eee ; gee : #for humus lefere to have al hese bedis ied bokis lel aa it hlak ar red Of Aristotle %& his philesa-phie or gay smutrie hi “td Me fh A le. F a ae es ‘ ‘ a ; , p . q ~e a 9 “ i A a ‘ : i ‘ i . Fi i ' . * . d é / +s : + fee ‘ r et ; z i | a . J . . we TURE a WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE VOLUME Ill NOVEMBER 1870 to APRIL 1871 “ To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind that builds for aye.”—Worvswortu Fondow and Hetw pork MACMILLAN AND CO 1871 LONDON ‘R, CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS BREAD STREET HILL ~ tts lee Peart. 9 en vr iN DE xX Aberdeen Mechanics’ Institution, 73 Acclimatisation in New South Wales ; The Silkworm, 473 Acorns as Food for Cattle, 313 Acoustics (see Echoes, Helmholtz, Royal Albert Hall) Adams (Prof. W. G.), on the Augusta Eclipse Expedition, 250, 289 ; on Physical Laboratories, 323 ZEther, Queries respecting, 109 Africa, Central, Letters from, 215 Agassiz (Prof.), on Ceratodus Forsteri, 166 Aguilar (Senhor A.), on the Eclipse Expedition to Spain, 69 Airy (G. B., Astronomer Royal), nominated President-elect of the Royal Society, 413 Akin (Dr. C. K.), on Practical Physics, 121 Alcedinidze, or Kingfishers, Monograph of, 466 Alcohol, John Allen, M.D., on the Evils of (1730), 173 oe Suffolk, Notes or Jottings about, by N. F. Hele, 495 Algaroba, its use in Argentine Republic, 313, 347, 371 Allport (W. S.) on Petrography, 388 Alsace, Statistics of, 133 Amcebze, Researches on the, 136 America, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Boston, 114. America, Object Teaching and Science in, 256, 475 American Arctic Exploration, 274 American Eclipse Expedition, 228 American Institute, Lectures, 254 American Journal of Microscopy, 494 American Journal of Science, 172 American Naturalist, 57, 217, 299, 417 America, Notes on Science in, 352, 372, 393, 408, 432, 433, 452, 490, 512, 514 : American Philosophical Society, 371, 499 Animals, their Intelligence and Perfectibility, 182 Anthropological Society, 58, 77, ! 38, 177, 218, 299 Anthropological Institute, 253, 294, 339; 378, 394, 419, 477, 518 Anthropology, German Society of, 512 Anthropology, Journal of, 457 Ants, White, their Ravages in St. Helena, 352 Ape Resemblances to Man, by St. George Mivart, F.R.S., 481 Aquarium at the Crystal Palace, 493 Aqueous Vapour, its Influence on Meteorology, 495 Archzeology, discoveries in Guano Islands in Peru, 394 Archzology in Toman (Russia), 373 Argentine Republic, its Resources, 83 ; its Fauna, 252 Arithmetic, by Sonnenschein and Nesbitt, 45 Artificial Introduction of Plants, 208 Artillery, Heavy, its Construction, 69, 128 Assaying Silver in the Indian Mint, 275 Association for the Reform of Geometrical Teaching, 169 Asphalt Used for Fuel in Paris, 295 Atmosphere, its great Movements, 75 Atmospheric Currents, 228 Aurora Australis, 348, 447 Aurora Borealis, of Oct. 1870, 5, 6, 27, 104; Edinburgh, February 1871, 309 ; York, April 1871, 468 ; Glasgow, April 1871, 486, 487 ; New Zealand, 414; By Daylight, 104, 126, 348, 510; Early Notices of, 46, 104, 174; As an Electrical Phenomenon, 207, 247 ; its Spectrum, 68, 104, 126, 346, 369, 468, 509 Augusta Eclipse Expedition, 249 Australian Gum Trees, 494 Axon (W. E. A.), on Societies and the Condition of Science and Learning, 162 Azores, Natural History of the, 303 Bailey (J. B.), Books wanted, 426 Bain (Prof. A.), remarks of Prof. Tait on his “Logic of Phy- sies,” 89 ; his reply, 125 Balloon Ascents for Military purposes, 115, 132, 134, 175, 192, 274, 312, 370 (See De Fonvielle) . Barber (S.), on Lunar Bows, 245; on Sanitary Tests, 360; on Lunar Halos, 407 Bastian (Dr. H. Charlton, F.R.S.), on Spontaneous Generation, 247 ae (Dr. Lionel S., F.R.S.), on Glycerine Solutions of Pepsine, C., 20 Bedford (Dr. J.), on Tails of Comets, Solar Corona, and Aurora, 207 Beetles, the Food and Habits of, 255, 313 Beet Root Sugar, its Manufacture, 4, 230 Belfast Naturalists’ Club, 115 Belfast, Queen’s College, 413, 471 Belgium, Plants Naturalised in, 193 Bengal, Asiatic Society, 179, 499 Bennett, (A. W., F.L.S.), on Natural Selection, 30, 38, 49, 65, 147, 162, 270, 272, 426 ; on the Genesis of Species, 270 ; on the Fertilisation of the Hazel, 347 Berlin: Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences, 100, 360, 479 ; Society of Anthropology, 399 Berwickshire Naturalists’ Field Club, 434 Bessemer Process for the Conversion of Iron (Sve Iron and Steel) Betel Nuts, Trade in, 434 Bevan (E., M.D.), on the Honey Bee, 385 Biblical Archzeological Society, 432, 439 Biology at British Association, 18, 37 Biology of Plants, by Dr. Ferdinand Cohn, 242 Birmingham Natural History Society, 14 Bischof (Prof. C. G.), Obituary Notice of, 212 Blake (J.), on Extreme Seasons, 28 Blyth (Dr. E.), Proposed Zoological Divisions of the Earth, 427 Bonavia (Dr. E.) on Man’s Bare Back, 127 Bonney (Rey. T. G., F.G.S.), on Prismatic Structure in Ice, 105, 288 Book Shelf, Our, 24, 45, 64, 84, 103, 123, 145, 164, 183, 205, fee 264, 285, 304, 344, 365, 385, 404, 424, 444, 460, 454, 05 Boston, America, Museum of Comparative Zoology, 114 Botanical Museums, 401, 425 Botanical Society, 99 Botany in Honolulu, 173 Botany in Japan, 173 Botany, Journal of, 58, 138, 192, 216, 299, 417, 517 Botany, Lady Harly’s “‘ Catalogo Poliglotto delle Piante,” 506 Bowditch (Dr. H. P.), on the Physiological Laboratory at Leipzig, 142, 189 Brehm (Dr.), his Work on Popular Ornithology, 402 Bretschneider (Prof. C. A.), ‘* Die Geometrie und die Geometer vor Euklides,” 483 Brett (J.), on Mount Etna, 266. Bristol Observing Astronomical Society, 40, 218 “« Britain,” Derivation of the Word, 446, 487 British Naturalists’ Society, 494 British Association, Sectional Proceedings, 17, 37: Report of Kew Committee, 55 ; Resignation of Dr. Hirst, 35 “British Diatomacez,” by A. S. Donkin, M.D., 210 British Museum, Natural History Collections, 108 ; W. Car- ruthers, F.L.S., appointed Keeper of Botanical Department, 332; Catalogue of Fishes in the, 342 British Plants, Popular Names of, 262 Brooke (C.), on Aither, 109 Brothers (A., F.R.A.S.), on the Eclipse as Photographed at Syracuse, 328, 369 Brough (R. S.), on Earth Currents, 245 Brown (Dr. R., F.L.S.), on Californian Oaks, 327 Browning (J., F.R.A.S.), his Spectroscope, 53, 126, 248 Buchan (Alex.), on the Great Movements of the Atmosphere, 75. Buchanan (Dr.), on the Forces that carry on the Circulation of the Blood, 173 Buckton (G. B.), on Pitcher Plants, 34 vi INDEX Burder (Dr. G. F.), on Aurora by daylight, 126 Burstead (Dr. H. E.), on Assaying Silver in the Indian Mint, 279 Butler (A. G., M.A.), on Mimicry, 165 Calcutta, Asiatic Society of Bengal, 179, 499 Californian Oaks, 327 Callorhinus ursinus, or Northern Fur Seals (.See Seals) Cambridge: J. Hopkinson, Sen., and J. W. L. Glaisher, Second Wrangler, 274, 293 Cambridge University, Natural Science at, 13, 53, 73, 209, 212, 231, 264, 268, 287, 307, 471, 510, 511 Cambridge Philosophical Society, 340, 398, 439 Cambridge, Proposed College for Women, 493 Camphor Tree of Sumatra, 275 Capron (J. R.), on the Aurora Borealis, 28 Captain, Loss of H.M.S., 45 Carey (Jno.) on the Frost of 1870-71, 208 Carpenter (Dr. William B., F.R.S.), on Eozoon Canadense, 185, 386; on the Influence of Barometric Pressure on Ocean Currents, 232, 488 ; on Deep Sea Researches, 334, 415, 454 Carvalho (S, N., Jun.), on Natural Selection, 65, 85 Cassell’s Book of Birds, 402 Cast Iron (.Sze Iron and Steel) Catania, From London to, 67 Cattle Food, 313 Cave Exploration, 327, 491 Cave-paintings by Bushmen, South Africa, 107 Cefn Reptile, 7 Ceratodus Forsteri, from Australia, 107, 166 Cetacea, Fossil, 392 Chalk Formation, Prof. Wyville Thomson on its Continuity, 225, 286, 308 Cheadle (Dr. W. B.), on St. Mary’s Hospital, 248 Cheltenham College, Natural History Society, 333 Chemical Change, Heat, and Force, 344 Chemical Philosophy, First Principles of, by Josiah P. Cooke, Jun., 143 Chemical Research in England, 445 Chemical Science at British Association, 18, 37 Chemical Society, 39, 59, 77, 139, 197, 278, 299, 339, 378, 439, 451, 478, 497, 519 Chile, Quicksilver and Silver Mines in, 36, 134 China Grass Fibre, 214 Chip Hats, 36, 47 Cholera, T. R. Lewis, M.B. on its Supposed Fungoid Origin, Or feathers, The, 67 Chromosphere, Light from the Red Hydrogen-Stratum, 487 Chromosphere Lines, 266 Church’s Laboratory Guide, 25 Cinchona Bark, Imported from Colombia, 14 Cinchona Cultivation in Java, 114; in India, 194; in the West Indies, 473 Civil Engineering in India, 232, 372, 413 Civil Engineers, Institution of, 255, 519 Civil Engineers, their Education, 301 Claims of Science, 61 Clarke (Dr. Hyde), Exploration of the Perene (Amazon) River, 209 “ Class Book of Inorganic Chemistry,” by D. Morris, B.A., 345 Climbing (.Sze Mountain Climbing) Clouds, 28, 405 Coal-mine Proprietors in France, Association of, 484 Coal in India, 115, 394, 494 Cobbold, (Dr.), Succession in Relation to Continuity (Br. A.), 38 Cockroach, the, 27, 108, 148 : Cohn (Dr. Ferdinand), his Contributions to the Biology of Plants, 242 Cold, its influence on Steel and Iron, 256 Cold, extreme, at Mount Washington, in Scinde, and at Paris, 314, 353, 487 College of Surgeons, 294, 452 Colonial Institute, 451 Colour of Butterflies’ Wings, 48, 127 Colour, Experiments on, 234; C. J. Monro, on Yellow; F. T. Mott on the Primary Colours, 246, 264, 307, 327 Comets (See Tails of Comets) Conchology, Misadventures in, 289 Contraction of the Earth, 315 Cooke (Josiah P., jun.), his “ First Principles of Chemical Philo- sophy,” 143 Corfield (Prof. W. TI.), his Ascent of Mount Etna, 90; On the Utilisation of Sewage, 204, 246 7 Corona, The, its Polarisation and Spectrum, 25, 247, 332, 468, 509 _ Cotton Cultivation in India, 153, 154 Crabs, Gigantic, from Japan, 333 Crady (J. M.), on Cyclones, 28 Croll (James, F.G.S.), on Ocean Currents, 246 Crookes (W., F.R.S.), on Beet-Root Sugar, 4 Cubitt (J.}, on Aurora Borealis by Daylight, 104 Cumming (L.), on the Eclipse Expedition, 184 Cunningham (R. O., M.D.), onthe Natural History of Magellan and Patagonia, 484 Currey (F., F.R.S.), on Cohn’s Biology of Plants, 242 Cyclones, 28 82, 207, 228, Daniell’s Battery, Prof. Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., on, 350 Darlingtonia Californica, its Cultivation in England, 159, 167 Darwin (Charles, M.A., F.R.S.), his ‘* Descent of Man,” 442, 463; the Zimes Review of it, 488 ; on Pangenesis, 502 Darwinism, 38, 48, 102, 122, 127, 154, 165, 166, 270, 386 Darwinism, Essays on, by Thos. R. K. Stebbing, 444 Dawkins (W. Boyd, F.R.S.), on the Cefn Reptile, 7; on the *¢ Paleontology of Man,” 143 Dawson (G. M ), on the Aurora Borealis, 7 Dawson (Principal J. W., F.G.S.) (Montreal), on the Eozeon Canadense, 267, 287 Deep-Sea Mud, 16 Deep-sea Researches in H. M.S. Porcupine ; Report by Dr. Car- penter, F.R.S., and J. Gwyn Jeffreys, F.R.S., 334, 415, 454 Deep-sea Telegraphs, India-rubber for, 35 Deer, Geological Distribution of, 94 Defects in General Education, 103 De Fonvielle (W.), on War Balloons in Paris, 115, 132, 134, 175, 192, 274, 312, 370; on a Lunar Halo, 366; on Forms of Clouds, 405 Demerara, Kaieteur Waterfall, 108 De Morgan (Prof. Augustus), Obituary Notice of, 409 Denny (H.), Curator of Leeds Philosophical Society, Obituary notice of, 413 De Notaris (Prof.), his Work on Mosses, 349 “Descent of Man,” by Charles Darwin, M.A., F.R.S., 442, 463 De Rance (C. E., F.G.S.), on the Earthquake of March 17, 405 Deschanel (Prof. A. Privat), his ‘‘Treatise on Natural Philo- sophy,” edited by Prof. Everett, 145, 187, 227 Deville (M. H. Sainte-Claire), Science in France, 501 Diamond Fields of South Africa, 2, 255 ’ Diatomaceze, Dr. Donkin’s Natural History of the, 348 Dickson (Prof.), The Embryo of the Date Palm (Br. A.), 38 “ Dictionary of Science,” by G. F. Rodwell, F.R.A.S., 325 Dioptrics of Vision, 124, 387 “Dogs and their Doings,” by the Rev. F. O. Morris, B.A., 344 eee (A. S., M.D.), on ‘British Diatomacex,” 210, 348, 397 Doob-grass of India, 513 Draper’s Experiment simplified, 447 Dublin ; Natural History Society, 399; Trinity College, Obser- vatory and Astronomical Observations, 74, 300, 332, 390, 445; Scienceat, 361, 387 ; Royal Dublin Society, 399, 439 ; Royal Geographical Society, 239, 340; Royal Geological Society, 399, 487; Royal Historical and Archeological Association, 498; Royal Irish Academy, 100, 359; Zoolo- gical Society, 232, 399 Dudgeon (R. E., M.D.), on the Dioptrics of Vision, 124; on Lenses for Vision below Water, 387 Duncan (John), on Fertilisation of Hazel, 509 Duncan (P. M., F.R.S.), on the Metamorphoses of Insects, 329 D’ Urban (W. S. M.), Zrichiurus lepturus taken at Seaton, 107 Durie (James), on the Cockroach, 27 Duthie (J. F.), on a Meteor seen at Leyton, 426 et Seals and their Habits, by J. A. Allen and Capt. Bryant, 14 Earth, nature of its Interior, by D. Forbes, F.R.S., 296 Earth, its Contraction, 315 Earth Currents, 15, 245, 492 Earthquake of October 20, 1870, 52; in Natal, 15 ; in South America, 36; in the Hawaian Archipelago, 92; in Scinde, INDEX Vii 213, 295; at Fiume, 269; at Yokohama, 295; in Upper Scinde, 353; West Coast of Africa and Assam, Ecuador, and Bombay, 394; in Asia Minor, 395 ; March 17, 1871, account of, 405, 413, 426; North of England, New Zealand, 413 ; Peru, 434, 512; in India and Chili, 472 Earthquakes and the Electric Telegraph, 47 Earthquakes Ascribed to Subterranean Lightning, 492 Earwaker (J. P.) on the Aurora Borealis, 46; on Natural Science at Oxford, 170 East Kent Natural History Society, 472 Echoes of the Royal Albert Hall, W. Mattieu Williams on the, 499 Eclipse of the Sun of December 22, 1870; notices of Govern- ment and other Expeditions and Observations, 13, 14, 52, 69, 73, 87, 92, IOI, 113, 132, 51, 152. 171, 184, 195, 212, 221, 228, 231, 240, 261, 267, 288, 289, 310, 321, 327, 369 Eclipse (Sze Corona) Edinburgh : University, 13, 452, 511 ; Mr. Geikie appointed Professor of Geology, 332; Botanical Society, 300, 440; Royal Society, 219, 380; Royal Physical Society, 98, 220, 296, 459, 478 Edinburgh, H.R.H. the Duke of, in Ceylon, 366 Edmonds (R.), on the Insulation of St. Michael’s Mount, 309 ; on the Derivation of the name ‘‘ Britain,” 446. Education of Civil Engineers, 301 Egerton (Sir P. G., Bart., F.R.S.), on Ceratodus Forsteri, 166 Electricians, a Hint to, by Prof. Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S., 248 Electric Telegraph and [arthquakes, 47 Electro-magnetic Engine, Examples of its Performance, 474 **Elementary Physics, Lessons on,” by Prof. Balfour Stewart, L.L.D., F.R.S., 163 Elementary Schools, Teaching) Elephant, White, captured in Siam, 353 Elger (T. G.), on the Aurora Borealis, 6 Energy and Prof. Bain’s ‘‘ Logic of Physics,” 89. Engineering College for Indian Service, Proposed, 232, 372, 413 Entomological Society, 58, 97, 138, 218, 278, 312, 317, 397, 430, 477; Address of A. R. Wallace, I’. Z.S., President, 312, 435 Entomology, Economie, Prizes offered by the Horticultural Society, 495 , EozoGn Canadense in Canada, 146, 185, 267, 287, 367, 386 Essex Institute, 57 Etna, Mount, Ascent of by Prof. W. H. Corfield, go, 266 Ethnological Society, 59, 97, 158, 239, 278, 497 Ethnological Society of New York, 452 Evans (Rev. D. S.) on the Milky Way, 167 a (Sebastian) on Sir J. Lubbock’s ‘‘ Origin of Civilisation,” 2 Everett (Prof. J. D.), his edition of Deschanel’s ‘‘Treatise on Natural Philosophy,” 145, 187, 227 ; on the Measurement of Mass, 167, 187, 227, 266, 325, 345, 369, 420 Exeter, Royal Albert Museum, 332, 432 Extreme Seasons, 28 (See Cold, Frost) Scientific Teaching in (Se Science Faraday, Prof. Helmholtz on, 51 “Fauna Argentina,” by Dr. Burmeister, 282 Faunas of Oceanic Islands, 488 Fawcett (T.), on the Earthquake of March 17, 424 Fée’s ‘‘ Cryptogames Vasculaires,” 24 Fennell’s ‘‘ Book of the Roach,” 25 Ferments, Glycerine Extracts of, 168 Fern, the Irish, in Cornwall, 509 Femet’s ‘“‘ Elementary Physics,” 23 Fertilisation of Plants, 47; of the Hazel, 347, 414, 509 Field (W.), on Hereditary Deformities, 7 Fielding (Dr. G. H.), on the Frost of 1870—71, 327 Fires, Rain produced by, 448 Fishes in the British Museum, Catalogue of, 342 Fiume, Earthquake at, 269 Flammarion’s ‘‘ Marvels of the Heavens,” translated by Mrs. Norman Lockyer, 225 Floating Islands in Victoria, 449 Flower (Prof, W. H., F.R.S.), on the Osteology of the Mam- malia, 251 ; on Dr. Burmeister’s ‘‘ Fauna Argentina”, 282 Fluorspar, its Action on Cast-iron, 435 Folkstone Natural History Society, 153, 394 Forbes (David, F.R.S.), On the Nature of the Interior of the Earth, 296 ; On the Iron and Steel Institute, 422 Fossil Cetacea, 392 Fossils in the Museum at Oxford, 333 Foster (Prof. M.) on Glycerine Extracts of Pepsine, 168 Frankland (Prof. E., F.R.S.), on Spontaneous Generation, 225, 247 ; on Chemical Research, 445 Fraser (Geo.), on Sexual Selection, 489 Frost of the Winter of 1870-71, 193, 208, 212, 233, 295, 327 Fry (Edward, Q.C.), on Natural Selection, 506 Fuel of the Sun, 26 Fungi, 126 Fungi and Lichens, Swedish Pamphlet on, 214 Fungoid Origin of Cholera, 391 Gagliardi (J.), on the work by Prof. De Notaris, on Mosses, 349 Galloway (R., F.C.S.), his ‘‘ Manual of Qualitative Analysis,” 122 Galton (F., F.R.S.), on Pangenesis, 502 Garrod (A. H.), on Mounta‘n Climbing, £27. Geikie (A., F.R.S.), on Recent Petrographical Literature, 283, ‘302, 387 Genesis of Species, 270, 347, 426. 467 Geographical Society, 157, 411 “* Geology,” by Prof. Morris and T. Rupert Jones, 285 Geology of Nova Scotia, 214 Geology of Victoria, 134 Geological Magazine, 57, 339, 417 Geological Society, 96, 99, 117, 158, 217, 259, 316, 356, 376, 418, 458; Anniversary Meeting, 351 Geologists’ Association, 115, 498, 518 Geometrical Teaching, Association for its Reform, 169, 248 “Geometry, the Essentials of,” by J. R. Morell, 323, 347, 407, 427, 446 Geometry, Pre-Euclidian, 483 German Chemical Society, 60, 178 German Geological Society, 58 German North Pole Expedition, 454 Germany, Natural History Museums in, 441, 462 Gibbon, The Hoolock, at the Zoological Gardens, 481 Gibbs (W. B.), on the Aurora Borealis, 6 Glacial Motion, 309, 452 Glasgow University, Opening of, 35 Glasgow Geological Society, 159, 279, 398, 478 Glass Floats, 36, 87, 108, 307 (See Ocean Currents) Glutton, Remains of, near St. Asaph, 425 Glycerine Extracts of Pepsine, &c., 168, 207 Godman (F. D., F.L.S.), on the Natural History of the Azores, 393 Gold at Bangalore, 394 Gold Mining in Victoria, Reports of Surveyors, 93 Gold Ore in Madagascar, 255 Gottingen, Royal Academy of Sciences, 140 Grape Sugar, Manufacture of, 93 Greenland, Explorations in, 372 Greenwocd (Col. G.), on Ocean Currents, 48, 87 Gresham College Lectures, 212 Ground Nut, Pods of the, 93 Grove (W. R., F.R.S.), on the Aurora Borealis, 2 Gryson (Robert), on am extraordinary Meteor, 209 Guano Island discovered, 93 Gull (Larus occidentalis) at California, 513 Giimbel (Dr. C. W.), on Deep-sea Mud, 16 Gum Dammar, 470 Gum-trees of Australia, 494 Gun-cotton and Nitro-glycerine, 168 Gunpowder and Steam, Comparative Forces of, 35 Giinther (Albert, M.A., M.D., F,R.S.), his Catalogue of Fishes in the British Museum, 342 Hackney Scientific Association, 14, 54, 393, 398 Haeckel (Dr. Ernest), his ‘‘ Natural History of Creation,” 102 ; on Spontaneous Generation, 354. Haidinger (Wilhelm von), Obituary Notice of, 450 Hailstones, their Form, 128, 167 Halifax, Nova Scotia, Institute of Natural Science, 119, 399 Hall (J. G.), on the Aurora Borealis, 7 ; Electro-Magnetic Ane- mometer, (Br. A.), 17 Hall (John James, F.M.S.), on the Frost of 1870—71, 208 ; on a Wind Direction Gauge, 509 Hall (M.), Records of European Research, 446 Hammond (Basil E.), on the Light from the Red Hydrogen- Stratum of the Chromosphere, 487 Vill INDEX Hampden (J.), on the Eclipse Expedition, 267 Hamy (Docteur E, J.), his ‘‘ Précis de Paléontologie Humaine,” I - caves (Jas.), Cinder of Phosphoric Acid as Manure, (Br. A.), 17 **Harlem, Archives des Sciences Exactes et Natwelles,” 356 Harris (W. A.), on the Eclipse, 288 Harrison (W. H.), on a Tubular Postal Service, 450, 476 Hartley Institution, Southampton, 114 Haughton (Rev Prof. S., F.R.S.), on the Laws of Muscular Exertion, 289 Hazel, the Fertilisation of the, 347, 414, 509 Heat Spectra, 276 Heavy Artillery, its Construction, 69, 128 Heinemann on the Lepidoptera of Germany, 45 Hector (Dr. James), on Aurora Australis, 447 Hele (N. F.), ‘Notes about Aldeburgh, Suffolk,” 485 Helmholtz (Prof.) on Faraday, 51; his “ ‘Tonempfindungen,” 46 eee (Jas.), his Patent Steel Process, 94, 233; on the Action of Fluorspar on Cast Iron, 440 Herschel (A. S.), on the Aurora Borealis, 5; on Aurora Borealis at Glasgow, April 9, 1871, 486 Herschel (Sir J. F. W., F.R.S.), on Terrestrial Magnetism, 249 Hereditary Deformities, 7, 14, 47, £27, 168 Higgins (Rev. Henry H.), on Invertebrate Animals in the Free Museum, Liverpool, 202, 481 Highton (Rev. H., M.A.), on Chemical Change, Heat and Force, 344.; on Perpetual Motion, 368, 407 ; on ‘the Over- throw of Electro-Dynamics,” 386 Hind (J. R., F.R.S.), on the Transits of Venus in 2004 and 2012, 513 Hijaltalin (J. A.), on the Singing of Swans, 2 Hobart Town, Koyal Society of Tasmania, 359 Honey Bee, The, 385 Honolulu, Botany in, 173 Hooker (Dr. J. D., F.R.S,), on Schimper’s ‘‘ Vegetable Palwontology,” 42; on Nepenthes, 147; his Botanical Ex- pedition to Morocco, 452 Hooker (Mrs. F. H.), on Chip Hats, 45; on Electric Telegraphs Earthquakes, 47 Hoolock Gibbon at the Zoological Gardens, 481 Hopkinsen (Dr. J.), on Work and Force, 407 Horned Toad of Oregon, 512 Horticultural Society, Sale of part of Chiswick Gardens, 152 ; Prizes offered for Collections of Economic Entomology, 495, 512 Horticulture in France, Fund to relieve Sufferings trom the War, 372, 414 (See Paris) Houghton (Rev. W.), on the Cockroach, 27 ; on Fungi, 126 Hughes (T. Me. K., F.G.S.), on the Cretaceous Period, 308 ; on aves near St. Asaph, 327; Occurrences of Glutton near St. Asaph, 425 Hulme, Science Lectures at, 193, 212, 232, 332, 493 Humboldt Scholarship at Boston, 254 Huxley (Prof.), his Lay Sermons, 22; on Bacteria and Spon- taneous Generation (Br. A.) 37; on Natural Selection (Br. A.) 38 ; elected President of the Birmingham and Midland Jnsti- tute, 231 Hyatt (James), on the Spectrum of the Aurora, 104 Hybridity and Mimicry (See Mimicry) Tce, its Prismatic Structure, 105, 288 Ice-making Machine, American, 134 Imagination in Science, 395 Im Thurn (E. F’,) on the Irish Fern in Cornwall, 509 India, Cotton Cultivation in, 153 India Museum, its Zoological Collection, 328 Indian Notes, 115, 134, 153, 154, 179, 194, 213, 232; 244, 2755 295, 308, 313, 353, 372) 394, 413, 472, 494, 499, 513 Indianopolis Academy of Sciences, 92 Ingleby (Dr. C. M.), on the apparent Size of the Moon, 228 Ink Plant of New Granada, 473 Inorganic Chemistry, Class Book of,” by D. Morris, B.A., 345 Insulation of St. Michael’s Mount, Cornwall, 206, 245, 265, 289, 09 *Tnsects, Metamorphoses of,” Prof. P. M. Duncan, F.R.S., on the, 329 International Exhibition of 1871, 132, 172, 332 Invertebrate Animals collected in the Free Museum, Liverpool, 208, 481 Treland (See Dublin) Irish Fern in Cornwall, 509 Iron and Steel, Influence of Intense Cold on, 256 Iron and Steel, Papers on the Bessemer process, 94, 211, 374, 388, 410 Tron and Steel Institute, Annual Meeting, 470 Iron, Cast, Action of Fluor Spar on, 435 David Forbes, F.R.S., on the, 422; Jack (Prof. W.), on Fernet’s ‘* Elementary Physics,” 23 Jackson (John R., A. L.S.), on the Produce and Supply of Sugar, 150, 230; on Algaroba, 347 Jackson (Rev. Thomas, M.A.), on “Our Feathered Com- panions,” 344 Jamieson (Dr. R. A.), on Sunstroke, 168 Japan, Botany of, 170 Japan Clover, 194 Japan, Gigantic Crabs from, in British Museum, 333 Japanese Printing, 54 Jeffreys (J. Gwyn, F.R.S.), on Ocean Currents, 48, 307; on Deep-sea Researches, 334, 415, 454 Jerdan (W. L., F.R.G.S.), on the Action of Vis inertia in the Ocean, 505 Jeremiah (J.), on the Aurora Borealis, 46, 174, 4875 on the Milky Way, 48, 167 Jevons (Prof., W. Stanley), on the Power of Numerical Discri- mination, 281, 367, 405 Johnson (Keith, Jun., F,R.G.S.),7on Ocean Currents, 227, 265, 368 a Jones (J. Matthew) on Faunas of Ocean Islands, 488 Jones (Prof. T. Rupert), on Cave Paintings by Bushmen, 107. Jones (Thomas Rymer, F.R.S.), his Adaptation of Dr. Brehm’s work on Popular Ornithology, 402 Joule (Dr. J. P., FR S.), on the Performances of the Electro- Magnetic Engine, 474 e Journal of Botany, 192 (See Botany) Jupiter, the Planet, Observations of, 430 Jute, Cultivation of, 194 Kaieteur Waterfall, Demerara, 108 Kent (W. Saville, F.L.S.), on new Species of Madrepore, 492 Key (Rev. H. C.), on an Earthquake on March 20, 426 Kinahan (G. H., F.G.S.) on early mentions of the Aurora Borealis, 105 ; on the Eozodn Canadense, 267; on the Cretaceous Period, 286 Kingsley (Rev. Canon), Note on Cockroaches, 148 Kohlrausch (Prof.), on Practical Physics, 121 Kingfishers, Monograph of the Family of, by R. B, Sharpe, F.L.S., 466 King’s College, 212 Kirkwood (Prof. D.), on the Spectrum of the Aurora, 126 Krefit (Gerard), on the Ceratodus Forsteri, 107 Lacroix (Paul), on the Arts in the Middle Ages, 404 Ladies’ Educational Association, 312 Lake-dwellings of the Orinoco, 11 Lankester (E., M.D., F.R.S.), on Scarlet Fever, 41, 125; on Science at School Boards, 161 ; on the Small-pox Epidemic, 341 Laney (E. Ray, F.L.S.), on Phosphatic Manures, 62 ; on Dr. Nicholson’s ‘‘ Zoology,” 86 Landslips, 213 Langley (S. P.), on the American Eclipse Expedition, 228 . Langton (John, Ottawa), on Aurora by Daylight, 510 La Plata, its Resources, 8 Lartet (M.), Professor of Palzontology, Obituary notice of, 372 Laughton (J. K.), Can Weather be Influenced by Artificial means ? 306 ; on Physical Geography, 383; on Ocean Cur- rents, 246, 326, 447, 469 Learned Societies, and Condition of Science and Learning, by W. E. A, Axon, 162 Leeches, Trade in, 213 Leeds Naturalists’ Field Club, 54, 98 Leeds Philosophical and Literary Society, 413, 471 Leipzig, Physiological Laboratory at, 142 Lemons from Sicily attacked by a Parasite, 255 Lenses of Microscopes, Improvements in, 334 Lenses for Vision below Water, 387 Lepidoptera of Germany, 45 Leroy (Charles Georges), on the Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals, 182 es a ee — ee ee INDEX Lewis (T. R., M.B.), on the Fungoid Origin of Cholera, 391 Linnean Society, 58, 78, 118, 158, 260, 300, 359, 378, 420, 478 Liverpool, Collection of Invertebrate Animals in Free Museum, 202, 481 Liverpool, Proposed Scientific College, 133 Lockyer (J. Norman, F.R.S.), on Spectroscopic Observations of the Sun, 34; on the Solar Eclipse, 221, 321 Lockyer, Mrs. Norman, her Translation of Flammarion’s “ Mar- vels of the Heavens,” 285 Locusts on an East Indian Cotton Plantation, 154 London Conjoint Examining Boards, 354 London Institution, 118, 139, 172, 213 London University, 294, 472 Lough (B.), on Quinary Music, 387 Lubbock (Sir John, Bart., M.P., F.R.S.), on the ‘‘ Origin of Civilisation,” 362 Lunar Halos, 245, 366, 407 * Lumiére Cendrée,” Prof, H. G. S. Smith, F.R.S., on, 167 Lyall (W.), on a Wind-direction Rain-gauge, 448 McDougall (G.F.), on Sharks announcing their own capture, 208 Madrepore, New Species of, 492 Magellan and Patagonia, Natural History of, 484 Magnetism, Terrestrial, M. Petersen on, 249 Maidstone Natural History and Philosophical Society, 380 Main (Rev. R., F.R.S.), on the Aurora Borealis, 7; on November Meteors, 52 Maize, its Introduction into China, 214 Mammalia, Osteology of the, 251 _Man, Natural History of,” Rev. J. G. Wood, 9 Man’s Bare Back, 127 Manchester Fjeld Naturalists’ Society, 453 Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, 17, 91, 199, 219, 317, 378, 439, 458 Manchester, Science Lectures to Working Men, 53 Mann (Dr.), on the New Hospital of St. Thomas, 201, 503 Marlborough College Natural History Society, 14, 231, 414 Marshall (John, F.R.S.), on ‘* Pangenesis,” 467 * Marvels of the Heavens” by Flammarion, translated by Mrs, Norman Lockyer, 285 Masters (Dr. M.T., F.R.S.), on Botanical Museums, 425 Mathematical and Physical Science at Brtish Association, 18, 37 Mathematical Society, 78, 178, 278, 358, 397, 518 Matheran Hill, Bombay, its Natural History, 244 Measurement of Mass, Prof. Everett on the, 167, 187, 227, 266, 325, 345, 369, 426 Meat Preservation in Australia, 373 Mechanical Science at British Association, 18 Medical Schools in England and Germany, 81 Melbourne, Industrial and Technical Museum, 213 Meldola, (R.), on Sexual Selection, 508 * Messenger of Mathematics,” 493 “*Metamorphoses of Insects,” Pro% P. M. Duncan, F.R.S., on, 329 Meteoric Iron, 36 Meteoric Shower, 168 Meteorological Magazine, 433 Meteorological Report for 1869, 3 Meteorological Society, 79 Meteorology, a (Juestion in, 427 Meteorology in America, 153 Meteorology in Asia, 509 Meteorology, influence of Aqueous Vapour on, 495 Meteor seen at Worcester, 333 Meteor in Peru, 512 Meteors, 68, 209, 308, 425 Metric System of Weights and Measures, 448 Microscope, the, 55 Microscope Lenses, Improvements in, 534 Microscopical Society, 312 Microscopy, American Journal of, 494 Middleton (Rey. C. H.), on the Earthquake of March 17, 426 Milky Way, 48, 108, 167 Miller (Dr.), Memorial to, 293 Miller (Samuel H.), on Science Teaching, 208 Mimicry and Hybridisation, by A. Murray, 133, 147, 154, 165, 186; illustrations from South Africa, by J. P. Mansel Weale, 507 (See Natural Selection) ** Mineralogie der Vulcane,” by Von G. Landgrebe, 455 1X Mivart (St. George, F.R.S.), on the Genesis of Species, 270 ; on Ape Resemblances to Man, 481 ; remarks thereon by Edward Fry, Q.C., 506 Monck (W. H.), on the Influence of Aqueous Vapour on Meteorology, 495 Monro (C. J.), on Natural Selection, 85 ; on Yellow, 246 Montreal Natural History Society, 118, 213, 239, 460 Moon, its Apparent Size, 228 (See Lunar Halos) Morell (J. R.), ‘‘ The Essentials of Geometry,” 323, 347, 407, 427, 446 Morell (Catherine), ‘‘ Descriptive Travels and Adventures,” 404 Morris (D., B.A.), his “Class Book of Inorganic Chemistry,” 345 Morris (Rev., F. O., B.A.), his ‘* Works in Natural History, &c,”’ 122; on ‘* Dogs and their Doings,” 344 Morse (Prof.), Statue to, 35 Moth, a Rare, 369 Mott, (I. T.), on the Primary Colours, 246, 264, 307, 327; on Comet’s Tails, 265 Mountain Climbing, 90, 127 Mount Etna, 266 Mount Washington in winter, 314; its height, 487 Muir (T.), on Measurement of Mass and Force, 426 Miiller (Prof. Max), on the Insulation of St. Michael’s Moun- Cornwall, 206, 245 Mullen (J.), on Quinary Music, 367 Murchison (Sir Roderick, P.G.S., F.R.S.), his illness, 92, 113, 132; his endowment of a Chair of Geology at Edinburgh University, 152 Murphy (J. J., F.G.S.), on Clouds, 28; on Hereditary Defor- mities, 127; on Hailstones, 167; on Atmospheric Currents, 228; on the Prevalence of West Winds, 306, 427; on Ocean Currents, 469 Murray (A.,F.L.S.), on ‘‘ Mimicry and Hybridisation.” 154, 186 Muscular Exertion, Rev. Prof. S$, Haughton, F.R.S., on the Natural Laws of, 289 Museums, Botanical, gor, 425 Museums of Natural History, 381 Museums of Natural History in Germany, 441, 462 Music, Proposed Training School for, 152 Music, Quinary, its Performance, 281, 367, 387, 405 Musical Intervals, 75 Natural Selection, A. W. Bennett on, 30; Mr. Wallace’s Reply, 49; Mr. Bennett’s Rejoinder and Correspondence, 65 ; Letters from A. R. Wallace, S. N. Carvalho, jun., and C. J. Monro, 86, 107; A. W. Bennett on, 147, 162, 270, 272, 426; Edward Fry,Q.C., on, 506 (.See Sexual Selection) “ Natural History, Works on,” by Rev. F. O. Morris, B.A., 122 “‘ Natural History of Man,” by the Rev. J. G. Wood, M.A., 9 Natural History Collections of the British Museum, 108 Natural History Museum at South Kensington, Plans for, 352 Natural History Museums, 381; their Utilisation in Germany, I, 462 Natnral Euacey Professorship, Queen’s College, Belfast, 33 Natural History Societies, 141 ‘* Natural History of Commerce,” by Dr. Yeats, 103 “Natural History of the Azores,” by F. D. Godman, F.L.S. ‘0 Nihalson (Dr. H. Alleyne), his ‘* Zoology,” 86 Nicholson (Dr.) on ‘‘ Zoology,” 86 Nitrate of Silver as a Microscopic Re-agent, 55 Nitro-Glycerine and Gun-Cotton, 168 Nepenthes (.Sze Pitcher Plants) Newcastle, Science College at, 485 New Mode of Evolving Light, 48 New Zealand, Philosophical Society, 119 New Zealand Animals at the Zoological Gardens, 190, 268 New Zealand, Thistles in, 193 Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, 98, 159, 239, 349, 8 Nath London Naturalists’ Club, 113, 126 North Pole Expeditions, 54, 454 Nova Scotia, its Geology, 214 November Meteors, 52, 68 Numerical Discrimination, Power of, 281, 367, 495 Oaks, Californian, 327 Object Teaching in America, 4.75 Observatory of Trinity College, Dublin, 74, 300, 332, 39°, 445 x INDEX Ocean Currents, 36, 48, 87, 108, 227, 232, 246, 265, 307, 309, 326, 368, 447, 469, 488 Oceanic Vertebrates, 268 “Origin of Civilisation,” by Sir John Lubbock, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., 362 Origin of Species, 270, 426 (See Darwinism, Genesis of Species, Natural Selection) Osborn (Captain Sherard, R.N.), on the Geography of the Sea Bed, 133 “ Osteology of the Mammalia,” by W. H. Flower, F.R.S., 251 Otariadz ( See Seals) Oxiord, Natural Science at, 14, 53, 170, 192, 491, 510 Oudemans (J. A. C.), on the Corona, 25 ‘‘Our Feathered Companions,” by the Rev. Thos. Jackson, M.A., 342 Oyster Cultivation, Report of the Trish Commissioners on, 332 Paisley, Natural History Museum, 275 ‘© Paleontology of Man,” by Dr. Hamy, 143 Palms in Ceylon, 275 Pangenesis, John Marshall, F.R.S., on, 467 ; C. Darwin, M.A., F.R.S., on Mr. Galton’s Paper at Royal Society, 502 Parasites, Prof. Van Beneden on, 392 Paris, Notes on the Siege of: Danger to Collections, 73 ; Jardin des Plantes and Jardin d’Acclimatatioa, 113 ; Cultivation of Vegetables, 132; Société Chimique, 132 ; Proceedings of the Institute, 132 ; Destruction of Nurseries and Greenhouses, 172; Investigations into the Effects of Shells on Buildings and In- habitants, 253 ; Increased Mortality, 253 ; Injuries to the Jardin des Plantes, 253, 352, 372, 414; to the Jardin d’Acclimatation, 352, 353; Damage by Shells, 273 ; Elephants killed at Jardin des Plantes, 274; Scarcity of Fuel, 295; Protection of the Louvre, 312 ; Meeting of Académie des Sciences, 113, 332, 380, 400, 420, 440, 460, 493, 520; Scientific Men killed during the War, 332, 333, 372; 413 ; Cattle Plague, Mortality of Men and Horses, 372; Fund for Relief of Horticulturists, 372 ; Science During the Siege, 490 Patterson (T. L.), on Snake Bites, 308 Peacock (R. A.), on the Insulation of St. Michael’s Mount, 265 Pearls from Mussels in Natal, 395 Peirce (Prof. B.), on the Contraction of the Earth, 315 Pengelly (W., F.R.S.), on the Insulation of St. Michael’s Mount, Cornwall, 206 Pepsine, Glycerine Extracts of, 168, 207 Perene (Amazons) River, its Exploration, 209 Perpetual Motion, 368, 407 Perrault (Ernest), on a Hearth of the Polished Stone Age dis- covered at Chassey, 224 Perry (Rev. S. J.), on the Chromosphere, 67; on November Meteors, 68 ; on the Earthquake of March 17, 405 Perthshire Society of Natural Science, 153, 159, 233, 34° Petrographical Literature, A. Geikie, F.R.S., on, 283, 302, 387 Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 100, 200; Academy of Natural Sciences, 160, 179, 200, 279, 319, 499 Phillips (Prof.), his Work on the Geography and Geology of the Thames Valley, 332 Philology and Darwinism, 48 Phosphatic Manures, 62 Photographic Processes, 187 Photographic Society’s Exhibition, 54 Physical Geography, by J. K. Laughton, M.A., 383 Physical Laboratories, 241, 323 Physical Science, School of, at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 461 Physiological Laboratory at Leipzig, 142 Physiological Laboratories, 189 - Pickering, (Prof. Edward C.), on the Corona, 82 ; on the Spec- trum of the Aurora, 104; on Physical Laboratories, 241 Piesse (Septimus, F.C.S.), on the Colours of Feathers and Butterflies’ Wings, 127 Pitcher Plants, 34, 167, 147, 148 Plants, Resemblances of, 347 Pneumatic Tubes (Sze Tubular Postal Service) Pocklington (H.), on Pitcher Plants, 148 ; on Gum Dammar, 470 Poggendorf’s Annalen, 137, 216, 258 Pocklington (C.), on the Aurora Borealis, 7 Poison Plant of Madagascar. 275 Polarisation of Light and New Polarising Apparatus, by Sir C. Wheatsone, F.R.S., 514 Polished Stone Age, 2 hearth of that period at Chassey, 224 Popular Names of British Plants,” 262 Power (H., M.B.), on Wood’s “ Natural History of Man,” 9 ‘© Practical Physics,” by Prof. Kohlrausch, 121 Preece (W. H.), on Earth Currents, 15 Pre-Euclidian Geometry, 483 Prior (R. C. A., M.D., F.L.S.), on the “ Popular Names of British Plants,” 962 Prismatic Structure in Ice, 288 Pritchard (A.), on a new mode of Evolving Light, 48 Proctor (Richard A., F.R.A.S.), on Tails of Comets, Corona, and Aurora, 247 Procter (H. R.), on the Aurora Borealis, 6, 68, 346, 369, 468; on the Corona, 468 ; on Hailstones, 128 Progress of Science in 1870, 181 ‘ Protective Resemblances,” J. P. M. Weale on, 507 Public Schools Commissioners, 14 Primary Colours (See Colours) “Pure Science, a Plan for,” by Prof. Williamson, F.R.S., 135. Pye-Smith (Dr. P. H.), on Darwin’s “ Descent of Man,” 442, 463 Quails, Increased Immigration of, 214 Quain (Dr,), on Defects in General Education, 103 “Qualitative Analysis, Manual of,” by R. Galloway, F.C.S., 122 Quarterly Journal of Science, 236 Quarterly Weather Report, 3 Quicksilver Mine in Chile, 36 Quinary Music, 281, 367, 387, 405 Queensland Acclimatisation Society, 194 Rain Guage at Aldershot Camp, 509 Rain produced by Fires, 448 Ranyard (Arthur C., F.R.A.S.), Obituary Notice of Prof. De Morgan, 490 Rare Fish (7vichiurus lepturus) taken at Seaton, 107 Reade (T. M.), on Eozo6n Canadense, 146, 267, 367 “Record of Zoological Literature,” 423 Reeks (Henry, F.L.S.), on the Milky Way, 108 ; Aurora arcs in the East, 167 Resemblances of Plants, 347 Reynolds (Prof. Oaborne), on Tails of Comets, Solar Corona and Aurora, 228 Robinson (Rey. C. J., F.L.S.), on the Resources of La Plata, 83 Rickard (Major), on the Resources of La Plata, 83 Riga, Naturalists’ Society of, 394 Right-handedness, 168 Royal Albert Hall, its progress, 152 ; its echoes, 469 Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction, 92, 273, 371 ; First Report, 421 Royal Institution, 53, 192, 317, 378, 453, 477 Royal Society, its Government, I Royal Society, proceedings of, 34, 176, 237, 277, 316, 339, 356, 375» 395 397) 413, 418, 457, 517 Rodwell (G. F., F.C.S.), his ‘ Dictionary of Science,” 325 ; on Science in Paris during the Siege, 490 Rugby, Natural Science at, 372 Russell (R.), on Rain produced by Fires, 448 Russia, Archeology in, 373 Russian American Telegraph, 74 Russian Honey, 275 Rutherford (W.), his Photograph of the Pleiades, 492 Sabine (Robert, C.E.), on Transmission through Pneumatic Tubes, 476 St. Michael’s Mount, Prof. Max Miiller on the Insulation of, 206, 245 ; Correspondence thereon, 265, 289, 309 St. Petersburg, Bulletin of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, 15 St. Petersburg Geological Museum, 295 St. Thomas’s Hospital, Arrangements of, described by R. J. Mann, M.D., 201, 503 Samuelson (H., M.P.), on the Eclipse, 310 Sanderson (J. Burdon, F.R.S.), on Physiological Laboratories, 189 Sanitary Tests, 347 Sanitary Commission, Report of the, 393 Savage (Dr. G, H.), on the Earthqvake of March 17, 405 Scarlet Fever, Dr. Lankester on, 41, 125 Schiff (Hugo), on the Constitution of Arbutin, 137 Schimper’s ‘‘ Traité de Paleontologie Vegetale,” 42 School Books on Science, 274 (See Scientific Teaching) School of Physical Science at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 461 Schweinfurth (Dr.), his letter from Central Africa, 215 ‘* Schweizerische Naturforschende Gesellschaft,” 356 Science, Progress in 1870, 181 a a ee INDEX “i Science, the Claims of, 61 Science at School Boards, by Dr. Lankester, 161, 208 Science and Art Department, South Kensington, 232, 293, 408 Science College at Newcastle, 485 “Science, Dictionary of,” by G. F. Rodwell, F.R.A.S., 325 ** Science, Use and Limit of Imagination in,” by Prof. Tyndall, F.R.S., 183, 395 Science in Government Workshops, 410 - Science Teaching in Private Schools, 149, 241, 305, 387, 404, 497, 495 . Science and the Working Classes, 21, 369 Scientific Instruction and Advancement of Science, Royal Com- mission on, 92, 273, 371; First Report, 421 Scientific Nomenclature, 268 Scientific Serials, 20, 39, 57, 116, 137, 156, 216, 236, 258, 299, 339, 356, 396, 417, 457, 476, 497, 517 “Scientific Year Books,” 63 Sclater, (Dr. P. L., F.R.S.), on Eared Seals, 148 ; on New Zea- land Animals at the Zoological Gardens, 1yo Scott (Robert H.), on Glass Floats, 108 ; Meteorology in Asia, 509 Scottish Meteorological Society, 414 **Scottish Naturalist,” 517 Scudder (S. H.), on Mimicry, 147; on Mount Washington, 497 Sea Bed, Geography of the, by Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N., 133 Seals, Eared, and their Habits, 148 Sedgwick (Prof., F.R.S.), his exertions as Professor of Geology at Cambridge, 511 Settle Cave Exploration, 491 Sewage, Prof. W. H. Corfield, on its Utilisation, 204, 384 Sexual Selection, George Fraser, on, 489, 508 Sharks announcing their own Capture, 208 Sharp (Dr. D.), Natural Selection, 67 ; on Reality of Species, 426 eee (R. B., F.L.S.), his ‘* Monograph of the Alcedinidz,”’ 4 Sharpe (R.B., F.L.S.) and H. E. Dresser, F.Z.S., on the ‘* Birds of Europe,” 505 Shaw (Dr. John), on the Geology of the Diamond Fields of South Africa, 2 Sheffield, Proposed Free Public Museum at, 254 Sierra Nevada and Yosemite Valley of California, 44 Silliman’s American Journal of Science, 156, 172, 476 Silver, Method of Assaying it in the Indian Mint, 276 Simpson (Sir James Y.), Memorial to, 53 Singing of Swans, 29 Slade (J.), an the North London Naturalists’ Club, 126 Small-pox Epidemic, Dr. Lankester on the, 341 Smith (A. M.), on the Aurora Borealis, 7 Smith (Edwin), on a Meteor seen at Nottingham, 425 Smith (Prof. H. G. S., F.R.S.), om ‘‘ Lumiére Cendrée,” 167 Smith (W. G., F.L.S.), on Darlingtonia Californica, 167 Smyth (Prof. C. Piazzi, F.R.S.), on Zodiacal Light, 289 ; on Solar Science and Secret Referees, 468 ; on Spectra of Aurora, Corona, and Zodiacal Light, 509 Snakes and Snake-bites in India, 153, 308, 313 Society of Arts, 92 Solar Science and Secret Referees, Prof. C. Piazzi Smyth on, 468 eee ure Archeological and Natural History Society, 198, 313, 31 Southampton, Hartley Institution, 114 , South London Microscopical and Natural History Club, 512 Spain, Spectroscopic Observations of the Eclipse in, 261 Spectra of Aurora Borealis, Corona, and Zodiacal Light, 346, 360, 509 ; Spectroscope (Browning’s), 53, 126, 248 Spectroscopic Notes, by C. A. Young, 110 Spectroscopic Observations of the Sun, 34; by the American Eclipse Party in Spain, 261 Spontaneous Generation, 225, 247 Spontaneous Generation, Prof. Ernst Haeckel on, 354 Spottiswoode (W., F.R.S.), on Musical Intervals, 75 Stanford (E. C. C.), Retention of Organic Nitrogen by Charcoa (Br. A.), 17 State Aid to Science, 29 Steam and Gunpowder, Comparative Forces of, 35 Stebbing (Thomas R. R.), on Natural Selection, 65; his “Essays on Darwinism,” 444; 0n the Zimes Review of Darwin’s ** Descent of Man,” 488 = Steel and Iron, Papers on, 94, 211 374, 388, 410 Steel and Iron, Influence of Intense Cold on, 256 Stenhouse (Dr., F.R.S.), Pension granted to, 273 Stereoscope, its Introduction in France, 154 Stewart (Prof. Balfour, F.R.S.), on the Quarterly Weather Re- port for 1869, 3; his opening Lecture at Owen’s College, Manchester, 5; on State Aid to Science, 29; Accident to, 92, 113, 132; his ‘‘ Lessons on Elementary Physics,” 163 ; on Heat Spectra, 276 Stone Age, the (Sze Polished Stone Age) Strange (Colonel), on Dr. Stewart’s Lecture at Manchester, 5 ; on the Loss of the Captain, 45 Stralsund, Natural History Society, 356 Strasburg, Natural History Museum, 352 ae Manufacture in Santander, Colombia. 36 ; (Sze Chip ats) Strecker’s ‘‘Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der Chemie,” 485 Stricker (S.), on Medical Schools in Germany and England, 81 Strutt (Hon. J. W.), on Experiments on Colour, 234, 265 Subterranean Electrical Disturbances (Sze Earth Currents) Successive Polarisation of Light, by Sir C. Wheatstone, F.R.S., 514 Sugar, its Produce and Supply, 150, 230 Suicide, Statistics of, 255 Sun, Spectroscopic Observations of the, 34 Sun Spots, M. Zollner on, 393 ; their Connection with Tempe- rature, 434, 468, 469 Sun Stroke, 168 Sun, Total Fclipse of, December 22, 1870 (See Eclipse, Corona). Surf-swimming in the Sandwich Islands, 10 Tails of Comets, 207, 228, 247, 265 Tait (Prof. P. G., F.R.S.), his Address on Energy and Prof. Bain’s ‘‘ Logic of Physics,” 89, 125 ; on Prof. Balfour Stew- art’s Elementary Physics, 163 Taylor (Sedley), on “ Helmholtz’s Tonempfindungen,” 465 Telegraphy, Russian-American Telegraph, 74 (See Earthquakes) Temperature, its Connection with Sun-spot Phenomena, 434, 468 Temple Memorial, Rugby, 361 Terrestrial Magnetism, M. Petersen on, 249 Texas University, 15 Thistles in New Zealand, 193 Thompson (W. G.), on Aurora by Daylight, 348 Thompson (W. J. B.), on Aurora Borealis, April 9, 1871, 487 Thomson (Prof. Sir William, F.R.S.), a Hint to Electricians, 248 ; on a constant form of Daniell’s Battery, 350 Thomson (Prof. Wyville, F.R.S.), on the Continuity of the Chalk, 225, 286, 308 Thorpe (Dr. T. E.), on Galloway’s “ Qualitative Analysis,” 122 Thunderstorm at Preston, 509 Tigers at Bay, 275, 348 “Tin,” Derivation of the Word, 388 Tobacco and Prof, Huxley, 255 Tobacco, Colonial, 93, 153 Tobacco, Early Mention of, 194. Tobacco, Post-mortem Appearances of a Smoker, 114 “¢Tonempfindungen,” Helmholtz’s, 468 Transfusion of Blood, 467 Transits of Venus in 2004 and 2012, by J. R. Hind, F.R.S., 513 “ Travel and Adventures, Descriptive,” by Catherine Morell, 404 Tree Worship, 74, 114, 194 Trichiurus lepturus, taken at Seaton, 107 Trinity College, Dublin (.See Dublin) Truffle Cultivation, 54 Tubular Postage Service, 450; R. Sabine, C.E., on Pneumatic Tubes, 476 Tuckwell (Rev. W.), on Prior’s ‘‘ Popular Names of British Plants, 262 Tunnel through the Hoosac Mountains, 254 Tyndall (Prof. F.R.S.,), ‘‘ Use and Limit of Imagination in Science,” 183, 395 Ullyett (Henry) on “ Science Teaching for the People,” 305, 369 Van Beneden (Prof.), on Parasites, 392 Varley, (S. A.), on a Magnetic Paradox (Br. A.) 17 Vegetable Palzeontology, Schimper’s Treatise on, 42 ; Venus, Proposed Observations of the Planet, 348 ; Transits of, in 2004 and 2012, by J. R. Hind, F.R.S., 513 Xil ——— Vertebrates, Oceanic, 268 Vibratory Phenomena, Experiments on, 434 Victoria, Floating Islands in, 449; Geology of, 134; Gold- mining in, 93; Philosophical Institute, 300 ; Royal Society of, 496 ; Science in, 315 5 Vienna, Science in, 382 ; Imperial Geological Institution, 120, 140, 179, 200, 240, 480; Imperial Academy of Sciences, 120, 140, 47 Vis pat in the Ocean, W. L Jerdan, F.R.G.S,, on the Ac- tion of, 505 Vision, Dioptrics of, 124 Volcano in California, 35 Waite (Rev. J.), on the Science College at Newcastle, 485 Walenn (W. H., F.C.S.), on Sun Spots, 469 Wallace (A. R., F.Z.S.), on Man and Natural Selection, 8, 49, 85, 107; on Mimicry and Hybridisation, 165 ; on Leroy’s “ In- telligence and Perfectibility of Animals,” 182 ; on the Theory of Glacial Motion, 309 ; his Anniversary Address at the En- tomological Society, 312, 435 ; on Duncan’s ‘*‘ Metamorphoses of Insects,” 329 ; on “The Honey Bee,” by Dr. Bevan, 355 ; on Sharpe’s “ Monograph of the Alcedinida,” 466 Waller (F. H.), on the Aurora, 468 War Balloons used in Paris (See De Fonvielle) Ward (John C.), on a Meteoric Shower, 168 Water-Snakes of India, 394 Waterspout on the Irawaddy River, 92 Watson (C. J.), on Vibratory Phenomena, 434 Watson (H. J.), Books Wanted, 405, 426 Weale (J. P. Mansel), on Protective Resemblances, 507 Weather, can it be Influenced by Artificial Means? 306 Webb (Rev. T. W., F.R.A.S.), Observations of Planet Jupiter, 430° Weights and Measures, Bill to Establish the Metric System, 448 Weir (J. J., F.L.S.), on Natural Selection, 166 West Winds, Prevalence of, 306, 427 Wetherill (Prof. C. M.), on Hereditary Deformities, 168 Wheatstone (Sir C., F.R.S.), on the Successive Polarisation of Light, 514 ee. (H. M.), on the Insulation of St. Michael’s Mount, 209 INDEX Whitney (J. D.), ‘‘ The Yosemite Guidebook,” 44 Williams (Stephen), on Thunderstorm at Preston, 309 Williams (W. Mattieu, F.C.S), on the Fuel of the Sun, 26; Papers on Iron and Steel, 94, 211, 374, 388, 410; on the Echoes of the Royal Albert Hall, 469 Williamson (Prof.), his Inaugural Lecture at University College, 135 Wilson (Rev. J. M.), on a Meteor seen at Rugby, 308 Wilson (William), the Bryologist, Obituary Notice of, 511 Winchester Scientific and Literary Society, 398, 414 Wind Charts of the Meteorological Office, 213, 232 Wind-Direction Rain-Gauge, by J. R. Napier, F.R.S., 433 Wind-Direction Rain-Gauge at Aldershot, 509 Wines of Victoria, 373 Wood (Rev. J. G., M.A.), ‘‘ Natural History of Man,” 9 Woodcocks, their Breeding and Preservation, 473 Woodward (C. J.), on Yellow, 307 Work and Force, Dr. J. Hopkinson and Rev. H. Highton on, 497 Wright (Capt. H. P.), on Aurora Australis, 348 “ Wiirttembergische Naturwissenschaftliche Jahreshefte,” 339 Yeats (Dr.), his ‘‘ Natural History of Commerce,” 103 Yellow (See Colour) Yosemite Valley and Sierra Nevada, of California, 44 Young (Prof. C. A.), Spectroscopic Notes by. 110; on Brown- ing’s Spectroscope, 248 ; on Spectroscopic Observations of the Eclipse in Spain, 261 ; on Chromosphere Lines, 266 Zodiacal Light, 249, 289 Zoological Divisions of the Earth Proposed, 427 Zoological Gardens, Animals from New Zealand in, 190; the Hoolock Gibbon, 481 Zoological Garden, New York, 254 Zoological Record Association, 294, 423 ‘ Zool Society, 58, 76, 138, 217, 259, 317, 356, 398, 438, 479, 519 Zoological Text-Books, by Prof. Rymer Jones and Dr. Nichol- son, 504 Zoologist’s Grievance, the Indian Museum, 328 “ Zoology,” by Dr. Nicholson, 86 A WEEKLY ILLUSTRATED JOURNAL OF SCIENCE “© To the solid ground Of Nature trusts the mind which builds for aye.’ , —WOoORDSWORTH THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 3, 1870 THE GOVERNMENT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY E have so often maintained in these columns that Science cannot now be propelled on its onward course by the efforts of unassisted individuals only, and that the State must itself, sooner or later, put its shoulder vigorously to the wheel, that there is some danger lest we should be thought to undervalue the force of private enterprise. We, on the contrary, attach very high im- portance to such enterprise, which exists amongst us in England more abundantly than perhaps in any other country in the world. It exists in two forms—in that of detached individual effort, and in that of voluntarily associated bodies, the Scientific Societies. To the latter only we propose now to address ourselves. The services that have been rendered to science by these societies infinitely surpass in kind and in amount all that has been done by means of all other agencies. By bringing together men struggling for the same goal, though often by different routes, by submitting to the arbitrament of open discussion opposite views relating to the same subject, by publishing theoretical speculations however divergent, and experimental results however discordant, and by rewarding pre-eminent services, the truth has the fairest possible chance of being elicited, and the non-scientific classes become the recipients—though often the unconscious, and therefore ungrateful, recipients— of benefits, material as well as intellectual, immeasurable in value. Sweep away what has been done for Science in England by Scientific Societies, and scarcely a trace of Science would remain. For it must not be forgotten that individual labourers, working in however isolated a manner, are largely indebted to the stores of knowledge garnered in the Proceedings of the Societies, for the very tools with which they operate. Such being the vast importance of these bodies, their constitution and system of internal government are ques- tions of the highest interest. We propose to confine our remarks on the present occasion to the Royal Society, the highest of all, and that which should be the pattern to all others. VOL. IIT. In former days, election to the Royal Society was an easier matter than it is now. At present, personages of Royal blood and peers of the Realm alone have special facilities for admission. The ordinary candidates are submitted to an ordeal of considerable stringency, Vir- tually they are elected, though nominally only selected by the Council, whose decisions, however, are almost in- variably ratified by the Society at large. The claims to admission of each candidate are carefully and fully dis- cussed in Council, and fifteen only are nominated by bal- lot each year. The number of candidates is usually about fifty. Though the Council’s list of fifteen does not always give universal satisfaction, yet it must be allowed that names rarely, if ever, appear on that list whose bearers cannot point to actual scientific work performed by them- selves. Such a thing as the election of a thoroughly un- scientific or unintellectual man is unknown in the present day. It follows that the standard of mental power to which the Fellows of the Royal Society must,-as a body, have attained, is very high. It may, indeed, be safely asserted that no corporation in the kingdom, or even in the world can be for a moment compared for mental power with ihe “Royal Society. So much, in briefest terms, for its con- stitution. The system of internal government by which the affairs of a body like this are regulated becomes a matter of the deepest moment, not only to the Society, but to the nation and to civilisation itself. The governing body, the Council, is composed of a President, five Vice-presidents, and twelve ordinary mem- bers. These areall honorary posts. Two ordinary Secre- taries and one Foreign Secretary, members of the Council with votes, are paid, the first two 300/., and the last 1oo0/, per annum, out of the funds of the Society. There is also a Treasurer, a member of Council, but unpaid. An Assistant Secretary and a Librarian, not members of the Council, and of course both salaried, perform all the neces- sary routine duties. The Vice-presidents and ordinary members of Council sit two years only, and then retire by rotation. They can- not be re-elected until a year has elapsed since their re- tirement, The Presidentship is not limited as to duration, nor are the posts of Secretary, Foreign Secretary, and Treasurer. Ny NATURE There is a wide-spread feeling that this form of govern- ment admits of improvement, and as the actual occupants of the posts in which an alteration is thought desirable stand deservedly very high in the estimation, not of the scientific world only, but in that of the community gene- rally, the reform of which we are about to speak can fortunately now be discussed without personality, and without any fear of the acrimony to which, under less auspicious circumstances, such a discussion would inevi- ably lead. The proposed alterations are of the very simplest kind, namely, that the tenure of office of the President should coincide with that of the rest of the Council, and that the Secretaries and Foreign Secretaries should be unpaid. The inconveniences of the present arrangement, on which our space only admits of a few words, are, first, that however efficient, impartial, and undespotic the Pre- sident and officers may be, their permanent tenure of their posts for a number of years in succession must tend to constitute them, in a Council undergoing yearly change, more or less an dmperium in imperio. Indeed, their very efiiciency and mastery of rule and precedent, in themselves most valuable attributes, aggravate, as well as generate, this tendency. The practical effect necessarily is, that the President and officers naturally and unavoidably get into the way of acting together, and of bringing before the Council matters for deliberation in somewhat of a cut and dried condition. At the opening of the Session, the new members, it is well known, are naturally diffident of expressing views adverse to those thus prepared for their acceptance by such experienced hands ; and it is a com- mon remark that it is only in his second year that a mem- ber serving on the Council for the first time usually de- clares his sentiments with independence and freedom. The choice, therefore, seems to lie between the experience which results from long service in the chair and secretariat, and the greater scope for deliberative activity, which limited service in those posts would afford. In deciding between the two alternatives, the character of the Council must be considered. It contains a small selected section drawn from a large highly select body, the very créme de la créme of the science and intellect of the kingdom, men who, one and all, are supposed to have gained their position by the most severe intellectual discipline, and who value that position as one of great responsibility and high honour. If chance, or favouritism, or money, or rank, had any appreciable influence on their election, the case would be very different. Some dry nursing might then be not amiss. But in the actual case, a Council composed of the flower of English intellect may safely be left to deliberate with unfettered republican freedom. Another inconvenience attending the permanent, or rather unlimited, Presidentship, is one which may be indicated without in the slightest degree applying it to the present distinguished occupant of the chair, namely, the extreme difficulty, without causing a scandal, of removing an inefficient or undesirable President. A third inconvenience consists inthe tendency towards an unduly Conservative policy, which a permanent Presi- dent is liable to betray ; and a fourth disadvantage is, that the particular department of Science to which the President is devoted is apt to be kept too continuously prominent. These tendencies are opposed to the vigor- ous progress and the wide expansion of scientific thought which it is the purpose of the Royal Society to foster. We have but lightly touched upon the salient features of the question, which is one admitting of a vast variety of opinions, some of which, we trust, will be elicited by our remarks, for the appearance of which in these columns we feel that no apology is necessary.* THE GEOLOGY OF THE DIAMOND FIELDS OF SOUTH AFRICA ite the September number of the Cafe Monthly Maga- zine is an interesting article on the above subject, by Dr. John Shaw, Gold Medallist in Geology at Glasgow University, from which we have made the following ex- tracts :— “In February. 1869, I published a paper in the Grahamstown Fournal on the geological structure of the Vaal Region along the line where diamonds were founc. This was chiefly intended as a reply to Mr. Gregory's denial of the veritability of the discovery of diamonds cn various grounds, mainly geological and mineralogical, after a journey of exploration in the region, “Since that time the finds of surface diamonds have increased, the stretch of country supposed to be diamond- iferous has extended, and, at the present time, systematic digging and washing for diamonds are being carried on with an enthusiasm which success alone can have created, by upwards of 1,000 white men in different parts of the Vaal Region, but principally at Klipdrift, near Poreil, “Tn July of this year I made considerable observations in the Vaal Valley, which show that the rocks are chiefly trappean, metamorphic, and conglomerate in character. I detected no pure granite formation, but syenite is, how- ever, developed extensively, and seems to be the base of the whole system of rocks at Klipdrift. A very singular rock appears in the shape of isolated boulders on the summits of the Kopjes, and especially of the celebrated Old Kopje. This I take to be graphic granite (binary granite), or what Dana would call ‘ granilite,’ consisting solely of quartz and large crystals of felspar. “ Above the syenite is a trap conglomerate in some places, in others are amygdaloids, and protruding through these again, basalt, assuming everywhere the hexagonal structure, and arising in some places into insulated and compacted columns. “In some of the Kopjes there are remains of stratified rocks—clay schists, sandstone, chalk (or something very like it), which are evidently the last vestiges of a vast series of sedimentary strata, which formerly covered the whole present contour, but which have gradually given way to denudation and cataclysm. “Such is the character of the present rock system at Klipdrift, and with a few additions (mainly supercumbent) — of the whole rock series of the Vaal region. . “On the summits of the Kopjes, and as a matter of course, in the crevices between the basaltic boulders, is an alluvial gravel. In this are found the diamonds, and on the surface some have been found, indicators of the wealth beneath. The pebbles of sandstone, quartzite, * The foregoing article, received from a valued contributor, is of so much importance that we have given it this prominence without committing ourselves to an approval of the precise course proposed ; we rather invite discussion,—Ep. og Oat: ete ee Boe Nov. 3, 1872] crystalline sandstone, granite, clayslate, agate, tour- maline, iron pyrites, garnet, garnet spinel, &c., which | compose this alluvium, are all roundedly polished and | waterworn, and are imbedded at Klipdrift in a brownish, fatty earth. “The question ari Now. 3, 1870] z -” NATURE 5 would be the average yield of a 500 acre farm. Chapter VIII. gives the quantity of water required in such a fac- tory, amounting to no less than 113,190lb., or 1,882 cubic feet per hour; the expense of labour for one year at 5,1907., the total annual expense being 13,980/., the total receipts being estimated at 20,4707, leaving a profit of 6,490/., assuming that 8 per cent. of sugar is extracted from the roots. It is however probable that this percentage might be raised to Io per cent., when the profit would be 10,0907. The first outlay for the esta- Dblishment of the factory is calculated at 10,8457 Mr. - College.” advantageously increased. Baruchson estimates the profit at 24? per cent. on the outlay when 63 per cent. of sugar is produced, each addi- tional 4 per cent. increasing the profit 73 per cent., so that if 8 per cent. could be obtained the profit would be no less than 48 per cent. The ninth chapter describes the concreting process of Mr. Fryer as applied to the raw juice, so as to enable the refinery to be carried on during the whole year instead of only during crop time. Chapter X. is devoted to the application of the spent beet-root pulp. As far as chemical analysis indicates it will prove, when mixed with other materials,a more useful food for cattle than ordinary mangolds or even than the original roots, though it must be admitted that no comparative experi- ments on feeding have yet been made. The remaining five chapters describe the manufacture of spirit from beet juice, which has been found very profitable on the Con- tinent ; the sucrate of lime process which dispenses with the employment of animal charcoal ; the manufacture of potash salts from the residues ; Excise regulations, and Dr. Schiebler’s calcimeter for the determination of the quantity of carbonate of lime in animal charcoal. We commend this valuable work to all interested in the subject ; and wish the author success in his endea- yours to introduce and encourage the extensive culti- vation of beet-root in this country, and thus place us on a level with our neighbours on the Continent who have so successfully carried it out. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself respoysible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. | Dr. Balfour Stewart’s Opening Lecture at Owens College, Manchester Dr, BALFouR STEWART concludes his excellent Lecture lately delivered at Owens College, Manchester, and published in your number for Oct. 20th, with a broad classification of experimental and observational work into work requiring much time and work requiring comparatively little time for its execution. This appears to me a very useful suggestion. Dr. Stewart then goes on to say that the work requiring short periods of time ‘‘may be furthered with much advantage in institutions such as Owens And he adds that the same objects are at present aided by the Government grant of 1,000/. so carefully adminis- tered by the Koyal Society ; but he thinks this grant might be In all this I quite agree with him. Dr. Stewart then proceeds to deal with the other class of scientific work. And here I had better quotehisown words. He says :—‘* But when we come to experiments and observations re- requiring great time, the case is very different, Certain experi- ments, whether from the great time they require, or the great ex- pense they demand, cannot be well performed in a College ; while routine and long-continued observations, such as those connected with the yarious branches of cosmical physics, are of | such a nature as to require a central establishment to superintend their organisation and reduction. There is thus, I think, the necessity for a central establishment of some kind, devoted to that class of experiments and observations requiring great time, great space, and great expense for their completion.” In every word of this also I agree with Dr. Stewart. But I think a few words more are wanted to tell us by whom or how these irstitutions should be founded and supported. 1, who have had the advantage of very frequently discussing the question with my friend Dr. Stewart, infer, without any hesita- tion, that he considers this should devolve on the State, which, as I have often stated in public, is my own opinion. But I think it a pity that, ata time when the question is attracting in scientific circles so much attention, this should have been left to inference by one so well qualified to speak with authority, and op an occasion which afforded so excellent an opportunity of educating public opinion, on a subject which, outside scientific circles, is so little understood. ALEX. STRANGE, Lt.-Col, The Aurora Borealis A PRETTY bright display of the aurora, which was witnessed here last evening, exhibited such peculiar phenomena, that although I am told that they are common accompaniments of the aurora here, a description of them may yet be new to some of your'readers. The times given im the description are by estima- tion from the striking of town clocks ; the night being dark, and the light of the aurora not sufficient to enable me to consult a watch. At 8 25™ a straight double beam of faint white light ex- tended from Altair in the west, across y Andromedz overhead, nearly to the E.N.E. horizon. The northern branch of the arch was the brightest, about 3° broad, and it was accompanied at a distance of 10° or 12° on the southern side by a parallel and fainter arch. I was prevented from watching the duration of this appearance and the further progress of the aurora until a few minutes after ten o’clock. At that time a few columnar streamers of white were vis‘ble in the west, one of which, very bright, extended from a Sagitte to € Cygni, and was accom- panied by fainter streamers from f to between vy and e Cygni, and from Altair to 6 Cygni. I noted their direction, and that of a few other streamers later, in opposite parts of the sky, in order to determine the position of their centre of convergence. But this was at the same time clearly shown by a patch of nebu- lous white light, 10° or 15° wide, from the centre of which, at 6 Andromedz, and to some distance beyond its borders, faint rays spread outwards, and mixed themselves with faint streamers which rose in close array, from the north and east, towards them. While watching this small light-cloud, its light and that of the surrounding streamers became rapidly and brightly intermittent. It soon faded, and on reaching an eminence where I could com- mand the whole northern sky from east to west, I found that all the features of the aurora were undergoing very rapid changes. Two of the many broad and bright streamers which rose in that direction at about ro* 25™ were directed from B Urse minoris to y Cephei, and from @ Aurigz to Algol, having their bases at the former stars, and connected, ap- parently, by no regular fringe or arch below, but appear- ing at different heights between the zenith and the horizon, and occupying chiefly the north-west to north-east quarter of the sky. The full extent of the intermittent phase, of which I had before obtained only a confined and obstructed view, was now also visible. Waves of light coursed each other over the whole extent of the streamers in no yery regular direction or succession, but so as to give the general impression that conflict- ing currents of air, chiefly from the north, blew out and carried along with them the light of the streamers towards their highest points, or from one streamer to another. Hardly more than a second was occupied by the waves in spreading from the horizon to the zenith; and in their number, appearing simultaneously, they appeared to vary from a quick succession of ripples to a single wave. This agitation of the streamers subsided at about 10" 30", The centre of convergence of the streamers between B and yy Andromedz was variously marked at about this time by a faint corona, without enclosed light, or by a nebulous light- cloud composed of irregularly radiating beams. It was traversed, apparently, by the waves from the north, east, and west, as rapidly as other portions of the sky ; and but little indications of the aurora were visible to the southward from this point. Fer 6 NATURE [Mov. 3, 1870 a space of about ten minutes the aurora appeared to be fading, but at about 10" 4o™ a bright streamer, 5° or 6° broad at its base, rose upwards from the ‘‘pointers” to above the Polar star, while the whole northern half of the sky was again covered with fainter streamers. Waves of light flashed rapidly along the principal beam, from its base to near the zenith in about one second, and at the same time drifted upwards over the other parts of the aurora in extremely vivid and rapid succession. The progress of the disturbance continued the same, and was | watched for about ten minutes, during which time occasional bright streamers rose and faded, and all the beams of the aurora were equally lighted up by the flitting waves. The motion of the latter appeared to be in parallel lines rising upwards from the N.N.E. horizon, and where in that direction the bases, or brightest parts, of the streamers were ar- ranged in a continuous succession of altitudes from near the horizon to the zenith, the waves appeared to be propagated in | the most regular and unbroken manner. Tall streamers at a considerable distance east or west of the magnetic north were lighted up very rapidly from their bases to their summits, as if directly confronted throughout their whole lengths by the ad- vancing waves. At about 10" 45™, the cloud-like apex of the aurora was somewhat nearer to y than to 8 Andromedz, and | it was lighted up like the occasional tall streamers in the east and west, by almost momentary flashes of pale, phosphorescent light. The impressions of a luminous vapour, like that which floats over phosphorus, of the igzis fatuus, or of the disturbed surface of a phosphorescent sea, blown by the wind, were most vividly suggested by the flickering changes of brightness in por- tions of the auroral cloud overhead, At 10% 50™ the dis- turbance ceased, and the streamers gradually resumed their steadiness, some appearing soon afterwards in the south-west, from between @ Pegasi and a Aquarii to a Pegasi; and others, in the south-east, across Aries and Taurus. The auroral apex was faintly visible, at this time, near y Andromedz. At about 11", a third disturbance among the auroral beams occurred for a few minutes overhead. A slightly curved arch 2° or 3° broad, extending towards the east and west about 20° on each of the apex, and lancelike streamers in the east and west, which, together with the arch, were in their ordinary state invisible, were repeatedly lighted up suddenly and very brightly, and were immediately again extinguished ; the light sometimes appearing in the beams and sometimes in thearch, as if it were bandied to and fro between them. ‘The streamers in the north were at this time very faint, and those in the south-east and south-west were almost entirely hidden by clouds, which a rising wind now drove across them from the south. From 11? 8™ to a1 rom a rapid succession of horizontal waves and wavelets of light rose in parallel lines above the N.N.E. horizon, drifting, apparently, overhead towards the south. As they appeared to catch the beams, and the arch which still remained extended acress the apex towards the east and west, these were suddenly lighted up, and immediately again extinguished, as before ; the flickering and dancing effect of the light which they produced resembling that reflected on the clouds in the south from distant iron-smelting furnaces upon the opposite bank of the Clyde. A repetition of the flashing lights, which, I presume, must have beenthose described by ancient writers as capre@ saltantes, and by mariners familiar with displays of the aurora in high latitudes as ‘‘ merry-dancers,” occurred again among the beams overhead between rr4 12™ and 114 14™. Soon after this, thick clouds came over from the south, and the sky very shortly afterwards became overcast. The beams of this aurora were uniformly white, without any trace of colour. But the farthest east and western beams of a bright aurora seen here from 8" to 11 on the evening of Thurs- day last, the 2oth inst., were of a rich crimson red, and one tall streamer of that qurora, reaching nearly to the zenith, exactly in the north, was tinged with crimson at the top. A south-west wind, occompanied by rain, succeeded that aurora on the follow- ing day. Last night a south-west gale sprang up, and there was a considerable fall of rain here this afternoon. I heard no crackling sounds during the brightest flashing of this aurora ; but such sounds might very possibly be produced in Arctic regions by the cracking of ice, which great pressure, or a change of tem- perature in a gale of wind, would be not unlikely to occasion as a concomitant of the aurora, if, as was recently suggested by the late Admiral Fitzroy, auroral displays in these latitudes accom- pany, and are pretty certain indications of the existence of, very stormy weather at a distance. A. S. HERSCHEL Andersonian University, Glasgow, Oct, 26 | D to beyond the F. A WONDERFULLY fine auroral display took place last night, very far exceeding in extent and brilliancy that of the 24th ult., as seen from this place. It began to show itself soon after sun- down, attained its maximum about 8 o’clock, and had not wholly disappeared at 11. At about 8 o’clock more than half the visible heavens was one sea of colour, the general ground green- ish, yellow, and pale rose, with extensive shoals of deep rose in the east and west, and from the north; streaming upwards to and beyond the zenith, tongues and brushes of rosy red so deep that the sky between looked black. The spectroscope, a direct- vision one, showed four lines in the rosy portion and one in the greenish ; one strong red line near the C, one strong pale yellow line near the D, one paler near the F, and one still paler beyond, with a faint continuous spectrum from about the The C line was very conspicuous and the brightest of the whole, intermediate in position and colour to the red of the lithium and the calcium, with both of which I am familiar ; plainly there were two spectra superposed, for while the red portions of the aurora showed the four lines with a faint continuous spectrum, the greenish showed only one, near the D on a faint ground. Of course, no numerical accuracy was attainable with so simple an instrument, only the judgment of the eye; but the conviction was very strong that the rosy hue was owing to hydrogen, possibly resulting from decomposition by electrical discharges of the excessively attenuated watery yapour existing in the higher regions of the earth’s atmosphere, which Tyndall has shown to be capable of producing the blue colour of the sky, and by the consequent loss of which the blackness of space was discernible. Toa St. Mary Church, Torquay, Oct. 25 SHORTLY after sunset this evening an ill-defined auroral arch was seen in the north. At about 7°45 patches of rose-coloured light were visible about the constellations Auriga, Ursa Minor, Ursa Major, &c., and at about 8 o’clock brilliant crimson rays shot up to the zenith, and the sky seemed one vast mass of fire. The auroral light was visible as far south as Cetus and Aquarius. The crimson tint passed from time to time into a greyish light. When the most brilliant portions were examined with the spectroscope, two bright lines were visible, one a greenish-grey line situated about the middle of the spectrum, and the other a red line looking very much like the C hydrogen line. London, Oct. 24 W. B. GIBBs Durinc the recent brilliant auroral displays (Oct. 24th and 25th), I observed four bright lines in the spectrum of the crimson beams of the corona. ‘ 1. A broad and well defined red band near C. 2. A bright white band near D (? the same as Angstrém’s line with wave-length = 5567). I have frequently seen this line even during very faint displays; on the 25th it was visible in every part of the sky. 3. A faint and rather nebulous line, roughly estimated to be near F. 4. A very faint line about half way between 2 and 3, The red band was absent from the spectrum of the white rays of the aurora, but the other lines were seen. Bedford, Oct. 29 Tuos. G. ELGER On the night of the 25th a most gorgeous aurora borealis was visible at North Shields. I first observed it about 6 P.M., when it formed a splendid boreal crown, of which the centre was about 25° south-east of the zenith. Rays of brilliant crim- son converged to it from all directions, especially from N.E., S., and S.W. To the north the light was more of the ordinary colour. They appeared to rise from an irregular circle, extend- ing round the whole horizon, and slightly arched in the N.W. Below this was the usual dusky cloud. When the rays, or rather sheets, of crimson were at their brightest, they were streaked with yellowish light. At times the centre of convergence was dark, at others it was occupied by luminous clouds of twisted forms, reminding me of those of some of the nebulz. The rays seemed to have a slow motion towards the south. About eight o’clock the crown gradually faded, and the light of the centre flickered with a tremulous motion. At 8.15 an arch shot across the sky from N.E. to S.W., passing just north of the pole star. It slowly drifted south, and at 8.30 was in the zenith. At 10 the boreal crown had reappeared, but was of the ordinary yellowish coiour, The spectrum of the red rays contained a brilliant red line, for temperature). Nov. 3, 1870] NATURE ~ / more refrangible than Ha, in addition to those usually seen. _ It was situated about “4 of the distance from C to D. If any other observer noted the position of the arch observed at §.15 P.M., I shall be glad to be informed, in order to calculate the height. Clementhorpe, N. Shields, Oct. 27. Henry R. Procror ANOTHER display of aurora borealis occurred this evening. Tt was not to be compared in splendour with that of the night preceding, but it had some interesting and instructive features. The sky was not clear at any time, and the masses of red light, which occupied generally similar situations to those of the preceding night, were interrupted in many places by dense clouds. I observed it at about half-past six p.M., and at that time the most remarkable feature was that streamers (generally not of a red colour) radiated from every part of the north horizon | accurately to a point defined very nearly by one of the stars o Cygni or v Cygni, which were then near the meridian. I did not see both stars, and Iam therefore in doubt, as they are of equal magnitules, which was the star nearest to the point of convergence of the streamers. | The radiations were so well marked and so accurately directed to one point, that I mentally compared them to the ribs of an expanded umbrella. his did not last long ; in a few minutes fine strexmers went from the N. W. horizon towards the south- east, to the east of this point, which was then covered with red light without streamers. ‘The largest masses of red light were, as in the preceding evening, south of the zenith, and in the south-east and south-west quarters of the heavens. Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford, Oct. 25 Rogert MAIN A MAGNIFICENT auroral display was visible here on the evening of the 24th, between 8! o™ and 8) 30", The maximum of intensity must have occurred between 8" om and 8® 20", but, being otherwise engaged, I did not observe anything myself until $ 25, when the E. and W. regions of the sky, more especially the latter, were illuminated with a crimson or reddish glow, somewhat resembling the reflection of distant conflagrations, but on neither side did this glow ap- pear to reach the zenith by many degrees. Shortly after the time mentioned (8" 25™) both disappeared, after which a phos- phorescent whitish light was observed nearer to and on the S.E. of the zenith. The barometer had, during the previous day or two, shown considerable variation in atmospheric pressure. Another display was observed on the following evening (25th), which commenced about 6" o™ and continued visible more or less until 7 om, The first indication that I noticed was a fiery glow similar to that seen on the previous evening, but considerably higher, and almost immediately after a magnificent broad stream of light, consisting of reddish and light tints, was observed in the N.E. extending upwards for 50° or 60°. About 6" 20™ the whole of the northern region of the sky ex- | tending to E. and W., and about 15° S. of the zenith, was more or less illuminated, and I should say the maximum of intensity occurred at this time. The principal luminous streams and corus- cations appeared between N.I. and E.N.E. appearing first in the latter direction and increasing towards the former. On one occasion I noticed faint luminous streamers rising from different northerly directions and converging in the zenith ; these, together with the coloured bands of light before men- tioned, formed a magnificent and imposing spectacle. The northern sky afterwards presented an appearance of twilight until about ro’ 45™, ‘During the display the barometer stood at 29°53 (corrected Temperature of air 49°. The minimum tem- perature registered during the night was 42°. Meteorological Observatory, Twickenham JOHN J. HALL COLLINS, in his ‘‘ Superstitions of the Highlands ” has these lines :— As Boreas threw his young Aurora forth In the first year of the first George's reign, And battles raged in welkin of the North, They mourned in air, tell, fell rebellion slain ! The Editor (Routledge’s edition) in a note states ‘‘ By ‘ young Aurora’ Collins undoubtedly means the first appearance of the Northern Lights, which happened about the year 1715 ; at least it is highly probable from the peculiar circumstance that no ancient writer had taken any notice of them, nor even any modern pre- vious to the above date.” Can any of your readers state whether this is correct. C, PoCcKLINGTON Poole, Oct. 27 AN aurora borealis was visible at this place on the evening of the 25th inst., between the hours of 7 and 8.30 p.M. A beauti- ful crimson glow was first observed towards the north-east, veiling, but not hiding, the larger stars, and the Pleiades had the appearance of a wedge of pale yellow mist behind the veil. On - the horizon, looking due north, was a semicircular luminous space of clear pale light, of the colour of eastern sky just befure dawn, and from this there darted at intervals over the crimson glow lony slender rays of yellowish light, giving an exceedingly beautiful appearance tothe phenomenon. Clouds, which had been hanging about during the day, gathered over the scene towards 9 o’clock, and when they alterwards dispersed before midnight, the glow, though sull perceptible, was fading away. A falling star was observed at about eight, but considerably to the south of the aurora. There had been an aurora observed on the preceding evening, but of a less striking character. ‘The weather has been for the last ten days extremely unsettled, sirocco (S.E.) winds prevailing, and an unusual rainfall the result, accompanied sometimes by hail, and by thunder and lightning. But clear bright days occur in the intervals of these storms, when the sky is of an intense blue, against which beautiful forms of cloud mass themselves by de- grees as the day goes on, and become at length the subjects ol those gorgeous atmospheric effects which make the autumnal sunsets of the bay of Fiume rivals of those of Kome. Fiume, Oct. 28 A. M. Smirit [In addition to the letters printed above, we have received from many other correspondents interesting and valuable descriptions of the magnificent display of the aurora, which the demands of other subjects on our space alone prevent us from publishing. —Eb. } The Aurora of Sept. 24 Ir may interest your readers to know that the very brilliant: aurora of the 24th and 25th September last was also visible in Canada, Mr. W. B. Dawson, writing from Montreal, notices. the occurrence of a very bright aurora on both nights, flashing much, and often bright crimson. It was also seen at Quebec, and attracted much attention. He observes that its appearance. was simultaneous with the division of a very large spot on the sun. Its crimson colour agrees with the red hue of your other correspondents ; and is somewhat remarkable, as I have often noticed, in Canada, that the red usually alternates with green in, vivid displays. GrorcE M, Dawson Royal School of Mines Hereditary Deformities THE alleged instances cf hereditary deformity produced by your correspondent in NAYURE for Oct. 20 do not seem at all satisfactory. They may all be referred either to an hereditary disease of the part affected, as in the suppuration »f the cow’s. horn; or to coincidence, accompanied by a slight stretch of | imagination on the part of the first narrator, as in the cases of the scar on the forehead and the crooked finger. Prof. Huxley, in his lectures on Natural History at the Royal School of Mines in 1864, after speaking of the short-legged | breed of Ancon sheep, and the six-fingered Maltese, Gratio Kelleia, said that although natural; malformations: were thus transmitted, artificial malformations never were; and instanced the fact of the mutilation produced by circumcision never being transmitted to the offspring. This, of course, is a negative | argumeht, but it has great weight when we consider how many thousands have undergone that mutilation without an instance of its having been inherited by their children. Faversham, Kent, Oct. 25 WILLIAM FILin The Cefn Reptile and the “Times” THE remarkable paragraph in the Zimes of the week betore last relating to the discovery of ‘‘a huge beast of the lizard tribe,” in a cave at Cefn near St. Asaph, implies a belief on the part of the editorial staff that such an addition to the British fauna was not impossible, and its wide circulation proves the astonishing credulity of the public :— “In the Vale of Clwyd, at a distance of two miles from the 8 NATURE cathedral city of St. Asaph, are situated the Cefn Caves. It had been rumoured of late that parties visiting this place had on several occasions seen some strange animal creeping in its dark recesses, and on Saturday visitors reported having had a good view of h’m, and stated it was a huge beast of the lizard tribe. On the Monday following Thomas Hughes, from Rhyl, went to try to capture him. Armed with a stout stick he approache‘ its re- ported lair, but not seeing it he decided to remain in ambush at te mouth of the cave, sheltered by a projecting ledge. After having thus waited an hour his patience was rewarded with success. He could hear in the far end a hum as of a hive of bees. The sound growing louder, and now apparently quite close, Hughes peeped round the ledge, and saw the monster within three yards of him. He (Hughes) sprang towards him, and dexterously wielding his stick he dealt him a well-aimed blow upon the neck just behind the head, which caused him to stagger and reel. One more blow in the abdomen finished him: Hughes carried him home in triumph. and is now making a profit | out of the affair by exhibiting him at Rhyl. The monster is of the lizard tribe, as mentioned above. Only that our country is desti- tute of those creatures we should have said it was a young crocodile. It measures from the nose to the end of its tail exactly 4ft. 7in., the tail being rather more than half that length. Its limbs measure 12in. ; the front ones have five toes; and the hind ones four; it is web- footed. Above it is black and white beneath. Its coat is mailed, quite hard, and’ protruding in sharp corners and angles, like the crocodile’s. The head is low and flat, the mouth large and round at the end, measuring 7in. by 3in.; the teeth are nu- merous, but small, and bear great resemblance to those of a large codfish. There is ample scope here for naturalists to investigate the how and wherefore this strange amphhian came to be dis- covered in the present epoch among the hills of North Wales.” Such is the vivid account of the capture given in the 77mes, and reprinted in several local papers ; and so far as I can judge by my letters, believed in by many simple-minded people. It is altogether a most impudent hoax. The man [Hughes is a sweep, who purchased a reptile which happened to die in a travelling menagerie at St. Asaph, and exhibited it at Rhyl as having been caught in the Cefn Caves, until at last it became a public nuisance, and was committed to the earth. The story related in the 7ymes was invented merely to make the exhibition lucrative to Hughes the sweep. Its wide circulation, which in- cidentally shows an astonishing ignorance of natural history, is the only excuse for my writing this letter. W. BDoyp Dawkins MAN AND NATURAL SELECTION aye he following reply to M. Claparéde’s “ Remarques a propos delouvrage de M. Alfred Russel Wallace sur la Théorie de Ja Sélection Naturelle.” was written some months ago, and was ir tended as an appendix to a French ’ translation of my “ Essays” by M. Lucien De Candolle, to be published by Reinwald, of Paris. As it is now very uncertain when the translation will appear, and as M. Claparéde’s critique has been highly spoken of in several English periodicals, I think it advisable that my answer to it should be no longer delayed. In the “ Archives des Sciences dela Bibliothéque Uni- verselle.” for June, 1870, M. Edouard Claparéde has done me the honour to make my “ Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection” the subject of some critical re- marks. To these I now propose briefly to reply. I must premise that I do not intend to discuss here any of those difficulties which my critic finds in the theory of sexual selection, and which apply as much to Mr. Darwin’s views as:to my own. because, in his new work now announced, that theory will, I have no doubt, be fully developed, and be supported by a mass of facts and observations, in the absence of which further argument is useless. I proceed therefore to the objections that apply more especially to my own views. At p. 15 of his “ Remarques” M. Claparéde says, “Son | étude est consacrée 4 lacoloration des oiseaux et, absorbé dans son sujet, lauteur oublie que d'autres facteurs peu- | | vent, aussi bien que la couleur, attirer l’attention des _ | musique. [Vov. 3, 1870 ennemis sur la gent ailée. Un nid couvert d’un déme volumineux échappera tout aussi peu, grace Ases dimen- sions, 4 l’ceil d’un animal en quéte de proie, que quelques plumes brillament colorées. Les gamins de nos villages en savent quelque chose, comme I’a remarqué M. le Duc d’Argyll, et ils ne 1éussissent que trop, a la présence d’un gros nid, A deviner l’oiseau caché et sa couvée.” This objection does not seem to me very serious, because in the first place, nests, however large, generally harmonise in colour with surrounding objects, and are not so easily seen at a little distance as a bright patch of colour; and, secondly, because “gamins” are not the chief natural enemies of the feathered tribes, while hawks and falcons do not break open nests, although they do seize and devour birds, After giving (p. 23—25) what I must allow to be a very fair abstract of my reasons for believing that Natural Selection is not the only power that has operated in the development of man, M, Claparéde intimates that I have so completely abandoned my own Darwinist principles that the reader will easily refute my arguments. He therefore confines himself to certain “reflections.” I re- gret that he did not think it necessary to do more than this, because I have as yet in vain sought from my re- viewers for any other than general objections to my argu- menis on this subject, and am at a loss to know how they can be so easily refuted. M. Claparéde’s “ Reflections,” however, do, fortunately, take the form of arguments. He says (p. 25), “M. Wallace n’a pas recu'é devant Yexplication de la formation graduclle du chant de la fauvette et du rossignol par voie d= selection naturelle, La chose est toute simple, bien fou serait celui qui voudrait recourir ici A Vintervention d'une Force supér- ieure, ami du Beau! Les fauvettes femelles et les rossignols de méme sexe ont toujours accordé de pré/ér- ence leur faveurs aux m@‘es bons chanteurs. C’était la conséquence de leur gotits musicaux et des aptitudes harmoniques de leur oreille. Malheur aux pauvres males A regi:tre peu étendu ou & timbre fé'é! les douceurs de la patern:té leur ont été impitoyablement refusées ; ils sont morts de jalousie dans la tristesse et l’isolement. Ainsi s‘ést formée la race des bons chanteurs qui peup- lent nos bocages. Pourquoi n’y a-t-i] pas des ch -nteuses? Sans doute que les oiseaux males ne se sont jamais souciés de la voix de leurs €pouses, soit parcequ’ils mava'ent pas l’oreille juste, soit plitot, car cela sera con- tradictoire, parceque leurs gouts musicaux étaient suffisa- ment satisfaits par leurs concerts personels. Peut é!re aussi les femelles n’avaient-elles point d’aptitude virtuelle au perfectionnement de la voix; peut étre avaient- elles atteint l’ext:'éme limite de ¢éveloppement vocal compatible avec loganisation d’un oiseau du sexe féminin ; ou bien entn la sélection naturelle produite sous l’influence des poursuites exercées par des ennemis de toutes sortes contre les belles couveuses, sélection favorable, selon M, Wallace, 4 la production de couleurs sombres, a-t-elle mysiérieusement éteint méme I’éclat de sa voix? Quoiqu’il en soit. il est évident pour M. Wal- lace que la sélection sexuelle, en d’autres termes le gott des dames fauvettes pour la musique, a aimené le grand perfectionnement de la voix des virtuoses de l’autre sexe, Mais dans Pespéce humaine, la cho e aurait-elle pu se passer ainsi? Le chant harmonieux et enchinteur d’une prima donna aurait-il pu naitre et se per/ectionn:r par voie de sélection? Le gofit musicale des auditeurs pourrait-il avoir eu une influence selectrice sur ce phénoméne? Jamais, au grand jamais! Seule J’inter- vention d'une Force supérieure a pu amener un résultat pareil, car jamais homme primitif n’a eu de godt pour Ja M. Wallace le sait bien: il a vécu si long- temps parmi les sauvages qui ont pu le Jui dire! Au contraire, les femelles fauvettes primitives «t les femelles rossignols primitives, avaient déja Je gotit musical long- temps avant que leurs époux eussent appris A chanter. er ‘ied eee fickle J) 1870 | Comment M. Wallace le sait-il? Le lui aut-elles dit? N’importe, il le sait.” | It is a ple. sure to read anything so brilliant as this, but it hardly seems to touch the point of my argument. Male birds do sing at pairing time to the females. Mr. Darwin says in his “ Origin of Species,” ‘All those who have attended to the subject believe that there is the severest rivalry between the males of many species to attract, by singing, the females.” Female birds do zo¢ sing. These are ficts, and they perfectly accord with the theory of the perfection of song having been developed, in the wza/es, by sexual selection. In man the facts are all different. Savage women have generally no chozce as to their hus- bands, as has been so fully shown by Sir John Lubbock ; and in the few cases where achoice is open to them, there is not a particle of evidence to show that a musical voice ever determ nes that choice. Still less reason is there to think that this quality determines the male savage in choosing his wife. Yet a wonderful musical organ has been developed in both sexes, of which the use to man in his struggle for existence has not yet been shown. Surely here tsa difficulty which required facts and arguments for its elucidation rather than a brilliant display of wit. Again, in reply to my arguments as to the total absence of hair trom the back of man, we are told that it should be no difficulty to a person who believes that Aazry mam- mals and feathevy birds have been derived from sca/y reptiles (* Remarques,” pp. 27, 28) But surely this is not the argument of a Darwinian. For the hair and the feathers are ws:fu/ to their several possessors, just as the scales were to their aicestral reptiles; whereas the very | essence of my difficulty is, that the nudity has of been shown to be wse/zZ to man. M, Claparéde thus concludes his remirks on this subject :—‘‘Que M. Wallace soit au moins conséquent dans la question de la chute des poils. S1 linterven'ion d'une Force supérieure lui semble néces- saire pour épiler le dos de "homme, quil sache se résoudre a la faire agir de méme sur I’échine de I’é éphant, du rhi- nocéros, de l’hippopotame ou du cachalor.” But the four mammals here mentioned are thick skinned animals, one agua iv, one amphibious, the other two inhabitants of hot countries, lovers of shade and of marshes. Can anything be more clear than that, in all these cases, the hair was little or not at all wanted, and, owing to their habits, was very probably even injurious, and has therefore partially disappeared by means of natural selection? while the extinct mammoth and woolly rhino-eros are instances which prove that it always re-a»peared when the needs of the animal required it. If the hair disappeared from the back of troyical man by the action of the same law which caused it partially to disappear from the tropical elephant, we must ask why it dis not re-appear in the arctic Finns ani Ie-quimaux. as it re-appeared in the arctic mammoth ? It is rather for me to say —“ Que M. Clapueéde soit au moms conséyuent dans la ques ion de la ch te des poils.” The last point on which my critic remirks is my argu- ment. that the brain 0° savage man is in advance of his needs, and trer.fore could not have been acquired by natural selection; and he asks, why I do not apply the same reasoning to many other cises, especially to that of the great group of birds witha complex larynx, comprising all the singing birds. yet having many species which do not sing. He says (p. 29), * Ces oiseaux possédent dans leur Jarynx un organe beaucoup trop bien conformé pour Pusage qu’ils en font. 1] est donc néces-aire d’admettie Yintervention d'une Force supérieure pour fagonner cet appareil, inutile aux oiseaux qui le posstdent, mais calculé en vue de générations nouvelles qui, dans un avenir plus ou moins éloigné et dans des conditions déterminées ap- prendront a chanter. Que M. Wal ace aurait-il & 1épon- dre & une semb!able ar,umentation ?” My answer is, that the cases are not parallel or similir; if they were so, I should certainly adopt the same corclusion in both. To make them logically comparable, it would be necessary to NATURE S prove that all the earlier forms of the group had the vocal organs fully developed, but did not sing ; or what might be held to indicate this, that at present only a few species sing, while the great mass do not. But so far from this being the case, the majority of the species of the group have musical or sonorous voices, and there is no evidence to show that the vocal apparatus was fully developed before the power of singing began to be exercised. Man, on the contrary, stands alone in the development of his brain, and M. Claparéde does not rebut the evidence I have adduced to show that the brain in savage and prehistoric man was in advance of his requirements. In concluding his remarks, M. Claparéde endeavours to impale me neatly on the horns of a dilemma, as follows :-— ‘““Ou bien M. Wallace a eu raison de faire intervenir une Force supérieure pour expliquer la formation des races humaines et guider homme dans la voie de la civilisation, et alors il a eu tort de ne pas faire agir cette méme force pour produire toutes les autres races et espéces animales ou végétales ; ou bien il a eu raison d’expliquer la forma- tion des espéces végétales et animales par la seule voie de la sélection naturelle, et alors il a eu tort de recourir A intervention d'une Force supéricure pour rendre compte de la formation des races humaines.” These are his last words, and they seem to me to be the weakest in the whole paper, being a pure begzing of the question. They assume that man presents no phenomena which differ in kind from those presented by other animals, whereas | have adduced a number of such phenomena which my critic has neither disproved nor denied. My whole argu- ment is founded on certain facts, and on these facts only. My critic admits the facts, does not rc fute my arguments, yet maintains that I should give up my conclusion, because the theory of Natural Selection #s¢ apply equally to man andthe rest of Nature, or to neither. But why must it do so? Darwin himself claims no such universality for it. He admits that even the common origin of avimals and plants rests only on analogy, and that “it is immaterial whether it is accepted or not.” But M. Claparéde is more Darwinian than Darwin himself, and would, I presume, say that, either all animals or plants must be descended from one common ancestor or, that no two species are thus descended. I maintain, however, that man is de- scended from a lower animal form, but I adduce facts which go to prove that some other law or power than Natuial Sel-ction has specially modified him. Jf Darwin is not anti-Darwinian in admitting, as he does, the possi- bility that animals and plants may not have had ac. mmon aucestor, I may surely deny that I am anti Darwinian when I show that there are certain phenomena in the case of man that cannot be wholly explained by the law of Natural Selection. I must not conclude without thanking M. Claparéde for the very flattering terms in which he has spoken of the larger portion of my work, and also for the general accuracy and fairness with which he has condensed my vies and arguments in the last essay, to which he especially takes objection. A, R. WALLACE THE NATURAL HISTORY UF MAN* N the two handsome volumes before us is contained such a mass of interesting information concerning our Icss cultivated brethren as has surely never yet been collected by one writer or in one work. The first volume is occupied with Africa, that vast, and, as recen’ researches show, d nscly populated land, whose peoples present a greater variety of manners and customs and languages than any others upon the globe, and the second treats of * “The Natural History of Man; being an Account of the Manners and Customs of the Wneivilised Kaces of Men.” By the Rev. J. G. W ood, M.aA., fF L.S., with new desi-ns by 2wecker, Angas, Danby, Har dicey, &c. Engraved by the brothers Lalziel. 2 vols. 1862-70. (London: George Routledge and Sons.) 10 NATURE | Nov. 3. 1870 the American tribes, the inhabitants of Australia and New | obtainment of food and the manufacture of the means of Zealand, with India, China, Japan, and Siam. A short | getting it—the bow and arrow, blow-tube and poisoned notice is also given of the long-perished lake-dwellers of | shaft, the canoe, the javelin, the club, the boomerang, or Switzerland. |lasso; war and the requisite weapons or means of de- The general plan pursued by Mr. Wood in his account | fence ; dress, simple and slight as it often is ; and religious of different nations is necessarily very similar. The | observances of one kind or another, constitute, with the ee Le io hel SURF-SWIMMING IN THE SANDWICH ISLANDS {nitiatory ceremonies attendant upon entrance into man- | the whole has to be worked up into the form of a con- hood, marriage and death, the principal occupations and | tinuous narrative. Mr. Wood appears to have care- events of the life of the savage, and these, of course, | fully selected his authorities, and has taken only what he form the staple of Mr. Wood’s work. To do this well, | considers trustworthy and reliable. To give some idea however, is no slight task, considerable reading and | of the method adopted, we may refer to his account comparison of the accounts of travellers is required, and of the Zulu Kaffirs, who he considers to have descended o- ee NATURE a Nov. 3, 1870] from the northern regions of the Continent to their pre- sent abode, and who, as is well known, are a dark- skinned but highly intelligent race. While possessing some of the characters of the negro, as the crisp, woolly hair, large wide lips, and dilated nostrils, they differ radically from him in the possession of a lofty and intellectual forehead, a more prominent nose, high cheek bones, and a nameless but decided cast of countenance. As a people,they are devoid of care, requiring no clothes, building huts of the slightest construction, and obtaining food with the greatest facility. Their reasoning powers are highly developed, and they delight in controversy. Mr. Wood then proceeds to describe the life of a Kaffir fiom infancy to old age, including an account of his dress, ornaments, and ceremonial observances. To the account of the Kaffir there succeeds an equally interesting and trustworthy description of the Hottentot and of the Bosjesman or Bushman. Then follow accounts of the Korannas, the Namaquas, Bechuanas, Ovambos, and the numerous tribes of Southern and Central Africa. The facts recorded appear to have been drawn fro n many different sources, as Baines, Chapman, Moffat, Lichten- stein, Anderson, Burchell, Petherick, and, of course, largely from the narratives of Livingstone, Speke and Grant, Sir Samuel Baker, Du Chaillu, and Burton. The incidents selected to illustrate the character and habits of each race are, in general, very pertinent and striking, and render the whole work as amusing as it is instructive. Thus the love of finery innate in the African is well i'lus- trated in the following story :—‘ An English vessel arr ved at an African port, a large part of her cargo consistin x of stout iron wire ; nearly the whole of this was bought by the natives, and straightway vanished, no one knowing what had become of it. The mystery was soon solved. THE LAKE-DWELLINGS OF THE ORINOCO Suddenly the Kaffir belles appeared in new and fashion- able costume. Some of them had been to towns inhabited by Europeans, ‘and had seen certain ‘cages’ hung outside the drapers’ shops. They inquired the use of these sin- gular objects, and were told they were the fashionable attire of European ladies. They straightway burned to possess similar costumes, and when the vessel arrived with its cargo of wire, they bought it up, and took it home for the purpose of imitating the white ladies. Of course they had not the least idea that any other article of apparel was necessary, and so they wore none, but walked about the streets quite proud of their fashionable appear- ance.” The extraordinarily despotic power possessed by the chiefs of many of these tribes over the property and lives of their subjects constitutes a very remarkable chap- ter of their history, and is illustrated by Captain Speke’s account of M’tesa, the king of the Waganda, to whom a rifle having been presented, he loaded it, and handed it to one of his pages, telling him at the same time to go and shoot somebody in the outer court. The page, a mere boy, took the rifle, went into the court, and in a moment, to Captain Speke’s horror, the report of the rifle showed that the king’s order had been obeyed. This barbarian was in the habit not only of flogging his wives fearfully with whips made of hippopotamus hide, but of killing them without the slightest remorse. Speke states that scarcely a day passed without some woman being led forth to execution. In the account of the Andaman Islandcrs, their con- summate skill in the use of the bow is described ; their harpoon arrows, with which the Mincopies catch the larger fish, and which are very similar to those of Vancouver's Island, their beautiful canoes and extraordinary rowing, or rather paddiing powers, beating our best crews with facility ; and their family affection. To this succeeds an 12 NATURE [Vov. 3, 1870 account of the scarcely more civilised natives of New Guinea, with their tufted hair, active climbing habits, and curious weapons. . Then follows a description of the natives of the Polynesian Islands, the Fiji with their wonderful coiffures, their ingenious manufacture of veils, fans, baskets, and canoes, their warfare and cannibalism ; the Solomon Islanders and natives of New Hebrides ; and after these the natives of Borneo and Sumatra, and the various Amer'can tribes, We append an account of the surf-swimming of the Sandwich Islanders, with an illustration, as copied by Mr. Wood from the now, we fear, seldom-read ‘ Cap- tain Cook’s Voyages,” who gives the following spirited account, which will not improbably be new to many of our younger readers :—“ The surf, which breaks on the coast round the bay, extends to the distance of about 150 yards from the shore, within which space the surges of the sea, accumulating from the shallowness of the water, are dashed against the leach with prodigious vio- lence. Whenever, from stormy weather, or any extraor dinary swell at sea, the impetuosity of the surf is increased to its utmost height, they choose that time for this amuse- ment, which is performed in the followinz manner. Twenty or thirty of the natives, taking eacha long, narrow board rounded at the ends, set out together from the shore. The first wave they meet they plunge under, and suffering it to roll over them rise again beyond it, and make the best of their way by swimming out in'o the sea. The second wave is encountered in the same manner as the first, the great difficulty consisting in seizing the proper moment of diving under it, which, if missed, the person is caught by the surf, and driven back again with great violence, and all his dexterity is then required to prevent himself from being dashed against the rocks, As soon as they have gained by their repeated efforts the smooth water beyond the surf, they lay themselves at length on their board, and prepare for return. As the surf consists of a number of waves of which every third is remarked to be always much larger than the others, and to flow higher on the shore, the rest breaking in the intermediate space. their first obj ct is to place themselves on the summit of the largest surge, by which they are driven along with amazing rapidity towards the shore. If by mistake they should place themselves on one of the smaller waves which break up b.fore they reach the land, or should not be able to keep their plink in a proper direction on the top of the svell, they are left exposed to the fury of the next, and to avoid it are obliged again to dive and regain the place from which they set out. Those who succeed in their object of reaching the shore have still the greatest danger to encounter. The coast being guarded bya chain of rocks, with here and there a small opening between them, they are obliged to steer ther board through one of these, or in case of failure to quit it b. fore they reach the rocks, and. plunging under the wave, make the best of their way back again. This is reckoned very disgraceful, and is also attended with the loss of the board, which | have often seen with great terror dashed to picses at the very moment the islander quitted it, The bo dness and address with which we saw them perform their difficult and dangerous manceuvres was altogether astonishing, and is scarcely to be credited.” These swimmers used o'ten to piss nearly a mile sea- ward in order to enjoy the rapid motion of their return as long 4s possible. Both sexes and all ranks unite in it, and even th very chiefs thems: lves, who have attained to the corpulency which they so much admne, join in the game of su:ifswimming with the meanest of their sub- jects. Some of the performers acquire a wonderful amoint of shill, and, not con ent with lying on the board, sit, kneel, and even stand upon it as they are hurled shorewards by the giant waves. The boards are of vari us sizes, accordiug to the age and station of the owner. For adults they are about six feet in length. They are slightly convex on both sides and are kept very smooth, all surf- swimmers cherishing a pride in the condition of their boards, and taking care to keep them well polished and continually rubbed with cocoa-nut oil. As an example ot the wonderful strength exhibited by savages, the case of the Dyaks of Borneo may be cited, one of whom, while on the march with some English soldiers, exhibited it ina very unexpected manner. “ The path was a terrible one, up and down steep and slippery hills, so that the Chinese coolies, who accompanied the party, first threw away their rice, and lastly sat down and wept like children. ‘The English sergeant, a veteran accustomed to hard marching boch in China and India, broke down at the first hill, and declared his inability to move another step under the load which he carried. Mr. Brooke, who was in command of the party, asked one of the Dyaks to carry the sergeani’s burden, and promised him an addi- tional piece of tobacco. The man was delighted with the proposal, and accepted it. He was already carrying food for three weeks, his whole stare of clothes, one twelve- pound shot, two twelve-pound cartridges, a double barrelled gun, a hundred rounds of ball cartridge, and his own heavy sword and spear, So little, however, was he incommoded with this, that he stuffed the whule of the sergeant’s kit on his back, and walked off as easily as if the whole load were but a feather weight.” The drawing on page 11 shows the lake dwellings of the tribes inhabiting the Delta of the Orinoco, as described by Humboldt in his “ Personal Narrative.” “Thelarge tract ot land that forms the Delia of the Orinoco (we quote from Mr, Wood) possesses some very remarkable character- istics. It is always wet, but du:ing several months in the year it is completely inundated, the river rising to an asto- nishing height, and covering with water a tract nearly half as large as England. This seems to be as unpropitious a spot as could be adopted for human habitation, and yet the Waraus (or Guaranos, as Humboldt spells the word) have established themselves there, and prefer it to any other locility, probably because their strange mode of life enables them to pass an existence of freedom. Varying much in the height to which it rises, in some places ex- ceeding fifty feet, the Orinoco has the qualiy of rising year atcr year to the same height in the same place, so that when a mark is made to designate the height to which the water rose in one year, the same mark will answer year after year with scarcely the slightest devia- tion” Here the Ité palm thrives, which supplies to the Warau food, drink, clothing, and residence; fur, select- ing four that grow near each other in the form of a square, and cutting away any intervening trees, he mikes deep notches in the trunks some three feet above high-water mark. In these notches are laid beams that are tightly lashed in their places by ropes made of ld fibres, On these leaves are laid a number of cross pieces, usually composed of the gigantic stems of the leaves, then a Jayer of the beains themselves, and finally a smooth coating of mud, which soon dries under the tropical sun, forming a smooth, hard, and firm flooring, that will bear a fire without risk of damage to the wooden structure below. Ten or twelve feet above the floor the Warau constructs a roof of palm-leaves, the corne:s of which are supported by the same trees which uphold the house. the extreme mechinical ingenuity of some uncivilised tribes, wo king with very imperfect implements, is perhaps nowhere betier shown than in the drawing on the opposite page of an adze made by the inhabitants ot Hervey Islands, and which also gives a very good idea of the excellence of the illustrations in Mr, Wood’s work, and ot which the following description is given :— “The lower part of the handle is completely hollow, the native manufactmrer having contrived to cut away the wood through the intervals of the upright pillurs. As these intervals are not quite the third of an inch in width — Nov. 3, 1870] the labour of removing the interior part of the handle must have been very great. and the work exceedingly tedious. Even with European tools it would have been a difficult _ piece of workmanship, and the difficulty is greatly en- ] ; 1 b q : ; 4 § ; 7 j , 7 E ~ the work for themselves. word of praise for the illustrations, which are extremely numerous, whilst maay are original, and drawn from ‘implements in Mr. Wood’s own collection. We miss an hanced by the fact that the native who carved it had nothing but a sharp stone or a shark’s tooth lashed to a handle by way of a knife, The head of the adze is made of stone, and is lashed to the handle in a way exactly like that which is employed by the New Zealanders, except that it is far more elaborate. Asif desirous of giving him- self as much trouble as possible, the maker has employed the finest possible sinnet, not wider than packthread, and quite flat. It is laid on as regularly as if wound by machinery, and the native artist has contrived to produce -the most extraordinary effects with it, throwing the various portions into a simulated perspective, and making the a THE MANGAIAN ADZE lashing look as if there were four distinct layers one above _ the other.” We wish we had space to give the account of the activity of the Monkey Men of New Guinea; of the manipulative skill of the canoe-builders of Fiji, of the Zarabatana with their blow-gun, of the New Caledonian with his sling and javelin, of the extraordinary and cruel rites of the Mandans in the initiation of their youth into manhood, of the cruelty of the Tongans, and a hundred other details of interest ; but our readers must refer to We cannot conclude without a index. H, Power NATURE 3 NOTES In stating that we believe that the English Eclipse Expedit’on is now finally arranged, it is due to the Government to add, and we do so with the greatest pleasure, that it is now quite clear that only a small part of the blame, which certainly attaches to some one, can be laid at their doors. In fact, explanations certainly are due from those who have had the management of the now famous Joint Committee. It appears that a depu- tation was named, and accepted the trust of representing the requirements of Science to the First Lord of the Treasury, which trust they neither fulfilled nor handed back to the Committee in order that another deputation might be appointed. We next hear of a letter written to the wrong Government department; and last of all, we are informed that the letters of the Govern- ment department —the last, we believe, written not Jater than the beginning of September—stating, among other things, that an application should be made in October, when the possibility of granting ships could be better discussed—have not yet been brought before the Joint Committee, which has just been sum- moned by the Secretary for the 4th of November, that is, to- morrow. It is not for but it is our clear duty matter will be taken up. us to censure such conduct as this, to point it out, and we hope the In spite of this mismanagement, however, hear that the Government are prepared to aid both by money and ships when an application shall be made, and we cannot doubt that application will be made. There is still ample time to organise an expedition which shall do much good work, though perhaps it is too late to send out and erect the largest class of instruments. Large instruments, however, will be in the hands of the members of the American Government Expedition, so that this is the less to be regretted. we We have great pleasure in announcing that Prof. Wyville Thomson. F,R.S., has been appointed by the Crown successor to Prof. Allman in the chair of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. A vacancy is thus caused in the chair of Natural History at Queen’s College, Belfast, for which we understand there are already many candidates. Tne difficulty of providing funds for the establishment of ‘a Professorship of Physical Science in the Univers'ty of Cambridge has been overcome by the colleges, at a meeting of their heads, taking upon themselves a quota of the rates for improvements and other purposes in the town of Cambridge, which was formerly charged uvon the University funds. This sum amounts roughly to more than twelve hundred pounds per annum ; so that the University will speedily be able to avail itself of the munifi- cent offer of the Duke of Devonshire, and will doubtless proceed at oace to establish a Professorship of Physical Science, and obtain the other aids in the way of laboratory, apparatus, and assistants, that the Professor may require, TuE following notices of lectures this term in Cambridge show that there is great increase of activity in teaching the various branches of Natural Science in that university. Professcr \Liveing gives a course of lectures on the ‘‘ Experimental Laws of Heat,” | and also gives instruction in practical chemi-try in the University Laboratory three days in the week. Professor Humphry gives a course on ‘* Practical Anatomy,” also a course on “* Anatomy and Physiology,”’ and connects with these a ‘* Microscopical De- monstration” once a fortnight, and instruction in ‘* Practica? Histology ” once a week. Professor Newton gives a course on “*Zoology-and Comparative Anatomy.” Professor Willis pives a course on ‘*Mechanics and Mechanism,” and their application to “‘ Manufacturing Procesges” and the ‘‘ Steam-engine.” Pro- fessor Miller gives a course on “ Elementary Crystallography and Weighing.” Professor Sedgwick gives a course on ‘‘ Geology.” In Downing College, Dr. Bradbury lectures on ** Comparative Anatomy,” and Mr. Danby on ‘‘Geology.” In Trinity, Mr. 14 NATURE [Nov. 3, 1870 Trotter lectures on ‘‘ Electricity,” Dr. Michael Foster on “ Physiology,” and Mr. Trotter on ‘* Elementary Botany.” In St. John’s, Mr. Main lectures on ‘‘ Chemistry,” and gives prac- tical instruction in the College Laboratory ; and Mr. Bonney lectures on ‘* Geology.” Most of these College lectures are open to all the students of the University. Tur Natural Science Demyship of 757. per annum for five years, at Magdalen College, Oxford, which was not awarded at the last examination, is announced for open competition in March next. Further particulars will be sent on application to the College. Tue splendid Physical Laboratory lately built at Oxford is opened this term for practical instruction in Physics, under the superintendence of Professor R. B. Clifton, F.R.S., assisted by two demonstrators. A CHEMICAL society has been established at Zurich under the presidency of Dr. Wisliccnus. We regret to have to announce the death, on October 26, of Dr. Thomas Anderson, Superintendent of the Calcutta Botanic Gardens. Dr. Anderson had greatly assisted in the establishment of the Cinchona plantations in British India, was the author of a large number of papers on botanical subjects, and at the time of his death (on sick leave in this country) was engaged, in conjunction with Dr. Hooker and Dr, Thomson, on the new Flora of India. Tue death is announced of the Rev. F. Bancks Falkner, late head-master of Appleby Grammar School, a gentleman well known from his numerous and elaborate meteorological reports and letters, which mostly appeared in the pages of the Standard and Scientific Opinion. Av the first of the winter sozrées to be held on Monday even- ing, November 14, at 8 o'clock, .at © 27, Harley Street, Mr. A. R. Wallace will read ‘An Answer to Dr. Hume, Lecky, and others, against Miracles.” A discussion will be invited. Tue following officers are proposed for election by the Council of the London Mathematical Society at the general meeting to be held on Tuesday evening next :—President, W. Spottiswoode ; Vice-presidents, Prof. Cayley, Prof. Henrici, Prof. H. J. S. Smith ; ‘Treasurer, Prof. Hirst ; Secretaries, H. Jenkins, R. ‘Tucker. THE fourth opening conversazione of the Hackney Scientific Association took place on the 25th October, at the Meeting Rooms, New Tabernacle, Old Street Road, E.C. The objects exhibited were lent entirely by the members and some friends, and comprised an unusually fine display of microscopes of the most powerful description. Geology was well represented by a very rare collection of fossil mammalian teeth from the Freshwater Post-tertiary beds in the Lea Valley, exhibited by Mr. R. FE. Olliver, also a fine series of Coal-measure fossils by Mr. W. Appleford. Astronomy was unusually well represented by numerous objects, amongst which were two refractor telescopes, exhibiting convenient forms of mounting, also numerous sketches by Mr. W. R. Birt, exhibiting the most recent progress in seleno- graphy. We must not omit to notice a numerous collection of astronomical drawings, by Mr. A. P. Holden, amongst which were four very fine sketches of the recent great sun-spot. A NATURAL History Society was established a year ago in King Edward VI. Grammar School, Birmingham, and is now in active operation. A school collection has been commenced, with a view to a future museum. Tue Special Commissioners appointed for the purposes of the Public Schools Act, 1868, in virtue of the powers conferred upon them by that Act, have made five statutes for determining and establishing the constitution of the New Governing Bodies of the Schools of Winchester, Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, and Charterhouse. These statutes have been laid before Her Majesty in Council, and are published in the London Gazette of Tuesday, Oct. 25. Notice is giventhat it is lawful for the bodies or persons) authorised so to do in that Act, within two months from the date of the publication of this notification, to petition Her Maiesty in Council to withhold her approval from the whole or any part of such statutes. Aentin Baine As the subject of hereditary deformities is attracting some attention in our columns, it may be worth while to call attention to Brown-Séquard’s experiments on epileptic guinea-pigs detailed at the recent meeting of the British Association. Dr. Brown- : Séquard produced epileptic fits in the guinea-pigs either by the section of one-half of the spinal cord, or by the division of the sciatic nerve on one or both sides. During the fits it sometimes happens that the hind foot gets between the teeth, and is bitten. The animal, on recovery from the fit, tastes the blood, and if it be one in which the sciatic nerve has been divided, proceeds to nibbl off the two outer toes, which have entirely lost their sensi- bility from the operation on the nerve. In breeding from pairs of this kind, the offspring is without the two toes of which the yy parents have deprived themselves ; and in these cases all the off- spring become, as they grow up, perfectly epileptic ; while in ordinary cases epilepsy is only rarely transmitted hereditarily. Other peculiarities existing in these epileptic guinea-pigs were also found to be transmitted to their offspring ; and in dissection of the hereditarily malformed animals, a node was found on the sciatic nerve corresponding to that formed after section of the : nerve in the parent, Ir may interest some readers to know that the Board of Trinity College, Dublin, have expended about 2,000/. in draining the College park. Situate as the park is, in the very centre of the city, its drainage will confer a considerable benefit on the city. Dublin will also be much improved by the space of ground which the College authorities are giving to the city in College Green, as well as ornamented by the new cut stone wall and handsome iron railings which take the place of the old irregular quadrangle in front of the College, The College share of the expenses amounts to 2,000/, WE have received the half-yearly Report of the Marlborough College Natural History Society, from which it appears that the Society has entered on the seventh year of its existence. During these years it has undoubtedly greatly strengthened the love of Natural Science among the a/ummni of the College, an evidence of which is the publication during the last half-year of “The Birds of Marlborough” by an old member of the Society, E. F. im Thurm, a little volume for which we would wish a greatly increased circulation. The officers regret that the number of members of the Society is not yet commensurate with the number in the College who take an interest in Natural History. Inno more practical way can the love of a study of nature be fostered than by the encouragement of societies similar to this, Ir is stated that the Botanical Gardens at Strasburg were used during the siege as a burying-ground. THE twentieth part of the late Prof. Schnizlein’s ‘‘ Icono-_ graphia familiarum naturalium regni vegetabilis,” is published under the superintendence of Dr. Eichler, of Munich. This ~ magnificent work, commenced seven and twenty years since, is now completed in twenty parts. As Colombia in the last year exported about 3,500,000lhs. of Ja cinchona bark, valued at 87,000/., the Government there naturally y looks with some interest on the trade, and is desirous to improve it. It is curious to see in the official report of the Secretary of the Treasury a detailed accourt of the successful measures of ~ our Government for the cultivation of cinchona in India. Nov. 3, 1870] 15 AN earthquake was felt generally in the Natal colony and the Orange River Free State, about 3.45 P.M. on the 3rd August. It did no material damage. It was recorded at Bloem Fontein, in the Free State, and at Pietermaritzburg, Durban, New Guel- derland, Ladismith, Noodsberg. The course appears to have been from N. W. to S.E. Tue three most recent parts of the Bulletin of the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg contain the following articles :—Quelques propriétés du fer déposé parla voie galva- nique, R. Lenz ; Rapport sur un voyage entrepris dans |’intérét de la linguistique, F. J. Wiedemann ; Remarques sur les Echi- noderes, El. Metschnikoff; Sur le poil du Rzznoceros tichorinus, J. F. Brandt; Sur less congruences bindmes exponentielles a base 3 et sur plusieurs nouveaux théorémes relatifs aux résidus et aux racines primitives, V. Bouniakowsky ; Note relative 4 une demonstration, donnée par Cauchy, des équations générales de Péquilibre, J. Somoff ; Sur les sentences de Publilius Syrus, A. Nauck; La Métrique palie Vuttodaya, J. Minayeff; Sur Vhis- toire composée en arménien par Thoma Ardzrouni, X* s., M. Brosset ; Sur un théoréme relatif 4 la théorie des résidus et de son application a la démonstration de la loi de reciprocité de deux nombres premiers, V. Bouniakowsky ; Remarques et recti- fications concernant l'histoire naturelle des Alcides, J. F. Brandt ; Sur le symbole de Legendre (5), V. Bouniakowsky ; Embryo- logie du Phthirius pubis. (avec une Planche.), Os. Grimm ; De Vinfluence de la chaleur sur l’élasticité du caoutchouk, J. Schmulewitsch ; Notice sur Ak-tau et Kara-tau, montagnes dans la presqu’ile de Mangysclilak, cdte orientale de la mer Caspienne, G. V. Helmersen ; Sur les dérivés de la série isocaprine, A. Borodin ; Détermination du coefficient constant de la précession au moyen d’étoiles de faible éclat, M. M. Nyrén. A RIVAL to the far-famed Mont Cenis tunnel is announced from America. The tunnel through the Hoosac Mountain, on the Troy and Greenfield Railway, is steadily progressing, and has now overcome the great difficulties with which it started. It is 4 miles in length (more than half that of Mont Cenis), and of this distance about one-third is already penetrated. The work is actively proceeding night and day from both ends, and it is ex- pected it will be finished before the expiration of the contract in 1874. FurRTHER favourable reports of ipecacuanha cultivation in vy India have been received. The Conservator of Forests states a that the plants in the gardens at Nelamboor are doing well, and that some of the fleshy leaves were four inches long. A UNIVERSITY FOR TEXAS HE Rev. W. H. Sent has been for some time past in Europe, with letters from the late President of the United States, the Governor of Texas, and other dis- tinguished Americans, as the agent of the Soule Univer- sity and the Chappell Hill Female College, two literary institutions located at Chappell Hill, Washington county, in the State of Texas. His aim is so to enlarge and furnish them, especially the University, which has a medical department in Galveston, as to develop a great and permanent centre of learning and science. Consider- ing the vastness and the resources of Texas, its position as bordering on semi-civilised regions beyond, the rapid increase of its population, which includes a large Euro- pean element, and its growing commercial relations with Europe, especially with this ccuntry, such an enterprise as this must commend itself as one of great importance, and of general interest. _ The degree of success that has attended the agency is, indeed, extraordinary. Mr. Sent received contributions of books, specimens, &c., from various departments of the United States Government, from Prof. Agassiz, Yale College, the Smithsonian Institution, and other eminent sources in America ; and in Europe from the Emperor, the French Government, the Jardin des Plantes, the great French authors, &c., and the same line of success was continued in Belgium, Holland, Denmark, the various German States, and elsewhere. We are glad to know that he is meeting with encouragement in London from the Admiralty, the Geological Survey, the University of London, from many of our publishing houses and other sources. The agent is applying to many of our Learned and Scientific Societies for their transactions, which will, we doubt not, be cheerfully contributed. The agency involves a patient, persevering effort to accomplish a very important work. We most heartily commend the enter- prise to the friends of education in this country. Any contributions of books, or of botanical, geological, or mineralogical specimens may be sent (with a state- ment of the sources whence they come) to care of Messrs. Triibner and Co., 60, Paternoster Row, London, or to Messrs. Caleb Grimshaw and Co., Liverpool. EARTH CURRENTS [3 has been my pleasure at different times to call atten- tion to the connection that exists between the Aurore Boreales and that great apparent rush of electricity through the crust of the earth which eagerly scizes upon the easy paths, offered to its passage by the wires of the telegraph, and by filling them with electricity, produces what are called “earth currents,” or “deflections.” The aurora is always accompanied by such displays, but it is rarely in England that they are of such strength as absolutely to break down telegraph communication. The earth currents of Oct. 24 and 25 have only been equalled by those which ~ occurred in 1859. The following extracts from the diary of one of the large telegraph stations in the South of England will be found interesting :— Oct. 24, 5.0 P.M. Slight deflections on all long circuits. . eF 5-30 ,, Gradually increasing. * 6.0 ,, Very strong ; circuits suspended for ten minutes. a 7.0 ,, Gradually decreasing. _ 8.15 ,, All circuits right. Oct. 25, 3.0 ,, Deflections, which have been inter- mittent all day, or very strong. a 3-30 , Circuits nearly all stopped. fp 4.0 , Working through on some circuits, but slow. 5 5.0 ,, Deflections decreasing. = 5-45 ,, On again; all circuits suspended. 6.15 ,, Deflections decreasing again. 3 7.0 4, Circuits clear. This is only a sample of what occurred simultaneously all over England, and probably the globe. The currents were very irregular in their direction and very variable in their strength. Circuits running S.W. to N.E. are usually most powerfully affected, but on this occasion all direc- tions seemed equally affected. Where two or more wires run between two stations, the effect of these currents upon the working is easily re- medied by substituting the second wire for the earth to complete the circuit. This practice was largely adopted on Monday and Tuesday last. The most striking fact obseryed was that on each oc- casion the currents ceased when the auroral display com- menced. 1 have not noticed this before, probably because the cessation of the one phenomenon and the first appear- ance of the other have scarcely ever before been so strongly indicated. W. H. PREECE 16 NATURE [Nov. 3, 1870 DR. C. W. GUMBEL ON DEEP-SEA MUD R. C. W. GUMBEL has recently published an important paper, containing an account of some highly interesting inves- tigations on Deep-sea Mud. Sir R. Murchison and Professor Huxley provided him with a large quantity of mud, taken up from the Atlantic at lat. 29° 36'54" N., and long. 18° 19’ 48" W., ata depth of about 2,350 fathoms. This he first cleared, by long- continued washing, from all sea-salts soluble in water ; then he divided it, by filtering, into three parts. In the first Foramini- fera and larger organisms predominated ; the second consisted of a sediment easily distinguished from the first, fine but heavy ; the third was fine and flaky, remaining lightly suspended in water, and consisting almost exclusively of Bafhydius, Cocco- liths, Coccospheres, together with other organisms of the smallest kind (Diatoms, Radiolaria, Sponge-spicules, and a very few of the smallest Foraminifera). ‘‘ Dried to about 100° C.” says Dr. Giimbel, “10 per cent. of the mud consisted of large Foraminifera ; 1°3 per cent. of fine, heavy mud ; and 88:7 per cent. of finest Bathyéius mud. The Io per cent, part consisted mostly of Glodigerina, which occurred in an astonishing variety of forms, from the smallest shapes to figures of a considerable size, and could easily be distinguished as G/. dudloides and Gl. inflata. Next to these in number were Ordulina universa, Cristellaria crepidula, Truncatulina lobatula, Discorbina ro- sacea, Rotalia soldanii, R. orbicularis, Putvinulina elegans ; P. micheliana, Nonionina umbilicata, Polystomella crispa, Li- tuola globigeriniiformis, with many other (but more dismem- bered) species. Along with these there were individual speci- mens of large Radiolaria, Siliceous Sponge-spicules, Diatoms, shells of Ostracoda, torn pieces of sponge and (very rarely) of Echinodermata, and fragments of wood, which were very de- cidedly distinguishable. It is a question whether the latter was a part of the apparatus used in raising the mud. It is in the highest degree remarkable that all traces of Bryozoa, corals, and firm pieces of more highly-organised animals, were wanting, or at least were very rare. *« The fine heavier mud which composes the sediment contains, for the most part, inorganic elements, with fragments which con- sist essentially of carbonate of lime, and which, on being dissolved in acids, leave behind cuticular membranes and flakes, which partly gave the reaction of conchiolin. It appears to follow from this, that these pieces of calcareous matter, although I could discover by the microscope no structure in them, are essentially de- rived from pounded molluscous shells. The remaining portion, which was insoluble in diluted acids, was composed of irregular, for the most part lump-shaped, granules of quartz, of clearly re- cognisable scales of mica, of dust, and of magnetic iron, which could be drawn out by the magnetic needle; of single red, blue, and dark green transparent pieces of mineral; and of grains of crystal, of a peculiarly dark irridescent brilliance, which I can refer only to Labradorite. The polarisation and stauroscope apparatus was used for the purpose of determining these inorganic ingredients. ‘© These inorganic elements of the Deep-sea Mud, found at such a distance from land, appeared to me worthy of the greatest consideration. Their origin can scarcely be ascribed to the loosening of the perhaps rocky bottom of the sea, at the point where it was sounded. They rather prove that inorganic sub- stances, which are derived from the rocky masses of the land by mechanical destruction, are conveyed by ocean currents to parts of the sea the farthest removed from land. This would render easily explicable the admixture of inorganic elements in many ocean sediments of ancient times. The explanation of clayey or marly interpositions would be made much less difficult. If heavy masses of mineral are transported so far, how much more easy, would be the transportation of clayey mud which remains so lightly suspended in the water! It is almost self-evident how quantities of clay or marl may be brought to a stand at certain parts of the high sea, marked out beforehand by the direction of the ocean currents and the configuration of the bottom of the sea, and when the direction of the currents changes, may come to form even alternate strata of chalk and marl. We thus obtain a mode of explaining the formation of many marl deposits, which is at once natural and simple. ‘©The third portion of the Deep-sea Mud is worthy ina high degree cf the interest both of the zoologist and the geologist, * whilst it gives scope for many far-reaching theories, If we first analyse it microscopically, the substance, which resembles a white clay mud, resolves itself, apart from the intermingled minutest Globigerine and some few other Foraminifera, into a heap of little granules, the so-called Coccoliths (Discoliths and Cyatho- liths), and of granulous flaky little lumps, the so-called Bathybius, compared with which all other ingredients, —the siliceous-shelled Diatoms, and Radio/aria, and also perhaps the so-called Cocco- spheres and other small organic bodies excepted,—are of very secondary importance. «The part of the Deep-sea Mud which is made up of Diatoms and Radiolaria, together with Sponge spicules, is of especial importance, because it consists to no inconsiderable extent of silica, and appears to be the source from which the siliceous ~ concretions in many chalk formations have drawn their materials. That these form no inconsiderable part of the composition ot — Deep-sea Mud may be clearly seen by removing the chalk by means of acids, and the organic matter by heat or by sulphuric acid. There then become visible the most beautiful forms of Diatoms, with especial frequency, Gallionelle, Coscinodisct, and Navicule, more rarely Actinocyoli, Pleurosigma, Rhabdo- nema, Grammatophora, and others, of which many, concealed in the network of granulous Bathybius masses, were formerly scarcely visible. Many forms of extremely beautiful Radiolaria were also seen, together with simple Sponge-spicules. Lastly, we remark some slight fragments of plants, which may belong to the species of Saprolegnza and Protoccus.” ; Speaking of the Coccoliths and the Bathybius, Dr. Giimbel says he is in a position to confirm the conclusions of Profs. Hux- ley, Carpenter, and Haeckel with respect to their organic nature, In a note he adds, ‘‘I have already stated my opinion on this subject (NATURE, April 1870) but must here rectify a mistake in that communication, namely, that the organic matter of the Coccoliths yields with iodine, blue, therefore cellulose, reaction. This colouring, I am now conyinced, is not the consequence of chemical action, but a phenomenon of refracted light, such as occurs with small thin leaves or membranes when greatly magnified.” After detailing some observations, microscopic and chemical, on Bathybius and Coccoliths, Dr. Giimbel proceeds to speak of the fur- ther distribution of the latter. ‘‘First,”” he says, ‘‘on looking through the Algze, Hydrozoa, Polyps, Corals, &c., which occur on shallow sea-coasts, such as may easily be met with in every botani- caland Zoological collection, I succeeded in numerous instances In finding Coccoliths in the places where they had grown, and not seldom, Suthybius at the same time. These investigations were ex- tended to points on the coasts of almost allseas, and now, instead, of the statement lately made that the organisms in question thrive only at a depth of 5,000 feet, I am in a position to assert on a provi fact, that Coccoliths (Bathybius) occur in all seas and at all depths. This deprives these minute bodies of a certain air of wonder with which they were surrounded, as the offspring of the profoundest and most secret depths of the ocean ; but by their astonishingly wide distribution and their vast numbers, which stamp them as one of the most essential members of rock-forming substances, they gain infinitely in scientific interest.” Dr. Giimbel maintains that the distribution of Coccoliths in time is not less remarkable than the present distribution in space. There is proof, he says, that they are to be found in “almost all sedimentary formations.” Referring to their dis- tribution in various formations, he says :—‘‘ But besides the Coccoliths another ingredient demands attention. In the case of the chalk of Meudon, rich in Coccoliths, if the carbonate of lime be removed by means of diluted acids, there remains a flaky and cuticular residue, in which are found thin, transparent flakes, full of the smallest granules, and resembling Lathybiusin a high degree. firmly establishes their relationship with the Bathyérus. The imperishableness of this substance is indeed very remarkable.” After stating that the Coecoliths occur in all the soft marls and limestones of the Jurassic and Liassic formations—‘*The Mus- chelkalk,” continues Dr, Giimbel, ‘‘appeared for a long time to be proof against every experiment. Every specimen of marl which I examined was apparently free from Coccoliths. At last I had the good fortune to discover traces of them in a somewhat impure piece of rock-salt from Wilhelmsgliick. Even here they show themselves extremely sparingly, but in the company of flakes, which are not unlike Sethydius. To the present time I have in vain examined the similar rock-salts of Berchtesgaden and Stessfurt ; and as yet indications of Coccoliths in the Permian formation and the Coal-measures are wanting. On the other hand, the soft marls of the mountain limestone of Regnitzlosau, the soft marls of the Conodont strata of the Baltic provinces, the Trenton marl of New York, and even the siliceous limestone of the Potsdam sandstone, contain some traces, although te an extremely small extent, ’ This places their organic nature beyond question, and — i 3 ; a ee a erg Wn ay ee ee ee ae él ave ern ese! SS Psaticas tb in 5‘ ‘ — 7 ‘Nov. 3 1870] MALOURE “‘ These facts all point to the conclusion that in the majority of | calcareous marine deposits, the Coccoliths originally formed a more or less essential part of the calcareous masses, and that in | thick or granulous, and particularly ancient limestone rocks, they can no longer be perceived, either on account of the opaque character of the rocks, or because they have been made by some change wholly or in part unrecognisable, or have been altogether destroyed. I have been able by some experiments to throw further light upon this subject. That these smallest organic bodies can be recognised in hard limestones only in the rarest cases, even when it contains them in great numbers, I convinced myself | by means of thin slices, which I made from Deep-sea Mud, thoroughly dried and rendered hard by repeated soaking in diluted Canada balsam and by heating, and also from writing chalk, made hard in the same way, and rich in Coccoliths ‘The infinite numbers of finest granules and rings are so massed together, one over the other, that it must be regarded as an extremely rare case | when a Coccolith is clearly seen here and there at the very thinnest edges.” THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE On a new Electro-Magnelic Anemometer and the Modeof Using it in Registering theVelocity and Pressure of the Wind.—Mr. J. J. Hall. The anemometer consists of two parts, viz.—velocity apparatus and registering apparatus. The first consists of a set of Robin- son’s hemispherical cups, which communicate their motion down- wards into a brass box, where it is reduced in angular velocity, and causes a contact disc or commutator (in which two platinum contact pins are fixed equidistant from one another) to revolve in ~;th mile. An insulated metallic lever, having a platinum working face, stands on either side of the disc, so that upon the completion of every ;4;th mile one or other of the contact pins comes in contact with the two levers, thus uniting them and completing the circuit. The levers are raised a few degrees and then fall back to their normal position ready to be taken up by the next pin, and so on. The recording apparatus consists of a train of wheels and pinions working in a frame or between two brass plates, the arbors of which project through a dial-plate whereon the circles and figures are engraved and carry the hands. These wheels are driven by a weight attached to a line wound round a barrel, and a Jocking-pin disc (the pinion of which works in the first wheel) is released at every contact of the cup- apparatus by an electro-magnet which unlocks the pin-disc and allows the first hand to advance ¢4,th mile on the graduated dial by a jump similar to the minute hands in remontoire clocks. By turning on a ‘‘strike-silent ” stop a hammer lever is brought into connection with the escapement and strikes a bell at every con- tact. By this arrangement the observer has nothing to do but to notice the seconds-hand of his watch or chronometer while he counts the number of times that the bell is struck, each of which corresponds to the five-hundredth part of a mile, and by a for- mula arranged (and exhibited) by Mr. Hall (who has also arranged a comprehensive series of tables for use with this instru- ment) the hourly velocity may be readily deduced. In noting velocities extending over long periods of time, the instrument is read in the same manner as the ordinary cup and dial anemometer, or as a gas meter. By means of the formula before mentioned (although the unit of measurement in this instrument is five-hun- dredths) the observer may arrive at results as near the truth as ifthe ‘instrument were capable of registering the one-thousandth part of a mile, while the great advantage lies in the fact that the battery power is less called into action, from which we may infer its elemental duration will be considerably longer. A Magnetic Paradox.—Mr. S. Alfred Varley, Assoc. Inst. C.E. The author stated he had termed the instrument a Magnetic Paradox because the phenomenon exhibited by it was the appa- rent repulsion of soft iron bya magnet. The apparatus consisted of a compound magnet in a box, and when pieces of soft iron were placed on the box over the poles they became magnetic by induction and were attracted by the magnet; but if a soft iron bar not by itself magnetic’ was approached near to the pieces of iron, they leapt away from the magnet in the box and became strongly attached to the soft iron bar, the pieces of iron appearing to be repelled by the magnet and attracted by the fron bar. The aathor stated the explanation demonstrated the ; 17 duality of the magnetic force, and it would also prove, did we not already know it, that magnetic force was transmitted only by induction. He stated that if a piece of soft iron were placed over the poles of a magnet, the magnet developes the magnetic forces resident in the iron by separating them, and the iron is attracted only by virtue of the forces existing in the iron itself, and to the extent to which the forces are separated. _If the magnet be bent bringing the lower pole round and over the piece of soft iron, the magnetic forces resident in the soft iron will be more de- veloped ; but if the piece of soft iron be midway, it will not be attracted, as the forces on either side are equal and balance ; another attraction will, however, be manifested if one pole be nearer to the piece of iron than the other. If, instead of bending the magnet as just described, the piece of soft iron placed over the magnet be approached by a soft iron bar, the mag- netic forces separated and rendered active in the piece of iron will develop the magnetic forces resident jn the iron bar, and if the bar opposed no resistance to the assumption of the magnetic condition, it would exert an attractive force for the piece of soft iron equal to that exerted by the magnet, provided always that the bar was at the same distance. It was stated that as the mass of iron in the iron bar was much greater than that of the piece of soft iron, the resistance opposed by the bar to polarisation was comparatively small, and might be disregarded, and consequently | it followed that as the dual forces resident in iron are equal, and | the one force cannot be developed without equally developing the other; when the iron bar was approached nearer to the piece of soft iron it became attracted, leaping away from the magnet and attaching itself to the iron bar, and this notwithstanding that the attractive force exhibited by the iron bar has been called into being by the magnet in the box, which is nearer to the piece of soft iron than itis to the iren bar. The iron bar also collected the magnetic rays of force issuing from the magnets, and con- sequently it exerted a greater attraction for the piece of soft iron than any individual magnet forming part of the compound mag- net. This was shown by placing a piece of soft iron on the pole of one of the magnets and removing it from the pole by the su- perior attractive force of the iron bar. It was also shown that if only the thickness of a picce of writing-paper were placed between the magnets and the piece of soft iron, the appearance of repul- sion could be prevented. SrecTion B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE On the Separation from Iron Furnace Cinder of Phosphoric Acid Jor Manurial Purposes.—Mr. James Hargreaves. While the author was engaged in an attempt to produce a good ser- viceable steel direct from phosphoric pig-iron, by the use of nitrate of soda, the fact forced itseif upon his attention that phosphorus had previously been too much looked upon as some- thing to be got rid of, and not sufficiently as something to be got hold of ; and that to effect the latter would be the best means of effecting the former. When phosphoric pig-iron is converted into malleable iron, the phosphorusis, in great part, transferred to the refinery and puddling furnace cinder in the form of phosphate of iron, the amount varying with the composition of the pig-iron which yields it. The refining and puddling furnace cinder from Cleve- land pig-iron generally contains from 3 to 7 per cent. of phos- phoric acid, which is from one-fourth to one-half the amount contained in good commercial soluble phosphate of lime. This cinder is sometimes again used for the manufacture of pig-iron, but the product is of small commercial value on account of the accumulation of phosphorus in it. The concentration of the phosphorus from the pig-iron into the cinder in the form of phos- phate of iron renders it more easy and practicable to separate, when the preparation of compounds of phosphoric acid is the object in view, as there is a smaller bulk of material to be treated to obtain a given amount of this product. The phosphoric acid may be separated either in the form of soluble superphosphates of lime and magnesia, or of the alkaline tribasic phosphates. On the Retention of Organic Nitrogen by Charcoal. — Mr. Edward C. C. Stanford, F.C.S. In this paper the author sub- mitted some incomplete researches, as a first instalment of what promises to be a wide field of inquiry, viz., the action of char- coal on organic nitrogenous matter. He was desirous of knowing whether or not a loss of nitrogen occurs when that form of matter remains in contact with charcoal, and if so, what be- comes of it. If any loss occurs, it would invalidate the process recommended by the author at the Exeter meeting of the Associa- tion, viz., that of using charcoal as a means of securing the 18 NATURE [Vov. 3, 1870 whole value of town excreta. He said that he had shown last year that, with either fluid or solid excreta, there was no loss, as far as his experiments had then extended; and he had pointed out, also, that he expected no loss from oxidation, as both must already be regarded as oxidised compounds. His experiments since had extended over a long period, and he had included meat as one of the nitrogenous matters used ; in all, however, he had found no loss of nitrogen, no oxidation, and no formation of nitrates. SEcTION C.—GEOLOGY On a Census of the Marine Invertebrated Fauna of the Lias.— Mr. R. Tate. ‘The author g ave an analysis of the fossils, but desiderated more precise data before exact results could be obtained. On the Formation of Boulder Clays and Alternations of Level of Land and Water.—Rev. J. Gunn. The author illustrated his own opinions, which were completely at variance with the generally accepted interpretation of the origin of these beds. On Some Cases of the Recent Conversion of Glacial Drifts into what Appears tobe Middle Drift.—Mr. G. J. Stoney. On the Occurrence of Pebbles and Boulders of Granite in Schis- tose Rocks in lay, Scotland.—Mr.. J. Thomson. The author described the different rocks exhibited in a section across Islay from west to east, and the position of the metamorphic rock in which the boulders occurred which underlies a bed of quartzite seventy feet thick. Specimens of some of the smaller boulders with their interesting matrix still attached to them were exhibited. The bed probably indicated one of those recurring glacial epochs which had formed the subject of Mr. Wallace’s communication to the section. Diamonds of South Africa.—Professor Tennant. Changes of Climate.—Mr. R. A. Peacock. These were due, ac- cording to the author, to rain and rivers, to denudations, to risings and sinkings of land, and to the great range of temperature in in- terplanetary space and on the various parts of the earth’s surface. The warm, genial climate of the Carboniferous period he ascribed to the absence of high hills at that time on the globe. Sur le terrain Silurien du centre de la Belgique.—Professor Malaise. ‘The author described the series of beds with their fossil remains, and considered that they represented a portion of the Middle Silurians, more extensively developed in Belgium than in Britain. On the Remains of an Insect discovered in the Carboniferous beds at Huyton.—Mr. Clementshaw exhibited the specimen of the insect, and pointed out the characters upon which he ventured to refer it to the /u/goride. Notes on a Meronethshire Gold Quartz Crystal, and some Gola found recently in the River Mawddach.—Mx. T. A. Readwin. SEcTION D.—B10Locy Department of Anatomy and Physiology On the Connection of the Hyoid Arch with the Cranium.— Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S. In the sheep, as is well known, the anterior arch or cornu of the hyoidean apparatus is des- cribed as consisting of three bones, of which the uppermost is by far the largest and most important, and has received the name of stylo-hyal. This bone is long, compressed, and at the proximal end enlarges and divides into two short branches, by the anterior of which it is continued as a car- tilaginous band to the cranium. The upper end of this band is again ossified in the form of a curved cylindrical plug of bone, with a truncated lower extremity, lying in a groove on the side of the tympanic bone, the edges of which groove meet around it in adult animals, and often become ankylosed with it ; but this is only a secondary connection. The primary connection is with the periotic or petro-mastoid bone, immediately in front and to the inner side of the stylo-mastoid foramen. In embryonic specimens it can be traced as a distinct band of cartilage lying to the anterior and inner side of the lower end of the Fallopian aqueduct, and passing to the upper and back part of the tym- panic cavity, near to the spot from which the stapedius muscle takes origin. This is then the true proximal extremity of the anterior arch of the hyoidian apparatus, if we leave out of con- sideration the stapedius and incus which there is reason to believe are developed from the same rod of cartilage—a question which is not discussed in the present communication. Whatever may be the case with regard to the origin of the last-named parts, it is a subject of easy demonstration that in the sheep there is an ossified portion of the upper end of the hyoid arch, above and distinct from the stylo-hyal, which becomes firmly united with the periotic, and which may ossify either from a separate centre or by extension of bone from the periotic. Whether it should be considered as a process of the periotic or as a separate ele- ment may still be a matter of opinion ; but the existence of such a part as a distinct portion of the hyoid arch requires recognition, [t may be conveniently distinguished by the name of tympano- Ayal, as it is always in relation with the tympanic bone, and continues the hyoid arch up to the wall of the cavity of the tympanum, This portion of the skull can be distinctly recognised at the spotin dicated (#.e, to the anterior and inner side of the stylo- mastoid foramen) in alniost all mammals, though in very different degrees of development, usually in accordance with the size and amount of ossification of the remainder of the anterior arch. Thus, in those of the Ungulata, as the ruminants, and especially the horse and rhinoceros, in which the stylo-hyal is very largely developed, the tympano-hyal is most conspicuous, but where, as in the pig, the anterior arch is little ossified, the tympano-hyal is comparatively rudimentary. In the cetacea it is quite distinct, though small, and a fine band of cartilage can often be traced from the upper end of the stylo-hyal into it, embedded in the great ligamentous mass which attaches that bone to the exoccipital and surrounding parts of the cranium, and which of course is only a secondary connection. In man, this bone or process is also quite distinct, although it seems to have been generally confounded with the stylo-hyal. The so-called styloid process of the temporal bone has long been known to have a separate centre of ossification, and is also gene- rally recognised as the homologue of the stylo-hyal of other mammals, one of the main points of difference being, that whereas in all others it is an independent bone not connected directly with the cranium, in man it is always ankylosed to the ‘‘tem- poral,” or forms a process of the skull. Ifa human skull at the period of birth is examined, a very small round piece of bone surrounded by a deep groove can be seen exactly where the tympano-hyal is found in the sheep, just behind the posterior limb of the inverted arch formed by the tym- panic bone, and in front and to the inner side of the stylo-mastoid foramen. This increases somewhat in size as age advances, forming a distinct process, supported, and partly embraced in front by the vaginal process of the tympanic. The true styloid or stylo-hyal at birth isa slender rod of cartilage, often partially ossified in the centre, and invested by a strong fibrous sheath, from which the stylo-hyoid, stylo-glossus, and stylo-pharyngeus muscles take origin. Though it occasionally becomes ankylosed in the adult with the tympano-hyal, as is the case with those skulls which have very long styloid processes, this does not occur. so frequently as is described in most works on anatomy. In the large majority of skulls, before middle age, the stylo-hyal is free, and is commonly lost in maceration. The short process which is always present, and which is commonly considered as a rudi- mentary styloid process, is really a distinct portion of the hyoid arch, corresponding with the tympano-hyal of the sheep. The communication was illustrated by specimens and diagrams. On the Correspondence between the Anterior and Posterior Ex-— tremity, and the Modifications of the Position of the Limbs in_the higher Vertebrata.—Professor W. H. Flower, F.R.S. This communication was chiefly devoted to an exposition, by means of specimens and diagrams, of the views held by most English anatomists of the serial homologies of the different bones of the extremities, founded upon comparison of the anterior, cephalic, or preaxial border of the one, in the primitive position, with the same border of the other, which leads to results opposed to the views of Wyman and other American anatomists, founded upon the principle of antero-posterior symmetry. On Lefthandedness:—Dr. Pye-Smith. The author referred to the prevalence of this condition as an occasional variety as far back as tradition goes, and in various parts of the world. Like righthandedness, it should be regarded as a functional specialisation, not a structural transposition. That it does not depend on transposition of the viscera is proved by several cases ; and also that it does not result from the abnormal origin of the subclavian artery, as referred to in a previous number of NATURE. Righthandedness is probably the immediate result of some struc- t ural difference between the two cerebral hemispheres. Gratiolet’s statement, that the left hemisphere is earlier developed, is con-— Nov. z; 1870] NATURE 19 tradicted by Ecker, Vogt, and Callender ; but Broca’s, that it | is normally heavier than the right, is confirmed by Dr. Boyd. The author then spoke of the possible truth of Brown-Séquard’s theory of the left hemisphere presiding specially over animal, the right over organic functions. Normal aphasia with right hemi- plegia was contrasted with cases cited from Dr. Ogle and Dr. Hughlings Jackson, of left-handed persons with left hemiplegia and aphasia. The primitive condition was probably one of per- fect bilateral structural symmetry and ambidextrous function. The normal condition at present is the result of hereditarily transmitted specialisation of structure and functions, both the re- sul! of some advantage resulting to individuals using the right hand, eye, or foot, for the performance of more specialised functions than those of swimming, climbing, &c., such for instance as carrying weapons or nursing children. Lefthanded- ness would then be explained as a more or less complete re- version to an ancestral condition, Right and Lefthandedness should, therefore, be compared with such deviation in function and structure as is observed for instance in the clele of the higher Crustacea, while transposition of viscera is to be classed with the reversed twist occasionally seen in the skull of _ Pleuronectide and the shells and entire bodies of Gasteropoda. Professors Burdon Sanderson and S. Stricker read a paper on A New Method of Studying the Capillary Circulation in Mam- malia, he circulation was studied in the omentum of a guinea-pig immersed in a solution of salt and water of a certain strength and temperature, the animal being thoroughly chlo- ralised. Contributions to the Migration Theory.—Richard Caton, M.D. This paper contained an account of a number of experiments on the capillary circulation of the frog, fish, and tadpole in reference to the interesting phenomenon of the migration of blood-cor- " puscles out of the vessels. The opinion was expressed that this occurrence was chiefly due to congestion, and also that there were grounds for considerable doubt as to whether it had any connection with the suppurative process, as hitherto supposed to be the case. This paper was read immediately after those of Dr. Burdon Sanderson and Prof. Stricker, and the three were dis- _cussed together. On the Antiseptic Treatment of Contagia as Illustrative of the Germ Theory of Disease.—Mr. Hope. The anthor gave some valuable details as to his treatment of the rinderpest which broke out upon his experimental farm in Essex in 1867. The majority of between 260 and 270 cows were attacked by that disease. He injected carbolic acid through either the mouth or rectum, and 111 of those cows so treated recovered. The re- mainder not so dealt with died or had to be slaughtered. He _also argued that the chemical instead of the medicinal treatment a eas 3 of contagion was much better both in respect to men and the lower animals. He also gave illustrative cases of scarlet fever, ae the view of showing that the sipping of a very weak solution of carbolic acid, sprinkling body, clothes, carpets, &c., was highly beneficial in its effects.—Dr. Baylis, medical officer of ~ health, Birkenhead, agreed with the reader in his views regarding -rinderpest, but not entirely with his treatment of fever. He (Dr. Baylis), speaking of the unsatisfactory manner in which that ‘subject was treated by the British Association, expressed a hope ated before next year’s meeting they would institute some expe- ‘timents as to the action of disinfectants. : © Department of Ethnology and Anthropology Dr. King read a paper On Blight in Man, and the Animal and -the Vegetable World, Waving defined the terms blight, contagion, and infection, the author proceeded to describe the ‘Signs by which their presence could be traced, and enumerated the various diseases which were supposed to be contagious or in- fectious, referring incidentally to small-pox, which could not, in is opinion, be averted by vaccination. He thought that disease was the result of a local impurity of the atmosphere, and that whereas a healthy person might be affected if he went to the locally impure spot, the party suffering could not convey it to another upon his removal to a different locality. Dr. Hitchman read a paper on the Anatomy of Intellect, detailing numerous physiological experiments in regard to the nature of life and mind in man and animals. Mental phenomena, he maintained, did not always imply the existence of brain, or cephalic ganglia, or of nerves conveying impressions to cerebral organisation at all. Mind is not invariably dependent upon a — condition of brain—this organ being often sound in a 7 acute and chronic cases of insanity, the seat of disease being found, according to statistical observation, at home and abroad, in the alimentary canal, liver, uterus, spleen, heart, and lungs, in at least a moiety of all cases. This is true, even in the most severe mental affection known to the physician, paralytic de- mentia, The mental principle is not confined to brain molecules, but is equally contained in parts far distant from them, and is separable from the body, as mind, in a latent state, as well as an immaterial new individual. The whole mental organisation is specially operant independently of all molecular changes in gan- glious and nervous cords, though the psychical mode of action is largely determined in the genus /omo and higher forms of animal nature, by the modification of structure and physiological con- dition of each anatomical organ ; both healthy and morbid changes show there is a certain point in the physical history of instinet and intelligence, at once and for ever fatal to the doctrine of Professor Tyndall, and other physicists, viz., that thought, sense, emotion, nay, every fact of consciousness, are due ex- clusively to molecular motions of brain. On the Relation of the anctent Moabites to neighbouring Nations, as disclosed in the newly discovered Moabite Stone.—Rev. Dr. Ginsburgh. This stone was found as recently as the year 1868, during researches in Palestine ; the inscription occupied 34 lines, and was written in a language which traced its origin to a date long prior to the Christian era. The translation looked like a chapter of the Bible; and when it was borne in mind that of 15 cities mentioned in the Old Testament, 11 were referred to on the stone, no one could doubt that the Moabites were in a far greater state of civilisation than was generally supposed. The inscription dated back as far as 900 years before Christ, and was, therelore, older than two-thirds of the Old Testament. As the result of careful study, he came to the conclusion that an organised Temple service was observed amongst the Jews out of Palestine, and that that service must have been very much akin to the service of the Moabites; that at a period goo years before Christ, the word “*Jehovah”—although subsequently avoided with so much per- sistency—was so often upon the lips of the Hebrew race, that it passed over to a neighbouring nation ; that the simplicity of the language was a striking evidence of the advanced stage of civilisa- tion of the Moabites, and that in prowess they were superior to the Jews. The following papers were read relating to the Australians, their language, and mental characteristics. The first paper was by Mr. C. S. Wake, and was entitled, Zhe Physical Characteristics of the Australian Aborigines ; the second was sent by Dr. Bleek, and was on Zhe fosition of Australian Languages. The author traced certain analogies between the several Australian languages, placing them all in Max Miiller’s great nomadic or Turanian class; and although the Australians have, with few exceptions, no grammatical distinctions of gender, the author does not think that this necessarily excludes them from the sex-denoting family. The use of suffixes in the Australian languages led him to infer that they have been derived from the more temperate zones. In- deed, the nations using suffix-pronominal languages are found on the outskirts of the tropics, and in temperate and cold latitudes, while those speaking prefix-pronominal tongues are restricted to the tropics ; and again, the suffix-pronominal class are addicted to sidereal worship, and the prefix-pronominal to ancestor worship. The author, however, carefully showed that the physical descent of a race by no means necessarily coincides with the descent of its language ; and, in conclusion, the learned doctor expressed his belief, based on a study o! the mythology and the present customs of the Australians, that these have degenerated from a higher state of civilisation. The third and concluding paper in this series was by Mr. C. S. Wake, and was on Zhe Mental Characteristics of the A ustralian Aborigines. SecTion G,—MECHANICAL SCIENCE Rolling or Shaping Axles.—Mr. Alfred Bowater. This paper embraced a description of a new machine, existing in model, for the shaping of railway axles by rolling pressure. Whereas by the method of using the steam hammer an axle required half an hour in shaping. this rolling process would effect it in a superior manner in two minutes. ‘The rolled axle was not only superior in quality, but was more uniform in size, and could be produced much more cheaply. The machine consisted of three rollers, which were regulited so that they might gradually press closer together, thus reducing the diameter of the bar and extending 20 NATURE [Mov. 3, 1870 its length until shaped to the sizerequired, Axles of any length could be rolled by the machine, with collars at any part of the tyre. The rollers were geared to revolve all in the same di- rection, and their friction imparted motion to.the axle. The rolling process would obviate those flaws in axles which occa- sionally caused appalling accidents on railways. On a New Safely Lamp.—My. W. E. Teale. After detailing a number of the objectionable features of the various safety lamps now in use, the author proceeded to say that, with a view to remedy so far as possible the dangers arising from the insecurity of the present oil lamps, the Protector Colliery Lamp has been carefully and thoughtfully designed to combine safety and bril- liancy of light with cleanliness and economy. It is madeon the principle of the ordinary sponge or portable gas lamp, in which is used a liquid specially prepared by the inventors. The reser- voir, or gas-holder, is then screwed to the top of an ordinary Stephenson or Clanny lamp, within which are fixed a pair of horizontal hinges, moving upwards only. On the wick tube of the lamp, and sliding over it, is an outer tube, having round its centre a circular horizontal flange. When the reseryoiris screwed upwards into the top, this flange comes into contact with the hinges, raises them in passing, and allows them to fall beneath it when screwed home, so that by reversing the screw, and with- drawing the reservoir gradually from the top, the said hinges prevent the return of the said sliding tube, thereby forcing it over the wick-tube, and so diminishing, and ultimately extinguishing the light. It is therefore impossible for a naked light to become exposed after the lamp has once been adjusted. ‘To render se- curity doubly sure, a lock and stop are so placed that after the light is put out by the action of the screw, it is still impossible for the collier to withdraw the reservoir from the top, so as to re-light his lamp. The safety of the mine is further insured by the fact that the gauze is kept perfectly clean, and therefore no coal-dust can adhere to it, as in the old oil lamps. In regulating and reducing the light when testing for gas, which can be done with the greatest ease and certainty, no pricker is used or required, and another source of danger is avoided. This lamp burns freely with less ventilation than any now in use, and is much more sensitive to the presence or action of gas, while it is impossible for the miner to light his pipe from, or tamper with, the light in any manner. It gives much more light than that produced by the very finest oil; and as neither smoke nor soot is made by combustion, the glass and gauze are as clean and the light as good at the end of the day as when the miner goes down the pit, and this without the trouble and great loss of time necessary to keep an oil lamp properly trimmed. As compared with oil, the cost of burning the Protector Colliery Lamp is very small, six days of ten hours each, or sixty hours, being obtained at a cost of threepence, or less than one half the price of ordinary miners’ candles, and one-third that of the usual oil. On Ocean Telegraphy.—Captain Rowett. The object aimed at in his paper by Captain Rowett was to show the superiority of hemp over metallic cables. The author contended that hemp cables were much lighter and extremely enduring when sub- merged, and iron cables were quickly corroded by the action of the sea water. Various specimens of submerged cable were ex- hibited by the author in support of his views. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Fournal of the Chemical Society, September, 1870.— This number only contains two papers ; the first, on Vapour Densities, by Mr, J. T. Brown, contains a short description of the methods that have been proposed for their determination, and the formulze employed for calculating the results from the data obtained. This serves as an introduction to a series of elabo- rate tables intended to facilitate these complicated calcula- tions. The tables are a sequel to some previously published by Mr. Brown (Fourn. Chem. Soc. N.S. iv. 72), and it might be acceptable to many chemists if the author would collect these and other tables and publish them in a separate pam- phlet. The other paper is an abstract of a memoir in the Philosophical Transactions for 1869, entitled ‘‘ Researches on Vanadium,” by Professor Roscoe. The author has obtained three vanadium chlorides, a tetrachloride V Cl,, a trichloride V Clg, and a dichloride V Cl,. The tetrachloride may be pre- pared by passing dry chlorine over the mononitride heated to redness, or by transmitting a mixture of chlorine and the vapour of vanadyl trichloride V O Cl, over red-hot sugar-charcoal. Its vapour density corresponds to the formula V Cly. The tri- chloride is a crystalline peach-blossom coloured compound, re- sembling chromium sesquichloride. It is not volatile in hydrogen, but when strongly heated in this gas it loses chlorine, the dichloride and finally the metal being obtained. It is produced by heating the tetrachloride, or by its slow decom- position at the ordinary temperature, or by passing its vapour with hydrogen through a red-hot tube. Vanadium dichloride is an apple-green crystalline body, prepared by transmitting the vapour of the tetrachloride with hydrogen through a tube heated to dull redness. The dichloride, when heated in hydrogen in a platinum boat, yields the metal in bright, greyish-white lustrous grains. The processes hitherto described for the prepar- ation of the metal have been tried by the author without success. The chloride or nitride is placed in a platinum boat and heated in a porcelain tube, through which a current of pure hydrogen passes. The metal does not tarnish in the air at common tem- peratures, but burns with brilliant scintillations when thrown into aflame. When heated in air it oxidises, producing all the oxides Vo. O, Vz Og, Ve Og, Vz Oy, and V, O;. It is not attacked b hydrochloric acid or dilute sulphuric acid. Hot strong sulphuric acid slowly dissolves it.. It is violently oxidised by nitric acid, and slowly dissolved by hydrofluoric. The metal burns in chlo- rine, and when heated in nitrogen forms the mononitride. DIARY THURSDAY, NovemMBeER 3. Linnean Soctety, at 8.—On the Fertilisation of Orchids and Asclepiads : Dr. Manse! Weale.—On a Solitary Bee from South Africa: Dr, Mansel Weale. CueEmIcAL Society, at 8.—On the Analysis of Cast-iron: Mr. A. H, Elliott. MONDAY, NovemBer 7. : Roya INstiTuTION, at 2.—General Monthly Meeting. Lonpon InsTITUTION, at 4.—Chemistry: Prof. Odling. TUESDAY, NovemeBer 8. ETHNOLOGICAL Society, at 8.--On the Kimmerian and Atlantean Races : Mr. Hector McLean —Note on the name ‘“‘Aymara”: Mr. C. R. Markham. —Reply to Mr. Markham’s Note by Mr. David Forbes. WEDNESDAY, NovemBER 9. Royat Microscoricat Society, at 8.—Notes on the Minute Structure of certain Insect Scales: Mr. S. J. M‘Intire THURSDAY, NovemBER to. Lonpon MatHematicat Society, at 8.—General Meeting. Retiring Pre- sident’s Address. Sketch of recent researches upon quartic and quintic surfaces. BOOKS RECEIVED EncGiisu.—The Elements of Mecha: ism: T. M. Goodeve (Longmans).—~ Papers on the Great Pyramid: J. V. Day (Edmonston and Doug as). . ForeiGn.—{Through Williams and Norgate)—Jahrbuch der Empfindun- gen: Hirzel und Gretschel.—Geometr sche See-proben; Dr. Boet:cher,— Ueber aie Entwicklung und Verwendung der Warme: P. Tunner.—Archiv fiir Ophthalmologie}: Arlt, Donders, und von Graeffe.—Jahresbericht itiber die Fortschritte der Chemie. CONTENTS Pace - Tue GOVERNMENT OF THE RoyAL SOCIETY . . . .. «© «© e «+ 2 Tue GEOLOGY oF THE DIAMOND FigLps OF SOUTH AFRICA . « . 2 QuarRTERLY WEATHER Report. By Professor BALFouR STEWART, HERES: | ee cee Pagecee: omit mane oo ae whe Je he ne SS Bret-Roor'SuGaR:. » 0 @ (ee) s Se & sels = 0h) = een LETTERS TO THE EDITOR:— | Dr. Balfour Stewart’s Opening Lecture at Owens College, Man- chester. — Lieut.-Col. STRANGE, F-R.'S. . . . . 2 - see se 5 The Aurora Borealis.—A. S. Herscue.; W. G. Grass; T. G. Etcer; H. R. Proctor; Rev. R. Main; J. J. Hatt; C. PockitnGTon ; A. M. SmitH elie = Ge oh ene ito eran The Aurora Sept. 24.—G M. Dawson .... .- ee Hereditary Deformities.—W. Fietp POM eo 7 The Cefn Reptile and the 7i#es.—W. Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S. . 7 MAN AND NATuRAL SELECTION. By A. R. WatLtacE. . .... 8 Tue Naturat History or Man. By H. Power, M.B. (With [élus- EFQTIDNS.) 9 3.4 couse neetectaee msloes. es) aie cl aaa uate Py a) IND GES cnsigcors - creel dou ames niet tec." (eo mngee «0 ga SRE A UNIVERSITY FOR' TEXAS Sr sc 6 ow he) 0 eo EartH CURRENTS. By W. H. PReEcE. ©. © .). “fi eeieeeeennEs Dr. C. W. Giimpet on DeEp-SEA Mup. . . - «5s «© « © © « » 16 THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION :—SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS. . + + I7—20 ScreNTIFIC SERIALS .. . \. fe 6 |+s vs) 5 Sete ceunnSD ttn Ne Eaten Aneta DIARY ori. oe) eo ce ie ceo, white OEMS eo rs Books RECEIVED 0)... 5 ee oa) fae Reg OUR ee eee Errata.—Vol. ii, page 399, second column, line 18 from bottom, for “‘Electrometer” read “‘ Anemometer.” Page 512, second column, line. 7 from bottom, for “requirements” read “ acquirements. THURSDAY, NOVEMBER Io, 1870 SCIENCE AND THE WORKING CLASSES HE spread of scientific instruction among the labour- ing population is a subject of greater importance than a superficial consideration might allow to it. Our scientific work is at present done almost entirely by our middle class, and mainly by those who have had such an education as is afforded by our universities or technical schools, or by foreign colleges. Not only do we look in this direction almost exclusively for the scientific training of the next generation, but also for the greater part of the _work actually done in the field. Were statistics obtain- able, it would surprise outsiders to learn how large a pro- portion of the practical observations in Astronomy, Geo- ‘logy, or Natural History is accomplished by men, the greater number of whose working hours are spent in | . . . | towns or in some totally uncongenial occupation, and who can only devote a few precious hours stolen from their rest, or their brief summer holiday, to those pursuits which they have done so much to encourage. This ought not so to be. Every one of these urban lovers of Nature must have returned from his annual retreat in the country with the thought how much more he could do for Science, how much greater scope he would find for the exercise of a keen eye or a cunning hand, if only fortune had so far favoured him that the prime of his life could be spent far from the tumult and dust of cities. And yet we find that, as a rule, those who do live in the country are very slow in making use of their glorious opportunities. The class who spend their whole time in the midst of every varying phase of the phenomena of Nature, have, taken as a whole, contributed little to the advancement of Science. How many a rare fossil, whose determination would have thrown light on some of the occult problems of geology, has been smashed by the careless hammer of the quarryman! How many -a phenomenon of animal or vegetable life, the recording of which might have forestalled the discoveries of a Darwin or a Wallace by half a century, has remained unnoticed by the field-labourer before whose vacant gaze alone it passed ! How many a strange monster or exquisite ~unknewn form of life, for the possession of which all the “museums of Europe would have eagerly competed, has been passed with merely an exclamation of awe or wonder _ by the untutored fisherman or sailor! The wealth of scien- tific knowledge which has in this manner been lost is incalculable. Now and thena Hugh Miller rises from the ranks to the command of a brigade in Science ; now and then a George Stephenson, invincible from the feeling of conscious power, fights against difficulties of which those in the middle class can have but a faint conception, and comes to the fore by the force of inherent genius ; but these are but a few solitary landmarks in the midst of the dead level of the intellects of our rural population. _ The cause of this failure isnot far to seek. It is simply want of education,—education, in the first place, of the | powers of observation, and in the second place of the reasoning faculties, by the use of which alone the obser- vations can be utilised and made to subserve the ends of Science, Everyone who has had the opportunity must VOL. IIT. NATURE | | have been struck with the dormant condition of the habist of observation of our agricultural population. An adaptation of purpose to end, or a deviation from the ordinary course of the laws of Nature, which would at once strike the educated eye, does not for a moment arrest their attention. Even of occurrences which pass daily before their eyes they are profoundly ignorant. We were once asked by a very intelligent labourer, whose occupation took him abroad frequently by night, if we could explain how it was that the moon shifted her place among the stars so much in the day time, while she remained stationary all night! The first thing to do with the working man is to teach him how to make use of his eyes. And in this first elementary lesson we are afraid our teachers of Science have hitherto Jamentably failed. The error of “ popular” scientific lectures, of even- ings with working men at mechanics’ institutes, is that which is so commonly attributed to clergymen, that of speaking over the heads of their audience. It does not really:profit your Hodge or Styles to be discoursed to for an hour about the wonders of astronomy, the uninterrupted chain of organic beings from the Amoeba to the Elephant, or the grandeur of the uniformitarian theory of geology. Take him out on a starry night and let him look through a telescope, and see for himself that Saturn isa round orb suspended in the air. with its marvellous rings and its at- tendant satellites ; take him where with his own hands he may exhume a shark’s tooth from a chalk-pit, and show him how this absolutely proves that the spot on which he stands was once fathoms deep beneath the ocean ; put a flower in his hand, and point out the structure and the function of every organ, and you will at least have made a beginning. You cannot be too simple or practical, Treated in this way, we believe that every science-teacher who has tried the experiment will testify to the eagerness of the working man to increase his store of knowledge. In the case of those classes of the labouring population who live in towns, the only substitute is to take them to the Museums or Collections of Natural History, which are the best representatives of Nature herself. For our country gentlemen and tradesmen, the Naturalists’ Field Clubs, which now flourish in so many counties, are doing a good work : something of a similar kind is wanted for the less educated class of the population. But when the eye has been trained to observe, the whole work of education has by no means been accomplished. It is the portion of the work on which there is most need to insist at the present time, because it has hitherto been almost entirely neglected. The system pursued till recently in our Universities and public schools was based on a high cultivation of the reasoning faculties, to the almost entire exclusion of any recognition of the perceptive powers. There may be a danger now of running into the other extreme, and already we hear some zealous devotees of Natural Science exclaim against book knowledge, as if it were opposed to a practical scientific training. There cannot be a greater mistake. Unless a man thinks to live the life of a recluse, and to profit nothing by the labours of others in the same field, the greater part of his knowledge must always be derived from books. What we insist on is that the learner must be taught /s¢ to use his own eyes, before he has recourse to the experience of others. No man can be considered to be highly edu- Cc 22 NATURE cated who does not possess the power of bringing his perceptive faculties to play on the phenomena that sur- round him, and also of exercising his reasoning powers to systematise his observations, and to compare them with those of others who have preceded him. The surest way of cultivating the Perception is by the severe study of some branch of Natural Science; the Reason is to be trained in the lecture-room and the study. Nature does not proceed on the principle of setting one of her gifts at variance with another; and so far. from one of these sets of faculties being opposed to the other, neither can be cultivated to the full extent of the mental powers without the assistance of the other. No nation has distinguished itself by producing a greater number of keen and accurate observers of Nature than the Scotch, and none has set a higher value on the education that is derived from books. In the scientific education of the agricultural population of England, it will be found that the long disuse for generations of the reasoning powers is the greatest difficulty to be overcome. Although we do meet here and there with those who are more or less accurate observers of Nature, it is extremely rare to find one who has any power of forming a connected train of reasoning as the result of his observations. We need but look around us on the events passing before our eyes on the Continent of Europe, to recognise the manner in which Education is proclaiming herself vic- torious along the whole line. As a nation, we are slow to learn. But that nation must indeed be both deaf and blind, which does not at the present time see the necessity of straining every nerve to redeem itself from the disgrace of ignorance. With our working classes taught to exercise those faculties which they all possess, but which so few know how to use, and thus trained to form the strength of the nation in all fresh advancements in Science and the Arts, England would quickly distance all competitors, and assume that position which it would now seem younger riyals are likely to snatch from her grasp. HUXLEY’S LAY SERMONS Lay Sermons, Addresses, and Reviews. Henry Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. 1870.) By Thomas (Macmillan and Co., N this volume Professor Huxley has presented to the public a miscellaneous collection of essays, some didactic, some controversial, some addressed to a general audience, some to a special one, and composed at various times during a number of years extending from 1854 to within the last few months. The subjects of which the Professor treats are as various as the occasions for which his papers were written and the audiences which he addresses, and, as may be easily be- lieved, his essays are of very unequal value. But one great element of value they all possess in common, and that is, the thorough-going boldness, and honesty, and out-spokenness with which they deal with all subjects alike. This is no small merit in any writer, and it is an especially great one in a man occupying the position which is held by Professor Huxley. It is a remarkable condition of English society at the present time that a man who combines real scientific eminence with great general ability and special oratorical power, as Professor Huxley does, is made, with or without any consent of his own, into a kind of popular oracle. Like an oracle he is expected to have a response ready for any imaginable query, and like an oracle toa he must find himself not unfrequently under special and strong tempta- tion to “ prophesy smooth things.” Yet Mr. Huxley does not prophesy smooth things; on the contrary, he does not hesitate to put the most unpopular propositions in the plainest possible language when he sees that it is right to do so; and to say that a man—and that man a public teacher—lies under special temptation, and that he resists that temptation, is to say at once that his teaching must be worth listening to, and that even where we cannat accept his doctrines, we may still listen to them with advantage and gain instruction from them. With one exception, the papers in this volume may be classed under three heads, viz. : Educational Essays, either theoretical or practical, which include Nos. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 9: Scientific Controversy, consisting of Nos. 12 and 13, on the Origin of Species; and also 7, 8, and 14, of which the first is the famous “ Essay on the Phy- sical Basis of Life,” and the other two are replies to the attacks made upon the former: Finally, Presidential Addresses to the Geological Society, Nos. 10 and 11, of. which the latter might fairly come under our second heading, consisting as it does of a very able reply to Sir W. Thomson’s strictures upon modern geology. The essay which will not come into any of these divisions is the shortest in the book; viz. that on “ Emancipation, Black and White.” We must however devote some space to it, since it appears to us to be almost the best reasoned and most temperate view of what its author calls the “irrepressible woman question” which we have yet seen, although we are not prepared to accept the author’s conclusions without reserve. In this essay Mr. Huxley’s allegiance to the facts of science comes into uncomfortable collision with his allegiance to the traditions of party. He comes before us in the character of an adyanced Liberal, but he cannot forget that he is, before all things, a biologist ; and the consequence very naturally is, that although he is prepared to support a policy of emancipation—apparently upon the general principle that 2/7 government is a mistake—yet he is com- pelled to admit that the arguments of e2¢reme emancipa- tionists are “ to a great extent nonsensical.” We are confident that this question is one which must be ulti- mately settled mainly upon physiological grounds, and it is just because the conventions of society very rightly do not admit of the full and fair discussion of those grounds before mixed audiences, that the extreme emancipationists have been enabled to obtain for their theory the amount of currency which has lately fallen to its lot. In the pre- sent instance, Mr. Huxley appears to have followed out his physiological argument with characteristic fairness Zo a certain point, and consequently sees that after all due emancipation, “ Nature’s old salique law will not be re- pealed, no change of dynasty will be effected ;” and again, that “so long as potential motherhood is her lot, woman will be found to be fearfully weighted in the race of life.” But why should Mr. Huxley halt at this admission ? Why does not his Darwinian logic carry him on to its legiti- mate and necessary consequence? According to the law [Nov. 10, 1870 — rv, ve eS eee es Nov. 10, 1870] NATURE 23 of natural selection, when once fairly engaged in the struggle for existence, no less a penalty than ultimate ex- tinction awaits the weaker race. If the parallelism be- tween a race and a sex can be maintained at all—and the | parallelism is Mr. Huxley’s, not ours—it plainly implies that, put into competition with man, woman must sooner or later cease to exist as @ competitor, just as certainly as the black rat has been driven out before the Mus decu- manus, or as, to adopt a different class of example, the handloom weavers have been driven from the market by machinery and steam. But while we thus doubt the wis- dom, or indeed the possibility, of placing women on a level with men, and in competition with them, we would by no means therefore be understood to argue against giving them a Jiberal education or improving the law in regard to their property, : Passing on to consider for a short time the Educational essays, we need say but avery few words of thesingle speci- men given of tlie writer’s method in practical education, viz. the Lecture on a Piece of Chalk. It is certain to be well known to most of our readers. Those who do know it, for the most part recognise it as a model both in matter and in manner of what a single lecture ought to be ; those who do not had better read it at once, for till they have so done they will have but an imperfect idea of sucha model. The other educational essays, viz. the first six in the book (with the exception of the second) contain an exposition of the author’s views on many of those points in the theory of education which are most keenly disputed at the present time, such as the value of natural science as contrasted with mathematics or philology as an in- strument of education; that of the natural history sciences as contrasted with other branches of natural science, the method by which they should be taught, &c. Nowit is only fair to admit that in all these matters Professor Huxley’s addresses must be looked upon as the speeches of an advocate, and moreover of an advocate who feels that he carries the feeling of the public with him for the most _ part, but is by no means equally sure that he can overcome the prejudices of the jury. Still, considered as the speeches of an adyocate, they are admirable, and it must be remem- bered that an advocate may prove his case, and this, we think, Mr. Huxley has in several instances done. In regard to the most important of the questions discussed, we are disposed to believe that any one of these three instruments of education may turn out a highly cultivated and thoroughly well educated man, provided the teacher knows how to teach and the learner presents good raw material upon which he may exercise his skill; but this by no means proves that they are all of equal value. One thing we can certainly say in regard to the classical education of our own day, that is to say, of the day of those who are the acting men of the present generation, _viz., that, however well it may have served the turn of that small minority who were sure:to make the best of any kind of education, and for whom, therefore, it is the least necessary to make provision, it has done nothing at all for the great majority of those who have been submitted to it. It is not too much to say, that out of the men who have gone from public schools to Oxford, and who have spent their whole lives between the ages of eight and twenty-two in learning Latin and Greek, not one in three could at the latter age read a Latin or Greek author with ease and intelligence. This may not in itself prove the case of science as an instrument of education, or even prove the inefficiency of classics ; but at least it shows that classics have failed as a fact, and reduces us to this dilemma, that we must admit either that they are but a very imperfect means of education, or that the general standard of edu- cability among young Englishmen is unaccountably low. One other alternative indeed remains, viz. the supposi- tion that classics have been generally very badly taught, but this seems to us hardly tenable. It is difficult to believe that so much labour has been bestowed by so many good scholars as may be found amongst the school- masters of the last fifty years, upon the art of teaching classics, without the elements even of the art being dis- covered. At any rate reformers, or even revolution- ists, in education may fairly argue, that what has not been done in so many years by a method which has had the whole field of the higher education to itself, is hardly likely to be effected by a persistent continuance in the same path. We are reminded of the physician of Laputa, of whom, when he had already almost killed his victim by his discipline, Gulliver says, ‘‘ We left the doctor en- deayouring to recover his patient dy the same operation.” We have left ourselves no space in which to notice the remaining and more directly scientific portion of Professor Huxley’s work. The book is not to be discussed fairly in the space at our disposal: it is, however, full of interest throughout, and we need perhaps the less regret that we are unable to direct our readers’ attention to the remaining essays, inasmuch as they constitute that part of the work which deals with the scientific controversies of the day some of which have already been discussed in NATURE, G, W.G FERNET’S ELEMENTARY PHYSICS Par Ch. Drion et E, (Paris; V, Masson et Traité de Physique Elémentaire. Fernet. Troisitme Edition, Fils. 1869.) HE third edition of this well-known handbook of French physics deserves more than a casual notice. We are told in the preface that it has been entirely recast by the second of the two original authors, M. Fernet, a pupil of the lamented Verdet, who has caught something of the spirit of his master. There has been no teacher of physics in our time whose work has been, on the whole, comparable to that of Verdet. He has all the clearness of Tyndall; and, as almost all of his published lectures were delivered to audiences more strictly scientific than those to whom the famous books on Sound and Heat were originally presented, he is never diffuse. His arrange- ment of the essential points of his subject, and his grouping of the illustrative details and of the exceptions to the general principles which govern it, have scarcely been equalled even in France, which is the special country of precise and exhaustive exposition. It is high praise, therefore, to say of M. Fernet, that in parts his book recalls his master’s method and style. The treatment of mechanics which is common in this country places statics before dynamics. There is only one thing to be said in favour of this arrangement—that the idea which lies at the root of dynamics, that of change of rate of motion, is a little difficult for a beginner to 24 NATURE [Vov. 10, 1870 catch, and it is very hard to get him to see how to express it in any but the simplest case. On the other hand, we have no clear notion of Force at all until we master it, and statics without that idea is a series of barren propositions, which stand to real life much in the same relation as a “uniform, weightless, perfectly rigid, | straicht rod” does toa real bar. M. Fernet accordingly places this conception at the commencement of his book, and we find the laws of uniformly accelerated motion given before the discussion of levers and centres of gravity. It is extremely easy, and perhaps a little ungracious, to select for notice points the omission of which causes surprise even in an elementary work of 800 pages. need of compression, which constrains an author who has to treat in one volume mechanics, hydrostatics, pneu- matics, light, heat, sound, electricity, magnetism, and meteorology, is so great, that it is impossible to question too loudly the prudence of obvious omissions. But we should have expected to find a little discussion of the | adhesion of liquid plates to the solids which they wet, and to each other, ; and one would willingly excuse the absence of the regulation picture of the balloon and its car, with the accompanying history of the brothers Mont- golfier, for an account of the mercurial air-pump of Sprengel or Jolly. M. Fernet is perhaps a little open to the charge which is constantly brought against the scien- tific men of his country, that if they read anything but | the science of the Comptes Rendus and the Aznales de Chimie et de Physique, they never indicate the fact by a line or an allusion. M. Verdet alone, of well-known French scientific writers of our time, knew German and | English as well as French science, and showed that he knew it. We should scarcely have found any book of his on the subject of heat, without any reference—as far, at least, as I can find—to Joule’s principle of the equivalence of mechanical effect and heat, of the “mechanical equivalent” by which the one may be con- verted into the other, or of the fraction of the heat which can be converted into work by a perfect heat engine. So far as it goes, in fact, the book is extremely clear and satisfactory ; but it gives one less impression of a com- plete working up of the subject to the latest date than we had expected to find in it. Take for instance the well- known series of experiments by which Kundt established the velocity of sound in tubes of different materials. They were explained by Tyndall in this country a couple of years since, and it is impossible to conceive any which make more visible to the student those vibrations of bodies which he is constantly required to admit in the course of his reading on acoustics. The omission of all mention of the famous “singing flames” is more defen- sible from a purely scientific point of view, as the experi- ments scarcely admit precise measurements, and can only be relied on to convince any one who needs convincing how many astonishing things there are within the range of the science. M. Fernet has given a considerable number of notes, in which there is a precise mathematical treatment of the statements in the text. We should be glad to see the plan followed more frequently in elementary treatises. In a book, the introduction of simple mathematics in a note does not distract the attention «{ the reader who is The | frightened even by a simple equation, and it gives precision to statements which can scarcely be fixed with- out them, or without a long and extremely tedious paraphrase. We are more doubtful of the advantage of a practice common in France, and which has crept into some English books; the introduction into the text of notes non exigées. These are parts which the student who is preparing for a special c::amination may omit if he chooses. The text of a book of this kind ought, it seems to us, to be either one thing or another—to be composed with a perfectly definite object, and to be one and indivisible. As it is, it produces something of the impression that is given occasionally when a single picture is used to illustrate two different propositions. The lines which belong to the first get so mixed with those of the second, that the student can follow neither. A book too full of motes non exigées is apt to be too little systematic and scientific for the more advanced student for whose benefit these notes are inserted, and to be made too difficult for the simpler readers whose wants are mainly kept in view. WILLIAM JAcK OUR BOOKSHELF Cryptogames Vasculaires du Brésil. Par Prof. A. L. Fée avec le concours de Monsieur le Dr. Glaziou. Pp. 268, 4to., 78 Plates. (Paris: Bailliére.) PROFESSOR FEE is by many years the oldest amongst living fern-authors. He has held for more than a quarter of a century the chair of botany at Strasburg, and has con- centrated his attention principally upon ferns and the other allied higher orders of cryptogamic plants. He published a general treatise upon the classification of the order as long ago as 1844, and since then many consecu- tive years have never passed without producing some memoir upon the subject from his fertile pen. Having recently received a fine collection of ferns from Dr. Glaziou, the superintendent of the Botanic Gardens at Rio Janeiro, he has been stimulated to add one more memoir to the series, and that is the work now before us. All the series of his monographs, several of which are in folio, are illus- trated beautifully and copiously, not only with full-sized figures of the plants, but also with careful magnified ana- | lytical details ; and together they form by far the most ex- tensive and excellent series of fern-plates which anyone upon the Continent has published. The present memoir is quite upon a par with its predecessors in this respect. It is in quarto, and contains seventy-eight quarto pilates and a list of all the ferns and fern-allies known to the author as inhabiting Brazil, with a list of special stations, but with descriptions of novelties only, But there is one drawback to the value of Fée’s works, and that is a very great one. Living at a distance from the great metropoli- tan herbaria, our author has apparently worked a'most entirely upon his own private collections, and has continu- ally failed to recognise well-known plants, and has made new species in great numbers out of the specimens which his correspondents have sent him, which no one else has been able to understand as such. In none of his works—wehavenoalternative but to say—hasthis tendency been carried to a greater excess than in the present one. For Brazil alone he describes and figures in the present memoir upwards of 180 new species, so called. These are not from tracts of country which the collegtors whose gatherings have been already reported upon have not visited, or have left unexplored, but nearly all from the vicinity of the capital, and from the gatherings of Glaziou. Now the neighbourhood of Rio Janeiro is exceedingly rich in ferns; but there is, perhaps, no other part of Tropi- _—”. Nov. to, 1870] NATURE 25 cal America from which herbaria, both in England and on the Continent, have been inore bountifully supplied. The consequence is, that out of this 180 we do not think that more than from twelve to twenty species are really new, in any sense in which we understand in this country what is meant by a species. For instance, we have some seven or eight species elaborately characterised and figured from what cannot be called anything else than so many indi- vidual fronds of that most cosmopolitan of ferns, our common English Asfidium or Polystichum aculeatum. Or, to take one of the exclusively Brazilian species, Cya- thea Gardneri, a very distinct tree-fern, is included in the list under five different names—Gardnervz (Dr. Gard- ner’s number on which Hooker described the species quoted), zzcurvata (a name of Kunze’s published in the Linnea from Regnell’s specimens), mamzllata, taunay- stana and attenuata, the last three new species here named and figured for the first time ; but the figures, beautiful as they are, might, any of them, have been drawn from Gard- ner’s specimens. The author does not seem to have any knowledge of numerous English and German books and papersin which Tropical American ferns are described, as for instance, Grisebach’s excellent Flora of the British West Indies ; and this leads to further name-crossing. In short, although one cannot but admire the excellence and the copiousness of the illustrations in these memoirs, and ought not to leave out of sight the example of devoted- ness to science which they show, expenditure of time devoted to one object through a long course of years, and of money, only a very small proportion of which their sale can possibly repay, yet still the predominant feeling on the mind must needs be that to deal with plants in this way has a direct tendency to bring species-botany at a very rapid rate into a state of utter confusion. J. G. BAKER The Laboratory Guide. A Manual of Practical Chemistry for Colleges and Schools, especially arranged for Agri- cultural Students. By A. H. Church, M.A., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Agricultural College, Ciren- cester. Second edition, enlarged and revised, pp. 170. (London: Van Voorst, 1870.) THIS little book, as its title indicates, is intended mainly _for the use of students of agricultural chemistry, and we fear it might cause disappointment to anyone who wished to employ it as a guide to general analysis. The science of chemistry is so rapidly increasing, that it would seem almost hopeless, at the present time, to give students a complete knowledge of chemistry and leave them to apply their information to the special subject they intend to follow. Professor Church’s book is intended to obviate this difficulty, and after a few introductory lessons of uni- versal application, the student commences experiments on materials with which he is certain to come in contact in agriculture, such as superphosphate, milk, soils, &c. Part I. treats of chemical manipulation, and consists of a number of lessons intended to accompany the course of lectures, and from which the student will learn the mode of performing some simple operations, as solution, filtra- ‘tion, crystallisation, specific gravity, and will become ac- quainted with the modes of preparation and properties of | the principal elements and compounds. commences with a list of the apparatus required, the ordinary reagents, and the special materials and tests necessary for the performance of the experiments, which are detailed with great clearness. This arrange- ment is calculated to cause the student to be careful to have everything ready before commencing work, and will thus save him much time and inconvenience, for few things are more likely to endanger the success of an experiment | than leaving it at a critical moment in order to obtain some piece of apparatus or reagent which should have been previously prepared. Part II. treats of qualitative analysis, of which Chapter I, deals with the elements, re- Each lesson | agents and tests, and reactions ; and here we find the terms univinculant, bivinculant, trivinculant, &c., as equivalent to monad, dyad, triad, &c. The principal distinguishing characteristics of the different groups of elements are here given. The section on reagents and tests will be found useful, for it contains the modes of testing for impurities, and indicates the strength of the different solutions em- ployed, two things to which attention should always be paid. The second chapter of this part describes the methods of qualitative analysis, all rare elements and those with which the agricultural student is not likely to meet being omitted. The third part is devoted to the general processes of quantitative analysis, and the fourth to the examination of manures, soils, water, and food. This book will doubtless be invaluable to agricultural students, besides being useful to those requiring special information on the subjects of which it treats. The appearance of such a work is a satisfactory indication of the extension of the application of scientific chemistry to the useful arts. The Book of the Roach. Field). 16mo. pp. 118. 1870.) WHILST Mr, Pennell has instructed us in catching /ege artis all the various fish in British rivers and lakes, Mr. Fennell has been content to devote a little volume to the natural history and fishing of the Roach. Let no one smile at the man in the punt with his humble notions of enjoyment. Maybe he has been toiling hard the whole week in the noisy, murky town ; the quiet sport of the Saturday afternoon suits his purse exactly, and there will be real enjoyment over the dish of fried roach “ caught by father.” Nay, if we could measure the amount of pleasure, healthy recreation, and renewal of vigour ob- tained by the multitude in the unpretentious sport of roach-fishing, and compare it with that sought for by the _ select few who have the privilege of finding their amuse- ment on a salmon river, we should probably find the balance very much on the side of the former. No apology, therefore, was needed from Mr. Fennell. for the publication of his little book on the Roach. He has divided it into eight chapters, of which the first two are. devoted to the natural history of this fish, and the five following to a description of the tackle and various kinds By Greville Fennell (of the (London: Longmans and Co. | of baits, and to the methods of roach-fishing generally as | well as at certain localities. | given on the roach as an article of food, on the method of In the last chapter hints are cooking, &c. Aan LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Zhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice ts taken of anonymous communications. | Hypothesis regarding the Corona HAVING read in Nos. 34 and 35 of the valuable periodical NATURE (of June 23 and 30) the two articles about the Corona, I beg leave to direct your attention to an hypothesis concerning its nature, and especially the origin of the deams, which I sent to the Physical section of the Amsterdam Academy of Sciences, of which I have the honour to be a member. I have just received No. 1776 of the Astronomische Nachrichten, for October 15, where the American astronomer, Dr. Gould, in a notice regarding the total eclipse of the sun of August 7 (1869) says :— Xe Of the Corona I made some hasty measurements both with the telescope and without it. Its form varied continually, and I obtained drawings for three epochs at intervals of a minute. It was very irregular in form, and in no apparent relation with the protuberances of the sun, or the position of the moon. Indeed, there were many phenomena which would almost lead to the belief that it was an atmospheric rather than a cosmical pheno- menon, One of the beams was at least 30’ long.” 26 NATURE [Nov. 10, 1870 This passage induced me to submit to the trial and judgment of my fellow-members of the Physical section of the Royal Academy a very simple hypothesis regarding the nature of the Corona, which entered my mind shortly after the observation of the total eclipse of August 18, 1868.* 1 think—and, if I am not mistaken, all astronomers agree with me—that a part of the luminous phenomenon which we call the Corona belongs to an atmosphere of the sun,+ having a feeble reflecting power, or being itself luminous. But the beams in the Corona, whose variability is now confirmed anew, are necessarily an optical phenomenon, They originate, I believe, in the in- equalities of the moon’s surface. Ifthe sunlight slants somewhere along the moon’s limb through a va//ey, we observe from our point of view a Jeam, provided there exist between the moon and us particles able to reflect the sunlight, or to transmit it like semi-transparent bodies. There is no need to have recourse to diffraction. To look for these particles in the atmosphere ot the earth, as Mr. Gould does, is, in my opinion, not tenable, as the Corona and the beams have also been observed in eclipses, where the cone of the shadow even had} a breadth of thirty-six German leagues. The molecules of the atmosphere, which we see around the eclipsed sun, are wholly within the cone of the shadow. These reflecting particles are undoubtedly to be looked for beyond our atmosphere, between the moon and the earth, and I believe that they may be regarded as identical with those | particles which float in the ether, and under other circumstances cause the zodiacal light. That the zodiacal light, or rather the particles which cause it, reach the earth’s orbit, is, as regards nearly its whole circumference, not subject to any doubt, as the apex of the zodiacal light is ““ mostly farther off the sun than 90°. Only in the months of March and April is it not possible to follow the zodiacal light so far” (Schmidt, ‘‘ Das Zodiacallicht,” Braunschweig, 1856). But then, at those particles which are situated on the apex of the zodiacal light, the sun’s ray makes a right angle with the line which joins the earth, and the circumstances are not favourable for small and widely-dispersed particles to reflect much sunlight in the direction of the earth. It is, therefore, probable that in March and April these particles would show themselves farther from the sun if the illumination were stronger. At a total eclipse of the sun that angle is 179}° for a particle visible at 30’ distance from the moon’s limb, and 179%° for particles in the immediate neighbour- hood of the moon’s limb; and it is an acknowledged fact that, | ander these circumstances, there is much more light reflected than ‘if reflected at a right angle. Moreover, the intensity of the trans- mitted light increases equally with this angle. Schmidt mentions, in his above-quoted work, that he and other observers, during the total eclipse of July 28, 1857, looked out for the zodiacal light, but in vain. He thought the sky not dark enough, and expresses himself as follows :—‘‘ Das Ansehen der den schwarzen Mond umgebenden vielstrahligen Corona war im ganzen betrachtet nicht gerade geeignet, sie sogleich in Beziehung zum Zodiacallichte zu denken.” Thus it seems that the beams made Schmidt conclude, ‘* This is no zodiacal light.” If my explanation is the true one, and if the sun’s atmosphere is accepted as unlimited, and gradually pass- ing over into the ether, then the light of the Corona, which equally surrounds the moon, falls altogether into the same category as the beams, only that it originates in the reflecting particles beyond the moon. Accordingly, my hypothesis is expressed thus : Both the Corona and its beams have the same origin as the zodiacal light. I remark, finally, that the strangely curved form of some beams, as well as their variability, may be very well accounted for on this hypothesis—the curved form by the irregularity of the moon’s surface. For instance: I take a particle of light of a beam of the Corona ; I imagine myself in the molecule which, according to my hypothesis, corresponds with that pariic'e of light, and which is situated between the moon and my eye. Looking, then, from that stand-point to the moon, I must see the light of the sun slanting over a valley; but if I move myself laterally—ée. in the direction parallel to the moon’s radius which corresponds with that valley—then it is not certain that I shall see on the samé point an extraordinary amount of light, for it is possible that at the same place a ridge has intervened. It is, however, * At the Island of Mantawalu-kéké (near Celebes), where I had the pleasure of meeting the Commander (Captain Bullock) and the Etat-Major of H.M.S. Serpent, and the Spanish astronomers of the municipal Athe- nzum at Manilla, the fathers Faum, Nonnell, and Ricardo. + This is probably the Chromosphere, as seen in the Eclipse,—Ep, t (Sudinteliige); at the surface of the earth, 1 very possible that, if i move in a direction perpendicular to the former (and also perpendicular to the direction towards the earth), Icome into a region where that ridge does not intervene, but where the continuation of the valley is again visible, through which the sunlight slants. In this case, the beam of the Corona— z.é. the effect produced by those particles which receive more light than others at equal distances from the surface of the cone, having its apex in the eye, and which surrounds the moon—has a curved form. The variability is, I think, satisfactorily explained by the motion of the moon passing by the sun, : This hypothesis forced itself upon me when at Toli-holi* I saw the moon rising behind a hill. Before she made her appearance her light shone over the trees, and produced, in a hazy air on my side of the hill, beams which very much resembled those of the Corona. I do not know whether the zodiacal light has already been analysed by the spectroscope ; if so, the comparison of the — spectra of zodiacal light and the Corona will serve to test my hypothesis. ; A second test is this: total eclipses observed in the months of December and January should show less brilliant beams than total eclipses observed in other months, since in December and January the earth is near the direction of the perihelion of the circumference of the zodiacal light. The next total eclipse of December 12, 1871, will perhaps give some information on this point. + J. A. C. OUDEMANS Batavia, Sept. 2 The Fuel of the Sun In your impression of October 6 Mr. Murphy adds another to the frequent attempts that are still made to galvanise the expiring hypothesis that attributes the solar heat and light to 4 meteoric bombardment. Many very strong and sufficient ob- jections have been already brought against it, but as Mr. Murphy states that he is *‘ not mathematician enough to form any opinion on the merits of the controversy,” I will add two arguments which to my mind are quite sufficient to annihilate this expla- nation—both of which may be sufficiently understood without mathematics, and neither of which have I ever seen fairly stated. 1st. The advocates of the meteoric bombardment usually start from the fact that great meteoric showers fall upon the earth. Thus, Dr. Tyndall, in his lectures on ‘‘ Heat considered as a Mode of Motion,” introduces Mayer’s hypotheses, with an account of the number of meteors counted during the August and November showers ; and these observed meteors and a few comets are the only actual observed material upon which this bombardment theory rests—all beyond them are mere fignients of mathematical imagination, and any supplies derived from the zodiacal light, or otherwise exclusively from the space within the earth’s orbit, must have been exhausted within the period of human existence. Now, it is quite obvious, without any detailed calculation, that if these meteoric bodies, coming from anywhere you please out- side of the earth’s orbit in sufficient quantities to maintain the heat and light of the sun, had fallen, as they must have done, upon the earth in a proportion due to its magnitude and position, they must in the course of a few millions of years—say from the era of the Laurentian rocks to that of the London sewage deposits—have covered the earth with a very important super- ficial stratum, instead of merely supplying a few rare specimens for our museums. Every slowly deposited sedimentary tock upon the face of the earth should be thickly peppered and con- glomerated with meteoric dust and nodules. With these con- siderations and the well-known geological facts before us, I need scarcely state the obvious conclusion, viz. that the evidenees in support of the theoretical terrestrial requirements of this bombardment hypothesis are contemptibly insufficient. My second objection attacks the fundamental basis of this hypothesis, and I think destroys it altogether. I maintain that any explanation of the sources of solar light and heat which does - not equally and necessarily account for the radiations of all the other self-luminous orbs that people the whole immeasurable depths of space, is philosophically worthless. It is thus worth- less if it does not also account for the perpetual renewal, the constancy, the eternal permanence, of all these radiations, The pale nebule, as well as the brighter suns, should be equally included in its grasp. * Vuilgo, erroneously, Tontoli, north eoast of Celebes: t We hope also something from next month’s eclipse.—Ep. Nov. 10, 1870] Tested thus broadly and philosophically, the meteoric bom- _ bardment hypothesis appears in its true colours as a monstrous physical absurdity. It assumes a perpetual flow of solid masses converging continuously from everywhere towards everywhere ; the time which these meteoric masses would occupy in travelling the semi-distance between the neighbouring suns. _ hypothesis, become a sterile vacuum, all the lights of heaven - must go out, eternal darkness must rest upon the face of the deep, and everlasting death pervade the universe. W. MATrigev WILLIAMS The Cockroach I HAVE only to-day noticed the Rev. C. J. Robinson’s letter on this subject in your issue of the 29th Sept. A friend of mine, whom I have known all my life, who occupied an important trust as Bank Manager in India last year, and who is at present home on sick leave, assures me that Dr. Norman Macleod is wrong when he denies the nail-nibbling propensities of the cock- roach. My friend had been in Kurachee for some time, and on his journey from that town to Bombay by sea he was annoyed one night in his berth by some insect crawling over his face ; half asleep and half awake he put up his hand to his face and sent the insect to the foot of his berth. Shortly after he was awoke by a pain at his great toe, and on looking at it he dis- covered that a cockroach had nibbled off all the nail down te _ the quick. JaMeEs DuRIE Aberystwith, Oct. 8 > Were Cockroaches known to the Ancient Greeks and Romans ? Your correspondent, Rey. C. J. Robinson, drew attention in _ your columns (NaTuRE, Sept. 29) to the question whether these troublesome insects were known to the Ancient Greeks and Romans; he says, ‘‘ there is a good deal to lead one to suppose that the zvAaxpls mentioned by Aristotle, and the A/atta pistri- norum of Latin writers was the same as our loathsome pest.” I think Mr. Robinson is mistaken in supposing that the pudaxpls is mentioned by Aristotle, at least I can find no mention made of this insect in the writings of the Stagirite. The word _ pudapls, meaning some kind of insect, occurs in the fragments of Aristophanes preserved by Pollux, who amongst other mean- ings of the term gives the following one :— (@éy 7 ev Te wvAwML ywéuevov, and then quotes this couplet from Aristophanes, “Iva tuvaow Srep Hdecbov Blo, Bxowrncas écOiovres, wal wvdaxpldas. “where they may partake of the food of which they are fond, eating worms and mylocrides.” It would not be possible to say _ what the pvdaxpls here denotes, but from the creature being often produced in mills, it may possibly mean a ‘* Cockroach,” thoes a‘*meal-worm” (z¢., the larva of the beetle, Zezebrio mudtivor) would suit equally well. The Greeks, however, had a word which may well represent the Cockroach, thoughit is even here impossible _ to speak with certainty. The word, ofApy, it is probable de- notes this insect. Aristotle (Hist. Anim. viii. 19. § 4) uses the word once ; he enumerates the s#/pe amongst insects which cast their skins. The Scholiast in the ‘‘Peace” of Aristophanes _ Says the si/phe is an ill-smelling insect (Svew5yos). Aetius (8. 33.) " Speaks of ‘‘the fat of the stinking s/phe which inhabits houses.” The epigrammatist Evenus (Analect, i. p. 167) speaks of the silphe of the booksellers’ shops, and applies to it the epithets, page eating (ceA5npdyos), destructive (AwByTeIpa), black-bodied {peravdxpws).” Lucian speaks of the mere book collectot as _ providing pastime for mice and habitations for s#/pXe, and cuffs his slaves for not keeping the mice and si/phe away. (Advers. Indoct, iii. 114, Ed. Hemsterhus). The Scholiast here gives a - description of the si/phe which Schneider with some reason refers to some kind of Z:pisma. lian (H. A. i. 37) says that the Silphe infest swailows’ nests ; these cannot be cockroaches. Galen and Paulus Aegineta apply the epithet, Bdéovem, to the si/phai. Dioscorides (ii. 38) says that the inside of the s7//ie found in _ bake-houses when pounded with oil is good for pains in the ear. This leads me to the 4/ata of the Romans. ‘‘On pulling off,” Says Pliny, “the head of a d/aéa it gives forth a greasy sub- _ Stance, which, beaten up with oil of roses, is said to be wonder- t These little | journeys ended, the interstellar space must, according to this | NATURE or otherwise a state of things which could only endure through | 27 fully good for affectiéns of the ears.” He speaks of the disgusting nature of this insect. one kind of which is known by the name of Myloecon, and found in mills (Nat. Hist. xxix. 39). In afiother place (xi. 34) Pliny says, ‘‘It is the naturé of the d/a/fa to seek dark corners and to avoid the light ; théy aré very often found in baths.” According to Virgil, ‘‘the light-avoiding diate” find their way into bee-hives (Geor. iv. 243). Horace (Sat. ii. 3, 119) ridicules an old miser for Sleeping on stra and leaving his bed clothes in his chest, the food of dblatte and tinee, ‘* Blattarum ac tinearum Epule#.” Martial (Lib. iv. Ep. 37.) saysunless his books aré well put together they become the prey of “zee and dlatte, Constrictos nisi das mihi libellos Admittam tineas trucesque blattas. From the above passages it will be seen that the J/a/fa was a destructive insect to clothes, books, &c., that it avoided the light, and was fond of warm places, that it frequented mills and ex- uded a greasy substance from its head, that it was a disgusting creature (probably in allusion to the smell) all of which par- ticulars are true of cockroaches, and as there are many species of the family, and are widely distributed over all parts of the globe and must have been known to the ancients, I think there is good reason for concluding that the cockroach was known to the Greeks by the name of cfAgy, and to the Romans by that of blatat. W. HoucGHTon The Aurora Borealis I sHALL be obliged if you will put on record a few scattered notes which I took of the splendid Aurora Borealis of October 25, seen from Arthingworth, Northamptonshire. When I first observed itat half-past five P.M., a crimson glow extended in an irregular band from N.N.E. to W., most prominent at about 20° to 30° above the horizon. This increased in height and breadth until it nearly reached a point S.W. of the zenith, and about 15° W.N.W. of the star Vega. At this time the northern part of the sky was perfectly free from aurora ; gradually that part and the whole dome of the heavens, with the exception of a section from W. to nearly S., became filled with luminous streamers, These, for about 20° on each side of N., were white, the others crimson striped with white or rather greenish light, but the green I believe to be an effect of contrast, as where similar streamers were distant from the red light they were white. The white or green steamers appeared to eclipse the red light, they changed their size, shape, and position, while the red con- tinued comparatively unchanged. There were also dark streamers which, at first, I believed to be mere spaces without light, and to be caused by the darkness beyond, but I became ultimately convinced (as far as one could be convinced by appearances so subject to illusion) that they formed a part of the phenomenon itself. These streamers or long brushes could be seen beyond and clear of the luminous portion of thé aurora, leaving the normal light of the sky between them and it, and hanging like long horse-tails, or like the fringes of rain seen on the edges of a distant rain cloud ; changing their shape and position just as the luminous streamers are seen to do, The most remarkable part of the phenomenon, however, was the circle of. sky, or what may be called the pole of the aurora, to which the streamers converged. It appeared to embrace about from 7° to 10° of space. ‘To an ordinary observer it might have appeared occasionally to shift its position to some extent, but, as far as I could judge during an hour’s observations, this was not really the case, flickerings at times covered portions of it, and at other times the whole became faintly luminous ; but by marking its position with reference to some small stars, this seemed to me to be unaltered. Most singular were the termi- nations of the streamers they culminated at this circle, not being undefined or gradually evanescent, but having angular tips fur brighter than the portions immediately beneath, the nearest illustration to which I can give is an inverted fish-tail or bats- wing gas burner, except that this gives a feeble light at the point, while the aurora tips were whitest and brightest there, the streamers now fading off, and now becoming brighter and tinged with redas they got to 40° or 50° from the horizon ; the tips varied constantly, but preserved the mean distance from the pole or focus of the aurora. The position of this was, as far as 1 could ascertain without star maps or instruments for observation, about 15° W.N.W. of Veya. The convergence of the beams was not in appearance conical, but dome or cupola shaped s this was, however, in all probability an optical illusion, Whether 23 NATURE [Mov. 10, 1870 there was reallya convergence or whether the beams were parallel, and the convergence an effect of perspective, can only be decided if some approximative measures of the distance of the streamers be ascertained. It appears to have been at a greater distance from the earth than is usually attributed to aurora borealis, having been seen in different parts of Europe and I believe in America. Doubtless the comparison of these observations will give some parallax or approximation to measurement of the dis- tance. I remember about seven or eight years ago seeing an aurora at Chester, where the flashes appeared close to the observer, so that gleams of light continuous with the streamers could be seen between the houses of the town and myself, like the portions of a rainbow intervening between terrestrial objects | and the observer. I tried then to ascertain if there was any reflection or other cause of optical illusion, but could not see it as other than a real effect ; I seemed, so to speak, to be in the aurora. The effect on the 25th was very different, and gave me the idea of great distance. The light was sufficient to enable me to tell the time by my watch easily, but not to read newspaper print. Between half-past six and seven o’clock it faded away, and at from half-past seven to ten had become an ordinary white aurora, confined to the northern portion of the heavens. 115, Harley Street, Nov. 2 W. R. GROVE On the evening of the 24th ult. the aurora was most beautifully seen here, and if you have space for it, I will add a further spec- troscopic observation to those you have already recorded. I found no continuous spectrum, but two of the lines described by your other correspondent. 1. A line in the light green, much reminding one of the line from the larger nebulee, but more brilliant and with a peculiar flickering in it. This line was well seen in all parts of the sky, but was specially bright in the auroral patches of silver light. 2. A line in the red, very much like the lithium line, but rather more dusky. This line was only wellseen in the rosy patches of the aurora, but could be faintly traced wherever the rose tint at all extended. When the display of rose-coloured light was at its height, the spectrum from the most vividly coloured portion gave the red line very distinct, while the green line still remained bright by its side. Lam‘quite inclined to agree with your correspondent, T.F., in the conjecture that both these lines are due to hydrogen, though (probably through difference in temperature or pressure) they do not quite agree with the lines of that gas as taken from the dis- charge in a vacuum tube. The spectroscope was one of Mr. Browning’s small direct- vision 5-prism instruments adapted for star purposes. It may be worthy of note that the belts of Jupiter are highly coloured at the present time. The equatorial zone is of a distinct dark ochre colour, deepening to red brown as it approaches the lower edge (in an inverting telescope) ; two thin belts above are slate purple, and a darker belt below is of a deep purple, with a faint trace of rose colour. The planet was thus seen on Noy. 2, at 9 p.m., not far above the horizon, and in bright moonlight, in a 84 Browning’s silvered spectrum with achromatic eye-pieces—144, 305, and 450; best I think with 144. Guildford, Nov. 5 J. R. Capron Clouds I vo not think Prof. Poey’s ‘‘ New Classification of Clouds,” published in NATURE of Sept. 8th, does much to advance science. Tsee no use in any classification of clouds, unless it is based on their mode of formation, and, so far as I see, there are but three ways in which it is possible for clouds to be formed, These are :— 1. The cooling of a mass of air iz situ by radiation, forms stratus. 2. The cooling of a mass of air by diminished pressure when it flows in an ascending column. This forms cumulus. A modification of this process is when (according to Espy) sudden expansion takes place above, so as to diminish the pressure through the entire height of a column of air, and, in consequence of the cold due to the diminution of pressure, to produce con- densation of vapour throughout the column. This is Espy’s explanation of waterspouts. 3. The cooling of a mass of air by coming into contact with a cooler mass of air than itself. This forms cirrus, This Of course these three modes of formation may be modified and combined in endless ways. To mention one of the simplest : A cloud which has begun to form as a cirrus or cumulus, may become a centre from which heat is radiated, and thus go on forming as a stratus. It isin the highest degree unphilosophical to reject stratus asa species of cloud on the ground that it is ‘‘not a cloud properly so called, but a mist or hoar frost.” A cloud and a mist do not differ fundamentally. Prof. Poey is, however, right in saying that cumulus is not a distinct species of cloud. It is only a cloud which (in conse- quence, I believe, of the loss of electrical tension) has begun te run together into raindrops. JosEPH JOHN MURPHY Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co, Antrim Extreme Seasons A GREAT deal ot speculation has been indulged in to account for the extreme seasons that have prevailed over so large a part of the northern hemisphere during the last few months. In this country, as we are subject to extreme seasons, more particularly as regards the rainfall, the subject is one of peculiar interest. In a paper read before the California Academy of Sciences in February on the subject of our extreme seasons, I brought forward a number of observations to show that these were due to broad polar and equatorial currents occupying large portions of the earth’s surface continuously, and without much perpendicular or horizontal disturbance, except at the borders where the currents meet. showed that from October to the middle of February a northerly current prevails over this portion of the American continent, ex- tending from one to two hundred miles to the westward of San Francisco to the eastern edge of the Mississippi valley, whilst a southerly current prevails over the eastern side of the continent as far as the Atlantic. The southerly current to the westward extends uninterruptedly across the whole breadth of the Pacific to the coast of Japan. This same distribution of air currents without much perpendicular or horizontal mixing has apparently continued during the summer, and acounts, I think, satisfactorily for the extreme heat that has marked the continental climates overso large a partof the northern hemisphere. Nor is it surprising that the summer temperature on the continents should be so univer- sally hot, as a horizontal wind, either from the north or from the south, blowing over the land in summer must necessarily be a hot wind. That there is no cosmical cause for this elevated temperature is proved by the extremely low summer temperature prevailing over the Pacific between this place and Japan. The mean temperature, as ascertained by observations made on board the mail steamships between here and Japan was, for Noy. 1869, 70°°2, for January, 62°°9, for May, 1870, 61:9, for July, 65°7, giving a mean of 2°°7 less for May and July than for January and February. The difference in favour of the winter temperature would be still more marked were the coast temperatures elimi- nated, as they perhapsshould be; as these were much abovethemean in summer and below the mean in winter, As to the causes that lead to the peculiar distribution of theair currents in certainseasons, I have not the slightest idea, but I think that, admitting the fact, it affords a satisfactory explanation of anomalous temperatures both in winter and summer. San Franciso, California, Sept. 4 JAMES BLAKE Cyclones CYCLONES are commonly regarded as exceptional phenomena of the atmospheric circulation ; and we see in text-books state- ments as to the seasons of the year at which they are most apt to occur, descriptions of the premonitory signs which herald their approach, and directions to aid ships in avoiding the most dan serous portions of the storm-field. In short, each cyclone is regarded as an exceptional fact, an isolated burst of fury from the old storm-god Hurakan. F The writer has lived all his life on the great highway ot cyclones, at Charleston, South Carolina ; and from the observa- tions of many years, has been led to conclude that this commonly received view embraces only those cyclones which, on account of their rotatory violence, really do threaten destruction on land and sea; and that consequently it overlooks a most important series of phenomena, which, though they do not so forcibly arrest attention, are even perhaps more significant in a scientific point of view. Though destructive cyclones or hurricanes are _™ re The facts I then brought forward ~~ he Nov. 10, 1870| NATURE 3Y) ortunately rare, cyclones or grand rotatory movements of the atmosphere are, at least on certain portions of the earth’s surface, of every-day occurrence. In Charleston, Savannah, and along the coast of South Carolina generally, the writer knows from experience that very few, if any, changes of wind are to be observed, but such as are due to the cyclone which happens just then to be passing on its northward journey; and even the apparent exceptions are probably not difficult of explanation. There is in shortan atmospheric ‘*‘Gulf Stream,” whose course, beginning somewhere eastward of the Caribbean Sea, is nearly the same as that of the oceanic ‘‘Gulf Stream,” and this atmospheric - stream is composed of an endless succession of cyclones chasing each other ceaselessly up towards the polar regions, along the track recognised as that of great hurricanes. These cyclones vary within very wide limits both as to velocity of rotation and velocity of translation, as well as in diameter, and all the characters usually ascribed to such atmospheric moyements. Many of them exhibit no wind stronger than a pleasant breeze in any part of their field ; and a few have so gentle a motion, at least in some parts of their circuit, as will not agitate an ordinary vane ; afew are almost wholly without clouds, and very many wholly without rain or lightning. Their effect upon the barometer, when appreciable, must generally be very slight ; but in temperature they are usually divided intoa warm and a cool semicircle by a line which, in Charleston, lies about S. W. and N.E. Observation of the winds, during a voyage in a sailing vessel from Charleston to Liverpool, along the course of the Gulf Stream, has satisfied the writer that this stream con'inues un- broken between these two points, and this conclusion was strengthened by repeating these observations between Liverpool and New York. In the former voyage, hardly one of the cyclones which passed over gave more than a stiff breeze, while in the latter, from Cape Clear to Sandy Hook, every cyclone was a storm, and one of them was reported by the captain, on his arrival, as a ‘‘ hurricane.” The causes of this aGrial current, and its connection with the circulation of the whole terrestrial atmosphere, it is not the writer’s purpose at present to discuss, though he considers the discussion one of almost cosmica/ importance. But the existence of such a stream is a fact of practical commercial value, in fixing the natural highways for sailing vessels betwen Liverpool and the Atlantic and Gulf ports of the Southern States. Obviously the short route from Northern Europe to those ports will be that southward along the coast of Europe until reaching the trade winds, then westward to strike the cyclonic current in the neigh- bourhood cf the West Indies, and then, if bound to Atlantic ports, northwestward with that current. When bound, on the contrary, from the Southern ports to Northern Europe, the short route is obviously that along the Gulf Stream, which is also that with the current of the atmospheric steam. To reverse this practice, either way, is deliberately to sail ‘against wind and tide,” if such a stream exist. The flow of atmospheric waves which, in a recent work, has been described as setting from the coast of America towards Europe, though the writer has not seen that work, he believes cannot be other than the flow of cyclones in that portion of the atmospheric stream lying between the vicinity of New York and the English Channel. The cyclonic character is not always dis- tinct, and sometimes is completely masked by the great distance of the observer from the centre, and the consequent apparently rectilinear course of the wind ; and the chances of mistake are still further increased when the observer is moving in a course parallel to the path of the centre of the cyclone, These observations have already been brought to the notice ot the Smithsonian Institution, and the writer hopes that something will be donein America towards the comprehensive, precise, and detailed inquiry which the subject demands. Bat unless atten- tion of the same kind be given in Great Britain, and in the voyages of the Atlantic steamships, the resulting information will remain incomp.ete. Joun M. Crapy Curator of the Museum of the College Charleston, U.S.,Sept. 13 ~ of Charleston Singing of Swans In times ancient and modern ‘‘singing ot swans” has been reckoned by naturalists among ‘‘ vulgar errors” and groundless superstitions. It may therefore be interesting to your readers to hear that swans actually do sing, which I can testify by my own personal experience, | From my ninth to my eighteenth year I lived at a place in the west of Iceland, called Gufudalur. ‘It is situated at the end of a small firth, called Gufufjérdur, which is so shallow that by low water itis almost dry: the bottom of the firth is covered with sea-grass (marhalmur). In this firth hundreds of swans gather together all the year round, except during the winter months, when the firth is covered withice; and in the month of August, which is their moulting season, when all of them leave this firth and go to another not far off, called Gilsfjérdur. There is no apparent reason for this migration, as Gufufjordur seems in every way as safe and convenient for them during this season as Gilsfjérdur. Tradition therefore accounts for this migration in the following manner :—Once upon a time two widows lived one on each side of Gufufjordur. At that time the swans did not go away during the moulting season, and the widows used to gather great quantities of swans’ feathers, which are sold in Iceland at the present day at a halfpenny a piece. Thus the swans’ feathers formed a considerable item in the income of the two widows, Once, however, one of the widows gathered feathers on a piece of land belonging to the other. A quarrel arose, and one of the widows uttered a spell to the effect that henceforth all the swans should leave Gulufjordur during the moulting season. I will not vouch for the correctness of this tradition, but the fact remains that this migration takes place annually during the aboye- mentioned season. During nine years I have heard the singing of the hundreds of swans which gather together in Gufufjordur. In the morning and evening their singing is so loud that it can be heard miles away, and the mountains on both sides ring with the echo of it, for at that time every individual swan seems to join in the chorus. This is, indeed, a wonderful concert. The singing of the swan has not the least resemblance to the cackling of geese or the quacking of ducks. In fact, its voice is unlike the voice of any other bird that [have heard; it seemsso clear and full, and has, as it were, a metallic ring init. When it is calm and clear in the morning or the evening, the swans fly along the valley towards the mountains in parties of seven or nine, sometimes only three ; as far as I can remember they are always in odd numbers. During their flight, they either keep in a straight line, one after another, or they form a triangle, leaving an open space in the middle: the foremost swan sometimes emitting single sounds at short intervals. The tradition of the singing of the swan being sweetest just before its death is well known in Iceland; but [ am unable either to deny or to confirm this tradition, because I have never been present at the death of a swan. The swaus of Gufufjérdur do not lay eggs there, and I am inclined to think that the most of them do not lay eggs at all, for their number in this firth does not seem to be less from the middle of May to the end of July, which is the season during which swans in Iceland Jay eggs and bring up their young ones. On the mountains round Gufufj6rdur there are many small lakes or tarns, and on the banks of those lakes I have seen swans build nests and lay eggs; as a rule there is only one pair on each lake, and, strange to say, these swans sing but very seldom. 6n A, HJALTALIN (Icelander), 152, St. Paul’s Road, Camden Square, N. W. State Aid to Science I REGRET that I should have worded my lecture on Cosmical Physics in such a way as to leave it doubtful how the central establishment I spoke of was to be supported. Unable myself to conceive the possibility of such an institution being properly supported otherwise than by State aid, I fear I did not sufficiently realise that others might not be of the same opinion. At the time of the establishment of the present Meteo- rological Office, it was acknowledged that private scientific enter- prise cannot be expected to furnish the moncy requt-ite to carry on an extensive system of meteorvlogical observations, and the same conclusion equally applies to the other branches of cosmical inquiry. aes ‘The most convincing proof of the justice of this conclusion lies in the fact that the British Association, who have hitherto con- tributed a large portion of their income to advance terrestrial magnetism, find that they cannot do so much longer without detriment to other subjects which have an equal claim upon their liberality. They have therefore resolved to give up their con- nection with the Kew Observatory after the autumn of 1872, Further proof is surely needless. pay B. STEWART THE THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION FROM A MATHEMATICAL POINT OF VIEW* “T°HE fascinating hypothesis of Darwinism has, within the last few years, so completely taken hold of the scientific mind, both in this country and in Germany, that almost the whole of our rising men of science may be classed as belonging to this school of thought. Probably since the time of Newton no man has had so great an influence over the development of scientific thought as Mr. Darwin; and no one can over-estimate the debt which Science owes to his patient researches and his clear insight into some of the hidden ways of Nature. The advocates of Darwinism have, however, almost invariably failed to recognise that the theory consists of two essentially distinct portions, one of which may be admitted while the other is denied. The first portion is that with which the name of Darwin is popularly associated, although its origination is by no means due to him, namely, the probable ancestry of all forms of living organism from a single or a few original germs ; the other portion, and that which we especially owe to his genius, is the theory that the infinite modi- fications of existing forms owe their origin to a process of Natural Selection from spontaneous variations. These two per- fectly distinct hypotheses have generally been so confounded together that those who have attacked or defended the one have also attacked or defended the other. My object in the present paper is to show that, while the former hypothesis may be con- sidered as established, as nearly as it is possible to establish a theory which requires thousands or millions of years for its complete development, the arguments in support of the second hypothesis are far less satisfactory. The principle that new forms of organic life have been pro- duced by modifications of older nearly-allied forms is by no means a new one; its inherent reasonableness and probability commended it to Lamarck and the author of the ‘‘ Vestiges of Creation” long before it was elaborated in a more scientific form by Mr. Darwin and Mr. Wallace. It has been opposed, of course, by theologians ; but, were it not that the theological mind is inherently averse to the reception of new ideas, it would have been seen that the supposition that the Creative Power works by continuous modification and adaptation of contrivance to end, by a constant exercise of His prerogative, is a far higher tribute to His exalted attributes, than the popular dogma that all living things were created as we now see them by one single gigantic effort, after which the power collapsed, and has never since been exercised. Why should organic life be the one thing in the world not subject to change? The coup de grace may be con- sidered to have been given to the anciently received theory by the investigations so ably carried out by Mr. Darwin and Dr. Hooker on the characteristics of Insular Floras. The fact that no island which has been separated from the mainland during recent geological epochs has genera, and scarcely even species, of animals or plants peculiar to itself, while islands which have remained isolated during lengthened geological periods have faunze and florz almost entirely peculiar to themselves, is in- explicable on any other hypothesis than that of the gradual differentiation of species by long-continued separation. No more striking instance of this law has been given than that afforded by the East Indian Islands, as shown in Mr. Wallace’s “*Malay Archipelago.” Two great types of animals and plants are found in different regions of the archipelago, the Indo- Malayan and the Australian ; and these two types are separated, not by any diversity of climate and soil—not even by any of the wide but shallow channels which indicate recent separation, such as that between Borneo and Sumatra—but by the narrow but very deep channel separating Bali from Lombok, which indicates a lengthened geological separation of two continents at this point. The hypothesis that the prime agent in all these infinite modi- fications is the principle of Natural Selection from spontaneous variations, has been recently further illustrated by Mr. Wallace’s volume of Essays, ‘‘Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection ;” and it is mainly from the illustrations furnished in this work that I propose to derive my arguments as to its inadequacy. In the first place I wish to call attention to the fact which the Duke of Argyll has already acutely pointed out in his *‘ Reign of Law,” that the theory does not even attempt to explain the most inexplicable phenomenon in the develipment of these organic changes, namely, the first commencement of a * Paper read before Section D of the British Assocjation, at Liverpool, September acth, 1870. NATURE i (Noo. 10, 1870 tendency to variation. ‘The title of Mr. Darwin’s famous work, the text-book of the theory, seems to me, indeed, altogether a misnomer: ‘fThe Origin of Species by means of Natural Selec- tion.” Mr. Darwin admits the existence of what he terms a “ spontaneous”’ tendency to variation among the offspring from a common ancestor ; this ‘‘ spontaneous” tendency is the only natural law which can correctly be termed that of the origin of species ; all that Mr, Darwin arid his disciples attempt to ex- plain is the survival and propagation of certam among the diverse forms thus resulting in preference to others. Through- out the whole of Mr. Wallace’s volume he appears to have no consciousness that his theory does not go to the root of the matter. When once the tendency to change has set in, there can be no doubt that ‘‘ Natural Selection,” ‘*The Survival of the Fittest,” whatever you like to term the principle, is one among many causes which tend to the perpetuation of certain forms. When, however, Mr. Darwin asserts, ‘‘ I am convinced that Natural Selection has been the main, but not exclusive, means of modification,”* I am by no means prepared to go with him to that extent. Some of Mr. Darwin’s disciples go even further, and seem to consider it, in fact, as almost the only means. There is no phenomenon in Natural History which is more thoroughly relied on by the advocates of Natural Selection as furnishing a decisive argument in favour of their theory, than the one which forms the subject of the longest of the essays in Mr. Wallace’s volume, that of Mimicry or Mimetism. I propose, therefore, to occupy the greater part of this paper with an inquiry how far the facts which have been adduced support the conclusions first brought prominently forward by Mr. Bates in his ‘‘ Naturalist on the Amazons,” and more fully elaborated and illustrated by Mr. Wallace. There can be no doubt about the frequent occurrence of ‘‘ protective resem- blances” in the animal kingdom. Certain classes of animals en- joy, from various causes, exceptional immunity from the attacks of their natural enemies. In order to share in these immunities, it is found that other animals, belonging to an entirely different class or order, whilst retaining all the structural characters of their own’ class, so closely resemble in external features of colour and form particular species of the favoured races as to be readily mistaken for them. How do the advocates of the theory of Natural Selection attempt to account for this super- ficial resemblance? By the continuous preservation, through countless generations, of those particular individuals which spontaneously approach most nearly to the ultimate forms. Now, there are two principles admitted or insisted on by every advocate of Darwinism, which it is necessary to bear very clearly in mind in the following argument. The first is, that, in a state of nature those differences which ultimately become specific or generic are brought about by exceedingly slow gradations. And it is obvious that it must be so. For if by chance any strongly abnormal form is produced, even should it survive to generate. offspring, which is in itself doubtful, it must necessarily cross with other less abnormal individuals, and its descendants would thus have a tendency to revert towards the parental form. On this point Mr. Darwin himself says: ‘‘It may be doubted whether sudden and great deviations of structure, such as we occasionally see in’ our domestic productions, are ever perma- nently propagated in a state of nature.” + And again, ‘‘ Natural Selection always acts with extreme slowness.” The other point which I wish to be borne in mind is, that no change can possibly take place by the process of Natural Selection which 1s not directly of advantage to the individual. On this point again all the supporters of the hypothesis are agreed. Mr. Darwin distinctly affirms that “only those variations which are in some way profitable, will be preserved or naturally se- lected ;” § and Mr. Wallace even more emphatically speaks of ‘the principle which Mr. Darwin so earnestly impresses upon us, and which is, indeed, a necessary deduction from the theory of Natural Selection, namely, that none of the definite facts of organic nature, no special organ, zo characteristic form or marking, no peculiarities of instinct or of habit, no relations be- tweeu species or between groups of species—can exist, but which must now be or once have been wsefw/ to the individuals or the races which possess them.” || We have, therefore, established at the outset these two data: that the passage from the ordinary to the mimetic form is effected by a number of exceedingly small steps, and * Origin of Species,” 4th ed.,p.6. + Ibid, p. 47. t Ibid, p. 12x. § Ibid, p. 131 | “ Contributions tothe Theery of Natural Selection,” p. 47. wee Nov. 10, 1870} NATURE 31 o that every one of these changes must present some advan- tage to the species which undergoes it. Now let us apply these two principles to the recognised facts of Mimetism ; and for this purpose we may take a single instance, one of the most re- markable and best authenticated, recorded by Mr. Bates in his “Naturalist on the Amazons,” and more fully in his paper on the “Lepidoptera of the Amazon Valley,” in the ‘‘ Transactions of the Linnean Society.”” There is in South America a tribe of butterflies of very gaudy colour, the {eliconide, which appear to enjoy exceptional immunity from the attacks of birds, from the exudation, when attacked, of a nauseous fluid, and are conse- quently extremely abundant. Another South American genus of Lepidoptera, the Zeféa/s, belongs structurally to an entirely different class, the /ieride, and the majority of its species differ correspondingly from the Heéliconide, in their size, shape, colour, and manner of flying, being nearly pure white, and of the same family as our common cabbage butterfly. There is, however, one particular species of Zeféalis, which departs widely in externai facies from all its allies, and so closely resembles a species of /thomia belonging to the /e/i- conide, as apparently not only to deceive the most experienced entomologists, but even to take in its natural enemies also, and, although perfectly harmless, to share the immunity of the butterfly it simulates. Mr. Bates and Mr. Wallace have both attempted to show, with great ingenuity and plausibility, that this entire change from the normal form to that resembling the Ithomia has taken place through the agency of natural selection acting through a long series of generations. I believe, however, on careful examination, the line of argument will be found to break down, and that at its very outset, on the ground that the early stages of the transformation will be perfectly useless for the protection of the species. Applying the rigid test of mathematical calculation to the problem, I think it may safely be assumed that it would re- quire, at the very lowest calculation, one thousand steps to enable the normal Zeféalis to pass into its protective form. Mr. Bates indeed assumes that the change may have taken place much more rapidly, but this appears a very unsafe and unsupported deviation from the sounder prin- ciple laid down by Darwin and Wallace. It is indeed obvious that any marked variety resulting suddenly must inevitably revert, as already observed, more and more towards the parent type by crossing, unless, indeed, we are to suppose that a pair, male and female, are simultaneously produced with a deviation in exactly the same direction, and that their offspring keeps itself apart, interbreeding only with itself as a separate colony,—an assumption contrary to all experience. At all events, we may safely say that within the historic period no such change has been effected within a vastly larger number of generations, where human agency has not come into play. The next step in my argument is, that the smallest change in the direction of the /thomia, which we can conceive on any hypothesis to be beneficial to the Zeféalis, is at the very lowest one-fiftieth of the change required to produce perfect resemblance. I believe myself that a very much larger frac- tion, say one-fourth or one-third, would be practically useless ; as I am told by practical entomologists that birds will distinguish ‘with accuracy caterpillars suited for their food from other species scarcely distinguishable to our eyes, which are not so suitable. For the sake of argument, however, I will suppose that a change to the extent of one-fiftieth is beneficial to thatsmall extent after which natural selection may begin to come into play. Mr. Wal- lace, indeed, argues that an infinitesimal and inappreciable dis- tinction may make the difference of a slightly longer span of life being allowed to the butterfly, to lay its eggs in safety ; but this is a deductive piece of reasoning derived from the theory, be- cause necessary to it, and not inductive observation from nature ; and I altogether decline to be carried further, for the sake of the theory, than the limit I have indicated. Suppose a parallel in- stance : that our common brown owl has a enchant for mice, while moles are abhorrent to its palate ; is it conceivable that, supposing a mouse was born approaching a mole by the one- hundredth partin external appearance, say with feet a fraction of _a line broader, or eyes slightly deeper set, the shortest-sighted of owls would fora moment mistake AZus for Za/fa? Or, a still more parallel instance: suppose a blue-bottle fly were born blessed witha slightly narrower waist, or a faint band of yellow on its body, will any one maintain that it stands the least chance of escape from destruction by those birds which do Not feed on wasps? And no one who has examined. Mr, Bates’s or Mr. Trimen’s beautiful drawings, or, still better, the insects themselves, will say that I have exaggerrated the extent of the passage from the normal to the imitative Zeféadis. If, therefore, this reasoning is sound, one thousand steps being necessary to effect this change in external appearance, and one- fiftieth of the whole change, or twenty steps, being the smallest amount that is really profitable to the animal, it follows that the first twenty steps of the transformation are not due to natural selection, but must have taken place by an accumulation of chances. Let us investigate the value of this chance. Suppose there are twenty different ways in which a Zeffalis may vary, one only of these being in the direction ultimately required, the chance of any individual producing a descendant which will take its place in the succeeding generation varying in the required . . . I . . . direction, is 553 the chance of this operation being repeated in I I the same direction in the second generation is —, or — ; g zon 0 4003 the chance of this occurring for fez successive generations (instead I of twenty, as I have assumed above) is Bow OF about one in ten billions. Now another factor comes into the calculation, and that is the number of individuals among which this chance is distributed. Mr. Bates and Mr. Wallace agree in stating that both in South America and in the Malay Archipelago the imi- tative species are always confined to a limited area, and are always very scarce compared with the imitated species. We will assume that the number of individuals of the imitative Leptalis existing at any one time is one million; the chance of there being among these million a single individual approaching the /thomia to the extent of one-hundredth is qtr eooo or the chance against it is ten million to one. It will be seen that in the above calculation I have endeavoured to throw every advantage into the scale of the natural selectionist. I believe myself, and I think most naturalists will agree with me, that vastly more than a thousand generations, each characterised by a small change, must be conceded; and that, on the other hand, a change to the extent of even greatly more than one- fiftieth would be absolutely useless. This idea receives great confirmation from observing the most wonderful identity of the marking in the mimicked and mimicker. If a rough imitation is so useful, it must be a mere freak of Nature to produce so absolute an identity, and we are landed in the dilemma that the Jast stages are comparatively useless. If, again, I had carried I Toes on the calculation to 30% instead of =, it would have been 201 difficult to have stated the result in figures ; and if, on the other hand, it is objected that a million is too low an estimate of the number of individuals existing at one time, and a hundred million or a thousand million is substituted (an altogether in- conceivable estimate for a rare conspicuous butterfly limited to a small area”), the result will not be materially affected. For, supposing the chance is reduced from one in ten million to one in ten thousand—and it is said that the world has existed quite long enough to give a fair chance of this having occurred once— it is not a solitary instance that we have. Mr. Bates states that, in a comparatively small area, several distinct instances of such perfect mimicry occur; Mr. Wallace has a store in the Malay Archipelago ; Mr. Trimen records several of wonderful beauty and exactness in South Africa ; and the more attention is turned to the subject, the more numerous do , instances of inimicry become. I have left out of account altogether those still more remark- able instances, which are even more difficult to explain on the theory of natural selection (as the number of steps must be in- finitely greater), in which animals not only imitate others be- longing to entirely different natural orders, as Diptera mimicking Hymenoptera, and caterpillars snakes, but where they resemble inanimate objects. The weird and uncanny resemblance of the Phasmata and Mantides to dry leaves and sticks has long been known: not only is the veining of the leaves accurately repro- duced, but the attacks of parasitic fungi are simulated ; and Mr. Wallace records instances of larvze bearing the most minute resemblance to the droppings of birds, and spiders to the axillary buds of plants. ‘Through what countless generations must these transformations have been effected ! and by what mathematical formula could we express the chance against their occurrence, if * The latter number would give 150 individuals per acre over an area 100 miles square, or 50 per acre for an area as large as Ireland. 32 NATURE [Nov. 10, 1870 oni . fatiral selection only had been at work in their production? The difficulties in the way of the natural selection explanation are also materially increased when we find, as is often the case, that it is one sex only (the female) which undergoes these iimetic changes, and that the changes have to take place Simultaneously in the direction of colour, size, form, and habit, It may now fairly be asked, if the principle of natural selection i$ abandoned as the main cause of these wonderful modifications, what other theory can be substituted in its place? I do not know that the objector toa theory is always bound to provide another theory as a substitute. Mr. Darwin, in his ‘‘ Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication,” quotes with well- (eserved approval Whewell’s aphorism, that “ Hypotheses may often be of service to science, when they involve a certain portion of incompleteness, and even of error.” Mr, Darwin’s and Mr. Wallace’s hypothesis of natural selection has been of signal service to science; but if this hypothesis has been too rashly fiandled and too widely applied, it may be equally serviceable to point out its incompleteness or its error, as the first step to a still more scientific explanation. In the following remarks, I merely wish to call the attention of naturalists to one or two points which I think have almost been lost sight of in the discussion. Ihave already adverted to the inaccuracy of the title of Mr. Darwin’s great work, ‘The Orwin of Species by means of Natural Selection.” The opponents of Darwinism, even so acute a yeasoner as the Duke of Argyll, appear to see no alternative between the theory that species have arisen through the agency of external causes, and the theory that species have remained immutable since their creation. I can accept no such alternative. Indeed we may say that external influences cazot be the primary cause of the transmutation of species. The utmost claimed by the theory of natural selection is, that it selects the fittest from already existing so-called ‘‘spontaneous” varieties. Every page of Mr. Darwin’s work teems with reference to this pre-existing tendency to variation, with respect to which he says: ‘‘ Our ignorance of the laws of variation is profound,” Mr. Bates, when speaking on the subject of mimicry, makes the following yery remarkable admission :—‘‘Tt would seem as though our Leplalis naturally produced simple varieties of a nature to resemble fthomie.’* By a careful study of the context, I can only con- elude that Mr. Bates means the same thing by his “natural” yayieties as Mr. Darwin does by his ‘‘ spontaneous” yariations, namely, an innate tendency to vary wot caused by natural selec- #ien, but on which tendency natural selection operates, and without which it would be perfectly inoperative. The use of the term ‘‘spontaneous” is open to objection from a philoso- phical point of view. It either means that the phenomena in question are subject to no law, or that they are the result of some ae with which we are unacquainted. The former hypothesis will probably be rejected by every scientific naturalist, and must Le utterly abhorrent to the believer in a ‘* Reign of Law.” This tendency to variation in the offspring meets us on every side in our investigation of nature. Every gardener knows how uncertain is the produce of seeds compared with the produce of buds or offshoots from the same plant. The ordinary mode of obtaining new varieties of strawberries or other fruits is from seeds. An endless variety of the commonest florist’s flowers is produced by sowing seeds from the same capsule. Of the laws of this yaria- lion we are, as Mr. Darwin says, ‘‘ profoundly ignorant ;” but it does not follow that a patient interrogation of nature pursued the true Darwinian spirit, may not reveal to us something of nese laws. Of one thing we are certain, that natural selection here plays no part. If then we must admit that the first beginning of change takes place without the operation ot this principle, why should we claim for it the main, almost the ex- clusive agency, in the changes which follow? Some other principle, at present unknown to us, originates these variations ; what right have we to say that this principle, whateyer it may ‘be, then ceases to act, instead =} being the main agent in all the other subsequent changes ? But are we limited to negative evidence in tracing the trans- mutations of species mainly to some unknown internal law? A Single sentence in Mr, Wallace’s Chapter on Mimicry seems to je pregnant with results for the future inquirer, He incidentally Yemarks how frequently it is the case that, when mimicry has ‘once set in by the action of natural selection, new habits and instincts come into play to assist in the mimicry, It does not, however, appear to occur to Mr. Wallace to trace any con- Nhection between the instinct and the mimicry. The connection * Transactions of the Linnean Society, vol. xxiii,, p, 5x2. will be found, I believe, to be very close. Passing by for the — moment any definition of instinct, let us trace its range in the ~ organised world. From the whole vegetable kingdom it is — conspicuous by its absence. In the lowest classes of the animal ~ kingdom, the Protozoa and Ccelenterata, it is found, if at all, in — a very low form; and though there is a popular superstition that oysters may be crossed in love, yet we cannot attribute to the — Mollusca as a class any strong development of the instinctive faculty. When, however, we come to the Articulata, and especially to the Insecta and closely allied Arachnida, we meet — at once with developments of instinct rivalling, if not exceeding — in perfectness, those found in the highest forms of animal life. In the lower orders of Vertebrata again, the Pisces and Reptilia, we apparently come to a retrogression in the instinctive faculty, which is once more strongly developed in the Aves and Mam- malia. Now let us compare this with what is known of Mimicry. — From the vegetable kingdom it is absent. There are, it is true, — resemblances, and resemblances of the most wonderful and perfect kind, in the marking and venation of the leaves of plant belonging to entirely different natural orders, equal inextraordinary closeness to those of which I have spoken in the animal kingdom ; but these are inno sense mimetic or protective. Mere protective resemblances of colour I consider of far less importance than of form or habit; since colour may unquestionably be affected directly by the external circumstances of light, &c., and varies “spontaneously” in both the animal and yegetable kingdom to a far greater extent than does form. In the lowest forms of animal life we have no well-authenticated instances of mimetism, the most striking among the Mollusca with which I am acquainted — is one pointed out to me by Mr. G. S. Brady in the beautiful Lima hians.* But when we come to insects, we find protective resemblances of the most extraordinary kind, in marking, in form, in habit, presented to us on every side. Among fishes and reptiles the principle appears to be again comparatively in abeyance, and to be once more strongly developed in birds. The parallelism is indeed almost complete. In short, the power of mimetism, as far as is known at present, runs almost far? passu — with the development of the nervous system. ‘ 4 But what is instinct? Modern naturalists are pretty well agreed in abandoning the old distinction in kind between reason and instinct, and in considering the nest-building instinct of birds — and the cell-constructing instinct of bees, as but a lower form of — the same faculty which we call reason in ourselves. It is ad- mitted that this instinct teaches the bee which flowers to rifle for its honey, and even to modify its habits in accordance with the circumstances in which it is placed; but, according to the ~ prevalent theory, it has no power to modify its proboscis so as — to enable it to obtain the honey from the flower, or to modify its — wings to suit to its new habit. In short its own body is almost — the only thing over which the animal has no power. To me — such a restriction appears to be unphilosophical. I cannot but : believe in the existence of an unconscious Organising Intelligence, — an idea which Mr. J. J. Murphy has ably and logically adyo- cated in his ‘‘ Habit and Intelligence.” And if this inherent — innate power of change is admitted, it at once harmonises the © tendency to variation which exists in all created beings, with 4 the perpetuation of those forms best adapted to resist the struggle _ of life, and lends to natural selection the assistance of a fellow- — worker far more powerful and of more universal operation. ‘ A Rae argument in favour of this view may be drawn from Mr. Wallace’s volume. Eyery reader of that book must have been struck with the remarkable manner in which he com- pletely abandons and casts aside his own theory when he comes to treat of man. Natural selection is amply sufficient to account for all the other transmutations in the animal kingdom ; only give time enough, and it is competent to develop the elephant out of the Amadva—the one step in the animal creation which is beyond its power is that from the ape to man ; all the infinite forms of the brute creation have resulted from this principle, — _ to produce the different races of mankind sume other power is — needed. In a singularly able review of this work in the dvchives — des Sciences Physigues et Niturelles, M. Claparéde, of Geneva, — points out with great acumen the singular inconsistency of this — reasoning; and shows how great a want of faith in his own — pcvle it betrays on the part of its author. Mr. Wallace’s line of argument is very interesting. We may take only a single instance, Man is the only terrestrial mammal with a bare hair- less back. All savage nations feel the want of a covering to — their back ; in cold countries to protect them from the cold, in — * See Natures, Vol, ii., p. 376. Nov. 10, 1870] NATURE 33 hot countries to protect them from the heat of the sun. It is impossible to conccive, therefore, that this absence of covering was ever directly Leneficial to the race or the individual ; and hence it cannot have been produced by the operation of natural selection ; but must have been in some way connected with those reasoning powers which lead to the construction of clothing and dwellings on which his civilisation so largely depends. Mr, Wal- lace, however, appears to forget that he had previously stated his conclusion that ‘‘ those great modifications of structure and of external form which resulted in the development of man out of some lower type of animal, must have occurred defore his intellect had raised him above the condition of the brutes.”* This principle, therefore, whatever it may be, other than natural selection, which produced man’s bare back, must have been in operation before the intellect of man was developed. This strange inconsistency of Mr. Wallace’s appears to result from the fact that he is unable to shut his eyes to the inevitable con- clusion that the development of man from the ape, and the production of the different races of mankind, have not resulted from the operation of natural selection, pure and simple, but that this principle has been powerfully assisted by man’s reasoning faculties. This reasoning seems to me perfectly sound and inevi- table, admitting, for the sake of argument, Mr. Wallace’s hypothesis, that man 7s descended from the apes ; but, if we consistently believe in the action of general laws which govern the whole of animated nature, we must carry the argument back astep further. Reason is but a higher development of instinct. If man’s reason has assisted him so to modify his body as to adapt himself to the circumstances with which he is surrounded, we are unable to bring forward any valid argument why the instinct of animals should not also assist them to modify their bodies, by slow and gradual degrees, so as to adapt them to the circumstances with which they are surrounded. In the essay alluded to above, M. Claparéde, himself one of the few genuine Darwinians among French writers, points out the dangerous and unscientific manner in which the theory of natural selection is made, in the hands of its too zezlous advo- cates, to explain phenomena which are probably due to other causes. Thediscovery of this law marked an era in the history of natural science, and gave a wonderful impulse to original re- search. Tie danger now is that the law will be pressed into services which have no claim upon it ; and that, in the hands of injudicious partisans, it will become a hindrance rather than an aid to science, by closing the door against further investigations in:o other laws which lie behind it. To claim for Natural Selec- tion the main agency in the creation of the countiess forms of organic life with which we are surrounded, is straining it beyond its strength. An era of equal importance will be marked by the discovery of the law which regulates the tendency to variation which must necessarily underlie natural selection, The argument of ‘‘ design” was undoubtedly pushed by pre- Darwinian writers to too great an extent. The most recent phase of Darwinianism, however, is a complete denial of the exist- ence of design in Nature. It is the carrying into Natural Science of the Hobbesian principle of Self-love. Every individual and every species exists for its own advantage only, and has no raison détre except its own welfare. To my mind the beatties and wonders of Nature seem, on the other hand, to teach a dif- ferent lesson, that, All are but parts of one stupendous whole, Whose body Nature is, and God the soul ; that there are laws, albeit almost unknown to us—not laws merely of external circumstance, but laws of internal growth and struc- ture,—which actively modify each individual organism, not only for its own advantage in the struggle for life, but for the higher end of subordinating every individual existence to the good of the whole. . ALFRED W. BENNETT THE PROFESSORSHIP OF NATURAL HIS- TORY, QUEEN’S COLLEGE, BELFAST N a late number we announced that Professor Wyville Thomson, of the Queen’s College, Belfust, had been appointed by the Crown to the Professorship of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh. This will * “ Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,” p. 319. | we believe, no Government would do. necessitate the resignation by Professor Thomson of his chiir in the Queen’s College, Belfast, a resignation which we may presume will be made before the commencement of the next term, and a resignation in which some of cur readers and many of our men of science will take an interest, for the places of honour or emolument open to the student of Natural Science in this country are so very few, that there is naturally much excitement when one of the few isto befilledup. Already we hear of a whole host of young and meritorious workers setting their faces towards the city that boasts to be the Athens of the North of Ireland. The mere mention of the names of Dr. Cunningham, who in the Straits of Magellan earned his Natural Science spurs so well, of Mr. E. Ray Lankester, whose numerous papers show an intimate acquaintance with zoology, of Dr. Macalister, whose comparative anatomy memoirs are so well-known, or of Dr. Traquair, whose papers on fossil fish and on the skull of recent Pleuronectidz. are of high merit, not to name others, will show that the post of Professor of Natural History in the Queen’s College, Belfast, will be contested for by a little army of well-edu- cated and accomplished gentlemen, the selection of any one of whom would reflect credit on the College. But a rumour reaches us that there may be no election to the Professorship after all—that the spirit of economy is to annihilate the spirit of competition ; that, in order that the Government of this great country may save certain paltry trifling possibilities of pension, it is their inten- tion to translate to Belfast one of the four Profes- sors of Natural Science in the Queen’s Colleges of Cork and Galway. It is necessary to explain how this can be done. Each of the Queen’s Colleges had originally a Professor of Geology and Mineralogy, and a Pro- fessor of Zoology and Botany. Their income was that of a junior assistant in the British Museum, and for common decency’s sake, it was found necessary to raise it ; this was done on the condition that each of the Professors under- took to lecture on the subjects at the time lectured on by his colleague, on the death or resignation of that colleague, without further increase of pay. So when Prof. Dickie, who was Professor of Botany and Zoology in the Queen’s College, Belfast, resigned, on his removal to Aberdeen, Prof. Thomson had to lecture in zoology and botany, in addition to his own subjects of geology and mineralogy, Thus it happens that should the Government confer the vacant Belfast chair on one of the four existing Professors of Natural Science in the other two Queen’s Colleges, his post in the college which he leaves will be filled up by his colleague, and the Crown will have to deal in the matter of pension, &c., with but four persons instead of with five, as they will have if they appoint a candidate who is not one of these four Professors to the vacant post. Nor can the Crown confer this Professor- ship on one of the present Professors, and then fill up the place thus left vacant by a new appointment, because, although the yearly salary of the colleague of the Pro- fessor thus elected will not be increased thereby, yet his fees, to a slight extent, will ; and so, to break the bargain made, would be to the detriment of the individual—a thing, But why, we ask, should they, for a paltry saving, do detriment to the cause cf Science in this country—courted when she is needed— kept at more than arm’s length when it is imagined she may be done without? Science is but badly cared for in our country, and we here allude to the above facts for the purpose ot urging those to whose care titis appoint- ment fails, to forget, for the once, all cons:derat ons except those for the good of the Colige, and to quicken the already expanding lie of the Qu-en’s University in Ireland by the infusion of fresh bood into this one 0} its Colleges. It is in the interest of Science that we write, not in the interest of candidates, one of whose names we would not mention above another. NATURE [Mov. 10, 1870 PITCHER PLANTS FFERENCE of opinion has been expresséd as to the nature and use of the l quid found in the so- D! called pitchers of various plants, such as Nepenthes, Rafflesia, and certain Orchidacezs. The popular idea that these curious receptacles collect pure water for the re- freshment of the thirsty in arid places, would seem to be set at rest, by a consideration of the fact that these plants grow in moist and marshy places. There would seem, moreover, to be some improbability that plants should secrete pure water. In this country, where these plants are grown under exceptional conditions, there is some difficulty in settling these questions experimentally. In such cases, extra- neous water often finds its way into the pitchers, so that several ounces may frequently be gathered from a single receptacle of Nepenthes, the greater part of which is accidental. In August last I had an opportunity of collecting the liquid from two flowers of Coryanthes, one of the Orchi- daceze, which had just opened, in one of the well-known stove-houses of Mr. Wilson Saunders. Though the quantity collected was small, atnounting only to about three cubic centimetres, or 1°18 cubic inches, an examination showed the following properties :— Clear and somewhat glutinous in consistence. Pos- sessed of a high refractive power, anda specific gravity of 1'062. Odour pleasant but faint, becoming more marked by a gentle heat. Neutral to test papers. Becoming milky, by concentration on the water-bath, it finally yielded a transparent gum, insoluble in alcohol. Oxalates produced no precipitate of lime, but basic lead acetate gave a curdy reaction. phuric acid blackened the liquid. Although the taste was not acrid, the mawkish flavour | would render it quite unpotable. This examination therefore proved the liquid to be something else than pure water. Too parts of liquid contained :— Water and volatile oils . 98°51 Non-volatile residue. . . . 1°49 100°00 G. B. BUCKTON SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS OF THE SUN ROF. C. A. YOUNG has obligingly sent me an account of his recent work, which is very rich in promise, as he tells me that he has now the dispersive power of 13 prisms of heavy flint, each with an angle of 55. It is now some time ago since I announced to the Royal Society that over spots prominences, built up of different vapours, were sometimes observable by means of their lines, dyiyht and thin, overlying the thick absorption lines in the spot spectra. This observation is, I hold, a clear proof of the truth of the theory put forward by Dr, Frankland and myself, namely, that changes in spectra, notably the thickening of the lines, are due to pressure, and not to temperature ; for according to the theory of exchanges, the bright prominence must be hotter than the absorbing vapour which underlies it, and still the lines are thinner. Dr, Young has now observed these phenomena with exactly the same result. He writes to Professor Morton :— “I write to inform you that last Thursday, Sept. 22, about 11 A.M. Hanover mean time, 1 was so fortunate as to see the so lium lines D, and D,, reversed in the spectrum of the umbra of a large spot near the eastern limb of the sun. At the same time the C and F lines were also re- versed, but with the great dispersive power of my new spectroscope I see this so often in the solar spots, that it has ceased to be remarkable. “The figure gives the appearance of the sodium lines. In the umbra of the spot the D, line was not visible, but in the penumbra was plainly seen, as a dark shade, repre- sented in the figure. “Tam not aware that this reversal of the sodium lines in a spot spectrum has ever been observed before ; its reversal in the spectra of prominencés is not very unusual. A small prominence on the western limb of the sun, which was visible the same forenoon, presented all the following bright lines, viz. :* C, D,, D,, Dz, 1474, 4,, 8, 8, 1989'5, 2001°5, 2031°, F, 2581°5, 2796", and / ; 15 in all. ‘ “In the spot spectrum the magnesium lines 4,, 6, and 6, were not reversed, but while the shade which accom- panies the lines was perceptibly widened, the central black line itself was thinned and lightened.” Further, Prof. Young has succeeded in obtaining photo- graphs of protuberances on the sun’s limb, of which he has been good enough to forward me a specimen. They were obtained by attaching a small camera to the eye-piece of the telescope and opening the slit somewhat widely, using the hydrogen line near G. little thing amounts to nothing, because the unsteadiness of the air and the maladjustment of the polar axis of the equatorial caused the image to shift its place slightly during the long exposure of three-and-a-half minutes which was required, thus destroying all the details. Still, the double-headed form of the prominence is evident, and ~ the possibility of taking such photographs is established.” In a letter to myself Prof. Young adds :—“I should not have published so imperfect a success were it not that my engagement as a member of Prof. Winlock’s eclipse | party prevents me from following up the matter at pre- Concentrated hot sul- par P. . g uP P sent. The experiments were tried on the 28th, and on the 3oth the equatorial was taken down to be packed up and sent to the rendezvous, at Alvan Clark’s factory, | where all the instruments are collected and put in order previous to sailing.” J. NORMAN LOCKYER NOTES SINCE our last issue the Joint Committee of the Royal and Royal Astronomical Societies and the Council of the British Association have met to consider the question of the Eclipse Ex- pedition, and in consequence of these meetings Mr. Gladstone has been asked to receive a joint deputation to urge upon the Government the importance of the proposed expedition. The Joint Committee have appointed the Presidents of the Royal and Royal Astronomical Societies, the Astronomer Royal, and Mr. Lockyer to plead its cause; while the Council of the British Association will be represented by the President and officers of — the Association, Sir John Lubbock, M.P., and Dr. Lyon Play- fair, M.P. Up to the time of our going to press, however, no time had been fixed for the deputation to wait upon the Prime Minister. THE medals in the gift of the Royal Society have this year been awarded as follows:—The Copley medal to Dr. Joule ; the Rumford medal to M. Descloiseaux ; and the Royal medals to Prof. W. H. Miller and Mr. W. Davidson. Pror. Simon Newcomgs has arrived in this country from the United States Naval Observatory. His mission among us is to examine and report on the great Newall telescope. He will then proceed to Gibraltar to observe the approaching eclipse. ALL members of the British Association will be concerned to learn that Dr. Hirst feels called upon by the pressure of his new duties to resign the General Secretaryship of the Asso- ciation, an honorary post which he has long filled with the greatest advantage to Science, He adds :—“ As a picture, the © a Nov, 10, 1870] NATURE ad i - Amonc the mass of correspondence which has recently reached _ M5 are several interesting letters on early notices of the Aurora, for some of which we hope to find room next week. We rejeice to see several men of science, with Professor Huxley at their head, coming forward as candidates for the London School Board. We shall be glad to be informed if this _ example is followed elsewhere. We read in the Zcho that the Electric Telegraph has been _ put to a new use in Canada. At Mimouski, when the late 7 earthquake came upon them, they sent at once to Quebec, a distance of 200 miles, to ask, ‘‘ How do you feel?” While the 4 operator there was at his work the shock arrived. He at once _ sent to Montreal, about 200 miles further on, to ask if they had _ felt it. They had just time to say ‘‘ No” before the earthquake came up. ‘THE new buildings of the Glasgow University were formally opened on Monday last. The proceedings were conducted _ within the Hunterian Museum. The Duke of Montrose, Chan- _ vellor of the University, presided, and congratulated the principal professors upon the success which had attended their efforts, and that they had lived to see the opening day of the new University. ‘Phe merchants of Glasgow had made princely fortunes, which “Was treditable to their talents*and their industry ; but it was Still more creditable to them that they had made such a use of theif riches as to enable this noble building to be erected for the - €ducation of the rising generation. After Prof. Lushington had delivered an address, Mr. A. Orr Ewing, M.P., stated that fiom subscriptions and from Government 254,c00/, had been - pltained, and 117,000/. had been received for the ground upon E which the old college stood. Everything in connection with the mew building was paid. Of the 150,000/. in public subserip- - tions, Glasgow had given nearly all. The various classes met wn Tuesday. WE believe that Mr. W. Spottiswoode will succeed the late Dr. W. A. Miller as Treasurer of the Royal Society. ON the isth inst., Dr. Grey will read a paper at the Statis- tical Society ‘On the Claims ef Science to Public Recognition aod Support.” We are glad that the attention of such a power- fal body as the Statistical Society is to be so authoritatively ; drawn to Such an important subject. "Pik Polytechnic School of Ziirich has been siddenly deprived Ot itS themical teachers. In addition to the death of Prof. - Boley, which we have already recorded, Prof. Hiideler, giving Way to the demands of failing health, has relinquished his chair ‘of Pure Chemistry. ff was recently determined to erect a statue to Prot. Morse, “Which bears his name, and for this purpose subscriptions were wpened inthe States. The full amount has been very speedily Snyscribed, and the erection of a marble statue is to be at once fteceeded with. It is to stand inthe Central Park, New York, a Stitable position having been willingly granted by the Com- 4x ssioners. Ir is a question of some interest and curiosity how to com- “pare the forces of steam and gunpowder. The following cal- culation, each step of which can be easily followed, may _ therefore be acceptable to our readers. The force exerted by an ‘‘xploding charge of powder in a gun requires for its calculation _ ‘two considerations, 7/z. the ameunt of force given to the shot, @hd the time in which that force is imparted. Taking as our example tle 300-pounder Woolwich gun, the first element of _ the calculation is as follows :—One steam horse lifts 33,000lb. _ one foot_in_one minute, or 550lb. in one second, The 3o00lb. a ‘the emiirent American electrician and inventor of the telegraph | shot leaves the muzzle of the gun at the rate of 1,300 feet per second, Let 4 represent the force in horse-power in the shot, then, by the well-known equations /7=1 m7, and m=“, £ H x 550= oe x (I,300)* = ee 1,690,000, H/ = 14,403°409 8 The force, 7.e. the work in the shot, is therefore measured by 14,403'409 horse power. ‘That is, it would require that amount of horse power acting for the space of one second to give to a 300lb. shot the velocity with which it is driven from the gun by the explosion of the charge (43lb. of gun- powder). But this is done by the powder during that minute portion of a second in which the shot moves down the bore of the gun. The results of Captain Noble’s chronoseope make it appear that this time is somewhat Jess than one two- hundredth part of a second. The force exerted by the powder must, therefore, be 14,403°409 x 200: that is 2,880,681°8 horse pewer. Some comparatively small considerations, as the friction of the shot in the gun, are neglected in this calculation. It does not, therefore, err in excess, and is sufficient to give some idea of the enormous force exerted. Nor is it uniformly exerted throughout the whole time of*the shot’s movement in the gun, nor does the caleulation above made necessarily give the greatest intensity of action. This much we may state, that at some txstant during the 200th part of a second in the case taken, the force of the expanding gas was to be measured by nearly three million horse power. THE unpublished manuscripts left by the late Sir James Simp- son on the important subject of Hospitalism have been confided to the care of Mr. Lawson Tait, of Birmingham, for completion and editing. In addition to the outbreak ot the long-quiescent volcano ot Tongariro in New Zealand, to which we lately called attention, we hear from American sources that ‘‘a volcano, near San Rafael Valley, Lower California, which has been in a dormant state for years, has commenced a violent eruption, emitting columns of smoke and scattering ashes and cinders for miles around its base. St. Diego telegrams say it is plainly visible from there.” Tur islands in the Sea of Okotsch, off the north-east coast ot Asia, are being visited by ships in search of seals. A vessel recently arrived at San Francisco from Jones Island, between lat, §2° and §3° and long. 145° and 146°, with 11,500 seal-skins on board, and another vessel with a still larger cargo is expected. This island is half a mile in circumference, and is uninhabited, and is remarkable for the great abundance of seals. CONSIDERING the many uses to which india-rubber is now applied, ohe of the most important being its recognised supe- riority over gutta-percha for deep-sea telegraphs, and remembeting the fears entertained some time back of the probability of a decrease in the supply, owing to the exhaustion of the forests consequent upon the immense demand, it is gratifying to learn that the quantity of rubber exported from Para during the past year exceeded that of the previous year by 22,731 arrobas (an arroba is equal to about 25}1b.), and by 241,2g0/. in market value. It is true that the more accessible rubber districts are becoming exhausted, and give a smaller yield than in former years, but the rubber-bearing country is so extensive, and its rivers so incompletely explored, that the newly-discovered sources will, no doubt, more than make up any deficiency arising from the exhaustion ot the old. It is difficult, however, to obtain accurate or reliable information from those engaged in the collecting ot the rubber. The continued demand for rubber, which is col- lected with comparatively little labour, and requires but little skill and experience, absorbs all the attention of the natives over other products, and the constant rise in its value so stimulates its 36 production, that it is more than probable there will be for some years to come an annual increase in the quantity imported of at least ten per cent. In the State of Santander, Colombia, one of the most im- portant sources of state revenue is the manufacture of so-called straw hats. These hats are chiefly made in the Bucaramanga district, and are of a very fine and white material, but still not equal to the celebrated Panama hats, as they soon become dirty, owing to the plait not being drawn sufficiently tight. The weekly sale of hats in the above district averages from 600 to 800 dozen, the lowest quality of which fetch about 1/. 4s. the dozen, and the finest quality often realising as much as 1/. Ios, to 1/. 16s. each. These latter are principally made near Zapatoca, which also has a large trade, but not to the same extent as Bucara- manga. They are for the most part exported to Havana and the United States, where there used to be a great demand for them, but now the trade seems to have somewhat diminished. In the first half of last year 250 cargoes were exported, and as each cargo contains 1,200 hats, some idea may be formed of the large quantities manufactured. The above is gathered from a report on the industrial resources of the State of Santander, The hats referred to are described as being made of a white kind of “© straw.” We have not seen any of the actual material, but think, in all probability, the so-called straw may be the split leaves of some palm, perhaps 7/rvinax argentea, which was im- ported in considerable quantities some years ago, and manu- factured at St. Alban’s into ‘‘ chip” hats. THE astronomical and meteorological observations made at the United States’ Naval Observatory during 1867 have just been published in a large quarto volume, There is an appendix of reports on the observations of the total eclipse of the sun of Aug. 7, 1869, the various phases of which are beautifully illus- trated by chromo-lithographs, and the various instruments made use of are particularly described. A PiECE of meteoric iron fell on the 18th of September last near Santa Clara, California, in the barn-yard of Michael Sanor, where it set the straw and dééris on fire. When picked up it was exceedingly hot, and hissed when thrown into water. The meteorite which fell in October 1869 in Stewart County, Georgia, will be analysed, and a full description of its fall and accompanying phenomena given in the next number of Si//i- mans Fournal, by Prof. Willet. In consequence of the depression caused by the war, the private enterprise for working coal near Manita in Asia Minor has been postponed, but the Government is taking measures at length for working the coal formations near Constantinople for the artillery factories, carried on under the direction of Messrs. Siemens. This coal was known and worked seventy years ago, as described in old books of travels, and then abandoned. The Heraklea coal mines are going on slowly. TuE Government of India is now cooling in its reduction fit, consequent on the supposed deficiency in the Budget, and is paying more attention to the discharge of its duties. The ap- pointment of an assistant curator for the Geological Museum of India has been authorised, and an increase allowed for the literary purposes of the department. Ir is reported from that interesting region, the Argentine States, that two enormous fossil skeletons have lately been dis- covered at Fray Bentos, but they are so large as to be beyond the local means of transporting them with safety. A GREATearthquake has taken placein the town of Santo Tomas, the capital, and in the district, of Chumbivilcas, department of Cuzco, Peru. On the roth of July, about 1.30 P.M., it was felt as the people were coming out from mass. The upper part of the two side towers of the church fellin, the vaulted roof was NATURE [Nov. 10, 1870 ot rent, as well as the walls, and much more damage done. Other — damage also took place in the town and district. On that same — day the River Santo Tomas, which runs abo:.t a league to the — west of the town, suddenly rose and overfluwed its banks, pro- ducing great destruction to the farms, horses, and cattle, but no — lives were lost. It was afterwards ascertained that by force of — the shock the waters of the Lake Quenacocha had broken out — into the river. The lake is about 20 miles in circumference, — and lies at the base of the western chain of the Andes. In the ~ town of Ccolqquemarca, the tower and body of the church were — injured, and many houses overthrown. Up to the 12th the ~ earthquakes were felt every few minutes, at least every quarter — of an hour, and the river was still flooded. On the 13th August © there was a slight earthquake in the evening at Lima. On the 27th August an earthquake was felt in Chile—we presume at Val- 4 paraiso, : EFFORTS are being made to obtain improved instruments and to extend the observations at the Meteorological Observatory at — Durban, in Natal. i IN continuation ot our comments on the caution necessary in dealing with scientific statements in the Indian press, we may advert to a case in which the Welsh fasting-girl is eclipsed. Ag correspondent of the Judian Daily News at Nuddea affirms that — a Sudra woman, forty-five years old, has abstained from food — twenty-five years. She bathes twice a day. Of course it is to be added that many natives have satisfied themselves of the cor- rectness of this statement, as many Welshmen did with regard to their fasting-girl. THE Jnverness Courier of October 13 states that a number of hollow glass globes of a dark colour, and measuring about eighteen inches in circumference, have lately been found washed — ashore at various parts of the coast on the west side of the Island of Lewis. They are hermetically sealed, and have certain ~ characters, such as IV or VI impressed on the sealed part. Some of them are partially filled with a colourless liquid. The question is asked: ‘* Have these been used for some experiment made for the purpose of ascertaining the course of some ocean — current?” Can any of our readers throw light on this subject ? In a recent number of the Pharmaceutical Journal a paper 4 appears, by Mr. Cooke, on the Guarana, the} seeds of a tree — termed the Paulina sorbilis, belonging to the order Sapindacee, and abundant in the province of the Amazonas. The fruit is scarcely as large as a walnut, and contains five or six seeds, which are roasted, then mixed with water and moulded into a cylindrical form resembling a large sausage, and finally dried in an oven, — Before being used it is grated into a powder, very like powdered _ cacao in appearance. Two spoonfuls of the powder are mixed — in a tumbler of water, and this drink is regarded as a stimulant to the nerves, and like strong tea or coffee is said to take away the disposition to sleep. The active chemical principle is an — alkaloid which Dr. Stenhouse has shown to be identical with — theine. Guarana contains more than double as much of this alkaloid as good black tea, and five times as much as coffee, the proportion being 5°07 per cent in Guarana. It is rather a singular coincidence that the same alkaloid should prevail in all the © principal substances employed in a similar manner as beverages : in different parts of the world, in the tea of China and India, ~ the coftee of Arabia, the cacao of Central America, the maté of South America, and the guarana of Brazil. Guarana is a nervous — stimulative and restorative. Mt ey AN attempt is again being made, with hope of success, to work the quicksilver mine of Punitaqui, in Ovalle Department, Chile. It was worked for the crown in the Spanish times, but the war of Independence and the Indian incursions stopped it, as the latter did again in 1$30, iD Nov. TO, 1870] THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION ‘ SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS SrcTIoN A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE On the Temperature of the Air at four feet, twenty-two feel, and fifty feet high.—j. Glaisher, F.R.S. In his open- ing remarks, Mr. Glaisher spoke of the erroneous opinions which were entertained previous to his balloon ascents with re- gard to temperature at different heights; it was supposed that the temperature of the air always decreased from the earth up- wards, and followed some constant law; this was, however, found not to be the case; and in the Report to the British Association at Nottingham, in 1866, the conclusions were, “that the law of decrease of temperature with increase of ele- vation was variable throughout the day, and also in different seasons of the year; that at about sunset the temperature was sensibly the same up to 2,000 feet ; and that at night (conjec- tures from the results of the observations taken in the only two night ascents) the temperature of the air increased from the earth upwards.”’ It was therefore evident that a very large number of ascents would have to be made to determine the real laws. Fortunately, in the second year of the balloon experiments, he placed a dry and wet bulb thermometer at the height of 22 feet above the ground, readings of which have been taken four times daily, viz. at 9 P.M., noon, 3 A.M., and at 9 P.M. Although from these observations, and also from those made at the different ascents, it was known that sometimes readings at the higher point were above those at 4 feet from the ground, no particular attention was paid to the above readings until after the results of the observations made in M. Giffard’s Captive balloon were known ; these, however, were of such importance, proving that ‘‘ the decrease of temperature with increase of ele- vation had a diurnal range, and was different at different hours of the day, the change being greatest at mid-day, and least at or about sunset (see Report to the B. A. for 1869 at Exeter), and that sensible changes occurred within 30 feet of the earth,” that Mr Glaisher caused the observations taken at the height of 22 feet to be reduced ; collecting the observations recorded during the period 1867-1870, the differences between the readings of the two thermometers were taken, and affixing the sign f/s (+) to | the difference when the temperature at the higher elevation ex- ceeded that at the lower, and the sign mzzus (—) when vice versi. On taking the monthly means of these differences, it was lee that the mean temperature of the air at 22 ft. high differs : rom that at 4 feet by :— :. - 9 A.M. Noon. 3 P.M. 9P.M q deg. deg. deg. deg. In January + 0°5 + 0-2 +o4 . +06 5, February . + 0°2 oo + O'"4 + 0°5 egeMarch .) —0O'3 —o'2 0.0 + 0'4 ess) April —o6 —o0'5 + 0'2 + 0'5 meviaye. 2 —06) 2 —o4 —0O4 . +05 ees JUDE)... o8 . -——o'9 0°6 + 08 Boys july . 3 as —o's —o's + 0'7 4, August —1'0 —0'5 —oOr . +09 mu, september —1'°0 . —0o6 . oo. +07 2 5, October —2°2 —or1 . +06 . +10 _,, November + 072 Foor Ade ous: +08 4 », December + 0°5 +:/073),» | FO” + O74 * Therefore the monthly mean temperature of the air at 22 feet was higher than at 4 feet, at all hours of the day and night, in January, February, November, and December; in the after- moon and during the night hours in the months of March, April, August, September, and October ; in the evening hours and during the night, in the months of May, June, and July ; and that the results in one year agreed very closely with those the same months in other years. - By selecting the largest number with a + sign, and the largest with a — sign in each month, it was found that in the winter months the temperature at 22 feet high ranged from 2° to 4° above, and from 1° to 2° below that at 4 feet, and in the summer months rom 4° to 5° above and from 4° to 5° below that at 4 feet high. _ The ratio of — readings to + was, ih January and February as 1 to 5 at all hours. In March, April, August, and September, uring the day, one of equality. In May, June, and July, as 3 o 2 during the day hours. In October, as I to 4; in November, to 7; and in December, as 1 toro. At the hour of 9 P.M. throughout the year, it was as I to 7. NAAT ORE af Thus the — sign preponderates, indicating lower temperature above, during the day hours, in the months of May, June, and | July ; the two signs are about equal in number in the months of | March, April, August, and September, and the + sign prepon- | the rare cerium phosphate from Cornwall. derates, denoting higher temperature during the day and night, in January, February, October, November, and December, and during the night throughout the whole year. A second thermometer, carefully protected from radiation, was placed in the middle of the year 1869 at the height of 50 feet, and since then its readings have been regularly taken. The mean monthly temperature of the air at 50 feet high was found to differ from that on the ground as follows :— 1869 9 A.M. Noon. 3 P.M OPM deg. deg. deg. deg. Tn October ae e 025 + 0'7 Ge ty ,, November + 0°6 +0°5 + 0'8 + 1°4 3) December a yt O Ogee PuOrsy. a 1055 + .0°5 1870 >, January + 1'! ios. +OF . +09 », February. + O°F —03 OF VE Ons =) March OMe. 18 o'7 + 0°7 » April. . —o9 —2°'2 —I17 + 14 », May — 24 — 36 —2°8 + I'l >> June — 24 — 35 — 31 + .'I aa jrutLye — 18 — 29 —2°8 +11 », August ah —— — 2’0 a= Ae, Thus we have the unexpected results that the mean monthly temperature of the air at 22 feet and at 50 feet high is higher during the evening and night hours throughout the year than at the height of 4 feet, and also higher night and day during the winter months. In conducting the above investigation, it was known that the clouds had great influence on the temperature; Mr. Glaisher therefore selected those days with a sky covered with dense clouds, and it was found that there was on such days no differ- ence between the temperature at the heights of 4, 22, and 50 feet. At the height of 50 feet, in the summer months, the temperature during the day was frequently 6° or 7° lower, and at night 5° or 6° higher than at 4 feet. Section B,—CHEMICAL SCIENCE Experiments on the Preservation of Building Stones,—Prof. | A. H. Church, M.A. This paper gave a brief account of a process for preserving stone in which solution of monocalcic phosphate, barium hydrate, and dialysed silica are successively employed. Very numerous and extensive experiments have been made with this process upon public and private buildings. The New Midland Terminus, | St. Pancras, has been treated with these solutions, and so have the Chapter House, Westminster, and portions of Canterbury Cathedral and the Houses of Parliament. The process is now the property of the Patent Concrete Stone Company. Contributions to Mineralogical Chemistry.—By Prof. Church, M.A. The author gives an account of his researches into the constitution of numerous mineral species. The paper gives a list of the nine species which he has discovered, including The paper also contains the chief results which its author has obtained in the analyses performed by him during the last seven years with a view to the revision of the formule of the mineral phosphates and arseniates. References to the original memoirs are given under the description of each mineral. Prof. Church lays great stress, in the prefatory remarks to his paper, on the importance of ascertaining the hygroscopic water of minerals, and of obtaining the samples for analysis ina state of freedom from admixture by foreign and intruding bodies. SEcTION D.—BIoLocy Department of Zoology and Botany Prof. Huxley, President of the Association, read a paper on the relations of Penicillium, Torula, and Bacterium, in which he showed the extreme probability, if not amounting to absolute demonstration, perhaps going as far towards it as the extreme difficulty of the investigation of the subject admitted, that these two latter forms were but stages of the first. Prof. Huxley gave | an account of his experiments and researches, which were carried 38 NATURE [Wov. 10, 1879 on with extreme care, and mentioned that he had become con- vinced that the movements of the minute germs so much alluded to by experimenters was to be accounted for by the explanation that it was the well-known Brownian movement. The bearing of this important paper seemed to be to account for the presence of Bacteria on more ordinary principles than those of spontaneous generation. Mr. A. W. Bennett read a paper on the Zheory of Natural Selection, looked at from a Mathematical Point of View.* Prof, Huxley paid a high compliment to the author of this paper, which he said was the first that he could recollect having heard read at Section D, which, taking up the side against Mr. Darwin, still did so in a proper and philosophic manner. He had often mentioned objections that had struck him to Mr, Darwin, who always, however, had ready a quiver full of facts which generally settled the question, and he thought it probable that when Mr. Darwin read Mr. Bennett’s paper, he would have a few facts ready which might alter his view of the case. Dr. Anton Dohrn read a paper on the Fousndation of Zoological Stations. n this he insisted on the importance .of there being zoological stations throughout the world, just as there now were meteorological and astronomical stations. The author mentioned that he had commenced at his own cost the establishment of one such station at Naples. In it he would have large and small aquaria, a constant flow of salt water, microscope rooms, and there would bea resident working zoologist, a library, and a series of bed-rooms for foreign naturalists. At this station, not only would collections of living marine animals be made for purposes of study and for supplying the aquaria of Florence, Berlin and ‘Vienna, but a collection in spirits would also be kept to supply working zoologists at a distance with the means of research. The President of the Section, Professors Newton and E. Perceval Wright, spoke strongly in favour of the station to be established at Naples, and expressed the hope that perhaps at some future day others would be established at such outposts as Dingle in Treland, Aden in the Red Sea, &c. &e. Dr. J. Barker read a paper in which he described an interesting little Infusorium called Plewvonema doliarium. Professor Dickson read notes Ox the Embryo of the Date Palm. The author criticised the descriptions given in the books where the slit of the cotyledon is represented sometimes as a transverse fissure near the upper part of the cotyledon (Schnizlein’s Icono- graphia), or as a vertical one near the upper part (Le Maout and Decaisne). Dr. Dickson described the slit as a vertical one, situated near the base of the cotyledon, and called attention to the fact that there was here no fixed relation between the medial plane of the cotyledon and that of the seed, an exception to the general rule for monocotyledons, as laid down by Hofmeister, to the effect that in vertical seeds (erect or pendulous) the medial plane of the cotyledon coincides with that of the seed, while in horizontal seeds the plane of the cotyledon is at right angles to it. Mr. Tyerman exhibited drawings of a young healthy plant of the double cocoa-nut (Lodoicea sechellarum), which he had suc- ceeded in growing at the Botanical Gardens, Liverpool. He mentioned that he had some difficulty in keeping the strangely elongated basal portion of the cotyledon from penetrating too deeply into the ground, but after it had grown to a distance of sonie two feet, the germ developed a single sheathing leaf, and then shortly afterwards two of the ordinary characteristic leaves of the plant made their appearance, Profs. Balfour and Wright congratulated Liverpool on haying such an interesting collection of plants as that they had seen at their Botanical Gardens, and on having so able and intelligent a curator as Mr. Tyerman, and hoped that when next they visited Liverpool they would find at the gardens a range of glass worthy of tht gardens and of the most interesting collection of plants at preset preserved in a few tumble-down houses. On the Staperaythr Whale of the Icelanders.—Mr. Bird. On the Affinities of the Sponges to the Corals.—Mr. W. S. Kent. The author criticised the views of Haeckel. On the Effects of the Pollution of Rivers on the Supply of Fish.— Sir James Alexander. This paper gave rise to a lengthened dis- cussion. Mr. Moore, director of the Liverpool Museum, exhibited some of Captain Mortimer’s Sea Aquaria, by means of which he had been enabled to transport from the tropics many delicate marine fishes, cruStacea, and sea anemones. He also exhibited a * This paper will be found in full at p. 30. young Lamatin and the jaw of a fish, the rami of the mandible of which, instead of being united by a ligamentous union and forming a bony symphysis, were most compactly hinged together, admitting of a considerable amount of lateral motion. Mr. Moore also exhibited a stuffed skin of that most wonderful — shark from the Seychelles, called Rhinodon typicus. This was — the only perfect specimen known in any museum. This shark, — which grows to the length of 50 feet and upwards, was known ~ to Mr. Swinburne Ward, jate Civil Commissioner of thi , Seychelles, as common off those Islands. ut it was not — known to be described until identified by Prof. E. Perceval — Wright as the 2. Zypicus of Smith. t A Statement in Reply to two Objections of Prof. Huxley rvélalivg to certain Experiments,—Dr, Bastian. ~~ be t Department of Anatomy and Physioldgy ° = On Some of the more Important Facts of Suecession in Relation to any Theory of Continuity—Dr. Cobbold, This : paper—which by permission had been transferred from the Department of Zoology and Botany—Dr, Cobbold stated, — was generally of an elementary character, He said that for several years past the Biological Section of the Association had permitted, if it had not actually encouraged, the reading afid discussion of papers having for their object the popularising {er — it might be the unpopularising) of the theory of natural sélection, To many besides himself the separate papers and remarks which — followed were eminently unsatisfactory, perhaps arising not so — much from any want of ability on the part of the authors as from the unscientific method adopted by them. The discussion whieh \ followed the reading of the Rev. F, O. Morris’s paper at Norwich, ‘©On the Difficulties of Darwinism,’ was lamentable in the — extreme ; for, so far as could be gathered, not one of those whe — sympathised with the reverend gentleman’s position had the — courage to advance a single fact in favour of the yiew which his — “difficulties” were intended to support. At Exeter Mr. Morris 3 renewed his exposition, but a much more vigorous effort in thé — same direction was made by the Rey. A, Freeman. The seyerity } of the criticism which followed these final literary efforts in aid — of anti-evolutionism could only be understood by those who were present ; but the general conclusion of scientific authorities was significantly expressed in the statement made more than once to — the effect that ‘‘ neither of the papers ought to have been read,” For his part, he thought the utmost freedom should be allowed to all desirous of opposing this or that theory ; yet it should be — thoroughly well understood that the sectional committee depre- cated the employment of quotations from the Scriptures calen- — lated to excite religious prejudice. A purely scientific question — could only be satisfactorily discussed on a scientific basis—unless, indeed, it was insisted that theological speculations were inse- — parable from the domain of science. He then went on to say that to the mass of so-called educated men the acceptance of the views set forth by Mr, Darwin in his work “On the Origin ot Species” must naturally present a variety of difficulties, and it — appeared to him (Dr. Cobbold) that the best and truest way of — showing an intelligent sympathy with those who were so situated, was to select and present some natural group of observed facts in such a clear and, if possible, attractive light, that common sense alone might be trusted to recognise the reasonableness : or otherwise of honestly asserted deductions. The facts he — had selected for exposition were such as represented what } might be termed the apparent chronology of the organic series, or, in other words, the ascertained times of the a coming and flourishing of the larger animal groups. A true — conception of what was or ought to be understood by the éxpression ‘‘ equivalences ”—botanical, zoological, or geological —lay at the very basis of a correct appreciation of the signe 4 cance of the records of animal, vegetable, or sedimentary ro distribution throughout all time. Further, he ventured to assert that the grandeur of the formative scheme of nature, whether — testifying to an evolutionary method of production or to a series © of creative acts, few or many in number, could only be ade- © quately realised by the naturalist whose powers of allocation — and grouping enabled him to grasp the magnitude and infinite — import of those relations. Dr, Cobbold said he had insisted q upon equivalency for years past. He then proceeded to deal — with the facts of succession, and said the earliest organism as — regarded time which geology had revealed was the fossil called — Eozoon, which belonged to the lowermost division of the animal — series. Dr. Cobbold then described the succession of the various known groups, and, glancing at the times of origim and sue- d d ? : 4 Now. 10, 1870] NATURE 39 cession of the placental mammals, said the first thing that the record suggested was the rapidity with which the most divergent groups made their appearance. Of course, there was no real basis for an assumption of a coeval creation, so to speak. It might be fairly held, on zoological grounds, that we ought not _ toseparate man and monkeys, but retain them as one of the twelve groups underthe ordinarytitle of primates. He adopted the division of the placental into twelve groups, not from any rigid belief as to their separate equivalences, but because they were not only sufficiently distinctive for all practical purposes, and also formed on the whole perhaps the finest expression of group- ing which science could at present afford. After dwelling at _ great length upon the succession of the various groups, he stated _ that as regarded the highest of all, the placental series, he would only say that, as he understood the doctrine, the strictest de- mand of the development theory did not require, as was too commonly supposed, a lineal descent as between bimana and ~ quadrumana ; but it was certainly held that either of these groups, as we now knew them, might have been separately evolved from more generalised primatal types, the intermediary terms being possibly connected by a long antecedent and far more generalised common progenitor. In that connection the _ most advanced evolutionist must candidly own that the assumedly missing tertiary primatals constituted a great and very natural bar to the complete and popular acceptance of the theory of descent _ by naturalselection, On the other hand, the scientific naturalist, whilst admitting these serious deficiencies, threw into the oppo- site scale a multitude of considerations, the collective value of _ which seemed to him to outweigh all the data thrown into the _ anti-continuity side of the balance. For himself, in conclusion, he said that his necessarily limited application of those data was amply sufficient to enforce upon him the provisional acceptance of any theory of continuity. To his mind, its clear application irresistibly implied that nature, to use an old phrase, was but a ‘series of harmonies—wheel within wheel, there being probably but one wheel differing only from all the wheels of whose limits it was not possible for them to conceive. However, in the “contemplation of the phenomena presented to them within that wheel—or that realm of ‘‘ orderly mystery,” as the president had called it—there was ample room and verge for the display of the highest physiological attributes with which man was endowed, =. 3) Yo _ Department of Ethnology and Anthropology The report Ox the Heat Generated in the Blood in the Process of Arterialisation, by Dr. Arthur Gamgee, was taken as read. New Physiological Researches on the Effects of Carbonic Acid.— Dr. B. W. Richardson. The author explained that the obser- _yations he had made were new in that they related to the direct action of carbonic acid on animal and vegetable fluids, and they _ were interesting, equally to the zoologist and botanist as to the anatomist, The author first demonstrated the result of sub- _ jecting a vegetable alkaline infusion to the action of carbonic acid under pressure. The result was a thick fluid substance - which resembled the fluid which exudes as gums from some trees. When the fluid was gently dried it became a semi-solid sub- _ stance, which yielded elastic fibres. This observation had led the author to study the effect of carbonic acid on albumen, serum of blood, blood itself, bronchial secretion, and other or- _ ganic fluids, When the serum of blood was thus treated with carbonic acid under pressure and general warmth, 96° F., the collodial part was separated ; but when the blood, with the fibre removed from it, was treated, there was no direct separation, the blood corpuscles seeming for a time to engage the gas by conden- ‘sation of it. But blood containing fibrine, and held fluid by _ tribasic phosphate of soda, was at once coagulated by the acid. _ The bronchial secretion is thickened by carbonic acid, and a tenacious fluid is obtained, resembling the secretion which occurs in asthma and bronchitis, while secretions on serous surfaces are thickened and rendered adhesive. After details of many _ other facts, Dr. Richardson concluded by showing what bearing ‘this subject had of a practical kind. In the first place, the _ research had relation to the question of elasticity of organic sub- stances; and, secondly, on the direct action of carbonic acid in the production of vegetable juices. But the greatest interest concentrated on the relation of the research to some of the dis- eases of the animal body. Thus in instances where the tempera- ture of the body is raised and the production of carbonic acid is excessive, the blood on the right side of the heart has its fibrine often precipitated, and in many other cases fibrinous or albu- minous exuded fluids are solidified, as is the case in croup. The author, in the course of his paper, explained how rapidly blood charged with carbonic acid absorbed oxygen when exposed to that gas, and he held that carbonic acid in the venous blood was as essential to the process of respiration as was the oxygen in the pulmonary organs. SCIENTIFIC SERIALS Fournal of the Chemical Society, October, 1870.—The first paper in this number is by Dr. Divers, ‘‘ On the Precipitation of Solutions of Ammonium Carbonate, Sodium Carbonate, and Ammonium Carbamate by Calcium Chloride.” These results obtained by Dr. Divers are the following :—Calcice carbamate is soluble, and the presence of ammonis retards its transforma- tion into carbonate.- When carbonic anhydride is passed into an ammoniacal solution of calcic chloride, the carbamate is first formed, and is gradua_ly precipitated as carbamate. ‘his paper is followed by nearly two pages of Addenda et Corrigenda to theauthor’s previous memoir.—**On the Manipulation of Gold and Silver Bullion,” by Charles Tookey, Assayer in the Japanese Imperial Mint, formerly in the Royal Mint, Hong Kong. In this paper the author gives descriptions of two of the processes that he has adopted. Instead of boiling the cornets in separate parting flasks, he uses a series of perlorated platinum tubes, sup- ported in a porcelain plate. A number of cornets are, by this means, simultaneously submitted to the action of the nitric acid. Secondly, in order to clean the buttons, they are placed with the lower side uppermost on a platinum plate with depressed perforated cavities, which is plunged into hot dilute hydro- chloric acid, afterwards into hot water acidulated with hydro- chloric acid, and lastly into pure water. ‘The plate is then drained by placing it on porous paper and dried over a g.s flame—‘ On some new Bromine Derivatives of Coumarin,” by W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. On adding coumarin to bromine in the presence of car- bonic disulphide, allowing the solution to evaporate, and crystal- lising the residue from alcohol, dibromide of coumarin CyH,O, Bry is obtained. When coumarin and bromine in carbonic disul- phide are digested at 140°, bromo-coumarine CyH;BrO, and dibromo-coumarin CyH,BrO, are produced, and are sepa- rated by crystallisation trom alcohol, in which the latter is the less soluble. Dibromo-coumarin fuses at 174°, and distils nearly unchanged. —_It crystallises from alcohol in small needles. Bromo-coumarin fuses at 110°, and crystallises from alcohol in transparent prisms, often beautifully curved. When heated with solution of potassic hydrate both the bromo-compounds dissolve, producing crystalline salts, probably containing the bromo-cou- maric acids. —‘‘On Organic Matter in Water,” by Mr. C. Heisch. The author has observed that certain waters which are known to be contaminated with sewage matters, give rise to the formation of a microscopical fungus when a small quantity of sugar has been added, and the mixture exposed to light for a few days at the tem- perature of 60°-70° F. Six drops of sewage from which the schd matter had settled, were mixed with 10,000 grains of West Middlesex and New River water; to 60z. of the mixture 10 grains of pure sugar were added, and 10 grains were also added to 60z. of the water without sewage ; these solutions, and some of the mixture of water and sewage, were placed at a window. The water containing the sewage and sugar became turbid in 24 hours, the other liquids remaining clear. On examining the turbid water with an } inch object glass, it was found to be filled with small spherical cells, with, in most cases, a very bright nucleus, which group themselves in bunches like grapes ; they then spread into strings, with walls surrounding and connecting the cells ; the original cell walls afterwards break, leaving tubular threads branched together. -After several days, an odour of butyric acid is perceived. One drop of fresh urine in 10,000 grains of water produced similar effects ; though without the addition of the sugar, the water might be kept for weeks without becoming turbid. Filtration through Swedish paper, or boiling for half an hour, does not prevent the growth of the fungus. The water no longer exhibits this property, however, after pas- sage through a good bed of animal charcoal, that is, if the char- coal is frequently exposed to the air. If the filtration is con- tinuous, the filtrate soon becomes as bad as the original! water, —*‘‘Onthe Methods for the Determination of Carbon in Steel,” by Mr. W. D. Herman. The author has obtained very concordantre- sults by burning the iron or steel in a current of oxygen, the iron 1s converted into jerric oxide and the carbonic anhydride collected in 40 NATURE [Vov. 10, 1870 potash bulbs and weighed. Some results obtained by four different methods of estimating the carbon in iron and steel are given at the conclusion of the paper.—‘‘ On the Deter:nination of Phosphoric Acid,” by Mr. W. C. Williams. The author suggests a modifica- | tion of the process for separating phosphoric acid from the alkaline earths originally proposed by Reigsig. SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES BrIsTOL Observing Astronomical Society.—Report of observations made during the period from Aug. 7 to Oct. 6, 1870, inclusive. Solar Phenomena.—Mr. Thomas G. E. Elger writes :—The magnificent display of solar spots observed in August was re- peated, though in a rather less striking manner, during Septem- ber. Between the 7th and 12th the spots were small, few in number, and mainly confined to the S. hemisphere ; on the 11th only three moderately-sized groups were visible. The immense group observed last month, and which was near the centre of the disc on August 30, was due at the E. limb about the 17th, but owing to unfavourable weather and absence from home, I did not notice it till the 24th, when it measured 2’ 45” x 1’ 50” without including the outlying penumbra which followed it ; its length on the 25th was 3/0". The penumbra of this group presented some remarkable features. It contained four large umbrz and many smaller ones ; on the preceding side it was thickly studded with minute dots of every shade from black to light brown, When examined with a power of 180 at 3" on the 25th, the entire group was evidently undergoing rapid and violent changes, the striation of the penumbra and the dark “spurs” and serrated edges of the umbra clearly indicating the cyclonic nature of the forces involved. The above group was preceded bya very long and narrow V-shaped spot, which occupied nearly the same position as a large spot observed in August. Several other groups were observed during the month, which presented mteresting details, but they were generally smaller than the August groups. The appearances exhibited by the large group described above, and indeed by most spots of a similar class observed this year, seem altogether opposed to the ‘‘deep excavation” theory of sun spots. —Mr. T. W. Backhouse, of Sunderland, reports ‘‘a very fine group of spots passed the sun’s centre in the northern zone on September 21; on Sept. 23, at 21" 15™, it contained two very long penumbrze, which were not widely separated ; the ¢ one was 74,000 miles long, and the f one 92,000! On the 25th, at 194 45™, it was only 66,000 miles long, and the / penumbra was divided into two. Another very fine group, also in the N. zone, passed the sun’s centre on the 24th. The dimensions in miles of its chief spot were as follows :— Penumbra. Umbra. Date. Time. Length. Width. Length Width. Sept. 21 iH aoe 47,000 26,000 ‘11,000 ye abt. 72,000 50,000 31,500 —— 22 gh 25m 50,000 ——— 29,500 ——— 23 ‘2rh 25m 63,00 = —— 9 —-— —— 25 2h 30 abt. 70,000 -_ - On the 23rd, at 4" 4o™, I found it was divided into four, apparently by a violent current in the middle from / to /".— Mr. William T. Dunning, of Bristol, observed the large spot visible on September 21 ; with his 4-inch metallic reflector he could very distinctly see a black nucleus in the S part of the um- bra. It did not appear to be actually enclosed within the umbra, but was situated on the margin of the penumbra.— Mr. E. B. Kno- bel, of Burton-on-Trent, says that on Sept. 25 the large group near the centre of the disc measured 2! 54" by 1/ 44" ; on the 26th the two largest groups were equal in length to 2’ 44" and 2’ 36" respectively, They were distinctly vistble to the naked eye. —The Rey. S. J. Johnson, of Crediton, writes that on September 21, at 4" 30™, a power of 70 on a 23-inch O.G, showed penum- bre on, at least, 26 spots visible on the sun. On September 20 “*seven spots were very large indeed, and arranged in five groups, each scattered over a large surface.” —Mr. Albert P. Holden, of London, referring to the large spot, says that on September 20, “when entering on the solar disc it appeared as an elongated spot with a bright arm stretching over half the umbra till it joined a projection on the N. side. It was followed by a large broken group of broken masses of various dimensions. On the 23rd, at 8 a.M., the chief spot had enlarged considerably, while the broken ones following it had very much decreased. The great spot was very nearly divided into two by a very broad arm i springing from the N.; the W. portion of the umbra being again subdivided by asimilar arm on the S. side. This last was on one side broken up very peculiarly, so that it presented the appearance as if a hanéful of bright~straw had been thrown carelessly upon it. The eastern portion of the umbra was crossed bya very bright curved streak, which was so bright and so clearly distinct right up to its edges as to appear more like a carved piece of silver. On the 24th, at 8 A.M., the broken mass before referred to as following the chief spot had almost dis- appeared, with the exception of one small spot and a small amount of penumbra. The great spot was also a little smaller and quite divided by the broadarm. A large crack appeared in this latter. Each of the two portions of the original spot were also divided by luminous bridges across them. On the 28th the appearance of the umbra was much the same, although the penumbra was entirely changed and a great narrow branch had projected S. to an immense distance. This great arm was dotted here and there with a few patches of umbra, The broken mass which had followed the great spot at its first appearance was now entirely dissipated. On the 29th the two portions of the original spot were widely separated and much contracted, and two spots to the S. which had hitherto been of very small size much increased in dimensions. The rotation of the solar orb then carried the spot out of sight. The principal fact impressed upon the mind by these observations is that a spot becomes: dis- sipated in consequence of its continual division and subdivision by the projection of luminous bridges across its various portions. DIARY THURSDAY, NoveMBER 10. Lonpon InsTITuTION, at 7.30.—Acoustics of the Orchestra: Dr. W. H. Stone Lonpon Maruematicar Society, at 8.—Annval General Meeting. Re- cent Kesearches on Quartic and Quintic Surfaces ; By Prof. Cayley.—Ihe Kefiring Pre-ident’s address. FRIDAY, NoveMbBeER 11. ASTRONOMICAL Society, at 8. MONDAY, NoveMBER 14. Lonpon Institution, at 4.—Chemical Action: Prof. Odling. TUESDAY, NoveMBkrR 15. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SocrETy, at 8.—Ubservations on the Condition of the Biood-Corpuscles in Certain Races: Dr. Rk. H. Bakewell —Tribal Affini- ties among the Aborigines of Australia: Mr. C. Stanilana Wake.—Descrip- tion of Australian Aborigines and Half-Castes, with Exhibition of Skulls: Dr. Robert Peel. Zo LuGicaL Society, at 9—On the Form and Structure of the Manatee (Manatus Americanus): Dr J. Murie.—Observations on the Salmonide in ‘Lasmania: Mr. Morton Allport.—On the Anatomy of Aidurus /udgens: Prof. Flower. ’ STATISTICAL SOCIETY, at 7.45.—On the Claims of Science to Public Recog- nition and Support, with Special Reference to the so-called “Social Sciences ’; Ir. Guy, F.K.S Royat GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30. THURSDAY, Novemeer 17. Linnean Society, at 8.—On the Passifioree : Dr. M. T. Masters.—On the,White-beaked Bottle-nose : Dr. James Murie. CuEmicat Society, at 8.—Mineralogical Notices: Prof. N. Story Maske- lyne and Dr. Walter Flight. Lonpon InstituTION, at 8.30.—Acoustics of the Orchestra; Wind Instru- ments: Dr. W. H. Stone. CONTENTS PAGE ScIENCE AND THE WORKING CLASSES - - » - «+ + + s «© « 5 w @t Huxcey's Lay SERMons . oo 4el oe eS SD FerNet’s ELEMENTARY Puysics. By Prof. W. Jack . - - +. + + 23 OuR BOOKSHELF a ie eee en Ses oe LErTEeRs TO THE EpITOR :— Hypothesis regarding the Corona.—J. A. C. OUDEMANS . « + + 25 The Fuel of the Sun.—W. Marttieu WILiiams, F.C.S. . 26 The Cockroach —J. DuKie 6: bt on ae fe) diel” Sl Were Cockroaches known to the ancient Greeks and Romans ?— Rev. W. HOUGHTON! 3 02 SS ae Sa a, The Aurora Borealis —W. R. Grove, F.R.S,; J.R. Capron. . . 27 Clouds —J« Jo-Murvny, EGS... 5 0. Se. 3.5 ee ey ee ee Extreme Seasons.—J. BLAKE. . . . «5 . «© » «© © oo 4 28. Cyclones,—J. M. Crapy be ses z Rip ity) Singing of Swans.—J. A. HJALTALIN. . . . «we eee es) State «id to Science.—Prof. BALFour STEWART, F.R.S. . - . . 29 TueEory of NATURAL SELECTION FROM A MATHEMATICAL POINT OF View, By A. W. bennett. F.L.S. cs! chee. ie ee eS Tue ProFessorsHip OF NaTurat History, QuEEN’s CoLteGe, BEL- FAST TS: 651) Pie he ae le oe et ALD oS a NAT CR ORRCTEI Wier te ie erect a PircHer PLants. By G. B RuckToNn net ae ae ee SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS OF THE SUN. By J. Norman Lockyer, Lo eee eee Se og oe ieee 5 34 NOTES 1075s ia Soren ile Ae ee mn ta po) aire a soe Tue BRITISH AssoctiATION :—SECTIONAL PROCEEDINGS . 37—39 SCIENTIFIC/SERIALS ©, \-< ho) 51) pIETS AIOE eT < aleuice) at os aa SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES’ .9. «© e+ “+/+ s+ = = = «© « 6 40 DIARY 6 sl 5 RR Sey ae te, nana ee 3 } +f — =e. oe has agitated every British community, no public anxiety NATURE 41 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 17, 1870 THE PRESENT EPIDEMIC OF SCARLET FEVER es prevalence of scarlet fever at this time throughout | England and Wales is a question that not only affects medical men, but is one that demands the attention of the people of England. They ought to ask themselves the question as to how it is that a malady which is placed by medical writers under the class of “ preventible” diseases is allowed to prevail to the extent of destroying several hundreds of persons weekly. Scarlet fever seems to enjoy that immunity which is accorded to what are called “necessary evils ;” but when we come to inquire what right this disease has to carry off ten or twelve thousand | persons annually, we find that it ought no more to exist amongst us than small-pox or cholera. Scarlet fever is essentially a contagious disease, and ex- hibits all the phenomena of a malady which, being com- municated from one individual to another, is more or less under the control of human action. Under these circum- stances, it is impossible for the Government to stop such a disease by mere Acts of Parliament, or for medical men to superintend efficiently arrangements for the prevention of its spread. It is only by the intelligent apprehension on the part of the public who are infected, that any hope of the arrest of the disease can be expected. We there- fore take this opportunity of addressing the public on the subject. Unless heads of families and the public gene- rally are acquainted with the real nature of this disease, no external organisation of any kind is sufficient for its control. We need not refer here specifically to the returns of the Registrar-General, to show how fearfully prevalent scarlet fever has been. In London the weekly mortality has been as high as one hundred and ninety in a week, giving a mortality for London alone of nearly ten thousand a year. Professor Huxley, in his late address at Liverpool as President of the British Association, says that in the years 1863, 1864, and 1869, 90,000 persons were killed in England and Wales by scarlet fever. These figures point to a much higher mortality for scarlet fever than we have ever had to record for cholera. The point most remark- able about this mortality is, that whilst death from cholera has been manifested about scarlet fever. Every one has submitted to it as a necessary evil, and no one has made any efforts to diminish its prevalence. Yet, when we come to inquire into the nature of scarlet fever, and the laws of its distribution, there seems to be no more reason why it should prevail amongst us than plague, small-pox, or cholera, whose laws of distribution we now know, and on which we can exert the most ob- vious control. Scarlet fever is a contagious disease, and it is not too much to say that we have ad/ contagious diseases under our positive control, Their nature, and the laws of their distribution, are so well known, that it is possible to teach the humblest individual in- | terested in their destruction the means by which it may | be effected. | VOL, IIT; We need not here enter into the discussion of the nature of “poison germs,” of “ microzymes,” or other ultimate forms which the poisons of contagious diseases may assume, but we may affirm that in every body affected with scarlet fever there is produced poisonous matter, which, passing from the diseased body, is capable of gene- rating anew the same disease as that which affects the body from which it is derived. The proofs of this are so abundant that we cannot for a moment admit that the question is open to discussion. The point of most im- portance here is to know how long the “ poison germs ” of scarlet fever retain their vitality—the terrible power of starting anew the changes of which they are the offspring. With regard to scarlet fever, we have more evidence of these “poison germs” retaining their vitality than with many other contagious diseases. Sir Thomas Watson, in his classical lectures on the “ Practice of Physic,” mentions a case in which a piece of flannel worn round the neck of a scarlet fever patient, being accidentally discovered two years after, and applied to the person of a servant in the family, produced an attack of scarlet fever. Were it necessary, I could mention several instances coming within my knowledge and reading, of the scarlet fever poison lying dormant in woollen clothes for years, and not having lost its vitality, or power of communicating the disease. Another point of importance with regard to the scarlet fever “ poison germs,” is the length of time which a person once affected with scarlet fever is capable of communica- ting the disease to others. When a person has got well of scarlet fever as far as general health goes, it is by no means the case that he is no longer capable of communi- cating the diseasé, but many days after he is strong and apparently healthy, he is capable of disseminating “poison germs” from his body. A recent instance has been recorded in one of our medical journals, of the prevalence of scarlet fever in families supplied from the milk of a particular dairy. On searching inquiries being made, it was found that the persons connected with the farm from which the milk was supplied, had been affected with scarlet fever. Although they had not been allowed to milk the cows till they had recovered from the scarlet fever, it was, nevertheless, found that they had been engaged in this occupation whilst the effects of scarlet fever in the desquamation of the cuticle of the skin was still going on. There are abundant other examples on record to show that until the desquamation of the cuticle which always follows scarlet fever is com- plete, no person who has had scarlet fever is safe from giving it to others. Such then being the nature of the poison of this disease, what ought to be known in families where it breaks out, and what to be done as the result of this knowledge to prevent its spread? It is no use saying that the doctors will give all necessary directions. In the first place, it may be said that the doctor in nine cases out of ten will not give any directions at all. It is not his interest to do so ; and if it were, he gets no information in his books or lectures on the subject at all. The medical profession is not required by its governing or examining bodies to know anytiting about public health or preventive medi- cine. In the next place, however admirable may be | the directions of medical men, persons utterly ignorant D 42 NATURE [Mov. 17, 1870 of the nature of disease will fail to carry out the simples directions given to them. Nothing can be a substitute for a knowledge of the first principles involved in the destruction of “ poison germs” in a family attacked with contagious disease. What, then, ought to be done in a family when scarlet fever, or any other contagious disease, has broken out ? In the first place, the entire isolation of the persons attacked should be secured. They should either be removed to a room in the house to which none but the nurse and doctor have access, or the family should be removed to some house of refuge or place where the disease does not exist. It may be urged that this cannot be done; but if it be a mcre question of expense, it should be con- sidered whethcr the cost of the deaths, the funerals, and tue doctor’s bills of a family of several children, and perhaps the futher or mother, may not really, in a moiey point of view, be greater than any cost of isolation. But whether isolation is attempted or not, there is ano.her set of facts which must be borne in mind. ‘The “poison germs” of which we have spoken can really be destroyed. If left alone they cin lead a life of poisonous activity. We have the means of killing them—poisoning them in their birth, as it were—by certain substances whose properties we well know. We cannot here write a history of disinfectants, but they are well known, and the advertising sheets of every newspaper will afford informa- tion with respect to them. The most common and avail- able are carbolic acid, permangunates of soda and pvtash (Condy’s Fluid), chlorinated lime or soda, chloride of zinc (Burnett’s Fluid), chloride of aluminium (chloralum), sulphate of iron,and others. These agents have the power of destroying the puisonous activity of scarlet fever germs. In the sick-room and around the patient they should be constantly employed. All the secretions of the person affected, whether they come from the nose, the mouth, or other excretory organs, should be immediately brought in contact with one of these agents. All linen and clothes worn by the patients should be placed in a solution of one of them. Nurses attending on the sick, and medical inen touching them in any way, should not leave the room without washing their hands in one of these disinfecting fluids. Woollen clothing that cannot well be washed should, by some agency or another, be exposed to heat. It is weil known that a temperature of 212° F., the temperature of boiling water, wil desuoy poisoa germs. Woollen clothing of all kinds, such as shawls and mantles, men’s clothes, as also curtains, Le.l-pulls, carpets, rugs, and beds, should be placed in ovens, or by some coatrivance or another exposed to a heat above 212%. In St. James’s, Westminster, a disinfecting apparaius has been erected in the Workhouse-yard, where the various articles mentioned can be disinfected. Having thus indicated general principles, I must leave details. I am convinced that the holocaust of victims that we annually offer to this Moloch of scarlet fever arises from ignorance, and that a general knowledge alone of the facts above stated can suffice to drive from us this plague, so disgraceful alike to our intelligence and our humanity. E, LANKESTER SCHIMPER’S VEGETABLE PALASONTOLOGY Traité de Paleontologie Végétale. Par W. Ph. Schimper. Tome ii. Premitre Partie, pp. 522. (Paris, 1870.) HE first part of the second volume of this very important work (the first volume of which was re- viewed in the first number of NATURE) has just appeared, with a quarto atlas of twenty-five plates ; and it maintains the high character with which it commenced. In this part the systematic description of the families, genera, and species, is carried down from Lycofodiace to the end of Monocotyledons ; and the same excellent plan is carried out, of giving under each principal group its most important botanical characters and geographical distribu- tion, drawn from living types; thus supplementing the excessively meagre descriptions that the fossils afford, enabling the reader rightly to appreciate the strength or weakness of the evidence on which the alliances uf the fossils are foundcd, and indicating the organs or struc- tural points most desiderated, and to obtain which collectors should search for illustrative specimens. The following extracts and remarks will give some insight into the general nature of this volume, and illus- tiaie the autho’s views as to the relations between many of the miost important existing types of vegetation and their fossil representatives or allies. Dr. Schimper ranks the great recent group of club- mosses and their allies, Lycopodinee, as a class, with four subordinate families; of which two, Lycopfod.ee and Jsoetew, are abundant at the present time ; the other two, Lepidodendree and Sigillariee, disappeared before the Tertiary epoch, Under the order Zycofodiacee he includes two families : of these (1), Lycopodiew, which abounds at the present — day, and inhabits all latitudes from the equator to the Arctic regions, Dr. Schimper recognises only seven fossil species, all congeneric with Lycopodium itself, and, strange to Say, cunfined (with the exception of one doubtiul species) to the coal measures—a most remarkable fact, if capable of confirmation ; but, after making every allowance for the imperfection of the geological record, it appears impossible to admit thata group so well represented now-a-days should be absent from all intervening beds, including the ~ most modern tertiaries ; and it is a startling proof either of the vagueness of the characters by which we ally our fussils to existing types, or of the imperfection of the said record, Upon the whole, and under such suspicious cir- cumstances, we should be rather disposed to doubt the fossils being Lycopodiums at all. Dr. Dawson’s four species of this order, from the De- vonian of North America, Dr. Schimper considers not to be recognisable as such; so that, little as his own data can tell us of the fossil Lycofodinee, there is a lower depth of obscurity still. Of the second family, Lepidodendree, consisting mainly of arborescent plants, all are extinct: it includes the principal genus Lepédodendron, with fifty-six species, all carboniferous, and with a host of synonyms, generic and specihc :—Halonia, Lepidoploios, Knorria,and Ulodendron, — all well known to English paleontologists. Lepaophylla and Lefidostrobi he regards as respectively leaves and fruits of some one or other of the above. To the third fumily, /sve¢eg, which inciudes some fifly or Se Pee 3 att saa we eae ee ee oP the globe, he attributes three fossil genera ; /sve/es itself (tertiary), and the remarkable Psz/ophyto of Dr, Dawson, which he regards as allied to PzZaria and not to Ps/otum. But here again we are confronted by the suspicious fact, that nothing resembling Ps¢/ophydov has hitherto occurred between the Devonian and the present epoch ! The fourth family, Sigd//ariee, is only known in a fossil state. Szgz//aria is the principal genus, with eighty-three species. S?¢zgmartia Schimper regards as roots, but not of Sigillaria only, for in a supplementary note to this genus he announces the discovery of a specimen of Kxorria longifolia (one of the Lefidodendree), the roots of which are a S¢ig- maria, the base of the stem is his own genus Azczstro- - phyllum, and the upper part is Didymophyllum Schottiné of Géppert ; thus knocking four genera into one at a blow. Add to this the fact that the leaves and organs of fructification, now unknown or unrecognised, may repre- sent two more genera, and that there is a suspicious look of Ulodendron in one point of the structure, and we have as instructive an example of the condition of our knowledge of the carboniferous flora as can be desired. Passing from Acotyledones to Cotyledones, or flowering plants, Dr. Schimper’s first class is of Cycadew. They date doubtfully from the middle of the carboniferous, allowing Noeggerathia, &c. to belong to this alliance ; inthe Permian they are pretty certainly present, and they abound in the Trias and Jura formations. Of the two tribes composing this group, the Zamiew, which now extend from the Old to the New World, seem to have appeared first ; both these and the Cycadee proper (which are now confined to the Old World) are found in greatest abundance in the Jurassic age, whence they decline and disappear in the cretaceous, except Zamt@, of which one species persists to the middle of the Tertiary epoch. Here again, if we hold that the geological record tells a fragment of truth, we must believe that the Cycads and Zamias, which occupy so very wide an area of the globe in the present day, and whose organs and tissues are so well suited for petrifaction, had all but disappeared from the globe during the lapse of countless ages, to reappear in numbers, and that over a most extensive area. No fewer than thirteen genera of fossil Zamice are de- scribed, and about twenty of Cycade@, including a multi- tude of species ; both genera and species are however very badly, if at all, defined, being most fragmentary ; and Dr. Schimper was of course ignorant of Mr. Carruthers’ paper on the Fossil Cycadee of the secondary rocks of Great Britain, in the twenty-sixth volume of the Linnean Transactions, which throws great light on the subject. The genus 7yigonocarpus Dr. Schimper doubtfully regards as consisting of fruits of Cycade@ (describing fifteen species), together with Ahaddocarpus (twenty-four species), Car- diocarpus (twenty-one), and Carpolithes (nine). Ascending in the scale of vegetable life, we come to the great group of Conifers, which seem to have presented such remarkable facilities for petrifaction in all ages from the carhoniferous onwards, and which is divided into four great sections. 1. Adetacee, with four families ; Walchiee and Voltziew, of very, doubtful affinity, if Conifers at all, and of which the one is usually placed in Lycofodiacea, and the other in Cufressinee—neither have any recent representative ; Avaucari@, comprising fourextinct genera, 43 together with Araucaria itself; and Addetiee proper, in- cluding /Pézzs with 101 species. All appear tertiary ; many are miocene, extending from Spitzbergen south- wards ; and, judging from the number found in single localities, as at Armissan, it would appear that either the pine-forests of those days were, unlike the present, formed of numerous species, or, what is more probable, that the supposed specific characters are worthless. Of larch, four miocene species are enumerated ; of cedars, three cre- taceous ; of Abies, twenty-two species, all tertiary. 2. Taxodiacee form Dr. Schimper’s second order of Coni- fers ; it includes Segzcoza with twelve species, one of which, the well-known miocene S. Langsdorfii, he regards, with Heer, as “almost identical with the Californian Zaro- dium sempervirens, now confined to Mexico.” In its fossil state it extends from Arctic East and West America and Greenland to Bonn, Italy, and Greece. Another existing Zaxodium, again, contains a miocene species, absolutely identical with the living 7. distichum of the Southern States of North America, where it forms a large proportion of the arboreous vegetation of the Great Dismal Swamp. In a fossil state this also extends from Green- land and Spitzbergen to North Italy. Two other existing genera of this group, the North Chinese G/ypéostrobus, and the South African lV’ ¢ddringlonia, are both supposed to be found in the European miocene formations. 3. Of Cupressinez, to which the modern cypress, arbor- vitze, juniper, and the extensive genus Cad/itr7s of Aus- tralia belong, there are fossil types supposed to belong to recent genera ; viz. of Libocedrus, now confined to New Zealand and South Chili, there are two Spitzbergen and a European species, all miocene ; of 7/z, systematically 48 NATURE | te ae * ae aa eae 2 y/ = pe ..r . 4 7 [Wov. 17, 1870 used the telegraph for this purpose in New Zealand, where indeed it forms an important element in the admirable system he has inaugurated for recording shocks throughout the islands. In his last letter he writes as follows:—‘‘ Not long ago, one operator asked another 200 miles distant ‘Did you feel that?’ and got the answer, ‘No. What? Yes; there it is,’ all in a breath, so to speak !” Dr. Hector, writing in August last, goes on to say, ‘I have called attention to the coincidence of the aurora in both hemi- spheres on April 5, and can’t help thinking that when our observa- tions are sufficiently extended, we shall find many phenomena that are looked upon as local to be general. Could not NATURE give us a column recording such phenomena as auroras, earth- quakes, tornados, &c., experienced in all parts of the world, some- what in the form of an almanac? At the present one has to rum- mage over all sorts of periodicals, and after all find the matter most imperfectly recorded. _We shall soon have a capital earth- quake register here, since I induced the Government to cause the observers to report every shock they felt inthe colony. Their number and coincidenée is very remarkable, and I shall publish the results as soon as I have collected a sufficient number. I feel a great want of a good table eusmometer which should be cheap enough to distribute to all telegraph stations.” Perhaps some of your readers can inform Dr. Hector where he can procure this great desideratum. Jos. D, Hooker Ocean Currents Amon the ‘‘ Notes” in last week’s number it is mentioned, on the authority of the Zzverness Courier, that a number of glass globes had lately been washed ashore on the western coast of the Isle of Lewis. The question is asked, ‘‘ Have these been used for some experiments made for the purpose of ascertaining the course of some ocean current ?” I have seen precisely similar globes which had been cast ashore after rough weather on the western coast of Shetland; and I ascertained that they were floats used by Norwegian fishermen for buoying their long lines. North-easterly winds had drifted them to that part of the coast where they were found; and the same cause may be assigned for the occurrence of the glass globes or floats in the outer He- brides. J. Gwyn JEFFREYS Nov. 12 IN reference to the statement (NATURE, Novy. 10) that glass globes have been washed ashore on the west side of the Isle of Lewis, may not these be floats which are used by the fisher- men of Newfoundland? These are, I believe, occasionally found as far to the north-east as Nova Zembla, and this fact is, I think, not indicative of ‘‘some ocean current,” but of the aerial current from the south-west, which is so prevalent in the north temperate region, and which may be called the return current of the north-east trade wind of the north tropical region. This south-west wind from the sea modifies the summer heat 2n1 the winter cold of west coasts in the north hemisphere, and produces their so-called “‘ insular climate.” GEORGE GREENWOOD, Col. Brookwood Park, Alresford, Nov. 12 The Milky Way THERE appears to be in Wales a remnant of a tradition con- nected with the Milky Way. During a short stay in Caer- marthenshire, an old man, well read in local history, and who is apparently the oracle of the neighbourhood of Llangadock, directed my attention one evening to the Milky Way, remarking at the time ‘‘ we shall have fair weather to-morrow, as you see it is in the south,” meaning that the wind will blow from that quarter. My friend supported this extraordinary statement by appealing to the Welsh word “Heol y Gwynt,” the road or way of thewind. Can any of your readers inform me whether this belt of stars is the subject of a fable in Britain, or how it came to be connected with foretelling the weather? The Scandi- navians call it the ‘‘ Road of Winter ;” possibly ‘* Heol y Gwynt” may be traced to northern influence, but, in the absence cf facts, I will not commit myself to this explanation. JOHN JEREMIAH 43, Red Lion Street, Clerkenwell, Nov. 12 P.S.—‘* Heol y Gwynt” is the only proper Welsh name for the Milky Way, and is not a mere local one, The Colour of Butterflies’ Wings In making some experiments a short time ago, I came across a fact of which I was hitherto ignorant. I wished to test the effect of acid on the colours of the wings of a butterfly or moth, and with this view applied muriatic acid to a dried and set speci- men of the Six-spotted Burnet (Zygena filipendula). The red parts immediately became yellow, while the dark parts were un- altered. In subsequent experiments the red was the only colour in any moth which underwent any change. When there was no red there was no change, and the only change was from red to yellow. Next I applied the acid to the red parts of the Red Admiral Butterfly (Vanessa atalunta), when, to my surprise, no change took place. Comparative examination under the micro- scope in no way cleared up the matter. [ now seek for an explanation of this phenomenon, which appears to point out a clear difference in the nature of the moth and butterfly’s wing. A remarkable fact, perhaps connected with this, is that a yellow variety is known of almost every moth containing red in the wings. Perhaps some of your scientific readers may be able to throw some light upon this subject. E. VW, Hg Winchester, Oct. 18 A New Mode of Evolving Light A SINGULAR phenomenon of the evolution of light has been recently observed by me. By tearing sharply a piece of twilled calico into strips in a room well guarded from light, a perceptible luminosity was clearly distinguishable, which appeared at its maximum at the final parting of the fabric. This phenomenon is exceedingly well marked in dry, new calico, and appears to me due to the dressing, as after being washed no light is eyolved. Whether attributable to electricity, phosphorescence, or fluo- rescence, I leave for further investigation. The light appears similar to that proauced on breaking a lump of sugar in the dark. So far as I can ascertain, the phenomenon of light being evolved on tearing a fabric is new, hence I hope worthy of notice in your valuable journal. ANDREW PRITCHARD Canonbury, N. Philology and Darwinism In NaturE, No. 30, I attempted to show that the analogy be- tween Mr. Darwin’s teachings as regards plants and animals, and the conclusions of comparative philologists, broke down, when we compared man’s conscious influence on plants, &c., to his more and more enlightened control of language. Man’s influence on organic forms tends to produce variety, while, with increase of ‘ knowledge, language is becoming more uniform. Mr. Ransom (No. 32) replied that the difference I insisted on seemed imaginary ; and if man’s object was to produce uniformity in plants or animals, 2 that then the domesticated species would be likely to become | less varied than the wild species of the family. Now it seems to : me that if man had any such intention, no care on his part could produce permanent types yielding so little divergence in the in- dividuals during enormous time as those produced by nature; a permanence so marked that geology only throws light on the law | of evolution, in anything like a direct way, through the study of the mammalia (see Prof. Huxley’s recent address on the pro- 4 gress of Paleontology), and even with regard to the mammalia naturalists of high standing refuse to see anything but permanent and all but uniform types, necessitating the hypothesis of special creation. How man could obtain by any possible efforts (and =~ with some breeds his aim is uniformity) to maintain species as invariable as nature has done, is what is hard to conceive. On the other hand, as man’s mental faculties become blunter, his consciousness less vivid, and his material conditions harder, his language is more and more in a state of flux, branching forth continually into dialects which mark one group of men from another. Thus in some Polynesian islands we have a number of languages as distinct as those of great part of Europe ; and mis- sionaries complain that the Bible requires to be translatedanew to the same tribe more than once ina century ; in some cases the very numerals in a few generations becoming changed, partly from whimsical customs, and partly from want of frequent inter- course, and of any literature being at the disposal of the tribe. In the progress of time, we may look forward to a period when the language of Shakespeare, Milton, and Addison, which is considered as good English as that of our daily papers—may be ~ the language of the world, but we can scarcely expect that the planet will ever hold only one species of animal or plant. S. J- rip ae ee Re i. s Nov. 17, 1870] NATURE 49 NATURAL SELECTION—MR. WALLACE’S REPLY TO MR. BENNETT M R. A. W. BENNETTS article entitled “ The Theory of Natural Selection from a Mathematical Point of View,” contairs several criticisms on my own writings, and touches on some points which have not yet been fully discussed. I propose, therefore, to reply to such of these as appear to be of sufficient importance. The first objection brought forward (and which had been already advanced by the Duke of Argyll) is, that the very title of Mr. Darwin’s celebrated work is a mis- nomer, and that the real “ origin of species” is that spon- taneous tendency to variation which has not yet been accounted for. Mr. Bennet further remarks, that through- out my volume of “ Essays” I appear to be unconscious that the theory I advocate does not go to the root of the matter; and this unconsciousness is not apparent only, for I maintain, and am prepared to prove, that the theory, if true, does go to the root of the question of the origin of species. The objection, which, trom its being so often quoted and now again brought forward, is evidently thought to be an important one, is founded ona mis- apprehension of the right meaning of words. It ignores the fact that the word “ species” denotes something more than “variety” or “individual.” A species is an organic form which, for periods of great and indefinite length as compared with the duration of human life, fluctuates only within narrow limits. But the “spontaneous tendency to variation ” is altogether antagonistic to such comparative stability, and would, if unchecked, entirely destroy all “species.” Abolish, if possible, selection and survival of the fittest, so that every spontaneous variation should sur- Vive in equal proportion with all others, and the result must inevitably be an endless variety of wnstable forms, no one of which would answer to what we mean by the word “species.” No other cause but selection, has yet been discovered capable of perpetuating and giving stability to some forms and causing the disappearance of hosts of others, and therefore Mr. Darwin’s book, if there is any truth in it atall, has a logical claim to its title. It shows how “ species,” or stable forms, are produced out of unstable spontaneous variations ; which is certainly to trace their “origin.” The distinction of “species” and “individual” is equally important. A horse or a number of horses, as such, do not constitute a species. It is the comparative Jermanence of the form as distinguished from the ass, quagga, zebra, tapir, camel, &c., that makes them one, Were there a mass of intermediate forms connect- ing all these animals by fine gradations, and hardly a dozen individuals alike—as would probably be the case had selection not acted—there might be a few horses, but there would be no such thing asa species of horse. That could only be produced by some power capable of elimi- nating intermediate forms as they arise, and preserving all of the true horse type, and such a power was first shown to exist by Mr. Darwin. The origin of varieties and of individuals is one thing, the origin of species another. Mr. Bennett next discusses the ph:nomena of “ mimic- ry,” and proposes to show, by mathematical calculations, that the effects could not be produced by natural selec- tion. But, at the very outset, he makes an important error, which seriously affects his subsequent reasonings ; for he leads his readers to understand that there is only one completely mimicking species of Leftalis, while the majority are of the normal white- butterfly type. The fact is, however, that but few species of Leféa/is retain the simple colouring of their allies the Pieridze, while the great majority are either coloured like the Heliconide, or show a considerable amount of colour or marking in that direction. He is also apparently unaware that some Heliconidz (/thomia eurimedia, for example) approximate in colour to the normal white and yellow species of Laptalis, and thus renders it much less difficult to under- stand how a sufficient amount of yariation in colour misht occur at a first step, to produce a resemblance which, viewed at some cons‘derable distance, would be de- ceptive, and therefore useful. We next come to the demonstration by means of figures and we here find still more serious errors, Mr. Ben. | nett says, that supposing a Leféalis may vary in twenty cifferent ways, one only being the direction required,— “the chance of any individual producing a descendant | which will take its place in the succeeding generation varying in the required direction, is },; the chance of this operation being repeated in the second generation is I . . . 20? = i095 the chance of this occurring for ten successive generations is are or about one in ten billions ;” whence it is concluded that there are overwhelming chances against any progressive variation in the right direction ever taking place. But first, I do not admit the assumption that only one variation out of twenty would be in the right direction ; when it is remenibered how great is the variety of the Heliconidae, both in colour and marking, It seems more likely that one-fourth or one-third at least would help to approximate to some of them, and thus be useful, Taking, however, Mr. Bennett’s own figures, there are three great oversights in this one short sentence. The first is, that each Leféadés produces, not one only, but per- haps twenty or fifty offspring; the second is, that the right variation has, by the hypothesis, a greater chance of surviving than the rest ; and the third, that at each suc- ceeding generation the influence of heredity becomes more and more powerful, causing the chance of the right variation being reproduced to become greater and greater. Now with these three modifications the weight of the argument is entirely destroyed ; for, allowing the Leféadis to produce only twenty effspring (a small number for a butterfly), the chances become even that one out of the twenty varies in the right direction. But nineteen out of the twenty, on the average, are soon killed off by the various causes that keep down the population of the species, and the chances are very much in favour of that one surviving which, by the hypothesis, has varied in the right direction, It is not pretended that this one would survive always, or even on the average, but ina large number of cases it would certainly do so; and taking Mr. Bennett’s own estimate of a million individuals as the population of a rare species, we may fairly estimate that in a quarter, or say even in a tenth part of these, the sur- Viving offspring would possess the favourable variation. But now a new factor enters into the problem, of which Mr. Bennett takes no account. Those that have already varied tend to leave offspring varying in the same direc- tion as themselves ; and as these will all have an advan- tage, the offspring of the one-tenth will increase at the expense of those of the nine-tenths ; and this tendency being still more powerful in the third generation, with the additional advantage as the numbers increase of the chance of both parents being favourable varieties, we may fairly expect the favourable to have completely exter- minated the unfavourable variations, and to have firmly established themselves as a well-marked race. The enor- mous possible rapidity of multiplication, enabling a pair of individuals to produce millions in a few generations ; the survival of the fittest, giving to favourable variations— not their bare numerical chance, as Mr. Bennett supposes, but—a certainty in the long run of living at the expense of the rest ; and the powerful influence of heredity, which actually increases the ¢endency to produce the favourable variations with each succeeding generation,—are three of the main foundation-stones of the theory of natural selec- tion, yet all three are ignored in this attempted mathe- matical demonstration of its insufficiency. a There is one other point in the theory of the origin of “mimicry” that deserves notice. It is, that the modifica- tions leading to it are much more easy to explain than 50 NATURE [Mov. 17, 1870 those leading to new genera and families, because the changes effected are wholly superficial and are almost entirely confined to colour. Now colour is both more variable than any other character, and is less intimately correlated with structure, so that great changes of colour may rapidly occur without in any other way affecting the individual, as we see in almost all our domestic animals, Experiments in breeding show that very large spontaneous variations of colour are frequent in insects ; and thus the number of steps to produce a required amount of change may be much fewer than in cases of structural modification, in which every other part of the organism has to be co- ordinated to work harmoniously with the modified organ. I may here take the opportunity of denying that I have argued, as Mr. Bennett says I have, that “an infi- nilesimal and inappreciable distinction may make the difference of a slightly longer span of life being allowed to the butterfly to lay its eggs in safety ;” and I cannot imagine how he could have imputed to me anything so absurd. What I have maintained is, that for natural selec- tion to act, either in producing “ mimicry,” or structural changes, no large or special variations are required, because the usual amount of variability which occurs in every part of every organism is sufficient. (‘‘ Contribu- tions,” pp. 287—291.) but so far from supposing this to be “ infinitesimal” or “ inappreciable,” I show that it is so palpable and so readily appreciated by horticulturists and breeders as to have enabled them to produce all the wonderful variety in our domestic animals and cultivated plants. And every entomologist knows that similar vari- ability exists in insects, and that the constantly occurring variations of colour are especially great. Mr. Bennett next returns to the laws of variation, and, because Mr, Darwin says that we are profoundly ignorant of these (although he himself has done so mucb to eiuci- date them), maintains that we cannot really know any- thing of the origin of species. As well might it be said that, because we are ignorant of the laws by which metals are produced and trees developed, we cannot know any- thing of the origin of steamships and railways. Sponta- neous “variations” are but the materials out of which “species” areiormed, and we donot require to know how the former are produced in order to learn the origin of the latter. But though we may not know the laws which determine each variation in detail, the general causes which lead to variation are not dithcult to perceive. We do not know all the laws and causes that have given their peculiar form to each mountain or each valley, but we know a good deal of the general causes which have pro- duced them, and we can perceive that the reason no two are exactly alike is, the number and complexity of the causes and the endless variety of conditions under which these causes have acted, In the far more complex opera- tions of the development and growth of organisms, affected as we know they are by almost infinitely numerous and ever varying external and internal causes, it would bea much greater mystery if there were no variations, and if absolut ly identical forms were produced by constant diversity of condiiions. Even the successive offspring of the same parents are developed under very different condi- tions. At each succeeding year, and at every different period of each year, the parents have changed in age, in size, in vigour, health, and constitution; they may be living in a different locality, have different food, and be subjected to very different physical and mental influences. Add to this the effect of cross unions of distinct individuals, each with its own characteristic pecu- liarities, which are in varying degrees transmitted to the offspring; and further, that these modified offspring are submitted to a somewhat different set of conditions from the parents, and intercross perhaps with a distinct set of individuals ; and then add the effects of atavism in bringing up long lost ancestral characters, and it can hardly be said that the almost universal fact of “ spontaneous variation” is quite unaccounted for. But, as I have already remarked, this variability could never by itself produce sfecies, but must absolutely prevent their production without the eliminating, accumulating, and fixing powers of selection, multiplication, and heredity. In Mr. Bennett’s concluding passages he advances a theory of his own on the subject of “mimicry,” to the effect that it is connected with intelligence or instinct, “and runs almost farz passu with the development of the nervous system.” In support of this view he asserts that it is “strongly developed in birds.” This is erroneous. In birds it is very rare, only two or three cases being known, and these not nearly so remarkable as hundreds that occur in insects ; and in mammalia, with the excep- tion of one doubtful case, it is absolutely unknown. This view, therefore, is directly opposed by the facts. I have only one more point to notice, a charge of incon- sistency against myself. Mr. Bennett quctes me to the effect that man’s chief peculiarities of form and structure were developed before his intellect had raised him above the condition of the brutes, and also zwzfputes to me the belief that certain peculiarities in his structure (the ab- sence of hair on his body, for example) “ must have been in some way connected with /zs reasoning powers.” But this is Dr. Laycock’s view, which I have expressly repu- diated, and I have never used a word to show that I believed that man has modified his own structure in any important degree, by the conscious or unconscious exercise of his reasoning powers. 1 have, it is true, declared my belief that “some intelligence” has acted on him, but I have also, I think, made it quite clear thet I did not be- lieve it to be his own intelligence. The inconsistency, therefore, is of Mr. Bennett’s making. I think I have now noticed the chief points in this last assault on the theory of Natural Selection, which has failed, like all preceding ones. Its author also exhibits the usual inability to keep steadily before him the great fundamental principles of the theory he is discussing, so that his arguments continually break down owing to his taking a partial and wholly inadequate view of its mode of operation. In the case of “mimicry” he is not suffi- ciently careful in his statement of the facts, and this, com- bined with his imperfect grasp of the theory, entirely neutralises the elaborate numerical proofs which at first sight appear so overwhelming. ALFRED R. WALLACE SCIENCE IN PARIS [X the course of an article on the present condition of Paris, the Engineer gives the following account of the effects of the war. The use of the electric light is common to both sides in the present struggle, but the French have used it largely. The apparatus set up on Montmartre is arranged by M. Bazin, and is electro- magnetic. The central cylinder supports four series of double coils covered with copper wire enveloped in silk ; the cylinder is rotated by a small steam-engine of 3-horse power, making 400 revolu'ions per minute. The lamp used is of the ordinary form, with the Foucault-Dubose regulator. The reflector is parabolic in form, and the whole is surrounded by a shield to hide it from the enemy. This light, from its elevated position, commands the whole of Paris and the plains around. A spectator on Montmartre sees distinctly the details of the facade of a building which stands 2,600 metres off ; at 2,900 metres aman may be seen standing at a window, at 3,000 metres amass of cavalry or infantry is distinguishable, and at 4,000 metres the dome of the Invalides, with its bands of gold, is brilliant. A man cannot be seen on the dome at that distance, but on walking towards the building all soon becomes clear. On the ramparts, at 3,800 metres from Montmartre, the light is sufficient to read an ordinary newspaper. = a ee a 4 Lg > 4 Nov. 17, 1870] N __ NATURE 51 Thus, though the practical effect of the lamp only extends about 300 metres from its position, the field is illuminated to the extent of 700 metres, for the benefit of all placed between the light and the object. Thus a sentinel on the ramparts can see about 3,000 metres from the eceinte, and by this means strict watch is kept upon the plains around the city at night, as far, in one direction, as 1,000 metres beyond St. Denis. M. Bazin is now occu- pied in applying his apparatus to the purposes of night telegraphs, by the adoption of the system of flashes—men- tioned some time since in the Avgéweery—and with the aid of coloured lenses. A corvette—the Co/zgny —already possesses such a signal apparatus, and the signals are distinctly visible at more than eight miles’ distance. The action of the lamp, and also the movements of the appa- ratus, are remarkably steady, and M Bazin has received high testimonials from the authorities of the good working I eS eee ee ee il aa a Ra: date ls a oe of his instrument. M. Viollet-le-Duc, who is M. Alphand’s second in com- mand of the corps of civil engineers and architects aiding the military authorities, has made an interesting report to General Trochu respecting the works executed during the past month by the auxiliary engineers around Paris. It appears, according to this document, that the expense of these works has been only 105,000f., while under the military system they would have cost 230,000f. We have not seen the report, but we presume that M, Viollet-le- Duc, and the other architects and engineers, gave their services and advice gratis, and this would, of course, save the country a considerable sum. The Government has voted the sum of 40,000 francs to enable M. Dupuy de Léme to carry out his proposed plan of navigable balloons. The subject has been twice dis- cussed in the Academy of Sciences, and although some members have advocated the use of a small steam-engine or other motive power, M. Dupuy de Léme is no doubt wise in adhering to manual power, which presents all the force necessary with none of the inconveniences of machinery, and an adaptability to circumstances which no machinery can possibly possess. The men will form a crew to aid the landing of the balloon, or in extricating it from any difficulty, while any engine would be, when not in use, a dead weight and awkward encumbrance. Moreover an aérostat, with steam or other power, is now in construc- tion by another inventor or adapter. During the discussion M. Dupuy de Léme showed by calculations that his balloon would have a constant ascen- sional force up to 870 metres altitude, but beyond that to I,110 metres a little gas must be lost. At all events, be- tween 250 metres and 870 metres the altitude could oscil- late (by means of the extra pocket or swimming bladder) without loss of gas; and, of course, there would be the usual expedient of ballast to be depended on also. Dr. Monra advocated the use of heated air in place of gas. Fifty deg. Centigrade would be sufficient, and the heat might be retained by making the balloon double—that is to say, one balloon within another. The Aigle Mongol- fiére, said the Doctor, used to be inflated in twenty minutes, while it takes a whole day to fill a balloon (up- wards of 1000 cubic metres) with gas. Mongolfier bal- loons sent up within twenty leagues of Paris would certainly fall in the city, and it is a pity they have not been tried before this. Should the siege not soon be raised, will not the English aéronauts or others try and | send a few letters into Paris? PROFESSOR HELMHOLTZ ON FARADAY WE have been favoured by Prof. Tyndall with the to the German Edition of “ Faraday as a Discoverer,” recently superintended by Professor Helmhol'z :— “The name of Faraday is one to be held in reverenc2 by all natural philosophers. Many times in London, following translation of a portion of the preface | in connection with lectures which I delivered at the Royal Institution, I had myself the privilege of his obliging help and the pleasure of his amiable society. The perfect simplicity, modesty, and undimmed purity of his cha- racter gave to him a fascination which I have never experienced in any other man, I had therefore a duty of gratitude to fulfil towards him. “ But apart from this, and apart from that friendship for Faraday’s younger associate and successor, the author of this book, which induced me to undertake the task, I believed that I should render a service to German readers by facilitating, as far as in me lay, an insight into the action and character of a mind so richly and peculiarly endowed, and so entirely the product of natural growth. “Tt is, moreover, by no means for the philosopher only that such an insight possesses interest. His interest, certainly, is the most immediate, for it has hardly been the lot of any single man to make a series of discoveries so great and so pregnant with the weightiest consequences as those of Faraday. Most of them burst upon the world as surprises, the products, apparently, of an inconceivable instinct; and Faraday himself, even subsequently, was hardly able to describe in clear terms the inteliectual combinations which led to them. These discoveries, moreover, were all of a kind calculated to influence in the profoundest manner our notions of the nature of Force, In the presence of Faraday’s magneto-electricand diamagnetic discoveries more particularly, it was impossible for the old notions of forces acting at a distance to maintain themselves, without submitting to essential expansions and alterations. The clearer expression of these changes is at the present hour the object of physical science. “In what way such extraordinary results were achievedis naturally a question of the first interest to the investigator who strives after similar though more modest ends. But Faraday’s development appears to me to possess no small human interest in relation to many theoretic questions of psychology, and to the art of education. The external conditions under which he cultivated those striking capacities which excite our wonder were the simplest that can be imagined. He was completely self-taught ; brought up in humble circumstances, having received no more than the commonest instruction, and having been only favoured by fortune in the circumstance, that when he was a poor apprentice to a bookbinder, he found, at the right time, a helper in Humphry Davy, who recognised his peculiar gifts, and procured for him the possibility, though in a subordinate position, of working in the direction towards which his genius impelled him, “ And throughout his whole life and labours, the advan- tages and disadvantages of such a mode of develop- ment reveal themselves in simpler and larger traits than in the case of most other similar celebrated names. The principal advantage rose undoubtedly from the fact that his intellect was not too soon subjected to theoretic fetters, but enjoyed its freedom in the presence of naiural phenomena; and that instead of book-learning he per- mitted the fulness of Nature herself to opera e upon his open mind. The disadvantages are, perhaps, of a sub- ordinate kind ; but they reveal themselves in quite as un- mistakeable a manner when he strives to give expression to his ideas; and to supply, by all kinds of sensuous imagery, the want of mathematical culture. This is manifestly the way in which he alighted upon his Lines of Force, his Ray Vibrations, and other notions, which bewildered the investigators of his time, and the truer and clearer meaning of which has been in part mad: out by mathematical theory since Faraday himself ceased from his labours. “ And still, in this unlearned son of a smith, who held fast throughout his life the pious creed of his fathers, ran a vein of philosophy which gave him the right to be ranked among the foremost of those engaged in the general intellectual travail of our age. That NATURE [Nov. 17, 1870 as Tyndall informs us, he retained the term “ Natural Philosophy,” usual in England to express physical science, and the name “ Philosopher” for the cultivator of that science—lies essentially in the nature of his work, After the science of our age, in its laudable efforts to make human knowledge a true image of the actual uni- verse, had shattered many an old metaphysical idol, it halted amid the transmitted forms of physical ideas regarding Matter, Force, Atoms, and Imponderables. These names were even converted into new metaphy- sical shibboleths by those who thought themselves most advanced in the way of enlightenment. It was these ideas that Faraday sought in his riper labours to purify from everything theoretical, which was not the true and immediate expression of the facts. More especially he opposed the action of forces at a distance, the assumption of two electric fluids and of two magnetic fluids, and, in like manner, all hypotheses which contradicted the law of the conservation of force, of which he had an early pre- sage, though he singularly misapprehended its mathema- tical expression. And in these precise directions he exercised, in the first place, the most unmistakeable in- fluence on the physicists of England. The mathemati- cians among them, especially, labour to render theories of phenomena the pure and true expression of the laws of fact, to the exclusion of all arbitrary theoretic devices. In this way Faraday’s ideas, though in a modified form, often reveal themselves with their true significance assigned to them.” EARTHQUAKE OF OCTOBER 20, 1870 WE have been favoured with the following particulars of this earthquake byProf, Newton, of Cambridge, U.S.A. :— On Thursday morning, Oct. 20, an earthquake vibra- tion was felt throughout Canada, and the northern part of the United States from Maine to Iowa. It seems to have been more severe in Canada and in New England. In many places the shock was sufficient to throw down chimneys, crack the walls of buildings, and do other damzge. It was remarkably severe for the region of country visited. At New Haven, as well as in many other places, there were two distinct series of vibrations. Prof. Twining has carefully collected information from several persons as to the time of the occurrence and duration of the vibrations. The beginning of the first shock was at 11» 19 45° A.M. New Haven meantime. It lasted ten seconds, and its individual vibrations were about two- thirds of a second in duration, or one and one-third second for a complete double vibration, After an interval of five seconds there was a second series like the first lasting eleven seconds. The motion was nota simple oscillation, but there was arocking motion, indicating a vertical component in the movement of the earth. The vibrations were not severe enough to arrest universal attention, though multitudes felt a peculiar sensation without recognising the cause. The direction of the vibration was N.N.E. to S.S.E, At Cambridge, Mass., according to Prof, Winlock, the direc- tion was about 10° north of east, as determined by the appearance of the sides of a vessel containing milk. Mr. Farmer, at Boston, gives 11% 25™ 37° for the time of the ending of the vibrations, Cambridge mean time. This would imply that the shock reached Boston a minute and three-fourths earlier than New Haven. At Cleveland, Ohio, several clocks were stopped by the earth- quake, each indicating very nearly Io" 45" A.M. This is ap- jroximately the instant at which the shock reached New Jiaven. Iltis reported that the shock reached Quebec 30 seconds before it did Montreal, the telegraph operator of the former city being in the act of inquiring of the operator in the latter one respecting the earthquake, when it arrived at Montreal. These data seem to show that the general progress of the wave was from North to South. Slight vibrations were felt as far south as Richmond, Va., and as far west as Dubuque, lowa. | NOVEMBER METEORS OBSERVED AT THE RADCLIFFE OBSERVATORY wy [pees following is a list of Meteors observed at this Observatory by Mr. Lucas, on the nights of Novem- ber 12, 13, and 14, 1870. On Nov. 12a watch was kept from 7" 15™ to 8° 30", and from 11" to 13" 30", At 8) 20 a meteor was seen of the 4th magnitude, from Capella, a little to northward. : At 125 29", one of the 1st magnitude, white, flashed from a Cephei to a Cygni. At 12" 48", one of the 1st magnitude, from a Urse Majoris to Polaris, below the stratus cloud which over- spread the sky, and nearly hid all the stars, the two mentioned being just visible. Duration, 1°'5. At 12'57™, one of the Ist magnitude, white, seen for an instant about 7° or 8° east of Polaris, appearing to burst over the point of appearance ; motion southwards. 2 Nov. 13.—At 8" 5™, one of the 3rd magnitude, visible for 3°, downwards towards the south. At 8" 20", one of the 1st magnitude, visible for 2°, with a long train, from e Cygni to a Aquile. At 9' 38", brighter than Jupiter, of a blue colour, visible for 4°, from near Capella to o Ursze Majoris. The sky was overcast at 11" 30", and continued so nearly all the night, raining from 14™ to 16, # Nov. 14.—At 10° 54™, one of the Ist magnitude, white, visible for 155. From 8 Aurige to a cloud near 25 Lynxis ; direction, N.E. At 11" 1™, one of the ist magnitude, visible for 1°°5. From a cloud a little to the west of Rigal ; downwards, At 115 19", one of the Ist magnitude, visible for 2°; near and x Andromedz to a Cygni. At 12" 33", one of the 4th magnitude, downwards ; a short path. Cloudy from ro to 11" 30™; tolerably fine afterwards till 13, when clouds covered the sky again. ROBERT MAIN From a Cephei NOTES WE are glad to announce that the Government has expressed its intention to aid in the most ample manner the proposed Eclipse Expeditions. In making this announcement we feel that what has recently appeared in the daily Press renders cer- tain explanations desirable, which otherwise might have been omitted. In our last number we stated that deputations had been appointed both by the Joint Committee and the Council of the British Association to wait upon Mr. Gladstone, To this we must now add that the letter of the Secretary of the Joint Committee, which was toask Mr, Gladstone to appoint atime to reeeive a deputation, was not sent to Mr, Gladstone, and did not ask that a time should be named ; in fact it was a letter sent to the Z7easwry, apparently only for their information, and was nothing more than a copy of the reso- lution passed at the meeting of the Joint Committee. After a week had elapsed without any answer being received by the Joint Committee to the letter which it was supposed had been sent to Mr. Gladstone, asking him to name a time for a depu- tation; a member of the Joint Committee, Mr. Lockyer, called at the Treasury to inquire the reason of the delay in the answer, and of course he was informed that no letter had been received requiring any answer. Upon it being represented that a delay in the announcement of the Government intentions until a proper letter could be received from the Secretary of the Royal Society would be fatal to the Expedition, Mr. Lockyer was requested to state the actual requirements of the Scientific Bodies to Mr. Lowe, and upon his having done so, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, who, so far as we know, heard then of the expedition for the first time, at once expressed his opinion that such an expedition was one eminently worthy of Government aid, and that the Goyern- ; { 4 oo. =>. «= —. SS Se eS Nov. 17, 1870] — NATURE 53 ment would do all that was requisite to further the objects sought. This decision of the Government was announced to the Royal Astronomical Society by the Astronomer Royal on Friday last, and since then, the arrangements for the Expedition have moved apace. There will bea ship furnished by the Government to carry. observers to Spain. There will be funds to convey ob- servers overland to Naples, and a ship to carry them on to Mes- sina. The various European governments have been requested to aid the various parties, and, generally, the influence of the Govern- ment is being brought to bear in every way. This taken in con- nection with what has appeared in these columns before, and a letter which the Astronomer Royal has addressed to the Daily News, shows that now ali the facts are out, the whole blame of the long delay must fall on the officers of the Joint Committee, who, apparently unable to perform the duties entrusted to them, still did not call the Committee together to receive instructions We should not write in so decided a tone on such a painful subject did we not feel that it is simply an act of justice to the Government to state, as plainly as our infor- mation enables us to do, exactly where the real blame rests. Ir will have been observed that Dr. Carpenter’s letter in our number for Oct. 27, called in question, on the authority of Sir R. I. Murchison, the accuracy of our report of the conversation which followed the reading of Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys’ paper in Section C of the British Association. We have communicated, in consequence, with Mr. Jeffreys, by whom we were favoured with the report in question, and who assures us that ‘‘ to the best of his recollection and belief the report was quite accurate as con- veying the purport of Sir Roderick Murchison’s remark.” While, therefore, we are unable to decide the relative accuracy of two different recollections of the same circumstance, we cannot but congratulate ourselves that the misunderstanding, if it were so, has drawn out such a full exposition of Dr. Carpenter’s views of the bearings of the Porcupine discoveries on modern geological and physico-geographical theories. IN addition to the notices of papers to be read at the meet- 2 ings of the scientific societies in London, we shall be glad to insert in our ‘‘ Diary” the titles of those to be read at the leading provincial societies, when of sufficient interest, and if forwarded to us in good time. ~ BrAsENoSE College, Oxford, offers an open fellowship for Natural Science or Mathematics in February next. Candidates for Natural Science must communicate with the Principal by letter not later than the 20th December. As this is one of the few colleges which have hitherto held entirely aloof from Natural Science, this fellowship is clear evidence that the value of such studies is yearly becoming more appreciated at Oxford. THERE will be offered for competition, at St. John’s College, | Cambridge, in 1871, an Exhibition of 50/. per annum for pro- | ficiency in Natural Science, the Exhibition to be tenable for three years in case the Exhibitioner have passed within two years the previous examination as required for candidates for honours : otherwise the Exhibition to cease at the end of two years. The candidates will be examined in (1) Chemistry, including practical work in the laboratory : (2) Physics, viz., electricity, heat, light ; (3) Physiology. They will also have the opportunity of being examined in one or more of the following subjects—(4) Geology, (5) Anatomy, (6) Botany, provided that they give notice of the subjects in which they wish to be examined four weeks prior to the examination. No candidate will be examined in more than three of these six subjects, whereof one at least must be chosen from the former group. It is the wish of the masters and seniors that excellence in some single department should be specially regarded by the candidates. They may also, if they think fit, offer themselves for examination in any of the classical or mathe- chemical laboratory without injury. | matical subjects. The Exhibitions are not limited in respect to the age of candidates. The examination will take place on April 21st and 22nd, and the names of candidates must be sent in at least ten days beforehand. THE series of science lectures addressed to working men at Manchester are a great success. Three weeks ago Prof. Huxley opened the series by a very interesting lecture on Coral Islands, On Wednesday se’nnight, Prof. Roscoe lectured on Spectrum Analysis, and this week Mr. Huggins lectured on the Spectrum Analysis of the Stars. These lectures, which are to be continued through the winter, have been literally crowded by most attentive audiences, and since full reports are published in the Manchester daily papers, there is every hope that much permanent benefit will be derived from them. THE following are the lecture arrangements at the Royal Institution or Great Britain for 1870-71 :—Christmas lectures (adapted to a juvenile auditory), Prof. Odling—Six lectures “On Burning and Unburning,” on Dec. 27, 29, 31, 1870; Jan. 3, 5, 7, 1871. Before Easter, 1871, Prof. Michael Foster— Eleven lectures ‘On the Nutrition of Animals,” on Tuesdays, Jan. 17 to March 28; Prof. Odling—Eleven lectures ‘On Davy’s Discoveries in Chemistry,” on Thursdays, Jan. 19 to March 30: Mr. W. H. Channing—Four iectures ‘‘On the Progress of Civilisation,” on Saturdays, Jan. 21 to Feb. 11; Prof. Jowett—Three lectures ‘‘On Socrates,” on Saturdays, Feb. 18, 25, and March 4; Mr. H. O’Neil—Four lectures “‘ On the Spirit of the Age,” on Saturdays, March 11 to April 1. The Friday evening meetings will commence on Jan. 20. The Friday evening discourses before Easter will probably be given by Profs. Tyndall and Odling, the Dean of Westminster, Mr. E. J. Reed, Mr. James W. Douglas, Dr. Carpenter, Capt. Noble, Prof. Clerk Maxwell, Mr. Norman Lockyer, and Mr. W. Mattieu Williams. After Easter :—Prof. J. J. Sylvester— Three lectures “*On Emanuel Kant,” on Tuesdays, April 18, 25, and May 2, Mr, Charles Brooke—Two lectures ‘‘On Force and Energy,” on Tuesdays, May 9 and 16. Prof. Tyndall— Eight lectures, on Thursdays, April 20 to June 8. Mr. Norman Lockyer—Eight lectures ‘‘On Astronomy,” on Saturdays, April 22 to June Io. Tue British Medical Journal reports that at a meeting of a committee held in Edinburgh on November 7, it was stated that the form of the national memorial to the late Sir James Y. Simp- son had been agreed upon as follows: 1. A monument and statue in Edinburgh; 2. A marble bust in Westminster Abbey ; 3. A hospital in Edinburgh for the diseases of women, con- structed on those principles which Sir James so often and so clearly enforced ; 4. Similar hospitals in London and Dublin, should sufficient funds be obtained. It was also stated that a sum of 1,950/, had already been subscribed. AFTER the conclusion of the ordinary business of the meeting of the Royal Medicaland Chirurgical Society on Tuesday the 8th inst., the meeting was made special for the purpose of confirming, or re- jecting, the following resolution, proposed by Mr. Paget, seconded by Dr. Quain, and passed at a special meeting of the Society on October 25th :—‘‘ That the Council be requested to consider whether, while maintaining the charter and constitution of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society, it may be possible to obtain a more complete co-operation with the Pathological, Obstetrical, Clinical, and Epidemiological, or other societies for the promotion of Medical Science.” After a lengthened debate, Dr. Paget’s resolution was confirmed by a small majority. THE Chemical News givesa short account of a convenient form of spectroscope for use in a laboratory, by Mr. John Browning, It is so constructed that it may be kept in close proximity to a The prism is provided with 54 a coyer, which should be put on with a little bees’-wax ; or, better still, bees’-wax and tallow. This prism, with cover com- plete, can be removed, and replaced without deranging the adjustment of the instrument, to allow of a bottle prism being substituted for the purpose of taking the refractive index or dis- persive power of any liquid. The stand of the instrument is of wood, and the whole is enclosed in a circular cover which fits tightly round the base of the instrument, and has no other joint or opening. THE lowing Leeds Naturalists’ Field Club will hold the fol. conversational open meetings, at the Rooms, South Parade, every alternate Monday evening, at eight o’clock :— (1870), November 7, ‘‘A November Day at Boston Spa,” Mr. J. W. Taylor ; November 21, ‘Geology as a Study,” Mr. L. Acomb; December 5, ‘‘ Life History of the Painted Lady Butterfly (Vanessa Cardui),” Mr. W. Tumer ; December 19, ‘* Animalcula,” Mr. W. Coates ; (1871), January 2, ‘ The History of a Mushroom,” Mr. J. Abbot ; January 16, ‘* Wasps,” Mr. W. D. Roebuck ; January 30, ‘‘ Our Trees and their Uses,” Mr. Jas. Brodie ; February 13, ‘‘ Protozoa,” Mr. T. Hick, B.A. Tue Annual Exhibition of the Photographic Society of London was opened at the Architects’ Gallery, No. 9, Conduit Street, bya private reception of their friends by the members of the Society, and the exhibition will remain open to the public until the last day of the current month of November. The exhibition is quite as large as was the eminently successful exhibition of last year, and certainly leaves the impression that there is manifest and unmis- takeable evidence of progress in the art during the year. The work of many of the leading and best known exhibitors is in adyance of their exhibited specimens of the last year, and there are some individual photographs now to be seen upon the walls of the gallery which it can hardly be too much to say are of higher excellence, both as pictures and as photographs, than any that have before been produced. We may mention in par- ticular ten large portraits by Col. Stuart Wortley, taken direct from life, and marvellous specimens of tasteful and exquisite portrai- ture; two large portraits, also from life, by Mr. Warwick Brookes, of scarcely inferior power and excellence; Vandyke and Brown’s solar camera enlargements of the poet Longfellow; and Mr. Blanchard’s large Rembrandtesque life portraits. Of large landscape work, Mr. Care, of Worcester, deserves special notice ; and Mr. Robinson’s sea pieces, ‘Turn of the Tide” and “ Outward Bound,” are admirable bits of true nature. Mr. Robert Faulkner has some very pretty applications of the instantaneous branch of the art in catching the fitful aspects and characteristics of children ; and Mr. Vernon Heath has two exquisite bits of true scenery and foliage; nor ought we to pass by ‘‘ Hop-picking,” by Mr. Stephen Thompson, and Captain Lyons’ Indian pictures ; and we may add to this list Mr. Manners Gordon’s small pic- tures from dry plates. Herr A, PETERMANN has published a brief paper, in which he recapitulates the main results of the various North Pole Expe- ditions of the present year. Herr von Heuglin and Count Zeil, of the German Expedition, remained from July 15, till Sept. 15 in and near East Spitzbergen, which they explored, mostly in boats, from 77° to 79° N. lat. They claim to haye discoyered extensive land to the east of Spitzbergen. This land, Herr Petermann maintains, it is a mistake to identify with the land discovered by Gillis in 1707, which lay S0° N. lat. The land which was seen from the White Mountain of Spitzbergen by the Swedish Expedition in 1864, 80 nautical miles to the east, was put down on the map as a neck of land lying 79° N. lat. ‘Herr von Heuglin and Count Zeil,” says Herr Petermann, ‘‘ have now discoyered, 36 nautical miles to the east of Spitzbergen, a con- tinent, extending from 79°to 78° N, lat.—therefore, from north NATURE to south, at least 60 (German) miles—which contains numerous sharply-pointed peaks, and which, in case it is really connected with Gillis Land, might at least equal Spitzbergen in size.” This isclaimed as the mostimportant polar discovery that has beenmade for some years. Herr Heuglin has brought home with him from East Spitzbergen fourteen chests of geological, zoological, and botanical specimens. The news of the war reached the explorers in September. Count Zeil, a lieutenant in the Second Royal Wiirtemberg Jager Battalion, at once hastened home to Stutt- gart, and, having had an audience of the King on October 20, proceeded forthwith to his regiment in France. Herr Petermann announces that the Russian Expedition, which has been accom- panied by the famous academician, Von Middendorff, has prose- cuted interesting scientific researches between Noyaia Zemlia and Iceland. Among other things, it is said, he has identified the Gulf-Stream as far as Novaia Zemlia at the very considerable temperature of + 10° Réaumur, With reference to an article by Herr Petermann on the subject of the Gulf-Stream, Herr von Middendorff writes to him :—‘‘I am extremely glad that your theory respecting the extension of the Gulf-Stream is not only confirmed, but has eyen been greatly surpassed ; you were bold, but Mother Nature is still bolder,” AT a time when so much is being said about the value of fungi in general as profitable and wholesome articles of food, and also when France is being so largely overrun by foreign troops, the following notes on the Truffle cultivation in the Department of the Dordogne, written a short time before the outbreak of the pre- ~ sent war, may be of some interest. It shows the money value of these delicacies, and how profitable a business is their cultivation. The method adopted for propagating them is to sow acorns, and the best truffles are found under the resulting oak-trees ; but the evergreen oak, and juniper trees are also grown for the same purpose. An instance is cited of a person who inherited a piece of land worth 8/, and who thus sowed it with acorns ; the truffles thereby obtained realise now as much as 160/. a year. There are many varieties easily distinguishable to those accus- tomed to thetrade. The truffle is dearer in Périgord than in Paris, where it is mixed with an inferior quality, and therefore can be sold at a lower price. It comes to perfection about the middle of November, but large quantities are collected and sent to market in September and October. These are called ‘‘fleurs,” and are without smell. It is pretended that they have not come to maturity, and that a large portion of the produce is thus spoilt. The total revenue derived from the truffle commerce amounts to 20,000/. a year in the Arrondissement of Tarlat, and to about the same amount in Périgueux. Ir is interesting to note the progress the Japanese are making in the art of printing, &c. Hitherto they have only been acquainted with the Chinese mode of printing, from engraved wooden blocks. Lately, however, they have engaged the ser- vices of an English gentleman, to set up for them an establish- ment for type-founding, electrotyping, and printing on the Weste: method, and to give them such instructions in these arts as will enable them afterwards to carry on the business. Type-founding and electrotyping have now for the first time been introduced into Japan. Ar the last ordinary meeting of the Hackney Scientific Associa- tion, held on Noy. 8th, Mr. Henry T. Vivian announced that he had discovered the variability of « Herculis, a small star to the N.E. of 7 From observations extending back to the autumn of last year, he had deduced a period of about 21 days, with probably a second longer period. The amount of variability in the star’s lustre is from a large 5th mag. toa small 6th. Thestar is numbered 60 in Map 10 of Mr. Proctor's New Star Atlas, although in Map 8 it is numbered 69; evidently an error on the ~ part of the engraver, ~~ . ). ee 7 et a —_—— =e see Oe ee eee Nov. 17, 1870] NATURE Ja THE MICROSCOPE HE VALUE OF NITRATE OF SILVER AS A REAGENT FOR DE- MONSTRATING MINUTE STRUCTURE.—Since Von Reck- linghausen drew attention to the beautiful results to be obtained by the use of a weak solution of nitrate of silver, in the study of the finer distribution of vessels, and especially of the lymphatics, much discussion has taken place as to the trustworthiness of results obtained by this method, and there are some histologists of merit who maintain that the whole thing is false and delusive in its effect. The method consists in immersing perfectly fresh (warm from the animal) tissues in a } per cent. aqueous solution of nitrate of silver, leaving them there for from five to ten minutes, and then, after thorough washing, mounting in glycerine, and exposing to sunlight for half an hour, or two or three hours as the case may be. If desired, the tissue may be plunged while fresh into serum (preserved with just a trace of iodine), and after two hours’ maceration therein may be smoothed with a small paint-brush, to remoye superficial epithelium (as, for instance, in the centrum tendineum of the guinea-pig), and then placed in the silver solu- tion. It is, however, preferred by Dr. Klein, of Vienna, to brush away the superficial epithelium of the thoracic surface, if the lymphatics of the centrum tendineum are to be examined, before removing the diaphragm from the body, whilst perfectly _ fresh and warm, warm water being used for this purpose, and a _ camel’s-hair paint-brush : immediately after this ‘‘pencilling” the centrum tendineum is cut out and placed in the nitrate of silver - solution. In the same way, in researches on the cornea the conjunctival epithelium may be remoyed in the living animal and the silver solution then applied. Dr. Klein, Professor Stricker’s assistant, has found that the best results were to be obtained with the cornea, by removing the conjunc- tival epithelium, and rubbing the corneal surface well with lunar caustic, and removing the cornea in half an hour's time. This method proves admirable with frogs, and is probably applicable to other cornez. The results of the nitrate-of-silver-staining as seen in the centrum tendineum, are that both thoracic and peritoneal epithelium (where not pencilled away) are stained, the outlines of the cells being brought out very distinctly. In addition to this the epithelium lining the vessels which run in the centrum is also brought out, and especially the curiously crenated epithelium of the fine lymphatics is demon- - strated. Moreover, Recklinghausen pointed out that small branched cavities become delineated connected by their branches to oneanother, and opening into the lymphatics with the crenate epithelium. These lacunar channels, ‘‘the juice canals,” are brought into view by the action of the silver in staining the sub- stance of their walls but leaving the cavity free. A szccessful silver preparation of the centrum tendineum of a guinea-pig, for in- stance, shows these structures clearly, but it is not always possible to succeed. Besides the remarkable epithelium of the _ lymphatics and the juice-canals, a hexagonal pavement of enor- mous cells is demonstrated on the nerve sheaths, and an ex- ceedingly fine cell pavement on the adventitia of the small veins in some beautiful silver preparations of the ‘‘ centrum ” made by Dr. Burdon Sanderson. The results in the cornea are very remarkable, for the whole substance of that tissue in the frog is demonstrated to be filled with oblong radiating cavities, com- municating with one another by their branches, and of so angular and regular a character as to give the appearance of a mosaic- work or some such elaborate device. These cavities correspond to the juice-canals in the centrum tendineum, it is by their means _ that the cornea is nourished, it is they which contain the large star-like cells or protoplasm-masses brought out by gold chloride, and it is along their branches that the divided portions of these cells wander so remarkably in the process of inflammation. And now we are told by some persons that these are artificial pro- ductions, that the juice-canals and the radiate lacunee, and the crenate lymphatic epithelium too, are due to fortuitous coagula- tion caused by the silver, that they do not represent structures existing in life. There are two sets of objectionists, some who deny the whole thing, others who go so far as to deny the juice-canals and stellate lacunze, but admit the epithelium. An exponent of the first order is a certain Dr. Robinski, who in a paper published in the excellent Archives de Physiologie of Brown- _ Séquard, pretends that the crenate epithelium which so many have seen in the finer lymph vessels, as well as the juice- canals, are due to imperfect retention of portions of the superficial epithelium, and gives a drawing intended to show this. The author of the paper has simply failed utterly and entirely in using the method, and the outrageous view which he advances does not require refutation. Everyone knows who has made silver preparations successfully that the thoracic, the lymph-canal, and the peritoneal epithelium may all be seen lying one over the other in parts of a preparation, and that the form of the second prevents its being mistaken for the first or third. Others maintain that the crenate lymph-epithe- lium is simply a form due to the silver, and not to cells at all. This is impossible, because the nucleus and cell-contents are sometimes clearly demonstrated, and moreover the same form of epithelium may be readily obtained from large lymph-sacs, of some of which it is characteristic. The juice-canals, if they appear doubtful at all when taken by themselves (which indeed they do not if a good preparation is examined), when seen in the light of the stellate lacunz of the frog’s cornea, are clearly under- stood, and must be fully admitted as normal living structures. There are, however, persons who object to these, among whom is so eminent a histologist as Professor Schweigger-Seidel, and also that accomplished micrographer, Dr. Ranvier, of Paris. They actually hold that these forms are ost-mortem products, the effect of the action of nitrate of silver on the albumen and gelatine of the tissue. It is almost as strong a position to take up as that of certain schoolmen who maintained that we know nothing of the anatomy of living animals, since the air admitted on cutting them open, and the scissors, produced all the va- rious viscera seen in a dissection. There are some strong facts which we have witnessed which render such a view un- tenable. In the first place, the stellate lacunze of the frog’s cornea are shown in a preparation in our possession, with the intermediate substance stained by go/d and the lacune and cells unstained, in fact, exactly the same appearance as is produced with silver. Hence the stellate form of the lacunze cannot be due to a specific action of the silver. Again, by silvering the living comea whilst it is still part of the frog, the structure is brought out, and may be obtained of all de- grees of intensity, the /ovm, however, always remaining the same, and not varying with the amount of silver allowed to act on it, as might be expected had we to do with a precipitation-form, which should appear less completely developed when less silver is used. Moreover, the living cells were thus demonstrated lying in these stellate lacunze, creeping up the radiating branches, drawing back again, and creeping along others, thus obtaining that curious direction to their movements which one always ob- serves in studying them in the fresh, unstained, inflamed cornea. The necessity of admitting that the normal structure of the frog’s cornea is brought out by the silver method, covers also the question as to the similar structures in the centrum tendineum, The ‘‘ Saft-canilchen ” must equally be admitted as having a living existence, and are not due to the imaginary precipitating action of nitrate of silver on some albuminoid, as Schweigger- Seidel would have us believe, but a parallel to which he cannot find. The chief difficulty with regard to the crenate epithelium of the lymph vessels in the centrum tendineum is to explain why we only see one layer of these cells; they should appear all round the wall of the vessel so as to produce a double layer as we look through it, but we only see one layer, the other not being stained. ‘The action of light, the absorption of the silver, and other causes, may be hazarded as explanations of this ; but it would be satisfactory to get a double layer clearly shown. So far, then, from agreeing with Schweigger-Seidel and other objectors, that the silver method of Von Recklinghausen ‘ gives no true indication of the structure of the cornea,” nor of similar structures, and ‘‘should be abandoned,”* we believe that when carefully applied it furnishes most admirable results, difficult to attain in any other way at present in our hands, and is worthy of all confidence, and should be used as a means of investigation in other structures besides those to which it has been already ap- plied. EB, R.L. REPORT OF THE KEW COMMITTEE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE: MENT OF SCIENCE FOR 1869-70 “THE Committee of the Kew Observatory submit to the Council of the British Association the following statement of their proceedings during the past year :— ; At the meeting of the General Committee at Exeter it was re- * Berichte der Math, Phys, Classe der Kon. Sachs. Gesellsch, 1869. p. 352. 56 [Mov. 17, 1870 solved that the existing relations between the Kew Committee - and the British Association be referred to the Council to report thereon. In consequence of this resolution, the Kew Committee, on the 23rd November, 1869, prepared for the information of the Council a statement on the past and present condition of the Observatory, which was presented to the Council on the 11th December. In this statement it was shown that while the establishment at Kew Observatory received its main support from the British Association, and was under the control of that body, yet much of the apparatus in use at Kew was furnished fron other sources. Thus, the Royal Society had from the Govern- ment-Grant Fund supplied the establishment with the apparatus for testing barometers, with that for testing sextants, with the dividing-machine for constructing standard thermometers, and also with the set of self-recording magnetographs at present in use, while from the Donation Fund they had furnished the photo- heliograph and the Whitworth lathe and planing-machine. The Royal Society had likewise defrayed from the Donation Fund the expense of introducing gas into the Observatory, and of building a house for the verification of magnetic instruments, besides which they had borne from the Government-Grant Fund since 1863 the whole expense of working the Photoheliozraph (including the purchase of a chronometer) and of reducing its results. The instruments used at Kew for determining the ab- solute magnetic elements are the property of Her Majesty’s Government, and have been lent to the Kew Observatory by the Magnetic Olfice at Woolwich, under the direction of Sir E. Sabine, and many of those magnetic instruments with which Kew has been the means of furnishing scientific travellers have been derived from the same source. Of late Kew has become the central observatory of the Meteorological Committee, and a commodious workshop has been erected near the Observatory by that committee, since otherwise the main building would have | been too small for the access of work consequent upon the ar- rangement entered into. The statement prepared by the Kew Committee contained likewise a summary of the scientific work done at the Observatory, as well as some interesting historical remarks connected with the origin of the establishment, drawn up by Sir C. Wheatstone, and in this shape it was submitted to the Council of the British Association, The Council then recom- mended ‘‘That the present existing relations between the Kew Observatory and the British Association be continued unaltered until the completion, in 1872, of the magnetical and solar decen- nial period, and that after that date all connection between them should cease.”” In consequence of this recommendation, the Kew Committee were led to contemplate the dissolution of the Kew establishment in 1872, and they became anxious to make such arrangements as might enable them to complete their scien- tific labours in a creditable manner before the time of the anticipated dissolution. The'magnetic work in particular caused them anxiety ; for the annual income of the establishment is insufficient to permit of that work being fully completed by the time of the annual meeting of the Association in 1872. Under these circumstances the chairman offered to supplement the de- ficiency. It will be seen by this report that the magnetical tabulations and reductions are now proceeding very fast. The recommendation of the Council was also a matter of anxiety to the superintendent, Mr. Stewart ; and as the Professorship of Natural Philosophy at Owens College, Manchester, became vacant about this time, he applied for the appointment and was successful in obtaining it. This will render it necessary for Mr. Stewart to reside in Manchester, but the sta‘f at the Observatory are such that Mr. Stewart will undertake by their aid to assist the committee in the superintendence of the work of the Obser- vatory uatil 1872. (A) Work DONE BY Kew OBSERVATORY UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. : 1. Magnetic Work.—In the present state of magnetical science it would appear to be desirable to preserve as completely as possible the details of observations, so that future theorists may have a large and valuable source of information by which to test their speculations. The Committee are therefore desirous that by the autumn of 1872 a manuscript record should be com- pleted, containing all the hourly tabulated values from the Kew Magnetographs arranged in monthly tables. This record should be carefully preserved, along with the original photographic traces, in the exchives of the Association. Pursuing the method indicated by Sir E. Sabine, and adopting the separating values finally determined by him, the Committee further propose to ob- tain monthly results indicating the following points tor each of NATURE the three magnetic elements, distributed according to the hour of the day :— 1. Aggregate of disturbance tending to increase the numeri- cal values. 2. Agyregate of disturbance tending to decrease the same, _ 3. Solar-diurnal range of the undisturbed observations. They suggest that the monthly results embodying these facts should be published in detail. Finally, they propose to continue the discussion of the lunar-diurnal variations commenced by Sir E. Sabine, and carried on by him up to the end of the year 1864. In order to work this scheme with sufficient rapidity to complete it before the autumn of 1872, additional assistance has been pro- cured, the expense of which has been defrayed by the chairman. Mr. Whipple, magnetical assistant, has displayed much zeal and ability in organising the work and in superintending its immediate execution, Already the hourly numerical values of the three magnetic elements have been obtained and tabulated in monthly forms from the commencement of the series in 1858 to the present date ; and considerable progress has also been made in the next step of the reduction. A unifilar, formerly employed by Captain Haig, and of which the constants have been deter- mined at the Observatory, has been lent to Lieut. Elagin, of the Russian navy, for use in the Japanese seas and elsewhere. A dip-circle, by Dover, has been verified and sent to Prof. Jelinek, of Vienna, and another, by the same maker, has been verified for Dr. A. B, Meyer, for use in the East Indies. This gentleman has likewise received magnetic instruction at the Observatory. A dip-circle by Adie, furnished with a deflecting cylinder apparatus, has been verified and despatched to Prof. Bolzani, of the University of Kasan. Three dipping-needles have likewise been constructed for Dr. Bergsma, of Batavia, and one for Mr. Chambers, of the Colaba Observatory, Bombay. A deflection-bar has been procured and verified for the Russian Central Observatory. A declinometer has been sent to the Lisbon Observatory, anda Fox’s circle has been lent to Dr. Neumayer, after having been repaired by Adie. The instrument devised by Mr. Broun for the purpose of estimating the magnetic dip by means of soft iron, and constructed at the expense of the British Association in pursuance of a re olution of that body passed at the Oxford meeting, has been forwarded to that gen- tleman at his request. The usual monthly absolute determi- nations of the magnetic elements continue to be made by Mr. Whipple, magnetic assistant. A paper embodying the results of the absolute observations of dip and horizontal force, made at Kew from April 1863 to April 1869, has been communicated by the superintendent to the Royal Society, and published in the ‘* Proceedings” of that body, The results obtained evidence the accuracy with which the monthly observations have been made by Mr. Whipple. The self-recording magnetographs are in constant operation as heretofore, also under his charge ; and the photographic department connected with these instruments remains under the charge of Mr. Page. 2. Meteorological work.—The meteorological work of the Observatory continues in the charge of Mr. Baker. Since the Exeter meeting, 150 barometers have been verified, and thirty have been rejected ; 1,160 thermometers and 103 hydrometers have likewise been verified. Nineteen standard thermometers have been constructed for Prof. Tait, and two for the Meteoro- logical Office. The self-recording meteorological instruments now in work at Kew will be again mentioned in the second divi- sion of this report. These are in the charge of Mr. Baker, the photography being superintended by Mr. Page. 3. Photoheliogript.—Vhe Kew heliograph, in charge of Mr. Warren De la Rue, continues to be worked in a satisfactory manner. During the past year 351 pictures have been taken on 237 days. It was considered desirable that six prints should be obtained from each of the negatives of the sun pictures taken at the Observatory during the whole time that the photoheliograph should remain at work, which will probably be from February 1862 to February 1872. In order to accomplish this, an outlay of 120/. spread over two years was found to be necessary, and this sum has been voted from the Donation Fund of the Royal Society. A large number of these prints has already been obtained, and it is proposed to present complete sets to the following institutions :— The Royal Astronomical Society, The Imperial Academy of Paris, The Imperial Academy of St, Petersburg, The Royal Society of Berlin, The Smithsonian Institution, United States, a Oo ae le OT ee ee ee ee ey Te ee eee hs , ENS a ee Nov. 1 7, 1870] leaving one set for the Royal Society. A paper embodying the positions and areas of the sun-groups observed at Kew during the years 1864, (865, and 1866, as well as fortnightly values of the spotted solar area from 1832 to 1868, has been communicated to the Royal Society by Messrs. Warren.De La Rue, Stewart, and Loewy. This paper is in course of publication in the ‘‘ Philo- sophical Transactions,” and will shortly be distributed. A table exhibiting the number of sun-spots recorded at Kew during the year 1869, after the manner of Hofrath Schwabe, has been com- municated to the Astronomical Society, and published in their monthly notices. M. Otto Struve, director of the Imperial Observatory at Pulkowa, visited England in the month of August last. He brought with him, for the Kew Observatory, some sun-pictures made at Wilna with the photoheliograph, which, it will be recollected was made some yearsago, under the direction of Mr. De La Rue, by Mr. Dallmeyer. This instrument com- bines several importent improvements on the original Kew model, the value of which is forcibly brought out in the superior definition of the Wilna sun-pictures. As, however, the series of the ten-yearly record at Kew was commenced with the instru- ment as originally constructed, it was not deemed desirable to alter it in any way until the series had been completed and re- duced, and the corrections for optical distortion ascertained and applied. In the event of the sun-work being continued after 1872, it will be desirable to do so with a new and improved heliograph. M, O. Struve proposed to exchange the complete series of pictures obtained at Wilna for that madeat Kew. He also stated that it is contemplated to erect a second heliograph at the Central Observatory at Pulkowa. 4. Miscellaneous Work.—A few experiments have been made on the rotation of adise 7 vacuo. by an arrangement devised by Mr. Beckley, a very perfect carbonic-acid vacuum has been obtained, the residual pressure being 0°02 inch as indicated by a mercurial gauge with 2 contracted tube, but it was believed that the vacuum was even more perfect. A disc of paper and one of ebonite gave very sensible heat effects in such a vacuum, and it was hoped that the experiments might have been satisfactorily completed ; but while they were in progress the pressure of the outer atmosphere sha‘tered the receiver into a number of pieces, fortunately without any injury to the experimenters. Another receiver has now been made, and it is purposed in future to use it witha cover. A transit instrument has been lent to Mr. G. J. Symons, and one sextant has been verified. (B) Work DONE AT KEW AS THE CENTRAL OBSERVATORY OF THE METEOROLOGICAL COMMITTEE. It is stated in the report for 1867 that the Meteorological Com- mittee had appointed Mr. Balfour Stewart as their secretary, on the understanding that he should, with the concurrence ot the Kew Committee, retain his office of Superintendent of the Kew Observatory. On the 8th October, 1869, Mr. Stewart resigned his appointment as Secretary to the Meteorological Committee and Director of their Central Observatory—a step which took effect on the 31st of March, 1870, and which was followed by a modification o! the relation between the two committees. The Meteorological Committee, at their meeting on 12th November, 1869, resolved that they were prepared to make the tollowing proposals to the Council of the British Associa ion :— I. That Kew be continued as one of the ordinary self-recording observatories, in which case the committee would be prepared to aliot to it annually 250/. ; or, II. In addition to the foregoing work, that Kew be maintained _as the central observatory for examination of records and tabula- ‘tions from all the other observatories, in which case the com- mittee will be prepared to allot a further annual sum of 400/. The Kew Committee, having been furnished with thi; resolution of the Meteorological Committee, resolved that it be recom- mended to the Council of the British Association that Kew be continued for the next two years as one of the ordinary self- recording observatories of the Meteorological Committee, that body allowing it annually 250/.; and that, in addition, it be maintained as the central observatory for the examination of the records and tabulations from all the other observatories, for the further sum of 400/. perannum. This arrangement was approved ~ by the council ; and it was thereupon resolved by the Kew Com- mittee, that out of the 650/. received from the Meteorological Committee, 200/. be given to Mr. Stewart for superintending the meteorological work of the Observatory, this resolution to take effect after 31st March, 1870. 1. Work done at Kew as one of the Observatories of the Meteoro- NATURE 57 logical Committee.—The barograph, thermograph, and anemo graph tunished by the Meteorological Committee are kept in constant operation. Mr. Baker is in charge of these instruments. From the first two instruments traces in duplicate are obtained, one set being sent to the Meteorological Office and one retained at Kew ; as regards the anemograph, the original records are sent, while a copy by hand of these on tracing-paper is retained. The tabulations irom the curves of the Kew instrument are made by Messrs. Baker, Page, and Foster. 2. Verification of Records.—Vhe system of checks devised by the Kew Committee for testing the accuracy of the observations made at the different observatories continues to be followed, the only alteration being that the Kew staff, at the suggestion of the Meteorological Office, have undertaken to rule on the barograms and thermograms a set of zero lines, which are of great use in pantagraphic operations. Mr. Rigby continues to perform the main part of this work; Mr. Baker, Meteorological Assistant, having the general superintendence of the department. 3. Occastonal Assistance.—The Meteorological Committee have availed themselves of the permission to have the occasional services of Mr. Beckley, Mechanical Assistant at Kew ; and he has lately been visiting the various observatories of the Meteorological Committee. The self-recording rain-gauge mentioned in last report as having been devised by Mr. Beckley has been adopted by the Meteorological Committee, and instruments of this kind are at present being construcied for their various observatories, The staff at Kew continue to make occasional absolute hygro- metrical observations by means of Regnault’s instrument, with the view of testing the accuracy of the method of deducing the dew-point {rom the observations with the dry and wet bulb ther- mometers. Two erections have been made in the grounds adjoining the Observatory, and on one of these a large Robin- son’s anemometer is placed, while a small instrument of the same kind is placed on the other. By this means the indications of the large and those of the small-sized instrument may be com- pared with each other. The cost of this experiment has been defrayed by the Meteorological Committee. J. P. Gasstor, Chairman Kew Observatory, Sept. 9, 1870 SCIENTIFIC SERIALS THE November number of the Geological Magazine (No. 77) opens with an arucle by the editor, Mr. H. Woodward, on Fossil Crustacea from various formations. The species described and figured by the author are Scy//aridia bellit from the London clay of Sheppey, and Puleya carter? from the lower chalk. One of the most important papers in the number is on the coal-bearing rocks of Southern Chile by MM. Lebour and Mundle. The coal appears to be only a kind of lignite ; itis found in beds of tertiary age. Mr. Lucy contributes a paper on the Post-pliocene Dritt of Charnwood Forest; Mr. H. F. Hall, a note on the Glacial and Post-glacial deposits in the neighbourhood of Llandudno ; Mr, L. C. Miall, a paper on the formation of swallow-holes in moun- tain limestone; and Mr. E. Wilson, a notice of some altered clay-beds and sections in Tideswell Dale, Derbyshire. The remainder of the number is occupied as usual by reviews, notices, and miscellaneous matter. THE October number of the American Naturalist (vol. iv., No. 8) is chiefly devoted to Geological and Archeological sub- jects. it opens with an address on recent advances in Geology, delivered by Mr. J. H. Foster to the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and contains also a paper on the Primitive Vegetation of the Earth by Dr. J. W. Dawson, and a note on Indian Stone Implements by Mr. J. H. Gregory. The only other paper is a short note on bud-variations in the colour of the flowers in Zi//:um and Wisteria. This number also contains an interesting illustrated report of the nineteenth meeting of the American Association, including a valuable paper by Dr. A. S. Packard, jun., on the embryology of Limulus polyphemus ; and another, by Prof. E. D. Cope, on the Structural Characteristics of the Cranium in the Lower Vertebrata. Proceedings and Communications of the Essex Institutee—The first part of volume vi. was publshed in the spring of this year. Of four papers given in it, three relate to entomological subjects; these are descriptions (with figures) of numerous species of ants from Mexico, by Mr. Edward Norton ; an ex- cellent monograph of the Phalangea (Harvest Spiders) of the United States, by Dr. Horatio C. Wood, also illustrated; and an important notice of insects inhabiting salt water, by Dr, A, 58 NATURE [Nov. 17, 1870 S. Packard. The fourth paper is a continuation of Mr, A, E, Verrill’s Synopsis of the Polyps and Corals collected by the American North Facific Exploring Expedition in the years 1853 to 1856 ; this includes descriptions of a great many new species, and is illustrated with two plates. This part also contains the « Proceedings” of the Essex Institute for the year 1868. The third part of the Zeitschrift of the German Geological Society, including its proceedings for the months of May, June, and July, opens with along and important memoir, by M, F, J. Wiirtenberger, on the Tertiary Formation of the Klettgau, a district situated on the northern border of the Swiss Molasse. The tertiary deposits, which are referred by the author to the Miocene and Oligocene periods, are of both freshwater and marine origin, and appear to be very complicated ; fossils are scarce in them, except in certain localities, which have furnished the remains of plants and animals in considerable abundance. Prof. Ferdinand Roemer describes and figures a new fossil Pyéhon from the Island of Eubcea, under the name of /. ewdoicus. The specimen is contained in a slab of tertiary calcareous marl slate, and the portion preserved indicates that the snake would have been about nine-and-a-half feet long when living. M. H. Las- peyres communicates a monographic revision of the genus Leaia (T. R. Jones) belonging to the Phyllopodous Crustacea. He discusses the systematic position of the genus, which he places among the Linmadiadz, and of which he describes and figures five species, one of them (Z. weétinensis) as new, and two others as having been previously described as varieties of Z. Leidyi, All the other papers relate to mineralogical subjects ; they include a continuation of Prof. G. vom Rath’s valuable geognostico- mineralogical Italian fragments; an analytical notice of the Palatinite of Norheim, by Prof A. Kenngott; and a notice of the occurrence of zircon in the hypersthenite of the Radauthal near Harzburg, by Prof. Gustav Rose. Tue Journal of Botany for November contains a continuation of Dr. Seemann’s Revision of the Bignoniaceze and several articles of special interest to British botanists. There is also a reprint of an interesting paper by Dr. Parry, of Washington, read at the recent meeting of the British Association, on the North American Desert Flora, between 32° and-42° north lati- tude. He calls particular attention to the contrast between the annual and perennial vegetation of desert tracts, the former being very evanescent and rapid in its growth ; the latter either storing up a large amount of surplus nourishment in their thick tuberous or tap roots, or, in the case of trees and shrubs, possessing ex- posed stems and foliage of the most scant and starved character ; spine-clad branches and green-backed stems are, in many places, made to supply the office of leaves, or, where these latter are present, they are often chiefly coated with resinous varnish, or clothed with tomentose hairs or scales, serving to check eyapo- ration, SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LONDON Zoological Society, Nov. 1.—-Prof. Newton, F.R.S., V.P., in the chair, The Secretary read a Report on the additions that had been made to the Society’s Menagerie during the months of June, July, August, and September. Amongst the more valuable acquisitions, particular attention was called to a collection of animals from Chili, purchased in the month of July last. Of twenty-two species obtained in this collection, no less than twelve were new to the Society’s series, and some of these, such as: Burmeister’s Cariama (Chumga dburmetstert) and the small Coscoroba Swan (Cygnus coscoroba) were of special interest. Another valuable addition was a male of the Ethio- pian Ant-bear (Orycteropus Ethiopicus) from Upper Nubia, purchased July 29. This animal had been placed in company with the Cape Ant-bear (Orycteropus capensis) acquired in June 1869, and afforded an opportunity for the comparison of the two species together.—A communication was read from Prof. W. Peters, containing an elaborate memoir on the structure of Pectinator speket, a peculiar Rodent of Eastern Africa. The specimens on which Dr. Peter’s memoir was based, had been obtained by Mr. William Jesse, during his travels as Zoologist in company with the Abyssinian Expedition, —A seventh letter on the Ornithology of Buenos Ayres, addressed to the Society by Mr. W. H. Hudson, was read.—Prof. Newton exhibited a chick of Anarhynchus frontalis, a rare wader from New Zealand, remarkable for possessing an asym- metrical bill.—Mr. C. Darwin, F.R.S., communicated a note on the habits of the Pampas Woodpecker (CArysoftilus cam- pestris), in reply to some observations on this subject made by Mr. W. H. Hudson, in one of his previous letters,—Six communications were read from Dr, J. E. Gray, F.R.S., on various points connected with the Natural History of the Testu- dinata. The first of these contained notes on three Tortoises living in the Society’s Gardens, one of which was believed to be new to science, and was proposed to be called Testudo chilensis, ‘The second contained descriptions of two new species of Indian Tortoises in the collection of Mr. T. C. Jerdon. The third related to the family Dermatemyda, and embraced the description of a species of this group living in the Society’s Gardens. The fourth contained notes on a West African River- Tortoise (Cyclanosteus senegalensis), also living in the Society’s Gardens. The fifth contained notes on Bartleltia, a proposed new genus of freshwater Tortoises, belonging to the family Peltocephalide, and the sixth notes on the species of ARhino- clemmys, in the British Museum. A communication was read from Mr. W. Theobald, containing critical observations on a a paper by Dr. J. E. Gray, on the families and genera of Tortoises, which had been recently published in the Society’s ‘* Proceed- ings.” Amongst other remarks, Mr. Theobald stated the skull upon which Dr. Gray had established his Zestudo (Scapia) falconeri, appeared to have originally formed part of one of the typical specimens of Zes/udo phayrei, in the Indian Mu- seum, Calcutta.—A paper was read by Mr. A. G. Butler, con- taining a list of Diurnal Lepidoptera, collected by Mr. Spaight in Northern India. —A communication was read from the Rev. — O. P. Cambridge, containing descriptions of some new genera and species of Avaneidea.—A communication was read from Mr. W. Vincent Legge, containing notes on a species of Prinia from Ceylon. A communication was read from Sur- geon Francis Day, containing a memoir on the Fishes of the Andaman Islands. Mr. Day’s list embraced no less than 255 species, chiefly marine, which had been collected during the short space of a three weeks’ visit to those Islands. Linnean Society, Nov. 3.—Mr. G. Bentham, President, in the chair. A paper was read by Dr. Mansel Weale, ‘* On the Fertilisation of certain Orchids and Asclepiads.” lieves to be self-fertilisation by the agency of insects. the species, however, fructify comparatively seldom. At night some of the species emit a delicious fragrance, and these are chiefly visited by nocturnal moths. Dr. Weale also contri- buted a note on a solitary bee from South Africa, Entomological Society, Nov. 7.—Mr. H. W. Bates, V.P., — in the chair.—Mr. T. H. Briggs, of Lincoln’s Inn, was elected a member.— Exhibitions of British Lepidoptera were made by Mr. Bond, Mr. Howard Vaughan, and Mr. McLachlan ; of British — C rie Mr. Edward — Saunders exhibited VYixruthrus heros, a gigantic species of Prio- — Coleoptera, by Mr. F. Smith and Mr. Dunning. nide, from the Feejee Islands. Mr. Albert Miiller exhibited galls of Cyntps agama, and reniform spangles of Cynips renum, both on the underside of leaves of the oak.—Communications were read respecting swarms of Chlorops dineata which occurred — in houses at Cambridge and elsewhere ; and respecting the injury done to pear, plum, and cherry trees by the grubs of Blennocampia — Cerasi.—The following papers were read: ‘* On Butterflies from — Basuto-land,” by Mr. Roland Trimen ; ‘‘On Cevambycide from the Amazons, by Mr. H. W. Bates: ‘On Curculonide from Australia,” by Mr. F. P. Pascoe; ** Notes on the Lurytomine,” by Mr, F. Walker. Anthropological Society, Noy, 1.—Dr. Charnock, V.P., in the chair. Mr. Matthew Heslop, Mr. J. R. Mortimer, Mr. Ankithum Venkata Nursing Row, Mr. James Hope, and Mr. Walter M. Parker, were elected members. Mr. William Storey, M.D., was elected local secretary for Malta; and Mr. © Frank Wilson was elected local secretary for St. Paul’s de Loanda, — W. Africa. A verbal communication was made by Mr, Charles- worth, giving some details of his discovery, and the exhumation, — from a Tertiary formation in East Anglia, of a nearly perfect skele- ton of one of the gigantic Bovine animals which the Roman | legions met with when they first penetrated into the dense forests of Belgium and Gaul, and which are described by Caesar under the names of Uri and Bisontes. Dr, R. Charnock, V.P., F,S.A., read a paper on ‘‘ The People of the Isle of Marken.” He described — several species of Habenaria, some of them new, from South — Africa, and explained the process of fecundation, which he be- — Some of ee ee ae Nov. 17, 1870] : NATURE 59 -Ethnological Society, Nov. 8.—Dr. A, Campbell, Vice- president, inthe chair. The following new members were announced :—The Earl of Antrim, Mr. W. Bragge, Mr. IH. Rivett Carnac, and Mr. J. .,Lee.—A carved wooden imple- ment found beneath 27 feet of guano in the Island of South Guanape, was exhibited and described by Mr. Josiah Harris, Col. A. Lane Fox exhibited a rudely worked stone implement from Borneo, being the first which has reached this country from that locality.— A note was read from Mr. C, R. Markham rela- tive to the term Aymara. He maintained that the people in- habiting the basin of Lake Titicaca were known, at the time of the Spanish conquest, as Collas and not as Aymaras. An elabo- ate reply to this communication was made by Mr. David Forbes, F.R.S., who showed that the term Colla is merely a geographical expression.—A paper was then read ‘* On the Kimmerian and Atlantean Races,” by Mr. Hector McLean. ‘The author de- scribed the Atlanteans as a dark race, forming a considerable in- gredient in the population of Spain, southern and central France, South Wales, and the south and west of Ireland and Scotland ; whilst the Kimmerians were a fair people, often of tall stature, with gaunt features, ruddy complexion, grey eyes, and red or yellow hair, These Kimmerians occupied the british Isles, and mixed with the Atlanteans previously to the arrival of the Scan- dinavians and Teutons. By means of the names of places, the author traced them in their migrations westwards trom their original home between the Don and the Volga. They were known as the Galli or Galata, names signifying w/ze people. ‘The author concluded that the present population of England is more truly British or Kimmerian than the Welsh, and that our language is not the direct descendant of the language of the Saxon conquerors, but the descendant of both that of the conquerors and a kindred native language. by Mr. J. F. Campbell (of Islay), Dr. O’Callaghan, Mr. Hyde Clarke, Mr. Pusey, and Dr. Nicholas, Chemical Society, Noy. 3.— Yrof. Williamson, F.R.S., in the chau. ‘The following gentlemen were elected as fellows :—D. Howard, T. Muter, C. W. Siemens, F.R.S. On opening this first meeting in the new session, the President alluded in a few earnest words to the loss the Society had recently sustained Uirough the death of two of the most distinguished of iis members. The following papers were read :—‘* On the Production.of the Sul- phates of the Alcohol Kadicles {rom the Nitrites by the action of Sulphurous Acid,” by E. T. Chapman, When sulphurous acid gas is passed into nitrite of amyl it is rapidly absorbed. ‘The nitrite chanyes in colour from yellow to green, irom green to blue ; it then begins to effervesce, and at the same time be- comes hot and boils violently. Nitric oxide is evolved in abundance, and a yellow liquid product remains. This liquid cannot be distilled without decompusition. It contains no nitro- gen, When an attempt is made to distil it along with water, the oily liquid found in the distillate consists principally of amylic alcohol. When the liquid is distilled Zer se it Liackens, gives off sulphurous acid, and yields a complex distillate which contains, amongst other things, valerianate of amyl. Thuis cir- cumstarice stood in the way of any attempt to obtain an insight into the nature of this reaction. Mr, Chapman resolved, there- fore toattack the question quantitatively. Wath this object he determined the nature and amount of the gas evolved by the action of excess of sulphurous acid on a known weight of the nitnte. The result proved that the gas evolved consisted of pure nitric oxide, and that the whole of the nitrogen present in the nitrate escaped in this form. The amount of sulphurous avid necessary to decompose a given quantity of nitrate was also deter- mined by observing the quantity of sulphurous acid which dis- appeared when an excess of sulphurous acid acted on a known quantity of nitrite. It was then ascertained with sufficient accuracy that one atom of sulphurous acid acted upon two atoms of nitrite of amyl and liberated two atoms of nitric oxide. Lastly, the alteration of weight which nitrite of amyl undergoes by. the reaction was determined. ‘The 1result confirmed the suppesilion that the reaction consisted in the replacement of two atoms of nitric oxide by one of sulphurous acid. C; Hy, O. N O| Pei C: inten Sesto toy gar mat 5 25) The resulting liquid compound had therefore the composition of neutral sulphate of amyl, It readily breaks up into amylic alcohol and sulphuric acid by boiling with water and by long standing even with cold water ; treated with strong hydriodie acid it yields sulphuretted hydrogen, water, iodine; and amylic iodide ; potas- SO.4 2N0 The discussion was sustained: sic bichromate and sulphuric acid cause it to yield valerianic acid, It is to be observed that it is necessary gently to warm the retort in which the nitrite is exposed to the action of a stream of dry sulphurous acid ; if this is not done, the S O, is absorbed for some time without any reaction occurring, but when the reaction does start it is with almost explosive violence ; whereas, if gentle heat- ing has been applied from the beginning, the reaction starts at once and goes on regularly. It is also desirable to pass through the apparatus carbonic acid or hydrogen before the § O, has been passed into the nitrite, and to do this also afterwards, for the pur- pose of excluding air, the oxygen of which would unite with the NO, and the SO, would then be expelled. Sulphurous acid and butylic nitrite react upon one another in a manner analogous to that of S O, or amylic nitrite, but the resulting product is even more unstable, Sulphurous acid and nitrite of ethyl do not readily act upon each other, at least not at the common tempera- ture. Mr. Chapman then proceeded to the theoretical con- siderations which are suggested by the above facts. Are these compounds, properly speaking, sulphates of alcohol radicles, or only bodies isomeric with them? ‘The reaction of the amyl com- pound with water is very different from that of sulphate of ethyl under similar circumstances ; it does not, when boiled with water, form an acid analogous to isethionie acid, but splits up into sul- phuric acid and amylic alcohol. This would suggest a different linking of the molecules ; most probably in the common amylic sulphate the two organic radicles are linked to oxygen directly, and by oxygen to sulphur ; in the amyl compound obtained from the nitrite, one of the radicles is attached directly to sulphur and the other indirectly through the oxygen. Mr. Chapman then described the apparatus by which the nature of the reaction of sulphurous acid on amylic nitrite has been determined. The evolved nitric oxide was transformed into nitric acid, and this treated with barytic carbonate. In the discussion following this paper, Dr, Debus and Mr, Harcourt expressed their apprehension that along with the barytic nitrate also some barytic nitrite may have formed. Mr. Chapman replied that he had taken great care to ensure the complete transformation into nitric acid ; that to this end he had passed great quantities of oxygen into the collecting cylinder, let the mixture stand for twenty-four hours over the water in the cylinder, and lastly applied gentle heat to it. As for the possibility of the water acting as a base and re- ducing the formed nitrous acid, there was the counteracting presence of SOx, which had passed unabsorbed through the amylic nitrite into the collecting cylinder, and part of which must have been oxydised to sulphuric acid. Regarding Mr, Chapman’s C, H; Gi He dent thought that it is the same as that of SO, with H, O, that the two C, H,; are linked to S Og by the oxygen, just like the two Hare in hydric sulphate.—Mr. Vacher read a paper by Mr. Elliott ‘* On the determination of Sulphur in cast-iron.” This de- termination consists in the liberation of the sulphur in the form of sulphuretted hydrogen, absorption of the latter by solution of soda and estimation of the H,S in the acidified soda solution by means of a standard solution of iodine. In the course of his ex- periments, Mr. Elliott noticed that a portion of the iron was not attacked by HCl, and that this insoluble residue yielded on fusing with pure caustic soda (prepared from sodium) sodic sul- phate. From this Mr, Elliott draws the conclusion that cast- lron contains sulphuric acid as well as sulphur. In somewhat similar manner the presence of phosphoric acid in cast-iron was ascertained. Dr. Debus doubted the probability of the occurrence of sulphuric acid in iron which had once been in a molten state. Mr, Church remarked that he had noticed in dissolving natural pyrites in H Cl, that very often an insoluble sulphide and phos- phide remained. At the same time, he considered the fusion of those residues with caustic alkalis as a sure means of conyerting the sulphur and the phosphorus into the respective acids, the alkalis being under such circumstances very powerful oxydising agents. Mr. Harcourt expressed his concurrence with Mr. Church’s remarks about the oxydising action in this case of caustic soda, Mr. Vacher did not wish to support Mr. Elliott's view about the presence of sulphuric acid in cast-iron, but there was the fact of one portion of the sulphur not being liberated by HCl, and this forces to the conclusion that cast-iron contains sulphur in another form than in that of the ordinary suiphide. —E. A, Letts, ‘* On the Composition of Hyposulphites.” Though the salts of the hyposulphurous acid have been comparatively well studied, much difference exists as to their chemical constitu- theoretical views of the union of S O, and \ O, the Presi- 60 tion. Rose states that an atom of water is retained by all the hyposulphites, and is essential to their composition. On the other hand, Pope and other chemists maintain that most, if not all the hyposulphites, can be obtained in the anhydrous condition. Mr. Letts undertook some experiments to asceriain whether hydrogen was to be regarded as an essential constituent of the hyposulph’ tes. The silts submitted to investigation were those of solium, barium, lead, strontium, magnesium, nickel, and cobilt.. The sodium salt lost all its water by drying in vacuo over sulphuric acid. The barium sait gives off its water by drying at 100° C. The plumbic hyposulphite, prepared by addng a solution of lead acetate to one of sodic hyposulphite, crystallises out from the liquid without any waier at all. This, then, is a case demonstrating without doubt that hydrogen is zot needed to complete the chemical censtitution of a hyposul- phite. The strontium salt retained, even afier drying at 200° C., half a molecule of water. The magnesium salt crystallising with six atoms of water, loses three of them at 100° C. ; but an attempt to expel more water causes the decomposition of this salt, The nickel hyposulphite, the crystals of which have also six H,O, do not part with any of it without undergoing de- composition. The cobaltic hyposulphite is even more unstable than the former salt. The President observed that the con- tents of the last paper set at rest the doubts which hitherto existed as to the constitution of the hyposulphites, and showed | that the water which they ordinarily contain is not essential to their chemical existence, BERLIN German Chemical Society, October 10.—President, Prof. Rammelsberg. The President repoited on the means employed by the society to promote disinfection of the battle-flelds and hospi- tals. A great number of German and foreign chemical manufac- turers had kindly responded to a circular requesting gifts of chemical disinfectants. From England, Messrs. Berger, Spence, & Co., Ballman and Condy, F. C. Calvert & Co, Crowther and Graeson, L. Demuth & Co., C. Kurtz and Sons, C. Lowe and Co., G. Lunge, George Miller and Co., T. Storey and Co., had sent various disinfecting agents. A table detailing the right use of disinfectants had been published and sent to the proper medical authorities and members of the society who have undertaken the supevintendence of disinfection in various towns. ‘The seat of war has been visited for the same purpose by six members of the society. The following papers were then read :—A. W. Hofmann : ‘ The history of Nitriles,” a reply to M. Mendele- jeff, who had published certain views, not knowing the same to have been promulgated before by the author.—T. Thomson : ** On the double chlo ide of Beryllium and Platinum.” This salt is isomorphous with the coresponding calcium salt, and not with the magnesium salts, ashad been supposed. The same author on “The supposed Connection of the law of Avogadro with the Mechanical Theory of Heat.” A mathematical deduction lately published by Naumann, contains, according to Thomson, an error validating its argument.—C. Rammelsberg, ina lecture on the relation of mineralogy and chemistry, urges upon mineralo- gists to apply the modern formule.—A, Bauer described an alloy of Jead and platinum of the formula Pt Pb. October 24.—H. Wichelhaus described 8 Nitronaphtol. This compound, which cannot be produced in the ordinary way, may be obtained by treating alcoholic solution of 8 naphthol with nitric acid, as was lately recommended by Bolley. The same chemist has obtained Triacetamide by applying a similar method to that employed by Kekulé in the preparation of diacetaimide. The latter is obtained by acting onacetonitrile with acetic acid ; the former by eee the acid by acetic anhydride: CH, CN + (C, H, O), O = (CH; C O)3 N. The three amides have nearly the same physical properties. Thediamide, according to Kekulé, forms salts. The triamide is an anhydride converted by P, O; into acetonitrile and acetic anhydride.—Petersen on Nitrochlorophenoles. By continuing the researches of Baer- Predari, the author has produced five of the six possible isomeric bodies of the above constitution—C, Rammelsberg, on Yttrocerite, determines the formula of the mineral Ce F,, 2 Fa 9 Ca Fy, 3 aq. Berzelius had found 1 Y 2Ce. Both VY and Ce represent rather groups of meta!s than well-defined single elements. In a discuss‘on following this communication, G. Rose calied attention to the isomorphism of yttrocerite and fluorspar, thinking that most likely the water found in the former (24 per cent.) ves not form a constituent part of the mineral, NATURE ‘ | Orthography : BOOKS RECEIVED Encuisu.—The Science of Building : E. W. Tarn (Lockwoods).--Elemen- tary Treatise of Natural Philosophy: A. P. Deschanel (Blackie and Sons).— Text books of Science; Mctals: C L Bloxam (Longmans) — Virgils Buco- lis in English Verse: R M. Millington (Longmans) —Usteology of the Mammalia: Prof. Flower (Macmillan and Co )—Ihe Academy, vol. i AmeERiICAN —Kirklos on Experimental Investigations into the Relationshiy of certain Lines, pt. 1: J. Harris (J. Lovell, Montreal), Foreicn.—{Through Williams and Norgate)—Biologische Studien: E. Haeckel.—Untersuchungen iiber den Bau des knéchernen Vogelkopfes : Dr. H. Magnus.---Der Schadel des Maskenschweines : Dr. J. C. Lucae.— Reityee zur vergleichenden Neurologie der Wirbelthiere : N.von Miklucho- aclay. PAMPHLETS RECEIVED Is a Ship-canal practicable? by S. T. Abert (Cincinnati).—Annual Report of the D.reetor of the Cincinnati Observatory —Fossil Sponge Spicules in the Greensand of Haldon and Blackdown: E. Parfict —Crustacea Podothalmata, and the H.stolozy of their Shells: E. Parfitt —1he Improvement of knglish D. P Fry —the Rainfall of the St. Mary Church-road, Tor- W. Pengelly ~The quay: W. Pengelly —The Rainfall in Devonshire, 1869 : suppo-ed Influence of the Moon on the Rainfall’: Vessels made of Hovey Lignite and of Kimmeridge Coal Pengelly,— The Ash hole and Bent-bone Caves at Brixham: W. Pengelly —The Litera- ture of the Caverns near Yealhampton: W. Peugelly.—Geography in relation to Physical Science: W Hughes, DIARY THURSDAY, Novemeer 17. Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 7.30.—Acoustics of the Orchestra ; Wind Instru- ments: Dr. W. H. Stone. 2 Cuemicat Society, at §.—Mineralogical Notices: Prof. N. Story Maske- lyne and Dr. Walter Flight. LINNEAN SOCIETY, the White-beaked Bottle-nose: Dr. James Murie. __ . Society or ANTIQUARIES, at 8 30.—Egyptian Antiquities, with remarks by Dr. Birch: Mr. W. R. Cooper. SUNDAY, NovemMser 20. Sunpay Lecrure Society, at 3.30.—On the Antiquity of Man; Dr, Cob- bold. MONDAY, November 21. Lonpon INsTITUTION, at 4.—Chemical Action; Prof. Odling. TUESDAY, NoveEMBER 22. Etunotocicat Society, at 8.—On the Concord, the Origin of Pronouns, and the Formation of Clusses or Genders of Nouns: Dr, W. H. J. Bleek.— On the Position of the Austra ian Languages: Dr. W. H. J. Bleek. WEDNESDAY, NovEMBER 23. GEoLociIcAL Society, at 8.—On some Points in South-African Geology : Mr. G. W. Stow.—Noteon some Reptilian Fossils from Gozzo: Mr, J. W. Hulke.—(n the Discovery of a Bone-bed in the Lowest of the Lynton Grey Beds, North Devon: Dr. F. Royston Fairbank. Sout KENSINGTON Museum, at 2.30.—Un the Clavecin and the Piano- forte: Ernst Pauer. Roya Society oF LireraTurE, at 8.30.—On the three Seals of Edward the Confessor: Walter De Gray birch. THURSDAY, NoveMBER 24. Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 7.30.—On the Precious Metals and their Distri- bution: Prof. Morris CONTENTS Pace Tue PRESENT EprtpEmic OF SCARLET Fever. By Dr. E. LANKESTER, ScHImper’s VFGETABLE PataionroLtocy. By Dr. J. D. Hooker, ¢ COB GIR BIS) (taut eae 5 owe 42 Tur Yosemite VALLEY AND THE Sierra Nevapa’ oF CALIFORNIA oe 44, Our BOOKSHELF _. PCCM Me eyes Lerrers To THE Eprtor:— The Teachings of ‘ribulation—‘‘ The Captain.”—Lieut.-Col. A. STRANGE, F.R.S. The Earliest Mention of the Aurora Lorealis.—R. G., sib P. Ear WAKER, J. JEREMIAH 60 i 2 © 4 \e 0. <3 iss + le tee a Hereditary Deformities.. /. [5 [s00.) sj. es a sel ee Ree Fertilisation of Plants». ae 2s + + te es ee te Ge Chip Hats —F H. Hooker . 47 The Electric Telegiaph and Earthquakes. —Dr. iT D. Hooker, CB., FRS. - 47 Ocean Currents. =: iG Jerrreys, E.R. S.; Colne GREENWOOD - 48 ‘The Milky Way.—J. JEREMIAH. «1 0 6 ee ew ww ee 4B Colour of Butterflies’ Wings . . Peer ce! New Mode cf Ev volving Light.—A PE TEaaas 2 0 a ce Oey Rane Philology and Darwinism . Spits) NATURAL SELECTION—Mr. Wattace’s Repty To Mr. BENNETT . « 49 SclENCE IN Paris . . . Ory Ce EOS Pror. HELMHOLTZ ON FARADAY. «ows ee ce ew ce + 5t EARTHQUAKE OF OcT. 20, 1870 2» « «© « « « 52 Novemser Mereors OnseRVED AT THE RAvcuirre OnSERVATORY. By tie hev. Rosgrt Mary, F.RS. . . « 6 ea - se ss 652 Notes .. amie et ka Pec) ecw rch eG) Ge ease be. 1S THE Microscope. a5 oye ES Reroxt or tHe Kew ComMirrEe oF Tue Brirish AsSoctation « + 55 SGIENTIFIC/SERTALS . he Suhel wa ete ve <* es le) ire SocisTIES AND ACADEMIES . « « « 5 se © © © «© © «© © « © 58 LCN) Sneed oC oof) ce a mec ES) Books AND PAMPHLETS RECEIVED . « 6 + + «© «© © + + @ «© « 60 [Mov. 17, 1890" Ww Pen ae on at 8.—On the Passifloree: Dr. M. T. Masters.—On ; - i] i : - other scientific bodies, to participate. NATURE 61 THURSDAY, NOVEMBER 24, 1870 THE CLAIMS OF SCIENCE HE Statistical Society, which held its first meeting for the session 1870-71 on Tuesday, the 15th inst.,had the claims of Science brought before it in a paper read to it by Dr. Guy, one of its vice-presidents. The paper was written with the practical aim of commending and furthering a scheme which the Statistical Society has set on foot, and in which it has invited the Institute of Actuaries, the Social Science Association, and several The object these societies have in view is to provide a common home in which they shall enjoy the advantage of fixity of tenure and the sense of permanence, with suitable and economi- cal arrangements for carrying on their scientific work. They wish to provide for themselves a common theatre, convenient offices, spacious libraries, and—in the case of societies requiring moderate museum accommodation— museums. All this the societies aim at accomplishing within moderate limits and at a reasonable cost ; for they feel very naturally that when the Government has made provision at Burlington House for six leading societies, and other institutions have provided their own isolated accommodation, there no longer remains any place or pretence for a large and comprehensive scientific centre. The building contemplated by the associated societies would have all the unity of character now practicable, if its principal tenants were to consist of societies having a common aim. Such an aim is to be found in the culture of the sciences now known as “social,” or societies which make man himself, as the unit of society, the object of their study. If we define Science as “knowledge in its most defi- ' nite, condensed, and exquisite form, dealing with worthy objects, and applied to worthy uses,” it may be stated, as a truth worthy of general acceptance, that every branch of knowledge that is, by common consent, stamped with the word scéence, aims at some useful and worthy object, studies a certain defined order of things, which it identifies by accurate descriptions and exact definitions, by expres- sive words and phrases ; which it arranges in lucid order, under classes and sub-classes ; on which it brings to bear the most delicate instruments and most refined methods of analysis ; to which it applies, as far as practicable, the rules of logic and the figures of arithmetic ; crowning the entire edifice, if it proves equal to the burthen, with some comprehensive numerical theory. Es — =. Passing from this general view of science, and coming to that branch of it now known as sacéal, we may trace the seeds of it back to the parish registers of 1538 and the enactment of Henry VIII., respecting leases for three lives, or twenty-one years, through the London Bills of Mortality and the commentaries of Grount and Petty, through the early attempts of Halley to construct a table of mortality from the death registers of Breslau, through the prison inspections of John Howard, up tothe establishment of the Statistical Society in 1834, and the foundation of the Social Science Association in 1857; the Statistical Society having, as is well known, been set on foot with the object of collecting “ facts 2 VOL. IIT. calculated to illustrate the condition and prospects of society,” which was what Gottfried Ochenwall, of Gét- tingen, who coined the word S%adis¢z&, really meant by that word. The Social Science Association, therefore, was a second development and a modified culture of that branch or division of human knowledge—that science of States— to which had been previously given the name of Statis- tics. The two societies have a common aim—the im- provement of man’s condition physical, intellectual, and moral, through the patient heaping up, intelligent sorting, and critical examination of the elements of a knowledge which, properly applied, is power indeed. This social science, of which the /zstztute a7 Actuaries cultivates a very important section, differs from most other sciences chiefly in this, that its units are of variable magnitude, and that its truths and principles, gathered from large assemblages of such units, admit of application only to like collections of facts, not to the individual units themselves. The actuary has the function of first estab- lishing truths of this order, and then applying them; the statist must ]ook to the statesman to carry into effect the practical works of justice and benevolence. The asso- ciation of the Statistical Society and Institute of Actuaries with the Social Science Association and Law Amendment Society is, therefore, one pointed out by the nature of things; and we may hope to see them some day working side by side under one roof with one common aim—“ the improvement of man’s estate.” But this prin- ciple of association admits of being carried much farther, so as at lengthto embrace in one group, under one roof, all the societies or associations that make man himself, as a physical and moral unit, the object of their study. The section of Dr. Guy's paper that treated of sczentijic socteties ana associations, consisted of an historical retro- spect of the rise and origin of most of the societies now existing, finishing with some details of the number and composition of the Statistical Society’s members, and of the numberof membersof theallied societies. Into thesedetails we shall not enter, but we shall restrict ourselves, in what we have yet to say, to the views expressed by Dr. Guy on the subject of the claims of science to public recognition and support. After pointing out that science has fouad fayour, encouragement, and support under every form of Government, that kings have acknowledged that it adds lustre even to thrones, and republics have deemed it quite consistent with their sterner virtue to hold ont to it the hand of fellowship—a recent notable example of which has been afforded in the pecuniary assistance and means of transport afforded by the United States to two parties of its citizens bent upon voyages to Spain and Sicily to view the total eclipse on the 22nd of December, an example which our Government has at last, however, willingly consented to follow,--the paper proceeded to do justice to our own Government. The refusal, followed by a slow repentance, was quite an exception to the rule in England. It could only have occurred during one of those cold fits of economy to which the nation is subject at the close of some feverish paroxysm of prodigal expenditure ; or it may have been an outbreak of the hypochondriac fancy that they are on the brink of ruin, which is apt to seize the richest nations no less than the wealthiest indi- viduals. It is not difficult to show that Science, in the E 62 NATURE [ov. 24, 1870 sense of knowledge of the more precise, exact, and exquisite order, has claims to public recognition and sup- port on the ground of benefits conferred on the nation in the shape both of honour and profit ; that it shares with righteousness the prerogative of exalting a nation (for the love of truth, which causes men to seek after knowledge and the patient industry and self-denial which are the first conditions of the search, are among the manly virtues that give strength and solidity to a people) ; that it must be preferred before learning, as being more practical, and coming into more direct contact with the realities of life ; before art, as less apt to be turned to unworthy uses, more sure not to become an agent of effeminacy and luxury. Of the good gifts which Science showers upon man- kind, we may find grand and convincing examples in the works of the hygienic heroes of the last cen- tury—Sir George Baker and his masterly demonstra- tion of the cause of the Devonshire colic, Captain Cook and his successful prevention of scurvy, John Howard and his prison work, ending in the destruction of the Jail Fever, and Jenner, with his discovery of vaccination. We fully sympathise with the concluding words of this part of our author’s paper :— By what figures of arith- metic shall I attempt to measure the greatness of these four gifts of science, freely bestowed upon us, and upon all men everywhere, in the short space of a single genera- tion? I believe it to be no exaggeration to affirm that the great war of the French Revolution was brought to a successful issue as much through the lives thus saved as by the valour of our soldiers and sailors. Such have been the triumphs, such the precious gifts, of this one science of hygiéne.” Other illustrations of the same class, that is to say, showing direct profit to the nation, may be drawn from the Science of Chemistry, of which the whole history, from first to last, is one un- broken series of purely scientific discoveries made for love of truth, without thought or hope of reward, but, sooner or later, turning to profit in the hands of our manufacturers. We might cite examples from the discoveries of Davy and Daniell, and the arts of electrotyping and photo- graphy, discoveries appealing to universal experience of the manifold obligations under which science and scientific men have Jaid mankind for all the arts which make our civilised existence to differ from the rude life of the savage. The Penny Post, with its world-wide benefits, is the result of a scientific demonstration belonging to the methods and domain of Social Science. We conclude with the following statement of the special claims of the Statistical Society and its asso- ciates in the culture of Social Science :—‘‘ The scien- tific labours of our members, inspired by a mere love of truth, looking to no pecuniary reward, and bear- ing directly on the very questions which come under discussion in the Legislature, are in many cases a direct saving of expense to the nation. An impor- tant (perhaps a very costly) return is made to Parlia- ment. Itabounds in tables and columns of figures. The work of analysis, which must be undertaken if the return is not to become so much waste paper, if Parliament and the public are to profit by the expense incurred—this work of analysis is done by some member of the society seized with a wholesome curiosity to know the truth. He bestows upon it time, and thought, and the skill acquired by practice ; he submits his work to the criticism of the Society, his paper is published in its Fournal, at its proper cost; and thus the public and the Government save money and become possessed of wholesome and fruitful truths.” These are claims which, we think, the Government will feel bound to recognise, and we wish the cultivators of the Social Societies every success when they come to represent them in the proper quarter. THE SOURCES OF PHOSPHATIC MANURES r RACTICE with Science” is the title of a volume of essays (the second of a series), issuing from the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, and containing contributions from the members of the staff of that institu- tion. Amongst other papers is an interesting account by Prof. Thiselton Dyer of the geological distribution of Tricalcic Phosphate ; that is to say, a sketch of the chief sources of mineral phosphate of lime, whether as apatite, osteolite, phosphatite, coprolite, or guano. Mr, Dyer points out the abundance of phosphate of lime in igneous rocks, but hesitates about tracing its origin in such beds either to direct chemical combination, or to the inclusion of organically-formed phosphate in the rocks in question. He does not, in short, discuss the possibility of the com- bination of phosphoric acid and lime in the primeval state of the globe without the intervention of life, which one distinguished geologist at least denies. Mr. Dyer traces the occurrence of tricalcic phosphate in the various sedimentary deposits with great care, having obviously taken much trouble to render his statement an exhaustive one. He considers the many struc- tureless masses of phosphatic deposits which occur “as residuary evidence of formerly existing life, of which they are. to some extent the measure,” as graphite is in other cases. A greater influence in the production of these masses is attributed to animal than to vegetal life, though marine plants are stated to be especially rich in phosphate of lime, and have undoubtedly played their part in its in- troduction into sedimentary strata. Mr. Dyer mentions that the recent Brachiopod Lingula has 86 per cent. of phosphate of lime in the mineral ingredients of its shell ; and the occurrence of large quantities of phosphate of lime in the great Laurentian and Silurian formations is noticed by him in detail, as well as its occurrence in Devonian and Carboniferous limestones. In emerging to the group of mesozoic strata, we leave behind almost entirely those veins and beds of “phosphate” which occur in the older and more changed rocks, where the segregation of the phosphate of lime has been more completely effected, owing to the greater age of the beds. In mesozoic and tertiary strata we find those nodules which have so erroneously been confused with “coprolites”—the droppings of fish, which are not unfrequently preserved in the fine sediment of the Liassic and the Rheetic beds of the chalk—though beds of flaggy phosphate also occur in some deposits of this age. Mr. Dyer accepts the history of the origin of these nodules which I have advocated (Geol. Magazine, vol. v.), in de- scribing those which occur below the Suffolk Crags. Clay has a remarkable power of detaching phosphate of lime from its solution in carbonated water; and the phosphatic er V Nov. 24, 1870] NATURE 63 nodules are bits of clay which have become imbedded with great quantities of bones, and in some cases, very probably—as suggested by Mr. Seeley, of Cambridge, with regard to the Cambridge nodules—with sea-weed too ; whence, by the intervention of gas-charged water, they have extracted the phosphate: hence all beds of phos- phatic nodules occur near to argillaceous strata of special character. Much of this process, no doubt, went on whilst the bones and clay-lumps lay on the ancient shores, and were daily washed and infiltrated by the sea-water, or lay entirely submerged in masses: but Mr. Dyer thinks that the process of transference would continue after the beds had been left high and dry, and may be now going on; though I think it is clear that the phosphate of lime in the nodules came from bones which have been destroyed and lost in the process, having been very different in mineral condition to the fragments which now remain amongst the nodules of these valuable “bone-beds.” Mr. Dyer notices Rhetic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Tertiary accumulations of phosphatic nodules. There is one which has not been hitherto recorded, and which is not alluded to in this paper, but is interesting, and in a well-known locality ; it occurs in the Wealden series, near Brook, in the Isle of Wight, and is in parts five or six feet thick. The nodules are light-coloured, and aggregated into masses so as to form a solid bed, and not a pebbly conglomerate, as is usual. The distribution and origin of Guano is briefly given. True guano is simply the dung of sea-fowl, and can only accumulate in rainless districts. Guano rock is the result of the action of water on this matter and subjacent cal- careous coral rocks ; the celebrated Sombrerite is of this nature. It is very possible that much of the palzeozoic phosphatic rock may have been produced in this way, in those beds, at any rate, which we may believe to have been formed subsequently to the evolution of terrestrial vertebrate forms of life. The other essays in this volume treat of more strictly agricultural subjects, and are accordingly of more limited interest. E. Ray LANKESTER SCIENTIFIC VEAR BOOKS The Year-Book of Facts in Science and Art. By John Timbs. Pp. 288. (London: Lockwood and Co., 1870.) Annual of Scientific Discovery, or Year-Book of Facts in Science and Art for 1870, Edited by John Trowbridge, aided by Samuel Kneeland, M.D., and W. R. Nichols. Pp. xxii. and 354. (Boston: Gouldand Lincoln; London: Triibner and Co., 1870.) L’ Année Scientifique et Industrielle. Par Louis Figuier. Quatorziéme Année (1869), pp. 606. (Paris: Hachette; London: Williams and Norgate, 1870.) Causeries Scientifigues. Neuviéme Année (1869). Par Henri de Parville. Pp. 363. (Paris: Rothschild ; Lon- don : Williams and Norgate, 1870.) Annuaire Scientifique. Par P. P. Dehérain. Neuviéme Année (1869), pp. 387. (Paris: Masson; London: Williams and Norgate, 1870.) Fahrbuch der Erfindungen. _Herausgegeben von H. Hirzel, und H. Greschel. Fiinfter Jahrgang, pp. 416. Leipzig: Quant; London: Williams and Norgate, 1869.) ROUPING thesevolumes according tothelanguagesin whichtheyarewritten, we may dismiss the first two with a very fewremarks. Mr. Timbs literally gives his readers nothing whatever but a collection of cuttings from the most miscellaneous sources, including the Pa// Mall Gazette, Times, Spectator, Illustrated News, Liverpool A lbion, &c. ; while Mr, Trowbridge and his coadjutors (who have a respectable scientific status) present us with a much more perfect, although still an incomplete, picture of the leading discoveries of the year. The introductory notes by the Editor constitute the most valuable portion of the American book, which treats of the progress of science, underthe respective heads of (1) Mechanics and Useful Arts, occupying 135 pages; (2) Natural Philosophy, to which 64 pages are devoted; (3) Chemistry, (4) Geology, (5) Biology, (6) Astronomy and Meteorology, and (7) Geography and Antiquities. This volume, like that of Mr. Timbs, exhi- bits a too free use of the scissors, but the extracts are almost invariably taken from periodicals of good scientific repute. If our readers requireany specific evidence of the English editor’s unfitness for his office, we would refer them to the article headed “ Singular Plant,” in p. 200 of the “ Year- Book of Facts.” It is obvious from the most cursory pe- rusal of the history of this “singular plant,” that it is merely a fine specimen of coral, and the absurdity of the story was exposed in a number of the Gardener’s Chronicle subsequent to that in which it originally appeared. The correction was, however, overlooked by the learned editor. The French Year-Books differ materially from one another in their modes of arrangement. In this respect we prefer that of M. Figuier to the others. It includes a large number of subjects arranged in the following order :— Astronomy, Mechanics, Physics, Meteorology, Chemistry, Civil Engineering, Voyages and Travels, Natural History, Public Health, Physiology and Medicine, Agriculture, and the Industrial Arts. The science-gossips of M. de Parville are a collection of papers such as a physicist might contribute to a popular journal, The matter in this volume is more digested, and is in a far less crude and fragmentary state than in the other books we have noticed, and the individual facts are dovetailed together so as to make the style agreeable and the reading continuous. It includes in its range— Astronomy, Physics, Mechanics, Chemistry, Physiology and Medicine, Natural History, Engineering, and un- placeable topics. In some respects M. Dehérain’s volume is the best of the three. Although less comprehensive inits scope than that of M. Figuier, or even than that of De Parville, it is more perfect so far as it goes. It is divided into two parts, treating respectively of the pure and of the applied sciences. Under the pure sciences he places Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry, Meteorology, Botany, Physiology, and Anthropology; while the applied sciences include Civil Engineering, Applied Chemistry, Medicine, and Exploitation des Animaux, for which we have no exact English equivalent. Itis, we think, doubtful whether this sub-division of the sciences will bear criticism, but it is needless at present to discuss that subject. Instead of flying from flower to flower like the busy bee of our early days, M. Dehérain confines himself to one or two of the most important subjects in each department, and these he treats with far more fulness than the preceding writers. For example, under Chemistry we have an article on Explosive Compounds, containing a review of the works of Nobel, Abel, Berthelot, and Saint-Claire Deville, by the 64 editor ; and another, by M. Laudrin, on the Influence of Pressure on Chemical Phenomena, being a review of the works of MM. Berthelot and Cailletet ; and these, with a biographical sketch of Professor Graham, complete the section on this science. Similarly, the only information that he gives us on Botany is included in an article by M. Vignes on the Geographical Distribution of Vegetable Species, based on the works of Sir Dalton Hooker (szc), and an article by himself on the Maturation of the Cereals. Amongst the subjects most fully considered by MM. Figuier and De Paryille are the Suez Canal ; the cause of the explosion in the Place de Sorbonne, and the recent NATURE history of picrates and other explosive compounds ; the | discussion regarding the modification of the metre; the Newton-Pascal forgeries ; chloral and its action ; and the deleterious effects of absinthe. The question whether Coralline (one of the coal-tar colours) is or is not dele- terious as a dye is fully discussed in the volumes of MM. Figuier and Dehérain, Although it is less extensive in its range of subjects, we are inclined to prefer Hirzel andGretschel’s “ Year-book of Inventions” to any of the preceding volumes. The depart- ments of science which it includes are Astronomy, Physics and Meteorology, Mechanics and Mechanical Technology, | and Chemistry and Chemical Technology. With the view of briefly explaining the arrangement adopted by the editors, we may state that under “ Physics and Meteo- rology” are included molecular physics, acoustics, optics, the theory of heat, and electricity and magnetism. Under the heading “Mechanics and Mechanical Technology,” only five subjects are considered, but they are all treated in considerable detail. They are—dynanometers, mecha- nism applied to locomotion (including the mountain railway system of Marsh and Fell, the road engines of Larmanjat and Thompson, velocipedes,and Kettendampff- | schifffahrt or chain-steam-navigation), sewing and knitting machines, to which more than thirty pages are devoted, and new pumps constructed on various principles. This work is executed in a higher scientific spirit than any of the preceding volumes, excepting, perhaps, that of M. Dehérain. It would carry us far beyond the proposed bounds of the present article if we were to notice, however briefly, the | various German Year-Books that are devoted to special subjects, and some of which—as for example the great Year-Book of Chemistry founded by Liebig and Kopp— are complete histories of the science of which they treat. | There are, however, two French Year-Books of this class, of comparatively small size, that are deserving of notice, ‘and which we can strongly recommend to the notice of our readers, namely, M. Micé’s “ Rapport sur le Progrés de la Chimie Organique,” of which only one volume has yet appeared, and M. Vivien de St. Martin’s “L’Année | ut | as the Pictured Rocks of Lake Superior, and the Mauvaises Geographique,” of which the eighth volume, for 1869, is now lying before us. Both of these works are models of amount of labour on the part of their respective editors. We should be very glad to see something like “L’Année Geographique” attempted in this country, where we have no summary of the annual progress of geographical progress, excepting the necessarily imperfect summary contained in the anniversary address delivered by the President of the Geographical Society. GED. [Wov. 24, 1870 OUR BOOK SHELF An Elementary Course of Botany; Structural, Physiolo- gical, and Systematical, By Prof. Arthur Henfrey. II- lustrated by upwards of 50c Woodcuts. Second Edition, revised, and in part re-written, by Maxwell T, Masters, M.D. (Van Voorst: 1870.) We heartily welcome a new edition of this standard work, brought fairly down to the present state of knowledge by one of our most active and conscientious botanists. We have not yet had time to collate the present edition with the original. Cutting the pages (what an unnecessary nuisance this isin lesson-books !), no criticism worth noting occurs to us, unless it be by way of protest against the double index—one of plant-names, the other general and glossarial. This is certainly worse than letting the book into the market uncut! Had the work been new and | original, other comments would not have been wanting ; as | it stands, we can only congratulate the editor on the very satisfactory way in which he has accomplished his work. By the way, with regard to starch, about which Prof. Henfrey was rather strong, we can imagine the sort of | haze a student who had been grinding from this edition (pp. 495-496) would manifest in his paper, were he asked to state something of the origin of that substance. Notthat there is any inaccuracy in the book, but rather because possession of a greater amount of preliminary knowledge than it is reasonable to look for seems to be taken for granted. Some hint might have been given as to the head-quarters of Aleurone. Lastly, we should have pre- ferred seeing Amphisarca, Tryma, Diplotegia, and their kin quietly dropped out of the edition. We doubt if there be a professor of botany in the island worth his salt who could define them. po es Sketches of Creation. A Popular View of some of the Grand Conclusions of the Sciences in reference to the History of Matter and of Life. By Alexander Winchell, LL.D. (London: S. Low, Son, and Marston, 1870.) THE main portion of this volume is occupied by a sketch of the geological history of the earth; and had Prof. Winchell confined himself within strictly scien- tific limits, the book would have been one in every respect commendable. ‘The titles of some of the chapters are sensational and repellent, e.g. “The Ordeal by Fire,” “The Solar System in a Blaze,” “Onward through the Ages;” and we could have wished that the author had kept aloof from speculations which are, to say the least, not profitable to the class to whom the book is addressed —on the former gaseous condition of the world and the solar system ; and on the possible evolution of an. animal superior to man. These parts being eliminated, the book may be safely relied on as the work of a practical geolo- gist, who has a thorough acquaintance with his subject ; and being laudably free from the excessive use of tech- nical terms, occupies a placenot precisely filled by any English treatise. The illustrations are numerous, and very various in quality.. The drawing of Fingal’s Caye | at Staffa is a grotesque caricature ; with others we are familiar in well nigh every geological handbook ; especially interesting to English readers are those illustrative of the gigantic scale of geological action in the United States, Terres of Dacotah. Two chapters “On the Vitality of 3 buried Vegetable Germs,” and “ On Prairies and their tree- what such volumes ought to be, and show an immense | : , lessness,” have special reference to Prof. Winchell’s well- known theory that the present vegetation of the prairies of America is lineally descended from that of the pre- glacial epoch, the seeds having retained their vitality in the ground during the whole of the intermediate time. We cannot admit that the instances quoted by the author of vegetable tissue retaining its s¢rwcture during an enor- mous lapse of time, when not exposed to the oxidising influence of the air, have any bearing on the question s a a ee eee _I have done so, I am unable to discover. Nov. 24, 1870] NATURE 65 whether germs can retain their v/fality for the same lengthened periods ; as he himself says, the proof of the theory ought to rest on direct evidence: “ It must be con- fessed that the crucial observation has yet to be made ; if vegetable germs exist in the drift, they can be discovered beforehand. I am not aware that any thorough search has ever been made for them.” LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | The Difficulties of Natural Selection Mr. Wallace’s ‘* Reply” has disappointed me. From his un- rivalled knowledge of the forms of animal life in those countries where nature is the most luxuriant, and from the extraordinary in- terest with which he invests every subject that he handles, I had expected from him something more conclusive than that he should charge his opponent with errors which he has not com- mitted, and should reply to his arguments by a simple begging of the question. The first ‘‘ important error” with which Mr. Wallace charges me is, that ‘‘I lead my readers to understand that there is only one completely mimicking species of Zeféalis.” Where I have, it is true, adduced one particular and striking instance as a sample of the rest, but distinctly say that “in a comparatively small area, several distinct instances of such perfect mimicry occur ;’ and point out how strongly, in my view, this tells against the theory of Natural Selection. In the next paragraph, ‘‘three great oversights ” are alleged. Firstly, ‘‘that each Zeftalis produces not one only, but perhaps twenty or fifty offspring.” Mr. Wallace can hardly have supposed that I imagined each butterfly laid only a single egg, like the rok. The argument, however, is unaffected. In a species the numbers of which do not materially vary from year to year, it is obvious that, whatever the number of eggs laid, only one offspring from each individual, or rather two from each pair, survive to the pericd at which they themselves produceoffspring. The ‘‘second oversight” is “that the right variation has, dy the /ypothesis, a greater chance of surviving than the rest ; and the third, that at each succeeding generation the influence of heredity becomes more and more powerful.” By what hypothesis? ‘Ihe hypo- thesis that these small variations in the right direction are useful to the individual—the very hypothesis against which I am con- tending as unproved; as neat a case of Zetitio ¢rincipii as one often meets with. My ‘‘ errors” in fact, amount to a non-admission of my opponent’s premisses, who then naively adds, ‘‘ with these three modifications the weight of the argument is entirely destroyed !’’ Of course it is, The ‘‘new factor of which I take no actount”? in the next paragraph, is again entirely dependent on the admission of the natural selectionist premisses. With regard to the distinction between man and other animals, I much regret if I have unwittingly misrepresented Mr, Wallace’s view ; but if I have done so, I think it is owing to that view not having yet been clearly pronounced. Mr. Wallace distinctly states his opinion that ‘‘a superior intelligence has guided the development of man in a definite direction.” | (‘* Contributions,” p. 359. I have Mr. Wallace’s own authority for saying that M. Claparede has misinterpreted him in referring this superior intelligence to a ‘‘ Force supérieure,” a direct action of the Creator; what alternative is there left but to suppose that it was man’s own intelligence that he had in view? Whenever Mr, Wallace more clearly enunciates this portion of his theory, I think there will be no difficulty in showing that the same principle, whatever it may be;.is operative in the lower creation as well as in man. Having disposed, as I think, of Mr. Wallace’s chief points of reply, I may be permitted to point out one or two errors into which he has himself, itfseems to me, fallen. The changes of mimicry are, he says, ‘‘ wholly superficial, and are almost entirely confined to colour.” I was certainly surprised to read this, recollecting so many instances to the contrary, not only among tropical insects, but in the close approximation in form of some | of our own Diptera to certain genera of Hymenoptera; and recollecting also the numerous illustrations of protective form and habit which Mr, Wallace himself gives, not only describing | which natural selection may be considered a prime factor. | these, I think, I have not misrepresented. them but haying also drawn them with such exquisite fidelity, (See ‘‘Malayan Archipelago.”) In the Kal/lima paralekta of Sumatra, for instance, he says, ‘‘we thus have size, colour, form, markings, and habits, all combining together to pro- duce a disguise which may be said to be absolutely perfect.” (‘‘ Contributions,” p. 61). Another sentence I had to read three or four times before I could believe that Mr. Wallace had penned it. In objecting to my parallelism between the development of protective resemblance and of instinct, he says, ‘in birds mimi- cry is very rare, only two or three cases being known.”’ I do not know whether Mr. Wallace draws any subtle distinction between ‘*mimicry ” and ‘* protective resemblance ;” but if so, he should have noticed that it is the latter which I speak of as ‘‘ being strongly developed in birds.” I had, on reading the above sén- tence, to tum again to my ‘‘ Contributions,” to see whether I was correct in my impression that we find there the statement that ‘‘in the desert the upper plumage of every bird without exception is of one uniform isabelline or sand colour;” that “the ptarmigan is a fine example of protective colouring” (‘* Contributions,” pp. 50, 51), and that two whole chapters aré devoted to the wonderful protective instinct of birds in the | matter of their nests. On one point raised in my parer I am disposed somewhat to modify my views, and I do so with the greatest pleastite, in my objection, namely, to the title of Mr. Darwin’s gtéat work. Taking the origin of sfczes as distinct from the origin of mere varieties, there is undoubtedly a sense, as Mr. Wallace points oiit, ih The law of variation is a centrifugal, the law of natural selection 4 centripetal force ; the one acting by itself would produce a wild chaos, the other a barren uniformity ; equilibrium can only be the result of their joint co-operation. Whatever may be my “‘ihability to grasp the theory,” I hopé I have shown that [ have not falleii into the errors with which Mr. Wallace charges me. All the main points of the argument seem to me to be left untouched by him. Me has brought for- ward no evidence that extremely small variations do afford any immunity from the attacks of enemies. He gives no explanation of the tendency of the Zef/a/is referred to by Mr. Bates ‘to produce naturally varieties of a nature to resemble Zthomtie,” He does not attempt to account for the parallelism of the develop- ment of protective resemblance aiid of instinct in the animal world. He fails to explain the nature of the intelligence which was opera- tive in the creation of man, and which isa principle unknown in the rest of the organic world. Students of Nattire who have spent their lives in their own country must always yield in point of experience to those who have had the advantage of comparing the faunze and florze of other climates, and can only arrive at their conclusions from the facts brought to their notice by travellers ; Appeal to authority, as authority, is always to be deprecated in Science. I may, how- ever, perhaps be permitted to strengthen my position by a quo- tation from a work, which I had not read at the time of writing my paper, by one who will be acknowledged to have some know- ledge of the ways of Nature (Huxley’s Lay Sermons, p. 323) — “ After much consideration, and with assurecly no bias against Mr. Dartwin’s views, it is our clear conviction that, as the evi- dence stands, it is not absolutely proven that a group of animals, having all the characters exhibited by a species in Nature, has ever been originated by selection, whether artificial or natural.” ALFRED W. BENNETL Westminster Hospital, Nov. 19 ; Fee P.S.—Since writing the above, Mr. Jenner Weir has kindly called my attention to two papers read by him before the Entomological Society, ‘‘ On the Relation between the Colour and the Edibility of Lepidoptera and theit Larve.” In one of these I find the following remarkable statement :—‘‘ Insectivorous birds, as a general rule, refuse to eat hairy larvee, spinous larve, and all thosé whose colours are very gay, and which rarely, or only accidentally conceal themselves. On the other hand, they eat with great relish all smooth-skinned laivee of a green or dull brown colour, which are nearly always nocturnal in their habits or mimic the colour or appearance of the plant they frequent.” Here at least it would seem as if imferfect mimicry was any- thing but beneficial to the individual ; how can the principle 6 natural selection account for its propagation in these instarices ? Tue soul of many an anti-Darwinian will have been cheered by Mr. A. W. Bennett's paper on “‘ The Theory of Natural Selection from a Mathematical Point of View.” It is, in fact, a very 66 NATURE [Nov. 24, 1870 admirable piece of special pleading, based on a skilful assump- tion of premisses which, to a careless or biassed observer, might seem indisputable. The tendency to variation is spoken of as something very mys- terious, of which no adequate account has ever yet been given. Yet the very simple explanation is no bad one, that where two parents are concerned in the production of any offspring, the product in part resembling each of the producers must of ne- cessity also in part differ from each of them. Between the parents themselves, Mr. Herbert Spencer has shown that differences of age and external circumstances would ensure the requisite want of resemblance in the absence of any other cause. ‘« The rigid test of mathematical calculation” is then applied to the case of mimetic butterflies, with the view of showing that they could not have been produced simply according to the laws of variation, inheritance, and natural selection. In the applica- tion of this rigid test the very first step is a perfectly gratuitous assumption, ‘*that it would require, at the very lowest calcula- tion, 1,000 steps to enable the normal Zef/a/is to pass on its protective form.” Who is to prove that fifty differences would beinsufficient? An interval of athousand years might be granted for establishing each one of these variations. Suppose even 50,000, instead of only 50 steps to be necessary, it is another gratuitous assumption that ‘‘the smallest change in the direc- tion of the /thomia, which we can conceive in any hypothesis to be beneficial to the Zeféalis, is at the very lowest one-fiftieth of the change required to produce perfect resemblance.” How small a difference must decide the choice made by a donkey placed equidistant between two bundles of hay! Certainly, then, a bird on the wing, having to choose amidst myriads of butter- flies, may be determined by an almost infinitesimal distinction, Further, though the whole change may be produced by an im- mense number of small changes, it is not necessary to suppose that all the changes will be equally small. It is merely begging the question to assume that the first change could not possibly be large enough to be of any use. And if it may be of use, the whole mathematical calculation, based on its being useless, breaks down from the beginning. Again, since the Zeffa/is may have spent 1,000,000 years in arriving at its present likeness to the present Z¢homia, it is impossible to assert that the normal forms of the two butterflies were as wide apart at the beginning of that period as they are at present. ‘The mimicry having once set in, might be retained by parallel variations. This, indeed, cannot fail to be the case, if the protection is to bea lasting one ; for when the /thomia varies in outward appearance, unless the Leptalis varies in the same direction, the resemblance will be lost. This progressive mimicry would be more valuable than an imi- tation in which no changes occurred, since the enemies of a mi- metic species would in time become aware of a fraud which had no variations at its command, as birds are said now-a-days to pounce without hesitation upon caterpillars which very much resemble twigs. Even ‘‘a rough imitation” may be useful in the first instance, and yet when hostile eyes have long been exer- cised, and have acquired greater and greater sharpness, finally nothing less than adso/ute identity of appearance may be thoroughly effective. Thus the perfecting of the resemblance will be no ‘mere freak of Nature,” nor shall we be ‘‘landed in the di- lemma that the /as¢ stages are comparatively useless” in this procedure. The array of figures brought forward to prove that the Zep- talis could not have made twenty steps of variation in the direc- tion of the Zéhomia by chance, would be much to the purpose if any exponent of the theory of Natural Selection had ever argued or supposed that it could. The calculation takes it for granted that the theory is erroneous, instead of proving it to be in error. Upon this assumption, it might have been put far more strongly, only that a stronger way of putting it would have borne on the face of it the suspicion of some inherent fallacy. It begins by supposing that there are “‘twenty different ways in which a Leptalis may vary, only one of these being in the direction ulti- mately required ;” it might quite as truthfully, or even more so, have said a thousand instead of twenty, and then the second step would have given the chance as only one in a million, instead of one in four hundred. But while the theory of Natural Selec- tion speaks of numerous minute useful variations, Mr. Bennett will not allow that combination of terms. Let them be numerous and minute, if you will, he says, but if small they cannot be use- ful, if useful they cannot be small. He claims to have Mr. Darwin’s own word for it, that a large variation would not be permanent, as though Mr. Darwin had said, “living creatures have come to be what they are by successive useful deviations. of structure permanently propagated, but no large deviations are permanent, and no small ones are useful.” It is quite obvious that in the use of relative terms, such as great and small, Mr. Darwin neither intended to stultify himself nor has done so. A thing may be large enough to be useful without being large as compared with something twenty times its own size; and a man may be said to have a huge brain in a very small body, although the body in solid content far exceeds the brain. When Mr. Darwin says that ‘‘ Natural Selection always acts with ex- treme slowness,” he does not imply that its steps must therefore be ‘so numerous as to be too small to confer any advantage. This would be a contradiction in terms. But the steps may be exceedingly small notwithstanding, and also sometimes separated by enormous intervals of time from one another. In introducing his own explanation of things, Mr. Bennett affirms that ‘‘ resemblances, and resemblances of the most wonderful and perfect kind” in the vegetable kingdom, ‘“‘ are in no sense mimetic or protective.” This may be so, but it can hardly be said to be proved. When he speaks of ‘‘ man’s reason” haying ‘‘assisted him so to modify his body as to adapt himself to the circumstances with which he is surrounded,” and suggests that the instinct of animals may have assisted them also to modify their bodies by slow and gradual degrees to the same purpose, it is difficult to imagine the process intended, and still more difficult to see how ‘‘the slow and gradual degrees ” will escape the rigid test of mathematical calculation which Mr, Bennett has elsewhere applied ; for if the steps are great they ought not to be permanent, and if small they ought not to be useful. A theory which makes it possible for a bee to ‘‘ modify its proboscis” by instinct, or for a man to treat his nose in the same manner by reason, seems harder of digestion than the Dar- winian. Tuomas R. R. STEBBING Torquay, Nov, 12 Mr. BENNETT‘, in his very able paper read before the British Association at Liverpool, and published in NATURE of the roth November, calls in question the explanation given by the theory of Natural Selection of the various instances of mimicry found in the animal kingdom. He bases his argument principally on the fact that the altera- tions in the early stages being useless to the animal would not be preserved, and that these changes must be very slow. — He assumes that to enable the normal Zef/a/zs to imitate a species of Zthomia, it may be considered to have gone through at least 1,000 stages, and that no change less than one-fiftieth of the whole alteration effected would be of any use to the insect. He gives us no information as to how he arrives at these figures, and we are left with the idea that they are selected principally because they are what are called ‘‘ round numbers,” and are more easily dealt with in the calculation which he gives us. Now I think that the number of stages which Mr. Bennett con- siders it necessary for a Zeffalis to pass through so as to mimic an Jthomia is vastly too great: I,000 stages means at least 1,000 years. Let us look at the alteration which frequently takes place in the colouring of a butterfly, possibly in one generation, as shown by varieties of which sometimes only solitary specimens are known, figured in Newman’s work on English Butterflies, I need only refer your readers to the figures of varieties of 4patura iris, Epinephele janira, Limenitis sibylla, Melitea athalia. Now can it be contended that it required 1,000 of such stages to effect the alteration ? If any of these variations happened to be useful, there seems no reason for supposing that one stage might not make much more than ;; of the alteration, which Mr. Bennett lays down as being the least which would be useful, and which I agree with him in considering much too small. Why might not one stage make one-fourth or one-sixth of the alteration required ? Mr. Darwin quotes a passage in his work on Natural Selec- tion (page 32) from Sir John Sebright with regard to pigeons, in which he says that it takes three years to produce a given feather, but six years to make a head and beak. If the bony structure of an animal so far above a butterfly can be altered in six years, we surely do not require more than that time to effect an alteration in the colour of a butterfly’s wing. Mr. Bennett states that the early stages of the alteration would be useless to the insect; every one, I think, will grant this, when each stage is only one-thousandth of the whole, but not if it be = Nov. 24, 1870] NATURE 67 a much larger quantity. Here again we may observe the in- stance Mr. Bennett quotes, the mimicry of Zeffa/is to Jthomia. Leptalis is normally a white insect, and as such, would be more liable to attacks from its persecutors, as shown by Mr. Wallace, while any variation which gave colour to the wing would make the insect less conspicuous, and being useful to it, would be pre- served. That we are quite ignorant of the laws regulating variation is quite true, and that when we do understand them it will throw much light on these questions is undoubted, and that we may probably find in them some additional explanation for many of the facts now accounted for by Natural Selection ; and Mr. Ben- nett does good service in the cause of truth in reminding us of what still has to be done, S. N, CARVALHO, JR. London, Novy. 17 Four years ago I advanced the opinion that Natural Selection is insufficient to explain the ‘‘ Origin of Species,” and that, rather, the origin of the variations of which Natural Selection is said to avail itself must be looked to for this purpose. I may perhaps, therefore, be allowed to say a few words in examination of Mr. Wallace’s explanation of this point in last week’s NATURE. One of the objects of Mr. Darwin has been to show that the existence of species as an absolute entity is a mere idea of our minds ; that if we could at the same moment look around us in space, and also backwards in time, we should find the organic world connected together as one whole, one great mass of beings extremely closely allied to each other, and distinguishable only by an accumulation of small and perhaps scarcely appreciable differences. A second and closely-connected object has been to show that this great mass of beings has had a common origin from one primeval ancestor (or at most a few ancestors). These two points are the chief ones involved in the ‘‘ Origin of Species” question, @s 7¢ 7s ordinarily understood ; and if they be borne in mind, it will be seen that the doctrine of ‘‘ Natural Selection, or the Survival of the Fittest,” deals with only a small portion of the numerous problems involved in this great question. iam sure that Mr. Wallace, after having written as he has done about man, that in his case other influences than this survival of the fittest have been at work, may reasonably allow importance to other powers than Natural Selection in the case of other organic beings. If Mr. Darwin’s book had been entitled ‘‘ The Influence of Natural Selection on the Formation of Species,” some miscon- ceptions might, perhaps, have been avoided. Its present title undoubtedly tends to conyey the idea that Natural Selection is per se the Origin of Species. I believe Mr. Darwin, however, holds no such idea. The picture above alluded to, of a complicated mass of beings connected together by innumerable gradations, is so different from what we find existing around us, that one of the first questions suggested by it is, where are the connecting links? This first question has never yet been answered to any extent, or with any- thing like adequacy, The links produced are but few, and not sufficient to bear the great weight attached to them. For at no period of the geological record do we find any traces of the general and intimate connection of beings with one another that Mr. Darwin's views would lead us to look for, The creatures composing the organic world at any one given moment were, so far as the evidence of geology goes, separated from one another by lines of demarcation of similar value to those existing among animals now, What is wanted to explain the phenomena of various limited and defined species arising from one common ancestor is, then, first, a law, or group of laws, to throw light on the origin of yariation and dispersion ; and, second, another law or laws to explain the limitation and separation of the varieties so produced. It is quite out of the question to suppose that the theory of Natural Selection does all this. Those, however, who have studied Mr, Spencer’s work will be well aware that his theory of evolution may be applied to deal with the question in this its more extended light. And I believe that those who wish well for the survival of Natural Selection will do well to insist on its only being considered in connection with a more extensive doctrine of evolution, This is where I think Mr. Wallace errs in his advocacy. I will not here allude to the question of mimicry more than to say, that Mr. Wallace has never answered, but rather avoided, the chief difficulties I have advanced against it; and that his theories on the subject are undoubtedly open to the objection that he insists on seeing all the phenomena from the point of view of a natural selectionist, and nothing more. As Mr. Wallace has, however, already discovered that Natural Selection, though applicable to man, is not sufficient, unsupplemented, to account for him, we may hope that he will yet see this with regard to the rest of the organic world. D. SHARP Thornhill, Dumfriesshire The Chromosphere WHILST mapping down, in preparation for the coming eclipse, all the bright lines that have so far been observed and accurately measured in the chromosphere or solar prominences, I was struck with the absence of a faint yellow line, which I have myself several times observed whilst examining the contour of the sun’s disc. This line is probably identical with Angstrom’s absorp- tion line 58830 (spectre normal du soleil), D" lying almost mid- way between D’ and the line in question. There is no danger of mistaking it for the bright yellow line seen in every solar pro- minence, and lying near Angstrom 5865"1, since the two yellow lines were seen on each occasion at the same time on the more refrangible side of D”. I suppose the D'’, mentioned in a late communication from Dr. Young, to be identical with the bright yellow line, for it is most improbable that he could have failed either to see or to record the bright line whilst mentioning the faint one, since the latter, as far at least as I have observed, is never visible unless in company with the former. The only observation that I can at all identify with my own is that mentioned in NATURE, December 16, 1869, where Mr. Lockyer, speaking of the absorption line, which corresponds to the orange line of the chromosphere, says that Padre Secchi’s bright line is less refrangible. Stonyhurst Observatory S. J. PERRY From London to Catania A FEW practical details as to the best way of getting to Sicily, the accommodation to be found there, &c., may be of use to many readers of NATURE who are thinking of going there next month. We have first the sea passages from London, Southampton, or Liverpool, to Messina or Malta, of which if any be chosen it will probably be that from Southampton to Malta by the P. and O. steamers, which start every Saturday at 2 P.M., and are nine days on the voyage. (Fares 20/. and 10/7.) From Malta there are steamers twice a week to Messina; they touch at Catania when the weather permits them to enter the small harbour, otherwise they go on to Messina, so that passengers for Catania must in that case avail themselves of the railway. Few probably will wish to go the whole way by sea, the land route therefore by which the Indian mails are now sent will be taken; viz., over the Brenner Pass. The night mails leave Charing Cross at 8.45 p.M., Cannon Street at 8.50 P.M., Victoria and Ludgate Hill at 8.30 p.M., and arrive in Dover in time for the Calais and Ostend boats; the line from Calais to Brussels may not be practicable, and so the longer passage to Ostend may be preferred ; by going straight on one ought to arrive at Cologne at 4 P.M. the next day (if one goes by Calais one has three hours’ rest at Brussels). The day service train, first and second-class, leaves all the stations at 7.40 A.M., and one should arrive at Cologne via Ostend at 10.55 P.M. (va Calais at 4.50 A.M. next day.) From Verviers to Cologne there are only first-class carriages in this train, The fares to Cologne by Ostend are 3/. 8s. 1od. first, and 2/, gs. 5a. second-class, by Calais they are 3s. or 45. more. Those who like to go from London to Ostend or to Antwerp direct can leave St. Katherine’s Wharf by steamer on Sunday, Tuesday, or Thursday mornings for Antwerp, or on Wednesday or Saturday mornings for Ostend, and proceed by rail to Brus- sels, the fares from London to Brussels being 3os. first and 22s, 3d. second class, via Antwerp ; 26s. 8d. first and 2os. 10d. second class, via Ostend. The fare from Brussels to Cologne is about 25 francs first and 18 francs second class by the ordinary trains ; express about three francs more. The way then is by Coblentz, Mayence, Darmstadt, and Aschaffenburg to Munich. By leaving Cologne by the 6 A.M. express, one ought to get to Munich at 9.10 P.M. In times when through-tickets are granted the fare by Ostend and Cologne to Munich is 6/ 7s, 3d. om London (first class), and 54 10s, 68 imixed first and second; this will give soe idea of what the cost will be. After Munich the regular trains may be relied on; one can leave Munich at 9.50 P.M. (first and second class), pass Inns- bruck, and crossing the Brenner in the early morning descend the Italian side in the forenoon, getting to Verona at 1.20 P,M.; or by leaving Munich at 10.15 A.M. (first, second, and third class) one may get to Verona at 5.50 A.M. next day ; but in this way one misses the best of the scenery. The fares from Munich to Verona are about 37s., 25s., and 18s. The way, then, is to Padua, Bologna, Pistoia, and so either to Florence or to Leghorn (by Pisa); from Florence to Rome, passing by Lake Trasimene ; from Leghorn to Rome by the coast line, or else straight to Messina or to Naples, and then to Messina, by one of Rubattino’s boats, which leave almost daily. From Rome one goes to Naples by train, and thence by boat to Messina; passing close to Stromboli. Some of the boats go on to Catania, but it is advisable to land at Messina and take the train, as often the steamer cannot get into the harbour at Catania, in which case it goes on to Malta. The railway fares from Verona to Naples come to about £4 tos. first ; £3 55. second ; and £2 5s. third class. By travelling almost incessantly one should (supposing the trains regular) get to Naples from London in five days and six nights by this route: no time_is lost by spending a night at Cologne. At Messina, the Custom House authorities are usually rather troublesome, but one does get off at last, and, passing along a most exquisite coast-line, arrives at Catania (Kar’ Atfrvn). The hotel at which to stay, if possible, is the Grande Albergo, kept by Herr Werdenberg, where there is every comfort, the very small salon being redeemed by the fine billiard-room. The front rooms face towards the north, and are cold and unsuited for invalids, but they (especially those of the third story) afford a most splendid view of Etna, the sunrises and sunsets seen from them being superb. The rooms at the back are much warmer, but of course give no Sight of Mongibello. The Grand Hotel Central is an Italian establishment in the Piazza dell’ Universita, and may be considered to be the second, though much inferior to the first-mentioned house. In Catania itself a good post of observation would probably be the Giardino Bellini on the Corso ; it is high and sufficiently large. To go to Nicolosi a two or three-horse carriage is necessary. There are at this village two inns, one at the entrance to the village (not to be recommended), the other one, which is_prefer- able, farther on in the village. The accommodation is of a very primitive description. Everything should be taken from Catania, ef as can be got at Nicolosi. from Nicolosi one can yisit the Monti Rossi (in half-an-hour or three-quarters), from which one has a magnificent view, and one can, if one is curious enough, go down into a hole, known as the Fosse dei Palumi, a volcanic vent. It is from Nicolosi that the ascent of Etna is made, and a des- cription of an ascent, under especially favourable circumstances, will be found in the number of NATURE for June 23 last. The best guide is Pietro Cravagna, who knows the mountain thoroughly, and who also speaks tolerable Italian ; he is in every way to be trusted, and if another guide be necessary, it will be well to let Pietro find him. The writer was on one occasion subjected to great annoyance from the incompetence of one of the so-called guides. . ' The Casa del Bosco, about two-and-a-half-hours’ ride from Nicolosi, is uninhabited during the winter. A fire of sticks may be made there, and a few plates, &c., will be found ; the key must be got at Nicolosi; there is plenty of good water close at hand. This house might be used for purposes of obserya- tion; it has two rooms, and an outhouse for the mules, The Casa degli Inglesi, near the top of Etna, is almost sure to be buried in the snow. . In descending from the summit it may perhaps be possible to go down into the Valle del Boye, and return to Catania by Zaf- farana. ‘Those who yisit Sicily should not return home without stopping a day or so at Taormena (between Catania and Messina), and seeing a sunrise from the ruins of the theatre. Wi dienes The Spectrum of the Aurora As some of your correspondents Seem scarcely aware of what has already been accomplished jn observation of the auroral NATURE ok [Wov. 24, 1840 pe perhaps I may be pardoned a few remarks on the subject. The line usually most prominent in the auroral spectrum is a yellowish green one, the wave-length of which was measured by Angstrom as 556°7, and its position by Professor Winlock as 1280 on Huggins’ scale, which, reduced to wave-length, closely agrees with the determination of Angstrom. Angstrom also observed the same line in the spectrum of the zodiacal light, in March 1867, but it seems possible it might be due to faint aurora concealed by the light. He says that “it is a remarkable fact that this bright band does not coincide with any of the known rays of simple or compound gases which I have as yet examined.” The wave-length of HB is about 486'2; much less than that of the auroral line, Angstrom also saw three very feeble bands near H B (F). Professor Winlock (American Fournal of Science, Novy. 1869,) states that in addition to the line at 1280 Huggins’ scale, he saw six faint bands, viz,, at 1400, 1550, 1680, near F, 2640, and near G. In the American Fourna: of Science, Sept, 1869, it is stated that during the solar eclipse a bright{line was seen in the spectrum of the corona at 1474 of Kirchoff’s scale, and that it coincided with an auroral line. 1474 Kirchoff corresponds to about 1550 Huggins’ scale. I have also somewhere seen it stated that the auroral line at 1280 coincided with a telluric line in the sun’s spectrum, which might be possibly due to oxygen. I have myself seen several feeble bands between the green line and F, but owing to their faintness have not yet been able to determine their position with much accuracy. ‘ The red line which was so bright in the aurora of the 24th and 25th ult. is only occasionally visible. Mr. T. W. Backhouse has observed it repeatedly, and informs me that it is sometimes visible when the aurora does not appear red to the eye, but that he never recollects seeing it when some part of the sky was not red. This quite agrees with my own experience. As your correspond- ent, ‘‘ T. F. ” observes, the red line probably belongs to a spectrum distinct from that of the green line, and may be due to some other gas. It may, however, be only a fresh line of the same gas due to different temperature. Its position from repeated direct comparison is about *4 of the distance from Ha, to Na. as I stated a week or two since. It is, therefore, not identical with Ha, to which the ordinary red light of ignited hydrogen is due. Changes of pressure and temperature do not affect the position of lines, but merely influence their breadth and intensity, making new lines visible and expanding old ones. Sometimes, as in the well-known case of nitrogen, an entirely fresh spectrum is pro- duced; but while any line remains visible its position is un- changed. none of them have a line in the position of the auroral one. I am at present engaged in a little research on the spectra of certain gases in relation to that of the aurora ; but it is not yet sufficiently advanced for publication. ey It is particularly desirable that the positions of lines should be accurately determined. In the case of the aurora I am acquainted with no better method for doing this than by comparison with such a spectrum as the band spectrum of N. This is a most con- yenient natural scale, with thirty or forty brilliant bands; and may readily be obtained from a small tube containing rarefied air or nitrogen, by the aid even of a Ruhmkorff’s smallest coil. With regard to the spectroscope, a simple flint glass prism fitted to a tube carrying an adjustable slit, and without any lenses, gives a brighter spectrum than any other form of instru- ment that I am acquainted with. : : Henry R. Procrer Clementhorpe, North Shields, November 12 The November Meteors ON the nights of the 12th, 13th; and 14th of November fhe sky was constantly watched from 5 P.M. to 7.30 A.M. The weather throughout was most unfavourable. On Noy. 12th it was completely overcast from 7 P.M. to 7.30 A.M. : On the 13th from 5 P.M. to 7 P.M. the amount of cloud wa zs, and only ohe meteor was seen. ‘The Sky was then obscure until near I A.M. of the morning of the 14th. Noy. 14th, from 1 A.M. to 3.50 A.M., the amount of cloud was {% and four niétéors were seen, two starting from near 7 Leonis. first 4 « Hydrogen gives several such spectra, but I believe © — Nov. 24, 1870] NATURE 69 This was preceded bya hailstorm and rain, with occasional breaks in the clouds, through which we observed four meteors between 5 and 6.30 A.M. On the evening of the 14th the sky was only half covered with clouds from 5 to 8 p.M., and eight meteors were observed be- tween 5.48 and 6.40; one at 6.2 was of a brilliant red colour, with a pale greenish white train. From 7.40 to 8.35 five other meteors were seen. The sky cleared for a short time towards 8 P.M., but at 9 a mist came on which obscured the heavens during the remainder of the night, clearing off, however, occasionally for a short time. I will not trouble you with the path of each separate meteor, though each was carefully noted. From the above observations I should be inclined to think that we had passed through the maximum during the afternoon of the 14th. Had there been any brilliant display during the night of the 14th, I think it would hardly have escaped me in spite of the mist. Stonyhurst Observatory S. J. Perry SPAIN AND THE ECLIPSE EXPEDITION as following is a translation of a letter which appears in the Astronomische Nachrichten for Nov. 15, on the facilities offered by the Spanish Government to such foreign astronomers as purpose visiting Spain on the occasion of the approaching eclipse :— “ MADRID, JVov. 5. “T have the honour to inform you that the Spanish Government, at the request of the Observatory at Madrid, and in accordance with the resolution taken at the time of the eclipse of the sun in 1860, has just agreed that similar measures shall be adopted for facilitating to foreign astronomers the observation of the approaching solar eclipse on the 22nd of December of the present year. The Government has in consequence resolved,— “That at the Spanish Custom Houses no duty or deposit shall be demanded on the astronomical or physical instruments that astronomers bring into Spain for the observation and study of the eclipse.’ “But as this privilege, which has been granted with readiness to astronomers, might be taken advantage of by persons noways connected with Science, the Govern- ment has deemed it necessary to adopt certain measures of precaution, the principal one of which is, to be made cognisant of the names of the persons who are making preparations to come to Spain to observe the eclipse. In consequence thereof, the Minister of Finance has directed ‘that such astronomers as purpose availing themselves of the resolution above spoken of should have the good- ness to make known in writing to the Observatory at Madrid their names, the number and the class of instru- ments which they bring, and the point of the coast or frontier where they purpose entering Spain.’ These particulars will be communicated by the Observatory to the Government, which will send orders to the Custom- houses to pass without difficulty all the instruments entered on the lists the astronomers furnish. Foreign astronomers may, moreover, reckon on the sedulous protection of the provincial governors and of the local authorities, from whom they will receive all the co-operation necessary to enable them to devote themselves with entire liberty to their scientific labours. “Inthe Almanac of the Observatory ef Madrid for 1870 (which you have not received owing to the want of com- munication with Germany for several months) there is contained a somewhat detailed account of the approaching eclipse, accompanied by two maps. As you will observe, in the zone of the total eclipse there have been inserted all the principal towns, in order to assist astronomers in the selection of their stations for observing. This central line is not of great dimensions in Spain (about sixty nautical miles) yet, nevertheless, there are numerous important towns in proximity to the central line, as, for instance, San Lucar, Jerez, Puerto de Santa Maria, Puerto Real, San Fernando, Cadiz, Medina Sidonia, Estepona, and at those places observers {will meet with all the resources requisite for carrying out their labours with facility. The sole disadvantage of so short a line is that if the weather should prove unpropitious at one station, it will probably beso at the others as well “Tf you think any further details necessary, or in the case of any astronomer wishing to consult the map of the eclipse, nothing more will be necessary than to apply to the Director of the Observatory at Madrid, who tenders his services to such foreign astronomers as require them, and to whom it will afford great pleasure to aid his col- leagues in bringing their scientific mission to Spain toa successful result. ANTONIO AGUILAR” THE CONSTRUCTION OF HEAVY ARTILLERY I N few other manufactures has it been found necessary to search so deeply into the materials nature pro- vides in order to find out the best and strongest, and then to apply it skilfully, so as fully to develop its strength, as in the manufacture of guns. The construc- tion of the amazingly-powerful ordnance which modern naval warfare employs is pre-eminently a question of strength of material; indeed, it may be termed ‘Zhe question of strength of material. In nothing else does man employ forces even nearly so powerful and violent. The force of steam, even when doing its mightiest work, is but faint and small compared with that of the exploding | charge of gunpowder that sends from the gun a 3o0olb. or 60o0lb. shot with a velocity which carries it through thick armour plates of wrought iron. A Goolb. shot will pierce twelve inches of iron at 200 yards distance. This gigantic force is imparted to the shot in the brief fraction of a second that it is moving down the barrel of the gun. Remembering that “the gain in power is loss in time,” and consequently that when the time is diminished the power is proportionately increased, we may form some conception how enormously great is that force which is exerted within the breech of a heavy gun, and which is resisted by it every time it is fired. It isa force which, if turned into foot pounds, would represent the steam power not of a ship but of a navy. Yet all its work is to be done in the space of a few inches, and it must be sur- rounded with iron strong enough to resist it. Here we have the skill of man grappling with enormous difficulties, searching out the strongest and most suitable material that nature supplies, and exerting all his art to apply it to the utmost advantage. The construction of these exceedingly powerful guns has been entirely developed within the last few years. The gun now manufactured in Woolwich Arsenal is more unlike the gun of 1850 than the gun of 1850 is unlike that of Queen Elizabeth’s reign. The progress of twenty years surpasses that of three centu- ries. And the change has not been so much in enlarge- ment of size as in difference of construction. Queen Elizabeth’s pocket-pistol is not more unlike a 600-pounder in external appearance than in internal structure. The gun which is carried in the turret of one of our ironclads, and which, at a single discharge, expends as great a weight of powder and shot as the whole broadside of a good-sized frigate of our own early days, does not surpass the gun which peeped from that frigate’s ports so much in size and power as in the superior scientific principles of its manufacture. We propose in the present article to give a general view of these principles. The method of manufacture will be first explained, and afterwards the principles which guide the selection of the best material. Although the material must be selected before it is manufactured, yet a knowledge of the construction of a heavy gun, and of the qualities sought by construction to be developed, will very greatly facilitate our compre- hension of the reasons of choice and preference among the many kinds of iron that might be and that are used, In explaining the construction of modern ordnance as made for the British Government, it will be best to notice 7O the gradual progress in the manufacture since wrought- iron began to be used instead of cast-iron. This was the first great change, and from it dates a new era in this branch of industry. And it was not only a great change, but a great advance. Wrought ironis a very much superior material to cast-iron, and one which de- mands very much more skill in its manufacture. Cast- iron is of a granular or crystalline nature ; wrought-iron is fibrous: cast-iron is hard ; wrought-iron tough. The NATURE [NVov. 24, 1870 difference between them may be illustrated by the dif- ference between glass and wood. One is strong to resist a statical strain or pressure, the other to resist a dynami- cal strain or blow. There is a vast difference between the two kinds of strength. A brick which is at the foundation of a lofty factory chimney supports an enormous weight, but it would be broken by a blow that would not injure a stout walking-stick. having that kind of strength which Wrought-iron resists dynamic force is therefore far preferable to cast-iron for resisting the violent and sudden shock of explosives, the most power- ful dynamic strain with which man’s art has to grapple. It averages three times the dynamic strength of cast-iron, that is, it will bear three times as great weight without breaking. It will yield sooner ; but when cast-iron yields it breaks. In this another great advantage is gained. When a cast-iron gun breaks it does so explosively ; it Scale %"= 7 Foot. Wrought Tron or (Showing direction of fibre) Wrought Iron Coils (Zor breaks up into fragments, and gives no warning, no indi- cations of yielding beforehand. But a wrought-iron gun shows when its use is becoming dangerous. Though this discussion seems rather at variance with the plan laid down, yet it ismecessary to have a general knowledge of the material used in order to understand the method of manufacture. Wrought-iron, while it is so much better a material for the construction of heavy Fic. 2 guns, is yet very difficult and expensive to work. The «rouzht-iron gun cannot be made as easily as the gun for which the molten metal was run into a mould and then bored out and finished exteriorly. It requires large fur- naces, huge steam-hammers, and skilled workmen to give it shape. Before the wonderful appliances of modern science and machinery were invented, wrought-iron could only be made and workedin comparatively small quan- tities. And even now to forge the mass necessary for a' gui 7,12, or 25 tons weight, would be a most difficult and costly, perhaps in the last case an impossible undertaking, No doubt there are larger forgings used in large steam ships for cranks and shafts, and in other machinery ; but these masses of wrought-iron are not heated and hammered the whole at once. Separate parts are welded together, or successive portions are heated and hammered. It is: a Nov. 24, 1870] NATURE m1 needless to say that these methods would not do for the construction of agun. The fiercely expanding gas of the exploding powder would speedily and fatally detect any | plane or point of weakness. Moreover, wrought-iron is not equally strong in all directions ; being fibrous in its texture, it is twice as strong with the grain as across the grain. As in the case of wood, which it is much more easy to split than to break, so it is much easier to tear the fibres of wrought-iron from each other than to break them across. It therefore follows that a gun forged in a solid mass, and bored out, would not put the strength of wrought- iron at its greatest advantage. Such a gun would be very strong along its longitudinal section, very strong to resist the strain of the gunpowder to tear out the breach ; but it would be only half as strong in its transverse or cross section to resist what may be specially termed the burst- Fic. ing strain. These difficulties were entirely overcome by Sir William Armstrong’s system of making a gun of coils of wrought iron bars. By that the difficulty of forging a large mass is altogether put away ; and the fibre of the iron passing round the bore of the gun instead of along it, gives the greatest possible resistance to the bursting strain of the powder’s explosion. This was a very great advance, a most valuable improvement in the manufac- 3 ture. It took away the difficulty and expense which were the great obstacles to constructing ordnance of wrought- iron, and at the same time applied it in such a manner as to increase, or rather put at the utmost advantage, its strength in resisting the transverse or bursting strain of the powder’s explosion, which is the most difficult and important strain to overcome. It is for this last that this invention deserves its highest praise ; for gun-making is above all a question of strength of material. The best material applied in the best way is hardly strong enough to resist the enormous charges behind the enormous shot which are required to pierce the armour-plated vessels of modern warfare, The method of making the coils is as follows ; A> long bar of iron is heated to nearly a white heat in a long low furnace, and when thus rendered soft, it is hooked on to the side of ;what resembles a gigantic reel of iron. This reel or core is then turned by machinery, and the glowing bar is wound upon it ; being drawn from the furnace upon a travelling groove, which, aided by blows on the bar from a heavy hammer suspended above and guided sometimes by two men, keeps the bar in its proper position as it 1s 72 NATURE [Mov. 24, 1870 coiled. When that is completed, it is removed from before the furnace, the reel or core taken out, and the coil allowed to cool. Afterwards it is heated in a reverbe- ratory furnace, and welded together by blows on the ends from a steam-hammer ; the edges of the coiled bar are melting from heat, and therefore unite when thus for- cibly pressed on each other, so that it forms a complete hollow cylinder or tube of wrought-iron, the fibre going round the circumference. The rough surfaces are after- wards turned off in powerful lathes. These coils are made of various sizes, and several of them are required for each gun. They are shrunk on, that is, the outer ones are not quite large enough to go over the inner ones, but are heated, and when thus expanded are placed over their smaller brethren, whom, as they cool, they clasp in a tight embrace. Thus all the coils are in a state of tension inwards, and this was supposed to increase their power of resisting the shock of the discharge which came from within outwards. However, this theory very decidedly admits of question. Even a little observation seem suffi- cient to show that anything in a state of tension is thereby weakened to resist a shock in any direction. A shock produces a kind of undulation or vibratory action, so that its effect returns back in the direction in which it was imparted. In Sir Joseph Whitworth’s guns the hoops were made accurately to fit each other, so that no shrink- ing was required ; but a little shrinkage, we believe, was used to ensure close fitting. It will be seen further on that this question of the advisability of shrinkage does not apply to the guns now made for the British service. Hitherto we have only spoken of coils, which, though a main part and distinctive feature of the Armstrong gun are not the whole of it. A gun made altogether of coils would lack strength in resisting the longitudinal strain, or tendency of the discharge to tear out the breech endways, and this would be an awkward event for the gunners, if the gun fired, so to speak, at both ends. To prevent this, Sir William Armstrong had a large forged piece of iron, like a great cap, placed on the breech end of the inner tube and under the coils. The fibres of this, running lon- gitudinally, made it.strong in that direction, and guarded against a catastrophe so much to be dreaded. This, how- ever, was a large forging, and therefore very expensive ; and, also, while it strengthened the gun longitudinally, it weakened it transversely, by taking up the space nearest the bore where the greatest part of the strain was sustained, and filling it with iron whose fibres were in the direction of the bore instead of around it, as those of the coils. It is easy to see how much this took from the power of the coils to resist the lateral, transverse, or bursting strain of the discharge. The force which the expanding gas exerts on the material of the gun must necessarily be inversely as the square of the distance from the centre of the bore. A coil removed from the tube by the thickness of the forged breech-piece cannot resist the full strain of the explosion nearly so effectively as if it came at once round the tube. Its strength is applied at a disadvantage re- presented by the ratio of the square of the radius of the coil round the forged breech-piece to the square of the radius of a coil round the inner tube. Besides, there is another large forging in the Armstrong gun, the trunnion-piece, which is placed round the middle, and carries the trunnions or short arms by which the gun rests on its carriage. An Armstrong gun may be thus summed up. (The section of a 600-pounder is shown in Fig. 1 as an example.) First there is a tube of steel (A) ; this metal is always used for the inner part, as its hardness and closeness of grain make it better adapted for the rifling—the grooves would be quickly worn by the friction of the studs of the shot in softer metal—and also better to resist the action of the violently expanding gas of the exploding charge of powder. All attempts to make the inner tube of coils were unsuccessful ; the gas at its enormous pressure searched out and took advantage of the most microscopic flaws. Next comes the large forged breech-piece behind the steel tube, and extending some distance along it. Then come the coils (in 5 sets, B, C,D, E, F), shrunk on one over another. And lastly, the trunnion piece round the middle. The Armstrong gun, as described in our former paper, was the pattern on which all our guns were made for the British service till 1866, when very important changes, which had been proposed by R. S. Fraser, member of the Institute for Civil Engineers, and Deputy-Assistant- Superintendent of the Royal Gun Factories, after a pro- longed series of trials, were approved and adopted by Government. This gentleman, not long before, introduced intothe manufacture of ordnance acheaper, and, at the same time, a better kind of wrought-iron than that before used, and he has imported into the construction of the Arm- strong gun very considerable modifications, by which the country is provided with a stronger gun, one-third cheaper, and more quickly made. These are three very important items of improvement ; viz. strength, cheapness, and rapidity, because simplicity, of manufacture. The saving effected is from 35 to 40 per cent. on the vast sums expended on heavy ordnance. Most of our readers have heard of the Fraser gun, but few, per- haps, know where or how it differs from the original Arm- strong gun, although all our heavy ordnance is now made on this pattern. The information, therefore, may be not uninteresting, and a comparison of Fig. 2 with Fig. 1 will help to make the difference clearer. Instead of the forged breech-piece, the many small coils, and the forged trunnion-piece that form the Armstrong gun over the inner steel tube, Mr. Fraser uses one immense coil, of which the trunnions are part, and which is closed behind the tube by a large screw forming the cascable, and which is the only forging used in his gun. This will show at once how the economy is effected. Both the large forgings of the Armstrong gun, the breech-piece, and the trunnion-piece are got rid of ; and instead of having many coils to be turned, and have their inner and outer surfaces reduced, upon which labour and time were expended, in addition to the waste of metal, there are only the two surfaces of the one great coil to be turned. In the 600-pounder, on the old principle, there were sixteen coils, and twice that number of surfaces, each representing labour and loss. For these reasons also the guns may be made much more quickly. This isa very important advan- tage, as in an emergency the country could be more quickly armed. Strength is also gained to resist the transverse strain in two ways, because the coiled iron comes next the steel tube, where the forged breech-piece used to come formerly, and so the coils are applied at greater advantage, and secondly, because the one thick coil is stronger than several thin coils, just as a triple deal is stronger than three inch deals, And further, the gun is stronger to resist the longitudinal strains, because the breech and trun- nions are all of one piece, and so the force of the discharge upon the gun acts through the trunnions on the carriage, and has not, as in the old pattern, a tendency to destroy it by tearing one piece or part of the gun from another. It is converted from a longitudinal bursting strain into recoil. It only remains to describe how this immense coil, which is the marked feature of the Fraser gun, is made. A long and thick bar, much thicker than the one used in the Armstrong pattern, is heated and coiled in the manner before described. When this has cooled, another bar, somewhat longer, is coiled upon it in an opposite direc- tion, that is, if the first coils go from right to left, the second go over them from left to right, just as the boa constrictor overlaps his coils on the prey which he is crushing. And then a third bar is coiled in the same direction as the first. The whole is then heated in a large reverberatory furnace, and a few blows from a powerful hammer weld them into a thoroughly combined mass. ; hel . Nov, 24, 1870] NATURE 73 This principle of construction seems to apply the iron to the utmost possible advantage in resisting the force of the exploding charge. There is an eloquent testimony to the excellence of the system in one of the first guns made on the Fraser principle, which was tested to destruction in the preliminary trials that took place before the system was adopted, and is now to be seen in the cemezery, or place where such guns are preserved for inspection in the Royal Arsenal. This gun, a 64-pounder, having fired a greater weight of powder and shot than any other of its own size, and latterly with charges increased till it was destroyed, burst in this way: part of the tube, which was worn through, and the coil round the front of the tube came out and left the entire mass of the trunnion and breech- piece uninjured, so that not only would this bursting have done no injury to those who served the gun, but if a new tube and fore-part were put in, the trial might have com- menced again. Welding a coil, however large, is a much easier and less expensive process than forging and hammering into shape a mass of iron of much smaller size. However, the great size of the coils of Fraser guns of large calibre necessi- tated the employment of correspondingly large furnaces and machinery. These difficulties have been very successfully overcome in the Royal Gun Factories. The furnaces have been enlarged from a cubical content of 60 feet to 600 feet. At present a gun is being made of 35 tons weight, which will hurl a shot of 7oolb. weight with a charge of 1201b. of powder (the battering charge for the ordinary 25-ton 600-pounder being 7olb.) All the coils for this enormous weapon have been welded without accident or hindrance. In one case as much as 28 tons of iron have been heated in one piece in the furnace, seized by the tongs, and placed in a glowing mass beneath the hammer. This is an achievement unprecedented in iron manufacture, and which reflects the highest credit on this most important Government department. Nowhere else, and for no other purpose, have such gigantic masses of metal to be heated and manipulated. Figs. 3 and 4 show the parts of an Armstrong gun, and of a Fraser gun, before they are put together. Both are 300-pounders, and the engravings have been made from photographs of the actual guns. NOTES WE are in a position to state that the arrangements of the Eclipse Expedition are rapidly progressing,—thanks to the untiring labours of the strong Organising Committee, which meets almost daily. As we stated before, the Government are bringing all their power to bear in favour of the work, and, should the weather be favourable, we may expect such a series of observations as has never been made of an eclipsed sun, As at present arranged, there will be four parties. Beginning with Spain, we have one to Cadiz, in charge of the Rey. S. J. Perry, and one to Gibraltar, under Captain Noble. The English branch of the Anglo-American Expedition will be under the charge of Mr. Lockyer; while there will be a fourth small expe- dition, under the charge of Mr. Huggins, to Oran ; the Cadiz, Gibraltar, and Oran parties will leave Portsmouth on the 5th of December in the U7-gent. The Sicilian party will leave London on the night of the 7th by the Brenner pass, a ship of war meeting them at Naples. Although not a single official astronomer has olunteered to go, there will be lack of neither skill, disci- pline, nor organisation ; and arrangements are already being made which will ensure a full and early publication by the Organising Committee of the scientific resultsobtained. Printed instructions are being prepared by the Committee for each class of obser- vations. So much for the English Government Expedition. With regard to the American one, we may add that it has been no less strongly and carefully organised, with the distinct advan- tages that astronomy is more cultivated in America than it is here, that the official observatories are fully represented, and that as all the observers were present at the Eclipse in 1869, they there- fore may be regarded as veterans. Professors Young, Pickering, Newcomb, Peters, Watson, Harkness, and others are at present in London, and are daily affording most valuable information to the Organising Committee and the various observers. THE following memorial to Her Majesty’s Government of the danger to which the scientific, literary, and art collections of Paris are now exposed, has been forwarded to the Earl of Grah- ville from the University of Dublin :—‘‘ We, the undersigned, Pro- vost, Fellows, and Scholars of Trinity College, and Professors of the University of Dublin, desire to express our satisfaction with the efforts miade by Her Majesty’s Government to restore peacé in Europe, and out earnest hope—shared, we believe, by thé nation at large—that these efforts may be eventually successful: But if, unhappily, our desire should not be realised, your nié- morialists venture to urge that the interposition of Her Majesty’s Government may be directed to preserve, if possible, the great scientific, literary, and art collections of Patis, which are, in truth, the property of the whole civilised world. It is impossible to contemplate calmly the irreparable loss which the destruction of these collections, or even any serious injury to them, would in- flict upon students of every nation. To avert, if possible, such a calamity, is now the duty of all; it is more especially the duty of every scientific and literary institution. Your memorialists would, therefore, in the name of our ancient University, earnestly entreat Her Majesty’s Government to interpose their good offices with the belligerents, for the purpose of saving these matchless treasures from a danger which the fate of the Library of Stras- burg proyes to be only too real.” WE understand that Dr. Neil Arnott, in addition to his recent munificent donations to the Universities, has just presented 500/. to the Aberdeen Mechanics’ Institution, to aid in maintaining lectures in Physical Science. ArT the examination for Foundation Scholarships, held in the week after Easter, 1871, one or more scholarships will be obtain- able by proficiency in the Natural Sciences, at Trinity College, Cambridge. Should one scholarship only be so assigned, prefe- rence will be given to the candidate who shows the greatest pro- ficiency in physiology and the allied subjects. The Examination in the Natural Sciences is open to all undergraduate members o the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The value of the scholarship is about S0/. per annum for five or six years. Dr. MICHAEL FosrTer (the newly-appointed Preelector of Phy- siology at Trinity College, Cambridge) commenced on the ryth inst. his course of lectures ina part of the new museums, which has been temporarily fitted up as a Physiological Laboratory. He gave a lucid and able exposition of the three great factors of life—contractility, as evinced chiefly in muscles ; irritability, as evinced chiefly in the nervous system ; and secretion. Dilatin;s upon the much-vexed question, how far these are attributable to physical agencies, or are to be referred to another agency called ‘‘ Life,” he compared the latter view to a fortress closely besieged by an able band of investigators who are ever narrowing its area, and pressing the physical forces closer and closer upon it. But it has not yet capitulated. No one has a right to say that it will or will not capitulate; and till it has done so we are perfectly justified in regarding it as an entity, as a something to be taken into account in the investigation and the attempts at the explanation of living processes. He should still, therefore, use the term without committing himself to eithey view. He gave definitions of Physiology and Morpholegy. He spoke of the enormous importance of vivisection to the advance 74 NATURE [Wov. 24, 1870 of Physiology. By it Vesalius might be said to have laid the foundations of Physiology ; by it Harvey had been enabled to obtain the proofs of his great discovery. Without it all that had been written on Physiology would have gone for very little, and we should still have been in the Aristotelean mists darkened by the theories of the Schoolmen. He wished, however, to state that in the teaching of Physiology it would be necessary for him to resort to it much. He stated the plan he intended to pursue in carrying out the intentions of those who had placed him in that honourable position. Lectures he did not regard as a very fructi- fying mode of sowing seed. He thought it far better that men should work and see for themselves. With the munificent aid of Trinity College, he hoped, ere long, to make the physiological laboratory in Cambridge one of the best working laboratories in the country. He intended to have practical classes in addition to the lectures ; and students who were competent would have opportunities for private work. It would be a labour of love to him to render practical aid to those who needed it, and to promote the study of physiology by every means in his power.— A considerable number of the senior members of the University were present, as well as undergraduates, and warmly applauded at the close of the lecture. The lectures are for the present open to all members of the University without fee. AT the recent examination for the Natural and Experimental Science Moderatorship at Trinity College, Dublin, Gold Medals were awarded to R. Apjohn, W. F. Burton, and T. F. Fleet- wood (Sch.), and a Silver Medal to R. Barrington. The sub- jects examined in were—1. Physics ; 2. Chemistry ; 3. Mineralogy and Geology ; 4. Paleontology, Zoology, and Botany. No candidate was allowed to present himself for examination in more than two of the four branches. Rey. Pror. HAvcHToN, M.D., F.R.S., has commenced a course of Lectures in Trinity College, Dublin, on Physical Geology, and Prof. Macalister, M.D., a course on the Anatomy, Physiology, and Classification of the Mollusca, By the resignation of Mr. J. J. Bennett, the office of Keeper of the Botanical Collections at the British Museum is now vacant. The appointment rests actually with three only of the trustees, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Lord Chancellor, and the Speaker of the House of Commons, by virtue of their offices. Among the whole body of the trustees, who would naturally be consulted, there are only four scientific men, the President of the Royal Society, Sir R. J. Murchison, Lord Enniskillen, and Sir Philip Grey Egerton. Now that we are about to remove our national collections to a new building erected for the purpose, the sug- gestion naturally arises whether this is a condition of things which is desirable to perpetuate. The whole subject of the mode of appointments to these Government offices is one well worthy of the consideration of the Royal Science Commission. Mr. Bennett entered the Museum in 1829 as assistant, and succeeded the late Robert Brown as Keeper at his death in 1858. Mr. W. Carruthers, the present senior assistant, on whom the appoint- ment would naturally fall, and who is so well known for his re- searches in vegetable palzeontology, entered on that office in 1859. THE first course of Cantor Lectures of the Society of Arts for the ensuing Session will be ‘‘On Artists’ Colours and Pig- ments,” by Frederick S. Barff, M.A., F.C.S., and Fellow of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. It will consist of five lectures, to be delivered on Monday evenings, the 21st and 28th November, and the 5th, 12th, and 19th December, at eight o'clock. These lectures will treat of—the Nature of Colour ; Chemistry and Manufacture of Colours and Pigments ; Vehicles and Media used in Painting; Fresco and Silicious Painting ; Destructive Influences on Colours, &c. Other courses of lectures are under arrangement for delivery during the Session. These lectures are open to members, each of whom has the priyilege of intreducing two friends to each lecture. THE Gardener's Chronicle states that an interesting exhibition of fruit has been recently opened at Appenzell, Switzerland. Eight communes have furnished 689 exhibits, comprising 80 sorts of apples and 120 of pears. The fruits are arranged according to the height above the sea of the localities where they are grown. Thus, in the lowest zone are shown fruits which have been produced from 1,300 to 2,000 feet above the sea; in the next, those grown at an elevation of 2,000 to 2,600 feet ; in the third group, those gathered at a height of 2,600 to 3,000 feet ; and lastly, are exhibited fruits produced above the last-mentioned elevation. Great care has been taken to ensure the accurate nomenclature of the fruits exhibited. A REMARKABLY low wave of temperature passed over these islands in the middle of this month. At Blackheath the mean temperature for the week ending Noy. 16 was nearly 7° below the average. It is remarkable that the wind was in the W.S. W. during nearly the whole of the week, the air being almost saturated with moisture, and yet the rainfall scarcely appreciable, o’o4in. For the fourteen stations in England, eight in Scot- land, and one in Ireland, recorded by Mr. Glaisher in the Gardener's Chronicle, the lowest minimum was 190° at Paisley, the highest, 31°5°, at Norwich, The mean temperature was nearly the same in Scotland as in England, about 37°5°. Another singular meteorological phenomenon occurred this week in the successive thunderstorms which burst over London from 3 A.M. on Tuesday morning the 22nd to 6 A.M. on Wednesday morning the 23rd. The wind was blowing strongly from the S.W. during the whole time, with occasional violent rain, and the average temperature was about 40° F. Tue Address on Medicine at the annual meeting of the British Medical Association will be delivered by Dr. George Johnson, and that in Surgery by Prof. Lister. THE current number of Fraser's Magazine contains the first portion of a paper on ‘‘ Mystic Trees and Flowers,” which will interest those who have paid any attention to the subject of Tree-worship, with regard to the origin of which no clear theory has yet been proposed. The writer considers that the religious homage paid to trees ‘‘ must be referred to a distinct religious phase in the development of races, and to a period later than the ideals and myths with which poets invested them.” The legends and superstitions of all countries are brought to- gether, showing the points of convergence of the great religions of ancient races; and the connection of the folk-lore of the present day with its prototypes in all ages and in all nations, Reference is made to the recent researches into the history of the popular tales of different countries, and the whole paper teems with suggestive facts. The principal trees dwelt upon in this instalment are the apple, oak, ash, lime, willow, palm, elder, and juniper. THE Zugineer states that when the Russian American tele- graph is completed the following feat will be possible. A telegram from Alaska for New York, leaving Sitka, say at 6.40 on Monday morning, would be received at Nicoleaf, Siberia, at six minutes past one on Tuesday morning ; at St. Petersburgh, Russia, at three minutes past six on Monday evening ; at London twenty-two minutes past four on Monday afternoon ; and at New York at forty-six minutes past eleven on Monday forenoon. Thus, allowing twenty minutes for each re-transmission, a message may start on the morning of one day, to be received and transmitted the next day, again received and sent on the afternoon of the day it starts, and finally reaches its destination on the forenoon of the first day, the whole taking place in one hour's time. For the purpose of connecting the Madras Observatory with | the midnight and noon guns, the Indian Government has yoted 200/, ee Nov. 24, 1870] MUSICAL INTERVALS i BRIEF summary of the remarkable papers on musical intervals, by MM. Cornu and Mercadier, published in the Comtes Rendus of February in last year, may perhaps interest those of the readers of NATURE who have not met with the original. The authors remark, in the first place, that two schemes of musical intervals haye been proposed, in which the ee of the number of vibrations in a given time are as ollows :— Octave. Fifth. Fourth, Major Minor Sixth. Seventh. Third, Third. 3 4 3* 2° 33 a ee OS 2 3 we 38 Za 27 3 4 5 6 5 15 ee 2 3 4 5 3 8 and the object of the paper is to examine the claims of each for adoption. On comparing these two systems, it may be observed that the Octave, Fifth, and Fourth are the same in both, and that the other intervals are connected by the following relations :— 81 81 ee, econ 2-05 3h SO A third view of the subject, according to which either of the two systems may be adopted indifferently, because they differ only by a “comma” (an interval represented by 81 : 80), may be at once dismissed, since, as a matter of fact, the ear is capable of appreciating intervals much smaller than the comma. As regards the scheme (2), it seems impossible not to admit that a major third is most harmonious when the resultant tone is exactly the double octave below the fundamental note, z.¢. when the interval is represented by the ration 5:4. Any deviation_from this proportion pro- duces unpleasant beats. This argument seems decisive in favour of (2). On the other hand, an ear which hears successively the notes emitted by an entire string, and by #ths of its length, will pronounce the third so formed to be too low. And, in fact, stringed instruments for concerted music are tuned by perfect fifths. Thus the intervals given by the violon- cello, alto, and violins, &c., in a concerto would be 6,2, a, a, &. But this involves a third (c, e) defined by the ratio = for e must be the double octave below e”, and the interval (c, e”) is by hypothesis (3) ; hence waa b(y=3 which is the ratio for a major third according to scheme (1). Thus, experiment apparently gives contradictory results, The authors of the paper then proceed to describe a series of experiments made with thevoice, violoncello, violin, organ-pipes, and monochord, all of which lead to conclu- sions reconciling this apparent contradiction, viz. :— That musical intervals do not belong to any single scheme, but that the ear is capable of distinguishing be- tween the intervals of the two schemes in question, and requires, (a) When notes are heard in succession, forming what is called melody, that the intervals should belong to a series of fifths, in accordance with scheme (1) ; (2) When notes are heard simultaneously, forming chords, or harmony, that the intervals should be adjusted according to scheme (1). The detaiis of the experiments, which are well worth study, would be too long to give in extenso; but the sub- NATURE a joined table will enable the reader to form a judgment of the results. | Major Third. Fifth. | Notes produced by | Harmony.| Melody. ||Harmony.| Melody, | | | | Voice aan a= 1.260 ~- 1.497 Violoncello 1.25 1.266 1.499 1.508 Violin : 1.249 1.264 1.504 1.504 Organ pipes. 1.252 1.267 1.493 1.497 Monochord ... — 1.271 — 1,500 Mean of observation 1.251 1.266 1.499 I. 501 Calculation .. «| $=1.250 | §}—=1.2656 || #}=1.500 1.500 The direct experiments were made with these two inter- vals only ; but the same conclusions are shown to apply to the other intervals. The authors then proceed to inquire whether there is any reason for limiting the prime numbers which enter into the ratios of the harmonic intervals to those (1, 2, 3, 5) actually occurring in scheme (1). An answer to this question is found in the chord of the dominant seventh, usually defined as the common chord with the addition of a minor third (e. g. Do, Mi, Sol, Sib). The ratios of these intervals, according to scheme (2) are De 3 eS 6 La ae : 4 2 2 5 and the simplest whole numbers near to these are 4: 5 : 6: 7; and these, it is argued, are in fact an improvement on the former. For the ear, which alone can decide the question, will choose those notes which will form a chord devoid of beats, and whose difference tones do not intro- duce any notes foreign to the chord itself. Now — : — X — = 20: 25 : 30: 36 7-6=1, 6-5 =1, 5-4=1 =O eral 2) Ore Ar 2 lie Aas So that from the chord 4: 5: 6: 7, we obtain the group of difference tones I, 2, 3, all of which belong to the natural series terminating with the chord itself. While from) the chord!) 20) 9) 25)29 3013" 360 — 4s) Sh) Oe tAae we at once derive an inharmonious difference tone. This a gréorz conclusion may be verified on the violin, by first tuning the two upper strings in unison ; then by shortening one of them so as to form a minor third (6:5) with a difference tone 1; and finally, shortening the other until the difference tone 1 is again heard. This will, of course, give an interval (7 : 6) perfectly agreeable when sounded simultaneously, but not so when sounded in succession. In the same way the ear might be called upon to decide whether the numbers 11, 13, &c., are or are not admissible in harmony. I trust that this very brief abstract may induce some of your readers to examine the paper itself, W. SPOTTISWOODE ON THE GREAT MOVEMENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE * MY original paper was based on the mean monthly pressures calculated for 516 places, and on the mean monthly direc- tion of the wind calculated for 203 places over the whole surface of the earth. From these mean pressures the monthly isobars were drawn for every tenth of an inch, a pressure of thirty inches and upwards being represented on the charts by red-coloured isobars, and pressures of 29°9 inches and less by isobars coloured blue. Thus the distribution of the mass of the earth’s atmosphere from month to month was graphically represented, the red linesshowing * This paper, presented to the recent meejing of the “‘ British Associa- tion” at Liverpool, is a brief 7ésusé of a paper, and the discussion which followed, ‘‘On the Mean Pressure of the Atmosphere, and the Prevailing Winds over the Globe for the Months and for the Year,” originally read before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and published in the Transactions of that Society in the beginning of December last, 76 NATURE where there was an excess, and the blue lines where there was a deficiency. The general results are that, in each hemisphere, pressures are highest in winter, and lowest in summer ; that in winter the highest pressures are grouped over the continents, and in summer the lowest, and that in winter very low pressures prevail in the northern parts of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans respectively. The position of the isobars is wholly determined by the relative distribution of land and water. As regards wind, those places were selected which are favour- ably situated for observing its direction, In calculating the average direction, the element of force was wholly excluded. The years were, so far as possible, the same as those for which the mean pressure had been calculated ; but where this was not possible, care was taken to see that a good average was in every case obtained. The mean direction of the wind for each month is shown in the charts by arrows. Thus two quite distinct facts were exhibited on the charts, viz. lines showing the mean pressure of the atmosphere, and arrows showing the prevailing winds at the earth’s surface, each being independently arrived at by the summing and averaging of observed facts. What relation is there between these two classes of facts ? 1. As regirds regions of Low Pressures : In every case where such occur at any season, it is universally seen that the relations of the winds to the isobaric lines is exactly the same that is illustrated in every storm of wind when the winds and pressures are set down in synophic charts.—The relation is this ; the wind neither blows round the centre of least pressure in circles, nor as tangents to the concentric isobaric curves, nor does it blow directly towards thal centre, but it takes an intermediate ditection, approaching however more nearly to the direction and course of the circular curves than of the radii to the centre. The angle is not a right angle but from about 60° to 80°. Thus the whole system of winds seem to blow vorti- cosely in upon the spaces of low pressure. ‘This is the relation known as Buy's Ballot Law of the Winds. 2. As regards regions of High Pressures : In all cases where such occur, the winds are seen to flow out in every direction. In these cases also, the behaviour of the winds differs in no respect from what occurs on particular days on which the isobaric lines present the same conditions of pressure. The winds flow out of these spaces of high pressure in courses exactly the opposite to what takes place when they flow in upon spaces of low pressure, and hence such meteorological phenomena have been called by Mr, Francis Galton, ‘ Anti- cyclones.” ‘This is also, it will be seen, in strict accordance with Buy’s Ballot Law. Hence then this broad result is arrived at, viz., that the prevailing winds over the globe at all seasons obey Buy’s Ballot Law, with reference to the distribution of atmospheric pressure. The outflow of the air from a region of high pressure, and the inflow upon a region of high pressure is reducible to the single principle of gravitation, and so marked is this, that if there be any other force or forces which put the winds in motion, they must be altogether insignificant as compared with gravitation. The annual averages of the 115 places distributed over the north temperate zone were minutely examined with the view of ascertaining how far the commonly-alleged prevalence of equa- torial and polar currents is borne out by observation. The result of the analysis is this:—There are two maximum directions of prevailing winds at the stations of which the S.W. and N.E. at Greenwich may be taken as an example. The chief prevailing winds of the north temperate zone blow from some point from S.S.W. to W. (the true equatorial direction) at 41 per cent. of the stations, leaving 59 per cent. at which they are from other points of the compass. And the secondary prevailing winds come from some point from N.N.E. to E. (the trie polar direction) at 34 per cent. of the stations or only a thitd of the whole. Hence whilst the largest percentage of prevailing winds ate in the direction in which truly equatorial and polar winds should blow, the percentages from the direction are so large as to preclude the supposition of a general flow of the surface winds of the temperate zone towards and from the polar régions. ‘The truth is, it is not the poles of the earth, but the regions of high and low pressures which must be regarded as the true poles of the winds towards which and from which the great moyements of the atmosphere proceed ; and owing to the unequal distribu- tion of land and water, the poles of pressure and movements of the atmosphere are, as in the case of the poles of temperature, very far from being coincident with the North Pole. - -* . ie) en q 4q [WVov. 24, 1870 The causes which bring about an unequal distribution of the mass of the earth’s atmosphere are chiefly two—viz., the tem- perature principally, and secondarily the moisture of the atmo- sphere, their relations to the geographical distribution of land and water. The charts show that where there is an excess of tem- perature, as in the interior of Asia in summer, and where there is a relative excess of moisture, as in the belt of calms and in the north of the Atlantic in winter, and where there is an excess of cold, as in the interior of Asia in winter, and where there is 4 deficiency of moisture—there atmospheric pressure is ie Hence where pressures are low there the air is specifically light, and where pressures are high there the air is heavy relatively to that of surrounding regions, Further, since vast columns of air are poured by the pre- vailing winds into those regions where pressures are low without increasing that pressure, we must suppose that there is an outflow from these regions through upper currents, and this inference is all the more inevitable, seeing that the specifically light air resting over these regions supplies the conditions of an ascending current. Again, since vast volumes of air are driven off from the regions of high pressure without diminishing the pressure, it must be inferred that the higa pressure is maintained by accessions poured in upon it by the upper currents, and this inference is the more certain because in such regions the air is relatively heavier than in surrounding regions, thus supplying the conditions of a de- scending current. It is evident that the currents from the regions of low pressure will continue to ascend as long as their pressure is less than that in regions surrounding them a/ #2 same height, but that as soon as they reach a height where the pressure is less, towards afid over that region will they flow as upper currents of the atmo- sphere. ‘The courses of these upper currents will be directed towards those regions where the air is coldest and driest near the surface of the earth, because being thereby densest, the great mass of the air will condense in the lower beds, thus leaving less air or a diminished pressure in the upper regions. Thus the high winter pressure of Asia will be maintained by air being poured upon it by upper currents from the regions of low pressure in the north of the Atlantic, the north of the Pacific, and the Equatorial regions of the south. . From these considerations the following Zheory of the Mowe- ments of the Larth’s Atmosphere necessarily follows. The winds on the surface of the earth are known from the isobaric lines, the direction being from regions of high towards regions of low pressures, subject to the changes produced in the direction of the currents by the earth’s rotation; and the upper currents of the atmosphere may be inferred from the isobaric lines taken reversely togetlier with the isothermal lines taken directly. In other words, the regions of lowest pressure, by giving the ascending currents, point out the sources or fountains wlience the upper currents flow ; and the isothermal lines, by showing where, on account of the low temperature, the greatest portion of the air is condensed in the lower beds and so diminishing the pressure in the upper beds, point out the regions towards and over which the upper currents diffuse themselves. , , In this discussion of the prevailing winds and mean atmo- spheric pressure over the globe, there is contained the first approximate answer to the two questions :— 1. What are the motions of the earth’s atmosphere? 2. What are the causes of these motions ? It has been shown by Dr. Balfour Stewart* that these ques- tions form the fitst two stages in the development of meteorology: Considering the importance of the subjects of this diseussion which enter deeply into Physical Geography, Geology, the Science of Navigation; and the General Physics of the globe; itis to be hoped that observation will Le made and turned to account in rectifying the isobaric lines and filling up the blanks of the winds over the ocean, and portions of Africa and South America, data from these regions being in this as well as every similar discussion to a large extent Wanting. ALEX. BUCHAN SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LONDON \ tod f Zoological Society, November 15.—Prof, W. lH. Flower F.R.S., V.P., in the chair. An eighth letter was read Mr. W. H. Hudson, contaihing further observations on the Ornithology of Buenos Ayres.—Mr. Sclater exhibited a specimen * See NaTuRE of December 2, 1869; p.129. Se eee I ens tein ae on. { ————————— er ? Nav. 24, 1870] NATURE 77 of the new Australian Mudfish, recently described by Mr. Krefft in the Society’s ‘‘ Proceedings” as Ceratodus forsteri. specimen had been obtained from the Mary River, Queensland, and forwarded to Mr. Sclater by Mr. E. P. Ramsay.—Dr. J. Murie read a memoir on the form and structure of the Manatee (Manatus americanus), as deduced from a fresh specimen of this animal forwarded to this Society in a living state by Mr. G. W. Latimer, of Porto Rico, in April 1866, but which had un- fortunately died just before reaching Southampton.—A com- munication was read from Mr. Morton Allport, relating to the pro- gress of the experiments for introducing Salmon and Trout into ‘Tasmania.—Professor Flower read a memoir on the anatomy of the Panda (Adlurus fiddgens), as deduced from a specimen of this animal which had been presented to the Society by Dr. Simpson, in May 1869, and had lived for some time in the Society’s Gardens. After an elaborate examination of every part of this animal, Professor Flower came to the conclusion that it belonged to the Arctoidean group of the Carnivores, and was most nearly allied to the Raccoons and other members of the family Procyonide. Mr. Bartlett read some notes chiefly on the habits of the same animal, as observed when living in the Society’s Gardens.—A communication was read from Dr. J. E, Gray, containing the out- lines of a new arrangement of the Delphinoid Whales.—A com- mhunication was read from Mr. W. Harper Pease, containing remarks on the Mollusks of the genus 777fhoris and descriptions of some new species.—Mr. A. G. Butler communicated a notice of some abnormalities observed in the neuration of the hind wings in Acrea andromacha.—A paper was read by Dr. A. Giinther containing descriptions of two new species of Lizards of the enera Aumeces and Calotes, proposed to be called £, rachydactylus (from Pegu) and C. jerdoni (from the Khasya hills). —A paper was read by Messrs. Sclater and Salvin on the recent collections of Venezuelan birds made by Mr. A. Goering in the vicinity of Merida. The present collection was stated to embrace examples of 105 species, nine of which were considered to be new to Science. Amongst the latter were two new Parrots, proposed to be called Urochroma dilectissma and Conurus rhodocephalus.— A communication was read from Mr. H. Adams, containing descriptions of 27 new species of Shells collected by Mr. R. McAndrew in the Red Sea. A second communication from Mr. Adams contained descriptions of a new genus and four new species of Shells from Borneo and other localities, Anthropological Society of London, November 15.—Dr, Charnock, Y.P., in the chair; H, R. Adam, and Dayid Kinloch. were elected fellows. Dr. R. H. Bakewell read a paper on ‘The Condition of the Blood-corpuscles in certain Races.” The author’s researches had been undertaken at the request of Dr. Barnard Davis, F.R.S. While inyestigating the pathology of malarious fevers, the writer made numerous micro- scopical examinations of the blood, both of the sick and the healthy, in Trinidad. On comparison of the various races of English, French, Portuguese, Italians, Germans, Indians, Chi- nese, Africans (bothindigenous and of West Indian birth), and Creoles of various breeds, he found that, besides the differences produced by disease, there were well-marked differences between the various races. The corpuscles of the flesh-eating Mussulman and the vegetable-feeding Hindoo were contrasted, and it was found that the Hindoo’s blood contained a much larger number of white corpuscles, the red corpuscles also differing in form from those of the Mussulman. The author coined the word ‘‘num- mulation ” for the phenomenon observed in the aggregation of the corpuscles like rozeawx of coin. He gave the results of the examination of the blood of about a hundred different persons. — Mr. C. Staniland Wake, Director A.S.L., then read a paper on ‘Tribal Affinities among the Aborigines of Australia.” After tracing’the distribution of the several forms of native habitations, canoes, and weapons, and also of certain burial customs and initiatory rites, and referring to the apparently universal practice of cannibalism and blood-revenge, the writer stated, firstly, that the phenomena presented by the generality of the western natives are, on the whole, of a more simple character than those exhibited by the other aborigines agreeing with the milder disposition they apparently possess ; secondly, that the southern and eastern natives agree generally in their customs with the aborigines of the western part of the continent, but that they present certain peculiarities which seem to suggest an internal influence. This influence must haye proceeded from the north, and there the yery customs of phenomena which constitute the differentia be- tween the natives of the west and those of the east are met with. This | Comparing the distribution of initiatory rites with that of other customs, it would seem that scarifying the flesh and nose-perfo- ration are, like the use of the semi-circular hut, primitive cus- toms at one time common to all the aborigines ; that the custom of removing a front tooth is almost limited to the canoe-making peoples of the north, south, or east, who also possess in common certain funeral rites unknown to the western natives ; whilst cir- cumcision is limited to the northern and southern tribes and to some intermediate ones. The final conclusion of the paper was, that the western natives represent the most primitive and simple form of the Australian stock, the natives of the south and east having been intermixed with fresh comers from the north, who introduced new customs. This southward moyement was in two directions—one across the continent to the head of the Great Bight, thence spreading east and west along the coast ; the other along the north and eastern shores, and gradually spreading over the eastern portion of the continent.—Dr. Robert Peel con- tributed a communication on Australian Aborigines and Halfs Castes, and exhibited skulls (which he had presented to the Society’s Museum) in illustration. Chemical Society, November 17.—Prof. Williamson, F.R.S., President, in the chair. The following papers were read :— “Mineralogical Notices,” by Prof. Maskelyne and Dr. Flight. The contents of this communication were—I. On the formation of basic cupric sulphate. In 1867 M. Pisani described a mineral which he supposed to be the Woodwardite of Mr. Church. The substance, however, is not the latter mineral. It had previously been examined in the Laboratory of the British Museum, and the results sufficiently tallied with those of M. Pisani to identify the mineral. The only interest this mineral offers is in the light it seems to throw on the possible modes of the formation of native basic cupric sulphates. The actions of solutions of magnesium or calcium sulphate on malachite may terminate in the produc- tion of langite. An experiment in the laboratory showed that an insoluble cupric sulphate and acid magnesium carbonate were actually formed. 2. Opal from Waddela Plain, Abyssinia. Mr. Markham presented to the British Museum some remarkable specimens of green opal from the above locality, Its analysis showed it to consist of about 92 per cent. of silica, 6 per cent. of water, and the remainder was iron, manganese, calcium, and magnesium. 3. Francolite, Comwall. Its analytical numbers point to the formula ; 5 [3 Ca, 2 (P O,)] Ca CO, 4 + 2CaF, It is, in fact, a fluor-apatite, in which one equivalent in every six of the calcium phosphate is replaced by carbonate. The crystallography of this mineral seems also to point to its not being ordinary apatite, and in fact to its not being the same mineral as the original francolite from Wheal Franco. 4. Epidote and serpentine, Iona. A pebble in which a green mineral tra- verses bright red felspar and quartz in veins was sent by the Duke of Argyll to the British Museum. Its analysis leads to the view that it consists of a lime epidote with some 23 per cent. of quartz, the former mineral having the following constitution : 3 [2 CaO, SiO,] + 2 [2 (Zal 2 Fe), Og, 3 Si Oo] Two specimens of serpentine from the same locality gave the general formula : 3 RO, 2 Si O,, 2 Hy O, where R represents in one case Mg, with a little Fe and Ca ; in the other Mg, with nearly one-fifth of its equivalent of an equal mixture of Fe and Mg. 5. Vivianite. Two kinds of this mineral were found in an unknown Cornish locality. The one is ofa pale, bluish tint, the other of a brownish colour. Both proved to be octahydrated ferrous orthophosphate, 3 Fe O, P, O;, 8H, O, and the difference in the colours can only be ascribed to some minute difference in the degree of oxidation of the iron. 6. Cronstedtite. The analysis of this mineral presented considerable difficulties, inasmuch as it was extremely difficult to free it from the substances with which it is found associated. The cronsted- tite in question possesses an unusual interest from a crystallo- graphical point of view, being one of the best defined types of hemimorphism. 7. Pholerite. This mineral, derived from India, is of a pale flesh white, penetrated in several places by patches and veins of a black mineral. A new name was proposed for this mineral, but the analysis shows it to be nothing but pholerite. Mr. Church observed that it was a matter of con- gratulation to have those beautiful specimens which are stored in our magnificent national collections investigated in so excellent a ¥8 NATURE manner as the contents of the paper just read have shown.—The next communication was a note by Mr. Chapman “On the Oxides of Nitrogen.” In a paper read at the last meeting of the Chemical Society, Mr. Chapman mentioned that he had quantitatively estimated nitric oxide by converting it into nitric acid, and determining the latter by the production and weighing of the baryta salt. Objections were then raised as to the possi- bility of the completeness of such a conversion. Mr, Chapman now endeavoured to show by referring to well-known chemical facts that whether N, O,, N, O,, or N, Og be formed when N O is left with excess of oxygen over water, the final result must be the transformation into nitric acid. Mr. Harcourt reasserted that on his passing nitric oxide into oxygen he obtained as result nitric peroxide ; when reversing this order and passing oxygen into nitric oxide, a mixture of N,O,and N,O, seems to be formed. Mr. Chapman replied that the different results obtained by Mr. Harcourt and by himself were in all probability due to differences of the temperatures at which the respective experi- ments had been executed. Prof. Williamson took occasion of this repeated mentioning of nitric peroxide to remark that this = compound may be viewed as ane O, 7.2, as water in which the one hydrogen was replaced by N O, the other by N O.. Linnean Society, November 17.—Dr. J. D. Hooker, V.P., in the chair. Notes on the Passifloree, by Dr. M. T. Masters. The paper treated of the morphology of the whole order, in- cluding the organography of all the genera ; the minute anatomy, development, mode of fertilisation, and the movements which take place in the stamens and pistils of Passifora ; the affinities of the order, together with an inquiry into the value of charac- ters, and the mode of estimating them ; a complete list of the genera and species, with detailed descriptions of all the species which are not either American or African, and which will be published elsewhere ; and, lastly, an account of the geographical distribution. (1.) Organography.—The tendrils, as shown by their development, minute anatomy and position, and the fact that they occasionally bear flowers, are merely modified flower- stalks. The leaf, whether single or divided, always commences in development at the apex, and proceeds from above downwards. There are only three bracts instead of five, as there would be in a perfectly symmetrical arrangement ; their position, as well as that of the other parts of the flower, relative to the axis has been somewhat incorrectly described by Payer, Griffith, and Schleiden. Jussieu and St. Hilaire held that there is no true corolla in the passion-flowers, but two calycine whorls, because both organs fall at the same time. But the mode of develop- ment and the internal structure clearly demonstrate that the inner whorl is a true corolla ; the calyx is quincuncial, while the petals appear simultaneously. The flower-tube is, according to Bentham, composed of a union of the calyx and corolla; Dr, Masters, on the other hand, believes it to be an expansion of the axis. Its development is comparatively late. The form of the corona was traced from its simplest form in Zyrnera to its most complicated arrangement in some Modeccas and Passifloras, in all cases it is a mere projection from the flower-tube, and is of late development, and morphologically of little importance, though essential to the individual life of the plant. The inner portion of the tube is a glandular secreting surface. Each sepa- rate thread of the corona has its own distinct vascular bundle. The stamens, unlike those of Cucurbitacee, are not perigynous, but truly hypogynous. The gynophore becomes gradually de- veloped, raising the stamens with it. The anthers are inva- riably two-celled. The pistil is singularly uniform, one-celled, made up of three united carpels, with three parietal placenta and three stigmas. (2.) Mode of Fertilisation.—The arrange- ment of the sexual organs favours cross-fertilisation. The anthers, originally introrse, become, when fully developed, distinctly extrorse, and it is thus rendered difficult for the pollen to fall on the stigmas of the same flower ; it falls on to the rays of the corona, on which insects alight in search of the honey concealed at the base of the tube, and carry the pollen away to other flowers. Some species are more easily fertilise by pollen belonging to a different species than by their own ; hence hybridisation abounds. (3.) Affinities—Dr. Masters connects the Lassifloree rather with the Zurneracee, Samydacee, Violacee, and Sauvagesiee than with the Cucurbitacee, chiefly on account of their truly hypogynous stamens. (4.) Geographical Distri- bution. —The order is essentially tropical, occurring between 30° N. and 30° S. latitude. Taking the genus Passiflora as the type, it is almost exclusively American, and chiefly Brazilian ; [Mov. 24, 1870 a few outliers of the true passion-flowers occur in Madagascar and Mauritius, the latter probably introduced, and in North America there is a very remarkable form, the P. incarnata, or original passion-flower of the Jesuits ; it is an annual, and appa- rently an alien, but remarkably uniform and invariable ; its repre- sentative in Brazil is P. edu/is, a shrub, and an extremely variable plant. On the western side of the Andes you get entirely different forms, especially the Zacsonias, which have generally a much longer flower-tube. In India there are a few species, not be- longing to the American section of the order, but to the Poly- anthea, which are found also in Ceylon and the Indian Archi- pelago, and one outlying species in an island aear Hong Kong. In Australia and the Pacific Islands occurs another perfectly distinct group ; in New Zealand a perfectly distinct form is met with; and, again, another in Africa, where no true passion-flower is indigenous, except the one in Madagascar ; the species here, few in number, belonging to six or eight distinct genera, —‘‘On the White-beaked Bottle-nosed Whale,” by Dr. Jas. Murie. The paper gave an account of several anatomical points in the structure of this whale, which had not been clearly described before. The little bag or sac connectéd with the double articulation between the lower jaw and the rest of the skull, which is found in all Mammals except the Cetacea, is however, present in the foetus of the latter. Mathematical Society, Noy. 10.—Prof. Cayley, President, in the chair. The following gentlemen were elected to form the council for the Session 1870-1:—President, W. Spottiswoode, F.R.S.; Vice-Presidents, Professors Cayley, Henrici, and H. J. S. Smith; Treasurer, Dr. Hirst; Hon. Secs,, M. Jenkins and R. Tucker; other Members, W. K. Clifford, T. Cotterrill, M. W. Crofton, *C. W. Merrifield, *J. F. Moulton, J. Stirling, Archibald Smith, Prof. Sylvester, J. J. Walker. Mr. J. J. Hamblin Smith, M.A., Caius College, Cambridge, was pro- posed for election. The new president having taken the chair, called on Prof. Cayley to read his paper, of which an abstract is given below—‘‘ Sketch of Recent Researches upon Quartic and Quintic Surfaces.” The classification of quartic surfaces is, even as to its highest divisions, incomplete ; and it is by no means eas to make it at once exhaustive and precise ; an examination of all the prima facie possible cases would include forms which do not really exist. Premising that the expression ‘‘singular” means double or cuspidal, or refers to a higher singularity; ‘*nodal”’ in general double (including the signification cuspidal), we may provisionally arrange the non-scrolar quartic surfaces as follows— I, without a nodal curve ; 2, with a nodal line ; 3, with a nodal conic; or line-pair; 4, with three nodal lines (not in the same plane) meeting in a point); 5, the quartic scrolls, omitting alto- gether the torse and cones. For the scrolls the division into twelve species appears to be complete (Memoirs by Cayley (3) (4), Cremona, and Schwarz). As regards non-scrolar surfaces, we have—1. Without a singular curve. The surface may be with- out a cnicnode (conical point), or it may have any number of cnicnodes up to 16 (Cayley, (5) ; Kummer (1) (2),). It may be re- marked that the wave-surface, or generally the surface obtained by the homographic deformation of the wave-surface, called by Cay- ley (1) (2) the ‘‘ tetrahedroid,” is a special form of surface with 16 nodes. 2. Quartic surface with nodal Jine. Considered incident- ally in Clebsch (2) (3). 3- Quartic surfaces with nodal conic. Such a surface may be without cnicnodes, or it may have one, two, three, or four cnicnodes. The cases other than that of three cnicnodes are mentioned, Awmmer (1); but the ques- tion is examined and the remaining case of three cnicnodes established, Cay/ey (6). The general case of the nodal conic without cnicnodes is elaborately considered, Clebsch (1). See also Geiser ; the several cases of one, two, three, and four cnicnodes are considered, Aorndorfer. In the case where the nodal conic is the circle at infinity the surfaces have been termed ‘‘anallagmatic” (perhaps ‘‘bicircular” would be a more convenient name), and a great deal has been written on these surfaces by Moutard, Clifford, and others, The theory of the quartic surfaces with a cuspidal conic has been hardly at all considered, briefly referred to in Cayley (6), also in Cayley (8). ‘*I do not know that anything has beendone in regard to the quartic surfaces where the nodal conic becomes a line-pair, that is, where we have two intersecting nodal lines.” 4. Quartic surface with three nodal lines (not in the same plane) meeting in a point. This is in fact Steiner's quartic surface, and it has been the subject of numerous investigations. The author then * These gentlemen were not on the Council for the Session 1869-70. has eo = Nov. 24, 1870 | NATURE 79 iu proceeded to speak of the paper, Avwmer (1), which discusses the cases in which a quartic.surface has upon it a system of conics ; or what is the same thing, in what cases there is a system of planes each intersecting the surface in two conics. It is, in the first place, remarked that there is no proper quartic surface cut by every plane in a pair of conics or even a proper quartic surface cut in a pair of conics by every plane through afixed point. Thecases considered are :—(I.) where the planes are non-tangent planes ; (II.) where they are singletangent planes; and (III.) where they are double tangent planes (Steiner's surface, where every tangent plane meets the surface in a pair of conics, comes under II.). It was then pointed out that several of the papers by C/ebsch and others, refer in their titles to the ‘‘ Ab- bildung” of a surface, viz. they show that a (1,1) correspond- ence exists between the points of a surface and the points of a plane. For surfaces of the higher orders it is only ‘certain surfaces which admit of an “ Abbildung,” or (1,1) correspondence of the points thereof with the points of a plane; viz. a surface, in order that it may thus correspond with the plane, (or say in order that it may be unicursal), must have a sufficient singularity in the way of a nodal or cuspidal curve. In the memoir Clebsch (3), after explaining the above method of the transformation of a cubic surface by means of two of the lines thereof, the author goes on to notice that the like method is applicable to certain quartic and quintic surfaces, viz. (1) quartic surfaces with a nodal conic ; (2) quartic surfaces with a nodal line ; (3) quintic surfaces having a nodal skew cubic (the nodal skew cubic may break up into a conic and line which meets it, or into three lines, two of them not meeting each other, but each met by the third line; and the like theory applies to these quintic surfaces). The memoir by Korndorfer relates to the ‘‘ abbildung ” of a quartic surface having a nodal conic, and one, two, three, or four cnicnodes. CZebsch (4) relates to the ‘‘abbildung ” ofa quartic scroll. ‘* As regards quintic surfaces (not being scrolls), we have, so faras Iam aware, only the paper C/ebsch (3) relating to quintic surfaces with a nodel Skew Cubic ; the paper C/ebsch (5), which relates to the ‘abbildung’ of a quintic surface having a nodal quadriquadric. It only remains to speak of Schwars’s memoirs on Quintic Scrolls : itis to be remarked that the theory of scrolls is allied more closely with that of plane curves than with that of surfaces, viz. considering any plane section of the scroll the lines of the scroll have in general a (1, 1) correspondence with the points of the plane section, and the scrolls of any given order are properly arranged according to the deficiency of the plane section. This is what is done in the memoirs by Cvemona, and this is the principle of classification in Schwarz’s memoir. A model of Steimer’s sur- face was exhibited, and many of its properties pointed out. The following list of memoirs will indicate the sources whence the sketch was principally drawn. Memoirs by the author: (1) Sur Ja Surface des Ondes. Liouville, tom. xi. 1846. (2) Sur un cas particulier de la Surface du quatrieme ordre avec seize points singuliers. Crelle, tom. Ixv. pp. 284—290. (3.) Second memoir on Skew Surfaces otherwise Scrolls. Phil. Trans. vol. cliy. (1864), pp. 559—577. (4.) Third memoir. Phil. Trans. vol. clix. (1869), pp. 111—126. (5.) A memoir on Quartic Surfaces. Proc. of London Math. Society (1870), vol. iii. pp. 19 —69. (6.) On the Quartic Surfaces (* %*, U, V, W)?=0, Quarterly Journal of Math. tom. x. (1868), pp. 24—34. (7) Do. tom. xi. pp. 15—25 (1870). (8.) Memoir on Cubic Surfaces. Phil. Trans. vol. clix. (1869), pp. 231—326. Cvemona: Sulle superficie gobbe di quarto grado. Mem di Bologna, tom, vill. (1868). Schwarz: Ueber die geradlinigen Flachen fiinften Grades. Crelle, tom. Ixvii. (1867), pp. 23—57. Clebsch (1) Ueber die Flachen vierter Ordnung welche eine Doppelcurve zweiten Grades besitzen. Crelle, tom. Ixix. (2.) Intorno alla rappresentazione di superficie algebriche sopra un piano, Atti di R. Ist. Lomb. (1868), 13 pages. (3.) Ueber die Abbildung algebraischer Flachen insbesondere der vierten und fiinften Ordnung. Ann. Clebsch und Neumann, vol. i. (1868), pp. 253—316. (4.) Ueber die ebene Abbildung der geradlinigen Flachen vierter Ordnung welche eine Doppelcurve dritten Grades besitzen. Ann. Clebsch und Neumann (1870), pp: 445—466.{(5.) Ueber die Abbildung einer Classe von Flachen, 5 Ordnung. Gott. abh. tom. xv. 64 pages. Geisser: Ueber die Flachen vierten Grades welche eine Doppelcurve weiten Grades haben. Crelle, tom. Ixx. (1868), pp. 249—257. Korn- dorfer: Ueber die ebene Abbildung Clebsch und Neumann, tom. ii. Kummer: (1) Ueber die Flachen vierten Grades auf welchen Schaaren von Kegelschnitten liegen. Berl. Monatsber. Jul. 1863. Crelle, tom. Ixiv. (1864), pp. 66—76. (2) Ueber die algebraischen Strahlensysteme ins besondere iiber die der ersten | by Mr. Baxendell, and 6 Lyre by Prof. Argelander. und zweiten Ordnung. Berl. abh, (1866), . I—I120, 4 (Surfaces of the 4th order with sixteen conical points). Be Monatsber, (1864), pp. 246—260, and 495— 99. Meteorological Society, November 16.—Mr. C. V. Walker President, in the chair. Mr. J. H. Gilbert, Mr. C. R. Marten, Mr. F. E. Sawyer, and Mr. T. H. Wilson were elected Fellows. A paper was read by Mr. G. Dines, ‘‘On Evaporation and Evaporation Gauges, with some remarks upon the Formation of Dew,” in which, after referring to Dr. Dalton’s investigations, he explained the experiments in which he has been engaged during the past eighteen months with gauges of different sizes, the experiments being made sometimes with water of ordinary temperature, and at other times with heated water and also with water artificially cooled, in the open air and in a closed room. Mr. Dines then gave the results of these experiments, one of which confirmed the statement of Mr. Glaisher in 1847, viz. that “the formation of dew was found to depend solely on the temperature of the bodies upon which it was deposited, and that it never appeared upon them till their temperature had descended below that of the dew-point in their locality.” Finally, he stated that the conclusions which he had arrived at were, Ist. The greatest cause of evaporation is the movement of the air. 2nd. Whatever tends to increase the temperature of the air increases evaporation, and vice versé ; and 3rd, That which tends to lessen the temperature of the dew-point, increases evaporation, and wice vers@. Mr. Glaisher then made a com- munication respecting the November meteors, giving the results of the watches which were kept during the nights of the 12th-13th, 13th-r4th, and r4th-15th. On the latter evening fifty-three meteors were observed. He also made some remarks on the great magnetic disturbances which occurred during the brilliant display of Aurora Borealis on the nights of October 24th and 25th. The President then adjourned the meeting till January 18, 1871. MANCHESTER Literary and Philosophical Society, October 4.—Rev. Wm. Gaskell, Vice-president, in the chair, Mr. Boyd Daw- kins gave a short account of the work done in the Victoria Cave, near Settle, since the last notice brought before the Society. The two layers containing traces of man were separated at the entrance by a talus of fallen stones, seven feet thick, that gradually coalesced as the excavation passed into the cave, and at last became so confused together as not to be easily dis- tinguished at afew feet from the entrance. The remains of a gigantic bear which had been eaten may probably be assigned to the lower horizon, which furnished flint-flakes, and a bone har- poon in form resembling that used by the natives of Nootka Sound ; the upper or Romano-Celtic stratum continued to supply evidence of the comparatively late date of its accumulation in barbarous imitations of coins of Tetricus (A.D. 267-273.) A por- tion of the ivory handle of a Roman sword and a coin of Trajan have also been found, along with large quantities of the bones of animals that had been used as food. Several spurs of cocks proved that the inhabitants ate the domestic fowl, which was probably imported into this country either directly or indirectly by the Romans. The most striking object, however, is a beautiful sig- moid fibula made of bronze, and ornamented with a beautiful pattern in red, yellow, green, and blue enamel. It is an admir- able example of the art of enamelling (“Britannicum opus ” ?) which the Celtic inhabitants of Britain probably taught their Roman conquerors. October 18.—Mr. E. W. Binney, President, in the chair. Prof, Balfour Stewart, F.R.S., exhibited a series of sun-spot curves projected from results obtained by himself and Mr, De La Rue, from observations of Schwabe, Carrington, and the Kew series of photographs of the sun. These extend over a term o about forty years, and exhibit a principal and secondary maxi- mum and minimum in each solar spot period of eleven years, thus corresponding with the light curves of R Sagittee observed Hence it may possibly be that notwithstanding the darkening of the sun’s surface during the maximum spot period, the total light and heat emitted by the sun at this period is really greater than at the times of minimum spot frequency. —Mr. Lockyer, F.R.S., gave an account of his recent spectroscopic investigations ot the solar atmosphere, and pointed out that the conclusions arrived at by De La Rue, Stewart, and Loewy, confirmed the views to whieh he himself had been led by spectroscopic observations of the 80 sun during the last two or three years. These tended to show that the absorbing atmosphere, termed the chromosphere, which he had proved to exist round the sun’s body, had gradually diminished in thickness since the last solar spot minimum in 1867.—Mr. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., gave a short account of the examination of Offa’s Dyke made in the autumn by Col. Lane Fox and himself, The portion examined extended from Cher- bury in the south to the abrupt range of limestone hills to the north of Llanamynech. At Nantcribba Hall, near For- den, the dyke passes nearly due north between the road to Montgomery and the abrupt hoss of volcanic trap which looks at a short distance like a ruined castle, and which has been en- circled by a yery broad and deep moat. There can be no doubt but that this was a point of observation, and as it is but some twenty yards on the English side of the dyke, it was most probably one. of the permanent positions occupied by the English followers of the Mercian King. From this point the dyke gradually sweryes to the east from the road between Montgomery and Buttington, and makes directly over the low slopes of the hills, in some places being nearly ploughed down, and in others, and especially in the small valleys, being of considerable height and resembling a railway embankment, until it reaches the higher ground of Fron. ‘Thence it runs through Pentre and gradually approaches the road, and finally dies away in the alluvium of the Severn, nearly a quarter of a mile to the south of Buttington Church. The commanding camp to the south of this portion of the line is Gaer Digol, or the Beacon Ring, on the top of the Long Moun- ain. The morass, which in Offa’s time must have extended be- ween the main ditch and the Severn, prevented the necessity of any bank being made between Buttington and the Cefn. Where, howeyer, the open country demands a defence to the north of Cefn, an embankment makes straight for the Greenstone ridge of the Garreg, and is very plainly seen close to the farm-house of that name, near the Trewern Gate. Here we lost our clue, and it is very likely that the steep ridges of Moel y Golfa, and the marvellously strong camps of the Breiddan and Middleton Hills, formed a sufficiently strong barrier without any dyke being raised. We picked it up again, however, on the western or Welsh side of the Severn, {rom which it runs, as shown in the Ordnance map, due north to the four crosses, where it joins the Oswestry road, and where it is cut across by the new railway. There it makes straight for the fortified hill of Llanamynech, its line coinciding with the high road. On reaching the summit of Llanamynech it takes the western or Welsh side of the two large camps, and passes down into the valley to the south of Whitehaven, which was the limit of our expedition, The results of our examination are the direct proof that the dyke was made for military pur- poses, and that it took the line which was best adapted for re- pelling the incursions of the Welsh. Throughout the district which was examined the embankment faces Wales, and was therefore made to defénd the country within it from the Welsh. Dr. Wright’s view, therefore, that it was a mere geographical boundary to prevent the Welsh from stealing the cattle of the Mercians cannot be maintained, although it may perhaps receive some confirmation from the nursery legend of Taffy. The camps in the neighbourhood of the dyke are probably older than Offa’s time. The bronze spears found in Llanamynech imply that the camp is not later than the bronze age, while the Roman coins in that of the Breiddan point to its occupation by the Romans. November 1.—Reyv. William Gaskell, Vice-president. in the chair. Mr. William H. Johnson, Mr. Walter Morris, and Pro- fessor Balfour Stewart were elected ordinary members of the Society. Dr. Joule exhibited a series of curves obtained by Dr. Stewart from the self-recording instruments at the Kew Obserya- tory, showing a large amount of disturbance of the magnetic de- clination and horizontal force during the progress of the aurora of the 25th October. Healso showed a curve of the changes which took place in the magnetic dip as observed by himself at Broughton. The most remarkable variation occurred during the interval from 6" 15™ to 6" 23m G.M.T., when the dip increased from 69° 8' to 70° 30'—‘“t Notes on Glacier Moraines in Cum- berland and Westmoreland,” by Mr. Brockbank, F.G.S. “The author referred to the proceedings of the Geological Society of London for 1840—1, which contain notices of the evidences of glaciers having existed in Great Britain, by Professor Agassiz Dr. Buckland, and others, and which point out (1) “ Moraine- like Masses of Drift,” which occur near the junction of the Ea- mont and Lowther with the Eden, near Penrith ; (2) The “large and tory insulated piles of gravel in the valley of the Kent near Kendal, and the smaller moraines and their detritus, NATURE [Mov. 24, 1870 which nearly fill the valley from thence to Morecambe Bay ;” (3) ‘* Similar mounds near Shap,” and (4) the ‘* Gravel mounds near Milnthorpe and thence to Lancaster.” Of these the author considered the Kentmere Group, near Kendal, as most nearly fulfilling the conditions required in true glacier moraines, and that in the other cases it admitted of doubt whether they were really due entirely to glacial action. The districts more particu- larly the subjects of the author’s notes are (1) the valleys of Eskdale and the Duddon (which were not visited by Dr. Buck- land, but in which he supposed moraines to exist, from the ap- pearances of the valleys as delineated in Fryer’s map of Cumber- and) ; (2) the valleys eastwards from Bowfell ; and (3) the dis- trict of Shap Fells. DIARY THURSDAY, NovemMBeEr 24. Lonpon InsTITUTION, at 7.30.—On the Precious Metals and their Distri- bution; Prof. Morris Roya Society, at 8,30.—Note on the Pendulum Observations in India: Col. J. T. Walker, F.R.S.—The Theory of Resonance: Hon. J. W. Strutt. Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30.—Romano-Celtic Sword exhibited by Lord Wharncliffe: Mr. A. W. Franks.—Wall Decorations of the Roman Period in Sectile Work, especially in Glass: Mr. A Nesbitt. SUNDAY, NovemsBer 27. Sanne: Lecture Socmty, at 3.30.—On he Antiquity of Man: Dr. Cob- 0 MONDAY, Novemser 28. Lonpon InsTITUTION, at 4.—On Chemical Action: Prof. Odling INSTITUTE OF ACTUARIES, at 7.—On Legislation in reference to Life In- surance and Life Insurance Companies: Mr. T. B. Sprague, M.A. 4 TUESDAY, NovemBeEr 29. GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY, at 8.30. MANCHESTER LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY, at 7. WEDNESDAY, NoveMBER 30. Society oF Arts, at 8.—On Peat and its Profitable Utilisation: Robert M. Alloway. : " THURSDAY, DECEMBER 1. CuemicaL Socrery, at 8.—On some Derivatives of Anthracene: Mr. W. H. Perkin. LINNEAN SOcIETY, at 8. Lonpon InstiTuTion, at 7.30.—On Gems and Precious Stones: Prof, Morris. Society OF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30. TUESDAY, DECEMBER 6. AntHRopoLoGicaAL Soctety, at 8.—On the Races inhabiting the British Isles: Mr. A. L. Lewis —On Archaic Structures of Cornwall and Devon : i A L. Lewis.—On Forms of Ancient Interment in Antrim: Dr. Sinclair olden. . : CONTENTS Bice Tue CLAIMS OF SCIENCE. . . . oe eect ao: 3) 5 Tue Sources oF PHospHatic MANureEs. By E. Ray LANKESTER SCUINTINIG WEAR BOOKS . | (si teihee’s iis os Sets tule en nee OGRE BOOK'SHEDR ce cites Sere te betas Sat me de een Lerrers TO THE Eprror :— The Difficulties of Natural Selection.—A. W. Bennerr, F.L.S. T. R. R. Stepsinc; S$. N. CARVALHO; D. SHARP . . 4 oNGs The Chromosphere.—Rey. S. J. Perry . . . . 1. 2 1. 67 From London to Catania | Se ; ee eee The Spectrum of the Aurora.—H. R. Procrer =| 4s) See 68 The November Meteors—Rev. S. J. Perry ........ 6 SPAIN AND THE Ecurpse EXPEDITION . . ......4.4,.~. , THE CONSTRUCTION OF Heavy ARTILLERY. (Wath [dlustrations.) . 69 INDTESS FSA.) ST. . . . . oe ieaw - wee . . . . . . 73 Musicat InTERvats. By W. Sportiswoope, F.R.S.. . . . . . 75 On THE GREAT MOVEMENTS OF THE ATMOSPHERE. By ALEX. Bucuan 75 SOGIETIES AND ACADEMIES (77. Ds sa. ecien eete wee) ee TARR Rielle le fo Cela et hela a nt cet - 6r » - 62 s « Gs 0 gs . « 70 Sree Errata.—Page 28, second column, line xo, for “‘cumulus” read “ nim- ne ee 54, first column, line 25 from bottom, for ‘‘ Mr. Care” read T Ort = oor oe NATURE THURSDAY, DECEMBER 1, 1870 MEDICAL SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND GERMANY Ill. HERE is something elevating in the thought that the hospital, while it provides care for the sick, at the same time makes them useful for the purposes of instruc- tion in the service of mankind. Still it is painful, on the other hand, to think that the patient enjoys this attention only in order to be made as profitable as possible to others ; that he is given over to a crowd of curious seekers for knowledge, who feel his painful spots, percuss and auscultate his weakened body, and, in short, by pro- ceedings of various kinds, disturb the rest he so heartily longs for. Such evils are not indeed of any account, so long as the number of students does not exceed a certain limit. Experience teaches that a patient is pleased to see a certain number of doctors about him; he soon gives them his confidence, he looks upon them as his friends, and willingly allows himself to be examined, partly with the idea that it will be better for him if the examination is several times repeated, partly in acknowledgment of kind attentions which are shown him. The difficulty arises when the number of students is so large that the patient can no longer feel at home with them. Apart from the fact that the disturbance of the patient increases with the increase of the crowd about him, it is also of the utmost importance to consider that the greater number of stu- dents must remain total strangers to him, that they are for him only intruders, who are learning from his body without offering him anything in return. The situation becomes, however, actually distressing in AND SI to practice. They distribute themselves then among the hospitals where there are no students’ tasks, and there, with great loss of time, and under discouragements of many sorts, they are instructed in subjects which, according to their diplomas, they should have learned long before. Between such extreme unsuitableness and a really healthy state of instruction, there is, how- ever, a long road leading us through many schools of various grades. Instruction in medical science is good only where it happens to be endurable by the patient — that is, in smaller schools, where a few students only collect about his bed. Medical instruction has still another side. The student must not only learn the handicraft, he must also, through well-instructed teachers, be made familiar with the delicate processes which require delicate instruments, and experiments, and methodical thought for their elucida- tion ; for it is only by intercourse with thinking men that he can learn how careful observation and earnest thought on the phenomena with which his whole life will be occupied, can be made available for practical ends. In this connection, also, the question of the value of instruction in hospital wards must be answered. In point of fact the practising physician has always hitherto been regarded as the high school of medical science. Famous systems of medicine—that is, theories upon the nature of disease—took their start in hospital wards, and were taught at the bedside by distinguished masters. In this country, however, a total revolution has taken place, speculations upon systems of medicine are sup- | planted by exact medical science, and this, for the moment, | has fled from the ward and taken up its abode in the | | the neighbourhood of a distinguished teacher in one of | the large schools. An inquisitive throng crowds about the sick bed, utterly regardless of the patient’s comfort. The hospital becomes a market, the sick merchandise. Inasmuch as it is important for us to give the rela- tions of hospital and school a basis as humane as possible, we must inquire what those large schools have to offer in the way of medical instruction, and whether we may take the advantages as a set-off to the evils. As far as the art of medicine is concerned, we can main- | tain, without fear of opposition, that, ceteris paribus, clinical medicine will be taught with less success, the greater the number of students who crowd about the bed. The technical part of medicine should be taught orally. The student should be drilled in it as in a trade. In general, however, and to a certain point, the capa- bility of the person so drilled increases in proportion to the time which the teacher devotes to him personally, and it must therefore be in inverse proportion to the number of pupils whom a teacher has to instruct. Experience, in fact, teaches us that with large numbers of pupils the standard of individual capability is apt to be | extremely low. In Vienna, where about 300 students are instructed in clinical medicine around each bed, the amount of drill which each receives comes so near zero that for practical life it is scarcely to be taken into ac- | count. The students discover this as soon as they have left their studies behind them and begin.to look forward VOL, III. laboratory—here, at the present time, the most distin- | guished medical men and working pupils of superior gifts attach themselves to the laboratory, and remain there to study. Hence the phenomenon that, in Germany, in the department of pure clinical medicine, there is a want of worthy representatives. We are not to conclude on this account that our generation is inferior ; it is only that the distribution of its scholars is different. The modern students of clinical medicine seek to found their reputation by work in the laboratory, and they are unable to stand competition with those workers who are at home in it. First, because in general their ranks are not recruited by thinkers of the first order; secondly, because their profitable business coming in the way hin- ders their thorough education. They leave, therefore, the firm ground which the morphology of disease affords, and trust themselves to the weak ship of experimentation, which they are not able to steer. Even if the results of such investigations are taught at the bedside, the highest school of medical science is not to be sought there. The patient ought not to be dis- turbed, and the drill of the student neglected, for the sake of a science which is, or ought to be, better studied in the laboratory. It is the morphology of disease which belongs directly to the sick bed. One must have seen distinguished teachers of this kind, one must have | observed how they bring to light latent indications of disease, in order to concede that to such men, even a little misusage of the sick might be allowed in the interests of education. This bringing to light and grouping of pheno- mena for the purposes of diagnosis, is nowadays, indeed, F 82 NATURE "4 [Dec. 1, 1870 not called science. It is an intellectual act, such as every- one performs when he defines a plant, a mineral, or a commodity. The combination of the symptoms and definition of the disease is, in fact, an important element of the physician’s art, and must be included in every course of instruction. Still “Eines schickt sich nicht fiir Alle.” When Cuvier determined to what primeval animal a bone found buried in the earth must have belonged, it was only a definition ; yet no one will hesitate to rank it amongst the noblest exercises of the human intellect. So, too, the diagnoses of distinguished masters may be ranked with the greatest achievements of medical inves- tigators. To forbid such masters to teach at the bedside because many students crowd about them and disturb the patient, would be absurd. The instruction of such masters is, however, fit only for connoisseurs. For the uncultivated taste of the beginner it is unsuited. If it is besides so diluted as, with a large number of students, must invariably be the case, according to an unalterable law, it entirely loses its value. If, then, the founders of hospitals or their administrators would diminish to a cer- tain definite and very low standard the number of students who, at one time, should be allowed to enjoy the privilege of instruction in a hospital ward, they would certainly do no injury to the interests of education. On the contrary, if liberal in other respects, they would, by such limitation, further these interests. In what shall this liberality consist? Simply in this, that all available space in the hospital shall be open for the purposes of instruction, and that as many teachers shall be admitted as is consistent with a proper classifi- cation of the patients. We say admztted, and this is really the fittest expression, for there is not the smallest doubt that always and everywhere the ablest men would be eager to accept the place of teacher. The intellectual stimulus which an able physician derives from association with a school and intercourse with young men, and the moral support which a situation as instructor gives him in regard to his patients, are sufficient compensations for the required expenditure of time. The physicians and surgeons who at present have large amounts of material at their disposal in large hospi- tals, would certainly not be willing to support such a system of division. They would complain that they are deprived of the possibility of attaining great skill. There is some truth in this objection. It isa benefit tomankind when asurgeon, by extensive practice, attains superior skill in the performance of certain operations. But the advantage which a few derive from his technical skill is counterbalanced by the loss which the rest sustain from the superficial manner in which they are passed over with amere glance. In such a hospital more things are over- Jooked than one would imagine; and the pupils profit far less from the skill of the teacher than they lose from the superficiality of the teaching. It is, moreover, untrue that skill is likely to suffer from a further division of material. ‘We have examples of great operators who never occupied a position in a hospital. Nor can it be doubted that the greater the number of those to whom the opportunity is given of proving their skill, the greater will be the number of skilful surgeons. In the plan here proposed, many readers may see only | | anticipate any decided results. what is already introduced in England, that is, small schools for the special study of medicine. The writer of this article is, however, far from speaking in be- half of schools of this kind. Such schools are fit only for the production of craftsmen ; and medical men, though they must be craftsmen, must not be mere crafts- men. Such small special schools can serve only as preparatory appendages to the larger educational bodies, that is to say, to the Universities, whose function it is to foster the sciences for their own sakes. Every medical student ought to obtain his education in general physical science and special medical science at the University ; and while doing so he must acquire the art of medicine in a hospital, just as the young botanist must study in the field at the same time that he attends lectures. The small Universities in Germany answer both pur- poses to an approximate degree. There one finds excel- lent schools with so few students that they can obtain both the higher scientific education and drill at once. To approach towards such circumstances, without giving up the great advantages which large schools offer for the development of science, is the end towards which we must strive. S. STRICKER POLARISATION OF THE CORONA this forms one of the most important questions to be settled during the coming Eclipse, it becomes Ae | desirable to reconsider the observations already made on this subject. Arago first suggested that the polariscope should be used on the corona, but apparently did not The principal observations since made are the following :— 1842.—Arago at Perpignan. Used a polariscope a Zunulis, that is,a double-image prism and crystal. He found the two images of complementary tints, the colour extending over the sky around the corona, the corona itself, and even over the disc of the moon. 1842,—Mauvais at Perpignan. Used a Savart’s polari- scope. He saw the bands very distinctly on the corona, and faintly on the moon itself. Their maximum of inten- sity corresponded with the horizontal position of the bands. Evidently he should have found another maximum when | the bands were vertical. Both this and the preceding observation show the existence of atmospheric polarisation extending even over the disc of themoon. Its plane must have been the same throughout, or Arago would have seen the different parts varyingintint. The maximum noticed by Mauvais shows that the plane must have been either vertical or horizontal, that is, not oblique. 1851.—Abbadie at Trocdeseckseverk. Inserted a plate of quartz between the object glass and eye-piece of his telescope, and applied a double refracting prism to the eye-piece as an analysis. He found the light of the corona strongly polarised, but saw no traces of colour on the © moon. He was, however, troubled by clouds. ; 1851.—Dunkin at Christiania. Found no traces of © polarisation, but was troubled by clouds. _ 1851.—Carrington at Lilla-Idel. Useda Nicol’s prism, © but found no polarisation. EE ail Dee. 1, 1870] NATURE 83 1858.— Liais at Paranagua. Instrument used, a Savart’s polariscope. He found the plane normal to the limb of the sun, and the intensity small, but greater than that of the moon. He also remarks that the neutral point of sky polari- sation was in the neighbourhood of the sun, a statement difficult to comprehend, as the neutral points are com- monly defined by their distance from the sun, 1860.—Secchi on Mont St. Michel. Used an Arago’s polariscope, and found that the images were not of equal colour, and that one was elongated in one direction, the other in a direction perpendicular to it. This last appear- atice was probably imaginary, as the crystal in the polari- scope would prevent the extinction of any polarised rays. 1860.— Pragmowski at Briviesca. Used a plate of right and left-handed quartz at the common focus of the object glass and eye-piece, and a Nicol’s prism in the eye-piece. This combination should give two semicircles of comple- mentary tints when the plane of polarisation is oblique to the line of junction of the quartz. Using a power of 22, placing the line of junction vertical, and bisecting thesun, he found the top and bottom alone of uniform tint, the two semicircles being very strongly coloured, one red, the | other green. He thence inferred a radial polarisation. In reality, in this case, he should have found the sides alike, as well as the top and bottom, only faint yellow instead of purple, and the colours most strongly marked | at angles of 45°. 1868.—Campbell used a Savart’s polariscope and found the bands strongly marked, having a maximum at 140° from the vertex. 1868.—Winter used a similar instrument, and, as a re- sult, found the polarisation very strong, especially close to the sun. 1869.—Pickering at Mount Pleasant. The writer used an Arago’s polariscope, and found the sky polarised close to the corona, the plane being the same on all sides of the sun. 1869.—Smith, at Eden Ridge, records a similar result obtained by a member of his party. We see, therefore, that the results are very variable, the polarisation of the corona, if any, is obscured by that of the sky, probably due to secondary reflection, It is therefore very desirable to use some means of neutralising this effect. One remedy is to place a double-image prism in front of the telescope, which thus superposes two images of the sky polarised at right angles. For obser- vations on the sky no telescope should be used, or the light will be too much enfeebled. A Savart’s polariscope is the most delicate instrument, but such a one as the Arago is more useful to determine just what portion of the light is polarised. The Nicol’s prism and the double- image prism give such indefinite results, that little could be expected of them, and they have been tried by several ob- servers without success. The best instrument to measure the intensity of the polarisation is the polarimeter, consist- ing of several glass plates, which can be set at an angle in front of a Savart, and the point of disappearance of the bands recorded. The absence of polarisation of the protuberances has been observed by Abbadie, Pragmowski, and others, and seems so well determined, their further examination is unnecessary. EDWARD C. PICKERING THE RESOURCES OF VEARPEATA The Mineral and other Resources of the Argentine Re- public. Published by special authority of the National Government by Major I. Rickard, F.G.S. (London : Longmans and Co., 1870.) NM AJOR RICKARD has executed inavery creditable manner the task which the National Government deputed him to perform, and his volume will give its readers considerable insight into the vast material resources of the Argentine Republic. Hitherto La Plata, in spite of its name, has been regarded rather as a field for agricultural enterprise than as a source of mineral wealth; and the stories which were once current of mountains rich in precious metals have been forgotten in the details given by our countrymen of their successful farming in the pampas of the south. Various causes have combined to divert attention from the mineral riches of the country. The tedious contest with Lopez, only just concluded, and the turbulent character of the gauchos and Indian tribes, have checked the growth of confidence in the minds of emigrants or caritalists ; and though the vigorous administration of President Sarmiento has already done much to remove these obstacles, some time must still elapse before investors will be persuaded that “the great Republic of the South” is likely to realise all the favourable vaticinations of which Major Rickard makes it the subject. What, however, has most retarded the progress of mining, and, indeed, of all industrial enterprise, in the Argentine Republic, has been the defi- cient population and the want of means of intercom- munication and transport. Buenos Ayres and the other riverine provinces, where grazing is a pleasant and profit- able pursuit, absorb nearly all the working power of the Republic, and at the present time not more than 2,687 persons are engaged upon any form of mining industry. If the reader will cast his eye over a map of the country (the absence of which in Major Rickard’s book is a serious defect), he will see what a mere scratching of the soil can be effected by such a handful of men. Hence it is that very trifling results have hitherto been obtained from the few mines yet in operation, and that the processes for reducing the ore have remained defective and costly. The supplies drawn from the Argentine Republic produce no appreciable effect upon the metal markets of the world, and in popular estimation its exports solely consist of tallow, wool, and hides. President Sarmiento,a man of no common discern- ment, is convinced that the substantial wealth of his country is to be found in its mineral resources, and, more- over, that they will provide the surest means for promoting rapid and extensive immigration. In their development is bound up the extension of commerce and the progress of agriculture. Had it not been for the discovery of gold, California might still have remained a vast cattle range to this day; and what is there to prevent La Plata, which can | boast of the riches of Copiapo, Potosi, and Famatina, from rivalling her neighbour in wealth, population, and national importance? The Argentine Republic is divided into fourteen pro- vinces, and extends southwards from the Tropic of Ca- pricorn to the goth parallel of latitude. Roughly speaking, | the characteristics of the country admit of a two-fold division ; the northern and eastern provinces being 2 84 NATURE [Dec. 1, 1870 metalliferous, and the southern and littoral provinces agricultural. The latter term must, however, be accepted | with some qualification, inasmuch as the cereals hitherto produced have been very scanty, and to this day the Republic is an importer of flour. In truth, the natural pasture is so abundant, and alfalfa or lucerne thrives so luxuriantly, that stock-farming is practised almost to the exclusion of all other branches of agriculture. Major Rickard remarks that mining in La Plata is at once in its infancy and in its old age. An instance of this anomalous state of things may be seen in Mendoza, where the ancient silver mines, El Rosario and San Ru- maldo, which were discovered as early as 1638, are again in active operation. The old miners dealt merely or chiefly with what Spaniards term “warm metals” (metales calidos), that is, those which could be reduced directly by means of mercury, and this, therefore, left for a later generation the “cold metal” (metal frio) which required for its reduction the process of smelting. Silver mines are not by any means confined to the province of Mendoza. In San Juan (where civil war and revolu- tion have long been fatal barriers to all industrial pro- gress) the district of Tontal, on the slopes of the great Andine range, is peculiarly rich in argentiferous lodes ; ordinary samples from the Mine Senor containing not less than 160 ounces to the ton, and first class samples yielding 400 ounces. But, in the opinion of Major Rickard, the silver mines of Famatina, in the more northerly province of La Rioja, are the richest in the whole country. That the difficulties in working them are formidable may be gathered from the fact that some are situated 13,000 feet above the sea-level, and that the whole district is deficient in fuel of any sort, and exposed during three months of the year to a rainfall so heavy as | to compel the miners to suspend their labours. province of Catamarca copper is the predominant metal, and in union with it an appreciable percentage of gold and silver has been found. During the year 1868 the Restauradora mine produced 2,639 tons of ore, containing | by assay 506 tons of fine copper; but it must be re- membered that the prevailing systems of smelting are by no means perfect. More than one auriferous district exists within the limits of the Republic, and those which are respectively named Gualilan and Guachi (from Gwa, which in the Huerpe tongue signifies gold) have for many years enjoyed considerable celebrity. Both of them largely enriched their first workers, and there can be little doubt that thousands of tons of ore still exist in the old workings which have been abandoned, partly from natural difficul- ties, but principally from the want of skilled labour. As to the other productions of the Republic, it is im- possible in this brief notice of a copious volume to do more than mention them by name. Mendoza and San Juan possess silver-lead mines of considerable extent ; and in the former province petroleum springs have been recently discovered. In Santiago del Estero large tracts of land are covered with indigenous indigo; rice and tobacco are cultivated in Tucuman, and in the most northerly provinces of Salta and Jujuy are thriving plantations of coffee. After making every allowance for Major Rickard’s | natural enthusiasm, it must be admitted that the country | | In the | whose resources he has so minutely described, offers many and great inducements tothe British emigrant to give it a fair trial. President Sarmiento desires especially to attract a further immigration of our fellow countrymen, for he infers from the success they have already achieved in the cultivation of the Pampas, that their energy and enterprise will be invaluable in developing the mineral resources of the Republic, and that Anglo-Saxon coolness and perseverance will form a favourable counter- poise to the opposite characteristics of the Hispano- American race, C. J. ROBINSON OUR BOOK SHELF An Elementary Course of Hydrostatics and Sound. By Richard Wormell, M.A., B.Sc. Feap. 8vo, pp. viii. and 146. (London: Groombridge and Sons, 1870.) THIS little book is “designed for the use of schools, colleges, and candidates for University and other exami- nations.” In such a work it would of course be out of the question to look for novelty of matter: by the nature of the case, to praise the author’s originality would be to cast a doubt on his accuracy; and, while inaccuracy would be inexcusable, no merit can be claimed for its opposite. Hence, in trying to form an estimate of a book like this, we are inevitably led to consider whether the subjects treated are arranged in a simple and natural order ; whether the exposition of principles is clear and logical, the really fundamental matters being kept constantly and prominently before the student’s mind, and special conse- quences and applications grouped about them in such a manner as to show distinctly their mutual connection and dependence : whether, in short, the book is scientific in treatmént as well as in subject. We are sorry to say that, in these respects, our judgment of the work before us is by no means favourable. We should expect a student, instead of acquiring from it ideas which are capable of growth and expansion within his own mind, and being led towards the conception of the organic connection of all scientific truth, to conclude that science—or at least hydrostatics and acoustics—consists of a series of proposi- tions which it is his duty to “ get up” and write out on the first opportunity in answer to examination-questions. The least satisfactory parts of the book are the explanatory and descriptive portions, and especially the twenty-two pages at the end devoted to sound. The author says in the | preface that “the whole contains all that is required on these subjects [hydrostatics and sound] for the B.A. and B.Sc. degrees of the University of London.” If this is true as regards the latter subject, it is more to the discredit of the University than to the credit of his book. Studien tiber das Central Nerven-System der Wirbel- thiere. Von Dr. Ludwig Stieda, Prosec:or in Dorpat. (Lendon: Williams & Norgate.) Dr. Lupwic StTrepA is already well-known for his admirable papers on the central nervous system of osseous fishes, birds, and some mammals. The present work embraces a description of the central nervous system of the frog, rabbit, dog, cat, mole, and mouse ; an account of the course of the fibres in the spinal cord of Vertebrata generally ; a comparison of the brain of the various classes of Vertebrata with that of man, and finally, a comparison of the cerebral with the spinal nerves. Of the description of the brain and spinal cord of the several mammals mentioned above we need say nothing here, except to remark that the account is full and carefully drawn up; the minutest structure of the several parts being given as well as their coarser anatomical features. In regard to the brain of the frog, the parts of which have received such different names, Dr. Stieda gives the following description of the organ as it appears when iil Dec. 1, 1870] NATURE 85 viewed from the upper surface. The cerebrum presents the following parts in successive order :—1, the medulla oblongata; 2, the cerebellum ; 3, the lobus opticus, with its median furrow; 4, the lobus ventriculi terti (thalami optici of authors); 5, the lobi hemispheerici, each of which terminates anteriorly in a knob constituting the tuberculum olfactorium. On the under surface of the brain there appear successively from before backwards :— (1) the bases of the lobi hemispheerici ; (2) the chiasma of the optic nerves, which last proceed from (3) the lobus opticus, and between which is situated (4) the hypophysis cerebri, and behind this (5) the base of the medulla oblon- gata. M. Stieda then gives a-full description of these parts, and of the variouscerebral nerves in the frog. To this suc- ceeds avery good general view or 7éswaé of the anatomy of the brain in mammals. We may draw attention to some re- marks made in the section where a comparison is made be- tween the brain of man and that of the several classes of Vertebrata. It maybe premised that little difficulty is experi- enced in discovering the homologous parts of the central nervous system of man andthe morehighly organised mam- mals. {In the birds, however, there are several parts that are difficult to decipher ; whilst in Amphibia, and still more in fishes, the nature of the several parts has given rise to much discrepancy of opinion between different observers, Dr. Stieda refers to his former work for the brain of fishes. In regard to Amphibia and reptiles, he considers that the lobi hemisphzerici, or anterior lobes, being hollow, and containing a ventricle, are clearly the analogues of the cerebral hemispheres of man. The azygous portion of the central cavity, between the posterior parts of the hemi- spherical lobes (or ventriculus.communis) in :the frog, is theindication of the primordial single cavity of the first cere- bral vesicle, and consequently establishes the transitional stage between the osseous fishes and the higher Vertebrata. The succeeding segment constituting the lobus -ventriculi tertii, (or Zwischenhirn) corresponds in its upper part to the thalami optici; in its lower to the tuber cinereum and lamina cinerea. The third segment, or lobus opticus, agrees exactly with that of fishes, both in its external and internal relations, whilst reptiles exhibit the inter- mediate type between fishes and birds. Of the nature of the cerebellum there can be no doubt. In regard to birds, he observes, that the great club-like segment of the cerebrum of birds corresponds to the hemisphere of man, the bodies enclosed in them to the corpora striata, the radiated septum to the septum pellucidum. Heconsiders the existence of parts analogous to the corpus callosum and fornix of man to be doubtful. The succeeding seg- ment corresponds to the optic thalami; the large spheroidal body of the lobus opticus to the corpora quadrigemina. Two plates accompany the treatise, which are devoted to the histology of the parts described. else lee LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [The Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | The Difficulties of Natural Selection As Mr. Bennett complains that I have charged him with errors he has not committed (which I should much regret to have done), I must ask permission to justify my statements by a re- ference to his own words. 1. Mr. Bennett says that he is unable to discover where he has led his readers to understand that there is only one completely mimicking species of Zeféalis, I will therefore show him where he has done so. In the third column of his article (p. 31) he says: ‘“‘Another South American genus of Lepidoptera, the Leptalis, belongs structurally to an entirely different class, the Pievide, and the majority of its species differ correspondingly from the //eliconide in their size, shape, colour, and manner of flying, being nearly pure white. There is, however, one par- ticular species of Leftalis, which departs widely in external facies from alt its allies, and so closely resembles a species of /¢homia as to deceive,” &c. &c. Then comes the argument and the mathematical calculations always referring to ‘the Zepéalis,” and it is at the end of this, at the bottom of the next column, that we have the following passage (of which Mr. Bennett in his reply has only quoted a line and a half): ‘‘ For supposing the chance isreduced from one in ten million to one in ten thousand, and it is said that the world has existed quite long enough to give a fair chance of this having occurred once, it is not a soli- tary instance that we have. Mr. Bates states that in a com- paratively small area several distinct instances of such perfect mimicry occur, Mr, Wallace has a store in the Malay Archipe- ,lago, Mr. Trimen records several ef- wonderful completeness in South Africa,” &c. Now, as thereisnot a word here about ether species of Zeffalis, but only about other cases of mimicry, as Lepialis is unknown in Africa or the East, as mimicry occurs in other genera and families of Lepidoptera, and other orders of insects, and as Mr. Bennett has himself stated, that the ‘‘ ove particular species of Leptalis departs widely in external facies from ad/ its allies,” I think it will be admitted that I was justified in asserting that Mr, Bennett’s readers would be ‘‘led to understand,” that there was only one species of completely mimicking Zef/alis. If I was not so justified I confess my ignorance of the English language, and beg Mr. Bennett’s pardon. 2. I leave your readers to judge for themselves whether the fact of a Leftalis having twenty offspring does or does not affect the mathematical argument as set forth by Mr. Bennett ; but when, in answer to my statement, that the right variation has, by the hypothesis, a greater chance of surviving than the rest, he asks: ‘* By what hypothesis? ‘he hypothesis that these small variations are useful to the individual, the very hypothesis against which I am.contending as unproved,”—I must protest against his denying his own words. For, at p. 31, col. 1, he says: ‘*‘ The next step in my argument is, that the smallest change in the direction of the /thomza which we can conceive, on any hypo- thesis, to be beneficial to the Zeffa/zs is, at the very lowest, one- fiftieth of the change required to produce perfect resemblance ;”’ and six lines farther on, ‘‘ For the sake of argument, however, I will suppose that a:change to the extent of one-fiftieth 2s deve- ficial,” and then-comes the calculation. Again, I must acknow- ledge my ignorance of the meaning of words if Mr. Bennett does not here directly contradict himself. I never said the hypothesis was proved, but only that Mr. Bennett’s argument, founded:on it, was unsound, and forthe sake of the argument he had admitted the hypothesis. Mr. Bennett goes on to say: ‘‘ The new factor, of which I take no account, is, again, entirely dependent on the admission of the natural selectionist premiss.” This new factor is the principle of Aeredity. As he acknowledges that he takes no account of it, we must presume that he denies its existence ; and as the whole. of Mr. Darwin’s theories and my own fall to the ground without it, he might have spared himself the trouble of his “mathematical demonstration.” 3. Ido not consider, as Mr. Bennett seems to do, that the distinction between ‘‘ protective resemblance” and ‘mimicry ” is asubtle one. Anyone who reads his paragraph on this sub- ject (p. 32, col. 2) will, I think, be under-the impression, as I was, that he alluded to mimicry, or mimetism, properly so called, as being strongly developed in birds, It seems, however, that he means only protective resemblance ; but this, I believe, to be equally common among the-very lowest forms of life. Trans- parency, for example, is a great protection to aquatic animals, and it is very prevalent in low organisms. Fishes are all, or almost all, protectively coloured, by the back being dark and the belly light, so that, whether looked at from above on the dark background, or from below on the light one, they are equally difficult to see. In many fishes, too, we havea specific protective resemblance as perfect as in any birds (see ‘‘ Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection,” p. 55), and this is as much opposed to Mr. Bennett’s theory as the absence of tiue mimicry in birds and mammals. 4. Mr. Bennett says, I have “brought no evidence to show that extremely small variations afford any immunity from the attacks of enemies,”—but this was quite unnecessary, because I show that the variations which continually occur in insects are by no means ‘‘extremely small.” Tezalso sas that I “give no explanation of the tendency of the Zeféa/?, referved to by Mr. Bates, to produce naturally varieties of a nature to resemble Ithomie.” But Mr. Bates introduces this remark with—‘‘ It. would seem as if” and though I think that the fact may bé so, 86 NATURE [Dec. 1, 1870 and that it is not difficult to explain, yet I do not feel bound to explain every supposed fact as if it were a well-estabiislied one. As to the ‘parallelism of the development of protective resemb- lance and of instinct in the animal world,” which I am also asked to explain, I deny that it has been proved to exist. In conclusion, I will o» erve that the theory of Natural Selec- tion, and its subordinate theory, Mimicry—have now been so fully developed by Mr. Darwin, Mr. Bates, Mr. Trimen, and myself, that I conceive it to be a full and sufficient answer to any opponent if we c n show that his particular objections are un- sound. ‘This, I believe, I have done in the case of Mr. Bernett, although I am sorry to find that he cannot see it, and it is there- fore unnecessary to go fully into the collateral points on which he has touched, and which have already been sufficiently ex- plained by Mr, Darwin or myself. ALFRED R. WALLACE I am forcibly reminded of Pope’s lines, A little knowledge is a dangerous thing: Drink deep, or taste not, the Pierian spring, by the argument used by Mr. Bennett in the P.S. to his letter in NATuRE, of the 24th November, in which he says, after quoting a passage from a paper by Mr. Jenner Weir: ‘‘ Here at least it would seem as if zmferfect mimicry was anything but beneficial to the individual ; how can the principle of natural selection account for its propagation in these instances?” He considers that a little mimicry isa dangerous thing. I would rather agree with Lord Brougham in his remark on the above lines, that as a little knowledge is better than greatignorance, so a little mimicry is better than great dissemblance. But the case referred to by Mr. Jenner Weir is plain, and the argument, instead of being against the theory of natural selec- tion, is really in its favour. Some of the larvze in question, for some reason of which we are unaware, are not so palatable to birds, and they, therefore, are not eaten by them to the same extent. These larve have aot so much need of the aid of protective resemblance, and indeed their hair, spines, and gay colouring are advantageous to them instead of a drawback. The smooth-skinned larvee require the aid of protective resemblance for their preservation, but no one would fora moment expect that because an insect has a protective resemblance to the place on which it rests, that every individual is to escape destruction by its enemies. Mr. Bennett again asks for an explanation of the tendency of the South American Zeftalide to resemble /thomie. I think the reason is clear. Mr. Bates, in his paper, read before the Linnean Society in 1862 (Trans., vol. 23), states that the Zef/a- fide are exceedingly rare compared to the Aeliconide, and that the proportion is about I to 1,000, and also that none of the Leplalide ave found in any other locality than those of the H-liconide they mimic. From this I should judge that the Leptalide cannot make head against their enemies, and require the assistance of mimicking some better protected_species to be able to maintain itself. November 25 S. N. CARVALHO, JuN. ProressoR HUXLEy has referred Mr. Bennett to the highest authority for an answer to his reasoning on a difficulty in the theory of natural selection. Meanwhile, Mr. Wallace has replied on his own account. Upon the biological question I do not pre- sume to touch, but I wish to say a word upon the mathematical one, especially as I cannot think Mr. Wallace has really met this part of the argument. Mr. Bennett’s argument is shoztly this. A modification must be advantageous before natural selection can take hold of it. In order to be advantageous, it must not be too small ; it must be so great as to be attainable only in the course of many genera- tions, during which, in the absence of natural selection, we must see whether chance will carry us over the ground. As an ex- treme concession, he supposes that an advantageous amount of change might be accumulated in twenty steps; and, assuming that the required direction of change is only one out of twenty directions equally probable, he easily shows it to be violently im- probable that a stationary population of one million should pro- duce a single instance of even ten such steps in successive gene- rations. But why is it necessary to suppose the steps made in succes- sive generations ? within reasonable time, it may surely be immaterial what inter- vals of merely unprogressive variation may elapse between them. In 200 generations, the first, fifteenth, fiftieth, for instance, and seventeen more, might make steps in the right direction, and all the rest might make steps in some or all of the other nineteen possible directions. Ten would in fact be the most probable number of steps in the right direction, and it would be about an even chance that there were ten at least. However, as soon as we suppose steps in other directions, we must allow for the possibility of steps which shall actually reverse such progress as might be made in the right direction. If one change out of twenty equally likely is in the right direction, there will be on an average one in the opposite direction, and eighteen in indifferent directions. If we assumed that, in 200 generations, 180 were neutral, while twenty made steps forward or steps back- ward, these twenty wight be all forward, and the chance that they were so would be one in 2”, or one in little more than a million. Generally, the number of neutral steps would be a little more or a little less than 180, and if we allow for this the re- sulting chance will be considerably increased. Several instances would probably be produced bya population of a million; and I presume it is easy to allow much more than 200 generations of butterflies. Noy. 23 C. J. Monro Dr. Nicholson’s ‘‘ Zoology” I NoTICE in NATURE for Oct. 20, a review by Mr. E. Ray Lankester, of a Manual of Zoology recently published by me, and I crave a small portion of your space to say a few words thereon. Upon Mr. Lankester’s zoological strictures on my work I will not enter, partly because the public verdict on the merits of my work has already been very emphatically and deci- sively expressed ; partly because the sins laid to my charge are chiefly of omission and not of commission, and are, therefore, more or less inevitable in a work of such limited compass; and partly because it must be patent to everyone how much more admirably the work, unfortunately left to me, would have been discharged by Mr. Lankester himself. In the matter of Greek, however, Mr. Lankester really must excuse me if I decline to bow to his superior knowledge. Iam well aware that he probably entertains a fresher recollection of his school days than I can boast of, and I might, therefore, with- out shame, have pleaded guilty to some obliviousness of Greek roots. Mr. Lankester, however, has been singularly unlucky in the point of attack chosen by him. He takes upon himself to condemn the whole of the glossary to my work, because he finds the twelfth word of the same (‘‘actinomeres”) derived from the Greek word ai, and he is good enough to add the informa- tion that ‘‘there is no such Greek word as atin.” Now, any decent lexicon would have informed Mr. Lankester that aééiz is not only good Greek, but that it is the original form of the word, and that aktis was employed for the first time by Pindar, not, therefore, till about 450 B.c. In conclusion, if 1 may be permitted to make a suggestion, I would recommend Mr. Lankester, in his capacity as critic and appraiser of the work of other men, not to judge in future of the value of a haystack by the first straw that he may happen to pull out of it; or, if he must do this, to be very sure before giving his opinion to the public, that it z a straw that he has succeeded in laying hold of. Newhaven, Edinburgh 'H. ALLEYNE NICHOLSON Dr. NICHOLSON’s extraordinary assertions as to the supposed word ‘‘aktin” really demand no serious discussion, which, in- deed, would be out of place in NATURE. A reference to Liddell and Scott’s Lexicon will conclusively demonstrate to any person interested in the matter that he is entirely wrong. The follow- ing additional blunders in Dr. Nicholson’s giossary will enable your readers more fully to judge of his accuracy, and it will re- quire considerable boldness to attempt to justify them by refer- ence to imaginary archaic forms :—1. In several places we find Dr. Nicholson giving ‘‘poda” as the Greek for “feet,” a gross grammatical fault. 2. “ Pseudos” is given as the adjective cor- responding to the English word “false.” 3. ‘‘Enchuma” is said to be a Greek word meaning “tissue.” It has not this meaning. Dr. Nicholson’s mistake arises from ignorance of the origin of the signification of the word “parenchyma.” 4. ‘‘ Laima” is given in several places in the glossary for ‘‘ throat,”’ in place of Provided that the required number are made | “‘laimos.” a eee eee eee Dee, 1870 | NATURE 87 It is improbable that these are anything but a fraction of Dr. Nicholson’s etymological misrepresentations. Mistakes in the glossary of a zoological work are not of very great importance, and would not in this case have demanded notice had they not been fair samples of the general character of the book in which they occur. I much regret that the fact of the writer’s name being appended to the notice of Dr. Nicholson’s work should have led him into the region of personalities, whither I do not intend to follow him. E. Ray LANKESTER Glass Floats off the Isle of Lewis Ir would be of great importance if the /ac¢ could be ascertained whether the floats are from the Norwegian or from the Canadian fisheries. Your note of November 10 says, ‘‘ They are hermetically sealed, and have certain characters, such as IV. or VI., impressed on the sealed part.” Doubtless your columns are read in Norway as well as in Canada, and possibly a correspon- dent, from these characters or from other evidence, may claim the floats for one or for the other side of the Atlantic. In favour of the west side, but with the utmost deference to the opinion of Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys, I suggest that a north-eas¢ wind is an unlikely conveyance to ‘the west side of the Island of Lewis,” or to “the western coast of Shetland.” A writer in the Atheneum of this week (Nov. 19, p. 659) thinks that these ‘net floats” are carried to Nova Zembla, and “still farther to the north and east” by the Gulf Stream. Dr. Carpenter supposes a constant warm surface current from each tropic to each pole, and a constant cold current below from each pole to each tropic,caused as we cause the currents of water to warm our houses. Suppose this grand theory to be true. The surface current should warm east coasts as well as west coasts. The same parallel touches England, Newfoundland, and Van- couver’s Island. The climate of England and of Vancouver’s Island on west coasts is “‘ insular.” The climate of the és/and of Newfoundland on an east coast is ‘‘ excessive.” This difference of climate in islands, on the same parallel, at the same levels, results from currents of av, not from currents of watey—namely, from the prevalence of south-west winds in the north temperate regions. In winter with a south-west wind we hunt, with a north-east wind we skate. GEORGE GREENWOOD, Colonel Brookwood Park, November 19. ENGLISH GOVERNMENT ECLIPSE EXPEDITION ee arrangements and instructions are not yet finally completed, but it is thought that the latter may be useful to members of other Expeditions, though they are not yet by any means complete. A. SPANISH AND ALGERIAN PARTY. NorTr.—. his party leaves Portsmouth in the “* Urgent,” on the 6th proximo. Observers to be on board by 5 P.M. on the 5th. 1. Cadiz Detachmenl.—In charge, the Rev. S. J. Perry. Spectroscope, the Rev. S. J. Perry and assistant (Mr. Hostage), Mr. Abbay; Polariscope, Mr. Moulton, Mr, Hudson: Sketches of Corona, Mr. Naftel, Mr. Smyth, Mr. Penrose, Mr. Collins; Time and General Obser- vations, Captain Toynbee. 2. Gibraltar Detachment.— In charge, Captain Parsons. Spectroscope, Mr. Carpmael, Mr. Gordon; Polariscope, Mr. Lewis, Mr. Ladd ; Photography, Mr. Buckingham, and assistant (Mr. Spiller); Sketches of Corona, Mr, Hunter, two Oxford men; Saturn in the Corona, Mr, Talmage, Mr. Maclear ; Chemical Intensity, Mr. Thorpe. 3. Oran Detachment—In charge, Mr. Huggins. Mr. Huggins, Admiral Ommanney, Rev. F. Howlett, Mr. Car- penter, Mr. Crookes, Captain Noble, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Tyndall. B. SICILIAN PARTY. Note.—T7his Party leaves London, overland, at 8.45 P.M. from Charing Cross, on the 7th proximo. In charge, Mr. Lockyer. Spectroscope, Mr. Lockyer and assistant (Mrs. Lockyer), Prof. Roscoe and assistant (Mrs. Bowen), Mr. Seabroke and assistant (Mr. Burton), Mr. Pedlar ; Polariscope, Mr. Raynard, Mr. Griffith, Mr. Clifford ; Sketches of Corona, Mr. Brett, Mr. Darwin ; Photography, Mr. Brothers, Herr Vogel, Mr. Harris; Time and General Observations, Mr. Vignoles, Sen., Mr. Vignolles, Jun. INSTRUCTIONS TO OBSERVERS. Instructions for the Polariscopic Observations of the Corona, including Beams and Streamers.—\t is recom- mended that the polariscopic examination of the Corona be carried on as follows :— 1. To examine a detached and selected part of the Corona about 6’ from the limb of the sun, and say about 8’in diameter. 2. A field extending from the limb of the sun outwards should be examined either with a Nicol’s prism, or a double image-prism. 3. The light of the streamers at some distance from the sun should be examined with a Nicol and a crystal. 4. The polarisa- tion of the Corona should be examined in such a manner as to eliminate atmospheric polarisation. of¢e.—The most suitable instruments for ascertaining the plane of polarisation, and the proportion of polarised to unpolarised light are (1) a double-image prism ; (2) Savart’s polari- scope ; (3) a plate of quartz, consisting of two compensa- tion wedges turned through an angle of 180° ; (4) a plate of arragonite, or calc spar, cut perpendicular to an optic axis, and affixed to an analysing prism ; (5) a polarimeter, consisting of four plates of glass, movable on an axis per- pendicular to the plane of polarisation. Furst Observation.—The object of this observation is to observe the polarisation (if any) of the Corona without having the observer’s attention distracted by the chromo- sphere. A Savart’s polariscope is recommended by pre- ference. The Nicol’s prism of the polariscope should be set beforehand with its principal plane (or plane of symm- metry) radial, z.c. perpendicular to the sun’s limb, and the observer must note whether bands are visible, and if so, whether they are black-centred or white-centred. Should the bands be feeble, it will be well to rotate the polariscope, prism and plates of course moving together, and quickly restore it to its primitive azimuth, after having noted the estimated azimuth of the Nicol when the bands are strongest and black-centred. Should no bands, or only dilute bands be seen, it may be that the Corona, though polarised, is overpowered by other light; and the ob- server will move the telescope from the sun, radially if it may be, if in any other direction rotating the polariscope so as to render its principal plane radial in the new posi- tion. He will then note whether, though the light becomes feebler, the bands become less dilute. Should, on the other hand, the bands be strong, the observer, after having satisfied himself as to the plane of polarisation, will endeavour to make out whether by means of the polarisation of its light the Corona can be detected super- posed on the chromosphere. He will, therefore, move the telescope /owards the sun, keeping the principal plane of the polariscope radial, and note how near the sun the bands can still be seen. To provide for the contingency of this observation, it will be well to point in the first instance to the side of the sun which will be first un- covered. If time permit he should try whether there is any sensible quantity of polarised light on the dark disk of the moon, rotating the analyser and determinating the plane of polarisation. Second Observation.—The special object of this obser- vation is to differentiate, if possible, between the Corona, on the one hand, and the Chromosphere, or whatever else may be self-luminous (be it even a portion of the Corona it- self), on the other. This will be possible if the light of the Corona be strongly polarised, so as to admit of com- parative extinction by an analyser. The observer should turn the analyser so as to extinguish, as far as may be, the light of the Corona in the neighbourhood of a radius 88 NATURE [Dec. 1, 1870 depending on the angular position of the analyser. He | linesextend outside the hydrogen spectrum and whether should notice the form, colour, and general appearance of any residual luminosity other than the well-known pro- tuberances ; should contrast the appearance, especiaily as to colour, with that seen when the light is analysed so as to retain light from the same region polarised in the per- pendicular direction, and should ask himself whether the luminosity is such as could be accounted for by the superior brightness near the sun of the unanalysed light, even though it were to suffer the same proportionate loss by analysis as the Corona at a greater dis- tance. Of the instruments named the Nicol’s prism is better adapted for a general survey, not re- quiring any limitation of field ; the double-image prism is better adapted for a comparison of the oppositely polarised images, since the observer can compare them directly, not one with is memory of the other. The double-image prism will require a diaphragm with a long and moderately broad aperture in the focus of the eye- piece, rotating with the prism, and in the observation the length should be placed in a radial direction. Third Observation —The observation of the streamers as to polarisation might throw much light on their nature, and the observer who undertakes this observation, by means of a Savart’s polariscope, or else of a Nicol’s prism capped with a plate of calc spar or arragonite, will be in a condition to determine with advantage the plan of po- larisation, if there be polarisation, of the Corona generally. But the streamers must be his first object. Fourth Observation.—\t has been supposed by some that the polarisation observed in the Corona was really due to the secondary illumination of the intervening portion of the Earth’s atmosphere, in other words, to the illumi- nation produced by reflection from clouds, &c., towards the horizon. This effect may be eliminated by using a Savart’s polariscope, or, better, a polariscope with quartz wedges, and turning the instrument till the bands (if any) seen on the moon’s disc disappear. The corona can then be scrutinised as to polarisation, and the polarisation examined in different azimuths of the Nicol’s prism rela- tive to the radius drawn from the sun’s centre, by pointing the telescope instead of rotating the analyser. In this observation the observer has the choice of two rec- tangular azimuths. of the polariscope, for each of which the bands (if any) on the moon disappear, and if no bands be seen on the moon he is free to scrutinise the polarisa- tion of the Corona, by turning the polariscope. General Remarks.—The object-glasses of all telescopes intended to be used in polariscopic observations should be examined before departure as to their freedom from defects of annealing. All polariscopes including a Nicol’s prism, or tourmaline, should be marked, so that the prin- cipal plane may be readily known éy feeding, as sight- marks might fail for want of light. Double-image prisms should have one side of the aperture in the dia- phragm marked so as to distinguish the two images. INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATION OF THE CHROMOSPHERE. NOTE: The objects to be obtained are:—1. To de- termine the actual height of the chromosphere as seen with an eclipsed sun ; that is, when the atmospheric illu- mination, the effect of which is doubtless only partially got rid of by the Janssen-Lockyer method, is removed. If the method were totally effective, the C line, the line of high temperature, should hardly increase in height ; but there can be little doubt that the method is not totally effective, so the increasein height should be carefully noted. 2. Todetermine if there exists cooler hydrogen above and around the vividly incandescent layers and prominences. To do this the band of the spectrum just above the stratum which gives the hydrogen lines before totality and during totality, should be carefully examined, to notice (a) if any traces of the hydrogen spectrum exist above the region which before totality gave the hydrogen lines, and (4) what they also exist with it in the lower strata. 3. To test the American observations of last year as to the existence of a line at 1474 in the corona spectrum, by seeing if it be visible above the region which gives the hydrogen spec- trum. 4 Todetermine whether any other gases or vapours are ordinarily mixed up with hydrogen, but remain invisible with the uneclipsed sun in consequence of the absence of saliently brilliant lines in theirspectra. The observations should be conducted as follows :—1. Work with a hori- zontal slit, ora slit in a parallel of declination, according to the instrument used, whether altazimuth or equatoreal. 2. See that the spectroscope telescope works easily, so that sweeping along the spectrum is easy. 3. Find before totality an average plain-topped region of the chromosphere, where some motion on either side does not brighten, or thicken, or lengthen the lines near the part covered at the commencement of totality. 4, Observe this before and during part of totality, the telescope being driven by the clock if an equatoreal is used. 5. Just before totality sweep from red to violet ; note the lines and their lengths ; mark the 1474 line and the lines be- tween D and E carefully. 6. Immediately after the com- mencement of totality sweep back ; note new lines—their heights ; especially the comparative heights of C, near D, F,and near G, with these former heights ; and especially whether band over 4, and the thickness of F. Note also the lines between D and 1474. 7. Just before the end of totality unclamp and bring back the slit to the following limb of the Moon ; and note the extinction of the spectrum by the reappearance of the Sun, if possible by a rapid sweep ; if this is not possible, then watch the behaviour of F ; sweep back again to see if there be any variations from (5) in the new region now observed. 8. Carefully note position angle where slit cuts limb. 9. Record the impressions of facts, and facts not already noted, As SOON AS POSSIBLE. INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATION OF THE CORONA Note.—The word Corona is here used for convenience, to include all the light above the prominences. It therefore includes that part of the chromosphere which is generally veiled to us when observations are made by the Fanssen-Lockyer method. The principal object to be obtained is :—To determine whether it is possible to differentiate the outer layers of irregular outline and streamers from a stratum say some 5’ or 6’ high round the sun, which may possibly be the limit of the gaseous envelopes above the photosphere. To attack this question, we require a long slit, a large aperture, and long collimator, and small dispersive power. The slit must be adjusted for a faint cloud*before totality, and on no account is it to be touched before observations of a similar cloud can be made after totality, by the heads of the party. The most important observation to make is, whether there are any dark lines in the spectrum at any distance from the sun ; and if so, at what distance? Next, whether there are any bright lines; if any, their positions must be noted, especially if the lines recorded by the American observers are again visible. The obser- vations should be conducted as follows :—x. Arrange the instrument so that the image of the following limb of the moon, at the point of its first contact, will fall on the left-hand side of the slit, placed nearly horizontally. 2. See if Corona is visible before totality, and note its spectrum with utmost care, moving the slit in azimuth, so that perhaps, at the instant during totality, while possibly with a long slit, the spectrum of the sun or prominences on the preceding limb is visible in the same field of view. SOME PARTICULARS TO BE ESPECIALLY NOTICED BY THOSE OBSERVERS WHO MAKE DRAWINGS OF THE CORONA 1. Its extent, and the boundary-line ¢f any, if no definite boundary, this should be stated. 2. Whether Dee. 1, 1870 | NAT URE 89 there is any change, all changes must be most carefully shown in any manner the artist may prefer. 3. Espe- cially note alllong streamers. 4. All tints and change of tint, and whether the colour is distributed in patches or in layers concentric with the moon, or in connection with the prominences. 5. Whether it consists of a level patch of luminous haze or radiating beams of light, or of bundles of hyperbolic rays. 6. If of radiating or hyper- bolic beams, whether they are evenly distributed all round, or in groups only. 7. Whether the dark intervals between such radiating beams are constant or fluctuating. 8. Whether it is concentric with the moon. 9. Whether it is equally intense all round the moon. 10. Whether the outer border exhibits any coruscations, or whether its definition is permanent and equally pronounced all round. 11. Whether the light of the Corona is more intense or less so in the immediate neighbourhood of the promi- nences. 12. How much darker the moon’s disc is than the sky. ! | ENERGY, AND PROF, BAIN’S LOGIC [EXTRACT FROM PROF. TAIT’S OPENING ADDRESS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, Nov. 1870] 2; HE so-called Laws of Motion first explicitly stated, as we now employ them, by Newton in the Principia, are partly due to Galileo, partly to his immediate successors. Like all great physical discoveries, they were more or less clearly seen by many philosophers about the time in which Newton threw them into the simple, and yet comprehensive, form in which we now use them, As ordinarily understood, they embrace the results of ob- servation and experiment as to the action of force on matter. The first tells us how matter behaves when not acted on by force, and therefore shows us how to defect the action of a force. The second tells us how to measure the force by its effects, and how to calculate the action of a force or forces acting on a mere farticle of matter. The third, as directly interpreted, shows how to apply the other two to the motion of masses or of groups of particles. With these alone we have the foundation of an enormous portion of the science of Dynamics, and we require merely a sufficiently powerful mathematical pro- cess to enable us to develop to their utmost the calcula- tions necessary for the determination of equilibrium or motion of any set of masses whatever, so long as the motion is visible, or capable of being rendered visible by a microscope. But we require something more before we can extend mathematical calculations—which, be it ever remembered, are necessary in physics solely on account of the imper- fections of our intellect ; merely saving us an intolerable amount of thought which would otherwise be wasted on petty details—something more, I say, is required before we can apply our mathematics to Heat, Electricity, Chemical Action, &c., &c. Curiously enough, that something was foreseen and pro- vided for by the keen intellect of Newton. He gave it in the form of a second mode of interpreting his third law, quite distinct from the ordinary one, which is the well- known assertion that “Action and Reaction are equal and opposite.” Instead of using the terms Action and Reaction in the sense of mere pressures or tensions, he shows that the law will equally hold if they stand for what are now called rates of spending or of receiving energy ; or, in more familiar language, rates of doing work. So that whenever there is transference of energy from one body to another, the one gains exactly as much as the otherloses. This is at present the grandest physical law known. That we may understand it better, let us take first a simple physical fact, but one of a somewhat analogous nature. It is a comparatively recent discovery that master 7s indestructible, yet so important that without it we may be certain that chemistry could never have become a science. Ifa chemist were not assured by experiment that no quantity of matter, however small, is ever put out of existence, submit it to what ordeals he may, what con- fidence could he have in the results of an analysis? Or again, where would his science be if new matter could suddenly make its appearance? The balance is his most important instrument, but without the confidence (derived from experiment) that matter cannot change in quantity, its indications would be of no va!ue to him. So it is, but in a more extended sphere, with the | Natural Philosopher, and it is a source of legitimate pride to us, that as Newton first hinted at this grand modern generalisation, and first gave the mathematical method naturally fitted for its development, so it is to this country again, and mainly to Dr. Joule of Man- chester, that we owe the proof (which must, of course, be experimental to be valid) that energy is, like matter, indestructible. It is, therefore, in the usual sense of the word, as REAL as matter. In fact, the physical phenomena of the Universe (excluding in the meantime, on account of our utter ignorance, some of those con- nected with hfe) depend upon matter and energy alone. Different combinations of matter constitute the subject of our chemistry ; different groupings of molecules as well-as of masses, and different distribution of Energy, | form the rest of our Natural Philosophy. Hence the overwhelming importance of this real something, Energy, in the whole of Physical Science. I shall devote the rest of my time this morning to very elementary notions connected with energy and this grand law of Nature. But before I do so I have a few words to say about another work in which the principles of Natural Philosophy are discussed ; a book infinitely more likely than that of Hegel (whose absurdities I have already pointed out to you) to fall into your hands. It is now not a dreamy and dogmatic German, evolving everything from himself, and railing at physical facts as well as at exquisite methods in mathematics, with whom we have to do—it is on the contrary, a hard-headed Scotsman, and a Professor in one of our Universities. We have here no evolution from consciousness to laugh at, no sneering at experimental science ; we have to guard against dangerous misconcep- tions of the truths discovered by physicists ; mistakes all the more dangerous that they are honestly held, and that they have been assigned a prominent place in a text- book which many of you may have at some time to read ; and especially because, as students, you are peculiarly liable to be led away by ex cathedrd statements. For obvious reasons I cannot take many examples now; in the more abstruse, the statement itself, and the exposition of its error, would be alike unintelligible to you; in the simpler ones you may be trusted to see the error for your- selves. The first I quote is from what is called the Logic of Physics, and is, toa certain extent, personal. “ Volume and wzass rightly precede denszty in order of definition. Messrs. Thomson and Tait make density precede mass.” And we do so, we think, very logically, because density is a specific property of matter, unalterable in general, except to avery small extent, by physical processes, while volume and mass are absolutely indefinite, depending as they do upon the quantity of matter spoken of. Again, “ In the transfer of force, xothing is fost. The mechanical momentum transmuted into heat is fully accounted for in the heat produced : by proper arrange- ments it could all be gained back.” The last nine words, however they may be interpreted, are essentially false : in fact they contain an explicit denial of the second law of thermodynamics upon which Sir W. Thomson based his | grand law of Dissipation of Energy, one of the most 1m- go NATURE | Dec. 1, 1870 portant of his many splendid contributions to physics, and one having the most direct bearing upon the future of the physical universe. The rest of the statement, as it stands, is also false. It may be made correct by writing one of the words, work, ower, potency, or preferably energy, in place of force, and also in place of momentum. What would be thought of a man who should say—* I paid six weeks for it,” meaning “pounds” by “weeks.” For “momentum” cannot be transformed or “ transmuted ” at all, it remains for ever unchanged. Again, when bodies impinge on one another, “ the rise of temperature is exactly proportioned to the visible momentum destroyed.” Let us put the correct word “energy” in the place of momentum, and we find that this asserts the startling physical fact that the specific heat of every body is the same at all temperatures. If we take the statement as it stands without correction, it is simply nonsense. Again, “the foot pound, meaning the force expended in raising one pound weight one foot, which is the same as a (séc) momentum of one pound moving at eight feet per second.” Raising one pound weight one foot is a feat which, by proper combinations of machinery, may be effected by any given force whatever, be it the weight of a grain or of a million tons. Buta “foot pound,’ and the ‘momen- tum of one pound moving at eight feet per second” cannot possibly be compared with each other, any more than a cubic yard can be expressed as a number of square yards, or the height of a mountain in acres, roods, and poles. You will see that the error in the examples I have just chosen (excepting of course the fatal one about restora- tion of energy) is in great part due to the misuse of words. Yet it is from a treatise on Logic that I have quoted ! The essence of the lesson taught by all this is simply the conviction that scientific knowledge has reached such an immense development that no one man can now pos- sibly master thoroughly more than one or two of its many branches. There can be no “Admirable Crichtons” in our days. The greatest logician the world has pro- duced, or is likely to produce, for many a long day, the lamented George Boole, more than once expressed his regret that a systematic logical treatment of human know- ledge, even in moderate compass, and going little farther than the elements in each branch, had become absolutely impossible as the work of one man—impossible, that is, for a man who revolted at the idea of publishing anything he knew to be defective. MOUNTAIN CLIMBING 7% the number of NATURE for June 23, 1870, I de- scribed an ascent of Mount Etna which I made on March 4 of this year, with an excellent guide, Pietro Cra- vagna. I now propose to make some remarks on a few points of interest with regard to mountain climbing. One of the most important of these is the alleged lowering of the internal temperature of the body under such conditions. During two ascents of Mont Blanc made on the 17th and 26th of August, 1868, by Dr. Lortet, of Lyons, and Dr, Marcet, of London, and described by Dr. Lortet in the Lyon Médical of September 26, 1869, experiments made apparently with great precaution on Dr. Lortet himself with a registering maximum thermometer (of Walferdin), by which (between + 30° C.and + 4o° C.) hundredths of a degree could be appreciated, showed that the internal temperature of the body under such conditions is lowered to a very remarkable extent. I will quote Dr. Lortet’s own words: “ A jeun et exacte- ment dans les mémes conditions, Jendant la marche, la décroissance de la température intérieure du corps est trés-remarquable, e//e est d peu prés proportionelle d Valti- tude a laquelle on se trouve.” In effect, from the table given in the paper referred to, I find that during the first ascents the internal tempera- ture descended gradually from 36°3° C. (that during exer- cise at Chamounix, 1,050 metres above the sea) to 32° C. at the summit of Mont Blanc (4,810 metres above the sea) ; while during the second ascent the difference was from 35°3. GC. toignrs: |G Dr. Lortet found that as soon as he stopped for a few minutes, the temperature of his body rose briskly to the normal standard, except on the summit itself, where “il a fallu prés d’une demi-heure pour que le thermométre atteignit sa hauteur habituelle.” During digestion, in spite of the exercise being taken, the temperature remains normal, or even rises ; but this does not last long: “ Une heure & peine aprés avoir mangé, le corps se refroidit de nouveau par les efforts.” The descent of the temperature of the body under such conditions, then, amounts sometimes to more than 4° C. ; and if we take the difference between the normal tem- perature of the body a¢ resf, and that observed by these experimenters on the top of Mont Blanc, the difference amounts in one case to 5°C., “abaissement énorme pour les mammiféres dont la température était reputé con- stante!” as Dr. Lortet justly exclaims. Now Mount Etna is particularly suitable for such ex-. periments ; one begins to walk either at Nicolosi, or pre- ferably at the Casa del Bosco, and one has nothing to do but to go straight up ; there is nothing in the way, it is simply a long “grind” of some five or six hours or more, according to the state of the snow. A series of misfor- tunes with my maximum thermometers prevented my repeating the above-described observations, and I have referred to them at such length in the hope that some one may be induced to take the excellent opportunity afforded by the expedition to Sicily of deciding so important a oint. q The state of the circulation is hardly less important than that of the internal temperature. Dr. Lortet found that the pulse increased in frequency from 64 per minute at Chamounix to 172 on the summit of Mont Blanc, and he was further enabled, by means of the 8phygmograph, to make some observations as to the state of the pulse at various altitudes. In ascending Etna I made some comparative observations on the frequency of my guide’s pulse as compared with my own, which show some points of interest. At the Casa del Bosco my pulse was 68, my guide’s 74; we had both rzdden to that point, and the difference is probably an illustration of the established fact that the circulation of persons living in mountainous districts is quicker than that of those living in plains. On arriving at the summit of Etna after a ride of an hour and a quarter (from the Casa del Bosco), a rest of fifteen minutes, and a stiff walk of three and a quarter hours over dry, hard, snow (an exceptionally easy ascent),* my pulse was very irregular, and about 114 or I15 to the minute, while the guide’s was only 89—that is to say, that mine had in- creased 46 beats in frequency, his only 15 ; or mine was about $rds, his only about 4th, as fast again ; showing the slight effect of such ascents on those who are used to them, and who live habitually in mountainous countries. But this was still more forcibly illustrated by the state of our pulses after a very quick descent, a regular trot all the way (we had stayed two hours at the summit, and eaten a hearty breakfast) ; at the place where we left the mules, I found that while my pulse, after a minute or two’s rest, was at 106 or 107, the guide’s was at 99 or 100; mine being 8 beats Zess than it was on arriving at the top, his 10 beats more, his circulation was ess disturbed by * Later on in the month of March, when much snow had recently fallen the Rev. A. G. Girdlestone and I, with two other friends, made an ascent : it took us nearly eight hours to walk from the Casa del Bosco to the Casa degli Inglesi, and we saw nothing but a very heavy snow-storm. -_ = ~~ Dee. 1, 1870] NATURE 91 walking fast up the mountain, carrying a load of provisions, than by running down it with nothing to carry ; mine, on the contrary, as one would expect, much more so by walk- ing up than by running down. (Of course I could get no- thing in the shape of sphygmograph at Catania.) Dr. Lortet has recorded some interesting observations, made with the aid of the anapnograph of MM. Bergeon and Kastus, on the state of the respiration. It is much quick- ened, as is well known ; the expiration is much prolonged, its amplitude much lessened, the inspiration shortened and quickened ; much less air being inspired and expired _than is normally the case. These effects are partly due to the rarefaction of the air, less oxygen by weight being taken in at each inspira- tion, and partly to the excessive muscular exertion, which demands a corresponding increase in the animal heat, and so a corresponding increase in the amount of oxida- tion taking place in the blood; this not being always obtainable and the exercise being continued all the same, the normal temperature of the body cannot be maintained, and so it falls, and one becomes miserably cold while walking, and has to stop to get warm again. Now as to the amount of work done; that is very much greater than is commonly supposed : leaving out of consideration the difficulties encountered in walking either over soft snow or over slippery places, especially when very steep, I find that in climbing Etna, starting as I did, on the occasion that I have already described, from some distance above the Casa del Bosco, I lifted about 150lb. to the vertical height of at least 5,700 ft., or about 350 tons one foot ; adding ro foot-tons (little enough) for the horizontal distance traversed, we have 390 foot-tons as representing work done in 3} hours : now 390 foot-tons is about the work done by a person of the weight above mentioned in walking 22 miles on level ground ; that is to say that, without making any allowance for the increased difficulty of breathing due to the rarefaction of the air or for any of the consequences of this (increased action of heart, &c.), one has walked 22 miles in the time ordinarily taken to walk 13. A VIEW OF ETNA To put it in another way : 390 foot-tons is a hard day’s work, as it is found that something over 300 foot-tons is the average day’s work of strong labourers. One there- fore does a hard day’s work in 3} hours, and this after an ordinary day’s work, Z/us a fatiguing ride of some four hours on a mule, over lava currents and cinders, in the middle of the night and without any chance of sleep. Taking everything into consideration, it is difficult to believe that the fatigue is, as it is often stated, out of all proportion to the work done; we must not only consider the amount of work, but che time in which it ts done, and this is what I have especially wished to point out, as one can easily understand that the fatigue must increase very fast as the time in which the work is done decreases. At the summit of Etna (the accompanying woodcut, from a rough sketch taken when a good deal of the snow had melted, can give but a feeble idea of the exquisite effect produced by the dazzling whiteness of the snow against the perfectly clear blue Sicilian sky) the range of temperature within a few feet of vertical distance is very remarkable. Just after sunrise I found that the tempera- ture of the air at the height of four feet or so above the ground was — 2° C.; on the ashes where the snow had melted it was + 9°C. ; just under the surface it was 20° C., and a few inches under it was higher than 36° C. (my minimum thermometer, the only one I had left, not allow- ing me to register a higher temperature than this). This high temperature of the ashes only occurs where they are mixed with sulphur, which is continually under- going oxidation ; the other parts of the cone and crater are in the winter covered with snow, and it is very strange to see snow a foot deep or more, quite close to ashes that really feel uncomfortably hot. Those who wish to “ get up” the history of Mount Etna and its structure, should refer to Sir Charles Lyell’s “ Prin- ciples of Geology,” tenth edition, vol. ii.; or for a much more detailed account of the eruptions, its present and past conditions, &c., to “ La Vulcanologia dell’ Etna,” by Carlo Gemmellaro, published at Catania in 1858. W. H. CORFIELD g2 NATURE [Dec. 1, 1870 NOTES As will be seen from another column, the Eclipse Expedition is now fully organised, and all the parties will be on their way before our next number appears. The Organising Committee, who have done about three months’ work in a fortnight, deserve all praise for their untiring efforts, and we may hope that they will be adequately rewarded by the results obtained. We may mention that on the representation of the Organising Committee, the Government have communicated with the French and German Governments with a view of securing the services of M. Janssen, who, if he canbe got out of Paris, will accompany Mr. Lockyer to Sicily. Ir is stated that Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S., has been appointed to succeed the late Dr. W. A. Miller as a member of the Royal Commission on Scientific Instruction and the Advance- ment of Science. THE annual election of the Council and officers of the Royal Society took place yesterday, when the following gentlemen were elected, viz. :—President: Gen. E. Sabine, K.C.B. Treasurer : William Spottiswoode, M.A. Secretaries: William Sharpey, M.D.; G. G. Stokes, M.A. Foreign Secretery: Professor W. H. Miller, M.A. Other Members of the Council: George Burrows, M.D.; Heinrich Debus, Pa.D.; P. M. Duncan, M.B.; Sir P. de M. Grey Egerton, Bart.; Prof. G. C. Foster, B. A. ; Francis Galton; J. P. Gassiot; J. D. Hooker, C.B, M.D.; William Huggins ; Prof. G. M. Humphry, M.D.; J. Gwyn Jeffreys; Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.; C. W. Siemens; Prof. A. J. S. Smith, M.A.;Prof. John Tyndall, LL.D.; and Prof. A. W. Williamson, M.D, Ir is with very great regret that we have to announce the dis- ablement of two of our most prominent scientific men. Sir R. I. Murchison has been stricken with an attack of paralysis, and Professor Balfour Stewart was among the sufferers by the col- lision on the London and North-Western Railway on Saturday evening last. In the latter case, though the injuries are severe, one thigh broken, and a great shock to the nervous system, we may hope that Professor Stewart will shortly be restored to his friends and to science. At the moment of going to press, we hear that Sir R. Murchison’s state is considered somewhat im- proved, and that Sir W. Ferguson reports Prof. Stewart to be going on satisfactorily. Tue Anniversary Session of the St. Andrews Medical Graduates Association will be held at the Freemasons’ Tavern, Great Queen Street, on Friday and Saturday, December 2nd and 3rd. On Friday, at 7.30 P.M., Dr. Whitmore will read a paper ‘‘ On the results of Sanitary Legislation on the Health of the Metropolis and our present urgent Sanitary requirements.” On Saturday, at 5 P.M., the President, Dr. Richardson, F’.R.S., will deliver the Anniversary Address ‘ For the Future of Physic.” AT the first ordinary meeting for the session of the Society of Arts, held on the 16th ult., the following silver medals were awarded :—To Mr. Thomas Dickins for his paper ‘‘On Silk Supply ;” to Mr. James Collins for his paper *‘ On Indiarubber, its History, Commerce, and Supply ;” and to Mr. William Bridge Adams for his paper ‘‘On Tramways for Streets and Roads and their sequences.;”’ and the Prince Consort’s Prize of twenty- five guineas to Mr. Edward Turner Sim, who, at the Society’s examination, had obtained during the last four years the largest number of first-class certificates. Counts H.,Wilcjek and G. Wurmbrand have been engaged, at the instance of the Viennese Anthropological Society, in an examination of the Austrian lakes, and have found remains of pile-dwellings in the Attersee. One of them belongs to the Stone period. AT the remote city of Indianapolisan Academy of Sciences has just been formed under the presidency of Professor E. T. Cox. The exclusive object of the association is the cultivation and im- parting of knowledge of the natural and physical sciences. Though the number of members at present does not appear to be large, it will, no doubt, like most other things in the Far West, increase rapidly. We wish all success and a prosperous future to this the youngest society for the advancement of natural history. THE recently published volume of Bentham’s “ Flora Austra- liensis” (vol. y.) includes the natural orders from ‘Myoporinez to Proteacez. Messrs. MACMILLAN will shortly publish, as one of their series of school class-books, Lessons in Elementary Physics, by Prof. Balfour Stewart. WE have just received the first part of the second edition of Schellen’s Spectral-analyse. The preface states that it has been carefully revised, and considerable additions made, in accordance with the progress of science since the publication of the first edition, especially in the application of spectrum-analysis to the sun. It is copiously and beautifully illustrated. THE third section of *‘ Husemann’s Pflanzenstoffe in chemischer, physiologischer, pharmakologischer, und toxikologischer Hin- sicht,” does not, as was expected, complete the work, It is occupied with vegetable acids and neutral substances. Mr. MATTHEW WILLIAMS, jun., has reprinted, from ‘“‘ Es- says of the Birmingham Speculative Club,” a paper on ‘‘The Relation of the Universities to Practical Life.” The writer's aim is to assert the claims of experimental science to a higher place in the scheme of English University education. that such a plea should still be necessary. While it remains so, however, we welcome all who, like Mr. Williams, can break a lance in the cause of true progress in such a manner as to appeal even to the most “‘ practical” sympathies. Why should not others in the great centres of English industry take up the subject? Agitation works wonders in the political world; who knows what it might not in time effect for science ? On-the 7th of August the most severe shock of earthquake since April 1868, has been felt in the Hawaian Archipelago. The time was 4" 10" A.M., and the shock was felt generally in Maui, Molokai, and Hawaii, but not so much in Honolulu. The dainage done was not so great, but it was considered remarkable that the shock lasted ten seconds—a long period fora single shock. The cause of its diminished violence is attributed to its being vibratory and extremely regular. In Molokai the earth- quake was accompanied by a tremendous roar, and appeared to have a circular motion, so that no precise direction could be noticed. It is stated that the fissures on the Kau side of Mauna- loa are constantly steaming, and that smoke is issuing from the crater of Makeaweoweo in great volume. H.M.S. Zealous, bearing the broad pennant of Admiral Far- quhar, having visited St. Charles, one of the Galapagos Islands, has found sufficient objects of interest to induce the Admiral to make another trip there in October, to examine the natural history of the place. On Thursday, the 29th September, two violent shocks of earthquake occurred at Lima, in Peru, about 10 P.M., causing much alarm. A PASSENGER reports to the Rangoon Times a waterspout seen on the Irawaddy River on the 31st of August in the Chwaygeen Creek. He saw a dense mass of clouds, and then a whitish cloud, which resolved itself into a large waterspout. It soon partially dispersed, but formed again, and remained about ten minutes, sometimes straight, at others curved. The convex It is monstrous - ge > Dec. 1, 1870] NATURE 93 side was to the wind. The spout appeared to be rapidly skim- ming the surface of the river, the water rising like spray round it, and having a spiral appearance along the shaft. The phe- nomenon was not accompanied by noise or thunder and lightning. WE have received the reports of the Mining Surveyors and Registrars, Victoria, for the quarter ending 30th June, 1870. In some instances steady improvement is reported, but there are also numerous complaints of a considerable falling off in the yield of gold. The total number of miners employed in the colony during the quarter was 60,267. Of these, 28,227 Euro- peans and 15,478 Chinese were employed as alluvial miners, 16,500 Europeans and 62 Chinese as quartz miners. In alluvial mining 399 steam-engires of 9,657 aggregate horse-power were used in winding, pumping, &c. ; and in quartz mining 701 steam- engines, of 13,283 aggregate horse-power. The approximate value of the mining plant was 2,144,727/. 1,0214 square miles of auriferous ground were actually worked upon, and 2,782 distinct quartz reefs were actually proved to be auriferous. The Mining Surveyors and Registrars are unable to obtain perfectly full information respecting the quantities of quartz, &c., crushed or operated upon ; but the following is a summary of the leading facts which they detail :—The total quantity of quartz crushed was 223,285 toms I4 cwt. 36,909 tons 7 cwt. of quartz tailings, cement, and mullock were crushed, and 868 tons 15 cwt. 2 qrs. of pyrites and blanketings were operated on. The average yield of gold per ton from quartz was 9 dwt. 11-38 gr. ; from quartz tailings, cement, and mullock, 3 dwt. 0.39 gr. ; from pyrites and blanketings, 2 oz. 6 dwt. 13°37 gr. The total yield of gold from quartz was 105,775 oz. 18 dwt. 19 gr. ; from quartz tailings, cement, and mullock, 5,566 oz. 9 dwt. I gr. ; from pyrites and blanketings, 2,022 oz, 7 dwt. 18 gr. Appended to the reports is’a careful geological map of portion of the Durham Lead, with a paper on the subject by Mr. Reginald A. F. Murray. Mr. Murray describes the physical and geological aspects of the district traversed by the Durham Lead, discusses the question whether it is or is not the main outlet of the Golden Point Gutter, and gives a brief account of the claims lying within the portion of the lead immediately under consideration. IF we may judge from its last annual report, the proceedings of the Bombay Geographical Society are not much enlivened by the efforts of its members. During the entire session not a single member had favoured the Society with any original communica- tion. For some time the Society has been considering the pro- priety of getting compiled an Anglo-Vernacular Index of Indian Geographical names. The scheme would supply a want that has long been felt, but it does not appear to have received much en- couragement from the authorities, to whom an appeal for aid in the matter was addressed. The ‘‘ Transactions” of the Society for the year ending December 1869, are made up of some in- teresting notes on Annesley Bay, by Mr. Edwin Dawes, and a brief paper by Mr. J. U. Yajnik, on the Hot Springs of Lasun- dra, in the Kaira Zilla. ANOTHER proof of the desirability of earnest experiments in the widespread cultivation of economic plants is shown in the success which has attended the introduction of tobacco in some of our own colonies. Samples of Latakia tobacco grown in Jamaica have been submitted for approval in London, and re- ported upon favourably ; and from India we hear that the seeds of the best varieties are being distributed in the districts most suited to the cultivation of the plants. From Natal, a sample has just been received, and submitted to an eminent firm of tobacco brokers in the City, who report that it is a very near ap- proach to what colonial tobacco should be. It is of good sub- stance, and of a fair light brown colour, and would, if carefully packed, in all probability fetch a price of from 5¢/. to 5d. per lb. in bond, and would meet with a ready sale to a rather large extent in the London market. The principal requirements of a good tobacco are brightness of colour and dryness of condition, the latter being most essential in consequence of the high rate of duty. Green and imperfect leaves should be excluded; and great care should be taken in packing, so as not to injure or crush the leaves. An important point in the curing of tobacco is to ensure its burning well, and holding fire. A good oppor- tunity presents itself at the present time for the introduction into our markets of colonial tobacco, owing to the general scarcity both of the continental supplies and of other kinds usually substituted for the American product in the manufacture of cut tobaccos. As an instance of the rapidity with which introduced plants spread, when soil and climate are congenial to their habits, we may point to the Euphorbia prostrata, Ait, a little annual weed in Jamaica and Trinidad, which became introduced by chance about ten years since into a garden in Madeira, situated some 400 feet above the sea; from this spot it has rapidly spread down the steep road to the town ;-while up the other hills, separated by deep ravines from that down which it came, it has scarcely crawled at all, a downward course apparently being far easier for it than an upward.one. It has, however, slowly crept up another hill at the rate of about ten feet a year. The seeds, which are described as ecarunculate, with sharply tetragonal palze, transversely keeled, are well adapted for sticking to the clothes of travellers, and to be carried about, so that we might well expect the plant to crop up in all directions. Mr. Lowe says that it is now to be found everywhere in Funchal below 500 feet. THE pods of the Ground Nut (Arachis hyfogea) are frequently to be seen in the windows of small shops in the poor neighbour- hoods of our large towns, where they are chiefly purchased by children, and are known to them as ‘‘monkey nuts.” Their chief use, however, is for the expression from the seeds of a light coloured bland oil, said to be extensively used for mixing with, olive oil; and we have even heard of the seeds being parched and used as a substitute for coffee, but we now read that in America they are used for making chocolate (so called) ; for this purpose they are beaten up in a mortar and the mass compressed into cakes, and it is said to form a most agreeable chocolate without a particle of true cocoa. More than this, the Americans prepare the seeds as a dessert sweetmeat by parching them and beating them up with sugar., THE disasters of a ship have made the Peruvians acquainted with the situation of a new guano island in the Southseas. This is called ‘* Baker’s Island,” in 12° N. lat. and 176° E. long. It has some smaller islands near, and is surrounded by coral reefs, on which thirty wrecks have been counted. The island has been taken possession of bya North American company, and is peopled by three Americans, of whom one is the governor, and about a hundred Kanakas. The cargo of the English barque Borneo, bound to London, consisted of a yellowish earth, which the Peruvians say has no smell of ammonia, but may sell at a profit to mix with Peruvian guano, Tue Boston FYournal of Chemistry says that large factories have been established in New Orleans, Buffalo, and Brooklyn, or making grape sugar from corn. The latter is steeped in weak soda lye, for the purpose of softening the husk and gluten; and is then ground wet, and run through revolving sieves to separate impurities. It is afterwards made to flow through ways or troughs, in which the starch gradually settles as a white powder. The wash water is run into a large cistern, and allowed to fermen} and produce a weak vinegar. The starch from the troughs is put wet into the mash-tub, and treated with water containing one per cent, of sulphuric acid, for eight hours. The acid 's neutralised with chalk or carbonate of lime, and the liquid 94 NATURE {Dec 1, 1870 evaporated to get rid of the gypsum, and afterwards further evaporated in vacuum pans, and run into barrels ready for crystallisation. MATERIAL changes are officially reported from the Bay of Talcahuano, in Chile, which was surveyed by Captain Fitzroy. The commander of the Chilean war steamer Avcud now reports that the water throughout the entire extent of the bay has increased from two to two-and-a-half fathoms. This represents great geological change. The rock Fraile, in the Gulf of Arauco, represented on Fitzroy’s chart asa sunken rock, is now, however, a small island united to the mainland, opposite to the western bank of the river Tubul, and has rather the shape of a quadrangular pyramid. THE Zimes of India states that the coal-beds discovered in Bellary are excellent in quality and abundant in quantity, Great anxiety is felt for Dr. Oldham, who said he would eat all the coal found in the Madras Presidency, for the doctor is a man of honour. From a considerable number of observations on the tem- peratures of the two sides of the body, Mr. Blake draws the following conclusions, which are recorded in the AZedical Times and Gazette of October 8, 1870 :—1. That the temperature of the sides of the trunk under usual circumstances, 7.¢. in health and at rest in a temperate climate, is equal. 2. That under certain conditions the temperature of the left side of the trunk may exceed that of the right. 3. That that excess during ex- ertion in a cool atmosphere averages half adegree F, 4. That that excess reaches its maximum of about one degree F, during exertion under a powerful sun. THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF DEER* a his excellent “ Geographische Mittheilungen,” Dr. Petermann has lately given us several zo0-geographical articles, as we may call them—such as those of Dr. Finsch on the distribution of Parrots, and of Freiherr von Heuglin on the Bird-fauna of North-eastern Africa. Both of these memoirs are the products of the highest authorities on the subjects to which they respectively relate, and de- serve our warmest commendation. We cannot, however, say so much as to the merit of the paper upon the Geo- graphical Distribution of Deer, which appears in a re- cent number of Dr. Petermann’s journal. The authors of this memoir, which, if properly treated, is on a subject of very great interest, have, we fear, commenced to in- dulge in “generals” before having sufficiently got up their “particulars.” In the first part of their essay they point out the present distribution of the different genera and species of Cevvid@ over the world’s surface, and endeavour to show how they have descended from a common ances- tral form. This form they imagine must have been the Moschide, upon the ground that in order to obtain a deer with horns we must pre-suppose the existence of a deer without horns, and the J/oschtde answer this definition. Unfortunately, however, the authors have not yet dis- covered that their so-called group AZoschid@ is composed of two forms of animal life that have very little to do with one another. It has been shown most conclusively by the researches of M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards+ in Paris, and Prof. Flower in our own country,t that the Chevrotains (Tragulus and Hyomoschus), one of the constituents of * * Die Geographische Verbreit ung der Hirsche mit bezug auf die Geschichte der Polar-linder.” Von Gustav Jaeger und Emil Bessels. (Petermann's Geographische Mittheilungen, 1870.) + ‘Recherches Anatomiqueset Palzontologiques sur la famille des Chev- rotains,” Paris, 1864. t “Notes on the Visceral Anatomy of Hyomoschus aquetocus.” Zool. Soc., 1867. Proc. the Moschide of MM. Jaeger and Bessels, constitute a family er se, quite distinct from the rest of the ruminants, and connecting them with the pigs, and consequently quite distinct from the musk-deer (M¥oschus). In the same way our authors base certain arguments upon the fact of all the typical deer being spotted in the immature state. But, as Dr. Jaeger at least—having been, if we are not misinformed, custos of a zoological garden—ought to know, this is not quite the case, all the Awszze deer having their young spotless. Again, arguments are founded upon Cervus pudu of Chili living in the Cordilleras, and the other allied species with simple unbranched horns in the plains of South America. But exactly the contrary is the case. Cervus pudu is from the low maritime coast of Chili, and one, if not more, of the so-called “ Subulones” (C. rufius) lives high in the Andes of Venezuela and New Granada. From these and other similar instances of erroneous statements which it would be easy to point out, it is,in fact, quite obvious that the authors of this essay have no very special acquaintance with the group upon the distribution of which they treat. We leave it to naturalists to decide whether, under these circumstances, the results arrived at are worthy of much attention. Their theory seems to be that the deer-family reached the New World by an Arctic continent which formerly connected northern Europe with eastern America, and which Dr, Jaeger, in a former paper, has proposed to call “Arctis.” There are, however, if we are not mistaken, equally good grounds for believing that the numerous, undoubtedly Old-world forms in North America reached it by immi- gration from North-western Asia. HENDERSON’S PATENT STEEL PROCESS "Eee articles written by Mr. W. Mattieu Williams, called ‘‘ Papers on Iron and Steel—A Costly and Vexatious Fallacy,” were published a short time since in NATURE. These papers are considered in this country to be the clearest and ablest that have ever appeared on this subject, setting forth the reason why all efforts here- tofore made to produce steel from English cast-iron by partial decarbonisation have failed ; that all manipula- tions have been directed to removing as much as possible the -impurities contained in pig iron by oxidation. He was not aware that new agents have been used, combined with oxygen, and that patents had been granted therefor in England, Nos. 318, 1,051, A.D. 1870 (which were not then published) for combining fluorine with oxygen, and fluorine combined with titanic acid, or with titanium and oxygen. ‘The new patent process for the production of steel by the partial decarbonisation of cast-iron consists in the combined use of fluorspar or other fluorides and titanic acid, applied to cast-iron at the melting temperatures, pre- ferably in reverberatory furnaces. Fluorine is given off from the fluorspar, and is a more powerful agent for the removal of silicon than oxygen, and removes it almost en- tirely from the cast-iron before the reactions with the car- bon begin ; the phosphorus and sulphur are next acted upon and removed in the order they are named by means of the combined action of fluorine and titanic acid or fluorine, titanium, and oxygen, and lastly the carbon is re- moved. The fluorine is derived from fluorspar combined with iron ores containing titanic acid in such wise as ensures simultaneous action of the fluorine, titanium, and oxygen upon the cast-iron; and by reason of the affinities of these substances for silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, man- ganese, arsenic and carbon, these substances are taken from the iron in the form of vapour and slag, leaving the puri- fied metal in the condition to be hammered or rolled as merchantable steel. English pig-iron may be made direct into steel by the new process ; and with the large class of irons smelted from hzematites and specular ores with good fuel, pure . Dee. 1, 1870] NATURE steel may be made, that will be entirely desiliconised, de- phosphorised, and desulphurised, and contain but the re- quired amount of carbon to form steel of any particular degree of hardness, by arresting the decarbonisation of the metal whilst undergoing conversion, Experiments were made in May last on a large scale at Messrs. Park, Brothers and Co.’s Steel Works, in Pitts- burg, in boiling puddling furnaces fettled with such oxides, but without puddling or labour of stirring the iron during conversion ; the only labour was that of “ balling” and re- moving it from the furnace after the conversion was com- pleted. The mode of application in the above-named establishment was 125lb. of titaniferous iron ore (similar to the Norwegian) and 5olb. of fluorspar, both in a powdered state, and then charging them evenly over the sole of the furnace. 475lb. of No. 3 charcoal pig-iron, similar in quality to English hematite of Barrow, was then charged upon them, and, when melted, was allowed to re- main without stirring or puddling. As soon as the pig- iron melted, reactions began between the fluorspar and the titaniferous iron ore, and the silicon and phosphorus contained in the pig-iron. To ascertain exactly the con- ditions upon which the changes are made in the cast-iron whilst under treatment, samples were taken from the bath of liquid iron. The analysis of the first sample shows that the operation of the new process is entirely different from any other process, inasmuch as the silicon is entirely re- moved at the early stages of the process ; and, with the silicon, phosphorus is also taken from the iron, and the carbon is changed from the graphitic to the combined form. Other samples were taken from the bath at inter- vals of ten minutes. The analysis of the first sample made it evident that most of the later ones were steel. This has since been confirmed by analysing a specimen taken thirty minutes later from the bath, and by the treatment of them as steel, it having been found that they possess the properties of steel, forging well, and tempering and ~ hardening according to the various degrees of carbon con- tained in them. At the end of the operation, the charge became wrought-iron, by removal of a// the carbon. This iron forges, welds, and is neither red-short nor cold-short. The analyses of the first and fourth samples taken from the bath have been made by Mr. W. M. Habirshaw, analytical chemist, of 36, New Street, New York, and are annexed. Also, analyses of Messrs. Sanderson’s and Krupp’s cast-steel, and Hoop L Dannemura-Swedish bar iron are annexed for comparison, taken from Dr. Percy’s “Tron Metallurgy.” First Sample. Refined Cast-iron, taken 40 minutes after fusion. Carbon, combined 2°7144 Fourth Sample. Steel, taken 30 minutes later. Carbon, combined 0°2172 . do graphite traces do graphite none Slags (silicates) none Slags (silicates) none : Silicon 070046 Silicon none - Phosphorus 00349 Phosphorus none Sulphur 0°1073 Sulphur very minute trace Titanium trace Titanium none Fluorine none Fluorine none The presence of sulphur in the refined cast-iron is mostly due to sulphurets mixed with the fluorspar, which was used in the condition in which it was taken from the mine, there being no convenience at hand for dressing it. Later experiments with other kinds of pig-iron, with : impure or fluorspar not dressed, show that at the stage of . the process where it becomes refined cast-iron, the in- crease of sulphur from this cause amounts to o*1051 per . cent. ; which with “dressed” or pure fluorspar, would be o’co22 per cent. of sulphur for the refined cast-iron of the foregoing analysis, instead of 9°1073 per cent, : It will be evident to the practical metallurgist that the refined cast-iron, when treated with pure fluorspar, be- comes steel of superior quality when decarbonised below 1°90 per cent of carbon. 95 Hoop L Bar-iron. | Sanderson’s Cast- Krupp’s Cast-steel. steel, Carbon 0'087. Carbon not deter. Carbon 118 Silicon O115 Silicon 0°24 ~~ Silicon 0°33 Phosphorus 0°034 Phosphorus 0'02 Phosphorus 0'02 Sulphur 0220 = Sulphur 005 =©Svulphur none Manganese none Manganese 0'03 Manganese trace Arsenic trace Cobalt, nickel none Cobalt, nickel o-12 Cobalt, nickel none Copper none Copper 0°30 Copper none Aluminium o12 Aluminium none Aluminium none From the foregoing analysis it will be seen that the refined cast-ivon of the patent process contains but .& part of the silicon, less than one half the sulphur, and about the same amount of phosphorus, as compared with Hoop L bar-iron. This is the most celebrated wrought-iron made in the world, and is used exclusively for making steel, and sells at 24/. per ton at Sheffield. The analysis of the steel of the patent process shows, as compared with Sanderson’s and Krupp’s, that while the latter are alloyed with carbon, silicon, sulphur, phos- phorus, &c., the steed of the new process is practically ure iron and carbon. In the articles before referred to, written by Mr. Williams (and from his intimate practical and scientific knowledge no better authority can be had), he says :—* To make perfect steel they take out a// these latter, and leave nothing but pure iron and carbon. Absolute perfection is not, of course, practically attainable in steel making, but it is approximated in the same degree as the purification of iron from everything except carbon is effected.” Persons wishing to satisfy themselves of the value of the process, by a test, should use the ordinary boiling puddling furnace, fettled with the purest red hematite or specular ores, containing the least silica, ground and applied wet, with the ordinary “bottom” made in the usual way : and when perfect steel is required, that con- tains neither silicon, phosphorus, nor sulphur, good pig- iron should be taken, such as Nos. I and 2 Barrow, or West Cumberland hzematite ; and treated with pure fluor- spar, and titaniferous iron ore from the Bay of St. Paul, in Canada, containing over 43 per cent. of titanic acid, or from Norway, containing over 40 per cent. of titanic acid ; using 48lb. of fluorspar to 118lb. of the ore. They should be ground to fine powder, and mixed, and used dry, and charged evenly over the sole or bottom of the furnace; and 475lb. of pig-iron should be charged upon them, and the furnace closed tight so as to exclude all air, for about 70 minutes. The fire should be kept to the highest temperature. After the metal has been in the furnace this period, samples should be taken from the bath at intervals of five minutes. It will be found that a little experience will soon determine the proper time to stop the process. It is best zo¢ to allow the workman attending the fur- nace to stir or puddle the metal during the conversion, as the fluorspar and titaniferous ore become viscid by the heat of the furnace by the time the pig-iron melts, and, if left alone, will remain on the bottom of the furnace until decomposed by the reactions of the process, when they pass through the iron as vapour and slag, and purify it more effectively than can be done by stirring or puddhng ; and the slag serves to protect the surface of the metal from the effects of the sulphur in the fuel. The only labour that should be ad/owed is that of removing the steel from the furnace at the required stage of conversion. The time in conversion of the steel, from the charging of the pig-iron, is one hour and 30 to 40 minutes ; this time may be shortened 30 to 40 minutes, by previously re- fining the cast-iron of all its silicon and most of its phosphorus, by a shorter and more economical process (Patent, No. 1,051) with hematites and specular ores with | fluorspar, which will become the subject of a future article. New York JAMES HENDERSON 96 NATURE [De. 1, 1870 SOCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LONDON Geological Society, November 9.—Mr. Joseph Prestwich, F.R.S., President, in the chair, Lieutenant Reginald Clare Hart, R.E., Brompton Barracks, Chatham ; Lieutenant James Frederick Lewis, R.E., Brompton Barracks, Chatham; and Mr. M. F. Maury, jun., 1300 Main Street, Richmond, Vir- ginia, U.S., were elected Fellows of the Society.—(1.) ‘‘On the Carboniferous Flora of Bear Island (lat..74° 30’ N.),” by Pro- fessor Oswald Heer, F/M.G.S. The author described the sequence of the strata supposed to belong to the Carboniferous and Devonian series in Bear Island, and indicated that the plant- bearing beds occurred immediately below those which, from their fossil contents, were to be referred to the mountain limestone. He enumerated eighteen species of plants, and stated that these indicated a close-approximation of the flora to those of Tallow- bridge and Kiltorkan in Ireland, the greywacke of the Vosges and the southern Black Forest, and the Verneuilii-shales of Aix and St. John’s, New Brunswick. These concordant floras he considered to mark a peculiar set of beds, which he proposed to denominate the ‘‘ Ursa-stage.”” The author remarked that the flora of Bear Island has nothing to do with any Devonian flora, and that consequently it and the other floras, which he regards as contemporaneous, must be referred to the Lower Carboni- ferous. Hence he argued that the line of separation between the Carboniferous and Devonian formations must be drawn below the yellow sandstones. The presence of fishes of Old Red Sand- stone type in the overlying slates he regarded as furnishing no argument to invalidate this conclusion. Parry Island and Melville Island are also regarded by the author as belonging to the ‘‘ Ursa-stage,’’ which, by these additions, presents us with a flora of seventy-seven species of plants. The author remarked upon the singularity of plants of the same «species having lived in regions so widely separated as to give them a range of 263° of latitude, and indicated the rela- tions of such a luxuriant and abundant vegetation in high northern latitudes to necessary changes in climate and in sthe distribution of land and water.—Sir Charles Lyell re- marked that the Yellow Sandstones of Dura Den in Fife, and of the county of Cork in Ireland, contain Glypéolepis and Asterolepis, genera of fish exclusively Devonian, or be- longing to the middle parts of the Old Red Sandstone—also ‘the genus Coccosteus, which is abundantly represented in the Middle Old Red Sandstone, and sparingly, or only by one species, in the Carboniferous formation. ‘The evidence derived from these fishes inclined him to the belief that the Yellow Sandstone, whether in Ireland or Fife, should be referred to the Upper Devonian, and not to the Lower Carboniferous, as Sir Richard Griffiths contended, and as Heer now thinks. As to the argu- ment founded on the plants, he considered it an important and truly wonderful announcement, that many well-known Carbo- niferous species are common to Bear Island (in lat. 74° 30’ N.), ithe Arctic regions and to Ireland and other parts of Europe (26° of latitude farther south). But fossil plants are supposed to have a wider range in space and time than fossil fish ; and we know that the cryptogamic flora of the ancient coal is remarkable for the wide horizontal spread of the same species, extending from North America to Europe, so that we need not be surprised if many species should extend vertically from the Devonian into the Carboniferous strata. Mr. Carruthers remarked on the bearing of the paper on the Kiltorkan beds, and considered that Dr. Heer had completely established the correlation of the depo- sits. He differed, however, as to the numerical proportions of the species. He could not recognise Cyc/ostigma as a genus, but considered it founded on insufficient grounds, in which view Prof. Haughton now agreed. It was, in fact, founded on fragments of the bark of Lepidodendron Griffithsii, Brongniart, to which species the Lepidoaendron indicated by Prof. Heer as LZ. velthei- mianum really belonged. Other detached portions of this same plant had been described by various authors under no less than seven different specific names, and referred to nearly an equal number of distinct genera, and Prof. Heer had reckoned these as species in his comparison of the Bear Island and Irish floras. Prof. Heer had been led, chiefly by the erroneous determination of the Kiltorkan Zepidodendron by the Trish paleontologists, to refer these beds to the Carboniferous rather than to the Devonian formation, the Kiltorkan fossil having been established as a very distinct species by B:ongniart and Schimper. Mr, Carruthers considered that both the Irish The sandstones of | and Bear Island deposits belonged to the Devonian. Mr. Boyd Dawkins pointed out that the proximity of land was exhibited by the presence of terrestrial plants in the deposits, and believed that this might have much to do with the difference in the pro- portion in the beds. As the marine fauna decayed more rapidly than the terrestrial, it was preferable for classificatory purposes. He mentioned forms of vegetable life which had been recently discovered in America in beds of Cretaceous age. He did not believe that corals could have existed in those high latitudes under anything approaching to the present condition. Prof. Nordenskjéld had failed to discover any traces of glacial action in these beds; and the question arose whether there had been any change in the position of the Pole or in the radiated heat of the sun.—(2.) ‘‘On the Evi- dence afforded by the Detrital beds without and within the North-eastern part of the Valley of the Weald as to the mode and date of the Denudation of that Valley.” By Mr. S. V. Wood, jun., F.G.S. The author commenced by discussing the various hypotheses that have been proposed to explain the denudation of the Weald Valley. In his opinion the upheaval of the district took place in Post-glacial times, and subsequently to the deposition of the gravels of the Thames Valley, of East Essex, and of the Canterbury heights ; and the denudation was effected chiefly by tidal erosion during gradual upheaval in an inlet of the sea, aided by the action. of fresh water flowing into this inlet from the north by streams draining the land which now constitutes the counties of Middlesex and Essex. The chief evidence in favour of his views is as follows :—1. The absence from the glacial beds of Essex of any debris representing a con- siderable denudation of the Weald during the glacial period, and the probability that the Wealden area was beneath the sea during the deposition of the Boulder Clay. 2. The com- parative absence of Lower Cretaceous or Hastings-sand materials from the Post-glacial gravel-sheets ontside the morth of the Weald. 3. The impossibility of reconciling the presence of Tertiary pebbles in certain Weald-gravels with an origin by means of streams flowing in the direction of the present rivers. 4. The antagonism between the character of the major valley of the Weald and that of any excavation producible by the agency of rivers. 5. The persistence of the old coast contour with the river-drainage entering it from the north. 6, The existence of a cause, in the shape of an isthmus at Dover, sufficient to induce a strong tidal scour. Mr. Godwin-Austen thought that the author had done his theory injustice in presenting only a portion of the Wealden area for consideration. He remarked that phenomena similar to those of the Weald were to be found in various parts of Western Europe. He was glad to find that Mr. Searles Wood did not regard the escarpment as representing marine cliffs ; but he did not attach sufficient weight to the absence of any material of marine origin at their base, so that there was no evidence of the presence of the sea within the Wealden area. He differed wholly from the author as to the age of the gravels, for beneath the gravels were silty beds ‘containing elephant remains. These gravels he was inclined to refer to a glacial period, as they contain blocks such as could only have been transported by the agency of ice. The elephants found in the valley of the Wey are of the species (Z. primigenius) which also occurs in the Selsea beds ; and he believed both to be of glacial age. As to the theory of the denudation of the Weald, he professed himself a convert to the views of Messrs. Foster and Topley, and cited what was now going on in Heligoland in illustration of atmospheric denudation. —Mr, Whitaker ebserved that the present absence of gravels along parts of the valley of the Thames affords no proof of their not having formerly existed. He pointed out the soft and friable nature of most of the rocks of the Wealden, which would account for their absence in the gravels. The only really hard rock was the Chert of the Lower Greensand, which was abundant in the gravels of West Kent. Angular flints occurred at the base of the chalk escarpment wherever it had been carried back by denuda- tion. The major valley of the Weald had been spoken of, but he denied that any such valley existed ; it was merely a series of numerous small valleys. He could not conceive the rivers flowing against the dip of the strata, as supposed by Mr. Wood. He did not agree in the view of the denudation of the Weald being such an enormous affair, but thought that it might be due to comparatively small causes.—The President pointed out that beyond Southend there was a section precisely similar to that of Grays. It was amistake to suppose pebbles from the Wealden area did not occur in the Thames gravels. OOO eS “= De. 1, 1870] NATURE oF He thought that much of the denudation of the Wealden area might have taken place before the glacial period. The pre- sence of Tertiary pebbles in the Wealden area might readily be accounted for by their presence at the edge of the escarpment. Mr. Searles V. Wood, jun,, in reply, justified himself for having limited his observations to the northern part of the Weald, as it was there only that it could be brought into juxtaposition with the glacial beds. He maintained that, under certain circum- stances, no beaches or marine beds were formed at the base of sea-cliffs. He pointed out that in Post-glacial gravels large blocks of rock were frequently found, and protested against limiting all ice-transport to the glacial period. He could not recognise the Selsea beds, with 150 living species, some of southern character, and none extinct, as glacial. He did not acknowledge the alleged softness of the Wealden rocks.—The Earl of Enniskillen sent for exhibition a fragment of Lias Limestone from Lyme Regis perforated by Pholades. Entomological Society, November 21.—Mr. Alfred R. Wallace, F.Z.S., &c., President, in the chair. Exhibitions of Lepidoptera were made by Mr. Bond ; of Coleoptera by Mr. Albert Miiller and Prof. Westwood ; and Mr. F. Smith exhibited Phora Jiorea, a Dipterous parasite in the nest of the wasp. The follow- ing paper was read :—‘‘ Descriptions of some new diurnal Lefi- doptera, chiefly Hesperiide,” by Mr. A. G. Butler. Ethnological Society, November 22.—Prof. Huxley, Presi- dent, in the chair. Mr. George Macleay was announced asa newmember. Mr. Edgar Layard made some remarks upona collection of stone implements which he has recently brought from the Cape of Good Hope. Some polished celts from the Naga Hills, between Assam and Burmah, were exhibited, and Lieut. Barrow’s notes upon them were read.—A paper was then communicated by Dr. Bleek ‘‘On the Concord, the Origin of Pronouns, and the Formation of Genders or Classes of Nouns.” The author believes that the classes or genders in the sex- denoting languages originally depended, not upon the meaning of the nouns, but upon their representative particles, which, in these languages, were primiarily atthe end of the nouns. These gen- ders were, from an originally large number, gradually reduced, until in the Aryan languages they were mainly two—one with the representative element, U, which is called the mascu/ine class, and the other with the representative element, A TI, which is named the feminine class. The xewter appears to be a later development, into which, however, an original common plural gender, with the termination, A N I, may have been incorporated. To these endings the case-terminations were affixed, and through pressure of the latter the original marks of gender have frequently | been obscured. The concord was at first due to the presence of these representative elements of the nouns in their pronominal character. Mr. Hyde Clarke, in eulogising this paper, said that he had by independent investigation arrived at some of the results detailed by the author. The speaker insisted upon the necessity of extending our philological studies beyond the Indo- European languages. MANCHESTER Literary and Philosophical Society, November 15.— Mr. E. W. Binney, president, in the chair. “On the Tem- perature Equilibrium of an Enclosure containing a Body in Visible Motion,” by Prof. Balfour Stewart, LL.D., F.R.S. It has been established that in an enclosure containing bodies which are all at the same temperature, and at rest, the same amount of heat enters any surface forming part of the walls of the enclosure as leaves it in the same time, so that the body, of which this is the surface, neither gains nor loses heat. It is also known that if we take, not the outer surface of such a body, but any plane passing through its substance, say for instance one. parallel to its outer surface, then, as much heat passes across this plane going into the body, as passes across it going out of the body in the opposite direction ; and further, this equilibrium of heat is known to hold separately for every one of the indi- vidual rays of which the whole heterogeneous radiation is com- posed. The effect of the motion of a body in altering the wave- length of the radiated light is also well known. In consequence of this, if a cosmical mass, such as a star or nebula, should be formed of incandescent hydrogen, and beat the same time rapidly approaching the earth, the hght which strikes the earth will not be the double line D, but a line more refrangible than it, and therefore this light will be able to pass through a mass of ignited sedium vapour at the earth’s surface without suffering absorption, while, however, the light emanating from the sodium vapvur will still be the double line D. In such a case, even if the star and the terrestrial sodium vapour should both be of the same temperature, yet the light radiated by the latter will not be the same in quality as that absorbed. This instance would appear to show that the equilibrivm which holds in an enclosure of uniform temperature when all the substances are at rest does not hold when some of these are in visible motion, and that if in that en- closure there be a body moving towards or from the sur- face of the enclosure, the heat which enters the surface from the moving body will not be the same as that which the sur- face gives out. Suppose for instance that the walls of the en- closure are made of glass, and that the temperature of the | whole enclosure including that of the moving body is 0° C., then, were the whole at rest, the heat which strikes the glass surface will all be absorbed at a very short distance below the surface, and in like manner the heat radiated by the glass will all ema- nate from a short distance below the surface. But let us now suppose, to take an extreme case, that the moving body is ap- proaching one of the glass surfaces so rapidly that the heat which it emits has been so much increased in refrangibility as te enter the boundary of the visible spectrum. Then, while the heat radiated by the glass will still continue to proceed from a very short distance beneath the surface, the heat absorbed by the glass from the moving body will be able to penetrate toa very considerable depth beneath the surface of the glass. The outer layer of glass will thus lose, while the inner layer will gain heat. Now, it is possible to conceive an enclosure with a fixed diaphragm, and containing a revolving body, so arranged that the heat which leaves it in the direction of a certain part of the enclosing surface, shall always be given out by that part of the revolying body which is moving towards the surface ; while, on the other hand, the heat given out by the revolving body to another surface, shall be given out when the revolving body is moving from that surface. There will thus be a want of temper- ature equilibrium among the various layers, those near the sur- face being somewhat different in temperature from those beneath. But when we have a temperature difference of this kind, have we not acquired the power of converting heat into work? It would thus appear at first sight that the mere presence of a moving body has given us the power of obtaining work from an en- closure all of whose particles were originally at the same tem- perature. This appears however to be opposed to the theory of the dissipation of energy, and in consequence we are induced to think there must be some error in the assumption. Now, does not the unwarranted part of the hypothesis consist in our sup- posing that the revolving system can continue to reyolye without losing part of its visible motion? When two moving bodies ap- proach or recede from each other, is it not possible that each loses a small part of its visible energy, while at the same time there is a surface disturbance produced in both? It might be said that, believing in a medium pervading all space, we were prepared for a stoppage of motion of this nature, and that there is therefore nothing gained by the supposition which has been made ; but it might be replied that by looking at the problem in the above light, we appear to connect this stoppage of motion with other facts, besides being made aware of a source of surface dis- turbance when cosmical bodies approach or recede from each other.—Postscript added 19th November.—If we imagine a stop- page of the motion of cosmical bodies of the nature above de- scribed, then if the two approaching bodies be exactly equal and similar, either extremity of the medium between them will be similarly affected by the motion derived from the approach- ing bodies ; but if these bodies are unequal, the two extremities of the medium will be dissimilarly affected. Microscopical and Natural History Section, October 10.—Mr. Joseph Baxendell, President of the Section, in the chair. Mr. Joseph Sidebotham read the following paper :—‘‘ On the Varia- tions of Abraxas grossulariata.” The variations in animals and piants are of great interest, and each contribution to the store of facts accumulated relative to these variations, their causes and limits, is of value in determining the identity and limits of species, in whatever way we interpret the word sfecies. Abraxas grossulariata is probably one of the most variable insects we possess in this country in colour and markings, and it would be quite pardonable in any one not well acquainted with it, were he to split it up into four or five species ; but although it varies in colour and markings in such a great degree, all these varicties are joined together by gradual steps, and yet no step is found to join it to the next species on our list, dévaxas u/mata. The larvee of this species will feed upon the leaves of most trees and 98 shrubs, and are therefore easily experimented upon, as to whether the changes in food influence the colour or markings. So far as my own experiments, and I believe those of others are concerned, no difference whatever can be detected from the varieties of food, except in size. That long-continued changes of food through many generations might have a perceptible effect, is however more than probable. The type form of this moth is too well known to require description. I will therefore exhibit a drawer of specimens, having the type form in the centre, the various forms radiating from it in steps, in one line ending in white, another in black, another in which the white ground runs gradually into brown, and various other marked varieties. We may divide these into the following seven groups :—1. Variation. White, or the spots very few and distant: this leads up to the type form. 2. Spots joined together, forming curves and lines, 3. A variety of intermediate spots and patches. 4. The spots at the border becoming lines, and running towards the base of wings. 5. Spots confluent, forming solid black patches over nearly the whole of wings. 6. The spots having the type form, but the white ground tinged with a smoky brown or drab colour, sometimes suffusing the whole ‘of the wings. 7. Spots of the type form, but the ground of wings bright yellow. From various experiments with many thousands of larve of this species, I have come to the conclusion that these variations are in a great measure hereditary, that one brood of eggs will produce moths of forms in a great measure identical, if the parents be of the ordinary type; if the eggs be the produce of moths of extreme colouring, varying much from the type, then, although the bulk of moths will be marked dark or light as the parents, there will be others of the ordinary type, and also some of the very opposite character of marking, precisely as in many florists’ flowers the seeds from those varying most from the original form are known to produce the most marked and opposite varieties. These ex- periments can only produce approximate results, unless a great number of years could be devoted to them, and in this and many others of our most variable species, it is almost impossible to rear them in confinement beyond the second generation. November 7.—Mr. Joseph Sidebotham exhibited a series of specimens of Limobius dissimilis, from Llandudno, on which the markings were very distinct and perfect; he discovered the species in considerable numbers beneath the flowers of Gera- nium sanguineum.—Mr. Spence: H. Bickham, jun., reported occurrence of Myosurus minimus, L., in plenty at Vale Royal, near Northwich, which species, he believed, had never previously been noticed in the neighbourhood. — Mr. Bickham then exhibited a series of specimens of /aoiy- eonum minus, Wuds, collected at Mere and the surround- ing district; he stated that he had searched for P. mite, Schrank, but without success, and believed with Mr. Hunt, that luxuriant specimens of P. minus had been mistaken for it: on the other hand he called attention to the fact that in 1859 Mr. John Hardy, to whom Mr. Bailey had previously alluded, distributed specimens of P. mite from Mere, through the Thirsk Exchange Club, and on this authority Mr. J. G. Baker, the Curator, remarked in the report, ‘‘new to the Mersey Pro- vince.” Itseems doubtful also whether A/opecurus fulvus, re- ported from the same locality, has not been erroneously recorded, peculiar states of A. genicudatus having been mis- taken for it. As, however, it was found in considerable quantity at Oakmere in 1868, it appears probable that it may occur elsewhere in Cheshire. LEEDS Field Naturalists’ Club (Young Men’s Christian Asso- ciation), October 24.—The first meeting of the winter session took place this evening, Mr. Coates in thechair. In entomology, Mr. Liversedge exhibited specimens of Latyrus egeria, Argynnis selene, Anthrocharis cardamines, and Pamphila sylvanus, all collected in this neighbourhood.—Mr, Turner exhibited a variety of insects taken near Selby, including Cerura vinula, Triphena fimbria, Argynnis paphia, and Saturnia carpini. In oology, Mr. Coates brought the nest and egg of the ring ousel found at Ikley.—Mr. Beevers and Mr. Taylor were the principal exhi- bitors in the conchological branch, Mr. Beevers exhibiting U7io pictorum from Went Vale, Cyclostoma elegans, Thorparch, and Limmea palustris vax. corvus, Knaresbro.—Mr, Taylor exhibited Limnea glabra, Helix virvata var. submaritina, Planorbis corneus var. albina, and a small collection from Wisconsin, U.S. November 7.—Mr. W. Coates in the chair. NATORE Mr, Taylor read a [Dec. 1, 1870 short paper describing a conchological visit to Boston Spa during the present month. Amongst the specimens taken were Cyc/o- stoma elegans, Helix lapicida, H. cantiana, and Pupa marginata, specimens of which species, and a number of others, were exhi- bited.—Mr. Wood brought for exhibition a fine collection of shells, illustrating the Pontefract district.—Mr. Roebuck exhi- bited several species of shells taken in the neighbourhood of Harrogate.—Mr. Scholefield exhibited the American mosquito and a fine specimen of Bombyx cynthia.—Mr. Denny brought for inspection a quantity of wheat infested by the wheat weevil, and a specimen of the death’s-head moth, 4. atropos.—Mr. Liver- sedge exhibited a number of insects taken in the immediate neighbourhood, including Zasiecampa quercus, Smerinthus popule, Nemeobius lucina, and Lycena alsus. The next meeting was to be held November 21st, when a paper was to be read by Mr. Acomb, ‘‘ On geology asa study.” NorwicH Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists’ Society, October 25. —The President, the Rey. J. Crompton, in the chair. A most elaborate and interesting paper was read by Mr. F. Kitton, **On Diatomacea and the lower forms of vegetable life as revealed by the microscope.” The lecture, for such it may more properly be termed, was illustrated by diagrams, showing some of the most familiar as well as most peculiar forms of Desmids and Diatoms ; and at the close Mr. Kitton exhibited a series of very beautiful photomicrographs, of similar objects, executed by Dr. Maddox. The Chairman, in offering to Mr. Kitton the thanks of the Society, and especially of the members present, for the time and labour he had devoted to their instruc- tion, alluled in complimentary terms to the high reputation he had already attained throughout the scientific world, by his per- severing researches in this particular branch of natural history ; his skill as a microscopist being equalled only by the extreme accuracy of his descriptions of the most intricate and minute organisms. At the request of the meeting Mr. Kitton consented to his paper being published 7 ex/enso in the Transactions of th Society. : EDINBURGH Royal Physical Society, November 23.—Prof. Duns in the chair. The retiring president, Professor Duns, delivered an address, in which he referred to the early history and past achievements of the Society. A hundred years} ago} eighteen students of nature banded themselves together for mutual profit in the pursuit of natural science, under the name of the Physical Society, Here is the first list of the ordinary members, Session 1770-1771 :—William St. Clair, M.D. ; David Young, M.D. ; Thomas Melville, Thomas Smith, James French, James Wood, Robert Stewart, Alexander Muir, James Dick, Henry W. Tytler, Malcolm Macqueen, Arthur Taafe, Daniel Gibb, Thomas Thor- burn, James Webster, George Home, William Manuel, and William Keir. The names deserve to be brought out of the mists of 1770, and set before the Society in the light of 1870. The period was one well fitted to quicken young and ardent students, and to lead them to long to win their spurs in work closely kindred to that in which others were distinguishing them- selves. Eight years previously, Black had made public his theory of Latent Heat, and two years before he had been in- ducted to the Chemistry Chair in Edinburgh. The influences of the day were bearing in on Hutton’s mind, in which “The Theory of the Earth” was shaping itself into compactness and symmetry. Ray’s Syxopsis, Willoughby’s Ornithologia, Lister’s Mollusca, and Ellis’s Corallines, were before the public. But these dealt with British forms. Scotland was still in the rear. Nothing had been done to purpose for Scottish forms, except in the Scotia Z/lustrata of Sibbald, most, valuable at the time, no doubt, but also most suggestive of how much still remained to be accomplished. It was in such circumstances the Physical Society began, and more than ten years elapsed before the foundation of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. In 1788 the Physical obtained a Royal Charter, and assumed the name it now bears. Its meet- ings were held for many years in the Royal Physical Society | Hall, Richmond Court, a building which stood on a site now occupied by a chapel. From the outset its influence over work- ing naturalists was great and beneficial, and it ultimately ab- sorbed other kindred associations, which had been at different times set up in Edinburgh. The Chirurgo-Medical, its senior by a few years, joined it in 1788; the Hibernian Medical, in 1799; the Chemical, in 1803; the Natural History, in 1812; ee a lS a eS ST ee i et i, | el i, i el Dee, 1, 1870] NATURE 99 the Didactic, in 1813 ; and the Wernerian, in 1858. Between 1771 and 1788 many well-known names occur among its list of members—Benjamin Bell, Professors Alexander Munro, J. Hope, Joseph Black, Francis Home, James Gregory, Alexander Hamil- ton, and W. Hamilton (Glasgow). In 1802, Dr. Barclay and Charles Bell; in 1814, David Brewster. By its union with the Natural History Society it enrolled among its members the botanists, James Edward Smith and Robert Brown, and another, great in almost every department of science, literature, and law, Henry Brougham. Brown’s papers on the ‘‘ Botany of Angus,”’ and on the “ Sexes of Plants,” are models in this department, and Brougham’s on ‘‘ Thunder” and ‘‘ Combustion ” will well repay a careful perusal. One other notice : in 1828 the Plinian approached the Royal Physical with proposals to unite, and both societies appointed influential committees, with powers to form a union. After much consultation, they reported “ that the union of the societies had been admirably accomplished.” But the Plinians, after the union was consummated, rued the act, and refused to associate with their lawful head. The Plinian lived on for a season in cold estrangement, and gradually passed into the dark. On the list of ordinary members of the Plinian is the name ‘‘Charles Darwin, Shrewsbury, Nov. 26, 1826.” The history of the Royal Physical Society is substan- tially that of Scottish zoology. The latter could not be written without the former. I have only to choose these names from the list of our presidents to make good this remark :—Robert Knox, Captain Thomas Brown, Edward Forbes, Robert K. Greville, James Y. Simpson, John Coldstream, George Wilson, John Goodsir, Alexander Bryson, William Dick, Hugh Miller, Sir John Graham Dalyell, and John Fleming. In these men was embodied the great characteristic of our society. They were all practical naturalists. In November, 1849, Professor Fleming delivered the opening address, in which he urged the expediency of steps being taken by the society to bring before the Government and country the great want of a general national museum for the native products of Scotland, and to bring together the other collections in Edinburgh under one roof. Steps were soon taken inthese directions by public bodies and by in- fluential individuals. It again fell to Fleming to give the opening address, in 1855, and he could say—‘‘ The gra- tifying intelligence at last reached us that the Board of Trade had resolved to institute an industrial museum for Scotland in Edinburgh.” The Society might claim the merit of one of the first agitations for this great national institution. Dr. Duns passed a high eulogium on the researches of Dr. Strethill Wright on the Ca@/enterata and Protozoa, referring to the sensation produced by the deep-sea dredging report, inti- mating the growth of chalk in one of the dredged localities. But honour to whom honour. In 1861, this note occurs in Dr. Wright’s address to this Society. Referring to the oolite and the chalk, he says: ‘‘ Similar deposits are now in process of forma- tion over yast areas of sea bottom, especially in the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Australian seas.” Since the Society last met it had lost one of its most distinguished members, Sir James Young Simpson. Dr. Simpson was born at Bathgate, Linlith- gowshire, on the 7th June, 1811. He sprang from a family long resident in the district, comfortable in worldly circumstances, and noted for their strong mental powers and outstanding indivi- dualities. After being educated at the parish school, where for several years he had for a companion the late Prof. John Reid, of St. Andrews, Simpson entered the Arts course of the Univer- sity of Edinburgh, He commeneed his purely medical studies in 1827, and graduated as M.D. in 1832. Immediately after graduation he was elected President of the Medical Society. In 1833 he petitioned for a scat in this Society, recommended by Edward Forbes. From 1832 to the beginning of 1836, he acted as assistant to Prof. John Thomson, who occupied the Chair of General Pathology in the University. In Session 1839-40 he gave a course of lectures on midwifery, and in 1840 he was elected by the Town Council to the Chair of Midwifery, vacant by the resignation and subsequent demise of Dr. Hamiltor. Dr. Simpson died on the evening of the 6th May, 1870. Dr. Duns concluded by some apposite observations on the motives that should incite to natural history studies, and the methods by which they should be pursued. Botanical Society, July 14—Sir Walter Elliot, Pre- sident, in the chair.—1.‘‘Ou Kashmir Morels.” By Mr. M. C. Cooke, India Museum, London. The author remarked, that it has long been known that truffles and morels are found in N. W. India andKash mir, but no attempt has hitherto been made to determine the species. Some years ago, applica- tion was made to the Agricultural and Horticultural Society of the Punjab, and to other sources, for specimens, but without any result. He had, however, lately received, through Dr. J. L. Stewart, a string of dried morels, said to be the morels of Kash- mir, and sent by Mr. Baden Powell, of Lahore. This string con- tains two distinct species, both of them small, and neither of them the Morchella esculenta of European markets. The author gave some account of the history of morels as far as known, and concluded by giving scientific descriptions of the supposed two new species from Kashmir. 2. ‘*On the Characters of the | Flowers of Silene maritima and Silene inflata, as regards their Stamens and Pistils.” By. Dr. F, Buchanan White. The author had examined 72 plants and 201 flowers of Silene maritima ; of these, 39 plants were perfectly hermaphrodite, 11 had the stamens abortive, 10 the styles abortive, 11 the styles partly abor- tive, and I with the stamens partly abortive. Of the 201 flowers examined, 122 had three styles and three-celled ovary ; 68 had four styles and four-celled ovary ; and r1 had five styles and five- celled ovary. 3. ‘* Notes of a Botanical Excursion to the neigh- bourhood of Perth.” By Mr. John Sadler. 4. ‘‘ Results Ob- tained from the Cutting and Transplanting of a Plaited Horn- beam Hedge.” By Mr. M‘Nab. 5. “On the Guachamacan, a poisonous plant growing in the Llanos (plains) of Venezuela.” By M. A. Ernst, Caracas. GLASGOW Geological Society, November 3.—Mr. John Young, Vice- president, in the chair. Mr. James Thomson, F.G.S., sub- mitted to the Society some remains of fish and molluscan life, which he had recently discovered in the neighbouring coal-fields, and which were new at least to the west of Scotland. These were Acanthoides Wardi, from Airdrie; Athyris pisum, from Brockley ; and Anomia corrugata, from Dalry. He pointed out the characteristics of these species, and described the relative position of the beds in which their remains had been found. 1. The Acanthoides was a well-preserved specimen, showing the dorsal and anal spines in their natural position. This was of some importance, as these spines had frequently been found singly, and could not be referred to any known genus ; but this discovery enabled palzeontologists to name and classify these ich- thyodorulites. This species had also been discovered in the Staffordshire coal-field by Mr. John Ward, and named by Sir Philip Egerton, F.R.S., after its discoverer. It also occurs in the Edinburgh coal-field. The specimen before them had been found near Airdrie, in the upper members of the Clyde coal- measures. 2. Afhyris. This. little fossil occurs at Brockley, Lesmahagow, and Roughwood, Ayrshire. From the resem- blance to Zerebratula Saculus, it had often been mistaken for that shell ; but when placed under the microscope the structural characters indicated that it could not be referred to that genus. It had been submitted to Mr. Thomas Davidson, F.R.S., who named it A. pisum, from its pea-like form. 3. Anomia corru- gata, This is the first well-authenticated specimen of Anomia that has been recorded from the Scottish mountain limestone. It is found in a band of shale which underlies the ‘‘ Linn” lime- stone, near Dalry.—Mr. D. C. Glen, C.E., gave some notes on the boulder-clay laid open in the excavation now going on for a new dock at Cartsdyke, near Greenock, and referred to the abundance of arctic marine shells and other organisms found embedded init. The shell-bed seems to occur in a hollow of the boulder-clay, which has been exposed to view by a deep cutting running parallel to the river, or east and west. Onthe northern side of this cutting, nearest the river, the bed is several feet in thick- ness ; but on the other side it thins out, and finally disappears as we recede from the shore. In the other direction, from east to west, it is seen to abut suddenly against the boulder-clay, and | thus occupies a hollow of no great extent, in which, however, an immense number and variety of marine organisms are crowded together, forming one of the richest beds of such clay yet dis- covered on our western coast. At the same time there was | reason to doubt whether the deposit is now found in its natural position, or has not been dug out from some neighbouring part of the shore, and laid down to improve and level the ground, many years ago, in forming the policies where the excavation is being made. On this point, however, he would not express a decided opinion, and other members who had visited the spot were not unanimous regarding it. 100 NATURE [ Dec. 1, 1870 DUBLIN Royal Irish Academy, November 14.—The Rev. Pro- fessor Jellett in the chair. The Rev. Maxwell Close read a paper “ On M. Delaunay’s Views relating to the condition of the Interior of the Earth.” The paper was referred to the Council for publication.—Mr. Samuel Ferguson, LL.D., read portions of a paper “On the difficulties attendant on the Transcription of Ogham Legends, and the means of avoiding them.” He pre- sented the Academy with a series of casts of Ogham Legends, and pointed out the advantages of them to students of the subject. Dr. Stokes and Professor Ingram congratulated the Academy on this important addition to its collection, and Dr. Ferguson was invited to consider the expediency of issuing engravings of the casts. The reading of the remainder of the paper was postponed to a future meeting.—At a meeting of the Council of the Academy on-the 9th inst., it was’ resolved to recommend to the Academy that Her Majesty’s Government be memorialised to use their good offices in order to prevent, as far as possible, any injury during the present siege to the collections in Paris, which are universally acknowledged to be of inestimable value to science, literature, and art. In pursuance of this resolution the following memorial to the Government was adopted on the motion of Dr. Ingram, seconded by Professor Hennessy :—‘*We, the president and members of the Royal Irish Academy, desire to call the earnest attention of Her Majesty’s Government to the irreparable loss which would be sustained by the whole civilised world if the inestimable scientific, literary, and other collections of Paris should be destroyed or seriously injured during the siege. That city con- tains galleries stored with treasures of art, libraries rich in every species of literary monument, and scientific museums which are amongst the foremost in their several kinds. These collections represent the accumulated labours of many generations, and are, in truth, the property not of France only but of the whole civilised world. Many of the objects contained in them, if once allowed to perish, no subsequent exertion could ever replace. The fate of the library at Strasburg shows that these priceless collections are in real and imminent peril from the operations of the war. It is not for us to pronounce any opinion on the merits of the present lamentable struggle, or on the conduct of either of the contending parties ; but as members of a body having for its object the cultivation of science, literature, and archzeology, we protest, in the name of the intellectual interests of humanity, against the destruction of these collections ; and we respectfully call upon Her Majesty’s Government to use their utmost efforts for their preservation, by impressing om the belligerents the duty of taking every possible precaution for their protection from the dangers to which they are likely to be exposed.” Royal Geological Society of Ireland.—W.Stokes, F.R.S., in the chair. The Rev. Prof. Haughton, F.R.S., read a paper «©On the amount of horizontal thrust produced by the secular cooling of the earth, and its effect in producing continents and seas.” In the discussion which followed the reading of this paper, Professor Hull, Rev. Maxwell Close, and Mr. William Ogilby, took part. Professor Macalister, hon. sec., exhibited a collection of volcanic rocks and of fossils from South Italy, pre- sented by Prof, Guiscardi and Mr. R. Mallet, also a collection of fossil Devonian Plants from Noya Scotia, presented by Principal Dawson. BERLIN Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences, July 14.—Dr. A. W. Hofmann read a memoir on the Aromatic Cyanates, con- taining investigations on derivatives of the phenyle, tolyle, xylyle, and naphtyle series. : July 25.—M. Kummer read a paper on the Algebraic Systems of the third order—.Prof. W. Peters read descriptions of New Species of Shrews from the British Museum. The species were Crocidura retusa, from Ceylon, C. fetida and C. dorig, from Borneo, C. monticola, from Java, C. microtis, from Hong Kong, and C. gvacilipes, from Madagascar, and belonging to the sub- genus Pachyura, C. zvaldemaris, from Bengal, C. ceylanica, and C. media, from Ceylon, C. sumatrana, from Sumatra, C. /us- cies, from Singapore and Java, and C. /wzoniensis, from Manilla. —Dr. Hofmann read an account of various investigations relating to the action of cyanogen upon aniline and triphenylguanidine, to a new class of cyanic ethers, toa new mode of formation of the isonitriles, to tests for cyanuric acid and chloroform, to the diagnosis of primary, secondary, and tertizry amines, to the knowledge of phenylxanthogenamide, to the action of acetic acid upon phenylsenfol, to the history of the ethylene bases, to the knowledge of aldehyde-green, and to the molecular volumes of chinone. PHILADELPHIA American Philosophical Society, Oct. 21.—Prof. Cope read a paper “On the Osteology of Megaptera bellicosa.” He stated that this species of whale was one of the few whalebone whales of economic value found within the tropics, being the ob- ject of pursuit in the Caribbean Sea. Having received a skeleton from the island of St. Bartholomew, West Indies, he presented a detailed account of its structure. He pointed out important points by which it differed from the known species of Megapiera, among others in the form of the mandible and of the nasal bones. —Dr. George Emerson read a paper on the part taken many years ago by the American Philosophical Society and Franklin Institute of Philadelphia in establishing stations for meteorologi- cal observations in Pennsylvania, detailing the arrangements adopted by them for procuring a full series of observations at fifty-two points in the State. BOOKS RECEIVED Enciisa.—Odd Showers, or an Explanation of the Rain ; Carriber (Kerby). —Our Feathered Companions: Rev. T. Jackson (Partridge). Foreien. — (Through Williams and Norgate)—Steinkohlentheer: A. Pubertz:—Beitriige zur Histologie des Gehér-organes : Dr. Riidinger.—Die Kleinschmetterlinge der Umgegend Miinchens : A. Hartmann —Biologische Briefe von Dr. G Jager.—Die Praxis der Naturgeschichte; P. L. Martin. —Geometrie der raumlichen Erzeugnisse ein-zwei-deutiger Gebilde: Dr. E. Weyr —-Die Geometrie und die Geometer vor Euklides : C A. Bretschneider} —Die Pflanzenstoffe, 3° Lieferung : Husemann —Elemente der Mineralogie: C. F. Naumann —Beitrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen, 1‘ Lieferung: Dr. F. Cohn.—Die Spectralanalyse : Dr. Schellen; 2° Auflage. DIARY THURSDAY, DecemeeER t. Royat Society, at 4.—Anniversary Meeting. Lonpon InsTiTuTION, at 7.30.—On Gems and Precious Stones; Prof. Morris. Linnean Society, at 8. Cuemicat Society, at 8.—On some Derivatives of Anthracene: Mr. W. H. Perkin. SociETY OF ANTIQUARIBS, at 8.30.—Faliscan Inscription: Padre Garucci. SUNDAY, DECEMBER 4. SunpAy LECTURE SOCIETY, at 3.30.—Onthe Telescope and its Discoveries : Mr. R. A. Proctor. MONDAY, DECEMEER 5. Roya InstiruTiony at 2.—General Monthly Meeting. Lonpon INSTITUTION, at 4.—On Chemical Action: Prof. Odling. TUESDAY, DECEMBER 6. ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY, at 8.—On the Races inhabiting the British Isles: Mr. A. L. Lewis —On Archaic Structures of Cornwall and Devon : Mr. A. L. Lewis.—On Forms of Ancient Interment in Antrim; Dr. Sinclair Holden. WEDNESDAY, D&cEMeBeR 7. Society or ARTS, at 8.—On the American System of Associated Dairies, and its bearing on Co-operative Farming: H. M. Jenkins. GroLocicat Society, at 8.—On Fossils from Cradock, Cape of Good Hope: Dr. George Gray.—On some points in South-African Geology, Part 2: Mr. G. W. Stow.—On the Geology of Natal: Mr. C. L Griesbach.—On the Diamond-districts of the Cape of Good Hope: Mr. G, Gilfillan. THURSDAY, DEcEMBER 8. Lonpon MaTHeEmaticaL Society, at 8.—Further Remarks on Quartic Surfaces: Prof. Cayley.—On the Polar Correlation of two Planes, and its Connection with their Quadric Correspondence: Dr. Hirst —On Systems of Tangents to Plane Cubic and Quartic Curves: Mr. L. J. Walker.—On the Order and Singularities of the Parallel of an Algebraical Curve: Mr. S. Roberts. Society oF ANTIQUARIES, at 8.30. Lonpon InsTiTUTION, at 7.30.—On Count Rumford and his Philosophical Work: Mr. W. Mattieu Williams. CONTENTS Pace MeEpIcat SCHOOLS IN ENGLAND AND GERMANY. III. By S. Stricker 81 PoLARISATION OF THE Corona. By Prof. E. C. PickeRING . . . 82 Tue Resources oF La Prata. By the Rey. C. J. Ropinson, F.L.S. 83 Our Book.SHELF..\icee iseiie te pea Lies ke ls Wan Bienen LETTERS TO THE EDITOR :— The Difficulties of Natural Selection —A. R. Wattace; S. N. CARVALHO, jun.'; C. J. MONRO. 1... 2s Se 2 Dr. Nicholson’s “ Zoology.”—Dr. H. ALLEYNE NicHo.son ; E. Rav LANKESTER. «(coe js «ot the a om) SE a Glass Floats off the Isle of Lewis.—Col. G. GREENWooD . . . 87 Tue EnGcuisH GOVERNMENT EcLipsE EXPEDITION . . « « « « « 87 ENerGy, AND Pror. Bain’s Locic. By Prof. Tair... .. . . 8 Mounrain Curmpinc. By Prof. W. H. Corrierp. (With [llustra~ 21) ES ee ro FO DAS PNOUIES (5) (Joi! ie “Yodo lel lel cm Whe tinted oo Tes (atl Pte est elo we Tue DistriBUTION OF DEER... . HEnpDERSON’S PATENT STEEL PROCESS. - - + + + + sw es a SocieTIEs AND ACADEMIES. . 2 ss @ woe + 0 3 «'s) wes wy "90 BROOKS RECEIVED....: 0. 8 ¢)Raetinnls 8 ss ps le Shing mame DC PS A Pie dd SRM CER ce a be G2, —=_ Se Nee! CT Ter 101 THURSDAY, DECEMBER 8, 1870 THE ECLIPSE EXPEDITION EFORE this reaches the hands of our readers, both sections of the English Government Eclipse Expedition will be on their way, the one to Spain and Algiers, the other to Sicily. The articlein our last number will have given a general idea of the work to be done, and | we think it willbe admitted that seldom has so much work | been laid out to be accomplished in a brief two minutes. | To choose the right men for so important an investigation in a scientific point of view has been no easy task; but | the list may now be looked on with satisfaction as com- prising men of known ability, and of tried powers of observation in the various departments of Science con- cerned. Astronomy, chemistry, spectroscopy, photo- graphy, pure physics, are all worthily represented ; and from our Paris intelligence this week it will be seen that there is good hope of M. Janssen being able to leave Paris to join in the Expedition. We can now only wish for both parties that the elements _ will be propitious for the work they have undertaken. The | time during which the observations can be made is so short that the most careful arrangements will be necessary to | utilise the observing powers of every member of the party. Each will have his work definitely laid out for him. On the performance of the assigned duty without regard to other phenomena which come within the sphere of another man’s work, will much of the success of the Expedition depend. But scarcely less important than the arrangements at the moment of the eclipse, have been those of the Organising Committee, which had the charge of the pre- parations for the Expedition. The unfortunate delay which teok place in ascertaining the intentions of the Govern- ment, threw on this Committee, after that intention was known, an amount of work compressed into the space of a few weeks, which ought to have extended over as many months. It was only in the first week in November that a definite assurance was received that an application for money and ships for the purposes of the expedition would be likely to be successful. The work to be accomplished by the Committee between that time and the first week in | Dec2mber, was such as those experienced in such matters might well shrink from ; but, thanks to one or two indivi- duals who had the advance of science at heart before any- thing else, the work has been done, and, what is more, has been well done. To Prof. Stokes in particular the thanks of the scientific world are due, for the untiring assiduity with which he has laboured to bring the affair to a successful issue. If there is one cause for regret in the programme of arrangements, it is the absence of any one name among the observers who are going out, who can be said to directly represent the Government. It is a Government expedition, undertaken with the assistance of public money and ships belonging to the nation; and it would have been right and fitting to have seen at the head of it one of the Government astronomers, rather than that all the labour of the organisation and all the credit of the observations, should they be successful, should fall to VORe IIT: the lot of private persons. This expedition will, indeed, form a conclusive argument against those who have held that if Government hold out a helping hand to Science, this | will act as a bar to all private enterpsise. Had the Govern- ment held back altogether from offering their assistance, no English expedition would have been organised ; indi- vidual astronomers who felt sufficient enthusiasm to give up their time, and spend their money in furthering the ends of Science, would have been compelled to avail themselves of the generous and munificent offers of assistance from the American Government. Need we say in what light this would have been regarded by contemporary science and by future historians? Goverament having once stepped forward, and assumed its rightful position, a stimulus was thereby given to private enterprise ; every individual con- cerned felt that not only the interests of Science, but the honour of his country was at stake, in doing his part to- wards ensuring a successful result ; and probably never has an expedition been better organised, and started under happier auspices, notwithstanding what has been said to the contrary in one of the daily papers, which has evidently been misled by those who have a purpose to serve in abusing the Committee. Now that the Government has put its hand to the work, we are bound to say it has done so in no grudging spirit. More has already been done than the promoters of the Expedition were at first given to expect. Not only has the Urgent been placed at their disposal, to carry the Spanish and Algerian party from Portsmouth to their destinz ton, but a despatch-boat, the Psyche, is told off for the Sicilian expedition. All the foreign Governments concerned ap- pear determined to emulate this good will; the arrange- ments of that of Spain we have already published. There is reason to hope that the necessary apparatus will pass through every custom-house, duty free, without the slightest impediment. It is hoped that the Sicily party may com- bine with that sent by the American Government, and may do their work and publish their results in concert. Our readers need hardly be reminded of the special object which it is hoped will be accomplished by the pre- sent expedition : the settling for ever of the vexed ques- tions concerning the luminous appearance visible in total eclipses, known as the Cocona, both as to its actual locality and its constitution, which still have to be settled, notwithstanding some hard writing to the contrary. In all these observations the utmost nicety of observation will be required, and some ingenious and novel contriv- ances will be employed for the determination. We shall take the earliest opportunity of placing the results before our readers. We have taken means to have ' areport sent to us by telegraph from every station, and | 29th inst. shall hope to be able to summarise them in our issue of the These early reports will be the more valuable, as up to the present time we have no official account of the observations taken in Spain during the total cclipse of 1860. With the exception of Mr. Warren De La Rue’s observations, published by hins-lf, no results of that expedition have yet been made known to the public. We have now only to wish the Eclipse Fxpedition, and every member of it, a pleasant and prosperous voyage, and a happy rcturn to England with ile consciousness of having contributed somethirg to the progre:s of scientific investigation. B. G 102 NATORE [ Dec. 8, 1870 HAECKELS NATURAL HISTORY OF CREATION Natiirliche Schipfungs-Geschichte. Von Dr. Ernst Haeckel, 2te Auflage. (Berlin: Reimer, 1870. London: Williams and Norgate.) ERE there any need of evidence to show how busy in the happier times of peace the German public was with Darwinism and general Natural History topics, it would be amply supplied by the history of this work, the preface to the first edition of which was written | in August 1868, and the second edition of which is now before us. sketch, not so much of the Darwinian theory, as of Haeckel’s extension of that theory ; in many respects it is a new “Vestiges of Creation,” the old question being \iewed from anew stand-point, and the treatment of it adapted to new feelings and new times. The old work was modestly entitled “ Vestiges ;” Prof. Haeckel calls his a History ; and indeed a detailed comparison of the two would bring out in a wonderfully vivid manner both the progress of zoological inquiry and the change in zoologi- cal temper which has taken place in the interval between the dates of their publication. The relation of Prof. Haeckel’s extended views to the original theory of Mr. Darwin is very well indicated ina few lines of the preface to the second edition, “ Darwin- ism is neither the beginning nor the end of the theory of evolution; it is far away removed from tending to narrow or to fix an absolute limit to further inquiry. Just as every important onward step in science becomes at once the starting-point of many new lines of advance, so Darwin’s theory of selection gives immediate rise to many large extensions of the general theory of evolution ; and of these my Phylogenic theories are some of the first to hand. When, then, the orthodox Darwinians cast at me the reproach that ‘I go too far, that ‘I out- | Darwin Darwin,’ that ‘by my Radicalism I do harm to true Darwinism,’ I see in all such reproaches nothing but an unwilling confession that I have extended the evolution theory away and beyond the limits within which Darwin investigated the question, and have not been afraid to carry it out to its grand consequences.” In the early edition, the first six lectures are devoted to a historical sketch of the evolution theory ; the creation theories of Linnzeus, Cuvier, and Agassiz, and the evolu- tion theories of Goethe and Oken, of Kant and Lamark, of Lyell and Darwin being taken as landmarks. In the second edition these chapters have been somewhat en- larged and improved, but on the whole stand very much as they were. The next five lectures (7—11) form a general exposition of the theory of Natural Selection, with discus- | sions on heredity, adaptation, and the struggle for ex- | In the second edition these chapters remain | istence. almost exactly as in the first. The same may be said of the twelfth lecture, in which a sketch is given of Onto geny, or the development of the individual, and a com- | parison made between it and Phylogeny, or the de velopment of the kind or species—in other words, Gene- alogy. The two succeeding chapters discuss rapidly the cosmic history of the globe, the primordial differenti ition of living from lifeless things, and contains, under the title of Periods of Creition, a short sketch of Pa’zontology. The work is, broadly speaking, a popular | dom of Protista. Between these two chapters the author has, in the second edition, introduced a totally new chapter on what he calls Chorology, 7.2. the theory of migrations, in which he dis- cusses the influence of migration on species, the causes of migration, the effect of changes of climate, and the question of centres of creation, and points out the probable results of the Glacial epoch. The palzontological sketch is also much changed in the second edition, th: “theory of ante-periods,” which has found but little favour with geolo- gists, being, though unwillingly, withdrawn, The remainder of the volume, nearly half, is taken up with a concrete history of creation, Ze. with an account of how, and by what steps, all kinds of plants and animals have grown out of the primordial moners, those first exist- ing living things which were, according to Haeckel, neither plants nor animals, but belonged to a third king- This part of the work therefore is a descriptive genealogy of all living beings, the pedigree of each kind of creature being made out, or rather conjec- tured out, as far as present knowledge will allow. In the second edition, as might have been anticipated, the genealogies are very much extended, and given with much greater detail than in the first ; in particular, there is a new whole chapter on the migration and dispersion of mankind, and on the species and races of men. The results of phylogenic speculation or inquiry are graphi- cally shown in elaborate genealogical trees ; and a new large plate shows at one glance how all races of men have probably spread from a hypothetical paradise once situate in the great continent of Lemuria, now sunk below the waves of the Indian Ocean, The result of criticism is shown in some few changes in the several pedigrees, but on the whole these differ in the second edition very little from what they were in the first. ‘The Halisaurians, for instance, have been brought back to the amphibians, and the Dinosauria have been brought nearer to the birds ; in fact, the whole arrange- ment of the Reptiles has been a good deal upset. Other- wise the still larger changes suggested by Prof. Huxley and other anatomists, are referred to, but not admitted. In the first edition the title-page was disfigured by being opposed to a picture of heads of men and monkeys, which was at once absurdly horrible and theatrically grotesque, without any redeeming feature either artistic or scientific. In the second edition the heads have been increased from twelve to twenty-four, but their quality remains the same. As a set-off against this, however, we are presented with two really beautiful and very instructive plates of the de- velopment of several kinds of crustaceans and echinoderms, and one comparing the development of a tunicate and am- phioxus. There is also a large comparative view, well worth studying, of the embryos of the four vertebrate classes at two different epochs of their development. We have, in the above, attempted to give a general idea of what the book is, and how the second edition differs from the first, rather than to enter into any criti- cism. The first edition has already received the ablest criticism this country could give. We will venture, however, to mike one reflection. Had the book been written for scientific men, it would have been read by some with delight, by others with feelings of fretfulness and worry, but by all with more or less of | profit, Addressed as it is, however, to an intelligent and ee een ee a eee ere eee Pint tenn 10%, ee ne _ * Dec. 8, 1870] NATURE 103 cultivated, but still toa general and unlearned public, prone to receive fanciful analogies as real reductions to simpler laws, and to confound together fond imaginings with sound and fruitful hypotheses, we very much doubt whether it may not turn out to be an engine rather of mischief than of good. Genealogies there must be, doubtless, and many, doubtless, also may in time be made out. In cases like the pedigree of the horse, the evidence already seems wonderfully strong ; and it would be simple pre- sumption to fix a limit beyond which we cannot hope for success. Still, by their nature, genealogies are like castles of cards in the shape of inverted pyramids, with each tier Jess safe and less sound than the one above it. A very little memoir may disturb one of the lower stages, and then a whole pile comes down witha run. They are not the kind of things to put before learners as the strong- holds of science. Some readers would learn in the frst half of this volume to love Darwinism better than biology, and before they had finished the second half, would love Haeckel better than either. Others would pass rapidly through a disbelief in Haeckel and distrust of Darwin to a state of complete doubt about biology in general. Worst of all would be the effect on such minds as that of a speaker at one of the meetings of the Biological Section of the British Association at Liverpool, who said he had believed for many years in spontaneous generation, in natural selection, in the evolution theory, and in most views of a similar kind, and who seemed ready to believe anything and everything except the old truth, that truth is very hard to get, but very precious when it is gotten. M. F. DEFECTS IN GENERAL EDUCATION On Some Defects in General Education. Being the Hun- terian Oration of the Royal College of Surgeons for 1869. By Richard Quain, F.R.S. (London : Macmillan and Co, 1870.) 1D we QUAIN begins the present lecture with a pleasant and suggestive sketch of the career and genius of Hunter, but the greater part of it is taken up with the subject indicated in the title. The point to which most attention is naturally directed is the predominance of classics in the present system of education. Against this Dr. Quain protests with all the ardour that we expect ina man imbued with the best scientific ideas of his time. In the first place, he insists that the study of our own lan- guage and literature should hold a much more important place in the education of our youth than is actually assigned to it. He thinks it monstrous that men should be carefully taught to read Latin and Greek, and be left in almost total ignorance of the history of their own speech, with scarcely any real power of using it, and without the smallest insight into the true spirit of one of the richest and most extensive literatures in the world. Aboveall, however, Dr. Quain urges that Science should become the staple element of modern education. Onthe ground of mere ex- pediency, he points out, rich and poor ought alike to be taught Science, for it gives the former a truer conception of the duties which attach to property, and the latter it enables to improve their position. T3ut whatis even more _ important, Science imparts to those who devote them- selves to it the freest and largest culture; and it is grossly irreligious to talk reverently of a Creator, and yet to refuse to seize every opportunity to become better acquainted with the Creation. ‘If the instructors of the young in schools believe, if parents believe, that the things of this world are in truth the work of the Creator ought not that belief, without anything further, to settle the question for them? Ought not these ‘glorious works’ to be acknowledged as subjects for diligent study, not disregarded as they are now?” Another fault in our educational arrangements to which Dr. Quain refers is the excessive devotion to athletic sports which at present prevails. This, he thinks, arises from the repulsive nature of the chief subjects of study at our schools and universities, and would probably come right if the intel- Jectual tastes and propensities of every order af mind were more carefully studied and gratified. The lecturer also protests against the dangerous extent to which we have carried the competitive system at the present day. With all the best writers on the subject—Mr. Matthew Arnold in particular—he believes that excessive competi- tion is the reverse of favourable to true culture; that it renders anything like real study distasteful, and produces in the end narrow and superficial minds. He suggests that it might be well, as in Germany, to have for boys leaving school one general examination, which it would be necessary to pass for entrance to the universities to the professions, and to the public services. For this examination there would be no special preparation ; it would only serve as a test of the general culture derived during a series of years from the training of skilled teachers. Afterwards the student ought to be allowed to consult his own tastes in the choice of subjects of study, The other matters of which Dr. Quain speaks, are the necessity for a higher order of masters in our national | schools, and the absurdity of mixing up with strictly pro- fessional training in medical schools instruction in physics, chemistry, and botany. We hope that so thorough and exhaustive an exposure of the weak points in our educa- tional system, coming as it does from so high an authority, will not be without its effect in quarters where there is the power, if only there was the will, to bring about a more satisfactory state of things. OUR BOOK SHELF The Natural History of Commerce. By John Yeats, LL.D. (London: Cassell, Petter, and Galpin, 1870.) THE design of this book is excellent ; and it has, on the whole, been well carried out. The author is well known as the principal of a large “middle-class” school, who has long recognised the claims of Science as an essential item in the education of an English gentleman or mer- chant. And the information contained in this volume is exactly such as ought to be familiar to everyone who lays claim to the advantages ofa liberal education. We aie afraid, however, that, as a matter of fact, it will be found that the ‘“‘ Natural History of Commerce” is a ferra in- cognita, especially to those engaged in commercial pur- suits, who might often derive, not only pleasure, but, what is perhaps more to the point, profit, from some acquaint- ance with it. The work is divided into four parts. Inthe first we have commercial products treated from a geogra- phical point of view; the different botanical zones of Meyen are defined; and the principal natural products described of Britain, Continental Europe, and the other 104 NATURE _ ae. | [ Dec. 8, 1870 quarters of the globe, with a supplementary chapter on Nature and Man as agents of change. The second part is descriptive of the commercial products of the Vege'able Kingdom, in which Meyen’s plan appears again to have been followed in the main; it is subdivided into Food Plants, and Industrial and Medicinal Plants. In the third part we have, in like manner, the commercial products of the Animal Kingdom ; and, in the fourth, raw mineral products. The comments which we lrave to make are almost confined to errors of omission which can be readily rectified in future editions. We regret to see still re- tained the antiquated classification of the Animal Kingdom | into Vertebrata, Mollusca, Annulosa, Radiata, and Pro- | tozoa. The sentence by which (p. 260) the porcupine ard the ant-eater are made members of the order Monotremata, is no doubt merely an oversigtt. Among food plants, it is strange to find no mention made of the potato, nor, indeed, of any of our culinary vegetables, the cabbage, turnip, or carrot, with the single exception of the onion! We demur to the assertion that the morel is “one of the few fungi found in this country which may be eaten with safety;” among these few we do not understand why the truffle and the morel only are given, the mushroom not being even alluded to. Indeed, the whole subject of Vegetable Products requires revision, many being entirely omitted of much greater importance than others to which considerable space is allotted. Among Industrial Plants, for instance, we should expect to find some description of the numcrous fibres now used in the manufacture of paper, the esparto-grass, different kinds of wood, &c., which are daily becoming more important articles of commerce. An exceedingly useful vocabulary is appended, containing the names of natural productions in the principal Euro- pean and Oriental languages ; and the volume may be safely recommended as containing an immense mass of useful information on a very important subject. Record of American Entomology for the year 1869. Edited by A. S. Packard, Jun., M.D., 8vo. (Salem, 1870. London: Williams & Norgate.) THis is the second annual analysis of the literature of American Entomology which has been published under the care of Dr. Packard. It must be gratifying to entc- mologists to find that their science is so popular in the United States as to render the production of such a work at all feasible, and we can only hope that the Editor may receive sufficient support to enable him not only to continue it in its present form, but even to enlarge it and make it still more useful. Of course, with the general ento- mologist, this Record can never take the place of the entomological portion of the Zoological Record which has been brought out in this country since 1865, but it is of the greatest value in giving the European naturalist intimations of papers and descriptions published in those out-of-the-way American periodicals which rarely fall into his hands. Wiis ae LETTERS TO THE EDITOR [Vhe Editor does not hold himself responsible for opinions expressed | by his Correspondents. No notice is taken of anonymous communications. | The Aurora Borealis by Daylight I HAV® been expecting ever since the great display of Tuesday, * Oct. 25, to sce some statement that the Aurora was visible on the afternoon of that day. I was in Huntingdonshire, about four miles from Kimbolton, at the time, and being out of doors at half-past four P.M., saw a remarkable pale luminous appearance some 25° above the horizon and almost due east. At this point there were two arcs of faint white lines, one above the other, both raliating outwards with a number of shcrt points. The breadth of the wpper are (which was rather the widest) might be from twelve to twenty times the apparent diameter of the moon. Tt was of course broad daylight at the time, and the sky was per- fectly clear and cloudless for a long distance round these patches of light. ‘They were visible for at least ten minutes, brighter and fainter alternately, and were seen by a friend as well as my- self. I was unfortunately called away, and prevented from watch- ing them while the sky became darker. After dark (at 5.30) they had disappeared, but the dark irregular circle mentioned by Mr. Grove, from which the streamers radiated, was extremely It did not strike meat the time that the appear- conspicuous. But as it ance at 4.30 was likely to have any special interest. before the evevig display of the aurora, it may perhaps be of use to record that it was also visible in the latter part of the afternoon. 26, Finsbury Place, E.C. James Cusirr The Spectrum of the Aurora THE following observations on the Spectrum of the Aurora were made by Mr. Alvan Clark, jun., in the neighbourhood of Boston, on the evening of October 24. He used a chemical speciro- scope of the ordinary form, with one prism, and photographed scale illuminated with a lamp. Four lines were seen at the points marked 61, 68, 80, and 98. To reduce these to wave- lengths, the next day I measured the lines C, D, E, b, F, and G with the same instrument, and deduced the annexed table :— | Wave- = Assumed | | Line. | Reading | length nes Comments. | Error. EE 5 ee ees rey c 491 | 656 | | | D 578 583 | (uv 6c 563 557 Common Aurora Line | — 2° (2) 68 532 5316 Corona Line ? +1 bb 6) 527 | b gue. 4 517 | | ¥F 797 486 ) 'F Hydrogen, —"3 (4) 08 | 435 434 G me +°6 G | 100°5 431°2 j The first column gives the name of the line; the second the read- ings on the scale; the third its wave-length, obtained from Anystrém’s chart, and by interpolation; the fourth the wave- length of the line with which these lines are supposed to be identical. The ffth column gives the name of this line, and the Fn error in parts of the scale. The first measure is x2 wo co} + ‘00 a a o a evidently wrong, and should probably have been 63. For the other three, however, the agreement is remarkable, two coming close to F and G of hydrogen, the other to the line observed seems that the greatest disturbance of the telegraphs happened _ ee Dec. 8, 1870] NATURE 105 by Professor Young in the solar corona, The lines C and F having already been observed, the discovery of the line G seems to render certain the existence of this gas in the Aurora. The common methods of interpolation were rot available for com- puting the wave-lengths of column three, on account of the large interval between the lines. A curve was therefore constructed, in which vertical distances represented scale-readings, aud hori- | zontal distances the square of the reciprocal of the wave-lengths. This, by the formula of Cauchy, should be very nearly a straight | line, giving, consequently, results of great accuracy. EDWARD C, PICKERING | ON the evening of Monday, October 24, a very remarkable auroral display was observed in New York City, In the north | at first was an obscure segment, low towards the horizon, sur- | mounted by a pale glow of light. Later, this was replaced by an extensive manifestation of beautiful streamers. ; But the most notable part of the phenomenon was a band of brilliant red light, varying in its different parts constantly through- out the evening, in brilliancy, definition, and breadth, but in general some ten degrees wide. It was seen early in the evening, and could be traced from within fifteen degrees of the horizon in the east and the west, extending entirely across the sky, south of the Zenith. The position of this rosy band viewed from the south-east corner of the Central Park, was from 8} to 8} p.m., New York City mean time, about as follows. : In the east, just above the horizon, passing almost centrally, and diagonally through the figure pf Cetas, say between 6 and € Ceti ; thence going westward it lay between Pésczs occidentalis and y Aguart’, and between Altair and Delphinus, often ex- panding in width beyond these boundaries. Thence it extended westward to the stars in the heads of Hercules and Serpentarius nearly to the horizon. In all its sptendid variations throughout the evening, it main- tained its position in regard to the horizon of the observer stand- ing in the locality before mentigned, the diurnal motion of the earth carrying the stars past it. On the following evening the exhibition of this red band, in the same position, was at least equally pronounced ; but without any decided boreal light, so far as [ have noticed or learned. { would also here mention the very brilliant display of variously tinted auroral streamers which engaged the admiration of members of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, as they returned by the steamer on the Hudson to the city of Troy, from their visit to Albany, from ten to eleven o’clock on the evening of Friday, August 19, 1870. James Hyatt Honey Brook, Stanfordville P.O., New York Early Mentions of the Aurora Borealis Your correspondent, Mr. Karwaker, should have mentioned that the list of appearances of the Aurora Borealis given in M. de | Mairan’s work is chiefly derived from another enumeration in | Prof. Frobes’s **Nova et Antiqua Luminis atque Aurore | | and that the Borealis Spectacula,’ Helmstadii, 1739. On reference to this list it immediately appears that it is very little to be relied upon for | displays previous to the year 1707 or thereabouts. Some of the | appearances recorded rest on no good authority, others v ere | obviously meteoric; some occurred within the Arctic circles, | others are entered twice over from inadvertence, or a neglect to allow for the difference of style; more than twenty are recorded on the authority of the meteorological diary kept at Breslau by Grebner, who in fact says nothing more than that on those occa- sions the night was somewhat bright (swd/ustris). When the necessary deductions on these accounts have been made, it will be found that the infrequency of the phenomena prior to 1707, and its extraordinary development since that date, are well-estab- lished facts. They are strongly insisted upon by M. de Mairan himself, who does not produce more than five instances of the aurora in France during the whole of the seventeenth century, and shows from the evidence of a missionary that it was unknown | or forgotten in China until 1718. All contemporary notices prior to about this period, attest the astonishment with which it was regarded. From the following curious passage in Sirr’s ‘‘ Ceylon and the | Cingalese” (vol. ii. p. 117), it would appear that the aurora, or something resembling it, is occasionally visible in Ceylon :— ‘** There is a heavenly phenomenon which appears occasionally in Ceylon, called by the natives Buddha lights; this faintly resembles the Northern Lights, and is extremely resplendent. The priests declare this to be a sign of Buddha’s displeasure when his followers have become sinful in the extreme, and that the light appears over the wihare, from whence the priests sup- | pose the phenomenon to emanate, where those who have com- mitted the sin which has aroused the god’s anger last wor- shipped.” London, November 19 R. G. IN many parts of Ireland a scarlet aurora is supposed to be a “‘shower of blood.” In 1854 while stationed at Bearhayen, County Cork, a scarlet aurora that then appeared was said to be the blood of the people that were slain at Balaclava. About two years ago, while driving between Oughterard and Clifden, at two o’clock in the morning, there was a magnificent scarlet aurora (by far the most brilliant I ever saw), on which the car- driver remarked, ‘I wonder, can that be the blood of the Americans?” The late aurora is said to be the blood of the Frenchmen. In the old Annals showers of blood are recorded at different times, always in connection with a great battle or the murder of some great chief. The earliest I can remember is that of A.D. 688, in the ‘Annals of Cloonmacnoise,’’ after a batrle of the Leinster-men and Os-ory-men (now in the King’s County, but formerly in Munster), wherein Foylcher O’Moyloyer was slain. This battle and shower of blood in the “ Annals of the Four Masters,” is said to have happened in the year A.D. 690. These Annals also mention that butter was turned into the colour of blood and a wolf was heard to speak ; while the Annals of Tighernach place the battle in A.D, 693, and say that the blood flowed in streams for three days and three nights. During the aurora [I saw about two years ago, and the two nights that the last aurora was seen here, the lakes and rivers looked to be full of blood. Therefore I should imagine the aurora of 688 must have lasted three nights, and that the people who saw it and recorded it must have had butter for supper the night it was seen, which re- flected the colour. G. Henry KINAHAN Geological Suryey of Ireland, Connemara, Noy. 26 Prismatic Structure in Ice THE following extracts from a letter from Mr. [Langton (whose name was, unfortunately, misread as Langters in sending his former letter to the press) may interest others as much as it has done myself, if space can be found for it in your columns. In | that case, perhaps, you will kindly allow me to say a few words in reply on a future occasion. St. John’s College, Cambridge T. G. Bonnry **T admit with you that the prismatic structure of ice on the point of melting does not appear to have any con- nection with the hexagonal crystals in which it is formed ; great analogy between the conditions of ice in that state and of igneous rocks, and I may add of clay in the process of desiccation, seems to point to contraction as the common cause. But then arises the question whether ice really does contract as it approaches the melting-point, as we know that most melted mineral matter does on cooling, and clay on drying. Iam quite willing to admit that it may do so, and that, as you observe, its demeanour at a point about 32° F. has not been accurately ascertained ; but if so, the fact should first be determined from independent observations before drawing con- clusions from it. I am willing also to admit that I spoke loosely in my former letter when I said that the air bubbles in the pro- cess of freezing seemed to be formed in vertical lines. My object, in the concluding sentence of that letter, was to express a doubt as to there being any such contraction as you suppose on the ice approaching the melting-point, and to point out the lines of air bubbles as being the immediate cause of the structure of rotten ice. I did not then go into the origip of the bubbles, or into the cause of their being thus found in vertical lines. It is difficult to suppose that they were originally formed in those lines, for though it seems natural that the air, which is always contained in water, should be excluded on its crystallising, there does not appear to be any sufficient reason why the bubble cx- cluded to-day should be placed exactly under that formed yesterday. Upon reviewing the whole question, I am induced to think that, as will often happen, we were both right and both wrong : that you were right in attributing the prismatic structure originally ‘o 106 NATURE [Dec 8, 1870 contraction, but wrong in supposing that contraction to be caused by an increase of temperature on the approach of the thaw, and that I was right in attributing the final break-up into prisms to | the liquefaction spreading in every direction from the lines of air bubbles, but wrong in speaking of them as if they had originally been formed in those lines. We need not resort toa hypothetical contraction about the melting-point; we have a vera causa in accesses of cold, which will give you the desired contraction, and me my vertical lines of air bubbles. The true explanation I take to be as follows. ‘ “After the ice has formed, andsevere cold follows, it will con- tract, and probably equally inall directions. There is no impe- diment to its shrinking perpendicularly, as the whole sheet would then only be somewhat reduced in thickness ; but the ice is entan- gled with the shores, and the whole sheet cannot contract hori- zontally, but relieves itself by anumber of minute cracks. These | | had been closed for some days, and had received a pretty thick coating of snow in the meantime, and, knowing that the ice must are easily seen on the surface of glare ice, but one can hardly imagine that they do not more or less spread through the whole substance, and in your first letter you seem to say that you have noticed this after severe frosts. If then an air bubble comes near any such crack, it would seem natural that the direction of the crack should be diverted towards it. In fact the air bubbles, being weak points, would in a great measure determine the direction of these small fissures. Water would insinuate itself into them from below, carrying the air bubbles with it, which, upon the whole freezing, would not necessarily be exactly where they were before. A repetition of this process at frequent inter- vals during the winter would cause a rearrangement of the air bubbles, which one would naturally expect to find from this cause in more or less vertical lines. According to this explanation the prismatic structure would set almost from the first formation of the ice, The air bubbles would from the first be the indication of the direction of former fissures, and the lines which would deter- mine that of new ones. As long as severe frosts continued, all other indications of the structure would be obliterated, but, as the temperature approached the melting-point, these lines of bubbles, as they formerly determined the direction of the fissures, would now be the weak points at which the thaw would com- mence pervading the whole mass. “This explanation seems to supply everything that is wanted, and, upon looking back at your original letter, I am rather sur- prised, from the facts you mention, that-you should have missed it. You say, ‘I have seen it several times—in fact, a/ter every severe frost.’ This I have no doubt is correct ; but why, then, do you say, lower down, that ‘this finer structure may be found, if looked for, in every tolerably gradual thaw’? Again, you say that on one occasion you found the structure obliterated in- ternally, ‘except where some vertical lines of air bubbles marked the position of a tube or joint.’ This exactly corre- sponds with what I have above supposed would be the process. “Still, there are several points upon which more exact obser- vations should be made before one can speak with any certainty upon the subject. “ty, Does ice contract on approaching 32° F. ? “2, Do air bubbles form from the first in vertical lines ? ‘*3, Is there any indication, as the winter advances, of a re- arrangement of the bubbles, as that they run into cach other, and get more and more ranged in vertical lines ? “4, Is there any indication in the earlier stages of the ice, that, after a night’s hard frost, the cracks seen on the surface spread through its substance? And if so, to what extent do they follow the lines of air bubbles? “5. Ifa block of ice is cut early in the winter, before the pris- matic structure from contraction with cold has commenced in any noticeable degree, and when it is no longer in a position in shrinking to crack in one direction more than another, to what extent does that structure afterwards develop itself? ‘As there has been this one point in the behaviour of ice in which we have both taken an interest, I am induced to mention some other peculiarities which have come under my notice, with regard to some of which I have not even attempted to suggest an explanation. Several years ago I lived on the shores of a lake in the backwoods, and as in those carly days the ice in winter and a canoe in summer formed one’s only means of locomotion, ne naturally thought a good deal about ice in its various stages of formation and decomposition, I lived about two miles below the head of the Jake, where a river fell into it, upon which was a considcrable fell, and which connected it with another much dee) er lake, about a mile above. The effect of the stream was felt for a ccnsiderab!e distance into this lower lake, which was narrow at its head, and the ice was never safe there; indeed, excepting in the very severest frosts, there was as it were a bay of open water extending into the ice almost as far down as my house. But when the ice first formed in the fall it invariably took over the whole lake, even on that part whicl was after- wards open water during almost the whole winter. Indeed, upon one occasion, upon getting up in the morning I was astonished to see ice formed exactly on that part which was usually open water, whilst the rest of the lake, which was usually closed, had no ice upon it at all. Very soon after the sun rose that ice disappeared and the lake did not freeze over for a week after. The first ice, which always formed over the whole lake, would generally remain till there was a fall of snow on it, soon after which it would disappear where the effect of the stream was felt. The first winter I was there I nearly suffered from ignorance of this habit of the ice. I had occasion to cross the lake, which be pretty thin, I took the precaution to wear snow shoes. After a while I felt a peculiar sinking of the snow shoes, and observed that the track filled with water, and upon feeling with a stick I carried, I found no resistance of ice at all. I was, in fact, walk- ing upon little more than a cake of snow. You may imagine that I at once madea little circuit and did not stop till my stick | encountered good ice, and an hour or two afterwards that part of the Jake was open water. Now I think I can explain this peculiarity of the early formation of ice where no ice remained during much colder weather in the winter. I take it that the whole surface, at least, of the water in my lake, which was | rather a shallow one, had been reduced to 32° F., or nearly so, and that on a very cold night the water from above, being thoroughly exposed to the cold in coming over the fall, had been reduced even lower, so that when it reached the comparative quiet of the lake, where it naturally floated on the surface, it became ice for a short time that morning I spoke of, though it could not long maintain that condition. So also on ordinary occasions, when all the lower lake was ready to freeze, the water, thoroughly cooled at the fall, would freeze also, although the lake above had not yet been frozen over. At the footof the upper lake, im- mediately above the fall, was a very shallow bar, so that the only part of the upper water which would come over would be the coldest layer on the top. But after the uy per lake had frozen over also, and had received its coating of snow, very little more cold would penetrate to reduce the temperature of the surface, and the lake being very deep, and receiving fresh accessions of heat from below, the water would soon get considerably above the freezing-point, and with the aid of the friction of the stream would thaw away the snow-covered ice below with which it first came in contact. One is inclined to ask why the complete ex- posure of the water to the cold in coming over the fall, which IT have supposed to reduce the temperature so much in the begin- ning of winter, had not the same effect in the severer cold after- wards ; but the water which came from under the snow-covered ice would probably be much warmer than that which formerly came from the surface of the open water, and moreover the spray soon formed ice, which gradually crept over the shallower parts of the fall at its edges, and the exposure and its cooling effect may not have been as complete as at first. I cannot say that I am altogether satisfied with my explanation of the curious anomaly that a part of the lake would freeze over at a tempera- ture of 20°, which would remain open when it was far below zero; but such are undoubtedly the facts. “Tf there was this anomaly in the first formation of the ice, its sudden disappearance in the spring, which I mentioned in my former letter as giving rise to the popular prejudice that it sinks, was almost equally astonishing. Upon one occasion the ice was evidently in the last stage ot decomposition, and I had got my canoe ready for a journey in the morning, when I fully expected the lake would be open ; but before starting, I wanted to go to the two or three houses at the fall, which we dignified with the name ofa village. Although the lake at my landing was an unbroken sheet of honeycombed ice, which had even borne me early in the morning, the open water extended to a point about half a mile above me, and I determined to carry my canoe so far through the woods. I cannot have been a quarter of an hour in doing sc, but when I launched my canoe beyond the point, there was not a vestige of ice down as far as my landing, though I still saw it across the whole lake a little farther down. Being anxious to see the process of the actual disappear- ance, I turned my canoe down the lake, and paddled as fast as eee “es Dee. 8, 1870] NATURE 107 I could ; but long before I could get to where I had seen the ice, the whole lake as far as my view extended was open water. This almost instantaneous disappearance of a body of ice more than a foot in thickness can only take place in perfectly still weather. If there is any wind it breaks up, and the fragments are driven up against the ice which still holds together, and into the shores, where the rapidity with which it melts is not so striking. I never was fortunate enough to be actually in at the death. ““There are also some curious facts connected with the air-holes which form themselves during winter. There are often particular spots where partial openings in the ice will be formed every winter. These I conceive to arise from warm springs, and to have no connection with air-holes properly so called, which are not confined to any particular locality, but may appear anywhere. There is always a good deal of air under ice, and you may often see it scattered about in small bubbles when the iceisthin. Itis probably air excluded in the process of crystallisation, and when there is added to it sundry gases formed from decaying matter in the water, it amounts during the winter to a considerable quantity. Such collections of air, like the bubble in a spirit- level, are in a very uneasy condition, and are rapidly transferred from one place to another on any casual disturbance of the level, giving rise to one of the numerous noises which are always more or less heard ona lake covered with ice—at least, we used always to attribute to this cause a peculiar groaning sound which was very common. Now, if there should be any casual inequality in the lower surface of the ice, the air will naturally collect there, and if it is aboye 32° F, which in so far as it consists of evolved gas it probably will be, the receptacle will be increased by thaw- ing. A dome-shaped cavity will thus be gradually formed, which will finally reach the surface ; air will escape from below, and the surface-water, of which there is almost always more oy less after the snow has fallen, will run down from above, wearing the little jagged channels which are characteristic of air-holes. The whole thing will then after a while freeze up again, leaving an indication of where the air-hole has been in the different colour of the freshly-formed ice. I have tried several such air-holes with an axe when first formed, and have always found them to lead to such a dome-shaped cavity. I remember on one occasion an otter frequenting a large air-hole which remained open for some time, and which must have been from a mile and a half to two miles distant from the nearest open water. How did he reach it? for no otter can travel that distance under water without access to air. The Indians say that they will go to greater dis- tances still under the ice, and that they always find air there. It is likely enough that there may be many such dome-shaped cavi- ties, which have not yet reached, and may never reach, the surface as air-holes, but one would imagine the air they contain to be not of the most wholesome character. However, this otter did frequent that air-hole for about a week, which it certainly did not reach by travelling on the ice, and thoughit had few chances of breathing there, in the daytime at any rate, it contrived during that period to elude the snares of a white man and an Indian, who wasted a good deal of time in looking after it. So far, the process of the formation of air-holes, if I am right in my explanation, is intelligible enough ; but sometimes they are formed in a manner which is difficult to account for. Upon one occasion I had crossed the lake to a friend’s house, about four miles off, and we had determined to start together next morning to our nearest town, but I had to go home first. I first went over by daylight, when there certainly was nothing unusual in the appearance of the ice, which might be four or five inches thick at the time, with a slight sprinkling of wettish snow on it. I returned home about eleven at night, and, as it was bright starlight, with only a few floating clouds, I should have noticed any change ; but I came straight across, and saw nothing to attract attention. But when I crossed again at daylight in the morning, in one part of the lake the whole surface was co- vered with air-holes—there must have been hundreds of them. At first I gave them rather a wide berth, but, on approaching one to examine it, I found it frozen up again, the clear ice in the hole, with very slight indications of the characteristic jagged edges, being the only sign that there had been an open air-hole there during the night. I had no axe with me to try whether they were connected with any cavity, but the appearance was as if holes of from two to five or six inches in diameter had been punched through theice. Ofcourse, we attributed it to electricity, as people will do anything which they do not otherwise understand, and I have never been able to give any more intelligible explanation of the phenomenon. There certainly had been some faint sheet lightning that night, a very unusual thing in winter ; but what connection, if any, there may have been between the two things, I cannot tell. “Ottawa, Sept. 15” “Joun LANGTON The Difficulties of Natural Selection J FIND, on looking again at Mr. Bennett’s article, that I have misrepresented him on one point, for which I beg to apologise. On his supposition, that the first twenty possible steps on the road to mimicry are absolutely useless, his argument will have some weight. This supposition, however, is entirely unsup- ported by facts. Very large variations of colour are exceedingly common in butterflies ; and when such variations are in the right direction, they must in some cases be useful. I believe myself that far less than fifty, or even twenty, steps of variation would in some cases produce very good mimicry. ALFRED R. WALLACE Cave-paintings by Bushmen My friend, Mr. George W. Stow, of Queenstown, South Africa, refers in a letter to the interesting subject of the old cave-paintings by the Bushmen, as follows: ‘‘ During the last thee years Ihave been making pilgrimages to the various old Bushman caves among the mountains in this part of the colony and Kaffraria ; and, as their paintings are becoming obliterated very fast, it struck me that it would be well to make copies of them before these interesting relics of an almost extinct race are entirely destroyed. This gave rise to an idea in my mind of collecting materials enough to compile a history of the manners and customs of the Bushmen, as depicted by themselves. I have, fortunately, been able to procure many fac-simile copies of hunting scenes, dances, fightings, &c., showing the modes of warfare, the chase, weapons, disguises, &c. ‘This promises to be a collection of very great interest. In some places it is astonishing to what a degree of perfection some of the wild artists had arrived. I have found three different series of paint- ings, one over the other ; and, as the most recent must be upwards of fifty years old, the undermost are most probably very ancient. The colours are very permanent, and would last for ages if not wantonly obliterated. Unfortunately, the Kaffir herds and others are constantly destroying them, and, by the time another generation has passed, few remains of them will be left.” The pigments used in the caves were derived from ochreous concretions abounding in some of the sandstones of the Karoo series of the interior of South Africa, as in the Rhenosterberg, Stormberg, and elsewhere. These concretions, when broken open, supplied the natives with paint-pots, and from among the several colours of yellows, browns, reds, &c., the chocolate was selected for painting the human form in the caves. T. RUPERT JONES 5, Terrace, Yorktown, Surrey A Rare Fish A SPECIMEN of the Silvery Hair-tail ( Z7ichiurus lepturus ) was taken this morning at Seaton. It measures 2 feet 2 inches in length, and is in very good preservation, being only slightly in- jured on one side of the head. A specimen from the Collection of the late Mr. F. W. L. Ross, in th’s museum, is about the same size, and was taken on 6th August, 1852, off the Start Point, Devon. ‘The recorded instances in which this remarkable fish has occurred on the British coasts are very few, and the speci- mens obtained have generally been much injured. The present speci- men was brought to me to name by Mr. Frank Gosden, of the West of England Fish and Game Company, Queen Street, Exeter. W. S. M. D’URBAN, Curator Devon and Exeter Albert Memorial Museum, Queen Street, Exeter, December 3 The Ceratodus Forsteri I aM inuch obliged to Dr. Sclater for his remarks on the new fish discovered by meas Ceratodus forsteri, and I take this opportunity to inform your readers who may feel interested in this matter, that I spoke of the animal as an amphibian, princi- pally because it is in the habit of leaving the water during the night. The works to which Dr. Sclater refers me are not at my command, and I adopted the generic term of Cera/odus because 108 NATURE [ Dec. 8, 1870 the bulk of my specimens greatly resemble those of the above fossil genus. Professor Agassiz has written to me to say that the discovery of the Ceratodus forsteri is of the greatest impor- | tance, and that he (Prof. Agassiz) is “amazed” at it. By this mail two of these interesting strangers (with intestines) will be shipped to England, as a present from Prof. A. M. Thomson to Prof. Owen, another by Mr. Ramsay to Dr. Sclater. I am glad to see that my friend Ramsay has complied with Dr. Sclater’s request, and ceased classing the Cevatodus as ‘‘ Salmon,” which he confesses to. have done frequently before. Mr. George Masters, the assistant curator of the Museum, is now at Gayndah, with appliances to catch the fish, and he will, if possible, send some alive to Sydney and to the Zoological Society of London. Sydney, Sept. 7 GERARD KREFFT The British Museum Collections Asitis proposed to remove the Natural History collections from the British Museum to Kensington, I hope care will be taken to make the collections as serviceable as possible to students. In particular the British Department might, with great gain to all, be extended and improved. ~There is now but one small room devoted to. British zoology, and this interesting branch of science is poorly represented by a selection of species not always well chosen nor even strictly indigenous. Still, imperfect as it is, I believe this is the only attempt to present a comprehensive view of the British fauna in London. In the new buildings it is much to be desired that a large and well-lighted gallery should be de- voted to the zoology of the British Islands, and as complete a collection as possible exhibited. The specimens should be labelled with local as well.as scientific names, and, when desi- rable, short interesting particulars might be given, as on the labels of the art collection at South Kensington. I think no part of the museum would be so well frequented or so generally appreciated by the public. When the labour of removing the collections is over, I hope we may be furnished with catalogues of different departments, with notes of the time and mode of acquisition, &c., of the most important specimens. If begun for the British collections, it might afterwards be extended to the rest of the museum. The nation, which possesses such truly choice and‘ extensive collections, ought to take care that the advantages to be reaped from them are fully developed and placed within the reach of all. A.W.L. Glass Floats off the Isle of Lewis Tue glass globes to which you refer as having been found on the shores of Lewis, are no doubt fishing floats. The Bergen fishermen have recently begun to use such balls as floats for their nets, and they are occasionally picked up in the North Sea. Those which have been brought to this office were empty, ze, contained no liquid, and bore no distinguishing mark at all. They were picked up about 100 miles S. W. of the Loffoden Islands. 116, Victoria Street, London, S.W. Rosert H. Scorr P.S.—If any of the globes are sent to me, I shall be happy to inquire in Norway about them, and return them, after inspection, to their owners. Fhe Milky Way Your correspondent, Mr. Jeremiah, after quoting the words of the Llangadock ‘‘ Oracle,” adds, ‘‘ meaning that the wind will blow from that quarter.” Did Mr, Jeremiah interpret the man’s meaning correctly? If so it is at variance with a popular belief in Hampshire, 7/2., that in whichever way the Milky Way may be seen over night, the wind is sure to blow across it, or at right angles to it on the following day. ~ Henry REeks The Cockroach In some ships infested with these insects, sailors frequently complain of having their toe and finger nails, and the hard parts of the soles of the feet and palms of the hands, nibbled by them. The men have exhibited to me their nails and skin, which had the appearance of haying been attacked. I can youch for the following, as I was the unhappy subject of it. On returning from a shooting excursion in salt swamps in tropical Australia, with my feet blistered and sodden, I was put to sleep in a room swarming with cockroaches (the small species). The night was intensely hot, and my feet were exposed. I had slept soundly for some hours, when an intolerable itching and irritation about my feet awoke me. I felt these objectionable insects running over and gnawing at my feet. On striking a light, I found they had attacked the skin, and entirely eaten it away froma large blister, leaving a raw place as large asa shilling. Islept again, and in the morning found they had completed the work, and established a painful sore. The whole of the hard skin on the heel was also eaten down to the pink flesh. The nails were not attacked. T have now, at a distance of four years’ time, bluish scars on the skin Mill Hill, Nov. 11 ARTHUR NICOLS T HAVE to thank the Rev. W. Houghton for his references on this subject, and to explain that I wrote Aristotle inadvertently for Aristophanes. My only objection to adopting ofApq as the Greek equivalent for our cockroach is that the unpleasant smell which is mentioned as a characteristic of the former, is not par- ticularly marked in the latter. If we adopt the view that the cockroach was known to the ancients, we must, of course, reject Gilbert White’s story of its American origin, and, as he thought, its recent introduction into England. C. Jade "ATETEUR WATERFALL, DEMERARA abe: great Kaieteur Fall, recently discovered by Mr. Brown, has a clear descent, according to baro- metrical observations, taken simultaneously by Mr. Brown at the bottom, and by Mr. Mitchell, at the top, of 750 feet. Aboye, the Potaro glides smoothly in a slight depression of the table of conglomerate sandstone, and disappears over the edge in a body, which is estimated at eighty yards in width, and of depth uncertain in the centre, but shallowing rapidly towards either bank. When the Fall was discovered in April, the rocky channel was completely covered, and the stream must have had a width of, at least, 100 yards. During the summer it is diminishing in volume, and, as the Indians state that it will continue to do so till October, only the central and deeper portion, about one-third of the whole, will then remain. ‘The best time, therefore, for a visit is in spring, at the end of what appears to be the rainy season of this elevated tract. As the Fall was seen.by the exploring party who dis- covered it, nothing can be imagined more beautiful. The central portion, which is never dry, forms a small horse-shoe, or re-entering angle, and the water in this part preserves its consistency for a short distance from the edge. But everywhere else, and here also at a few feet from the top, all semblance of water disappears ; it breaks up, or blossoms, into fing foam or spray, which de- scends in the well-known rocket-like forms of the. Staub- bach and similar waterfalls, but multiplied a thousand times, into a small dark pool, over a semicircular curtain. The cavern behind the Fall is the home of thousands of swallows, whichissue from it in the morning, and may be seen returning in their multitude at night. The Fall itself is one vast descending column of a fine, dry-looking, snow-white substance, bearing a resemblance in colour and consistency to the snow of an avalanche, but sur- passing all avalanches in size and in the beauty of the forms taken by the material as it falls, Rainbows of great splendour were observed, one from the front of the Fall in the morning, one from the summit in the after-— noon ; but this last reverted, forming a coloured loop or ring, into which the whole mass seemed to precipitate itself, and disappear and dart out underneath, black and foaming at the gorge and outlet of the pool. Eleven days were spent in ascending the Essequibo, which was heavy in flood, and detained the party double the time anticipated ; five days brought them from Toma- tomari, the lowest fall on the Potaro, to the Patamona village. In this stage there are five cataracts, two of which, at least, are inaccessible. Two days were occu- pied in visiting the foot and summit of the Fall, and in descending to the Settlement, leaving Messrs. Brown and King to complete the survey and sketches of the country in four days and a half, ; a Dec. 8, 1870] NATURE 109 QUERIES RESPECTING 4: THER p= following speculations first appeared in the pages of the Exgineer :— When light and caloric were supposed to have a material existence, the hypothesis df the universal exist- ence of a highly elastic medium was unnecessary, since | matter might with the utmost freedom be projected through vacuous space; but as light and heat are now | generally admitted to consist not of transmitted matter, | but of transmitted vibratory motion (and why may not | electricity, so freely interchangeable with the former, be admitted into the same category ?), the necessity of the existence of a transmitting medium, pervading infinite space, becomes at once apparent; and this medium, hitherto not Cognisable to our senses, has been termed ether. But it has been further assumed that eee OH CoH jc, H, + KOH = C,H, C,H, Treated with P Cl; H becomes replaced by Cl : { OGH: 4) WOMCTEL, ; C, H, GMs tees Pcl, = CoH, 1 C,H,C1 + HCl + PCI, This body treated with alcoholic potash loses H Cl and gives Cyq Hypo O, a liquid boiling at 240°, All experiments to replace the Clin chloranethol by C,HO, failed. Anethol combines directly with Br,.—‘‘ Researches on Vanadium,” by Henry E. Roscoe. In this communication are described vanadic tribromide and oxytribromide; alsoa large number of meta, ortho and pyrovana- dates, among others the artificially prepared vanadinite. As this paper appeared in English in the Chemical Society’s Journal, it has already been noticed in this journal.—‘‘ On the second funda- mental theorem of the mechanical theory of heat and its applica- tion to several decompositions,” by Dr. A. Horstmann. The author has given a popular treatment of the mechanical theory of heat, as he considers that although of the greatest interest to chemists, it has remained comparatively unknown to them by reason of its requiring a somewhat high mathematical knowledge. The decompositions to which it is applied are those of ammonic chloride and calcic carbonate by heat, and also the expulsion of the water of crystallisation from hydric disodic phosphate, 1 + CH,O SQCIETIES AND ACADEMIES LONDON Geological Society, November 23.—Mr. Joseph Piestwich, F.R.S., president, in the chair.—r. ‘*On some pgints of South- African Geology.” Part 1.—By Mr. G. W. Stow. In this paper, which was illustrated by numerous sketches, sections, tables, and specimens, observations were made on the stratification of tle Jurassic beds of Sunday’s and Zwarktop’s rivers, resulting from researches made by Mr. Stow, with the view of determining the exact position of the several species of fossils found at the ex- posures on the cliffs of these rivers, and from this the sequence of the various beds. He indicated the existence of at least nine separate fossiliferous bands, pointing out the relative positions of the several Zyigon“a-beds, Hamite-beds, Ammonite-beds, &c. He next treated of the so-called Saliferous beds of the district, and gives his reasons for regarding them as later in age than the Trigonia-sandstones above alluded to, and therefore not equiva- lent to that part of the series named ‘‘ Wood-beds” by Dr. Atherstone. Other researches of the author related to the Tertiary beds both inland and on the coast. He distinguished three zones on the coast later in date than the high-level shell | limestones (Pliocene ?) of the Grass Ridge and other parts of the interior. One of the coast-zones he named the Afsera-bed, from the prevalence of a delicate species of that genus. Another zone was described as following the river-valleys in the form of raised terraces, characterised by the presence of a large Panopea. The latest shell-banks have been thought to be kitchen-middens, but the author regarded them as_ shore- deposits in place. The author concluded by tracing the probable climatal and geographical changes in this region during geological times, and indicated, as far as his material allowed, the probable migrations of the Mollusca, especially of the Venericardia characterising the Pliocene Limestone. Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys re- marked that all the shells belonging to the genus Afera which he had examined were shallow water or littoral shells. Dr. Duncan remarked on one of the corals as being of a well-known Crag form, the Balanophyllia calyculus. Mr. Searles Wood, jun., observed that there appeared some probability on the face of the paper of the shells of the older post-tertiary beds denoting a warmer climate than the present, instead of, as here, a colder.—- 118 NATURE : i Op oe ee eee * re Sah a Om [ Dec. 8, 1870 2. ‘*Note on some Reptilian Fossils from Gozo.” By Mr. J. W. Hulke, F.R.S., F.G.S. The author described the remains of two reptiles said to have been brought from Gozo by the late Captain Strickland. One of them was a fragment of the symphysial part of the slender mandible of an /chthyosaurus, having teeth of precisely the same character as those of the form from the Kimmeridge Clay described by the author under the name of Luthekiodon. For this species the name of /chthyo- saurus gaudensis was proposed. The other was the skull of a species of crocodile, for which the author proposed the name C. gaudensis, Dr. Duncan suggested that the Ichthyosaurian fossil might be derivative from some secondary rock. He mentioned that Dr, Leith Adams had once sent him an Asfidiscus cristatus from the Hippurite Limestone, which was stated to have come from Malta. To account for this, he suggested that the Miocene of Malta might have been supported on beds of Cretaceous age, so fossils from that source might have become indebted in the coral reefs of the later date. Capt. Spratt ex- pressed a doubt of the fossils having really come from Gozo, He did not recognise the cretaceous-looking matrix among any of the rocks of that island, with all of which he was acquainted. The nearest approach to that kind of rock was to be found in | the lowest of the deposits near Cairo, which were probably Eocene. Prof. T. Rupert Jones suggested an examination of the Foraminifera in the matrix, with the view of determining its Secondary or Tertiary age. He mentioned the occurrence of rolled nodules of older rocks in beds of later age at Gozo. Mr. Busk stated that a stone of similar character to the matrix occurred in Malta, if not in Gozo, but probably in both. Mr. Hulke, in reply, observed that he had in this paper inten- tionally left the stratigraphical part of the question untouched, and confined himself to the paleontological aspect of the remains.—3. ‘On the discovery of a ‘ Bone-bed’ in the lowest of the ‘Lynton Grey Beds,’ North Devon.” By F. Royston Fairbank, M.D. In this paper the author called attention to the occurrence of a thin bed of rock to the west of the harbour of Lynmouth, containing an immense number of fragments of bone, some of them of large size, and associated with massive bodies which he regards as coprolites. The author proposed to call this the ‘‘ Lynton Bone-bed ;* and he thought that its dis- covery might throw some light on the relative age of the whole series of rocks of North Devon. Mr. Whitaker had examined the beds in company with Mr. Wetherell. He did not agree with the author as to the amount of iron in the beds. The bone-remains appeared to him to be those of Steganodictyum, which had already been found in the lowest of Devonian beds. He was not prepared to accept the nodules described as being un- doubtedly coprolites. Mr. Valpy stated that there were at least a dozen beds on different horizons of much the same character as that described along the coast of North Devon, an account of which had already been published at Ilfracombe. London Institution, November 24.—Mr. H. W. Field, F.C.S.,in the chair. Prof. Morris, F.G.S., delivered a lecture “On 'the Precious Metals and their Distribution.” Having indi- cated the principal sources of the gold and silver worked by the ancient nations, he explained the distinguishing characters of these two metals, and dwelt at length on their mode of occurrence, geo- graphical distribution, and geological position. Gold usually occurred in nature in the metallic condition, nearly pure or alloyed with certain metals, while silver was found in combination with various elements, and but rarely in the native state. The distribution of gold throughout the world was illustrated by a large map, on which the known gold-yielding localities were plainly marked. Gold was found in rocks, quartz veins, and alluvial deposits. The silurian rocks and the granites associated with them furnished the chief supplies, but the cretaceo-oolitic rocks of Peru. Bolivia, and California, when traversed by dioritic igneous rocks, were also auriferous ; showing, according to Mr. David Forbes, that there had been two well-marked epochs of goldintrusion. From both formations, but specially from the silurian, the gold occurring in alluvial deposits had been derived by the enormous erosion which the rocks had undergone at a comparatively late geological period, namely, the Newer Pliocene. The remains of extinct mammalia discovered in the deposits of the Urals, and also in those of Australia, had satisfactorily fixed their geological position. In Australia and California subsequent volcanic flows had covered thick accumulations of auriferous gravels, and had diverted the courses of many streams, so that they no longer conformed to the old valleys. “The minerals mis- token for gold were enumerated and their distinguishing chemical i | | These were discovered in the Posc-pliocene clay formation, about and physical characters were indicated. In conclusion, the lecturer alluded to certain points relating to the use of gold in coinage, and called special attention to the brittleness produced by the presence of minute quantities of palladium in the standard alloy. The lecture was illustrated by numerous diagrams and maps, models of famous nuggets, gold-washing ar paratus, and many beautiful specimens of native gold.—Dr. Odling’s edu- cational lectures ‘On Chemical Action,” delivered on Mondays at four o'clock, continue to attract crowded audiences, com- prising a large number of boys and girls from the schools of London and its suburbs. Linnean Socisty, December 1.—Mr. Bentham, president, in the chair.—‘*On the Source of Radix Galangz minoris of Pharmacologists.” The source of the Greater Galangal has long been known to be A/finia galanga, Linn.; that of the Lesser Galangal has been more obscure. Galangal is not used in English medical practice, and on the Continent has hecome almost obsolete ; its export from China is, however, considerable, and is rapidly increasing. During an expedition to the Island of Hainan, a quantity of the root which provides the Lesser Galangal was observed exposed to the sun in baskets. On asub- sequent occasion the plant itself was discovered at a spot six miles inland, at an elevation of roo feet above the sea, growing ina dry red soil, the result of volcanic action. Here it was evidently planted, but was subsequently detected growing wild in jungles in the same island. Twenty or thirty stalks spring from each root, but rarely more than one or two bear flowers. fruit appears to be the bitter kind of Cardamom figured by Mr. Hanbury. The plant is closely allied to A/pinia calcarata, which flowers readily in the Calcutta Botanic Gardens ; but was” determined by Dr. Hance to be a perfectly distinct and well- defined species, to which he gave the name A/finia officinarum. A diagnosis of the plant was also given by Dr. Hance,—Sup- plementary note on the Chinese Silkworm Oaks, by Dr. Hance, MoNTREAL The. q Natural History Society, October 31.—The President, ' Principal Dawson, in the chair, Mr. A, S. Ritchie read a paper entitled ‘‘ Aquaria Studies,” Part 2. In a previous paper the author had described the habits of some of the larger inha- bitants of his aquarium. In the present sketch an attempt was made to illustrate the peculiarities of the microscopic denizens of the same. The structure of some of the lowest forms of vegetable life was first illusira'ed, and some points in their physiology described. The first example of the animal kingdem selected was the Amceba or Proteus. In this animal we see a creature devoid of muscular or nervous system, with no head, no stomach, or alimentary canal. Its body consists of a jelly-like substance, of irregular shape, from any part of which finger-like processes are at times protruded. It lives by absorption, and can improvise a stomach from any part of the exterior of its body. The Ameeba is one of the very lowest forms of animal life. The lecturer then proceeded to explain the structure and habits of other microscopic animals, a little more complex than the pre- ceding. Among these were the blue Stentor, the bell animal- cule ( Vorticella), the glutton (Zz7co) Rotifers, or ‘‘wheel bearers,” Parameecium, the four-horned Cyclops, and other microscopic animals. He stated that he had frozen water, containing Rotifers, solid, and upon melting the ice the Rotifers were as lively as ever, also that they could endure a considerable degree of heat. A large diagram, with figures of the several plants and animals — spoken of, materially helped to illustrate the paper, which will shortly appear 7 exfenso in the next number of the Canadian Naturalist.—Mr. Billings then made a communication on the bones of a whale lately discovered at Cornwall, Ont., of which the following is an abstract :—‘‘ Several months ago Mr. Charles Poole, of Cornwall, wrote to the secretary of the Society that a large skeleton, resembling that of an Ichthyosaurus, had been found in that neighbourhood by the men engaged in excavating — clay for brick. In another letter he stated that Mr. T. S. Scott, architect, of this city, had procured the lower jaws. On receipt of this information, Mr. Billings called upon Mr. Scott, who very liberally presented the jaws to the Geological Mu- seum. Mr, Billings then went up to Cornwall and obtained from Mr. Poole the bones which were in his possession. sixteen feet below the surface. They are those of a small whale closely allied to the white whale, Be/aga leucas, which lives in the Northern seas, and at certain seasons abounds in the Gulf and lower part of the St. Lawrence. The lower jaws are nearly per- ae Dec. 8, 1870 | NATURE 119 fect. The skull and upper jaws are much damaged, and some of the parts lost. Thirty-five of the vertebra, the two shoulder blades, most of the ribs, and a number of small bones were col- lected. The length of the animal was probably about fifteen feet. The lower jaws have the sockets of eight teeth upon the right side, and of seven on the left. The number of teeth in the upper jaw could not be ascertained. In the head of a white whale belonging to the cabinet of M ‘Gill Colleze, there are nine teeth in the right lower jaw, and eight in the left. The teeth of the fossil, judging from the size of the sockets, were longer than those of the white whale. In 1849, a small whale was discovered in Vermont about twelve miles south of Burlington, in a railway cutting, through a deposit of clay of the same formation as that of Cornwall. Judging from the figures and description pub- lished in Sv//iman’s Four nal by the late Professor Thompson, there ean be little doubt that ours is the same species which he de- scribed, and which he cilled Beluga vermontana. Another specimen consisting of about half of the backbone, was dis- covered several years ago near the city of Montreal, and is now in the Museum of the Geological Survey. The locality at Corn- wall is about half a mile from the railway station, sixty feet above the St. Lawrence, and overtwo hundred feet above the level of the sea.—The President, in inviting a discussion on the pheno- mena observed during the recent earthquake, said that there were records published or preserved of the appearances observed during 83 earthquakes in Canada and neighbouring parts of N. America.