreille is of opinion, that, if the geographical range of insects were well known, and the species ascer- tained, a connection between the vegetable productions of the soil, and the animals, might be traced; and a clue might be thence procured for ascer- taining from their insect inhabitants, to what portions of the newest con- tinents the multitude of islands in the Asiatic ocean originally belonged. There is no data for ascertaining with any degree of accuracy the actuai number of insects distributed over the surface of the globe. In reference to 820 INSECTA. the plants upon which they feed, Decandolle conjectures, that sixty thousand species being already known, the total number of plants may extend from one hundred and ten thousand to one hundred and twenty thousand. And Messrs Kirby and Spence, reasoning on this calculation, and that several insect inhabitants are often found upon the same plant, conjecture that four hundred thousand insect species may exist on the surface of the globe: and, proceeding on the same data with regard to the plants of that country, that the insects indigenous to Great Britain may be estimated at ten thousand. In- cluding the Arachnides and Crustacea, one hundred thousand species arc computed already to have a place in cabinets. The slow progress of the science of entomology has left to be discovered by future inquirers, many of the uses of insects in the economy of nature. From what is known, however, of certain races, the analogical inference, regarding the whole, may be deduced, as equally proofs of Divine wisdom and beneficence. Myriads of these small and incessant workers, by their _feeding on dead, decayed, or excrementitious matters, not only preserve the atmosphere in purity, but themselves enjoy the blessings of existence. Some furnish an agreeable food, and others are employed in medicine and the arts. Many form the chief or only subsistence of quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles, and the silk-worm furnishes one of the most beautiful materials of dress. It has been remarked that from the study of entomology, many use- ful arts might have been derived. Thus the hornets composed their dwell- ing of a species of paper, long before the manufacture of that invaluable article was stumbled on by human ingenuity; the Tenthredines or saw-flies, cut the branches of trees with their serrated instruments, long before the use of the saw was discovered in the arts; and their small but powerful instru- ment has still this advantage over the mechanic’s tool, that it combines the properties of a rasp and file, along with that of a saw. The wood-boring bee and the ichneumons are possessed of an apparatus for boring, from which even human ingenuity may improve their implements destined for similar purposes. A small animal of the size of the common ant, (the termes,) builds in an incredibly short space of time, in Africa and Asia, a dwelling of fifteen or sixteen feet in height, upon which the pick-axe makes no impression; and finally, the organs with which the butterflies, the culices, and the common flies pump up the juices upon which they feed, might pos- sibly afford hints for improvement in instruments used for a similar purpose in the arts. “‘ These animals,” says Latreille, “are often so minute, that one cannot even discover their forms without the aid of the microscope; but to the eye of the philosopher, the mass or volume of an object is a matter of little consequence. The wisdom of the Creator never appears with more effect than in the structure of those minute beings, which seem to conceal them- selves from observation, and Almighty power is never more strikingly ex- lubited than in the concentration of organs in such anatom. Mn giving life to this atom, and constructing in dimensions so minute, so many organs, INSECTA—LOUSE. 821 wusceptible of different sensations, my admiration of the Supreme Intelli- ence 1s much more heightened than by the contemplation of the structure of the most gigantic animals.” ‘ We attach, and with reason,” says Reau- mur, “‘a kind of consequence to the knowledge of the faults and perfections of the productions in the fine arts, such as poetry, music, painting, sculp- ture, and architecture; but of the works of the Lord of nature, of this Master of masters, we scarcely think, or that there is any thing wonderful in their structure. There can indeed be no room for criticism, where there is nothing but what is admirable, and where the most perfect finite intelli- gences, the more they study such objects, the more they discover of their wonders. Yet this knowledge, so well’calculated to elevate the mind, and lead it to the contemplation of the source from which all these wonders pro- ceed, 1s regarded by many as frivolous, or of little importance. But he who looks upon an insect as merely a particle of moving wood, or putrid matter, and who has no idea of the marvellous organs of these minute animals, is in a state of ignorance far more gross and blameable, than the man who should confound the most finished productions in the fine arts, with the most rude and shapeless masses.” Pe TOs In examining the human louse with the microscope, its external deformity first strikes us with disgust ; the shape of the fore part of the head is some- what oblong; that of the hind part somewhat round; the skin is hard, and, being stretched, transparent, with here and there several bristly haus; in the fore part is a proboscis or sucker, which is seldom visible; on each side of the head are antennz or horns, each divided into five joints, covered with bristly hair; and several white vessels are seen through these horns; behind these are the eyes, which seem to want those divisions observable in other msects, and appear encompassed with some few hairs; the neck is very short, and the breast is divided into three parts; on each side of which are placed six legs, consisting of six joints covered also with bristly hairs; the ends of the legs are armed with two smaller and larger ruddy claws, serving those insects as a finger and thumb, by which they catch hold of such ob- jects as they approach; the end of the body terminates in a cloven tail, while the sides are all over hairy ; the whole resembling clear parchmeat, and, when roughly pressed, cracking with a noise. When we ‘ake a closer view, its white veins, and other internal parts, appear; as likewise a most wonderful motion in its intestines, from the 1 Pediculus humanus, Lin. The order Parasita, under which this genus comes, has six fect and ne wings; abdomen destitute of articulated and moveable appendages ; twu or four sinall eyes; mouth in a great many, interior, presenting externally, either a snout or nipper. inclosing a retractile sucker, or two membranous lips with hooked mandibles 69* 822 INSECTA—FLEA. transparency of its external covering. When the louse feeds, the blood 1s seen to rush, like a torrent, into the stomach; and its greediness is so great, that the excrements contained in the intestines are ejected at the same time, to make room for this new supply. The louse has neither beak, teeth, nor any kind of mouth. In the place of all these, it has a proboscis or trunk: or, as it may be otherwise called, a pointed hollow sucker, with which it pierces the skin, and sucks the human blood, taking that for food only. The stomach is lodged partly in the breast and back; but the greatest portion of it is in the abdomen. When it is empty, it is colorless; but when filled, it is plainly discernible, and its mo- tion seems very extraordinary. It then appears working with very strong agitations, and somewhat resembles an animal within an animal. Superf- cial observers are apt to take this for the pulsation of the heart ; but if the ani- mal be observed when it is sucking, it will be found that the food takes a direct passage from the trunk to the stomach, where the remainder of the old aliment will be seen mixing with the new, and agitated up and down on every side. There is scarcely any animal that multiplies so fast as this unwelcome intruder. It has been pleasantly said, that a louse becomes a grandfather in the space of twenty-four hours. This fact cannot be ascertained; but nothing is more true than, that the moment the nit, which is no other than the egg of the louse, gets rid of its superfluous moisture, and throws off its shell, it then begins to breed in its turn. Nothing so much prevents the in- crease of this nauseous animal, as cold and want of humidity; the nits must be laid in a place that is warm, and moderately moist to produce any thing. That is the reason that many nits laid on the hairs in the night time, are destroyed by the cold of the succeeding day, and so stick for several months, till they at last come to lose even their external form. So numerous were the disgusting vermin in Mexico, that the ancient monarchs of that country endeavored to rid the subjects of them by imposing an annual tribute of a certain quantity. Bags full of lice were found in Montezuma’s palace, by the Spanish invaders. THE FLEA. Ir the flea be examined with a microscope, it will be observed to have a small head, large eyes, anda roundish body. It has two feelers, or horns, which are short, and composed of four joints; and between these lies its Pulex irritans, Lrx. The order Syphonaptera, under which this genus comes, has the body compressed; mouth with a sucker of two pieces, inclosed between two articulated lamin, which united, form a rostrum or proboscis either cylindrical or conical, and of which the base is covered with scales. INSECTA—GLOW WORM...BEETLE. S23 trunk, which it buries in the skin, and through which it sucks the blood in large quantities. The body appears to be all over curiously adorned with a suit of palished sable armor, neatly joined, and beset with multitudes of snarp pins, almost like the quills of a porcupine. It has six legs, the joints of which are so adapted, that it can, as it were, fold them up one within an- other; and when it leaps, they all spring out at once, whereby its whole strength is exerted, and the body raised above two hundred times its own diameter. THE GLOW WORM! No two insects can differ more than the male and the female of this species from each other. The male is in every respect a beetle, having cases to its wings, and rising in the air at pleasure; the female, on the con- trary, has none, but is entirely a creeping insect, and is obliged to wait the approaches of her capricious companion. The body of the female has eleven joints, with a shield breast-plate, the shape of which is oval; the head is placed over this, and is very small, and the three last joints of her body are of a yellowish color; but what distinguishes it from all other animals, is the shining light which it emits by night, and which is supposed by some philosophers to be an emanation which she sends forth to allure the male to her company. THE BEETLE Or the beetle there are various kinds; all, however, concurring in one common formation of having cases to their wings, which are the more 1 Lampyris noctiluca, Lin. 2 The order Coleoptera has four wings, of which the two pees ones are in the form ot zases; mandibles and jaws for mastication; under wings folded across ; elytra crustace ous ard the suture straight. ae 824 INSECTA—COCKCHAFER. necessary to those insects, as they often live under the surface of the earth in holes which they dig out by their own industry. These cases prevent the various injuries their real wings might sustain by rubbing or crushing against the sides of their abode. These, though they do not assist in flight, yet keep the internal wings clean and even, and produce a loud buzzing noise when the animal rises in the air. If we examine the formation of all animals of the beetle kind, we shall find, as in shell-fish, that their bones are placed externally, and their muscles within. These muscles are formed very much like those of quadrupeds, and are endued with such surprising strength, that, bulk for bulk, they area thousand times stronger than those of a man. The strength of these muscles is of use in digging the animal’s subterraneous abode, where it is most usually hatched, and to which it most frequently returns, even after it becomes a winged insect capable of flying. Besides the difference which results from the shape and color of these animals, the size also makes a considerable one; some beetles being not larger than the head of the pin, while others, such as the elephant beetle, are as big as one’s fist. But the greatest difference among them is, that some are produced ina month, and ina single season go through all the stages of their existence, while others take near four years to their produc- tion, and live as winged insects a year or more. To give the history of all these animals, that are bred pretty much in the same way, would be in- sipid and endless ; it will suffice to select a few from the number, the origin of which may serve as specimens of the rest. We will therefore begin by offering the history of the may-bug to the reader’s attention; premising, that most other beetles, though not so long lived, are bred in the same manner. THE COCK CHAEE Rit May-svg, or dor beetle, as some call it, has, like all the rest, a pair of cases to its wings, which are of a reddish brown color, sprinkled with a whitish —- ed 1 Melolonthu vulgaris, Lin. INSECTA—COCKCHAFER. 825 dust, which easily comes off. In some years their necks are seen covered with a red plate, and in others with a black; these, however, are distinct sorts, and their difference is by no means accidental. The fore legs are very short, and the better calculated for burrowing in the ground, where this insect makes its retreat. It is well known to children by its evening buzz; but still more formidably introduced to the acquaintance of hus- bandmen and gardeners; for in some seasons it has been found to swarm in such numbers as to eat up every vegetable production. The two sexes in the cockchafer are easily distinguished from each other by the superior length of the tufts, at the end of the horns, in the male. In about three months after the eggs have been deposited in the earth, the contained insect begins to break its shell, and a small grub or maggot crawls forth, aud feeds upon the roots of whatever vegetable it happens to be near- est. All substances of this kind seem equally grateful; yet it is probable the mother insect has a choice among what kind of vegetables she shall deposit her young. In this manner these voracious creatures continue in the worm state for more than three years, devouring the roots of every plant they approach, and making their way under ground in quest of food with great despatch and facility. They thus become one of the greatest nuisances of the farmer; as, when numerous, they will destroy whole fields of grass. Atlength, they grow to above the size of a walnut, being a great, thick, white maggot with a red head, which is seen most frequently in new turned earth, and which is so eagerly sought after by birds of every species. When largest, they are found an inch and a half long, of a whitish yellow color, with a body consisting of twelve segments or joints, on each side of which there are nine breathing holes, and three red feet. The head is large in proportion to the body, of a reddish color, with a pincer before, anda semicircular lip, with which it cuts the roots of plants, and sucks out their moisture. As this insect lives entirely under ground, it has no occa sion for eyes, and accordingly it is found to have none, but is furnishea with two feelers, which, like the crutch of a blind man, serve to direct its motions. Such is the form of this animal, that lives for years in the worm state under ground, still voracious, and every year changing its skin. It is not till the end of the fourth year that this extraordinary insect pre- pares to emerge from its subterraneous abode; and even this is not effectea but by a tedious preparation. Wherever an attentive observer then walks abroad, he will see them bursting up before him in his pathway, like ghosts on a theatre. He will see every part of the earth, that had its surface beaten into hardness, perfo- rated by their egression. When the season is favorable for them, they are seen by thousands, buzzing along, hitting against every object that inter- cepts their fight. The mid-day sun, however, seems too powerful for their constitutions; they then lurk under the leaves and branches of some shady tree ; but the willow seems particularly their most favorite food; there they 104 Wi 826 INSECTA—CANTHARIS...TUMBLEDUNG. lurk in clusters, and seldom quit the tree till they have devoured all its verdure. Their duration, however, is but short, as they never survive the season. Of all the beetle kind this is the most numerous, and therefore deserves the chief attention of history. Like them, all other beetles are bred from the egg, which is deposited in the ground, or sometimes, though seldom, in the barks of trees; they change into a worm; they subsist in that state py living upon the roots of vegetables, or the succulent parts of the bark around them. THE .CANTHAR IS? Is of the beetle kind, whence come cantharides, well known in the shops by the name of Spanish flies, and for their use in blisters. They have feelers like bristles, Hexible cases to the wings, a breast pretty plain, and the sides of the belly wrinkled. Cantharides differ from each other in their size, shape, and color; those used in the shops also do the same. The largest in these parts are about an inch long, andas much in circumference ; but others are not above three quarters of an inch. Some are of a pure azure color, others of pure gold, and others again have a mixture of pure gold and azure colors; but they are all very brilliant, and extremely beautiful. These insects, as is well known, are of the greatest benefit to mankind, making a part in various medicines conducive to human preservation. They are chiefly natives of Spain, Italy, and Portugal; but they are to be met with also about Paris in the summer time, upon the leaves of the ash, the poplar, and the rose-trees, and also among wheat, and in meadows. THE TUMBLEDUNG! ParticuLARLY demands our attention; it is all over of a dusky black, rounder than those animals are generally found tobe, and so strong, though not much larger than the common black beetle, that if one of them be put under a brass candlestick, it will cause it to move backwards and forwards, as if 1t were by an invisible hand, to the admiration of those who are not accustomed to the sight; Lut this strength is given it for much more useful purposes than those of exciting human curiosity, for there is no creature more laborious, either in seeking subsistence, or in providing a proper retreat 1 Cantharis vesicatoria, Lin. 2 Ateuchus volvens, Lin. INSECTA—ELEPHANT BEETLE. 827 for its young. They are endowed with sagacity to discover subsistence by their excellent smelling, which directs them in flight to excrements just fallen from man or beast, on which they instantly drop, and fall unanimously to work in forming round balls or pellets thereof, in the middle of which they lay an egg. These pellets, in September, they convey three feet deep in tne earth, where they lie till the approach of spring; when the eggs are hatched, the nest bursts, and the insects find their way out of the earth. They assist each other, with indefatigable industry, in rolling these globular pellets to the place where they are to be buried. This they perform with the tail foremost, by raising up their hinder part, and shoving along the ball with their hind feet. They are always accompanied with other beetles of a larger size, and of a more elegant structure and color. The breast of this is covered with a shield of a crimson color, and shining like metal; the head is of the like color, mixed with green, and on the crown of the head stands a shining black horn, bended backwards. These are called the kings of the beetles; but for what reason is uncertain, since they partake of the same dirty drudgery with the rest. THE ELEPHANT BEETLE! Is the largest of this kind hitherto known, and is found in South America, particularly Guiana and Surinam, as well as about the river Oroonoko. It is of a black color, and the whole body is covered with a very hard shell, full as thick and as strong as that of asmall crab. Its length, from the hinder part of the eyes, is almost four inches, and from the same part to the end of the proboscis, or trunk, four inches and three quarters. The trans- verse diameter of the body is two inches anda quarter, and the breadth of each elytron, or case for the wings, is an inch andthree tenths. The anten- ne, or feelers, are quite horny ; for which reason the proboscis, or trunk, is moveable at its insertion into the head, and seems to supply the place of feelers. The horns are eight tenths of an inch long, and terminate in points. The proboscis is an inch anda quarter long, and turns upwards, making a crooked line, terminating in two horns, each of which is near a quarter of an inch long; but they are not perforated at the end like the proboscis of other insects. About four tenths of an inch above the head, or that side next the body, is a prominence, or small horn, which, if the rest of the trunk were away, would cause this part to resemble the horn of a rhinoceros. There is indeed a beetle so called; but then the horn or trunk has no fork at the end, though the lower horns resemble this. The feet are all forked at the end, but not like the lobster’s claws. 1 Scarabeus Hercules, Lin. 828 INSECTA—COCKROACH. THE GIGANTIC, CO CKROM CH Tue above insect is the largest of its species, and is almost the size of a hen’s egg. It isa native and plague of the warm parts cr Asia, Africa, and South America. This, and indeed all the other species of cocnivaches, are a race of pestiferous beings, equally noisome and mischievous w_ natives or strangers. These filthy and-voracious insects fly out in the evez:ag, plunder and defile all kinds of victuals, dressed and undressed, and damage all sorts of clothing, every thing made of leather, books, paper, and various other articles. They fly into the flame of candles, and sometimes into the dishes ; and they are very fond of ink and of oil, into which they are apt to fall and perish. In this case, they soon turn most offensively putrid, so that a man might as well sit over the putrid body of a large animal, as write with the ink in which they have died. They often fly into the faces or bosoms of per- sons, and their legs being armed with sharp spines, the pricking excites a sudden horror not easily repressed. In olc houses they swarm by myriads, making indescribably nasty every part where they harbor, which in the day time is in dark corners, behind all sorts of clothes, in trunks, boxes, and in short every place where they can lie concealed. In old timber and deal houses, when the family is retired at nizht to sleep, this insect, among its other disagreeable properties, has the power of making a noise which very much resembles a pretty smart knocking with the knuckle upon wainscot- ing; in the West Indies, it is therefore frequently known by the name of the drummer. 1 Blatta gigantea. The order Orthoptera, to which this genus belongs, has ely tra coriaceous, ‘the margin of the one covering the margin of the other; mouth wih mandi- bles ; wings folded longitudinally, and sometimes behind transversely ; metamorphosis semicomplete. INSECTA—GRASSHOPPER 829 THE GRASSHOPPER. ny 1——=—____ — || Sesser Se Sa eae EN Twat animal which is called the grasshopper with us, differs greatiy from. the cicada of antiquity; for, as our insect is active enough in hopping through the long grass, whence it has taken its name, the cicada had not this power, but either walked or flew. The little hissing note also of our grasshopper is very different from the song of the cicada, which was louder and far more musical. Of this variegated tribe, the little grasshopper! that breeds in such plenty in every meadow, and that continues his chirping through the summer, is oest known to us; and, by having its history, we shall be possessed of that of all the rest. This animal is of the color of green leaves, except a line of brown which streaks the back, and two pale lines under the belly, and behind the legs. It may be divided into the head, the corselet, and the pelly. The head is oblong, regarding the earth, and bearing some resemblance to that of a horse. Its mouth is covered by a kind of round buckler jutting over it, and armed with teeth of a brown color, hooked at the points Within the mouth is-perceivable a large reddish tongue, fixed to the lower jaw. The feelers, or horns, are very long, tapering on to a point, and the eyes are like two black specks, a little prominent. The corselet is elevated, aarrow, armed above and below by two serrated spines. The back isarmea with a strong buckler, to which the muscles of tue legs are firmly bound and round these muscles are seen the vessels by which the animal breathes, as white as snow. ‘The last pair of legs are much longer and stronger than the first two pair, fortified by thick muscles, and very well formed for leap» ing. It has four wings; the anterior ones springing from the second pair of legs, the posterior from the third pair. The hinder wings are much finer and more expansive than the foremost, and are the principal instruments of its flight. The belly is considerably large, composed of eight rings, and terminated by a forky tail, covered with down, like the tail of a rat. When examined internally, besides the gullet, we discover a small stomach; and behind that a very large one, wrinkled and furrowed withinside; lower down there is still a third; so that it is not without reasun that all the ’ Acridium. 79 > 2 830 INSECTA—GRASSHOPPER. animals of this order are said to chew the cud, as tiey so much resembie ruminating animals in their internal conformation. A short time after the grasshopper assumes its wings, it fills the meadow with its note which, like that among birds, is a call to courtship. The male only of this tribe is vocal; and upon examining it at the base of the wings, there will be found a little hole in its body, covered with a fine transparent membrane. This is thought by Linneus, to be the instrument it employs in singing; but others are ot opinion, tae sound is produced by rubbing its hinder legs against each other; however this may be, the note of one male is seldom heard, but it is returned by another; and the two little animals, after many mutual insults of this kind, are seen to meet and ficht desperately. The female is generally the reward of victory ; for, after the combat, the male seizes her with his teeth behind the neck, and thus keeps her for several hours. Towards the latter end of autumn, the female prepares to deposit her burthen ; and her body is then seen greatly distended with her eggs, which she carries to the number of a hundred and fifty. In order to make a pro- per lodgment in the earth for them, nature has furnished her with an instru- ment at her tail, somewhat resembling a two-edged sword, which she can sheathe and unsheathe at pleasure; with this she pierces the earth as deep as she is able; and into the hole which her instrument has made, she de- posits her eggs, one after the other. Having thus provided for the continuation of her posterity, the anal herself does not long survive; but, as the winter approaches, she dries up, seems to feel the effects of age, and dies from a total decay. Some, how- ever, assert, that she is killed by the cold; and others, that she is eaten by worms; but certain it is, that neither male nor female are ever seen to survive the winter. In the mean time, the eggs which have been deposited continue unaltered, either by the severity of the season, or the retardation of the spring. They are of an oval figure, white, and of the con- sistence of horn ; their size nearly equals that of a grain of anise; they are enveloped in the body within a covering, branched all over with yelieend arteries; and when excluded they crack, on being pressed between the fingers; their substance within is a whitish, viscous, and transparent fluid. Generally, about the beginning of May, every egg produces an insect, about the size of a flea. These at first are of a whitish color; at the end of two or three days they turn black; and soon after they become of a reddish brown. They appear, from the beginning, like grasshoppers wanting wings; and hop among the grass, as soon as excluded, with great agility. Yet still they are by no means arrived at their state of full perfection ; although they bear a strong resemblance to the animal in its perfect form. They want, or seem to want, the wings, which they are at last seen to assume ; and can only hop among the grass, without being able to fly. The wings, however, are not wanting, but are concealed within four little INSECTA—GRASSHOPPER. > 83 ‘ bunches, that seem to deform the sides of the animal; there they he rolled up in a most curious manner, and occupying a smaller space than one could conceive. Indeed, all insects, whatever transmutations they seem to un- dergo, are yet brought forth with those very limbs, parts, and wings, which tney alterwards seem to acquire. In the most helpless caterpillar, there are still to be seen the rudiments of that beautiful plumage which it afterwards expands when a butterfly; and though many new parts seem unfolded to the view, the animal acquires none but such as it was from the beginning possessed of. The grasshopper, that for above twenty days from its exclusion, has con- unued without the use of its wings, which were folded up to its body, at length prepares for its emancipation, and for a life of greater liberty and pleasure. To make the proper dispositions for the approaching cnange, it ceases from its grassy food, and seeks about for a convenient place, peneath some thorn or thistle, that may protect it from an accidental snower. The same laborious writhings and workings, heavings and palpitations, which we have remarked in every other insect upon an approaching change, are exhibited in this. At length, the skin covering the head and breast is seen dividing above the neck; the head is seen issuing out first from the bursting skin; the efforts still continuing, the other parts follow successively ; so that the little animal with its long feelers, legs and all, works its way from the old skin, that re- mains fixed to the thistle or the thorn. It is, indeed, inconceiveable how the insect thus extricates itself from so exact a sheath as that which covered every part of its body. The grasshopper, thus disengaged from its outer skin, appears in its per- fect form; but then so feeble, and its body so soft and tender, that it may be moulded like wax. It is no longer of that obscure color which it exhibited before, but a greenish white, which becomes more vivid as the moisture on the surface is dried away. Still, however, the animal continues to show no signs of life, but appears quite spent and fatigued with its labor for more than an hour together. During this time, the body is drying, and the wings unfolding to their greatest expansion ; and the curious observer will perceive them, fold after fold, opening to the sun, till at last they become longer than the two hinder legs. The insect’s body also is lengthened during this ope- ration, and it becomes much more beautiful than before. 832 INSECTA—LOCUS!Y. THA E, 0.0: Us Pt Es $a 0 939i - Gy ex BIZ ree eerie em Si — a ea SSS Re ae SSS SS — ies BAL NY Is about three inches long, and has two horns, or feelers, an inch in length. The head and horns are of a brownish color; it is blue about the mouth, as also on the inside of the larger legs. The shield that covers the back is greenish ; and the upper side of the body brown, spotted with black, and the under side purple. The upper wings are brown, with small dusky spots with one larger at the tips; the under wings are more transparent, and of alight brown, tinged with green; but there is a dark cloud of spots near the tips. There is no animal in the creation that multiplies so fast as this, if the sun be warm, and the soil in which their eggs are deposited be dry. The Scripture, which was written in a country where the locust made a distinguished feature in the picture of nature, has given us several very striking images of this animal’s numbers and rapacity. It compares an army, where the numbers are almost infinite, to a swarm of locusts; it de- scribes them as rising out of the earth, where they are produced; as pursu- ing a settled march to destroy the fruits of the earth, and co-operate with divine indignation. When the locusts take the field, as we are assured, they have a leader at their head, whose flight they observe, and pay a strict attention to all his motions. They appear ata distance, like a black cloud, which, as it ap- proaches, gathers upon the horizon, and almost hides the light of the day. It often happens, that the husbandman sees this imminent calamity pass away without doing him any mischief; and the whole swarm proceed onward to settle upon the labors of some less fortunate country. But wretched is the district upon which they settle; they ravage the meadow and the pasture ground; strip the trees of their leaves, and the garden of its beauty; the visitation of a few minutes destroys the expectations of a year; and a famine but too frequently ensues. In their native tropical climates, they are not so dreadful as in the southern parts of Europe. There, though the plain and the forest be stripped of their verdure, the power of vegetation is 1 Acridium migratorium, Lat. INSECTA—CRICKET. , tess s0 great, that an in-erval of three or four days repairs the calamity; but in the north of Europe, the verdure is the livery of a season; and when lost, the inhabitants must wait till the ensuing spring repairs the damage. Be- sides, in their long flights to this part of the world, they are famished by the tediousness of their journey, and are therefore more voracious wherever they happen to settle. But it is not by what they devour that they do so much damage, as what they destroy. Their very bite is thought to contaminate the plant, and to prevent its vegetation. To use the expression of the husband- man, they burn whatever they touch, and leave the marks of their devasta- tion for two or three years ensuing. But if they be noxious while living, they are still more so when dead; for wherever they fall, they infect the air in such a manner, that the smell is insupportable. THE CRICKET! Very much resembles the grasshopper in its shape, its manner of ruminat- ing, its voice, its leaping, and methods of propagation. It differs in its color, which is uniformly of a rusty brown; in its food, which is more vari- ous; and in its place of residence, which is most usually in the warmest chinks behind a country hearth. They are, in some measure, obliged to the bad masonry employed in making peasants’ houses for their retreats. The smallest chink serves to give them shelter, and where they once make thei abode they are sure to propagate. They are of a most chilly nature, seldom leaving the fireside ; and if undisturbed, are seen to hcp from their retreats to chirp at the blaze in the chimney. The wood cricket is the most timorous animal in nature; buat the chimney cricket, being used to noises, disregards them. Whether the voice of this animal is formed in the same manner with that of the grasshopper, is not yet ascertained; nor do we well know the use of this voice, since anatomical inspection has not been able to discover the smallest organs of hearing. Still, however, we can make no doubt of their power of distinguishing sounds, though probably not in the same man- nei with the more perfect ranks of nature. Certain it is, that they have beer often heard to call, and this call is as regularly answered by enother, al- though none but the males are vocal. ee 1Gryllus domesticus, Lux. 135 70* 834 INSECTA—LANTERN FLY. They are very voracious little animals, and will eat bread, flour, meat, and scummings of pots, but are particularly fond of sugar. They are a thirsty race, and show a great predilection for liquids, being often found drowned in pans of water, milk, or broth. Whatever is moist they affect, and therefore frequently gnaw holes in wet woolen stockings and aprons that are hung to the fire. THE GREAT LANTERN FLY. Tuts is undoubtedly one of the most curious of insects; it is of a very considerable size, measuring nearly three inches and a half from the tip of the front to that of the tail, and about five inches and a half from wing’s end to wing’s end, when expanded ; the body is of a lengthened oval shape, roundish or subcylindric, and divided into several rings or segments; the length is nearly equal to the length of the rest of the animal, and is oval, inflated, and bent slightly upwards; the ground color is an elegant yellow, with a strong tinge of green in some parts, and marked with numerous bright red, brown variegations, in the form of stripes and spots; the wings are very large, of a yellow coler, most elegantly varied with brown undula- tions and spots, and the lower pair are decorated by a very large eye-shaped spot on the middle of each, the iris or border of the spot being red, and the centre halt red and half semi-transparent white; the head or lantern is paie — —_ - ' Fulgora laternaria, Lin. The order Hemiptera has two wings covered by elytra; mouth formed for suction, the rostrum composed of a tubular articulated sneath, includ- ing four scaly setee,in place of mandibles and jaws; elytra in some crustaceous, with the posterior extremity membranous ; in others almost similar to wings, but more extended, thicker and colored, INSECTA—COCHINEAL. 835 yellow, with longitudina: red stripes. This beautiful insect is a native of Surmam and many other parts of South America, and during the night diffuses so strong a phosphoric splendor from its head or lantern, that it may be employed for the purpose of a candle or torch; and it is said that three or four of these insects tied to the top of a stick, are frequently used by travel lers for that purpose. A single one gives light enough to enable a person to read. THE COCHINEAL! Tuts insect is of an oval form, of the size of a small pea, with six feet, and a snout or trunk. It brings forth its young alive, and is nourished by sucking the juice of the plant. Its body consists of several rings; and when it is once fixed on the plant, it continues immoveable, being subject to no change. Some pretend there are two sorts, the one domestic, which is best, and the other wild, that is, of a vivid color; however, they appear to be the same; with only this difference, that the wild feed upon uncultivated trees, without any assistance; whereas, the domestic is carefully, at a stated season, removed to cultivated trees, where it feeds upon a purer juice. Those who take care of these insects, place them on the prickly pear-plant, ina certain order, and are very industrious in defending them from other insects; for if any other kind comes among them, they take care to brush them off with foxes’ tails. Towards the end of the year, when the rains and cold weather are coming on, which are fatal to these insects, they take off the leaves or branches, covered with the cochineal that have not attained their utmost degree of perfection, and keep them in their houses till winter is past. These leaves are very thick and juicy, and supply them with nourishment while they remain within doors. When the milder weather returns, and these animals are about to exclude their young, the natives make them nests, like those of birds, but less, of tree-moss, or soft hay, or the down of cocoa-nuts, placing twelve in every nest. These they fix on the thorns of the prickly pear-plant, and in three or four days’ time they bring forth their young, which leave their nests in a few days, and creep upon the branches of the plant, till they find a proper place to rest in. When the native Americans have gathered the cochineal, they put them into holes in the ground, where they kill them with boiling water, and after- wards dry them inthe sun, or in an oven, or lay them upon hot plates. From the various methods of killing them, arise the different colors which they appear in, when brought to us. While they are living, they seem ta be sprinkled over with a white powder, which they lose as soon as the boil —_— 1 Coccus cacti, Lin. 836 INSECTA—TERMITES. ing water is poured upon them. Those that are dried upon hot plates are the blackest. What we call the cochineal are only the females, for the males are a sort of fly. They are used both for dyeing and medicine, and are said to have much the same virtue as the kermes, though they are now seldom used alone, but are mixed with other things for the sake of the color. TERMITES, “OR WHITE ANTS.) Or this curious insect, Mr Smeathman has given, in the Philosophical Transactions, so full and interesting an account, that we cannot do better than quote from it. ‘‘ Of a great many curious parts of the creation, (says he,) which I met with in Guinea, the termites, or white ants, seemed most worthy of minute attention. “The size and figure of their buildings have attracted the notice of many travellers, and yet the world has not hitherto been furnished with a tolerable description of them, though, when we come to consider the wonderful order of these insects, and of their subterraneous cities, they will appear foremost on the list of the wonders of the creation. “These insects are known by various names. They belong to the termes of Linnzus, and other systematic naturalists. “‘ By the English, in the windward parts of Africa, they are called bugga bugs. In the West Indies, wood lice, wood ants, or white ants. By the French, at Senegal, vague vagues. In the West Indies, poux de bois, or fourmis blanches. By the Portuguese in the Brazils, coupée, or cutters, from their cutting things in pieces. By this latter name, and that of piercers or eaters, and similar terms, they are distinguished in various parts of the tropical regions. “Of every species of the termites there are three orders; first, the work- ing insects, which I shall call laborers; next, the fighting ones, or soldiers, waiza do no kind of labor; and, last of all, the winged ones, or perfect in- sects, which are male and female, and capable of propagation. These might very appositely be called the nobility or gentry, for they neither labor nor fight, being quite incapable of either, and almost of self-defence. These only are capable of being elected kings or queens; and nature has so order- ed it, tnat they emigrate within a few weeks, after they are elevated to this state, and either establish new kingdoms, or perish within a day or two. * The termes bellicosus, being the largest species, is best known on the coast of Africa. It erects immense buildings of well-tempered clay or earth, 1 The order of Neuroptera have four naked, reticulated, transparent wings; month pro- per formastication ; jaws and lips straight, extended ; joints of the tarsi various, generally entire. INSECTA—TERMITES. 837 which are contrived with such art, that we are at a loss to say, whether they are most to be admired on that account, or for their enormous magnitude and solidity. ‘They not only build larger and more curious nests, but are also more numerous, and do infinitely more mischief to mankind than other species. When these insects attack such things as we would not wish to have injured, we must consider them as mpst pernicious; but when they are employed in destroying decayed trees and substances which only encum- ber the surface of the earth, they may be justly supposed very useful. It is apparent to all, who have made observation, that they contribute more to the quick dissolution of putrescent matter than any other. They are so necessary in all hot climates, that even in the open fields, a dead animal or small putrid substance cannot be laid upon the ground two minutes, be- fore it will be covered with flies and their maggots, which instantly enter- ing quickly devour one part, and perforating the rest in various directions, expose the whole to be much sooner dissipated by the elements. In a few weeks, these insects destroy and carry away the bodies of large trees, with- out leaving a particle behind, thus clearing the place for other vegetables, which soon fill up every vacancy ; and in places, where two or three years before, there has been a populous town, if the inhabitants, as is frequently the case, have chosen to abandon it, there shall be a very thick wood, and not the vestige of a post to be seen, unless the wood has been of a species which, from its hardness, is called iron wood. “The nests of the termites bellicosi are so numerous afi over the island of Bananas, and the adjacent continent of Africa, that it is scarce possible to stand upon any open place, where one of these buildings is not to be seen within fifty paces, and frequently two or three are to be seen almost close to each other. In some parts near Senegal,as mentioned by M. Adanéson, their number, magnitude, and closeness of situation, make them appear like the villages of the natives. These buildings are usually termed hills, from their outward appearance, which is that of little hills more or less conical, and about ten or twelve feet in perpendicular height above the common sur- face of the ground. “These hills continue quite bare until they are six or eight feet high; but, in time, the dead barren clay, of which they are composed, becomes fertiliz- ed by the genial power of the elements in these prolific climates; and in the second or third year, the hillock, if not overshaded by trees, becomes almost covered with grass and other plants; and in the dry season, when the herbage is burnt up by the rays of the sun, it is not much unlike a very large haycock. ‘‘Every one of these buildings consists of two distinct parts, the exterior and the interior. The exterior is one large shell in the manner of a dome, large and strong enough to shelter the interior from the vicissitudes of the weather, and the inhabitants from the attacks of natuval or accidental ene- mies. It is always, therefore, much stronger than the interior building, 838 INSECTA—TERMITES. which is the habitable part, divided with a wonderful kind of regularity and contrivance, into an amazing number of apartments for the residence of the king and queen, and the nursing of their numerous progeny; or for maga- zines, which are always found well filled with stores and provisions. “ These hills make their first appearance above ground by a little turret or two in the shape of sugar-loaves, which are run a foot high or more. Soon after, at some little distance, while the former are increasing in height end size, they raise others, and so go on increasing the number and widening them at the base, till their works below are covered with these turrets, which they always raise the highest and largest in the middle, and by filling up the ‘ntervals between each turret, collect them as it were into one dome. They are made very solid and strong, and when by the junction of them the dome is completed, for which purpose the turrets answer as scaffolds, they take away the middle ones entirely, except the tops (which joined together make the crown of the cupola,) and apply the clay to the building of the works within, or to erecting fresh turrets for the purpose of raising the hillock still higher; so that no doubt some part of the clay is used several times, like the beards and posts of a mason’s scaffold. ‘“‘ When these hills are at their full height, they answer excellently as places to look out. I have been with four men on the top of one of these hillocks. Whenever word was brought us of a vessel in sight, we immediately ran to some bugga bug hill, as they are called, andclambered up to get a good view, for upon the common surface it was seldom possible to see over the grass or plants. “The interior parts of these buildings are disposed nearly as follows : ‘The royal chamber, which I call so on account of its being occupied by the king and queen, is situated at about a level with the surface of the ground, at an equal distance from all the sides of the building, and directly under the apex of the hill. “Tt is on all sides, both above and below, surrounded by what I should call the royal apartments, which have only laborers and soldiers in them, and can be intended for no other purpose than for these to wait in, either to guard or serve their common father and mother, on whose safety depends the happiness, and, according to the negroes, even the existence, of the whole community. These apartments compose an intricate labyrinth, which ex- tends a foct or more in diameter from the royal chamber on every side. Here the nurseries and magazines of provisions begin, and, being separated by small empty chambers and galleries, which go round them or communi- cate from one to the other, are continued on all sides to the outward shell, and reach up within it two thirds or three fourths of its height, leaving an open area in the middle under the dome, which very much resembles the nave of an oid cathedral: this is surrounded by three or four very large Gothic shaped arenes. which are sometimes two or three feet high next the front of the urea, but diminish very rapidly as they recede from thence like the arches INSECTA—TERMITES. 839 of aisles in perspective, and are soon lost among the innumerable cham- bers and nurseries behind them. “All these chambers, and the passages leading to and from them, being arched, they help to support one another ; and while the interior large arches prevent them falling into the centre, and keep the area open, the exterior building supports them on the outside. “‘T have observed before, that there are of every species of termites tnree orders. Of these, the working insects, or laborers, are always the most nu- merous. In the termites bellicosus, there seem to be at least one hundred laborers to one of the fighting insects or soldiers. The laborers are about one fourth of an inch long, and twenty-five of them weigh about a grain; so that they are not so large as some of our ants. From their external habit and fondness for wood, they have been very expressively called wood lice. They resemble them, it is true, very much at a distance ; but they run faster than any other insects of their size, and are incessantly bustling about their affairs. “ The second order, or soldiers, have a very different form from the labor- ers, and have been by some authors supposed to be the males, and the former neuters: but they are, in fact, the same insects as the foregoing, only they have undergone a change of form, and approach one degree nearer to the perfect state. They are now much larger, being half an inch long, and equal in bulk to fifteen of the laborers. “There is now, likewise, a most remarkable circumstance in the form of the head and mouth; for in the former state, the mouth is evidently calcu- lated for gnawing and holding bodies ; but in this state, the jaws being shaped just like two very sharp awls a little jagged, they are incapable of any thing but piercing or wounding, for which purposes they are very effectual, being as hard as a crab’s claw, and placed in a strong, horny head, which is of a nut-brown color, and larger than all the rest of the body together, which seems to labor under great difficulty in carrying it: on which account, per- naps, the animal is incapable of climbing up perpendicular surfaces. “The third order, or the insect in its perfect state, varies its form still more than ever. The head, thorax, and abdomen, differ almost entirely from the same parts in the laborers and soldiers ; and, besides this, the animal is now furnished with four large, brownish, transparent wings, with which it1s at the time of emigration to wing its way in search of a new settlement. 840 INSECTA—TERMITES. In short, it differs so much from its form and appearance im the other twe states, that it has never been supposed to be the same animal, but by those si who nave seen it in the same nests: and some of these have distrusted the evidence of their senses. It was so long before I met with them in their nests myself, that I doubted the information that was given me by the natives, that they belonged to the same family. Indeed we may open twenty nests without finding one winged one, for those are to be found only just before the commencement of the rainy season, when they undergo the last change, which is preparative to their colonization. “Tn the winged state, they have also much altered their size as well as form. Their bodies now measure between six or seven tenths of an inch in length, and their wings above two inches and a half from tip to tip, and they are equal in bulk to about thirty laborers, or two soldiers. They are now also furnished with two large eyes placed on each side of the head, and very conspicuous. If they have any before, they are not easily to be distin- guished. Probably in the two first states, their eyes, if they have any, may be small like those of moles; for as they live like these animals always un- der ground, they have as little occasion for these organs, and it is not to be wondered at that wé do not discover them; but the case is much altered when they arrive at the winged state in which they are to roam, though but for a few hours, through the wide air, and explore new and distant regions. In this form the animal comes abroad during or soon after the first tornado, which, at the latter end of the dry season proclaims the approach of the ensuing rains, and seldom waits for a second or third shower, if the first, as 1s generally the case, happens in the night, and brings much wet after it. The quantities that are to be found the next morning all over the surface of the earth, but particularly on the waters, is astonishing ; for their wings are only calculated to carry them a few hours, and after the rising of the sun not one in a thousand is to be found with four wings, unless the morning continues rainy, when here and there a solitary being is seen winging its way from one pla~e to another, as if solicitous only to avoid its numerous enemies, particul: rly various species of ants which are hunting on every spray, on every leaf, and in every possible place, for this unhappy race, of which probably not a pair in many millions get into a place of safety, fulfil the first law of nature, and lay the foundation of a new community. v INSECTA—GALL INSECTS. 841 ‘Not only all kinds of ants, birds, and carnivorous reptiles, as well as in« sects, are upon the hunt for them, but the inhabitants of many countries, and particularly of that part of Africa where I was, eat them. At the time of swarming, or rather of emigration, they fall into the neighboring waters, when the Africans skim them off with calabashes, bring: large kettles full of them to their habitations, and parch them in iron pots over a gentle fire, ‘stirring them about as is usually done in roasting coffee. In that state, without sauce or any other addition, they serve them as delicious food; ane they put them by handsfull into their mouths, as we do comfits. I have eaten them dressed this way several times, and think them both delicate, nourishing, and wholesome; they are something sweeter, but not so fat and cloying as the caterpillar or maggot of the palm tree, snout-beetle, curculio palmarum, which is served up at all the luxurious tables of West Indian epicures, particularly of the French, as the greatest dainty of the western world.” THE GALL INSECTS! Ane bred in a sort of bodies adhering toa kind of oak in Asia, which differ witn regard to their color, size, roughness, sinoothness, and snape, and which we cali galls. They are not fruit, as some have imagined, but preternatural tumors, owing to the wounds given to the buds, leaves, and twigs of the tree, by a kind of insect that lays its eggs within them. This animal is furnished with an implement, by which the female penetrates into the bark of the tree, or into that spot which just begins to bud, and there sheds a drop of corrosive fluid into the cavity. Having thus formed a receptacle for her eggs, she deposits them in the place, and dies soon after. The juice or sap of the plant, thus turned back from its natural course, extravasates and flows round the egg; after which it swells and dilates by the assistance of some bubbles of air, which get admission through the pores of the bark, and which run in the vessels with the sap. This little ball receives its nutriment, growth, and vegetation, as the other parts of the tree, by slow degrees, and is what we call the gall-nut. The worm that is hatched under this spacious vault, finds in the substance of the bail, which as yet is very tender, a subsistence suitable to its nature ; gnaws and digests it till the time comes for its transformation to a nymph, or chry- salis, and from that state of existence changes into a fly. After this the in- sect, perceiving itself duly provided with all things requisite, disengages itself soon from its confinement, and takes its flight into the open air. The 1 Cyntpide. The order Hymenoptera has four naked veined wings of unequal size; mouth composed of jaws, mandibles, and two lips; lip tubular at its hase, termimated by a labium, eicher douhled or folded in, and forming a kind of sucker; females with a com pound ovipositor, or sting at the anus. 106 71 842 INSECTA—ANT. case, nowever, is not smilar with respect to the gall-nut that grows m autumn. The cold weather frequently comes on before the worm is trans- formed into a fly, or before the fly can pierce through its enclosure. The nut falls with the leaves, and although you may imagine that the fly which lies within is lost, yet in reality it is not so; on the contrary, its being coy- - ered up so close is the means of its preservation. Thus it spends the winter in a warm house, where every crack and cranny of the nut is well stopped up; and lies buried, as it were, under a heap of leaves, which preserve if from the injuries of the weather. This apartment, however, though so com- modious a retreat in the winter, is a perfect prison in the spring. The fly, roused out of its lethargy by the first heats, breaks its way through, and ranges where it pleases. A very small aperture is sufficient, since at this time the fly is but a diminutive creature. Besides, the ringlets whereof its bedy is composed, dilate, and become pliant in the passage. VEE SSACIN Vive THE common ants of Europe! are of two or three different kinds; some red, some black, some with stings, and others without. Such as have stings inflict their wounds in that manner; such as are unprovided with these weapons of defence have a power of spurting, from their hinder parts, an acid, pungent liquor, which, if it lights upon the skin, inflames and burns it like nettles. The body of an ant is divided into the head, breast, and belly. In the head the eyes are placed, which are entirely black, and under the eyes there are two small horns, or feelers, composed of twelve joints, all covered with 2 fine silky hair. The mouth is furnished with two crooked jaws, which project outwards, in each of which are seen incisors, that look like teeth. The breast is covered with a fine silky hair, from which project six legs, that are pretty strong and hairy; the extremities of each armed with two small claws, which the animal uses in climbing. The belly is more reddish than the rest of the body, which is of a brown chesnut color, shining as a glass, and covered with extremely fine hair. As soon as the winter is past, on the first fine day in April, the ant-hill, that before seemed a desert, now swarms with new life, and myriads of these sects are seen just awaked from their annual lethargy, and preparing for the pleasures and fatigues of the season. For the first day they never offer to leave the hill, which may be considered as their citadel, but run over everv part of it, as if to examine its present situation, to cbserve what injuries it has sustained during the rigors of winter, while they slept, and to meditate and settle the labors of the day ensuing. 1 Formicarie. INSECTA—ANT. 843 At the first display of their forces, none but the wingless tribe appears, while those furnished with wings remain at the bottom. These are the working ants, that first appear, and that are always destitute of wings; the males and females, that are furnished with four large wings each, are more slow in making their appearance. Thus, like bees, they are divided into males and females, and the neutral or working tribe. These are all easily distinguished from each other; the females are much larger than the males; the working ants are the smallest of all. The two former have wings, which, however, they sometimes are divested of; the latter never have any, and upon them are devolved all the labors that tend to the welfare of the community. The female also may be distinguished by the color and structure of her breast, which is a little more brown than that of the common ant, anda little brighter than that of the male. The neuters exercise all the ordinary offices necessary for the existence and welfare of the community to which they belong; it is they who collect supplies of food, who explore the country for this purpose, and seize upon every animal substance, whether living or dead, which they can lay hold of, and transport to the common abode of the tribe. It is they who construct every part of the dwelling place, who attend the hatching of the eggs, the feeding of the larve, and their removal to different situations, as occasion may require, and who conduct all the operations both of offensive and defen- sive warfare; in fact, all the laborious and perilous duties of this singuiar commonwealth. There is every reason, however, to believe that the helots and females of this tribe of insects are originally and substantially of the same sex, and that the developement of the sexual organs in the latter is the consequence of some difference in the circumstances in which the larva is placed during its growth. In all the features of internal structure, the supposed neuters agree with the female, and in the number of articulations composing the antenne. Thus we find thirteen in the male, twelve only in the female, and twelve in the neuter. In the male ant, the abdomen has seven rings, in the female and neuter only six. In the two latter classes, the head is broader, and the mandibles very large and powerful, compared with those of the male, and furnished with serrated edges, and a sharp and often hooked point. The external sexual organs of the female and o: the neuter are so nearly similar in appearance, that Latreille declares that he was unzble to perceive the least difference between them. On the other hand, it is to be observed, that in the neuter the principal deviation from the model of the female consists in the absence of wings ; acircumstance which may be conceived to be connected with a certain condition of the sexual organs, as are the horns of deer and the beard of men. Ants certainly possess a greater share of muscular strength, than almost any other insect of the same size. Of this we are witnesses from childhood in the incessant toil which they undergo, and the great loads they are seen 844 INSECTA—ANT. to carry, often exceeding ten or twelve times their own weight. This appa- rently is connected with a corresponding share of sensation, seen in their great susceptibility to all changes of temperature, to moisture, and other conditions of the atmosphere. In the perfection of their sight they are also remarkable; the males and females being provided with both the descrip- tions of eyes peculiar to this class, namely, the composite and the simple eyes. The laboring ants, indeed, who never fly, are frequently destitute of the latter kind. Many erroneous opinions are prevalent with regard to the food of ants, which have often been supposed to consume corn, and to do great injury to plants by devouring their roots or stems. The truth is, that they are chiefly carnivorous insects, preying indiscriminately on all the softer parts of ani- mals, and especially the viscera of other insects, whom they will often attack when alive, and overpower by dint of numbers, upon which they devour their victim on the spot, or drag him prisoner into their nests; or if the game should be too bulky to be easily transported, they make a plentiful meal, and exert like the bee a power of disgorging a portion, and of impart- ing it to their companions at home. It appears that they are even able to retain at pleasure the nutritious juices unchanged for a considerable time. The rapidity with which they consume, and in fact anatomize, the carcasses of any small bird or quadruped that happens to fall in their way, is well known, and furnishes an easy method of obtaining natural skeletons of uiese animals, by placing their dead bodies in the vicinity of a populous ant- hill. In hot climates, where they multiply to an amazing extent. their vo- racity and boldness increase with their numbers. Bosman, in his descrip- tion of Guinea, states that in one night they will devour a sheep, leaving it a fine skeleton; while a fowl is for them only the amusement of an hour. In these situations they will venture to attack even living animals of con- siderable size. Rats and mice often become their victims. The sugar ants of Grenada cleared every plantation which they visited of rats and other vermin, which they probably effected by attacking their young. Poultry, or other small stock, could not be raised without the greatest difficulty; and the eyes, nose, and other emunctories of the bodies of dying or dead animals were instantly covered with them. The fecundation of the ant is effected very generally during the flight of the females, in which they are accompanied by the males; both appearing to be provided with wings chiefly for this object. A certain number of impreg- nated females are also, by the assistance of their wings, enaoled to reach distant situations, where they become respectively the founders of new colo- nies; while the males, having fulfilled the office for which nature had des- tined them, are left to perish on the spot where they descend, being removed from those who formerly administered to them food, and being destitute of the means of procuring subsistence for themselves. Swarms of ants, of im- mense size, are occasionally met with; some have been recorded of such INSECTA—WASP. 845 prodigious magnitude as to darken the air like a thick cloud, and to cover the ground where they settled to a considerable extent. DH ey WAS Pt Is well known to be a winged insect with a sting; to be longer in propor- tion to its bulk than the bee; to be marked with bright yellow circles round its body; and to be the most swift and active insect of all the fly kind. On each side of the mouth, this animal is furnished with a long tooth, notched like a saw, and with these it is enabled to cut any substance, not omitting meat itself, and to carry it toits nest. Wasps live like bees in community, and sometimes ten or twelve thousand are found inhabiting a single nest. Of all insects, the wasp is the most fierce, voracious, and most dangerous, when enraged. They are seen wherever flesh is cutting up, gorging them- selves with the spoil, and then flying to their nests with their reeking prey. They make war also on every other fly, and the spider himself dreads their approaches. Every community among bees is composed of females or queens, drones or males, and neutral or working bees. Wasps have similar occupations; the two first are for propagating the species, the last for nursing, defending, and supporting the rising progeny. Among bees, however, there is seldom above a queen or two in a hive; among wasps there are above two or three hundred. e As soon as the summer begins to invigorate the insect tribes, the wasps are the most of the number, and are diligently employed either in providing provisions for their nest, if already made, or in making one, if the former habitation be too smal] to receive the increasing community. ‘The nest is one of the most curious objects in natural history, and contrived almost as artificially as that of the bees themselves. Their principal care is to seek outa hole that has been begun by some other animal, a field mouse, a rat, or a mole, to build their nests in. They sometimes build upon the plain, where they are sure of the dryness of their situation; but most commonly 1 Vespa vulgaris, Lin. Sp & ’ 71% 846 INSECTA—WASDP. on the side ofa bank, to avoid the rain or water that would otherwise annoy them. When they have chosen a proper place, they go to work with won- derfui assiduity. Their first labor is to enlarge and widen the hole, taking away the earth, and carrying it off to some distance. To prevent the earth from falling down and crushing their rising city into ruin, they make a sort of roof with their gluey substance, to which they begin to fix the rudiments of their building, working from the top downwards, as if they were hanging a bell, which, however, at length, they close up at the bottom. The materi- als with which they build their nests, are bits of wood and glue. The wood they get where they can, from the rails and posts which they meet with in the fields, and elsewhere. These they saw and divide into a multitude of small fibres, of which they take up little bundles in their claws, letting fall upon them a few drops of gluey matter, with which their bodies are pro- vided, by the help of which they knead the whole composition into a paste, which serves them in their future building. When they have returned with this to the nest, they stick their load of paste on that part where they make their walls and partitions; they tread it close with their feet, and trowel it with their trunks, still going backwards as they work.- Having repeated this operation three or four times, the composition is at length flatted out until it becomes a small leaf of a gray color, much finer than paper, and of a pretty firm texture. This done, the same wasp returns to the field to collect a second load of paste, repeating the same several times, placing layer upon layer, and strengthening every partition in proportion to the wants or convenience of the general fabric. Other working wasps come quickly after to repeat the same operation, laying more leaves upon the former, till at length, after much toil, they have finished the large roof which is to secure them from the tumbling in of the earth. This dome being finished, they make another entrance to their habitation, designed either for letting in the warmth of the sun, or for escaping in case one door be invaded by plunderers. Certain, however, it is, that by one of these they always enter, by the other they sally forth to their toil; each hole being so small that they can pass but one ata time. The walls being thus composed, and the whole somewhat of the shape of a pear, they labor at their cells, which they compose of the same paper-like substance that goes to the formation of the outside works. Their combs differ from these of bees, not less in the composition than the position which they are always seen to retain. The honeycomb of the bee is edgewise with respect to the hive; that of the wasp is flat, and the mouth of every cell opens downwards. Thus is their habitation contrived story above story, supported by several rows of pillars which give firmness to the whole building, while the upper story is flat- roofed, and as smooth as the pavement of a room laid with squares of mar- ble. The wasps can freely walk upon these stories between the pillars to do whatever their wants require. The pillars are very hard and compact being larger at each end than in the middle, not much unlike the columns INSECTA—HORNET. 847 ofa building. All the cells of the nests are only destined for the reception of the young, being replete with neither wax nor honey. Each cell is, like that of the bee, hexagonal; but there are two sorts, the one larger, for the production of the male and the female wasps, the other less, for the reception of the working part of the community. When the females are impregnated by the males, they lay their eggs one in each cell, and stick itin with a kind of gummy matter to prevent its falling out. From this egg proceeds the insect in its worm state, of which the old ones are extremely careful. But the wasp community differs from that of the bee in this; that among the latter, the working bees take the parental duties upon them, whereas, among the wasps, the females alone are permitted to feed their young, and to nurse their rising progeny. For this purpose the female waits with great patience till the working wasps have brought in their provisions, which she takes from them, and cuts into pieces. She then goes with great composure from cell to cell, and feeds every young one with her mouth. When the young worms have come to a certain size, they leave off eating, and begin to spin a very fine silk, fixing the first end to the entrance of the ceil; then turning their heads, first on one side, then on the other, they fix the thread to different parts, and thus they make a sort of door which serves to close up the mouth of the cell. After this, they divest themselves of their skins after the usual mode of transformation; the aurelia by degrees begins to emancipate itself from its shell; by little and little it thrusts out its legs and wings, and insensibly acquires the color and shape of its parent. THE HORNET! ls one of the largest and most remarkable species of the wasp. It 1s twice as large as the common wasp, and is also distinguished by a black breast, 1 Vespa crabro, Lin. 848 INSECTA—BEE. and double black spots on the belly; the head is also longer and slenderer and the eyes somewhat resembling a half moon. It is extremely bold an? venomous. Its predominant passion is for flesh, and, when hungry, two o1 three of them will seize upon a small bird, kill it, and devour its flesh. Nay, it has even been said, that singly, it will attack and conquer a sparrow. THE BEE.! Queen. Working Bee. Drone. Tue domestic bee differs in a variety of particulars from most other amt mals, and admits a threefold description, under its various characters ot queen bee, drone bee, and working bee; for though this last kind is, strictly speaking, the only honey bee, yet asall the three kinds are found, and seem te be necessary, in every community or hive of bees, they go under the same general name of apis mellifica, while at the same time they differ so much from each other, (more indeed than some different species of the same genus of other animals,) that a particular and separate description of each is neces- sary. The drones may easily be distinguished from the common or work ing bees. They are both larger and longer in the body. Their heads are round, their eyes full, and their tongues short. The form of the belly differs from those of both queen and common bees; and their color is darker than either. They have no sting, and they make a much greater noise when flying than either the queen or the common bees; a peculiarity of itself suf- ficient to distinguish them. Other writers en this subject have asserted, that the dissection of the drone gives as great proof of its being the male, as that of the queen does of her being female. The queen is easily distinguished from all the other bees in the hive, by the form, size, and color of her body. She is considerably longer, and her wings are much shorter, in proportion to her body, than those of the other bees. The wings of both common bees and drones cover their whole bodies, whereas those of the queen scarcely reach beyond the middle, ending about the third ring of the belly. Her hinder part is far more tapering than those of the other bees; her belly or legs are yellower, and her upper parts of a 1 Apis mellifica, Lin. INSECTA—BEE. 849 much darker color than theirs. She is also furnished with a sting, though some authors assert that she has none, having been inauced to form this opinion because she is extremely pacific; so much so indeed, that one may handle her, and even tease her as much as he pleases, without provoking her resentment. The omniscient Governor of nature has wisely ordained this majestic insect to be of a pacific disposition ; for, were she otherwise, were she like the other bees, of so irritable a temper as to draw her sting on every occasion, and to leave it in the body of her antagonist, it would prove of dangerous and often fatal consequence to the whole hive; for every bee, after losing her sting, dies within a day or two at the utmost. The queen bee is solemn and calm in her deportment. A young queen is a great deal smaller in size than a full-grown one; being not much longer than a com- mon bee, and is therefore not so easily observed when sought for. When only three or four days old, she is very quick in her motions, and runs very fast ; but when pregnant with eggs, she becomes very large, and her body is heavy. The working or common bee is Smaller than either the queen or the drone bee; and, as well as these, consists of three parts, viz. the head, which is attached by a narrow kind of neck to the rest of the body; the breast or middle part ; and the belly, which is nearly separated from the breast by an insection or division, and connected with it by another narrow neck or june- tion. There are two eyes in the head, of an oblong figure, black, transpa- rent, and immoveable. The mouth and jaws, like those of some species of fish, open to the right and left, and serve instead of hands, to carry out of the hive whatever encumbers or offends them. In the mouth there is a long proboscis, or trunk, with which the bees suck up the sweets from the flowers. They have four wings fastened to their middle part, by which they are not only enabled to fly with heavy loads, but also to make those well known sounds and hummings to each other that are supposed to be their only form of speech. They have also six legs fastened to their middle. The two foremost of these are the shortest, and with these they unload themselves of their treasures. The two in the middle are somewhat longer; and the two last are longest. On the outside of the middle joint of these last, there is a small cavity in the form of a narrow spoon, in which the bees collect by degrees those loads of wax they carry home to their hives. This hollow groove is peculiar to the working bee. Neither the queen nor the drones have any resemblance of it. The tibie of the hind legs are ciliated, and transversely streaked on the inside. Each foot terminates in two hooks, with their points opposite to each other ; in the middle of these hooks there is a little thin appendix, which, when unfolded, enables the insects ta fasten themselves to glass, or the most polished bodies. This part they likewise employ for transmitting the small particles of crude wax, which they find upon flowers, to the cavity in their thighs. The belly is ornamented witk six rings ; and contains, besides the intestines, the honey-bladder, the venom- 107 850 INSECTA—BEE. bladder, and the sting. The honey-bladder isa reservoir, into which is deposited the honey that the bee sips from the cups of the flowers after it has passed through the proboscis, and through the narrow pipes that connect the head, breast, and belly of the bee. This bladder, when full, is of the size of a small pea, and is so transparent, that the color of the honey can be dis- tinguished through it. The sting is situated at the extremity of the belly, and the head or root of it is placed contiguous to the small bladder that con- tains the venom, connected to the belly by certain small muscles, by means of which the bee can dart it out and draw it in with great force and quick- ness. In length it is about the sixth part of an inch. These working bees may be said to compose the whole community, except in the season of the drones, which hardly lasts three months. During all the other nine months, there are no other bees in the hive except them and the queen. The whole labor of the hive is performed by them. They build the combs, collect the honey, bring it home, and store it up in their waxen magazines. They rear up the eggs to produce young queens, common bees, and drones; they carry out all incumbrances that are in the hives; they defend the community against enemies of every kind, and kill all the drones. ; When the bees begin to work in their hives, they divide themselves into four companies ; one of which roves in the fields in search of materials; another employs itself in laying out the bottom and partitions of their cells; a third is employed /n making the inside smooth from the corners and an- gles; and the fourth company brings food for the rest, or relieves those who return with their respective burdens. But they are not kept constant to one employment; they often change the tasks assigned them; those that have been at work being permitted to go abroad, and those that have been in the fields already take their places. They seem even to have signs by which they understand each other; for when any of them want food, it bends down its trunk to the bee from whom it is expected, which then opens its noney-bag, and lets some drops fall into the other’s mouth, which is at that time open to receive it. Honey is originally a juice digested in plants, which sweats through their pores, and chiefly in their flowers, or is contained in reservoirs in which na- ture stores it. The bees sometimes penetrate into these stores, and at other times find the liquor exuded. This they collect in their stomachs; so that, when loaded with it, they seem, to an attentive eye, to come home without any booty at all. Besides the liquor already mentioned, which is obtained from the flowers of plants, another substance, called honey dew, has been disco- vered, ot which the bees are equally fond. From whatever source the bees have collected their honey, the instant they return home, they seek cells in which they may disgorge and deposit their loads. They have two sorts of stores ; one of which consists of honey laid up for the winter, and the other of honey intended for accidental use in case of bad weather, and for such bees as do not go abroad in search of it. Their method of securing each of INSECTA—BEE. 851 these is different. They have in each cell a thicker substance, which is placed over the honey to prevent its running out of the cell; and that substance is raised gradually as the cell is filled, till the bees, finding that the cell cannot contain any more, close it with a covering of wax, not to be opened till times of want, during the winter. When a hive is become too much crowded by the addition of the young brood, a part of the bees think of finding themselves a more commodious nabitation, and with that view single out the most forward of the young queens. A new swarm is, therefore, constantly composed of one queen at least, and of several thousand working bees, as well as of some hundreds of drones. The working bees are some old, some young. Scarce has the colony arrived at its new habitation, when the working bees labor with the utmost diligence to procure materials for food and building. Their principal aim is not only to have cells in which to deposit their honey, but a stronger motive seems to animate them; they seem to know that their queen is in haste to lay her eggs. Their industry is such, that in twenty-four hours they will have made combs twenty inches long, and wide in proportion. They make more wax, during the first fortnight, if the season is favorable, than they do during all the rest of the year. Other bees are at the same time busy in stopping all the holes and crevices they find in the new hive, in order to guard against the entrance of insects which covet their honey, their wax or themselves; and also to exclude the cold air; for it is indispensably neces- sary that they be lodged warm. When the bees first settle in swarming; indeed, when they at any time rest themselves, there is something very par- ticular in the method of taking their repose. It is done by collecting them- selves in a heap, and hanging to each other by their feet. They sometimes extend these heaps to a considerable length. It would seem probable to us, that the bees from which the others hang must have a considerable weight suspended to them. All that can be said is, that the bees must find this to be a situation agreeable to themselves. They, perhaps, have a method of distending themselves with the air, thereby to lessen their specific gravity ; as fishes do, to alter their gravity compared with water. When a swarm divides into two or more bands, which settle separately, this division is a sure sign that there are two or more queens among them. One of these clusters is generally larger than the other. The bees of the smaller cluster, or clusters, detach themselves by little and little, till at last the whole, to- gether with the queen, or queens, unite with the larger cluster. As soon as the bees are settled, the supernumerary queen or queens must be sacrificed to the peace and tranquillity of the hive. This execution generally raises a considerable commotion in the hive; and several other bees, as well as the queen or queens, lose their lives. Their bodies may be observed on the ground near the hive. The queen that is chosen is ef a more reddish color than those which are destroyed; so that fruitfulness seems to be a great mo 852 INSEC TA—BEE. tive of preference in bees ; for the nearer they are to the time of laying their eggs, the bigger, redder and more shining are their bodies. The balls which we see attached to the legs of bees returning to the hives, are not wax, but a powder collected from the stamina of flowers, not yet brought to the state of wax. The substance of these balls, heated in any vessel, does not melt as wax would do, but becomes dry, and hardens ; it may even be reduced to a coal. If thrown into water it will sink, whereas wax swims. ‘To reduce this crude substance into wax, it must first be di- gested in the body of the bee. Every bee, when it leaves the hive to collect this precious store, enters into the cup of the flower, particularly such as seem charged with the greatest quantity of this yellow farina. As the ani- mal’s body is covered over with hair, it rolls itself within the flower, and quick- ly becomes quite covered with the dust, which it soon after brushes off with its two hind legs, and kneads it into two little balls. In the thighs of the hinder legs there are two cavities edged with hair; and into these, as into a basket, the animal sticks its pellets. Thus employed, the bee flits from flower to flower, increasing its store, and adding to its stock of wax, until the ball on each thigh becomes as big asa grain of pepper; by this time having got a sufficient load, it returns, making the best of its way to the hive. After the bees have brought home this crude substance, they eat it by degrees ; or, at other times, three or four bees come and ease the loaded bee, by eating each of them a share, the loaded bee giving them a hint so to do. Hunger is not the motive of their thus eating the balls of waxy matter, es- pecially when a swarm is first hived; but it is their desire to provide a speedy supply of real wax for making the combs. At other times, when there is no immediate want of wax, the bees lay this matter up in reposito- ries to keep it in store. When this waxy matter is swallowed, it is by the digestive powers of the bee converted into real wax, which the bees again disgorge as they work it up into combs; for it is only while thus soft and pliant from the stomach, that they can fabricate it properly. That the wax thus employed is taken from their stomach, appears from their making a considerable quantity of comb soon after they are hived, and even on any tree or shrub where they have rested but a short while before their being hived; though no balls were visible on their legs, excepting those of a few which may be just returned from the field. This is farther confirmed by what happened in aswarm newly hived; fortwo days together, from the time of their quitting their former home, it rained constantly, insomuch that not one bee was able to stir out during that time; yet, at the end of two days, they had made a comb fifteen or sixteen inches long, and thick in pro- portion. The crude wax, when brought home to the bees, is often of as different colors as are the flowers from which it is collected; but the new combs are always of a white color, which is afterwards changed only by the impurities arising from the steam, &c., of the bees. Bees collect crude wax, also, for food; for, if this was not the case, there would be no want of INSECTA—BEE. 853 wax after the combs are made; but they are observed, even in old hives, to return in great numbers loaded with such matter, which is deposited in particular cells, and is known by the name of bee-bread. When a queen is removed from a hive, the bees do not immediately per- ceive it; they continue their labors, “watch over their young, and perform all their ordinary occupations. But, in a few hours, agitation ensues; all appears a scene of tumult in the hive: asingular humming is heard; the bees desert their young, and rush over the surface of the combs with a delirious impetuosity.”” They have now evidently discovered that their sovereign is gone; and the rapidity with which the bad news spreads through the hive. to the opposite side of the combs, is very remarkable. On replacing the queen in the hive, tranquillity is almost instantly restored. The bees, it is worthy of notice, recognise the individual person of their own queen. If another be palmed upon them, they seize and surround her, so that she is either suffocated or perishes by hunger; for it is very remarkable, that the workers are never known to attack a queen bee with their stings. If, however, more than eighteen hours have elapsed before the stranger queen be introduced, she has some chance to escape ; the bees at first seize and confine her; but less rigidly ; and they soon begin to disperse, and at length leave her ta reign over a hive in which she was at first treated as a prisoner. If twenty: four hours have elapsed, the stranger will be well received from the first. and at once admitted to the sovereignty of the hive. Inshort, it appears that the bees, when deprived of their queen, are thrown into great agitation ; that they wait about tweaty hours, apparently in hopes of her return; but that, after this interregnum, the agitation ceases; and they set about supplying their loss by beginning to construct royal cells. It is when they are in this temper, and not sooner, that a stranger queen will be graciously received; and upon her being presented to them, the royal cells, in whatever state of forwardness they may happen to be, are instantly abandoned, and the larve destroyed. Reaumur must, therefore, have mistaken the result of his own experiments, when he asserts, that a stranger queen is instantly well receiv- ed, though presented at the moment when the other is withdrawn. He had seen the bees crowding round her at the entrance of the hive, and laying their antenne over her; and this he seems to have taken for caressing. The structure of the hives he employed prevented him from seeing further; had he used the leaf-hive, or one of similar construction, he would have perceiv- ed that the apparent caresses of the guards were only the prelude of actual imprisonment. After the season of swarming, it is well known, a general massacre of the drones iscommenced Several authors assert that the workers do not sting the drones to death, but merely harass them till they be banished from the hive and perish. M. Huber contrived a glass table, on which he placed several hives, and he was thus able to see distinctly what passed in the bot- 72 854 INSECTA—BEE. tom of the hive, which is generally dark and concealed ; he witnessed a real and furious massacre of the males, the workers thrusting their stings so deep into the bodies of the defenceless drones, that they were obliged to turn on themselves as on a pivot, before they could extricate them. The work of death commenced in all the hives much about the sametime. Itis not, however, ‘by a blind or indiscriminating instinct that the workers are impelled thus to sacrifice the males; for if a hive be deprived of its queen, no such massacre takes place in it, but the males are allowed to survive the winter. A farm, or a country, may be overstocked with bees, as with any sort of animal; for a certain number of hives always require a certain number of flowers to subsist on. When the flowers near home are rifled, then are these industrious insects seen taking more extensive ranges, but their abili- ties may be overtaxed ; and if they are obliged, in quest of honey, to go too far from home, they are overwearied in the pursuit, they are devoured by birds, or beaten down by the winds and rain. From a knowledge of this, in some parts of France and Piedmont, they have contrived a kind of floating bee-house. They have on board one barge threescore or a hundred bee-hives, well defended from the inclemency of an accidental storm; and with these, the owners suffer themselves to float gently down the river. As the bees are continually choosing their flowery pasture along the banks of the stream, they are furnished with sweets before unrifled ; and thus a single floating bee-house yields the proprietor a consi- derable income. The bees are nearly alike in all parts of the world, yet there are diffe- rences worthy ournotice. In Guadaloupe, the bee is less by one half than the European, and more black and round. They have no sting, and make their cells in hollow trees, where, if the hole they meet with is too large, they form a sort of waxen house, of the shape of a pear, and in this they lodge and store their honey, and lay their eggs. They lay up their honey in waxen vessels of the size of a pigeon’s egg, of a black or deep violet co- lor; and these are so joined together, that there is no space left between them. The honey never congeals, but is fluid, of the consistence of oil, and the color ofamber. Resembling these, there are found little black bees, without a sting, in all the tropical climates; and though these countries are replete with bees, like our own, yet those form the most useful and laborious tribe in that part of the world. The honey they produce is neither so unpalata- dle, nor so surfeiting as ours; and the wax is so soft, that it is only used for medicinal purposes, it being never found hard enough to form into can- dles, as in Europe. Of insects that receive the name of bees, among us, there are several; which however differ very widely from that industrious social race we have INSECTA—BEE. 855 just been describing. The humble bee! is the largest of all this tribe, being as large as the first joint of one’s middle finger. These are seen in every field, and perched on every flower. They build their nest in holes in the ground, of dry leaves, mixed with wax and wool, defended with moss from the weather. Each humble bee makes a separate cell, about the size of a small nutmeg, which is round and hollow, containing the honey in a bag. Several of these cells are joined together, in such a manner, that the whole appears like a cluster of grapes. The females, which have the appearance of wasps, are very few, and their eggs are laid in cells, which the rest soon cover over with wax. Itis uncertain whether they have a queen or not; but there is one much larger than the rest, without wings, and without hair, and all over black, like polished ebony. ‘This goes and views all the works, from time to time, and enters into the cell, as if it wanted to see whether every thing was done right; in the morning, the young humble bees are very idle, and seem not at allinclined to labor, till one of the largest, about seven o’clock, thrusts half its body from a hole designed for that purpose, and seated on the top of the nest, beats its wings for twenty minutes suc- cessively, buzzing the whole time, till the whole colony is put in motion. The humble bees gather honey, as well as the common bees; but it is neither so fine, nor so good, nor the wax so clean, or so capable of fusion. Beside the bees already mentioned, there are various kinds among us, that have much the appearance of honey makers, and yet make only wax. The wood bee, or carpenter bee,? is seen in every garden. It is rather larger than the common queen bee; its body of a bluish black, which is smooth and shining. It begins to appear at the approach of spring, and is seen fly- ing near walls exposed to a sunny aspect. This bee makes its nest in some piece of wood, which it contrives to scoop and hollow for its purpose. This, however, is never done in trees that are standing, for the wood it makes choice of is half rotten. The holes are not made directly forward, but turn- ing to one side, and have an opening sufficient to admit one’s middle finger; whence runs the inner apartment generally twelve or fifteen inches long. The instruments used in boring these cavities are their teeth; the cavity is usually branched into three or four apartments ; and in each of these they lay their eggs, to the number of ten or twelve, each separate and distinct from the rest. The egg is involved in a sort of paste, which serves at once for the young animal’s protection and nourishment. The grown bees, how- ever, feed upon small insects, particularly a louse, of a reddish brown color, of the size of a small pin’s head. Mason bees? make their cells with a sort of mortar made of earth, which they build against a wall that is exposed to the sun. The mortar, which at first is soft, soon becomes as hard as stone, and in this their eggs are laid. Each nest contains seven or eight cells, an egg in every cell, placed recular- — 4’ Bombus. 2 Xylocopa. 3 Odynerus. ‘3 856 INSECTA—CATERPILLAR. ly one over the other. If the nest remains unhurt, or wants but little repairs, they make use of them the year ensuing ; and thus they often serve three or four years successively. From the strength of their houses, one would think these bees in perfect security ; yet none are more exposed than they. A worm with very strong teeth is often found to bore into their little fortifica- tions, and devour their young. LHE CATERPILLAR. TuoveH the caterpillar is not a perfect insect, but only a form in which an insect appears in one stage of ils existence, and “is always destined to assume some other form, yet it is sufficiently interesting to us in this state, to warrant some particular notice of its characteristics. The body of the caterpillar, when anatomically considered, is found com- posed of rings, whose circumference is pretty near circular or oval. They are generally twelve in number, and are all membranaceous; by which caterpillars may be distinguished from any other insect that nearly resem- bles them in form. The head of the caterpillar is connected to the first ring by the neck, which is generally so short and contracted that it is scarcely visible. All the covering of the head in caterpillars seems to consist of shell ; and they have neither upper nor under jaw, for they are both placed rather vertically, and each jaw armed with a large thick tooth, which is singly equal to anumber. With these the animals devour their food in such amazing quantities; and, with these, some of the kind defend themselves against their enemies. Though the mouth be kept shut, the teeth are always uncovered; and while the insect is in health, they are seldom with- out employment. Whatever the caterpillar devours, these teeth serve to chop into small pieces, and render the parts of the leaf fit for swallowing. Many kinds, while they are yet young, eat only the succulent part of the leaf, and leave all the fibres untouched ; others, however, attack the whole leaf, and eat it clean away. One may be amused, fora little time, in observ- ing the avidity with which they are seen to feed; some are seen eating the whole day; others have their hours of repast; some choose the night, and others the day. When the caterpillar atacksa leaf, it places its body in such a@ manner, that the edge of the leaf shall fall between its feet, which keeps INSECTA—CATERPILLAR. 857 it steady while the teeth are employed in cutting it; these fall upon the seaf, somewhat in the manner of a pair of gardener’s shears; and every morsel is swallowed as soon as cut. Some caterpillars feed upon leaves so very narrow, that they are not broader than their mouths; in this case, the animal is seen to devour it from the point, as we would eat a radish. As there are various kinds of caterpillars, the number of their feet is various; some having eight, and some sixteen. Of these feet, the six fore- most are covered with a sort of shining gristle; and are therefore called the shelly legs. The hindmost feet, whatever be their number, are soft and flexible, and are called membranaceous. Caterpillars also, with regard to their external figure, are either smooth or hairy. The skin of the first kind is soft to the touch, or hard, like shagreen; the skin of the latter is hairy, and, as it were, thorny; and generally, if handled, stings like nettles. Caterpillars, in general, have six small black spots placed on the circum- ference of the fore ring, and a little to the side of the head. ‘Three of these are larger than the rest, and are convex and transparent; these Reau- mur takes to be the eyes of the caterpillar; however, most of them aaye very little occasion for sight, and seem only to be directed by their feeling. But the parts of the caterpiliar’s body which most justly demand our atten- tion are the stigmata, as they are called; or those holes on the sides of its body, through which the animal is supposed to breathe. All along this in- sect’s body, on each side, these holes are easily discoverable. They are eighteen in number, nine on a side, rather nearer the belly than the back; a hole for every ring, of which the animal’s body is composed, except the second, the third, and the last. These oval openings may be considered as so many mouths, through which the insect breathes; but with this differ- ence, that as we have but-one pair of lungs, the caterpillar has no less than eighteen. It requires no great anatomical dexterity to discover these lungs in the larger kind of caterpillars; they appear, at first view, to be hollow cartilaginous tubes, and of the color of mcther-of-pear). These tubes are often seen to unite with each other; some are perceived to open into the Intestines ; and some go to different parts of the surface of the body. That these vessels serve to convey the air, appears evidently from the famous experiment of Malpighi; who, by stopping up the mouths of the stigmata with oil, quickly suffocated the animal, which was seen to die convulsed the iastant after. In order to ascertain his theory, he rubbed oil upon other parts of the insect’s body, leaving the stigmata free; and this seemed to have no effect upon the animal’s health, but it continued to move and eat as usual; he rubbed oil on the stigmata of one side, and the animal underwent a partial convulsion, but recovered soon after. However, it ought to be observed, that air is not so necessary to these as to the nobler ranks of ani- mals, since caterpillars will live in an exhausted receiver for several days 108 79% 858 INSECTA—CATERPILLAR together; and though they seem dead at the bottom, yet, when taken out yecover, and resume their former vivacity. If the caterpillar be cut open longitudinally along the. back, its intestines will be perceived running directly in a straight line from the mouth to the anus. They resemble a number of small bags opening into each other, and strengthened on both sides by a fleshy cord, by which they are united. These insects are, upon many occasions, seen to cast forth the internal coat of their intestines with their food, in the changes which they so frequently undergo. But the intestines take up but a small part of the animal’s body, if compared to the fatty substance in which they are involved. This sub- stance changes its color when the insect’s metamorphosis begins to approach ; and from white it is usually seen to become yellow. If to these parts we add the caterpillar’s implements for spinning (for all caterpillars spin at one time or another,) we shall have a rude sketch of this animal’s conformation. The life of a caterpillar seems one continued succession of changes; and it is seen to throw off one skin only to assume another; which also is di- vested in its turn; and thus for eight or ten times successively. How laborious soever this operation may be, it is performed in the space of a minute ; and the animal, having thrown off its old skin, seems to enjoy new vigor, as well as to have acquired coloring and beauty. Sometimes it happens that it takes a new appearance and colors very different from the old. Those that are hairy still preserve their covering, although their ancient skin seems not to have lost a single hair; every hair appears to have been drawn, like a sword from the scabbard. The fact, however, is, that a new crop of hair grows between the old skin and the new, and probably helps to throw off the external covering. The caterpillar having in this manner continued for several days feeding, and at intervals casting its skin, begins at last to prepare for its change into an aurelia or pupa. Preparatory to this important change, the caterpillar most usually quits the plant or tree on which it fed; or at least attaches itself to the stalk or the stem, more gladly than the leaves. It forsakes its food, and prepares, by fasting, to undergo its transmutation. Those of them which are capable of spinning themselves a web, set about this operation; those which have already spun, await the change in the best manner they are able. The web or cone, with which some cover them- selves hides the aurelia contained within from the view; but in others, where it is more transparent, the caterpillar, when it has done spinning, strikes in the claws of the two feet under the tail, and afterwards forces in the tail itself by contracting those claws, and violently striking the feet one against the other. If, however, they be taken from their web at this time, they appear in a state of great languor; and, incapable of walking, remain on that spot where they are placed. In this condition they remain one or two days, somewhat in the manner they made preparations for changing INSECTA—BUTTERFLY. 859 their skin. ‘They then appear with their bodies bent into a bow, wnich they now and then are seen to straighten; they make no use of their legs; but, uf they attempt to change place, do it by the contortions of their body ee Bei) Bri Tue number of these beautiful animals is very great; and though Lin- rzeus has reckoned up above seven hundred and sixty different kinds, the eatalogue is still very incomplete. Every collector of butterflies can show undescribed species ; and such as are fond of minute discovery, can here pro- duce animals that have been examined only by himself. In general, how- ever, those of the warmer climates are larger and more beautiful than such as are bred at home. ; The wings of butterflies, as was observed, fully distinguish them from flies of every other kind. They are four in number; and though two of them be cut off, the animal can fly with the two others remaining. They are, in their own substance, transparent; but owe their opacity to the beau- tiful dust with which they are covered; if we regard the wing of a butterfly with a good microscope, we shall perceive it studded over with a variety of little grains of different dimensions and forms, generally supported upon a footstalk, regularly laid upon the whole surface. The wing itself is com- posed of several membranes, which render the construction very strong. though light; and though it be covered over with thousands of these scales or studs, yet its weight is very little increased by the number. The animal is with ease enabled to support itself a long while in the air, although its flight be not very graceful. When it designs to fly to a considerable dis- tance, it ascends and descends alternately ; going sometimes to the right, sometimes to the left, without any apparent reason. Upon closer examina- tion, however, it will be found that it flies thus irregularly in pursuit of its mate; and as dogs bait and quarter the ground in pursuit ef their game, so these insects traverse the air, in quest of their mates, whom they can dis- cover at more than a mile distance. This tribe of insects has been divided into diurnal and nocturnal flies ; or, more properly speaking, into butterflies and moths; the one flying only by day, the other most usually on the wing in the night. They may be easily distinguished from each other, by their aatenne or feelers; those of the butterfly being clubbed, or knobbed at the end; those of the moth, tapering finer and finer toa point. To express it technically, the antenne of butter- flies are clavated; those of moths are filiform. ka 860 INSECTA—BUTTERFLY. THE SWALLOW-TAILED BUTTERFLY, {s reckoned the most superb of the British species. It is nut widely diffused, but occurs in the New Forest, and near Beverly and Bristol. The wings are tailed, with both surfaces alike; yellow with a brown border, in which are yellow lunules; the angle of the tail is fulvous. The larve feed on umbelliferous plants; the caterpillar is green, banded with black, marked with a row of red spots. There are two broods, of which the first appears in May, having all the winter been in the pupa state; the second comes forth in August. THE PAINTED LADY “SUTTERY iE Y= Is a species not very common. In some seasons, these insects appear im considerable numbers, and then again are not seen for several years. In point of beauty, this has the highest claim of all; its wings are indented, 1 Papilio machaon, Lin. 2 Vanessa urtice, Lin. INSECTA—SPHINX CAROLINA. 861 orange above, variegated with black and white beneath; four eyes on the posterior pair. Its larva feeds on nettles, thistles, docks, and other herbage, by the sides of ditches, and changes its state about the middle or latter end of Juiy. THE-SPHINX CAROLINA. Tue larva of this moth is green, with lateral spiracles on every seg- ment, surrounded by a purple ring; and the caudal spine is of the same color. When full grown, they are thickest in the middle; their horn or tongue is generally curled; and they have two feelers. Their wings are clouded, entire, and the posterior margin is dotted with white; the abdomen has five pairs of fulvous spots. In America, they are sometimes distinguished by the name of tobacco moths, on account of their feeding entirely on that plant. » % a 862 INSECTA—MOTH. THE DEATH’S HEAD MOTH. Tuis beautiful insect is one of the rarest of the moths, and is found only in warm places. It alights on particular flowers, among which are the jasmine, the potato, and the wild solanums. Of its four wings, the feath- ers of which are particularly fine and glossy, the upper pair are of a rich dark gray, marked with white and orange; while the under pair are of a glowing orange, with irregular black bands. The upper part of the abdomen is orange, barred with black. The most remarkable part of this insect, how- ever, is a sort of representation of a death’s head, which appears on the superior portion of the thorax. This is formed by a large irregular gray patch, having two black dots near the middle. THE SILK-WORM MOTHe Tue silk-worm came originally from the northern provinces of China Before the introduction of the animal into Europe, silk was sold for more than its weight in gold. The Greek missionaries in the reign of Justinian transported the ova of the silk-worm in reeds, for the first time, to Constan tinople. The cultivation of this useful animal was thus extended to Southern 1 Acherontia atropos, Lin. 2 Bombyx mori, Lin 17 tig up RADIATA. 863 Europe, and was afterwards introduced into Spain and Africa, by the Arabs. In the time of the Crusades, the insect passed from the Morea into Sicily and Calabria. From Calabria, the ova and the mulberry were brought to France by some of the followers of Charles VIII., on his conquest of Naples, and the cultivation of this insect was afterwards encouraged and: patronized by Sully, as an important branch of national industry. ; The mode of feeding and managing the silk-worm, and procuring its deli- cate web, is detailed in numerous works both scientific and economical. The caterpillar feeds upon the leaves of the mulberry. After remaining in this state about six weeks, during which the caterpillar changes its skin four times, the animal ceases to feed, and begins to form an envelope or cocoon of silken fibres in some convenient spot, producing the minute threads, till it has formed an oval, yellow case or ball, abeut the size of a pigeon’s egg, in which it changes to a chrysalis. In this state it remains for about fifteen days, when the perfect insect is produced. This, however, is not allowed to happen when the animals are reared for the sake of the silk, from its being observed that the animal before leaving its cocoon, discharges a colored duid, which injures the quality. The cocoons are therefore exposed to such a degree of heat, as to kill the inclosed animals, a few only being saved to keep up the breed. The moth, when produced, is very short lived, breeding soon after the exclusion, and perishing after the deposition of the ova. The length of the silken tnread when unrolled, is said to be from three hundred to five hun- dred yards in length, and this thread is composed of two united threads, agglutinated together. DIVISION IV.—RADIATA. Tuts division of the animal kingdom comprehends a great number of be- ings, of organization more simple than the preceding classes. However different otherwise in their structure or form, they seem (according to Cuvier) to correspond, in the character of having all their parts disposed around a gommon axis, in two or more rays, or in two or more lines extending from ye extremity to the other. Even the intestinal worms have at least two 864 RADIATA. tendinous lines or nervous threads, arising from a circle round the mouth ; many have four suckers around a prominence, in the form of a proboscis ; and, notwithstanding some irregularities, there is always found in the ani- mals arranged under this division, traces of a radiated form, indistinctly marked in some, but in others, such as the Asteria, the Echini, and the Polypi, stril- ingly perceptible. The nervous system in the animals of this division is never very evident ; and of acirculation by vessels, asin the previous classes, there is no trace. The Holothurie have two vascular appendages, one at- tached to the intestines, and corresponding to the organs of respiration, and the other serving for the inflation of organs analogous to feet. The last of these only appears distinctly in the Echini and the Asterie; in the gelatinous substance of the Medus@ are seen tubes more or less complicated, connected with the intestinal canal; but none of the appearances are con- ceived to have any strong analogy with the circulating vessels of the higher animals. Some genera, such as the Holuthuria Echinus, and many intestinal worms, have a mouth and anus, with a distinct intestinal canal; others have an internal pouch, with only one opening, serving the purposes of a mouth and anus; but in the greater number there is only to be discovered a hollow cavity in the substance of the body, opening sometimes by many suckers or pores. Finally, in the lowest races of the animal kingdom, even this sim- ple organization disappears, and nutrition seems to be accomplished by ab- sorption, in the manner of vegetables. In regard to their reproduction, sexes have been observed in many of the intestinal worms ; others are hermaphro- dite and oviparous ; and some seem to be reproduced by gemzne, or buds, ox simply by a division of their parts. The conglomerated or compound ar- rangement of animals, of which some examples occur among the Mollusca, is a common circumstance among the Radiated animals, particularly among those named Polypi; and from their aggregation and expansion into trunks and branches of various forms, joined to the simplicity of the organization in the greater number of the species, originated the term Zoophyta, or ani- mal plants. The radiated disposition of their organs, like the petals which form the corolla of a flower, seems also to have led to this idea. Indeed, the boundary line between the animal and vegetable kingdom seemsat first view to be but indistinctly drawn ; and there are objects in both which even accu- rate observers are scarcely able to decide, whether they belong to the one or the other. In the simplest being, however, the globular form, as Carus ob- serves, is the characteristic of animality ; and minute microscopical investi- gation detects in the lowest of the animal races a semifluid mass, composed of minute globules suspended in slimy fluids while in the organization, the cellular texture always predominates. To this characteristic form, the most imperfect ani*aated beings add a sensibility to the faintest impressions, tnat of light, for example, the power of voluntary motion either in the animal or its parts, and the absorption of food into an internal cavity. In the more perfect animals, the osseous skeleton serves to cover and protect the centra ECHINODERMATA 865 nervous masses, and to support the organs of motion, but in the simple struc- ture of the lower animals,-the frame work serves only the last of the pur- poses, being either external to the animal substances, as in the Tudipore and Sponges, or internal, as in the Sertularie, Gorgonia, &c. The animals of this division have been arranged in five classes, viz. I. EcurnoperMATA, or animals with a crustaceous covering, distinct intes- tinal canal, and organs for generation, respiration, and partial circulation. II. Enrozoa, or intestinal worms ; elongated and depressed animals, which have no organs for respiration or circulation. III. Acarepua. Animals of a circular and radiated form, and destitute of circulating and respiratory organs. IV. Potyrt, or Zoophytes; comprehending all those small, gelatinous, and compound or aggregated animals which have a mouth surrounded by tentacula, and conducting into a simple stomach. V. The Inrusoria, or those smaller beings only known through the me- dium of the microscope, which are found in stagnant waters. The greater part of these have a gelatinous body, and are destitute of viscera, though some of the species possess visible organs of movement, and a stomach. CLASS X.—ECHINODERMATA. Body suborbicular, with a coriaceous or crustaceous covering, radiated, desti- tute of head, eyes, and articulated feet ; mouth inferior, simple or multiform ; organs of digestion compound ; exterior tubes or pores for respiration. Tue animals of this class were arranged by some of the older naturalists among the testaceous Mollusca; by others among the Zoophytes; while others considered them as allied to the Crustacea. The more modern wri- ters, however, founding their divisions on the comparative structure of the animals, as well as their external characters, have placed the animals of this group in a separate class, Cuvier making them the first class of his great division of Zoophytes, or animals with prehensile and retractile tentacula, and Lamarck placing them also in a separate class, under the title of Radi- aria. In this class the radiated structure, both externally and internally, forms a distinctive character. The body is generally orbicular, covered. with a skin, or a crustaceous or calcareous covering, and often armed with tuber cles or jointed and moveable spines. The interior cavity is provided with, distinct viscera, and a kind of vascular system maintains a communication. with the different parts of the intestine, and with the organs of respiration. These organs consist in pores or orifices, or exterior tubes for the passage of the water, The animals of this class are destitute of head, eyes, and arti- 109 73 866 ECHINODERMATA—SEA STAR. culated feet; their nervous system is indistinctly traced; and their organs of motion are extremely imperfect. The Echinodermata are all marine ani mals, and have the faculty, like many other of the more imperfect animals, of speedily regenerating parts of their bodies which have been broken or separated. Lamarck divides the class into three sections, viz. Fistulides, Echinides, and Stellerides, while Cuvier arranges it into two orders, the first including those which possess numerous membranous tentacula, serving as organs of motion, and the second those which are destitute of these organs. Latreille makes two classes of the same animals, under the names of Hdl o- thurida and Echinoderma. The arrangement of Lamarck is chiefly followed; but we have added a fourth section, comprising, under the title of Crinoide, given to them by Mr. Miller, the animal remains known by the name of Encrinites. THE SEA STAB, CatteD also the star-fish ; these curious animals inhabit the sea, and are generally found on the sand, or among rocks, considerably below low water mark. They are covered with a coriaceous crust, and have five or more rays proceeding from a centre, in which is situated the mouth. A prodigious number of tentacula, or short fleshy tube., which seem at once calculated to catch prey, and to anchor the animal to the rocks, proceed from each ray. The mouth is armed with long teeth, for the purpose of breaking the shells on which the animals feed. The animal breathes by means of gills. The common, or five-rayed star-fish,! which is the species here represented, has tive angular rays, with prickly protuberances at the angles. When alive, it is usually of a brownish white color. In one of these, which he kept for some time alive, Mr. Bingley observed more than four thousand tentacula, on the under sides of the rays. ——— 1 Asterias rubens, Lin. ENTOZOA. 867 In summer, when the water of the sea is warmed by the heat of the sun they float upon the surface, and in the dark they send forth a kind of shining light, resembling that of phosphorus. They are often seen fastened to the rocks and to the largest sea shells; as if to derive their nourishment from them. If they be taken and put into spirit of wine, they will continue for many years entire; but if they be left to the influence of the air, they are, in less than four and twenty hours. melted down into limpid and offensive water. In all of this species, none are found to possess a vent for their excre- ments, but the same passage by which they devour their food serves for the ejection of their feces. These animals, as was said, take such a variety of figures, that it is impossible to describe them under one determinate shape ; but, in general, their bodies resemble a truncated cone, whose base is applied to the rock to which they are found usually attached. Though generally transparent, yet they are found of different colors, some inclining to green, some to red, some to white, and some to brown. In some, their colors ap- pear diffused over the whole surface; in some, they are streaked, and in others often spotted. They are possessed ofa very slow, progressive motion, and, in fine weather, they are continually seen stretching out and fishing for their prey. CLASS XI.—ENTOZOA. Body soft, elongated, naked in almost all, without head, eyes, or feet ; mouth formed of one or many suckers ; no tentacula or organs of respiration ; in- testinal canal in some scarcely perceptible. Tue intestinal worms are remarkable for existing and propagating only in the interior of animals. There is scarcely an animal in which there are not found some species of parasitical worm ; and they occur not only in the alimentary canal and the vessels which communicate with it, such as the hepatic vessels, but even in the cellular tissue, in the liver, and the brain. The difficulty of conceiving how they appear in these parts, joined to the observation, that they are never found but in living bodies, had led some naturalists to suppose that they were engendered spontaneously. It is, however, now ascertained, not only that the greater part produce ova or living young, but that may have separate sexes, and couple as ordinary animals. These worms or ova, however, must be of extreme minuteness to be able to pass through channels so narrow. The intestinal worms being destitute of trachea, bronchie or any other organ of respiration, must necessarily receive oxygen through the medium 868 ACALEPHA. of the animals which they inhabit. No trace of circulating vessels has been detected ; and the vestiges of nerves are so obscure, that many naturalists have doubted their existence. When these characters are found in an ani- mal similar in form to those of this class, it is arranged along with this division, though it does not inhabit the interior of another species. Linneus arranged this group of animals ina division of his great class Vermes, including the genera Lwmbricus, Sipunculus, Fasciola, Gordwus, Ascaris, Hirudo, and Myzine. Subsequent writers, such as Pallas, Muller, Blumenbach, Bloch, and Gaze, established new genera, or added new spe- cies; and more lately, Cuvier, Lamarck, Rudolphi, and Bremser, from more detailed examination of the animals, and a more intimate knowledge of their structure, have proposed arrangements better suited to the present state of the science. M. Lamarck divides the class into three orders, viz. Hispide, Rigidule, and Mollasse, the last of which is subdivided into three sections. In the. method of Cuvier, the class forms two orders, Les Cavitaires, and Les Paren- chymateaux, according to the structure of their body. And Rudolphi, in his work, entitled Entozorum, sive Vermium Intestinorum Mstoria Naturalis, arranges them into five orders, viz. 1. Nematoides; body elongated, cylin- drical, elastic. 2. Acanthocephalus ; body cylindrical, slightly elastic, with anterior simple or compound, prolongation covered with a series of bentand retractile spines. 3. Trematodes; body flattened, or slightly cylindrical, soft, and provided with pores for suction. 4. Cestoidea; body elongated, flattened, soft, of one or many pieces. 5. Cisticorus; body terminated by or adhering toa vesicle. This arrangement includes besides, three isolated genera, which would not admit of being placed under the previous heads. Latreille, in his Familles du Régne Animal, disposes the intestinal worms chiefly after the methods of Rudolphi and Cuvier ; combining in his sketch of the class, the general views of these excellent naturalists. As the method of Latreille is here followed with one exception, it is not necessary to repeat the characters of the subdivisions. That branch of natural science which treats of intestinal worms, is generally termed Helminthology. CLASS XII.—ACALEPHA. Body gelatinous, circular, and radiated, with the skin soft and transparent, susceptible of contraction and dilatation. Tue class Acalepha of Cuvier embraces the Radiaires, Medusaires and Ano- males of Lamarck, and besides includes the genus Actinia, which the latter POLYPI. 869 author had placed in a division of his Echinodermata. The animals of this class are either fixed by a base, or float freely in the ocean, and many are suspended in the water by the specific lightness of some of their parts, or by the air contained in their bodies. Their substance is gelatinous, without apparent fibres, though susceptible of contraction and dilatation. The sort of vessels, found in some, are merely canals in the gelatinous substance, connected with the stomach; none of their movements seem connected with muscular action ; there is no proper cavity for containing organs; the moutn or the suckers, or tentacula in the centre of the inferior surface is unpro- vided with hard parts; and the stomach, or the organ of digestion, and nutrition, is a simple sac without outlet. Between this sac and the external is a complicated but obscure organization. The Acalepha shine during the night with a luminosity. Many species are ornamented with lively colors. They are common in all seas. Cuvier divides the class into two orders, viz. 1. Those where the body is fixed by a base either permanently or occasion- ally; and 2. Those which float freely in the ocean. CLASS XIII.—POLYPI. Gelatinous animals with elongated, contractile body, and an alimentary sac with one opening ; mouth distinct and terminal, surrounded with tentacula or radi- ated lobes ; the greater number adhering together, and forming compound animals. Tue class of Polypi or Zoophytes, is one of the largest and most singular of the Animal Kingdom. Nearly at the lowest step in the animal scale, many of them have the form of plants, accompanied by the simplest organization of parts for a liv- ing being capable of reproduction. Destitute of head and eyes, and having no organs for circulation, respiration or locomotion, the body of the Polypus ap- pears only asa homogeneous substance, constituted of gelatinous and irritable cellular tissue, in which the fluids essential to life move sluggishly. Allare, however, furnished with an internal cavity or stomach, with faint traces in some of hollow canals and ovaries. The body is generally cylindrical or conical, gelatinous or transparent; and the mouth surrounded by tentacula, varying in number and form, serves also for arms. Many of the polypi have the principle of life so diffused in their structure, that portions cut from the individual soon acquire, in the proper element, all the characters of the per- 73* 870 POLY PI< fect animal. Most of the same species, besides, form compound animals, adhering to one another by lateral appendages, or by their posterior extremi- ty, and participate in a common life without ceasing to enjoy their indiv:- dual and independent existence. The mode of reproduction in many individuals of this class is unknown. In general, it may be remarked, that many are conceived to be gemmiferous, or to extend the race by buds in the manner of plants, while others propagate the species by means of ova. In the lowest of the races, the distinctive characters of animal life are so faintly drawn, that with difficulty can many of these be distinguished from the Cryptogamic families of the Vegetable Kingdom. Many of the Polypi have the faculty of forming fixed envelopes, more or less solid, in which they re- side. The singular diversity of this envelope, in its own substance inbr- ganic and calcareous, and its accumulation in immense masses in the seas of warm countries, by the combined operation of these animals, is not the least interesting fact in their history. They appear in these countries to multiply with such facility, and in such great abundance, as to become pow- erful agents in the modification of the surface occupied by the ocean. Isl- ands are reared, and coasts extended, by the incessant multiplication of these animals. M. Lamarck conjectures that even the calcarecus mountains and strata of the present surface of the globe may have been formed in the re- volution of ages by Polypi; and that future changes in this surface, and in the level of the ocean, are in course of preparation by these minute animals. The animals of this class were regarded by the older naturalists as stony vegetables, or vegetating stones, and a number of theories were framed to explain their formation and growth. Their animal nature was first conjec- tured by Imperati, in 1699, proved in 1727, by Paysonnel, and confirmed in 1740, by the observations of Trembley upon the Hydre. From this period, the true knowledge of these animals continued to increase, chiefly through the researches of Ellis. Marsigli, Baster, Donati, Boccone, Degeer, Reau- mur, Jussieu, and Cavolini, followed in the path traced out by Ellis and Linneus, with the same success which attended his investigations of the other objects of nature, arranged the whole in his class Vermes, making them an order under the name of Lithophyta. The classification of this great naturalist, who fixed the characters of the divisions, and described the greatest number of species, forms the basis of what has since been done by Pallas, Bruguieré, and Lamarck. Cuvier, in his Régne Animal, divides the Polypi into two orders — the first comprehending the naked Polypi; and the second those which live in polypiferous masses, formed by their united labors. Thesecond order is further subdivided into many families. La- marck, whose system regarding these animals is followed in the present work, divides the class of Polypi into five orders. I. Poryer Narantes.— Tentaculated polypi, united in a common fleshy body on an axis, free, and floating in the water. INFUSORIA. 871 II. Poryrr Tusireri.—Tentaculated polypi, united in a common fleshy body, destitute of solid internal axis, and covered with tubiform cylinders. III Potyrr Vacinati.— Tentaculated polypi, constantly fixed in an or- ganic covering, and forming, in general, compound animals. IV. Poryrr Denupati1.—Tentaculated polypi, not forming a common envelope, fixed either constantly or spontaneously. V. Potyrr Cruiati.—Polypi destitute of tentacula, but with vibratile cilie, at or near the mouth. The habitations of the polypi, or the common masses formed by their united labors, are more or less calcareous or stony, from the madrepores, of a substance as consistent as shells, to the fibrous or membranous horny envelope of the sponge. Between these extremes are found every variety of consolidation and consistence ; but all are formed by animals approach- ing to one another in their general organization. Polypi are reproduced by ova or a separation of parts, natural or accidental. Their food is chiefly animal, derived, in the case of the smaller species, from the infusory ani- malcule which inhabit the waters. CLASS XIV.—INFUSORIA. Microscopic animals, gelatinous, transparent, polymorphous, and contractile ; no distinct mouth, nor constant or determinable interior organ; gencration fissiparous or gemmiparous. Tue Infusory Animals, or those animalcules which have been observed in infusions of different plants, or in waters, more or less corrupted, and which are generally so minute as to require the aid of the microscope to discover them, form the last series of beings in the animal scale. The greater portion of these appear to have a gelatinous body, of extreme simplicity ; but syste- matical writers have, also, arranged in this class, many animals much more complicated in appearance, and which resemble them only in their extreme minuteness. Of animals so minute, the organization is but imperfectly known. Destitute of a distinct mouth, and internal organ of digestion, they seem to receive nourishment by absorption in all parts of their body. They are, however, capable of contraction and voluntary motion, and their repro- duction is effected by a separation of parts. Lewenhoeck and Muller first introduced these animals to the notice of naturalists, under the name of Infusoria. In Lamarck’s system, they compose the first class of his Inver- tebral Animals; Dumeril arranges them as the fourth family of his Zoophy- tes; and Cuvier makes them the fifth class of Zoophytes or those animals s 872 INFUSORIA. which he has arranged as the fourth great division of the Animal Kingdom Lamarck divides the Infusoria into two orders: I. Inrvsor1a APPENDICULATA.— With projecting parts at their exterior, as hairs, horns, or a tail. II. Inrusorta Nupa, or naked Infusoria. — Destitute of exterior appen- dages. 873 GLOSSARY. Accipitres ; the Rapacious class of birds, according to the Linnzan system. Ambulatory; a tribe of walking birds, with three distinct toes before, and one Sehind Anal; in fishes, a name applied to the fin near the anus. Anseres ; the class of swimming birds. Antenne ; the horns of an insect. Apodal; an order of fishes with bony gills and no ventral fins. Aptera ; an order of iusects without wings. Bellue ; an order of mammalia, having obtuse teeth in each jaw, and undivided hoofs. Bivalve ; a shel! consisting of two parts, connected by a hinge. Branchie; the gills of a fish. Bruta; an order of mammaiia, entirely destitute of front teeth. Canine teeth ; two sharp-pointed teeth in each jaw, in man, called the eye-teeth. Caecum; one of the lower intestines. Caruncle ; a fleshy protuberance. Carinated ; ridged like the keel of a ship. Cere ; the membrane covering the bill of a bird. Ciliary ; belonging to the eyelids. Clavicle; the collar bone. Coleopterous; a name applied to insects with crustaceous coverings to their wings. Coverts ; in a bird, the feathers lying about the base of the wing. Crustaceous ; covered with a horny shell Cuneiform; wedge-shaped. Cuspid ; ending in a point. Dentated ; {furnished with teeth. Digitated; furnished with fingers or toes. Diptera; a class of insects with two wings. Distichous ; disposed in two rows. Emarginate; notched at the end. Elytra; the crustaceous coverings to the wings of coleopterous insects. Entomostraca ; a tribe of animals inhabiting the water, and which unite the characters of the inseet and the oyster. Exuvie ; the slough or cast skin of a reptile. Femur ; the thizh. Fere; a class of mammalia with six front teeth in each jaw, and one canine tooth on each side in both jaws. Filiform; thread-shaped. Gallinaceous ; a name applied to those birds akin to the domestic fowl. Glires ; a class of mammalia with two long front teeth in each jaw, and no canine teeth, Gralla ; the tribe of birds which wade in the water, but do not swim. Gressorial; a term applied to the feet of walking birds, which have the fore toes con- nected, but without a membrane. Hemiptera ; a tribe of insects half crustaceous. half membranous. Hyaline ; resembling glass. Tmbricated ; lying over each other like the tiles on a roof. 110 A 874 Incisors; the front or cutting teeth. Inguinal ; situated near the organs of generation. Invertebrated ; without a backbone. Tris ; the colored ring of the eyeball, Larve ; aterm applied to one cf the incipient stages of an anund.. Lepidopterous ; insects are Lepidopterous which have four wings covered witli fine scales, apparently like powder or meal. Lithophyte; a stony substance which has a vegetable appearance. Lore; a bare streak on the side of a bird’s head, from the beak to the eye. Lobated ; having the toes or claws furnished with a slitted membrane. Ianated ; shaped like a half-moon. Mammalia; that class of animals which suckle their young. Mamme ; the breasts. Mandible; the jaw or bill. Marsupial; furnished with a bag or peuch on the belly, like the opossum. Mazillary ; belonging to the jaw. Molar ; the large or grinding teeth. Molluscous ; a term applied to those animals whose bodies are soft, without an internal skeleton, or articulated covering. Neuropterous ; a term applied to insects which have membranous, transparent wings, in which the membranes cross each other like network. Occiput ; the hind head. Ocellated ; marked with spots resembling little eyes. Operculum ; a lid or cover. Palmated ; webbed or having the shape of a band. Palpi; the feelers of an insect. Papillous ; covered with fleshy warts or points. Passerine ; an order of birds comprising those which sing. Pectinated ; shaped like the teeth of a comb. Pectoral ; pertaining to the breast. Pelvis ; the cavity comprising the lower part of the abdomen. Pinnated ; having the toes or claws separate, but furnished with lateral membranes. Pisciform ; having the shape of a fish. Prehensile; having the power of seizing or taking hold. Primary feathers; the outer feathers of the wing. Process ; a fleshy or corneous protuberance. Protractile ; capable of being stretched forward. Pupa; the chrysalis of an insect. Rapacious ; an order comprising the birds of prey. Retractile ; having the power of drawing inwards. Sagittal ; arrow-shaped. Scapulars ; the shoulder feathers of a bird. Sebaceous ; fatty. Setaceous ; bristly. Secondaries ; the middle feathers of the wing. Speculum ; a colored spot on the back of the wing. Sternum; the breast bone. Subcaudal ; under the tail. = Subulate ; curved like a shoemaker’s awl. Tarsus ; (in ornithology,) that part of the leg between the thigh and the claw. Tentacula; the feelers of an insect. 875 Testaceous ; pertaining to the fesfacea, or animals covered with a hard shell like the tortoise_ Tertiaries; the interior feathers of the wing, or those next the body. Tetradactyle ; furnished with four toes or claws. Triquetrous ; three-sided. Univalve ; a shell complete in a single piece. Unguiculated; furnished with nails or claws. Vent; (in birds,) the under part of the rump. Ventral ; belonging to the belly. Waders ; those birds which frequent the shore, but do not swim. ~ Wattles ; the loose red flesh hanging about the neck of the turkey and some other birds. Zoophyte; a body partaking of the nature of animals and vegetables. Zygodactylous ; having the toes disposed in paurs. ACALEPHA, - Agouti, . . Albatross,. .- ALCYONEs, 6 ALECTORIDES, Alligator, . AMPHIBIA, . -« Amphisbena, Anaconda,. . Anchovy, - ANISODACTYLI, ANNELIDES, . IANIES co Miter ere “© white . Anteater,. . Antelope, . Apes ie ‘s ARACHNIDES, . Argali, . « * Corsican Armadillo, . Arneo, . - ARTICULATA, - Ass, aunts Auk, great : PAs heat Yel is Avoset, . « SS) AMM B. Babiroussa, . Baboon, pig-faced #e pig-tailed Badger, European «American Batu ote, Bee * ‘spectre, . BATRACHIA,. . Bear, black . Bornean . Bear, brown. . « jgrizzly” « — Jarge-lipped Ker inbibeteer. white; <. Beaver, . « Bee, Anelh neit Bee eater,. . Beetle, seuss ae Bengal Loris, . Birps, ay oanete Bison, agints Bitter, sss « American ter leastis 6 Black cap,. « Blackbird, . . Blood-hound, . Blue-bird, . . Boa constrictor, Bob-o-link, . .« Buffalo, cape. ee domestic Bulfinch, .. . Bulldog, . . Bunting, cow . “painted . ss rice. towhee . Bustard, great . (ca) little’ =. Butcher bird, Butterfly, . .. Buzzard, ).is ye American «moor .- oe turkey “< C. Cabiai, ° ° it) Cachalot, .° . Camel; 2. = Camelopard, ° Canary bird, . Cantharis, @aracalyia) sine CARNIVORA, « Garpiie sets “co ieoldent.) 1 te Cat, tiger... “ domestic . Catbird, . - Caterpillar, . . Cavy, spotted . CEPHALOPODA, e CETACEA, .« -« Chameleon, . - Chamois, . . CHEIROPTERA, . CHELIDONES, CHELONIA, + e Chetah, . - Chimpansé,. . Chinchilla, . Chlamyphorus, Chough, . . Chuck Will’s Widow, CirRHIPEDA, Civet;, i aeey eae “Javanese Cozitas <7 fen ie Coaiti, brown, . Cobra de Capello, Cochineal, : Cock, domestic . Cockatoo,. . Cockchafer, . Cockle, . « Cockroach, ° Page. 397 321 351 535 826 = 97, 102 738 739 199 200 501 856 263 758 392 699 364 91 567 687 192 68 242 277 485 576 772 155 157 83 117 705 835 589 548 824 769 828 Cod, 2 CoLumBx, . ConcHIFERA, Condor,. . => Coots se Sc aye Cormorant, Cougar, . -. Crab} e. '4 oie se “dande si) % (CWioletimenn ie Crane, yee “ balearic . Creeper, . . Crickets.) 4.01) Crocodile, 6 Crossbill, . . Crow, carrion . “ yed-legged . CRUSTACEA, 4 Cuckoo, European s American Curlew, <0 Siiey te CuRSORES, . . Cuttle fish, . . Cutwater,. . CycLostom!1, . D. Death’s head moth, Deer, fallow . “ Indian stag. SS MOOSE: juts Ss TEM ie: Pe roebuck . Foienasa .) tantiens “ stag ; Virginian’. . Diver, northern WOdo; 4-8, “sy Xs Dor ie Ns (i ASrieant., i. «Australian “ blood-hound . soe bulll *54 he “© Esquimaux . « greyhound CPiarrier? 4, s ‘hyena’ « Dog, mastiff. . “ Newfoundland © pomter= . © shepherd’s Page 740 577 762 414 651 675 176 786 787 787 625 - 627 560 833 691 532 475 485 779 540 543 644 610 758 653 721 862 341 340 332 345 342 339 334 344 678 683 131 141 139 140 139 135 132 134 141 138 133 134 140 INDEX. Dog, spaniel . . Dog, terrier 3 Dolphin, . . Dormouse, . Dory sy, ues romans Dotterel, Beleije! bell sek ikg Sor CONECH) ter tee “ electrical . Feret, great. sy littlevPaneirinis Elephant, . . Elephant beetle, Elk, American . “European . Emeu, «geen ite ENTOzOA,.. -« « Ermine; +.) F. Falcon, jer: +). “© peregrine. “ — rough-legged Wennec;<-.s") "se Ferx, es Sb Ferret, ° Fieldfare, . . PISHESS 24) Rs Fish hawk, . . Flamingo; « “. « Lea ue ie: cw are Flycatcher, blue gray “+ crested’ « “© pewit . Page. 133] Flycatcher, pied 138 394 235 750 623 585 321 666 670 447 452 450 449 434 438 438 44) 442 452 776 865 264 744 745 745 631 630 279 827 345 322 617 867 124 430 431 461 154 96 123 494 717 439 638 822 509 503 509 “ red-eyed . “ spotted . 877 Page. 506 510 506 “ swallow-tailed 511 tyrants) S “© white-eyed . 507 511 “ yellow-throated 510 Flying fish; 9). -. Fox, Fone ik pall “American. . « Arctic 5 ‘¢ silvery . HOR USO VGiey slugs “edibles. 8 {OVC PreC.. Mie, Ls G. Gall Insects, . . GAUEING. ules gue Gally worm, . . Gannet,). 2).5)/1 3 Gaur, . |<). mie Gayal\, citaeinue Gazelle iaemie aire Genetsiiereehinas Gibbon Gussie 4 ¢ Gilt head, -..¥. Giraffes ys. avenue GLIRES;) \.wieuiete Glow worm, . . Glossary, . « (SMUG oo ee eteaeon mata oats atiaeoeares © Angora) chess ne 737 150 153 152 153 710 713 713 841 587 800 677 387 337 356 158 76 747 351 223 823 873 362 369 371 * Rocky mountain 371 Goatsucker, . . Goldfinch, jan te ie European Goosander, . . Goose, American wild « European . SCT SOLAN wer tie Gopher mole, . Goshawk, .. . us GRALLATORES, . Grampusiitas le GRANIVORA, ° Grasshopper, Grayling, . Grehe, crested . Greyhound, . . Griffon Fe 572 538 539 671 660 663 677 102 453 621 396 523 829 731 652 132 412 878 Y s # Gresbeak, cardinal - Grouse, black . “c dusky red ruffed pinnated sharp-tailed wood Guinea hen, . pig; Gully. H. Haddock, Halibut, . Hamster, Hare, European American . Harrier, . Hart beest, . Hawk, black ¢ il “c fish marsh red-tailed sparrow swallow-tailed Heath hen, Hedgehog, Herring, . Heron, . Hippopotamus, ‘13 14 19 blue great night Hose ss iis « Humming-bird, Indian Mexican Honey guide, Hoopoe, . Hornbill, . Hornet, . Horse, 5 Huso,.' . Hyena, spotted striped “ I. Ibex;> Ibi “ S; scarlet wood . . Page. 533 600 604 601 601 603 604 598 597 261 655 741 741 240 254 257 134 359 456 439 462 462 454 457 603 97 732 628 632 631 630 293 297 299 300 539 563 472 847 310 560 727 161 160 367 642 643 643 INDEX. Ichneumon, . Iguana, . Indigo bird, . INERTES, . INFUsORIA, INSECTA, =. INSECTIVORA, . INVERTEBRATA, Je Jackal}. Jackdaw, Jaguar, . Jay, b 79 lue . Canada * Columbia European “Florida Steller’s Jerboa, . K. Kanguroo, Kingbird, . Kingfisher, belted it] Kite, ‘© Mississippi European vr dae e Lammergeyer, . Lamprey, Lantern fly, Lapwing, Leech, : Lemming, Lemur, red and black ‘13 119 Lion, slow . Leopard, . Linnet, American European e « Bengal “ Cape Lizard, . Llama, . Lobster, . Locust, . LopPHoBRANCHII, Louse, . Lumpfish, . Lynx, “ bay . ° . Lynx, Canaja M. Macauco . . Maccaw, i. Mackerel,. . Magpie . . Magot,,.- ,° ie Maimon,,. |. MALAcopreryGll, . Malbrouck, . MamMatia, . . Man). .« Siena Manati,< aie. vs Mandrill, . .. Manis, 5 . Marmose, . . Marmot, . . “Lapland “Maryland 6-5 gebarry/sare MarsvupPIALIA, . Marten, pine... ‘cr _ -ypurple fs European Mastiff. ¥en Menuya, . <._1 i Merganser, hooded 673 of red-breasted 671 Wieriin: yeas Mocking-bird, . Moley ot Sys “ gopher . fC \shrewelraen Motiusca, . . Mongoos, . . Monkey, . . Moorcock, . . Moose, . . WVforse;) 3 se Mouse, .. S07 ‘ifield cman «jumping Mules) 313. Mullet, * a, DViuscleyyeua emus ’ Musk, Thibet . Muskrat, . . Musquash, . . Myriapopa, . - N. Narwhal, . « 432 496 99 102 101 753 88 66 601 332 210 239 232 244 320 747 765 331 238 230 799 396 Nautilus, . Night Hawk, Nightingale, . Ninekiller, . INoddy;) Grei ~ Nutcracker, . Nuthatch,. . Nyl Ghau. . O. Ocelot; < OmNivorA,. . Opuipra, 3. Opossum, Mexican ce murine 13 Orang Outang, . Oriole, Baltimore . “ orchard . Orxtolany iin Ostrich, "3: “American . Otter, Canada . common eewsearrrs Virginian Page. INDEX. 759] Pearl-oyster, . Peccary, 574 512 503 655 610 615 128 127 130 © South American 129 Ouistiti,. . Ounce; 85 Ouzel v5 2 86 192 649 Owl, American horned 464 “European horned 463 barn.) burrowing © hawk é little ered fern arte “snowy . Ox ete ren. Oyster, . . P. Pacas lacie. PACHYDERMATA, Raco-Saewe | PALMIPEDES, . Pangolin, . Fanthemi ies fe Paradise bird, Parroquet, . Parrot, \ eae. re Partridge, . Peacock, . . 467 470 468 653 275 491 - 550 545 605 587 Pelican, Penguin, it4 Per ch, Petrel, . stormy . Phatagin, Pheasant, . a golden . Pholas, Pigeon, American wild 577 “c Pike, . ‘13 ‘19 Pilot fish, PINNATIPEDES, . Pin tado, . e Patagonian PLAGIOSTOMA, Platypus, Plover, golden . “ Polecat, long-legged Carolina domestic . ringed . Pointer, . Potyrr, . Porcupine, . s Brazilian § Canada . Porpoise, Prawn, Puffin, . Puma, Quail, American it] it3 R Rabbit, . Q. QUADRUMANA, Quagga, Californian European Raccoon, . RapIATA, Rail, American “ss water Rat, black . RaApaAces, “ iis “ lemm1 ng Norway . water 769 584 585 735 Rattlesnake, . Raven, . Ray con rents Razorbill, . Redbird, 27. Redbreast, . Redstart, . . iti Reindeer, . REPTILEs,. . Rhinoceros, . Roach}, *. 7%. Robin, 5 6 “ground Roebuck, . . Roller} Roolst. “er Rougette, . Roussette,. . RomInanrTIA, . s. Sabley v.15 Saiga, sts Salamander, . Salmon, . . : trout Sandpiper, . American . 730 644 43 red-backed 645 “ red-breasted 645 s solitary SAvRIA, nic Scolopendra, . Scorpion, . . Screamer, horned MeaIDeals en te Se hersem . 66." dions: fe “Sow, ° SH Otterc ® Ue tester, . unicorn, . edliys «ye Ne * elephant . * Greenland “ hooded . sursine}s had), st shark. 5."9e Shearwater, . Sheep, domestic 645 691 800 792 609 209 728 208 743 130 866 396 203 208 206 209 209 734 722 658 376 “Rocky Mountain 372 Re 880 Sheep, wild . . Shrew mole,. . Shrew mouse ‘ BeDTIKe, 6 |. apt gue Shrimp,. . .« Siamang, es i«..« Silk-worm, . . Skate, nt ee Skimmer, . . Sluice = a) Sues Skylark, ane SIOUDS Is | 21-6 tite MIMCW, 6 . 6 « Smelt, Beene NAW te ee Snake, black . . a hooded . Snipe, oakee) oc *¢ semi-palmated Sole fish,- §. .. NPABlels wee) 6 § water . Sparrow, chipping . re) eheldy 7. Te SOUS 6) oie HATES Hams | UG Sw Aa AG Spoonbill, . . Springbok, OMe Squirrel, a“ te “ A as i flyinge 6 s* BTCV) ese GIS ee soe anadal sigue Cape. »sv6 “Indian . 6 Starling, Bae a Sloat... ©.) sei fre Stork reine. ee “© Marabou * Sturgeon, STURIONES, « »© « Swallow, . . > Gbarkseatuh. Us barn. « chimney Us cliff, 3. Swany... io meemeeya “ whistling . Meriblack @aien) INDEX. Swit) is wea Sword fish, e . Te Tamandua, . . Tamanolr; je. « Manager,’ .. “< its Rapila sis a) celal te Tarantula,