LRP OE IY OES Sarre yo anor + nonae ran Siasacre enone Sea apse enn filtpeons lefere to hang at reap dist Sell Guenty bokis L-rlad in ae ar fie Of Aristotle & hits a Bt tlosa-p Thum tabis ruche ar fete i TGA an “ati Lia, bia ditt [Maser ar gay Sutrie y x 4 Ope aE iui Sha ad ry WEED fh De a a 2) 5 py" ey 2. TE ~ Nature A WEEKEY [ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOEUM Eee XVIT. NOVEMBER 1882 to APRIL 1883 “ To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —WoRDSWORTH Vondon and slew Zork: MACMILLAN AND CO. »QO 4 1003 LONDON : R, CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL, E.C. « ~ Nature, Fune 21, 1883] LN DEX ABERCROMBY (Hon. R.), the Aurora and its Spectrum, 173 Abney (Capt. W. de W., F.R.S.), Work in the Infra-red of the Spectrum, 15 Acetate of Soda, Heating by, 344 Acta Mathematica, 180 Adamson (Chas. Murray), “ Another Book of Scraps principally relating to Natural History,” 480 Aérolite near Alfianello, 496 Aéronautics, see Balloons Africa: Joseph Thomson’s Expedition, 21; H. M. Stanley’s Report of his Expedition, 21; Milan Society's Expedition, 230; Lieut. Wissmann’s Expedition, 348; Wissmann and Pogge’s Expedition, 401 : Central and West, H. Capello and R. Ivens, 391; Ethnology of North, Prof. A. H. Keane, 408; ‘‘ Afrika’s Strome und Fliisse,” Dr. J. Chavanne, 447 ; “ Africana,” Rev. D. Macdonald, 526; Dr. Emil Holub’s New Expedition, 542 Agram, Earthquakes at, 348 Agricultural Students’ Gazette, 230 Agriculture in Madras, 607 Aino Ethnology, Dr. J. J. Rein, 365; Prof. A. H. Keane, 389 Ainos, Bear Festival among the, 19 Air, Elasticity of, M. Kraevitch, 183 Air, on the Movements of, in Fissures and the Barometer, A. Strahan, 375, 461 Air-pump, Double-action Mercury, Serrawalle, 324 Airy (Sir G. B., F.R.S.), on the proposed Forth Bridge, 131 ; C. S. Smith, 99; B. Baker, 222 Airy (Dr. Hubert), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 86 ; Hover- ing of Birds, 294, 336, 388, 412; Soaring of Birds, 590 Albuminous Bodies, on the Isomerism of, Shigetaké Sagiura, 103 | Aldis (Prof. W. Steadman), “Introductory Treatise on Rigid | Dynamics,” 265 ; the Sea Serpent, 338 Aletia xylina in United States, Hibernation of, Dr. C. V. Riley, 214 Aleutian Islands, Fauna and Flora of, 520 Alfianello, Aérolite near, 496 Algze in Paleozoic Strata, Invertebrate’ Casts verses, 46 Algze, Fossil, Marquis de Saporta, 514 Algeria, Projet de Mer Intérieure dans I’, 133; an Algerian Winter Resort for Gout and Rheumatic Patients, 113; Heavy Rains in, 229 Allen (Grant), Prof. Owen on Primitive Man, 31; the Shapes | of Leaves, 439, 464, 492, 511, 552; F. O. Bower, 552; | | Athens, Dr. Schliemann’s proposed Excavations at, 276 Leaves and their Environment, 604 Almanac, the Churchman’s, for Eight Centuries, 386 Altai Exploration Expedition, 161 Altitude and Weather, Dr. Woeikoff, 223 Aluminium, New Method of Producing, Morris, 183 Amateurs and Astronomical Observation, W. F. Denning, 434 America: American Naturalist, 24, 189, 450; American Jour- | ! | Auerbach, Sound-Vibrations of Solid Bodies (glass cylinders) in nal of Science, 71, 450, 521; American Journal of Forestry, 89 ; Mathematics in, J. W. L. Glaisher, F.R.S., 193; Ame- rican Researches on Water Analysis, 211; American Antiqui- ties, Prof. F. W. Putnam, 277; Ensilage in, Prof. James E. T. Rogers, Prof. J. Wrightson, 479; Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 501 ; Evolution of the American Trot- | ting Horse, W. H. Brewer, 609 ; see a/so United States, &c. Amsterdam, Earthquake at, 517 “Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings,” by Dr. Munro, Sir John Lubbock, M.P., F.R.S., 145 Ancient Monuments, Worthington G, Smith, 182 Andernach, Discovery of Remains of Prehistoric Animals at, | 445 Anderson (Dr. J., F.R.S.), Catalogue of Mammalia in Calcutta Museum, 172 Anemometric Observations on the Djighzt, Domojiroff, 445 Animal Intelligence, Dr. Fritz Miiller, 240; J. G. Grenfell, 292; J. Birmingham, 337; Dr. J. Rae, F.R.S., 366; D. Pidgeon, 366 Animals, Protection of, International Congress for, 444; Bene- volence in, Oswald Fitch, 580; Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 607 ; on the Sense of Colour amongst some of the Lower, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., 618 Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 143, 281, 330, 450 Annonay Montgolfier Celebration, 517 ‘¢ Another Book of Scraps,” C. M. Adamson, 480 Antarctic Expedition, New Italian, 230 Anthropology, an Urgent Need in, W. L. Distant, ror ; of the Jews, B. Blechmann, 113; Anthropological Institute, 119, 191, 215, 307, 332, 426, 475; Anthropo-Geographie,. Dr. F. Ratzel, 125; Notes in the Solomon Islands, H. b, Guppy, 607 Antinori (Marchese O.), Death of, 132 Apatite, on a Fine Specimen of, from Tyrol, lately in the pos- session of Mr. Samuel Henson, 608 Arabians, Nautical Matters among Medizval, 42 Aradas (Prof. Andrea), Death of, 160 Arc Lamp, Lever’s, 274 Archegosaurus, Indian, R. Lydekker, 411 Archene, Earthquake at, 277 Archibald (E. Douglas) : Shadows after Sunset, 77 ; Increase in Velocity of Wind with Altitude, 243; Diurnal Variations in the Velocity of the Wind, 461; Stevenson’s Observations on Increase of Velocity of the Wind with the Altitude, 506 Archives des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles, 93, 143, 306, 473 Arctic Expedition, New Swedish, 400 Arctic Voyaging, Season of 1882 exceptionally adverse to, 372 Argentine, Description Physique ,de la République, d’apres des Observations Personnelles et Etrangeres, Dr. H. Burmeister, 28 Argyll (Duke of): Mimicry in Moths, 125 ; Transit of Venus, 156; Hovering of Birds, 312, 387; Metamorphic Origin of Granite—Prehistoric ‘‘ Giants,” 578 Arithmetic, Elementary Chemical, Sidney Lupton, 76 Armour-plate Experiments, Recent, 405 Asia (Central), Dr. Regel’s Explorations in, 446 Asphyxiation in Rapid Falling, 62 Association for Improvement of Geometrical Teaching, 246, 299, 580 ; Astronomy: Astronomical Column, 20, 43, 161, 210, 248, 300, 324, 348, 374, 400, 424, 445, 497, 517, 540, 567, 589, 617; Methods employed in Astronomical Physics, M. Wolf, 372; Amateurs and Astronomical Observation, W. F. Denning, 434; Astronomical Photography, Edward C., Pickering, 556 ** Atlantis,” a Search for, with the Microscope, Dr. Arch. Geikie, F.R.S., 25 Atmosphere, Pollution of the, J. J. Murphy, 241 ; Phillips, 127, 266 Atti della R. Accademia dei Lincei, 354 Auden (A. W.), ‘‘ The Vampire Bat,” 411 Wale. wae Contact with Liquid, 325 Aurora Borealis: Prof. Lemstrém’s Experiments with, 322; Sophos Tromholt, 394 ; in Sweden, 496 Aurore : C. L. Wragge, 54; Prof. Herbert McLeod, Rey. C. J. Taylor, Rev. S. H. Saxby, 99; A. Batson, 99; J. Rand Capron, 149, 413; J. J. Murphy, 434; at Gastemiinde, 374 ; Swan Lamp Spectrum and the, J. Rand Capron, 149; Swan Lamp Spectrum and, J. Munro, 173; Aurora of November 17, Admiral Ommanney, F.R.S., Prof. Tacchini, J. R. Capron, W. M. F. Petrie, H. D. Taylor, E. Pollock, J. F. Cole, A. Batson, F. R. Clapham, T. W. Backhouse, Prof. L. G. Carpenter, 138 ¢o 142; T. W. Backhouse, W. M. F. Petrie, Dr. H. Muirhead, 315 ; Aurore in Sweden, 113; in Belgium, 160; Aurora and its Spectrum, Hon. R. Aber- cromby, 173; J. R. Capron, 198; the Heights of Auroras, T. W. Backhouse, 198; Auroral Meteoric Phenomena of November 17, 1882, Dr. Groneman, 388; T. W. Backhouse, 412; A. Batson, 412; Auroral Experiments in Finland, S. Lemstrom, 389; Rowell’s Experiments on Aurore, 443 A2 1v INDEX Avalanche in ieee Sw itzerland, r8t Ayrton (Prof. W. E.), Electric Railways, 255 Bacillus of Tuberculosis (Koch), Preliminary Note on the, J. W. Clark, 492 ; Watson Cheyne’s Report on, 563 Backhouse (Thos. W.), Comet 1882 4, 52, 338; Aurora of povember 17, 1882, 141, 315, 415; the Heights of Auroras, 19 Baillie-Grohman (W. A.), ‘‘ Camps in the Rockies,” 551 Baird’s Hare and its Habits, 241 ; ‘[. Martyr, 266 Baker (B.), Sir Geo. Airy on the Forth Bridge, 222 Balkan Peninsula, Earthquake in the Northern Part of, 19 Ball (Dr. R. S.), Transit of Venus, 157; Great Tides, 201 Balloons: Centenary of the Discovery of, 277; Tissandier’s Electromagnetic Engine for directing, 323; Extraordinary Run of a small Hydrogen, 400; Electricity as a Motive Power for, Napoli, 517 Baltic, Seals in the, 133 Baluchistan, Wanderings in, Major-General Sir C. M. Mac- Gregor, Prof. A. H. Keane, 359 Barfoot (W.), the Sea-Serpent, 338 Barkas (T. P.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurore, 87 ; an Extra- ordinary Lunar Halo, 103 Baro-manometrical Experiments, Kraevit=ch, 324 Barometer, on the Movements of Air in Fissures and the, A. Strahan, 375, 461 Batson (A.), Auroral ‘‘ Meteoric Phenomena”’ 1882, 100, 141, 412 Bavaria, Lower, Discoveries of Gold and Silver in, 399 Baxter College in Dundee, 247 Bear Festival among the Ainos, 19 Bees, Senses of, 46 Beetles, ‘‘ Die Kafer Westfalens,”’ F. Westhoff, 239 Belgrade, Skeleton of Mammoth found at, 63 Bellesme (Prof. J. de), on Claude Bernard, 317 Benevolence in Animals, Oswald Fitch, 580; Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 607 Ben Nevis, Meteorological Observatory on, 18, 39, 175, 399; 411, 487 Bennett (A. W.), Nesting Habits of the Emu, 530 Berlin: Physical Society of, 95, 143, 216, 236, 284, 380, 403, 476, 571, 620; Physiological Society of, 120, 191, 216, 355, 379, 403, 452, 524, 595; Berlin Agricultural Museum, 180 Bernard (Claude), Prof. J. de Bellesme on, 317 Berson (M.), Magnetisation of Metals, 183 Bertillon (Dr.), Death of, 444 Bhamo, Colquhoun’s Journey to, 63 Bidwell (Shelford), ‘‘ Electrical Resistance of Carbon Coniacts,” 376 Binary Star, ¢ Cancri, 424 Binary Star, # Eridani, 589 Binary Stars, 518 Biology : in Italy, 46 ; Biological Notes, 91, 230; New Lantern Slides for Illustrating Biology, 276; Deductive Biolog», W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., 554 Bird of Paradise, New Species of, 276 Bird-track by Sea-shore, apparent, 91 Birds, a History of British, Part xv., Wm. Yarrell, 98 Birmingham (John), Transit of Venus, 1882, British Expedition , 180; Intelligence in Animals, 337 Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical Society, 587 Bischoff (Dr. T. L. W. von), Death of, 180 Blackheath, ‘‘ Denehole” at, 324 Blanford’s Sheep, 415 Blasius (Dr.), Fossil Souslik in Northern Germany, 247 Blastopore, Prof. F. M. Balfour on the Existence of a, 215 Blackman (B.), Anthropology of the Jews, 113 Bles (E. J.), a ‘‘ Natural” Experiment in Complementary Colours, 241 Blomfield (Rev. L.): Ticks, 552; Helix pomatia, L., 553 “Blowing Wells,” 375 Bobenhausen Pile Dwellings, 160 Bohdalek (Dr.), Death of, 399 Bohemia, Earthquake in, 400 Bologna, Earthquake at, 445 Bombay, Deaths from Snake-bite in, Sir Joseph Fayrer, F.R.S., 556 Bonney (Prof. T. G., F.R.S.) : Hornblendic and other Schists of tthe Lizard District, 71; Proceedings of the American Asso- ciation for the Advancement of Science, 501 Botanic Gardens, Calcutta, Report of the Royal, 114 of November 17, [Nature, Fune 21, 1883 Botanical Garden, Saharunpur, 588 Botanical Year Book, Pringsheim’s, 502 Botany, Text Book of Morphological and Physiological, Julius Sachs, Prof, E. P. Wrizht, 263 Botany of the Challenger Expedition, W. Botting Hemsley, 462 Bottomley (J. T.), Thomson’s Mouse: Mill Dynamo, 78 | Boulger (Prof. G. S.), Epping Forest, 455 Bowditch (Dr. H. P.), Optical Illusions of Motion, 183 Bower (F. 0.), Mr, Grant Allen’s Articles on ‘‘ The Shapes of Leaves,” 552 Braces or Waistband ? 531, 553, 580 3ranfill (B. R.), an Extraordinary Meteor, 149 Brassey (Sir Thomas), ‘‘ The British Navy; its Strength, Re- sources, and Administration,” W. H. White, 549 Brault on Zsanemones, 20 Brewer, Distiller, and Wine Manufacturer, 311 Brewer (W. H.), Evolution of the American Trotting Horse, 609 British Association, Proposed Visit to Canada, 41, 88, 299, 398, 535, 546, 587; Protest against Meeting in Canada, 209 ; and Local Societies, 132 British Birds, a History of, Part xv., Wm. Yarrell, 98 British Circumpolar Expedition, Capt. Daw son, R.A., 484 “British Navy ; its Strength, Resources, ana Administration,’ Sir Thomas Brassey, W. H.W hite, 549 Britten (F. J.), Watch and Clockmaker’s Handbook, H. Dent Gardner, 76 Brocklehurst (T. U.), ‘‘ Mexico To-day,” 503 Bronze Hatchets Discovered at Salez, 540 Brown (E.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 86; Meteor, 508; the Zodiacal L ight (2), 605 Brown (J. Campbell), Practical Chemistry, 75 Brunton (Dr. T. Lauder, F.R.S.): on Inhibition (of Structural Functions) and Ac ion of Drugs thereon, 419, 436, 467, 485 ; Action of Calcium, &c., on Muscle, 450 Brussels Observatory, 445 Buchan (A.), Diurnal Variation of Wind on Open Sea and nea and on Land, 413 Buckley (Arabella), Winners in Life’s Race, 51 Buenos Ayres, the Comet 1882 4 at, 62 Bulletin de l’ Académie Royale des Sciences de Belgique, 71, 281, 47 Bulletin de l’Académie Impériale des Sciences de St. Péters- bourg, 94 Bulletin de la Société d’ Anthropol -gie de Paris, 214 Bulletin de la Suc. Imp. des Naturalistes de Moscou, 47, 189 Burmah, Colquhoun’s Journey to. 92 “*Burman, The,” Shway Yoe, 5; Dr. E. B. Tylor, F.R.S., 6 Burmeister (Dr, H.), ‘‘ Description Prysique de la Republique Argentine d’aprés des Observations Personnelles et Etran- geéres,” 28 Burton (Richard F.) and Verney Cameron, ‘‘ To the Gold Coast for Gold,”’ 335 Burton (F. M.), Sap-flow, 530 Butterflies, Natural Enemies of, Henry Higgins, 338 Butterflies of India, Burmah, and Ceylon, Marshall and Nicé. ville’s, H. J. Elwes, 50 Cacao: How to Grow and How to Cure it, D. Morris, 566 Cacciatore (Prof.), Transit of Venus, 180 Calcium, Lockyer’s Dissociation Theory of, Hermann W. Vogel, 233 Calcium, Barium, and Potassium, Action of, on Muscle, Ioctor- Brunton and Cash, 450 Calcutta: Report of the Royal Botanic Gardens, 114 ; Catalogue of Mammalia in the Museum, Dr. Anderson, F.R.S., 172 Proposed Exhibition in, 209 Callard (T- K.), Palaeolithic River Gravels, 54 Cambridge : New Professorships at, 469 ; Philosophical Society, 62, 119, 143, 403 Cameron (Verney), Richard Burton and, ‘‘ To the Gold Coas for Gold,” 335 | Campbell (Lewis, LL.D.), the Life of James Clerk Maxwell, 2¢ “Camps in the Rockies,” W. A. Baillie-Grohman, 551 Canada, Proposed Visit of the British Association to, 41, 88 299, 398, 538, 546, 587; Protest agai st, 209 Candolle (A. de), ‘‘ Origine des Plantes Cultivées,” Cape Horn, Frenzh Mission to, 344 Cape Sea Lion, 415 Capello (H.) and Ivens (R.), Central and West Africa, 391 429 } Caprifig and Fig, Relations of the, W. B. Ilemsley, 584 - Nature, Fune 21, 1883] Capron (J. Rand) ; a Lunar Halo, 78 ; the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 83 ; Shadows after Sunset, 102 ; Aurora of Novem- ber 17, 139, 149; Swan Lamp Spectrum and the Aurora, 149, 198; the Weather, 198 ; Foam-balls, 531 Carbo-hydrates in the Animal System, Physiology of, Dr. F. W. Pavy, F.R.S., 618 Carbon Contacts, Electrical Resistance of, Shelford Bidwell, 376 Carboniferous Vertebrate Palzeontology, Notice of some Dis- coveries recently made in, T. Stock, 22 Cariamas, Flamingoes and, James Currie, 389 Carlisle (Bishop of), Weather Forecasts, 4, 51 Carlsruhe, Meteor at, 540 Carnivora, Siwalik, Richard Lydekker, 293 Carpathian Club, 162 Carpenter (Prof. L. G.), Aurora of November 17, 141 Cascia, Earthquake at, 63 Cash (Dr.), Action of Calcium, &c., on Muscle, 450 Caspian, Changes of Level of, 541 Cassell’s Encyclopedic Dictionary, 423 Cassell’s Natural History, 367 Cassine, Earthquake at, 299 Cassini Division of Saturn’s King, 374 Cassowary, the One-wattled, 153 Cathodes, Chemical Corrosion of, Dr. Gore, F R.S., 374 Caucasus: Volcanic Eruption in the, 63; Geography of the, 470; Administration of Public Instruction of, 497 ; Geogra- phical Society of, 424; Bulletin of Society for History and Archeology, 497 Cecil (Henry): Comet 1882 4, 52; the Transit of Venus, 159; Hovering of Birds, 388; Meteors, 483 Central Asia, ‘‘ Travels and Adventures East of the Caspian during the Years 1879-81, including Five Months’ Residence among the Tekkés of Mery,’ Edmond O’Donovan, Prof. A. H. Keane, 359 Ceraski’s Variable Star, U Cephei, 424 Cesati (Baron V.), his Botanical Collection, 20 *€Ceylon, Lepidoptera of,” L. Reeve and Co., 150 Challenger Expedition, Botany of the, W. Botting Hemsley, 462 Cha'lenger Reports (Zoology, ii., iii., and iv.), 73 Challis (Prof. James, F.R.S.), Death of, 132 Chambery, Phylloxera in, 133 Chandler (Prof.), the Comet, 81 Changy on Incandescent Lamps, 209 Channel, Mountainous Seas in Calm Weather, 540 Channel Tunnel, Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., 338 Chayanne (Dr. J.), ‘‘ Afrika’s Stréme und Fliisse,” 447 Chemistry : the Chemical Society, 47, 118, 191, 234, 306, 402, 426, 522, 570, 595; Recent Chemical Synthesis, 49; Prac- tical Chemistry, J. Campbell Brown, 75; Elementary Che- mical Arithmetic, Sidney Lupton, 76; Principles of Che- mistry, Prof. Mendeléeff, 113; Chemical Notes, 301 ; Electrolytic Balance of Chemical Corrosion, Dr. Gore, P.R.S., 326; Properties (Physical and Chemical) of Simple and Compound Bodies, De Heen, 422; Chemistry of the Planté and Faure Accumulators, Dr, J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S., and Dr. A. Tribe, F.R.S., 583 Chevreul (M.): nominated President of the French Société Nationale d’Agriculture, 277; his long Scientific Career, 422 Cheyne (Watson), the Bacillus of Tubercle, 563 China: Foreign Education in, 90; Chinese Definition of Death, 160; the Electric Light in, 209; Kk. K. Douglas on, 221 ; Comets as Portents in, 229; ‘‘Chinarinden in Pharmakcgnos- tischer Hinsicht dargestellt, Die,’ F. A. Fliickiger, 287 ; Scientific Heresies in, 342; Chinese Educational Mission, 566; Miss Dr. Howard’s Success in, 567; Lead Ore dis- covered in, 588; Telegraph Extension in, 588; Waste Paper in, 588; Coroners’ Science in, Robert K. Douglas, 612 Chlorophyll Corpuscles of Hydra, Prof. E, Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 87 pie (W. H. M., F.R.S ), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 2 pescuena Culture, Handbook of, Karel Wessel van Gorkom, 207 Circle, Medioscribed, 607 Circumpolar Expedition: Notes from Capt. Dawson’s Letters, 103, 242, 484; Dr. Rae, F.R.S., on, 508 Civil Service Examinations, Natural Science in, 321 Clapham (F. R.), Aurora of November 17, 141 Clark (J. E.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, $4 Clarke (C. B.), Equal Temperament of the Scale, 240 | Cumming (Miss Gordon), ‘‘ Fire Fountains, * Cunningham (Dayid), Hovering of birds, 33¢ INDEX Vv Clark (J. W.): Condensation of Liquid Films on Wetted Solids, 370; Preliminary Note on the Bacillus of Tuberculosis (Koch), 492 Clerk-Maxwell on Stress, 314 Clouds, Magnetic Arrangement of: C, H. Romanes, 31; Rev. W. Clement Ley, 53 Coal Fire, Fiames in, 183 Coal Gas, Lime as a Purifier of Products of Combustion of, Dr. Joule, F.K.S., 496 Coan (Kev. Titus), Death of, 398 Cobbold (Dr. T. Spencer, F.R.S.): Ticks, 5525 Simondsia paradoxa, 547 Cold, Unprecedented, in the Riviera—Absence of Sunspots, C. J. B. Williams, 551 Cole (J. F.), Aurora of Novetaber 17, 141 Colour, on the Sense of, amongst some of the Lower Animals, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., 618 Colours, Complementary, 78; J. J. Murphy, 8; C. R. Cross, 150; at Niagara Falls, H. G. Madan, 174; ‘‘ Natural” Ex- periment in, E. J. Bles, 241; Chas. T. Whitmell, 266; Novel Experiment in, John Gorham, 794 Colquhoun (A. R.) : Journey through Yunnan to Burmah, 92 ; Journey to Bhamo, 63 Coltsfoot, Early, R. McLachlan, F.R.S., 266 Comets: Schmidt’s Cometary Object, 20; the Great Comet 1882 0, 4, 21, 43, 56, 80, 161, 210, 390, 349, 400, 446, 54°, 589; Major J. Herschel, Geo. M. Seabroke, Arthur Watts, 43 Spectroscopic Observations of, 24, 42 ; C. J. B. Williams, 29; W. J. Millar, 29; W. Higginson and B. Manning, 29 ; seen at the Paris Observatory, 42; J. P. McEwen, 52; T. W. Backhouse, 52, 338; G. M. Seabroke, 52; H. Cecil, 52; B. J. Hopkins, 62, 78; at Buenos Ayres, 62; . K. Rees, Prof. Chandler, 81; ‘‘ Anomalous’ Tail of, Rev. T. W. Webb, 89; Major J. Herschel, ‘ror ; Commander Sampson, U.S.N., Dr. C. J. B. Williams, F.R.S., 108 ; Division of the Nucleus of the, 113; W. C. Winlock, 128; Dr. Doberck, 128; A. Ainslie Common, 150; F. Stapleton, 150; Photograph of, 180; during last November and December, C. J. B. Williams, F.R.S., 198; Elements of, Vice-Admiral Rowan, Prof. E. Frisby, 226 ; J. P. McEwen on, 247; W. T. Sampson, 266; Dr. B. A. Gould, 267; E. Ristori, 314; Orbit of, E. Ristori, 388 ; Ephemeris of, Prof. Frisby, 415; Prof. Schiaparelli on the, Francis Porro, 533; Comet 1882c, 161, 248; Comets as Portents in China, 229; Figure of the Nucleus of Comet of 1882 (Gould), Prof. Holden, 246; D’Arrest’s Comet, 324, 567, 589, 618; Repoited Discovery of a Comet, 324; Denning’s Comet, 348 ; Comet of 1771, 374 ; Comet 18834, 445, 517; Comet of 1812, 498 Common (A. Ainslie), the Comet, 150 Complementary Colours, 78; J. J. Murphy, 8; C. R. Cross, 150; at Niagara Falls, H. G. Madan, 174; a ‘‘ Natural 2 Experiment in, E. J. Bles, 241; Chas. T. Whitmell, 266 ; Novel Experiment in, John Gorham, 294 Condensation of Liquid Films on Wetted Solids, J. W. Clark, 70 Goheo (Upper), Departure of Belgian Expedition for, 182 Coniferze, Female Flowers in, 231 Conte (Dr. Le), on Darwinism, 275 Cooke (Conrad), &c., ‘‘ Electric Illumination,” 264 “‘Cookery, the Rudiments of,” A. C. M., 323 Cooley (W. Desborough), Death of, 469 Copernicus, Darwin and, Prof. E, du Bois Reymond, 557 Coral-eating Habits of Holothurians, Surgeon-Major H. B. Guppy, 7; Saville Kent, 433 ; J. G. Grenfell, 508 Cordiner (K.), Age of Dogs, 79 Corona, Photographing the, Dr. W. Huggins, F.R.S., 199 Coroners’ Science in China, Robert K. Douglas, 612 Corpuscles, Red Blood, Prof, Quincke on, 355 Cosmical Dust collected by M.‘Marx, Prof. Lenz, 422 Cothenius Medal, 540 Cowan (Mr. D.), Explorations in Madagascar, 372 Crombie (J. M.), Function of Membrana Flaccida of Tympanic Membrane, 129 Cross (C. R.), Complementary Colours, 150 Crystal Palace Electricity and Gas Exhibition, 180 Cryptogamic Flora of Germany, Austria, and Switzerland, Mary P. Merrifield, 385 Cryptophycez, a New Genus of, 230 » - 525 D vil INDEX | [Nature, Fune 21, 1883 Cunningham (Major Allan), Roorkee Hydraulic Experiments, 1; the Indian Survey, 97 Cunningham (J. T.), Zoological Station in Naples, 453 Currie (James), Flamingoes and Cariamas, 389 Cutting Tools worked by Hand and Machine, Robert H. Smith, 577 : Cyprus, Earthquake in, 497 Dachstein Glaciers, Decrease of, 42 Dairy Industry in France, 90 D’Arrest’s Comet, 324, 567, 559, 618 Darwin (Charles), on Tower-like Dejections made by Worms, 20; Enthusiasm in Sweden on the Memorial to, 275 ; Darwin and Copernicus, Prof. E. du Bois Reymond, 557 ; Hostile Criticism in Germany of the Address on, 565 Darwin (Prof. G. H., F.R.S.), Numerical Estimate of the Rigidity of the Earth, 22; Elected Plumian Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy at Cambridge, 275 ; Formation of Mudballs, 507 Darwinism, Dr, Le Conte on, 275 Dary (Georges), on Electric Navigation, 41, 42 Davis Lectures for 1883, 565 Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd), Channel Tunnel, 338 Dawson (Capt.), Notes on Circumpolar Expedition from Letters of, 103, 242, 484 De La Rue’s Diaries, &c., 161 De Morgan (Augustus), Memoir of, R. Tucker, 217 Death, Chinese Definition of, 160 Deaths from Snake Bite in Bombay, Sir Joseph Fayrer, F.R.S., 556 Dechevrens (Father Marc), a Curious Halo, 30 Deductive Biology, W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., 554 Deep-Sea Exploration, French, 587 “*Deneholes” at Blackheath, 324 Denmark: Oyster Fisheries of, 346; Glacial Phenomena in, Prof. Johnstrup, 373 Denning (W. F.): Transit of Venus, 158 ; Markings on Jupiter, 365; Amateurs and Astronomical Observation, 434; the Large Meteor of March 2, 1883, 461 Denning’s Comet, 348 Deprez’s Electrical Theories, 399 Derby Free Library, Reference Catalogue, 62 Desborde (Col.), on Banks of Niger, 424 Dewar (Prof.) and Prof. Liveing, Origin of Hydrocarbon Flame Spectrum, 257 Diamond in its Matrix, a, 90 Dickert (Herr Thomas), Death of, 399 Dickson (Dr. Oscar): his liberality in aiding Scientific Research, 444; Account of Swedish Expedition to Greenland, 541 Dier (Prof.), Shadows after Sunset, 150 Dimphna, Search Expedition for the, 64 Diluvial Mammals, Discovery of Remains of, on Wolza, 373 Dip-Cirele, Goolden’s Simple, 127 Direct-Vision Prisms, 182 Distant (W. L.): an Urgent Need in Anthropology, tor ; ““Rhopalocera Malayana,” 444 Diurnal Variation in the Velocity of the Wind, E. Douglas Archibald, 461 Djighit (the), Domojiroff’s Anemometric Observations on, 445 Doberck (Dr. W.) : the Comet 18824, 129; Transit of Venus, 158 ; appointed to the Hong Kong Observatory, 565 Dobson (J. L.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 87 Doe with Horns, 209 Dogs, Age of, R. Cordiner, 79 Dolmen, Discovery of, at St. Pierre Quiberon, 540 Domojiroff’s Anemometric Observations on board the Djighit, 445 Doradiis, Supposed Variable u, a Spurious Star, 498 Double Stars, Measures of, 182 ae (Robert K.): China, 221 ; Coroners’ Science in China, 12 Draper (Prof. Henry): Death of, 88; Obituary Notice of, 108 Dredging Implement, a New: Prof, A. Milnes Marshall, 11; W. A. Herman, 54 Dreyer (J. L. E.), Transit of Venus, 158 Dublin: Royal Society of, 235; Experimental Science Associa- tion, 571; Aurora at, 589 Dumas (J. B. A.) : Peesentation to, 132 ; his Address at the Com- memoration of the Fiftieth Anniversary of his Membership of the Paris Academy, 174 ; the Dumas Medal, 227; Illness of, 346 Duncan (Prof. P. Martin, F.R.S.), Heroes of Science, 76 Dust Showers in Norway, 496 “Dutton (Capt. C. E.), a Monograph by,”’ Tertiary History of the Grand Cafion District, Dr, Arch. Geikie, F.R.S., 357 Dyer (W. T. Thiselton, F.R.S.): Influence of ‘‘ Environment ” on Plants, 82 ; the Sacred Tree of Kum-Bum, 224; Deductive Biology, 554 Dynamics, Introductory Treatise on Rigid, W. Steadman Aldis, 265 Dynamo, Thomson’s Mouse-Mill, J. T. Bottomley, 78 Dynamo Machine, Elphinstone-Vincent, 516 Dynamo-electric Machine with Continuous Induction, Prof. Pfaundler the Inventor of, 517 f Dynamo-electric Machines, Recent, 58 Earth, Numerical Estimate of the Rigidity of the, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., 22 Earth Currents during Magnetical Perturbations, 89 Earth’s Crust, Physics of the, Rev. O. Fisher, 76 Earth’s Surface, Causes of Elevation and Depression of, W. F. Stanley, 523 Earthquakes: in the Northern part of the Balkan Peninsula, 19 ; at Cascia, 63; in Perugia, 90; in the Valais, 181; in Greece and Panama, 248 ; at Murcia, in Spain, at Archena, &c., 277 ; at Halifax, Prof. Geo. Lawson, 293; Clifton, Geo. F. Burder, 293; Hastings, R. H. Tiddeman, 293; at Cassine, 299; at Agram, 348; at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 374; in Silesia and Bohemia, 400; in Hungary, 423; at Bologna, 445; in Japan, Proposed Study of, 469; in Cyprus, 497 ; at Amsterdam, 517; in Hungary and Italy, 540; at Pedara in Sicily, 567 Earthslip in Switzerland, 209 Earthworms in New Zealand, 91 Eastlake (F. W.), Geology of Hong Kong, 177 Eclipse, Total Solar, of May 6, 1883, 111, 248; the English Observers, 346, 398, 556, 567 Eclipse, Solar, Total, of May 17, 1901, 424 Eclipses, Solar, the Recent Coming and Total, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., 185 Edinburgh : Royal Society of, 168, 283, 307, 403, 428, 452, 548, 571, 595; Mathematical Society of, 346, 500, 595 Education: Foreign Education in China, 90; of our Industrial Classes, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., 248; A. J. Mundella on, 276; Prof. Huxley on, 396; Minister of, 495; in Japan, 617 Edwards (E. W. W.) and Higgins (€.), the Electric Lighting Act, 1882, 410 Eggs, Effect of Railway Transport on, 444 Egyptian Exploration Fund, gor Elastiche Nachwirkung, M. Hesehus, 183 Electricity : International Electrical Conference, 18; Tricycles propelled by, 19; Electric Illumination of a Railway Bridge over the Ticino, 20; Electric Lighting, Sir C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., 67; Electric Lighting at Society of Arts, 133; Elec- tric Light in China, 209; ‘‘ Electric Mlumination,” Conrad Cooke, &c., 264; Priority in Photographing with Electric Light, 276; Public Electric Lighting, 384; Electric Lighting Act, 1882, C. Higgins and E. W. W. Edwards, 410; Elec- tric Light at Savoy Theatre, 418; Electric Lighting in Switz- erland, 497; in Paris, 516; Some Points in Electric Lighting, Dr. John. Hopkinson, F.R.S., 592; Electric Navigation, Georges Dary, 41, 42; M. Tresca’s Papers on Electrical Measures, 62; Electrical Transmission of Force and Storage of Power, Sir C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., 67, 518; Electrical Disturbances in Sweden and Norway, 89; Electrical Exhibi- tion at the Crystal Palace, 180; Electric Reaction, Prof. Melde, 183; Electrical Phenomena, 199 ; Electric Railways, Prof. W. E. Ayrton, 255; ‘‘Electricity,” by Robert M. Ferguson, 264; Electrical Exhibition at Vienna, 373, 444; ‘* Electricity,” a New Hungarian Journal, 299; Il Potentiale Elettrico nell’ Insegnamento Elementare della Elettrostatica, Prof. A. Serpieri, 312; Electric Railways, 338; ‘‘ Electrical Resistance of Carbon Contacts,”’ Shelford Bidwell, 376; Elec- _ trical Theories, Deprez’s, 399 ; Light-Phenomena of Electric Discharges, Dr. Hertz, 403; Influence of Vacuum on Elec- tricity, A. M. Worthington, 434 ; Electro-technical Society formed at Vienna, 469; Successful Trial of an Electrically- moved Tram-car, 470; Electricity as a Motive Power for Balloons, Napoli, 517; Proposed Electric Railway from Charing Cross to Waterloo, 566 Electrolytic Balance of Chemical Corrosion, Dr. Gore, F.R.S., 326 Electromotive Force and Resistance of Batteries, Effects ol Temperature on, W. H. Reece, F.R.S., 426 , Nature, Fune 21, 1883] Electromotive Force of Galvanic Combinations, Kittler’s Normal | Element of, 325 Electronomie Industrie, Manuel d’, R. V. Picou, 146 Electroscope, a Modification of the Gold Leaf, F. J. Smith, 102 Elephant in Italy, Discovery of Fossil, 181; Threatened Ex- tinction of the, E. E. Prince, 509 Elger (P. G.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 85 Elphinstone- Vincent Dynamo Machine, 516 Elwes (H. J.), Marshall and Nicéville’s Butterflies of India, Burmah, and Ceylon, 50 Emu, Nesting Habits of, A. W. Bennett, 530 Encyclopzedic Dictionary, 423 Enemies, Natural, of Butterflies, Henry Higgins, 338 Energy in the Spectrum, Distribution of, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 559 Energy, Transmission of, on Marcel-Deprez System, 372 Engineering Laboratory, University College, 160 “Ensilage in America,” Prof. James E. T. Rogers, Prof. Wrightson, 479 Entomological Society, 451, 500 “*Environment ” on Plants, Influence on, W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., 82 ; Howard Fox, 315 Eocene Section, the Lower, J. Starkie Gardner, 331 “* Episodes in the Life of an Indian Chaplain,” 99 Epping Forest and the Railway Companies, 399; Prof. G. S. Boulger, 455 ; Conservation of, from the Naturalist’s Stand- Point, 447 Equal Temperament of the Scale, C. B. Clarke, 240 Ergot, Poisonous Principle of, 517 Eridani, Binary Star /, 589 Ernst (Dr. A.), Abnormal Fruit of Opuntia Ficus-Indica, 77 Essex County, Mass., Flora of, 173 Essex Field Club, 298, 347 Ether, the, and its Functions: Prof. Oliver Lodge, 304, 328 ; S. Tolver Preston, 579 Ethnographical Exhibition at Stockholm, Dr. A. B. Meyer, 370 Ethnology, Aino: Dr, J. J. Rein, 365 ; Prof, A. H. Keane, 389 Ethnology of North Africa, Prof. A. H. Keane, 408 Etna (Mount), Eruption of, 422, 496, 515, 539 Evans (C.), Paleolithic River Gravels, 8 Evolution of the American Trotting Horse, W. H. Brewer, 609 Evolution, Hypothesis of Accelerated Development, by Primo- geniture and its Place in the Theory of, Prof. A. A. W. Hubrecht, 279, 301 Explosive Waves, Berthelot and Vielle on, 301 Eye, Internal Reflections in the, H. Frank Newall, 376 “* Fall Machine,” Poggendorff’s, 300 Falling, Asphyxiation in Rapid, 62 Farr (Dr. W., C.B.), Death of, 587 Fatio (Dr. Victor), Fishes of Switzerland, 220 Fauna, Pelagic, of Freshwater Lakes, 92 ** Faune des Vertébrés de la Suisse,” Dr. Victor Fatio, 220 Fayrer (Sir Joseph, F.R.S.), Destzuction of Life in India by Poisonous Snakes, 205, 556; Destruction of Life in India by Wild Animals, 268 ; Speke and Grant’s Zebra, 604 Feed-Water Heater and Purifier, Geo. Strong, 90 Ferghana Naphtha Well, 445 Ferguson (Robert M.), ‘‘ Electricity,” 264 Fermat, the Statue of, 180 Ferns of Kentucky, John Williamson, 336 Fertilisation of the Speedwell, A. Ransom, 149 “Feuille des Jeunes Naturalistes,” 19 Fibre-balls, 580 Fig and the Caprifig, on the Relations of the, W. Botting Hemsley, 584 Fingal’s Cave, Is, Artificial? F, Cope Whitehouse, 285 Finland, New Lyceums in, 42; Auroral Experiments in, S. Lemstrom, 389 Finsbury Technical College, 318 ; Opening of, 425 Finsch (Dr. Otto), his Exploration of New Guinea, 43; his Report of his Travels, 181 ‘* Fire-Fountains,” Miss Gordon Cumming, 525 Fires in Russia, Forest, 113 Fish, New Deep-Sea, from Mediterranean, Dr. Giglioli, 198 Fish Culture Association, National, 323 Fisher (Rev. Osmond), Physics of the Earth’s Crust, 76 Fisheries Exhibition, the International, 322, 389, 468, 496, 516, 536 Fisheries, Herring and Salmon, 442 Fishes of Switzerland, Victor Fatio, 220 INDEX Vil Fishes, the Skeleton of Marsipobranch, W. K. Parker, F.R.S., 339 Fissures, on the Movements of Air in, and the Barometer, A. Strahan, 375, 461 Fitch (Oswald), Benevolence in Animals, 580 Flames in Coal Fire, 103 Flamingoes and Cariamas, James Currie, 389 Flegel (Robert), News of, 230 Fleische (E. von), Wartmann’s Rheolyzer, 127 Flora of Essex County, Massachusetts, John Robinson, 173 Flora, Siberian, 445 Flora, Vernal, Origin of our, J. E. Taylor, 7 Flower (Prof W. H.), Lectures on Anatomy of the Horse, 372 Flower, Two Kinds of Stamens with Different Functions in the same, Dr. Hermann Miiller, 30; Dr. Fritz Miller, 364 Flowers, Double, Dr. M. T. Masters, 126 Flowers, Insects Visiting, 498 Fliickiger (F. A.), ‘‘Die Chinarinden in Pharmakognostischer Hinsicht dargestellt,” 287 Foamballs, J. Rand Capron, 531 Fohn, the, A. Irving, 605 Fonvielle (W. de), ‘‘ Les Passages de Venus,” 132 Food Adulteration Act of 1881, 301 Foraminifera in British Museum, Catalogue of Fossil, Prof. T. Rupert Jones, 173 Forbes (H. O.), Forbes’ Visit to Timor-Laut, 159 Forbes (W. A.), Zoological Expedition up the Niger, 14; Letters from Shonga, 276; Death of, 614 Force, Transmission of, by :Electricity, Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., 67 Forecasts, Weather: Bishop of Carlisle, 4, 51; Rev. W. Clement Ley, 29 ; C. W. Harding, 79 Forel (Prof), Recent Rhone Glacier Studies, 183 Forest Fires in Russia, 113 Formic and Acetic Acid in Plants, 91 Forms of Leaves, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., 605 Forth Bridge, New, 62, 89; Sir Geo. B. Airy on the, C. S. Smith, 99, 131 ; Herbert Tomlinson, 147; B. Baker, 222 Fossil Elephant in Italy, Discovery of, 181 Fossil Souslik in Northern Germany, Dr. Blasius, 247 Fountain (J. M.), the Weather, 32 Fox (Howard), Influence of ‘‘ Environment” on Plants, 315 France : Annual Meeting of Institute of, 18; Dairy Industry in, 90 ; Heavy Rains in, 229; French Mission to Cape Horn, 344; Annual Meeting of French Learned Societies, 539 Frankland (Lr. E., F.R.S.) : Smoke Abatement, 407 ; Chemistry of Storage Batteries, 568 Freiburg-im- Breisgau, Earthquake at, 374 Freshwater Lakes, Pelagic Fauna of, 92 Friele (Hermann), ‘‘Der Norske nord-hass-expedition, 1876- 1878,” Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S., 457 Frisby (Prof. E.) : Elements of the Great Comet 1882 4, 226 ; Ephemeris of it, 415 ; Transit of Venus, 266 Fritsch (Prof.), On the Torpedo, 403 Fulgurite found near Warmbrunn, 540 Galloway (William), Hovering of Birds, 336 Galton (Francis, F.R.S.), Hydrogen Whistles, 491 Galvanometers, on the Graduation of, for the Measurement of Currents and Potentials in Absolute Measure, Andrew Gray, 32, 105, 319, 339; New Torsion, 620 Gambetta’s Body, Autopsy of, 247 Gardner (H. Dent), Britten’s Watch and Clockmaker’s Hand- book, 76 Gardner (J. Starkie), the Lower Eocene Section between Recul- vers and Herne Bay, 331 Garman (S.): Scream of Young Burrowing Owl like Warning of Rattlesnake, 174; a Possible Cause of the Extinction of the Horses of the Post-Tertiary, 313 Garrod (Dr. A. B., F.R.S.), on Uric and Hippuric Acid, 451 Gases, Action of Gravity on, Kraevitsch, 324 Geestemiinde, Aurora at, 374 Geikie (Dr. Arch., F.R.S.): a Search for ‘‘ Atlantis” with the Microscope, 25; Recent Researches in Metamorphism of Rocks, 121 ; ‘* Geological Sketches,” G. K. Gilbert, 237, 261 ; “* Text-Book of Geology,” G. K. Gilbert, 237, 261 ; Tertiary History of the Grand Cajion District, 357 Geikie (Prof. James, F.R.S.), Aims and Method of Geological Inquiry, 44, 64 Geodetical Operations, Norwegian, 224, 341 Geographentag, Third German, 447 viii INDEX [Nature, Fume 21, 1883 Geographical Notes, 21, 43, 63, 92, 161, 400, 424, 541, 589 Geography in Schools, 209 Geography of the Caucasus, 470 Geology : Railway Geology—a Hint, 8; Aims and Method of Geological Inquiry, Prof. James Geikie, F.R.S, 44, 64; Geological Society, 71, 118, 215, 282, 331, 355, 426, 474, 5c0, 547; Distribution of Medals, 427; Geology, Part 1, A. H. Green, 98 ; Geology of Hong Kong, F. W. Eastlake, 177; ‘‘ Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad,” Arch. Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S., G. K. Gilbert, 237, 261 ; ‘‘ Text- Book of Geology,” Arch. Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S., G. K. Gilbert, 237, 261; New Appointments for the Geological Survey of Scotland, 246; Geologists’ Association, 523 Geometrical Teaching, the Association for the Improvement of, 246, 299, 580 German A€éronautical Society, Meeting of, 348 Geran African Expedition, Drs. Wissmann and Pogge, 92 German African Society, Report of, 92 German Fishery Society, 276 German North Polar Expedition, 43 German Ornithological Society, Annual Meeting at Berlin, 19 German Society for Prevention of Pollution of Rivers, &c., 89 Gibney (Robert Dwarris), the Zodiacal Light (?), 605 Giglioli (Dr.), New Deep-Sea Fish from Mediterranean, 198 Gilbert (G. K.), Arch. Geikie’s “*Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad,” and ‘‘ Text-Book of Geology,” 237, 261 Gill (H. C.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 85 Glacial Formations of Russia, 497 Glacial Phenomena in Denmark, Prof. Johnstrup, 373 Glacier Motion, Solar Radiation and, Rey. A. Irving, 553 Glacier Studies, Prof. Forel on Recent Rhone, 183 Glaciers, Decrease of the Dachstein, 42 Gladstone (Dr. J. H., F.R.S.), Chemistry of the Planté and Faure Accumulators, 583 Glaisher (J. W. L., F.R.S.), Mathematics in America, 193 Glazebrook (R. T., F.R.S.): a Common Defect of Lenses, 198 ; “ Physical Optics,” 361 Goddard (A. F.), Intra-Mercurial Planets, 148 Gold-leaf Electroscope, a Modification of the, F. J. Smith, 102 ‘*Gold Coast, to the, for Gold,” Richard F. Burton and Verney L. Cameron, 335 : Good (S. A.), Extraordinary Lunar Halo, 150 Goolden’s Simple Dip Circle, 127 Gore (Dr., F.R.S.) : Electrolytic Balance of Chemical Corro- sion, 326; Chemical Corrosion of Cathodes, 374 Gorham (John), Novel Experiment in Complementary Colours, 294 poem (Karel Wessel van), Handbook of Cinchona Culture, 287 Gottingen, Royal Society of Sciences of, 48, 452 Gould (Dr. B. A.), Comet 1882 4, 267 Gout and Rheumatic Patients, an Algerian Winter Resort fir, 113 Govi (Prof.), Expansion of Bulbs of Liquid Thermometers, 209 Granite, Metamorphic Origin of, Duke of Argyll, 578 Gratings, Concave, Prof. Rowland’s, 95 Gravels, Palolithic River: C. Evans, 8; Wm. White, 53; T. K. Callard, 54; Worthington G. Smith, 102 Gray (Andrew), on the Graduation of Galvanometers for the Measurement of Currents and Potentials in Absolute Measure, 32, 105, 319, 339 Gray (Prof, Asa), Natural Selection and Natural Theology, 291, 527 Gray and Milne’s Seismographic Apparatus, 5. Greece, Earthquake in, 248 a oe. Greek Archipelago, Volcanic Phenomena in, 445 Green (A. H.), Geology, Part i., 95 Green (John Richard), Obituary Notice of, 462 Greenland, New Danish Expedition to, 446; Nordenskjéld’s Expedition, 424, 496; Dr. O. Dickson on, 541 Grenfell (J. G.), Geological Traces of Great Vides, 222; ‘In- telligence in Animals, 292 ; Holothurians, 508 Gresham Funds, the, 292 Grey, (F. W.), Snow Rollers, 507 Griffith (J. W.) and A. Henfrey, Micrographic Dictionary, 603 Griffith (R. W. S.), a Meteor, 434 Grocers’ Company, the Scheme of the, for the Encouragement of Original Research in Sanitary Science, 574 Groneman (Dr. H. the Meteoric Auroral Phenomenon of November 17, 1882, 296; the Auroral Meteoric Phenomena of November 27, 1882, 388 J. H.): Remarks on and Ob-ervations of | Ground, Observations of Periodic Movements of the, 300 Gudvangsoren, Landslip at, 423 Guns, Wire, James A. Longridge, 11, 35, 53 Guppy (Surgeon-Major H. B.): Coral-eating Habits of Holo- thurians, 7; Habits of Scypho-Medusz, 31 ; Anthropological Notes in the Solomon Islands, 607 Gwynne (Bertram), Curious Case of Ignition, 580 Gyrostatics, Sir William Thomson, 548 Hagen (Dr, H. A.), Invertebrate Casts, 173 Hakonson-Hansen’s (Herr), Observations of the November Auroral Displays, 347 Halo, a Curious, Father Mare Dechevrens, 30; Rev. W. Clement Ley, 53; Kev. Gerard Hopkins, 53 ; a Lunar Halo, J. Rand Capron, 78; T. P. Barkas, 103 ; S. A. Good, 180 Hammam k’Irha, an Algerian Winter Resort for Gout and Rheumatic Patients, 113 $ szammond, Kinetic Theory of Chemical Actions, 183 Hannay (J. B., F.R.S.), Natural Selection and Natural Theo- logy, 362 Harding (C. W.), ‘* Weather Forecasts,” 79 Hare, Baird’s, and its Habits, 241 ; T. Martyr, 266 Harkness (Prof.), on the Transits of Venus, 114 Harnett (W. L.), Meteor, 103 Harrison (J. Park), Projection of the Nasal Bones in Man and the Ape, 266, 294 Hart (Samuel): the Late Transit of Venus, 483; a Remarkable Phenomenon—Natural Snowballs, 483 Harting (J. E.), Incubation of the Ostrich, 480 Hatton (Frank), Death of, 515 Hawk Moth Larva, Surgeon-Major Johnson, 126 Heating by Acetate of Soda, 344 Heen (De), Relations between Physical and Chemical Properties of Simple and Compound Bodies, 422 Heilprin (Prof. Angelo), on the Value of the “ Nearctic” as one of the Primary Zoological Regions, 606 Helix pomatia, L., Rev. L. Blomefield, 553 Heloderm, the Sonoran, 153 Hemsley (W. Botting): Botany of the Chad/enger Expedition, 462 ; on the Relations of the Fig and the Caprifig, 584 Henfrey (A.), J. W. Griffith and, Micrographic Dictionary, 603 Henson (Samuel), on a Fine Specimen of Apatite froma Tyrol, lately in the possession of, 608 Herdman (W. A.), a Dredging Implement, 54 Heresies, Scientific, in China, 342 Heroes of Science, Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S., 76 Herring and Salmon Fisheries, 442 Herschel (Prof. A. S.), The Matter of Space, 458, 504 Herschel (Major J.): the Comet 1882 4, 4, 101; Soda Flames in Coal Fires, 78; the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 87; Ignition by Sunlight, 531 Hertz (Dr.): Pressure of Saturating Vapour of Mercury, 183; Light-Phenomena of Electric Discharges, 403 Hesehus (N.): Zlastische Nachwirkung, 183; Russia during the last ten years, 567 Hicks (Henry), Metamorphic Rocks of Ross and Inverness, 474 Hickson (Sydney J.), ‘‘ Zoological Record,” 366 epee) t Higgins (C.) and E. W. W. Edwards, ‘‘ The Electric Lighting Act 1882,” 410 Higgins (Henry), Natural Enemies of Butterflies, 338 Higginson (Walter), the Comet 1882 4, 29 High Tides, Abnormal, River Thames, J. B. Redman, 6 Hildebrandsson (Prof.), on the Ben Nevis Observatory, 18 Hippopotamus, Death of the old kemale, 247 Histology, Vegetable, Tables of D. P. Penhallow, 458 Hofmann (Prof.), Lecture Experiments, 301 Holden (Prof.), Figure of Nucleus of Comet of 1882 (Gould), 246 Holley (G. W.), ‘* Niagara and other famous Cataracts,” 146 Holothurians, Coral-eating Habits of, Surgeon Major H. B. Guppy, 7; W. Saville Kent, 433; J. G. Grenfell, 508 Holub’s (Dr. Emil), New African Expedition, 542 Home (D. M.), Ben Nevis Observatory, 411 Hong Kong, Geology of, F. WW. Eastlake, 177 ; Observatory Scheme, 565 Hopkins (B. J.), the Comet 18824, 62, 78 Hopkins (Rey. Gerard), a Curiou. Halo, ne : , Hopkinson (Dr. John, F.R.S.), Some Points in Electric Light- ing, 592 ae E Hornblendic and other Schists of the | izard District, Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S., 71 Physics in | Hornstein (Dr. Carl), Death of, 247 a Nature, Fune 21, 1883] INDEX 1X Horse, Anatomy of the, Prof. Flower’s Lecture on, 372 Hosack (James), Waterspout on Land, 79 Houghton (Rev. W.), “ The Microscope,” 173 Hovering of Birds, 366 ; Dr. Hubert Airy, 294, 336, 388, 412; Rev. W. C. Ley, 412; Duke of Argyll, 312, 387; H. T. Wharton, 312; Henry Cecil, 388; David Cunningham, 336; Dr. J. Rae, F.R.S., 337, 4343; William Galloway, 337; C. T. Middlemiss, 337; W. Larden, 337; the Soaring of Birds, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 534; Dr. Hubert Airy, 590 Habrecht (Prof. A. A.), Hypothesis of Accelerated Devel p- ment by Primogeniture and its Place in the Theory of Evolu- tion, 279, 301 Huggins, (Dr. William, F.R.S.), Photographing the Corona, 199 Human Morphology, vol. i., H. A. Reeves, 124 Hungary: Silk Culture in, 2cg ; Earthquake in, 423, 540 Hunterian Oration, the Biennial, 298 Hutton (F. W.), ‘‘ Catalogues of New Zealand Diptera, Orthop- tera, and Hymenoptera,” 399 Huxley (Prof. T. H., F.R.S.), on Education, 396 Hydraulic Experiments, Major Allan Cunningham, 1 Hydra, Chlorophyll Corpuscles of, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 87 Hydrocarbon Flame Spectrum, Origin of, Profs. Liveing and Dewar, 257 Hydrocarbons, Pollution of the Atmosphere by, J. J. Murphy, 241 Hydrogen Whistles, Frascis Galton, F.R.S., 491 Hygienic Dress, &c., Exhibition, 443 Hygrometer of Saussure, 616 Hypophysis in Petromyzon Planeri, Genesis of, 91 Ignition, a Curious Case of, 509 ; Bertram Gwynne, 580 “Im Fernen Osten,” A. H. Keane, 170 Implements, Palzolithic, of North-East London, Worthington G. Smith, 270 Incandescent Lamp, Changy, 209 Incandescent Electric Light, the Inventor of, W. M. Williams, 240 eyeestion of the Ostrich, J. E. Harting, 480 ; Geo. J]. Romanes, 480 India: The Indian Survey, Major Allan Cunningham, 97; Episodes in the Life of an Indian Chaplain, 99; Destruction of Life by Poisonous Snakes in, Sir J. Fayrer, F.R.S., 205 ; Destruction of Life by Wild Animals in, Sir J. Fayrer, F.R.S , 268 ; Indian Archegosaurus, R. Lydekker, 411 Indiarubber, Action of Light on, Prof. H. McLeod, F.R.S., 312 Industrial Education, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., 248 Industrial Society of Berlin, Prizes offered by, 346 Infra-Red of the Spectrum, Work in the, Capt. W. de W. Abney, F.R.S., 15 Intusoria, a Manual of the, &c., W. Saville Kent, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 601 Ingersoll (Ernest), Oyster Industry of the United States, 39 Ingleby (Miss C. R.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, $6 Ingram (William), the Recent Cold Weather, 530 Inhibition (of Structural Functions) and Action of Drugs thereon, Dr. T. L. Brunton, F.R.S., 419, 436, 467, 485 Inland Sea Canal, Lessep’s Surveying Expedition for, 516 Insects, Common British, Rey. J. G. Wood, 124 Insects Injurious to Field Crops, Diagrams of, Miss E. A. Ormerod, 146 Insects Visiting Flowers, 498 *Insekten nach ihren Schaden und Nutzen, Taschenberg, 172 Institution of Civil Engineers, 95, 143, 168, 355, 403, 428, 475, Die,” Prof. 5 Institution of Mechanical Engineers, 247, 351, 611 Institution of Naval Architect, 469 Intelligence in Animals: J. G. Grenfell, 292; J. Birminghim, 337; Dr. J. Rae, F.R.S., 366; D. Pidgeon, 366 i Intermittent Spring in the Jachére, 63 International Electrical Conference, 18 International Fisheries Exhibition, 322, 389, 468, 496, 516, 536 Invertebrate Casts versus Alge in Paleozoic Strata, 46; Dr. H A. Hagen, 173 Trish Antiquities, Forged, W. J. Knowles, 54 Tron, Schirmwirkung of, Prof. Stephan, 325 Tron and Steel Institute, Annual Meeting of, 587 Irving (Rev. A.): Solar Radiation and Glacier Motion, 553 ; the Fohn, 605 Iserlohn, Fall of Meteorite at, 423 Isomerisi of Albuminous Bodies, on the, Shigetaké Sagiura, 103 Isomerism, Physical, 301 Isanemones, 20 Italy : Exploration of the Mediterranean, Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S., 35; Biology in, 46; Earthquake in, 540 Ivens (R.) and H. Capello, Central and West Africa, 391 Izvestia, Caucasian, 517 Jablochkoff’s New Element for Electro positive Plate, 114 jachere, Intermittent Spring in the, 63 jackson (B. Daydon), Translation of Gorkom’s ‘* Cinchona Culture,” 287 Jamaica, Annual Report of Public Gardens and Plantations of, go Janssen (M.): Papers at the Academy of Science, 62; sent to Oran to observe the Transit of Venus, 89 Japan: Report on the Mint for 1882, 323; Japanese Students, 565; Education in, 617 Jeffreys (Dr. J. Gwyn, F.R.S.): Italian Explorations of the Mediterranean, 35; ‘Der Norske nord-hass-expedition,” 1876-78, Hermann Friele, 457 Jevons Memorial, 113 Jews, Anthropology of the, B. Blechmann, 113 Jobns Hopkins University Circulars, 180 Jobnson (Surgeon-Major), Hawk Moth Larva, 126 Johnstrup (Prof.), Glacial Phenomena in Denmark, 373 Jones (Prof. T. Rupert), Catalogue of Fossil Foraminifera in British Museum, 173 Jones (W. M.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 87 Joule (Dr., F.R.S.), Lime as a Purifier of Products of Com- bustion of Coal Gas, 496 Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, 93, 426 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 71, 473 Journal of the Franklin Institute, 143, 281, 306, 473 Journal of Physiology, 23 Journal de Physique, 24, 143, 282, 353 Journal of the Royal Microscopical Society, 47, 426 Journal of Royal Society of New South Wales, 93 Journal of the Russian Chemical and Physical society, 143, 521 Jupiter: Herr Kortazzi’s Observations on, 209; Markings on, W. F. Denning, 365 Kafer Westfalens, Die, F. Westhoff, 239 Kayer (Dr.), Death of, 447 Keane (Prof. A. H.): Kreitner’s ‘‘Im Fernen Osten,” 170 ; Krao, the ‘‘ Human Monkey,” 245 ; ‘‘ Wanderings in Balu- chistan,’” Major-General Sir C. M. MacGregor, K.C.B., 359 5 “Travels and Adventures East of the Caspian during the years 1879-81,” Edmond O’Donovan, 359; Aino Ethnology, 389 ; Dr. G. Nachtigal’s “ Sahara und Sudan,” 408 Keller (Prof.), Animal Migrations due to Suez Canal, 181 Kenia (Mt.), Expedition, Departure of Geographical Society’s, 161 Kent (W. Saville), Supposed Coral-eating Habits of Holothu- rians, 433; ‘‘A Manual of the Infusoria,” &c., Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., 601 Kentucky, Ferns of, John Williamson, 336 Kew Garden-, Visitors to, 230; Report for 1881, 322 Kharkoff, Science at, 213 Kiel Observatory, the Centre for Astronomical Telegrams, 276 Kinematics, Prof. G. M. Minchin, 239 Kinetic Theory of Chemical Actions, Hammond, 183 Kittler, ‘‘ Normal Element” of Electromotive Force of Galvanic Combination, 325 Knorlein (Josef), Death of, 422 Knowles (W. J.), Forged Irish Antiquitie-, 54 Kobell (Dr. F. Ritter von), Death ot, 88 Koenig (Dr.), on the Leukoscope, 95 Kohlrausch (Prof.), Electr e Conductivity of Salts of Silver Haloid, 182 Kortazzi (Herr), Observations of Jupiter, 209 Kraevitch (M.) : Electricity of Air, 183 ; Action of Gravity on Gases, 324 Krao, the ‘‘ Human Monkey,” 579; A. H, Keane, 245 Kvause (Drs. Arthur and Aurel), Keturn of, 92 Kreitner’s ‘‘Im Fernen Osten,” A. H. Keane, 170 Kum-bum, the Sacred Tree of, W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S. 224 Lakes, Pelagic Fau: a of Freshwater, 92 x INDEX ae [Wature, Fune 21, 1883 Lake Dwellings, Ancient Scottish, by Dr. Munro, Sir John Lubbock, F.R.S., 145 Lambeth Field Club, Report of, 90 Lamp, Lever’s Arc, 27. Lamprey, the Skeleton of the, Prof. W. K. Parker, F.R.S., 330 Lampridz, the Trachez in, 231 Landslip at Gudvangs6ren, 423 Langdon (Prof, R.), Transit of Venus, 159; Transit of Venus, 1882, British Expeditions, 179 Lankester (Prof. E. Ray, F.R.S.): Chlorophyll Corpuscles in Hydra, 87; ‘‘ A Manual of the Infusoria,” W. Saville Kent, 601 Larden (W.), Hovering of Birds, 337 Latent Heats, Specific Heats, and Relative Volumes of Volatile Bodies, on a Relation existing between, F. Trouton, 292 Lavoisier, Priestley, and the Discovery of Oxygen, G. F. Rodwell, 8, 100 ; C. Tomlinson, F.R.S., 53, 147 Layard (Consul E. L.), a Correction, 78 ; a Blue Meteor, 531 ; Lead Ore discovered in China, 588 Leaves, the Shapes of, Grant Allen, 439, 464, 492, 511, 552; F. O. Bower, 552 Leaves and their Environment, Grant Allen, 604 Leaves, Forms of, Sir John Lubbock, Bart., 605 Ledger (Rey. E.), the Sun, its Planets, and their Satellites, 309 Lecky (James), Singing, Speaking, and Stammering, 580 Lemstrom (Prof.), Experiments with Aurora Borealis, 322 ; Auroral Experiments, 389 Lena, Meteorological Expedition to the Mouth of the, 43, 372, 423, 496 Lenz (Prof. R.) : Electric resistance of Mercury, 182; on Cos- mical Dust collected by Marx, 422 “Lepidoptera of Ceylon,” L. Reeve and Co., 150 Lepidoptera, Porritt’s Yorkshire List of, 540 Leprosy in Norway, 423 Lessep’s Surveying Expedition for Inland Sea Canal, 516 Leukoscope, Dr. Koenig on the, 95 ; Prof. Helmholtz’s, 277 Lever’s Arc Lamp, 274 Ley (Rey. W. Clement): ‘‘ Weather Forecasts,” 29; Magnetic Arrangement of Clouds, 53 ; A Curious Halo, 53 ; Hovering of Birds, 412 Libraries, Reference Catalogue of Derby Free, 62 ‘*Light,” Lewis Wright, 75 Lighting, Electric, Sir C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., 67 Lightning Conductors, the Efficacy of, 48 Liquid Films, Condensation of, on Wetted Soliis, J. W. Clark, 370 Liquids, Arrangement for Measuring the Refractive Index of, Pittschikoff, 325 Lime as a Purifier of Products of Combustion of Coal Gas, Dr. Joule, F.R.S., 496 Lime-water, Protection of Oxygen, &c., from Admixture of Acid Vapour by, Dr. Loewe, 373 Linnean Society, 94, 118, 167, 259, 354, 379, 451, 523, 547, 619 Linnean Society of New South Wales, Proceedings of, 93, 215 Lion at Rest, 584 Listing (Prof. Johann Benedict): Death of, 228; Obituary Notice of, 316 Lithium Lines, on the Reversibility of, Profs. Liveing and Dewar, 499 Liveing (Prof.) and Prof. Dewar on the Origin of the Hydro- carbon Flame Spectrum, 257; on the Reversibility of the Lithium Lines, 499; Absorption of Ultra-Violet Rays by Various Substances, 521 Lockyer (J. Norman, F.R.S.), Recent and Coming Total Solar Eclipses, 185; Hermann W. Vogel on Lockyer’s ‘‘ Dissocia- tion Theory,” 233 ; the Education of our Industrial Classes, 248 Lodes, Origin of Metalliferous, Prof. Sandberger, 90 Lodge (Prof. Oliver), the Ether and its Functions, 304, 328 Loewe (Dr.), Protection of Oxygen, &c., from Admixture of Acid Vapour by Lime-water, 373 London Mathematical Society (see Mathematical Society) London, Palolithic Implements of North-East, Worthington G. Smith, 270 London School Board, 346 Longridge (James A.), Wire Guns, 11, 35 Lovett, Lieut.-Col. Beresford, Itinerary Map from Teheran to Astrabad, &c., 323 Lubbock (Sir John, F.R.S.), The Senses of Bees, 46 ; Munro’s “Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings,” 145; Forms of Leaves, 605 ; on the Sense of Colour amongst some of the Lower Animals, 618 Lunar Halo, A, J. Rand Capron, 78; T. P. Barkas, 103; S. A. Good, 150 Lupton (Sidney), Elementary Chemical Arithmetic, 76 Lydekker (Richard): Siwalik Carnivora, 293; Indian Arche- gosaurus, 411 Macdonald (Rey. D.), ‘* Africana,” 526 McEwen (J. P. M.), Comet 1882 2, 52 MacGregor (General Sir C. M.), ‘‘ Wanderings in Baluchistan,” Prof. A. H. Keane, 359 McIntosh (J. G.), Waterspouts on Land, 103 McKendrick (Prof. J. G.), Lectures on Physiological Discovery, 496 McLachlan (R., F.R.S.) : Early Coltsfoot, 266 ; Obituary Notice of Prof. P. C. Zeller, 535 McLeod (Prof. H., F.R.S.), the Aurora, 99; Action of Light on Indiarubber, 312 : Madan (H. G.), Complementary Colours at Niagara Falls, 174 Madras, Agriculture in, 607 Madrid, Snow in, 161, 229 Magnetic Arrangement of Clouds, C. H. Romanes, 31 Magnetic Storm and Aurora: W. H. M. Christie, F.R.S. Prof. C. P. Smythe, G. M. Whipple, J. R. Capron, R. H. Tiddeman, J. E. Clark, H. C. Gill, H. Robinson, A. M. Worthington, T. G. Elger, Miss C. R. Ingleby, C. H. Romanes, E. Brown, F. Stapleton, Rev. S. H. Saxby, Dr. H. Airy, Major J. Herschel, A.S.P., H. D. Taylor, T. P. Barkas, W. M. Jones, G. R. Vicars, Prof. O'Reilly, J. L. Dobson, 82 to 87 Magnetical Perturbations, Earth Currents during, 89 Magnetisation of Metals, M. Berson, 183 Main (Dr, J. F.), Practical Mechanics, John Perry, 456 Maklay (M. Mikluho), Russian Imperial Grant to, 92 Malay Archipelago, Meteorology of the, 79 Mammoth Skeleton found at Belgrade, 63 Man, Primitive, Prof. Owen on, Giant Allen, 31 Man and the Ape, Projection of Nasal Bones in, J. Park Harrison, 266, 294 Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 234, 524 Manilla, Hurricane at, 63 Manning (B.), the Comet, 29 Manures, Inquiry into Degree of Solubility requisite in, 325 Marcel-Deprez System, Transmission of Energy on, 372 Marcet (Prof, Francis), Death of, 587 Marine Surveying, a Treatise on, Key. J. L. Robinson, 289 Mars, Rev. T. W. Webb, 203 Marshall (A. Milnes), New Dredging Implement, 11 Marshall (Major) and Nicéville (L. A.), Butterflies of India, Burmah, and Ceylon, 50 Marsipobranch Fishes, the Skeleton, W. K. Parker, F.R.S., 330 Martin (H. Newell) and W. A. Moule, Handbook of Verte- brate Dissections, 335 Martini (Signor), Sound produced by Outflow of Water, 183 Martyr (J.), Baird’s Hare, 266 Marx, on Cosmical Dust Collected by, 422 Masheder (Thomas), Meteors, 483 Masters (Dr. M. T.), Double Flowers, 126 Mathematical Society, 71, 190. 282, 379, 499, 595; Annual Meeting, 19 Mathematical Society of Edinburgh, 346, 500, 595 Mathematics in America, J. W. L. Glaisher, F.R.S., 193 Mathematics in Scandinavia, 343 Matter of Space: Charles Morris, 349 ; Prof. A. S. Herschel, 458, 504 : Maxwell (J. Clerk), the Life of, with a Selection from his Cor- respondence and Occasional Writings, and a Sketch of his Contributions to Science, Lewis Campbell, LL.D., 26 Mechanical Subjects, Papers on, Sir J. Whitworth, 208 Mechanics, Practical, John Perry, Dr. J. F. Main, 456 Mechanics, Teaching of Elementary, 580 Medicine in Russia, Popular, Dr. Slunin, 62 Medioscribed Circle, 607 Mediterranean, Italian Exploration of, Dr, J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S., 35 ; New Deep-Sea Fish from, Dr. Giglioli, 198 Megalania prisca, Prof. Owen, F.R.S., 118 Melbourne, Observatory at, 497 Melde (Prof.), Electric Reaction, 183 Meldola (R.), Difficult Cases of Mimicry, 481 Meliola, on the Genus, H. Marshall Ward, 234 Mémoires de la Société des Sciences Physiques et Naturelles de Bordeaux, 362 Zz Nature, Fune 21, 1883] INDEX X1 Memory, Diseases of, R. Ribot, Dr. G. J. Romanes, 169 Mendeléeff (Prof.), ‘‘ Principles of Chemistry,” 113 Mensuration, Useful Rules and Tables, W. J. M. Rankine, F.R.S., 431, 483 Mercury, Electric Resistance of, R. Lenz, 182 Mercury, Pressure of Saturating Vapour of, Herr Hertz, 183 Merian (Prof. Peter), Death of, 372 Meridian, Universal, 247, 516 Merrifield (Mary P.), Rabenhorst’s ‘‘ Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Oesterreich, und der Schweiz,” 385 Metalliferous Lodes, OriginZof, Prof. Sandberger, 90 Metals, Magnetisation of, M. Berson, 183 Metamorphic Rocks of Ross and Inverness, Henry Hicks, 474 Metamorphic Origin of Granite—Prehistoric ‘‘ Giants,” Duke of Argyll, 578 te Metamorphism of Rocks, Recent Researches in, Dr. A. Geikie, ESRS,, 121 Meteorite: Fall of, at Iserlohn, 423; near Brescia, 469; the Alfianello, 511 Meteorology : the Observatory on Ben Nevis, 18, 39, 175, 399, 411, 487 ; Meteorology of the Malay Archipelago, 79 ; Meteo- rological Society, 95, 234, 307, 452, 570, 619; Proposed Exhibition of Meteorological Instruments, 373 ; Congress of Meteorologists, 539; Meteorological Observations at Mouth of Lena, Yurgens, 423; Metecrological Society of France, 497; Elementary Meteorology, R. H. Scott, F.R.S., 575 Meteors : the November, 43; W. L. Harnett on a, 103; an Extraordinary, B. R. Branfill, 149; Meteoric Auroral Pheno- menon of November 17, 1882, 173; Remarks on and Ob. servations of the, Dr. H. J. H. Groneman, 296; Rev- Stephen H. Saxby, 338; H. Dennis Taylor, 365; T. W. Backhouse, 412; A. Batson, 412; H. D. Tayler, 434; Great Meteor in Sweden, 423 ; a Meteor, R. W. S. Griffith, 434; the Large Meteor of March 2, 1883, W. F. Denning, 461; Meteors, Thos. Masheder, 483; Henry Cecil, 483 ; Meteor, E. Brown, 508; in Sweden, 517; a Blue, Consul E. L. Layard, 531 ; at Carlsruhe, 540 ; Instructions for Observing, 615; Number of, observed at Prossnitz, 617 “* Mexico to-day,” T. U. Brocklehurst, 503 Meyer (Dr. A. B.), Stockholm Ethnographical Exhibition, 371 “‘Micrographic Dictionary,” J. W. Griffith and A. Henfrey, 160, 603 Microphone, the, 588 Microscope, a Search for ‘‘Atlantis” with the, Dr. Arch, Geikie, F.R.S., 25 “* Microscope, the,” Rey. W. Houghton, 173 Middlemiss (C. S.), Hovering of Birds, 337 Midland Boulders, Rev. W. Tuckwell on the, 346 Mikluho-Maclay (Baron) on New Guinea, 137, 184, 371 Milan, Intemperance in, Prof. Verga on, 347 Millar (W. J.) : the Comet, 29 ; Rankine’s ‘‘ Rules and Tables,” 493 Milne (Mr.), Proposed Study of Earthquakes in Japan, 463 Mimicry in Moths : Duke of Argyll, 125 ; Comm. D. Stewart, 314 Mimicry, Difficult Cases of: Alf. R. Wallace, 481 ; R. Meldola, 481 ; Dr. P. H. Stokoe, 508 ; H. J. Morgan, 531 Minchin (Prof. G. M.), Kinematics, 239 Mineralogical Society, 24, 451 Minor Planets, 148 Mint, Japanese, Report for 1882, 323 Mitchell Library, Glasgow, 615 ** Mittheilungen der deutschen Gesellschaft,” of Yokohama, 41 Mollusks, Edible, Acclimatisation of, Dr. J. G. Jeffreys, F.R.S., SII Montgolfier Anniversary, 90, 517 Monuments, Ancient, Worthington G, Smith, 102 Moons, Mock, F. T. Mott, 606 Morgan (Augustus de), Memoir of, R. Tucker, 217 Morgan (C. L.), Suicide of Scorpions, 313, 530 Morgan (H. J.), Mimicry, 531 “ Morphologisches Jahrbuch,” 94, 473 Morphology Human, vol. i., H. A. Reeves, 124 Morris, New Method of Producing Aluminium, 183 Morris (Chas.), the Matter of Space, 349 Morse, Memorial in Rome, 445 Moseley (Prof. H. N., F.R.S.): Von Graff’s Monograph on the Turbellarians, 227 ; Incubation of Ostrich, 507 Moths, Mimicry in: Duke of Argyll, 125 ; Commander Duncan Stewart, 314 Motion, Optical Illusions of, Dr. Bowditch, 183 Motion, Laws of, Prof. P. G, Tait, 283 Mott (F. T.) : the Sea Serpent, 293 ; Mock Moons, 606 Moule (W. A.) and H. Newell Martin, Handbook of Verte- brate Dissection, 335 Mouse-Mill Dynamo (Thomson’s), J. T. Bottomley, 78 Mudballs, Formation of, Prof. G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., 507 Muirhead (Dr. H.), Aurora of Noy. 17, 1882, 315 Miiller (Dr. Fritz): Animal Intelligence, 240; Two Kinds of Stamens with Different Functions in the same Flower, 364 Miiller (Dr. Hermann), Two Kinds of Stamens with Different Functions in the same Flower, 30 Mundella (A. J., M.P.), on Education, 276 Munro (Dr.), “ Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings,” by Sir John Lubbock, M.P., F.R.S., 145 Munro (J.), Swan Lamp Spectrum and Aurora, 173 Murcia, Earthquake at, 277 Murphy (J. J.): Complementary Colours, 8; Pollution of the Atmosphere, 241 ; Aurora, 434 Museum, New Natural History, 54 Museum, Warwick, 539 Muybridge’s Zoetrope Pictures of Animals in Motion, 42; New Work on Motion in Man and Animals, 539 Myxinoids, the Skeleton of, Prof. W. K. Parkes, F.R.S., 330 Nachtigal (Dr. G.), ‘‘Sahara und Sudan,” A. H. Keane, 408 Naphtha Wells at Ferghana, 445 Naples, Zoological Station in, J. T. Cunningham, 453 Napoli on Electricity as a Motive Power for Balloons, 517 Nasal Bones in Man and the Ape, Projection of, J. Park Harrison, 266, 294 Natural History Museum, The New, 54; Removal of Collec- tions, 538 “Natural History, Another Book of Scraps principally relating to,” Chas. Murray Adamson, 480 “Natural” Experiment in Complementary Colours, Chas. T. Whitmell, 266 Natural Selection and Natural Theology, Prof. Asa Gray, 291, 529 ; Dr. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 362, 528 ; J. B. Hannay, F.R.S., 364 Natural Science in Civil Service Examinations, 321 Nayy, The British, Sir Thomas Brassey, 549 “Nearctic” as one of the Primary Zoological Regions, on the Value of the, Alfred R. Wallace, 482 ; Prof. Angelo Heil- prin, 606 Nebulz, Meridian Observation of, 324 ; New, 400, 446 Nervous System, Influence of, on the Kegulation of Tempera- ture in Warm-blooded Animals, 469 ** Neurologie, Lehrbuch der,” Dr. Schwalbe, 196 ‘Newall (H. Frank), Internal Reflections in the Eye, 376 Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free Library, 615 Newcomb (Prof.), ‘‘ Popular Astronomy,” 373 New Guinea, Dr. Otto Finsch’s Expedition to, 43; Baron Mikluho-Maclay on, 137, 184 New South Wales, Linnean Society of, 215 New Zealand: Earthworm in, 91 ; Pott’s ‘‘ Out in the Open,” 172 ; Astronomy in, 276 ; Catalogues of New Zealand Diptera, Orthoptera, and Hymenoptera, F, W. Hutton, 399 “‘ Niagara and other Famous Cataracts,” G. W. Holley, 146 Niagara Falls, Complementary Colours at, H. G. Madan, 174 Niceville (L. de) and Major Marshall, Butterflies of India, Burmah, and Ceylon, 50 Nicols (Arthur), Zoological Notes on the Structure, Affinities, Habits, and Mental Faculties of Wild and Domestic Animals, Dr. Geo, J. Romanes, F.R.S., 333 Niger: W. A. Forbes’s Zoological Expedition up the, 14; Col. Desbordes on Banks of, 424 Nilson, Thorium, 184 ** Nomenclator Zoologicus,” Sam. H. Scudder, 28 Nordenskjold (Baron) : Discovery of North-East Passage, 422; his Proposed Greenland Expedition, 446, 496 Nordland, ‘‘ Naturen” on the Old Silver Mines of, 347 “*Normal Element” of Electromotive Force of Galvanic Com- bination, Kittler, 325 Norske nord-hass-expedition, 1876-78, Herman Friele, Dr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S., 457 North-East Passage, Discovery of, Baron Nordenskjéld, 422 Norway: Leprosy in, 423; Dust Showers, 496; Norwegian Geodetical Operations, 224, 341 ; Norwegian Science Grants, 444 Nouveaux Mémoires de la Société Helvetique des Sciences Naturelles, 282 Xi INDEX [Nature, Fure 21, 1883 November Meteors, 43 Numbers, Theory of, Prof. H. J. S. Smith on, 564 Numerical Estimate of the Rigidity of the Earth, G. H. Darwin, FE.R.S., 22 Observatories : Meteorological Observatory on Ben Nevis, 18, 39, 175, 399, 411, 487; Brussels, 445 ; Melbourne, 497 O’Donovan (Edmond), ‘‘ Travels and Adventures East of the Caspian,” Prof. A. H. Keane, 359 Olsta, Remarkable Mirage seen at, 616 Ommanney (Admiral), Aurora of Nov. 17, 139 Optical Mlusions of Motion, Dr. Bowditch, 183 Optics, Physical, R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S., 361 Opuntia Ficus-Indica, Abnormal Fruit of, Dr. A. Ernst, 77 ; Dr. M. T. Masters, 126 Ordnance Survey of Scotland, Completion of, 92 O’Reilly (Prof.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 87 Orientalists, ( ongress of, 565 Ormerod (Miss E. A.), ‘‘ Diagrams of Insects injurious to Field Crops,” 146 Ornithologist in Siberia, 560 ‘‘Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molucche,” Salvadori, 577 Ostrich, Incubation of the: J. E. Harting, 480; George J. Romanes, 480 ; Prof. Moseley, F.R.S., 507 Oswald (Felix L.), ‘‘ Zoological Sketches,” Dr. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 333 “Out in the Open,” T. H. Potts, 172 Owen (Prof. R., F.R.S.), on Primitive Man, Grant Allen, 31 ; Megalania Prisca, 118 ; on the Affinities of Thylacoleo, 354 Owl, Scream of Young Burrowing, S. Garman, 174 Oxygen, Discovery of, Lavoisier, Priestley, and the, G. F. Rod- well, 8, 100 Oyster Culture, 180 Oyster Fisheries of Denmark, Decline of, 346 Oyster Industry of the United States, 39 Tommaso Paleolithic Implements of North-East London, Worthington G. Smith, 270 Palzolithic River Gravels: C. Evans, 8; William White, 53 ; T. K. Callard, 54 ; Worthington G. Smith, 102 Palzontology, Carboniferous Vertebrate, Notice of some Dis- coveries recently made in, T. Stock, 22 Palzozoic Strata, Invertebrate Casts versus Algee in, 46 Palestine, Physical History of, Prof. Hull, F.K.S.,520 Palmieri (Prof. Marino), Death of, 41 Panama, Earthquake at, 248 Papuan Ornithology, Tommaso Salvadori, 577 Parallax, Stellar, 210 Paris: Academy of Sciences, 24, 48, 72, 95, 119, 144,r168, 102, 229, 235, 260, 283, 308, 332, 356, 386, 404, 428, 475, 548, 572, 596, 620; Annual Meeting of, 538; Disposal of the Sewage of Paris, 133; Second Inundation at, 247; Compte Rendus of the Geographical Society, 401; Bulletin of, 424 ; Electric Lighting in, 516 Parker (Rev. Dr. G. W.), Umdhlebi Tree of Zululand, 7 Parker (W. K., F.R.S.), The Skeleton of Marsipobranch Fishes, 330 Parkes Museum, First General Meeting, 19 Parrakeet, The Uvzan, 417 “Pathological Anatomy and Pathogenesis, a Text-Book of,” Ernst Ziegler, 477 Patent Bill, the New, 587 Pavy (Dr. F. W., F.R.S.), Physiology of the Carbo-hydrates in the Animal System, 618 Pedara in Sicily, Earthquake at, 567 Pelagic Fauna of Freshwater Lakes, 92 Perigatus Cagensis, Prof. F. M. Balfour on, 215 Peronostore, New Vine Parasite, 13 Perry (John), Practical Mechanics, Dr. J. F. Main, 456 Persia, Colonel Lovett’s Itinerary Map from Teheran to Astrabad, 323 Perugia, Earthquake in, 90 Petermann’s ‘‘ Mittheilungen,” 92, gor, 541 Petrie (W. M. F.), Aurora of Noy. 17th, 1882, 139, 315 Petromyzon Planeri, Genesis of Hypophysis in, 91 Pfaundler (Prof.), The Inventor of Continuous-Induction Dynamo-Electric Machine, 517 Philippine Islands, Typhoon in, 181 Phillips (H. A.), Pollution of the Atmosphere, 127, 2669 Phosphorus, the Glowing of, 301 Photographing with the Electric Light, Priority in, 276 Photography, Astronomical, Edward C, Pickering, 556 Photometer, Wedge and Diaphragm, 201 Photometric Measurements of Sun, Moon, Cloudy Sky, and Electric and other Artificial Lights, Sir William Thon son, 277 Phylloxera Destruction, Commission of the French Academy, 89 Phylloxera in Chambery, 133 Physical Notes, 324 “* Physical Optics,” R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.5S., 361 Physical Society, 95, 143, 215, 354; 427, 452, 500 Physical and Chemical Properties of Simple and Compound Bodies, Relation between, De Heen, 422 ‘¢ Physics of the Earth’s Crust,” Rev. O. Fisher, 76 ‘* Physics in Pictures,” &c., 551 Physics in Russia during the last Ten Years, N. Hesehus, 567 Physiological Discovery, McKendrick Lectures on, 496 Pickering (Edward C.), Astronomical Photography, 556 Picou (R. W.), ‘‘ Manuel d’Electronomie Industrielle,” 146 Pictet (Raoul), his ‘‘ Rapid Vessel,” 398 Pidgeon (D.), Intelligence in Animals, 366 Pile-dwellings, Bobenhausen, 160 Piltschikoff, Arrangement for Measuring the Refractive Index of Liquids, 325 Pitt-Rivers Collection, the, 346, 461, Planet, Inter-Mercurial, A. F. Goddard, 148 Planets, Minor, 248; No. 228, 518 Planté and Faure Accumulators, Chemistry of the, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S., and Dr. A. Tribe, F.R.S., 583 Plants, Influence of ‘‘ Environment” on, W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., 82; Howard Fox, 315 Plants, Formic and Acetic Acid in, 91 Plants, Cultivated, Origin of, A. de Candolle, 429; Vilmorin Andrieux, 429 Pogge (Dr.), German African Expedition, 92 Poggendorff’s ‘‘ Fall Machine,” 300 Polakoff’s Explorations, 424 Polar Exploration, Swedish and Dutch Expeditions, 299 Pollock (E.), Aurora of Noy. 17, 141 Pollution of Rivers, &c., German Society for Prevention of, 89 Pollution of the Atmosphere, H. A. Phillips, 127 Porritt’s Yorkshire List of Lepidoptera, 540 Porro (Francis), Professor Schiaparelli on the Great Comet 1882 6, 533 Port (Dr. Arnold Dedel-), ‘‘ Atlas der Physiologischen Botanik,” 61 Post Testiagy, a Possible Cause of the Extinction of the Bones of the, S. Garman, 313 Potato Disease, A. S. Wilson, 523 Potts (T. H.), ‘‘ Out in the Open,” 172 Praxinescope, Reynaud’s New Projection, 60 Preece (W. H., F.R.S.), the Progress of Telegraphy, 390: “‘Fffects of Temperature on Electromotive Force and Resist- ance of Batteries,” 426 Prehistoric Animals, Remains of, discovered at Andernach, 445 Prehistoric ‘‘ Giants ’””—Metamorphic Origin of Granite, Duke of Argyll, 578 Prejevalsky (Colonel), Exploration of Central Asia, 133 Preston (S. Tolver), ‘‘ Ether and its Functions,” 579 Priestley, Lavoisier, and the Discovery of Oxygen, G. F. Red- well, 8, 100; C. Tomlinson, F.R.S., 53, 147 Primitive Man, Professor Owen on, Grant Allen, 31 Primogeniture, the Hypothesis of Accelerated Development by, and its Place in the Theory of Evolution, Prof. A. A, Hubrecht, 270, 301 Bagee ir. E.), Threatened Extinction of the Elephant, 509 Princeton Schocl of Science, Longitude of, 248 Princeton Scientific Expedition (No. 3), 323 Pringsheim (Dr. N.), ‘“‘Jahrbiicher fir Botanik,” Prof. W. R. McNab, 502 Prisms, Direct-vision, 182 Projection Praxinoscope, Reynaud’s New, 60 Prossnitz, Number of Meteors observed at, 617 Putnam (Prof. F. W.), on American Antiquities, 277 wissenschaftlich Quain’s Elements of Anatomy, 196 Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, 47, 353 Quiberon, Discovery of Dolmen at, 540 Rabenhoist’s ‘‘Kryptogamen-Flora von Deutschland, Oester- reich, und der Schweiz,” Mary P. Merrifield, 385 Rabies, New Facts concerning, 192 = Nature, Fune 21, 1883] Radiation, Terrestrial, Prof, Tyndall’s Observations, Dr, A, Woeikof, 460 Radiometer, Prof. Ravelli on Educational Uses of, 444 Rae (Dr. J., F.R.S.): Hovering of Birds, 336 ; Intelligence in Animals, 366; the Sea Serpent, 366; British Circumpolar Expedition, 508 Railway Geology—a Hint, 8 Railways, Electric, 338; Prof. W. E. Ayrton, 255 Rainfall, British, G. J. Symons, F.R.S., 149 Rains, Heavy, in France and Algeria, 229 Rankine (W. J. M.), Useful Rules and Tables Relating to Mensuration, 431; W. J. Miller, 483 Ransome (Arthur), Fertilisation of the Speedwell, 149, 223 “ Rapid Vessel,” Pictet’s, 398 Rattlesnake, Scream of Young Burrowing Owl like Warning of, S. Garman, 174 Ratzel (Dr. F.), Anthropo-Geographie, 125 Ravelli (Prof.), Educational Uses of Radiometer, 444 Rayleigh (Lord, F,R.S.): the Soaring of Birds, 534; Distri!u- tion of Energy in the Spectrum, 559 Rays, Ultra-Violet, Absorption of, by various Substances, Pro- fessors Liveing and Dewar, 521 Reaction, Electric, Prof. Melde, 183 Reale Istituto Lombardo di Scienze e Lettere, 282, 354, 473, 521 Redman (J. B.), River Thames Abnormal High Tides, 6 Reeve and Co, (L.), ‘‘ Lepidoptera of Ceylon,” 150 Reeves (H. A.), Human Morphology, vol. i., 124 “Réforme” Telegraphic Communication with London, 469 Refractive Index of Liquids, Arrangement for Measuring, Pilt- schikoff, 325 Regel (Dr. L. E.), Central Asian Exploration, 446 Rein (Dr. J. J.), Aino Ethnolozy, 365 Reinhardt (Prof. J. R.), Death of, 41, 61 Rendiconto dell’ Accademia delle Scienze di Bologna, 189 Riviera, Unprecedented Cold in the —Absence of Sunspots, C. J. B. Williams, 551 Revue Internationale des Sciences, 426 Reyue Internationale des Sciences Biologiques, 189 Reymond (Prof. E. du Bois), Darwin and Copernicus, 557 Reynaud’s New Projection Praxinoscope, 60 Rheolyzer, Wartmann’s, E. von Fleische, 127 Rhone Glacier Studies, Prof. Forel on Recent, 183 Rhytina Stelleri, Crania of, 347 Ribot’s Diseases of Memory, Dr. G. J. Romanes, F.R.S,, 169 Rigidity of the Earth, Numerical Estimate of the, G. H. Darwin, F.R.S., 22 Riley (Dr. C, S.), Hibernations of Aletia xylina in United States, 214 Rip van Winkle, a Modern, Saltburne, 127 Ristori (E,), Orbit of Comet 1882 2, 388 River Gravels, Paleolithic, C. Evans, 8 Rivista Scientifico-Industriale e Giornale del Naturalista, 94, 282, 521 Robert’s Tide Tables, 230 Roberts (Prof. W. Chandler, F.R.S.), Hardening and Temper- ing Steel, 594 Robinson (H.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 85 Robinson (Dr.), Memorial of, 112 Robinson (John), Flora of Essex County, Massachusetts, 173 Robinson (Rev. J. L.), a Treatise on Marine Surveying, 289 Robinson (W. H.), the Zodiacal Light (?), 605 Rocks, Recent Researches in Metamorphism of, Dr. A. Geikie, F.R.S., 121 “Rockies, Camps in the,” W. A. Baillie-Grohman, 551 Rodwell (G. F.): Lavoisier, Priestley, and the Discovery of Oxygen, 8, 100; Notes cf Travel in Sardinia, 342 Rogers (Prof. James E. T.), Ensilage in America, Prof. J. Wrightson, 479 Romanes (C. H.): Magnetic Arrangement of Clouds, 31 ; the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 86 Romanes (Dr. G. J., F.R.S.), Ribot’s Diseaves of Memory, 169 ; on Natural Selection and Natural Theology, Prof. Asa Gray, 291, 362, 528; ‘‘ Zoological Sketches,” Felix L. Os- wald, 333; ‘‘ Zoological Notes on the Structure, Affinities, Habits, end Mental Faculties of Wild and Domestic Animals,” Arthur Nicols, 333; ‘‘The Vampire Bat,” 412; Incubation of the Ostrich, 480 ; Benevolence in Animals, 607 Roorkee Hydraulic Experiments, Major Allan Cunningham, 1 Rowan (Vice-Admiral), Elements of the Great Comet 18824, 226 Rowan (D. J.), the Zodiacal Light(?), 605 Rowell (G, A.), Experiments on Aurora, 443 INDEX xiii Rowland (Prof.), Concave Gratings for giving a Diffraction Spectrum, 95 Royal Asiatic Society (North China Branch), Journal of, 161 Royal Commissioners for Technical Education, visit to birming- ham, 469 Royal Geographical Society, 323 Royal Horticultural Society, 119, 523, 570 Royal Institution, Lecture Arrangements, 112, 495 Royal Society, 118, 143, 189, 215, 234, 257, 330, 354, 376, 426, 450, 473, 499, 521, 568, 618 ; Names Nominated for the Council, 40 ; Award of Medals, 61 ; Address of the President, 134, 162; New Fellows, 615 “Rules and Tables,”’ Rankine’s, 431; W. J. Millar, 483 Russell, H. C., the Comet 1882 4, 56 Russia, Popular Medicine in, Dr. Slunin, 62; Forest Fires in, 113 ; Russian Chemical and Physical Society, 444; Russian Geographical Society, 424; Glacial Formations of, 497 ; Physics in, during the last ten years, N. Hesehus, 567 Russow (E.), on Sieve-Tubes, 366 Rye, E. C., ‘The Zoological Record” for 1881, 310 Sabine’s New Wedge and Diaphragm Photometer, 201 Sachs (Julius), ‘‘Text-Book of Botany, Morphological and Physiological,” Prof. E, P. Wright, 263 Safety Lamp, Prize offered for New, 496 Sagiura (Shigetaké), on the Isomerism of Albutwinous Bodies, 103 ‘*Sahara und Sudan,” by Dr. G. Nachtigal, Prof. A. H. Keane, 408 Saharunpur Botanical Gardens, Report, 588 St. Petersburg Society of Gardening, 19 Salez, Discovery of Bronze Hatchet at, 540 Salmon and Herring Fisheries, 442 Salvadori (Tommaso), ‘‘Ornitologia della Papuasia e delle Molluche,” 577 Sampson (Commander), the Comet 1882 4, 108, 266 Sandberger (Prof.), Origin of Metalliferous Lodes, 90 Sanitary Associations, Reports of, 423 Sanitary Research, Grocers’ Company Scheme, 495, 515 Sanitary Science, the Scheme of the Grocers’ Company for the Encouragement of Original Research in, 574 Sap-flow, F. M. Burton, 530 Saporta (Marquis de), Fossil Algze, 514 Sardinia, Notes of Travelin, G. F. Rodwell, 342 Sarepta, the Stones of, 231 Saturn’s Ring, Cassini Division of, 374 Saxby (Rev. S. H.): the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 86; the Aurora, 100 ; Meteor of November 17, 338 Scale, Equal Temperament of the, C. B. Clarke, 240 Scandinavia, Mathematics in, 343 Schliemann (Dr.), Proposed Excavations at Athens, 276 Schaeberle (Prof.), Method for Observing Artificial Transits, 67 Schiaparelli (Prof.), on the Great Comet 1882 6, Francis Porro, 533 Schirmwirkung of Iron, Prof. Stephan, 325 Schmidt’s Cometary Object, 20; Variable Star near Spica, 617 Schriften der Physicalisch-Okonomischen Ge-ell-chaft zu KGnigs- berg, 521 Schwalbe (Dr.) ‘‘ Lehrbuch der Neurologie,” 196 Schwarz (Herr), Action of Zinc on Sulphur, 184 Science and Theology, 337 Scientific Heresies in China, 342 Scientific Renown, the Thirst for, 285 SCIENTIFIC WORTHIES :—William Spottiswoode, P.R.S. (with a Portrait), 597 Sclater (P. L., F.R.S.), the High Springs of 1883, 529 Scorpions, Suicide of, C. L. Morgan, 313, 530 Scotch Universities Bill, 565, 573 Scotland : Completion of Ordnance Survey of, 92; New Ap- pointments of Geological Survey, 246 Scott (R. H., F.R.S.), ‘* Elementary Meteorology,” 575 Scott (Major-Gen. H. G. D., I7.R.S.), Death of, 587 Scottish Lake Dwellings, Ancient, by Dr. Munro, Sir John Lubbock, F.R.S., 145 Scottish Review, 399 Scottish Meteorological Society, Half-yearly General Meeting, 469 Scudder (Sam. H.), ‘‘ Nomenclator Zoologicus,” 28 Scypho-Medusz, Habits of, Surgeon-Major H. B. Guppy, 31 Sea Lion, the Cape, 415 Seabroke (Geo. M.), Comet 1882 4, 4, 52 xiv Sea Serpent, the, F. T. Mott, 293; Joseph Sidebotham, 315 ; W. Barfoot, 338; Prof. W. Steadman Aldis, 338; Dr. J. Rae, F.R.S., 366 Seals in the Baltic, 133 Sea-shore, Apparent Lird Tracks by, 91 Secchi (Father), Monument to, 298 Seebohm (Henry), Ornithologist in Siberia, 560 Seismographic Apparatus, Gray and Milne’s, 547 Selenka (Prof. E.), Sipunculacea, 133 Serpieri (Prof. A.), ‘‘ I] Potentiale Elettrico nell’ Insegnamento dell’ Elettrostatica,” 312 Serravallo, Double Action Mercury Air-pump, 324 Sextants, New Apparatus for Testing, 473 Shadows after Sunset, E. D. Archibald, 77; Prof. Dier, 150; J. Rand Capron, 182 Sheep, Blanford’s, 415 Sheffield Free Libraries Report, 19 Shetland, Severe Weather in, 443 Shulachenko’s Experiments with Telephones, 445 Siberia, Proposal for Publication of General Description of, 182 Siberian Aborigines, Yadrintseff, 541 Siberian Flora, 445 Siberia in Europe, Henry Seebohm, 560 Sidebotham (Joseph), the Sea Serpent, 315 Siemens (Sir Charles W.), Electric Lighting, the Transmission of Force by Electricity, 67 ; and Dr. Percy, Presented with the Freedom of the Company of Turners, 276; Electrical Trans- mission of Force and Storage of Power, 518 Sieve Tubes, E. Russow, 366 Silesia, Earthquake in, 400 Silk Culture in Hungary, 209 Silver, Electric Conductivity of Haloid Salts of, Prof. Kohl- rausch, 182 Simondsia paradoxa, Dr. Cobbold, 547 Singing, Speaking, and Stammering, W. H. Stone, 509, 531, 558, 580; James Lecky, 580 Sipunculacea, Prof. E. Selenka, 133 Siwalik Carnivora, Richard Lydekker, 293. **Skin-vision ”” of Animals, 399 Skobeleff (General), the Weight of his Brain, 347 Slunin (Dr.), Popular Medicine in Russia, 62 Smith (C. S.), Sir G. B. Airy on the Forth Bridge, 99 Smith (F. S.): a Modification of the Gold Leaf Electroscope, 102 Smith (Prof. H. J. S.)’: Death of, 371 ; Obituary Notice of, Dr. W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S., 381; his Mathematical Papers and Memoirs, 443; and the Representation of a Number asa Sum of Five Squares, 538, 564, 565, 587 Smith (Leigh), Gift to the Royal Geographical Society, 323 Smith (Robert H.), ‘‘ Cutting Tools Worked by Hand and Machine,” 577 Smith (Worthington G.), Ancient Monuments, 102; Palao- lithic Gravels, 102; Palzolithic Implements of North-East London, 270 Smoke Abatement, Dr. E. Frankland, F.R.S., 407 Smoke Abatement Institution, National, 443 Smyth (Prof. C. Piazzi), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 83; the Peak of Teneriffe Active again, 315 Snake Bite, Death from, in Bombay, Sir Joseph Fayrer, F.R.S., 6 anne Destruction of Life in India by Poisonous, Str J. Fayrer, F.R.S., 205 Snowballs, Natural, a Remarkable Phenomenon, S. Hart, 483 Snow Rollers, G. J. Symons, F.R.S., 507 ; F. W. Grey, 507 Soda Flames in Coal Fires, Major J. Herschel, 78 Soda, Heating by Acetate of, 344 Soda Industry, Present Condition of, Walter Weldon, F.R.S., or Sodium as New Element for Electro-positive Plate, Jablochkoff, 114 y Solar Corona, on Photographing F.R.S., 199 : Solar Eclipses, Recent and Coming Total, J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S., 185 : x f Solar Eclipse on May 6, Total, 248; English Expedition, 398, the, Dr. Wm. Huggins, 507 a F : Solar Radiation and Glacier Motion, Rev. A. Irving, 553 Solomon Islands, Anthropological Notes in the, H. B. Guppy, 607 Sound-vibrations of Solid Bodies (glass cylinders) in Contact with Liquids, Auerbach, 325 “INDEX [Wature, Fune 21, 1883 Space, the Matter of, Charles Morris, 349; Prof. A. S. Hers- chel, 458, 504 Spatzier (Johann), Death of, 422 Speaking, Singing, and Stammering, W. H. Stone, 509, 531, 558, 580; James Lecky, 580 Spectrum Analysis: Work in the Infra-Red of the Spectrum, Capt. Abney, F.R.S., 15 ; Prof. Rowland’s Concave Gratings for giving a Diffraction Spectrum, 95; Profs. Liveing and Dewar on the Origin of the Hydrocarbon Flame Spectrum, 257; Distribution of Energy in the Spectrum, Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., 559 Speedwell, Fertilisation of, A. M. Stanley, 127, 174; A. Ransom, 149, 223: Speke and Grant’s Zebra, Sir J. Fayrer, F.R.S., 604 Spencer’s (Herbert) Philosophy, Section founded for Study of, at Birmingham, 587 Spica, Schmidt’s Variable Star near, 617 Spider, New Species of African, 348 Spitzbergen, Swedish Expedition to, 243 Spitzbergen Geological and Palzontological Collections, 588 Sponges, Australian Freshwater, 91 Sporer (Prof.) on the Transit of Venus, 284 Sportsman’s Handbook to Practical Collecting, &c., Rowland Ward, 146 Spottiswoode (Dr. W., P.R.S.): Address to Royal Society, 134, 162; Obituary Notice of Prof. Henry Smith, 381; ** Scientific Worthies,” 597 Spring in the Jachére, Intermittent, 63 Spring (M. W.), Thunderstorms, 133 Springs, High, of 1883, P. L. Sclater, F.R.S., 529 Squares, Prof. H. J. S. Smith and the Representation of a Number as a Sum of Five, 538, 564, 565, 587 Stamens, Two Kinds of, with Different Functions in the same Flower, Dr. Hermann Miiller, 30 ; Dr. Fritz Miiller, 364 Stammering, Singing, Speaking and: W. H. Stone, 509, 531, 558, 580; James Lecky, 580 Stanley (A. M.), Fertilisation of Speedwell, 127 Stanley (W. F.), Causes of Elevation and Subsidence of Earth’s Surface, 523 Stapleton (F.): the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 86; the Comet, 151 Stapley (A. M.), Fertilisation of Speedwell, 174 Stars : Star Maps in Glasgow Evening Times, 80; Measures of Double, 182; Binary, 518; ¢ Cancri, 424; Eridani, 589 ; Variable, 324, 400, 540; S Virginis, 424; U Cephei, Ceraski’s, 424, 445; Supposed Variable « Doradtis, 498; Schmidt’s Variable near Spica, 617 Steel Plate Manufacture, 405 Steel, Hardening and Tempering, Prof. W. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S., 594 Stellar Parallax, 210 Stephan (Prof.), Schirmwirkung of Iron, 325 Stevenson (Thos.), Observations of Increase of Velocity ot Wind with Altitude, 432; E. D. Archibald, 506 Stewart (Comm. D.), Mimicry in Moths, 314 Stock (T.), Notice of some Discoveries recently made in Carboniferous Vertebrate Palzontology, 22 Stockholm Ethnographical Exhibition, Dr. A. B. Meyer, 371 Stokoe (Dr. P. H.), Mimicry, 508 Stone Age in Japan, Weapons and Implements from the, 616 Stone (Prof. E. J.), Transit of Venus, 1882, British Expedi- tions, 177 Stone (W. H.), Singing, Speaking, and Stammering, 509, 531, 558, 580 Storage Batteries, Chemistry of, Dr. E. Frankland, F.R.S., 568 Strahan (A.), Movements of Air in Fissures and the Barometer 375) 461 Stress, Clerk Maxwell on, 314 Strong (George), Improved Feed-water Heater and Purifier, 90 Suez Canal, Animal Migrations due to, Prof. Keller, 181 Sulphur, Action of Zinc on, Schwarz, 184 “Sun: its Planets and their Satellites,” Rev. E. Ledger, 309 ; Eclipse of the, 346; Ignition by Sunlight, Major Herschel ; E. H. Verney, 531; Shadows after Sunset, E. D. Archi- bald, 77; J. Rand Capron, 102; Prof. Dier, 150; a Mock Sunset, 78; Wolf and Faye on Periodicity of Sunspots, 235; Absence of Sunspots— Unprecedented Cold in the Riviera, C. J. B. Williams, 551 Sunflowers at Night, the Reversion of, C. A. White, 241 Surveying, Marine, a Treatise on, Rey. J. L. Robinson, 289 Svanhberg (Dr, Gustav), Death of, 132 = sail Nature, Fune 21, 1883] INDEX XV ‘Swan Lamp Spectrum and the Aurora, J. Rand Capron, 149 ; J. Munro, 173 Sweden, Aurorze in, 113, 496; Darwin Memorial and the People of, 275 ; Great Meteor in, 423, 517; Swedish Expe- dition to Spitzbergen, 1882, 243; New Swedish Arctic Expedition, 400 Sweden and Norway, Electrical Disturbances in, 89 Switzerland: Swiss Geological Society, 132; Avalanche in Western, 181 ; Earthslip in, 209 ; Heavy Rain in, 209 ; Fishes of Switzerland, Dr. Victor Fatio, 220; Electric Lighting in, 97 Eytiney : Linnean Society of New South Wales, 308, 355, 475, I, 619 Bes (G. J., F.R.S.), British Rainfall, 149 ; Snow Rollers, 507 Szechenyi’s Travels, A. H. Keane, 170 Tacchini (Prof.), Aurora of November 17, 139 Tait (Prof. P. G.), Paper on the Laws of Motion, 283 Talisman Deep-Sea Expedition, 587 Tapetum, the, in the Retina of Mammals, 216 Tapir, the Malayan, 151 Taschenberg (Prof.), ‘‘ Die Insekten nach ihren Schaden und Nutzen,’’ 172 Tashkend, Earthquake at, 617 Tawney (E. B.): Death of, 247 ; Obituary Notice of, 295 Taylor (Rev. C. J.), the Aurora, 99 Taylor (H. D.): the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 87 ; Aurora of November 17, 140; Meteor of November 17, 365 Taylor (J. E.), Origin of our Vernal Flora, 7 Teaching of Elementary Mechanics, 580 Technical College, the Finsbury, 181, 318, 425, 495 Technical Education Commission, 51 Telegraph Extension in China, 588 Telegraphy, Advance in Use of, for French Newspapers, 372 ; the Progress of, W. H. Preece, F.R.S., 390 Telephones, Shulachenko’s Experiments with, 445 Telephonic Communication, Novelty in, 515 Temperament, Equal, of the Scale, C. B. Clarke, 240 Teneriffe, the Peak of, active again, Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth, 315 Terrestrial Radiation, Note on, John Tyndall, F.R.S., 377; Dr. A. Woeikof, 460 Tertiary History of the Grand Cafion District, Dr. Arch. Geikie, F.R.S., 357 Thames, River—Abnormal High Tides, J. B. Redman, 6 Thames, Monthly Means of the Temperature of the Water of, Sir G. B. Airy, F.R.S., 189 Theology, Natural Selection and Natural, Prof. Asa Gray, 291, 529; Dr. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 362; J. B. Hannay, F.R.S., 364 Theology, Science and, 337 Thermometer, an Improved Air, 43 Thermometers, Liquid, Expansion of Bulbs of, Prof. Govi, 209 Thibet, Native Exploration of, Sir H. Rawlinson, 323 Thomson’s Mouse-Mill Dynamo, J. T. Bottomley, 78 Thomson (Sir William, F.R.S.): Photometric Measurements of Sun, Moon, Cloudy Sky, and Electric and other Artificial Lights, 277; Gyrostatics, 548 Thorium, Nilson, 184 Thunderstorms, M. W. Spring, 133 Thylacoleo, on the Affinities of, Prof. Owen, F.R.S., 354 Ticks, 531 ; Dr. T. Spencer Cobbold, F.R.S., 552; Rev. L. Blomefield, 552 Tiddeman (R. H.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 84 Tides, Abnormal High—in the Thames, J. B. Redman, 6 Tides, Great, Prof. R. S. Ball, F.R.S., 201 Tides, Geological Traces of Great, J. G. Grenfell, 222 Timehri, 539 Times, the, on Science, 566 Timor-Laut, H. O. Forbes’s Visit to, 159 Tissandier’s Electromagnetic Engine for directing Balloons, 343 Tomlinson (C., F.R.S.), Priestley and Lavoisier, 53, 147 Torpedo, Prof. Fritsch on the, 453 Traill (D.), Transit of Venus, 159 Tram-car, Electrically moved, Successful Trial of a, 470 Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences, 330 Transit of Venus, 112, 154, 253, 540; Prof. Harkness on the, 114; British Expeditions, E. J. Stone, F.R.S., Prof. Langley, John Birmingham, 177; C. J. B. Williams, F.R.S., 197; in Algiers, 208; French Expedition, 208; German Expedition, 208 ; Prof. Edgar Frisby, 266 ; Samuel Hart, 483 Transits, Method for Observing Artificial, Prof. Schaeberle, 67 Transmission of Energy on the Marcel-Deprez System, 372 “Travels in India,” 21 Tresca (M.), Papers on Electrical Measures, 62 Tribe (Dr. A., F.R.S.), Chemistry of the Planté and Faure Accumulators, 583 Tricycles propelled by Electricity, 19 Tromholt (Sophus), on the Aurora Borealis, 394 Trotting Horse, Evolution of the American, W. H. Brewer, 609 Trouton (F.), on a Relation existing between the Latent Heats, Specific Heats, and Relative Volumes of Volatile Bodies, 292 Trouve’s Batteries, 41, 42 Tubercle, Bacillus of, 492, 563 Tucker (R.), Memoir of Augustus de Morgan, 217 Tuckwell (Rev. W.), on the Midland Boulders, 346 Tunnel, Channel, Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., 338 Turbellarians, Prof. von Graff’s Monograph on the, Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S., 227 Tylor (Dr. E. B., 7.R.S.), “ The Burman,” 6 Tympanic Membrane, Function of Membrana Flaccida of, J M. Crombie, 129 Tyndall (Prof. John, F.R.S.), ‘‘ Note on Terrestrial Radiation,” 377; Dr. A. Woeikof on, 460 Typhoon in Philippine Islands, 181 Ultra-Violet Rays, Absorption of, by various Substances, Pro- fessors Liveing and Dewar, 521 Umdhlebi Tree of Zululand, W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., 7; Rev. Dr. G, W. Parker, 7, 32 United States, Oyster Industry of the, 39 ; New Aquarium at Wood’s Hole, 347 Universities Bill, Scotch, 565, 573 University and Educational Intelligence, 47, 71, 93, 117, 142, 167, 214, 233, 281, 306, 330, 353, 492, 449, 472, 498, 547, 594, 618 Ural Mountains, Russian Exploration of, 446 ; Severe Weather In, 539 Uric and Hippuric Acid, Dr. A. B. Garrod, F.R.S., 451 Uveean Parrakeet, 417 Valais, Earthquake in the, 181 “‘Vampire Bat”: Thos. Workman, 411; A. W. Auden, 411 ; G. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 412 Variable Stars, 324, 400, 540;S Virginis, 424; U Cephei, Ceraski’s, 424, 446; Supposed Variable « Doradtis—a Spurious Star, 498 ; Schmidt’s Variable Star near Spica, 617 Varna, Alleged Wreck of the, 114 Vega Expedition, the Fossil Plants collected by, 347 Vega Gold Medal conferred on Mr. Stanley, 422 Vegetable History, Tables of, D. P. Penhallow, 458 Velocity of the Wind, Diurnal Variations in the, E. Douglas Archibald, 461 Venus, Transit of, 112, 154, 253, 541; Observations in Paris of the, 113; Prof. Harkness, 114; W. de Fonvielle’s ‘‘ Perio- dical,” 132; Duke of Argyll, Dr. R. S. Ball, F.R.S., Dr. W. Doberck, J. L. E. Dreyer, C. L. Wragge, W. F. Denning, D. Traill, H. Cecil, R. Langdon, 154 to 159; British Expe- dition, E. J. Stone, F.R.S., 177; Prof. Langley, 179; John Birmingham, 180 ; Prof. Cacciatore, 180; C. J. B. Williams, 197; German Expedition, 208; French Expedition, 208; United States Expedition, 246, 539; Prof. Edgar Frisby, 266; Prof. Sporer on the, 284 ; Samuel Hart, 483 Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel, 71 Verhandlungen der Naturhistorischen Vereines der Preussischen Rheinlande und Westfalens, 521 Vernal Flora, Origin of our, J. E. Taylor, 7 Verney (E. H.), Ignition by Sunlight, 531 Vertebrate Dissection, Handbook of, H. Newell Martin and William A. Moule, 335 Vertebrate Paleontology, Carboniferous, Notice of some Dis- coveries recently made in, T. Stock, 22 Vicars (G. Rayleigh), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 87 Victoria (Philosophical) Institute, 143, 260, 283 Vienna Geographical Society, 229, 401 Vienna Imperial Academy of Sciences, 524, 572 Vienna International Electrical Exhibition, 373, 444 Vilmorin-Andrieux, ‘‘ Les Plantes Potageres,” 429 Vine Parasite, New, 133 Vivisection, Facts and Considerations relating to, 542 2, 95, 120, 260, 284, XVi INDEX [Naave, Fune 21, 1883 Vivisection Bill, 549 Vogel (Hermann W.), Lockyer’s Dissociation Theory, 233 Volatile Bodies, on a Relation existing between the Latent Heats, Specific Heats, and Relative Volumes of, F, Trouton, 292 Volcanic Ashes, Showers of, 516 Volta Prize, 89 Von Graff's Monograph on the Turbellarians, Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S., 227 Volcanic Ernption in the Caucasus, 63 Volcanic Phenomena in Greek Archipelago, 445 Von Siebold, Memorial to, 41 Walker (C. V., F.R.S.), Death of, 228 Wallace (A. R.) : Difficult Cases of Mimicry, 481; on the Value ee “Nearctic ” as one of the Primary ‘Zoological Regions, 482 Ward (H. Marshall), on the Genus AMeliola, 234 Ward (Rowland), the Sportsman’s Handbook to Practical Col- lecting, &c., 146 Warmbrunn, Fulgurite found near, 540 Wartmann’s Rheolyzer, E. von Fleische, 127 Warwick Museum, 539 Washington Observatory, U.S., 300 Waste Paper in China, 588 Watch and Clockmaker’s Handbook F. J. Britten, H. Dent Gardner, 76 Water, Sounds produced by Outflow of, Signor Martini, 183 Water-Analysis, American Researches on, 211, 231 Waterspouts on Land: James Hosack, 79; J. G. McIntosh, 103 Watson (Sir Thos.), Death of, 160 Watts (Arthur), the Comet, 5 Waves, Mountainous, in Channel in Calm Weather, 540 Weather, the: J. M. Fountain, 32; J. R. Capron, 198; Alti- tude and, Dr. Woeikoff, 223 ; the Recent Cold Weather, W. Ingram, 530 ; ‘‘ Weather Forecasts,” the Bishop of Carlisle, 4, 51; Rev. W. Clement Ley, 29 ; C. W. Harding, 79 Webb (Rey. T. W.), “‘ Anomalous” Tail to the Comet 1882 4, 89 ; Mars, 203 Weights and Measures, 131 Weldon (Walter, F.R.S.), Present Condition of Soda Industry, 401 Westhoff (F.), ‘‘ Die Kafer Westfalens,” 239 Wetted Solids, Condensation of Liquid Films on, J. W. Clark, 70 Winaeion (H. J.), Hovering of Birds, 312 Whipple (G. M.): the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 83; New Apparatus for Testing Sextants, 473 Whistles, Hydrogen, Francis Galton, F.R.S., 491 White (Wm.), Paleolithic River Gravels, 53 White (W. H.), ‘‘ The British Navy : its Strength, Resources, and Administrati n,” Sir Thomas Brassey, 549 Whitehouse (F. Cope), ‘‘ Is Fingal’s Cave Artificial ?”’ 285 Whitmell (Chas. T.), ary Colours, 266 Whitworth (Sir Joseph), Papers on Mechanical Subjects, 208 Whitworth (W. A.), Centuries, 386 Wiedmann (E.), Pre-fusional Chemical Heated Water containing Salts, 183 Williams (Dr. C. J. B.):the Comet, 29, 110 ; Transit of Venus, 197; the Comet 1882 4 during last Month, 197 ; Unprece- dented Cold in the Riviera—Absence of Sunspots, 551 Williams (W. M.), the Inventor of the Incandescent Electric Light, 240 Williamson (John), Ferns of Kentucky, 336 ‘Transposition of ‘* Natural” Experiment in Complement- | the Churchman’s Almanac for Eight | Wilson (A. S.), Potato Disease, 523 Wind, Increase in Velocity of, with Altitude, E. D. Archibald, 243, 506; Thos. Stevenson, 432; Diurnal Variation of, on Open Seas and near and on Land, A. Buchan, 413; E. Donglas Archibald, 461 Winlock (W. C.), t e Comet, 128 “* Winners in Life’s Race,” Arabella Buckley, 51 Winter (Karl), Death of, 229 Wire Guns, James A. Longridge, 11, 35, 53 Wissmann and Pogge’s African Expedition, 92, 341, 401 Woeikoff (Dr.) : Altitude and Weather, 223 ; Terrestrial Radia- tion and Prof. Tyndall’s Observations, 460 Wolf on Methods employed in Astronomical Physics, 372 Wolga, Discovery of Remains of Diluvial Mammals on, 373 Women Students, College Hall and Residence for, 229 Wood (Rev. J. G.), Common British Insects, 124 Workman (Thos.), The ‘‘ Vampire Bat,” 411 Worms, Charles Darwin on, 20 Worthington (A. M.), the Magnetic Storm and Aurora, 85; Influence of Vacuum on Electricity, 434 Wragge (Clement L.) : Ben Nevis Observatory, 39, 487 ; Aurora, 54; Transit of Venus, 158 Wright (Prof. E. P.), ‘‘Text-Book of Botany, Morphological and Physiological,’’ Julius Sachs, 263 Wright (Lewis), ‘* Light,” 75 Wrightson (Prof, J.), Ensilage in America, Prof. James E. T. Rogers, 479 Yadrintseff, Siberian Aborigines, 541 Yarrell (Wm.), A History of British Birds, Part xv., 98 Year-Book of Pharmacy, 1882, 361 Yoe (Shway), ‘The Burman,” 5 Yorkshire College Students’ Association, 19 Yorkshire List of Lepidoptera, Porritt’s, 540 Yurgens’ Meteorological Observations at Mouth of Lena, 423. Zebra, Speke and Grant’s, Sir J. Fayrer, F.R.S., 604 Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Zoologie, 94, 189, 426 Zeller (Philip Christoph), Obituary Notice of, R. McLachlan, F.R.S., 535 Ziegler (Ernst), ‘‘A Text-Book of Pathological Anatomy and Pathogenesis,” 477 ; Death of, 566 Zine on Sulphur, Action of, Schwarz, 184 | Zodiacal Light (?), 580; W. H. Robinson, 605: Robert Dwarris Gibney, 605; E. Brown, 605 ; D. J. Rowan, 605 Zoological Expedition up the Niger, W. A. Forbes’s, 14 | Zoological Gardens, Additions to, 20, 63, 78, 91, 114, 133, 161, 182, 210, 230, 248, 277, 300, 324, 348, 374, 400, 424, 445, 470, 497 517, 540, 589, 617 2 . “Zoological Notes on the Structure, Affinities, Habits, and Mental Faculties of Wild and Domestic Animals,” Arthur Nicols, Dr. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 333 **Zoological Record for 1881,” the, E. C. Rye, 310 ; Sydney J. Hickson, 366 Zoological Regions, Primary, on the Value of the “ Nearctic” as one of the, Prof. Angelo Heilprin, 606 ‘* Zoological Sketches,” Felix L. Oswald, Dr. Geo. J. Romanes, F.R.S., 333 Zoological Society, 94, 190, 282, 307, 379, 451, 499, 570, 619 Zoological Society’s Living Collection, Illustrations of New and Rare Animals of, 151, 415 Zoological Station in Naples, J. IT. Cunningham, 453 Zoology in Japan, 614 Zululand, Umdblebi Tree of, W. T. Thiselton Dyer, F.R.S., | 73 Rev. G. W. Parker, 7, 32 A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE “* To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.” —WORDSWORTH THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 2, 1882 HVDRAULIC EXPERIMENTS By Major Allan Cun- (Roorkee : Thomasen Roorkee Hydraulic Experiments. ningham, R.E. Three vols. College Press, 1880-81.) J JNDER the direction of the Indian Government there have been constructed a number of canals, which, while reaching in transverse dimensions a size not much inferior to the Suez or North Sea Canal, have a far greater length and ramify into smaller channels of enormous total extent. Besides these, reservoir and river works have been carried out of the greatest magnitude. Hence the Indian Government has a most direct interest in the ‘advancement of the knowledge of hydraulics. Not only must hydraulic formule be used in the design of hydraulic works, but also in regulating the distribution of a valuable \commodity—irrigation water—on which large revenues ‘depend. Yet down to a recent period the Indian Govern- ment has been content to avail itself of researches car- ried out in Europe, and chiefly in France, and has made no use of its splendid opportunities for scientific hydraulic jexperiments. When at last hydraulic experiments on a ‘large scale were sanctioned, involving a large expenditure jit wasvery fortunate that the direction of them was intrusted to so very competent an officer as Major Cunningham. “Beaucoup de personnes croient que tout homme intelli- gent et instruit peut faire, sans grand travail de bonnes Jexpériences c’est une erreur qui a fait perdre beaucoup de temps et d’argent.’? So says M. Boileau, who is him- ‘self one of the most careful of hydraulic experimenters. Major Cunningham certainly does not think lightly of his work. He has enormous industry ; he repeats his obser- ‘vations again and again; he studies every detail of his methods; he notes the opinions of all his predecessors in work of a similar kind, and discusses his results with great lucidity. If his experiments have furnished no |strikingly novel laws, the fault is not his. ! “The general result of this work may perhaps be con- )sidered in some ways disappointing, in that there are no brilliant results, no simple laws of fluid motion disco- i VoL. Xxvi1.—No. 679 vered, not even a new formula for mean velocity pro- posed ”’ (p. 4). It is certainly true that when Major Cunningham passes from discussing the details of practical methods, where he is always instructive, to purely scientific questions, to generalising laws from the results obtained on verifying accepted rules, he has a rather exceptional number of purely negative conclusions to state. It is almost amus- ing to find caution carried to the extent involved in printing as a general result of a considerable discussion that the value of the coefficient in the formula for the discharge of a stream “depends p~rodably on the nature of the banks and bed, as well as on the hydraulic mean depth and slope.” But nevertheless we believe the prac- tical objects of the experiments have been obtained, and the outlay usefully incurred. Less of thoroughness at all events would have rendered the experiments useless, and although considering the scale of the experiments they seem at present rather less fruitful of definite results than might have been expected, yet it may be hoped that Major Cunningham has not made the most that can be made of his results. In time the new suggestion will come which will reduce to order the discordant observa- tions. In the establishment of any new general conclu- sions or formule in the hydraulics of streams, this store of data will certainly be of the greatest value. Of the magnitude of the work undertaken by Major Cunningham, it is difficult to give an adequate idea. It lasted over four years. The results include 565 sets of vertical velocity curve observations, each set including velocities taken three times at each foot of depth ; 545 sets of rod float observations, each including six mea- surements of velocity ; 581 sets of mean velocity obser- vations, each including three measurements of velocity at ten to twenty points ; 440 measurements of surface slope; besides many others. In addition to all this, the tabula- tion and computation of the results involved enormous labour. The printing of the results at Roorkee, whilst it must have involved greater trouble and responsibility than similar work in this country, seems to have been most efficiently and accurately done. From the practical point of view Major Cunningham’s book may be regarded as an exhaustive treatise on Float Gauging. All the more important observations B were 2 NATURE [Wov. 2, 1882 made by floats, and he has used these simple instruments in all their known forms, as surface floats, sub-surface floats, twin floats, and rod-floats. Every detail of the construction and use of these floats has been studied, their form, the length of run, the mode of marking the sections and float paths, and the precautions in taking the time. The sources of error are weighed, and in some degree the limits assigned beyond which the methods become unreliable. There will always be cases where the methods of float-gauging must be used, and no one who has work of this kind to do can afford to neglect Major, Cunningham’s directions. A few observations were, in fact, made with current meters. But the instru- ments used were of a type which must now be regarded as antiquated, and as to these Major Cunningham suggests no improvement which has not already been tried by the German engineers, who have, in fact, converted the current meter into a new instrument of precision. It is not at all to be regretted that Major Cunningham adopted floats in his experiments. Even from the scien- tific point of view, if floats are at best a rough means of determining velocities, yet they are not liable as more complicated instruments are, if used without sufficient | care or knowledge, to large and concealed errors. Hence float observations may always be used advantageously to check observations made in other ways. ‘The progress of hydraulics suggests questions, for the solution of which float methods are inadequate, and the results obtained by Harlacher and Wagner seem to show that floats will ke superseded by instrumental means of greater compli- cation, but of far greater delicacy. But in truth in hydraulics no one method is free from objections and researches carried out by all methods, when sufficient care is exercised, will prove useful. We may now pass to consider briefly the bearing of | these experiments on some points of theory. Major Cunningham devotes Chapter VI. to a discussion of the unsteadiness of the motion of the water in ordinary streams. At each point the velocity varies in direction, and magnitude from instant to instant. The float-veloci- ties taken on 50-feet runs, which are themselves mean | velocities for a certain time and distance, vary from 10 to 30 per cent., so that to obtain the true mean velocity over any given float-path, something like fifty float obser- | vations are necessary. Recent current-meter observa- tions show this variation of velocity still more clearly. The essential unsteadiness of the motion of water in streams was pointed out with the greatest clearness by M. St. Venant (1872), and the still more important fact that the motion is periodically unsteady, that is, that the variations occur periodically about a constant mean value, so that the average velocity for a sufficient but not very great length of time is sensibly constant. It is only this last fact which has rendered it possible, to apply the equations for steady motion to the actual motion of streams, and it is a pity that Major Cunningham has not adopted St. Venant’s convenient term, mean local velo- city, for the sensibly constant average velocity at each point of a stream. It is not the “interlacing of the stream lines” (p. 07), but the destruction of stream-line motion by eddying motions of quite another character, to which the unsteadiness seems to be due. In Chapter VII. the observations of the surface-slope | large-scale experiments hitherto carried out. at different periods of the experiments are discussed, and it is here that we think may be discovered the one matter in which the conditions of the experiments were unsatis- factory, and in which they are markedly inferior to Bazin’s small-scale experiments. Taking the Solani embankment and Solani aqueduct sites, at which the largest amount of work was done, we find that the experi- ments were made at about the centre of a ten-mile reach, terminated at the upper end by a regulator con- trolling the water-supply, and at the lower end by a fall where, by artificial means, the water-level was kept up to any desired height. The bed of the canal between these limits had originally the uniform slope of about a foot per mile. This original level is maintained at five points by masonry works, but between these the bed is irregu- larly scoured out to an extent which must have made very sensible variations of velocity within distances of a mile. At the tail of the reach is a weir standing five feet above the level of the bed, the crest of which was further raised by temporary obstructions of a height sometimes reaching five feet more. Hence the whole height of obstruction was often greater than the whole depth of water at the site of the gaugings. Under these circumstances the slope of the water surface varied, being generally quite different in the part of the reach above the site of the experiments from that in the part below, where the influence of the tail weir was felt. Further, the difference of slope in the parts of the reach above and below the site of the experiments differed widely in different conditions of the water supply. The local surface slope, that is the slope of the water surface in the neighbourhood of the gauging site, varied irregu- larly with the variation of the slopes above and below, being apparently, as might be expected, most affected by the obstruction at the tail of the reach, Now as the velocity at a given site does not exclusively depend on the | surface slope at the site, but to a certain extent on the slope above and below, the conditions of the site were initially to some extent unfavourable, and that in a degree which, although it may be small, is difficult to appreciate. The local surface slope itself can only be measured on a con- siderable length of stream (1000 to 4000 feet). But in that length the surface slope appeared to vary, the slope in 2000 feet being as much as 25 per cent. different from that in 4ooo feet, and the slope at one bank being 50 per cent. different from the slope at the other. It is obvious, therefore, that the local surface slope is a quantity which, under the conditions of these experiments, was not ascertainable with any great accuracy. But the whole comparison of the experimental results with formule of discharge involves the accurate knowledge of this quantity. All inferences from these experiments as to the reliability of formulae must be weakened in proportion as the slope measurement is doubtful. It is not in Major Cunningham’s experiments alone that this difficulty in determining the surface slope has been found. It is to the uncertainty of this quantity mainly, to this fos et ovigo malorum, that the discord- ances of large-scale experiments are due. The roughest small-scale experiments, those, for instance, discussed by Eytelwein and Prony, have furnished coefficients more useful in practice and more generally applied than any The advan- Nov. 2, 1882] NATURE 3 tage of regular canals over natural rivers for hydraulic experiments almost disappears when the canal bed is scoured out to an irregularity similar to that of a natural stream, and the canals are at a disadvantage when arti- ficial control at the tail of the reach modifies the condi- tions of flow to an extent sensibly felt at the site of the experiments. It is, of course, in the lower states of the water in the canal in the Roorkee aqueduct reach, that the effect of the tail control is most sensible, but then experiments made in these conditions are an essential part of the data necessary for generalisation. Major Cunningham spent a good deal of time in verify- ing a supposed theorythat the surface of a stream should be convex. The theory is probably a capital instance of the frequent mistake of importing the principles of theoretical hydrodynamics into practical hydraulics, Ina stream flowing from a reservoir, in such a way that the tangential forces on the surface of the elementary streams are absent or negligible, the energy per pound of fluid is uniformly distributed. It follows that in parts where the velocity is greater, the pressure is less. A stream may be re- garded as a bundle of horizontal filaments coming from a common reservoir. If in sucha stream the central fila- ments have a greater velocity than those nearer the sides, their pressure will be less. Consequently, for equilibrium there must be a greater depth of stream towards the centre, and the transverse water-line will be convex up- wards. Such is the theory which Major Cunningham has taken a great deal of trouble to test, and to which he attaches weight in spite of his observations. From pre- liminary calculations he shows that the known differences of velocity would give a difference of level, between the centre and sides of the Ganges Canal,,of 3 inches. After the most careful measurements, it was found that the dif- ference of level varied from +-o'018 foot to —0’095 foot, the average difference being almost exactly zero. Ob- viously the theory is outrageously wide of the truth, and the reason is not far to seek. The differences of velocity to which the supposed differences of pressure are due, are created by exactly those tangential actions of the fila- ments which the theory neglects. ‘There is no reason for assuming equal distribution of energy along a filament, part of the energy of which is being destroyed by lateral frictional actions between the filaments. As to the obser- vations in Chapter V., with a guage giving still water- level, it is not clear that the small difference of level observed was not due to the position of the mouth of the tube which communicated with the canal. _ The discussion of the vertical velocity parabolas in Chapter XI. is extremely interesting, and the method ere for finding the most probable curve by the method of least squares, is laborious and conscientious. The method of weighting the observations seems, it is true, rather artificial, especially as the observations at great (depth best define the form of the parabola. The general conclusion arrived at is, that while all the observations can e fairly well expressed by parabolic curves, no formula can be found expressing the dependence of the variation ‘of velocity on the slope, and dimensions of the channel. jit would be interesting to see if a parabola with axis on he water-line would not agree better with the results, the bservations above the line of maximum velocity being f course discarded. So far as there is any theory of the mutual action of the filaments, it leads to the result that the parabolic axis should be at the surface ; and that is not inconsistent with one possible explanation of the reduction of velocity near the surface. In ordinary streams, the velocity is greater towards the surface and centre, and less towards the bottom and sides. But the greatest velocity is not found at the sur- face, but at a variable depth below it, amounting very often to one-fourth of the whole depth. The Mississippi observers attributed this to the friction of the water against the air. In accordance with this they found the depression of the line of maximum velocity to depend quite directly on the direction of the wind, and they logi- cally introduced into their formule of flow, the free surface, as forming part of the frictional wetted border. Major Cunningham retains the Mississippi observers’ explana- tion, while his experiments disagree with theirs on all the points which directly support the explanation. He finds, for instance, that the depression of the line of maximum velocity is entirely independent of the direction and force of the wind. Now excepting one suggestion to be referred to presently, no kind of retarding action between the air and water has been stated which is not of the nature of a frictional resistance. The Mississippi ob- servers and some others who adopt the explanation of the depression of the line of maximum velocity we are now criticising, state explicitly that they consider the resist- ance between the air and water to be of the same nature as the resistance between the water and its solid bed. If so, since the line of maximum velocity is ordinarily de- pressed to one-fourth the depth at the centre, and gene- rally still more towards the sides, the friction between the water and air must be something like one fourth as great as the friction between the water and solid bed. But is it conceivable that the friction between the level water surface and mobile air should have anything like one- fourth the value of the resistance of the water impinging on all the immovable roughnesses of the stream bed? Further, any resistance of this kind must depend on the relative velocity of the water and air. But the air is most commonly in motion, and on the average must as often and as long blow down stream as up stream, Blowing down stream, it should accelerate the stream to the same extent as blowing up stream it retards it. But it is known from Boileau’s experiments and others that the depression is still persistent with a wind blowing down stream at a velocity greater than that of the water. To this Major Cunningham’s only answer is that “the time required for the penetration of change of velocity of the surface current caused by wind to any considerable depth appears to be very great. It has been estimated that it would take one week for half change of surface velocity to penetrate three feet.”” The evidence for this is not given, but if it is so, is it not because the friction between air and water is extremely small, and it is only in those cases where the persistence of the wind action fora long time allows an accumulation of effect, that that effect is sensible. A wind blowing on the surface of a lake is long in pro- ducing a current merely because the friction is small, but it does produce a current in time, because the action is cumulative. On a river it produces no sensible effect at all, as Major Cunningham’s experiments show. But if 4 NATURE ~~ te ee ee ne | Nov. 2, 1882 the friction between air and water is as great as he supposes, it ought to produce a sensible effect, and since winds blow as often and as long down-stream as up- stream, the water-surface should as often be accelerated as retarded, and the vertical velocity parabola should as often have its axis above the water-surface as below it. Boileau does indeed suggest that the absorption of air by the water and the evaporation of the water cause a loss of energy near the surface, but here again the cause seems as inadequate as air-friction. The experiment of Francis, quoted on p. 107, is admitted by Major Cunning- ham, to prove that ‘‘there is a continual transfer of water from the bed towards the surface, even in water in ap- parently tranquil motion,” and his own float-observations (p. 269) show that “‘near the edge of a stream there is a persistent flow of the water at and near the surface from the edge towards the centre.” Now the flow from the bottom and sides towards the top and centre brings water, stilled by impinging on roughnesses of the bed, to replace the quick moving surface-water. It is not true that the water so rising must acquire the velocity of the layers through which it passes, for it may rise in eddying masses, which are but little affected by the friction on their surface, or the motion of the water may be in hori- zontal spiral paths, which allow the bottom water to reach the surface without passing through the quicker moving central parts of the stream. At all events the transfer of the bottom water to the surface is a known phenomenon, and it is adequate as an explanation of the diminution of surface velocity. In Chapter XVI. is given a somewhat elaborate theory of the motion of a rod-float, which leads to the result that the rod-velocity is slightly less than the true mean velocity of the water past the immersed portion of the rod. Quite apart from the question of the general un- steadiness of the motion of the water, it may be pointed out that the relative velocity ~—w of the streams im- pinging on the rod must for the most part fall below the limit for which the pressure due to impact or friction can be assumed to vary as the square of the velocity. Hence the calculation that the rod-length should be o0’94 of the depth of the water to give a true mean velocity, seems an extremely doubtful one. In criticising thus two or three points of theory, it must be pointed out that these matters do in fact lie somewhat outside the main objects of the experiments, and an error on these points detracts nothing from the practical value of Major Cunningham’s work. W.C. U. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents, Neither can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible. The pressure on his space ts so great that it ts impossible otherwise to ensure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.) “Weather Forecasts ” WILL you permit me to call attention to the apparently com- plete failure of the Forecasts of Weather given in the daily papers with respect to the storm of Tuesday, October 24? The matter seems to me to be one of much practical moment. Here is an extract from the *‘ Weather” article in the Zzmes, which I presume agrees with that given in each of the daily papers :— 4 Forecasts of Weather for Tuesday, October 24 (issued at 8.30 p.m. on the previous day). o. SCOTLAND, N.—South-westerly breezes, fresh or moderate ; showery. SCOTLAND, E.—South-westerly breezes, moderate; some showers, with bright intervals. . ENGLAND, N.E.—Same as No. 1. . ENGLAND, E.—Same as No. 5. . MIDLAND CounTies.—Same as No. 1. . ENGLAND, S. (London and Channel).— Westerly and south- westerly breezes, light to fresh ; fine and cold at first, some local showers later, . SCOTLAND, W.-—Same as No, 0, . ENGLAND, N.W. (and N. Wales).—Same as No. o. . ENGLAND, S.W. (and S. Wales).—South-westerly winds, fresh to strong ; showery. 9. IRELAND, N.—Wind returning to south-west, and freshen- ing ; weather showery. Io. IRELAND, S.—Same as No. 9. Warnings.—None issued. UpbWN cow CV By order, Rosert H. Scort, Secretary. Notice particularly the concluding words : ‘‘ Warnings ; none issued ;” and then remember what took place. It is curious to compare in this respect the 7zmes of October 24 with that of October 25. In the latter issue we read as follows :— “*Vesterday morning a violent gale of wind, accompanied by a heavy downpour of rain, visited London. The previous night was beautiful, but at three o’clock yesterday morning the sky became overcast, and from half-past four o’clock up to ten o'clock there was an incessant downpour of rain. At half-past nine o’clock the upper part of 19, Windmill Street, King Street, New Cut, was stripped off, and the occupiers of the upper floors had a narrow escape. At ten o'clock a sign-board was carried away from the frontage of a house in Jewry Street, Aldersgate Street, Although the street was crowded, no one was reported hurt. At Five Fields, Dulwich, the grass was strewn with broken arms from the trees, and a large elm at Norwood was | blown down. A portion of a large shed situated near the. Surrey Gardens Estate was unroofed. The trees in the various | metropolitan parks have suffered severely from the gale. The River Thames at ten o’clock resembled a small sea, and much | damage was done to the shipping below London Bridge.” And much more to the same purpose. T feel desirous of knowing, both on general and scientific grounds, and also for obvious practical reasons, whether any explanation can be given of this absolute breakdown of weather | science. It would seem to be possible that a storm can visit our | coasts, and do immense destruction both by sea and land, and yet not give the faintest notice to our weather prophets of the impending danger ; and it really almost makes one smile to per- ceive that on the day of the storm no warnings were issued,’and _ that on the day after ‘‘the South Cone was hoisted this morning in Nos. 2, 3, 5, 7, and 8.” If no mistake has been made in the observations, and a mis-) take seems scarcely possible, we seem to be driven to the con-) clusion that a storm of the first magnitude can come upon us unawares ; and if this be so, the conclusion is discouraging and) very strange as regards science, and it is very serious as) affecting the value of forecasts of the weather to fishermen and others. I write this letter with the hope that some light may be thrown upon the subject to which it refers. H. CARLISLE | Rose Castle, Carlisle, October 26 The Comet | I BEG that you will allow me space for a few lines of comment upon the letters and drawings of the comet in your last issue, my own included. While thanking the engraver for the gene- rally accurate reproduction of my sketch, it is clear that wood4 engraving scarcely admits of a perfect rendering of stumped! shading. A few words of correction will serve all the purpos of preserving for possible future use the evidence which I wished to put on record. The chief defect is in the zso/ation given tq the ‘‘ wisp,” described by another correspondent as a ‘‘ horn.” It seemed rather to be an inclined elongation of the brightest part. The inclination too is exaggerated: its prolongation should have passed within the star on the northern! border, but » The tail lies nearly along a parallel of declination. Nov. 2, 1882 | NATURE 5 clear of the head. The only other alteration I should desire would be the strengthening of the brightness all along the middle or axis of the tail, and the smoothing away of all other features such as now seem indicated in the body of it. Trivial as these changes may seem, the ultimate value of the drawing, if it should ever have any, must depend on its accuracy. The feebleness of the feature which attracted my attention may at the same time be inferred from its absence in the adjoining con- temporaneous sketch accompanying Mr. Seabroke’s letter, while its reality is proved by the descriptions in the two letters which follow. As regards the ‘‘rift ”’ or ‘‘shadow,” on which stress is laid by Mr. Williams at Cannes, one cannot help sus- pecting that this impression was the effect of contrast ody— contrast -etween the complete absence of tail in that quarter, and the unrecognised presence of exceedingly feeble luminosity due to the extension and diffusion of cometic matter roundabout. It would require very strong evidence indeed to establish the real presence of shadow in the ordinary sense of that term. One other point deserves notice, You have three contempo- raneous accounts, from Rugby, Hawkhurst (Kent), and Chelten- ham, all referring to the morning of October 23. Considering how rude and unsettled the weather has been for weeks past, so extensive a clearance was rather remarkable. The brightness of this comet’s tail may be inferred from an observation which I made during the current week, and which will perhaps excite as much surprise, if not incredulity, in others as it did inme. Sunday night was clear and bright, with a moon four days past the full. I was at an hotel in London, and on the stroke of three I stole into a vacant room in the third floor, the window of which looked south-east. Here I stood for a full hour looking for the comet, scarcely able to credit my senses, as the morning drew on without my seeing it. With the naked eye I could see stars of the 5th, and with a bino- cular, stars in Hydra of the 7th or even 8th magnitude ; but no comet. At first I was uncertain, for this very reason, as to the identity of a Hydre, although if I had not been seeing the comet flaring below it so frequently during the last three or four weeks, no such doubt would have occurred to me. At last, as all the small stars of Hydra gradually settled themselves in my recollection in their right places, and I knew exactly where the whole length of the comet mws¢ be, and the whole being then well above the opposite roof, I fancied at times that I could make out a faint illumination in the proper place ; but not even then, with the binocular, could I find the head; nor eculd J, without previous knowledge, have been able to testify confidently to the presence of the tail. I regret that I cannot condense this account without sacri- ficing some of the conditions which help to make so strange a disappearance credible. If anyone had told me on the 23rd that the object I was then drawing would be invisible to me a week later, in London, Ay reason of moonlight only—for the visibility of small stars proves the clearness of the atmosphere— how could I have credited it? I feel, therefore, that I cannot expect to be, believed unless the whole circumstances are told, even though they betray my uncertainty about stel.ar conSgura- tions when deprived of the aid of a map. J. HERSCHEL On Wednesday, the 25th instant, at 6.10 a.m., Mr. Hodges and I again obtained two measures of position of the nucleus with the equatorial, after correcting for instrumental errors and refraction, the mean of the readings comes out R.A. 10h, 6m, 48s., Dec. 17° 2’ 55’. But owing to flexwe of the instrument and to the fact that the circles read only to 20’ and 2s. respec- tively, these figures are open to correction. Daylight, with a little haze, had so far advanced when the measures were com pleted, that only the nucleus was distinguishable in the tele- scope; but with the filar micrometer I measured its length ; the mean of two readings came out to 41’°5, but owing to the gradual shading off of the nucleus, one’s readings might vary is! according fo its assumed limits, The width I made about 10”, I was rather surprised at these results, as I had estimated its length two days before at about 10” only ; but 1 had then used ‘an eye-piece to which I am not accustomed, and my estimate was probably anerror. The position angle of the major axis of the nucleus was 108° 7’. Though the comet was fainter by reason of the bright moon, still we could trace the tail as far as on Monday, the 23rd. We viewed the comet at 5 a.m., but owing to buildings in the line of sight, we got no reliable readings until 6 a.m. In my sketch of the nucleus in your last issue, the engraver has made it round, with a fainter elongation, It appeared of nearly the same brightness throughout. Gro, M. SEABROKE Temple Observatory, Rugby, October 30 I sEND herewith two sketches of the comet made by me on the mornings of October 23 and 31, and a few brief particulars which may be of some value. October 23, 1882, at 4.30 a.m., the first sketch was made, At 4 0’clock the atmosphere was exceptionally clear, and the sky continued cloudless until 5 o'clock, when a few light clouds appeared. The comet was not brilliant, although clearly seen. Nucleus with coma presented an indistinctly outlined disc a few de rees above the horizon, and obliquely upwards was a tail which stretched more than 15° across the sky. I compared the extent of tail at the time with the distance between a and B Orionis, and the tail had decidedly the best of it. Wailst glancing from the comet to Orion, I saw in the intervening sky- space, in little over three minutes, no less than five meteors, one of which left a long luminous trail visible several seconds. The extremity of the tail was broad. Its wsder boundary was a well- defmed line about 40° from the horizontal, and was slightly convex downwards, The wffer boundary was about 45° from the horizontal, was nearly straight, but very ill-defined, the light + fading away into darkness very gradually upwards. The fan- ning cut of the tail was very rapid towards the far end. The termination was somewhat fishtail shaped, since there was cen- trally a deepish concavity between the extreme limits, whick projected horn-like. The light of the tail was broken into two unequal areas by an obscure streak. The inclosed lower area was the smaller and decidedly brighter, and on its lower side contained a still brighter area, that, starting from the upper part of the coma, gradually passed into the lower boundary. October 31, 1882, at 5.30 a.m., the second sketch was made. The atmosphere was again very clear, but the moon’s light dimmed the comet greatly, and exactly at 6 o’clock it and the coming dawn rendered it indistinguishable. The naked eye could distinguish none of the features observed on the 23rd, but the general outline had somewhat changed, and the comet had changed its position relatively to the stars, ARTHUR WATTS Manor House, Shincliffe, Durham, October 31 May I beg the readers of NATURE, who possess good 1rea-~ sures of the course of the great comet, kindly to publish them in NaruRE? I would also be very much obliged for good measures of the distances of different envelopes of the head from the nucleus. The measures are desirable in two directions —towards the sun, and perpendicularly to this direction. Of the greatest scientific interest wou'd be a complete series of measures during the whole period of visibility of the comet, and especially in the first and last days of this pericd. B. “The Burman” Mr. E. B. Tytor, in his review of ‘‘The Burman” in NATURE (vol. xxvi. p. 593), has fallen into an error which it may be well to correct. says that the tattooing on the body of the ‘‘ Greek nobleman,” Georgios Konstantinos, ‘‘ was evi- dently done by Burmese tattooers, and is a masterpiece of their unpleasant craft.” ‘This is a mistake into which even a man who had seen many specimens of Burmese tattooing, might fall. But it could never be made by a Burman. ‘The general resem- blance to the decorations on the Burman’s thighs is close enough, but each separate figure, when done by the Burmese Sayah, is surrounded by a border of Burmese letters, in many cases as a mere ornament, but in not a few with a special cabalistic mean- ing. Still, however blurred with age, they can always be recog- ni:ed as Burmese characters. I went down and examined the “tattooed nobleman,” which he was good-natured enough to allow me to do very closely, and the result was to convince me that it was no native of Burma who so cruelly victimised the poor man, ‘The frames of the figures might have been letter=, but if so, they were of some language with which I am unac- quainted. Moreover, many of the figures themselves were such as a Burman Sayah never uses ; such as especially the birds and serpentine creatures, while the elephants were of a very inferior character. The Beeloos (ogres) and Kyah-Beeloos (tiger-ogres), moreover, which appear on every Burman’s legs, were absent, and, most conclusive of all, there was not a single inn, not one cabalistic square. No Say-Sayah I ever knew would have had self-control enough to have omitted thee signs of his wisdom in magic. Mr. Tylor says the story of Konstantinos is ‘‘ mostly 6 NATURE [Wov. 2, 1882 fictitious.” That may be, but if he was not tattooed in Gren Asia, it is difficult to say where it could have been done. I may also mention that the ‘‘ nobleman” did not understand a single word of Burmese, and did not recognise a Burman, which could hardly have been the case if he had suffered his ‘* punish- ment” in Burma, ‘The pain, by the way, is not nearly so great as it is represented to be, and even when a man is tattooed all over the head, I cannot understand his dying or going mad, as Konstantinos’s companions are said to have done. When I was tattooed, I had nearly twenty figures done at a sitting, and felt no particular inconvenience, though the actual operation is no doubt “ unpleasant.” Suway Yor THE opinion that the ‘‘tattooed man” was decorated in Burma has been generally received by anthropologists, and so far as I know, not hitherto contradicted. In addition to Mr. Franks’ paper I may now refer to the Zvansactions of the Berlin Anthropological Society, in the Z:z¢schrift fiir Ethnologie, vol .iv. 1872 p. 201, for an account of an examination of him by Prof. Bastian, who, as an authority on Burmese matters, has been already mentioned in connection with ‘*Shway Yoe’s”’ book. Prof. Bistian says, ‘‘as to the Burmese character of the tattooing there can beno doubt. ‘The letters rather point to the Shans, to whose district many treasure-diggers resorted,” &c. It appears, also, that Konstantinos, when questioned as to the mode in which he was operated on, described the instrument as a split point carried in a heavy metal handle, which agrees with the Burmese method. As the “‘tattooed man” is in’part inscribed with actual letters, a copy of these would probably settle the question at once. It is a pity that for some reason photographs of him, which one | would think were profitable articles from the exhibitor’s point of | view, are not (or lately were not) to be had. E. B. TyLor River Thames—Abnormal High Tides THE normal high water in the Pool, or the average of all the tides of the year, is a constant quantity, and is the same now as half a century back, the mean level being 12 inches below the Metropolitan datum of high water of spring tides called “*Trinity standard.” High water of spring tides averages 12 inches above, and high water of neaps 3 feet 6 inches below that datum. Whilst, however, the ordinary high water is a constant quantity, exceptional tides rise now very much higher than they did a quarter of a century back ; on October 18, 1841, a tide occurred which rose 3 feet 6 inches above Trinity, and it was the highest recorded for half a century ; eleven years after- wards, on November 12, 1852, 3 feet 7 inches were marked. The land flood of that year is popularly known as the Duke of Wellington’s flood, from the demise of the great captain having occurred at that period; no such tide recurred for seventeen years nearly, until March 28, 1869, when 3 feet 7 inches was again reached. Five years afterwards the tide rose, on March 20, 1874, higher than ever before recorded, reaching an excess of 4 feet 4 inches. These exceptional metropolitan tides arise from the rare concurrence of three causes, viz. an exceptionally heavy land flood meeting an equinoctial spring tide, and these accom- panied by a great westerly gale heaping up the Channel sea, suddenly veering to north-west, and driving the tidal wave before it from the North Sea up the Thames estuary, Four reasons may be specified for these results. The first is the greatly in- creased rate of discharge of floods from the catchment basin. This, however, is questioned by many; but we find Stevenson giving the ordinary discharge as 102,000 cubic feet per minute ; Beardmore 100,coo as the annual mean at Staines, and 400,000 as the maximum, whilst O’Connel, in the ‘‘ Encyclopedia Metropolitana,” states it at from 475,000 to 600,000 and Prof. Unwin, of Cooper’s Hill College, obtained results during the winter of 1875, at the Albert Bridge, Windsor Home Park, equivalent to from 701,280 to 845,640, or one-third more than any previous estimate, Secondly, the low-water rég?me of the river has been greatly developed by increased scour and removal of shoals by dredging, so that the head of the low-water prism ascending from seaward, with 20 feet minimum depth, which a quarter of a century back was below the Arsenalat Woolwich, is now above the Dock Yard, two miles higher. Thirdly, the removal of old London, Blackfriars, and Westminster bridges, by raising high water above-bridge 6 to 12 inches, and lowering low water 3 to 4 feet, brings up about 33 per cent. m retidal water above-bridge than half a century back. Fourthly, the Thames Embankments have added a few inches to the range, by narrowing, straightening, and regulating the channel by which the tidal momentum has been increased. Now, assuming that the high water of a spring tide is raised from 4 to 6 inches, this, from London Bridge to Twickenham, would amount to 700,000 tons of water, but the additional quantity, due to the removal of the old bridges within the same limits, would amount to six times that quantity, or to 4,200,000 tons, In an essay by me, recently published by the Institution of Civil Engineers, the proportion of land water as compared with tidal water was estimated at 1-18th of the Jatter, and that of the 14 inches excess of range over any previously recorded tide in November, 1875, only from 3 to 34 inches might be due to land water. The Embankment Commissioners of 1861 took the hitherto standard maximum height for quays of 4 feet above Trinity, and this proved a safe elevation until March, 1874 ; but the tide on November 15, 1875, was 6 inches higher, and forcibly directed public attention to the question, and again on January 2, 1877, the tide rose as high as in March, 1874, and in January, 1881, reached a height of 4 feet $ inches at the London Docks, and 5 feet here in Westminster, the maximum yet experienced. The Admiralty Tide Tables of the last twenty years show that 2 feet and 2 feet 1 inch are the maxima to be expected during the equinoxes, but the computors direct attention to the fact that gales of wind will add at times materially to the estimated heights ; indeed north-north-west gales will add 1 yard vertically to the computed heights in the Port of London, as the surface of the water at high water will be at times 5 feet higher than at sea with a good spring tide, the tidal column rising upwards at a tolerably uniform rate of 14 inch per mile in the forty-eight miles from Sheerness to London. From 1860 to 1863, 6 inches was the calculated maximum above Trinity standard and that observed 3 feet and 6 inches in December 1863. From 1864 to 1866, 6 inches was again the estimated excess, and 3 feet and 6 inches again the actual result in November 1866. For 1867-1868 they were relatively 4 inches and 3 feet, the last in February 1868. After this due to the altered condition of the river brought about by the causes just referred to, we have the following results as regards maxima, viz. :— Estimated height Observed height above Trinity. above Trinity. ‘ “ ‘ “ 1869—Marech’ “09 2 9 ees ess, UT, Octoberiey eek eto) eee ee 1870—February Gotu Wis otha, ras aishy 49) March ":.0)---, 2) 70 = 1871—April ee ALS ee ee 1S72—A pr eae ee — ere a September’ ... 1 7 © — 1873—February — = Baus Octoberee-y =. 2) 10 _ 1874—March ... ... 2 I -.. 4 4 Westminster, 1875—April a etero) = November... — 4 9 “5 1876— september!) ehh 5) ee Jude Decree ee eee keene 1877—Januarysc. ee eee ee “4 Merch—Septness el cULan.. es) 1978 —March ss ees Zen ee ee INovember™ =.5) =) ee an T879O—Marche sec) een el LO) eet ecu e—— April ee rear ees LO. 1880—March 2. 5. 1 6) w. November: “S050 Gea ec ey 4A 1881—January ... ... — .. .«. 5 O oH September. =. i 1 — 1882—February a te. © ea nO on JAMES» cg, ede 1h Bees — During the recent springs we have the following results (at Westminster) :— Estimated Actual 1882. Sane Sas Excess. Wind. Tuesday, Sept. 26, p.m. 0 tO 12% 10 07 ce BeGeEs Wednesdays 78 27,7) s: ot to oun) sh nce Thursday, 5p 28) s)) Oh UL nese. (Oe. (On aarcmy oN Rig Friday, Pe ho ee Oe LO as OP aN Nov. 2, 1882 | The early morning tide marked about 2 inches higher. During the past springs we have Tuesday, Oct. 10, p.m. 11 below ... 6 below ... 5 Sol wBs Wednesday... IT, y, 5 45 Giabove'... 11 ... 9.914. Sansa yee gL onyes Ls enD2 ys c+. 13’... WNL W. Friday on Sip op Gee Gers Che aty 6... N.N.W. The comparatively quiet autumnal weather sufficiently accounts for the slight variations. The tide ebbed as low as 23 feet 6 inches below Trinity in October last year at the London Docks Shadwell entrance, yielding a total tidal vertical oscillation of fully 28 feet in the Port of London. J. B. REDMAN 6, Queen Anne’s Gate, Westminster, S.W., October 19 P.S.—The springs succeeding those described in my letter show a greater difference, influenced doubtless by the great gale of Tuesday, October 24, when the barometer fell as low as in ‘the gales of October 28 and November 16, 1880, on these three occasions reading a tenth under 29 inches. The tide of October 28, 1880, was a low neap, but on November 19, 1880, at the top of the springs estimated at 6 inches under Trinity high water it was 2 feet 9 inches above, or 3 feet 3 inches excess three days after the gale. The excessive amount of land water now meeting the tide adds to the increase, together with the northerly gales, Estimated. Observed. Excess. a4 ‘ “ -u4(S.S.W. Tues. Oct. 24, noon 0 g below...o 6 below... 0 3 gale Wed. ,, 25, p.m. 0 5 above...o0 12above...0 7 W.S.W. Thurs, Pes 20y eer STATUS. By 2h Oh 35 Kor) ets} S: Fri. cy PAE. ore Goh meen Py Aes) ges) oe 20 ING Bee Rintementys) (29, 7 To 7%, 5 .3 5 N.N.E.} tia ee In effect the last with that of January 18, 1881.—J. B. R. Note.—The estimate of excess due to wind over and above the forecasts is somewhat overstated in this letter, as the Admiralty heights are for London Bridge and those observed are for West- minster, where the reading will be quite 2 inches higher. = tide is identica Umdhlebi Tree of Zululand THE following note has been communicated to us by the Rey. Dr. Parker, a well-known missionary in Madagascar. ‘The story reminds one of the old myth about the Upas in Java. No light can be thrown upon it at Kew, but perhaps in the pages of NATURE it might meet the eye of some person who could give some more information about it. W. T. THISELTON DYER There are two species, in both the leaf is lanceolate, dark green, glossy, hard, and brittle, and from both a thick milky juice exudes, while the fruit is like a long black pod, red at the end. One species is a tree with large leaves, and peculiar looking stem, the bark hanging down in large flakes, showing a fresh growth of bark underneath: in the words of my in- formant, ‘‘ What a villainous-looking tree! nasty, rough, ugly ! ” The other species is a shrub, with smaller leaves, and the bark not peeling off the stem. Both species are said to possess the power of poisoning any living creature which approaches it ; the symptoms of poisoning by it being severe headache, blood-shot eyes, and delirium, ending in death. The person affected dies either in delirium, or ins‘antaneously without any delirium. A superstition is connected with this plant. Only a few persons in Zululand are supposed to be able to collect the fruits of the Umdhlebi, and these dare not approach the tree except from the windward side. ‘They also sacrifice a goat ora sheep to the demon of the tree, tying the animal to, or near the tree. The fruit is collected for the purpose of being used as the antidote to the poisonous effectsof the tree from which they fall—for only the fallen fruit may be collected. As regards habitat, these trees grow on all kinds of soil, not specially on that which , exudes carbonic acid gas, but the tree-like species prefers barren and rocky ground. In consequence of this superstition, the often fertile. G. W. PARKER The Origin of our Vernal Flora Ir is usual to assign an Arctic origin to our mountain flora, and floral comparisons and statistics fully bear out this brilliant generalisation. It is formulated that height above the sea-level is climatally equivalent to northern latitude. This is an * Gales. NAGRORE 7 assumption that flowering plants are largely conditioned by heat. Thus latitude and oreographical habitats are more or less equal. Might I introduce another element into this question? Seeing that temperature is so largely influential in explaining the distri- bution of flowering plants, it occurs to me that not only may height above the sea-level answer to northern distribution, but seasonal occurrence as well. All botanists must have been struck by the fact that the earliest plants to bloom among our vernal flora are genera pecu- liarly Arctic and Alpine. In some instances (as with Chrysosple- nium oppositifolium and C. a'ternifolium) the species are identi- cal. These latter plants blossom with us in March or April; within the Arctic circle not until June and July, and even so late as August. Thus, with them, seasonal blossoming is equivalent to northern latitude, as regards the thermal conditions under which they flower. The generic names of all our early flower- ing plants are those pre-eminently Alpine and Arctic in their distribution—Potentilla, Stellavia, Saxifraga, Chrysosplenium, Draba, Ranunculus, Cardamine, Alsine, &c. I contend, therefore, that our vernal flora is explained by the fact that their seasonal occurrence, as regards temperature, is equivalent both to height above the sea-level and northern latitude. In every instance it will be found that the blossoming of the species of the above genera necessarily takes place in Great Britain two or three months earlier than within the polar circle. May we not therefore contend that we owe our English vernal flora to the same causes as distributed our English Alpine plants ; and that they are as much protected by being able to flower earlier in the year, as if they had been located on the tops of high hills and mountains ? The power to endure cold and wet displayed by many mem- bers of our vernal flora is very remarkable. Thus Ranznculus bulbosus and R. acris, Stellaria media, &c., are frequently found in flower all through the winter, unless the season be extra cold. Many other early bloomers among our common flowers are also remarkable for their durability, whilst the late flowering plants are equally noticeable for the short space during which they bloom, ‘This indicates a hardihood on the part of our vernal flora which cannot be explained except by reference to the cli- matal experience of the species. Some of them, as the groundsel and chickweed, may have exchanged an entomophilous for an anemophilous habit, or have become self-fertilised by the change. Again, it must have been observed that many of our early flowering plants display a tendency towards a seasonal division of labour, All of them either flower before they leaf, or show a tendency to do so, as with the Coltsfoot (Zusstlago farfara), the Crocus (C. vernus), the Snow-drop (Galanthus nivalis), &c. Eyen the violets (Viola odorata and V. canina), the Daffodil, Primrose, Cowslip, &c., although they in part leaf when they flower, develop leaves much more abundantly after flowering than before, thus showing an inclination towards dividing the period of active life into two distinct stages—the reproductive and the vegetative. Everyone knows how completely this has been effected by the Meadow Saffron (Colchicum autumnaile). My impression is that this early flowering tendency is a survival of the habit these plants had to blossom under more rigorous climatal conditions. In short, that our vernal flora must have the same origin assigned to it as an Alpine; that it has sur- vived through being able to bloom at an early period of the year at low levels, instead of flowering at a later season higher up, above the sea-level ; protection and advantage being secured in both instances. J. E. TAYLor Ipswich On Coral-eating Habits of Holothurians BEING struck with a remark of Mr. Darwin in his work on “Coral Reefs,” where it is stated on the authority of Dr. J. AJlan, of Forres, that the Holothurize subsist on living coral, and that by these and other creatures which swarm on coral reefs, an immense amount of coral must be yearly consumed and ground down into mud (p. 14), I determined to commence a country around one of these trees is always uninhabited, although , series of observations on this subject, in order to ascertain the rate at which these animals void the coral sand from their intes- tinal canal, and “ ergo” the amount of coral an individual would yearly transform into sand, I have by no means satisfied myself that the Holothurie do subsist on living coral. This may be due, however, to my field of observation being confined to the fringing reefs around Santa Anna, and the neighbouring coast of the large island of St. Christoval— where living coral occurs only in scanty patches, the greater portion ofthe coral ‘‘ flats” being formed of coral detritu 8 NATURE [Wov. 2, 1882 cemented into a more compact rock. I care‘ully watched the habits of the two species most numerous on the ‘‘ flats,” and in no case did I observe a single individual browsing on the patches of living coral. In truth it was on the dead coral rock f rming the ‘‘flats” of these reefs that these two species of Holothuriz subsisted ; and it appeared to me that they selected those feeding- grounds where the attachment of molluscs, zoophytes, and stony algze had to some degree loosened the surface of the rock. The particular species, on which my observations were made to determine the amount of coral sand daily discharged, pos- sessed a bluish-black body, from 12 to 15 inches in length when undisturbed, and with a circle of 20 pelate tentacles around the mouth, Without going into all the details of my methods of in- vestigation, it will be sufficient to state that from three inde- pendent observations on this species of Holothuria I have placed the amount of coral sand daily voided by each individual at not less than two-fifths of a pound (avoirdupois). At this rate some fifteen or sixteen of these animals would discharge aton of sand fron their intestinal canals in the course of a year, which repre- sents about 18 cubic feet of the coral rock forming the ‘‘ flat ” on which these creatures live. In order to illustrate this point more clearly, I will assume that every rood of the surface of the “flat” supports some fifteen or sixteen Holothuriz, a number which errs rather on the side of deficiency than of excess. In the course of a year 18 cubic feet of coral rock will be removed in the form of sand from the surface of each rood, which is equal to the removal of 1-605th of a foot per annum, or 1 foot in about 600 years. Although this estimate can be only regarded as of a tentative character and as applicable to but one species of the Holothuriz, it nevertheless throws some light on what I may term the ““ organic denudation ” of coral reefs, and it is not unreasonable to suppose that where a fringing reef is undergoing a very gradual up-heaval, the combined operation of the fish, the mollusc, the annelid, and the echinoderm, may prevent it from ever attaining an elevation above the level of the sea at high water. i. B. Guppy H.M.S. Lark, St. Christoval, Solomon I-lands, June 30 Railway Geology—a Hint Ir must often have occurred to others as well as to myself when making a long journey hy rail, and being whirled along all too fast through section after section of the greatest interest to the eye that can see in them something more than mere rail- way ‘‘cuttings,” how valuable would be some handbook giving the geolozical features of the country traversed by the principal railway lines, and illustrated by clearly drawn maps and sections. To give an instance—I have occa.ion pretty often to travel by the South Western line from Waterloo Station to Exeter, a route along which my untrained eye can take note of a succes- sion of instructive pictures, in the course of a five hours’ journey —the recent gravels, &c., covered by pine wood in the neigh- bourhood of Woking, broken abruptly at Basingstoke station by a section of the chalk, to be succeeded from here onwards to Salisbury by undulating downs of the same formation, bare of trees, and but-sparsely inhabited ; next, at the Yeovil junction, a sandstone quarry, riddled by martin’s nests, presumably of oolitic age ; then, between Axmi.uster and Honiton the greyish blue of a cutting through the lias ; to be final y succeeded, as I approach the term of my journey, by the rich red earths and loams of the new red sandst ne. Any other line, for instance, the Great Western, whi-b runs pare rllel to that just instanced, would give equally varied pictures ; and a copiously illustrated handb 90k, with notes explanatory, but as brief as possible —not only of the ground immediately bordering the line of rail, but of the general features of the nei-hbouring country within tne range of the eye of the tra- vel'er, should surely, I venture to think, have a large circulation. Will no geologist—a member of tae Government Survey, for instance—undertak+ the task ? 15 Cokes New University Club, Oct ber 27 [We noticed a Guide of this kind for American railways in vol. xix. p. 287, and then suzgested the utility of a similar hand- boo < for England.—ED.] Complementary Colours of the bluish-green waters of Alpine rivers. The waters of the | mena which had been already shown ? I HAVE often noticed the complementary purple on the foam | Omission of all mention of Dr. Priestley’s name? Lake of Geneva, and of the Rhone at Geneva, as is well known, are not bluish-green, but greenish-blue ; but there also I have noticed what to my eye is exactly the same tint of purple on the foam. JosErH JOHN MurPHY Old Forge, Dunmurry, co. Antrim, October 28 Palzolithic River Gravels THE recent articles and reports in your columns on the subject of Paleolithic river gravels bring three poiuts strongly forward, viz. :— 1. The greit number of ‘‘ flint implements” flakes” found in the river gravels. 2. The presence in the same deposits of bones of recent and extinct Mammalia. 3- The entire absence of the bones of man. Such being the uniform results of persevering researches ex tending now for more than twenty-four years, it is surely time to request anthropologists to give (I) some explanation of the remarkable absence of human remains in deposits containing so many objects considered to be of human manufacture, and (2) some proof that it is absolutely impossible for these so-called “*flint implements ’’ and ‘‘ flint flakes” to have been formed by natural causes. C, Evans Hampstead, October 18 and ‘° flint LAVOISIER, PRIESTLEY, AND THE DISCOVERY OF OXYGEN ] T is a matter of very little importance whether Lavoisier actually obtained oxygen gas a few weeks or days before Priesdey. The bare bald discovery of the gas is a very minor matter when placed in juxtaposition with the astounding revolution produced in chemistry by La- voisier ; with the admirable series of experiments, the acute reasoning, the elegant logical penetration, which enabled him to overthrow the theory of Phlogiston when literally all Europe supported it. The discovery of oxygen dims and pales before the development of the theory of combustion, the theories of acidification, of calcination, of respiration, and the introduction of exact quantitative processes and instruments of precision into chemistry. But it matters much whether the fair fame of one of the noblest and wisest men in the long roll of illustrious natural philosophers is to remain with a grievous slur cast upon it. It matters much whether his reputation is to be blasted by the reproach that he claimed the discovery of oxygen, knowing well that Priestley had preceded him. It is with a view of removing this slur upon the memory of the founder of modern chemistry, and certainly not with any thought of adding one iota to his long list of greater triumphs, that we have examined into the true bearings of the question. First as to the accusations. Dr. Thomas Thomson, in his “ History of Chemistry,’’ 2nd edit., 1830, vol. ii. p. 19, writes : ‘ Lavoisier, likewise, laid claim to the discovery of oxygen gas, but his claim is entitled to no attention whatever, as Dr. Priestley informs us that he prepared this gas in M. Lavoisier’s house in Paris, and showed him the method of procuring it in the year 1774, which is a considerable time before the date assigned by Lavoisier for his pretended discovery.’’ Again, p. 106: ‘‘ Yet in the whole of this paper the name of Dr. Priestley never occurs, nor is the Jeast hint given that he had already obtained oxygen gas by heating red oxide of mercury. So far from | it, that it is obviously the intention of the author of the paper to induce his readers to infer that he himself was the discoverer of oxygen gas. For after describing the process by which oxygen gas was obtained by him, he says nothing further remained but to determine its nature, and ‘I discovered with such surprise that it was not capable of combination with water by agitation,’ &c. Now why the expression of surprise in describing pheno- And why the 1 con- fess that this seems to me capable of no other explanation J | Nov. 2, 1882] NATURE 5 than a wish to claim for himself the discovery of oxygen gas, though he knew well that that discovery had been previously made by another.” Had Dr. Thomson been better acquainted with the character of Lavoisier; had he known what manner of man he was in all his dealings with his contemporaries and with the work of those who had gone before, he would never have made such an assertion as the above. Prof. Liuxley in his Birmingham address on Priestley (August 1, 1874) also accuses Lavoisier of unfairness : “though Lavoisier,’ he writes, “undoubtedly treated Priestley very ill, and pretended to have discovered dephlogisticated air, or oxygen, as he called it, inde- pendently, we can almost forgive him, when we reflect how different were the ideas which the great French chemist attached to the body which Priestley discovered.” Starting, as we confess, with the complete belief that Lavoisier did not discover oxygen, we are compelled to assert that a careful perusal of the various memoirs bearing upon the subject and the consistent attitude of Lavoisier throughout, has led us to the firm conviction that he has as much right to be regarded as the discoverer as either Priestley or Scheele. Let us examine Dr. Thomson’s statements. The year 1774 he asserts “‘is a considerable time before the date assigned by Lavoisier to his pretended discovery.” Lavoisier (‘‘ Traité élémentaire de Chimie,” 1789, part 1, Chap. III.) says in speaking of oxygen : “ Cette air que nous avons découvert presque en méme temps, M. Priest- ley, M. Scheele, et moi, a été nommé, par le premier air déphlogistiqué; par le second, air empyréal. Je lui avais d’abord donné lenom d’air éminemment respirable ; depuis on y a substitué celui dazy vital.’ Evidently “presque en méme temps’’ is a very loose statement. Scheele’s treatise, “Chemische Abhandlungen von der Luft und TFeuer,’’ was published in Upsala in 1777, and he certainly did not discover oxygen before 1775. Lavoisier is therefore speaking in quite general terms when he says that oxygen was discovered almost at the same time by Priestley, Scheele, and himself. He at least puts himself on a level with Scheele as to date, and it is universally admitted that Scheele procured the gas after Priestley. And this general expression is the only claim to the discovery we can anywhere find in the writings of Lavoisier. Now what are the facts in favour of Lavoisier? On November 1, 1772, he deposited with the secre- tary of the Academy a note, which was opened on May 1 following, in which he stated that he had dis- covered that sulphur and phosphorus, instead of losing weight when burnt, actually gained it, without taking into account the humidity of the atmosphere. He traced this to the fixation of air during the combustion, and surmised that the gain of weight by metals during calcination was due to the same cause. He reduced litharge in close vessels ‘‘avec lappareil de Hales,’’ and observed the disengagement of a great quantity of air. ‘‘This note leaves no doubt,’’ says Dr. Thomson, ‘‘that Lavoisier had conceived his theory, and confirmed it by experi- ment, at least as early as November, 1772. . . . “ [Il est aisé de voir,” writes Lavoisier, just before his death, “ que Javais concu, dés 1772, tout ’ensemble du systéme que J'ai publié depuis sur le combustion.’’ Early in 1774 he published experiments in his “ Opus- cules physiques et chimiques,” to prove that lead and tin, when heated in closed vessels, gain weight, and cause a diminution in the volume of air. ‘‘J’ai cru pou- voir conclure,” he writes, “de ces expériences, qu’une portion de lair lui-méme, ou d’une matiére quelconque, contenue dans l’air, et qui y existe dans un état d’élasticité, se combinait avec les metaux pendant leur calcination, et que c’etait 4 cette cause qu’était due l’augmentation de poids des chaux métalliques.’’ Later in the year he read before the Academy (‘a la rentrée publique de la Saint Martin, 1774”); a memoir ‘‘On the calcination of tin in closed vessels,” in which he proved that when tin was calcined in hermetically sealed vessels, it absorbed a portion of the air equal in weight to that which entered the retort when it was unsealed, so as to admit air. He states as his conclusion that only a part of the air can combine with metals or be used for purposes of respiration, and that hence the air is not a simple body as generally believed, but composed of different substances ; and he adds that his experiments on the calcination of mercury, and the revivification of the calx, singularly con- firm him in this opinion. At the Easter Meeting of the Academy in 1775, Lavoisier read a memoir, “Sur la nature du principe qui se combine avec les métaux pendant leur calcination et qui en augmente en poids.” Ina footnote we are informed that the first experiments described in the memoir were made more than a year previously, while those relating tothe mercury precip~itatus per se,“ ont dabord été tentées au verre ardent dans le mois de Novembre, 1774.’ Having heated calx of mercury with carbon, he found that fixed air soluble in water was given off, while when he heated it alone he observed avec beaucoup de surprise that an air was produced insoluble in water, readily supporting com- bustion, serving for the calcination of metals; incapable of precipitating lime water, and incapable of being absorbed by alkalies, Priestley obtained a gas from mercury, calcinatus per se,on August I, 1774, and finding it insoluble in water, and capable of readily supporting combustion, concluded that the mercury during calcination had absorbed wztrvous particles from the air. He did not discover the real nature of the gas till March, 1775. In October, 1774, Priestley visited Paris, and mentioned to Lavoisier, Leroy, and others the prodction of gas from the mercury calcinatus per se. Probably the properties were not demonstrated. Lavoisier says he observed “with much surprise” that the gas was not absorbed by water, &c., was not in fact fixed air. He had expected to find the air given off by calx of mercury when heated alone, the same as that evolved when he tested it with charcoal, and was surprised to find it a different air. He enumerates the principal properties of the new gas as we know it. He burns it in a candle, charcoal, and phosphorus. He calls it air emdnemment respirable, and atr pur; and says it alone is concerned in respiration, combustion, and the calcination of metals. Lavoisier constantly quotes Priestley and Scheele in connection with oxygen ; again and again he speaks ot that air which Mr. Priestley calls dephlogisticated, M. Scheele emfyreal, and 1 highly-respirable,’” but we can find no distinct claim to its discovery save the sentence quoted above, in which he states that it was discovered almost at this same time by Priestley, Scheele, and himself. In his next memoir, ‘On the Existence of Air in Nitrous Acid” (read April 20, 1776), he says: “Je com- mencerai, avant d’entrer en matiére, par prévenir le public qwune partie des expériences contenues dans ce mémoire ne m’appartiennent point en propre; peut-Ctre méme, rigoureusement parlant, n’en est-il aucune dont M. Priestley ne puisse réclamer la prémiére idée.” And again : “Je terminerai ce mémoire comme je ]’ai commencé, en rendant hommage & M. Priestley de la plus grande partie de ce qu’il peut contenir d’interessant.’’ Moreover, in giving an account of ammonia, sulphurous acid, and several other gases, he writes: “ Les expériences dont je vais rendre compte appartiennent presque toutes au doc- teur Priestley; je n’ai d’autre mérite que de les avoir répétées avec soin, et surtout de les avoir rangées dans un ordre propre & presenter des consequences.”’ Thus it must be admitted that Lavoisier was always ready to acknowledge the merits of Priestley. Even supposing that Priestley had demonstrated the 1G production of oxygen to Lavoisier before he had himself obtained it, which, however, does not appear probable, Lavoisier investigated its chief properties before Priest- ley knew any more of it, than it was a gas containing nitrous particles. ‘‘ Till this first of March, 1775,” writes Priestley, “‘ I had so little suspicion of the air from mer- curius calcinatus being wholesome, that I had not even thought of applying to it the test of nitrous air.” Again, in speaking of an experiment made on March 8, 1775, he says: “ By this I was confirmed in my conclusion that the air extracted from mercurius calcinatus, &c., was at least as good as common air ; but I did not certainly con- clude that it was any defter.” At this time Lavcisier had proved the principal properties of the new gas, as we now know them. No wonder he expresses surprise. Did Paracelsus discover hydrogen? or did Boyle? or Mayow? or Cavendish? Lavoisier saw with much sur- prise, not that a gas was produced by heating calx of mercury, but that the gas was different from fixed air. Let us finally examine Dr. Thomson’s criticism of the “ Opuscules Physiques et Chimiques” :— “ Nothing in these essays,” he writes, “indicates the smallest suspicion that air was a mixture of two distinct fluids, and that only one of them was concerned in com- bustion and calcination ; although this had been already deduced by Scheele from his own experiments, and though Priestley had already discovered the existence and peculiar properties of oxygen gas. It is obvious, however, that Lavoisier was on the way to make these discoveries, and had neither Scheele nor Priestley been fortunate enough to hit upon oxygen gas, it is exceedingly likely that he would himself have been able to have made that discovery.” Now these essays were published “az commencement de 1774,” at which time we have abundant evidence from other memoirs that Lavoisier 4ad more than suspicion “that air was a mixture of two distinct fluids, and that only one of them was concerned in combination and calci- nation.” Moreover, this had wot “been already deduced by Scheele from his own experiments; neither had Priestley ‘already discovered the existence and peculiar properties of oxygen gas.” We do not the least press the following point. We trust we have made out our case without the necessity of resorting to it ; but we venture toask upon what authority Dr. Thomson asserts that “ Dr. Priestley informs us that he prepared this gas in M. Lavoisier’s house in Paris, and showed him the method of procuring it in the year 1774.” In our edition of Priestley’s works (3 vols. 8vo. “ Being the former six volumes abridged and methodised with many additions.” Birmingham: Thomas Pearson, 1790), Priestley, after telling us that he visited Paris in Cctober, 1774, says, ‘‘I frequently mentioned my surprise at the kind of air which I had got from this preparation to M. Lavoisier, Mr. Le Roy, and several other philo- sophers, who honoured me with their notice in that city” (p. 109). And again, ‘“‘as I never make the least secret of anything I observe, I mentioned this experiment also, as well as those with the mercurius calcinatus, and the red precipitate to all my philosophical acquaintances at Paris and elsewhere; having no ideaat that time, to what these remarkable facts would lead.” It is of course a very different thing to mention an experiment to an ac- quaintance, and to actually perform it before him. But suppose, as Dr. Thomson asserts, that Priestley had pre- par.d the gas from mercurius calcinatus in Lavoisier’s house in October 1774, it is abundantly manifest by his own confession that he had no idea at that time of the nature of the gas; and more than five months afterwards that he had “so little suspicion of the air from mercurius calcinatus being wholesome, that I had not even thought ot applying to it the test of nitrous gas”; and even so late as March 8, 1775, he did not conclude that the new gas was any better than common air! NATURE [| Wov. 2, 132 Who is the discoverer? Is it the man who obtains a new body for the first time without recognising that it is different from anything else, or is it the man who demon- strates its true nature and properties? If the former Eck de Sulzbach discovered oxygen in 1489, and Boyle in 1672 not only procured hydrogen but proved its inflamma- bility. If the latter, assuredly Lavoisier discovered oxygen. But whatever the verdict may be, the memory of Lavoisier shall be saved from any imputation of unfair- ness. He was the most generous of men. His noble character stands out clearly and luminously in all his actions. He was incapable of any meanness. We cannot for one moment compare the work of Priestley with that of Lavoisier. The elegant methods and admirable diction of the latter contrast strangely with the clumsy manipulation and prosy phlogistianism of the former. “From an ounce of red lead,’’ writes Priestley, “heated in a gun-barrel, I got about an ounce measure of air, which altogether was worse than common air, an effect which I attribute in great measure to phlogiston discharged from the iron. The production of air in this case was very slow.” Then he heated. without method or reason, as Hales had done before him, “flowers of zinc, chalk, quicklime, slacked lime, tobacco-pipe clay, flint, and muscovy talck, with other similar substances, which will be found to comprise almost all the kinds of earth that are essentially distinct from each other, according to their chemical properties,’ in the hope of getting some phlogisticated air from them. What a farrago! John Mayow, a century earlier, wrote more scientifically ; ‘‘ Si ad flammz naturam serio attendamus, et nobiscum cogitemus, qualem demum mutationem particule igneze subeunt, dum eadem accenduntur: nihil aliud certe concipere possumus, quam _particu- larum ignearum accensionem in motu earum perni- cissimo consistere. Quidni ergo arbitremur, particulas salinas ad ignem constandum pracipue idoneas esse? Quze cum maxime solide, subtiles, agilesque sint, motui velocissimo, igneoque obeundo multo aptiores esse videntur, quam particule sulphurez, crassiores mollissi- meeque.”’ Priestley’s observations read like the writings of the seventeenth century, Lavoisier’s like those of the nine- teenth. Compare with the extract given above about the “phlogiston discharged from the iron” the following, “I have,” writes Lavoisier, “a salt of unknown composition: I put a known weight ina retort, add vitriolic acid and distil. I obtain acid of nitre in the receiver, and find vitriolated tartar in the retort, and I conclude that the substance was nitre. I am obliged in this reasoning to suppose that the weight of the bodies employed was the same after the operation as before, and that the operation has only effected a change.” ‘‘J’ai donc fait mentalement une équation dans laquelle les matiéres existantes avant Vopération formaient le premier membre, et celles obtenues apres l’opération formarent le second, et c’est réellement par la résolution de cette équation que je suis parvenu au résultat. Ainsi, dans l’exemple cité, l’acide du sel que je me proposais d’examiner était une inconnue, et je pouvais appeler x Sa base m’était egalement inconnue, et je pourvais l’appeler y; et puisque la quantité de matiére a du étre la méme avant et aprés l’opération, j'ai pu dire x+y - acide vitriolique = acide nitreux + tartre vitriolé = acide nitreux + acide vitriolique + alcali fixe ; d’ou je conclus que + = acide nitreux, y = acide fixe, et que le sel en question est du nitre.”’ There is nothing in Priestley’s scientific writings which exhibits so masterly a treatment as this. Priestley ignored Lavoisier’s brilliant conclusions. He died de- fending the theory of Phlogiston. He denied the de- composition of water. He worked without method or order ; and without the balance; and reasoned upon facts which lacked verification by quantitative means. ——— - Nov. 2, 1882 | NATURE If His conclusions were frequently hasty and ill founded. The instrument yielded excellent results: a large Lavoisier’s work requires no praise in this place. Priestley’s discoveries may be compared to the mingled chaos of Gpotomepetae of Anaxagoras; Lavoisier was the Novs, the designing intelligence which set them in order, and put each in its appointed place. Not without reason, said M. Wurtz, “‘La Chimie est une science francaise. Elle fut instituée par La voisier d’immortelle mémoire.” G, F. RODWELL A NEW DREDGING IMPLEMENT eG recently visited Oban, in company with a friend for the express purpose of obtaining living specimens of Pennatulida, and of testing the powers of an instrument devised for their capture, I send you a note of our experiences which may perhaps be of interest to your readers. The ordinary dredge, though well adapted to obtaining most animals that dwell on the sea-bottom, will clearly not do for all, and for no animal form is it less suited than for the one we were most anxious to obtain—/wniculina quadrangiularis. This giant Pennatulid consists of a tall fleshy rod-like axis, three to five feet or more in length, and about half an inch in diameter, which bears along its sides the individual polypes of the colony, and is traversed throughout its entire length by a flexible calci- fied stem. /xnzculina lives erect, with the lowermost six or eight inches planted as a stalk in the mud of the sea-bottom, and the major portion of its length projecting up freely into the water. For such a form the dredge is clearly very unsuitable. Indeed unless the dredge be of very great size it must be a pure accident if specimens ever get into it at all. The tangles give a better chance, and yet for such a purpose they are but a clumsy and haphazard contrivance ; and even should they by chance entangle and draw out a Funiculina there is a danger, amounting almost to certainty that it will drop off again during the process of hauling in. The instrument we employed was a modification of one originally devised by Dr. Malm of Goteborg, and used by him with considerable success in dredging for Fumzcz- Zina in Gullmarn Fiord, Bohuslain. Dr. Malm’s apparatus, of which he has kindly furnished us with a description and drawings, consisted of three poles, each nine feet long, connected together at their ends, so as to form a triangle; the poles were armed with large-sized fish- hooks, and the dredging-rope attached at one angle, the whole apparatus strongly resembling that used by the Philippine Islanders for dredging Luflectella, as de- scribed and figured by Moseley (Naturalist on the Challenger, p. 407). Our instrument, as we first used it, consisted of two poles six feet long, connected together in the form of a letter A by a cross-bar four feet long. The rope was fastened to the apex of the A, and lead weights to the lower ends of the side poles. Attached along the cross- bar at intervals of six inches were cords four feet in length, each armed with five or six fish-hooks and having a small lead weight tied to its lower end. The theory of the machine was that the whole instrument would be dragged along at an angle of about 30° to the sea-bottom, steadied by the weights at the ends of the side poles; the cross-bar being a foot or so above the ground, and the cords armed with fish-hooks trailing behind, with their ends kept on the bottom by the small weights attached to them. The machine was subsequently modified by lengthening the cross-bar to nine feet, and attaching the fish-hooks not singly, but in threes, like grappling irons. We also con- nected the cords together by horizontal strings, in order to obviate their tendency to become entangled with one another. number of specimens of /uniculina guadrangularts were obtained, four or five, and in one case as many as seven being brought up at a single haul; the specimens were also in perfect condition, the injury inflicted by the hook being quite imperceptible. Several of the specimens were of large size; and one dredged in Ardmucknish Bay, and measuring no less than sixty-five inches in length, appears to be the largest specimen hitherto ob- tained alive from any locality, being a foot longer than the largest recorded by Kélliker in his monograph on the the Pennatulida. Even this, however, does not appear to be the limit of growth, for a dead stem obtained at Glaesvae, in the Bergen Fiord, and now in the Hamburg Museum, is more than seven feet in length. Funiculina quadrangularis is generally considered a rare species. It is certainly a very local one; but our Oban experience would lead us to infer that where it does occur it 1s to be found in quantity, an inference borne out by Sir Wyville Thomson, who speaks of passing over a “forest of /uniculina” when dredging in Raasay Sound during the Porcupine expedition. It appears to have been hitherto obtained at Oban only in small numbers, a result we believe to be due entirely to the use of instru- ments ill-adapted to its capture. Four or five specimens of Pennatula phosphorea were obtained with the same instrument, which further proved its utility by bringing up several fine specimens of Hydrozoa. The instrument in its present form is clearly capable of improvement ; still the results of a first trial have been so good, that we may possibly be rendering a service to other naturalists by making them known through your columns. A. MILNES MARSHALL Cwens College, October 27 WIRE GUNS pe will no doubt surprise many of our readers to be told that after nearly a quarter of a century of experiment and investigation, and the expenditure of millions upon millions of money, the nation is so imperfectly armed that we are again entering upon a period of reconstruction of our heavy ordnance, the outcome of which it is not easy to foresee. From the old cast-iron 68 pounder, weighing from 4 to 5 tons, we have arrived at the 80 ton gun of Woolwich, but only to learn that such guns are already obsolete, and must give place to others of a new type developing greater power with less weight. Till very recently we have been constantly told by the highest authorities in this department of the Government that the English guns were the finest, the strongest, and the most powerful in the world, and it is no doubt somewhat startling to learn that all this has been a delusion. It is not our intention to dwell upon the causes of this, nor to inquire whether it has been due to departmental conservatism or to the uncertainty incidental to the pro- gress of an art carried on by a tentative method, and modified from time to time by new discoveries in physical science. Our purpose is rather to give some information about a system of gun making, which is at last obtaining the attention of gunmakers, we allude to what is termed the wire system of construction. Twenty-seven years ago this system was brought before the then existing Ordnance Committee by the writer who has from that time to this persistently advocated its merits, proving, not only by the construction of guns but also by mathematical analysis, its great advantage over other systems ; but it is only within the last two or three years that it has been regarded with tolerance by practical gun makers. In France the system has been applied under the superintendence of Capt. Schultz, of the Ecole Poly- technique, and in this country Sir Wm. Armstrong and Co. have made one or two guns, the latest and largest of 2 which is now under trial at Woolwich. So far as these guns have been tricd they have given very exceptionally good results, both in France and England, and they promise to excel all others in strength, facility of con- struction, and economy as regards cost. Let us then attempt to explain in a popular manner the principles and methods of this system of construction. A gun is a machine the object of which is to send heavy bodies to a great distance at a very high velocity. The motive power acts on the body for a very short time, a fraction of a second only, it must therefore be of great | intensity, and consequently the machine must have very great strength. Formerly all guns were made of cast-iron or bronze ; after this wrought iron and steel came into use or a combination of the two, Krupp and Whitworth adopted steel, Armstrong and Woolwich a combination of wrought-iron and steel, Palliser again, a combination of cast and wrought-iron. In making a vessel to resist great internal pressure, it was natural to conclude that by increasing the thickness of the vessel, its resisting strength could be proportionately increased, but as was first pointed out by the late Prof. Barlow, it was found that the limit in this direction was very soon reached, and that no vessel, whatever the thickness, could resist an internal pressure greater than the tensile strength of the material of which it was made. If the cylinder be composed of a material whose tensile strength is 10 tons per square inch, and if the internal pressure be Io tons per square inch, and if the cylinder be conceived as to be divided into a great number of 30 TONS PER SQ.INCH. és 20 . trated in Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5, is a disk-dynamo for generating alternate currents, and is therefore allied in certain aspects to Mr. Gordon’s machine, described below. The rotating armature has no iron in it ; it consists of a disk of wood having upon its sides projecting wooden teeth, as shown in Figs. 2 and 3, between which a wire or strip of copper is bent backwards and forwards, and finally carried to the axle B. This disk is rotated between field-magnets 60 NATURE [WVov. 16, 1882 having poles set alternately all round a circular frame. Figs. 4 and 5 show how this is carried out. A cast-iron ring having projecting iron pieces screwed into it is sur- rounded by zig-zag conductors which carry into it the current from a separate exciter. These currents pass up and down between the projecting cheeks, and excite those on both sides of them. A still more recent, and still larger generator, is that de- signed by Mr. J. E. H. Gordon, whose “ Physical Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism”’ is known to most of our readers. This machine, which is given in elevation in Fig. 6, and in end-elevation in Fig. 7, is more than 9 feet in height, and weighs 18 tons. It possesses several points of interest. The rotating armature differs from those of the well-known Gramme or Siemens’ armatures, being in form a dsc, constructed of boiler-plate, upon which the coils are carried. The machine, therefore, resembles in some respects the Siemens’ alternate-current machine, though there are notable points of difference, the most important —— Gordon’s Dynamo. being, that whereas in most dynamo-machines the in- ducing field-magnets are fixed, and the induced coils rotating, in Mr. Gordon’s new machine the rotating coils are those which act inductively upon the fixed coils between which they revolve. The machine furnishes alternate currents, and therefore requires separate exciters. These exciters, two Biirgin machines, send currents which enter and leave the revolving armature by brushes press- ing upon rings of phosphor bronze placed upon the axis at either side. There are 64 coils upon the rotating disc, and double that number upon the fixed frame- work. These 128 “taking-off” coils, the form of which is shown in Fig. 8, are alternately connected to two circuits, there being 32 groups in parallel arc, each parallel containing 4 coils in series; thus bringing the total electromotive force to 105 volts when the machine is driven at 140 revolutions per minute. At this speed it actuates 1300 Swan lamps, but is calculated to actuate | from 5000 to 7000 if the driving power is proportionately increased, The machine is now in operation at the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Company’s Works, East Greenwich. A great deal has been said in certain quarters of late about another new dynamo, the invention of Mr. Ferranti, which, with one of those unscientific exag- gerations which cannot be too strongly condemned, was pronounced to have an efficiency five times as great as that of existing dynamos. The construction of this ma- chine has not yet been made known, but it is understood that it has no iron in the rotating armature. This is, however, no novelty in dynamos. It appears, also, that Mr. Ferranti has invented an alternate-current machine almost identical with that of Sir William Thomson described above. Lastly, M. Gravier claims to have designed a form of dynamo in which there are neither commutators nor separate exciters, but in which continuous currents of electricity are produced in stationary coils by the passage near them of a rotating series of iron bars whose mag- Fic. 8.—The Fixed Coils of Gordon’s Dynamo. netism is changed, during their passage, by the reaction of the cores of the stationary coils themselves. M. Gravier has also designed a machine in which a Gramme-ring is wound with two sets of coils, a primary and a secondary, each set having its own commutator on opposite ends of the axis. A current from a separate exciting machine passes into the primary coils of the ring by one pair of brushes, and the secondary current is taken off by a second pair of brushes at the other commutator placed at right angles to the first pair. We are not aware that any practical machine thus constructed has yet been shown in action. It is certain that there is yet abundant room for great improvement in the construction of dynamo-electric machines. But the inducements to improvement at the present time are so great that rapid progress toward the desired goal of perfect efficiency and simplicity of structure is more than assured. THE PROJECTION PRAXINOSCOPE GASTON TISSANDIER describes in La Nature * an ingenious adaptation of the praxinoscope, under the above name, by means of which the images are pro- jected on a screen, and are visible to a large assembly. Nov. 16, 1882 | NATURE 61 Our engraving will give an idea‘of the arrangement and the effect produced. By a modification of the “lampa- scope,” M. Reynaud, the inventor, obtains by means of an ordinary lamp, at once the projection of the scene or background—by the object-glass which is seen at the side of the lantern—and of the subject, by another object- glass which is shown in front of and alittle above the same Jantern, subject are drawn and coloured on glass, and are con- nected in a continuous band by means of any suit- able material. One of these flexible bands is placed in the wide crown of the praxinoscope, which is pierced with openings corresponding to the phases of the subject. To understand the course of the luminous rays which go to form the image, it is necessary to bear in mind the For this, the positions or phases which form a | condensing lens which, placed near the flame of the lamp, “i LWA Daly M. Reynauc’s new projection-praxinoscope. is not visible in the figure ; then a plane mirror inclined 45°, which reflects the rays and causes them to traverse the figures filling the openings of the crown. These rays, reflected once more by the facets of the prism of mirrors, finally enter the object-glass, which transforms the verti- cal central image into a real image magnified on the screen. In making the two parts of the apparatus con- verge slightly, the animated subject is brought into the middle of the background, where it then appears to gambol. A hand-lever on the foot of the instrument allows a moderate and regular rotation to be communi- cated. This apparatus, with an ordinary moderator lamp, supplies well-lighted pictures and curious effects. It enables us to obtain, with the greatest ease, animated projections, without requiring any special source of light, by simply utilising the lamp in daily use. NOTES We take the following from the 7imes :—The council of the Royal Society have awarded the medals in their gift for the present year as follows: The Copley Medal to Prof. Cayley, F.R.S., for his researches in pure mathematics ; the Rumford | Medal to Capt. Abney, F.R.S., for his photographic researches and his discovery of the method of photographing the less refrangible part of the spectrum, especially the infra-red region ; a royal medal to Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S., for his contribu- tions to the morphology and classification of the mammalia and to anthropology ; and a royal medal to Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., for his papers in mathematical and experimental physics; the Davy Medal (in duplicate) to D. Mendelejeff and Lothar Meyer for their discovery of the periodic relations of the atomic weights. These medals will be presented at the anniversary meeting of the society on St. Andrew’s Day. THE President and Council of the Geological Society hold a | conversazione in the Society’s rooms on Wednesday, the 29th inst. Fellows of the Society who have objects of interest suitable for exhibition are asked kindly to lend them for the occasion, Ir is announced that General Pitt Rivers will be appointed Inspector of Ancient Monuments under the recent Act. WE announced last week the death, at the age of sixty- six years, of Prof. Johannes Theodor Reinhardt, Inspector of the Zoological Museum of the University of Copen- hagen. Prof, Reinhardt was a well-known zoologist, author of an excellent memoir on the Birds of the Campos of Brazil, and of numerous papers in the scientific periodicals of Copenhagen, and will be regretted by many friends and corre- spondents in this country. Ar the sitting of the Paris Academy of Sciences on November 13, M. Faye read letters from the captain of the Miger, French 62 NATURE [Vov. 16, 1882 war steamer, on the comet, stating that it was seen at Buenos Ayres, in the streets, on November 18, in close vicinity to the sun, and that the tail was seen for the first time on board the JV'ger on September 26. The expanse of the tail was then 28°, and its transversal dimension 26°. The quantity of light was so great that when the end of the tail began to become visible the officers and sailors witnessing the phenomenon were quite unable to understand the real nature of this splendid illumination, Mr. B. J. Hopkins, of Dalston, sends us a drawing of the head of the comet, which he saw on November 8, 16h. 50m. Viewed with the naked eye, Mr. Hopkins states, the nucleus appeared equal to a second-magnitude star; the tail was dis- tinctly visible, having a length of about 19°; it was straight fcr four-fifths its length ; it then abruptly curved upwards and spread itself out in the shape of a fan, with a breadth of 4°. It was still brightest on the southern side. Observing at 17h. 30m. the nucleus—as seen with a 5-inch refractor—had the appearance of being double, there being two portions of equal brightness separated by a narrow space of less brightness, the whole being surrounded by a circular nebulosity. The line joining the two brigkt portions of the nucleus formed an angle with the axis of the tail; and the tail immediately following the nucleus was most clearly and sharply divided into two portions of unequal brightness, the southern, as before mentioned, being by far the most brilliant. The dark rift in the tail was not so conspicuous as on the 5th inst. M. TRESCA presented to the Academy of Sciences on Monday the third part of his great work on measures taken during the Paris Electrical Exhibition. It relates to the analysis of electric candles, and will be followed by a similar work on incandescent lights. M. Mascart sent a paper on mea- sures taken with the registering electrometer in compliance with the wish expressed by Sir William Thomson to test the relations of the state of the weather and the electrical properties of the air. AT the same meeting M. Janssen read in the name of the Bureau des Longitudes a report on the observations which will be made during the total eclipse of the sun of May 6, 1883, which will be observed in the Pacific Ocean. He also read a paper on his work on solar spectroscopy, and on the observation of telluric rays. Admiral Mouchez read a letter from M. Henry, who has been sent to the Pic-du-Midi to observe the forthcoming transit of Venus and determine the possibility of establishing an astronomical observatory on the top of the mountain. THE French Journal Offciel has published a decree of the President establishing a council for the Observatory of Mentone. Weare informed that the contract for the construction and erection of the Forth Bridge has been let to Sir Thomas Tan- cred, Bart., Mr. J. H. Falkiner, and Mr. Joseph Phillips, Civil Engineers and Contractors, of Westminster, and Messrs. Arrol and Co. of the Dalmarnock Iron Works, Glasgow. Messrs. Tancred and Falkiner have already carried out about seventy miles of railway for Mr. Fowler, and are at present constructing the new line to Southampton. Mr. Phillips has had a very wide practical experience in bridge construction and erection, and Messrs, Arrol and Co, are contractors for the new Tay Bridge, so the works arein good hands. The contract sum is 1,600, 000/., which is within 5000/, of the engineer’s parliamentary estimate. The tenders received ranged from 1,485,000/. to 2,300,000/., most of the leading firms being represented. AT the annual general meeting of the Cambridge Philoscphica] Society, a resolution recording the deep regret of the Society at the lamentable event which deprived them of their late president, Prof. F. M. Balfour, was carried unanimously, and a letter ex- pre-sive of their feelings was directed to be sent to Mrs, Henry Sidgwick (Prof. Balfour’s sister). The officers for the ensuing year were appointed as follows:—President, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, F.R.S, ; Vice-Presidents ; Profs. Babington, Newton, . and Cayley; Treasurer, Dr. Pearson; Secretaries: Mr. J. W. Clark, Mr, Trotter, and Mr, W. M, Hicks; new Members of Council; Dr, Campion, Mr, E, Hill, and Mr. J. N. Langley. WitH regard to the recent sad suicide of a girl by leaping fron one of the towers of Notre Dame, Dr. Bionardeli’s ex- pre-sed view that asphyxiation in the rapid fall may have been the cause of death, has given rise to some correspondence in Za Nature, M. Bontemps points out that the depth of fall havins been about 66 metres, the velocity acquired in the time (less than four seconds) cannot have been so great as that sometimes attained on railways, e.g. 33 metres per second on the line between Chalons and Paris, where the effect should be the same ; yet we never hear of asphyxiation of engine drivers and stokers. He considers it desirable that the idea in question should be exploded, as unhappy persons may be led to choose suicide by fall from a height, under the notion that they will die before reaching the ground. Again, M. Gossin mentions that a few years aso a man threw himself from the top of the.Column of July, and fell on an awning which sheltered workmen at the pedestal; he suffered only a few slight contusions. M. Remy says he has often seen an Englishman leap from a height of 31 metres (say 103 feet) into a deep river ; and he was shown in 1852, in the island of Oahu, by missionaries, a native who had fallen from a verified height of more than 300 metres (say 1000 feet) His fall was broken near the end by a growth of ferns and other plants, and he had only a few wounds. Asked as to his sensations in falling, he said he only felt dazzled, Dr. SLUNIN has published in Russian a work—‘ Materials for the Knowledge of Popular Medicine in Russia ’—which will be received with interest, not only by medical men but also by ethnographers, Dr. Slunin gives a detailed account of all plants and drugs used not only in Russian popular medicine ia the governments of Saratoff and Astrakhan, which he knows from many years’ residence, but also in all Persian, Tartar, and Central Asian medicines (with their Arabian names) that have come to his knowledge. His remarks on popular pharmacies and on the popular medical literature which goes as far back as the epoch of the flourishing times of Arabian civilisation are of great interest. THE Catalogue of the Reference Department of the Derby Free Library is of a handy size and excellent type. We are told it contains 60,000 references to works upon the library shelves ; and, upon dipping into it, the minuteness of connection which will lead to a reference to publications of scarcely higher stand- ing than a newspaper, is imposing. We grieve to add, however, that this holds good in both senses of the word. For looking more closely we find most important references are absent. As a sample, eight references are given to the name of Garrick, but neither is his life by Murphy or Davies quoted, nor is any refer- ence made to Boswell’s ‘‘ Johnson,” or Goldsmith’s Poems ; and the extraordinary explanation of this is found in the fact that neither of these works is in the library! And this absence of important works seems to be the rule rather than the exception, carried out also with the most even-handed fairness to all sub- jects; Looking through the letter B as a sample, we find no works of Babbage, Back, Barbauld, Barry (Sir C.), Baxter, Beale, Baden Powell, Brewster, Barrow (Isaac or Sir Jno.), Bayne, Beckmann, Blackie, Blackstone, Borrow, Boswell, Bowring, Bridgewater Treatises, Browning (Mrs.), Buckmaster, Buxton, Butler (Bp.), or Butler (S.). Among Dictionaries neither the Penny nor the English Cyclopedia is to be found. Nov. 16, 1882] NATURE 63 Nor is it that a selection of certain writers has been made, for numerous authors of many well-known works are only credited with one or two in the Derby Library Cata- logue. The letter B is not a specially unfortunate one. Ancient Geography refers only to Mature and the Quarterly Review (one reference each), Gladstone and Hugh Miller are equally unknown. Less than a column contains all the references to Geography, while Geology has nine columns allotted to it. Unler Astronomy the inquirer is referred to numerous papers where notices may be found of each of the planets and of many of the planetoids, but only fifteen works on Astronomy are catalogued. There is no work at all upon the Moon! More- over, the references to works which are in this library are made with no discretion. ‘‘ Barbarossa” does not refer the reader to Gibbon; ‘‘Borgia” only refers him to one article—on Lucrezia — in the Mineteenth Century | The spelling is not only unscholarly, but the correcting of proofs is careless. It were endless to point out the blunders everywhere ; we need only refer to the name of Prof, Haeckel, spelt in four different ways upon pp. 41, 42 only! If some little town struggling against the smallness of the Id. rate wishes to draw as much as possible from its Free Library with its motley collection of books contributed from various quarters, we can strongly recommend the sys¢e7z upon which this catalogue is drawn up. But that a place of the size and importance of Derby, whose rate also has been so helped by the munificence of Mr. Bass and others, should think it worth while to print and distribute a catalogue, displaying a knowledge and a collection of books in this rudimentary state, is beyond our comprehension. THE population of Cascia (Italy) is being constantly disturbed by repeated subterranean shocks. A VOLCANIC eruption is reported to have taken place:from a mountain in the Caucasus, which has not shown any voleanic phenomena during historic times. It is the Karabetow mountain, near Temrink, in the government of Jekaterinodar (Caucasia). The subterranean noi e was heard 4 versts away, the lava flowed for a distance of half a verst, and a large crater was formed. News from Belgrade states that some railway workmen have discovered a nearly perfect mammoth skeleton. It is being photographed on the spot, and will be handel over to the National Museum at Belgrade. A NATURAL intermittent spring has recently formed in the Jachére (Hameau de l’Argentiére, Hautes Alpes). At regular intervals of five and seven minutes it yields ro litres of water each time, It is very remarkable that the first time it consists of lukewarm and colourless water, but the second of cold but wine-red water. MM. Chester and Hadley are now studying the phenomenon. M, J. OLLER, the proprietor of the St. Germain racing esta- blishment, is preparing to organise night races. He intends to build a central lighthouse, of which the rays will be directed on the contending horses, so that spectators sitting in the centre may follow the proceedings with as much accuracy as in open day, AT the annual meeting for the distribution of prizes in Mason College, Birmingham, Prof, Tilden gaye a sens ble and interest- ing address on Technical Education, which has been published in a separate form, THE Captsia-General of the Philippines reports another de- structive hurricane on November 5, and it is worthy of remark that since the previous hurricane, a few weeks ago, the cholera, which had been very bad, has nearly disappeared from Manila. Messrs. SONNENSCHEIN AND Co. announce the forthcoming publication of Dr. Coppinger’s Notes of the four years’ voyage from which the A/er¢ has recently returned, Mr. Murray has issued a cheap elitioa of Dr, Blaikie’s “Life of David Livingstone.” THE additions to the Zoological Society’s Gardens during the past week include two Macaque Monkeys (Aacacus cynomolgus é 6) from India, presented respectively by Mr. J. Knight and Mrs. Snell ; a Sooty Mangabey (Cercocebus fuliginosus $) from West Africa, presented by Lady Stafford; two Globose Curas- sows (Crax globicera 6 9) from British Honduras, presented by Mr. R. W. Ryass; a —— Buzzard ( ) from Demerara, presented by Mr. G. H. Hawtayne, C.M.Z.S. ; three Common Chameleons (Chameleon vulgaris) from Egypt, presented by Mr. W. J. Ford ; a Hawk’s-billed Turtle (Che/one imbricata) from West Indies, presented by Mr. W. Cross; a Pig-tailed Monkey (Macacus nemestrinus 6) from Java, a Black Wallaby (Ha/maturus ualabatus 9) from New South Wales, a Greek Land Tortoise (Zestudo greca), South European, depo- sited; an American Bison (Bison americanus 9) from North America, a Capybara (Hydrocherus capybara 2) from South America, two Eastern Goldfinches (Carduelis orientalis) from Afghanistan, two Brent Geese (Bernicla brenta), a Red-throated Diver (Colymbus seplentrionalis), British, purchased ; three Capybaras (Hydrocherus capybara § 62), a Bluish Finch (Spermophile caerulescens) from South America, received in exchange, ~ GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES Ar the opening meeting of the Geographical Society on Monday Mr. A, &. Colquhoun’ gave an account of his recent adventurous journey, in company with the late Mr. Wahab, from Canton through Yunnan to Bhamo. Mr. Colquhoun’s object was mainly to discover trade-routes between Burmah and China, but he collected some interesting information on Further Yiinnan, parts of which have not before been visited by Euro- pean travellers, Mr, Colquhoun describes Yiinnan, which is the most westerly of the eighteen provinces of China, as a great uneven plateau, of which the main ranges trend north and south ; tho e in the north reaching an elevation of from twelve to seventeen thousand feet, while in the south they sink to seven or eight thousand feet. In the south, and especially in the south-west, there are many wide fertile plains and valleys, some with large lakes in them. These plains are very rich and thickly populated, the number of towns and villages and the comfort- able appearance of the peasantry being very remarkable. Fruits of all kinds—pears, peaches, chestnuts, and even grapes—are found in abundance, while roses, rhododendrons, and camelias of several varieties grow untended on the hill-sides, Minerals are found in great quantities. The travellers constantly passed caravans laden with silver, lead, copper, and tin in in- gots; and gold is beaten out into leaf in Tali, and sent in large quantities to Burma. Coal, iron, silver, tin, and copper mines were frequently passed. Mr, Colquhoun also found that the celebrated Puerh tea, the most fancied in China, is not really a Chinese tea at all, but is grown in the Shan district of I-bang, some five days south of Puerh, the nearest prefectural town. In the south the tempera- ture is moderate, and the rains by no means excessive; but the farther north the travellers went, the more sparse became the population, and the more sterile the country, until in the ex- treme north the hills were enveloped in al nost perpetual fogs, rain , and mists, and were practically uninhabitable. The people them elves are mostly the old aboriginal tribes—Lolo, Pai, and Maio—the Chinese being mostly of the official class, and found only inthe towns. These aborigines have a much more distinct physiognomy than the bullet-headed Celestial, and are remark- able for their frank and genial hospitality. The women do not crush their feet, and they adopt a picturesque dress not unlike that worn of old by Tyrolese and Swiss maidens. They have a novel way of making marriage engagements. On New Year’s Day the unmarried people range themselves, according to sex, on either side of a narrow gully. The ladies in turn toss a coloured ball to the other side, and whoever catches it is the happy man, It is said they are so skilful in throwing the ball that the favoured man is always sure to catch it ; which is reas- suring. Asin Marco Polo’s days, the couvade still prevails in 64 NATURE [ Woo. 16, 1882 some parts. When a child is born, the husband goes to bed for thirty days, and the wife looks after the work. At the conclu- sion of the paper, Lord Northbrook and Col. Yule paid a well deserved tribute to the late Capt. Gill, Prof. Palmer, and Lieut. Charrington, Capt. Gill, our readers may remember, had him- self done some first-rate work on the South-East Chinese frontier, and described it in his ‘‘ River of Golden Sand ;” while Prof, Palmer’s loss as an Arabic scholar is almost irretrievable. SAMOYEDES report to Archangel that they have recently seen, south of Waigatz Island, the wreck of a large vessel crushed in the ice. If the statement be true, and if we remember their neyer-credited story of the unfortunate Yeammnette, it is more than probable that the vessel is either the Danish exploring vessel the Dijmphna, with Lieut. Hovgaard’s expedition, or the Norwegian steamer /Varna with the Dutch meteorological expe- dition, bound for Port Dickson, both of which in September last froze in in the Kara Sea, from which place the ice may subse- quently have carried the unfortunate vessel to where she now is stated to be. The last intelligence received from Lieut. Hovgaard was dated September 22, and addressed t> Herr Aug. Gamil, of Copenhagen, the principal promoter of the expedition, from which it appears that all was then well with both vessels, but that the Dijmphna was, when caught in the ice, some consider- able distance from shore, in fact in a spot where the whole force of the polar ice, when in drift, would strike her, Herr Aug. Gamil having telegraphed to the Russian Admiralty for any con- firmation of the above report, has reccived a reply that no official information on the subject has bee: reccived at St. Petersburg ; but that nevertheless instructions would be at once given to the officials on the north coast to scour the same, and gather further particulars, A search party is also being contemplat.d in Copenhagen, which will, if decided on, be lea by M. Larsen, a Dane, who accompanied the American expedition in search of the crew of the Feanwette, as the special artist of the ///austrated London News. THE German Government has raised the fund for the scientific exploration of Central Africa and other countries, which in 1882-83 was fixed at 75,coo marks (3750/.) to 100,000 marks (5000/.) for the financial year 1883-84. THE AIMS AND METHOD OF GEOLOGICAL INQUIRY + Il. T will be observed that the results obtained by geologists could not have been arrived at had they confined themselves solely to the detection of resemblances and correspondences between the phenomena of the present and the past. The natural forces have always been the same in kind, if not in degree, and we can often watch the gradual development by their means of products which more or le-s closely resemble the rocks of our sections. But experimental evidence of this kind takes us only a short way, and we are sooner or later confronted by appearances, which are not reproduced by nature before our eyes. As another example of this I shall adduce one which, although it has far-reaching issues, has yet the merit of being readily comprehended without much prelim nary geological knowledge. It is moreover instructive as showing how the imaginative faculty works in a mind trained to clear and steady observation of nature. The fact that a large proportion of the lakes of the world rest in rocky hollows or basins had been long known before it occurred to any one to ask how such rocky hollows had come into existence. The question was first asked and the answer given by Prof. (now Sir) A. C. Ramsay. He had pondered over the problem for years before its solution dawned upon him. None of the ordinary agents of geological change -eemed capable of producing the phenomena. The most common of all denuding agents—water—certainly could not do so, for although it may dig long and deep trenches through rocks, water could not scoop out a basin like that occupied by Loch Lomond, or any of our Highland lakes. The tendency of water is, on the contrary, to silt up and to drain such hollows, by deepening the points of exit at their lower ends. Did the hollows in question occupy areas of depression—had * The Inaugural Lecture at the opening of the Class of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh, October 27, 1882, by james Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S. L. and E., Regis Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in the University. Continued from p. 46. they, in short, been formed by unequal subsidences of the ground? Some considerable inland seas, as for example the Dead Sea, and doubtless many larger and smaller sheets of water, owe their origin to local movements of this kind. But it is incredible that all the numerous lakes and lakelets of Northern Alpine regions could have originated in this way. In many cases these lakes are so abundant that it is hard to say of some countries, such as Finland, and large parts of Sweden, and even of our own islands, whether it is land or water that predomin- ates. If all these numerous and closely aggregated rock-basins represent so many local subsidences, then the hard rocks in which mst of them appear must have been at the time of their formation in a condition hardly less yielding than dough or putty. It was suggested that the lakes of the Alps and other hilly regions might have been caused, not by local sinkings confined to the valleys themselves, but by a general depression of the central high-grounds and water-sheds. The subsidence of the central mountains wou'd of course entail depression in the upper reaches of the mountain-valleys, and in this way the inclination of those valleys would be reversed—each being converted into an elongated rock-basin. But a little consideration showed that before the lakes of such a region as the Alps could have been produced in this manner, those mountains must have been some 15,000 feet higher than at present. Or to put it the other way, in order to obliterate the Alpine lakes and restore the slopes of the valleys to what, if this hypothesis were true, must have been their original inclination, the Alps would need to be pushed up until they attained tnice their present elevation. Now, we are hardly prepared to admit that the Swiss mountains were 30,000 feet high before the glacial period. If our Alpine and Northern lake-basins cannot be attributed to movements of depression, still less can they be accounted for by any system of fractures ; —they lie neither in gaping cracks n>r on the down-throw sides of dislocations. In a word, a study of the structure, inclination, and distribution of the rock-masses in which our lake-basins appear throws no light upon the origin of those hollows. We probably find in many cases that the position and form of a basin have been inflaenced in some way by the character of the rocks in which it lies—but we detect no evidence in the rock-masses themselves to account for its production. It is not necessary, however, that I should on this occasion mention each and every cause which has been suggested for the origin of rock-bound hollows, Some of these suggestions are unquestionably well founded. Forexample, there can be no doubt that certain lakes have been produced by the sudden damming-up of a valley in consequence of a fall of rock from adjoining slopes or cliffs ; others, again, occupy holes caused by the falling in of the roofs of caves and subterranean tunnels ; while yet others have been formed by a current of lava flowing across a valley and thus ponding back its stream, just as many a temporary sheet of water has been brouzht into existence in a similar way by the abnormal advance of a glacier. In these and other ways lakes have doubtless originated again and again, but the causes just referred to are all more or less exceptional, and manifestly in- capable of producing the phenomena so conspicuous in the lake- regions of Britain, Scandinavia, and the Alps. Ramsay, to whom the varied phenomena of glacier-regions had been long familiar, was struck by the remarkable fact that freshwater lakes predominate in Northern and Alpine countries, while they are comparatively rare in reyions further south and outside of mountainous districts. The great development of lakes in Finland finds no counterpart in the low grounds of southern latitudes. It is in regions where glacial action formerly prevailed that rock-basins are most numerous, and this suggested to Ramsay that in some way or other the lakes of the Alps and the North were connected with glaciation. The final solution of the problem flashed upon him while he was studying the glacial features of Switzerland. His scientific imagination enabled him to reproduce in his own mind the aspect presented by the Alps during the glacial period, when the great mountain-valleys were choked with glacier-ice, which flowed out upon the low grounds of Germany, France, and Northern Italy, so as to cover all the sites of the present lakes. He saw that under such conditions enormous erosion must have been effected by the ice, by means of the rocky rubbish which it dragged on underneath, and that this erosion, other things being equal, would be most intense where the ice was thickest and the ground over which it advanced had the gentlest inclination. Such conditions, he inferred, would be met with somewhere in the lower course of a valley between the steeper descent of its upper reaches and the Nov. 16, 1882 | NATURE 65 termination of the glacier. This inference was suggested by the consideration that pressure and erosion would be least when the glacier was flowing upon a steep slope, while at the base of such a slope where the valley flattened ou‘, the ice would tend to heap up, as it were, and produce the maximum amount of pressure and erosion. Thereafter, as the ice continued to flow down its valley, it would become thinner and thinner until it reached its termination—and pressure and erosion would diminish with the gradual attenuation of the glacier. Such conditions, after some time, would necessarily result in the formation of elongated rock-basins, sloping in gradually from either end, and attaining their greatest depth at some point above a line drawn midway between the upper and lower ends of a hollow. There are many other details connected with this most ingenious theory which I cannot touch upon at present. It will be sufficient to say that the observed facts receive from it a simple and satisfac- tory explanation. Like all other well-based theories, it has been fruitful in accounting for many other phenomena, a study of which has developed it in various directions, and enabled us to understand certain appearances which the theory as at first propounded seemed hardly adequate to explain, As a proof of the soundness of Kamsay’s conclusion that ice is capable of ex- cavating large rock-basins, I may mention that his theory has led to the prediction of facts which were not previously known to geologists. He had pointed to the occurrence, in many of the sea-lochs of Western Scotland, of deep rock-bound hollows, which he concluded must have been formed by great valley- glaciers in the same way as the hollows occupied by fresh-water lakes in this and other similarly glaciated countries. Some years later, having discovered that the Outer Hebrides had been glaciate | across from side to side by a mer de glace flowing out- wards fi. u the mainland, and having been satisfied as to the truth of the glacial-erosion theory, I was led by it to suppose that deep rock-basins ought to occur upon the floor of the sea along the inner margin of most of our Western Islands. This expectation was suggested by the simple consideration that those islands, presenting, as they for the most part do, a steep and abrupt face to the mainland, must have formed powerful ob- structions to the out-flow of the mez de glace in the direction of the Atlantic. This being so, great erosion, I inferred, must have ensued in front of those islands. The lower part of the mer de glace which overflowed them would be forced down upon the bed of the sea by theice continually advancing from behind, and compelled to flow as an under-current along the inner margin of the islands, until it circumvented the obstruction, and resumed the same direction as the upper portion of the mer de glace, A subsequent careful examination of the Admiralty’s Charts of our western seas, which afford a graphic delineation of the configuration cf the sea-bottom, proved that the deduction from Ramsay's theory was perfectly correct. Were that sea-bed to be elevated for a few hundred feet, so as to run off the water, and unite the islands to themselves and the mainland, we should find the surface of the new- born land plentifully diversfied with lakes—all occupying the positions which a study of the glaciation of the mainland and islands would have led us to expect. Among the most consider- able would be a chain of deep lakes extending along the inner margin of the Outer Hebrides, while many similar sheets of water would appear in front of those islands of the Inner Group that face the deep fiords of our western shores. The few examples now given of geological methods of inquiry may suffice to show that the process of reading and interpreting the past in the light of the present necessitates not only accurate observation, but an extensive acquaintance with the mode in which the operations of Nature are carried on. They also serve to show that just as our knowledge of the past increases, so our insight into the present becomes more and more extended. For if it be true that the present is the key to the past. it is not less certain that without that unfolding of the past which a study of the rocks has enabled us to accomplish, we should not only miss the meaning of much that we see going on around us, but we should also remain in nearly complete ignorance of all that is taking place within the crust of our globe. Thus, although our science may be correctly defined as an inquiry into the develop- ment of the earth’s crust and of the faunas and floras which have successively clothed and peopled its surface—yet that defi- nition is somewhat incomplete. For, as we have seen, this in- quiry into the past helps us to understand existing conditions better than we should otherwise do. In tbis respect it is with geology as with human history. The philosophical historian seeks in the past to discover the germ of the present. He tells us that we cannot hope to understand the complicated structure and relations of a society like ours without a full appreciation of all that has gone before. And so it is in the case of geolo- gical history. The present has grown out of the past, and bears myriad marks of its origin, which would either be unobserved or remain totally meaningless to us, were the past a sealed book. No student of physical geography, or of zoology and botany, therefore can afford to neglect the study of geology, if his desire be to acquire a philosophical comprehension of the bearings of those sciences. For it is geology which reveals to us the birth and evolution of our lands and seas—which enables us to follow the succession of life upon the globe, and to supply many of the missing links in that chain, which, as we believe, unites the beginning of life in the far distant past with its latest and highest expression in man. By its aid we track out the many wander- ings of living genera and species which have resulted in the present distribution of plants and animals. But for geology, indeed, that distribution would be for the most part inexplicable. How, for example, could we account for the often widely sepa- rated colonies of arctic-alpine plants which occur upon the mountains of Middle and Southern Europe? How could these plants possibly have been transferred from their head-quarters in the far north to the hills of Britain, and Middle Germany, to the Alps and the Pyrenees? Not the most prolonged and labo- rious study of the botanist could ever have solved the problem. But we learn from the geologist that the apparent anomalous distribution of the flora in question is quite what his study of the rocks would have led him to expect. He now, indeed, appeals to the occurrence of those curious colonies of arctic- alpine plants as an additional proof in support of his view that during a comparatively recent period our continent experienced a climate of more than arctic severity. He tells us that at that time the reindeer, the glutton, the arctic fox, the musk ox, and other arctic animals migrated south into France, while a Scandi- navian flora clothed the low grounds of Middle Europe. By and by, when the arctic rigour of the climate began to give way, the northern species of plants and animals slowly returned to the high latitudes from which they had been driven. Many plants, however, would meet with similar conditions by ascend- ing the various mountains that lay in the path of retreat, and there they would continue to flourish iong after every trace of an arctic-alpine flora had vanished from the low ground. This explanation fully meets the requirements of the case. It leaves none of the facts unaccounted for, but isin perfect harmony with all. But as if to make assurance doubly sure, Dr. Nathorst, a well-known Swedish geologist, recently made a search in the low grounds of Europe for the remains of the arctic-alpine flora, and succeeded in discovering these in many places. He de- tected leaves of the arctic willow and several other characteristic northern species in the glacial and post-glacial deposits of Southern Sweden, Denmark, England, Germany, and Switzer- land, and thus supplied the one link which might have been sidered necessary to complete a chain of evidence already almost perfect. From this and many similar instance that might be given we learn that the reconstruction of the past out of its own ruins is not mere guess-work and hypothesis. The geologist cannot only demonstrate that certain events have taken place, but he can assure us of the order in which they succeeded one after the other, during ages incalculably more remote than any with which historians have to deal. The written records out of which are constructed the early history of a people cannot always be depended upon—allowance must be made for the influences that may have swayed the chroniclers, and these are either unknown or can only be guessed at. It follows therefore that events are seldom presented to us in a consecutive history exactly as they occurred. They are always more or less coloured, and that colouring often depends fully as much upon the idiosyncrasies of the modern compiler as upon those of the contemporaneous recorder. The geologist has at least this advantage over the investigator of human history, that his records, however frag- mentary they may be, tell nothing more and nothing less than the truth. Any errors that arise must be due either to insuffi- cient observation or bad reasoning, or to both, while the pro- gress of research and the penetrating criticism which every novel view undergoes must sooner or later discover where the truth lies. In this way the history of our globe is being gradually reconstructed—to an extent, indeed, that the earlier cultivators of the science could not have believed possible. But although 66 NATOKRE. [Mov. 16, 1882 many blanks in the records have been filled up, and our know- ledze will doubtless be yet greatly increased, it must nevertheless be admitted that this knowledge must always bear but a very small proportion to our ignorance. In this, however, there is nothing to discourage us, as we may be quite sure that the work remaining to be done will far exceed all the energies of many generations to accomplish. It is sometimes objected to Geology that its results are not always s> exact as those which are obtained by an experimental science like chemistry. We are reproached with the fact that our theoretical conceptions undergo frequent modification, and are even often abandoned, to be succeeded by others which, after flourishing for a time, are in like manner overturned and thrown aside. But the same reproach, if it be one, might be brought against other sciences. Each advancing science has its problems and speculations. And we cannot often feel assured that the solution now given of those problems will in all cases stand the test of time. Our theoretical conceptions of the ultimate constitution of matter, for example, have within com- paratively few years undergone considerable change, and yet no one values chemistry the less. Let our theories be what they may, they do not and cannot overturn the results obtained by verified observation and often repeated and varied experiment. It remains for ever true that water is composed of oxygen and hy- drogen, let our views of the atomic theory change as they may. And so it is not less certain that strata of conglomerate and sand- stone containing marine or fresh-water fossils are of aqueous origin, however much our theoretical conce ‘tions may vary as to the uniformity in degree between the past and present opera- tions of Nature. It is true we did not see the conglomerate and sindstone in process of formation, but we know by obser- vation that these rocks exactly resemble deposits of gravel and sand which are now being accnmulated in water. Nature in this case makes the experiment for us, whereas the chemist has to do this for himself. The latter, havinz well ascertained by varied experiments the composition of certain samples of water, henceforth c ncludes that all water is made up of the same two gases in definite proportions. But this conclusion of his is just as much an assumption as the inference of the geologist that strata containing marine or freshwater fossils are aqueous accu- mulations. It i; when we come to the larger generalisations of our science that we are more likely to go astray. The problems we have to solve demand not only an accurate knowledge of widely scattere1 phenomena, but a ready command of logical analysis. The facts may be sufficiently abundant, but if we reason badly we of course miss their meaning. Or, on the other hand, the evidence may be more or less imperfect. There are blanks which we fill up with conjecture—which can do no harm s» long as we do not treat our conjectures asif they were facts. But when the gaps in the evidence are numerous, each theoriser will fill them up after his own fashion, and very various results will thus be obtained. Even in cises of this kind, however, a rigorous application of logical analysis will enable us to detect the fallacies which may underlie all the competing theories ; and we are thus prepared t» frame a new exolanation for ourselves, and to set about searching for additiona] facts to prove or dis- prove our notions. In all such investigations it is obviou-ly the duty of a careful observer and theoriser to see well to his pre- mises—to be absolutely sure as to his facts, and to distinguish clearly between what is substantial knowledge, and what is mere conjecture. He will thus be in a position to judge whether his conciusions are based on a solid foundation or not. Ina science of observation like geology, theory is necessarily often in advance of the facts. Some, indeed, have insisted that all conjectural explanations are quite a mistake; that it would be better to avoid theorising altogether, and to wait patiently until the chain of evidence had completed itself. I am afraid that, were it possible to follow this advice, we might often have to wait a very long time. After all, a heap of bricks is only a potential house: it will not grow up into walls without the aid of architect and builder. Discoveries in science have no doubt been made occasionally by isolated and haphazard observations ; but that is exceptional, and we should not be where we are now had the examination of Nature been always conducted after such a fashion. If additional evidence be required, we must first have some notion where to look for it. In other words, it is essential to progress that we should have preconceived opinions or theories, which enable us to arrange the facts we already pos- sess, and to point out the directions in which further evidence may be looked for. We cannot be too careful, however, that our preconceived notions do not lead us to colour the evidence or to blind us to facts that tell against our views. Every theory should be considered provisional until its truth has been fully demonstrated by an overwhelming array of testimony in its favour. Until this consummation is arrived at we must be con- stantly testing its truth, and be ready to abandon it at once whenever the evidence shows it to be erroneous, The failure of one theory after another need not disconcert or discourage us ; for each failure, by reducing the number of possible explana- tions, must necessarily bring us nearer to our goal—the truth. I cannot but deem it a strong point in favour of geology asa branch of education that it not only cultivates the faculty of clear and continuous observation, but abounds in unsolved problems which are ever suggesting new ideas and thus stimulating that imagination which is one of the noblest gifts of our race. It is no reproach that the progress of our science is marked by the modification and abandonment of numerous hypotheses and theories. On the contrary, these afford a measure of the rate at which geol gy advandes—just as this last yields the strongest testimony to the good results that accrue from having some provisional view by which to direct the course of our observa- tions. It is unavoidable that in the onward march of a science the facts become at last so numerous as to task all the energies of its votaries to keep abreast of their time. When a beginner first surveys the wide field embraced by geological inquiry, he may not unnaturally experience a feeling akin to despair. How is it possible, he may think, that I can master all these manifold details—how can I test the truth of all those numerous inferences and conclusions—ard yet have sufficient leisure and energy left to undertake orizinal observation? Well, no one can hope to advance the science in all its departments. When we reflect that in order to obtain a complete comprehension and mastery of the existing condition of things we should require to be adepts in physics, mechanics, chemistry, and every branch of natural science, it is obvious that such a perfect knowledge is beyond attainment. It is needless, therefore, that we should strive to become ‘‘admirable Crichtons” in this nineteenth century, and no beginner need be discouraged by jhe greatness of the science which he desires to cultivate. It is only by divi- sion of labour that so much has been accomplished ; and the results are now so systemutised that it is quite possible for any intelligent inquirer to gain a thorough comprehension of the principles of the science. But this it is absolutely necessary to acquire, and the student, therefore, should at first devote all his energies to learn as much as he can of those principles and their application. When he has progressed so far, he is then ready to set out as an explorer in the well-assured hope that if he be true to the logical methods which have hitherto succeeded so well, he will not fail to reap his reward in the discovery of new truths, But to secure success we must be content to be specialists. In other words, we must concentrate our energies ulon some particular lines of inquiry, and do our utmost to work these out in all their details. At the same time we should make a great mistake if we aid not always keep in mind the broader bearings of our science, and endeavour to maintain as wide a knowledge a3 we can of all its branches. Each of these, we may be sure, has something to tell which will aid us in our own special inquiries. We cannot, therefore, afford to neglect the side-lights which are thrown upon our path from the lamps of others who are working in adjacent fields. One cannot help thinking that many specialists would have given us more and better work if they had not allowed themselves to be cramped and narrowed by continuing too long in one rut or groove. They dig so deep that they get into a hole out of which it is some- times difficult to climb, and thus not infrequently the work being done by fellow-labourers, escapes them, and they miss the suggestions which a knowledge (of that work might otherwise have yielded them. Ihave said nothing as to the practical applications of our science—that branch of our subject which is termed economic geology—not because I consider it the less important, but because its value is generally recognised and need not now be insisted upon. Many, I do not doubt, enter upon their geological studies with a distinct view of obtaining from the science such help as it can afford them in the practical pursuits of life. To such inquirers it will be my pleasure not less than my duty to give every assistance that is in my power. But I would point out to them that there is no short cut to the attainment of the knowledge they are in quest of. The study Nov. 16, 1882} NATURE 67 _of economic geology cannot be separated from that of the recog- _nised principles and methods of inquiry which must be followed by the scientific investigator. On the contrary, the more tho- roughly we devote ourselves to the prosecution of geology for its own sake the better able shall we be to appreciate its economic bearings. In beginning the duties of this Chair, if I enjoy certain ad- vautages over my predecessor, I also at the same time labour under considerable disadvantages. The Class Museum formed by him, and the other appliances and aids to teaching which he laboriously gathered together have been generously handed over _to the Chair—and this, I need not say, has greatly smoothed my path, But, on the other hand, he has left behind him a reputa- tion which must bear hard upon me. He has not only sustained but increased the fame of what has been termed the Scottish School of Geology, and I feel that it will task all my energies to emulate the high standard he maintained as a teacher. It is not without diffidence, therefore, that I commence this course ; but my hope is that the love of science, which has hitherto carried me over many years of a laborious occupation, may at least succeed in warming and sustaining the enthusiasm of those who come here to study with me what geology has to reveal concerning the past and present. A METHOD FOR OBSERVING ARTIFICIAL TRANSITS* AS many astronomers who intend to observe the coming transit of Venus have neither the time nor means for making the necessary arrangements to practice o1 artificial transits, the sim le method here proposed may be advanta- geously employed. Instead of observing an artificial sun and planet placed at a distance of several thousand feet from the observer, I would suggest that the real sun be observed, and the planet Venus to be represented by a circular disk, held, in the common focus of the objec’ive and eye-pieee, by means of a narrow metallic arm fastened to the eye-piece. The relative motion of the sun and Ve.us can then be pro- duced by so adjusting the rate of the driving-clock that the angular motion of the telescope on the hour-axis shall exceed the diurnal motion of the sun hy seventeen seconds of time per hour. In this way, as the atmospheric disturbances of the sun’s limb are real, a nearap) roach t) the phenomena observed during an actual transit will result. If a light shade glass is employed, the opaque disk will be seen before it comes into apparent con- tact with the sun. The observer can, however, by an exercise of the will, confine his whole attention to the sun’s limb. By using a heavier shade-glass the disk will not be seen until it is projected against the imageof the sun. The angular diameter of Venus at the time of transit being about 65”, the diameter of the opaque disk should be 65:/‘sin 1”= 0'00031 77, / being the focal length of the telescope used. The position angle of the point of contact can be changed at will by simply moving the telescope in declination. ELECTRIC LIGHTING, THE TRANSMISSION OF FORCE BY ELECTRICITY? HAVING received the honour of being elected Chairman of the Council of the Society of Arts for the ensuing year, the duty devolves upon me of opening the coming Session with some introductory remarks. Only a few months have elapsed since I was called upon to deliver a pre-idential address to the British Association at Southampton, and it may be reasonably supposed that I then exhausted my stock of accumulated thought and observation regarding the present development of science, both abstract and applied ; that, in fact, I come before you, to use a popular phrase, pretty well pumped dry. And yet so large is the field of modern science and industry, that, notwithstanding the good opportunity given me at Southampton, I could there do only scanty justice to comparatively few of the branches of modern progress, and had to curtail, or entirely omit, reference to others, upon which I should otherwise have wished to dwell. There is this essential difference between the British Association and the Society of Arts, that the former can only take an annual suryey of the progress of science, and must then confide to indi- « By Prof. J. M. Schaeberle, Ann Arbor, Michigan Journal of Science. 2 Address by Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S., Chairman of the Society of Arts, November 15. From the American viduals, or to committee*, specific inquiries, to be reported upon to the different sections at subsequent meetings ; whereas the Society of Arts, with its 3,450 permanent members, its ninety- five associated societies, spread throughout the length and breadth of the country, its permanent building, its well-conducted Fournal, its almost daily meetings and lectures, extending over six months of the year, possesses exceptionally favourable oppor- tunities of following up questions of indus'rial progress to the point of their practical accomplishment, In glancing back upon its history during the 128 years of its existence, we discover that tha Society of Arts was the first institution to introduce science into the indu trial arts; it was through the Society of Arts and its illustrious Past President, the late Prince Consort, that the first Universal Exhibition was proposed, and brought to a suc cessful issue in 1851 ; and it is due to the same Society, supported on all important occa ions by its actual President, the Prince of Wales, that so many important changes in our educational and industrial institutions have been inaugurated, too numerous to be referred to specifically on the present occasion. \ Amongst the practical questions that now chiefly occupy public attention are those of Electric Lighting, and of the transmission of force by electricity. These together form a subject which has occupied my attention and that of my brothers for a great num- ber of years, and upon which I may consequently be expected to dwell on the present occasion, considering that at Southampton I could deal only with some purely scientific consilerations in- volved in this important subject. I need hardly remind you that electric lighting, viewed as a physical experiment, has been known to us since the early part of the present century, and that many attempts have, from time to time, been made to promote its application. Two principal difficulties have stood in the way of its practical introduction, viz, the great cost of producing an electric current so long as chemical means had to be resorted to, and the mechanical difficulty of constructing electric lamps capable of sustaining, with steadiness, prolonged effects. The dynamo-machine, which enables us to convert mechanical into electrical force, purely and simply, has very effectually disposed of the former difficulty, inasmuch as a properly conceived and well constructed machine of this character converts more than ninety per cent. of the mechanical force imparted to it into elec- tricity, ninety per cent. again of which may be re-converted into mechanical force at a moderate distance. The margin of loss, therefore, does not exceed twenty per cent., excluiing purely mechanical losses, and this is quite capable of being further reduced to some extent by improved modes of construction ; but it results from these figures that no great step in advance can be looked for in this direction. The dynamo-machine presents the great advantage of simplicity over steam or other power-trans- mitting engines; it has but one working part, namely, a shaft which, revolving in a pair of bearings, carries a coil or coils of wire admitting of perfect balancing. Frictional resistance is thus reduced to an absolute minimum, and no allowance has to be made for loss by condensation, or badly fitting pistons, stuffing boxes, or valves, or for the jerking action due to oscll- lating weights. The materials composing the machine, namely, soft iron and copper wire, undergo no deterioration or change by continuous working, and the depreciation of value is therefore a minimum, except where currents of exceptionally high potential are used, which appear to render the copper wire brittle. The essential points to be attended to in the conception of the dynamo-machine, are the prevention of induced currrents in the iron, and the placing of the wire in such position as to make the whole of it effective for the production of outward current. These principles, which have been clearly established by the labours of comparative few workers in applied science, admit of being carried out in an almost infinite variety of constructive forms, for each of which may be claimed some real or imaginary merits regarding questions of convenience or cost of production. For many years after the principles involved in the construc- tion of dynamo-machines had been made known, little general interest was manifested in their favour, and few were the forms of construction offered for public use. The essential features involved in the dynamo-machine, the Siemens armature (1856), the Pacinotti ring (1861), and the self-exciting principle (1867), were published by their authors for the pure scientific interest attached to ther, without being made subject matter of letters patent, which circumstance appears to have had the contrary effect of what might have been expected, in that it has retarded the introduction of this class of electrical machine, because no person or firm had a sufficient commercial interest to undertake 68 NATURE Vou. 16, 1882 the large expenditure which must necessarily be incurred in reducing a first conception into a practical shape. Great credit is due to Monsieur Gramme for taking the initiative in the practical introduction of dynamo-machines embodying those principles, but when five years ago I ventured to predict for the dynamo-electric current a great practical future, as a means of transmitting power to a distance, those views were still looked upon as more or less chimerical. A few striking examples of what could be practically effected by the dynamo-electric current such as the illumination of the Place de I’Opera, Paris, the occasional exhibition of powerful arc lights, and t'eir adoption for military and lighthouse purposes, but especially the gradual accomplishment of the much desired lamp by incandescence in vacuum, gave rise to a somewhat sudden reversion of public feeling ; and you may remember the scare at the Stock Exchange affecting the? value of gas shares, which ensued in 1878, when the accomplishment of the sub-division of the electric light by incandescent wire was first announced, somewhat prematurely, through the Atlantic cable. From this time forward electric lighting has been attracting more and more public attention, until the brilliant displays at the exhibition of Paris, and at the Crystal Palace last year, served to excite public interest, to an extraordinary degree. New companies for the purpose of introducing electric light and power have been announced almost daily, whose claims to public attention as investments were based in some cases upon only very slight modifications of well-known forms of dynamo- machines, of are regulators, or of incandescent carbon lights, the merits of which rested rather upon anticipations than upon any scientific or practical proof, These arrangements were sup- posed to be of such superlative merit that gas and other illumi- nants must soon be matters simply of history, and hence arose great speculative excitement. It should be borne in mind, however, that any great technical advance is necessarily the work of time and serious labour, and that when accomplished, it is generally found that so far from injuring existing industries, it calls additional ones into existence, to supply new demands, and thus gives rise to an increase in the sum total of our re- sources. It is, therefore, reasonable to expect that side by side with the introduction of the new illuminant, gas lighting will go on improving and extending, although the advantage of electric light for many applications, such as the lighting of public halls and warehouses, of our drawing-rooms and dining-rooms, our passenger steamers, our docks and harbours, are so evident, that its advent may be looked upon as a matter of certainty. Our Legislature has not been slow in recognising the import- ance of the new illuminant. In 1879, a Select Committee in the House of Commons instituted a careful inquiry into its nature and probable cost, with a view to legislation, and the conclusions at which they arrived were, I consider, the best that could haye been laid down. ‘They advised that applications should be encouraged tentatively by the granting of permissive Bills, and this policy has given rise to the Electric Lighting Bill, 1882, promoted by Mr. Chamberlain, the President of the Board of Trade, regarding which much controversy has arisen. It could, indeed, hardly be expected that any act of legislation upon this subject could give universal satisfaction, because while there are many believers in gas who would gladly oppose any measure likely to favour the progress of the rival illuminant, and others who wish to see it monopolised, either by local authorities, or by large financial corporations, there are others again who would throw the doors open so wide as to enable almost all comers to interfere with the public thoroughfares, for the estab- lishment of conducting wires, without let or hindrance. The law as now established takes, I consider, a medium course between these diverging opinions, and, if properly interpreted, will protect, I believe, all legitimate interests, without impeding the healthy growth of establishments for the distribution of electric energy for lighting and for the transmission of power. Any firm or lighting company may, by application to the local authorities, obtain leave to place electric conductors below public thoroughfares, subject to such conditions as may be mutually agreed upon, the terms of such license being limited to seven years ; or an application may be made to the Board of Trade for a provisional order to the same effect, which, when sanctioned by Parliament, secures a right of occupation for twenty-one years. The license offers the advantage of cheapness, and may be regarded as a purely tentative measure, to enable the firm or company to prove the value of their plant. If this is fairly established, the license would in all probability be affirmed, either by an engagement for its prolongation from time to time, or by a provisional order which would, in that case, be obtained by joint application of the contractor and the local authority. At the time of expiration of the provisional order, a pre-emption of purchase is accorded to the local authority, against which it has been objected with much force by so competent an authority as Sir Frederick Bramwell, that the conditions of purchase laid down are not such as fairly to remunerate the contracting companies for their expenditure and risk, and that the power of purchase would inevitably induce the parochial bodies to become mere trading associations, But while admitting the undesirability of such a consummation, I cannot help thinking that it was necessary to put some term to contracts entered into with speculative bodies at atime when the true value of electric energy, and the best_conditions under which it should be applied, are still very impertectly understood. The supply of electric energy, particularly in its application to trans- mission of power, is a matter simply of commercial demand and supply, which need not partake of the character of a large monopoly similar to gas and water supply, and which may there- fore be safely left in the hands of individuals, or of local associations, subject to a certain control for the protection of public interests. At the termination of the period of the pro- vi-ional order, the contract may be renewed upon such terms and conditions as may at that time appear ju:t and reasonable to Parliament, under whose authority the Board of Trade will be empowered to effect such renewal. Complaints appear almost daily in the public papers to the effect that townships refuse their assent to applications by electric light companies for provisional orders; but it may be surmised that many of these applications are of a more or less speculative character, the object being to secure monopolies for eventual use or sale, under which circumstances the authorities are clearly justified in withholding their a sent ; and no licenses or provisional orders should, indeed, be granted, I consider, unless the applicants can give assurance of being eble and willing to carry out the work within a reasonable time. But there are technical questions in- volved which are not yet sufficiently well understood to admit of immediate operations upon a large scale. Attention has been very properly called to the great divergence in the opinions expressed by scientific men re- garding the area that each lighting district should comprise, the capital required to light such an area, and the amount of electric tension that should be allowed in the conductors. In the case of gas supply, the works are necessarily situated in the out- skirts of the town, on account of the nuisance this manufacture occasions tothe immediate neighbourhood ; and, therefcre, gas supply must range over a large area, It would be possible, no doubt, to deal with electricity on a similar basis, to establish electrical mains in the shape of copper rods of great thickness, with branches diverging from it in all directions; but the question to be considered is, whether such an imitative course is desirable on account either of relative expense or of facility of working. My own opinion, based upon considerable practical experience and thought devoted to the subject, is decidedly ad- verse to such a plan. In my evidence before the Parliamentary Committee, I limited the desirable area of an electric district in densely populated towns to a quarter of a square mile, and estimated the cost of the necessary establishment of engines, dynamo-machines, and conductors, at 100,000/, while other witnesses held that areas from one to four square miles could be worked advantageously from one centre, and at a cost not exceeding materially the figure I had given. These discrep- ancies do notj necessarily imply wide differences inthe estimated cost of each machine or electric light, inasmuch as such esti- mates are necessarily based upon various assumptions regarding the number of houses and of public buildings comprised in such a district, and the amount of light to be apportioned to each, but I still maintain my preference for small districts. By way of illustration, let us take the parish of St. James’s, near at hand, a district not more densely populated than other equal areas within the metropolis, although comprising, perhaps, a greater number of public buildings. Its population, according to the preliminary report of the census taken on the 4th April, 1881, was 29,865, it contains 3,018 inhabited houses, and its area is 784,000 square yards, or slightly above a quarter of a square mile. : To light a comfortable house of moderate dimensions in all its parts, to the exclusion of gas, oil, or candles, would require about 100 incandescent lights of from 15 to 18-candle power each, that being, for instance, the number of Swan lights em- Nov. 16, 1882] NATORE 69 “ployed by Sir William Thomson in lighting his house at Glasgow University. Eleven-horse power would be required to excite this number of incandescent lights, and at this rate the parish of St. James’s would require 3,018 & I1 = 33,200-horse power to work it. It may be fairly objected, however, that there are many houses in the parish much below the standard here referred to, but on the other hand, there are 6co of them with shops on the ground floor, involving larger requirements. Nor does this estimate provide for the large consumption of electric energy that would take place in lighting the eleven churches, eighteen club-houses, nine concert halls, three theatres, besides numerous hotels, restaurants, and lecture halls. A theatre of moderate dimensions, such as the Savoy Theatre, has fbeen proved by experience to require 1,200 incandescent lights, representing an expenditure of 133 horse power; and about one-half that power would have to be set aside for each of the other public buildings here mentioned, constituting an aggregate of 2,926-horse power ; nor does this general estimate comprise street lighting, and to light the six and a half miles of principal streets of the parish with electric light, would require per mile, thirty-five are lights of 350-candle power each, or a total of 227 lights. ‘This, taken at the rate of o 8-horse power per light, represents a further requirement of 182-horse power, making a total of 3,108-horse power, for purposes independent of house lighting, being equivalent to one-horse power per inhabited house, and bringing the total requirements up to 109 lights = 12-horse power per house. I do not, however, agree with those who expect that gas lighting will be entirely superseded, but have, on the contrary, always maintained that the electric light, while possessing great and peculiar advantages for lighting our principal rooms, halls, warehouses, &c., owing to its brilliancy, and more particularly to its non-interference with the healthful condition {of the atmo- sphere, will leave ample room for the development of the former, which is susceptible of great improvement, and is likely to hold its own for the ordinary lighting up of our streets and dwellings. Assuming, therefore, that the bulk of domestic lighting remains to the gas companies, and that the electric light is intro- duced into private houses, only, at the rate of, say twelve incandescent lights per house, the parish of St. James’s would have to be provided with electric energy sufficient to work (9 + 12) 3,018 = 63,378 lights = 7,042-horse power effective ; this is equal to about one-fourth the total lighting power re- quired, taking into account that the total number of lights that have to be provided for a house are not all used at one and the same time. No allowance is made in this estimate for the transmission of power, which, in course of time, will form a very large application of electric energy; but considering that power will be required mostly in the. day time, when light is not needed, a material increase in plant will not be necessary for that purpose. In order to minimise the length and thickness of the electric conductor, itwould be important to establish the source of power, as nearly as may be, in the centre of the parish, and the position that suggests itself to my mind is that of Golden-square. If the unoccupied area of this square, representing 2,500 square yards, was fexcavated: to a depth of twenty-five feet, and then arched over so as to re-establish the present ground level, a suitable covered space wonld be provided for the boilers, engines, and dynamo-machines, without causing obstruction or public annoyance ; the only erection above the surface would be the chimney, which, if made monumental in form, might be placed in the centre of the square, and be combined with shafts tor ventilating the subterranean chamber, care being taken of course to avoid smoke by insuring perfect combustion of the fuel used. The cost of such a chamber, of engine power, and of dynamo-machines, capable of converting that power into electric energy, I*estimate at 140,000/. To this expense would have to be added that of providing and laying the con- ductors, together with the switches, current regulators, and arrangements for testing the insulation of the wire. The cost and dimensions of the conductors would depend upon their length, and the electromotive force to be allowed. The latter would no doubt be limited, by the authorities, to the point at which contact of the two conductors with the human frame would not produce injurious effects, or say to 200 volts, except for street lighting, for which purpose a higher tension is admissible. In considering the proper size of conductor to be used in any given installation, two principal factors have to be taken into account ; first, the charge for interest and deprecia- tion on the original cost of a unit length of the conductor ; and, secondly, the cost of the electrical energy lost through the resis- tance of a unit of length. The sum of these two, which may be regarded as the cost of conveyance of electricity, is clearly least, as Sir William Thomson pointed out some time ago, when the two components are equal. This, then, is the princi- ple on which the size of a conductor should be determined. From the experience of large installations, I consider that electricity can, roughly speaking, be produced in London at a cost of about one shilling per 10,000 Ampére-Volts or Watts (746 Watts being equal to one horse-power) for an hour. Hence, assuming that each set of four incandescent lamps in series (such as Swan’s, but for which may be substituted a smaller number of higher resistance and higher luminosity) requires 200 volts electromotive force, and 60 Watts for their efficient work- ing, the total current required for 64,000 such lights is 19,200 amperes, and the cost of the electric energy lost by this current in passing through ot-rooth of an ohm resistance, is 16/, per hour. The resi-tance of a copper bar one quartcr of a mile in length, and one square inch in section, is very nearly 1-100th of an ohm, and the weight is about 2} tons. Assuming, then, the price of insulated copper conductor at 9o/. per ton, and the rate of interest and depreciation at 7% per cent., the charge per hour of the above conductor, when used eight hours per day, is 14d. Hence, following the principle I have stated above, the proper size of conductor to use for an installation of the magnitude I have supposed, would be one of 48-29 inches section, or a round rod eight inches diameter. If the mean distance of the lamps from the station be assumed as 350 yards, the weight of copper used in the complete system of conductors would be nearly 168 tons, and its cost 15, 120/. To this must be added the cost of iron pipes, for carrying the con- ductors underground, and of testing boxes, and labour in placing them. Four pipes of 10 inch diameter each, would have to pro- ceed in different directions from the central station, each containing sixteen separate conductors of one inch diameter, and separately insulated, each of them supplying a sub-district of 1,000 lights. The total cost of establishing these conductors may be taken at 37,000/,, which brings up the total expenditure for central station and leads to 177,000/. I assume the conductors to be placed underground, as I consider it quite inadmissible, both as regards permanency and public safety and convenience, to place them above ground, within the precincts of towns. With this expen- diture, the parish of St. James’s would be supplied with the electric light to the extent of about 25 per cent, of the total illuminating power required. To provide a larger percentage of electric energy would increase the cost of establishment propor- tionately ; and that of conductors, nearly in the square ratio of the increase of the district, unless the loss of energy by resist- ance is allowed to augment instead. It may surprise uninitiated persons to be told that to supply a single parish with electric energy necessitates copper conductors of a collective area equal to a rod of eight inches in diameter ; and how, it may be asked, will it be possible under such con- ditions to transmit the energy of waterfalls to distances of twenty or thirty miles, as has been suggested ? It must indeed be ad- mitted that the transmission of electric energy of such potential (200 volts) as is admissible in private dwellings would involve conductors of impracticable dimensions, and in order to transmit electrical energy to such distances, it is necessary to resort in the first place to an electric current of high tension. By increasing the tension from 200 to 1,200 volts the conductors may be re- duced to one-sixth their area, and if we are content to lose a larger proportion of the energy obtained cheaply from a water- fall, we may effect a still greater reduction. A current of such high potential could not be introduced into houses for lighting purposes, but it could be passed through the coils of a secondary dynamo-machine, to give motion to another primary machine, producing currents of low potential to be distributed for general consumption. Or secondary batteries may be used to effect the conversion of currents of high into those of low potential, which- ever means may be found the cheaper in first cost, in maintenance, and most economical of energy. It may be advisable to have several such relays of energy for great distances, the result of which would be a reduction of the size and cost of conductor at the expense of final effect, and the policy of the electrical engi- neer will, in such cases, have to be governed by the relative cost of the conductor, and of the power at its original source. If 70 NATURE [Mov. 16, 1882. secondary batteries should become more permanent in their action than they are at the present time, they may be largely resorted to by consumers, to receive a charge of electrical energy during the dey time, or the small hours of the night, when the central engine would otherwise be unemployed, and the advantage of resorting to these means will depend upon the relative first cost, and cost of working the secondary battery and the engine respec- tively. These questions are, however, outside the range of our present consideration. The large aggregate of dwellings comprising the metropolis of London covers about seventy square miles, thirty of which may be taken to consist of parks, squares, and sparsely inhabited areas, which are not to be considered for our present purpose. The remaining forty square miles could be divided into say 140 districts, slightly exceeding a quarter of a square mile on the average, but containing each fully 3,000 houses, and a population similar to that of St. James’s. Assuming twenty of these districts to rank with the parish of St. |ames’s (after deducting the 600 shops which I did not in- clude in my estimate) as central districts, sixty to be residential districts, and sixty to be comparatively poor neighbourhoods, and estimating the illuminating power required for these three classes in the proportion of 1 to % to 4, we should find that the total capital expenditure for supplying the metropolis with electric energy to the extent of 25 per cent. of the total lighting requirements would be— 20 x 177,000 = 3,540,000/. 60 x % x 177,000 = 7,080,000/. 60 x 4 x 177,000 = 3,540,000/. 14, 160,000/, and making an average capital expenditure of 100,000/. per district. To extend the same system over the towns of Great Britain, and Ireland would absorb a capital exceeding certainly 64,000,000/., to which must be added 16,co0,000/. for lamps and internal fittings, making a total capital expenditure of 80,000,000/, Some of us may live to see this capital realised, but to find such an amount of capital, and, what is more im- portant, to find the manufacturing appliances to produce work representing this value of machinery and wire, must necessarily be the result of many years of technical development. If, therefore, we see that electric companies apply for provi-ional orders to supply electric energy, not only for every town through- out the country, but also for the colonies, and for foreign parts, we are forced to the conclusion that their ambition is somewhat in excess of their power of performance ; and that no provisional order should be granted except conditionally on the work being executed within a reasonable time, as without such a provision the powers granted may have the effect of retarding instcad of advancing electric lighting, and of providing an undue en- couragement to purely speculative operations, The extension of a district beyond the quarter of a square mile limit, would necessitate an establishment of unwieldy dimen- sions, and the total cost of electric conductors per unit area would be materially increased ; but independently of the consider- ation of cost, great public inconvenience would arise in consequence of the number and dimensions of the electric conductors, which could no longer be accommodated in narrow channels placed below the kerb stones, but would necessitate the construction of costly subways—veritable cava electrica. The amount of the working charges of an establishnient com- prising the parish of St. James’s would depend on the number of working hours in the day, and on the price of fuel per ton. Assuming the 64,000 lights to incandesce for six hours a day, the price of coal to be 20s. a ton, and the consumption 2lbs. per effective horse power per hour, the annual charge under this head, taking eight hours’ firing, would amount to about 18, 300/., to which would have to be added for wages, repairs, and sundries, about 6,000/., for interest with depreciation at seven-and-a-half per cent., 13,300/., and for general management say, 3,400/., making a total annual charge of 41,000/., or at the rate of 12s. 94d. per incandescent lamp per annum. To this has to be added the cost of renewal ot lamps, which may be taken at 55. per lamp of sixteen candles, lasting 1,200 hours, or to 9s. per annum, making a total of 21s. 94d. per lamp for a year. In comparing these results with the cost of gas-lighting, we shall find that it takes 5 cubic feet of gas, in a good argand burner, to produce the same luminous effect as one incandescent | light of 16-candle power. In lighting such a burner every day for six hours on the average, we obtain an annual gas consump- tion of 10,950 cubic feet, the value of which, taken at the rate of 2s. 8d. per thousand, represents an annual charge of 29s., showing that electric light by incandescence, when carried out ona large scale, is decidedly cheaper than gas-lighting at present prices, and with the ordinary gas-burners. On the other hand, the cost of establishing gas-works and mains of a capacity equal to 64,000 argand burners would involve an expenditure not exceeding 80,000/, as compared with 177,000/, in the case of electricity ; and it is thus shown that although it is more costly to establish a given supply of illu- minating power by electricity than gas, the former has the advantage as regards current cost of production. It would not be safe, however, for the advocates of electric lighting to rely upon these figures as representing a permanent state of things. In calculating the cost of electric light, I have only allowed for depreciation and 5 per cent. interest upon capital expenditure, whereas gas companies are in the habit of dividing large dividends, and can afford to supply gas at a cheaper rate, by taking advantage of recent improvements in manufacturing operations, and of the ever-increasing value of their by-products, including tar, coke, and ammoniacal liquor. Burners have, moreover, been recently devised by which the luminous effect for a given expenditure of gas can be nearly doubled by purely mechanical arrangements, and the brillianey of the light can be greatly improved. On the other hand, electric lighting also may certainly be cheapened by resorting, to a greater extent than has been assumed, to are lighting, which though less agreeable than the ' incandescent light for domestic purposes, can be produced at or say 14,000, 000/., without including lamps and internal fittings, | less than half the cost, and deserves on that account the prefer- ence for street lighting, and for large halls, in combination with incandescent lights. Lamps by incandescence may be produced hereafter at a lower cost, and of a more enduring character. Considering the increasing public demand for improved illu- mination, it is not unrezsonable to expect that the introduction of the electric light to the full extent here contemplated, would go hand in hand with an increasing consumption of gas for illuminating and for heating purposes, and the neck-to-neck competition between the representatives of the two systems of illumination, which is hkely to ensue, cannot fail to improve the quality, and to cheapen the supply of both, a competition which the consuming public can affurd to watch with complacent self- satisfaction. Electricity must win the day, as the light of luxury ; but gas will, at the same time, find an ever-increasing application for the more humble purposes of diffusing light. In my address to the British Association I dwelt upon the capabilities and prospects of gas, both us an illuminant and asa heating agent, ani I do not think that I was over-sanguine in predicting for this combustible a future exceeding all present anticipations. T also called attention to the advantages of gas as a heating agent, showing that if supplied specially for the purpose, it would become not only the most convenient, but by far the cheapest form of fuel that can be supplied to our towns. Such a general supply of heating separately from illuminating gas, by collecting the two gases into separate holders during the process of distillation, woulda have the beneficial effects— I. Of giving to lighting gas a higher illuminating power. 2. Of relieving our towns of their most objectionable traffic— that in coal and ashes. 3. Of effecting the perfect cure of that bugbear of our winter existence—the smoke nuisance. 4. Of largely increasing the production of those valuable by- products, tar, coke, and ammonia, the annual value of which already exceeds by nearly 3,000,000/, that of the coal consumed in the gas-works, The late exhibitions have been beneficial in arousing public interest in favour of smoke abatement, and it is satisfactory to find that many persons, without being compelled to do so, are now introducing perfectly smokeless arrangements for their domestic and kitchen fires, The Society of Arts, which for more than Ioo years has given its attention to important questions regarding public health, comfort, and instruction, would, in my opinion be the proper body to examine thoroughly into the question of the supply and economical application of gas and electricity for the purposes of lighting, of power production, and of heating, They would ov. 16, 1882 | fia: pave the way to such legislative reform as may be neces- ‘sary to facilitate the introduction of a national system. __ If I can be instrumental in engaging the interest of the Society in these important questions, especially that of smoke prevention, I shall vacate this chair next year with the pleasing consciousness that my term of office has not been devoid of a practical result. UNIVERSITY AND EDUCATIONAL INTELLIGENCE CAMBRIDGE.—In the Higher Local Examination, in which the majority of the candidates are women, there was a notable falling off this year in the number of candidates in the Natural ‘Science group of subjects. In 1880 there were 99, and 26 failed ; in 1881 there were 89, and 17 failed ; in 1882, only 39, and 9 failed. The total number of candidates increased from 882 in 1881 to 961 in 1882. The examiners’ reports do not in- ‘dicate any special falling off in the attainments shown by the ‘candidates. In the elementary paper (including Physics, aid Biology) the results were not particularly satisfactory. Confu- sion in the use of terms was common, and the inability to use chemical formulze was very marked in some cases. In Physio- logy mistakes were made with regard to subjects of great prac- tical interest, and many of them might have been avoided by reference to every-day experience. In Chemistry the theory was ‘better understood than practical laboratory details. A supplementary local examination was held in September, for the benefit of candidates seeking exemption from the Pre- vious Examination, and of others desiring to become medical students, &c. Nineteen intending medical students entered, none of whom satisfied the requirements of the General Medical Council. : The Fellows elected at St. John’s College last week included Prof. W. J. Sollas, 1st class in the Natural Science Tripos, 1873, Professor of Geology in University College, Bristol, and author of many valuable geological and paleontological me- moirs; Mr. J. S. Yeo, Second Wrangler and Second Smith’s Prizeman, 1882. Dr. Hans Gadow will conduct an advanced class in the Morphology of the Vertebrata at the New Museums during the remainder of the pre:ent term. The Members appointed by the Senate on the General Board of Studies, on which much important work will henceforth devolve, are Messrs. Bradshaw (University Librarian), J. Peile, Prof. Cayley, Aldis Wright, Dr. Parkinson, Coutts Trotter, Dr. Phear (Master of Emmanuel College), and Prof, Stuart. ‘The special Boards of Studies relating to Natural Sciences have selected the following representatives on the General Board of Studies :—Medicine, Prof. Paget ; Mathematics, Dr. Ferrers ; Physics and Chemistry, Prof. Liveing; Biology and Geology; Music, Mr. Sedley Taylor. Prof. Stuart has issued his address as the liberal candidate for the University, in succession to the Right Hon. Sir H. Walpole, who proposes to resign. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS The American Fournal of Science, October. —Notes on physio- logical optics, No. 5.—Vision by the light of the electric spark, by W. L. Stevens.—Crystals of monazite from Alexander county, North Carolina, by E. S. Dana.—Occurrence and com- position of some American yarieties of monazite, by S. L. Penfield.—Irregularities in the amplitude of oscillation of pen- dulums, by C. S. Peirce.—The Deerfield dyke and its minerals, by B. K. Emerson.—Occurrence of Sihonotreta scotica in the Utica formation near Ottawa, Ontario, by J, F. Whiteaves.— A recent species of Hetevopora, from the Strait of Juan de Fuca, by the same.—Notes on interesting minerals occurring near Pike’s Peak, Colorado, by W. Cross and W. F, Hillebrand. Fournal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. 4, part 2, No. 1 (August 31, 1882), contains: Ona collection of Japanese Clau- sili made by Surgeon R. Hungerford in 1881, by Dr. O. F, von Mollendorff (plate 1); out of 21 species, 10 are described as new. Also, by the same author, on Clausilia nevilliana, a new species from the Nicobars, and descriptions of three new Asiatic Clausilize.—Second list of Diurnal Lepidoptera from the Nicobars, by J. Wood-Mason and L. de Nicéville (plate 3).— On some new or little-known Mantodea, by J. Wood-Mason NATURE 71 Bulletin del’ Academie Royale des Sciences de Belgique, No. 8. —On the new note of M. Dupont concerning his re-vindication of priority of M. Dewalque.—On the means proposed for calm- ing the waves of the sea, by M. Van der Mensbrugghe. —On the dilatation of some isomorphous salts, by M. Spring,—Notes of comparative physiology, by M. Fredericq.—On some bromi- nated derivatives of camphor, by M. de la Royére.—On the cen- tral bone of the carpus in mammalia, by M. Lebourcq.—Action of chlorine on sulphonic combinations, and on organic oxy- sulphides, by MM. Spring and Wissinger. Verhandlungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel, Theil 7, Heft 1, 1882, contains: Studies on the history of the deer family, No. 1.—The skull structure, by L. Riitimeyer,— Studies on Za/pa europea, by Dr. J. Kober. The literature is given in detail, followed by notes on the mole’s place in the order, its local names and habits, and on its anatomy and development (plates 1 and 2, chiefly relating to dentition and embryos).— First supplement to the Catalogue of the Collection of Keptiles in the Basle Museum, by F. Miller. Notes are appended to some of the rarer species, and a new genus and species ( Zvopido- cephalus azureus) are indicated for a form allied to Leodera chilensis, Gray, taken in Uruguay ; it is figured on plate 3. The register of the collection to December, 1881 indicates 933 species.—On the hail-storm of June 29, 1879, by E. Haigen- bach-Bischoff and others.—On the explosiye powers of ice and on the Gletscherkorn, by E. H._ Bischoff.—Meteorological Report for 1881, with reports by L. Riitimeyer on the compara- tive anatomy collections, and by F. Burckhardt and R, Holtz, on the map collection of the Society. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LoNDON Mathematical Society, November 9.—Mr. S. Roberts, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—After the reading of the Trea- surer’s and Secretaries’ reports, the Chairman briefly touched upon the loss the Society had sustained during the recess, by the death of Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, F.R.S.— After the ballot for the Council of the ensuing session had been taken, Prof. Hen- rici, F,.R.S., the newly elected president, took the chair, and called upon Mr. Roberts to read his address, which was entitled, “*Remarks on Mathematical Terminology and the Philosophical Bearing of Recent Mathematical Speculations concerning the Realities of Space.”—Mr. W. M. Hicks was admitted into the Society.—The following communications were made :—On in- and circumscribed polyhedra, Prof. Forsyth.—Note on quartic curves in space, Dr. Spottiswoode, P.R.S.—Note on the deriva- tion of elliptic function formule from confocal conics, Mr. J. Griffiths. —On the explicit integration of certain differential re- solvents, Sir J. Cockle, F.R.S.—On compound determinants, Mr. R. F. Scott.—On unicursal twisted quartics, Mr. R. A. Roberts. Geological Society, Noyember 1.—J. W. Hulke, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—Prof. Louis Lartet, of Toulouse, was elected a Foreign Correspondent of the Society.—The following communications were read :—The Hornblendic and other schists of the Lizard District, with some additional notes on the Ser- pentine, by Prof. T. G. Bonney, M.A., F.R.S., Sec. G.S. The author described the metamorphic series, chiefly characterised by hornblendic schist, which oceupies the southern portion of the Lizard and an extensive tract to the north of the serpentine region, besides some more limited areas. He found that this series was separable into a lower or micaceous group—schists with various green minerals (often a variety of hornblende), or with brownish m'ca; a middle or hornblendic group, character- ised by black hornblende; and an upper or granulitic group, characterised by bands of quartz-felspar rock, ofien resembling in appearance a vein-granite. These are all highly metamor- phosed ; yet the second and third occasionally retain to a re- markable extent indications of the minuter bedding structures, such as alternating lamination and current bedding of various kinds, They form, in the author’s opinion, one continuous ‘eries, of which the uppermost is the thinnest. The general strike of the series, though there are many variations, is either north-west or west-north-west. The junctions of the Palaeozoic with the metamorphic series at Polurrian and at Porthalla were described. These are undoubtedly faulied; and the two rocks differ greatly, the former being a slate like any ordinary Palzo- zoic rock, the other a highly metamorphosed schist. Mor over, 72 NATURE et [Vov. 16, 1882 fragments of the hornblende schist and a kind of gneiss occur in a conglomerate in the former, south of Nare Point. The author considers the metamorphic series (the microscopic structure of which was fully described) undoubtedly Archean, and probabiy rather early in that division. The rocks of the micaceous group have considerable resemblance in the greenish and lead-coloured schists of Holyhead Island and the adjoining mainland of Angle- sey, and of the Menai Strait. Two outlying areas of serpentine, omitted in his former paper, were described—one at Polkerris, the other at Porthalla. The latter shows excellent junctions, and is clearly intrusive in the schist. The author stated that he had re-examined a large part of the district described in his former paper, and had obtained additional evidence of the in- trusion of the serpentine into the sedimentary rock with which it is associated. This evidence is of sc strong a nature that he could not conceive the possibility of any one who would care- fully examine the district for himself, entertaining a doubt upon the matter.—Notes on some Upper Jurassic Astrorhizidee and Lituolide, by Dr. Rudolf Hausler, F.G.S. Paris Academy of Sciences, November 6.—M. Blanchard in the chair.—The following papers were read :—On the comparative observation of telluric and metallic lines as a means of esti- mating the absorbent powers of the atmosphere, by M. Cornu. He selects telluric lines (caused by aqueous vapour, and varying in intensity with the amount of it) near D, the scale being four times as large as Angstrém’s. Metallic lines, for comparison, are indicated ; also a method of deducing the total quantity of vapour.—Results of experiments made at the exhibition of elec- tricity, &c. (continued), by M. Allard and others, Three more systems are here discussed.—On M. Siemens’ new theory of the sun, by M. Him. The recombination of the elements dissociated in space could occur only at a notable distance from the sun’s photosphere, and on falling into this they must be anew entirely dissociated, an action which would cost the heat developed by combination. Again, the work done by solar radiation in dis- sociation must reduce the intensity of radiation; so that the brightness of the sun. stars, and planets should diminish much more rapidly than inversely as the square of the distances. M. Hirn also supports M. Faye’s objections by numerical examples.—On the functions of seven letters, by M. Brioschi—The earthquake of the Isthmus of Panama, by M. de Lesseps. The phenomena (of which he gives a scien- tific account) seem to have been much exaggerated. The cha- racter of comparative immunity of the isthmus (as compared with regions near) is not seriously affected ; and in any case, the construction of a maritime canal without locks is justified. There is no ground for apprehension as to the banks of the canal.—M. Peligot presented a ‘‘ Treatise of Analytical Chemistry applied to Agriculture,” and indicated its scope.—MM. de la Tour du Breuil addressed a further note regarding their process for separation of sulphur ; they have modified the process so that it is applicable either to resistant or to pulverulent ores.—On the comet observed in Chili in September, by M. de Bernardiéres.— On the great southern comet observed at the Imperial Observa- tory of Rio de Janeiro, by M. Cruls. JZnter alza, he refers to the aspect of the tail as of a current of extremely bright light, in which were distinct bright lines, Behind the nucleus was a dark space, and one was reminded of a bridge-pile in a strong current. The tail extending a length of 12°, seemed sud- denly interrupted, and the extension for 15° beyond was of much less width and brightness, Sodium and carbon lines were observed in the spectrum.—On the functions of the genus zero and of genus one, by M. Laguerre. —On a result of calculation obtained by M. Allégret, by M. MacMahon.—On the relation between the electromotive force of a dynamo-electric machine and its velocity of rotation, by M. Levy.—Spectrophotometric measurements of different points of the solar disc, by MM. Gouy and Thollon. They could measure separately the 200,oooth part of the solar disc, and the thousandth part of the spectrum. The figures obtained show the decrease of radiation on approaching the limb (greater the more refrangible the rays). The method is also applied to spots.—On the comparison of mercury thermometers with the hydrogen thermometer, by M. Crafts. Fifteen Paris thermo- meters examined (the crystal containing 18 per cent. lead oxide) behaved like the thermometers of ordinary glass studied by Reg- nault, but very unlike those of Choisy-le-Roy crystal (with nearly twice as much oxide). A German thermometer of soda- glass gave a curve much nearer the mean than many others of Paris crystal.—On a hydrate of molybdic acid, MoOQ,2HO, by M. Parmentier.—On the transformation, in cold, of the blood of animals into solid and inodorous manure, by a new ferric’ sulphate, by M. Marguerite-Delacharlonny. This sulphate has the formula Fe,O0,4SO3. With it the elimination of the water attains nearly one-half. It forms a hydrate which crystallises easily, and dissolves readily in heat. On adding a solution of the sulphate to fresh blood, the latter forms in a few seconds a firm elastic paste, It is then treated in a hydraulic press, and forms a sort of cake.—Researches on the passage of alcoholic liquor through porous bodies, by M. Gal. His experiments show the influence of the surrounding atmosphere on the alc /holic strength of liquids in bladders (an influence that has been too much over- looked),—On the reduction of sulphates by living beings, by MM. Etard and Olivier. The authors proved experimentally the reduction of sulphates, by Beggiatoa, and found at least three other alga capable of the same action.—On mono-chlorised allylic alcohol and CHz,=CClI—CH, (OH) and its derivatives, by M. Henry.—Chemical studies on white beet of Silesia (con- tinued), by M. Leplay.—On the reduction of nitrates in arable land (continued), by MM. Deheraine and Maquenne. Bacillus amylobacter is probably the reducing agent, — Direct fermentation of starch; mechanism of this metamorphosis, by M. Mercano. Diastase isa product of the vital activity of the microbe of maize, which produces it incessantly as it traverses the envelopes of the starch grains, thus favouring its action on the stratified granulose. The microbe is that which causes the fermentation of sugar-cane juice. —On the 7é/e of earthworms in propagation of charbon, and on the attenuation of the virus, by M. Feltz. His experiments confirm the views of M. Pasteur as against those of M. Koch.—On the disinfectant and antiseptic action of copper, by M. Burcq. He suggests treatment of infectious dis- eases with salts of copper, injection of the wood of huts with copper sulphate, also applications of copper to infected furniture, clothing, &c.—Analysis of the reflex of C. Loven, by M. Laffont.—On the venomous apparatus and the poison of the scorpion, M. Joyeux-Laffuie. The poison should be placed among poisons of the nervous system (Bert) and not among blood-poisons (Jousset de Bellesme).—Researches on the genital organ of oysters, by M. Hoek. VIENNA Imperial Academy of Sciences, October 5.—E. vy. Bruecke, vice-president, in the chair.—The following papers were read :—L. Ditscheiner, on Guebhard’s rings.—L. Pebal, note on the mechanical separation of minerals.—H. Schwarz, on new bodies obtained from coal-tar, isomerides of pyrocresso].— F. Schroeckenstein, geological leisure hours ; a contribution to the petrography of crystalline rocks. CONTENTS Pace Recent CHEMICAL SYNTHESES . - + « «© © «© © © «© © © « «© 49 Tue BurrerFuies or INDIA. By H. J.Etwes ....-.. . + 50 Our Book SHELF :— Buckley's ‘* Winners in Life’s Race”. . . . . . - += « + + SI LETTERS TO THE EpDITOR:— ‘Weather Forecasts.’"—The BisHorp of CARLISLE . . . . - « The Comet.—J. P. McEwen, R.N., Assistant Harbour Master ; T. W. Bacxuouse; Geo. M. SeaprokeE; Henry Cecit. . « 52 Magnetic Arrangement of Clouds.—Rev. W. CLement Ley. . . 53 “A Curious Halo.’”’—Rev. W. Crement Ley; Rev. GeRARD Pete oh Goe sy th eg Oo ty Jo, seo oA a> ees Priestley and Lavoisier.—C. Tomutnson, F.R.S. . . . . . + 53 Ware '(Guns!—WUH CoB es Sons fa fe om) hm ce ula pret Sun aS TnSeS Paleolithic River Gravels. —Wm Wuite; T. Karr CALLARD . + 53 Aurora.—CuEMENT L. WRAGGE. . 2 6 + 2 « 2 © 6 8 8 sw 5H A Dredging Implement.—W. A. HErpMAN . . «©. + + « + 54 Forged Irish Antiquities. —-W. J. KNowLEs. . . - » +. « « + 54 Tue New Naturat History MusEuM .....- - += 5 « « « 54 Sine: COMET. so feria) ues ics: ieee te) 1s) ean sie 56 Recent Dynamo-Evecrric Macnuines (With Illustrations) . . . 58 THE ProjecTION PRAXINOSCOPE (With Illustration) . .. . * 60 NOTES’, Soma he oh oh Pas av. Sy elec Maine ae Nom (a nO GroGRABBIGALANOTES) (6 canis) «> Gale j dude eee com eke ee eS Tue Aims AND METHOD oF Ggotocicat Inquiry, II. By Prof. JaMEs Garin) .D:, BORIS SL sandiEs 5 sc) gel pore i- ns) ae! f-)eaee A METHOD FOR OBSERVING ARTIFICIAL TRANSITS « « + - ea Evectrric LIGHTING, THE TRANSMISSION OF ForRCE BY ELECTRICITY. By Dric, W. SmweEns, FOROS 0 8c os in ce = aso UNIVERSITY AND EpUCATIONALINTELLIGENCE «© » + - - + + + JE SCIENTIFIC SERIALS’ |.) =] es) a) ssl) ce = 5 Sot qx SecreTIES AND ACADEMIES. . . «© - - + «+ «© + * = PR echia’ f NATURE 758) THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 23, 1882 THE CHALLENGER REPORTS eports on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. “ Challenger” during the years 1873-1876, under the Command of Capt. Sir George Nares, R.N., F.R.S., and Capt. F. T. Thomson, R.N. Prepared under the Superintendence of Sir C. Wyville Thomson, F.R.S., and John Murray. Zoology—Vols. II., III., and IV. (Published by Order of Her Majesty’s Government, 1881-1882.) Sag our last notice of these Reports, three more volumes of the zoological series have made their appearance. In vol. ii. published in 1881, and prepared under the superintendence of the late Sir C. Wyville Thomson, the first Report is by Prof. Moseley: On Certain Hydroid, Alcyonarian and Madreporian Corals procured during the Voyage. The great interest and im- portance of Mr. Moseley’s investigations into the struc- ture of the Hydrocoralline, and on the Helioporide and their allies, justified a previous publication, chiefly in the Philosophical Transactions, of the chief results of the author’s work. The third part, describing the Deep Sea Madreporaria appears now for the first time. It ought to be noted that the memoirs forming the first two parts have been recast, and contain both additions and altera- tions. Mr. Moseley’s history of (/zl/efora nodosa will be acknowledged by all capable of judging, as a most solid contribution to our knowledge of the Hydrocoralline. So long ago as 1859, Agassiz announced that the structure of the polyps of Millepora showed that they belonged not to the corals, but to the Hydroids; but although this view was confirmed by others, especially by Pourtales, who once got an imperfect view of the expanded dactylo- zooids, still it remained for Prof. Moseley to settle this question of affinity beyond a doubt, which he has done by his painstaking dissections. He acknowledges his indebtedness to his colleague, Mr. Murray, who saw the zooids of Millepora nodosa in a living and expanded state upon the reefs of Tahiti. This species forms tuber- cular and irregular masses, often encrusting and over- growing the dead fronds of Lophoseris cactus, which is a principal component of the Tahitian reefs. While fresh, the growing tips of the lobes have a bright gamboge yellow colour, fading off into a yellowish brown; the expanded zooids have the appearance of a close-set pearly white down upon the surface of the mass. Sometimes the encrusting film is very thin. When, as at Bermuda, JZ. alcicornis is found attached to glass bottles thrown into the harbour, this film will not be more than from }th to 3th of a millimetre in thickness, and no doubt, now that attention is called to such specimens, they will be studied with the object of telling us more of the life history of these forms. The Stylasteride, now definitely determined to be Hydroids, as was first strongly suggested by G. O. Sars, are described in great detail, and this portion of the report is accompanied by many splendid plates, and a list of all the species of Stylasteridz at present known is given. Mosely places the group as a separate family, along side of the Milleporidz, in the sub-order Hydro- corallinz. VOL, XXVII.—No. 682 The second part of the report is on Helioporidz and their allies, in which He/iopora coerulea is described from living specimens, and a detailed account of its structure and mode of growth is given. We have also an extremely valuable description of a species of Sarco- phyton, almost certainly S. Zobatum, from the Admiralty Islands, and the conclusion now so well known is come to that Heliopora is without doubt an Alcyonarian. The third part comes as a quite fresh work, for the preliminary catalogue of the deep-sea Madrepores, was necessarily most imperfect. But here we have extended descriptions of the entire series of species dredged during the voyage, with sixteen plates and also numerous wood- cuts intercalated throughout the text. No less than thirty-three species are described for the first time. These deep-sea Madrepores would appear to be very widely distributed, some, as for example, Bathyactis symmetrica, having a world-wide range. At present the only genera which seem restricted in range are Stephano- phyltia and Sphenotrochus, which have as yet only been obtained from the seas of the Malay Archipelago, and in comparatively shallower water, and the genus Leptopenus, which has been dredged throughout all the great oceans, but only south of the equator. The wide range of the species in depth has now become a well-known fact, though none the less interesting for that, the world distributed species above-mentioned ranging in depth from 70 to 2900 fathoms. The occurrence of the genera as fossils in Secondary and Tertiary deposits is also not without interest, but the deep-sea forms are not to be regarded as of greater geological antiquity than those found in shallow water. The report on the birds collected during the voyage is by Dr. P. L. Sclater. The collection embraced about 900 specimens in skins, besides which there was a consider- able series of sea-birds in salt and spirits, and a collection of eggs. The collection was formed under the superin- tendence of Mr. John Murray, who placed at Dr. Sclater’s disposal his ornithological note-book, which contained the history of every individual specimen. It will be re- membered that the main object of the expedition was the exploration of the depths of the ocean, and that the col- lecting of land birds formed no part of the original plan, so that the comparative smallness of the collection is not surprising. The author of the report expresses his in- debtedness to his friends, the late Marquis of Tweeddale, Dr. Otto Finsch, Prof. Salvadori, Mr. Howard Saunders, Mr. W. A. Forbes, and Mr. Osbert Salvin, for the assistance they gave him in preparing this report, which is accompanied by thirty coloured plates. Many of the notes appended to the description of the penguins are taken from Mr. Moseley’s published accounts of the voyage, and are doubtless already well known to our readers. Vol. iii., published towards the close of 1881, opens with a most elaborated and magnificently illustrated report by Prof. Alexander Agassiz, on the Echinoidea. The im- portance of this report has already been called attention to ina special notice (vide NATURE, vol. xxv. p. 41). The second and concluding report in the volume is on the Pycnogonida, by Dr. P. P.C. Hoeck. The collection of these forms was very rich in species. Of the 120 specimens dredged during the voyage, there were no less E 74 NATURE [Mov. 23, 1882 than 36 species, and of these 33 are describe1 as new to science. Five other species found during the cruise of the Knight Errant are also included inthe report. These species are referred to 9 genera, of which three are described as new. ‘Those genera which range over the widest area, are also those which range most in depth—while there are some species peculiar to deep-sea areas. No truly generic types seem to be thus charac- terised. Dr. Hoeck considers that the Pycnogonide form a distinct and very natural group or class of Arthro- pods. Their common progenitor must have been a form with three jointed mandibles—multi-jointed palpi and ovigerous legs, with numerous rows of denticulate spines on the last joints. In the most primitive condition the eye of the Pycnogonid consists of a rounded transparent part of the integument, the inner surface of which is fur- nished with some small ganglia and nerve-fibres issuing from the integumentary nerve-bundle. The highly-deve- loped eye of the shallow-water species show ganglionic cells, distinct retinal rods, and a lens consisting of a thickened part of the chitinous skin of the animal. Those eyes which have lost their pigment and their retinal rods are rudimentary. Dr. Hoeck, treating of the affinities of this class writes: “about the relation in which the Pycnogonida stand to either the Crustacea or the Arachnida, we know as much or as little as we do about the relation in which these two classes of Arthro- poda stand to each other.” Vol. iv. opens with an important contribution to ana- tomical science in the Report on the Anatomy of the Petrels (Tubinares) collected during the voyage. It is from the pen of Mr. W. A. Forbes, Fellow of St. John’s, Cambridge. The group of Petrels is one that up to the present date can scarcely be said to have been anatomically in- vestigated. It is difficult at all times to procure speci- mens in the flesh—and some of the species are so large as to render their preservation a matter of considerable trouble. At the suggestion of the late A. H. Garrod, the naturalist staff of the Cha//enger made a fine collec- tion of these oceanic birds in spirits, which contained 74 specimens belonging to 31 species and 22 genera. Prof. Garrod had scarcely commenced to work at this series before he was struck by the lingering illness which ended in his lamented and premature death, and his friend, Mr. W. A. Forbes, undertook to draw up the report which here appears. This report is of a very thorough charac- ter. Commencing with an account of the previous litera- ture on the anatomy and classification of the group; we then have a complete sketch of the comparative anatomy of the group--the external characters, pterylosis and visceral anatomy are first described—these are succeeded by an account of the myology—to which follows a descrip- tion of the tracheal structures and of certain other points in the anatomy of the soft parts, while an account of the osteology concludes the report. Some of the modifica- tions, described by the author, “are of great physiologi- cal and morphological interest, whilst the numerous differences in points of detail displayed in the different sections and genera of the Petrels, lead one to expect that the future study of systematic ornithology will be not a little elucidated by the labours of the anatomist wherever he has material, as in the present case, at his comm and, sufficient for an adequate study of a natural group on the basis of structural differences more important than those that can be discerned from the superficial inspection of an ordinary skin.” This report is illustrated by very numerous woodcuts and seven plates of anatomical de- tails. In treating of the affinities of the group, Mr. Forbes declares it to be a difficult task to assign to it any satisfactory position in any arrangement of the class of birds. The second report in the volume is on the Deep-sea Meduse, by Prof. Ernst Haeckel. They form one of the smallest and least important groups of the rich and re- markable deep-sea fauna discovered during the voyage of the Challenger. The number of species described does not exceed eighteen, of which half are Crasfedote and half Acraspede. These new species were briefly diagnosed in the “‘ System der Medusen, 1879,’’ but they are here de- scribed at great length and with a most splendid series of illustrations. The descriptive portion of the memoir is prefaced by a very elaborate sketch of the comparative morphology of the medusz, which is illustrated by many woodcuts. It would seem by no means certain that all the eighteen species of deep-sea medusz here described are constant inhabitants of the deep sea. The method of capture by the tow-net by which such delicate and fragile organisms are brought from great depths is still imperfect, and it seems probable that the greater number of medusze brought up apparently from the greater depths really swim in shallower water, and are only taken in during the “hauling-in” of the net. But Prof. Haeckel counts that those medusz which have either adapted themselves by special modifications of organisation to a deep-sea habit of life, or which give evidence by their primitive structure of a remote phylogenetic origin, may with great probability be regarded as permanent and characteristic inhabitants of the depths of the sea ; and as such he regards fourteen out of the eighteen described. With regard to the mag- nificent illustrations the author states: ‘‘It is of course impossible, from the imperfect state of preservation of the spirit specimens, to expect that they should be abso- lutely true to nature. I rather considered it my duty here, as in those figures in my ‘System der Medusen,’ which were drawn from spirit specimens, to take advantage of my knowledge of the forms of the living Medusz to reconstruct the most probable approximate image of the living forms, I was greatly assisted in my efforts in this direction by the skilful hand of my lithographer, Adolf Giltsch.’? It seems hardly necessary to make any scien- tific criticisms on this straightforward statement. The third and concluding memoir is by Hjalmar Théel, and contains the first part of his report on the Holo- thuroidea. It is altogether devoted to the holothuroids of the new order Elasipoda, which name has been with advantage substituted for that of Elasmopoda used in the Preliminary Report. Seven years have scarcely elapsed since the discovery in the Kara Sea of the form for which this family was established, and now over fifty species are known. These species of Elasipods are true deep water forms, and they may with all the more reason be said to characterise the abyssal fauna, as no single repre- sentative as far as is at present known has been found to exist at a depth less than 58 fathoms, Only one form, ; Nov. 23, 1882] NATORE a3 Elpidia glacialis, has been dredged at this inconsiderable depth, and even this was dredged in the Arctic Ocean, where true abyssal forms are to be met with at compara- tively shallow depths. This species too can exist at immense depths, one from Station 160 having been dredged at a depth of 2600 fathoms, the greatest depth at which any Holothuroid has to this been dredged being 2900 fathoms. Among the more remarkable and dis- tinguishing characteristics of this order Mr. Théel men- tions the agreement in several important details—both in their internal anatomy and outer forms—of the adult and larval forms, an agreement more close than occurs in any previously known Holothuroid. He does not agree with Danielssen and Korren in placing the Elasipods low in the series of the Holothuroids ; nay in some respects he regards them as having attained to a higher development than all the other Echinoderms, because, among other facts, their bodies are distinctly bilaterally symmetrical, with the dorsal and ventral surfaces distinct and often with a cephalic region well marked. Only the ventral ambulacre are subservient to locomotion; these latter show a tendency to appear both definite as to place and number. The dorsal appendages are so modified as to perform functions different from the ventral ones. This memoir contains forty-six plates, which give full details of the forms and structure of all the new species. LIGHT Light: A Course of Experimental Optics chiefly with the Lantern. By Lewis Wright. (London: Macmillan and Co., 1882.) HIS is a book by a worker whose work in his own line is of a very high order, and whose experience will be of correspondingly high value to others who are working at the same subject. In all those departments of experimental optics in which the lantern is employed for the demonstration of actual experiments to an audi- ence, Mr. Wright is a master hand: and his book, as might be expected, is consequently a valuable repertory of useful information and of suggestive hints. Of books on Light there are already enough and to spare. Of standard treatises and text-books in the department of Geometrical Optics the supply is more than could be desired. In Physical Optics there is still room for a good elementary mathematical text-book. In Physiological Optics also there is, save for the great treatise of Helm- holtz, a void. But the work before us stands apart from all these, both in aim and in character. Indeed so well does it carry out the ideal of a work “on experimental optics chiefly with the lantern,’’ that there was really no need to prefix to the title the word ‘‘ Light.” True it is that Mr. Wright does not confine himself to the mere working of lanterns and their accessories. He deals ina simple and practical way with the laws of reflexion and refraction, and with ordinary optical instruments : but he always adds something of practical interest to the teacher of optics. To illustrate the laws of reflexion and refrac- tion he describes a simplified form of the apparatus so well known in Prof. Tyndall’s lectures on Light; and the mechanical illustrations of wave-motion, &c., are also new in several respects. The chapter on Spectrum Analysis is brief and sketchy, but includes almost all the experiments which can be projected on to the screen with the lantern. Amongst these we notice very careful in- structions for exhibiting the spectrum of Newton’s rings and of other interference phenomena, Nearly one-half of the book is devoted, and well devoted, to experimental work on Double-Refraction and Polarisation. In this section there are a number of beautiful experiments described which we do not remem- ber having seen before in any treatise in the English language. Amongst these are some with compound mica plates built up of a series of films of definite thickness and united by Canada balsam. A series of twenty-four superposed mica films, each producing a retardation of one-eighth of a wave-length and each one-sixteenth of an inch shorter than the one beneath it, is in this way made to reproduce exactly the first three orders of colours of Newton’s rings, but divided into the precise tints over narrow strips. A detailed account is also given of the combinations devised by Norremberg and Reusch for reproducing the phenomena of uniaxial crystals and of quartz by the superposition of thin films of mica crossed in various ways. Plates illustrative of these combinations contribute much to the value of the descriptions and explanations of the text. Mr. Wright also gives some account of his own researches upon the spiral figures produced by the introduction of quarter-undulation plates into the polariscope in which crystal sections are being examined by convergent light. There is a penultimate chapter on the polarisation of the sky and of minute par- ticles, followed by a final chapter—wholly out of place in such a work—in which, so far as it is intelligible, there appears to be an attempt made to connect the undulatory theory of light with the trinitarian theory of theology. With the exception of this last, and with a few occasiona inelegancies of style, there is little fault to find with the book. The mathematical student of optics will without doubt grumble when he takes up the work, because the mathematical aspect of the subject is conspicuous by its absence. The author does not profess to be a mathe- matician : or he would hardly have pronounced in favour of Brewster’s views on the theoretical polarising angle, as he does on p. 223. This, however, is a minor matter in a book whose great aim is to assist manipulation. The numerous illustrations, a large proportion of which are original, add greatly to its value. The coloured plates of polariscopic phenomena are, it should be added, of singular excellence. Sobol OUR BOOK SHELF Practical Chemistry, Analytical Tables, &c. By J Campbell Brown, D.Sc. (London: Churchill, 1882.) NOTHING perhaps is more remarkable than the great increase during the past few years in the number of books on practical chemistry and analysis. This has no doubt to some extent been caused by the prominence given generally to the teaching of chemistry in the laboratory. The books to which we refer consist with few excep- tions of tabular statements of reactions of acids and bases and methods of detection of the same in simple salts or mixtures. They all appear to be on the same “type” and with the same intention of putting students through a course of drudgery in qualitative analysis according to a fixed “table.” The book before us is no worse than others of its class, but attempts rather too much by giving 76 condensed tables for alkaloids and gases, which are, however, in themselves very good ones. It is to be feared that these practical books tend to make students mere analytical machines in a small way, without giving them much real practical notion of chemistry. It is questionable whether a student who has worked through the modern tabular system of practical chemistry would be able, for instance, to state the reason for the employ- ment of bricks in preference to chalk for the back of an ordinary fireplace or some equally simple practical question, Elementary Chemical Arithmetic. By Sidney Lupton: (London: Macmillan and Co., 1882.) THIS little book with its modest preface will be recognised by all teachers of chemistry, especially in large laboratory classes, and also by students as a really useful adjunct. Unfortunately in large public laboratories a consider- able proportion of the studerfts have been very much neglected in the matter of their elementary mathematical education, or it has been of such a nature that they are not able to apply it to the solution of ordinary chemical problems, thus entailing, in many cases, a large amount of extra work and loss of time on the part of the teacher in giving instruction in elementary arithmetic. This book fits into its place exactly. It is divided into two main portions: an introduction, consisting of short but very understandable explanations of arithmetical pro- cesses in common demand in chemistry and physical chemistry of a practical and elementary nature, the second portion being problems divided under the headings of the different elements. Regarding these it may perhaps be said that they do not err on the side of being too chemical, and in one or two cases more attention has been given to the question as a question than to its abso- lute chemical correctness, but these are mere details that in no way detract from the utility of the book for its purpose. : What is required of the mass of chemical students is that they should be able to apply methods of reasoning founded on experimental facts in the science to the solution of concrete and abstract problems ; and working through this book will certainly conduce to bring about an improvement in that direction. The Watch and Clockmaker’s Handbook. By F. J. Britten. (London: Kent and Co., 1881.) THis little book has been written, we are informed, chiefly for the instruction of country watchmakers. It cannot fail to be agreeable to them: it contains a great deal of useful practical information, and some is given of a higher quality, such as workmen are, to their credit, eager for now-a-days. To another and wider circle there is also much of a character to be interesting. The book is a proper supplement to the more popular horological trea- tises. There are good descriptions and pleasing diagrams of the various watch escapements; there is a chapter upon the art of springing; the mechanism of chrono- graphs, repeating watches, and calendars is shown, but almost too briefly. Lastly, we find pictures and a short reference to the various tools which watchmakers employ, and some serviceable memoranda are added. Upon the whole the author has and deserves our praise. H. DENT GARDNER fTeroes of Science. Botanists, Zoologists, and Geologists. 3y Prof. P. Martin Duncan, F.R.S.,F.L.S. (London: The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1882.) THIS little volume contains brief sketches of the lives of a few botanists, zoologists, and geologists, for the most part acknowledged compilations from well-known sources. No doubt the work will serve the purpose for which it is evidently intended—that of interesting young people in science. NATURE ies | | Mov. 23, 1882 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his correspondents. Netther can he undertake to return, or to correspond with the writers of, rejected manuscripts. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. [The Editor urgently requests correspondents to keep their letters as short as possible, The pressure on his space ts so great that it ts impossible otherwise to ensure the appearance even of communications containing interesting and novel facts.] Physics of the Earth’s Crust ON March 23 last Prof. Green sent to NATURE some remarks upon Mr. Hill’s review of my ‘‘ Physics of the Earth’s Crust.” More lately the third edition of his ‘‘ Physical Geology” has appeared, in which he has repeated the substance of a part of what he then wrote. On account of the great weight which his authority will carry, I think I should offer some reply. He truly says at p. 674, that I claim to have proved that the contraction of the earth through cooling cannot have caused the amount of squeezing and elevation which has taken place, and that the hypothesis is therefore insufficient to explain the facts which it professes to account for ; but he then adds: ‘‘ What Mr. Fisher has really done is this. His calculations go far to prove that, provided the earth cooled in the way assumed by Sir Wm. Thomson, contraction would not suffice to produce any- thing like the compression and elevation that has actually occurred, But this is quite another thing from disproving the contraction hypothesis. Mr. Fisher’s investigations tend rather to establish a strong probability that the earth did not cool in the way supposed by Sir Wm. Thomson,’—that is, that it be- came solid throughout in a comparatively short space of time. But of course my calculations do not establish any probability against this way of cooling, unless we begin by assuming that contraction through cooling has been the cause of the elevations. And that seems to be begging the question. What they do prove is that the contraction hypothesis will not account for the elevations if the earth has cooled as a solid. But there may have been another way of cooling which, on geological grounds, I believe to have beeen the true one. The earth may not have become solid throughout in a short space of time, and may not be solid even now. In that case the crust, whose corrugations we have to account for, must have floated on a denser liquid substratum. Under these circumstances every elevation above the mean level must have had a corresponding protuberance answering to it below. This is necessary, as was long ago pointed out by Sir G. B. Airy. I have, then, proved that, this being so, if the crust beneath the ocean is of the same density as beneath the continents, on what I conceive to be reasonable assumptions regarding the thickness and density of the crust and the density of the substratum, a shortening of the earth’s radius by less than 700 miles would not have sufficed to produce the existing inequalities. I can imagine no theory of the constitution of the interior that would admit of so large an amount of contraction taking place, after the whole had become sufficiently cool fora crust to have begun to be formed, as to cause such an amount of shortening as this. If, however, we suppose that the crust beneath the oceans is denser than that which forms the continents (and I have given several reasons for believing such to be the case), then a much smaller amount of radial shortening would suffice. I have esti- mated it at about forty-two miles. Still, anything near this shortening is far beyond what any reasonable amount of contrac- tion from cooling could produce. For if there bea liquid sub- stratum this must be of nearly equable temperature throughout, and that cannot be much above the temperature of solidification ; so that it does not appear how a much greater contraction can be got out of the gradual solidification, and incorporation of the upper parts of the liquid layer with the crust, than could be obtained on the former supposition of a cooling solid globe; and I have shown that, in that case, the ‘radial shortening would be less than two miles. - Thus, then, I claim to have disproved the contraction-hypo- thesis under the two alternative hypotheses (1) of a solid globe, and (2) of a liquid substratum, Capt. Dutton, of the United States Geological Survey, has said of this part of my work, ‘“‘ First and foremost he has rendered most effectual service in utterly destroying the hypo- thesis, which attributes the deformations of the strata and earth’s crust to interior contraction by secular cooling. No person, it seems to me, can sufficiently master the cardinal points of his Nov. 23, 1882 | NATURE 77 analysis, without being convinced that this hypothesis is nothing but a delusion and a snare, and that the quicker it is thrown aside and abandoned the better it will be for geological science” (American Fournal of Science, vol. xxiii. p. 287). I take this opportunity of pointing out a mistake in my book. At page 156 the number 1127 ought to be 1734; and consequently the number 0996 ought to be 0'965, The argument will still hold. O, FISHER Harlton, Cambridge, November 9 P.S.—Since forwarding the above I have observed a note at p. 912 of Dr. Geikie’s ‘Text Book of Geology,” in which he says that I have ‘‘endeavoured” to show that the secular contraction of a solid globe through mere cooling will not account for the phenomena. ‘The word ‘‘endeavoured,” does not express the attitude of my mind upon the question. Forty-twoyears ago the contraction theory occurred to myself inde- pendently. Iremember that in my youthful joy at what I thought thought a discovery, I forthwith vaulted over a gate! In 1868 I read my paper on ‘‘The Elevation of Mountains by lateral Pressure,” fully believing that I was elucidating the cause which had prodaced them in the contraction through secular cooling. In 1873 I began my paper on ‘The Inequalities of the earth’s Surface viewed in connection with the Secular Cooling,” while still under the same impression. I first of all estimated the actual elevations, and, this done, I calculated the amount of those which would be formed upon Sir William Thomson’s view of the mode of solidification. To my excessive surprise, the reult showed the utter inadequacy of the contraction hypo- thesis. I thought I must have made some error in the calculations, but could find none. I still, however, adhered to the original idea of contraction, and suggested, towards the end of that paper, a fluid condition of the interior at some for- mer period, thinking that sufficient contraction might be perhaps obtained by that means; for I had not yet dared to question Sir Wm, Thomson’s dictum of the fresen¢ complete solidity of the earth. It was not until about a year ago, when I wrote the chapter in my book about the ‘‘ Amount of Compression,” that I perceived that even the condition of a liquid substratum would not give the necessary degree of contraction to produce the com- pression. I have thus been driven from the contraction hypo- thesis step by step, and have by no means been endeavouring to support a preconceived opinion against it.—O, F. Shadows after Sunset HAPPENING by chance to look into ‘‘ Loomis’s Meteorology,” after reading M. Dechevren’s account of the blue, white, and red bands visible before sunrise and after sunset at Zikawei, I noticed under the above heading the following account of shadow-bands, which not only appear to be very similar to those observed by Dechevrens, but are explained in identically the same way (‘* Loomis’s Meteorology,” p. 107): ‘A similar phenomenon [to the water-bands described in the preceding paragraph] is fre- quently noticed about fifteen minutes after sunset, when the shadows of clouds near the horizon are projected upon the western sky in the form of radiant beams diverging from the sun. These beams are parallel lines of indefinite length, but from the effect of perspective they seem to diverge from the sun, and if they could be traced entirely across the sky, they would for the same reason converge to a point directly opposite to the sun. Such cases are sometimes, though not very frequently noticed. Similar shadows are sometimes seen in the morning before sun- rise, and form a conspicuous feature of the morning twilight. This effect is sometimes noticed in nearly every part of the world. It must have attracted the attention of the ancient Greeks, and is thought to explain that poetic expression ‘‘the rosy- fingered dawn.” M. Dechevrens appears to think the phenomenon does not occur in Europe or temperate latitudes generally, but from what Loomis says, one would infer that he may be mistaken in this, and that to a modified extent it may be visible in Europe and America, Perhaps some of your readers who are in the habit of observing the face of the sky will be able to verify this sup- position. For my own part I have not remarked it in England, but have occasionally witnessed it in Bengal during the rains, very markedly. ‘The explanation offered by M. Dechevrens seems the only reasonable one under the circumstances, but he hardly seems to lay sufficient stress upon the fact that when the sunis below the horizon his rays can only illuminate a shallow stratum of partially condensed vapour in the upper atmosphere. Any obstruction of his rays will consequently shut off the whole of the reflected light from this stratum, and cause the blue sky to appear through the shadow, all the more cerulean by contact with the whitish or rosy colour of the adjacent portions which still bask in the solar rays. E. DouGLaAs ARCHIBALD An Abnormal Fruit of Opuntia Ficus-Indica THE accompanying figure represents a fruit of Opuntia Ficus- Indica, which is wholly inclosed in one of the well-known flat branches of this plant; normally the fruits appear as exserted obovate bodies on the margin, or on either side, of the branches. The figure is exactly half natural size ; the fruit is therefore full grown. There is no interruption in the ascending curves of spinous tubercles, only they are somewhat smaller on the fruit, which has also a less wrinkled skin than the remainder of the branch. It is of rather uncommon occurrence, nobody having seen here anything alike in the extensive ¢uma/les or Indian fig-plantations of our neighbourhood ; nor have I been able to find any mention of such a case in the books at my dis- posal, It is evidently an instance of non-development of peduncle, a special case of suppression of axile organs (Masters, ‘¢Teratology,” p. 393). But I think it throws also some light on the nature of what generally is taken to be the pericarp of the Opuntia fruit, which, after all, seems to be a slightly modi- fied branch, bearing the ovary of the flower in a cavity on its - Abnormal Fruit of Opuntia Ficus-Indica from Caracas. upper end. A similar view is held forth by Dr. Noll ina paper published in the Aznaal Report of the Senkenbergische Gesell- schaft (Frankfurt, 1872, pp. 118-121, with two plates), where he describes and figures two abnormal fruits of Opuntia coccinelli- fera from the Cavary Islands, with branches growing from the exterior part of the fruits. Their apparent pericarp is therefore an axile organ of a certain order, say of the order 7, whilst the additional branch is of the next order, +1. The case which forms the object of the present note is quite the reverse of those mentioned by Dr. Noll, as the branch of order #, or the exterior part of the normal fruit, is not developed independently, being represented by its parent-branch of order, 7 —I. If this view be correct, there can no longer be any reason for speaking of an exserted ovary in Opuntia (Hooker and Bentham, “Genera plantarum,” I., $51), as this organ is wholly sunk in the interior of a branch, just as it happens in other Cacteze with an ovarium immersum. A, ERNST Caracas, October 4 78 NATURE [\ov. 23, 1882 The Comet THANKS to the entire absence of twilight, and to a beautifully clear sky, I obtained a splendid view of the comet on November 14, 15h. 45m. The tail had a length of 30°, and was divided into two portions at the extreme end, the northern extremity curving very sharply upwards, and separated from the southern branch by a semi-circular space. The general form of the tail being very similar to the Greek character y, The southern side still remained brighter than the northern. The nucleus was much more elongated than when I observed it on November 8. The two concentrations of light which were very noticeable on that date, were not now so conspicuous, being smaller and much closer together, so much so, that had the definition been other- wise than perfect the division between them could not have been seen. As showing the necessity of observing this interesting object in the absence of twilight I may mention that by 17h. 45m. G.M.T., the apparent length of the tail was reduced to 20°. B. J. Hopkins 79, Marlborough Road, Dalston, E., November 20 Soda Flames in Coal Fires IF a coal-fire be looked into with some attention after a fresh supply of coals has nearly ceased to give out its gases, there will b2 seen here and therein the hottest parts, and coming out of them through crannies and round dark corners, a pale translucent yellow flame, which one soon gets to recognise easily. What does it consist of ? If looked at through a prism, without any slit screen, this flame is at once seen to be monochromatic. Neither its shape nor brilliancy (in which it is deficient) are at all altered or impaired ; and it is especially interesting on this account, as there is something uncanny in the appearance of this pale flame defying the power of the prism, as it flickers aad plays about the brilliant spectrum representing the red-hot coals. Coals vary much in their possession of the source of this flame. In some it seems scarcely present at all, while in others it is abundant, being recognisable even in the large surface-flames. The coal in which I have seen it best, is a close hard coal, with a slaty cleavage and rectangular fracture, known, I am told, as “Anchor Brights” (?) The yellow flame appears frequently even in the largest surface ones, when the gaseous products first disengaged have disappeared. Some of them seem, then, to consist entirely of this, giving little or no continuous spectrum. But it is in the body of the fire that it is most fascinating, impart- ing a reality to the otherwise confused forms, which is more than pretty. Iam strongly reminded by this appearance, when, for instance, a black mass is seen to stand out with a clear out- line against the pale yellow background of light, of the picture which was mentally present in the days before the solar eclipse of 1868—the first upon which the prism was brought to bear. I have fortunately found a copy of some ‘‘ Instructions ” issued on the occasion of distributing the ‘‘ hand-spectroscopes ” provided by the Royal Society for the study of that eclipse ; in which this prognostication is indicated with quite as much pre- cision as the known facts at that time warranted, That it was not fully understood was the only reason why the moon was ot seen, as it might have been seen, on that memorable occasion, sharply outlined upon the coronal light, just as I now see the coal, This was long before the time when the same arrangement on a larger scale—a prism in front of the object-glass of a tele- scope—obtained such success in other hands. However that may be, the coal-fire experiment is a very pretty one, and might be made very instructive too as a drawing-room illustration—the ordinary prismatic pendants of a chandelier being quite equal to the oceasion, if a direct-vision combination is not immediately available. J. HERSCHEL 30, Sackville Street, W. P.S.—As the monochromatic light—of sodium, of course—is plentiful in the large flames, it will be well seen as a Zine, straight or curved, if the light of the fire on a cylindrical or curved metallic or other reflecting surface be looked at, especially if dark coloured ; such as an ebonite ruler, for instance. Of course a direct-vision pocket spectroscope is better than the pen- dant of a chandelier ; but the lenses must be taken off, as well as the slit-screen. Complementary Colours —A Mock Sunset INSTANCES of two phenomena recently noticed in NATURE have chanced to come under my observation, and in each case impressed me much with their beauty and distinctness ; the first, an effect of contrast of colour on the surface of clear water. Standing looking up stream on a bridge over the Ary, where it flows through meadows close to Inverary Castle, and admiring the transparent brown hue so often seen in the peat-stained waters of Scotch streams, my attention was attracted by a series of wavelets forming a ridge, somewhat spiral in appearance, across the stream, along the top of a low weir over which the water falls. Every single wave presented on its further surface (that seen foreshortened by the spectator) a nearly level space of pure full-toned amethyst colour, while its advancing front showed with crystalline transparency the deep ‘‘cairn-gorm” or burnt sienni tint proper to the water. The regular alternation of these patches of rich and brilliantly-contrasted colours, together with their permanency and apparent independence of anything peculiar in the state of the atmosphere, produced a striking and very beautiful effect. The jhenomenon of a mock sunset in the east I witnessed in great perfection on the Lake of Lucerne, when the whole eastern sky was traversed by broad rose-coloured bands converging from the north, south, and zenith towards a point opposite pe A Lunar Halo LAST evening, about 7.15 p.m., a lunar halo of a peculiar character was seen here. It was at some distance from the moon, and instead of being, as usual, concentric with this body, was of an oval, or, more strictly speaking, a horse-shoe shape, the lower part of the halo not being complete. The moon, too, was not in the approximate centre of the horse-shoe. Suppos- ing its distance from the vertex to be represented by the quantity I, 24 would represent its distance to the lower part of the halo. Some heavy mist-clouds lay under the moon, which thinned out and became more transparent upwards, and refraction from the dense parts of these may have been the cau-e of the curious distortion of the circle in this case. J. RAND CAPRON Guildown, November 21 A Correction PERMIT me to correct an error which appears in your report of “The Additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens ” (NATURE, vol. xxvi. p. 232). Your reporter states that one of the parrots presented by me is a ‘New Zealand parakeet (Cyanorhamphus nove-zealandie”). The bird I sent is Cyano- saissett, Verr., from hence (New Caledonia), and, according to Dr, Sclater’s published catalozue, has never been in the Gardens. It differs—as I have already pointed out—from C. xove- zealandi@ in size, extent of markings, but especially in the shape of the tail feathers (Cf. /ds, vol. 1879, pp. 109 110). It is one of a small group of parrakeets that is found in New Zealand, Chatham Island, Norfolk Island, and here, closely resembling each other, but at once separable when seen together. Neither this, nor Vymphicus uv@ensis, Layard, which is a new species just described by me, has ever been seen in Europe before, that I can learn. E, L. LAYARD British Consulate, Noumea, September 7 [The Secretary of the Zoolozical Society informs us that Mr. Layard is quite right in his remark, but that the bird has been long since correctly named, and will be shortly figured in the Zoological Society’s Proceedings under its proper nane.—ED.] Thomson’s Mouse-Mill Dynamo ALLOW me to make a slizht but important correction on your description, in last week’s NATURE, of Sir William Thomson’s mouse-mall dynamo. In your description it is said that ‘‘at one end of the hollow drum these copper bars [the mouse-mill bars] are united to each other in pairs, each to the one opposite it.” This is not so. At one end of the hollow drum the ends of the copper bars are all united together, ‘ metallically connected by soldering or otherwise.” The effect is electrically the same as that of the arrangement described in your article; but, in the construction of the machine, the uniting of all the bars together at one end, instead of joining them in pairs, is so much more simple and ea-y that the correction seems of importance. J. T. BoTToMLEy The University, Glasgow, November 18 Nov. 23, 1882] ‘Weather Forecasts ” I HAVE recently designed and patented ‘‘ An improved floating vessel for automatically compressing air by the action of the waves of the sea, and also for the generation of electricity by the agency of this compressed air.” This vessel is capable of being moored in roco fathoms, and can be connected with the shore by means of an insulated electric cable. Such a vessel moored in the mid-Atlantic in the usual track of the cyclones which approach these islands from the west, would be of immense advantage to the Meteorological Office in determining the yelocity of advance and direction taken by these cyclonic centres. I purpose exhibiting a model and drawings of the vessel at the Winter Electric Exhibition, to be held at the Westminster Aquarium next month. CHARLES W, HARDING King’s Lynn, November 14 Age of Dogs TAM acquainted with a black retriever dog aged thirty-one years, and should like to know whether this age is often atiained by dogs. RK, CORDINER Oxford, November 15 Waterspouts on Land WHEN on a fishing expedition this year, in the mountainous district of Minnigaff, in this country, my attention was-drawn to the effects of two waterspouts, which had taken place, one in July last, and the other some six months previously. The effects of both are to be seen in the faces of two moun- tains a mile apart. One is on a hill-farm called Blac Klaggan, about 100 yards above a mountain-stream, where an exca- vation, by the force of the spout, had been made to the depth of ten or twelve feet, and about twenty yards wide. Stones—boulder-stones from 10 cwt. to 3 tons, were spread out, in the course of the torrent, down to the ‘‘burn,” which runs below—one boulder, lying in the bed, being quite 3 tons weight. The other waterspout had struck on White Laggan, ona steep mountain side, facing the upper part of Loch Dee. It was higher up on the hill, and had cut to the depth of about 15 feet, and was Io yards wide, scattering the earth and boulders before it, to a distance of 150 yards below, and spreading out the smaller stones and grayel over a flat moor, in varied tracks, more than 100 yards further. I have not heard of anyone who saw either waterspout, and both are supposed to have taken place at night. All the otber parts of both mountains are covered with heather and grass, above, cn each side, and below, except in the direct course cut by the torrent from each water- spout. No one remembers any previous case of the sort in the district. Perhaps some of your readers can give other instances of this kind, and some information that may prove interesting and useful, James Hosack Ellerslie, Kirkcudbright, N.B., November 13 METEOROLOGY OF THE MALAY ARCHIPELAGO* ale two systems of meteorological observations carried on under the direction of the late Dr. Bergsma pre- sent us, in these two serial publications, with what must be classed among the most remarkable contributions made in recent years to observational science, and they are all the more valuable on account of the new and exact information they give as to the different climates of the Malay Archipelago, about which so little was previously known. The first and longest continued series of observations made at the observatory at Batavia take rank among the very best yet made. They embrace hourly observations for the fifteen years ending with 1880, of atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, rain, wind, cloud, &c., which have been published 77 extenso. During the first thirteen years the recoids consisted wholly of eye-obser- vations, but from the beginning of 1879 the observations were made by photographically and other self-recording * Observations made at the Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory at Batavia, 1866 to 1880. Regenwaarnemingen in Nederlandsch-Indie, 1879-80-81. Door Dr. P. A. Bergsma, D.recteur van het Observatorium te Batavia. NATURE 79 instruments. In vol. v., in addition to the hourly obser- vations for 1579 and 1880, there is given a discussion of the fifteen years’ observations, which fiom the excellence of its design and execution, represents the meteorology of Batavia with a fulness and completeness at least equal to what has yet been done for any other place on the globe. Among the more interesting results, those of the rain- fall may be pointed to, particularly the tables showing the mean amounts for the different hours of the day. These reveal two daily maxima and two minima. The larger maximum occurs from 2 to 7 p.m., when 32 per cent. of the whole daily fall takes place, and the larger minimum from 6 to 11 a.m., when only 13 per cent. of the daily amount falls. The smaller maximum is from 10 p.m. to 2 a.m., when 17 per cent. falls, and the smaller minimum during the two hours from 8 to 10 p.m., when 7 per cent falls. The most remarkable, if not the most important of the results arrived at are perbaps those referring to the influ- ence of the moon on the pressure and temperature of the atmosphere and the rainfall, which establish the fact of a distinct lunar atmospheric tide. Assuming the lunar day to commence with the time of the upper transit of the moon, the following are the phases above or below the mean expressed in millimetres :— mm. Ist max. +0°057 at lunar hour 1 », Min. —0*053 at oD 7 2nd max. +0°064 at 55 13 >» Win, —o'060 at n 19 The lunar tide has been determined for each of the four quarters, and also at perigee and apogee, and the results show differences of great interest. As regards the rain- fall, while the mean amount in 24 hours during the 17 years ending with 1880 was 5:19 mm., at the time of new moon there was a mean excess of 0794 mm., and at full moon also an excess of o'19mm., but on the other hand, at the third octant there was a deficiency of o'61 mm., and at the fifth octant also a deficiency amounting to 0°55 mm. The result is that the atmospheric pressure at Batavia has a lunar daily tide quite as distinctly marked as the ordinary diurnal barometer tide, except that its amplitude is much less, the lunar daily tide being as compared with the mean solar daily tide nearly in the proportion of a millimetre to an English inch. The lunar tide has also the important difference in that its phases follow the moon’s apparent course much more closely than the diur- nal barometric fluctuations follow that of sun. The two maxima occur about the Ist and 13th, and the two minima about the 7th and 19th lunar hours, whereas these four daily phases of the diurnal barometric fluctuation occur with respect to the sun’s apparent course from one to six hours later, The influence of the moon’s phases on the rainfall is quite decided ; for while the mean daily rain- fall is 0'205 inches, it rises at full moon to 0°248 inch, from which time it gradually falls to o-181 inch at the third octant, rises to 0°212 inch at the fourth octant, then falls to 0184 inch at the fifth octant, and finally rises gradually to the maximum at the time of new moon. The important conclusion follows that the attractive influence of the moon, and consequently that of the sun, must be taken into account as factors concerned in bringing about oscillations of the barometer. In this connection it is interesting to note that in the higher latitudes in inland situations during winter, or at times and situations where the disturbing influences of temperature and humidity tend towards a minimum, the times of occurrence of the four phases of the daily oscillation of barometer approxi- mate to those of the daily lunar atmospheric tide. The second series of observations, giving the rainfall for the three years 1879, 1880, and 1881, form an extremely valuable contribution to our knowledge of the climates of 80 the Malay Archipelago. This network of rainfall observa- tion now includes 150 stations scattered over the islands at heights varying from near sea-level up to 6404 feet. The averages of the three years show that the mean annual rainfall over the archipelago varies from about 60 inches in Timor to upwards of 200 inches at some spots among the western slopes of Sumatra. But the de- termining character of the rainfall, as regards the climates is not the absolute amount that falls annually but rather the manner of its distribution through the months of the year. Over the larger proportion of the islands rain falls copiously every month of the year; but as regards some of the islands, the year is divided into dry and wet seasons as markedly as is seen in the climates of India. The reason of this difference is readily seen on exa- mining the distribution of atmospheric pressure during the months from Australia to China with the prevailing winds resulting therefrom. During the winter months pressure is high in China and low in the interior of Australia, the mean difference being nearly three-quarters of aninch. Between the two regions the fall is practi- cally uninterrupted, and the Malay Archipelago lying between them is swept by northerly winds. Since these winds have traversed no inconsiderable breadth of ocean, they deposit a copious rainfall particularly on the northern slopes of the higher islands, and consequently the rainfall of these months is large over all the islands without ex- ception, the mean monthly amount in some places exceed- ing 30 inches. It is to these same winds that the north of Australia owes its rainfall ; and it is their strength in any particular year which determines the distance to which the annual rains penetrate southwards into the interior of that continent. On the other hand, during the summer of the northern hemisphere, atmospheric pressure is high in the interior of Australia, and low in China, the mean difference being aboot half an inch, and between the two regions the fall in the mean pressure is continuous and uninterrupted, and consequently southerly winds prevail over the inter- vening region. These winds are dry and absolutely rainless over the north of Australia, and over Timor and the other Malay islands, which are separated from Aus- tralia but by a comparatively narrow belt of sea. During the three years no rain whatever fell at Timor during July and August, and the fall was small during June, Sep- tember, and October. As the winds pursue their course to northward, they eagerly lick up moisture from the sea, so that by the time they arrive at Amboyna they have be- come so saturated with moisture that the monthly rain- fall of that place rises at this time of the year to nearly 30 inches. At some distance to the west of Timor rain falls at this season more or less regularly every year, the amount increasing in proportion to the extent of ocean traversed by the south-east winds, which blow towards the islands from the direction of Australia. These marked and vital differences of the climates of the Malay Archipelago, which, as they depend essentially on the geographical distribution of the land and sea of this part of the globe may be regarded as permanent, have played no inconspicuous part in the remarkable distri- bution of animal and vegetable life which characterises the archipelago. THE COMET {02 receipt of observations from Australia, made between September 8 and 16, has allowed of the determination of the orbit of the present comet exclu- sively from positions obtained before the perihelion passage when it made so close an approach to the sun. From a mean of the Melbourne and Windsor N.S.W. observations on September’ 9, and the Melbourne meri- dian observations on September 14 and 16, Mr. Hind has deduced the following orbit :— NATURE [Mov. 23, 1882 Perihelion passage, Greenwich M.T., Sept. 17°21897 tal, Longitude of perihelion 275 50 20 Ascending node ... 345 53. 2 Tnclinationt eee: 38 017 Log. perihelion dist. ... 7°8501274 Retrograde. i The longitudes are reckoned from the apparent equinox of September 17, and it should be mentioned that the small corrections have been neglected. On comparing the observed places with those calculated from the ele- ments founded upon observations before perihelion, the following differences remain :— Aa. cos 6 (¢ — 0) ab Tebbutt ... Sept. 8 - 25 - 3 Tebbutt and Melbourne Dili Niche 82. fie 2 ) Melbne. merid. ry we + 21 +7 ” ” 15 AE a8 5 “A op to) Sp BW soto sce ° Aq. Commone een iss ek)